Snow Leopards, 2e [2 ed.] 9780323857758

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SNOW LEOPARDS SECOND EDITION

This is a Volume in the series Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes

SNOW LEOPARDS

Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes SECOND EDITION Series Editor

KARIN R. SCHWARTZ Roger Williams Park Zoo Providence, RI, United States

Volume Editors

DAVID MALLON Department of Natural Sciences Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester, United Kingdom

TOM MCCARTHY Snow Leopard Program PANTHERA, New York, NY, United States

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. ISBN 978-0-323-85775-8 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Cover photo by Dr. Shannon Kachel taken via camera trap in the Central Tien Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan in 2015 in the course of research supported by Panthera. Publisher: Nikki P. Levy Acquisitions Editor: Simonetta Harrison Editorial Project Manager: Emerald Li Production Project Manager: Fahmida Sultana Cover Designer: Christian J. Bilbow Typeset by STRAIVE, India

Contents

The snow leopard’s legal status 38 Conclusions 39 References 40

Contributors xv Editor Biographies xxiii Foreword xxv Preface xxxiii

4. Snow leopard diet and prey DAVID MALLON, RICHARD B. HARRIS, AND PER WEGGE

I

Introduction 43 Dietary composition 44 Dietary requirements and offtake rates 47 Status of prey 48 Conclusions 49 References 50

Defining the snow leopard 1. What is a snow leopard? Taxonomy, morphology, and phylogeny ANDREW C. KITCHENER, CARLOS A. DRISCOLL, AND NOBUYUKI YAMAGUCHI

II

Introduction 3 Taxonomic history and geographical variation 3 Morphological adaptations 6 Conclusion 11 References 11

Conservation concerns 5. Livestock predation by snow leopards: Conflicts and the search for solutions

2. What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology

CHARUDUTT MISHRA, STEPHEN R. REDPATH, AND KULBHUSHANSINGH RAMESH SURYAWANSHI

Introduction 55 Revisiting “human-snow leopard conflicts” 56 Understanding conflicts over livestock predation 57 Managing conflicts over livestock predation 59 Acknowledgment 61 References 62

JOSEPH L. FOX, RAGHUNANDAN S. CHUNDAWAT, € SHANNON KACHEL, AIMEE TALLIAN, AND ORJAN JOHANSSON

Introduction 15 Population ecology 18 Physical characteristics and capabilities 18 Behavior and life history 19 Ecological interactions and effects 24 Snow leopard ecology in a human-dominated world 26 References 26

6. Living on the edge: Depletion of wild prey and survival of the snow leopard SANDRO LOVARI AND CHARUDUTT MISHRA

3. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview

Introduction 63 Study areas 64 Implications of wild prey abundance for conservation management of snow leopards 67 Acknowledgments 69 References 69

TOM MCCARTHY, DAVID MALLON, AND PETER ZAHLER

Snow leopard biogeography 31 Snow leopard population status 36

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7. Illegal killing and trade AISHWARYA MAHESHWARI, SHEKHAR KUMAR NIRAJ, AND DAVID MALLON

Introduction 71 Legal protection 71 Illegal trade 71 Monitoring illegal trade 72 Extent of illegal killing 73 Trade routes 75 Country summaries 75 Recommendations 78 References 78

8. Climate change impacts on snow leopard range JOHN D. FARRINGTON AND JUAN LI

Introduction 81 Climate change phenomena in snow leopard range 81 Predicting future impacts of climate change on snow leopard range 87 Conclusions 90 References 91

9. Diseases of wild snow leopards and their wild ungulate prey  STEPHANE OSTROWSKI AND MARTIN GILBERT

Introduction 95 Diseases in wild snow leopards 95 Diseases in snow leopard natural ungulate prey species 102 Conclusions 107 Acknowledgments 108 References 108

11. Linear infrastructure and snow leopard conservation PETER ZAHLER AND RAY VICTURINE

12. Harvest of caterpillar fungus and wood by local people JOHN D. FARRINGTON

Caterpillar fungus 129 Wood 133 References 134

13. Snow leopard, common leopard, and wolf: Are they good neighbors? SANDRO LOVARI, SHANNON KACHEL, LI XUEYANG, AND FRANCESCO FERRETTI

Introduction 137 Methods 138 Results 140 Discussion 142 References 146

14. Promoting coexistence through improved understanding of human perceptions, attitudes, and behavior toward snow leopards KULBHUSHANSINGH RAMESH SURYAWANSHI, SHRUTI SURESH, JULIETTE YOUNG, SALONI BHATIA, AND CHARUDUTT MISHRA

Introduction 149 Understanding attitudes and human-snow leopard relationships 150 Human-snow leopard relationships evolve as does culture 154 Conclusions 154 References 154

10. Emerging threats to snow leopards from energy and mineral development

III

MICHAEL HEINER, JAMES OAKLEAF, GALBADRAKH DAVAA, AND JOSEPH KIESECKER

Conservation solutions in situ

Introduction 113 Impacts of mining and energy development 114 Development threats across snow leopard range 115 Mitigation policy and practice 117 Landscape-level mitigation in action: Mongolian Gobi case study 118 Conclusions 119 References 120

15. The role of mountain communities in snow leopard conservation RODNEY M. JACKSON, WENDY BREWER LAMA, AND SHAILENDRA THAKALI

Introduction 159 A brief overview of community involvement in snow leopard conservation 160

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Rationale for adopting community-based biodiversity protection and management models in snow leopard range countries 161 Improving snow leopard conservation 162 Conclusions 167 Acknowledgments 168 References 168

16. Building community governance structures and institutions for snow leopard conservation PETER ZAHLER AND RICHARD PALEY

The case for governance and snow leopard conservation 171 Social justice and governance 173 Conservation and good governance: Land tenure and representation 173 Building governance institutions 174 Early support for new governance institutions 176 Completing the circle: Building linkages and co-management processes with government 177 Conclusion 177 References 182

17. Incentive and reward programs in snow leopard conservation 17.1 Himalayan Homestays: Fostering human-snow leopard coexistence TSEWANG NAMGAIL, BIPASHA MAJUMDER, AND JIGMET DADUL

Introduction 186 Survey methods 188 Results 188 Discussion 190 Challenges and the way forward 191 Conclusion 191 Acknowledgments 191

17.2 Snow Leopard Enterprises, Mongolia BAYARJARGAL AGVAANTSEREN, PRISCILLA ALLEN, UNURZUL DASHZEVEG, TSERENADMID NADIA MIJIDDORJ, AND JENNIFER SNELL RULLMAN

Vision 192 How SLE works 192 Conservation contract, compliance, and consequences 193

Economic and social impact 193 Conservation impact 194 Challenges and opportunities 195

17.3 A review of lessons, successes, and pitfalls of livestock insurance and incentives schemes KYRAN KUNKEL, AMBIKA KHATIWADA, AND SHAFQAT HUSSAIN

Problems and solutions 197 History and design 198 Important factors for design, implementation, and success 198 Successes of CMLIS for snow leopards and communities 200 Direct conservation payments 202 Conclusions 204 References 204

18. Livestock husbandry and snow leopard conservation 18.1 Corral improvements GHULAM MOHAMMAD, BAYARJARGAL AGVAANTSEREN, AJAY BIJOOR, KUBAN JUMABAY ULUU, KHALIL KARIMOV, ZALMAI MOHEB, TATJANA ROSEN, GUSTAF SAMELIUS, AND AMRUDDIN SANJER

Introduction 208 Design of corrals across the snow leopard range: Examples from Afghanistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Tajikistan 209 Measuring the success of corral improvements and documenting problems 212 How to improve corrals sustainably to enable more widespread use in the future? 213

18.2 The role of village reserves in revitalizing the natural prey base of the snow leopard CHARUDUTT MISHRA, YASH VEER BHATNAGAR, PRANAV TRIVEDI, RADHIKA TIMBADIA, AJAY BIJOOR, RANJINI MURALI, KARMA SONAM, TANZIN THINLEY, TSEWANG NAMGAIL, AND HERBERT H.T. PRINS

Introduction 214 Village reserves in operation 215 Acknowledgment 217 Appendix 217

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18.3 The Ecosystem Health Program: A tool to promote the coexistence of livestock owners and snow leopards MUHAMMAD ALI NAWAZ, HUSSAIN ALI, AND JAFFAR UD DIN

Introduction 218 Program implementation mechanism 219 Program success in resolving conflicts 220 Conclusions and recommended practices 222 Acknowledgment 223 References 224

19. Religion and cultural impacts on snow leopards conservation 19.1 Introduction BETSY QUAMMEN

19.2 Tibetan Buddhist monastery-based snow leopard conservation JUAN LI, HANG YIN, AND ZHI LU

Introduction 230 Connections between Tibetan Buddhism and snow leopards 231 Scientific study of monasteries’ role in snow leopard conservation 232 Pilot conservation projects cooperating with monasteries 233 Future prospects 233

20. Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards 20.1 The trophy hunting program: Enhancing snow leopard prey populations through community participation MUHAMMAD ALI NAWAZ, JAFFAR UD DIN, SAFDAR ALI SHAH, ASHIQ AHMAD KHAN, TAHIR RASHEED, BABAR KHAN, AND TOM MCCARTHY

Introduction 250 Trophy animals in Northern Pakistan 251 The history of trophy hunting in Pakistan 251 The current status of trophy hunting programs in snow leopard range 253 Achievements, opportunities, and lessons learned 256

20.2 Argali sheep (Ovis ammon) and Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) trophy hunting in Mongolia RICHARD P. READING AND SUKH AMGALANBAATAR

Introduction 259 Context 259 Recommendations 263 Conclusions 264 Acknowledgments 264

20.3 Hunting of prey species—A review of lessons, successes, and pitfalls: Experiences from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan STEFAN MICHEL, TATJANA ROSEN, AND ZAIRBEK KUBANYCHBEKOV

19.3 Shamanism in Central Asian snow leopard cultures APELA COLORADO AND NARGIZA RYSKULOVA

Snow leopard work brings the sciences together 237 Going forward 239

19.4 Snow leopards in art and legend of the Pamir JOHN MOCK

19.5 The order “barys” and title “snow leopard”: The snow leopard in symbolism, heraldry and numismatics OLGA LOGINOVA

Development of hunting management of mountain ungulates in the post-Soviet era 265 Challenges 270 Conclusions and prospects 271 References 272

21. Environmental education for snow leopard conservation QURBONIDIN ALAMSHOEV, CHAGAT ALAMSHEV, KULUIPA AKMATOVA, VLADIMIR (NORBU) AYUSHEEV, MARIA AZHUNOVA, SLAVA CHELTEUV, BUYANBADRAKH ERDENETSOGT, RINCHIN GARMAEV, DARLA HILLARD, LYUBOV IVASHKINA, ERDEMBILEG KHURELBATAAR, TUNGALAGTUYA KHUUKHENDUU, ALMAGUL OSMANOVA, SUJATHA PADMANABHAN, ZHAPARKUL RAYMBEKOV, SAYFIDIN SHAIDOEV, AND MIKE WEDDLE

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Introduction 275 What is EE? 276 Challenges in teaching snow-leopard-focused EE 276 Different approaches to snow leopard EE 277 Cross-border EE exchanges 280 Zoos and snow leopard EE 281 Monitoring and evaluation 281 From awareness to action 283 Conclusion 283 References 285

22. Law enforcement in snow leopard conservation MAXIM KOSHKIN, ANDREA MOSHIER, ZAIRBEK KUBANYCHBEKOV, AND ALMAZ MUSAEV

Snow leopards—Illegal killing and trade 287 Case study 289 Recommendations 293 References 296

23. Transboundary initiatives and snow leopard conservation TATJANA ROSEN, KOUSTUBH SHARMA, PHILIP RIORDAN, AND PETER ZAHLER

Transboundary conservation and snow leopards 297 Rationale for transboundary collaboration 298 The legal framework for transboundary conservation 300 Challenges in implementing transboundary conservation 301 Transboundary conservation initiatives and current status of transboundary protected areas 302 Conclusions 305 References 305 Appendix 307

24. Corporate business and the conservation of the snow leopard: Worlds that need not collide PAUL HOTHAM, PIPPA HOWARD, ANNA LYONS, HELEN NYUL, AND TONY WHITTEN

Introduction 309 Business case for conservation 310 Environmental management plans 317 Biodiversity offsetting 317 Biodiversity action plans 318

Opportunities 319 Conclusions 320 References 320

IV Conservation solutions ex situ 25. Management of captive snow leopards in the EAZA region EMMA NYGREN, ALEXANDER SLIWA, AND LEIF BLOMQVIST

Introduction 325 Breakthroughs in the 1980s 326 Goal of the EEP: To maintain a genetically intact population with high gene diversity 327 Suggestions for improvement 329 Toward global management 330 Why keep snow leopards in captivity? 331 References 331 Further reading 332

26. Role of zoos in snow leopard conservation: The Species Survival Plan® in North America JAY TETZLOFF AND KARIN R. SCHWARTZ

Introduction 333 Management of snow leopards in North American zoos 333 Collaboration and challenges 344 References 345

27. Captive snow leopards as ambassadors of wild kin 27.1 Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park: Supporting snow leopards in the wild, sharing the message at home TED WALEIJ SLIGHT AND THOMAS LIND

Introduction

348

27.2 From a zoo came a true snow leopard champion FRED W. KOONTZ

27.3 Ambassadors from the roof of the world PATRICK R. THOMAS AND COLLEEN MCCANN

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28. Rescue, rehabilitation, translocation, reintroduction, and captive rearing: Lessons from the other big cats ´ PEZ,  DALE G. MIQUELLE, IGNACIO JIMENEZ, GUILLERMO LO DAVE ONORATO, VIATCHESLAV V. ROZHNOV, RAFAEL ARENAS-ROJAS, EKATERINA YU. BLIDCHENKO, ´ NDEZ, JORDI BOIXADER, MARC CRIFFIELD, LEONARDO FERNA ´ N GARROTE, JOSE  ANTONIO HERNANDEZ-BLANCO, GERMA ´ PEZ-PARRA, SERGEY V. NAIDENKO, MARCOS LO ´ N, TERESA DEL REY, GEMA RUIZ, MIGUEL A. SIMO PAVEL A. SOROKIN, MARIBEL GARCI´A-TARDI´O, AND ANNA A. YACHMENNIKOVA

Introduction 359 Case study 1. Planning a jaguar reintroduction in Argentina: Combining science, publicity, and public policy 361 Case study 2. The Iberian lynx: Restoring a population on the verge of extinction 364 Case study 3. Genetic restoration as a management tool for endangered felids: Lessons learned from the Florida panther 366 Case study 4: Rescue, rehabilitation, and reintroduction of Amur tigers into historic range in the Russian Far East 368 Lessons learned 370 References 374

V Techniques and technologies for the study of a cryptic felid 29. Snow leopard research—A historical perspective DON HUNTER, KYLE MCCARTHY, AND TOM MCCARTHY

In the beginning 379 Steady march of science 381 References 386

30. From VHF to satellite GPS collars—Advancements in snow leopard telemetry € ORJAN JOHANSSON, SHANNON KACHEL, ANTHONY SIMMS, AND TOM MCCARTHY

Introduction 389 VHF telemetry—The first studies 389 Argos PPT telemetry 393 GPS telemetry 393

Conclusion 396 References 398

31. Conservation genetics of snow leopards CHARLOTTE HACKER, IMOGENE CANCELLARE, JAN E. JANECKA, ANTHONY CARAGIULO, AND BYRON WECKWORTH

Introduction 401 Non-NGS studies 402 Advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods specifically for snow leopards 406 Molecular dietary analysis 407 Comparison of genetics with traditional methods (e.g., camera traps) 408 Major gaps and priorities for filling 408 Necessary steps to overcome knowledge gaps 410 Glossary 411 References 412

32. Camera trapping—Advancing the technology WAI-MING WONG AND SHANNON KACHEL

Camera-trapping applications and considerations 415 Overview of camera trap technology 419 Camera-trap data management 423 Future directions in technology 425 References 425

33. Drones for snow leopard conservation DON HUNTER, RODNEY M. JACKSON, BARIUSHAA MUNKHTSOG, BAYARAA MUNKHTSOG, AND BEN HUNTER

Introduction 429 Mongolia case study 430 Conclusions 433 Addendum 435 References 435

34. PAWS: Population Assessment of the World’s Snow leopards KOUSTUBH SHARMA, JUSTINE SHANTI ALEXANDER, IAN DURBACH, ABINAND REDDY KODI, CHARUDUTT MISHRA, JAMES NICHOLS, DARRYL MACKENZIE, SOM ALE, SANDRO LOVARI, ABDUL WALI MODAQIQ, LU ZHI, CHRIS SUTHERLAND, ASHIQ AHMAD KHAN, TOM MCCARTHY, AND DAVID BORCHERS

Introduction 437 The approach 438

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37. Conservation of snow leopards in Kazakhstan

PAWS so far 443 PAWS next steps 444 Conclusion 446 References 446

ALEXEY GRACHEV, YURIY GRACHEV, SALTORE SAPARBAYEV, MAXIM BESPALOV, YERLIK BAIDAVLETOV, ALTYNBEK DZHANYSPAEV, AND PHILIP RIORDAN

VI Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates 35. Snow leopard status and conservation in Afghanistan ZALMAI MOHEB, SOROSH POYA FARYABI, AND RICHARD PALEY

Introduction: Historical records and past conservation efforts 451 Present status of snow leopards in Afghanistan 452 Current threats to snow leopard populations 453 Measures to conserve the snow leopard in Afghanistan 454 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgments 458 References 458

36. The snow leopard in Kyrgyzstan ASKAR DAVLETBAKOV, KOUSTUBH SHARMA, ZAIRBEK KUBANYCHBEKOV, KUBANYCHBEK JUMABAYUULU, TOLKUNBEK ASYKULOV, CHYNGYZ KOCHOROV, RAKHIM KULENBEKOV, JARKYN SAMANCHINA, IMOGENE CANCELLARE, BYRON WECKWORTH, SHANNON KACHEL, AND TATJANA ROSEN

Snow leopard habitat and distribution 461 Status of snow leopard prey 462 Legal protection 463 Threats to snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan 463 National action plan, the NSLEP, and management plans for protected areas 463 Transboundary conservation initiatives 464 Research 464 NGOS working in Kyrgyzstan on conservation of snow leopards 465 Future needs 468 References 468

Introduction 471 Distribution 471 Conservation efforts 475 Population status 476 Threats 478 References 480

38. The snow leopard in Tajikistan ABDUSATTOR SAIDOV, KHALIL KARIMOV, ISMOIL KHOLMATOV, AND TATJANA NOVIKOVA

Snow leopard habitat in Tajikistan 481 Snow leopard population status 482 State of key prey species 482 Protected areas where snow leopards occur 483 Community-based and private conservancies 483 Threats to snow leopards in Tajikistan 483 Legal protection 486 The snow leopard action plan 487 NSLEP 2014–20 487 Future needs and priorities 487 References 487

39. The snow leopard in Uzbekistan ALEXANDER ESIPOV, MARIYA GRITSINA, ELENA BYKOVA, BAKHTYOR AROMOV, MIKHAIL PALTSYN, AND YELIZAVETA PROTAS

Snow leopard status 489 History of the snow leopard national strategy and action plan 500 Uzbekistan’s role in GSLEP process: Nomination of 24th snow leopard landscape “The Western Tien Shan” 502 References 502

40. Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan TSHEWANG R. WANGCHUK AND TASHI DENDHUP

Introduction 505 Snow leopard population status and habitat distribution in Bhutan 506 Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan 509 Conclusion 512 References 512

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41. Securing India’s snow leopards: Status, threats, and conservation YASH VEER BHATNAGAR, V.B. MATHUR, S. SATHYAKUMAR, RANJANA PAL, ABHISHEK GHOSHAL, RISHI KUMAR SHARMA, AJAY BIJOOR, R. RAGHUNATH, RADHIKA TIMBADIA, AND PANNA LAL

Snow leopard range in India 513 State of knowledge 514 Challenges in snow leopard conservation 518 Conservation efforts in India 520 References 526

42. Conservation of snow leopard in Nepal GOPAL KHANAL, KARAN B. SHAH, RODNEY M. JACKSON, AND SOM ALE

Distribution status, abundance, and ecology 531 References 537

43. The current state of snow leopard conservation in Pakistan JAFFAR UD DIN, SHOAIB HAMEED, HUSSAIN ALI, AND MUHAMMAD ALI NAWAZ

Introduction 541 Threats and challenges 542 Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms 543 Lessons learned and way forward 553 References 553

44. Current status and conservation of snow leopards in Mongolia BAYARAA MUNKHTSOG, CLAUDIO AUGUGLIARO, RANA BAYRAKCISMITH, BARIUSHAA MUNKHTSOG, AND TOM MCCARTHY

Introduction 555 Status and threats 557 The history of snow leopard conservation in Mongolia 558 Snow leopards in law and policy 559 Transboundary initiatives 560 Research, monitoring, and capacity building 561 Wildlife law enforcement 562 Legal framework to empower communities to co-management wildlife and habitat 563 Future needs to mitigate snow leopard threats 563 References 564

45. Snow leopard conservation in Russia ALEXANDER KARNAUKHOV, MIKHAIL PALTSYN,  ANTONIO HERNANDEZ-BLANCO, ANDREY POYARKOV, JOSE MIROSLAV KORABLEV, MARIA CHISTOPOLOVA, ALEXANDER KUKSIN, DENIS MALIKOV, SERGEI MALYKH, VIATCHESLAV V. ROZHNOV, SERGEI SPITSYN, AND JENNIFER CASTNER

Introduction 565 Current status of the snow leopard in Russia 566 Genetic structure of snow leopard populations in Russia and adjacent countries 568 Snow leopard dietary analysis 571 Snow leopard conservation in Russia 572 Conclusion 573 References 573

46. Snow leopard status and conservation in China KUN SHI, LINGYUN XIAO, LUCIANO ATZENI, ZHUOLUO LYU, YIXUAN LIU, JUN WANG, XUCHANG LIANG, YANLIN LIU, XIANG ZHAO, JUSTINE SHANTI ALEXANDER, BYRON WECKWORTH, ZHI LU, AND PHILIP RIORDAN

Overview on snow leopard status in China 577 Snow leopard conservation in China 581 Research and monitoring 587 Challenges to snow leopard conservation in China 592 The way forward 594 References 596

VII The future of snow leopards 47. Sharing the conservation message RANA BAYRAKCISMITH, HEATHER HEMMINGMOORE, SIBYLLE NORAS, AND IMOGENE CANCELLARE

Introduction 605 Communicating conservation messages with the public 606 Challenges in communicating with the public 607 Communicating conservation messages within the scientific and conservation community 608 Communicating the conservation message with the government 610 Conclusions 611 References 611

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48. Global strategies for snow leopard conservation: A spot-joining synthesis € ERIC W. SANDERSON, URS BREITENMOSER, ROLAND BURKI, € CHRISTINE BREITENMOSER-WURSTEN, KIM FISHER, TABEA LANZ, DAVID MALLON, TOM MCCARTHY, AND PETER ZAHLER

Introduction 613 Four snow leopard strategies 617 Why conserve snow leopards? 626 Where to conserve snow leopards? 627 How to conserve snow leopards? 628 A strategic synthesis 628 References 630

49. The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program KOUSTUBH SHARMA, JUSTINE SHANTI ALEXANDER, ANDREW ZAKHARENKA, CHYNGYZ KOCHOROV, BRAD RUTHERFORD, KESHAV VARMA, ANAND SETH, ANDREY KUSHLIN, SUSAN LUMPKIN, JOHN SEIDENSTICKER, BRUNO LAPORTE, BORIS TICHOMIROW, RODNEY M. JACKSON, CHARUDUTT MISHRA, BAKHTIYAR ABDIEV, ABDUL WALI MODAQIQ, SONAM WANGCHUK, ZHANG ZHONGTIAN, SHAKTI KANT KHANDURI, BAKYTBEK DUISEKEYEV, BATBOLD DORJGURKHEM, MEGH BAHADUR PANDEY, SYED MAHMOOD NASIR, MUHAMMAD ALI NAWAZ, IRINA FOMINYKH, NURALI SAIDOV, NODIRJON YUNUSOV, AND RANJINI MURALI

Genesis: How the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program was formed 634

Framework: Key principles, structure, and approaches of the GSLEP 635 Preparation stage and milestones of the GSLEP and the Global Forum on snow leopard conservation 636 The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program 639 GSLEP launch, implementation, and information sharing 642 Impacts 643 References 646

50. Future prospects for snow leopard survival DAVID MALLON AND TOM MCCARTHY

Index 653

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Contributors

Claudio Augugliaro Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Wildlife Initiative NGO, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Bakhtiyar Abdiev State Agency on Environment Protection and Forestry, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic Bayarjargal Agvaantseren Mongolian Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (SLCF), Ulannbaatar, Mongolia

Vladimir (Norbu) Ayusheev Soyot Khambo Lama and Head of the Association of Small-Numbered Indigenous Peoples of Buryatia, Buryatia, Russia

Kuluipa Akmatova Rural Development Fund, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Maria Azhunova Baikal Buryat Center for Indigenous Cultures (BBCIC), Ulan-Ude, Russia

Chagat Alamshev Foundation for Sustainable Development of the Altai, Gorno-Altaisk, Altai Republic, Russia Qurbonidin Alamshoev Tajikistan

Yerlik Baidavletov Institute of Zoology of Republic of Kazakhstan; Wildlife Without Borders, Almaty, Kazakhstan

Kuhhoi Pomir, Murgab,

Rana Bayrakcismith States

Som Ale Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States

Maxim Bespalov Institute of Zoology of Republic of Kazakhstan; Wildlife Without Borders, Almaty, Kazakhstan

Justine Shanti Alexander Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Saloni Bhatia Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bengaluru, India Yash Veer Bhatnagar International Union for Conservation of Nature, New Delhi; Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India

Hussain Ali Snow Leopard Foundation, Islamabad; Department of Zoology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Priscilla Allen States

Panthera, Seattle, WA, United

Independent, Seattle, WA, United

Ajay Bijoor Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India; Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States

Sukh Amgalanbaatar Ulaanbaatar State University, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Ekaterina Yu. Blidchenko A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

Rafael Arenas-Rojas LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain

Leif Blomqvist Former Studbook Keeper 1976– 2019, Nordens Ark, Hunnebostrand, Sweden

Bakhtyor Aromov Gissar State Nature Reserve, Shakhrisabz, Uzbekistan

Jordi Boixader Iberian lynx Ex Situ Conservation Program, Andalusia, Spain

Tolkunbek Asykulov NABU Kyrgyzstan, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic

David Borchers Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom; Centre for Statistics

Luciano Atzeni Wildlife Institute, School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University; Eco-Bridge Continental, Beijing, China

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Contributors

in Ecology, the Environment, and Conservation, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa Urs Breitenmoser IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, Bern, Switzerland Christine Breitenmoser-W€ ursten IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, Bern, Switzerland Roland B€ urki Switzerland

Foundation

KORA,

Bern,

Elena Bykova Institute of Zoology, Uzbek Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan Imogene Cancellare Panthera, New York, NY; Department of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States Anthony Caragiulo American Museum of Natural History, Institute for Comparative Genomics, New York, NY, United States Jennifer Castner The Altai Project, East Lansing, MI, United States Slava Chelteuv Shaman and Guardian, Sacred Irbistuu Mountain, Kosh-Agach, Altai Republic, Russia Maria Chistopolova A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Raghunandan S. Chundawat Delhi, India

Independent, New

Apela Colorado Worldwide Indigenous Science Network, Lahaina, HI, United States Marc Criffield Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Naples, FL, United States Jigmet Dadul Snow Leopard Conservancy India Trust, Leh, Union Territory of Ladakh, India Unurzul Dashzeveg Mongolian Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (SLCF), Ulannbaatar, Mongolia Galbadrakh Davaa The Nature Conservancy Mongolia Program, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia Askar Davletbakov National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic Teresa del Rey LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain Tashi Dendhup Ugyen Wangchuck Institute for Conservation and Environment Research (UWICER), Bumthang, Bhutan

Jaffar Ud Din Snow Leopard Foundation, Islamabad, Pakistan; Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Batbold Dorjgurkhem International Cooperation Division, Ministry of Environment and Green Development, Ulaanbaatar, Moingolia Carlos A. Driscoll Laboratory of Genomic Diversity, Center for Computer Technologies, ITMO University, St. Petersburg, Russia Bakytbek Duisekeyev Wildlife Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Astana, Kazakhstan Ian Durbach Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom; Centre for Statistics in Ecology, the Environment, and Conservation, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa Altynbek Dzhanyspaev Institute of Zoology of Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty; Almaty State Nature Reserve, Talgar, Kazakhstan Buyanbadrakh Erdenetsogt Association for Protection of Altai Cultural Heritage, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia Alexander Esipov Institute of Zoology, Uzbek Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan John D. Farrington Bhutan

WWF

Bhutan,

Thimphu,

Sorosh Poya Faryabi Wildlife Conservation Society, Kabul, Afghanistan Leonardo Ferna´ndez LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain Francesco Ferretti Research Unit of Behavioural Ecology, Ethology and Wildlife Management, Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy Kim Fisher Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Programs, Bronx, NY, United States Irina Fominykh Department of International Cooperation, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Moscow, Russian Federation Joseph L. Fox States

Independent, Lake City, CO, United

xvii

Contributors

Maribel Garcı´a-Tardı´o LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain Rinchin Garmaev Baikal Buryat Center for Indigenous Cultures (BBCIC), Ulan-Ude, Russia Germa´n Garrote LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain Abhishek Ghoshal Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka; Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand; Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India Martin Gilbert Cornell Wildlife Health Center, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States Alexey Grachev Institute of Zoology of Republic of Kazakhstan; Snow Leopard Foundation; Wildlife Without Borders, Almaty, Kazakhstan Yuriy Grachev Institute of Zoology of Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty, Kazakhstan Mariya Gritsina Institute of Zoology, Uzbek Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan Charlotte Hacker Department of Biological Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States Shoaib Hameed Snow Leopard Foundation; Department of Zoology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Richard B. Harris United States

54502 Kerns Road, Charlo, MT,

Ben Hunter Longshadow Media, Aspen, CO, United States Don Hunter Rocky Mountain Cat Conservancy, Fort Collins, CO, United States Shafqat Hussain United States

Trinity College, Hartford, CT,

Lyubov Ivashkina Foundation for Sustainable Development of the Altai, Gorno-Altaysk, Russia Rodney M. Jackson Snow Leopard Conservancy, Sonoma, CA, United States Jan E. Janecka Department of Biological Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States Ignacio Jim enez Fundacio´n Global Nature, Las Rozas (Madrid), Spain € Orjan Johansson Grims€ o Wildlife Research Station, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden; Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States Kubanychbek Jumabayuulu Snow Leopard Trust/Snow Leopard Foundation in Kyrgyzstan, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic Shannon Kachel States

Panthera, New York, NY, United

Khalil Karimov Association Natural Conservation Organizations of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Tajikistan Alexander Karnaukhov WWF Russia, Altai-Sayan Ecoregional Office, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Ashiq Ahmad Khan Pakistan

EvK2Minoprio, Islamabad,

Michael Heiner The Nature Conservancy, Bellvue, CO, United States

Babar Khan International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal

Heather Hemmingmoore Grims€ o Wildlife Research Station, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Riddarhyttan, Sweden

Gopal Khanal Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal

Jose Antonio Hernandez-Blanco A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

Shakti Kant Khanduri Inspector General of Forests (Wildlife), Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, India

Darla Hillard Snow Leopard Sonoma, CA, United States

Ambika Khatiwada National Trust for Nature Conservation, Sauraha, Chitwan, Nepal

Conservancy,

Paul Hotham Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Ismoil Kholmatov Tajik Dushanbe, Tajikistan

National

Pippa Howard Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Erdembileg Historian

Independent

Khurelbataar

University, Writer-

xviii

Contributors

Tungalagtuya Khuukhenduu Nomadic Conservation, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Nature

Xuchang Liang jing, China

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bei-

Joseph Kiesecker The Nature Conservancy, Fort Collins, CO, United States

Thomas Lind Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park, Kolma˚rden, Sweden

Andrew C. Kitchener Department of Natural Sciences, National Museums Scotland; School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Yanlin Liu College of Life Sciences, Qinghai Normal University, Xining, Qinghai, China

GSLEP Secretariat, Bishkek,

Chyngyz Kochorov Kyrgyz Republic

Abinand Reddy Kodi Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom Fred W. Koontz Field Conservation, Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, WA, United States Miroslav Korablev A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Maxim Koshkin Kyrgyzstan

Ilbirs

Foundation,

Bishkek,

Zairbek Kubanychbekov Ilbirs Foundation, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Alexander Kuksin Tuvinian Institute for Exploration of Natural Resources, Russian Academy of Sciences—Siberian Branch, Kyzyl, Russia Rakhim Kulenbekov Kyrgyzstan

Ilbirs Foundation, Bishkek,

Kyran Kunkel Conservation Science Collaborative and University of Montana, Bozeman, MT, United States Andrey Kushlin Global Tiger Initiative, Washington, DC, United States

Yixuan Liu

Eco-Bridge Continental, Beijing, China

Olga Loginova Snow Leopard Fund, Ust Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan Guillermo Lo´pez LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain Marcos Lo´pez-Parra LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain Sandro Lovari Maremma Natural History Museum, Grosseto; Research Unit of Behavioural Ecology, Ethology and Wildlife Management, Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy Zhi Lu Center for Nature and Society, College of Life Sciences, Peking University; Shan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing, China Susan Lumpkin Global Tiger Initiative, Washington, DC, United States Anna Lyons Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, United Kingdom Zhuoluo China

Lyu

Eco-Bridge

Darryl MacKenzie

Continental,

Beijing,

Proteus, Outram, New Zealand

Aishwarya Maheshwari Vasundhara-5, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Bipasha Majumder Independent, New Delhi, India

Panna Lal Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Denis Malikov Sailyugemsky Kosh-Agach, Russia

Wendy Brewer Lama KarmaQuest Ecotourism and Adventure Travel, Half Moon Bay, CA, United States

David Mallon Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom

Tabea Lanz IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, Bern, Switzerland

Sergei Malykh A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

Bruno Laporte Leadership, Knowledge, Learning, LLC, Washington, DC, United States Juan Li Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou; Center for Nature and Society, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China

National

Park,

V.B. Mathur Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand; National Biodiversity Authority, Chennai, India Colleen McCann States

Bronx Zoo, New York, NY, United

xix

Contributors

Kyle McCarthy Department of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States Tom McCarthy Snow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States Stefan Michel Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU), Berlin, Germany Tserenadmid Nadia Mijiddorj Mongolian Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (SLCF), Ulannbaatar, Mongolia Dale G. Miquelle Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, NY, United States Charudutt Mishra Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India John Mock American Institute of Afghanistan Studies, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States Abdul Wali Modaqiq Freelance Consultant; National Environmental Protection Agency, Kabul, Afghanistan Ghulam Mohammad Baltistan Wildlife and Conservation Development Organization (BWCDO), Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan Zalmai Moheb Wildlife Kabul, Afghanistan

Conservation

Society,

Andrea Moshier Panthera, New York, NY, United States Bariushaa Munkhtsog Institute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences; Irbis Mongolian Center, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia Bayaraa Munkhtsog Wildlife Institute, College of Nature Conservation of the Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China; Institute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia Ranjini Murali GSLEP Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic; Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India

Tsewang Namgail Snow Leopard Conservancy India Trust, Leh, Union Territory of Ladakh, India Syed Mahmood Nasir Inspector General (Forests), Ministry of Climate Change, Islamabad, Pakistan Muhammad Ali Nawaz Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan; Environmental Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar James Nichols Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States Shekhar Kumar Niraj Tamil Nadu Biodiversity Board, Chennai, India Sibylle Noras Snow Leopard Network, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Tatjana Novikova National Biodiversity and Biosafety Centre, Dushanbe, Tajikistan Emma Nygren Nordens Sweden

Ark,

Hunnebostrand,

Helen Nyul Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, United Kingdom James Oakleaf The Nature Conservancy, Fort Collins, CO, United States Dave Onrato Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Naples, FL, United States Almagul Osmanova Kyrgyzstan

Taalim

Forum,

Bishkek,

St ephane Ostrowski Wildlife Health Program, Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, United States Sujatha Padmanabhan Kalpavriksh Environment Action Group, Pune, Maharashtra, India Ranjana Pal Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India Richard Paley Independent, Kingdom

London,

United

Almaz Musaev State Agency for Environment Protection of Kyrgyz Republic, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Mikhail Paltsyn Sole Proprietorship, East Syracuse; United Nations Development Program, Syracuse, NY, United States

Sergey V. Naidenko A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

Megh Bahadur Pandey Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal

xx

Contributors

Andrey Poyarkov A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Herbert H.T. Prins Environmental Sciences Group—Resource Ecology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Abdusattor Saidov National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Tajikistan Nurali Saidov State Agency of Natural Protected Areas, Dushanbe, Tajikistan Jarkyn Samanchina Fauna and Flora International, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic

Yelizaveta Protas Central Asia Programme, WWF Russia, Moscow, Russia

Gustaf Samelius United States

Betsy Quammen Yellowstone Theological Institute, Bozeman, MT, United States

Eric W. Sanderson Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Programs, Bronx, NY, United States

R. Raghunath Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India Tahir Rasheed WWF—Pakistan, Inside Ali Institute of Education, Lahore, Pakistan Zhaparkul Raymbekov Talas, Kyrgyzstan

Sacred

Site

Guardian,

Richard P. Reading Coalition for International Conservation & Butterfly Pavilion, Denver, CO, United States Stephen R. Redpath Institute of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Aberdeen University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom Philip Riordan Marwell Wildlife, Winchester; Marwell Wildlife, Southampton, Hampshire; Wildlife Without Borders, London; University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom Tatjana Rosen Kyrgyzstan

Ilbirs

Foundation,

Bishkek,

Viatcheslav V. Rozhnov A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Gema Ruiz LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain Jennifer Snell Rullman Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States

Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA,

Amruddin Sanjer Wildlife Conservation Society, Kabul, Afghanistan Saltore Saparbayev Institute of Zoology of Republic of Kazakhstan; Wildlife Without Borders, Almaty; Almaty State Nature Reserve, Talgar, Kazakhstan S. Sathyakumar Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India Karin R. Schwartz Roger Williams Park Zoo, Providence, RI, United States John Seidensticker Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States Anand Seth Global Tiger Initiative, Washington, DC, United States Karan B. Shah Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Safdar Ali Shah Wildlife Department, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar, Pakistan Sayfidin Shaidoev

Kuhhoi Pomir, Murgab, Tajikistan

Koustubh Sharma GSLEP Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic; Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Snow Leopard Trust/Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic; Snow Leopard Trust, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Seattle Aquarium, Seattle, WA,

Rishi Kumar Sharma World Wide Fund for Nature-India, New Delhi, India

Nargiza Ryskulova Worldwide Indigenous Science Central Asian Consultant, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Kun Shi Wildlife Institute, School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China

Brad Rutherford United States

xxi

Contributors

Anthony Simms Independent Miguel A. Simo´n Department of the Environment of the Regional Government of Andalusia, Jaen, Spain Ted Waleij Slight Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park, Kolma˚rden, Sweden Alexander Sliwa EAZA Felid TAG Chair, Cologne Zoo, Cologne, Germany Karma Sonam Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India Pavel A. Sorokin A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Sergei Spitsyn Altaisky State Nature Biosphere Reserve, Yailyu, Russia Shruti Suresh Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India Kulbhushansingh Ramesh Suryawanshi Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India; Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin Institute of Advanced Studies, Berlin, Germany Chris Sutherland Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom Aimee Tallian Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway Jay Tetzloff Blank Park Zoo, Des Moines, IA, United States Shailendra Thakali Mountain Spirit, Kathmandu, Nepal Tanzin Thinley Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India Patrick R. Thomas Bronx Zoo, New York, NY, United States Boris Tichomirow Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU), Berlin, Germany Radhika Timbadia Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India; Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States

Pranav Trivedi Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India Kuban Jumabay Uluu Snow Leopard Foundation, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Keshav Varma India

Global Tiger Initiative, New Delhi,

Ray Victurine Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, NY, United States Jun Wang Wildlife Institute, School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University; Center of Biodiversity and Protected Areas, Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China Sonam Wangchuk Ministry of Agriculture & Forest, Thimpu, Bhutan Tshewang R. Wangchuk Bhutan Washington, DC, United States Byron Weckworth States

Foundation,

Panthera, New York, NY, United

Mike Weddle Jane Goodall Environmental Middle School, Salem, OR, United States Per Wegge Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, As, Norway Tony Whitten Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, United Kingdom Wai-Ming Wong Panthera, New York, NY, United States Lingyun Xiao School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing; Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China Li Xueyang School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China Anna A. Yachmennikova A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Nobuyuki Yamaguchi Institute of Tropical Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, University of Malaysia, Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia

xxii Hang Yin China

Contributors

Shan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing,

Juliette Young Agroecologie, INRAE, Institut Agro, Universite de Bourgogne Franche-Comte, Dijon, France Nodirjon Yunusov International Relations Department, State Committee for Nature Protection, Tashkent, Uzbekistan Peter Zahler Zoo New England, Boston, MA, United States

Andrew Zakharenka Global Tiger Initiative Secretariat, World Bank, Washington, DC, United States Xiang Zhao China

Shanshui Conservation Center, Beijing,

Lu Zhi Center for Nature and Society, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China Zhang Zhongtian Department of International Cooperation, State Forestry Administration, Beijing, China

Editor Biographies

Dr. David Mallon is an expert on snow leopards and the conservation status of Central Asia as a whole. He conducted early assessments of the status of snow leopards in Mongolia and Ladakh, India. He has more than 35 years of fieldwork experience focused on species surveys, biodiversity assessment, habitat assessment, camera trapping, training, capacity building, and training local partners in census and monitoring techniques. He is Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Zoological Society of London and Special Advisor to the IUCN Species Survival Commission.

Dr. Tom McCarthy began studying snow leopards in Mongolia in 1992 as the basis for his PhD. He went on to lead snow leopard research and conservation programs across the species’ range in Asia for the ensuing 30 years: first as Science and Conservation Director of the Snow Leopard Trust and later as the Executive Director of the Snow Leopard Program at Panthera. Much of his career focused on building communitybased conservation efforts that sought to equitably resolve conflicts between the big cats and the humans who live side by side in Asia’s highest mountain ranges.

xxiii

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Foreword

Introduction I have spent nearly five decades immersed in science and conservation of the big cats (Karanth, 2023). When I accepted the editors’ kind invitation to write this foreword to this “state-of-the-art” volume devoted solely to one of them, I had failed to appreciate the challenge I rashly took on because of my admiration for the accomplishments of the contributors. However, the snow leopard is the big cat I am least familiar with, and, given my affinity for tropical forest biomes, a deficiency I am unlikely to ever remedy. Finally, when the 1354-page manuscript landed on my desk, with a tight deadline, the depth and diversity of issues it covered daunted me. The global list of authors, which includes biologists, wildlife managers, social scientists, and conservation practitioners of various hues, is truly impressive. I could not hope to summarize these rich and diverse contributions within the assigned word limit: My anxiety, now bordering on a writer’s block, did make me briefly regret my decision. I decided the best I could do was to use this volume as a learning opportunity by skimming through the contributions: They span five decades of work (Chapter 29), cover 12 countries (Chapters 35–46), overlap five major religious domains and a multitude of ecological, social, and cultural contexts (Chapter 19). This collection builds on the sturdy foundation laid by its illustrious predecessor (McCarthy and Mallon,

2016). While the task I took on was onerous, it finally turned out to be fruitful and enjoyable. As I wrote this foreword, snatches of my conversations with ecologists and conservationists (true pioneers who had doggedly pursued this animal) the hardest among all big cats to study— flashed through my mind. These chats took place over four decades that followed my attendance at the snow leopard conservation symposium at Srinagar in India in 1986. These reminiscences made the pages I read come alive. The stalwarts whose brains I had picked along the way included George Schaller, Peter Mathieson, Mel Sunquist, Helen Freeman, Rodney Jackson, Tom McCarthy, Raghu Chundawat, Kulbhushan Suryavanshi, and Kousthubh Sharma, among authors in this volume. My penchant for regularly scouring the Internet to watch the spectacular videos of wild snow leopards in action as did the experience of observing these cats at the Bronx Zoo in total silence before the gates opened to let in the crowds. Charged up by reading the manuscript I felt compelled to even fly off to Ladakh watch wild snow leopards in action: I was rewarded by thrilling sightings of five different snow leopards in just 3 days! More than anything else, my vicarious engagements with snow leopards enabled me to genuinely appreciate the incredible challenges the contributors have overcome to create this Tour de force. Having edited books on another charismatic big cat, the tiger, I am also fully aware of the efforts of the editors, David Mallon and Tom McCarthy, who successfully managed to “herd their cats” toward such a satisfactory outcome.

xxv

xxvi

Foreword

The ecological and scientific context It is of course impossible for me to distil even the essence of articles covering such a wide range of topics, including evolution and taxonomy, biogeography and habitats, and associated behaviors and ecologies of the snow leopard and its prey assemblages. Even harder is to fully comprehend the varied human cultures spread across snow leopard range, each posing a unique challenge to the future survival of the cat. Therefore, my modest intervention only tries to offer perspectives on snow leopards from the vantage point of my own long-term work with tigers and leopards in tropical Asia. The geographies of these two larger cats I have worked with do overlap snow leopard range in the Himalayan Mountains of southern Asia. The ecologies of tigers, which are four times larger, and leopards, which are 1.5 times larger than snow leopards, stand in stark contrast with our subject cat. The challenges posed for the study and conservation of these three big cats are also very different. Take, for instance, the issue of habitat productivity. For comparisons, here I use a shorthand—population density of ungulate prey. Unlike physical features of the habitat, the metric of ungulate density can additionally capture the impacts of livestock as well as human hunters, which are also determinants of the carrying capacity of any site for big cats, obligate predators of these prey (Karanth et al., 2004). Tigers and leopards in southern Asia attain substantially higher ecological population densities of 5–15 animals/100 km2 in tropical deciduous forests, if human hunters and herders are removed from the equation. Even in the tropical evergreen forests that are suboptimal habitats, they appear to attain higher population densities compared to snow leopard densities of 0.2–3.0 animals/100 km2 in their best habitats

(Chapters 2 and 32). Prima facie, this phenomenon appears to defy the norm that larger predatory carnivores typically occur at lower densities than smaller ones. However, the high prey densities of 30–50 large ungulates/km2 observed in prime tiger and leopard habitats (Karanth et al., 2020) can explain most of this anomaly. I note that tigers and leopards occur and spread more evenly across their habitats compared to snow leopards. This is so at the level of home ranges of individual cats as well as how their populations are clustered across wider landscapes. As reported in this volume (Chapters 2 and 30), such clustering of snow leopards on steeper terrain is driven by factors such as relative densities of their preferred prey species, predatory behaviors adapted to prey vulnerabilities (Chapter 2), and the snow leopard’s spatial avoidance of competing carnivores, such as wolves, leopards, and guard dogs (Chapter 4). My long-term (1986–2017) study area of tigers in the Malenad landscape in south-western India currently supports a population of 350 tigers (Karanth et al., 2020). Tigers here are primarily confined to 16 separate but interconnected protected areas that add up to 7000 km2, embedded within a forested landscape of 22,000 km2. If higher levels of protection can be extended across this overall landscape matrix, it could potentially support three times more tigers (Karanth et al., 2020). Snow leopard density variations reported in this volume show why implementing such a protected area-centric conservation strategy would be difficult in the case of leopards due to ecological as well as social reasons (Chapters 15–18). Moreover, recoveries and collapses of big cat populations are outcomes of site-level population dynamics. Ecologists are now using closed model capture-recapture sampling to reliably estimate two state variables: density and abundance of snow leopards at one point in time.

xxvii

Foreword

However, other key parameters—vital rates such as mortality, births, survival, immigration, emigration, and transience—also drive snow leopard population dynamics. These parameters also can be estimated by employing open capture-recapture models spanning multiple years. Tiger biologists have successfully accomplished this in India (Karanth et al., 2006) and Thailand (Duangchantrasiri et al., 2016), an approach that snow leopard ecologists can adopt. At wider geographic scales, assessment of densities and abundances in meta-populations of big cats becomes hard because of logistical and statistical challenges (Dey et al., 2017; Gopalaswamy et al., 2022). However, even at this wider scale, accurately mapping snow leopard distributions and mechanistically understanding the causal factors driving their range expansions or contractions are critical to species recovery. It is gratifying to note that snow leopard ecologists (Chapters 32 and 34) are employing probabilistic, replicated survey methods relying on the “detection versus nondetection” approach to measure intensity of habitat use as well as wider-scale habitat occupancy patterns. It is to be noted that such habitat occupancy estimation methods also come under the overarching capture-recapture modeling framework that emerged two decades ago from tiger studies some of us were involved with (MacKenzie et al., 2006). Capture-recapture statistical models have been greatly refined in recent years and applied to assessments of population dynamics as well as habitat occupancy in a wide range of naturally or artificially “marked animals” (Royle et al., 2014). The emergent PAWS monitoring protocol proposed for snow leopards (Chapter 34) offers a good example of collaborative technical synergies leading to methodological advancements. I was pleased to see how this protocol has been jointly formulated by leading snow leopard

ecologists working in collaboration with statistical ecologists who pioneered the development of both habitat occupancy (MacKenzie et al., 2006) and spatial capture-recapture models (Royle et al., 2014). On the other hand, landscape-scale population and habitat surveys of tigers and leopards in Asia continue to languish under outdated “presence versus absence” or “presence only” approaches, which are demonstrably flawed (Royle et al., 2012; Yackulic et al., 2013). I can contrast advances made by snow leopard ecologists to infuse science into monitoring, with the largely futile efforts made by several of us in the tiger research community to achieve this (Karanth and Nichols, 2017). Our efforts were continually thwarted by the intellectual and bureaucratic inertia that now characterizes the massively funded global tiger conservation agenda. I offer some possible reasons why snow leopard studies managed to leapfrog over the older and better funded tiger surveys to embrace conceptual advances. I believe wildlife governance systems across the snow leopard range are socially, culturally, and politically more diverse. Their species recovery efforts have a shorter history and much lower investment levels. Consequently, the role of any one country being overwhelmingly dominant—as is the case of India in the global tiger recovery programs— becoming a barrier to scientific advances, has not been a problem so far in snow leopard conservation. I believe tiger conservationists can learn much from this dichotomy and prioritize peer-reviewed science over moribund traditions.

Approaches to snow leopard conservation practice The cultures that encompass the historic range of the three big cats—snow leopards,

xxviii

Foreword

leopards, and tigers—are rooted in tenets of five ancient religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, and Islam—as well as the 20th-century creed of Marxism. The practices and philosophies of all these tenets do shape the attitudes of local people toward big cats and their prey species. Furthermore, human attitudes are also shaped by powerful secular considerations such as market economics, political power structures, livelihood needs, and public safety. This leads to tensions between the aspirational pull of modernity against older bonds of tradition. Consequently, snow leopard conservation becomes a task of managing social tensions that may at times lead to a mission drift from the central objective of meeting the survival needs of the threatened cat. The scientific approach to the conservation of big cats—under the official definition of wildlife as terrestrial free-ranging vertebrate species— can potentially include their preservation/ recovery at population levels, elimination of harmful individual cats to protect human interests, and harvests of cats or their prey animals to meet local economic or social needs. The animal welfare-based tactics advanced by their adherents sometimes come into conflict with science-based approaches as has been the case with tiger and leopard conservation (Karanth, 2023). As suggested by some authors here (Chapters 19 and 47), relying on faith-based tolerance of wildlife can also be a conservation tool. However, my experience in the tiger world is that when conflict between cats and humans becomes serious, such traditional tolerance crumbles. I believe the case for adding value to local economies by promoting snow leopard tourism, as exemplified here (Chapters 15–17), has great potential across the species’ range. The booming economies and expanding consumer classes for wildlife tourism already exist in India, China, Nepal, and the growing “tiger economies” of Southeast Asia. An advantage wildlife tourism

enjoys in Asia is that its scale and growth are driven by robust national economies, not periodically subject to disruptions of foreign tourist arrivals because of political unrest, wars, or pandemics far away. The case studies of snow leopard tourism presented here demonstrate the value of co-opting local communities to support conservation by using market-linked benefits. The key concerns in such cases are avoiding damage to fragile habitats and ensuring significant revenue flows to local rather than distant entrepreneurs. This volume also contains case studies from Pakistan and central Asian countries that demonstrate conservation gains can even be based on tourism revenue generated by hunting of trophy species of prey such as wild sheep and goats (Chapter 20). While this may offend some purists who oppose all hunting in principle, the reality is that in Islam, Marxism, or even Buddhism and Taoism as practiced by a vast majority of their followers do view hunting as an accepted social practice. Making the case for hunting as one more ratchet in the tool kit of conservation appears reasonable where it is possible, provided its ecological sustainability can be established scientifically. Establishing such credibility is often hampered by administrative corruption prevalent in many range countries. However, I do note that in the dominant cultural context of Hinduism and Jainism, such as those in India and Nepal, roots of traditional tolerance have strengthened the managerial action of totally banning all animal hunting for more than five decades. This has resulted in major population recoveries of tigers, leopards, and Asiatic lions. Often, within the murky functioning of government regulations, clear-cut, black and white prescriptions work better in practice than the ones in shades of gray (Karanth, 2023). Given the low human population density and the vast numbers of livestock that compete with

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wild ungulates across the snow leopard range, a carefully managed alternative of entrepreneurially driven transition from livestock husbandry to wildlife tourism or even safari hunting, such as the ones emerging in Eastern and Southern Africa and Latin America, could possibly become drivers of snow leopard recovery in future. I find it interesting that, given the high market value of snow leopards and their prey, as well as international commitments made by all snow leopard range states to create more protected areas and curb wildlife trade, there are so few publications about the mechanics of effective law enforcement on the ground. I was pleased to see this gap addressed in Chapters 22 and 23. Because wildlife managers in Asia are generally not trained wildlife scientists, they do not record law enforcement data to rigorously explore the tactics that work best in any specific context. However, it is undeniable that most wildlife recoveries of big cats in Asia and Africa have been consequences of strong law enforcement, regardless of which other conservation tools were also additionally deployed. I believe it behooves trained scientists and law enforcement experts to step into this breach and provide empirical analyses necessary to identify effective protection systems and administrative mechanisms for snow leopard protected areas. Such an approach has been demonstrated admirably by tiger scientists and wildlife managers in Thailand’s Western Forest Complex (Duangchantrasiri et al., 2016). An equally complex question relates to the nature of the authority expected to enforce snow leopard protection laws. In the historical context of Asia, in the early 1970s, strong laws were introduced to protect tigers and other endangered species. However, only in India and Nepal, such laws were supported politically from above, leading to their effective implementation within protected areas. Tigers and other

wildlife populations responded and recovered rapidly when wildlife managers had De jure as well as De facto enforcement capacity (Karanth, 2023). In contrast, in the eastern and north-eastern regions of India, where the new laws lacked social support because of the dominance of local hunting cultures, they remained on paper. Today, the extensive tiger forests in parts of central and eastern India are empty, virtually devoid of the big cats and ungulate prey, whereas in other regions of India with a history of stricter protection, tigers and prey populations have bounced back (Karanth, 2023). This was also the case with many Tiger Range nations, where strong protection laws remained on paper, even as tiger populations blinked out. Unfortunately, conservationists who favor either total abolition of wildlife law enforcement or blindly trust diffused local communities to implement them have failed to learn from these large- scale empirical tiger conservation outcomes. Their faith that “withering away of the state” would lead to the Marxist ideal of “from each according to his ability and to each according to his need” has not materialized. This experience with tigers should serve as red flag for snow leopard conservationists too. The snow leopard’s cause would be better served if the actors who can implement effective protection on the ground can be enabled and assisted: depending on the social context, such actors could turn out to be wildlife officials, military authorities, religious leaders, commercial players, or even hunters, as examples in this volume suggest (Chapters 21 and 24). Anarchy or benign neglect is unlikely to deliver effective snow leopard recovery.

Into the future Preoccupied as snow leopard conservationists are with immediate challenges, they are not

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ignoring longer-term challenges. The chapters addressing the climate change impacts (Chapter 8) confirm this. The big picture appears to be that in parts of the range, a warming climate can lead to contraction of snow leopard habitats, but some potential habitat expansion could occur at other locations. The related impacts of the warming climate on abundances of both wild and domestic prey of snow leopards appear to be even more complex. Necessarily, these will change land uses such as animal husbandry, tourism, and even hunting, with significant consequences for the effectiveness of snow leopard recovery tactics. Across the snow-leopard range, however, conservationists must also try to predict the scale and impact of other globally driven mega-trends in social sectors such as energy production, extraction of raw materials, transportation, communication, and urbanization, often followed by loosened social ties to the land and traditions. These factors have roots in population growth and material aspirations of local people. I can only speculate below about how some such mega trends may impact snow leopard ecosystems, even before climate impacts ensue. The head-long rush toward some types of “green energy”—hydro-electric dams (both large and small), the mining and transportation of rare minerals crucial for electricity transmission, and storage and manufacture of solar cells and wind turbine components—will all likely lead to negative impacts on snow leopard habitats. The fundamentally low energy output per unit space or per unit mass used, which characterizes all diffuse energy production systems in comparison to hydrocarbon or nuclear energy sources, ensures their greater adverse impact on natural landscapes. These impacts will occur at both the extractive and deployment ends of green energy and should not be ignored by conservationists in the din of loud exhortations to “go green” in a hurry. Another such mega trend is the current turmoil generated by the political transition toward

a multipolar world. The snow leopard range is at the confluence of major political, religious, and social confrontations boiling over from history as well as being churned out anew; for instance, the militarization of hitherto largely rural, and technologically underdeveloped, regions in the Himalayas and Central Asia. Its drivers involve great military powers such as China, Russia, and India as well as diffused but armed militant cultures that dominate the entire mountainous region. This has led to the incursions of vast numbers of armed men, new roads, massive equipment, and supply chains needed to ensure permanent military presences. The snow leopard and its prey must increasingly contend with these new neighbors, in addition to the herders and livestock with whom they had coexisted tenuously in the past. Another mega trend, which I crudely bundle and define as “technological urbanization,” will also steadily impact snow leopard conservation in the future. As I have witnessed in some areas at least, these impacts may potentially have positive fallouts too. Large-scale emigration of hill agriculturists and pastoralists toward farms and urban centers in the plains of India can potentially free up more habitats for wildlife and reduce hunting and grazing pressures at some locations. As agriculture in the plains becomes more productive through application of new biotechnologies, and its benefits spread through market mechanisms, hard-scrabble farming on marginal lands of the mountains may become economically unviable and begin to shrink. Increased consumption of synthetic plantbased “meats” in urban societies, for economic ecological or cultural reasons, may render some of the present herding practices in mountainous regions unviable in the longer run. Over the past 50 years, as I got involved with recovery of tigers in the Malenad region of India, they were down to just 70–100 individuals and seemed headed for certain extinction. Thereafter, the wider social, economic, and political

Foreword

dynamics in India changed: sometimes abruptly such as the banning of all legal hunting in the 1970s, and gradually at other times as the economy grew and developed. While the latter process had its own negative impacts as it unfolded, its benefits also played out in ways I had not foreseen. In the face of improved farming and animal breeding technologies, rural poverty and hunger declined across India; the human population in Malenad more than doubled, but incomes grew even faster; domestic meat replaced wild meat on the rural menu; vast cattle herds used for tillage, transportation, and turning forest greenery into organic manure were replaced by motorized vehicles and tractors. Fuel wood extracted from forests to provide domestic energy gave way to hydrocarbon fuels and electricity. Technological changes sometime led to unexpected “decoupling” of nature from adverse human impacts. Improving education, communication technologies—and the fear of law enforcement— drastically reduced the once ubiquitous local hunting, to be replaced by entertainment in the form of movies, television sets, cell phones, and the Internet, which penetrated the deepest rural areas (Karanth, 2023). Among the newly rich urban populations, visiting resurgent nature reserves to watch wild tigers became the accepted social norm as opposed to the hunting forays that previous generations mounted into the same forests. I note that, in late 19th century under the colonial rule, about a third of this landscape had been wisely excluded from large-scale agricultural encroachment and earmarked for forestry uses, thereby ensuring a land base survived for effective nature reserves that came a century later (Karanth, 2023). Consequently, despite economic development and human population growth in Malenad, during the past 50 years, nature recovered in some reserves, because they were “decoupled”

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from human impacts, a strategy recommended by “Eco-modernism” (Brand, 2009). The passion, social skill, and the hard science, all on display in the contributions in this volume, give me hope that, despite the immense challenges they face, snow leopard conservationists will eventually be able to foresee the future of their favorite cat with cautious optimism. K. Ullas Karanth

References Brand, S., 2009. Whole Earth Discipline: An Eco-Pragmatist Manifesto. Viking Press, New York. Dey, S., Delampady, M., Parameshwaran, R., Kumar, N.S., Srivathsa, A., Karanth, K.U., 2017. Bayesian methods for estimating animal abundance at large spatial scales using data from multiple sources. J. Agric. Biol. Environ. Stat. 22, 111–139. Duangchantrasiri, S., Umponjan, M., Simcharoen, S., Pattanavibool, A., Chaiwattana, S., Maneerat, S., Kumar, N. S., Jathanna, D., Srivathsa, A., Karanth, K.U., 2016. Dynamics of a low-density tiger population in Southeast Asia in the context of improved law enforcement. Conserv. Biol. 30, 639–648. Gopalaswamy, A.M., Elliot, N.B., Ngene, S., Broekhuis, F., Braczkowski, A., Lindsey, P., Packer, C., Stenseth, N.C., 2022. How “science” can facilitate the politicization of charismatic megafauna counts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 119 (20). Karanth, K.U., 2023. Among Tigers: Fighting to Bring Back Asia’s Big Cats. Chicago Review Press, Chicago. Karanth, K.U., Nichols, J.D. (Eds.), 2017. Methods for Monitoring Tiger and Prey Populations. Springer, Singapore. Karanth, K.U., Nichols, J.D., Kumar, N.S., Link, W.A., Hines, J.E., 2004. Tigers and their prey: predicting carnivore densities from prey abundance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 101, 4854–4858. Karanth, K.U., Nichols, J.D., Kumar, N.S., Hines, J.E., 2006. Assessing tiger population dynamics using photographic capture–recapture sampling. Ecology 87, 2925–2937. Karanth, K.U., Kumar, N.S., Karanth, K.K., 2020. Tigers against the odds: applying macro-ecology to species recovery in India. Biol. Conserv. 252 (December), 108846. MacKenzie, D., Nichols, J., Royle, J., Pollock, K., Bailey, L., Hines, J., 2006. Occupancy Estimation and Modeling: Inferring Patterns and Dynamics of Species Occurrence, first ed. Academic Press.

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McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), 2016. Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes. Elsevier, New York. Royle, J.A., Chandler, R.B., Yackulic, C., Nichols, J.D., 2012. Likelihood analysis of species occurrence probability from presence-only data for modelling species distributions. Methods Ecol. Evol. 3, 545–554.

Royle, J.A., Chandler, R.B., Sollmann, R., Gardner, B., 2014. Spatial Capture-recapture. Academic Press, Waltham. Yackulic, C.B., Chandler, R., Zipkin, E.F., Royle, J.A., Nichols, J.D., Campbell Grant, E.H., Veran, S., 2013. Presence-only modelling using MAXENT: when can we trust the inferences? Methods Ecol. Evol. 4, 236–243.

Preface

Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. Convention on Biological Diversity (2010) Biodiversity holds ecological, economic, and cultural significance to Homo sapiens notwithstanding the intrinsic value of each species’ role in the biological web of their ecosystem. However, the impact of humanity in relatively recent history has altered the balance of natural systems within the biosphere. More than 8 billion people rely on and consume Earth’s biological and natural resources, subsequently putting the natural world in peril as species populations decline and species extinctions soar at a rate 100–1000 times greater than under completely natural conditions. A multidisciplinary cadre of conservation professionals worldwide recognizes the challenges posed by these threats and has taken on the mission of protecting the world’s biodiversity. Conservation science has evolved into a collaborative arena with advances in technology and research practices resulting in increased knowledge of species ecology and biology. There has been an emergence of new disciplines such as conservation psychology, ecological economics, and the importance of the social sciences in facilitating conservation efforts. Thus, information across biological and nonbiological (social, anthropological, economic, etc.) disciplines is integrated into the development of

species conservation planning and action. Stories of successful recovery and protection of threatened species are increasing and help expand the knowledge on the biology, ecology, threats, and solutions implemented for successful species conservation. Academic Press, an imprint of Elsevier, created the book series Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes in 2016 to address the challenges to biodiversity and offer a venue to share information on specific taxa of broad conservation interest. The books in this series were modeled after a book edited by Ronald Tilson and Philip Nyhus, Tigers of the World: The Science, Politics, and Conservation of Panthera tigris, Second Edition (2010), published by Elsevier under the Academic Press imprint. Editors and authors are prominent scholars, scientists, and practitioners who offer a transdisciplinary approach to provide comprehensive coverage for advancement of understanding and practice of biodiversity science and conservation. Interdisciplinary topics range from the biological sciences (taxonomy, molecular biology, genetics, physiology, health, life history, and animal and landscape ecology) to the social sciences (human interactions and impacts, ethics, economics, policy, and conservation planning and action) and conservation solutions (sustainability, restorations, and recovery). Academic Press has been a leader in scientific publishing for more than 70 years; Elsevier has been a global leader for more than 170 years in publishing scientific journals and books to support the research and health communities.

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Philip Nyhus, as Series Editor, worked with volume editors to oversee the first four volumes in the series. Snow Leopards (2016), edited by Tom McCarthy and David Mallon, the inaugural volume in the series, was the winner of The Wildlife Society’s 2017 Wildlife Publication Award in the Book Category. Snow Leopards was honored as the only comprehensive publication on the biology, behavior, and conservation status of the snow leopard, bringing together the most current scientific knowledge, identifying the most pressing conservation issues, and sharing conservation success stories. Subsequent volumes include Cheetahs: Biology and Conservation (2017), edited by Laurie Marker, Lorraine K. Boast, and Anne Schmidt-K€ untzel; Whooping Cranes: Biology and Conservation (2018), edited by John B. French, Sarah J. Converse, and Jane Austin; and Pangolins: Science, Society, and Conservation (2019), edited by Daniel W.S. Challender, Helen C. Nash, and Carly Waterman. Galapagos Giant Tortoises (2020), edited by James P. Gibbs, Linda J. Cayot, and Washington Tapia Aguilera, and Tree Kangaroos: Science and Conservation (2020), edited by Lisa Dabek, Peter Valentine, Jacque Blessington, and Karin R. Schwartz, were the final two books in this initial collection of six volumes. My tenure as Series Editor started after contributing as an author and editor to two volumes in the series: Cheetahs: Biology and Conservation and Tree Kangaroos: Science and Conservation. These volumes were written by well-respected authors in both in situ and ex situ conservation communities and contained a comprehensive treatment of knowledge across disciplines. As a conservation biologist with expertise in data management processes for ex situ management of species and involvement in International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission Conservation Planning (CPSG), Conservation Translocation, Tapir, and Otter Specialist Groups, I have worked on conservation issues that intersect

the in situ and ex situ conservation communities throughout my career. My focus on integrating conservation between the in situ and ex situ conservation communities was inspired by the friendships and collaborations with two mentors who were conservation heroes—Dr. Lee Talbot and Dr. George Rabb. Dr. Talbot was globally recognized as a coauthor of the US Endangered Species Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Little did I know that, when I signed up for two of his courses during my graduate work in conservation biology at George Mason University, I was learning from such a giant in the conservation realm. Tapping into his experience as director-general of the IUCN, he taught me that all conservation problems have scientific, economic, and social aspects, and all three aspects must be included in problem-solving. I learned of the importance of the role of science in supporting policy measures, and yet effective communication was critical as the real key to success. Dr. George Rabb led the Chicago Zoological Society/Brookfield Zoo as Executive Director from 1976 to 2003, and he also served as the Chair of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) from 1989 to 1996. Dr. Rabb promoted the evolution of zoos and aquariums from menageries with a recreation function to international conservation centers. Especially endearing to me, he helped start the International Species Information System, which is now Species360, with more than 1300 members worldwide sharing zoological data. Dr. Rabb showed me the importance of global collaboration and the potential of what could be achieved in conservation of threatened species through transdisciplinary cooperation. The conservation ethic inspired by Dr. Talbot and Dr. Rabb is now manifested in the publication of the volumes in the Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes

Preface

series. The first six volumes are comprehensive works written by internationally recognized authorities. While new volumes are currently in development, Snow Leopards serves as the inaugural issue to produce a second edition. The first edition of this award-winning volume had been the definitive resource for science and conservation of snow leopards. Now there is a growing body of new knowledge with major advances in technology and an increase in science-based conservation research and action for the species. Due partly to these efforts, the IUCN Red List status for snow leopards changed from Endangered (the status when the first book was published in 2016) to Vulnerable. Editors Tom McCarthy and David Mallon, who collectively have more than 60 years of experience in snow leopard conservation, put together a second edition with updated coverage of the same broad range of topics as the first edition and added important new topics. There are new conservation initiatives with an increased focus on assessing population sizes and trends, substantial advances in conservation genetics and monitoring technology, and case studies of successful conservation strategies across the snow leopard’s natural range in Asia. This new edition will make the latest information on snow leopards broadly available to conservationists and decision makers. Continuation of this series would not have been possible without the enthusiasm and support of Anna Valutkevich and Simonetta Harris, past and current Acquisition Editors, respectively, for Animal Science, Organismal, and Evolutionary Biology at Elsevier who guided the

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publication process. Appreciation extends to Emerald Li, who offered expert advice as Editorial Project Manager for this second edition of Snow Leopards and Elsevier’s book production team that made the publication a reality. We are in a global biodiversity crisis, and we must engage all available tools and resources to ensure a sustainable future for all species and their environments. The 15th Conference of Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Montreal, Canada, in December 2022, adopted the “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework” including four major goals and 23 targets for achievement by 2030. The goals addressed integrity of ecosystems and halting species extinctions, sustainability of biodiversity used by humans and restoration of degraded areas, sharing of genetic resources, and implementing capacity-building, technical and scientific cooperation to support the Global Biodiversity Framework. Target 21 specifically addresses sharing information to “ensure that the best available data, information, and knowledge, are accessible to decision makers, practitioners, and the public.” New and second editions in the Biodiversity of the World series offer such a venue to share current knowledge on threatened species, their biology and ecology, conservation status, threats, and solutions that will help address the global biodiversity crisis. Karin R. Schwartz, Series Editor Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes Records Manager, Roger Williams Park Zoo, Providence, RI, United States

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S E C T I O N I

Defining the snow leopard

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C H A P T E R

1 What is a snow leopard? Taxonomy, morphology, and phylogeny Andrew C. Kitchenera,b, Carlos A. Driscollc, and Nobuyuki Yamaguchid a

Department of Natural Sciences, National Museums Scotland, Edinburgh, United Kingdom bSchool of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom cLaboratory of Genomic Diversity, Center for Computer Technologies, ITMO University, St. Petersburg, Russia dInstitute of Tropical Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, University of Malaysia, Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia

Introduction

taxonomically and phylogenetically distinct from other big cats (Panthera spp.) in the past, but recent molecular data have confirmed its inclusion within Panthera as a sister species to the tiger (P. tigris). In this chapter, we explore the morphological characteristics of the snow leopard and its adaptations in relation to its montane habitats, and we also explain its taxonomic and phylogenetic history to provide a clearer understanding of its position within the Felidae.

The snow leopard is the smallest of the so-called big cats of the genus Panthera with a head-and-body length of 1.0–1.3 m, tail length of 0.8–1.1 m, and a weight of 20–50 kg. The snow leopard is adapted to montane habitats in Central Asia, including principally the Altai, Tian Shan, Kun Lun, Pamir, Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalaya mountain ranges, where it preys on ungulates, particularly blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), ibexes (Capra sibirica), marmots (Marmota spp.), and lagomorphs. In order to survive in this often hostile environment, the snow leopard has evolved a suite of adaptations for combating low temperatures and oxygen levels and hunting on steep heterogeneous slopes at high altitude. These adaptations have resulted in the snow leopard being treated as

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00043-1

Taxonomic history and geographical variation The snow leopard was first described by Comte de Buffon (1761) as l’Once. The snow leopard was initially described as either a felid related to the lynx or a small panther, with long

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1. Taxonomy, phylogeny, and morphology of snow leopards

hairs and long tail, occurring from North Africa through Arabia to southern Asia (e.g., Comte de Buffon, 1761). Clearly, there was considerable confusion with leopards and lynxes. Schreber (1775) copied Buffon’s figure of l’Once, but gave it a scientific name, Felis uncia. The type locality was subsequently fixed by Pocock (1930) as the Altai Mountains, although Ognev (1962) stated that it was the southern slope of the Kopet-Dagh Mountains. However, this mountain range is outside the geographical distribution of the snow leopard, so that the Altai Mountains are regarded as the type locality. The snow leopard was at first placed in Felis with all other cats, but Pocock (1916b) followed Gray (1854) and placed it in the genus Uncia, which Gray had created for Felis irbis, a junior synonym of Felis uncia. However, more recently based on phylogenetic data, the snow leopard has been placed in the genus Panthera (see below). Few other scientific names have been proposed for the snow leopard; Ehrenberg (1830) described Felis irbis from the Altai Mountains, but this is synonymous with P. uncia, while Horsfield (1855) described F. uncioides from Nepal, which was recognized as a subspecies, F. uncia uncioides by Stroganov (1962) on the basis of apparent differences in pelage, including lighter coloration and a reduction of spots compared with snow leopards from Central Asia. Hemmer (1972) found that these differences were inconsistent and considered that the snow leopard is monotypic. However, there have been no detailed molecular or craniometric analyses to investigate geographical variation. There is disagreement on the availability of Felis uncioides. It is considered a nomen nudum by Kitchener et al. (2017) and Senn et al. (2018), but not by Janecka et al. (2017, 2018). The original description does mention syntypes, but lacks a description of the taxon, which is why the name is considered not available. The next available name for Himalayan/ Tibetan snow leopards is Uncia uncia schneideri Zukowsky (1950), from Sikkim based on an

aberrant individual. The original specimen was destroyed in World War II, but a painting survives as the holotype (Kitchener et al., 2017). Medvedev (2000) described Panthera baikalensisromanii from the spurs of the Malkhan range in the Petrovsk-Zabaikal region, Chita Region of the River Ungo, which is said to be darker and browner and lacks rosettes, except in the lumbar region, compared with Central Asian snow leopards. However, Wozencraft (2005) included it within the synonymy of P. uncia without comment. Fox (1994) highlighted the gap in distribution between the main southern “Tibetan” (i.e., Himalayan) population and the northern population in Russia and Mongolia. He suggested that these two populations may differ from each other. However, snow leopards can travel across more than 50 km of open steppes, not an optimal habitat for them, between isolated massifs, which suggests that fragmented populations, seemingly separated by distance and unsuitable habitat, may not be totally disconnected (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003). A recent phylogeographical study based on 33 microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA presented data that suggested that there are three subspecies of snow leopard, including P. u. uncia from the western range (Tian Shan, Pamirs, trans-Himalayas), P. u. irbis from the Altai, and P. u. uncioides from the Himalayas and Tibet ( Janecka et al., 2017). However, Senn et al. (2018) questioned the results of this study based on sampling, lack of mtDNA variation, biogeography, and taxonomy. Further research is required to understand better the intraspecific phylogeny and biogeography of snow leopards and to establish the validity of the three proposed subspecies.

Fossil record There are very few fossil remains of snow leopards and even fewer that have been dated to any degree of accuracy. Many of these are isolated fossil teeth, which are insufficient for

I. Defining the snow leopard

Taxonomic history and geographical variation

specific attribution (Werdelin et al., 2010). For example, putative snow leopard fossils from Locality 1 at Zhoukoudian, China, Stranska´ Ska´la, Russia, and Woldrich, Austria, are misidentifications according to Hemmer (1972). Fossil remains were reported by Brandt (1871) and Tscherski (1892) from the Upper Pleistocene in caves in the Altai. A mandibular ramus from locality 3, Choukoutien (Zhoukoudian), China, which dates from the late Middle Pleistocene, 0.175–0.135 Mya, has been variously identified as a leopard, P. pardus or P. uncia (Hemmer, 1972), but Hemmer (2022) has now identified it as P. uncia based on its large teeth and similarity in size. Recently Hemmer (2022) has described a subspecies of snow leopard, P. u. pyrenaica, based on a well-preserved mandible from the Arago Cave, Tautavel, France, which is dated to the early Middle Pleistocene, 0.53–0.57 Mya. The mandibular corpus of this specimen is similar in morphology to modern P. uncia, but its teeth are quite small, suggesting that there has been an increase in tooth size between the early and late Middle Pleistocene, if the Zhoukoudian mandible is also P. uncia. Hemmer (2022) suggested that the high mechanical advantage of the snow leopard’s mandible and its large carnassials are an adaptation for feeding on carcasses for several days after a kill when they have become frozen. Hemmer (2022) suggests that other Pleistocene Panthera specimens from Europe may also be P. uncia. However, the putative occurrence of P. uncia in Europe in the Middle Pleistocene should be confirmed with additional analyses, including geometric morphometrics, on a larger sample of P. uncia skulls. Dennell et al. (2005) described a Panthera cf. uncia dated to 1.2–1.4 Mya from locality 73 in the Pabbi Hills, Pakistan (Upper Siwaliks) and there is a mandibular ramus from the Siwaliks in the Natural History Museum London (register no. 16537a), which appears to be from a snow leopard (Dennell et al., 2005). Deng et al. (2011) mentioned an almost complete skull of an

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apparently ancestral snow leopard, Panthera sp., from the Zanda fauna of Tibet. This skull is dated to ca. 4.4 Mya (but could be as much as 5.95 Mya) and is the oldest known snowleopard-like fossil, but it is about 10% smaller than today’s animals. This specimen has recently been described as a new species, P. blytheae (Tseng et al., 2014). Although apparently sharing characters with P. uncia, such as canines with almost circular cross section, a weakly inclined mandibular symphysis, a smooth transition between the mandibular rami and symphysis, the presence of a fronto-nasal depression, a narrow distance between the anterior edge of the bullae and the glenoid ridge, a sharp-turning ventral premaxilla-maxilla border at the canines, and straight and symmetrical p4 cusp alignment, P. blytheae can be distinguished from it and other Panthera by uniquely having a small labial cusp on the posterior cingulum of P3 and converging ridges on the labial surface of P4. According to the phylogenetic analyses of skull characters by Tseng et al. (2014), P. blytheae is a sister species to P. uncia and in the same clade as the tiger, P. tigris, but Geraads and Peigne (2017) carried out a reanalysis, which suggested that P. blytheae may not belong to the genus Panthera, nor have a close phylogenetic relationship to P. uncia (see below).

Phylogeny In the most comprehensive genetic phylogeny to date, Davis et al. (2010) inferred the relationships among Panthera, including clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.), snow leopard, tiger, jaguar (P. onca), leopard (P. pardus), and lion (P. leo), using 39 Y chromosome segments, three autosomal genes, and four mitochondrial genes in a supermatrix phylogenetic analysis (Fig. 1.1). An independent inference, using the major urinary protein, transthyretin, recapitulated an identical topology. Transthyretin is putatively involved in male scent marking and is speculated to be a speciation protein.

I. Defining the snow leopard

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1. Taxonomy, phylogeny, and morphology of snow leopards

(A)

100 0.1 62 100 0.1 100

Lion Leopard Jaguar Tiger

94 0.1 91

Snow leopard Clouded leopard

0.0030

(B)

Snow leopard Jaguar 100 1.0

Tiger 99 1.0

Lion

suggest that the divergence between the snow leopard and tiger lineages took place 4.86–15.13, making this the oldest divergence date estimated so far. A recent suggestion is that the snow leopard arose from past admixture (hybridization) between the male of the tiger lineage and the female of the lion-leopard-jaguar lineage after the jaguar diverged from the lionleopard lineage and before the latter two diverged from each other, suggesting that the window of admixture was between ca. 3.2–2.9 and 1.9–1.4 Mya (Li et al., 2016). Although Tseng et al. (2014) suggested that P. blytheae (ca. 4.1–6.0 million years old) might be a sister taxon to the snow leopard, if it arose more recently because of this suggested admixture event, it seems more likely that P. blytheae was one of the earlier members of the Panthera Lineage rather than a sister taxon to the extant snow leopard.

Leopard

Morphological adaptations

0.0020

FIG. 1.1 Maximum likelihood (ML) trees based on analysis of the complete supermatrix. (A) Rooted with clouded leopard as outgroup. 1000 ML bootstrap replicate percentages depicted on the top, Bayesian posterior probabilities (BPP) on the bottom left, and BEST posterior probabilities on the bottom right. (B) Unrooted topology with ML bootstrap percentages on the left and BPP on the right (Davis et al., 2010).

Pelage

Molecular dating, using a Bayesian relaxedclock approach, indicates that the snow leopard and the tiger diverged from each other between 2.70 and 3.70 Mya, which is prior to the divergence of the jaguar (2.56–3.66 Mya) from the lion/leopard ancestor and of that ancestor into those two species (1.95–3.10 Mya). Thus, in this analysis, the snow leopard is a sister species to the tiger, however distantly related, with the caveat that the tiger is the closest relative among extant taxa used in this analysis (i.e., excluding P. blytheae, P. palaeosinensis; see Christiansen, 2007). Based on the assumption that P. blytheae and P. uncia are sister taxa, Tseng et al. (2014)

The snow leopard has the longest and densest pelage of any Panthera, with 4000 hairs per square centimeter, and a ratio of 8 underfur hairs to every guard hair (Heptner and Sludskii, 1992). The dense underfur is very long, 43 mm cf. guard hairs 50 mm long. Hemmer (1972) compared summer and winter fur lengths (Table 1.1). The long guard hairs and thick underfur are effective at trapping a layer of air close to the skin for effective insulation. The coat pattern of the snow leopard (rosettes) differs from that of the sister taxon, the tiger (stripe), in comparison to the other closely related taxa within the genus Panthera (lion—usually juveniles only, jaguar, and

The snow leopard has several morphological adaptations for living and hunting at high elevations in montane habitats. These are reviewed below.

I. Defining the snow leopard

Morphological adaptations

7

TABLE 1.1 Fur lengths (mm) in summer and winter on different parts of the body of snow leopards (Hemmer, 1972). Summer

Winter

Flanks

25

50

Tail

50

60

Belly

50

120

Back

–

30–55

leopard), all of which have rosettes. This may indicate that the basal primitive coat pattern of the family Felidae is flecks (i.e., dots), from which nearly all other patterns have developed within a relatively short period without involving any nonflecked patterns in between (Allen et al., 2011; Werdelin and Olsson, 1997). The dorsal pelage ranges from pale gray to creamy smoke gray, often tinged with brown or even reddish brown, and is marked with a pattern of solid brownish black spots on the head, neck, and lower limbs, while there are large rosettes or rings (50–90 mm diameter), often with a few small spots inside, on the flanks and tail, but the density of rosettes is lower than that in the pelages of leopards and jaguars (Hemmer, 1972). There is a row of elongated spots and two lateral rows of elongated rings running along the midline of the back to the base of the tail (Hemmer, 1972). The underparts are whitish from the chin to the anus. The basic ground color, coupled with the disruptive effect of the markings, helps match snow leopards to their rocky environment and break up their outline for effective stalking and hunting.

FIG. 1.2 A comparison of the skulls of Panthera cats, all

Skull

lateral views, from the top: snow leopard, leopard, jaguar, tiger, lion. Note the small, highly vaulted skull of the snow leopard (N Yamaguchi).

The snow leopard’s skull is typical of a cat’s with short jaws for a powerful killing bite and a large cranium for the attachment of large temporalis muscles. However, in comparison to the other Panthera species, the skull of the snow leopard is easily distinguishable (Fig. 1.2), and

it is also the smallest; greatest length of skulls for males ranges 178.9–213.5 mm in adult males (n ¼ 22) and 173.5–188.0 mm in adult females (n ¼ 17) (NY, unpublished data). The skull is broader, shorter, and more vaulted than in other

I. Defining the snow leopard

8

1. Taxonomy, phylogeny, and morphology of snow leopards

Panthera and particularly elevated between postorbital processes (Haltenorth, 1937; Pocock, 1916b), because of the inflated nasal cavity and broad nasal bones. The large nasal cavity probably allows for efficient countercurrent warming of inhaled air and cooling of exhaled air when breathing. Schauenberg’s cranial index (Schauenberg, 1969: greatest length of skull/cranial volume) suggests that P. uncia has a relatively large brain along with the other four Panthera species, Puma concolor, Acinonyx jubatus, and Lynx lynx among 38 species of felid that were investigated (Schauenberg, 1971). In comparison with other cats, excluding the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), the snow leopard has a larger than expected nasal aperture relative to skull length and palate width (Torregrosa et al., 2010), which allows not only for a greater volume and density of turbinals for warming and humidifying inhaled cold dry air, but also for extracting as much oxygen as possible by increasing the volume of each breath (Hemmer, 1972; Torregrosa et al., 2010). However, in relation to body mass, nasal aperture size is not greater than expected so that skull length and palate width are reduced, or skull width is increased to allow for a larger nasal cavity (Hemmer, 1972; Torregrosa et al., 2010).

Teeth and jaws The snow leopard has significantly more slender canines along the anteroposterior axis than the other Panthera species, except the leopard (Christiansen, 2007). However, its canines are less blade-like, and hence, they have a rounder cross section along the entire crown, similar to the jaguar’s, but the middle of the crown is less rounded compared to that of the lion. Christiansen (2007) estimated average bite forces at the canine tip for various large cats (Fig. 1.3; Table 1.2). Although felids are known for sexual size dimorphism in canine size (Gittleman and Valkenburgh, 1997), this is less in snow leopards compared with lions.

FIG. 1.3 Skull of a snow leopard showing dentition (National Museums Scotland).

TABLE 1.2 Average estimated bite forces at the canine tips of large cats (Christiansen, 2007). Species Snow leopard

n

Average bite force (N)

9

363.0

Tiger

14

1234.3

Lion

10

1198.6

Jaguar

9

879.5

Leopard

8

558.6

Clouded leopard

12

344.2

Puma

10

499.6

The average estimated bite force is the lowest for any Panthera and reflects the smaller body size of this species, but its bite force is much lower than that of the similar-sized puma (Puma concolor) and equivalent to that of the smaller clouded leopard. The snow leopard’s

I. Defining the snow leopard

Morphological adaptations

moderate canines are appropriate for killing small to medium-sized prey, although it is not apparent why they should have a more robust circular cross section, given that a throat bite is typically used for killing larger prey, such as ibexes and blue sheep (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002). Circular cross sections suggest that forces may act from any direction; perhaps the difficulties of dealing with prey on steep heterogeneous slopes means that the direction of forces acting on the canine is more unpredictable compared with killing bites of other Panthera. Compared with other Panthera cats, the snow leopard has a jaw gape of more than 70o, only slightly less than the clouded leopard’s when measured from their skulls (Christiansen and Adolfsen, 2005), although it is possible that they can achieve an even wider gape than this in life. It is unclear why this is so, but perhaps the relatively large prey of snow leopards, i.e., mountain ungulates, which have a wide throat or nape for killing bites, requires the snow leopard to have a wider gape.

Limbs and vertebral column In terms of limb proportions, the snow leopard most resembles the cheetah, which is an opencountry pursuit predator (Gonyea, 1976). The humero-radial index (94.6%) is only slightly less than that of the lion (98.3%) and the cheetah (103.3%), while the femorotibial index (105%) matches that of the cheetah, indicating longer lower limbs for a longer stride and potentially higher running speeds. The intermembral index is only 84.7% and falls within values for other large cats. The snow leopard’s hunting behavior has been recorded on film in recent years and indicates that from an ambush it can display rapid acceleration and pursuit of bovid prey, with long leaps and sharp turns. The relatively longer tibiae would allow for more effective leaping. This is also supported by the relatively long thoracic (42.4% presacral vertebral length) and lumbar (35.6%) segments of the vertebral column, which ranked second

9

among those of all large felids, thus allowing for more flexibility in leaping and turning. Rieger (1984) mentioned a muscle, the musculus endopectoralis (¼ pectoralis major), which runs from the posterior sternum to the distal humerus, which apparently acts as a “spring” when a jumping mammal lands. Among felids, the pectoralis major has the highest relative weight, emphasizing its importance in absorbing energy when landing after leaping. Snow leopards have apparently been recorded leaping as far as 15 m across a gorge (Ognev, 1962). Smith et al. (2021) have examined the forelimb anatomy of two captive snow leopards. Compared with other big cats, snow leopards have enlarged scapular (rotator cuff muscles) and pectoral musculature for stabilizing the shoulder joint, when grappling with large prey, and for support during leaping and climbing on rocky terrain. The structures of the brachium and antebrachium offer a compromise between the need for a powerful grip and stability on rough substrates. A bifurcation of the m. biceps brachii, which also occurs in lynxes, supports and stabilizes the elbow joint, and the intrinsic musculature of the palmar manus (forefoot) is broad and fleshy to spread the snow leopard’s weight on snow. Finally, Smith et al. (2021) suggested that the snow leopard’s small clavicle (38 mm long) is an adaptation for cursoriality, allowing for a flexible shoulder joint and increased stride length.

Tail The snow leopard also has a long tail (75%– 90% of head-and-body length; Hemmer, 1972; mean 83% in 13 males and mean 82.2% in 15 females; ACK, unpublished data), which acts as a balancing organ (Rieger, 1984), when leaping between rocks and ascending or descending steep slopes, especially when moving rapidly in pursuit of prey. The tail is also used as a muffler to insulate paws and head from the cold at high altitude when resting (Rieger, 1984).

I. Defining the snow leopard

10

1. Taxonomy, phylogeny, and morphology of snow leopards

Laryngeal anatomy The genus Panthera, including the snow leopard, is characterized by the epihyal bone of the hyoid complex being replaced by an elastic ligament that allows the larynx to move away from the pharynx and, hence, permits roaring and other loud vocalizations. This anatomical feature is usually cited as being of taxonomic significance (Pocock, 1916a) and explaining why Panthera cats roar and other cats cannot. Peters and Hast (1994) showed that most Panthera cats have large vocal folds with large fibro-elastic pads, which, they hypothesized, vibrate to produce low frequency sounds that are amplified by the long larynx, and bell-shaped pharynx and mouth, resulting in very loud low frequency vocalizations, including roars. The elastic epihyal allows the larynx to lower the formant frequencies of vocalizations and does not affect a cat’s ability to purr, as thought previously (Weissengruber et al., 2002). However, snow leopards have the small pointed vocal folds of smaller cats and are unable to roar, although they produce long moaning calls to partners, grunts and moans, and they can apparently purr when inhaling and exhaling like smaller cats (Hemmer, 1972).

Physiological adaptations Living at high elevations, it would be expected that snow leopards should show physiological adaptations for breathing air with low levels of oxygen. Marma and Yunchis (1968) found that like other montane mammals, they have small red blood cells (RBCs) (mean 5.5 μm diameter, range 4.73–6.15 μm; cf. tiger 7.3  0.45 μm; Shrivastav and Singh, 2012), a high concentration of hemoglobin (16.4 g%), high hematocrit value (47%; relative volume of RBCs), and a large number of RBCs (14.1–16.8 million/mm3). A high concentration of small RBCs with a high surface-area-to-volume ratio probably helps the snow leopard to extract

sufficient oxygen while breathing at high elevations. However, recently, Janecka et al. (2015) have investigated the ability of snow leopard hemoglobin to bind oxygen. Typically, cats have hemoglobin with a low oxygen-binding affinity and reduced sensitivity to the allosteric cofactor 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG), and the snow leopard is surprisingly no exception. Further studies have recently been carried out to determine compensatory mechanisms in the oxygen transport pathway that allow snow leopards to show extreme hypoxia intolerance at altitudes of up to 6000 m or more. Previous studies of the human genome show that two loci, EGLN1 (Egl nine homolog 1) and EPAS1 (endothelial PAS domain-containing protein 1), are involved in mediating physiological adaptation to high altitude (Cho et al., 2013). A recent comparison of whole genomes between members of the Panthera showed that the snow leopard has a specific genetic determinant in EGLN1 (Met39 (nonpolar) ! Lys39; positively charged), which is probably also associated with physiological adaptation to high altitude (Cho et al., 2013). EGLN1 is typically highly conserved in mammals, so this change in the snow leopard genome may alter protein function. Janecka et al. (2020) found that this gene, which has a ubiquitous effect on the body’s cells to allow them to compensate for low oxygen levels, is monomorphic in snow leopards. Also, two changes specific to snow leopards have been recorded in EPAS1; Ile663 and Arg794, the latter was predicted to bring about a functional change of this protein (Cho et al., 2013). Janecka et al. (2020) also found that EPAS1 is polymorphic in snow leopards with different forms occurring in low- and high-altitude populations. Heterozygotes were found to be more frequent than expected for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, suggesting that there is a selective advantage in these animals that may allow adaptation over a range of altitudes. EPAS1 is cell-specific, acting on the lungs and placenta to increase density of capillaries and on the liver to increase RBC production,

I. Defining the snow leopard

References

which may help compensate for the lack of enhanced oxygen-binding affinity in snow leopard hemoglobin.

Conclusion Owing to its rarity in the wild and in museum collections, the snow leopard’s anatomy and physiology have not been well studied in comparison with those of most other Panthera cats. The current large captive population offers good opportunities for studying these aspects from studies of living and dead animals. However, from what we do know, the snow leopard is adapted for leaping and turning to capture ungulate prey on steep mountain slopes, it is well insulated and camouflaged to survive in this cold environment, and it has anatomical and physiological adaptations that allow it to maximize oxygen extraction from the low levels at high elevations while conserving heat energy. We recognize the potential for further areas of fruitful research, including relative lung volume in relation to low oxygen levels, eye anatomy in relation to the snow leopard’s diurnal behavior, and whether there is any significant geographical variation in morphology and genetics, which could impact on the snow leopard’s conservation.

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Liu, S., Wang, J., Kim, C.H., Kwak, H., Kim, J.-S., Hwang, S., Ko, J., Kim, C.-B., Kim, S., Bayarlkhagva, D., Paek, W.K., Kim, S.J., O’Brien, S.J., Wang, J., Bhak, J., 2013. The tiger genome and comparative analysis with lion and snow leopard genomes. Nat. Commun. 4 (2433), 1–7. Christiansen, P., 2007. Canine morphology in the larger Felidae: implications for feeding ecology. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 91, 573–592. Christiansen, P., Adolfsen, J.S., 2005. Bite forces, canine strength and skull allometry in carnivores (Mammalia, Carnivora). J. Zool. (Lond.) 266, 133–151. Comte de Buffon, G.-L.L.C., 1761. La panthere, l’once et le leopard. In: Comte de Buffon, G.-L.L.C., Daubenton, L.J.M. (Eds.), Histoire Naturelle, generale et particuliere avec la description du Cabinet du Roi. vol. 9. De l’Imprimie`re royale, Paris, pp. 151–172. pl. 13. Davis, B.W., Li, G., Murphy, W.J., 2010. Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats, Panthera (Carnivora: Felidae). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 56, 64–76. Deng, T., Wang, X., Fortelius, M., Li, Q., Wang, Y., Tseng, Z.J., Takeuchi, G.T., Saylor, J.E., S€ail€a, L.K., Xie, G., 2011. Out of Tibet: Pliocene woolly rhino suggests high-plateau origin of Ice Age megaherbivores. Science 333 (6047), 1285–1288. Dennell, R.W., Turner, A., Coard, R., Beech, M., Anwar, M., 2005. Two Upper Siwalik (Pinjor Stage) fossil accumulations from localities 73 and 362 in the Pabbi Hills, Pakistan. J. Palaeontol. Soc. India 50, 101–111. Ehrenberg, M.C.G., 1830. Observations et donnees nouvelles sur le tigre du nord et la panthe`re du nord, recueillies dans le voyage de Siberie fait par M.A. de Humboldt, en l’annee 1829. Ann. Sci. Nat. 21, 387–412. Fox, J.L., 1994. Snow leopard conservation in the wild—a comprehensive perspective on a low density and highly fragmented population. In: Fox, J.L., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium (Xining, Qinghai, China, July 25-30, 1992). International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, pp. 3–15. Geraads, D., Peigne, S., 2017. Re-appraisal of ‘Felis’ pamiri Ozansoy, 1959 (Carnivora, Felidae) from the Upper Miocene of Turkey: the earliest pantherin cat? J. Mamm. Evol. 24 (4), 415–425. Gittleman, J.L., Valkenburgh, B.V., 1997. Sexual dimorphism in the canines and skulls of carnivores: effects of size, phylogeny, and behavioural ecology. J. Zool. 242, 97–117. Gonyea, W.J., 1976. Adaptive differences in the body proportions of large felids. Acta Anat. 96, 81–96. Gray, J.E., 1854. The ounces. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 2 (14), 394. Haltenorth, T., 1937. Die Verwandtschaftiliche Stellung der Großkatzen zueinander VII. Z. S€augetierkd. 12, 7–240.

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C H A P T E R

2 What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology Joseph L. Foxa, Raghunandan S. Chundawatb, Shannon Kachelc, € Aimee Talliand, and Orjan Johanssone,f a

Independent, Lake City, CO, United States bIndependent, New Delhi, India cPanthera, New York, NY, United States dNorwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway eSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States fGrims€o Wildlife Research Station, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden

Introduction

technologies and analytical methods (e.g., see “Habitat use” section). Even so, other aspects of the species’ ecology have only recently come to light. Technological advances in the field of wildlife biology, including noninvasive genetic tools, remote cameras and GPS collars, have dramatically expanded our ability to gather reliable data on wild snow leopards, even as the parallel development of increasingly sophisticated analytical tools has enabled us to make sense of that data in ways that were not available to earlier generations of scientists. Satellite-tracking GPS collars, for example, have yielded precise, voluminous data, thus facilitating fine-scale investigation of foraging behavior, space use, reproduction, and habitat selection ( Johansson et al., 2015, 2016; Kachel, 2021). At the even larger scale of snow leopard populations, camera

Compared to other large felids, our understanding of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) ecology has progressed at a painfully slow rate, even with recent technological advancements in field research. Snow leopards are incredibly elusive animals that live in some of the most remote, rugged, and difficult-to-access landscapes in the world, all of which make them difficult to study in the wild. Our early knowledge about this species was derived either from observing captive animals or following and characterizing their sign in the wild. These first field studies focused on assessing the presence of tracks and sign markings (Fig. 2.1), establishing important information about snow leopard distribution and habitat associations, and those early findings have been widely confirmed and expanded on with new research

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00051-0

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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2. What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology

FIG. 2.1 Commonly encountered evidence of snow leopards. Top row, pugmarks and scat; Middle row, scrapes in gravelly substrate; Bottom row urine sprays and cheek-rub.

traps are now commonly used to estimate and investigate patterns of snow leopard density (e.g., Alexander et al., 2015), population dynamics (e.g., Sharma et al., 2014) and, increasingly, community ecology (e.g., Salvatori et al., 2022).

Even as newer technologies have opened up exciting new avenues of inquiry that could not be addressed earlier, recent research has in most cases corroborated our early conclusions regarding snow leopard behavior and ecology. In a few cases it has led to important refinements to our

I. Defining the snow leopard

Introduction

understanding of snow leopard ecology, as the following examples illustrate. First, advances in noninvasive genetic tools resulting in identification of scat sources have helped clarify our understanding of snow leopard food habits. Whereas early studies based on field identification of scats did document a reliance on large ungulates as prey, misidentification of scat sources led to conclusions that snow leopards relied more heavily on small mammals, such as pika (Ochotona spp.), hares (Lepus spp.), and marmots (Marmota spp.) than is actually the case (see Chapter 4). Using both GPS collars and genetic verification of scat source, we now know that snow leopards rely on mountain ungulates like ibex (Capra sibirica), argali (Ovis ammon), and bharal (Pseudois nayaur), across their range as well as domestic livestock such as goats (C. hircus), sheep (O. aries), horses (Equus ferus), and camels (Camellus bactrianus) (e.g., Chetri et al., 2017; Johansson et al., 2015; Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014; Shrestha et al., 2018), with marmots occasionally of seasonal importance (Kachel, 2021). Second, early studies and methodologies that attempted to use sign abundance as a correlate of density (e.g., Fox et al., 1991; Jackson and Hunter, 1996) have been shown to be flawed, for sign density can vary with many factors unrelated to animal abundance (Fox and Chundawat, 2016; McCarthy et al., 2008). New techniques utilizing camera trapping and genetic identification of individuals from scats provide a widely applicable basis for density estimation (see “Density” section below and Chapters 31, 32, and 34). And last, as we mention below, early ground-based radio telemetry showed consistently smaller home ranges than comparable satellite-based results, due presumably to the difficulty for ground-based trackers to navigate the extremely rugged habitat of the snow leopard (see “Territoriality and home ranges” section). None of these three advances in techniques, and their consequences to our understanding of a species’ ecology, are unique

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to snow leopard, but this species’ close association with extremely rugged terrain has probably more profoundly affected results based on the move from ground to satellite tracking as well as in the modeling of home range, when compared to other similar species. Zoo-based studies from the 1960s and 1970s provided basic knowledge about the snow leopard’s ontogenetic characteristics. The research conducted on wild snow leopards in the 1980s and 1990s was pioneering and laid the framework for our fundamental understanding of the species status, distribution, and behavior in the wild. Early generations of both captive and field research results were reviewed in some detail in the first edition of this volume (Fox and Chundawat, 2016); in this chapter, we therefore emphasize the results of more recent research. In the remainder of the chapter we refer to old studies where that is the only information available and otherwise present primarily newer results. Improved methodologies have deepened our understanding of early results and illuminated previously inadequately addressed topics such as population dynamics, home range, activity patterns, and predator-prey relations, and those aspects provide the bulk of material provided below. Where additional needed information is recognized, such is pointed out. As just one example, although we understand some fundamentals of snow leopard diet, we still don’t understand what effect snow leopard predation has on prey populations, how those effects on prey might indirectly impact interactions and structure at other trophic levels, or how humans might disrupt these interactions. Moreover, despite the advantages of newer research methods and technologies, many of the logistical and resource limitation barriers to snow leopard research remain; small sample sizes and limited replication are typical so that some caution in interpretation is warranted, and we look forward to confirmatory results. We conclude the chapter with some discussion of future research directions.

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2. What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology

Population ecology Habitat Snow leopards inhabit the high mountains of Asia. Their habitat ranges in elevation from 600 to 4000 m in the northern part of their distribution to 2500–5800 m in the southern portions (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2019; Fox et al., 1991; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988; McCarthy et al., 2005; Stroganov, 1962). A large portion of their range is high alpine mountainous areas or scrubland and desert ecosystems which are predominantly treeless. However, snow leopards also occasionally occur in dense forest-alpine ecotones, such as the southern slopes of the Himalayas, western and eastern edges of the Tibetan Plateau in China, the Tien Shan, Pamir, Altai, and in adjacent parts of northern Mongolia, and open forest and woodland habitats (Koshkarev, 1984; Mallon, 1991; Novikov, 1956; Schaller, 1977).

Density Estimates of snow leopard density based on spatial capture-recapture modeling (a gold standard for estimating densities of naturally marked species; Royle et al., 2014) are in the range of 0.19–3.0 animal per 100 km2 (e.g., Alexander et al., 2015; Chetri et al., 2019; Kachel et al., 2017; Pal et al., 2022; Suryawanshi et al., 2021). Some of that variation is surely due to true differences in habitat quality, yet as Suryawanshi et al. (2019) highlighted, these study sites are collectively biased toward high-quality habitats. Additional variation may be due to the arrangement and availability of suitable habitat— incorporating unsuitable habitat into a spatial capture-recapture study can help researchers investigate habitat use formally, even as it probably assures a lower overall density estimate. The only regional scale estimate of snow leopard density comes from Himachal Pradesh, India, where 26,000+ km2 of potential habitat was surveyed

yielding an estimate of 0.19 per 100 km2 (95% CI: 0.12–0.31; Suryawanshi et al., 2021). Even with the widespread adoption of sophisticated density models and modern data streams from noninvasive DNA (Chapter 31) and camera traps (Chapter 32), a bias toward sampling highquality habitats, often done at insufficient scale, has resulted in a potentially biased picture of snow leopard densities across the species’ range (Suryawanshi et al., 2019). Because design choices may undermine the reliability of local density estimates (Nawaz et al., 2021), large-scale coordination of sampling design and effort should help resolve these shortcomings (Chapter 34). There is still much to understand about the ecological reasons for the variation in density estimates in different habitats.

Population demography Snow leopard population dynamics, demographic processes, and vital rates like reproduction, mortality, and dispersal remain a chronically understudied dimension of snow leopard ecology, despite the obvious importance to conservation. One study of population processes documented an evidently stable population in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia (Sharma et al., 2014) with a growth rate of λ ¼ 1.08  0.25 over 4 years. Chu et al. (2022) reported a similarly stable, if ad hoc, λ ¼ 1.02 over a 2-year period. In both cases, these stable growth rates belied high individual turnover rates.

Physical characteristics and capabilities Snow leopards make their living in the steepest, most-rugged terrain of any cat species in the world, and the characteristics of their build reflect the requirements of living in such an environment. Snow leopards have a relatively stocky and low-profile body. As adults, snow leopards commonly measure between 100 and 120 cm from nose to tail and have an average

I. Defining the snow leopard

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Behavior and life history

shoulder height of about 60 cm ( Johansson et al., 2022a). Their comparatively short, muscular legs bring their body, and thus center of gravity, close to the ground, which is likely to facilitate movement in steep terrain. They also have the longest tail, relative to body size, of any felid, measuring 80–100 cm, or about 80% of their body length (Nowak, 1999). This is likely an adaptation for moving and hunting in steep terrain, considering that in other cats, tails can serve as ballast or counterweights (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002). Like other cats, their front paws are larger than their hind, and according to pug marks measured when tracking, their front foot pads are about 9–10 cm in length and 7–8 cm width (Fig. 2.1; Fox, 1989). Snow leopard walking, running, leaping, and climbing capabilities are also similar to closely related members of Pantherinae, with the exception that they have a more highly developed jumping ability (Hemmer, 1972). Compared to other large felids, which are generally sexually dimorphic in size (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002), there is generally less difference between the weights of adult (>3 years old) male (mean 42  4 (SD) kg) and female snow leopards (mean 36  3 (SD) kg) ( Johansson et al., 2022a). Subadults, or cats 2–3 years old, are of course smaller than adults, weighing between 24 and 39 kg ( Johansson et al., 2022a). In captivity where they are not food-limited, snow leopards can perhaps reach up to 75 kg (Hemmer, 1972), though this is most likely overweight individuals; the largest reported wild snow leopard was an adult male that weighed a respectable 54 kg ( Johansson et al., 2022a). Interestingly, there appears to be relatively little variation in snow leopard body dimensions across their range, as might be expected from Bergmann’s Rule (Bergmann, 1847) or Allen’s Rule (Allen, 1877). This is possibly because snow leopards are habitat specialists, rather than generalists, and their body size is adapted to balance the challenges of hunting the prey, often larger than themselves, that occupy rugged mountain

landscapes. Nevertheless, the increased elevation in southern habitats basically means that snow leopards are in similar physical environments throughout their range. The snow leopard’s coat is also a function of its environment, with a camouflaged pattern that allows it to blend with their typically rocky habitats. The background coat color is typically sandy brown to gray with cream-yellow on the underside, and the body is mottled with gray to black spots and rosettes. These spots are generally compacted and elongated when young, presenting as solid black stripes which differentiate into the more typical large spots and rosettes as the animal grows (Hemmer, 1972). Spots on the head and neck are solid, whereas larger rings or rosettes, most enclosing smaller spots, occur on the body and tail. The snow leopard’s coat is long and thick, with longer hair occurring throughout the winter months; in winter, the hair on the back is 3–5.5 cm, about 5 cm on their sides, up to 12 cm on their belly, and up to 6 cm on the tail; in summer, belly and tail hair length is about 5 cm and hair on the flanks is about 2.5 cm (Hemmer, 1972). The spot pattern on a snow leopard’s body and face is similar to a fingerprint, with each cat presenting a unique, static (i.e., nonchanging) pattern. These spot patterns are observed and qualified when monitoring with remote camera traps, and this technique currently provides the basis for assessing population demography in the wild ( Jackson et al., 2006; Sharma et al., 2014; and see Chapter 32), although the development of genetic identification techniques is rapidly improving.

Behavior and life history Sociality Snow leopards are generally solitary (Fox et al., 1988; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988; McCarthy et al., 2005; Schaller, 1977), with the

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exception of females with cubs, who typically stay with their mothers for between 20 and 22 months ( Johansson et al., 2021). Females and males also come together during the breeding season to mate, although this interaction is most likely short lived; four such interactions between GPS-collared snow leopards in Mongolia lasted 1–8 days (Snow Leopard Trust, unpublished data). There is some evidence that, like other solitary big cats (Elbroch et al., 2017), snow leopards may be more social than previously thought, as evidenced by GPS observations of males and females moving together outside of the mating season and of multiple cats sharing kills. However, the reasons behind this sociality remain unexplained, e.g., kill-site sharing could be better explained by tolerance rather than social bonding.

Territoriality and home ranges Research to date suggests that both male and female snow leopards exhibit within-sex territoriality. Male home ranges are generally twice the size of an adult female’s, and they commonly overlap several female territories ( Johansson et al., 2018). Both sexes mark their territories via scent-marking and scraping ( Johansson

et al., 2016, 2018). It remains unclear whether this behavior is more common along their territory boundaries or if they give equal effort to marking across their entire range. Anecdotal evidence suggests, however, that snow leopards likely opportunistically mark along their travel routes. Males are likely 4 years old before they can successfully defend their territory ( Johansson et al., 2016). Our understanding of snow leopard space use and home range behavior has changed considerably with changing technologies and conceptual advances. At well less than 100 km2, the comparatively small home ranges reported in early ground-based radio-telemetry studies of snow leopards (Chundawat, 1992; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1989; Oli, 1997) reflected major limitations that only became apparent in retrospect (see Chapter 30): when tracked simultaneously with radio- and satellite-telemetry, the estimated 95% minimum convex polygon home range size of a female snow leopard in Mongolia jumped from 58 to 1590 km2 (McCarthy et al., 2005). Yet even with GPS collar data, home range size depends on a suite of biological, technological, and analytical factors (e.g. life-history stage, duration of observation, and chosen statistical estimators; Fig. 2.2)

FIG. 2.2 Even with the same data, calculated 95% home range size for this individual snow leopard over 10 months in Sarychat was as high as 155 km2 and as low as 37 km2, depending on the statistical estimator used (left to right: Minimum Convex Polygon; adaptive Local Convex Hull; adaptive Kernel Density Estimator).

I. Defining the snow leopard

Behavior and life history

that must be considered when making comparisons between studies. A GPS telemetry-based study using the adaptive Local Convex Hull estimator and a 3-month minimum sampling duration estimated average home ranges for adult males of 207 km2  63 SD and for adult females 124 km2  41 SD in southern Mongolia with seemingly more variable subadult home ranges (176 km2  81 SD) ( Johansson et al., 2016). With comparable methods (but fewer individuals), adult snow leopard home ranges in the Kyrgyzstan—73 km2  29 SD for males and 38 km2  11 SD for females (Chapter 36)—showed similar relative differences between the sexes. It has proven challenging to find a home range estimator that accounts for snow leopard space use in a biologically meaningful way. While the Local Convex Hulls are better than other estimators used so far, scientists should strive to assess further methods.

Communication Snow leopards communicate information to conspecifics both directly and indirectly in multiple ways, including markings and scrapings, body language, and vocalizations. Likely the most common form of communication is via indirect marking behavior, which passes along information about an individual’s location in time and space, as well as other, more subtle, cues such as reproductive status, e.g., whether they are in estrous or not. Marking behavior includes scraping, claw raking, spraying (squirting urine and scent), and cheek/ head rubbing (Fig. 2.1; Ahlborn and Jackson, 1988; Chundawat, 1992; Mallon, 1984, 1991; Schaller, 1977). When “scraping,” snow leopards scrape their hind feet on flat surfaces, usually comprised of loose material such as gravel or sand, creating a small mound. Sometimes they also urinate on the mound, or pile of material formed behind the scrape (Rieger, 1978).

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Scrapes are commonly made on travel paths such as in mountain saddles along ridgelines, or near protruding landmarks, such as cliff walls or boulders. Where trees are present, they are similarly marked near travel routes, with the addition of the snow leopards “raking” their claws vertically along the trunks (Ahlborn and Jackson, 1988). Snow leopards “spray-mark” by elevating their tails vertically and squirting urine and scent backward and up against near-vertical or overhanging surfaces, or bushes, commonly near scrapes. While we know captive males spray-mark more than females and that both sexes scraped equally often (Rieger, 1978), it is unclear whether this pattern remains the same for snow leopards in the wild. Snow leopards also “rub their cheeks,” which contain scent glands typical to most felids, against spray-marked rocks and overhangs ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988). Most of our understanding of direct communication in snow leopards relies on captive animals. Defensive and attack postures are similar to that of other large Felidae (Leyhausen, 1979). While their relatively long tail is likely an adaptation for balance in rugged terrain, they also use it to indicate current mood to conspecifics (Rieger, 1984). The vocal repertoire of the snow leopard is similar to the other Felidae, with the exception that they cannot roar like some other Pantherinae, e.g., the African lion (Panthera leo), due to differences in their larynx morphology (Nowak, 1999). Common vocalizations include the nonaggressive prusten (a puffing sound emitted through the nostrils), mew calls, and yowling, and aggressive spitting, hissing, and growling (Hemmer, 1972; Peters, 1980). The mew call is associated primarily with the breeding period and is probably the most common vocalization heard in the wild. In western Nepal, for example, Jackson and Ahlborn (1988) reported having occasionally heard the characteristic mew call during the JanuaryMarch breeding season.

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Activity and movement patterns

Habitat use

Snow leopards are facultatively nocturnal with crepuscular activity peaks around dawn and dusk ( Johansson et al., 2022b; Kachel et al., 2022; McCarthy et al., 2005; Salvatori et al., 2021). For example, GPS and accelerometer data in southwestern Mongolia showed peaks in activity during dawn and dusk, with more activity at night (51%) than during the day (35%) (McCarthy et al., 2005). Interestingly, studies in southern Mongolia and Kyrgyzstan show seasonal variation in crepuscular activity, with apparent dawn maximums in summer and dusk maximums in winter (Fig. 2.3; Johansson et al., 2022b; S. Kachel, unpublished data). Daily movement rate likely varies with habitat, but snow leopards can move large distances. Average movements over 24 h calculated with a 5-h GPS interval was 7 km for adult males, 4 km for adult females, and 3.5 km for females with young cubs ( Johansson et al., 2022b). In Kyrgyzstan, adult males moved 8.5 km and females 5 km in 24 h on average when off clusters (S. Kachel, unpublished data).

Across their range, snow leopards are closely associated with rugged, mountainous terrain (Fox et al., 1988; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988; Koshkarev, 1984; Mallon, 1984, 1991; McCarthy et al., 2005; Schaller, 1977). So consistent is the association, that terrain ruggedness and close correlates like slope reliably predict everything from very large-scale patterns of distribution (e.g. Bayandonoi et al., 2021) to fine-scale patterns of hunting success (Kachel et al., 2023). Snow leopards characteristically move in steep mountains by using ridgelines, gullies, and other linear features. In southwestern Mongolia, snow leopards used >20° slopes and traveled closer to terrain edges more than the prevalence of such features on the landscape would predict (McCarthy et al., 2005). Snow leopards prefer to move, bed, and mark along linear topographic features such as major ridgelines, bluff edges, gullies, and the base or crest of broken cliffs ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988). Although snow leopards primarily occupy steep, rugged terrain, they also use less-rugged desert mountain

FIG. 2.3 Snow leopard crepuscular activity patterns are visible in the probability of detecting snow leopards at camera traps active June-September in the Pamir Mountains, Tajikistan (a), and in seasonal activity patterns (1.96SE) estimated from animal-borne accelerometer data in the Tien Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan and the Tost Mountains, Mongolia; blue ¼ December-February; red ¼ June-August (b). I. Defining the snow leopard

Behavior and life history

foothills to travel, and move over flat expanses to access isolated rugged mountain masses, likely when dispersing ( Johansson et al., 2015; McCarthy et al., 2005). Yet even in areas where movements are made over relatively flat terrain, overall habitat use is still overwhelmingly in rugged terrain ( Johansson et al., 2016).

Mating and reproduction Snow leopards have a restricted breeding season, occurring in late winter (January-March). In captivity the female’s estrous period lasts 2–8 days (Rieger, 1984). During a long-term study in South Gobi, Mongolia, the median date for mating of 7 GPS-collared snow leopards was February 25 ( Johansson et al., 2021). In captivity, cubs are usually born between April and July following a 90–105-day gestation period (Blomqvist, 2018); the median date for 7 litters born to GPS-collared females in Mongolia and 2 in Kyrgyzstan was 5 June ( Johansson et al., 2021; S. Kachel, unpublished data). Sexual maturity may be reached around 2 years of age in captivity (Blomqvist, 2018). Some GPS-collared females in Mongolia first mated at about 2 years 9 months or 3 years 9 months of age, giving birth to their first litters at about the time they turned 3 or 4 years old respectively (Snow Leopard Trust, unpublished data). Litters commonly consist of 1–3 (rarely 4 and possibly as many as 5) cubs, average size for 1446 litters in captivity was 2.1 cubs (Blomqvist, 2018). Females in captivity have successfully bred until the age of 15, and at least 1 GPS-collared snow leopard in Mongolia successfully bred at the age of 12 (Snow Leopard Trust, unpublished data). Captive-born snow leopard cubs weigh 0.3–0.6 kg at birth, 1–2 kg after 25 days, 3–5 kg after 50 days, and continue to gain about 1 kg every 2 weeks until they weigh 25–30 kg at 1 year old (Gaughan and Doherty, 1982; Juncys, 1964; Kitchener et al., 1975; Marma and Yunchis, 1968; O’Conner and Freeman, 1982). Young open their eyes after about 7–10 days, begin to crawl at 2.5 weeks, and begin to eat solid food and actively

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play at 8 weeks (Frueh, 1968; Juncys, 1964; O’Conner and Freeman, 1982). Young are weaned at about 5 months (Petzsch, 1968). In the wild, snow leopards appear to den in cracks or caves, often in areas that are difficult to access. Seven females in Mongolia used their dens until the cubs were 1.5  0.5 months old, during this time they restricted their movements to an area within 3 km of the den (Pa˚lsson, 2022).

Life expectancy and mortality Disease and mortality causes and rates are not well-documented from wild snow leopard populations (see Chapter 9) despite the potential value of such information for conservation. Reported mortality in the wild has been mostly attributed to human trapping and hunting, but deaths associated with injury incurred from falls—presumably while chasing prey—are known. Sharma et al. (2014) estimated annual adult survival rate in the Gobi at 0.82  0.08 SE. There are currently two 13-year-old females living in that same population who represent the oldest snow leopards recorded in the wild (Snow Leopard Trust, unpublished data). Snow leopards in captivity can live up to 22 years (Blomqvist, 2018).

Foraging behavior Snow leopards’ primary prey are the various species of wild sheep and goats found across high mountain Asia, although domestic livestock can comprise a significant component of snow leopard diet in some areas. A detailed discussion of snow leopard diet is found in Chapter 4. Here we describe snow leopard hunting behavior and behavior around kill sites. Hunting behavior Snow leopard hunting behavior has proven challenging to quantify, as hunts are difficult to observe in the wild. However, snow leopards likely stalk and kill their prey as in other large

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2. What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology

solitary felids, using terrain and other landscape features that provide cover to sneak closer to prey before attacking. Large prey, such as ungulates or domestic livestock, are commonly killed with either a nape bite, or suffocation associated with a throat bite (Fox and Chundawat, 1988; Schaller, 1977). Anecdotal observations together with physiological and anatomical traits (Smith et al., 2021) suggest that snow leopards hunt their prey from above, using gravity to their advantage once an attack is initiated. When alarmed, prey may go uphill to seek rugged escape terrain, but once they are actively pursued may typically flee downhill, perhaps also using gravity to aid escape. Wild ungulate kill sites are concentrated in gullies, depressions, couloirs, and in other terrain features that simultaneously funnel fleeing prey downhill but impede further downward escape (Kachel et al., 2023). By contrast, livestock (especially sheep and goats) may be vulnerable to predation wherever encounters occur. Kill-site behavior Snow leopards remain near large ungulate kill sites for up to 10 days and do not typically bury or cover their kills. Similar to other carnivores, several factors affect handling time, i.e., the amount of time snow leopards spend eating and digesting their kills. Solitary females appear to spend less time at kill sites than males or females with cubs (A. Tallian, unpublished data). Handling time increases with terrain ruggedness for larger prey such as adult argali and ibex males, but not for medium and smaller sized prey such as goats, ibex females, yearlings, and kids (A. Tallian, unpublished data). The extended period of feeding almost certainly contributes to the species’ vulnerability to retaliatory killing following livestock depredations. Tellingly, less time is spent handling domestic prey than comparably-sized wild prey (A. Tallian, unpublished data); together with a tendency to make more trips away from domestic kills, this likely reduces the risk of discovery and retaliation.

Ecological interactions and effects Despite the frequent, untested assertion that snow leopards are a “keystone species,” our understanding of the suite of direct and indirect ecological interactions and effects of snow leopards is largely surmised from better-studied carnivores, particularly the puma (Puma concolor), a solitary big cat and apex predator of the Americas, but one that is nonetheless subordinate to other large carnivores across much of its range (Elbroch and Kusler, 2018). Insofar as the analogy is appropriate, snow leopards likely engage in rich diversity of consequential interactions with species at a number of trophic levels (LaBarge et al., 2022), which we summarize below.

Predation Killing and consuming prey is of course the fundamental interaction by which predators influence their ecosystems. Although snow leopards may constrain prey populations in some circumstances, the importance of snow leopard predation to ungulate populations is probably limited compared to abiotic (White, 2008) and anthropogenic (Muhly et al., 2013) factors that affect primary productivity (LaBarge et al., 2022). By acting on prey abundance, predation can also influence plant communities (e.g., Hebblewhite et al., 2005), alter nutrient distribution and cycling (Bump et al., 2009), and potentially limit disease in prey populations (Packer et al., 2003). Contrary to the presumption that ambush hunters might not hunt prey based on condition or age, pumas in some cases do overselect for diseased individuals (Krumm et al., 2010), suggesting that snow leopards might also have some sanitizing effect on prey populations.

Carrion provisioning The importance of snow leopards to scavenger communities has yet to be well-described in the scientific literature. Nonetheless, it is

I. Defining the snow leopard

Ecological interactions and effects

evident that snow leopards across their range provide carrion for facultative and obligate scavengers, likely including—to varying degrees—canids, mustelids, Rodentia, vultures (Gypaetus, Neophron, Gyps spp.), eagles (Aquila spp.), songbirds, and invertebrates. Solitary big cats like snow leopards may provide substantially more carrion than group-hunting species like gray wolves (Canis lupus) and could thus be disproportionately important for scavenger abundance and diversity (Elbroch et al., 2017). Yet, although scavengers utilize snow leopard kills, for some scavengers—especially mesocarnivores like red fox (Vulpes vulpes)—the facilitating effect of carrion provisioning might be counteracted by the suppressing effect of intraguild killing (Prugh and Sivy, 2020).

Predation-risk effects Perceived predation risk can prompt changes in prey behavior and physiology (Lima and Dill, 1990). These responses (e.g., shifting habitats, changing group size, and increasing vigilance) can mitigate risk, but much like the consumptive effects of predation, they can also transmit the effects of predation to other trophic levels (Schmitz et al., 1997) while reflexively affecting prey themselves as well (Brown and Kotler, 2004). In snow leopards, little is known about even first order predation-risk effects, i.e., prey responses to perceived risk, let alone the potential higher order effects elsewhere in the ecosystem. Highlighting the potential complexity of forecasting predation-risk effects Kachel et al. (2023) found that the antipredator responses of ibex and argali navigating predation risk from wolves and snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan are contingent on not only landscape characteristics and predator and prey identities, but also on the interplay of long- and short-term risk from both predators, suggesting that the predation-risk effects of snow leopards change with the presence other predators (likely including humans).

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Whereas wolves and snow leopards neatly partition the landscape into discrete domains, neither ibex nor argali avoid predation risk outright. Instead, ibex typically select habitats where the probability of encountering snow leopards is high, and argali do the same vis-a`vis wolves, presumably because each ungulate is better able to manage and survive encounters with these respective predators (paradoxically, the predator responsible for the majority of their mortality to predation) compared to the alternative. However, both ungulates manage spikes of short-term risk (when predators are nearby) by shifting into the domain of the alternative predator, with whom they are presumably less equipped to survive encounters, setting up the possibility that the two predators indirectly facilitate one another by pushing prey back-andforth even as they compete numerically for those same prey. However, the dynamic and interactive nature of these predation-risk effects suggest that they may attenuate at low predator densities, implying that at least some of the potential ecological effects of snow leopards may go unrealized in landscapes where snow leopards persist at only low densities (Kachel, 2021).

Interactions with other large carnivores Across their range, snow leopards are sympatric with multiple large carnivore species— frequently wolves and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), but also common leopards (Panthera pardus), dholes (Cuon alpinus), and bears (Ursus spp.). Low prey diversity in most snow leopard habitats suggests that competition for prey is likely to occur when available prey limits snow leopards or their potential competitors. Wolves in particular show consistently high dietary overlap with snow leopards (Bocci et al., 2017; Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014; Kachel et al., 2022; Pal et al., 2022 and see Chapter 13). In light of this, indirect observations of wolves stealing kills (kleptoparasitism) and even anecdotal accounts of wolves killing snow leopards

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2. What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology

(interspecific killing), are hardly surprising; instead they are consistent with the betterdeveloped literature describing interactions between wolves and pumas (Elbroch and Kusler, 2018). Yet, neither Pal et al. (2022) nor Salvatori et al. (2022) found any evidence of negative spatial effects of wolves on snow leopards in India and Mongolia, respectively. Instead, despite high dietary overlap, the differences in habitat use between the two species appear to be due to their different hunting strategies (Kachel et al., 2022, 2023) rather than active avoidance. Negative cooccurrence coefficients estimated by Pal et al. (2022) hint that snow leopards seasonally avoid the more aggressive common leopard (Lovari et al., 2013); the analogous relationship between pumas and jaguars (Panthera onca; Elbroch and Kusler, 2018) suggests that snow leopards are subordinate to common leopards where their ranges overlap. Bears, though they do not specialize on ungulate prey, do kleptoparasitize and kill big cats (e.g. Elbroch and Kusler, 2018); they too could exert important competitive effects in some landscapes. On the other hand, snow leopards are likely dominant toward the smaller-bodied lynx—the difference in the size of their primary prey may reduce the potential for competition between the two. Documented intraguild predation and interspecific killing near kill sites indicate that snow leopards have the potential to suppress mesopredators populations even while subsidizing them with carrion (Samelius et al., 2022).

Snow leopard ecology in a human-dominated world Humans and livestock are ubiquitous across much of the snow leopard’s geographic range. The potential numerical impacts of humans on snow leopards and their prey—for example through direct persecution of snow leopards and overhunting of wild prey—are considered at length in Section II of this volume and are the

subject of the conservation actions detailed in Section III. Yet, the influence of humans on other aspects of snow leopard ecology and behavior has received only limited attention. Just as ungulates respond to perceived predation risk, experimental evidence from other carnivores suggests that snow leopards themselves likely perceive and respond to the risk posed by humans (Suraci et al., 2019). Simultaneously, livestock grazing and other activities may upend bottom-up ecosystem structures and in turn alter snow leopard habitat use, activity patterns, prey selection, and interactions with other species; cumulatively, humans can thus drown, dampen, and altogether disrupt the effects of apex predators like snow leopards (Kuijper et al., 2016; Muhly et al., 2013; Ordiz et al., 2013). That is not to say that all interactions with humans need be detrimental to snow leopards. As some community conservation projects demonstrate, human effects can be moderated or even be made positive for snow leopards (see Section III of this volume). Current examples of diminishing livestock herding in snow leopard habitat (e.g., the Rumbak Valley, Hemis National Park, India, and some parts of Nepal) present opportunities for investigating some of these interactions. Our knowledge of the snow leopard has substantially improved in recent decades. Yet, in the face of increasing, ever-changing, and diverse human pressures on Asian high mountain ecosystems, there has never been more urgency to expand that knowledge even further. Fortunately, the heightened attention and technological advances that have so empowered conservation and research efforts in recent decades, are poised to continue refining our understanding of snow leopard ecology for years to come.

References Ahlborn, G., Jackson, R.M., 1988. Marking in free-ranging snow leopards in West Nepal: a preliminary assessment. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium, International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India, pp. 24–49.

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Fox, J.L., Chundawat, R.S., 1988. Observations of snow leopard stalking, killing, and feeding behavior. Mammalia 52, 137–140. Fox, J.L., Chundawat, R.S., 2016. What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 13–21. Fox, J.L., Sinha, S.P., Chundawat, R.S., Das, P.K., 1988. A field survey of snow leopard in northwestern India. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium, International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India, pp. 99–111. Fox, J.L., Sinha, P., Chundawat, R.S., Das, P., 1991. Status of snow leopard Panthera uncia in Northwest India. Biol. Conserv. 55, 283–298. Frueh, R., 1968. A note on breeding snow leopards at St. Louis Zoo. In: International Zoo Yearbook. vol. 8, pp. 74–76. Gaughan, M.M., Doherty, J.G., 1982. Snow leopard rearing: infant development with particular emphasis on play behavior. International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards 3, 121–126. Hebblewhite, M., White, C.A., Nietvelt, C.G., McKenzie, J.A., Hurd, T.E., Fryxell, J.M., Bayley, S.E., Paquet, P.C., 2005. Human activity mediates a trophic cascade caused by wolves. Ecology 86, 2135–2144. Hemmer, H., 1972. Uncia uncia. Mammalian Species. vol. 20, pp. 1–5. Jackson, R.M., Ahlborn, G., 1988. Observations on the ecology of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in West Nepal. In: Proceedings of the International Snow Leopard Symposium. vol. 5. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, pp. 65–87. Jackson, R.M., Ahlborn, G., 1989. Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Nepal—home range and movements. Natl Geogr. Res. Explor. 5, 161–175. Jackson, R., Hunter, D.O., 1996. Snow Leopard Survey and Conservation Handbook. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA. 154 pp. Jackson, R.M., Roe, J.O., Wangchuk, R., Hunter, D.O., 2006. Estimating snow leopard population abundance using photography and capture-recapture techniques. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 34, 772–781. Johansson, O., McCarthy, T., Samelius, G., Andren, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2015. Snow leopard predation in a livestock dominated landscape in Mongolia. Biol. Conserv. 184, 251–258. Johansson, O., McCarthy, T., Samelius, G., Andren, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2016. Land sharing is essential for snow leopard conservation. Biol. Conserv. 184, 251–258. Johansson, O., Koehler, G., Rauset, G.R., Samelius, G., Andren, H., Mishra, C., Lhagvasuren, P., McCarthy, T., Low, M., 2018. Sex-specific seasonal variation in puma and snow leopard home range utilization. Ecosphere 9 (8), e02371.

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C H A P T E R

3 What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview Tom McCarthya, David Mallonb, and Peter Zahlerc a

Snow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States bDepartment of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom cZoo New England, Boston, MA, United States

Snow leopard biogeography

Northern Africa to Southern Asia (see Chapter 1). It was not until the latter half of the 20th century that the first range map was published (Fig. 3.1) that reflected a somewhat accurate estimate of the species’ distribution (Hemmer, 1972), although that map still included several “uncertain records” that we now know to be erroneous. It is the lack of accurate historic range maps that makes it impossible for us to estimate the extent of range loss for the species with any accuracy. Today, we know that the range of the snow leopard extends from southern Siberia in the north across a broad arc including the mountains of Central Asia, the Tibetan Plateau, and ending in the Himalayas in the south and east. They occur in the Sayan, Altai, Tien Shan, Kunlun, Pamir, Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalayan ranges. They are known from 12 countries including Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Northern Myanmar may potentially have resident snow leopards, although current presence has yet to be confirmed.

There is a surprising dearth of paleontological records regarding the evolution of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) or its historic range. There is a single fossil specimen from the Zanda Basin in Tibet that may be from an ancestral snow leopard living there some 4.–5.9 Mya (Tseng et al., 2014; see Chapter 1). Beyond a few Late Pleistocene remains found in the caves in the Altai (Brandt, 1871; Tscherski, 1892), and samples from upper Siwalik deposits in Northern Pakistan dated to 1.2–1.4 Mya (Dennell et al., 2005), no other confirmed snow leopard fossils have been recorded. Several remains of Panthera pardus have been misidentified as snow leopard from sites as divergent as China to Austria (Hemmer, 1972; Thenius, 1969). This leaves us with no clear picture of snow leopard distribution prior to modern records. The snow leopard was described to science by Schreber (1775) on the basis of a single drawing by Buffon (1761). Again, misidentification of common leopards and even lynx as snow leopards put the species’ range as extending from Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00056-X

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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FIG. 3.1

3. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview

Map of snow leopard distribution where “?” indicates uncertain records, from Hemmer (1972).

A 3-month camera trapping study in northern Myanmar’s Hkakabo Razi National Park in 2017 yielded no evidence of snow leopards during 5872 trap days of effort (B. Weckworth, Panthera, New York, unpublished report). However, local people contend that snow leopards are present and even have a name for them. Citing the need for better maps to guide both research and conservation, Hunter and Jackson (1997) (see Chapter 29) used geographic information system (GIS) tools to model potential snow leopard habitat from map-based suitability criteria. Using 1:1,000,000 paper maps, hand-drawn polygons around the major mountain ranges of Asia were digitized. Unsuitable habitat was excluded using elevational upper and lower bounds. The lower elevation limit followed a north-south gradient (e.g., 1220 m in Mongolia and 3350 m in parts of Nepal), with the upper limit set at 5180 m except on the Tibetan Plateau where it was extended to 5485 m to include known snow leopard habitat.

Permanent ice and water bodies were also excluded. Slope was used as an indicator of ruggedness to delineate “fair” (slope 0–30°) and “good” (slope > 30°) habitat. The resultant map indicated potential range of about 3,025,000 km2, much greater than previous estimates (Fox, 1989, 1994) and identified two areas that had not previously been identified as potential snow leopard habitat—northern Myanmar and parts of Yunnan province in China. The overall importance of China was made clear, with more than 60% of potential range determined to be within that country. The map provided a vital resource for snow leopard conservation for more than a decade. The first attempt to collect snow leopard observational data and compare it to existing maps (Williams, 2006) generally corroborated the Hunter-Jackson model. Of 1496 expertvalidated snow leopard observations (sightings or sign), 88% fell within the Hunter-Jackson modeled Potential Range. With the exception of five

I. Defining the snow leopard

Snow leopard biogeography

likely erroneous observations well outside known range to the east of Lake Baikal in Russia, most observations were close enough to “Potential Range” polygons to be the result of slight errors by experts placing observational marks on 1:100,000,000 maps. The next update to snow leopard range maps came in 2008, in Beijing, China, when several non-governmental conservation organizations, including Panthera, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), the Snow Leopard Trust (SLT), and the Snow Leopard Network (SLN) initiated a geographically based, range-wide assessment, and conservation planning exercise for snow leopards. The effort employed a similar methodology to the one used to assess range-wide priorities for jaguars (Sanderson et al., 2002; Zeller, 2007), tigers (Dinerstein et al., 2007; Sanderson et al., 2006), lions (IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group, 2006), cheetahs (IUCN/SSC, 2007), and other species (Altrichter et al., 2012; Sanderson et al., 2008; Thorbjarnarson et al., 2006). Species conservation planning guidelines from the IUCN suggest an analogous procedure (IUCN/SSC, 2008). Through the range-wide assessment process, 22 experts on snow leopard distribution and status, including representatives from 11 of the 12 snow leopard range states (excluding Kazakhstan), worked together to delineate the biogeography of the species and areas of importance to its long-term conservation (“snow leopard conservation units [SLCUs]”). A detailed description of the process is provided by McCarthy et al. (2016). Outputs included maps of the “Potential Range” and “Current Range” of the species. Potential Range was defined by known habitat features important to snow leopards, particularly rugged, mountainous terrain, and contemporary or historical snow leopard observations. Current Range was defined as areas thought to have been occupied by snow leopards within the previous 5 years. Experts identified a total of 3,256,841 km2 of Potential snow leopard range (Fig. 3.2A), which was

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about 7.6% larger than the 3,025,000 km2 estimate of Hunter and Jackson (1997). Most of Potential Range (2,778,309 km2 or 85.3%) met the definition of Current Range (Fig. 3.2B). Within Current Range, the presence of snow leopards was considered Definitive in only 32% of the area, Probable in 8%, and Possible in 60% (Fig. 3.2C), meaning that the expert group could only say that snow leopard occurrence was certain in 27% of the vast 3.26 million km2 of Potential Range. A total of 69 SLCUs were delineated with a combined area of about 1.2 million km2 or about 38% of Potential Range (Fig. 3.2D). At least one SLCU was identified in each range country. Thirty were identified in China, which is consistent with the fact that 68% of Current Range is found in that country. Most SLCUs were areas considered to contain populations that are potentially self-sustaining over the next 100 years (McCarthy et al., 2016). The maps produced during the 2008 assessment process have been broadly accepted and have constituted the consensus range maps for the species by the scientific community through this writing (2022). In particular, the Current Range map is used by numerous international conservation organizations to depict extant snow leopard range, including the Snow Leopard Trust (SLT), Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC), Panthera, WWF, IUCN, the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) as well as many national snow leopard conservation NGOs. The maps feature in publications on snow leopards by such entities as GEF, UNDP, UNEP, and TRAFFIC and have been used to depict potential impacts of climate change on snow leopard habitat, range-wide genetic connectivity, and as base maps to illustrate the extent of both the threats to the species and the conservation programs aimed at ameliorating those threats. Gaining a better understanding of snow leopard distribution and hot spots has long been considered a research priority (McCarthy and

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34

3. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview

(A)

(B)

FIG. 3.2

Spatial distribution of snow leopard data: (A) extent of Potential Range, (B) extent of Current Range, (Continued)

I. Defining the snow leopard

35

Snow leopard biogeography

(C)

Snow leopard probability of presence Possible Probable Definitive

N 500

250

0

500 Kilometers

(D)

FIG. 3.2, CONT’D (C) probability of snow leopard occurrence in Current Range, (D) distribution of Snow Leopard Conservation Units (SLCUs).

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3. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview

Chapron, 2003). Clearly, the 2008 snow leopard assessment and mapping process contributed to filling that knowledge gap. In their review of more than 100 years of snow leopard research and the current state of knowledge, Sharma and Singh (2021) concluded that further delineating snow leopard distribution could now be removed from the current list of research needs. Still, there is much room to refine these maps as intensive occupancy surveys (see Chapter 34) are undertaken in areas where our knowledge is weakest. An example of this comes from Mongolia, where a country-wide occupancybased survey was undertaken in 2018–2019 (Bayandonoi et al., 2021). In that study the occupancy-based probability of snow leopard use maps showed broad agreement with the maps developed using expert opinion in 2008, yet identified important differences. We can expect such refinement of known snow leopard distribution to be an ongoing process for many years.

Snow leopard population status Population size—Historic estimates In 1972, the snow leopard was placed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) using very conservative estimates of population numbers (2000), based on contentions such as that by Dang (1967) that less than 600 snow leopards occupied the entire Himalayan region. Fox (1989) placed the total snow leopard population at 3350–4050, while acknowledging there were several areas within known range where estimates were lacking including parts of China and India and all of Afghanistan and Bhutan. Fox (1994) updated that estimate to 4510 and 7350 snow leopards, referencing new data from China (Schaller, 1990) and using conservative estimates from countries where estimates of population size had still not been published (Afghanistan and Bhutan). In the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy,

McCarthy and Chapron (2003) pointed to the expanse of potentially occupied habitat determined by Hunter and Jackson (1997) and concluded that “there could easily be as many as 6000 to 8000 snow leopards, especially given densities in known ‘hotspots’ on the order of 5–10 individuals per 100 km2.” However, they went on to report the most current estimates of available habitat and snow leopard numbers by country, which totaled 4080–6590 cats across 1,860,000 km2; or a modest 0.22–0.36 snow leopards per 100 km2. Jackson et al. (2010) stated that the wild population was then “roughly estimated” at 4500–7500 across 1.2–1.6 million km2 of occupied range (which is a little more than half of identified potential range), while the Snow Leopard Working Secretariat (2013) placed the global population at 3920–6390 individuals. A compilation of individual population estimates for the SLCUs identified during the 2008 Beijing expert knowledge workshop suggested a population of 4678–8745 snow leopards in an area equaling about 1/3 of total occupied range (McCarthy et al., 2016). In the first edition of this book (McCarthy and Mallon, 2016), country-specific updates on snow leopard status were provided by experts from each range country, and only Bhutan opted to not provide a population estimate. The summed estimates from the other 11 countries ranged from 7367 to 7884. Bhutan later completed a rigorous camera-based nationwide survey and reported a population of 79–112 snow leopards (Thinley et al., 2016; see Chapter 40). Summing the two 2016 estimates would yield a range-wide population of 7446–7996.

Population size—Recent estimates The 2016 IUCN Red List Assessment for snow leopards resulted in a downlisting from Endangered to Vulnerable (see below). Although the assessment used the lowest end of the various population estimates (i.e., 4000), this in turn led to a heightened interest in obtaining a more accurate estimate of snow leopard numbers

I. Defining the snow leopard

Snow leopard population status

across their range. The following year, the Population Assessment of the World’s Snow leopards (PAWS) initiative was launched by the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) with the goal of providing a scientifically robust estimate of global snow leopard population size (see Chapter 34). Updates on the PAWS program presented at the GSLEP Steering Committee meeting in October 2022 indicated that 169 PAWS surveys had been completed across 205,400 km2 of potential snow leopard range since the program’s inception. Despite these advances, there have been few reports made public on the findings of PAWScompliant surveys. A notable exception is the 2018–19 nation-wide snow leopard population assessment in Mongolia (WWF-Mongolia, 2021; see Chapter 44), which estimated there were 953 adult snow leopards (95% confidence interval: 806–1127) across their range in the country. These findings are not appreciably different, and even somewhat higher, than previously published estimates for the country in the range of 500–1000 (Fox, 1994; Schaller et al., 1994; McCarthy and Chapron, 2003; GSLEP, 2013). In 2021–2022, a survey employing PAWS methodologies was completed in the Western Tien Shan of Uzbekistan (Gritsina et al., 2022) that estimated a population just in that part of the country of 46–47 individuals. Previously, the area had been assessed to contain only 10–20 snow leopards. If added to the estimated 50–60 snow leopards thought to be present in the Western Pamir-Alay portion of Uzbekistan, a country-wide population of 96–107 individuals is indicated. This would be far higher than previously published estimates in the range of 10–50 snow leopards (Fox, 1994; KreuzbergMukhina et al., 2002; McCarthy and Chapron, 2003; GSLEP, 2013). It should be noted that the Western Pamir-Alay area has not been surveyed using scientifically rigorous methods and estimates there are based on “expert opinion” for the most part.

37

In section VI of this volume (Chapters 35–46), authors of the country updates were invited to provide current snow leopard population estimates. Ten country updates included at least rudimentary population estimates (Table 3.1), although the sources of those estimates are often publications dating back more than 20 years, well before scientifically robust methods were being used to count snow leopards. Pakistan and India opted to not provide national estimates, citing ongoing but incomplete PAWScompliant population assessments, both of which should be finalized and published in late 2022 (see Chapters 41 and 43). In the case of India, authors reported results only from Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, where the process has been completed across 27,846 km2 and 12,000 km2 of snow leopard habitat, respectively. An estimate of 51–73 individuals was obtained for Himachal Pradesh and 104–144 individuals for Uttarakhand. The surveyed area represents about 33% of estimated occupied snow leopard habitat in the country. The authors gave no indication that densities similar to those found in Himachal Pradesh (0.08–0.37 individuals/100 km2) or Uttarakhand (0.87–1.2 individuals/100 km2) could be expected in other parts of India’s snow leopard range where the assessment process is ongoing. If it turns out that even relatively low densities, such as those determined for Himachal Pradesh, are found in the remaining parts of snow leopard range, an India-wide population of 302–427 could be possible. Whereas, if densities elsewhere are more similar to those of Uttarakhand, then India may hold between 850 and 1180 snow leopards. The final estimate, when all surveyed areas have reported, will likely be somewhere in between, but it is interesting to contrast these figures with previous estimates of 200–600 (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003). Summing the estimates provided in the country update chapters, even without an estimate from Pakistan and only a partial estimate from India, yields a global population figure of 4731–7465 (Table 3.1). That population size

I. Defining the snow leopard

38

3. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview

TABLE 3.1 Snow leopard population estimates and trends as derived from country updates (Chapters 35–46). Estimate range Country

Estimate provided

Low

High

Population trend

Afghanistan

Yes

189

224

May be declining in some areas

Bhutan

Yes

79

112

Stable in Jigme Dorji NP, elsewhere unknown

China

Yes

2500

4500

Not stated

India

Partial

(155)

(217)

Not stated

Kazakhstan

Yes

141

183

Recovering, but not uniformly across country

Kyrgyzstan

Yes

150

250

Not stated

Mongolia

Yes

806

1127

Not stated

Nepal

Yes

300

400

Increase in Kanchenjunga 2009–2013, overall unknown

Pakistan

No

–

–

Not stated

Russia

Yes

65

65

Two subpopulations stable, others declining

Tajikistan

Yes

250

280

Not stated

Uzbekistan

Yes

96

107

Not stated

4731

7465

Total

remains quite similar to the 4510–7350 Fox (1994) estimated nearly 30 years ago, and somewhat higher than most currently published estimates, such as GSLEP’s 4000–6500. Clearly, snow leopard population estimation is an evolving process, and we have yet to gain clarity on the question of “How many snow leopards are there?” in most of the cat’s vast range. But through wide-spread application of scientifically rigorous methodologies, such as those prescribed by the PAWS program, we will continue to see this knowledge gap shrink with time. Still, a static estimate, or snap-shot in time, only goes so far in elucidating the snow leopard’s true conservation status. As expensive and time-consuming as population estimation surveys are, they will need to be repeated with some regularity to gain insight into population trends and to examine what impacts there may

be from threats, such as climate change, and also from conservation initiatives whose efficacy is often uncertain. To date, our knowledge on population trends lags well behind our limited knowledge on population size, as witnessed by the lack of any trend data being provided by most authors of country updates in this book (Table 3.1 and Chapters 35–46).

The snow leopard’s legal status Legal protections for the species have a long history, including via national laws banning their hunting or trade in all 12 countries in which it occurs. Internationally, the snow leopard has been listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since its inception

I. Defining the snow leopard

39

Conclusions

in 1975, effectively prohibiting all international commercial trade except for exchange of captive bred animals between breeding institutions. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) listed the snow leopard on Appendix I in 1986, requiring signatory range states, of which there are six (India, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan), to impose strict protection of the species. Snow leopards are also included in the 2008 CMS Recommendation 9.3 on Tigers and Other Asian Big Cats, which requires range states to enhance transboundary cooperation for the conservation and management of all Asian big cat species throughout their range. The 2014 CMS Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI) covers 15 species including the snow leopard and one of its prey species, the argali. CAMI program activities for snow leopards were specifically designed to align with conservation efforts of the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP).

Snow leopards and the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species had previously listed the snow leopard as Endangered (EN) in seven consecutive assessments beginning in 1986 and continuing through 2008. In 2016, the snow leopard was assessed as Vulnerable (VU), which is one category lower in terms of perceived extinction risk (McCarthy et al., 2016). The previous assessment of EN in 2008 ( Jackson et al., 2008) was based on an estimate of less than 2500 mature individuals with a decline of 20% over two generations, thus meeting the IUCN criteria C1 for Endangered (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee, 2016). However, in the 2008 assessment, effective population size (Ne) was used as a substitute for “mature individuals,” which yielded a lower figure of 2040 (50% of the estimated adult population of 4080), which met the criteria for EN of

less than 2500 mature individuals. Based on that error, the assessors in 2016 determined that the species should have been listed as Vulnerable in 2008. Generally, felid population estimates do not include dependent cubs, and in the previous assessment of Endangered, Jackson et al. (2008) specifically stated that the population estimate they used (4080) was for adults only. However, to address uncertainty and to take a highly precautionary approach, the 2016 assessment employed the lowest published population estimate of 4000 and then modeled the potential percent of Mature Individuals. At each stage of the modeling process, the most conservative approach was taken (McCarthy et al., 2016 Supplemental Material). The most precautionary scenario yielded 2710 mature individuals, well above the 2500 threshold required by the IUCN for an assessment of Endangered. The assessors determined that snow leopards did meet the IUCN criteria for Vulnerable; a population size estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and an estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within three generations. Given the sensitive nature of “downlisting” a species such as the snow leopard, the IUCN subjected the assessment to extensive internal and external review. Without exception, all reviewers concurred with the assessment, and the snow leopard’s status was changed to Vulnerable.

Conclusions Conservation decision-making is inherently sensitive to the accuracy of the underlying data. Over the past 30-plus years, the accuracy, and indeed the quantity, of data on snow leopard biogeography and status has ever so slowly improved. Yet in 2022, we could argue that, at least in the case of snow leopard numbers, we have barely moved beyond the “guestimate” stage we were at in the early 1990s. With PAWS and other scientifically robust survey efforts

I. Defining the snow leopard

40

3. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview

underway across the species range, we can expect that to change in the near future. Despite rapidly improving methodologies and new data coming in, it is remarkable that the estimates we have now are comparable to the estimates from the early 1990s—which suggests the possibility that there may well be as many snow leopards in the wild now as there were at any time in the past 30 years.

References Altrichter, M., Taber, A., Beck, H., Reyna-Hurtado, R., Lizarraga, L., Keuroghlian, A., Sanderson, E.W., 2012. Range-wide declines of a key neotropical ecosystem architect, the near threatened white-lipped peccary, Tayassu pecari. Oryx 46, 87–98. Bayandonoi, G., Sharma, K., Alexander, J.S., Lkhagvajav, P., Durbach, I., Buyanaa, C., Munkhtsog, B., Ochirjav, M., Erdenebaatar, S., Batkhuyag, B., Battulga, N., Byambasuren, C., Uudus, B., Setev, S., Davaa, L., Agchbayar, K.E., Galsandorj, N., MacKenzie, D., 2021. Mapping the ghost: estimating probabilistic snow leopard distribution across Mongolia. Divers. Distrib. 27, 2441–2453. € ber die in den Brandt, F., 1871. Neue Untersuchungen u altaischen H€ ohlen aufgefundenen S€augethierreste, ein Betrag zue quatern€aren Fauna des Russischen Reiches. Bulletin de l’Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg 15, 147–205. Buffon, G.-L.L.C.d.C., 1761. La panthere, l’once et le leopard. In: Buffon, G.-L.L.C.d.C., Daubenton, L.J.M. (Eds.), Histoire Naturelle, generale et particulie`re avec la description du Cabinet du Roi. Vol. 9. De l’Imprimie`re royale, Paris, pp. 151–172. pl. 13. Dang, H., 1967. The snow leopard and its prey. Cheetal 10, 72–84. Dennell, R.W., Turner, A., Coard, R., Beech, M., Anwar, M., 2005. Two upper Siwalik (Pinjor stage) fossil accumulations from localities 73 and 362 in the Pabbi Hills, Pakistan. J. Palaeontol. Soc. India 50, 101–111. Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C., Wikramanayake, E., Ginsberg, J., Sanderson, E., Seidensticker, J., Forrest, J., Bryja, G., Heydlauff, A., Klenzendorf, S., Leimgruber, P., Mills, J., O’Brien, T.G., Shrestha, M., Simons, R., Songer, M., 2007. The fate of wild tigers. Bioscience 57, 508–514. Fox, J.L., 1989. A Review of the Status and Ecology of the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia). International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, Washington, USA. Fox, J.L., 1994. Snow leopard conservation in the wild – A comprehensive perspective on a low density and highly fragmented population. In: Fox, J.L., Jizeng, D.

(Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium (Xining, Qinghai, China, July 25–30, 1992). International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, pp. 3–15. Gritsina, M.A., Bykova, E.A., Paltsyn, M.Y., Ten, A.G., Aromov, B., Abduraupov, T.V., Soldatov, V.A., Esipov, A.V., Golovtsov, D.E., Aromov, T., Kuzmina, L.A., 2022. Status of Snow Leopard Populations in the Republic of Uzbekistan, Existing and Necessary Measures for its Conservation. UNDP and Institute of Zoology, Uzbek Academy of Sciences, Tashkent. 140 p. GSLEP, 2013. Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program: A New International Effort to Save the Snow Leopard and Conserve High-Mountain Ecosystems. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Dyrgyz Republic. Available from http://akilbirs.com/files/ final_gslep_web_11_%2014_%2013.pdf. (Accessed 27 January 2015). Hemmer, H., 1972. Uncia uncia. Mammalian Species 20, 1–5. Hunter, D.O., Jackson, R., 1997. A range-wide model of potential snow leopard habitat. In: Jackson, R., Ahmad, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Snow Leopard Symposium. Islamabad, Pakistan. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, USA and World Wildlife FundPakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan, pp. 51–56. IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee, 2016. Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 12. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Subcommittee. IUCN/SSC, 2007. Regional Conservation Strategy for Cheetah and Wild Dog in Eastern Africa. IUCN/SSC, Gland, Switzerland. Available from http://www. cheetahandwilddog.org/documents/. (Accessed 27 January 2015). IUCN/SSC, 2008. Strategic Planning for Species Conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Available from https://www.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2008-048.pdf. (Accessed 27 January 2015). IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group, 2006. Conservation Strategy for the Lion in Eastern and Southern Africa. IUCN/SSC, Gland, Switzerland. Available from http:// rocal-lion.org/documents/english/LionESweb.pdf. (Accessed 27 January 2015). Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundawat, R.A., Habib, B., 2008. Panthera uncia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008. Jackson, R.M., Mishra, C., McCarthy, T., Ale, S.B., 2010. Snow leopards, conservation and conflict. In: MacDonald, D., Loveridge, A. (Eds.), The Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids. Oxford University Press, UK, pp. 417–430. Kreuzberg-Mukhina, E., Esipov, A., Aromov, B., Bykova, E., Vashetko, E., 2002. Snow leopard and its protection in Uzbekistan. In: Contributed Papers to the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy Summit. International Snow Leopard Trust, pp. 136–137.

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McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. International Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, USA. McCarthy, T., Mallon, D., Sanderson, E., Zahler, P., Fisher, K., 2016. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 23–41. McCarthy, T., Mallon, D., 2016. Snow Leopards: Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes, 1st ed. Elsevier, New York. Sanderson, E.W., Redford, K.H., Chetkiewicz, C.L.B., Medellin, R.A., Rabinowitz, A.R., Robinson, J.G., Taber, A.B., 2002. Planning to save a species: the jaguar as a model. Conserv. Biol. 16, 58–72. Sanderson, E., Forrest, J., Loucks, C., Ginsberg, J., Dinerstein, E., Seidensticker, J., Leimgruber, P., Songer, M., Heydlauff, A., O’Brien, T., Bryja, G., Klenzendorf, S., Wikramanayake, E., 2006. Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: 2005-2015. The Technical Assessment. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian and NFWF-STF, New York, Washington, D.C. Sanderson, E.W., Redford, K.H., Weber, B., Aune, K., Baldes, D., Berger, J., Carter, D., Curtin, C., Derr, J.N., Dobrott, S., Fearn, E., Fleener, C., Forrest, S., Gerlach, C., Gates, C.C., Gross, J.E., Gogan, P., Grassel, S., Hilty, J.A., Jensen, M., Kunkel, K., Lammers, D., List, R., Minkowski, K., Olson, T., Pague, C., Robertson, P.B., Stephenson, B., 2008. The ecological future of the north American Bison: conceiving long-term, large-scale conservation of wildlife. Conserv. Biol. 22, 252–266. Schaller, G., 1990. Saving China’s wildlife. Int. Wildl. 1 (2), 30–41. Schaller, G.B., Tserendeleg, J., Amarsana, G., 1994. Observations on snow leopards in Mongolia. In: Fox, J., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Xining, China. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, Washington, pp. 33–42. Schreber, J.C.D., 1775. Die S€augethiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur mit Beschreibungen. Vol. 2(14) Wolfgang Walther, Erlangen.

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Sharma, R.K., Singh, R., 2021. Over 100 Years of Snow Leopard Research: A Spatially Explicit Review of the State of Knowledge in the Snow Leopard Range. WWF, Gland, Switzerland, https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.25514. 54721. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. € Thenius, E., 1969. Uber das Vorkommen fossiler Schneeleoparden (Subgenus Uncia, Carnivora, Mammalia). Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 17, 234–242. Thinley, P., Lham, D., Wangchuk, S., Wangchuk, N., 2016. National Snow Leopard Survey of Bhutan – Phase I: Sign and Prey Base Survey. Department of Forests and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan. Thorbjarnarson, J., Mazzotti, F., Sanderson, E., Buitrago, F., Lazcano, M., Muniz, M., Ponce, P., Sigler, L., Soberon, R., Trelancia, A.M., Velasko, A., 2006. Regional habitat conservation priorities for the American crocodile. Biol. Conserv. 128, 25–36. Tscherski, J.D., 1892. Beschreibung der Sammlung posttertiairer Saugethiere. Memoires de l’Academie Imperiale de Sciences de St. Petersbourg 40 (1), 1–511. pls. 1-6. Tseng, Z.J., Wang, X., Slater, G.J., Takeuchi, G.T., Li, Q., Liu, J., Xie, G., 2014. Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 281 (1774), 20132686. Williams, P.A., 2006. A GIS Assessment of Snow Leopard Potential Range and Protected Areas throughout Inner Asia; and the Development of an Internet Mapping Service for Snow Leopard Protection. Masters Thesis, University of Montana. 101 pp. WWF-Mongolia, 2021. Nationwide Snow Leopard Population Assessment of Mongolia. Ulaanbattar, Mongolia. 22 pp. Zeller, K.A., 2007. Jaguars in the New Millennium Data Set Update: The State of the Jaguar in 2006. Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY.

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C H A P T E R

4 Snow leopard diet and prey David Mallona, Richard B. Harrisb, and Per Weggec a

Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom b54502 Kerns Road, Charlo, MT, United States cDepartment of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, As, Norway

Introduction

Manang, Nepal (Wegge et al., 2012); 34% in Sarychat-Ertash reserve, Kyrgyzstan ( JumabayUulu et al., 2014); 35% in Ladakh and 51% in Mongolia ( Janecka et al., 2008); 41% in China and Kyrgyzstan (McCarthy et al., 2008); 49.4% in Baltistan (Anwar et al., 2011); 59% in south Gobi, Mongolia ( Janecka et al., 2011); 56.7% in Tost Uul, Mongolia (Shehzad et al., 2012); 53% in Nepal (Shrestha et al., 2018); and 59.8% in China (Lu et al., 2021). Visual misidentification of carnivore scats is not limited to snow leopards: similar results have been reported for Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) in Israel (Perez et al., 2006), gray wolf in Kyrgyzstan ( Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014), carnivores in Venezuela (Farrell et al., 2000), and medium-sized carnivores in the United Kingdom (Davison et al., 2002). The high levels of error recorded at different sites across snow leopard range indicate clearly that DNA testing is necessary to confirm the identity of scats before their contents are analyzed. These results also cast some doubt on earlier dietary studies, which may have inadvertently included scats of other carnivore

Studies of snow leopard diet and prey have traditionally relied on direct observation and analysis of stomach contents, but mostly on the identification of prey remains in scats. The method of identifying prey through microscopic examination of hairs and comparing them to reference collections has been very widely used in studies of carnivore diet, including snow leopards (e.g., Oli, 1993), but it is increasingly being replaced by DNA metabarcoding (Hacker et al., 2021; Lu et al., 2021). As with all indirect methods, accurate results depend on scats being assigned correctly to the target species. Studies using fecal DNA analysis have now shown that many scats identified visually as snow leopard were in fact those of other carnivores, mainly gray wolf (Canis lupus) or red fox (Vulpes vulpes), but also common leopard (Panthera pardus), golden jackal Canis aureus, and stone marten (M. foina) ( Janecka et al., 2011; McCarthy et al., 2008; Shehzad et al., 2012; Shrestha et al., 2018). Reported error rates for misidentified snow leopard scats are 30.5% in

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00010-8

43

Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

44

4. Snow leopard diet and prey

species. An analysis by Weiskopf et al. (2016) revealed that relying on field identification of scats led to overestimation of percent occurrence, biomass, and the number of small mammals consumed, but underestimated the values of the same measures for large ungulates in snow leopard diet. This review is based on studies using genotyped scats, supplemented by information from telemetry projects, camera trap evidence, and direct observations.

Dietary composition Recent studies The results of nine studies that analyzed snow leopard diet using genotyped scats, and one study that followed satellite-tracked kills, are summarized below and in Table 4.1.

In the Phu Valley, Nepal, wild prey occurred in 71.1% of scats and made up an estimated 58% of the biomass consumed and livestock 26.9% and 42%, respectively. Wild prey consisted of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) (50% frequency of occurrence, 53.4% of the biomass), small mammals (13.5% and 1.4%), birds (5.8% and 0.6%), and the rest unidentified; plant material occurred in 62% of scats, often dominating the content (Wegge et al., 2012). In Tost Uul of southern Mongolia (Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) occurred in 70.4% of scats and argali (Ovis ammon) in 8.6% (wild ungulates 79%); livestock (sheep and goats) in 19.7%; small mammals in less than 2% and birds (chukar Alectoris chukar) 1.2% (Shehzad et al., 2012). At the same site, Johansson et al. (2015) used cluster analysis to track kills made by 19 satellitecollared snow leopards. Out of 249 kills located, 65% consisted of Siberian ibex, 8% argali (73%

TABLE 4.1 Relative occurrence of items in snow leopard diet. Percentage scat content (frequency of occurrence) Locality

n

Wild ungulates

Live stock

Small mammals

Birds

Study

Other/ Un-ID

Wegge et al. (2012)

Manang, Nepal

41

50.0

26.9

13.5

5.8

3.8

Shehzad et al. (2012)

Tost Uul, Mongolia

81

79.0

19.7

0.1

1.2

–

Jumabay-Uulu et al. (2014)

Sarychat-Eertash, Kyrgyzstan

39

88.0

–

12.0

–

–

Aryal et al. (2014)

Mustang, Nepal

34

69.4

17.4

13.2

–

–

Chetri et al. (2017)

Annapurna-Manaslu, Nepal

182

58.18

27.44

12.6

1.09

0.89

Bocci et al. (2017)

Karakoram, Pakistan

74

18.2

66.6

1.4

3.1

10.7

Suryawanshi et al. (2017)

N India (6 sites)

156

34.6–95.0

0–59.9

0–3.5

–

1.0–4.3

Thapa et al. (2021)

Kangchenjunga, Nepal

73

39.7

45.0

9.3

–

6.0

Lu et al. (2021)

Sanjiangyuan, China (7 sites)

351

81.5

7.6

10.7

–

–

–

–

–

Satellite-tracked kills Johansson et al. (2015)

Tost Uul, Mongolia

249

73.0

27.0

I. Defining the snow leopard

Dietary composition

wild ungulates), 20% sheep and goats, 4% horse, and 2% camels (26% livestock). No small prey items were recorded, but this method rarely detects kills of small prey. In Sarychat-Ertash State Reserve in Kyrgyzstan, wild ungulates made up 90% of the diet (argali about. 60%, ibex about. 30%), marmots (Marmota spp.) 8%, and hares (Lepus spp.) 2% ( Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014). There is no livestock in the reserve. In Mustang, Nepal, blue sheep occurred in 69.4% of scats, livestock in 17.4%, Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) in 10%, and woolly hare (Lepus oiostolus) 3.2% (Aryal et al., 2014). In the Annapurna-Manaslu region of the Central Himalayas, Nepal, Chetri et al. (2017) reported that 182 scats consisted of 56.8% blue sheep; 0.5% Himalayan tahr; 0.8% Tibetan argali O. ammon hodgsoni; (58.2% wild ungulates), 27.4% livestock, 13.3% small mammals (6.5% Himalayan marmot; 3.5% woolly hare, 2.5% Royle’s pika Ochotona roylei), 0.9% unidentified mammals, and 1.1% birds. Five scats contained twigs of Myricaria. In Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, east Nepal, wild ungulates comprised 39.8% (blue sheep 34.3%, black musk deer Moschus fuscus 5.4%), livestock 45%, pika Ochotona spp. 9.3%, and unidentified items the remaining 6% (Thapa et al., 2021). In Hushey Valley, Karakoram, Pakistan, and Himalayan ibex occurred in 18.2% of scats, livestock in 66.6%, small mammals in 1.4%, and birds in 3.1%, while plant material occurred in almost 70% of scats (Bocci et al., 2017). Suryawanshi et al. (2017) analyzed scats from six sites in northern India and one in Mongolia. At the Indian sites (five in Spiti, one in Ladakh), wild ungulates comprised 52%–95%, livestock 0%–60%, and small mammals less than 4%. Hacker et al. (2021) compared the contents of 131 scats from four countries (China, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and Pakistan), though samples sizes from China and Kyrgyzstan were very small (nine and six, respectively). Wild ungulates dominated the content (markhor Capra

45

falconeri in Pakistan, ibex in Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia, and blue sheep in China). Livestock ranged from 15% (Mongolia) to 31% (Pakistan). Lu et al. (2021) analyzed 351 scat samples from seven sites in the Sanjiangyuan region of China and used metabarcoding to identify prey items. Contents varied across the sites, but wild ungulates (mostly blue sheep) made up a mean of 81.5%, livestock 7.6%, and other species (marmots, pikas, small rodents) 10.7%.

Summary Medium- to large-sized ungulates, wild and domestic, made up a minimum of 77% and usually more, of the scat content analyzed. Small mammal and bird remains occurred in much lower proportions than reported in many previous analyses. Some of this difference could be explained by variations in prey availability. For example, hares and marmots are absent from the Phu Valley (Wegge et al., 2012), and marmots do not occur in Tost Uul (Shehzad et al., 2012). However, the difference could well be due to the inadvertent inclusion in earlier studies of scats of medium-sized predators, such as red fox that feed more on small and mediumsized prey. A similar result was obtained in Venezuela where analysis of genotyped scats revealed that large carnivores consumed mainly large and medium prey items, while small and medium-sized carnivore species preferred small and medium prey: a result that contrasted with previous analyses based only on scat size (i.e., on visual identification) (Farrell et al., 2000). Wild ungulates Wild ungulates occurred in 18%–95% of scats. Siberian ibex and blue sheep are the most widely reported prey items and between them cover most of snow leopard range. Markhor and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) are important in parts of Pakistan and Nepal respectively. Argali is preyed on occasionally (more often in Mongolia and Kyrgyzstan). Alpine

I. Defining the snow leopard

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4. Snow leopard diet and prey

musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) was recorded in 15%–20% of scats in eastern Nepal, depending on season (Lovari et al., 2009), and black musk deer in 5.4% in Kanchenjunga (Thapa et al., 2021).

remains was 5.8%, but this represented only 0.6% of the estimated biomass consumed (Wegge et al., 2012). It seems unlikely that birds form a major element of snow leopard diet.

Livestock

Vegetation

The proportion of domestic livestock recorded varied from 0% to 70% (Table 4.1) and consisted of sheep, goats, yaks, cattle, yakcattle hybrids, horses, donkeys, camels, and dogs. The number and type of domestic animals killed, and the frequency of predation events, depend on local conditions, herding and guarding practices, season, terrain, and other factors.

These analyses also confirm earlier reports that vegetation frequently occurs in snow leopard scats. Plant material occurred in 62% of scats sampled from Phu Valley, Manang, in Nepal, and often dominated the contents (Wegge et al., 2012). Twigs of Myricaria bracteata were present in 45% of scats in Kyrgyzstan ( Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014). Bocci et al. (2017) found plant material, mainly Myricaria rosea in 69.9% scats in Hushey Valley, Karakoram, and Chetri et al. (2017) reported Myricaria in five of 182 scats in Nepal, and Bagchi et al. (2020) found vegetation in 8% of scats. In Ladakh, Chundawat and Rawat (1994) observed a snow leopard feeding on a Myricaria bush after it had fed on a kill and reported further signs of feeding on these bushes, especially during the mating season. Like other felids, snow leopards are not physiologically adapted to digest plant cellulose so the reasons for consuming vegetation are not clear. Myricaria appears to have been selected at several sites so this plant may contain useful secondary compounds of some kind. Vegetation could potentially be consumed as a scour, an anthelmintic, a means to bind hair or other material to be expelled, or to keep the digestive system functioning in some unknown way. However, Yoshimura et al. (2020) found that although captive snow leopards ate plant material “fairly frequently,” there was no relation between plant eating and hair evacuation (Table 4.1).

Other mammals Medium and small mammals occurred in up to 16.4% of scats. Marmots made up the most important single item, up to 8%–10% (Aryal et al., 2014; Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014) followed by hares pikas and small rodents. Other species may be taken rarely or opportunistically, for example, a snow leopard carrying a woolly flying squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus) in its mouth was camera trapped in the Upper Bhagirathi Valley, India (Pal et al., 2020). Based on snow tracking evidence, a snow leopard killed and partially ate a 2-year old brown bear (Ursus arctos) in the Tien Shan, according to Heptner and Sludskii (1972). Wegge et al. (2012) reported that Royle’s pika and other small mammals frequently occurred in scats but made up only an estimated 1.4% of the biomass consumed. Birds Remains of birds were found in some, but not all studies. Where identified to species level, all birds belonged to the order Galliformes: chukar (A. chukar) in 1.2% of scats in the South Gobi of Mongolia (Shehzad et al., 2012), Himalayan snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis) in northern Pakistan (Anwar et al., 2011), and Altai snowcock (Tetraogallus altaica) in Mongolia (Hacker et al., 2021). The maximum occurrence of bird

Prey preferences Across the whole of snow leopard range, the abundance of livestock far exceeds wild ungulates both in number and biomass. Berger et al. (2013) estimated that the biomass of wild

I. Defining the snow leopard

Dietary requirements and offtake rates

ungulates amounted to less than 5% of that of livestock across seven study sites in three countries. Tumursukh et al. (2016) said at Tost Uul, Mongolia, wild ungulate biomass was 6% that of livestock. Thapa et al. (2021) estimated that livestock biomass in the Kangchenjunga area was about 6.5 times higher than that of blue sheep. Nevertheless, all analyses that included estimates of prey availability report that snow leopards prefer wild ungulates. Johansson et al. (2015) reported that ibex and argali in Tost Uul were preyed upon in proportion to their abundance, and that these two species comprised 73% of the diet, despite numbers of livestock being one order of magnitude higher. Livestock was consumed significantly less frequently by snow leopard than their availability in Nepal (Chetri et al., 2017). Lu et al. (2021) said that in Sanjiangyuan, snow leopards strongly preferred blue sheep compared to livestock, and there was a significant positive correlation with blue sheep density. Suryawanshi et al. (2017) reported that at six sites in northern India snow leopards showed strong selection for wild prey and that snow leopard density increased linearly with wild prey density and showed no relation with livestock density. In Tost Uul, Mongolia, adult male snow leopards killed larger prey overall, and 2–6 times more livestock, than females and younger animals ( Johansson et al., 2015). A similar finding was reported in Annapurna (Nepal) where livestock occurred more frequently in scats from male snow leopards (males: 47%, females: 21%), and wild ungulates more frequently in scats from females (males: 48%, females: 70%) (Chetri et al., 2017).

Dietary requirements and offtake rates Jackson and Ahlborn (1984) estimated that their radio-collared snow leopards made a large kill, mainly blue sheep, every 10–15 days, implying an annual requirement of 24–36 blue sheep

47

per snow leopard. Wegge et al. (2012) estimated that an adult snow leopard killed two blue sheep and one head of livestock per month, and its food requirement was 1168 kg/year. Johansson et al. (2015) estimated that that 19 satellitetagged snow leopards in Tost Uul, Mongolia, killed a wild or domestic ungulate (ibex, argali, livestock) every 8.0 (0.53 days) and that these kill rates were higher than estimates derived from scat-based studies. A female snow leopard and two young ate a whole blue sheep in less than 48 h (Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988). Unless disturbed, a snow leopard may remain on its kill for up to a week (Fox and Chundawat, 1988). Wegge et al. (2012) estimated that snow leopards harvested 15.1% annually of the blue sheep population in the Phu Valley, Nepal, close to the annual recruitment rate. The return of snow leopards to Sagarmatha N.P. after an absence of 40 years was followed by a 66% decline in the numbers of their favored prey, Himalayan tahr from 2003 to 2010 (mainly through predation on kids), and then by a 60% decrease in the density of snow leopards from 2007 to 2010 (Ferretti et al., 2014; Lovari et al., 2009). Some estimates of the proportion of livestock populations taken include 3% in the Indus valley, Ladakh (Mallon, 1991), 4% in Manang (Wegge et al., 2012), and 3%–10.4% in SheyPhoksumdo (Khanal et al., 2020). These are average figures, and actual livestock losses are spread unevenly among individual herders. The economic impact is many times greater with multiple killings that can occur when a snow leopard gains entry to a poorly constructed nighttime corral (e.g., 44 goats were killed in once such incident in Nepal; Thapa et al., 2021).

Hunting techniques Snow leopards stalk their prey and usually make a short attacking rush, though pursuits may cover a few hundred meters or involve steep downhill chase (Fox and Chundawat, 1988; Schaller, 1977). Prey are killed with a bite

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4. Snow leopard diet and prey

to the throat or seized by the throat and suffocated (Schaller, 1977). The main wild ungulate prey species inhabit steep, precipitous terrain on or near cliffs. Snow leopards significantly prefer cliff-dwelling wild ungulates, whereas wolves prefer open country species (Chetri et al., 2017; Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014). Competitors are discussed in Chapter 13.

Status of prey Mountain ungulates The two most important ungulate prey species are blue sheep and Siberian ibex. Their distribution ranges cover most of snow leopard range, but the two species are only rarely sympatric. Markhor and Himalayan tahr are important prey in parts of Pakistan and Nepal respectively. Argali are taken less often (more in Mongolia and Kyrgyzstan) and are widespread, though they prefer more open rolling terrain. None of these five species is assessed

in a “threatened” category on the IUCN Red List. One species is listed as Least Concern, four species are listed as Near Threatened, three of these are decreasing, and one increasing (Table 4.2). The Near Threatened category implies that species may be declining globally but at less than a rate of 20%–25% over three generations (estimated at about 21–24 years). At local or national levels, population declines may be higher, or conversely, stable or increasing, as reported in Mongolia (Chapter 44). The two principal prey species (Blue sheep and Siberian ibex) remain widespread and relatively numerous in many places. Two species of musk deer (Moschus spp.) have been confirmed in the diet, and a further four species of musk deer occur within or adjacent to snow leopard range in the Himalaya, Western China, and Siberia. Five musk deer species are Endangered, and one is Vulnerable. Urial (Ovis vignei) occurs at lower elevations within snow leopard range in Ladakh, northern India, northern Pakistan, and into Afghanistan and Tajikistan and seems

TABLE 4.2 IUCN Red List status of the main ungulate prey species, listed in order of best estimate of importance to snow leopards, rangewide. Species

IUCN Red List categorya

Population trend

Year of assessment

Blue sheep Pseudois nayaur

Least Concern

Unknown

2014

Siberian ibex Capra sibirica

Near Threatened

Decreasing

2020

Markhor Capra falconeri

Near Threatened

Increasing

2015

Argali Ovis ammon

Near Threatened

Decreasing

2020

Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus

Near Threatened

Decreasing

2020

Alpine musk deer Moschus chrysogaster

Endangered

Decreasing

2016

Black musk deer Moschus fuscus

Endangered

Decreasing

2015

a

www.iucnredlist.org/.

I. Defining the snow leopard

49

Conclusions

to be a likely prey but has not yet been confirmed in the diet. Several other mountain ungulates and deer (Cervidae) species occur in the upper forest and alpine scrub zones, four species of gazelles, Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), wild yak (Bos mutus), and kiang (Equus kiang) are distributed across the plains and plateaus of Central Asia and Tibet. All these species are potential prey that may be taken occasionally or opportunistically, especially when close to rocky areas or cliffs, but there is no evidence so far to indicate that any of these species form an important part of snow leopard diet.

Domestic livestock Livestock occur across all snow leopard range, except for some protected areas and a few very remote sites, and as noted above, their numbers and biomass far exceed those of wild mountain ungulates. In a few localities, emigration from rural areas to towns is resulting in local reductions in livestock density, but the overall trend is an increase in numbers of livestock and expansion of grazing into more remote sites, often facilitated by road construction. Furthermore, a change away from sheep to cashmere goats in response a rise in global prices has added to the grazing pressure on vegetation and competition with wild ungulate prey (Berger et al., 2013).

Other mammals Six species of marmot (Marmota spp.) occur across snow leopard range but are absent from some sites. In any case, marmots are available as prey for only about 6 months as they hibernate for the rest of the year. Four marmot species are assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and two are threatened. Five species of hare (Lepus spp.) overlap with snow leopard range, none of them threatened. Several species of pika (Ochotona spp.) and many smaller rodents and small carnivores also co-occur.

Birds Several species of gamebirds (order Galliformes), for example, snowcocks Tetraogallus spp., partridges Alectoris spp., and grouse Lagopus spp., are distributed throughout snow leopard range as well as several species of pheasant (family Phasianidae) along the upper forest margins of the Himalaya, Karakoram, and western China.

Conclusions Advances in molecular genetics have had two important implications for research into snow leopard diet. First, it is now clear that genotyping of scats to confirm identification of the species is essential. Second, metabarcoding is simplifying and accelerating the identification of prey remains in scat contents. Analyses of unambiguously identified snow leopard samples conducted so far are not representative of the full geographical distribution of the snow leopard and some sample sizes are small. The results vary among studies in different regions and even locally at sites within the same area, e.g., Sanjiangyuan (Lu et al., 2021) and Spiti (Suryawanshi et al., 2021). Developing a full picture of snow leopard diet will require complementary studies using similar methods from all parts of the range, including areas such as the Altai and the mountains of Central Asia studies across years to investigate seasonal differences. Despite these caveats, the recent analyses confirm that the main prey of the snow leopard consists of wild ungulates and livestock, with smaller mammals and birds having a relatively minor role, and that wild ungulates are strongly preferred, despite the number and biomass of domestic livestock being many times greater in nearly all sites. These findings highlight the need (1) to monitor, manage, and conserve viable populations of

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4. Snow leopard diet and prey

all the main prey species at local, regional, and global scales; (2) to expand and enhance measures to reduce livestock depredation, and thus retaliatory killing of snow leopards, through improving the security of nighttime corrals, livestock insurance and veterinary programs, improved guarding practices, village reserves, and collaborative pasture management agreements with local communities.

References Anwar, M.B., Jackson, R., Nadeem, M.S., Janecka, J.E., Hussain, S., Beg, M.A., Muhammad, G., Qayyum, M., 2011. Food habits of the snow leopard Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775) in Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 57, 1077–1083. Aryal, A., Brunton, D., Ji, W.H., Karmacharyia, D., McCarthy, T.M., Bencini, R., Raubenheimer, D., 2014. Multipronged strategy including genetic analysis for assessing conservation options for the snow leopard in the central Himalaya. J. Mammal. 95, 871–881. Bagchi, S., Sharma, R.K., Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2020. Change in snow leopard predation on livestock after revival of wild prey in the Trans-Himalaya. Wildl. Biol. 2020. wlb.00583. Berger, J., Buuveibaatar, B., Mishra, C., 2013. Globalization of the cashmere market and the decline of large mammals in Central Asia. Conserv. Biol. 27, 679–689. Bocci, A., Lovari, S., Khan, M.Z., Mori, E., 2017. Sympatric snow leopards and Tibetan wolves: coexistence of large carnivores with human-driven potential competition. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 63, 92. Chetri, M., Odden, M., Wegge, P., 2017. Snow leopard and Himalayan wolf: food habits and prey selection in the Central Himalayas, Nepal. PLoS ONE 12, e0170549. Chundawat, R.S., Rawat, G.S., 1994. Food habits of the snow leopard in Ladakh. In: Fox, J., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, pp. 127–132. Davison, A., Birks, J.D.S., Brookes, R.C., Braithewaite, T.C., Messenger, J.E., 2002. On the origin of faeces: morphological versus molecular methods for surveying rare carnivores from their scats. J. Zool. 257, 141–143. Farrell, L.E., Roman, J., Sunquist, M.E., 2000. Dietary separation of sympatric carnivores identified by molecular analysis of scats. Mol. Ecol. 9, 1583–1590. Ferretti, F., Lovari, S., Minder, I., Pellizzi, B., 2014. Recovery of the snow leopard in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park: effects on main prey. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 60, 559–562.

Fox, J., Chundawat, R., 1988. Observations of snow leopard stalking, killing, feeding behavior. Mammalia 52, 137–140. Hacker, C.E., Jevit, M., Hussain, S., Muhammad, G., Munkhtsog, B., Munkhtsog, B., Zhang, Y., Li, D., Liu, Y., Farrington, J.D., Balbakova, F., Alamanov, A., Kurmanaliev, O., Buyanaa, C., Bayandonoi, G., Ochirjav, M., Liang, X., Bian, X., Weckworth, B., Jackson, R., Janecka, J.E., 2021. Regional comparison of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) diet using DNA metabarcoding. Biodivers. Conserv. 30, 797–817. Heptner, V.G., Sludskii, A.A., 1972. Mlekopitayushchiye Sovetskogo Soyuza. Vol. 2 Part 2. Khishchniye. [Mammals of the Soviet Union, Carnivora]. Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow. In Russian; English translation 1992, E.J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands. Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G., 1984. A preliminary habitat suitability analysis model for the snow leopard Panthera uncia in West Nepal. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, vol. 4, pp. 43–52. Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G., 1988. Observations on the ecology of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in west Nepal. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium. International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India, Seattle, WA, pp. 65–87. Janecka, J.E., Jackson, R.M., Zhang, Y., Li, D., Munkhtsog, B., Buckley-Beason, V., Murphy, W.J., 2008. Population monitoring of snow leopards using noninvasive collection of scat samples: a pilot study. Anim. Conserv. 11, 401–411. Janecka, J.E., Munkhtsog, B., Jackson, R.M., Naranbaatar, G., Mallon, D.P., Murphy, W.J., 2011. Comparison of noninvasive genetic and camera-trapping techniques for surveying snow leopards. J. Mammal. 92, 771–783. Johansson, O., McCarthy, T.M., Samelius, G., Andren, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2015. Snow leopard predation in a livestock dominated landscape in Mongolia. Biol. Conserv. 184, 251–258. Jumabay-Uulu, K., Wegge, P., Mishra, C., Sharma, K., 2014. Large carnivores and low diversity of optimal prey: a comparison of the diets of snow leopards Panthera uncia and wolves Canis lupus in Sarychat-Ertash Reserve in Kyrgyzstan. Oryx 48, 529–535. Khanal, G., Mishra, C., Suryawanshi, K.R., 2020. Relative influence of wild prey and livestock abundance on carnivore-caused livestock predation. Ecol. Evol. 10, 11787–11797. Lovari, S., Boesi, R., Minder, I., Mucci, N., Randi, E., Dematteis, A., Ale, S.B., 2009. Restoring a keystone predator may endanger a prey species in a human-altered ecosystem: the return of the snow leopard to Sagarmatha National Park. Anim. Conserv. 12, 559–570.

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Lu, Q., Xiao, L., Cheng, C., Lu, Z., Zhao, J., Yao, M., 2021. Snow leopard dietary preferences and livestock predation revealed by fecal DNA metabarcoding: no evidence for apparent competition between wild and domestic prey. Front. Ecol. Environ. 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fevo.2021.783546. Mallon, D.P., 1991. Status and conservation of large mammals in Ladakh. Biol. Conserv. 56, 101–119. McCarthy, K.P., Fuller, T.K., Ming, M., McCarthy, T.M., Waits, L., Jumabaev, K., 2008. Assessing estimators of snow leopard abundance. J. Wildl. Manag. 72, 1826–1833. Oli, M.K., 1993. A key for the identification of the hair of mammals of a snow leopard (Panthera uncia) habitat in Nepal. J. Zool. 231, 71–93. Pal, R., Bhattacharya, P., Sathyakumar, S., 2020. Woolly flying squirrel Eupetaurus cinereus: a new addition to the diet of snow leopard Panthera uncia. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 117, 142056. Perez, I., Geffen, E., Mokady, O., 2006. Critically endangered Arabian leopards Panthera pardus nimr in Israel: estimating population parameters using molecular scatology. Oryx 40, 295–301. Schaller, G.B., 1977. Mountain Monarchs. Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalaya. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA. Shehzad, W., McCarthy, T.M., Pompanon, F., Purevjav, L., Coissac, E., 2012. Prey preference of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in South Gobi, Mongolia. PLoS ONE 7, e32104. Shrestha, B., Aihartza, J., Kindlmann, P., 2018. Diet and prey selection by snow leopards in the Nepalese Himalayas. PLoS One 13, e0206310.

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Suryawanshi, K., Reddy, A., Sharma, K., Khanyari, M., Bijoor, A., Rathore, D., Jaggi, H., Khara, A., Malgaonka, A., Ghoshal, A., Patel, J., Mishra, C., 2021. Estimating snow leopard and prey populations at large spatial scales. Ecol. Solut. Evid. 2, e12115. Suryawanshi, K.R., Redpath, S.M., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Ramakrishnan, U., Chaturvedi, V., Smout, S., 2017. Impact of wild prey availability on livestock predation by snow leopards. R. Soc. Open Sci. 4, 170026. Thapa, K., Schmitt, N., Pradhan, N.M.B., Acharya, H.R., Rayamajhi, S., 2021. No silver bullet? Snow leopard prey selection in Mt. Kangchenjunga, Nepal. Ecol. Evol. 11, 16413–16425. Tumursukh, L., Suryawanshi, K., Mishra, C., McCarthy, T.M., Boldgiv, B., 2016. Status of the mountain ungulate prey of the endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia in the Tost Local Protected Area, South Gobi, Mongolia. Oryx 50, 214–219. Wegge, P., Shrestha, R., Flagstad, O., 2012. Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation on livestock and wild prey in a mountain valley in northern Nepal: implications for conservation management. Wildl. Biol. 18, 131–141. Weiskopf, S.R., Kachel, S.M., McCarthy, K.P., 2016. What are snow leopards really eating? Identifying bias in foodhabit studies. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 40, 233–240. Yoshimura, H., Qi, H., Kikuchi, D.M., Matsui, Y., Fukushima, K., Kudo, S., Ban, K., Kusano, K., Nagano, D., Hara, M., Sato, Y., Takatsu, R., Hirata, S., Kinoshita, K., 2020. The relationship between plant-eating and hair evacuation in snow leopards (Panthera uncia). PLoS One 15, e0236635.

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C H A P T E R

5 Livestock predation by snow leopards: Conflicts and the search for solutions Charudutt Mishraa,b, Stephen R. Redpathc, and Kulbhushansingh Ramesh Suryawanshia,b a

Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States bNature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India cInstitute of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Aberdeen University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom

Introduction

Instances of livestock predation by snow leopards must date back to the very beginning of pastoral use of their habitats several thousand years ago. Together with wolves (Canis lupus)—and other sympatric carnivores to a much smaller extent—snow leopards continue to cause considerable livestock mortality; studies report annual losses ranging from 3% to 12% of local livestock holdings in some areas (Hussain, 2000; Jackson and Wangchuk, 2004; Mishra, 1997; Namgail et al., 2007). Between these two main predators, studies attribute 20%–53% of total unintended livestock mortality to snow leopards (Li et al., 2013; Namgail et al., 2007; Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Disease, the other important cause of livestock mortality, provides a useful reference. Depending on the level of veterinary care and livestock vaccination available, the extent of livestock losses to disease in snow leopard habitats is reported to be similar to the two predators (Li et al., 2013), fewer (14%; Suryawanshi et al., 2013) or several times more.

In the tree line ecotone habitats of Western and Central Himalaya that form the southern edge of the snow leopard’s current global distribution, a significant impact of pastoralism is seen in the pollen record as long back as 5400–5700 years BP (Miehe et al., 2009). Further north on the TibetQinghai Plateau, the center of the snow leopard’s range, seasonal human forays are recorded as early as 30,000 years ago, and more permanent pastoral habitation around 8200 years BP (Brantingham et al., 2007). In the Altai Mountains that form the northernmost and easternmost parts of the snow leopard’s range, mobile groups of livestock breeders existed 5000 years BP (Yablonsky, 2003). Snow leopards appear in petroglyphs and in kurgan (nomad burial mounds) artifacts across the region including the westernmost parts of their range in the Tien Shan (Davis-Kimball, 2003; Hussain, 2002; Saveljev et al., 2014). Humans and snow leopards have interacted and coexisted for a considerably long period.

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5. Livestock predation by snow leopards

Annual livestock losses to snow leopards and wolves can translate to considerable economic loss for livestock owning households, sometimes equivalent to up to half of the regional per capita income (Mishra, 1997). Understandably, the killing of snow leopards in response to livestock predation is believed to be one of the important causes of the species’ endangerment ( Jackson et al., 2010). Human-snow leopard conflicts are widespread and intense across large parts of Central Asia. Or are they?

Revisiting “human-snow leopard conflicts” At the outset, it is useful to examine the terminology in use, because language and framing, alongside material experience, influence human worldviews and the nature of social action that follows (Peterson et al., 2010). Contemporary ecological and conservation literature on snow leopards is dominated by the term “human-snow leopard conflict” or its variants, derived from long-established and widely used terms “human-carnivore conflict” or “human-wildlife conflict.” The lead author of this chapter (CM) himself is one of those responsible for widespread use of these terms. It is pertinent to take a step back and ask “what is human-snow leopard conflict”? The issue is not relevant to snow leopards alone, and this is not the first time that such a question is being posed (e.g., Marshall et al., 2007; Peterson et al., 2010; Redpath et al., 2013). Conflicts occur when the interests of two or more parties clash, and one party tries to assert its interests over the other (Marshall et al., 2007). The term “human-snow leopard conflict” therefore suggests that because humans value livestock and snow leopards kill them, humans and snow leopards are antagonists, in conflict with each other. It implies that wild animals are aware of their goals as well as those of humans and that they seek to undermine human interests (Peterson et al., 2010). The

inappropriateness of this framing is obvious, and as we shall now see, discontinuing its use is important for conservation. Snow leopards are a landscape species, with home ranges of around a hundred to even over a thousand square kilometers (McCarthy et al., 2005; Johansson et al., unpublished data). Snow leopard habitats are extensively used for livestock grazing. These realities dictate that snow leopards cannot be adequately conserved through protected areas alone, and a great need and potential for snow leopard conservation efforts lie beyond protected areas (e.g., Li et al., 2014). The continued survival of snow leopards into the future hinges heavily on the willingness of local people to tolerate them and their ability to continue to coexist with them. Against this background, terminology that inappropriately projects snow leopards and humans as antagonists is unhelpful. It undermines the quest of conservationists to promote human-snow leopard coexistence. From a conservation perspective, the issue is therefore best viewed—and framed—as animal damage to something that humans value, which imposes economic and psychological costs on humans and not as “human-snow leopard conflict.” Does this mean there is no conflict? Among pastoral peoples, hunting has often been a traditional practice. On the Tibet-Qinghai Plateau, for example, hunting of wild animals served as an additional source of protein and fat for the nomads; as a source of hides and other body parts for trade, medicine, ritual and cultural items; and for control of predators and perceived competitors (Huber, 2012). In large parts of the snow leopard’s range, traditionally, people would kill predators. Even today, traditional hunting of snow leopards is reported to be prevalent in 8 of the 12 range countries (Snow Leopard Network, 2014). In modern times, however, snow leopards have been accorded the highest protection status in all range countries, rendering their killing a serious crime, and making it difficult to escape punishment and monetary losses when killings are discovered by the state. Even though enforcement is often

II. Conservation concerns

Understanding conflicts over livestock predation

weak, as a traditional measure to try to control predator populations is curtailed, it understandably creates frustration among the farmers and a sense of loss of their control over the situation (Mishra and Suryawanshi, 2014). On the other hand, livestock losses to predators continue, and with livestock becoming a global economic asset (Berger et al., 2013), affected people perhaps lose their tolerance for the predators even more. This is where the conflict actually lies. It is not a conflict between humans and snow leopards, but a conflict between competing human interests, specifically those of livestock production and wildlife conservation. There are similar conservation conflicts (Redpath et al., 2013) or disagreements emerging between the objectives of snow leopard conservation and those of other human interests, such as mineral extraction and linear developments in snow leopard habitats (Snow Leopard Network, 2014), though our focus here remains on the specific issue of livestock predation.

Understanding conflicts over livestock predation To manage conservation conflicts effectively requires that they be understood comprehensively. Understanding conflicts over livestock predation has two important dimensions, the actual patterns and causes of carnivore damage to livestock and the perception and psyche of the affected people (Mishra and Suryawanshi, 2014). Therefore, understanding them requires a multidisciplinary approach combining ecology, social sciences, and human psychology.

Ecological underpinnings of livestock predation by snow leopards Why do snow leopards kill livestock? Snow leopards are reported to prey on the entire diversity of livestock species, from small-bodied goats and sheep to large-bodied yaks and

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Bactrian camels ( Johansson et al., 2015; Mishra, 1997; Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Recent research suggests that snow leopards specialize in predation on ungulates, with the contribution of small-sized prey in their diets being rather low and perhaps overestimated in earlier studies ( Johansson et al., 2015). Livestock therefore represent a potentially suitable prey type for snow leopards. They tend to occur at higher densities compared to wild ungulates (Berger et al., 2013). They also have degenerated antipredatory abilities such as a reduced ability to detect predators and escape from them and a loss of camouflage coloration (Zohary et al., 1998). Thus, livestock may represent an attractive group of prey, although preying on livestock is risky because of the possibility of retaliatory persecution or carcass recovery and meat retrieval by people. Given that livestock are a potentially attractive prey, it is pertinent to ask whether livestock killing by snow leopards is an opportunistic response, or whether it is a part of the active foraging strategy? Can trends in livestock predation by snow leopards be predicted as livestock or wild ungulate populations increase or decrease? At a fundamental level, ecological theory predicts that the extent of livestock predation would depend on the interplay of functional (prey preference) and numerical (relation between prey abundance and snow leopard abundance) responses of snow leopards to livestock and wild ungulates. Available evidence suggests that snow leopards kill livestock opportunistically and prefer wild ungulates despite their much lower abundance compared to livestock ( Johansson et al., 2015). The abundance of snow leopards appears to be primarily determined by the abundance of wild ungulates and not by the abundance of livestock (Suryawanshi, 2013). Although representing a potentially suitable prey, livestock at high densities may actually have a negative, indirect effect on snow leopard abundance by causing a

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reduction in wild ungulate abundance through forage competition (Mishra et al., 2004; Sharma et al., 2015). Model results of functional and numerical responses of snow leopards based on multisite data suggest that if livestock abundance in a habitat increases, the extent of livestock predation by snow leopards can be expected to increase. When wild ungulate abundance in a habitat increases, surprisingly, once again, the extent of livestock predation by snow leopards is predicted to increase and subsequently stabilize (Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Thus, increasing wild ungulate abundance is important for snow leopard conservation but is likely to increase the extent of livestock predation. A closer look reveals considerable spatiotemporal variation in the extent of livestock killing by snow leopards within and between landscapes, presumably reflecting the influence of local conditions and pastoral practices. For instance, in a 2-year period of monitoring over an area of 4000 km2 in Spiti Valley (India), we recorded instances of livestock predation by snow leopards in only 14 of the 25 villages in the study area. Over 90% of these instances were recorded between spring and summer, the period when livestock is grazed extensively in the pastures (Suryawanshi et al., 2013). On the other hand, in Tost Mountains (Mongolia), predation on livestock and the relative contribution of livestock to snow leopard diet were lowest in summer and highest in winter. Here, a majority of livestock is moved to the adjoining steppe areas in summer, reducing their overlap with snow leopards ( Johansson et al., 2015). An even closer examination suggests that although snow leopards sometimes get inside poorly constructed corrals and can cause extensive livestock losses ( Jackson et al., 2010), a large majority of instances of snow leopard attacks on livestock take place in the pastures, especially on stragglers ( Johansson et al., 2015; Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Within the pastures, livestock are especially vulnerable to snow leopard predation

in more rugged areas ( Johansson et al., 2015) and areas with relatively higher abundance of wild ungulates (Suryawanshi et al., 2013).

Human underpinnings of livestock predation by snow leopards While the act of livestock predation, as we have seen, is rooted in evolutionary and behavioral ecology of snow leopards and livestock, there are important human and societal aspects to be considered. Lax herding of livestock, for instance, leads to stragglers that become especially vulnerable to predation ( Johansson et al., 2015). Similarly, poor construction and placement of corrals are the main cause of snow leopard attacks inside corrals. Although rare, such attacks are especially damaging as they usually result in surplus killing ( Jackson et al., 2010) and instill more fear in people. Understanding the extent and correlates of actual livestock damage by snow leopards is important, but is not sufficient for effective conflict management. For instance, livestock losses to carnivores reported by farmers tend to get exaggerated, often unconsciously (Mishra, 1997). Such perceptions can have considerable influence on peoples’ attitudes and behaviors toward carnivores (Mishra and Suryawanshi, 2014). There is often a dichotomy between how affected farmers perceive the issue and the reality of carnivore-caused damage (Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Of the 14 villages in our study area in Spiti Valley where we recorded livestock killing by snow leopards, people had actually perceived snow leopards to be a threat to livestock in only seven of them. We found that peoples’ threat perception was better explained by the ownership of largebodied, locally valuable livestock, rather than the actual level of livestock predation (Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Peoples’ perceptions influence their attitudes and presumably their behavior toward snow leopards. Attitudes, once again, show complex

II. Conservation concerns

Managing conflicts over livestock predation

and nonlinear patterns; the extent of livestock loss incurred or perceived is only one of the several factors that influence peoples’ attitudes and their willingness to coexist with snow leopards. In a recent study, we found that at the level of the individual respondent, women tended to have more negative attitudes toward snow leopards compared to men, and attitudes generally became more positive with the respondent’s level of education and the number and extent of additional income sources available (Suryawanshi et al., 2014). In this study, we also showed that as one scaled up from the individual to the community (village), attitudes toward snow leopards were influenced more by other factors such as village size and the abundance of large-bodied livestock in the entire village. Such scale dependence suggests that in areas of high livestock predation, individuals can develop a strong negative attitude toward snow leopards despite personally not having lost any livestock to them (Suryawanshi et al., 2014). As we shall see, these complexities are relevant for understanding the needs and current limitations of conflict management efforts.

Managing conflicts over livestock predation Two fundamental lessons for conflict management emerge from the above discussion. First, because there are multiple dimensions to the issue of livestock predation, any conflict management program, to be effective, must try to address these multiple dimensions, including the reality of livestock damage and the economic cost to the farmers and their perceptions and psyche (Fig. 5.1). Second, scale dependence in peoples’ attitudes—together with the fact that conservation of landscape species such as the snow leopard needs local community support—suggests that the suite of conflict management initiatives should together aim to reach out to the entire community, as well as to most

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communities within a landscape, and not just those farmers who have suffered livestock predation losses.

Three-pronged strategy for addressing conflicts We propose that effective conflict management requires a suite of initiatives that (i) reduce the extent of livestock losses to large carnivores, (ii) share or offset carnivore-caused livestock losses, and (iii) improve the social carrying capacity for carnivores (Mishra and Suryawanshi, 2014).

Reducing livestock losses As previously mentioned, lax herding is an important cause of livestock losses to large carnivores. Generally, more responsible and vigilant herding and exploring the use of well-trained dogs where appropriate could help reduce livestock losses to predators. A system of rewarding herders for vigilant herding (least number of livestock lost to carnivores) built into one of our livestock insurance initiatives presumably helped in reducing the extent of livestock predation to about half of the baseline levels (Mishra and Suryawanshi, 2014). Predator attacks are not evenly distributed in the landscape, and avoiding pastures or exercising greater care while herding in areas that are relatively rugged can help cut down livestock losses to snow leopards by reducing the number of stragglers. The losses that take place inside corrals can be curtailed through collaborative predator proofing (see Chapter 18.1). Traditionally, increasing the abundance of wild ungulate prey of snow leopards has been assumed to be useful in reducing livestock losses by deflecting predation pressure to wild ungulates (e.g., Mishra et al., 2004). As we have seen, however, more recent research suggests that increasing the abundance of wild ungulates (see Chapter 6), while being a desirable

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5. Livestock predation by snow leopards

FIG. 5.1 A conceptual representation of the proximate ecological (green) and anthropogenic (brown) causes and effects (rectangles) of livestock predation by snow leopards and the commonly employed mitigation measures (ovals). Blank ovals highlight aspects of this conservation conflict that have received relatively less attention from conservationists. The figure shows that conservation conflicts over livestock predation have multiple dimensions, and therefore, their management requires multipronged initiatives. Most current conservation programs, however, tend to be single-initiative focused.

conservation outcome, can actually lead to an increase in the extent of livestock predation.

Offsetting livestock losses In the extensive livestock production systems characteristic of snow leopard landscapes, some amount of livestock losses to large carnivores will be inevitable, despite comprehensive measures to protect livestock. In some cases, such as the snow leopard habitats in India, governments have tried to help farmers through compensation programs, but these have largely been ineffective over the longer term in addressing the problem (Mishra, 1997). Smaller-scale, community-managed livestock insurance

programs have worked better and are currently in operation in several countries including China, India, Mongolia, Nepal, and Pakistan (see Chapter 17.3).

Improving social carrying capacity Snow leopard habitats are multiple-use landscapes, and snow leopard conservation will remain difficult unless the ability of local communities to coexist with them is strengthened, and they become more willing partners in conservation. Conservation-linked initiatives to strengthen local livelihoods, such as Snow Leopard Enterprises (see Chapter 17.2), communitybased, low-impact tourism (see Chapter 17.1),

II. Conservation concerns

Acknowledgment

and livestock vaccination programs (see Chapter 18.3), help improve peoples’ ability and willingness to coexist with snow leopards. However, by themselves, single initiatives are inadequate and can come to be viewed solely as livelihood programs rather than conservation initiatives. Therefore, apart from simultaneous efforts to reduce livestock predation and offset the costs, conservation education programs are also essential to bring about greater awareness and address some of the psychological aspects of depredation-related conflicts (see Chapter 21).

Improving the current approach to livestock predation management As we have seen, conservation conflicts over livestock predation by snow leopards and sympatric carnivores are complex and have multiple dimensions (Fig. 5.1) including the reality of damage and the perceptions and psyche of people. Most current community-based conservation programs, however, tend to be singleinitiative focused, built around a livestock vaccination program, an insurance program, corral improvement, handicraft development, or other livelihood initiatives. While any collaborative conservation initiative with the affected communities can be helpful, such a singleinitiative focus tends to be inadequate for conservation and conflict management. To take an example, an insurance program by itself can only help offset economic costs of livestock predation, but does little to reduce the extent of livestock predation in the first place, and perhaps doesn’t address the issue of perception and fear either. Unless combined with other initiatives such as supporting and rewarding better herding, it may not even be able to offset the economic setbacks adequately or become economically sustainable. Further, typically, about half or a little more of the families in any community tend to get involved in insurance programs, which leaves the other half

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uninvolved in conservation or conflict management programs, and it is unreasonable to expect them to support snow leopard conservation. This is also a program where men tend to get more involved on behalf of the family, and there is often inadequate representation of women, who are much better represented in initiatives such as the Snow Leopard Enterprises handicraft development program (see Chapter 17.2), again making the case for multipronged initiatives. It may also be useful to point out that while collaborative corral improvement is being employed by conservationists to help reduce the extent of livestock kills inside corrals, there has been less effort made to help improve herding practices with the community. Systems that encourage more careful herding especially in rugged areas, trials in the use of trained dogs, etc., need to be explored more and can be valuable in reducing the extent of livestock predation. Livestock predation by snow leopards becomes a conflict because local people are trying to make a living from livestock; the livestock gets killed by snow leopards; and conservationists try to protect snow leopards. Recognizing that this is a shared problem and requires information sharing, respectful dialog and a collaborative approach are the first step in effective conflict management. We propose that current and future community-based efforts to manage conflicts over livestock predation be made multipronged, such that they address the different aspects of management (reducing livestock predation, offsetting economic costs, and improving social carrying capacity) and also increase the coverage of families within a community and of communities within the snow leopard landscape.

Acknowledgment We are grateful to Fondation Segr
e-Whitley Fund for Nature for supporting our research and conservation programs.

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References Berger, J., Buuveibaatar, B., Mishra, C., 2013. Globalization of the cashmere market and the decline of large mammals in Central Asia. Conserv. Biol. 27, 679–689. Brantingham, P.J., Gao, X., Olsen, J.W., Ma, H., Rhode, D., Zhang, H., Madsen, D.B., 2007. A short chronology for the peopling of the Tibetan Plateau. Dev. Quat. Sci. 9, 129–150. Davis-Kimball, J., 2003. Statuses of eastern early Iron Age nomads. Ancient West & East 1 (2), 332–356. Huber, T., 2012. The changing role of hunting and wildlife in pastoral communities of Northern Tibet. In: Pastoral Practices in High Asia. Springer, Netherlands, pp. 195–215. Hussain, S., 2000. Protecting the snow leopard and enhancing farmers’ livelihoods: a pilot insurance scheme in Baltistan. Mt. Res. Dev. 20, 226–231. Hussain, S., 2002. In: Nature and Human Nature: Conservation, Values and Snow Leopard. Unpublished Report. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy Workshop. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, USA. Jackson, R.M., Wangchuk, R., 2004. A community-based approach to mitigating livestock depredation by snow leopards. Hum. Dimens. Wildl. 9, 1–16. Jackson, R.M., Mishra, C., McCarthy, T.M., Ale, S.B., 2010. Snow leopards: conflict and conservation. In: Macdonald, D.W., Loveridge, A.J. (Eds.), The Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 417–430. € McCarthy, T., Samelius, G., Andr
en, H., Johansson, O., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2015. Snow leopard predation in a livestock dominated landscape in Mongolia. Biol. Conserv. 184, 251–258. Li, J., Yin, H., Wang, D., Jiagong, Z., Lu, Z., 2013. Humansnow leopard conflicts in the Sanjiangyuan Region of the Tibetan Plateau. Biol. Conserv. 166, 118–123. Li, J., Wang, D., Yin, H., Zhaxi, D., Jiagong, Z., Schaller, G.B., Mishra, C., McCarthy, T.M., Wang, H., Wu, L., Xiao, L., Basang, L., Zhang, Y., Zhou, Y., Lu, Z., 2014. Role of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in snow leopard conservation. Conserv. Biol. 28, 87–94. Marshall, K., White, R., Fischer, A., 2007. Conflicts between humans over wildlife management: on the diversity of stakeholder attitudes and implications for conflict management. Biodivers. Conserv. 16, 3129–3146. McCarthy, T.M., Fuller, T.K., Munkhtsog, B., 2005. Movements and activities of snow leopards in southwestern Mongolia. Biol. Conserv. 124, 527–537. Miehe, G., Miehe, S., Schl€ utz, F., 2009. Early human impact in the forest ecotone of southern High Asia (Hindu Kush, Himalaya). Quat. Res. 71, 255–265.

Mishra, C., 1997. Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and conservation prospects. Environ. Conserv. 24, 338–343. Mishra, C., Suryawanshi, K.R., 2014. Managing conflicts over livestock depredation by large carnivores. In: Successful Management Strategies and Practice in Human-Wildlife Conflict in the Mountains of SAARC Region. SAARC Forestry Centre, Thimphu, Bhutan, pp. 27–47. Mishra, C., Van Wieren, S.E., Ketner, P., Heitkonig, I.M.A., Prins, H.H.T., 2004. Competition between domestic livestock and wild bharal Pseudois nayaur in the Indian TransHimalaya. J. Appl. Ecol. 41, 344–354. Namgail, T., Fox, J.L., Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2007. Carnivorecaused livestock mortality in trans-Himalaya. Environ. Manag. 39, 490–496. Peterson, M.N., Birckhead, J.L., Leong, K., Peterson, M.J., Peterson, T.R., 2010. Rearticulating the myth of human– wildlife conflict. Conserv. Lett. 3, 74–82. Redpath, S.M., Young, J., Evely, A., Adams, W.M., Sutherland, W.J., Whitehouse, A., Guti
errez, R.J., 2013. Understanding and managing conservation conflicts. Trends Ecol. Evol. 28, 100–109. Saveljev, A., Soloviev, V., Scopin, A., Shar, S., Otgonbaatar, M., 2014. Contemporary significance of hunting and game animals use in traditional folk medicine in north-West Mongolia and adjacent Tuva. Balkan J. Wildl. Res. 1, 76–81. Sharma, R.K., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mishra, C., 2015. Does livestock benefit or harm snow leopards? Biol. Conserv. 190, 8–13. Snow Leopard Network, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Revised 2014 Version. Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, Washington, USA. Suryawanshi, K.R., 2013. Human Carnivore Conflicts: Understanding Predation Ecology and Livestock Damage by Snow Leopards (Ph.D. thesis). Manipal University, India. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Redpath, S., Mishra, C., 2013. People, predators and perceptions: patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and wolves. J. Appl. Ecol. 50, 550–560. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatia, S., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Redpath, S., Mishra, C., 2014. Multiscale factors affecting human attitudes toward snow leopards and wolves. Conserv. Biol. 28, 1657–1666. Yablonsky, L.T., 2003. The archaeology of Eurasian nomads. In: Hardesty, D.L. (Ed.), Archaeology—Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). Developed Under the Auspices of the UNESCO. Eolss Publishers, Oxford. Zohary, D., Tchernov, E., Horwitz, L.K., 1998. The role of unconscious selection in the domestication of sheep and goat. J. Zool. 245, 129–135.

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C H A P T E R

6 Living on the edge: Depletion of wild prey and survival of the snow leopard Sandro Lovaria,b and Charudutt Mishrac,d a

Maremma Natural History Museum, Grosseto, Italy bDepartment of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy cNature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India dSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States

Introduction

the marsupial wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus) in Australia and the Falkland Island wolf (Dusicyon australis) (Woodroffe et al., 2005b). Some carnivores seem to adapt better than others to coexist with humans and to withstand retribution. While canids can make substantial use of alternative food sources (e.g., fruit, berries) in areas where wild prey is scarce (e.g., wolf Canis lupus: Meriggi et al., 1991; coyote Canis latrans: Cepek, 2004; red fox Vulpes vulpes: Cavallini and Lovari, 1991), felids have entirely carnivorous food habits (e.g., Macdonald, 1992). They may become more dependent than canids on livestock, which makes them potentially more sensitive to human persecution. For example, in Asia, Lovari et al. (2013b) and Shehzad et al. (2015) have reported on viable populations of common leopards (Panthera pardus) occurring in areas (Deurali study area, Nepal; Ayubia National Park, Pakistan, respectively) where livestock was the staple diet, as wild ungulates were locally rare—or absent— because of overhunting. Furthermore, among canids, both sexes tend to disperse over large distances, with some exceptions (for a review: Macdonald and Sillero-Zubiri, 2004), whereas

Large carnivores require abundant prey, distributed over wide areas, for their long-term survival. Most large carnivores specialize on ungulate predation, and prey can include livestock that may be an ecologically acceptable surrogate (e.g., Gervasi et al., 2014; Valeix et al., 2012). Livestock is often a clumped, abundant, easy, and predictable prey, available over large areas, thus making a potential food source for most larger carnivores. Not surprisingly, local depletion of wild prey has been reported as one of the main determinants of the extent of predation on livestock by carnivores (e.g., Gusset et al., 2009; Kolowski and Holekamp, 2006; Meriggi and Lovari, 1996; Woodroffe et al., 2005a,b). However, preying on livestock can impose considerable costs on the carnivore, and the extent to which a species can benefit from livestock is variable. These costs can come in the form of retaliatory killing of the carnivore, removal of the kill by farmers, etc. (see Chapter 5). In the last two centuries, retaliatory killing over livestock predation is believed to have led to two known carnivore extinctions, Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00055-8

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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6. Depletion of wild prey and snow leopard survival

among cats, female dispersal tends to be much shorter compared to that of males (e.g., Fattebert et al., 2015; Gour et al., 2013; Janecka et al., 2007). As a consequence, replacement of a killed female (by man) may occur only after a long time in low density populations of cats, slowing down a recolonization process (Lovari et al., 2009). The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is a specialized, cold-adapted cat species dwelling at relatively low densities (e.g., Sharma et al., 2014) on low-productivity, ecologically poor habitats compared to savannahs or forests (Mishra et al., 2010). Thus, reduction of wild ungulates or the local loss of even one main prey species may be expected to have a particularly heavy effect on its population density. Furthermore, the scarcity of wild prey is likely to increase predation on livestock, and the effects of retribution by humans can be especially important on a predator normally living at a low density, leading to slow recovery. When wild prey becomes scarce, a generalist predator can switch to alternative prey— including livestock, but a specialist predator may decline in abundance in response to the reduced prey base. Feeding specializations (anatomical, physiological, behavioral), body size, food requirements, prey preference, and ecological factors (e.g., availability and dispersion of prey; presence of competitors) determine the strategy used by a predator (Ferretti et al., 2020). The snow leopard is a specialist of mountain-dwelling ungulates at higher elevations, except in Gobi desert, with a narrow diet spectrum (Levin’s standardized index, 0.2, Lovari et al., 2013b) compared to other large cats (e.g., common leopard: 0.5, Lovari et al., 2013b; tiger Panthera tigris: 0.3–0.6, Lovari et al., 2014). It specializes on ungulate predation and, while occasionally killing livestock, prefers wild ungulates despite their abundance often being less than an order of magnitude compared to

livestock ( Johansson et al., 2015; Suryawanshi et al., 2017). In this chapter, we will summarize the available information on survival of snow leopards in areas where its natural prey has been depleted: Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal, where the snow leopard and its main prey have been continuously monitored for 8 years; and Spiti Valley, India, where ungulates have been monitored in sample sites for nearly 15 years.

Study areas Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), Nepal The SNP (1148 km2; 27° 200 N; 86° 450 E) lies in the central Himalaya, north-eastern Nepal. Snow leopards occur mainly between 3440 and 4750m a.s.l. Mixed Betula-Rhododendron-Abies spp. forests ( 4500 m), alpine grassland, mosses, and lichens ( 4500m) occur in the park. Musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) dwell in forests and visit their ecotonal margins ( 4500 m) with an estimated density of c. 0.3 ind./km2 (Aryal et al., 2010), whereas Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) has a present density of c. 2–3 ind./km2 (7–8 ind./km2 in the 1990s, Lovari et al., 2005), inhabiting forests and grassland up to 4500 m. Two more species of mountain ungulates (goral Naemorhedus goral and mainland serow Capricornis sumatraensis) are localized in the forest and are exceedingly rare (Lovari et al., 2005). Hillary and Doig (1962) mentioned the presence of bharal (Pseudois nayaur) in the park, but no sighting has been reported since then. Among predators, only the common leopard, in the forests, and the snow leopard, in the open habitats of the higher elevations, inhabit the park (Lovari et al., 2013a). The dhole (Cuon alpinus) and the golden jackal (Canis aureus) were present formerly, but were

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Study areas

eliminated over five decades ago because of human persecution (Lovari et al., 2005). The Tibetan wolf has become a rare winter visitor of the park, but it failed to establish a local population, most likely because of human persecution. Past overhunting and poaching before and partly after the park establishment in 1976 (Brower, 1991; Lovari et al., 2005) may have been responsible for the depauperate community of potential prey species for large carnivores. The local spectrum of potential wild prey for the snow leopard is narrow compared to other areas (e.g., Jackson, 1996; Oli et al., 1993; Schaller, 1977, 1998): in practice, just one species of a wild artiodactyl, i.e., the Himalayan tahr, and several species of gallinaceous birds (Soldatini et al., 2012) are available to the cat in the open habitats it attends. Domestic sheep and goats were removed from the park when it was established, but several thousand domestic cattle (Bos spp.) are still present.

Spiti Valley, India The Spiti Valley (32°00–32°420 N; 77°37–78°300 E; c. 12,000 km2) is a high-altitude region (3300–6000 m) bordered by the Greater Himalaya in the south, Ladakh in the north, and Tibet in the east. Agro-pastoral communities have inhabited the region for more than 2–3 millennia. Parts of Spiti are visited in summer by transhumant pastoralists from Ladakh for trade and from the Greater Himalaya for grazing (Mishra et al., 2003). The livestock assemblage in Spiti includes yak, cattle, cattle-yak hybrids, horse, donkey, sheep and goat. Livestock graze in the pastures during most of the year except in the extreme winter. Large carnivores include snow leopard, wolf, and red fox. The wild ungulates are the bharal and the Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica). Livestock outnumbers the wild ungulates by at least an order of magnitude (Mishra et al., 2001, 2004). Owing to the prevalence of Buddhism, initiation of conservation efforts more than 15 years

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back by the Nature Conservation Foundation, and the presence of the Forest Department, hunting of wildlife is now almost nonexistent.

Snow leopards and their prey in Sagarmatha National Park Large predators, except the common leopard, were wiped out in the park before its establishment. Fleming (n.d.) reports on one adult snow leopard male and one adult female with two cubs killed in the 1960s in the Namche area. The presence of the snow leopard was reported as accidental in the 1970s and 1980s (Ahlborn and Jackson, 1987; Brower, 1991). Most likely, vagrant individuals failed to establish breeding pairs up to the early 2000s (Ale and Boesi, 2005). Circumstantial evidence suggests that only in 2002–03 a breeding pair established itself (Lovari et al., 2009). In the absence of large predators (but for the common leopard in the forest; Brower, 1991), the numbers of Himalayan tahr had grown to at least 350 individuals by the end of the 1980s (Lovari, 1992) and remained around that figure up to 2003 (Fig. 6.1). Since then, the number of Himalayan tahr decreased steadily for nearly a decade, with fewer than 1/3 left in 2010, because of heavy predation on their younger age classes by the snow leopard (Lovari et al., 2009; Ferretti et al., 2014). Himalayan tahr was the staple of the snow leopard diet (56% absolute frequency), followed by cattle (c. 25% absolute frequency; Fig. 6.2) (Lovari et al., 2013a). The frequency of occurrence of tahr in the diet of the snow leopard declined substantially between 2006 and 2010 (30% decrease), along with the decrease of the tahr population (Ferretti et al., 2014). Accordingly, there has been some indication of a partial reliance on alternative prey (Ferretti et al., 2014). After an initial quick growth of snow leopard numbers from 2002 to 2003 to 2007 (150% increase in 4 years), a fall of 60% occurred in the following 4 years, together with the decrease of tahr numbers

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400

6

350

N Tahr

4

250 200

3

150

2

100

N Snow leopards

5

300

1

50 0

0 1989

2003

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

N Snow leopards

N Tahr

FIG. 6.1 Rise and fall of snow leopard numbers, following its return to SNP, obtained through genotyped scats, and population dynamics of its staple prey, the Himalayan tahr, from 1989 to 2010, estimated by monthly repeated counts (cf. methods, Lovari et al., 2013a). The asterisk marks the first formation of a breeding pair of snow leopards.

100 Dog

Tahr

Musk deer

Vole Bird 50

50%

Volume in total diet

Volume when present (%)

Bos spp.

20%

0 0

20

40

60

80

10% 5% 1% 100

Absolute frequency of occurence (%)

FIG. 6.2 Five-year food habits (pooled) of the snow leopard, in terms of estimated volume when present (%) versus frequency of occurrence (%), estimated through analyses of food remains in scats (N ¼ 183, collected monthly along a fixed itinerary). Isopleths connect points of equal relative volume. Himalayan tahr has been the staple prey. From Lovari, S., Minder, I., Ferretti, F., Mucci, N., Randi, E., Pellizzi, B., 2013a. Common and snow leopards share prey, but not habitats: competition avoidance by large predators? J. Zool. 291, 127–135.

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Implications of wild prey abundance for conservation management of snow leopards

(Ferretti et al., 2014; Fig. 6.1). No sign of presence of snow leopards was found in SNP during a survey in September 2021 (Kamal Thapa, pers. comm.). The conservation consequences of this finding, if confirmed, could suggest that local availability of wild prey has moved below the survival threshold of a resident pair of snow leopards, although additional information should be collected on a longer-term basis than a 1-month survey.

Snow leopards and their prey in Spiti Valley Spiti Valley, despite almost no hunting, has a relatively low density of wild ungulates. The overall density of ibex and bharal in representative sites of the valley was estimated at 1.26 individuals per km2 (Suryawanshi et al., 2012). There is a high overlap in the diets of wild ungulates and livestock in the region (Bagchi et al., 2004; Mishra et al., 2004). The wild ungulates largely feed on graminoids, though they tend to expand their diets to include forbs and shrubs particularly during winter, a period of lean resource availability (Mishra et al., 2004; Suryawanshi et al., 2009). Several lines of evidence suggest that the wild ungulate populations are resource limited. Their density is lower in areas with higher livestock density (Mishra et al., 2004). Bharal show reduced food intake in areas and periods of reduced forage availability (Kohli et al., 2014), which presumably results in reduced fecundity. Bharal have much lower kid: adult female ratios in areas that are intensively grazed by livestock, which appears to ultimately lead to reduced abundance (Mishra et al., 2004). The wild ungulate density, ranging from 0.14 to 3.19/km2, is highest in those parts of Spiti that are least grazed by livestock (Suryawanshi et al., 2012). How do snow leopards respond in such a livestock-dominated system? The contribution of livestock to the snow leopard diet in Spiti

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was reported to be rather high (40%–58% of the diet; Bagchi et al., 2004), although in hindsight, this can partly be attributed to the fact that earlier studies were not able to confirm the identity of scats through fecal DNA. Recent research suggests a high possibility (31%–57%) of misidentification of scats belonging to other species (foxes and dogs) as snow leopard feces (see Johansson et al., 2015). Our recent work (Suryawanshi et al., 2017) suggests that the contribution of livestock to snow leopard diet in various part of Spiti ranges from 0% to 40% and from 20% to 40% in the study sites of Bagchi et al. (2004). One area of Spiti belonging to Kibber village, where livestock grazing was stopped with the support of the local people, recorded a fourfold recovery of the bharal population and increased signs of use by snow leopards (see Chapter 18.2). Across Spiti, the relative use of areas by snow leopards, as recorded through camera trapping, appears to be largely determined by the local abundance of wild ungulates; areas with high abundance of wild ungulates recorded higher photo capture rates as well as number of individual snow leopards (Sharma et al., 2015). The current density of snow leopards in Spiti Valley is estimated at 0.30 (95% CI: 0.15–0.59) individuals per 100 km2.

Implications of wild prey abundance for conservation management of snow leopards The distinction between specialist and generalist carnivores is a somewhat arbitrary one, as very few carnivores show adaptations to use only one type (i.e., a limited variety) of wild prey. Natural selection has favored adaptable predators— which can survive on different types of prey when necessary—rather than specialists sensu stricto, who may suffer greater risks of extinction. The snow leopard tends to prey mainly on

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medium-sized herbivores occurring in open habitats, usually at high elevations, e.g., bharal, ibex, also marmots (Marmota spp.) (locally and seasonally), whereas other prey species are much less common in diet (Lovari et al., 2013b). Although it can occasionally prey on small mammals (100 kg, Lovari et al., 2013b), the snow leopard can be considered close to a “specialist.” Lovari et al. (2013b) reported that occurrence of prey in the diet of the snow leopard in relation to main food categories, as well as to weight categories of prey, varied little between 16 study sites, which would support the view of a “specialist” carnivore. While snow leopards kill livestock, their abundance seems to be determined by the abundance of wild ungulates, livestock killing being opportunistic ( Johansson et al., 2015; Suryawanshi et al., 2017). In fact, no statistically significant inverse correlation was found between occurrence of livestock and that of wild prey in diet, in a review of 16 studies (Lovari et al., 2013b). In situations of similar density of wild ungulates, net predation on livestock was reported to be higher in the area with greater livestock and snow leopard densities (Khanal et al., 2020). In SNP, the near-absence of other wild and domesticated prey species of the preferred weight category, but for Himalayan tahr and partly musk deer, has concentrated predation by the snow leopard on tahr, determining a fall of tahr numbers and, in turn, its own decline, over a time span of 8 years. In Spiti Valley, on the other hand, which is a larger area, the larger wild ungulate populations are resource limited rather than top-down controlled. Depletion of wild ungulate populations due to high livestock density presumably causes a decline in abundance and habitat use of snow leopards locally. As livestock grazing was curtailed from one area of Spiti as part of a conservation program (see Chapter 18.2), the abundance of wild ungulates increased, and so did the use of the area by snow leopards.

It has been suggested that the action of large carnivores can influence dynamics of prey populations (Hebblewhite et al., 2005; McLaren and Peterson, 1994; Ripple et al., 2014; Sinclair et al., 2003). In turn, cascade effects could impact lower trophic levels (Hebblewhite et al., 2005; McLaren and Peterson, 1994; Ripple et al., 2014). Stable communities, holding rich and diverse assemblies of predators and prey, are influenced by both top-down control and bottom-up regulation of predator/prey numbers, mediated by body size of predators and prey (Sinclair et al., 2003). In turn, top-down control of prey dynamics can be expected to be heavier in simplified systems, where a large and diverse spectrum of wild prey is not available (e.g., Lovari et al., 2009; McLaren and Peterson, 1994). Predators cannot switch to alternative wild prey, if only one main wild prey is available, leading to a reciprocal dependence of their population dynamics, over time, or to a greater reliance on livestock. Both case studies considered here point out the importance of wild ungulates in the diet and for the abundance of snow leopards and the reciprocal impacts of snow leopards and wild prey on each other. As wild ungulate abundance increases in an area, it can be expected to increase habitat use and abundance of snow leopards. On the other hand, as snow leopard abundance increases, it can have a significant negative impact on the abundance of wild ungulates, especially if the ungulate populations are relatively small and alternate prey species are absent. Ultimately, this decline in wild ungulate abundance caused by snow leopards can lead to a reduction in snow leopard abundance itself. The restoration of an assembly of wild prey species, through translocations (bharal and, perhaps, marmots) to areas such as SNP, and freeing up areas from excessive livestock grazing in others, would enhance the opportunities of persistence for the snow leopard and reduce

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References

the negative effects of concentrating predation on smaller populations of mountain ungulates such as the Near-threatened Himalayan tahr (Ferretti et al., 2014; Lovari et al., 2009).

Acknowledgments We are grateful to G.B. Schaller, S.B. Ale, L. Corlatti, and in particular F. Ferretti for their suggestions and help. G.B. Schaller kindly revised our English. The research conducted in Sagarmatha National Park was funded by the Ev-K2-C.N. R. Committee (Italy) and backed by the Nepal Academy for Science and Technology. The Segre-Whitley Fund for Nature continues to support the work in Spiti Valley.

References Ahlborn, G., Jackson, R., 1987. A survey of Sagarmatha National Park for the endangered snow leopard. Final Report. Unpublished Report, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu. Ale, S.B., Boesi, R., 2005. Snow leopard sightings on the top of the world. CAT News 43, 19–20. Aryal, A., Raubenheimer, D., Subedi, S., Kattel, B., 2010. Spatial habitat overlap and habitat preference of Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal. Curr. Res. J. Biol. Sci. 2, 217–225. Bagchi, S., Mishra, C., Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2004. Conflicts between traditional pastoralism and conservation of Himalayan ibex Capra sibirica in the Trans-Himalayan mountains. Anim. Conserv. 7, 121–128. Brower, B., 1991. Sherpa of Khumbu: People, Livestock and Landscape. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Cavallini, P., Lovari, S., 1991. Environmental factors influencing the use of habitat in the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758). J. Zool. 223, 323–339. Cepek, J.D., 2004. Diet composition of coyotes in the Cuyahoga Valley National Park, Ohio. Ohio J. Sci. 104, 60–64. Fattebert, J., Balme, G., Dickerson, T., Slotow, R., Hunter, L., 2015. Density-dependent natal dispersal patterns in a leopard population recovering from over-harvest. PLoS One 10, e0122355. Ferretti, F., Lovari, S., Minder, I., Pellizzi, B., 2014. Recovery of the snow leopard in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park: effects on main prey. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 60, 559–562. Ferretti, F., Lovari, S., Lucherini, M., Hayward, M., Stephens, P.A., 2020. Only the largest terrestrial carnivores increase their dietary breadth with increasing prey richness. Mammal Rev. 50, 291–303.

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Fleming Jr., R.L., n.d. The natural history of the Everest area. A summary. Background paper for Heart of Himalayas Conservation programme, Kathmandu – Nepal. 30 pages. Gervasi, V., Nilsen, E.B., Odden, J., Bouyer, Y., Linnell, J.D.C., 2014. The spatio-temporal distribution of wild and domestic ungulates modulates lynx kill rates in a multiuse landscape. J. Zool. 292, 175–183. Gour, D.S., Bhagavatula, J., Bhavanishankar, M., Reddy, P.A., Gupta, J.A., Sarkar, M.S., Hussain, S.M., Harika, S., Gulia, R., Shivaji, S., 2013. Philopatry and dispersal patterns in tiger (Panthera tigris). PLoS One 8, e66956. Gusset, M., Swarner, M.J., Mponwane, L., Keletile, K., McNutt, J.W., 2009. Human wildlife conflict in northern Botswana: livestock predation by endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus and other carnivores. Oryx 43, 67–72. Hebblewhite, M., White, C., Nietvelt, C.G., McKenzie, J.A., Hurd, T.E., Fryxell, J.M., Bayley, S.E., Paquet, P.C., 2005. Human activity mediates a trophic cascade caused by wolves. Ecology 86, 2135–2144. Hillary, E., Doig, D., 1962. High in the Thin Cold Air. Hodder and Stoughton, New Zealand, pp. 58–59. Jackson, R., 1996. Home Range, Movements and Habitat Use of Snow Leopard Uncia uncia in Nepal (PhD thesis). University of London. Janecka, J.E., Blankenship, T.L., Hirth, D.H., Kilpatrick, C.W., Tewes, M.E., Grassman, L.I., 2007. Evidence for malebiased dispersal in bobcats using relatedness analysis. Wildl. Biol. 13, 38–47. Johansson, O., McCarthy, T., Samelius, G., Andren, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2015. Snow leopard predation in a livestock dominated landscape in Mongolia. Biol. Conserv. 184, 251–258. Khanal, G., Mishra, C., Suryawanshi, K.R., 2020. Relative influence of wild prey and livestock abundance on carnivore-caused livestock predation. Ecol. Evol. 10, 11787–11797. Kohli, M., Sankaran, M., Suryawanshi, K.R., Mishra, C., 2014. A penny saved is a penny earned: lean season foraging strategy of an alpine ungulate. Anim. Behav. 92, 93–100. Kolowski, J.M., Holekamp, K.E., 2006. Spatial, temporal, and physical characteristics of livestock depredations by large carnivores along a Kenyan reserve border. Biol. Conserv. 128, 529–541. Lovari, S., 1992. Observations on the Himalayan tahr and other ungulates of the Sagarmatha National Park, Khumbu Himal, Nepal. Oecologia Montana 1, 51–52. Lovari, S., Ale, S., Boesi, R., 2005. Notes on the large mammal community of Sagarmatha National Park. In: Proceedings of the First International Karakorum Conference, Islamabad, pp. 225–230.

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Lovari, S., Boesi, R., Minder, I., Mucci, N., Randi, E., Dematteis, A., Ale, S.B., 2009. Restoring a keystone predator may endanger a prey species in a human-altered ecosystem: the return of the snow leopard to Sagarmatha National Park. Anim. Conserv. 12, 559–570. Lovari, S., Minder, I., Ferretti, F., Mucci, N., Randi, E., Pellizzi, B., 2013a. Common and snow leopards share prey, but not habitats: competition avoidance by large predators? J. Zool. 291, 127–135. Lovari, S., Ventimiglia, M., Minder, I., 2013b. Food habits of two leopard species, competition, climate change and upper treeline: a way to the decrease of an endangered species? Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 25, 305–318. Lovari, S., Pokheral, C.P., Jnawali, S.R., Fusani, F., Ferretti, F., 2014. Coexistence of the tiger and the common leopard in a prey-rich area: the role of prey partitioning. J. Zool. 295, 122–131. Macdonald, D.W., 1992. The Velvet Claw: A Natural History of Carnivores. BBC Books, London. Macdonald, D.W., Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2004. Wild canids—an introduction and dramatis personae. In: Macdonald, D.W., Sillero-Zubiri, C. (Eds.), The Biology and Conservation of Wild Canids. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 3–38. McLaren, B.E., Peterson, R.O., 1994. Wolves, moose, and tree rings on Isle Royale. Science 266, 1555–1558. Meriggi, A., Lovari, S., 1996. A review of wolf predation in southern Europe: does the wolf prefer wild prey to livestock? J. Appl. Ecol. 33, 1561–1571. Meriggi, A., Rosa, P., Brangi, A., Matteucci, C., 1991. Habitat use and diet of the wolf in northern Italy. Acta Theriol. 36, 141–151. Mishra, C., Prins, H.H.T., Van Wieren, S.E., 2001. Overstocking in the Trans-Himalayan rangelands of India. Environ. Conserv. 28, 279–283. Mishra, C., Van Wieren, S.E., Prins, H.H.T., 2003. Diversity, risk mediation, and change in a trans-Himalayan agropastoral system. Hum. Ecol. 31, 595–609. Mishra, C., Van Wieren, S.E., Ketner, P., Heitkonig, I.M.A., Prins, H.H.T., 2004. Competition between domestic livestock and wild bharal Pseudois nayaur in the Indian TransHimalaya. J. Appl. Ecol. 41, 344–354. Mishra, C., Bagchi, S., Namgail, T., Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2010. Multiple use of Trans-Himalayan rangelands: reconciling human livelihoods with wildlife conservation. In: Du Toit, J., Kock, R., Deutsch, J. (Eds.), Wild Rangelands: Conserving Wildlife While Maintaining Livestock in Semi-Arid Ecosystems. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp. 291–311. Oli, M.K., Taylor, I.R., Rogers, M.E., 1993. The diet of the snow leopard Panthera uncia in the Annapurna conservation area, Nepal. J. Zool. 231, 365–370. Ripple, W.J., Estes, J.A., Beschta, R.L., Wilmers, C.C., Ritchie, E.G., Hebblewhite, M., Berger, J., Elmhagen, B.,

Letnic, M., Nelson, M.P., Schmitz, O.J., Smith, D.W., Wallach, A.D., Wirsing, A.J., 2014. Status and ecological effects of the World’s largest carnivores. Science 343, 1241484. Schaller, G.B., 1977. Mountain Monarchs: Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalaya. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Schaller, G.B., 1998. Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London. Sharma, K., Bayrakcismith, R., Tumursukh, L., Johansson, O., Sevger, P., McCarthy, T., Mishra, C., 2014. Vigorous dynamics underlie a stable population of the endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia in Tost Mountains, South Gobi, Mongolia. PLoS One 9, e101319. Sharma, R.K., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mishra, C., 2015. Does livestock benefit or harm snow leopards? Biol. Conserv. 190, 8–13. Shehzad, W., Nawaz, M.A., Pompanon, F., Coissac, E., Riaz, T., Shah, S.A., Taberlet, P., 2015. Forest without prey: livestock sustain a leopard Panthera pardus population in Pakistan. Oryx 49, 248–253. Sinclair, A.R.E., Mduma, S., Brashares, J.S., 2003. Patterns of predation in a diverse predator-prey system. Nature 425, 288–290. Soldatini, C., Pellizzi, B., Albores-Barajas, Y.V., 2012. The importance of integrating behavioural ecology into experimental design when censusing Himalayan Galliformes. Ital. J. Zool. 79, 120–127. Suryawanshi, K., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mishra, C., 2009. Why should a grazer browse? Livestock impact on winter resource use by bharal Pseudois nayaur. Oecologia 162, 453–462. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mishra, C., 2012. Standardizing the double-observer survey method for estimating mountain ungulate prey of the endangered snow leopard. Oecologia 169, 581–590. Suryawanshi, K.R., Redpath, S.M., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Ramakrishnan, U., Chaturvedi, V., Smout, S.C., Mishra, C., 2017. Impact of wild prey availability on livestock predation by snow leopards. R. Soc. Open Sci. 4, 170026. Valeix, M., Hemson, G., Loveridge, A.J., Mills, G., Macdonald, D.W., 2012. Behavioural adjustments of a large carnivore to access secondary prey in a humandominated landscape. J. Appl. Ecol. 49, 73–81. Woodroffe, R., Lindsey, P., Roman˜ach, S., Stein, A., Ranah, S.M.K., 2005a. Livestock predation by endangered African wild dogs. Biol. Conserv. 124, 225–234. Woodroffe, R., Thirgood, S., Rabinowitz, A., 2005b. The impact of human-wildlife conflict on natural systems. In: Woodroffe, R., Thirgood, R., Rabinowitz, A. (Eds.), People and Wildlife: Conflict or Coexistence. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 1–12.

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C H A P T E R

7 Illegal killing and trade Aishwarya Maheshwaria, Shekhar Kumar Nirajb, and David Mallonc a

c

Vasundhara-5, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India bTamil Nadu Biodiversity Board, Chennai, India Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom

Introduction

Legal protection

Wildlife trade is dynamic in nature, and information on the exact number of a species poached or traded illegally remains limited and problematic to collect. Studies to report or predict precise number of a particular species in wildlife trade all have their own limitations and restrictions. However, continuous efforts have been made to uncover at least the minimum number of individuals concerned. The beautiful, luxuriant coat of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) has long been valued for clothing, rugs, and wall hangings. Heptner and Sludskii (1972) estimated that 1000 skins were prepared for trade annually in 1907–10, but the number declined to “a few tens” per year in the 1950s–1960s. Mongolia produced 15–25 skins annually until 1954 (Bannikov, 1954). During the 20th century, snow leopards, mainly cubs, were also live-caught for zoos. In the former USSR, the Kyrgyzstan branch of the “Zootsentr” organization at Issyk Kul received 50 live snow leopards over 3 years, and the Tajikistan branch received 50 during the 1950s (Heptner and Sludskii, 1972).

Due to concerns about the high numbers of skins in trade, the snow leopard was included in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1975, which prohibits international trade in snow leopards and their parts. All 12 snow leopard range states are signatories to CITES, and snow leopards are protected by national laws in all of these countries. As a result, there is no legal hunting or trade in snow leopards, skins, or parts, or any other derivatives, except for exchange of captive-bred animals between zoos and captive breeding programs, as permitted under CITES.

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00015-7

Illegal trade Implementation of national laws is not always fully effective (Maheshwari and Niraj, 2018). A lack of awareness of the law in remote locations may undermine the efficacy and implementation of legislation. In south and central Asia, awareness of laws and legislations at

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the local level is generally poor. Furthermore, a paucity of dedicated staff at field level in the wildlife departments across snow leopard range may hamper effective enforcement efforts, and the relatively low salary structure of frontline staff may on occasion tempt some of them to become involved in illegal trade. The rugged terrain and remoteness of many parts of snow leopard range hinder detection and enforcement. Poaching and illegal trade are regarded as among the major threats to snow leopards across much of their range (SLN, 2014; GSLEP, 2013). In the mid-late 1990s, there was a surge in levels of snow leopard poaching in the Russian Federation and Central Asia following the split of the former Soviet Union (Koshkarev and Vyrypaev, 2000). Snow leopard poaching and trade result from commercial poaching for skins and other body parts, retaliatory killing, and opportunistic killing (Maheshwari and Niraj, 2018). Local communities across snow leopard range are primarily agropastoral, depending on livestock and cultivable land, where the cropping season is also short (Maheshwari and Sathyakumar, 2020). Livestock depredation by snow leopards often causes serious damage to the livelihoods of local people and may provoke retaliatory killing. In a few regions, snow leopards face the risk of being unintended victims of snares, e.g., those placed for musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) in the Russian Federation (Paltsyn et al., 2012). It is likely that some snow leopards killed for retaliation may later be sold, even though financial benefits were the primary motivation.

Monitoring illegal trade A first study by TRAFFIC (Theile, 2002) assessed the levels of snow leopard poaching and trade during 1993–2002. The study was based on seizures by the authorities, published and unpublished literature, questionnaires, and market research. The results showed that

a minimum of 260 snow leopards were recorded in trade during this period. Skins appeared to be the primary snow leopard derivative in illegal trade, followed by claws and teeth (Nowell and Xu, 2007; Dexel, 2002; Theile, 2002). Later evidence indicated that trade in skins was moving toward rugs, luxury decor, and taxidermy (EIA, 2012). Research on illegal trade continued, with an initial analysis by Maheshwari and von Meibom (2016) and subsequently by TRAFFIC (Maheshwari and Niraj, 2016; Nowell et al., 2016) and then by Maheshwari and Niraj (2018). Maheshwari and Niraj (2016, 2018) compiled a Snow Leopard Crime Database containing records of seizures and observations from the CITES Trade Database, Environmental Investigation Agency, national law enforcement agencies, published and unpublished papers and reports, market observations by independent researchers, and market surveys in Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan. Interviews were conducted with relevant experts and representatives from snow leopard range states during the Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum held in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, October 21–24, 2013, and a questionnaire was circulated to approximately 400 members of the Snow Leopard Network (SLN). Maheshwari and Niraj (2018) reported a minimum of 447 snow leopards in trade during 2003–2014 in 11 of the 12 range countries (excluding Kazakhstan), an average of 37.25 snow leopards annually over 12 years. Scaling up these figures to all 12 countries would produce an estimate of approximately 488 snow leopards in trade during this time or 41 per year. They also found that only 50% of snow leopard crimes were prosecuted, and the conviction rate was just about 20%. Nowell et al. (2016) addressed a major information gap concerning the linkage between retaliatory killing and poaching for trade and developed two sets of data: first, a Snow Leopard Crime Database containing records of seizures (legal actions taken by government

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Extent of illegal killing

authorities) and second, reports of snow leopard killing, capture, or trade, including market surveys). Nowell et al. (2016) reported 710 snow leopards poached or traded from 2003 to June 2016. The total number in the first half of the analysis period (451: 2003–2009) was 74% higher than in the second half (259: 2010–June 2016). Of 451 snow leopards (2003–2009), 228 were reported during market surveys followed by 115 seizures, and 108 observed in trade. Similarly, of 259 snow leopards (from 2010 to June 2016), 113 were seizures followed by 100 observations, and 26 were recorded in market surveys. These studies were conducted almost in parallel and during the same period. Maheshwari and Niraj (2016, 2018), Nowell et al. (2016) all reported that snow leopard crime declined in most countries since 2002. The number of snow leopard skins and products on open sale has also clearly declined (EIA, 2018). This likely results from increased scrutiny, intensified antipoaching measures, enhanced law enforcement, and border customs and trade controls (Chapter 22). Regional cooperation on wildlife crime (e.g., GSLEP, 2015) may also have played a major role. On the other hand, it is possible that some of these factors have driven illegal trade further underground and made it more difficult to detect. However, the substantial decline in overall snow leopard crime coincides with a significant expansion of conservation measures in the past 20years, benefiting further from the impetus provided by the GSLEP. These measures include limiting and mitigating livestock depredation by snow leopards through construction of predator-proof corrals, village reserves, and veterinary interventions (Chapter 18); incentives (ecotourism, alternative income generation; Chapter 17); community involvement (Chapters 15 and 16) and education (Chapter 21). It is likely that these actions have collectively contributed to a reduction in retaliatory killing, while some of legal measures referred to above may have

deterred smuggling and trade. However, further scientific investigations would be required to prove this conclusively.

Extent of illegal killing Not all snow leopards killed illegally end up in the trade chain, so the number recorded on the crime database likely underestimates the actual total killed. Nowell et al. (2016) and Maheshwari and Niraj (2018) attempted to estimate the level of illegal killing through a multilevel approach (Table 7.1). Experts from across snow leopard range were asked to report the number of direct and indirect reports of illegal killing of snow leopards in the area where they worked, to estimate the number of these entering trade, and to estimate the proportion of cases detected. Nowell et al. (2016) estimated that 221–450 snow leopards were poached annually in 2003–2016, with 108–219 of these entering the trade chain. On average, the consulted experts suspected that they detected 10 years in prison. This appears to have discouraged local people from hunting and trading the species. Recent studies have recorded no current demand for snow leopard parts by households (Li and Lu, 2014; Maheshwari and Niraj, 2018). Trade does not appear to be a threat to snow leopards in the Sanjiangyuan Region, since Buddhist ethics are a large contributory factor in minimizing persecution and killing of snow leopards on the Tibetan plateau (Li and Lu, 2014; Li et al., 2013). In spite of this, China was by far the largest contributor to the global snow leopard trade, which was concentrated in the northwestern regions of China with a total of 291 individuals in trade in China (60% of the global trade in snow leopard, n ¼ 481; Maheshwari and Niraj, 2018).

India In addition to cases reported in Nowell et al. (2016) and Maheshwari and Niraj (2018), there are no recent records of snow leopard in illegal trade in India. However, retaliatory killing by shepherds to protect their livestock cannot be ruled out in the remote locations of the Himalaya and Transhimalaya.

Kazakhstan Although, snow leopard trade has been identified as one of the major threats to its conservation in Kazakhstan (Loginov, 2016), only sparse information is available. Except for a few old records, e.g., Chestin (1998), there are no other recent records that could help to quantify the magnitude of this threat in Kazakhstan.

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Country summaries

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Kyrgyzstan

Pakistan

It is reported that the snow leopard population in Kyrgyzstan declined by about 80% during the 1990s due to poaching (Theile, 2002). In 1999, the NGO NABU founded an anti-poaching unit “Gruppa Bars” (Group snow leopard) in cooperation with the Kyrgyz Government. So far, more than 200 poachers have been arrested, seven live snow leopards, pelts, and hundreds of traps and weapons have been confiscated.

A recent study reported 101 snow leopard poaching incidences from 11 districts during 2005–2017 in Pakistan, equating to about 8 per year (Din et al., 2022). This would constitute 2%–4% of the total snow leopard population (200–420) in Pakistan (Din et al., 2022). Shooting followed by poisoning and snares were the most common methods used to poach snow leopards in Pakistan (Din et al., 2022). Snow leopard pelts and other body parts were reportedly transported to large cities, such as Peshawar, Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and even Lahore and Karachi for onward shipment to the Middle East and other countries, including China (Khan, 2002).

Mongolia Previously, there was no legal restriction on purchasing, owning, or possessing snow leopard parts in Mongolia. However, an amendment to the Law on Fauna in 2012 stringently prohibited purchasing, owning, or possessing snow leopards or their parts in Mongolia (Law on Fauna, Article 7.3). The change in the law, supported by enhanced enforcement measures, may have reduced the incidence of illegal trade snow leopard in Mongolia and contributed to the lack of recent records.

Russia There are no reported recent records of snow leopard in illegal trade in Russia, except for old records of 15 snow leopards (single record) and a live snow leopard cub recorded in trade in the Altai region bordering Mongolia during 2003–2006 (Paltsyn et al., 2012).

Tajikistan Nepal It had been reported that Nepali shepherds exchange snow leopard pelts and bones for live domestic livestock (sheep and goat) and also sometimes for money with people in Tibet (The Snow Leopard Conservation Action Plan for the Kingdom of Nepal 2003). Qomolangma Nature Reserve in China borders several protected areas in Nepal including Makalu-Barun, Sagarmatha, Langtang, Manaslu, and Annapurna. Kangchendzonga Conservation Area of Nepal is connected with Kanchendzonga National Park in Sikkim state, India. Such trans-boundary PAs need special protection from either side of the international borders and joint exercises to curb poaching. There are no recent records of snow leopard trade in Nepal.

Similar to Russia, there are no recent records of illegal snow leopard reported trade in Tajikistan. However, there are many houses in Dushanbe that have snow leopard skins hanging on their walls (Tatjana Rosen Michel, personal communication). In the past, the Pamir region of Gorno-Badakhshan had been reported to be the stronghold for snow leopard poaching. Two trapped snow leopards were transported alive to Dushanbe in 2014 both of which subsequently died.

Uzbekistan A survey covering the years 1975–2003 showed that 6–7 snow leopards were harvested annually (3–4 in the Tien Shan, 2 in the

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7. Illegal killing and trade

Turkestan range, and 1 in Sangardak; Bykova et al., 2004). The latest poaching incident occurred in the Akbulak river basin (Western Tien Shan) in 2004, and an attempt was made to sell the skin for USD 1000 (Chapter 39).

Recommendations 1. Conduct systematic surveys for snow leopard illegal trade in Central Asia, Mongolia, North-Western China, and Afghanistan: There is continuing lack of detailed information on trade and poaching of snow leopards in Central Asia. Though trade seems to have declined, it may continue at an unknown level. The northwest regions of China (especially Xinjiang, Qinghai, and Gansu provinces) have previously been major areas of snow leopard trade and contributed nearly half the volume of trade in snow leopards. Afghanistan has recorded a disproportionately large number of snow leopard skins in trade. Thus, Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Mongolia, and northwest China would be priorities for monitoring and information gathering for trade. 2. Improve reporting of illegal trade data to CITES: Currently, few member countries have reported on trade in snow leopards. It needs to be emphasized that all CITES member countries are bound to report to CITES under Res. Conf. 12.5 (Rev. COP. 15), which covers all Asian big cats including the snow leopard. 3. Strengthen trans-boundary cooperation in control of illegal trade in snow leopards: A considerable part of the snow leopard range straddles international borders, and the rugged mountain terrain of these areas makes smuggling and trade of snow leopard parts across borders relatively easy. There are records of three live cubs of snow leopards

being smuggled in the South Asia and Central Asian countries during the years 2010–20s. In this scenario, trans-boundary cooperation among enforcement agencies is a necessity. 4. Raise awareness within snow leopard range about the threats posed to snow leopards due to trade and legal provisions: It is evident that most trade takes place within the snow leopard range. Thus, continued awareness programs targeted at domestic audiences are urgently needed to sensitize enforcement agencies, policymakers and to educate the general public. 5. Demand reduction: Demand reduction campaigns conducted by TRAFFIC China have proved effective in raising awareness against illegal trade of snow leopard parts and derivatives. However, campaigns have to be modeled based on critical factors of the consumers’ motivation, socioeconomic elements, and trade incentives that need to be neutralized. Similar campaigns could be designed and implemented in the countries where significant trade markets exist. 6. Future research initiatives: Future research initiatives on snow leopard should include aspects of snow leopard trade, e.g., whether snow leopard is demonstrative of the “substitution effects” (Niraj et al., 2012). Application of DNA barcoding and genetic markers will be useful for tracking the sourcesink dynamics of snow leopard trade, and international cooperation will be important in developing reference samples from different geographical populations.

References Bannikov, A.G., 1954. Mammals of the Mongolian People’s Republic. Academy of Sciences, Moscow (in Russian). Chestin, I., 1998. Wildlife Trade in Russia and Central Asia. TRAFFIC Europe, Brussels, Belgium (Compiler). Dexel, B., 2002. The Illegal Trade in Snow Leopards – A Global Perspective. Naturschutzbund Deutschland (NABU), Berlin.

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Recommendations

Din, J.U., Bari, F., Ali, H., Rehman, E.U., Adli, D.S.H., Abdullah, N.A., Norma-Rashid, Y., Kabir, M., Hameed, S., Nawaz, D.A., Nawaz, M.A., 2022. Drivers of snow leopard poaching and trade in Pakistan and implications for management. Nat. Conservat. 46, 49–62. EIA, 2012. Briefing on Snow Leopards in Illegal Trade: Asia’s Forgotten Cats. Environmental Investigation Agency. https://eia-international.org/wp-content/uploads/ EIA-Briefing-on-Snow-Leopards-in-Illegal-Trade-–Asia’s-Forgotten-Cats1.pdf. (Accessed 12 October 2022). EIA, 2018. Out in the cold – the ongoing threat of snow leopard trade. In: Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA). UK, London. Available from: https://eia-international. org/report/the-ongoing-threat-of-snow-leopard-trade/. (Accessed 2 November 2022). GSLEP, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Program. Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic, Snow Leopard Working Secretariat. GSLEP, 2015. Regional Enforcement Strategy to Combat Illegal Wildlife Trade in Central Asia, 2015–2018. Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic, Snow Leopard Working Secretariat. Heptner, V.G., Sludskii, A.A., 1972. Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol. 2 Part 2. Carnivores. Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow (in Russian; English translation 1992, E.J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands). Kanderian, N., Lawson, D., Zahler, P., 2011. Current status of wildlife and conservation in Afghanistan. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 68, 281–298. Khan, J., 2002. Availability of snow leopard pelt in Pakistan. Unpublished report to TRAFFIC. Koshkarev, E.P., Vyrypaev, V., 2000. The snow leopard after the break-up of the Soviet Union. Cat News 32, 9–11. Li, J., Lu, Z., 2014. Snow leopard poaching and trade in China 2000–2013. Biol. Conservat. 176, 207–211. Li, J., Yin, H., Wang, D., Jiagong, Z., Lu, Z., 2013. Humansnow leopard conflicts in the Sanjiangyuan Region of the Tibetan Plateau. Biol. Conserv. 166, 118–123. Loginov, O., 2016. Central Asia - Kazakhstan (20032012). In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 427–432. Maheshwari, A., 2022. Biodiversity conservation in Afghanistan under the returned Taliban. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 6, 342–343. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01655-1. Maheshwari, A., Niraj, S.K., 2016. Conservation and Adaptation in Asia’s High Mountain Landscapes and Communities: Melting the Snow: Monitoring Illegal Trade in Snow Leopards. TRAFFIC, India Office/WWF-India, New Delhi, India. Maheshwari, A., Niraj, S.K., 2018. Monitoring illegal trade in snow leopards: 2003-2014. Global Ecol. Conservat. 14, e00387. Maheshwari, A., Sathyakumar, S., 2020. Patterns of livestock depredation and large carnivore conservation implica-

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tions in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. J. Arid Environ. 182, 104421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020. 104241. Maheshwari, A., von Meibom, S., 2016. Monitoring illegal trade in Snow Leopards (2003-2012). In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 77–84. Manati, A.R., 2009. The trade in Leopard and Snow Leopard skins in Afghanistan. TRAFFIC Bull. 22, 57–58. McCarthy, T., Mallon, D., Jackson, R., Zahler, P., McCarthy, K., 2017. Panthera uncia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T22732A50664030. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS. T22732A50664030.en. (Accessed 12 March 2022). Moheb, Z., 2020. Livestock predation and snow-leopardhuman conflict in the Wakhan Valley of Wakhan National Park, northeastern Afghanistan. PhD thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA. Niraj, S.K., Krausman, P.R., Dayal, V., 2012. Temporal and spatial analysis of wildlife poaching in India from 19922006. Int. J. Ecol. Econ. Stat. 24, 79–109. Nowell, K., Xu, L., 2007. Taming the Tiger Trade: China’s Markets for Wild and Captive Tiger Products Since its 1993 Domestic Trade Ban. TRAFFIC East Asia, Hong Kong. Nowell, K., Li, J., Paltsyn, M., Sharma, R.K., 2016. An Ounce of Prevention: Snow Leopard Crime Revisited. TRAFFIC, Cambridge, UK. Paltsyn, M.Y., Spitsyn, S.V., Kuksin, A.N., Istomov, S.V., 2012. Snow Leopard Conservation in Russia. WWF Russia. http://www.altaiproject.org/wp-content/uploads/ 2012/09/Russian-Snow-Leopard-Conservation-2012. pdf. (Accessed 17 March 2022). Robinson, H.S., Wielgus, R.B., Cooley, H.S., Cooley, S.W., 2008. Sink populations in carnivore management: cougar demography and immigration in a hunted population. Ecol. Appl. 18, 1028–1037. Robinson, H.S., Goodrich, J.M., Miquelle, D.G., Miller, C.S., Seryodkin, I.V., 2015. Mortality of Amur tigers: the more things change, the more they stay the same. Integrat. Zool. 10, 344–353. Rodenburg, W.F., 1977. The Trade in the Wild Animal Furs in Afghanistan. Unpublished Report. SLN, 2009. One snow leopard a year lost to poaching (Bhutan). Available from: https://snowleopardnetwork.org/ 2009/06/15/one-snow-leopard-a-year-lost-to-poaching/. (Accessed 2 November 2022). SLN, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy, revised version, 2014. 1. Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, USA. Theile, S., 2002. Fading Footprints: The Killing and Trade of Snow Leopards. TRAFFIC, Cambridge, UK. 73 pp.

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C H A P T E R

8 Climate change impacts on snow leopard range John D. Farringtona and Juan Lib a

WWF Bhutan, Thimphu, Bhutan bDepartment of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, China

Introduction

leopard (Panthera uncia) habitat in the highest mountains on Earth. Here we examine current impacts of climate change in snow leopard range as well as possible future impacts.

Earth’s temperatures have been rising at an unprecedented rate since the second half of the 20th century. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s sixth assessment report (IPCC AR6), the planet’s average global surface temperature increased about 1.09°C between the 1850–1900 and 2011–2020 reference periods (IPCC, 2021). This temperature increase has been substantially higher over land, about 1.59°C, than over the oceans, about 0.88°C (IPCC, 2021). It is predicted that by 2081–2100, the global surface temperature will be about 1.0–5.7°C higher with respect to the 1850–1900 reference period, depending on actual CO2 emissions in the remainder of the 21st century (IPCC, 2021). It is anticipated that climate change will be a major cause of global biodiversity loss by the end of 21st century due to rapid alteration of species’ range, habitat, phenology, and life cycles, with mountaintop and polar species already showing severe range contractions (e.g., see Walther et al., 2002). Climatic warming is having a particularly large impact on snow

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00037-6

Climate change phenomena in snow leopard range Temperature From 1951 to 2012, the Earth’s global mean surface temperature increased at a rate of 0.12° C/decade, with a further increase of 0.19°C from 2012 to 2020 (IPCC, 2013, 2021). However, a review of temperature records from north to south across snow leopard range revealed far higher warming rates during this period, ranging from 0.34°C to 0.90°C/decade, with the most rapid warming occurring since the 1970s (Table 8.1). Notably, many authors agree that these warming rates show a strong seasonal variation, with warming in winter being dramatically higher than the annual average. For example, Li et al. (2010) report that while

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8. Climate change impacts on snow leopard range

TABLE 8.1 A selection of climatic warming rates from snow leopard range areas, listed north to south. Location

Period

Warming rate

Sources

Global mean surface temperature

1951–2012

0.12°C/decade

IPCC (2013)

Northern Altai, Russia (average of 9 stations)

1966–2015

0.42°C/decade

Zhang et al. (2018)

Southern Altai, China (average of 8 stations)

1966–2015

0.54°C/decade

Zhang et al. (2018)

Tian Shan, Naryn, Kyrgyzstan (2039 m)

1930–2018

0.34°C/decade

MESHA (2020)

Tibetan Plateau, China (average of 71 stations)

1970–2014

0.39°C/decade

Deng et al. (2017)

Dingri, Tibet, China (4032 m, Qomolangma National Nature Reserve)

1959–2007

0.62°C/decade

Yang et al. (2011)

Trans-Himalayan Region, Nepal (average of 2 stations)

1977–1994

0.90°C/decade

Shrestha et al. (1999)

Himalayan Region, Nepal (average of 6 stations)

1977–1994

0.57°C/decade

Shrestha et al. (1999)

Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal (average above 5000 m)

1994–2013

0.44°C/decade

Salerno et al. (2015)

summer temperatures on the Tibetan Plateau warmed at a rate of 0.25°C/decade from 1961 to 2007, winter temperatures warmed at a rate of 0.59°C/decade over the same period. This may be due in part to the loss of snow and ice cover at higher elevations from climatic warming and a subsequent reduction in albedo, which in turn accelerates warming in areas formerly covered by snow and ice (Liu and Chen, 2000). Furthermore, Salerno et al. (2015) noted that above 5000 m in the Everest region of Nepal from 1994 to 2013, warming rates for minimum temperatures were eight times higher than for maximum temperatures at 0.72°C/decade and 0.09°C/decade, respectively. The implications of rapid warming in snow leopard range areas are tremendous for glaciers, permafrost, precipitation, and weather phenomena, which in turn will have large consequences for ecosystems, wildlife, and human livelihoods in these areas.

Precipitation The IPCC AR6 report states that between 1950 and 2018, precipitation increased in mid- and high-latitude Eurasia, but decreased in parts

South and East Asia (IPCC, 2021). This is reflected in recent precipitation records for snow leopard range, where precipitation trends are less distinct than for temperatures, with significant variation from region to region. For example, Zhang et al. (2018) report that in the Russian Altai, precipitation decreased at a rate of 1.41 mm/decade from 1966 to 2015 while in the Chinese Altai, it increased by 8.89 mm/ decade. At Naryn in the Kyrgyz Tian Shan, from 1931 to 2010, precipitation increased by about 5.9 mm/decade, while a significant decrease occurred in the Northwest Himalaya of India from 1866 to 2006 (MESHA, 2020; Bhutiyani et al., 2010). An analysis of 71 stations on the Tibetan Plateau revealed an increase of 14.3 mm/decade from 1970 to 2014 (Deng et al., 2017). In Nepal as a whole, precipitation increased by 87 mm/decade from 1979 to 2016, with the largest increases occurring in the Annapurna Region of the Himalayas (Shrestha et al., 2019). However, at 5035 m in Nepal’s Sagarmatha National Park, precipitation is estimated to have declined sharply at a rate of 137 mm/decade from 1994 to 2012 (Salerno et al., 2015). Nevertheless, these reports appear to collectively point

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Climate change phenomena in snow leopard range

toward a small net increase in precipitation in snow leopard range since the mid-20th century, with a varying degree of statistical significance at each location.

Glaciers The IPCC AR6 report states that glacier mass loss in High Mountain Asia from 2000 to 2019 represents 8% of the total global loss for this period (IPCC, 2021). A review of glacier research across snow leopard range revealed that nearly all glaciers in the region experienced a net retreat since the mid-20th century. The reported declines in total glacier area in literature reviewed ranged from a 3.6% decrease for 389 glaciers in China’s West Kunlun Mountains from about 1970 to 2016 to a 31% decline in area for 212 glaciers in the Bhagirathi No. 2 Basin in India from 1962 to 2002 (Aizen et al., 2006; Bolch et al., 2012; Kokorin, 2011; Pan et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2018). Notably, continental-type glaciers in the interior of high-altitude zones, such as in the central Tibetan Plateau and the Ak-Shyrak region of Kyrgyzstan, are retreating at significantly lower rates than temperate-type glaciers located in warmer climatic zones (e.g., see Aizen et al., 2006; Pan et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2018). This decrease in ice cover has various implications for snow leopard range, including loss of timereleased water needed by both humans and wildlife, an acceleration of the feedback effect of increased warming at high altitude resulting from declining ice and snow cover, and an increase in glacial lake outburst flood hazards.

Permafrost The IPCC AR5 report states that permafrost temperatures in most of the world’s permafrost regions have increased since the early 1980s due to warming air temperatures and reduced snow cover (IPCC, 2013). Notably, the IPCC AR6 report cites a global average permafrost warming rate of 0.29°C for the 10-year period from

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2007 to 2016 for all polar and mountain permafrost regions (IPCC, 2021). Because of the generally high elevations and cold environments in which snow leopards live, the majority of snow leopard range is either partly or completely underlain by continuous or discontinuous permafrost (e.g., see Marchenko et al., 2007). At the heart of the snow leopard’s range on the Tibetan Plateau, the areal extent of permafrost is 1,401,000 km2 or about 54.3% of the plateau’s total area (Zhao and Li, 2009). The lower elevational limit of permafrost in snow leopard range is currently about 1800 m in the Russian Altai, increasing southward to a high of about 5400 m in the Nepal Himalaya (Fukui et al., 2007a,b; Zhao et al., 2010; Zhao and Li, 2009). As elsewhere, climatic warming has resulted in both permafrost warming and degradation throughout snow leopard range, with measured thickness of reviewed seasonally thawed permafrost active layers increasing up to 1.6 m over various monitoring periods since the late 1960s (Sharkhuu et al., 2007; Zhao et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2020). This has been accompanied by actual warming of permafrost itself at measured rates of up to 0.07°C/year (Zhao et al., 2010). As a result, permafrost has declined in areal extent while the lower elevational limit of permafrost has shifted upward (Wang et al., 2000; Zhao and Li, 2009). The impact of climate change-induced permafrost degradation can be severe on highly sensitive permafrost-controlled ecosystems in snow leopard range. A major impact is lowering of the water table as permafrost melts, resulting in conversion of alpine meadows to less productive steppe grassland-type ecosystems, which in turn can result in increased ground heat absorption leading to further permafrost degradation as vegetation cover declines (Wang et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2020). Permafrost melt also causes loss of shallow permafrost-controlled surface water features, such as seeps, springs, streams, wet meadows, and ponds, which in turn contributes to desertification processes (Wang et al., 2006;

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Xue et al., 2009). For snow leopards, declines in grassland productivity and drying up of water holes resulting from permafrost degradation have the potential to greatly reduce the carrying capacity of wild prey species and livestock on affected grasslands, reducing the available prey base.

Wetlands Extensive alpine wetlands exist in much of snow leopard range, including saline lakes, freshwater lakes, ponds, marshes, bogs, rivers, and vast alpine wet meadows, most notably on the Tibetan Plateau. Climate change is having a profound impact on vast areas of these wetlands with various implications for snow leopard habitat. A Tibetan Plateau-wide analysis by Xue et al. (2018) found that in the 1970s, the plateau had a total wetland area of 114,700 km2 comprised by type of 57.6% wet meadows, 5.5% freshwater marsh, and 3.4% saline marsh. However, by the 2010s, the areas of these wetland types had declined by 15.6%, 46.6%, and 53.9% respectively, which Wang et al. (2006) attribute in large part to permafrost degradation. At the same time, counterintuitively, many large closed-basin saline lakes on the plateau are rising at a rapid rate. The analysis by Xue et al. (2018) classified 33% of plateau wetlands as lakes in the 1970s, the total area of which had increased 14.6% by the 2010s, inundating many lakeshore marsh areas in the process. At present, these rising lake levels are attributed by various authors to a combination of increasing precipitation and increasing rates of glacier and permafrost melt (Liu et al., 2021; Xue et al., 2018). One prominent example is that of Seling Co Lake (elevation 4547 m), located in the central Tibet Autonomous Region, which has an area of 2427 km2. From 2002 to 2015, the water surface level of Seling Co increased by 5.10 m, while from 2000 to 2017 its area increased by 465.3 km2 (Liu et al., 2021). The rise of Seling Co Lake has had profound impacts on local

lakeshore herding communities, inundating thousands of hectares of highly productive lakeshore pastures. This has caused significant hardship for the herders involved, forcing them to reduce their herd sizes and move to less productive upland pastures, which has resulted in significant income loss (Dawa Tsering, WWF, personal communication). This shift is also resulting in increased grazing competition on upland pastures between livestock and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), the primary wild prey of local snow leopards. At the same time, upslope movement of livestock is expected to also increase the problem of human-snow leopard conflict in the vicinity of Seling Co (e.g., see Farrington and Tsering, 2019). Loss of highly productive valley bottom wet meadows elsewhere on the plateau, due to either permafrost degradation or inundation by rising lake levels, can be expected to have similar negative impacts on herding incomes as well as on snow leopards, their prey, and habitat.

Pasturelands It is generally accepted that the fragile alpine grasslands that make up the vast majority of snow leopard habitat are being adversely affected by climate change (e.g., see Aryal et al., 2014; Klein et al., 2007; Xue et al., 2009). However, it is extremely difficult to differentiate and quantitatively assess the respective contributions of climate change and overgrazing to the widespread grassland degradation that is occurring across snow leopard range. In general, overgrazing damage either predates or has occurred concurrently with recent climatic warming trends over the last four decades. Nevertheless, it seems fairly safe to say that climate change has at the very minimum exacerbated overgrazing damage. In the case of Kyrgyzstan, during the collective period from 1941 to 1989, livestock numbers increased from 3,491,700 head to 11,803,000 head, which greatly exceeded local pasture

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Climate change phenomena in snow leopard range

carrying capacity and resulted in widespread pasture degradation that is still visible today (Farrington, 2005). However, with livestock privatization in the early 1990s, livestock numbers plummeted reaching a low of 4,877,800 head in 1996 at which level they remained relatively stable through 2005 before beginning a slow steady rise to 7,871,660 head in 2015 (Farrington, 2005; SAEPF/GSLEP, 2017). Livestock numbers in the northern Tibetan Plateau’s Qinghai Province followed a similar downward trajectory following the beginning of livestock privatization in western China in the 1980s. In Qinghai’s Yushu Prefecture, an important snow leopard range area, the livestock population plummeted by nearly half from 5,574,000 head in 1979 to 2,689,000 head in 1999, rising slightly to 2,859,000 head in 2005, with yak numbers alone falling from 1,656,000 in 1979 to 868,000 in 2004 (Gruschke, 2011). Reasons for the decline of livestock numbers in Qinghai include declining grassland productivity, various severe snow events, and the boom in the lucrative caterpillar fungus market, which now provides the entire annual cash income for many herding families (e.g., see Chapter 12, Gruschke, 2011; Schaller, 2012). For example, in one typical interview, a 49-year-old herder from Yushu Prefecture’s Zadoi County said that in 1990 his family had 170 yaks, 200 sheep, and 22 horses, but by 2012 only had 70 yaks. He attributed this decline initially to a severe snowstorm in 1996 that killed off many animals and later to what he estimated to be a 70% decline in grassland productivity over the preceding two decades. In contrast, in Mongolia, livestock numbers soared following privatization in the 1990s, increasing from about 26 million head in 1990 to 71 million head in 2019, resulting in widespread overgrazing damage (NSOM, 2020). The combination of overgrazing and climate change has led to a variety of impacts, perhaps most visibly on the Tibetan Plateau (e.g., see Wilkes, 2008). As discussed above, permafrost degradation can lead to conversion of alpine

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meadows to less productive alpine steppe-type grasslands. On the Tibetan Plateau, the drying up of alpine meadows is also leading to the widespread cracking of the underlying meadow turf layer. This in turn results in mass breakup of the turf layer into desiccated, hydrologically disconnected blocks and eventually sheet erosion, known locally as “black beach” erosion, and desertification (Schaller, 2012). In addition, warming temperatures may be adversely affecting pastures by reducing pasture productivity and species diversity (Niu et al., 2019). Herder interviews in Qinghai from 2010 to 2012 revealed that herders also attribute declining plateau grassland productivity to recent increases in frequency of extreme weather events, possibly the result of climatic warming, such as spring drought and unseasonal snowfalls in spring and summer. Furthermore, herders interviewed speculated that warming temperatures are contributing to widespread outbreaks of grass-consuming black caterpillars (Gynaephora spp.) and black-lipped pikas (Ochotona curzoniae), although others have speculated that pika outbreaks are a symptom of pasture degradation rather than a cause of it (Hong et al., 2014; Smith and Foggin, 1999). In the Chang Tang region of Tibet, climate change may be contributing to grassland degradation in snow leopard habitat simply by warming the region to the point where pastures that were formerly used only seasonally in summer are now occupied year-round. When combined with increasing human and livestock populations as well as the increasing use of motor vehicles and fencing, year-round occupation of former summer pastures will no doubt adversely impact snow leopards and their prey (Dawa Tsering, WWF, personal communication). Regardless of the cause of grassland degradation, be it related to climate change, increasing livestock populations, fencing of pastures (e.g., see Cao et al., 2013), or construction of new roads, declines in pasture productivity will result in lowered herding and caterpillar fungus

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incomes, increased grazing competition between snow leopard prey species and livestock, as well as increased economic incentive for poaching of snow leopards and their prey.

Treeline shift The world’s highest treeline is located at an elevation of 4900 m in Baxoi County in the southeastern Tibet Autonomous Region (Miehe et al., 2007). With continued global warming, treeline in the vicinity of snow leopard habitat is expected to shift upward significantly in coming decades, particularly in the greater Himalaya Region. Snow leopards are known to occasionally descend to the forest edge in parts of their range areas in the Altai, Tian Shan, Himalaya, and Hindu Kush, particularly in winter. However, given that their primary habitat is alpine grassland, an upward shift of treeline with global warming could potentially result in a large-scale loss and fragmentation of snow leopard habitat (Forrest et al., 2012; Li et al., 2016). At present, upward rates of treeline shift resulting from climate change are still a matter of great conjecture because, as with grassland degradation, it is difficult to differentiate the impact of climatic warming on treeline elevation from anthropogenic impacts such as grazing, woodcutting, and pasture burning (Schickhoff et al., 2016). For example, Schickhoff et al. (2016) estimate that 85%–90% of treelines in the Himalaya are determined by anthropogenic factors, not climatic factors, with livestock grazing being perhaps the largest determining factor. Nevertheless, at 11 widely scattered sites along the western Himalaya of India, Yadava et al. (2017) found that Himalayan pine (Pinus wallichiana) at treeline to be shifting upward in elevation at rates of 11–54 m/decade over various periods in the 20th century. Similarly, Gatti et al. (2019) found that at one site in the Russian Altai, treeline had shifted upward by about 29 m/decade between 1954 and 2006. Elsewhere, at Manaslu in central Nepal, Gaire

et al. (2014) report East Himalayan Fir (Abies spectabilis) at treeline to have shifted upward at a rate of 26.1 m/decade from 1850 to 2010. Yadava, Gatti, and Gaire all cited warming temperatures as contributing to this upward shift. In the future, Forrest et al. (2012) estimate that snow leopard habitat in the Himalaya could be reduced by 30% due to an upward shift in treeline and subsequent loss of alpine grasslands used by both snow leopards and their prey.

Extreme weather events The IPCC AR6 report states that, since the release of IPCC AR5 in 2013, evidence has grown showing that climate change is directly causing an increased frequency and/or intensity of extreme weather and climate events (IPCC, 2021). These extreme events include increasingly frequent heavy precipitation, floods, drought, and heat waves. In snow leopard range, extreme weather events take on a variety of forms. In Mongolia, Fernandez-Gimenez et al. (2012) report that severe winter snow disasters, known as “dzud,” are increasing in frequency. Dzud generally involve deep snow or other conditions, such as partial melting and freezing of snow cover, that leave livestock unable to forage on grass, resulting in starvation and high livestock mortality. Three dzud events occurred in Mongolia from 1951 to 1970, two from 1971 to 1990, while seven occurred from 1991 to 2016 with the 2009–2010 dzud killing 20% of Mongolia’s livestock population (Fernandez-Gimenez et al., 2012; Sternberg, 2018). However, the high livestock mortality rate during the 2009–2010 dzud has also been attributed in part to recent large increases in livestock populations and overgrazing, which left far less forage on the ground prior to snowfall than in years past (Nandintsetseg et al., 2018). On the Tibetan Plateau, notable snow disasters occurred in October 1985 and the winter of 1997–1998, in which millions of head of livestock died, with more localized snow disasters

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Predicting future impacts of climate change on snow leopard range

occurring with increasing frequency since the 1960s (Schaller, 2012; Klein et al., 2011; Wei et al., 2017). Numerous Tibetan livestock herders interviewed from 2008 to 2012 also noted that over the past two decades, the frequency of spring droughts and unseasonal spring and summer snowfalls at high-altitude summer pastures has increased (Farrington, unpublished results). At the same time, Tibetan herders reported that rainfall events were changing from protracted multiday bouts of drizzle and light rain to sudden short intense thunderstorms, a phenomenon also described by herders in northern Mongolia (Goulden et al., 2016). Notably, IPCC AR6 also reports an increase in heavy precipitation throughout snow leopard range (IPCC, 2021). Wang et al. (2017) found that this increased intensity of precipitation is increasing the rate of erosion in the eastern plateau’s Three Rivers Source Region. It is likely that this shift in precipitation intensity is also resulting in faster runoff and less infiltration, which may be reducing the volume of groundwater flowing to springs and streams during the long dry plateau winter. The impact of extreme weather events on snow leopards and their prey species has not been formally studied. However, Schaller (2012) presents observations of the large loss of Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and Tibetan wild ass (Equus kiang) as well as livestock in southwest Qinghai Province following a blizzard in October 1985. Harris et al. (1999) speculate that between 1992 and 1997, a roughly 20% decline in blue sheep numbers and a 15% decline in argali (Ovis ammon) numbers in Qinghai’s Yeniugou Valley may have been the result of severe snowstorms in 1996. Although it could not be corroborated, a 31-year-old herder interviewed in Zadoi County, Qinghai, in 2010, stated that during the 2008 snow disaster there, 40 of his yaks died while some families lost up to 100 yaks. And it was the first time he had seen blue sheep killed by a snowfall, ranging from

87

100 to 400 blue sheep per herd, depending on the location. If even remotely true, such events have the potential to severely impact the food supply of snow leopards. Spring droughts and spring snowfall are also extremely problematic for herders and presumably wild snow leopard prey species as well. These events both delay and reduce the growth of grass precisely at the time when nutritious grass shoots are most needed for livestock and wild ungulates that have recently given birth, which can be on the brink of starvation due to lack of forage at the end of the long, harsh plateau winter. As with precipitation, no clear pattern of drought events occurs across snow leopard range. However, on the Tibetan Plateau, Feng et al. (2020) report that a drying trend occurred along the eastern margin of the plateau from 1970 to 2017. Similarly, the IPCC AR6 reports an increase in the occurrence of drought in the Central Asia region as well as an increase in heat extremes throughout snow leopard range (IPCC, 2021). Again, such extreme weather events may lead to a long-term reduction in snow leopard prey availability.

Predicting future impacts of climate change on snow leopard range Extensive modeling of future climate change impacts on temperature, precipitation, glacier melt, runoff, and vegetation has been conducted for snow leopard range areas in recent years (e.g., see Rees and Collins, 2006). However, modeling done specifically to gauge future climate change impacts on suitability of habitat for snow leopards has largely been limited to the work of Forrest et al. (2012), focusing on the Himalaya, and the Snow Leopard Trust (2010), focusing on western China. As a first step in examining possible future changes to the distribution of suitable snow leopard habitat throughout the species range,

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8. Climate change impacts on snow leopard range

the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm was employed to map current snow leopard habitat based on available snow leopard presence data and 10 related environmental variables (Li et al., 2014; Phillips et al., 2006). This analysis revealed that the most pervasive features of snow leopard habitat are high elevation, rugged mountains, low precipitation in the warmest annual quarter, and low annual average temperature. Results of the analysis are summarized in Table 8.2, which shows that in 2014, suitable snow leopard habitat covered an area of 1,911,740 km2 across the 12 known snow leopard ranges states and Myanmar. However, one limitation of this baseline habitat analysis was a lack of snow leopard presence points across large areas of potential snow leopard range, such as

areas of the Altai, Kunlun, and Hengduan Ranges. Next, based on the optimal environmental features of snow leopard habitat listed above, the MaxEnt model was used to predict potential range-wide snow leopard habitat in 2080 based on the A1B scenario in the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Specifically, the A1B scenario projects levels of greenhouse gas, aerosol, and other pollutant emissions in a future world of rapid economic growth with a global population that peaks in the mid-21st century and declines thereafter that is powered by a combination of both fossil and non-fossil energy sources (Nakicenovic et al., 2000). Under this scenario, both the elevation and latitude of snow leopard habitat increase in the

TABLE 8.2 Area of current and predicted snow leopard habitat and coverage by currently existing nature reserves up to 2080 as predicted under IPCC Scenario A1B. Current and predicted habitat area (km2)

No. of patches > 11 km2 and >1667 km2 (in parentheses)

Habitat protected by nature reserves (%)

2014

2080 (A1B)

2014

2080 (A1B)

8

6

Country

2014

2080 (A1B)

Afghanistan

77,615

127,057

64

54 (2)

48 (1)

Bhutan

10,316

4693

55

9 (1)

11 (1)

22 (0)

46

53

China

1,026,708

1,048,352

1761 (20)

2237 (32)

27 (60)

21

21

25 (0)

% Change

2

% Change 11 ( 50)

India

99,409

93,043

6

20 (2)

25 (2)

24

23

Kazakhstan

37,468

62,080

66

41 (3)

38 (4)

7 (33)

29

21

Kyrgyzstan

128,684

140,805

9

25 (1)

16 (1)

36 (0)

4

4

Mongolia

237,402

415,879

75

361 (8)

381 (16)

6 (100)

18

14

Myanmar

2024

627

69

5 (1)

6 (0)

20 ( 100)

93

89

Nepal

33,128

25,531

23

12 (1)

10 (2)

17 (100)

44

47

Pakistan

103,021

104,053

1

91 (1)

83 (1)

9 (0)

10

11

Russia

54,125

156,118

188

153 (1)

236 (4)

54 (300)

35

23

Tajikistan

90,086

94,440

5

8 (1)

8 (1)

0 (0)

4

5

Uzbekistan

11,754

12,269

4

6 (1)

6 (1)

0 (0)

43

42

Total

1,911,740

2,284,947

2546 (43)

3105 (66)

22 (53)

19

18

20

II. Conservation Concerns

Predicting future impacts of climate change on snow leopard range

future, which concurs with other predictions of future mammalian range shifts (e.g., see Walther et al., 2002). However, a closer examination of model results reveals distinct habitat distribution trends in the north and south of the snow leopard’s range, the boundary between which is roughly demarcated by the Kunlun Mountains at about 35°N (Fig. 8.1). In the northern range area, alpine grasslands currently not known to have snow leopards are predicted to have increased temperatures and precipitation, potentially becoming more productive habitat, and more suitable for snow leopards and their prey. For the seven northernmost snow leopard range states (Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Mongolia), the model predicts a total increase in suitable habitat of 58% by 2080 (Fig. 8.1 and

89

Table 8.2). In the southern range area, however, the model predicts that increased temperatures and precipitation will lead to an upward shift in treeline elevation and a loss of alpine and subalpine grasslands preferred by snow leopards, with most habitat loss occurring on the southern slope of the Himalaya and on the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Notably, the model predicts a 23% decline in the area of snow leopard habitat in Nepal and a 55% decline in Bhutan by 2080 (Fig. 8.1 and Table 8.2). To further quantify predicted future changes in snow leopard habitat, the total number of habitat patches was calculated on both a range-wide and a north-south basis, where a habitat patch is defined as any continuous area of habitat at least 11 km2 in size (Table 8.2). A separate count of habitat patches greater than 1667 km2 in size

FIG. 8.1 Projected changes in distribution of snow leopard habitat by 2080 under the IPCC Scenario A1B. Green, unaltered habitat areas; blue, new habitat areas; red, habitat loss; gray dashed line, boundary between the northern and southern snow leopard range areas (35°N).

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8. Climate change impacts on snow leopard range

was also made, as this is the smallest area required to support a snow leopard population of 50 individuals, the minimum number needed to prevent inbreeding in an area with a typical snow leopard density of three individuals/ 100 km2 (Table 8.2; Frankel, 1981; Snow Leopard Network, 2014). Although the model predicts that the total area of suitable snow leopard habitat will increase 20% range wide by 2080, this area will be increasingly fragmented, with the total number of habitat patches increasing by 22% (Table 8.2). In the northern range area, total snow leopard habitat is predicted to increase in area by 45% by 2080, with the number of habitat patches remaining roughly the same as some patches expand and merge with others. In contrast, the total area of snow leopard habitat in the southern range area is predicted to decrease by 18% by 2080, but with the number of habitat patches increasing by 41%. This reflects a rapid rate of habitat fragmentation due to the creation of numerous mountaintop snow leopard habitat islands as a result of colonization of alpine grasslands by forest and shrublands. Thus, upward shift of treeline is a potentially large threat to snow leopard populations in the southern range area and may one day prevent the dispersal of snow leopards, reducing population interactions needed to maintain the health of the species. From this north-south comparison of model results, it is clear that future conservation and climate adaptation strategies will need to be region-specific. One limitation of this model is that only the CSIRO Mk3 climate model was employed to predict future distribution of snow leopard habitat, while multimodel ensemble-averaged climate forecasts often generate better predictions than a single model alone (Fordham et al., 2011). Other limitations of the model include current gaps in snow leopard presence data, our limited ability to predict the future state of society and technology, and the numerous limitations of current climate models

themselves, which necessarily simplify complex natural systems. Nevertheless, this effort and subsequent modeling work indicate a large predicted loss of snow leopard habitat to an upward shift of treeline along the southern slope of the Himalaya and in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. In contrast, six mountain ranges that make up 35% of current snow leopard habitat, namely the Altai, Qilian, Tian Shan, Pamir, Hindu Kush, and Karakoram ranges, should function as effective snow leopard climate refugia into the late 21st century (Li et al., 2016). To be successful, landscape-scale snow leopard conservation efforts must prioritize maintenance of connectivity between increasingly fragmented snow leopard habitat areas in locations impacted by both global warming and development activities (Li et al., 2020).

Conclusions Temperatures in the Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau, and Central Asia are currently rising at a rate far faster than the global average. These regions constitute the majority of snow leopard range and have alpine grasslands that are suffering particularly adverse effects from climatic warming, in large part due to the outsized role permafrost, snow cover, and glaciers play in maintenance of these ecosystems. At the same time, these alpine grasslands are also rapidly degrading as a result of past and present overgrazing by livestock and other poor land use practices. Recent climate-based habitat models for snow leopard range predict a future loss of suitable habitat in the south of the species range, in large part due to upward treeline shift, but a possible expansion of suitable habitat in the north of the species range. Regardless of predicted future climatic conditions, the current rapid deterioration of snow leopard habitat from both climatic and direct human impacts can be expected to increase competition between livestock and snow leopard prey species for limited

II. Conservation Concerns

References

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C H A P T E R

9 Diseases of wild snow leopards and their wild ungulate prey St
ephane Ostrowskia and Martin Gilbertb a

Wildlife Health Program, Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, United States b Cornell Wildlife Health Center, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States

Introduction

lower immune indices. This may have conservation implications as it could render the species particularly vulnerable to the emergence of pathogens disseminated by fast-spreading populations of domestic species that they may prey upon and to changes in pathogen distribution resulting from climatic change and globalization. The present review shows that at least for snow leopard prey species, disease is already a significant local threat and may be increasing, whereas data deficiencies prevent a full evaluation of the disease threat to the snow leopards themselves.

This review aims to present the major infectious diseases that may affect free-ranging snow leopards and those that may impact the abundance of their natural ungulate prey. It is beyond the scope of this review to cite the numerous studies of captive animals that have documented neoplasia, inflammatory and degenerative diseases, and congenital malformations, ailments that have so far not been detected in free-ranging snow leopards (Esson et al., 2019; Shannon Kachel personal communication, Stephane Ostrowski personal observation). In addition, the chapter should not be considered as a comprehensive review of infectious diseases, as it concentrates only on those with a perceived lethality in the wild. Snow leopards and their ungulate prey inhabit cold arid environments. Because microbial abundance in soil correlates negatively with precipitation (Blankinship et al., 2011), it is likely they are less exposed to microbes than their more mesic, temperate, or tropical-living counterparts and may have evolved correspondingly

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00050-9

Diseases in wild snow leopards Causes of mortality in snow leopards There are no publications that provide a comprehensive account of mortality of free-ranging snow leopards. Natural deaths due, for example, to starvation or natural accidents are rarely observed. Human-induced casualties due to poaching, traffic accidents, or poisoning are almost never reported in time for efficient

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forensic investigation. Surveillance of wild populations for infections, based on antemortem testing of blood and feces, has been limited to one population in Mongolia (Esson et al., 2019; Johansson et al., 2020). Incidental reports tend to suggest that noninfectious causes likely constitute a significant proportion of deaths in free-ranging snow leopards, which concurs with comprehensive mortality studies carried out in other nondomestic cats (e.g., Schmidt-Posthaus et al., 2002). Hussain Ali, who conducted extensive surveys of the Khunjerab area in northern Pakistan, reports in his diary to have examined 14 dead snow leopards between 2000 and 2008. Two had been poached, four were found dead alongside uneaten carcasses of Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) and fallen rocks and presumably died accidentally in the course of chases in steep terrain, three had fallen over cliffs with no dead prey around and possibly as a result of

avalanche or rock slide, one was found on the Karakoram Highway and was possibly a road casualty or had fallen over a cliff, three (an adult female with her two subadult cubs) could have been poisoned, and one odd case was found dead on top of a juniper tree. Interestingly, of the seven animals that had fallen off cliffs (with or without prey), five were young animals (50%, with population declines >80% reported during an outbreak affecting saiga antelope, Saiga tatarica Pruvot et al., 2020). PPR often involves several susceptible species (Fine et al., 2020) suggesting that it could also have significant impacts on wild ungulate communities in the longer term. Several studies have shown that PPR infections are not self-sustaining in wildlife and require spillover from livestock (Fine et al., 2020). Similarly, it was suggested that the closely related rinderpest morbillivirus affected argali in the Pamirs prior to its eradication (Fig. 9.3) (Meklenburtsev, 1948), with infections attributed to spillover contamination, while sharing pastures or water sources with infected livestock (Barrett et al., 2006). The control of the disease in livestock is therefore crucial to protect the natural prey basis of snow leopards.

II. Conservation concerns

Conclusions

Conclusions The current lack of baseline information on the health of free-ranging snow leopards prohibits an assessment of the potential for infectious disease to impact their populations directly. The remote and inaccessible habitat occupied by the species limits opportunities to detect disease-related mortality and complicates access to laboratories for diagnostic testing. To address these information deficits, researchers should be encouraged to include at least minimal sample collection protocols (appropriate to local circumstances) whenever opportunities arise to handle a snow leopard (e.g., through research projects, conflict situations, or when responding to a debilitated or dead individual). A description of minimal sampling protocols is beyond the scope of this review; therefore, researchers are encouraged to seek the advice of a veterinarian with relevant wildlife experience when planning for these situations. The population impact of infectious disease should not be dismissed, despite the relatively low rate of contact among conspecifics and comparatively low densities of other domestic and wild carnivore species occupying snow leopard habitat. Modeling of another wide-ranging solitary felid, the Amur tiger has shown profound impacts on population viability, even when opportunities for disease exposure are infrequent (Gilbert et al., 2020). These effects may be exacerbated by other physiological stressors, such as food availability, climaterelated habitat changes, or by the genetic stresses of inbreeding depression. Domestic dogs and cats represent a potential source of pathogens to which snow leopards are susceptible, and their introduction and free-ranging behavior should be discouraged. Ultimately, a population’s ability to withstand the pressures of disease will be maximized by maintaining snow leopards in numerically large subpopulations

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that are as interconnected as terrain and land use permit. Snow leopards prey on a range of mammals of varying size. However, large ungulates (including blue sheep, Siberian ibex, argali, markhor, and Himalayan tahr) account for more than 40% of their diet and are essential to their survival. Monitoring the health of these species is therefore of crucial importance to support snow leopard conservation at local and global scales. Livestock are increasingly encroaching into wild habitats across Asia and, as the most likely source of disease spillover to snow leopard prey, are the prime target for disease surveillance. Moreover, livestock can be responsible for upslope range shift of mountain ungulates into less suitable, stressful foraging habitat, exacerbating the climate-driven impacts on their ecology (Mason et al., 2014). Therefore, controlling the risk of disease outbreaks in snow leopard prey requires a complex and holistic approach that enforces prevention of disease spillover from livestock to wild ungulates and implements multifaceted controls over livestock numbers and their range use. Limiting other controllable stressors (such as human disturbance), and whenever possible maximizing genetic variability of small, fragmented populations through enhanced subpopulation connectivity, are also recommended to reduce disease susceptibility (Lafferty and Gerber, 2002). Vaccination of livestock is frequently not available (e.g., sarcoptic mange) or inefficacious (e.g., CCPP vaccination in Pakistan; Samiullah, 2013) and when efficiently implemented, may lead to further livestock encroachment into wild ungulate habitat, as a consequence of increased survival and productivity. Therefore, prophylactic-based interventions should always be associated to more comprehensive livestock management strategies that maintain production through smaller healthier herds where wild ungulate contact is limited.

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Acknowledgments One Health research in Wakhan, the core habitat of snow leopards in Afghanistan, was supported by the Global Environment Fund (GEF) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) grant AA/Pj/PIMS: 00105859/ 00106885/5844; project “Conservation of snow leopards and their critical ecosystems in Afghanistan.” We would like to thank the editors for giving us the opportunity to write this revised chapter for the second edition of the Snow Leopard € Johansson, and K. Smimaul for Book; E. Shiilegdamba, O. sharing their knowledge on diseases of snow leopard and prey in Mongolia; and Hussain Ali for allowing us to use the information he collected in Khunjerab area, Pakistan. We are also grateful to S. Michel for providing information on disease outbreaks in markhor and to SLCF/SLT, D. Butz, and the Association of Nature Conservation Organizations of Tajikistan for providing photographs. The writing time for this chapter was generously supported by the Wildlife Conservation Society and Cornell University.

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ruminants virus among critically endangered Mongolia Saiga and other wild ungulates, Mongolia, 2016-2017. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 26, 51–62. Ratcliffe, H.L., Worth, C.B., 1951. Toxoplasmosis of captive wild birds and mammals. Am. J. Pathol. 27, 655–667. Roelke, M.E., Pecon-Slattery, J., Taylor, S., Citino, S., Brown, E., Packer, C., VandeWoode, S., O’Brien, S.J., 2006. T-lymphocyte profiles in FIV-infected wild lions and pumas reveal CD4 depletion. J. Wildl. Dis. 42, 234–248. Roelke-Parker, M.E., Munson, L., Packer, C., Kock, R., Cleaveland, S., Carpenter, M., O’Brien, S.J., Pospischil, A., Hofmann-Lehmann, R., Lutz, H., Mwamengele, L.M., Mgasa, M.N., Machange, G.A., Summers, B.A., Appel, M.J.G., 1996. A canine distemper virus epidemic in Serengeti lions (Panthera leo). Nature 379, 441–445. Rotstein, D.S., Thomas, R., Helmick, K., Citino, S.B., Taylor, S.K., Dunbar, M.R., 1999. Dermatophyte infections in free-ranging Florida panthers (Felis concolor coryi). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 30, 281–284. Ryser-Degiorgis, M.-P., Robert, N., 2006. Causes of mortality and diseases in free-ranging Eurasian lynx from Switzerland - an update. In: Proceedings of the Iberian Lynx. Ex situ Conservation Seminar Series. Sevilla and Don˜ana, Spain, pp. 36–41. Ryser-Degiorgis, M.-P., Br€ ojer, C., Ha˚rdaf Segerstad, C., Bornstein, S., Bignert, A., Lutz, H., Uggia, A., GavierWid
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USSR and their Conservation. Nauka, Moscow. USSR (in Russian). Wild, M.A., Shenk, T.M., Spraker, T.R., 2006. Plague as a mortality factor in Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) reintroduced to Colorado. J. Wildl. Dis. 42, 646–650. Womble, M., Georoff, T.A., Helmick, K., Carpenter, N.A., Joslin, J., Tupa, L., Tetzloff, J., McAloose, D., 2021. Mortality review for the north American snow leopard (Panthera uncia) zoo population from January 1999 to December 2019. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 52 (in press). Woodford, M.H., Frisina, M.R., Awan, G.A., 2004. The Torghar conservation project: management of the livestock, Suleiman markhor (Capra falconeri) and Afghan urial (Ovis orientalis) in the Torghar Hills, Pakistan. Game Wildl. Sci. 21, 177–187. Yu, Z., Wang, T., Sun, H., Xia, Z., Zhang, K., Chu, D., Xu, Y., Cheng, K., Zheng, X., Huang, G., Zhao, Y., Yang, S., Gao, Y., Xia, X., 2013. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in endangered Tibetan antelope, China, 2012. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19, 2051–2052.

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C H A P T E R

10 Emerging threats to snow leopards from energy and mineral development Michael Heinera, James Oakleafb, Galbadrakh Davaac, and Joseph Kieseckerb a

The Nature Conservancy, Bellvue, CO, United States bThe Nature Conservancy, Fort Collins, CO, United States cThe Nature Conservancy Mongolia Program, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Introduction Global population growth, projected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050 (Gerland et al., 2014), and increasing energy consumption, projected to increase 56% by 2040, are expected to drive increased investments in mining and energy development, particularly in developing countries (US EIA, 2013). Mineral extraction is projected to increase 60% by 2050 (Kesler, 2007). Consumption of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) grew more than threefold between 1965 and 2012 (Butt et al., 2013), and by 2035, consumption of oil is projected to increase by more than 30%, natural gas by 53%, and coal by 50% (Institute for Energy Research, 2011). Technological advancements such as horizontal drilling in conjunction with hydraulic fracturing have spurred a rapid increase in unconventional gas production with most resources still untapped (Kerr, 2010). At the same time, humanity is recognizing the challenges posed by climate change

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00033-9

and the increasing frequency of environmental disasters and economic damage (Burke et al., 2018). In response to these challenges, countries signed the Paris Climate Agreement (PCA) to keep global warming to 10 kg (Carbone et al., 2007). We quantified the diet breadth of the snow leopard and that of its potential competitors by calculating the Large Prey Index for each study (see Ferretti et al., 2020). This index considers the number of large prey showing a frequency of occurrence of at least 5% in the diet of the predator (cf. Krebs, 1999). For the leopard, we considered studies conducted in Asia, whereas for the wolf, we considered studies conducted in Eurasia. In a first analysis, we evaluated interspecific differences in diet breadth. For each species, we averaged both the Large Prey Index and the Number of Available Large Prey across studies. Through a linear model, we evaluated the relationships between species-specific estimates of average Large Prey Indices and Number of Available Large Prey. In a second analysis, we assessed intraspecific variation in diet breadth across studies in relation to local prey richness, through the following model: log (Large Prey Index)
log (Number of Available Large Prey). We accounted for uneven sample sizes by weighting by sample size through “weights ¼ sqrt (sample size)” in the model declaration (Ferretti et al., 2020). Relationships were considered as statistically supported if the 0.95 confidence intervals of coefficients did not include zero. For details on literature review and criteria adopted to select papers, see Ferretti et al. (2020).

Snow leopard-competitors dietary overlap We collated data on pairwise dietary overlap between snow leopards and wolves (Bocci et al., 2017; Chetri et al., 2017; Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2013; Kachel et al., 2022) and between snow leopards and common leopards (Lovari et al., 2013b). In each study, dietary overlap was estimated using Pianka’s index as the basis of a visual comparison of areas with different prey richness.

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Snow leopard-wolf spatiotemporal interactions We summarized information on temporal interactions between the snow leopard and the wolf by comparing published estimates of daily temporal overlap of activity patterns at camera traps in Mongolia (Salvatori et al., 2021) and Tajikistan (Kachel et al., 2022). In each case, an b 1 (preferred for index of temporal overlap, Δ small sample sizes; Ridout and Linkie, 2009) was reported on a 0–1 scale (no overlap to perfect overlap). We also reanalyzed data coming from a past study in the Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan (Kachel et al., 2016) to estimate this same index. We evaluated the potential for spatial partitioning between the snow leopard and the wolf. Given that wolves and snow leopards employ distinct hunting tactics—respectively, cursorial pack hunting, and stalking—the two species’ hunting success is likely tied to habitat characteristics at multiple scales ( Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2013), suggesting that spatial habitat partitioning may be a defining characteristic of their coexistence. To illustrate the contrasting risks posed by wolves and snow leopards to shared ungulate prey species, we visualized wolf and snow leopard predation risk to large ungulates in the Sarychat Reserve, Kyrgyzstan, using GPS collar data and kill site location data (Kachel, 2021), from which we built probabilistic models of predation risk (for each predator species, the product of relative resource selection probability and the conditional probability of killing an ungulate, given presence, following De Cesare, 2012).

Snow leopard-common leopard interactions Here we present an analysis of original data collected in Angsai township, located in Sanjiangyuan National Park, Zadoi county, Qinghai province, China, along the Lancang River. Both the snow leopard and the common leopard live

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in Angsai, where common leopards occur mainly along the river, covering an area of c. 300–400 km2. The whole township was divided into a 5  5 km2 grid (N ¼ 72 grid cells, in total), and each grid cell was supplied with one or two camera traps, with the camera spacing of at least 1 km. The camera sites were set up for snow leopards and common leopards, mainly alongside path crossings or sites where leopard scats or pugmarks were discovered. The camera density was doubled alongside the river, where snow leopards and common leopards co-occurred, and the elevation range was from 3800 to 4900 m asl. Ninety-one sites were surveyed over 2015–20, the data were collected every 3 months, except from May to July, because of heavy human disturbance in that period, the “caterpillar fungus” season (Smith-Hall and Bennike, 2022). Data were pooled for analysis. The pictures from camera traps were labeled with species tags, from which a record table of independent snow leopard and common leopard captures, at a 30-min interval, was generated to analyze the temporal overlap. A total of 2003 records of snow leopards (>80 individuals) and a total of 146 records of common leopards (12 individuals) were collected. The temporal overlap was calculated with R package “camtrapR 2.0.3” (Niedballa et al., 2016), using the function “activityOverlap” and estimating temporal b 1 estimator (Ridout and overlap with the Δ Linkie, 2009; Schmidt and Schmidt, 2006).

Results Snow leopard diet breadth Sample size was 22 diet studies for the snow leopard, 25 for the tiger, 40 for the common leopard (in Asia), and 46 for the wolf (in Eurasia). Across study species, the tiger showed the greatest Large Prey Index (LPI ¼ 3.70, SE ¼ 0.25), followed by the common leopard (LPI ¼ 3.24,

FIG. 13.1 Large prey index (number of frequently used large prey) and prey richness (number of available large prey) of the snow leopard, common leopard, wolf, and tiger averaged across studies (mean  standard errors, on a log10 scale). Fitted relationship and relevant confidence intervals are shown.

SE ¼ 0.18), the wolf (LPI ¼ 2.50, SE ¼ 0.24), and then the snow leopard (LPI ¼ 2.29, SE ¼ 0.12). A positive relationship between the speciesspecific values of Large Prey Index and Number of Available Large Prey was observed (Fig. 13.1). For the snow leopard, a decrease of the Large Prey Index with increasing local prey richness was supported (Fig. 13.2), whereas for the other three predators, the Large Prey Index increased with increasing local prey richness (Fig. 13.2).

Snow leopard-competitors dietary overlap Dietary overlap between the snow leopard and the wolf was >0.7 in the low to moderate prey diversity study sites of Bocci et al. (2017), Jumabay-Uulu et al. (2013), and Kachel et al. (2022), but only 0.44 in the prey-richer area (Chetri et al., 2017; Fig. 13.3). In the only area for which estimates of dietary overlap between snow leopards and common leopards were available, (n ¼ 3 large prey species), dietary overlap was high (c. 0.6–0.8, depending on the temporal scale: Lovari et al., 2013b; Fig. 13.3).

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Results

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FIG. 13.2 Relationships between diet breadth, i.e., log (Large Prey Index), where Large Prey Index ¼ number of frequently used large prey, and prey richness, i.e., log (number of available large prey), for the snow leopard and its three main potential competitors (the leopard, the wolf, and the tiger). Fitted relationships and relevant 0.95 confidence intervals (shaded areas), as well as model coefficients (B’s) and confidence intervals are shown. Modified from Ferretti, F., Lovari, S., Lucherini, M., Hayward, M., Stephens, P.A.S., 2020. Only the largest terrestrial carnivores increase their dietary breadth with increasing prey richness. Mammal Rev. 50, 291–303 and Ferretti et al. (in prep.).

Snow leopard-wolf spatiotemporal interactions Estimated temporal overlap between wolves and snow leopards in the Pamir Mountains b 1 ¼ 0.83 (95% CI: was relatively high, Δ 0.52–0.87), with both species displaying moderate peaks of activity during crepuscular hours (Fig. 13.4), consistent with other published estib 1 ranging from 0.7 to 0.9. mates of Δ GPS-collared wolves and snow leopards posed plainly contrasting spatial patterns of

predation risk to ungulate prey in Sarychat (Fig. 13.5): wolves were more likely to kill prey in flatter, open habitats, whereas snow leopards were more likely to do so in steep, rugged drainages adjacent to those valley bottom habitats.

Snow leopard-common leopard spatiotemporal interactions In Angsai, snow leopards and common leopards co-occurred in 19 camera trap sites. Data from these sites were extracted, generating 236

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FIG. 13.3

Diet overlap (Pianka Index) between snow leopard and potential competitors (wolf: circles; common leopard: triangles) in four areas of central Asia with different prey richness (number of available large prey). a: Jumabay-Uulu et al. (2013); b: Bocci et al. (2017); c: Chetri et al. (2017); d: Lovari et al. (2013b) (d1, yellow ¼ cold period; d2, white ¼ warm period).

FIG. 13.4 Daily temporal activity patterns (curves) and overlap (shaded region) of wolves and snow leopards at camera traps in the eastern Pamir Mountains, June–September 2012.

records including 90 of snow leopards and 146 of common leopards. The activity overlap between snow leopards and common leopards b1 ¼ 0.86. Compared to sites where common was Δ leopards were not detected, snow leopards at sites where both species were present were detected more frequently in the afternoon and less frequently at dusk (Fig. 13.6).

Discussion Our analysis of dietary breadth suggested that Asiatic apex predators can be broadly ranked according to body size (Ferretti et al., 2020). The largest species are expected to be the most dominant in interspecific aggressive interactions (Donadio and Buskirk, 2006;

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Discussion

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FIG. 13.5 Predation risk to ibex and argali from wolves (left) and snow leopards (right) in Sarychat, Central Tien Shan Mountains, Kyrgyztan, with terrain hill shade for perspective. For each predator, risk was calculated based on collared individuals as the product of relative probability of selection and the relative efficiency rate along hunting paths. Modified from Kachel, S., 2021. Large Carnivore Ecology and Conservation in the High Mountains of Central Asia (Dissertation). University of Washington.

Palomares and Caro, 1999). Accordingly, the tiger showed the widest diet breadth, followed by the common leopard and the wolf, with the snow leopard showing the narrowest diet breadth. At the interspecific level, a positive relationship between diet breadth and prey richness was supported (cf. Ferretti et al., 2020, for relationships at the intraspecific level). In fact, food habit studies of tiger and common leopard come primarily from areas holding a greater prey richness, whereas wolf and snow leopard tend to occur in prey-poorer areas. A comparison of breadth of large carnivore diets across areas with different prey richness showed inconsistent relationships across species. Unlike the tiger, the common leopard, and the wolf, the snow leopard tends to use a lower number of large prey species even as prey diversity increases (Ferretti et al., 2020; Ferretti et al., in prep.). A review of food habits of large terrestrial carnivores showed that only the largest, dominant species increase their diet breadth along with increasing local prey richness (Ferretti et al., 2020). Dominant predators are

expected to encounter little interspecific competition in selecting areas with high prey density and can take advantage of increasing prey richness by taking both larger and smaller prey (e.g., Gittleman, 1985; Radloff and du Toit, 2004). Conversely, movements, activity, and prey use of subordinate carnivores are expected to be influenced not only by prey availability, but also by the necessity to avoid antagonistic encounters with larger competitors (e.g., Durant, 1998; Schaller, 1967, 1972; Vanak et al., 2013). Our results are consistent with the conclusion that snow leopards are subordinate to other apex carnivores where their ranges overlap. However, our findings also underscore that the snow leopard is something of an ecological “specialist” (cf. Lovari and Mishra, 2016). Over evolutionary time, superior generalist competitors (the wolf: Bocci et al., 2017; the common leopard: Lovari et al., 2013b; the tiger: Wang and Macdonald, 2009) may have “pushed” the snow leopard to low productivity habitats and specialization on cliff-dwelling prey. These competitors may even have reinforced the viability of this strategy by

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FIG. 13.6 Temporal analysis of activity for the snow leopard and the common leopard. (A) Activity overlap of snow leopards and common leopards on the same camera trap sites; (B) temporal use of snow leopards in Angsai township, in sites where common leopards were not captured, data used in diagram (A) were discarded for the analysis of this part; (C) accumulative curve of common leopard records used in (A); (D) accumulative curve of snow leopard records used in (A).

favoring a similar habitat-based specialization in prey species. Available evidence indicates that diet overlap between snow leopards and wolves in low-moderate prey diversity landscapes is consistently high, implying the potential for competition to play a limiting role if prey is not sufficiently abundant (Bocci et al., 2017; Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2013; Kachel et al., 2022). Conversely, in a Himalayan area with a high diversity of wild prey (n ¼ 7 meso-large wild prey species; eight species with livestock) dietary overlap dropped to 0.44 (Chetri et al., 2017), suggesting that prey partitioning may

somewhat ameliorate competition where prey diversity is greater. Our estimates of temporal overlap, 0.83 (95% CI: 0.52–0.87), between wolves and snow leopards, were consistent with previously published estimates (0.77: 0.64–0.90; Kachel et al., 2022; 0.79: 0.70–0.88; Salvatori et al., 2021) indicating moderately high overlap in time. However, all of these estimates were drawn from landscapes with relatively low wild prey diversity and may thus reflect constraints imposed on both predators by daily fluctuations in prey activity and vulnerability. By contrast, the stark differences in the spatial distribution of predation risk to ungulates posed by wolves

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Discussion

and snow leopards in the (low prey diversity) Sarychat landscape suggest that spatial niche differentiation is fundamental to the two species’ coexistence. Yet those differences also underscore the depth of that niche partitioning and of the snow leopard’s specialization for hunting cliff-dwelling ungulates on steep, rugged terrain. The contrasting spatial domains of the two predators may do more than enable coexistence: Kachel (2021) found that those prey respond in turn to contrasting depredation risks in a manner that may mediate not only competition but also predator facilitation—a positive indirect interaction between two predators in which prey responding to the risk of one predator may simultaneously increase their exposure to the other, for example, by fleeing from open ground to rugged slopes (Charnov et al., 1976; Sih et al., 1998). Habitat separation, and a degree of temporal avoidance, rather than exploitation of different prey species, may also best explain the coexistence of common and snow leopards (Lovari et al., 2013b), which have comparatively similar hunting modes. In Sagarmatha, the annual diet overlap between these large cats was high (0.69), especially in the cold season (0.76; Fig. 13.3). Conversely, symmetrical habitat overlap there (Pianka index) was 0.58 overall, but only 0.33 in the areas used exclusively by one species or the other one. For snow leopards in Angsai, a decline of activity in the late morning and a peak in the afternoon at camera sites where they overlap with common leopards may indicate temporal avoidance. Given that prey is most likely the single most important driver of predator activity, even apparently minor shifts in daily activity to avoid sympatric predators could have potentially major implications for snow leopard hunting success and fitness over the long term. Climate change has the potential to restructure snow leopards’ interactions with their prey and with other large carnivores in multiple ways. Large-scale distribution modeling and climate forecasting suggest that suitable snow

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leopard habitat may contract by as much as 50% of its present range by 2070 (Li et al., 2016). One potential mechanism for that contraction is competition. In some regions of the snow leopard’s range, climate change is facilitating the encroachment of forests into previously unforested alpine steppe habitats—i.e., snow leopard habitats. Some 30%–50% of current snow leopard habitat will be lost in the Himalayas under realistic climate scenarios, mainly because of the upward shifting treeline (Forrest et al., 2012). If forest carnivores (i.e., common leopards) accompany these encroaching forests, heightened competition may accelerate the species decline there (Lovari et al., 2013a). Climate change also alters the distribution (e.g., Gottfried et al., 2012; Telwala et al., 2013; Evangelista et al., 2016), seasonal availability, and quality of forage for mountain herbivores (e.g., Jacobson et al., 2004; Lovari et al., 2020). Wild ungulate prey will have to follow these plant shifts to survive. Yet, in recent decades, a phenological mismatch has been documented between the timing of the plant green-up season and mountain ungulate births (Lovari et al., 2020; Pettorelli et al., 2007). This mismatch is particularly important in mid-summer, when young ungulates require nutritious food during and after weaning; if green-up is over early and only fibrous plants remain, the consequences for ungulate growth (Pettorelli et al., 2007) and, ultimately, winter survival (Lovari et al., 2020) can be severe. Snow leopards, like all carnivores, are fundamentally constrained by prey abundance and distributions. Climate-driven changes in prey population size, distributions, and behaviors may therefore be likely to substantially rearrange carnivore communities as numerical competition for prey intensifies and the spatiotemporal arena in which species interactions occur transforms. It is reasonable to expect that this process—which may last several hundred years—will ultimately benefit adaptable, generalist species over specialized ones. Given that competitive interactions between

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carnivores can be important regulatory mechanisms on populations (Donadio and Buskirk, 2006; Palomares and Caro, 1999), wolves, common leopards, and even tigers, may be better positioned than snow leopards to adapt to changing conditions in the high mountains of Asia in the coming decades. Except for direct predator-prey relationships, the community ecology of High Asian large mammals has only recently attracted attention. While much remains to be learned, it is now clear that snow leopards’ interactions with other carnivores (to which they are evidently subordinate in many circumstances) may have increasing significance to conservation planning in the face of rapid environmental change, which can be expected to exacerbate numerical competition for prey and antagonistic interactions alike. Just as climate change may drive habitat changes in high-elevation landscapes that favor forest carnivores, increasing numbers of livestock and shifting grazing patterns in high-elevation steppe habitats may facilitate expanding wolf populations. Yet, it is not clear (and may be unlikely) that generalist competitors are competitive within the core of the snow leopard’s specialized spatial domain. Resolving whether and how such processes are playing out, as well as the relative influence of intraguild interactions on snow leopard populations, remains a potentially important direction for future research to understand and protect snow leopards and their changing mountain ecosystems.

References Bocci, A., Lovari, S., Zafar Khan, M., Mori, E., 2017. Sympatric snow leopards and Tibetan wolves: coexistence of large carnivores with human-driven potential competition. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 63, 92. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10344-017-1151-0. Carbone, C., Teacher, A., Rowcliffe, J.M., 2007. The costs of carnivory. PLoS Biol. 5, e22. Charnov, E.L., Orians, G.H., Hyatt, K., 1976. Ecological implications of resource depression. Am. Nat. 110, 247–259.

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Ridout, M.S., Linkie, M., 2009. Estimating overlap of daily activity patterns from camera trap data. J. Agric. Biol. Environ. Stat. 14, 322–337. Salvatori, M., Tenan, S., Oberosler, V., Augugliaro, C., Christe, P., Groff, C., Krofel, M., Zimmermann, F., Rovero, F., 2021. Co-occurrence of snow leopard, wolf and Siberian ibex under livestock encroachment into protected areas across the Mongolian Altai. Biol. Conserv. 261, 109294. Schaller, G.B., 1967. The Deer and the Tiger. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, USA & London, UK. Schaller, G.B., 1972. The Serengeti lion: a study of predator/ prey relations. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, USA & London, UK. Schmidt, F., Schmidt, A., 2006. Nonparametric estimation of the coefficient of overlapping—theory and empirical application. Comput. Stat. Data Anal. 50, 1583–1596. Sih, A., Englund, G., Wooster, D., 1998. Emergent impacts of multiple predators on prey. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13, 350–355. Smith-Hall, C., Bennike, R.B., 2022. Understanding the sustainability of Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting: the need for better data. Biodivers. Conserv. 31, 729–733. Stephens, D.W., Krebs, J.R., 1986. Foraging Theory. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Telwala, Y., Brook, B.W., Manish, K., Pandit, M.K., 2013. Climate-induced elevational range shifts and increase in plant species richness in a Himalayan biodiversity epicentre. PLoS ONE 8, e57103. Thinley, P., Rajaratnam, R., Morreale, S.J., Lassoie, J.P., 2020. Assessing the adequacy of a protected area network in conserving a wide-ranging apex predator: the case for tiger (Panthera tigris) conservation in Bhutan. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 3, e318. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.318. Vanak, A.T., Fortin, D., Thaker, M., Ogden, M., Owen, C., Greatwood, S., Slotow, R., 2013. Moving to stay in place: behavioral mechanisms for coexistence of African large carnivores. Ecology 94, 2619–2631. Vernes, K.A., 2008. Tigers above 4,000 m in Bhutan. Oryx 42, 327–328. Wang, S.W., Macdonald, D.W., 2009. Feeding habits and niche partitioning in a predator guild composed of tigers, leopards and dholes in a temperate ecosystem in Central Bhutan. J. Zool. 277, 275–283. Wiens, J.A., 1993. Fat times, lean times and competition among predators. Trends Ecol. Evol. 8, 348–349.

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C H A P T E R

14 Promoting coexistence through improved understanding of human perceptions, attitudes, and behavior toward snow leopards Kulbhushansingh Ramesh Suryawanshia,b,c, Shruti Suresha, Juliette Youngd, Saloni Bhatiae, and Charudutt Mishraa,b a

Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India bSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States cWissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin Institute of Advanced Studies, Berlin, Germany d Agro
ecologie, INRAE, Institut Agro, Universit
e de Bourgogne Franche-Comt
e, Dijon, France e Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bengaluru, India

Introduction Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) have extensive home ranges and depend on large ungulate prey for food. The majority of snow leopard habitats are used by pastoral communities and their livestock, which creates conflicts over livestock predation. In areas where snow leopards overlap with livestock, the contribution of livestock to snow leopard diet could be as high as 60% (Anwar et al., 2011; Suryawanshi et al., 2017). Livestock depredation by snow leopards has been reported to be up to 12% of the total livestock holdings annually (Mishra, 1997). Nowell et al. (2016) estimated that approximately

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00053-4

one snow leopard was killed daily between 2008 and 2012, and 55% of these were killed in retaliation against livestock predation. In light of these findings, promoting land sharing and coexistence between pastoralists and snow leopards is crucial for the survival of the species and for protecting the livelihoods of pastoralists across large parts of the snow leopard’s distribution range in High Asia. Over the past two decades, several studies have estimated the rate of livestock predation by snow leopards and other sympatric carnivores such as wolves (Canis lupus), brown bears (Ursus arctos), and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and related it to the perception and attitudes of

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affected pastoralists (e.g., Alexander et al., 2021; Bagchi and Mishra, 2006; Ikeda, 2004; Mishra, 1997; Oli et al., 1994; Samelius et al., 2021; Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Research on perceptions, attitudes, and behavior toward snow leopards has been generally skewed toward conservation conflicts (Bhatia et al., 2020), while research on understanding coexistence has been lacking (Pooley et al., 2021). This is in line with general studies on human-wildlife interactions. Bhatia et al. (2020) reported that an estimated 2% of the studies focused on understanding coexistence, while 71% were focused on conflicts. Similarly, much research on human-snow leopard interactions has focused on the livestock predation behavior of this species. The resultant wildlife management recommendations involve two important dimensions to mitigating conflict and promoting coexistence between snow leopards and pastoralists: (1) reducing the impact of snow leopards on the livelihoods of pastoralists and (2) improving the attitudes, tolerance, and behavior of people toward the snow leopard and other sympatric carnivores. With this aim, several conservation interventions have been implemented with different levels of effectiveness in mitigating the economic impacts on the livelihood of pastoralists as a result of snow leopard predation on livestock. Such interventions include preventive measures such as predator proofing of livestock corrals (see Chapter 18.1 and Jackson and Wangchuk, 2004; Samelius et al., 2021), improved livestock herding and use of trained guard dogs (Lieb et al., 2021), insurance and compensation to offset economic costs of livestock predation (see Chapter 17.3 and Alexander et al., 2021; Hussain, 2000; Loch-Temzelides, 2021; Mishra et al., 2004), and promotion of alternative livelihoods to increase household incomes (see Chapters 15, 17.1, 17.2 and Hussain, 2000; Mishra et al., 2003). Building an understanding of local peoples’ perceptions and attitudes in order to improve tolerance and behavior toward the snow leopard

is, however, critical to the uptake of such interventions and the long-term coexistence between people and snow leopards.

Understanding attitudes and human-snow leopard relationships There are several definitions of attitude, but broadly, it is an individual’s disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an entity or a situation (Ajzen, 1989). However, it is widely acknowledged that it is a hypothetical construct, i.e., it cannot be observed and must be inferred. Perception is a person’s view or interpretation. There is great interest in the study of human attitudes in psychology because of its potential to predict human behavior. In conservation, the study of attitudes is typically employed to understand the disposition of local people toward the species of conservation attention or the conservation action of interest. Drivers of attitudes can be diverse and context-specific. Despite considerable research, our understanding of the complex links between human attitudes and behaviors has remained tenuous, and there is increasing appreciation for developing a better comprehension of relationships between humans and nature (Bhatia et al., 2021a,b). To that end, studies of human attitudes toward snow leopards have increased in an effort to mitigate the threat of retaliatory killings of snow leopards.

Methodological approaches to study attitudes Methods employed to study human attitudes toward snow leopards and other sympatric carnivores have ranged from qualitative research, for example, using ethnographic approaches rooted in anthropology (e.g., Gagn
e, 2019), to quantitative and statistical approaches used in social sciences and conservation biology (e.g.,

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Understanding attitudes and human-snow leopard relationships

Suryawanshi et al., 2014). The need for conservation research to be interdisciplinary has helped increase collaboration between academics and conservationists from different disciplines in order to study human perception and attitudes toward snow leopards and other sympatric species using a diverse set of tools. Ethnographic approaches aim to build a holistic understanding of culture and people’s way of life while being focused on a particular dimension such as human-nature relationships (Schensul et al., 1999). The researcher is typically immersed in the everyday life of people, recording observations of the day-to-day events as well as exceptional circumstances, and employing deductive reasoning to build an understanding of their question of interest (e.g., Bauer, 2004; Gagn
e, 2019; Govindrajan, 2018). For example, Gagn
e (2019) reported that Ladakhi people often perceive their livestock with a sense of “interspecific kinship.” This study also found that a declining interest in pastoralist activities among the younger generation potentially contributing to increased predation by carnivores is perceived by many local people as a moral failing (Gagn
e, 2019). The other predominant approach has been a quantitative one employed by disciplines such as conservation science and behavioral economics, using structured questionnaires in a hypothesis testing framework using inductive reasoning. In this approach, the researcher aims to test whether a specific hypothesis or a set of hypotheses holds true. Researchers use a predetermined set of questions that typically elicit a fixed set of responses, which are then numerically scored and analyzed using statistical methods to answer specific questions. This approach also uses a predetermined study design to fit the geographical and demographic scope of interest. Which individuals to interview within a particular group of people is predetermined by the study design. This approach is increasingly being used to assess and evaluate conservation programs designed to alleviate

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negative interactions between local people and snow leopards. For example, Samelius et al. (2021) found that while the design of electric fencing employed to protect livestock was effective in preventing livestock predation by snow leopards and wolves, it did not significantly contribute to improving the attitudes of local people toward these species, suggesting that the drivers of attitudes were other than just the intensity of livestock predation. Suryawanshi et al. (2014) reported that people in communities with multipronged conservation programs, such as livestock insurance, livestock-free village reserves, and handicrafts program for women, had more positive attitudes toward snow leopards and wolves. A number of intermediate approaches exist where researchers use semistructured interviews or unstructured and open-ended interviews to develop an understanding of perceptions and attitudes. Interpretation of oral and written folk stories and art has also been used to enhance the understanding of the cultural relationships with different species (e.g., Bhatia et al., 2021b). A better understanding of the factors that drive human perceptions and attitudes toward carnivores can, therefore, help design conservation interventions that can improve social tolerance and behavior toward these species. Suryawanshi et al. (2014) also reported that factors affecting attitudes could change with the scale of analysis, and hence, management actions should target appropriate scales. For example, they found that the extent of livestock killed by wolves was not a reliable determinant of attitudes toward wolves at the scale of individual herders, but it was so at the scale of the villages, implying that conservation interventions aimed at minimizing livestock predation by wolves could be more effective if they were designed at community scale and not just at the scale of individual herders. One of the primary limitations of studies on human perception and attitudes has been their

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inability to help understand or predict human behavior toward a species in conflict situations. While such studies help understand the relationship between people and carnivores, they are rarely able to predict how people would behave if a snow leopard were to attack their livestock, or if a conservation agency were to propose active conservation of these carnivores. Also, given that perceptions and attitudes can change very quickly with a change in their determinant factors, an understanding of human behavior may be critical when trying to address conservation concerns such as retaliatory killing of snow leopards. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which started as the Theory of Reasoned Action in the 1980s, tries to predict an individual’s intention to engage in a particular behavior at a specific time and place (Ajzen, 1985). The use of TPB is widespread in disciplines such as psychology and behavioral science. However, there has been limited application in the field of snow leopard conservation science. There is a need to develop and adapt methods and their application to understand human perceptions, attitudes, and behavior toward snow leopards and sympatric species in the much broader context of human-nature relationships to facilitate coexistence between carnivores and people.

Factors affecting human attitudes toward snow leopards Suryawanshi et al. (2013) found that in Spiti Valley, India, local herders’ perceptions of spatial patterns in livestock depredation by snow leopards and wolves did not reflect the actual measured patterns of livestock loss. They found that while the spatial patterns of livestock predation were driven by ecological factors such as wild prey availability and carnivore density, people’s perceptions were driven by livestock stocking density and relative abundance of carnivores.

One would expect that the rate and intensity of livestock predation by snow leopards would be an important determinant of herders’ attitudes toward the snow leopard. However, most studies have reported livestock owners to have relatively more positive or neutral attitudes toward the snow leopard than expected (Alexander et al., 2015; Augugliaro et al., 2020; Bhatia et al., 2017; Hacker et al., 2021; Li et al., 2013; Suryawanshi et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2008). Across snow leopard range, people seem to show relatively more positive attitudes toward the snow leopard compared to other sympatric carnivores such as wolves, lynx, and bears, which were responsible for similar or sometimes lower rates of livestock depredation than the snow leopard (Alexander et al., 2015; Kusi et al., 2020; Suryawanshi et al., 2014). A similar pattern is seen in North America in areas where wolves overlap with pumas (Puma concolor), and people are reported to have less favorable attitudes toward wolves than pumas (Kellert et al., 1996). Except for a few indigenous communities of North America, there is a widespread cultural bias against wolves (Kleiven et al., 2004). This is perhaps due to a higher perceived risk from wolves because of their conspicuous behavior such as howling, group living, ease of detection, and a perceived danger to people (Suryawanshi et al., 2013). These results suggest that factors other than the threat of livestock predation alone may be important in shaping people’s attitudes toward snow leopards. In a review, Bhatia et al. (2020) identified over 55 different proximate factors affecting peoples’ attitudes and behaviors, which they grouped into 5 “ultimate” factors: Value Orientation, Social Interactions, Resource Dependence, Risk Perception, and Nature of Interaction. Another study in Ladakh, India, reported that Nature of Interaction and Risk Perception had significant influences on people’s attitudes toward snow leopards, while Risk Perception and Social Interaction were more important determinants of attitudes toward wolves (Bhatia et al., 2020).

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Studies have also reported the role of Buddhist monasteries in enhancing snow leopard conservation (Li et al., 2014), underscoring the importance of value orientation. Bhatia et al. (2017) did not detect an effect of Buddhism or Islam on people’s attitudes toward carnivores in Ladakh, though they found that religiosity (extent of an individual’s religious practice) was positively associated with their attitudes toward carnivores among Buddhists. Multiple studies have found gender, age, and education levels to be among the most important determinants of people’s attitude toward snow leopards (Alexander et al., 2015; Suryawanshi et al., 2014). Women have been reported to have lower attitude scores (suggesting less favorable attitudes) than men; older people to have lower attitude scores than younger people; and people with less formal education to have lower attitude scores than people with higher formal education. The lower attitude score among women may be because of greater risk perception, emotional attachment to livestock, and because they might bear the hidden costs of conservation conflicts (e.g., increased work hours, reduced nutrition, increased psychological stress, and increased fear) (Govindrajan, 2018; Ogra, 2008). Yet, most conservation interventions tend to target men (or are harder for women to join). Womencentric conservation interventions can lead to improvement in attitudes of women (Meola, 2013). An increase in attitude scores with improved education is likely to be linked to greater awareness about environmental and conservation causes. A higher level of knowledge about the snow leopard has been reported to lead to a higher attitude score (Augugliaro et al., 2020). Bhatia et al. (2017) reported a positive association between awareness of conservation laws and attitudes toward snow leopards. In a survey of schoolteachers in Ladakh, India, Barthwal and Mathur (2012) reported a positive

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association between teachers’ knowledge of biodiversity and their attitudes toward wildlife in general, but not toward the snow leopard. Despite a significant proportion of teachers agreeing that snow leopard conservation was important, they felt that snow leopards were a threat to the local economy. Improved access to education for remote communities could have the benefit of improved attitudes toward snow leopards. People with more diverse sources of livelihoods (Suryawanshi et al., 2014), more sustainable sources of livelihoods (Hanson et al., 2019), and less economic dependence on livestock (Kusi et al., 2020) are reported to have more positive attitudes toward the snow leopard, implying an important role for Resource Dependence. Studies have also reported that individuals or communities with greater livestock holdings tend to have more negative attitudes toward snow leopards. People in communities directly involved in tourism, which is directly or indirectly linked with wildlife, have also been reported to have more positive attitudes toward snow leopards (Hanson et al., 2019; Vannelli et al., 2019). Bhatia et al. (2020) suggested that the nature of Social Interactions (i.e., interactions with local institutions and interactions between different communities) could also influence attitudes toward carnivores, especially the wolf. Hanson et al. (2019) found that along with some other factors, attitudes toward snow leopard conservation actors such as park managers were the most important determinant of attitudes toward snow leopards. They concluded that the way snow leopard conservation (actions and actors) is perceived by local people greatly determines their attitudes toward the species. They found that attitudes toward actors such as park managers and local conservation committees as well as attitudes to actions such as enforcement of conservation laws were important determinants of attitudes toward the snow leopard.

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Human-snow leopard relationships evolve as does culture Human perceptions and attitudes toward carnivores are not static, neither are the factors that affect them; they change with changing values, socioeconomics, and exposure of human societies that live with these carnivores. Understanding the diversity of values associated with wildlife could help identify places where people’s motivations are complimentary or in contrast to conservation goals. A better understanding of peoples’ cultural disposition toward snow leopards and their conservation requires comprehension of peoples’ collective cultural heritage and its interaction with current societal values. For example, Bhatia et al. (2021a,b), through their analysis of folklore in Ladakh, reported that people had utilitarian and naturerelated values toward snow leopards. They suggested that any positive symbolic association that people may have toward snow leopards was overwhelmed by negative sentiment because of the livestock predation. Mitigating negative interaction between people and snow leopards may be the first step toward nurturing a positive and affective relationship between them.

Conclusions Much of the research on human attitudes toward snow leopards has been spurred by the negative interactions between the two species. Conservation biologists have tried to employ these findings in designing conservation interventions to mitigate livestock predation by snow leopards as well as buffering their negative attitudes in order to reduce the retaliatory persecution of snow leopards. Studies on perceptions, attitudes, and behavior are critical for understanding the conservation context and

evaluating conservation mitigations targeted toward reducing negative interactions between people and snow leopards. However, these methods have rarely been used to understand coexistence between people and snow leopards. A better understanding of coexistence could help inform and improve conservation and conflict mitigation efforts significantly. Greater research focus on coexistence between humans and snow leopards would be useful.

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Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in snow leopard conservation. Conserv. Biol. 28, 87–94. Lieb, Z., Tumurbaatar, B., Elfstr€ om, B., Bull, J., 2021. Impact of livestock guardian dogs on livestock predation in rural Mongolia. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 3, e509. Loch-Temzelides, T., 2021. Conservation, risk aversion, and livestock insurance: the case of the snow leopard. Conserv. Lett. 14, e12793. Meola, C.A., 2013. Navigating gender structure: women’s leadership in a Brazilian participatory conservation project. For. Trees Livelihoods 22, 106–123. Mishra, C., 1997. Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and conservation prospects. Environ. Conserv. 24, 338–343. Mishra, C., Allen, P., McCarthy, T., Madhusudan, M.D., Bayarjargal, A., Prins, H.H., 2003. The role of incentive programs in conserving the snow leopard. Conserv. Biol. 17, 1512–1520. Mishra, C., Van Wieren, S., Ketner, P., Heitkonig, I., Prins, H., 2004. Competition between domestic livestock and wild bharal Pseudois nayaur in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. J. Appl. Ecol. 41, 344–354. Nowell, K., Li, J., Paltsyn, M., Sharma, R.K., 2016. An Ounce of Prevention: Snow Leopard Crime Revisited. TRAFFIC UK, Cambridge. Ogra, M., 2008. Human-wildlife conflicts and gender in protected area borderlands: a study of costs, perceptions and vulnerabilities from Uttarakhand, India. Geoforum 39, 1408–1422. Oli, M., Taylor, I., Rogers, M., 1994. Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock: an assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Biol. Conserv. 68, 63–68. Pooley, S., Bhatia, S., Vasava, A., 2021. Rethinking the study of human–wildlife coexistence. Conserv. Biol. 35, 784–793. Samelius, G., Suryawanshi, K., Frank, J., Agvaantseren, B., Baasandamba, E., Mijiddorj, T., Johansson, O., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2021. Keeping predators out: testing fences to reduce livestock depredation at night-time corrals. Oryx 55, 466–472. Schensul, S.L., Schensul, J.J., LeCompte, M.D., 1999. Essential Ethnographic Methods: Observations, Interviews, and Questionnaires. vol. 2 Rowman Altamira, Lanham, MD. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Redpath, S., Mishra, C., 2013. People, predators and perceptions: patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and wolves. J. Appl. Ecol. 50, 550–560. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatia, S., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Redpath, S., Mishra, C., 2014. Multiscale factors affecting human attitudes toward snow leopards and wolves. Conserv. Biol. 28, 1657–1666.

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Suryawanshi, K.R., Redpath, S.M., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Ramakrishnan, U., Chaturvedi, V., Smout, S.C., Mishra, C., 2017. Impact of wild prey availability on livestock predation by snow leopards. R. Soc. Open Sci. 4, 170026. Vannelli, K., Hampton, M.P., Namgail, T., Black, S.A., 2019. Community participation in ecotourism and its effect on

local perceptions of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) conservation. Hum. Dimens. Wildl. 24, 180–193. Xu, A., Jiang, Z., Li, C., Guo, J., Da, S., Cui, Q., Wu, G., 2008. Status and conservation of the snow leopard Panthera uncia in the Gouli Region, Kunlun Mountains, China. Oryx 42, 460–463.

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C H A P T E R

15 The role of mountain communities in snow leopard conservation Rodney M. Jacksona, Wendy Brewer Lamab, and Shailendra Thakalic a

Snow Leopard Conservancy, Sonoma, CA, United States bKarmaQuest Ecotourism and Adventure Travel, Half Moon Bay, CA, United States cMountain Spirit, Kathmandu, Nepal

Introduction In the late 1980s, conservationists gradually shifted their focus from a top-down approach centered on strict enforcement of wildlife laws and protected area (PA) sovereignty (“guns and fences” protectionism paradigm) to one increasingly incorporating local community concerns and interests (e.g., Western et al., 1994). These initiatives have assumed many forms, from PA co-management to people-centered, large-scale integrated conservation-development programs (ICDPs) funded by multilateral agencies such as the United Nations, World Bank, and US Agency for International Development (Wells and Brandon, 1992). Over the past three decades, communitybased conservation initiatives targeting the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia) have proliferated rapidly. However, conservation practitioners face many challenges, from how to engage and motivate local people to protect a species often perceived as a pest, to working

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00031-5

in the world’s most remote, high-elevation, and forbidding landscapes. Actively involving local people or communities through participatory protocols remains a vital design ingredient in implementing and monitoring robust, sustainable and locally adapted solutions to conservation dilemmas. Strategies that stress communities’ positive visions and collective actions for change and resolving underlying human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs), while also meeting the community’s economic and wellbeing aspirations for a better and sustained future, are essential ( Jackson, 2015; Woodhouse et al., 2015). People living in snow leopard habitat are characterized by rich cultural and ethnic diversity, agropastoralism lifestyles, extreme poverty, and marginalization, in terms of services and development. More than 40% live below national poverty levels with average annual parity incomes of USD 250–400 ( Jackson et al., 2010). Livestock depredation from snow leopards and wolves (Canis lupus) is pervasive, along

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with competition for pasturage between domestic and wild ungulates (e.g., Anwar et al., 2011; Mijiddorj et al., 2018). Many communities occupy areas with steep topography, shallow, rocky, and often infertile soils and high exposure to natural disasters such as floods, landslides, avalanches, glacial outbursts, and unpredictable, often severe winters. Relatively few settlements in the Himalayan belt, for example, are accessible by road, and many lack infrastructure and basic services such as schools or health clinics. While PAs bring some community benefits, they also impose costs on communities by restricting access to natural resources and development activities, as well as mandating strict wildlife protection measures that can complicate management of HWC (Wells and Brandon, 1992). Unless people’s legitimate concerns, especially those related to HWC and resource access, are equitably and sufficiently addressed, conservation efforts will most likely fail. Resolving HWC dominates most efforts at community engagement, and it is thus encouraging to see social sciences being increasingly mainstreamed into conservation planning (Bhatia et al., 2020; see Chapter 5). Clearly, remedial measures and holistic solutions satisfactory to both parties are required, and efforts that in the long run also improve people’s livelihood options while simultaneously giving clear value to conservation. With more secure income, families will be better able to tolerate loss of livestock (in effect their “bank account”) and thereby be more willing to coexist harmoniously with snow leopards and other predators ( Jackson and Wangchuk, 2004; Lama et al., 2012).

A brief overview of community involvement in snow leopard conservation Nepal is widely acknowledged as the first range country to effectively involve mountain communities in snow leopard conservation.

Launched in 1986, the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) is widely touted as the first example of a community-driven PA. Snow Leopard Conservation Committees (SLCCs) in ACAP and more recently, the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area were formed in part to address increased livestock depredation presumed to be linked to increasing snow leopard numbers. These community-based snow leopard committees were also intended to address threats associated with retributive killing of snow leopards. Two important considerations frame the involvement of local people in snow leopard and wildlife conservation across as much as 60% of their global range: (1) the presence of a traditionally robust, reasonably cohesive society and the predominant practices of Tibetan Buddhism, whose religious precepts do not readily sanction killing of wildlife (Li et al., 2013); (2) incentivizing affected communities through alternative income streams and compensation schemes to reduce retaliatory risks. Since the 1990s, in other snow leopard range countries including India (Ladakh), Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Russia (Tyva Republic), retaliatory killing linked to depredation involving multiple sheep and goat losses has been reduced and even eliminated by encouraging communities to predator-proof their nighttime livestock corrals so that snow leopards and other predators can no longer gain entry ( Jackson and Wangchuk, 2001; Chapter 18.1). Jamwal et al. (2018) and Kunkel and Hussain (see Chapter 17.3) describe lessons learned from a HWC strategy of communitymanaged livestock insurance programs in India, Pakistan, and Nepal. Forward-thinking insurance programs now require claimants address root causes for livestock depredation such as poor guarding and competition for forage between domestic and wild ungulates. Options for compensation via community-managed funds can help mitigate preferential payments and other abuses.

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Rationale for adopting community-based biodiversity protection and management models in snow leopard range countries

Conservationists argue that biodiversity conservation is best accomplished through implementing multidimensional activities targeting major threats and their direct or indirect socioenvironmental drivers ( Jackson et al., 2010; Jamwal et al., 2018; Salafsky and Margoluis, 1999). Together, cost compensation, tighter hunting regulations (in some cases), improved holding pens, and supplemental income sources such as tourism for improving community wellbeing significantly foster snow leopard conservation. For example, in Ladakh starting in the late 1990s, a UNESCO-initiated ecotourism program enabled conservationists, local tour operators, village committees, and the Jammu & Kashmir Wildlife Protection Department to develop homestay and wildlife tourism in Hemis National Park. Along with corral improvements and a government-sponsored compensation program, ecotourism has generated substantial benefits for people living in small settlements along popular trekking routes through homestays and related income-generating activities ( Jamwal et al., 2018). Namgail et al. (see Chapter 17.1) noted that 14% of homestay households netted annual cash income exceeding the Indian rupee equivalent to USD 750, while only 3% of the nonhomestay households earned this much. The percent of households earning less than USD 150 per annum dropped dramatically from 53% to 3% after they joined the homestay program. Ten percent of homestay fees was channeled into village improvement funds. Likewise, tour operators were presented with opportunities to build attractive eco-brands supporting such programs. One international company alone contributed more than USD 42,000 to snow leopard conservation in recognition of the value that regular snow leopard sightings—which rely upon ongoing research and community participation—bring to its trips (W.B. Lama, KarmaQuest, United States, 2021, personal communication). As a result, in Hemis NP, locals overwhelmingly value snow leopards

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as assets, no longer seeing them as pests to be removed. Tourism is not appropriate everywhere, however, and can be unreliable as a supplemental income source, as demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic when visitor numbers plummeted substantially. Other constraints like political instability, accessibility, permitting obstacles, communications, and marketing challenges also make tourism unreliable as a singleincome source. Therefore, diversification of revenue sources is vital and could include cottage industries such as handicrafts, nonperishable edibles processing (jams, juices, dried products), and other value-chain products. Services like carpentry, weaving, and small enterprises such as masonry, electrical, plumbing and bakery businesses—which build upon local skills, provide employment, and expand market opportunities—should also be explored to complement or supplement tourism. Diversification of local economies and skills development in leadership, communications/languages, business planning, and empowerment of women and minorities can help buffer communities against market fluctuations and pandemics. Examples of such programs, implemented in other range countries like Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and Nepal, are provided by Mishra et al. (2003), Young et al. (2021), Gurung et al. (2011) and in Chapter 17.2.

Rationale for adopting community-based biodiversity protection and management models in snow leopard range countries Globally, it is increasingly apparent that local people and communities must play a greater role in conservation if representative landscapes, habitats, and species, along with their functional and intact ecosystems, are to be preserved. Conservation initiatives that are launched and embraced by people whose livelihoods depend upon natural resources in the area,

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and that offer broad-reaching environmental, ecosystem, and socioeconomic benefits, are far more likely to succeed than prescribed top-down actions targeting a narrow set of beneficiaries. In the case of the Red-listed Snow Leopard, there are several compelling reasons for expanding the role of local and often remote communities toward protecting this feline, its prey, and habitat: • Ensuring people and snow leopards share land is essential to the species’ long-term conservation: an estimated 40% of the 170 PAs within the global range are smaller than a single adult male’s home range ( Johansson et al., 2016). Combined with wide-ranging movement patterns, snow leopards rely upon less well-protected habitats outside of PAs, including critical corridors connecting neighboring areas ( Jackson and Fox, 1997). Therefore, community acceptance of snow leopards at the regional scale is imperative for each other’s well-being. • As noted, HWC is a major threat that unless addressed will continue to affect snow leopard populations, eroding their long-term security by undermining protection and conservation efforts. Local herders hold an important role toward resolving such conflict by reducing risks to livestock through improved livestock guarding and animal husbandry practices or by predator-proofing vulnerable nighttime enclosures, as well as through market-based compensation schemes ( Jackson et al., 2010; Jackson and Wangchuk, 2001; see Chapters 18.1 and 38). • The technical, human, and financial resources for monitoring this sparsely distributed species, which largely inhabits remote and harsh terrain, are exceedingly limited. Regulatory agencies and conservation staff may be unable to enforce protective measures. Indigenous people who have lived in the area for generations could serve as long-term “eyes and ears” for helping stem illegal poaching and

wildlife trade. While not empowered to take legal actions, they are well positioned to provide timely reports to conservation authorities and security personnel for follow-up action. • Local people, and especially youth, could be recruited and trained to spread environmental awareness and monitor animal activity, in effect serving as “environmental stewards.” For example, in Nepal, youths known as “Snow Leopard Scouts” worked in tandem with local herders, helping the Snow Leopard Conservancy and its partners monitor snow leopards in the ACAP using remote camera traps. High-altitude herders in Bhutan regularly observe snow leopards during summer grazing season and sit on a snow leopard committee with national park staff, documenting such sightings.

Improving snow leopard conservation Our base of knowledge on how to conserve such a rare and wide-ranging carnivore as the snow leopard has grown exponentially in recent years. As discussed above, there is strong evidence that regulation alone is not sufficient to protect a species living in such inhospitable remote terrain and for which humans represent its greatest threat (or conversely its best potential guardian). But how exactly would a “carrot-andstick” approach, involving a combination of management rules and incentives, work? The following paragraphs briefly describe what is meant by participation and “best practices” based on lessons learned from across the snow leopards’ vast range:

Defining what is meant by local participation For decades, local participation in conservation has been advocated by academics and practitioners without fully recognizing the range of

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Improving snow leopard conservation

participatory possibilities available. As shown in Table 15.1, community engagement may vary widely, from passive participation to selfmobilization and full empowerment in which communities are vested with managerial authority and expected to deliver significant conservation outputs (Horwich and Lyon, 2007). Prior to the last several decades, most snow leopard conservation initiatives were characterized by the lower levels of participation, i.e., soliciting information from villagers but limiting their participation or roles in decision-making. This may be because many projects evolved from ones undertaken by students or academics whose agendas centered on research rather than conservation action. It also reflects early forms of participatory inquiry employing Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) TABLE 15.1

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(Pretty et al., 1995). Bringing this gradation of participatory practices to the attention of conservationists is the first step toward encouraging a higher level of community involvement, enablement, and self-reliance. Community-based conservation projects must be grounded in interactive participation, knowledge sharing, and decision-making with the goal of encouraging, even enabling self-mobilization. Truly effective participation must give communities, through their elders, elected leaders, spokespersons, and minority voices, a seat at the table from the beginning to share their aspirations for improving and sustaining livelihoods, ultimately leading to more collaborative land and natural resource stewardship. The earlier communities are involved in planning—using the higher level of participatory

A typology of participation.

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approaches, e.g., participatory learning and action (PLA) or other empowering processes— the better. A system of shared responsibilities and benefits is more robust than one plagued by lack of ownership or narrowly driven by top-down decisions and/or handouts from government or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Rather than creating new governance structures, local people and their communities are often better engaged through their existing village institutions, such as livestock herder groups, rural municipality or village development bodies, and livelihoods associations. Village women’s groups have proven especially effective for developing snow leopard-linked handicrafts production (Mishra et al., 2003; see Chapter 17.2) as well as traditional tea shops and homestays servicing visitors. Women have also led village garbage management initiatives, recognizing the link between a clean environment, conservation, and tourism (Lama et al., 2012). Strengthening organizations with demonstrated commitment and linking their activities to snow leopard conservation hastens local empowerment and, if carefully designed and implemented, biodiversity conservation. Unless all segments of society are involved in, and benefit from, intervention strategies such as homestays, nature guiding, or plant/animal enterprises, the incentive to drive conservation actions will not be widely enough shared to be effective. It is not uncommon that participants in alternative or supplemental livelihood programs have significantly more access to resources and benefits and experience greater improvement in their lives—or well-being— compared to nonparticipating community members. Establishment of community conservation or development efforts with a portion of revenues accruing to a community-managed conservation fund is one way to “even the playing field” where such inequities exist. Assuring more widespread and equitable access to benefits through broadening stakeholder

involvement also promotes well-being, thus laying the framework for scalability (Maynard et al., 2021; Woodhouse et al., 2015). Cost sharing by the community and its beneficiary members applies equally, whether the intervention is infrastructural (e.g., improved corral, trail, mini-hydro, and nontimber product development), livelihood skills training, or governance and institutional capacity building. Rather than cash contributions from local people (many of whom lack the resources), the facilitating organization should seek other forms of cost sharing such as contribution of labor, collective or individual agreements from beneficiaries to train other members of the community, and/ or to return a portion of their profits to a collectively managed fund.

Integrating cultural conservation with snow leopard conservation Snow leopard conservation programs need to recognize and incorporate traditional knowledge with scientifically derived information (Hacker et al., 2020; Jackson, 2015). Providing mechanisms for learning from and valuing traditional knowledge builds trust between government, conservationists, and local people. Beyond the goal of cultural conservation per se, protection of mountain peoples’ traditional values, religious beliefs, and sustainable livelihoods are important elements for snow leopard conservation: globally, local beliefs and customs may provide powerful incentives to protect wildlife. In the Altai regions of Russia and Mongolia, locals perceive snow leopards as Powerful Spirit beings not to be harmed. SLC’s Land of the Snow Leopard Initiative (LOSL) honors and reinforces such beliefs by engaging indigenous practitioners, elders, shamans, and religious leaders to work with nomadic herders who face HWC and former hunters to stop killing snow leopards across four countries (Mongolia, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan). Range-wide, religions and religious leaders provide a strong

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Improving snow leopard conservation

basis for reverence for all forms of life and protection (Li et al., 2013). High mountain Buddhist communities of Nepal, for example, regard snow leopards as “god’s pets.” High lamas or monks of Manang, Gorkha, and Dolpo districts have banned hunting of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), snow leopards’ prime prey, thus, playing important roles in protecting snow leopards. Many ancient cultures use storytelling as an educational tool for passing on important societal values, with these serving as powerful tools for increasing public awareness and fostering action around wildlife conservation (Ferna´ndez-Llamazares and Cabeza, 2017; Bhatia et al., 2021). Indigenous storytelling has helped transform local perceptions of snow leopards to one of valued assets rather than despised pests that should be eliminated ( Jackson and Wangchuk, 2004).

Alleviating human-wildlife conflicts Mitigating HWC represents a critical first step when engaging local communities. Such matters are best addressed via site-specific, case-by-case approaches, because no simple magic bullet exists for alleviating HWC or fostering coexistence between people and snow leopards. The primary goal should be to provide just and fair direct or indirect benefits to the affected households in compensation for their losses. Another important goal involves engendering multiple stakeholder contributions and collaborative partnerships with each party imbedded with clearly defined roles and responsibilities—thus better ensuring mutually acceptable and effective long-term solutions will be devised, implemented, and sustained (see Table 15.2). Building trust among stakeholders is an especially critical component for conservation initiatives to take hold, in turn largely dependent upon the way that we as practitioners interact with local communities. Genuine long-term engagement is built on mutual respect and trust. Mishra et al. (2017) proposed eight key

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principles for effective community-based programs, underscoring the first principle, “effective community-based programs rely on strong and resilient relationships between practitioners and local people. These relationships are built through sustained presence in the field.” Enabling such transformative shifts in community-driven conservation necessitates that land use and habitat management actions are implemented at the landscape level, with communities working together in concert with government, NGOs, and the private sector. And clearly, practitioners and donors will need to commit substantial resources and time (5+ years) to building such capacity. Levels of poverty existing in snow leopard range require establishing functional linkages between conservation and development objectives, usually best achieved by fostering locally adapted, appropriately scaled, and suitably diversified livelihood strategies. These must be linked to the simultaneous alleviation of HWC and initiatives to curb poaching of the snow leopard’s wild prey populations drawing on a multidimensional suite of incentives and disincentives for ensuring local people perceive snow leopards (and other predators) are more valuable alive than dead (e.g., Jackson, 2015). Since imbalances in rural populations can result from gender and/or social inequities, it is important to seek support from all social and economic groups, especially when activities and/or livelihoods depend upon resolving HWC (Margoluis and Salafsky, 1998). HWC measures should focus on finding cost-effective, practical, and tangible solutions to livestock and crop damage suffered by herders and farmers. The participation of women and youth in snow leopard conservation has proven particularly effective but is not always easy: traditional social hierarchies often put males at the top of the decision-making ladder, making it challenging in some societies for women and youth to take on leadership roles.

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Conditionality and best practices for community-based wildlife conservation.

Projects are most likely to succeed if sponsors and beneficiary communities endorse and include the following conditionality and best practices for project planning, implementation, and operational phases: (1) Maximize conservation outputs and benefits for people, rangelands, and wildlife with transparent and verifiable indicators of success. • Base project interventions upon sound science, incorporate adaptive management with clearly imbedded stakeholder responsibilities and transparent budgets, implicitly linked with, and positively impacting snow leopard and mountain biodiversity conservation. • Design incentives and actions that encourage beneficiaries to perceive and value linkages between conservation and efforts to improve local livelihoods, income-generating opportunities and overall community well-being. (2) Tie project support to measurable results and transparency, anchored with signed conservation agreements. • Link conservation agreements with specified project goals and actions, roles and responsibilities, outputs, and standardized monitoring and evaluation procedures, agreed to by key stakeholders. • Disperse funds based on proven performance and in support of those project activities with shared operational standards and clearly defined conservation and development targets formulated and endorsed by key stakeholders. (3) Ensure cost sharing in project activities, from infrastructure to livelihood skills training, governance and institutional development, and seek commitments from beneficiaries to train other members of the community. • Require each stakeholder (villager, NGO, government, or individual practitioner) to make reciprocal contributions, within their means, in support of agreed-to project actions, activities or outputs. This may be in the form of cash or in-kind services such as materials and labor, which will be valued using existing market rates and prices. (4) Maximize full and fair participation by all stakeholders through: • Active and equitable participation from each affected stakeholder group throughout the life of the project (i.e., planning to implementation, monitoring, evaluation, and reporting). • Ensuring that project activities benefit as many households as possible, and especially those more marginalized, e.g., using rotation system for distributing income-generating opportunities such as homestay guests. • Fostering community conservation or sustainable development funds that may substitute for and/or supplement equitable benefit sharing. (5) Facilitate partnerships that support culturally and ecologically robust rural communities. • Strengthen village institutional governance and enhance their capacity for economic sustainability through locally appropriate revenue-generating enterprises and collective actions that encourage collaboration, revenue-sharing, learning, and consensus. • Give high priority to peer-to-peer exchanges as an effective way for communities and individuals to learn from one another. Study tour exchanges can be worthwhile if planned transparently and inclusively. (6) Establish monitoring and compliance performance procedures • Support stakeholders to employ their own simple but realistic means for assessing project performance and impacts to ensure transparency, sustainability, accountability and wise use of limited human resources and funds (Margoluis and Salafsky, 1998), according to preapproved community monitoring and evaluation plans. Similarly, project donors or implementing agencies must actively monitor project activities, outputs, and results. (7) Strengthen community resiliency and adaptability by building upon stakeholder-identified assets. • Explore alternative supplemental livelihoods to offset conservation-linked livestock losses or resource use restrictions. This can be developed using APPA (see text) or related processes. • Incorporate climate change adaptations, mitigation for pandemic and zoonotic outbreaks, etc. (8) Responsibility for project facilities. • The beneficiary community must be willing to assume all or significant responsibility for repairing and maintaining infrastructural improvements (e.g., predator-proofed corrals) that may be provided by the project. Infrastructure design must consider availability of replacement parts and local know-how. Adapted and updated from Jackson, R., 1999. Snow leopards, local people and livestock losses. Cat News 31, 22–23.

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Conclusions

Best practices with recommended conditionality for engaging local communities When engaging stakeholders, we recommend project sponsors and community members alike discuss and adopt a set of “best practices” for designing and implementing interventions (Table 15.2). As a start, community participation should be underpinned by a philosophy that emphasizes and values empowerment, equity, trust, and learning (Reed, 2008). Conservation planning must be facilitated by persons skilled in participatory methods and impartially guided by persons knowledgeable in the key topics under consideration, ideally leading to collective decision-making. We recommend that snow leopard conservation practitioners adopt the Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation, which brings together common concepts, approaches, and terminology in conservation project design, management, and monitoring (www.conservationmeasures.org). It is also imperative that the team has a sound understanding of underlying threats to snow leopards, their prey, and the mountain ecosystem (i.e., factors driving the results chain identified interventions; see Margoluis and Salafsky, 1998, for details). We have found the planning process known as Appreciative Planning and Participatory Action (APPA) initially developed by The Mountain Institute, Mountain Spirit, SLC, local NGOs, and community partners in Nepal, India, and China to be especially helpful in fulfilling these criteria. APPA’s main tenet is to recognize and build upon positive values and recognize them as a foundation for envisioning an even better future. APPA has been used successfully to support snow leopard and biodiversity conservation in areas as culturally and geographically diverse as the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalaya of Nepal and India as well as Central Asia ( Jackson, 1999). The APPA method is flexible and adaptable and encompasses a set of

protocols for engaging communities in designing highly participatory and self-driven solutions that have been used for reducing livestock depredation or other conflicts between livestock, wild ungulates, and rangelands each depend upon. APPA enables stakeholders to identify realistic, cost-effective livelihood- and income-generation activities that are compatible with existing opportunities, environmental constraints or concerns, local economic realities, and stakeholder perceptions or skill sets. Readers are referred to the following publications for further information on the APPA process: The Mountain Institute (2000), Ashford and Patkar (2001), and SLC (2009). Conservation practitioners are urged to make full use of tools contained in the PRA toolbox (Pretty et al., 1995), with the aim of providing local people with the necessary skills to act on their own rather than waiting for the government or NGOs to address their problems. Snow leopard conservationists are also referred to the handbook prepared by SNV (2004) for field practitioners, development workers, and facilitators involved in community mobilization, organizing, and enterprise development. Table 15.2 summarizes key elements that underpin effective community-implemented conservation initiatives.

Conclusions We believe that coexistence with snow leopards is best achieved through empowering rural communities and helping change their perception from considering snow leopards as pests to be eliminated to “valued assets.” Donors and practitioners alike must recognize that building community capacity for sustained conservation planning, alleviation of HWC, and enterprise development is time-consuming and can be expensive. Sustainable conservation programs usually cannot be accomplished quickly. Most snow leopard focused community-driven

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projects are externally funded and supported for only 2–3 years, after which community efforts typically falter. Thus, time frames for long-term, sustained community management capacity and action are usually measured in decades. For example, it may take 5 years for communities to convert from their local barter system to a broad, integrated market-driven economy. Communities need to have the room to develop new business skills and/or learn from their mistakes. Furthermore, careful guidance by technically and socially astute advisers and facilitators is a critical component for building sustainable rural communities, especially in remote areas where civil society is weak and access to educational resources lacking. Scaling up incentivized conservation programs, especially those dependent upon broad-based community support, represents special challenges requiring urgent attention ( Jackson et al., 2010; Mishra et al., 2003). Practitioners should avoid “one-fits-all” solutions: even closely spaced valleys support different ecosystems, economies, and ethnic groups whose values, livelihoods, and resource strategies evolved to address a specific set of environmental, social, and political factors. This opens the door for indigenous knowledge to finally play an important supportive role to the externally applied biological and social science expertise over the project’s life. Community-driven initiatives must also be mainstreamed and supported through national policy and strengthened conservation frameworks. The real long-term challenge lies with moving communities beyond their currently harsh and notably insecure subsistence livelihoods into more economically viable and environmentally friendly activities. For local people to value snow leopards or other large carnivores, they must receive tangible benefits and not continue bearing such a high proportion (relative) of biodiversity protection costs. In fact, many local communities are providing society (local, regional, and global) with important ecosystem

services, which can be sustained by offering them attractive incentive packages (e.g., Dinerstein et al., 2013; Maynard et al., 2021). The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) (see Chapter 49), endorsed in 2013 by all 12 snow leopard range countries, offers a potential blueprint for this transformational process—but only if range country governments and multilateral institutions step forward with commitments to provide sufficient long-term funding; support truly effective community engagement and empowerment; offer equivalent (in-kind) compensation for depredation livestock loss and wildliferelated crop damage; co-finance conservationlinked enterprise development and training; and build the political will necessary to devolve decision-making to encompass traditionally marginalized constituents.

Acknowledgments We extend our respect and appreciation to the communities and organizations with whom we have worked developing and testing new approaches to building community willingness to live alongside snow leopards. We dedicate this paper in honor of two of Nepal’s leading conservationists, Dr. Chandra Prasad Gurung and Mr. Mingma Norbu Sherpa, who among others lost their lives in September 2006 in a tragic helicopter accident shortly after handing over management of the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area to the local community. This paper is also dedicated to the memory of Rinchen Wangchuk, cofounder of Snow Leopard Conservancy—India Trust, who played a key role in developing our community-based approaches to snow leopard conservation and who passed away all too early in March 2011.

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C H A P T E R

16 Building community governance structures and institutions for snow leopard conservation Peter Zahlera and Richard Paleyb a

Zoo New England, Boston, MA, United States bIndependent, London, United Kingdom

The case for governance and snow leopard conservation Governance is, at its most elemental, when a group of people come together and create a formal system for making decisions about behaviors. For natural resources, governance— making decisions about who, what, and when natural resources may be used—is a crucial component to avoid the problem of the common pool and unsustainable resource use (Wilkie et al., 2015). Improving governance has not usually been considered the purview of conservation biologists. The topic is normally deemed the responsibility of political scientists, policy think tanks, and international experts, as it is a subject that involves the complex interactions of history, culture, politics, economics, sovereignty, and security. However, there is a growing case history of examples where conservation and governance do not just overlap but are integrally entwined

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00001-7

and successfully support each other. Conservationists are interested in areas of high biodiversity and landscapes that are still relatively intact. These places also are usually the most rural, remote, and isolated locations on the planet. That does not mean that they are uninhabited by humans—but it does usually mean that those people are similarly rural, remote, and isolated. Local communities in these landscapes often suffer from a near-complete lack of services from state government due to their geographic (and thus also political) isolation, which in turn leads to comparatively greater levels of poverty than their national counterparts. They are often independent (not always by choice) from both national authority and support, and because of their poverty and lack of alternatives, they usually depend largely if not entirely on the local natural resource base for their survival and livelihoods. Unfortunately, these communities are also facing unprecedented change. Slow but

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inexorable population increases are putting increasing strain on natural resources—forests, wildlife, and rangelands—while external commercial interests are pushing farther into the most remote and inaccessible landscapes in search of profit. At the same time, highmountain environments are known to be facing (and already experiencing) extreme impacts from climate change (Beniston, 2005; Egan and Price, 2017). The combination of pressures leaves these communities facing a crisis without the necessary tools to adapt to these events. This is where conservation can come into play. Organizations dedicated to wildlife conservation are finding that partnerships with local communities are the surest way to achieve their goals and objectives (Kothari et al., 2013). The reason that this works is that while the goals of conservation organizations and local communities may differ to some degree—a wildlife organization wants to save wildlife, while a community may simply want to improve their well-being—for isolated rural communities, the fastest and simplest way to improve matters is often to improve sustainable natural resource management, which if implemented appropriately will simultaneously benefit wildlife. The description of distant, isolated communities struggling to make ends meet is especially apt when discussing the area where snow leopards are found. While Asia as a continent (ranging from the hyperdense countries of China, India, and Bangladesh to Mongolia with the world’s lowest human population density) is estimated to have roughly 64 people/km2, the area where snow leopards are found contains approximately 8 people/km2. To put it another way, if the geography defining snow leopard distribution across Asia was its own country, it would be in the global top 5 for lowest human population density.a This is no surprise, as snow

leopards live mostly above treeline in some of the world’s most inaccessible mountain terrain. Cold temperatures and low productivity make this a difficult place to eke out a living, and the people who share the snow leopard’s domain are mostly poor livestock herders, on the edge of survival, well “off the grid” of both national and international support or even awareness. The “toolbox” for wildlife conservation has grown enormously in the past few decades, from the initial centralized and top-down model of classical, exclusive protected area management to including local communities in conservation initiatives that incorporate the way local people interact with their resource base. Options for framing these initiatives vary from straightforward community-based conservation, privately owned or managed conservation areas, to co-management arrangements between communities and government (and in some cases communities, government, and industry) for both protected area and non-protected area management. A critical principle in achieving better management of natural resources is that of collaborative or co-management. This is the acknowledgment that even if a resource falls under the jurisdiction of the government in law, it is still incumbent upon the government to engage other key stakeholders in the management of that resource. The stakeholders in question can be civil society organizations (CSOs), non-government organizations (NGOs), commercial interests, other government agencies, or even private individuals, but the principle of co-management particularly applies to the communities who depend on a particular resource for their livelihoods. Co-management is now incorporated into the conservation policies and legislation of many countries, but

a

Population density data estimates use the global UN-adjusted 2.5’ data from: http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/ gpw-v3-population-density/data-download.

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Conservation and good governance: Land tenure and representation

realizing it in practice is a challenge. It requires active and competent community organizations who are not only technically capable in management implementation but also speak with unity and legitimacy on behalf of their constituents and actively participate in the partnership arrangements that are implicit in the concept of co-management. This is where conservation and governance meet.

Social justice and governance It must be noted here that across the world, including within snow leopard range, there has been a long history (and a recently growing understanding) of the effects of colonialization on indigenous and local cultures and communities, even within the conservation arena (Dominguez and Louma, 2020). One of the more egregious examples of this is the creation of protected areas where local people who lived on a landscape were forcibly removed or marginalized by the creation of protected area boundaries and where their access to natural resources that they historically depended upon for their survival were denied. While to some degree the dramatic inaccessibility and isolation of snow leopard habitat have led to less frequent examples of loss of rights for local people in these landscapes than elsewhere, there are also a number of examples of protected areas in these landscapes that were dropped onto existing community lands and those communities becoming disenfranchised (e.g., Knudsen, 1999). It cannot be stated strongly enough that all conservation interventions, and especially those involving governance and institution building, must be viewed through the lenses of social justice. The focus must be on helping local communities build institutions that match their cultural and social systems and that address their needs, not the needs as perceived by external actors. If done sensitively and with a focus on supporting communities and improving rights and

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representation, building or improving local governance institutions can actually improve local rights and provide communities with a greater voice in local, regional, and even national concerns.

Conservation and good governance: Land tenure and representation A significant amount of attention has been directed recently toward a very specific aspect of conservation and governance—the political empowerment of people and the restitution of rights, especially land tenure. The initial focus of this has been on tropical forest systems (especially in Latin America and Southeast Asia) where local livelihoods (and ownership) often find themselves at odds with both protected area management and extractive/agricultural industry (Nelson, 2010; Painter and Castillo, 2014; Porter-Bolland et al., 2012; Reyes-Garcia et al., 2013; Sheil et al., 2006). The natural resource under consideration is usually tropical forests, which in Asia at least are often found near large human populations and which also provide multiple “goods” ranging from non-timber forest products (a local product; e.g. Ingram, 2012) to timber (a national product; e.g. Wiersum et al., 2013) to carbon sequestration (a global product; e.g., Biermann, 2010). This has led to multiple stakeholders and polarized arguments related to local versus national management of resources and decentralization and local empowerment versus commodities-based management (Bawa et al., 2011). By comparison, snow leopard habitat is rarely thought of as a region with multiple natural resource products of high value—instead it is a cold, high-elevation landscape with comparatively low biodiversity and low productivity. While the natural resources of these areas are critical to the people who live in them (usually poor, transhumant pastoralists largely dependent on pastures for livestock production), they

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are often considered “waste” land with little to offer the larger community, either nationally or internationally (with perhaps the significant if often overlooked exception of watersheds— snow leopard habitat contains the origins of many of the most important rivers in Asia that provide critical ecosystem services to billions of people). Because of the lack of focus and interest in these marginal mountain landscapes, land tenure rights are often less complicated and less contentious in high-mountain environments than in the more heavily populated lowlands. However, it should be stressed that any attempt to improve or build governance for conservation, regardless of location or existing state involvement, needs to begin with a full study and assessment of existing rights and responsibilities related to land tenure and resource use. The first focus needs to be on community-government relations and rights (whether inside or outside protected areas). While land tenure may be less contentious in mountain areas, it is no more likely to be clearly articulated in law or titles—and without a clear description of rights, community involvement in governance is difficult if not impossible (Knudsen, 1999). A secondary but also critical aspect of any governance assessment is the status of different community groups within the landscape of interest. There are often disenfranchised groups found within a larger community, and truly representative governance needs to incorporate all members of society. This obviously includes the issue of gender, but extends to tribal or family groups that are, for various reasons, not normally fully included in the existing governance systems. Efforts that attempt to build or improve governance for conservation that do not include all members of society are likely to fail as internal struggles—or more simply, the lack of inclusion of all resource users, and thus all resource use—can lead to unintended consequences, including a lack of effective conservation outcomes.

If an assessment of rights and ownership uncovers issues, these will need to be dealt with. Without clear rights and responsibilities and full representation, communities will not feel empowered or motivated to manage wildlife and landscapes appropriately, and government will tend to ignore them as a potential management partner. Land tenure and representation are hugely complicated issues that are also very context-dependent and frequently extremely contentious, but they are topics in which conservation organizations have shown leadership, and because of this, there are clear examples that can be followed in this process (Painter, 2009).

Building governance institutions For a conservation organization to help in building better governance for natural resource management, probably the most important aspects for success are an on-ground presence and a long-term commitment to the area. Working successfully with communities can often boil down to building a sense of trust and partnership, and this can only really happen over time and with a regular presence that provides a clear sign that the organization is not going to disappear after a 3 or 5-year funding cycle (Ming’ate et al., 2014). A prolonged, even decades-long commitment must be made, and that commitment must be conveyed convincingly to the local communities. It must also continue through periods of difficulty and even conflict, as an external presence and support during times of strife can sometimes be the difference between success and the collapse of local civil society and governance in an area (Hart and Hart, 2003; Plumptre et al., 2001; Zahler, 2005). Communication is another key consideration. This needs to be two-way—and initially it should be one-way, from communities to the support project personnel. Outsiders rarely have a complete sense of the real problems facing local people or the underlying personal,

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Building governance institutions

cultural, and political complexities involved in those problems. Conservation organizations may have an in-depth scientific understanding of the threats faced by these communities (and their ecosystems), and the tools to help mitigate or solve these problems, but determining the best path forward involves understanding the local politics, culture, and structures. As well, existing traditional systems need to be understood and incorporated into any plans for applying conservation solutions. Only once those aspects are understood and fully integrated should there be an effort to provide ideas for solutions back to the communities. Building that constituency for support then becomes the key next step. If aspects of local needs and considerations are properly incorporated, the process becomes one designed to solve the community’s problems, which is likely to be more efficient (and more effective) than attempting to apply an outside solution to a problem that local people have not yet articulated or even identified. As an example, providing ideas for improving rangeland practices after the local residents have expressed concern for degraded rangelands is much easier than introducing ideas to improve resilience to climate change— which may in fact be one of the ultimate causes of rangeland degradation in an area, but which may not be perceived by local people as an underlying threat. It is critical to have key leaders within the community who understand the issues and can bring the larger community with them. These may be traditional leaders such as religious leaders (Dudley et al., 2009) or respected and active individuals within the communities. The traditional leaders are particularly crucial since they may see new and improved governance as a challenge to their established powers. Without their buy-in, any efforts to improve or create new governance institutions are liable to fail. Moreover, community members are likely to have some respect for existing leaders even in circumstances when they feel that they are

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not providing adequate governance in a rapidly changing world. The actual design of governance institutions must be suited to the local and national context, but there are some guiding principles to consider. If possible, it is best to base the design of new governance institutions on existing systems or at least ensure that new structures are entirely compatible with existing cultural, legal, and policy frameworks. Too often parallel systems create a plethora of institutions each with slightly different but overlapping mandates, leading to confusion, competition, and conflict. Another advantage to building on established systems is that in most cases they are already endorsed by government, which will give them legitimacy and assist in their official acceptance. There must be some procedure to creation that is as transparent and democratic as possible, as this promotes a sense that the institution is truly representative of all local people (rather than, for example, only the established local elites). Any community institution brought into being must have some central guiding document, a constitution, or bylaw, which outlines in clear terms the purpose of the organization and some simple rules governing its structure and modus operandi. This is normally a requirement of national laws related to the formation and existence of community social organizations, but it also helps provide a framework and focus to any community governance institution, and a clear mandate together with roles and responsibilities for its members. Consultations with communities and local government should be as broad as possible to establish the need for the institutions that are envisaged. Initial elections to whatever body will oversee the organization should be open to the public regardless of the selection procedure. Once agreed upon, the bylaws should be disseminated as widely as possible so all community members are clear on the purpose of the organization and can monitor that it is brought into being in accordance with the agreed process.

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Early support for new governance institutions In many instances where new governance institutions are created, there is little historical or cultural precedent for this type of organization. Communities will be used either to deferring on decisions to established elites (or in some cases centralized control) or to comparatively unstructured and ad-hoc public gatherings. Frequently, communities will have people of the required capabilities, but not always the necessary knowledge or experience to make informed and sometimes technical decisions. Nor will the members of the new institution necessarily be well versed in dealing with a range of outside agencies such as government officials, representatives of commercial interests, or the donor community. Moreover, some fundamental concepts, such as acting on behalf of the community rather than the individual or their family, will not necessarily be practiced immediately by the new institution’s decisionmakers. From the outset therefore, the institution will need mentoring from both a technical and operational perspective. This can be provided by an established NGO that has expertise in the field, is known to the community, and enjoys its confidence (Fraser et al., 2010; Zahler et al., 2016). The institution also will often need a degree of financial support, at least until it can generate its own income from membership fees or other mechanisms. This will be necessary both to run its day-to-day operations (as many of its officers will be farmers or small business people not necessarily able to afford transport or subsistence costs while undertaking their duties) and to fund its activities. The mentor organization can play a critical role in identifying and securing external donor assistance while helping to build the community organization’s capacity to manage and then generate funds for itself. As in all institutions and communities, a wide range of agendas and perceptions can be found among constituents, and conflicts are inevitable.

Often these conflicts are resolved using traditional mechanisms, whether privately or at broader community meetings. It can also be helpful for third parties to be in involved, most obviously the NGO that is mentoring the fledgling institution. Alternatively, sensitive and respected local government officials can provide useful facilitation in conflict resolution. Regardless, it is important that the deeper social conflicts that are often entangled in such community disputes be considered and addressed and ultimately resolved. Otherwise, these long simmering disputes, sometimes having nothing to do with the issue at hand, can derail efforts at governance building and conservation of any kind (Madden and McQuinn, 2014). Establishing robust and effective community governance institutions is a long-term process that usually entails multiple setbacks, some due to internal tensions, others due to external pressures. The longer the institution can rely on a degree of support from a mentor institution, the more likely it is to survive these vicissitudes and emerge as a fully independent and selfsustaining entity. It is important throughout this potentially protracted period that the mentor organization intervenes only when requested and as necessary. In that way, a space will be maintained for the nascent institution to gradually assume full ownership and responsibility for itself and its activities and avoid the dependence on external support, whether real or perceived, which can undermine its legitimacy and power and lead to criticism and a backlash against the entire process (Zaidi, 1999). As with any initiative, it is critical to monitor and evaluate progress. To assess governance activities and report on the impact of associated conservation outcomes, Wilkie and Cowles (2012) and Wilkie et al. (2015) suggest looking at three principal attributes that are essential for the long-term functioning of any governance institution. These are (1) legitimacy—this is when stakeholders perceive that the governance institution is governing in their interests and does so with formal or informal authority,

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Conclusion

accountability, transparency, fairness, and participation; (2) capacity—when the institution has the skills, knowledge, staff, and financial resources to plan, implement, and monitor conservation actions; and (3) power—when the institution has the political power to exert their authority and not have their decisions and actions undermined by others. A number of tools have been created to do this (see, for example, Stephanson and Mascia, 2014; Wilkie and Cowles, 2012; Wilkie et al., 2015).

Completing the circle: Building linkages and co-management processes with government While community governance institutions are often created to fill a vacuum in the reach of effective regional or national government in rural areas, that does not mean that they can or should operate entirely independently, or as an alternative to formal government structures. In order to achieve full legitimacy, they must build functioning relations with local government so that they are eventually perceived as a valued partner, facilitating rather than opposing government at the local level. Building effective partnerships with government is not always easy owing to mutual distrust between communities and government officials. Often the reason communities are keen to create their own governance institutions in the first place is the government’s poor record in delivering basic services and a lack of confidence among communities that the government has the ability or desire to act in their interests. Government officials, for their part, often view community organizations with a degree of suspicion as potential challengers to their authority or with contempt as ill-educated or unenlightened and unworthy of receiving devolved responsibility for decision-making. These barriers are difficult to overcome, but can be gradually dissipated by displays of unity and competence on the part of the community and

its representative organization that generates respect and recognition from the government. Similarly if government officials are seen to be supportive and cooperative toward the community’s efforts to achieve effective governance over their natural resources, it engenders confidence that the government recognizes their interests as important. Therefore, any mentoring organization needs to be interacting with government stakeholders at the same time that they are helping to build community-level governance institutions. It is critical for a national or international organization to build these relationships, however initially disparate they might be, and to act as an objective third party to bring the two groups together. This process can be facilitated through direct meetings and/or combined training workshops on basic conservation issues and concepts, field methodologies, and so on. These can help to build relationships and trust, which are critical steps to building actual co-management processes. Once communities come to know and trust government staff (especially those whose mandate overlaps with the community’s interests, such as wildlife and forestry department specialists), and once government officials realize that communities are both interested in seeing government mandates achieved and are able to help government achieve them (ranging from collecting field data in distant sites for national reporting to actual implementation of conservation actions to monitor or improve conditions), developing co-management systems becomes a natural objective that is shared by both parties. Creating platforms for this process—meetings, workshops, local study tours, field training—is where the external, mentoring organization can play a key role.

Conclusion There has been a profound and important shift in snow leopard conservation work that began with focused field research on snow

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leopards and their prey, moved to analyzing human-snow leopard conflict with local people (Bagchi and Mishra, 2006), and is now implementing community conservation initiatives (Baral and Stern, 2009; Jackson and Wangchuck, 2004). A number of these initiatives are also attempting to build new or improve existing governance institutions based on recognition by all parties that current local systems are not always capable of dealing with new and growing pressures from a range of internal and external sources (Simms et al., 2011). Snow leopards and their high-mountain environment also face two major emerging threats. The first is climate change, and the second is zoonotic disease (see also Chapters 8 and 9). Of course, neither is really new, and the threat of zoonotic disease, especially to snow leopard prey species—the wild sheep and goats of the greater Himalayan chains—has been a threat since pastoralism spread into these mountains. However, both threats are complex and growing, and few mountain communities are well-positioned to deal with them. Good governance systems at the community level will be critical to combatting the threat of disease and climate change. For example, communities need to be empowered to collect data on disease outbreaks and changing climate, whether changes in precipitation, snow fall, glacial melt, and so on. These data can be used to find solutions to improve resilience to impacts from climate and disease, but there also needs to be a system in place to hold community discussions regarding changes that must be implemented. This might range from requesting help from government agencies or NGOs, to decisions made about shifting summer or winter grazing pastures based on changing rainfall or temperature. Without the capacity to monitor threats and find potential solutions, local community livelihoods will become more and more vulnerable, and poor decision-making will negatively impact the environment and threaten wild ungulates and the snow leopard that depends upon them.

A number of key lessons on local governance have been learned in recent years from these initiatives. For new or improved governance to be sustainable, it is important that each of these lessons be incorporated into any governance building process. They include: • Understand existing power structures and incorporate existing traditional systems into any attempts to improve governance. • Assess and resolve issues related to land tenure and ownership. • Ensure that all stakeholders have a voice, including women and other possible disenfranchised community members. • Ensure that local needs and concerns are incorporated into governance design. • Find ways to include existing leaders as advocates in the process. • Base new governance institutions on existing systems or at least ensure that new structures are entirely compatible with existing cultural, legal, and policy frameworks. • Be sure that there is a central guiding document that defines the purpose of the organization and some simple rules governing its structure and activities, and that this document is disseminated widely to all stakeholders. • Have the new governance institution be recognized and endorsed by government. • Build functioning relations and linkages with local government so that the new institution is perceived as a valued partner for co-management. • Monitor and evaluate progress, including the three principal attributes: legitimacy, capacity, and power. • Commit to long-term support to governance building. The snow leopard’s remote, high-mountain world is slowly but inexorably changing. These changes are also happening to local communities, and often the changes are happening in part because of these people. Providing these communities with the governance tools to properly

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Conclusion

manage their fragile, alpine landscape will be critical to ensuring that snow leopards remain as one of Asia’s great wild predators.

Pakistan: Building local constituencies for conservation In Diamer District of Gilgit-Baltistan (previously the Northern Areas), initial wildlife research activities in the early 1990s uncovered the fact that a significant ecological crisis was underway. Diamer District is the only official “tribal area” in Gilgit-Baltistan; from an environmental perspective this means that local communities own the rights to the natural resources of the region, including both forests and wildlife. Diamer also contains a significant amount of the limited natural conifer forest remaining in the Province (and a significant percentage of the forest remaining for the country). Unfortunately, these forests were being cut down rapidly as outside interests (colloquially termed the “timber mafia”) would buy rights for clear-cutting forests at well under market value from economically naı¨ve communities. The results were severe and dramatic, as communities lost a critical resource that provided timber for construction, fuelwood for heat and cooking, and non-timber forest products (such as pine nuts, morel mushrooms, and medicinal plants). There was also some evidence that erosion from the loss of forest cover was affecting grazing areas and even water sources. At the same time, significant overhunting was negatively affecting wildlife populations. An influx and subsequent widespread availability of high-powered weapons from regional conflicts, coupled with a lack of local hunting rules or government enforcement efforts, meant that markhor (Capra falconeri) and urial (Ovis vignei), the two species in the district that are key prey for snow leopard, were disappearing rapidly, with markhor appearing to exist only in small and

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fragmented populations and urial believed to have been entirely extirpated in the region. Extensive, multi-year consultations with local communities made it clear that they were very concerned about these changes, but they felt powerless to cope with the new paradigms that these changes had thrust upon them. Over the next few years, efforts were made to encourage the creation of a new governance system based initially on natural resource management, one that would provide the communities with a new method of decision-making that could directly address these concerns and determine steps they could take to alter and mitigate the environmental destruction occurring in their landscapes. These governance structures were initially developed in 23 communities in Diamer and southern Gilgit Districts. Coupled with extensive conservation education and outreach efforts, these organizations developed their own bylaws aimed initially at natural resource rules (e.g., use of trees for construction and other purposes and banning hunting of certain species of wildlife such as markhor), but that grew to include other social rules related to development, construction, and other activities. Each of the Wildlife Conservation Social Development Organizations (WCSDOs) helped identify (usually two) community members to serve as volunteer wildlife rangers, who were mandated with monitoring wildlife, especially markhor, on a monthly basis and patrolling to identify and halt possible violations based on local bylaws. This governance initiative slowly expanded to include 65 communities over five districts in Gilgit-Baltistan. It also led to the creation of 22 new multi-community conservancies, based on providing revenues from markhor trophy hunting across multiple communities (only four permits are allowed in Gilgit-Baltistan annually, and communities have joined together into multi-valley conservancies to ensure more equitable sharing of the 80% of revenues that are legally allowed to be returned locally). Finally, a platform

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was created to bring these community-led organizations together with local government departments—the Mountain Conservation and Development Programme (MCDP). The results of these efforts were striking. The new governance structures led to communities refusing the advances of the timber mafia and maintaining significant forest cover. Markhor have shown clear signs of recovery, with the population appearing to have increased from an estimated under 1000 animals to approximately 1500 in only about a decade, a 50% increase. A small herd of urial, previously thought extirpated in the region, was discovered by community rangers in the Indus Valley region of northeast Diamer and southern Gilgit, and the population was closely monitored and protected and now number over 100 animals (Zahler and Khan, 2004; Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), unpublished data). Although the MCDP struggled to get off the ground, a number of the conservancies developed direct relationships with local government agencies and even began implementing joint initiatives. As an example of the need for continued long-term support, the main support organization for this initiative, WCS, decided to end their support of this work in 2019. Without external support in terms of staff salaries, training, workshops, and provision of supplies and equipment, a number of the local institutions have gone “dormant”—while the number of conservancies has actually risen to 30, the number of functional, active WCSDOs has dropped from 65 to 52 (all of which suggests how “long term” a long-term commitment to supporting new governance institutions might be—the program was roughly 25 years old at that point). However, local staff from the original program have started a local NGO, the Wildlife Conservation and Development Society (WCDS), which is looking to continue this support role for the community natural resource governance structures in Gilgit-Baltistan.

Afghanistan: Top-down meets bottom-up Wakhan District in Badakhshan Province is one of most geographically remote areas of Afghanistan. Its craggy mountains and high-elevation alpine meadows also make up an estimated 60%–70% of the confirmed range of the snow leopard in Afghanistan. The 17,500 inhabitants of the district comprise mainly ethnic Wakhi and Kyrgyz. Monitoring in parts of the Wakhan over the past 15 years revealed dramatic increases in livestock densities, which now appear to have plateaued at high levels (Ostrowski et al., 2021), leading to competition for resources between livestock and snow leopard prey species such as ibex (Capra sibirica) and Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii) and increased the risk of disease transmission (Ostrowski et al., 2009). It has also brought wild predators such as snow leopards into closer proximity with people and livestock, with the result that livestock predation is undermining goodwill toward snow leopards among local herders (Ranger patrol reports, Afghanistan, unpublished data, S. Poya-Faryabi, personal communication, June 23, 2021). A program was started in 2006 to build local community capacity for conservation, and the program simultaneously worked with its partners in the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) to ensure that community participation in natural resource management was firmly enshrined in Afghan legislation and government policy (including assistance in drafting the Environment Law of 2007, the Interim Protected Area Tarzulamal of 2009, the National Protected Area System Plan in 2010, and an updated Natural Resource Management Policy in 2021). The country’s first national park at Band-e-Amir provided a testing ground, and the work there provided a model for establishing collaborative management institutions elsewhere in Afghanistan (Zahler, 2010; Zahler and Lawson, 2012).

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Conclusion

After consultations over a period of almost 4 years, the program assisted the Wakhi and Kyrgyz people of Wakhan District to establish their own community institution, the Wakhan-Pamir Association (WPA) for managing natural resources across the landscape. During the process of establishing the WPA, those involved were assiduous in following the processes laid down in the Law on Social Organizations (2002). A chairperson and board were elected, who with external guidance drew up a set of bylaws outlining the purpose of the organization, its structure, and rules for governance. Thereafter, the organization was formally registered with the Ministry of Justice. Unlike in Pakistan, a nationally approved community governance institution already existed at the local level in Afghanistan, the Community Development Council (CDC). In 2003, the government of Afghanistan began establishing CDCs as part of its National Solidarity Program. However, these institutions have tended to focus on conventional development, with little attention on conserving the natural resource base. Furthermore, the limited geographical reach of each CDC inevitably prevents them from making decisions at a landscape level, which is essential for effective conservation. The WPA was conceived therefore as an umbrella organization for the CDCs of the Wakhan. Its board members are elected from incumbent CDC representatives, thus making collective decisions relating to resource management across the entire district. An additional rationale for using CDCs as a foundation for the WPA’s structure was that it would confer upon the WPA a degree of immediate legitimacy, as CDCs are an established part of local governance and are accepted by communities and government alike. It also avoided the pitfall, characteristic of many attempts at institution building, of creating parallel organizations that either duplicate or frustrate each other’s activities. Ultimately however, community institutions are judged by their constituents according to whether they are achieving their objectives. Since

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its formation the WPA, with ongoing mentoring and support, has grown steadily in confidence and institutional capacity, to the point where in 2014 it secured its first direct grants (as opposed to those channeled through third-party organizations) from international donors to implement resource management projects. The WPA has engaged in a wide array of activities ranging from afforestation to promoting nature-based tourism and interventions aimed at conserving the snow leopard. The WPA has been involved in the construction of more than 30 predator-proof corrals across Wakhan District designed to reduce human-snow leopard conflict. It has also assumed limited management responsibility for 34 Wakhi and Kyrgyz community rangers, who play a prominent role in monitoring wildlife and illegal hunting. These local rangers have gained expertise in camera trapping and snow leopard collaring techniques (since 2011, the Wakhan community rangers have taken over 5000 camera trap photographs of snow leopards). The WPA has also played a role in the establishment of Wakhan National Park (10,950 km2), vital for the conservation of snow leopards, and has been working in partnership with NEPA, MAIL, local government, and WCS to develop management plans and secure the approval of local communities. As referred to earlier in this chapter, however, building robust and effective community institutions is a long-term process, and the WPA is not yet able to function independently. One of the key challenges has been to widen and strengthen the capacity of the elected board, which is charged with managing its activities. To date, the WPA has relied too much on a few dynamic and forceful members to carry its work forward. A greater investment in formal training and capacity building would assist in achieving broader and more active participation in decision-making and the day-to-day business of the organization. Furthermore, recent changes in governance structures at the local level have demonstrated that the WPA must be able to adapt itself in order to remain relevant. The phased roll-out of the

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government’s Citizen Charter program, which began in 2018, has led to the creation of a natural resource management committee for each cluster of CDCs, and the final approval of a management plan for Wakhan National Park requires the establishment of a protected area committee, whose jurisdiction and responsibilities overlap significantly with the WPA. The emergence of these new entities means the WPA will need to adjust its focus and modus operandi to ensure that it continues to play a meaningful part in the comanagement of Wakhan National Park. Transitioning into a local NGO working specifically for the benefit of the people of Wakhan is one option that has been mooted. One of the greatest potential challenges for local governance is significant regime change at the national level. In summer 2021, the political situation in Afghanistan underwent a rapid and dramatic change. A new government has been formed, led by representatives of the Taliban, and as yet it is unclear what the new regime’s attitude will be to wildlife conservation. The resumption of work by Afghan staff in Wakhan is a positive sign, but the operating environment remains too uncertain for unqualified optimism. Nor is there any certainty that the international community, which for nearly two decades has funded conservation and sustainable management of Wakhan’s natural resources, and its snow leopards in particular, will continue to do so. The coming years are likely to prove to be a test of the resilience and adaptability of the current governance structures for snow leopard conservation in the Wakhan.

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Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society, Afghanistan. Painter, M., 2009. Rights-based conservation and the quality of life of indigenous people in the Bolivian Chaco. In: Campese, J., Sunderland, T., Greiber, T., Oviedo, G. (Eds.), Rights Based Approaches: Exploring Issues and Opportunities for Conservation. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), International Union for Conservation of nature (IUCN) and Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy (CEESP), Bogor, Indonesia, pp. 163–184. Painter, M., Castillo, O., 2014. The impacts of large-scale energy development: indigenous people and the Bolivia-Brazil gas pipeline. Hum. Organ. 73, 116–127. Plumptre, A.J., Masozera, M., Vedder, A., 2001. The Impact of Civil War on the Conservation of Protected Areas in Rwanda. Biodiversity Support Program, Washington, DC. Porter-Bolland, L., Ellis, E., Guariguata, M., Ruiz-Mallen, I., NegreteYankelevich, S., Reyes-Garcia, V., 2012. Community managed forests and forest protected areas: an assessment of their conservation effectiveness across the tropics. For. Ecol. Manag. 268, 6–17. Reyes-Garcia, V., Ruiz-Mallen, I., Porter-Bolland, L., GarciaFrapolli, E., Ellis, E.A., Mendez, M.E., Pritchard, D.J., Sanchez-Gonzalez, M.C., 2013. Local understandings of conservation in Southeastern Mexico and their implications for community-based conservation as an alternative paradigm. Conserv. Biol. 27, 856–865. Sheil, D., Puri, R., Wan, M., Basuki, I., van Heist, M., Liswanti, N., Rukmiyati, Rachmatika, I., Samsoedin, I., 2006. Local people’s priorities for biodiversity: examples from the forests of Indonesian Borneo. Ambio 15, 17–24. Simms, A., Moheb, Z., Salahudin, Ali, H., Ali, I., Wood, T., 2011. Saving threatened species in Afghanistan: snow leopards in the Wakhan corridor. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 68, 299–312. Stephanson, S., Mascia, M.B., 2014. Putting people on the map through an approach that integrates social data in conservation planning. Conserv. Biol. 28, 1236–1248. Wiersum, K.F., Lescuyer, G., Nketiah, K.S., Wit, M., 2013. International forest governance regimes: reconciling

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concerns on timber legality and forest-based livelihoods. Forest Policy Econ. 32, 1–5. Wilkie, D., Cowles, P., 2012. Guidelines for Assessing the Strengths and Weaknesses of Natural Resource Governance in Landscapes and Seascapes. United States Agency for International Development, Washington, DC. Wilkie, D., Wieland, M., Detoeuf, D., 2015. Guidelines for Learning and Applying the Natural Resource Governance Tool (NRGT) in Landscapes and Seascapes. WCS, Washington, DC. Zahler, P., 2005. Conservation and conflict: The importance of continuing conservation work during political upheaval and armed conflict. In: Guynup, S. (Ed.), State of the Wild: A Global Portrait of Wildlife, Wildlands, and Oceans. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 243–249. Zahler, P., 2010. Conservation and governance: Lessons from the reconstruction effort in Afghanistan. In: State of the Wild III: A Global Portrait of Wildlife, Wildlands, and Oceans 2010–2011. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 72–80. Zahler, P., Khan, M., 2004. Status and new records of Ladakh urial (Ovis orientalis vignei) in Northern Pakistan. In: Caprinae: Newsletter of the IUCN/SSC Caprinae Specialist Group, pp. 1–3. October 2004. Zahler, P., Lawson, D., 2012. Improving livelihoods and governance through resource management in Afghanistan. In: Chettri, N., Sherchan, U., Chaudhary, S., Shakya, B. (Eds.), Mountain Biodiversity Conservation and Management: Selected Examples of Good Practices and Lessons Learned from the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Working Paper 2/2012, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp. 36–38. Zahler, P., Wilkie, D., Painter, M., Carter, J.C., 2016. The role of conservation in promoting stability and security in at-risk communities. In: Bruch, C., Muffett, C., Nichols, S. (Eds.), Strengthening Post-Conflict Peacebuilding through Natural Resource Management: Vol. 6: Governance and institutions. United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva. Zaidi, S.A., 1999. NGO failure and the need to bring back the state. J. Int. Dev. 11, 259–271.

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Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00073-X

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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S U B C H A P T E R

17.1 Himalayan Homestays: Fostering human-snow leopard coexistence Tsewang Namgaila, Bipasha Majumderb, and Jigmet Dadula a

Snow Leopard Conservancy India Trust, Leh, Union Territory of Ladakh, India bIndependent, New Delhi, India

Introduction Human-snow leopard conflict is a serious conservation issue through most of the cat’s range in Asia (Hussain, 2003; Ikeda, 2004; Li et al., 2013; Snow Leopard Network, 2014). Snow leopards are notorious for killing multiple livestock in corrals at night. Such multiple killings inflict serious damage to the economy of local people, who rely on livestock production as the mainstay for their existence in harsh and remote mountains. In the absence of any appropriate incentive and/or compensation, the ire of the affected communities ultimately gets directed back to these predators, which are often killed in retaliation (Bagchi and Mishra, 2006; Namgail et al., 2007). Several incentive programs have been devised to mitigate this conflict and to foster coexistence between humans and snow leopards throughout their range (Allen and Macray, 2002; Hussain, 2000; Mishra et al., 2003). The Ladakh region of the Indian TransHimalaya harbors the maximum number of snow leopards within India (Fox et al., 1991; Snow Leopard Network, 2014). The region supports a diverse assemblage of mammalian herbivores (Namgail, 2009; Namgail et al., 2013), which in turn support a good number

of snow leopards ( Jackson et al., 2006). As in other parts of its range, snow leopards kill a large number of livestock in Ladakh every year, which brings the cat in direct conflict with livestock farmers (Namgail et al., 2007). Although, some level of conflict between pastoralists and large carnivores seems inevitable in areas where livestock production is the mainstay of people’s economy, the level of conflict can be reduced by providing incentives to the affected communities. It was against this background that the Snow Leopard Conservancy with support from The Mountain Institute and UNESCO started the Himalayan Homestay Program in 2002 in the Hemis National Park in Ladakh, where human-wildlife conflict had reached a new high. While looking for solutions, it was observed that although about 5000 tourists visited the park every year, the local communities who suffered due to wildlife presence received minimal or no benefit from tourism (Wangchuk and Jackson, 2002). Recognizing the high rate of livestock depredation by the snow leopard, inequality in the distribution of income from tourism, and undue pressure on pastures from pack animals accompanying tourists, we began a dialogue with the local communities to initiate the Himalayan Homestay Program.

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Introduction

The homestay concept came about from a series of workshops in Ladakh, in which various governmental and nongovernmental organizations, travel agents, and local people played a pivotal role that proved vital to its ultimate design, growth, and success. The first idea of traditional homestays came from a village woman who having observed the growth in trekking and proliferation of infrastructure, including numerous guest houses in Leh, visualized a different approach for rural areas. Thus, under a pilot program, a dozen or so households interested in pioneering the homestays were given initial investment support such as blankets, mattresses, buckets, bed sheets, and other fundamental items required to run a homestay. Initially, potential village entrepreneurs were trained in hospitality, hygiene, housekeeping, and other management skills. For those who were not able to start a homestay, other income-generating opportunities such as nature guiding, solar showers, and eco-cafes were offered as alternatives. A mechanism was also put in place whereby 10% of the proceeds from the homestays were to be set aside for environmental protection in and around the villages. In

FIG. 17.1.1

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return, the villagers promised to refrain from any retaliatory killing of snow leopards and other large predators. Currently, Snow Leopard Conservancy India Trust (SLC-IT) is running the program in 32 villages across Ladakh covering over 165 households. Over 240 nature guides have been trained, more than 10 eco-cafes have been established, and five solar shower facilities have been provided. The households in a village follow a rotation system whereby they take turns at hosting tourists to ensure equitable distribution of income from the program. Over the years, the program has helped the communities get directly involved in the conservation process in their respective areas. In fact, the program has been so successful in offsetting the livestock loss to snow leopards, that the local government adopted it in its effort to conserve wildlife in protected areas of Ladakh. It is also emulated by several organizations across the Himalayas. In this chapter, we assess the efficacy of this program in mitigating human-snow leopard conflict and more importantly in influencing people’s attitude toward the snow leopard (Figs. 17.1.1 and 17.1.2).

A typical homestay in Western Ladakh. Photo credit Snow Leopard Conservancy—India Trust.

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FIG. 17.1.2

17. Incentive and reward programs in snow leopard conservation

A homestay host serves a meal to tourists. Photo credit Snow Leopard Conservancy—India Trust.

Survey methods

Results

We carried out a questionnaire survey in the months of September and October 2014. Data were collected largely through semistructured interviews with local communities in the Sham Valley, one of our homestay areas in Ladakh. We interviewed one individual, preferably the head, from each homestay households and randomly selected non-homestay households in seven villages: Ulley, Yangthang, Tarutse, Saspotsey, Hemis Shukpachan, Ang, and Tia. Although we strove to obtain accurate information during the household surveys through cross-checking, some people, concerned with tax related issues, may have provided incorrect figures. Information on modern developmental activities such as road and bridge construction was collected by interviewing the village headmen and also by opportunistically interviewing knowledgeable people in the villages. We compared the responses of homestay and non-homestay households to see potential impact of the homestay program on the economy, ecology and socioculture of the villages. We used χ 2 tests to see if the differences were statistically significant.

We interviewed 28 persons from the homestay households and 33 persons from nonhomestay households. Among the homestay respondents, 54% (n ¼ 28) were females, while 46% were males. Similarly, there were more female respondents (67%, n ¼ 33) and less male respondents (33%) among the nonhomestay households. Farmers dominated the respondents among both homestay (89%) and non-homestay households (88%). Among the homestay households, tourism emerged as the third most important source of income after agriculture and livestock grazing, whereas among the non-homestay households, military service was the third most important source of income after the aforementioned traditional sources of income.

Economic impact Sixty-four percent of the homestay respondents agreed that the Himalayan Homestay Program promoted ecotourism, and that the program facilitated greater influx of tourists in

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Results

the region. During the interviews, it became apparent that 99% of the homestay owners had started the homestay enterprise for supplementary cash income. When asked how homestays are benefiting their villages, the majority of respondents mentioned higher cash income and cultural preservation. The homestay households had significantly higher cash income than the non-homestay households (χ 2 ¼ 53.77, P < .001). For instance, 14% of the homestay households have an annual cash income of over Indian Rs. 50,000, while only 3% of the nonhomestay households are in this income category. Among the homestay households, 53% had a meager annual income of less than Indian Rs. 10,000 prior to the program, but this percentage plunged to 3% after starting the program. The homestay households use the increased income for children’s education, home maintenance, better health, clothes, and food. Seventy-nine percent of the respondents strongly believe that ecotourism helps in enhancing cash income, and they want to remain part of the Himalayan Homestays.

Ecological impact All the respondents knew most of the wild mammals and birds found in their area. Sixtyfour percent of the homestay owners liked the presence of snow leopards and wildlife as they brought in tourists and thus revenue, while only 54% of the non-homestay respondents liked the presence of snow leopards and other wildlife, though they were wary of them killing their livestock. However, there was no significant difference between homestay and non-homestay households in the level of their liking of snow leopard (χ 2 ¼ 1.12, P ¼ .289). Both homestay (100%) and non-homestay respondents (88%) agreed that the Himalayan Homestays reduced pressure on the pastureland in the area, as trekkers do not need horses to carry their camping gear.

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The Himalayan Homestays also helped in creating awareness about environmental cleanliness, which helps in sustaining the environment and the growth of the region’s flora and fauna. The environment-conscious trekkers seem to have an impact on the homestay owners, 85% of whom now feel that it’s important to keep their houses and villages clean. One is likely to think that an increase in the number of tourists also increases the garbage problem, but this seems to be unfounded in the Sham valley; the majority of respondents (86% homestay and 85% non-homestay households) said that the increase in tourists did not increase garbage in the village as most of the tourists dispose the garbage appropriately, and some even carry it back out.

Sociocultural impact Homestay and non-homestay households differed significantly in their views on the influence of tourists on their culture and traditions (χ 2 ¼ 13.52, P < .01). When asked if the tourists affected the local culture and traditions, 68% (n ¼ 28) of the homestay respondents gave an affirmative answer. Some of the most visible changes are cleaner houses and appreciation of local food and costumes. However, just over half of non-homestay respondents (51%) see no influence on their culture and traditions. Furthermore, 82% of the homestay owners felt that they have learned a lot from tourists, especially things such as maintaining schedules and cleanliness, change in eating habits and learning to cook new dishes, hospitality, and last but not the least, new languages. Furthermore, as 68% of respondents agreed, the homestay program has made them more social and confident than before, as tourists foster pride in local cultures and traditions. Tourists also seem to have influenced local people’s view on livelihood options. Overall 62% of the respondents felt that it is important

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to educate their children so that they can get good jobs. It also became apparent that the number of livestock, especially sheep and goats, is decreasing. The younger generation, unlike their parents and grandparents, do not want to be involved in agriculture and livestock rearing for their future livelihood, and many of them are migrating to cities. Despite these social dynamics, 77% of all homestay respondents want to remain part of the Himalayan Homestay Program.

Discussion Ladakh is fast becoming an important tourist destination in India. The number of tourists in this Trans-Himalayan region increased from a little over 500 in 1974, when the region was first opened to tourists, to over 150,000 in 2011 (Rajashekariah and Chandan, 2013). At this rate of increase, the transient population of tourists will soon surpass the local population (300,000). Ladakh, however, witnessed a boom in tourism and tourism-related activities in the last decade. Tourist season was earlier confined to a few summer months, but with the growing number of wildlife tourists visiting to see the snow leopard, the season now extends into winter. The Himalayan Homestay Program was developed taking into cognizance the growing animosity of people against snow leopards and the booming tourism industry. People in the past viewed the snow leopard as a pest and a threat to their livelihoods, but now they view it as a tourism asset, bringing revenue. Our survey revealed that the annual income of homestay households is significantly higher than the non-homestay households. Survey results also showed that homestay households like the presence of snow leopards in the mountains surrounding their villages more than the non-homestay households, although statistically insignificant. This is however to be noted

that the non-homestay households also benefit from facilities such as livestock insurance, environmental education, nature guiding, solar showers and eco-cafes, which are allied to the homestay program. A large proportion of the interviewees mentioned that the homestay program facilitated a greater influx of tourists in the region. SLC-IT achieved this through aggressive marketing and value addition. For instance, we have forged strong links with various travel agents, who offer tourists packages including homestays. In our marketing efforts, we also highlight the conservation linkage of the program such as the homestay operators’ abstinence of retaliatory killing of snow leopards and the flow of 10% of the proceeds toward a village conservation fund. We have also been opening new trails to connect remote villages with the network of trekking routes in different parts of Ladakh and developing skills of homestay operators regularly. The survey results also showed that the homestay operators learn various things such as the importance of hygiene, sanitation, and gastronomy from the tourists visiting their homes. They also enjoy meeting people from different parts of the world and learn about their culture and traditions. “I was born in this valley and lived here all my life as a farmer. I hated it. Now that visitors come from distant places and appreciate our mountains and culture, it makes me proud to be a Yangthang pa” said Skarma Lungstar pa from Yangthang, one of the survey villages. As everywhere else, tourism in Ladakh came to a grinding halt in 2020 in the wake of COVID19. Most of the homestay villages were not affected adversely, as people in these villages do not rely exclusively on tourism. However, we provided monetary relief to all the homestay owners in the Ulley area, one of the two destinations for snow leopard tourism in Ladakh, so that people continue having a positive attitude toward snow leopards.

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Challenges and the way forward Ladakh became a Union Territory in October 2019 after the Government of India bifurcated the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Following this, there is a greater flow of funds to Ladakh, and plans are afoot for promoting rural tourism through government-aided homestays across Ladakh. This could result in competition with the Himalayan Homestays. Secondly, with a boom in the tourism industry, many households have opened guest houses/ homestays, either of their own accord or through other agencies, resulting in competition with the Himalayan Homestays. The owners of these guest houses/homestays do not contribute toward environmental protection, and they often invite the tourists to their homes, pretending that they are part of the Himalayan Homestay Program. These factors can not only dilute the uniqueness of the Himalayan Homestay brand but can also deal a massive blow to conservation in the region as people start catering only to tourism for business without a linkage to conservation. Hence, it is imperative to educate and involve the younger generation and other agencies at the grassroots level to help them understand the critical linkage between sustainable tourism and conservation. Urbanization and the consequent change in the social fabric have resulted in the younger generation aspiring for “jobs” outside their villages rather than getting involved in traditional labor-intensive livelihood activities such as agriculture and livestock production. This is likely to loosen the younger generation’s connection with their way of life, which might affect the quality of the homestays. Urbanization has also led to an increasing use of plastic and other materials that are difficult to dispose of. In collaboration with Panthera and the Border Roads Organization (BRO), solid waste management practices have been introduced in homestay villages and monasteries across Ladakh. The rotation system to distribute the income equitably among all homestay operators in a village needs strengthening, as households that are

either influential or close to the road heads get a larger share of the tourists. Almost all the homestay owners are farmers, and when they are busy in agricultural fields, some hosts save time by packaging simple meals such as flat bread and jam for lunch, which are disdained by some guests. Therefore, we are currently standardizing the menu. Finally, frequent training of homestay owners and community members can help them take more ownership of the program and hence can promote more holistic nature conservation in their villages.

Conclusion The Himalayan Homestay initiative has been able to achieve what it set out to do: reduce human-wildlife conflict in areas with high livestock depredation and involve communities in the conservation process. The homestay owners have not only been able to improve their economic conditions but also been able to imbibe the positive ecological and sociocultural aspects from tourism. The changing socioeconomic fabric of Ladakh will dictate the future of wildlife conservation and how we continually improve the initiative to keep the message of conservation at the fore. Even though there are imminent challenges ahead, the Himalayan Homestay Program has provided a distinct advantage of tolerance and understanding toward snow leopards and other wildlife, and the villagers want to remain part of the program.

Acknowledgments We thank the The Mountain Institute, UNESCO, Panthera, Royal Bank of Scotland, and Snow Leopard Conservancy USA for supporting our homestay program in Ladakh. We thank Late Mr. Rinchen Wangchuk, Rodney Jackson, Nandita Jain, and Wendy Lama for conceptualizing and initiating the program. We thank Stanzin Khakhyab for his assistance in analyzing the survey data. We thank Tsewang Dolma for her support and encouragement. We thank Tsering Angmo, Rigzen Chorol, Mohd. Hasnane, Thupstan Dolker, Tsering Lazes, and Nawang Gyalson for their help during the questionnaire survey. Last but not least, we thank all the villagers for participating in the program and this survey.

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17.2 Snow Leopard Enterprises, Mongolia Bayarjargal Agvaantserena, Priscilla Allenb, Unurzul Dashzevega, Tserenadmid Nadia Mijiddorja, and Jennifer Snell Rullmanc a

b

Mongolian Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (SLCF), Ulannbaatar, Mongolia Independent, Seattle, WA, United States cSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States

Vision A 1997 survey among nomadic herders in snow leopard habitat in Mongolia indicated ambivalent attitudes toward snow leopards (Allen et al., 2002). Despite high levels of awareness of laws protecting snow leopards, herders reported that retaliatory killing did occur when snow leopards preyed on livestock. Of the 116 interviewees, 49% had experienced depredation of livestock by snow leopards. When asked what actions could ameliorate the challenges of sharing habitat with a threatened predator, herders suggested support to increase income generation from their livestock products, specifically wool. In response to this request, independent conservationists P. Allen and A. Bayarjargal created Snow Leopard Enterprises (SLE) with funding from the David Shepherd Conservation Foundation (United Kingdom), WWF-Mongolia, International Snow Leopard Trust (United States), British Embassy (Mongolia), and support from the Mongolian Union for the Conservation of Nature and the Environment and the Great Gobi Biodiversity Project. The goal was to enable herders to add value to their livestock products by creating finished

items instead of selling raw wool at wholesale rates. In exchange for the opportunity to increase household income by adding value to livestock products, herders made a commitment through a conservation contract to specific conservation actions that benefit snow leopards.

How SLE works SLE now operates under the umbrella of the Snow Leopard Trust (SLT) and the Mongolian Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (SLCF). The program works with herder communities whose pastures overlap with snow leopard habitat in the seven provinces in Mongolia where snow leopards are found. Communities establish norms and select a representative. The community norms describe who is eligible to participate in the program, the size of the Community Responsible Areas (CRA), how leaders are elected, and what the organizational structure will be for the communities. The representative of the SLE program communicates with the central office in Ulaanbaatar to coordinate training in product manufacture and design, order distribution and collection, organization of environmental

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Economic and social impact

education and workshops, and to support other logistical requirements. Twice a year, SLE staff visits the approximately 30 participating communities to place orders and to purchase products. In September, contracts are renewed after the conservation criteria have been reviewed and compliance surveys completed. Products are then labeled, packaged, and prepared for market. Some are sold on the Mongolian tourist market; the majority are shipped to the SLT headquarters in the United States. From there, products are distributed to consumers through web sales, events, and niche markets. Marketing efforts have been especially successful in US zoos. At one time, the goal was to have the revenue from sales cover payment to the artisans, running costs, all in-country salaries, as well as some monitoring and compliance costs. However, in 2020, a reframing of the products and the SLE program had taken place, and we are supporting this successful conservation program more through grants and other funding mechanisms in order to focus less on sales revenue and more on conservation outputs. The program also funds a small grant program for community-based conservation initiatives. In 2019, SLE involved over 350 herder households from 33 nomadic herder communities and had generated over USD 1 million in cumulative sales since 2000.

Conservation contract, compliance, and consequences Participation in SLE is directly linked to the conservation of snow leopards through a multipartied conservation contract. Stakeholders include: local protected area administrations and/or environmental agencies; SLE administration, community coordinators, and individual herder participants. The contract requires participants to: – prevent poaching of snow leopards or their prey species within their area of responsibility,

– follow protected area regulations, and – support conservation awareness. Communities that comply receive a 20% conservation bonus in addition to the income earned from product sales. A single violation within the area that the community is responsible for results in the loss of the bonus for the entire community. The bonus is often the difference between breaking even and making a clear profit; hence, this model creates substantial peer pressure against poaching. Data from protected area administrations, environmental agencies, herder communities, antipoaching units, and SLT researchers are compiled and analyzed to determine the levels of compliance with the conservation contract. If poaching has occurred in an SLE area, the community loses its conservation bonus, and the violation is investigated, often resulting in legal action by local authorities. Besides the punitive impact of withholding the bonus as a result of contract violations, SLE offers positive incentives to support conservation initiatives. Initially, SLE provides handicraft skills training to ensure high-quality products that follow consistent, marketable designs. Second, training in wildlife monitoring techniques is made available for community members interested in becoming rangers. Qualified rangers support snow leopard sign surveys and monitoring of prey species such as ibex and argali. Finally, workshops are offered on a variety of topics depending on local needs: land rights, community advocacy, reducing herd sizes while increasing yield with healthier animals (Fig. 17.2.1).

Economic and social impact Participants earn an average of USD 150 from participating in the manufacture and sale of handicrafts for SLE, raising annual incomes by 4% compared to the national average for rural

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FIG. 17.2.1 Herder women artisans at a design improvement training in Uvs Province, Mongolia. Photo credit: Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation, Mongolia.

households (National Statistical Office of Mongolia, 2011). Due to their remoteness, many SLE households’ annual income is far below the national average. Therefore, the economic impact of SLE is much greater; in many cases incomes are almost doubled. According to a 2004 survey, the additional cash was spent on basic household goods and family needs, such as food, clothing, school tuition, and school books. Most SLE participants are women (98%) who enjoy financial empowerment and elevated status as decision-makers within households and the community. This was noted as one of the most positive outcomes of the program (Mallon, 2006). Other perceived benefits include collaboration and networking with organizations such as Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (SLCF), National Parks, and local government institutions. Men in the community cited the economic benefits and greater freedom granted by additional cash within a predominantly barter economy. Women emphasized the changing attitudes about women’s roles, increased self-esteem, and pride in being part

of an international market (Bayarjargal, 2004; Mallon, 2006). Site-specific educational workshops have also yielded positive results. Posters and follow-up workshops have been found to be effective methods to share best practices on avoiding predator attacks: e.g., burying or burning carcasses, using lights and sounds and unpredictable distractions for several days following an attack. By having access to locally relevant information and training, communities have become curious to learn about snow leopard ecology and actively engaged in their conservation.

Conservation impact Since the program was initiated in 1998, poaching of snow leopards and their prey has decreased in areas where SLE is active according to provincial wildlife management reports. Incidences of prey species poaching have occurred and resulted in the loss of several hundred dollars of bonus payments to the affected

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Challenges and opportunities

communities. In some cases, SLE community members helped identify and locate the poacher in order to demand restitution as well as impose a fine. In at least one case, members of the poacher’s family joined SLE—making a commitment to snow leopard conservation in exchange for the opportunity to generate income. Local government and protected area officials have a positive view of the program and consider the environmental component of the program effective, especially in reducing poaching of snow leopards (Mallon, 2006). Additionally, the small grant program, funded from 10% of the total purchase funds, has resulted in several locally relevant conservation projects initiated by SLE community members. In contrast to attitudes expressed when the program began, most herders in SLE areas no longer regard snow leopards as a significant threat to their livestock. Attitude surveys indicate that tolerance for livestock depredation is higher in SLE communities than in nonparticipating communities. Herders in the SLE community of Tost, South Gobi, said they would tolerate up to 30 livestock losses to predators, whereas members of the non-SLE community of Baysah, South Gobi, would tolerate a maximum of five losses per community per year (Mijiddorj, 2011). These tolerance levels are significant considering the economic value of livestock to herders. Total livestock losses throughout SLE program areas in 2011 represented approximately USD 38,000 or about USD 170 per household on average. As mentioned earlier, the additional average income per household generated by SLE provides an average of USD 150, almost entirely offsetting this economic loss. In reality, predation losses are very uneven whereby some households have devastating losses while others have none. Support programs and mechanisms to provide community-based insurance (Mishra et al., 2003) are beginning to smooth such discrepancies.

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Challenges and opportunities Governmentally delineated borders initially determined the area that a community was responsible for in terms of the conservation contract. These areas were often much too large for a community to be able to manage. Additionally, some areas did not overlap with key snow leopard habitat. In order to strengthen the conservation link and to increase stewardship for these landscapes, SLE helped communities to determine “community responsible areas” (CRAs) by mapping land use patterns, including sacred sites, water sources, and other important landmarks and natural resources. Hand-drawn maps were converted to geo-referenced GIS maps, designating land use patterns, landscape features, and CRA boundaries. Beyond being a tool for SLE contract compliance, these maps have enabled communities to develop locally informed management plans, register these areas with the Mongolian government, and establish legal rights over the resource use within. Another challenge is tracking the impact of SLE on the conservation of snow leopards and prey populations. The challenges of monitoring snow leopard populations make it difficult to say if there is a response to a particular conservation intervention. Our initial monitoring tool, snow leopard sign surveys, was not a reliable indicator of conservation success. In 2011, we adopted the Threat Reduction Assessment (TRA) (Margoluis and Salafsky, 2001). However, later in 2019, our monitoring approach was upgraded to a results-based framework, which looks at the CRA level of conservation effectiveness. The framework specifies the indicators measuring the inputs, processes, outputs and expected outcomes, and impacts of the program. The key outputs include (a) an amount of income created by handicrafts, (b) nonpoaching bonuses for households, (c) number of participants, and (d) improved knowledge of community members with regard to the importance of

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conservation program, pasture management, and herding practices that reduce the risk of losing livestock to carnivores. Working together, these outputs are expected to lead to a set of outcomes that include increased engagement of community members in conservation, increased economic security of households. We will be assessing the program’s effectiveness with the framework over 5 years, watching for a sustained engagement by community members in conservation and positive attitudes toward to snow leopard as presented by the participants.

Emerging challenges and threats require diligence and flexibility. Policy changes might impact the price of raw wool, creating pressure on the pricing structure of the SLE products; mining exploration might cause SLE communities to lose pasturelands; fluctuating tourist numbers may shift sales opportunities. By being mindful of emerging challenges, and open to evolving opportunities, SLE remains an important tool and good practice in snow leopard conservation efforts in the range of snow leopard countries (Figs. 17.2.2 and 17.2.3). FIG. 17.2.2 Snow Leopard Enterprises product designs created at the one of the wool processing training. Photo credit: Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation, Mongolia.

FIG. 17.2.3 Pet toy birds made by Snow Leopard Enterprise program women. Photo credit: Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation, Mongolia.

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Problems and solutions

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S U B C H A P T E R

17.3 A review of lessons, successes, and pitfalls of livestock insurance and incentives schemes Kyran Kunkela, Ambika Khatiwadab, and Shafqat Hussainc a

Conservation Science Collaborative and University of Montana, Bozeman, MT, United States b National Trust for Nature Conservation, Sauraha, Chitwan, Nepal cTrinity College, Hartford, CT, United States

Problems and solutions More than 50% of the human population in snow leopard range is engaged in agropastoralism, and >40% are below the poverty level. In most of snow leopard range, livestock biomass is an order of magnitude above natural prey. Studies throughout the range indicate that snow leopard predation on livestock can incur a high cost to herders and communities in many places (Sultan et al., 2022). For example, in Bhutan, villagers on average lose more than twothirds of their annual cash income to snow leopard depredations (Wang and Macdonald, 2006). A primary limiting factor for snow leopard in much of its range is retaliatory killing in response to predation on livestock (Snow Leopard Network, 2014). Thus, a high priority to improve snow leopard survival and populations, and to improve human livelihoods, is to address that factor. One of the most pragmatic, efficient, and arguably successful approaches to reducing snow leopard mortality has been to provide compensation or insurance for losses to reduce hostility and retaliatory killing (Gurung et al., 2011; Mishra et al., 2003; Rosen et al., 2012).

Direct compensation programs have a long history but are often not successful (Nyhus et al., 2003). Livestock insurance schemes were developed largely in response to failures and shortcomings in compensation programs. Insurance programs are usually more comprehensive and locally driven than compensation schemes, and these factors likely account for their greater success (Gurung et al., 2011; Rosen et al., 2012). Snow leopard conservation practitioners, along with local communities and herders, have been pioneers in developing innovative and context-specific interventions, such as livestock micro-insurance schemes against snow leopard predation. Most insurance programs are developed and run by local communities, and there is direct involvement of herders. This results in greater buy-in and incentives to improve husbandry, reduce reporting fraud, and quicker responses. They are more economically and logistically sustainable as a result of buy-in and local funding and investment. Importantly, these programs often also include locally designed innovations. Finally, the local community and herders are often part of the snow leopard monitoring programs, and that improves local conservation education, capacity, and interest.

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History and design One of the longest running Community Managed Livestock Insurance Schemes (CMLIS) is managed by Project Snow leopard, PSL (later became Baltistan Wildlife Conservation and Development Organization, BWCDO), which was started in one village in the Baltistan region of northern Pakistan in 1999. The scheme is based on the simple premise that snow leopard predation is a stochastic shock to farmers, and they will be better off by spreading this risk among them. Thus, it operates on the same simple logic upon which most insurance is based. Under the insurance schemes, villagers pay a premium amount per head of livestock, both small animals such as goats and sheep, and large animals, as determined by the historical loss rate of domestic livestock to snow leopard predation, while the project subsidizes the premium up to 50%. The project raises the money from private donors to subsidize insurance premium payments. The scheme is designed to keep fraudulent claims to a minimum and by making local herders active partners, keep transaction, and monitoring costs to a minimum. Under the project, a Village Insurance Committee is established that makes decisions on all compensation claims that are filed by the participating villagers. After running for 7 years, the scheme in Baltistan was expanded to 10 villages in 2006 and 26 villages in 2022, insuring about 18,000 animals. Since 2007, PSL has paid out compensation of approximately US$ 28,000. PSL has also built more than 60 predator-proof corrals in the project area. Along with the insurance schemes and corrals, which reduce incidences of mass killings of livestock, the scheme has been successful in halting the retaliatory killing of snow leopards in the project area. This may have even contributed to an increase in cat numbers according to the population estimates provided in Hussain (2003) and Anwar et al. (2011).

In addition to compensating farmers, PSL also gives additional incentives to participating villagers, such as small infrastructure and educational schemes. The major challenges that remain are finding continued sources of funding.

Important factors for design, implementation, and success Morrison et al. (2009) concluded that effectiveness of insurance programs is contingent upon strong community coherence, sustained dialogue, and strong partnership between the community and conservationists or managers and people’s economic ability to participate in them.

Economic sustainability and scaling up Long-term economic sustainability of CMLIS appears to have been reached in some programs via the creation of endowments. These endowments are generally established from outside funding. They are relatively small investments for big returns and address the problem of a general global market failure in carnivore conservation; developed nations highly value carnivore conservation in developing nations where resources are limited and carnivores are costly to livelihoods (Dickman et al., 2011). Addressing this failure is key, and outside funding of these endowments is one way to do that. CMLIS programs need to be scaled up to secure not just individual snow leopards, but whole populations. Several communities over a large landscape need to be involved to achieve this. In Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA) in Nepal, Gurung et al. (2011) were successful in establishing CMLIS in several villages, and this program is expanding and could link a globally important trans-national conservation

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Important factors for design, implementation, and success

region (India, Bhutan, China, and Nepal). An important part of scaling up is a regional assessment of where the priority populations of snow leopard are and focusing resources there. To date, though, we are not aware of a program that has been able to assess and monitor and thus ensure that a viable snow leopard population has been secured. Such is, however, true also for any snow leopard conservation programs we are aware of. Alexander et al. (2021) evaluated a community-based livestock insurance program implemented as part of a broader snow leopard conservation effort in the Tost Tosonbumba Nature Reserve, South Gobi, Mongolia. They assessed program efficiency and effectiveness for snow leopard conservation using a resultsbased evaluation approach. Data from 2009 to 2018 allowed them to compare key indicators across communities that participated in the insurance program and control communities. Program coverage and number of livestock insured rapidly increased over the years to reach 65% of households and close to 11,000 livestock. Participants expressed satisfaction with the program, and their contributions increased over time, with an increasing proportion (reaching 64% in 2018) originating from participant premiums, suggesting strong community ownership of the program. Loch-Temzilides (2021) developed an economic model to study optimal livestock insurance. The economic modeling led to two main conclusions. First, measuring attitudes toward risk can be a major predictor of whether livestock insurance will be successful in practice. Economists have developed tools that can be used to effectively elicit this information. Second, this derived optimal insurance contract can serve as a blueprint for actual livestock insurance. Loch-Temzilides (2021) assumed that even under insurance coverage for livestock losses, snow leopards may still be perceived as a nuisance that livestock owners wish to reduce or

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even eliminate. But there are reasons, for example, ecotourism, why livestock owners might also value the presence of the snow leopard. Their analysis included the finding that local communities received some perceived (tangible or intangible) payoff from preserving the predator and identified a trade-off in the model. The higher the value of “more snow leopards around,” the higher the return from conservation, but also the higher the probability of experiencing losses due to an attack. He recommended that the contract must specify the terms in a way that optimally balances these two factors. For the model, risk-averse livestock owners would be willing to make a transfer payment when they do not experience an attack, in exchange for receiving a payment in the case when they do; importantly, this conclusion requires the presence of risk aversion. Otherwise, this arrangement would not be viable, as livestock owners would prefer to face the risk without entering the insurance contract. Thus, measuring risk aversion prior to establishing an actual insurance scheme is essential in ensuring that it will have a chance of success. The contract Loch-Temzilides (2021) proposed has several advantages. Unlike the existing schemes, it does not rely on premiums that participants would need to pay in advance. Thus, the contract does not require donations by outside sources such as NGOs, whose longterm supply may be uncertain. It prescribes that, when losses occur, the unaffected herders share the losses equally with those affected, by transferring an equal share of the value of the stock lost to the affected ones. The value of the animals lost is calculated using the market value of livestock at the time of the attack. As livestock owners do not know who among them will end up experiencing an attack, the insurance contract makes everyone better off, as it evens out potential losses across all livestock owners. The compensation for losing the animal was only partial so that herders would not benefit from over-claiming.

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Additional factors In order to make these programs sustainable, funding proactive and preventative husbandry measures such as increased numbers of herders, scare devices, guard dogs, and secure corrals is needed. Livestock grazing levels should be assessed to determine impacts on overall biodiversity, and if too high, incentives can be developed to reduce grazing intensity (Mishra et al., 2003). Rosen et al. (2012) indicated that the programs should also be focused on multiple species, since wolves (Canis lupus), dhole (Cuon alpinus), common leopards (Panthera pardus), bears (Ursus spp.), and other large carnivores also kill livestock in snow leopard range, and there is a need to address these species to make programs ecologically and economically sustainable. The program of Gurung et al. (2011) in Nepal is now addressing snow leopards and dholes. Kusi et al. (2020) illustrate the need to reduce human-carnivore conflict through a combined approach of education, mitigation, and economic cost sharing with respectful engagement of local communities. Specifically, to encourage more villagers to participate in livestock insurance schemes, they should include all large carnivores and adjust compensation to the market value of a young replacement of the depredated livestock type. Carnivore conservation interventions should target the whole predator guild to achieve long-term success and to protect the ecosystem at large. Kusi et al. (2020) also offer a different perspective insofar as across the Himalayan landscape, most carnivore conservation activities focus solely on snow leopards, and thus, it is only snow leopards that bring benefits to offset damage. Indeed, respondents in Nepal’s KCA stated that they would protect recolonizing wolves only if the KCA Management Council altered the livestock insurance scheme to provide compensation for livestock depredation by wolves comparable to that for snow leopards.

All these efforts would greatly benefit by developing best management practices and then an idea-sharing platform for lessons learned, perhaps including practitioner exchanges among sites. In an assessment to determine the most effective tiger (Panthera tigris) conservation strategies, Gratwicke et al. (2007) found that one of the best performing suites of activities was mitigating human-tiger conflict. But, given the diversity of approaches and potential outcomes, best practices were difficult to ascertain. They indicated that there was a need for better communication between the different groups working on human-tiger conflict issues so that the experts themselves could share lessons learned and come up with a set of best practices that would be applicable in each landscape. One of the most important factors is having a system for building local capacity so that technical support and monitoring are always improving. Incorporating local students into these programs is a proven way to ensure that. Finally, the programs often do not cover the full cost of losses, and we believe there is need for additional incentive programs to be developed to offset that and further incentivize conservation. The ultimate goal is to have carnivores viewed as worth more alive than dead. These incentive programs include investments in education (Rosen et al., 2012), alternative livelihoods (Gurung et al., 2011; Mishra et al., 2003; Rosen et al., 2012), direct conservation payments, and others (Dickman et al., 2011, 2018).

Successes of CMLIS for snow leopards and communities Gurung et al. (2011) reported that since initiation of the CMLIS in KCA, Nepal, the number of participating herders has increased. The rate of snow leopard killing by locals went from 1– 3/year to 0/year during the first 4 years. Based on sign surveys, snow leopard abundance

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Successes of CMLIS for snow leopards and communities

increased over that period. In 2014, farmers and herders participating in a CMLIS program in the villages of Tapethok and Yamphudin were asked about instances of snow leopard and dhole retaliatory killings after implementation of CMLIS. Of 120 households and 40 key informants interviewed during the study, 74% respondents reported that CMLIS has contributed to the conservation of snow leopard and dholes, 23% reported no change, and 3% reported that the program did not have any contribution toward snow leopard/dhole conservation. A third and recent analysis of KCA and other programs done by researchers independent from the KCA group (Kusi et al., 2020) compared attitudes and conservation success in KCA to two other regions in central and western Himalayas in Nepal, Dolpa, and Humla. People in KCA had more positive attitudes toward carnivores with approximately 80% of respondents reporting the highest attitude values for snow leopards compared to fewer than 20% in the other two study areas. A similar trend was observed for the Himalayan wolf: while hardly any respondent reported the highest attitude score in the other two study areas, close to 20% did in KCA. Additionally, supporting our previous surveys, none of the respondents in the KCA reporting killing predators unlike in the other two areas. Management and ownership of KCA belong to the local communities, which are adequately supported by both governmental and nongovernmental organizations. Features of the human-carnivore relationship conspicuously present in KCA are CMLIS and promotion of conservation awareness. These interventions appeared to have fostered recovery of snow leopards and their wild prey, blue sheep (Gurung et al., 2011), together with an increase in carnivore diversity. Wolves reappeared in the area in 2013 after an absence of 25 years (Subba et al., 2017), while in 2017, brown bears, never recorded previously in the area, were

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caught on camera-traps set by local citizen scientists. The endowment funds (established for all KCA CMLIS) appear to be self-sustaining and have yielded US$ 2199 in excess funds that have been used in the promotion of their livestock herding profession, livestock-based enterprises, and other income generation activities such as tourism-based enterprises, kitchen gardening, cooking and baking training, communication development (e.g., purchasing of telephone and operation of internet services), and handicrafts. Further, CMLIS has been expanded to more communities for dhole and snow leopard, and neighboring communities are asking for additional CMLIS sites. The number of yaks lost/year, however, remained similar in the first few years indicating that proactive husbandry measures need work. Experiences from KCA suggest a need to improve local capacity for record keeping, effective administration, and communication. Distant herders sometimes become reluctant to insure their livestock as they are unable to communicate the depredation cases to CMLIS authorities in time to claim the relief fund. Assignment of one permanent member to look after one CMLIS can probably solve the administration and record-keeping-related issues for effective management. Rosen et al. (2012) reported that in 13 years since the start of project PSL, the affected communities of Gilgit-Baltistan have understood the value the international community places on snow leopard; they have adapted by largely accepting the presence of snow leopard and are now participating in a mutually respectful partnership that merges local and global interest in conservation and more harmonious coexistence with carnivores. Since 2006, about US$ 13,000 has been spent on corral improvement and small-scale infrastructure projects, with another US$ 4200 spent on community general education programs. The total area of snow leopard habitat in the PSL project area is about

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5000 km2 and includes 19 snow leopards and is thus nearing protection of a viable snow leopard population (Anwar et al., 2011). No known carnivore persecution has taken place since the CMLIS program site in Kibber, India, was initiated in 2002 (Mishra and Suryawanshi, 2014). Despite these apparently positive outcomes for snow leopard, we recommend much more rigorous monitoring of these efforts to ensure they are priorities for snow leopard conservation and that they are working. Good data on snow leopard numbers and mortality prior to initiation are needed to assess success (but see Alexander et al., 2021). Comparing sites with and without CMLIS programs would be a good way to assess the programs overall. A few sites with intensive demographic monitoring would also be valuable to assess cause-specific mortality and population density before and after CMLIS implementation. The size of the area that needs to be impacted to secure a population would also be a valuable course of investigation. In one of the first controlled experiments (also see Bagchi et al., 2020), Alexander et al. (2021) provided evidence that the community-based approach to implementing a livestock insurance program was efficient and effective in promoting coexistence with large carnivores. The program provided important benefits for participants, and the wider community and participating communities reported fewer livestock losses than control communities. It was also found that participants were likely to report reduced intention to kill a snow leopard. The Mongolia program also addressed problems that sometimes plague compensation schemes by providing bonuses for reduced losses and strengthening linkages to improved herding practices and wildlife conservation. Furthermore, in the Tost Tosonbumba Nature Reserve, the insurance program is closely linked to the Nature Reserve’s Management plan, with a focus on pasture management. Similarly, Bagchi et al. (2020) report use of incentives to

rest pastures to reduce competition with wild prey in India. External NGO funding into the program described by Alexander et al. (2021) decreased over the years, while community and household participation and income from herder premiums increased. As a result, the total project income remained stable, and the prospects for its long-term sustainability are promising. There were only a few suspected cases of false claims, mainly in the start-up phase, and no identified instances of financial mismanagement. Participants reported high levels of satisfaction with the program and indicated that it led to enhanced cooperation within the community. Still, the authors believe that the insurance program on its own is unlikely to reduce retaliatory killings of snow leopards in the face of the considerable threats that they continue to pose to livelihoods of herding communities and the security of individuals and families. Furthermore, the rigorous assessment of this indicator is difficult. They concluded that a comprehensive program developed over time builds trust, improves the strength of conservation partnerships with local communities, and enhances the long-term resilience of these communities, a sentiment echoed by Mishra et al. (2017). Additionally, insurance program cost sharing is expected to enhance community ownership of the program, build social networks and community trust for its success, and deter the temptation to file false claims. It is increasingly recognized that insurance programs should not only offset costs but also provide local people and communities with tangible benefits to enable their participation in conservation-based activities (Mishra et al., 2016).

Direct conservation payments Overall, insurance schemes appear to reduce economic losses and thus animosity to snow leopards, but some do not provide

III. Conservation solutions in situ

Direct conservation payments

adequate incentives for local people to actually deliver conservation. Incentives may be a way to produce substantial benefits for long-term conservation and poverty alleviation. Recently, the idea of direct conservation payments has attracted much attention (Dickman et al., 2011). Such payments are linked specifically to the production of the desired environmental output (e.g., maintenance of carnivores on private land) rather than to indirect inputs assumed to affect the production of that service. Conservation payments have several benefits for people and predators: they are likely to provide additionality, as they create a direct incentive for maintaining carnivores, whereas communities are less constrained and able to act in the manner optimal to their specific conditions to reach the desired endpoint, often resulting in greater cost effectiveness (Ferraro and Simpson, 2002; Zabel and Holm-M€ uller, 2008). Payments are usually independent of levels of depredation, thereby avoiding moral hazard, and entail low transaction costs for livestockkeepers, as they do not have to search for depredated livestock or submit claims for compensation. Furthermore, unlike schemes linked to protected areas, which can impose substantial opportunity costs, these payments actually reduce the costs of maintaining traditional lifestyles in areas where humans and carnivores coexist, helping people maintain their cultural integrity and avoid traditional pastoral poverty traps. We developed a direct conservation payment (DCP) program in Montana for private ranchers (Huggins et al., 2021) in which ranchers were paid for photos of large carnivores and prey. We negotiated with ranchers the payment rate and then entered a contractual agreement. This created a new paradigm where carnivores were worth more alive than dead. The payments help support and incentivize conflict prevention and monitoring programs. The approach is costeffective and has increased tolerance for public

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wildlife on private lands. This approach has also been successful for over a decade in Mexico for jaguar conservation and for carnivore conservation generally in Sweden (Huggins et al., 2021). The Montana program led to carnivores occurring on ranches where they were not known to exist before. This program allows us to engage the community in conservation, provide direct economic benefit to the community, and monitor the success of the program directly by counting carnivores. The program has been going for over 8 years with over a dozen ranchers on nearly 20,000 ha of private land. The program does, however, require ongoing support from an NGO. It was originally designed to be selfsustaining, funded by adding a premium to the sales of “Wildlife Friendly Beef.” Those self-sustaining models have been slow and hard to develop. DCP has been used successfully for land use planning and promoting lion (Panthera leo) friendly landscapes around communities inside one relatively small (580 km2) concession in Mozambique’s Niassa National Reserve (Dickman et al., 2018). There, approximately 2200 people receive community funds for adhering to conservation contracts, from sightings of key species and through bed-night levies. Community members receive penalties for actions such as killing lions or setting snares. A program in Namibia rewards participating eco-lodges, which observe specified species (including lions). Government and international donors combine funds to make a payment to local communities, and these “wildlife credit” funds are used for conflict mitigation, offsetting indirect wildlife costs, wildlife monitoring, and community development. A similar approach, based on villagers’ camera trapping wildlife on their land, is operating through the Ruaha Carnivore Project in southern Tanzania (Dickman et al., 2018). These kinds of payments make a very clear, direct link between wildlife presence, conservation behavior and benefit, and have proved

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effective at reducing risks to lion populations and managing land use (C. Begg, Niassa Reserve, personal communication). However, unlike business-based models, they usually require continued external investment in some form, usually philanthropy, unless some or all of revenue is directed into enterprises, which then pay back into the fund. A form of DCP, a payment for presence model, was developed for Mexican wolves (Canis lupus bailyei) in New Mexico and Arizona. It is managed by a Coexistence Council comprising ranchers, county representatives, agency personnel (as nonvoting liaisons), conservationists, and tribes and creates incentives for ranching in ways that promote selfsustaining Mexican wolf populations, viable ranching operations, and healthy western landscapes—the three-legged stool that supports the Coexistence Council’s long-term vision. The Coexistence Council seeks out and administers funds that are made available to impacted livestock producers using a yearly application process. The program provides payments based on a formula that includes the presence of wolves, number of livestock exposed to wolves, and the rancher’s participation in proactive conflict avoidance measures. The funding is designed to reduce the business losses that livestock producers experience from having wolves on or near their livestock operations (e.g., undetected depredations, reduction of livestock weight, increased management costs). The funding is intended to reduce the need for management removals of wolves and to increase the number of wolves in a working landscape. The amount available each year is divided among eligible livestock producers who have applied to participate in the program. The program has been generally liked by ranchers. It has however never been fully funded at the level originally designed and has been discontinued in Arizona (J. Oakleaf, US Fish and Wildlife Service, personal communication).

Conclusions Based on continuing successes, we believe CMLIS is one of the most effective and costefficient strategies for enhancing snow leopard populations. CMLIS can also simultaneously enhance local livelihoods and therefore should be a priority in range-wide stewardship and funding of snow leopard and large carnivore conservation in Asia. The assessment of incentives still remains limited. We recommend programs be designed to include a results-based assessment following Roberts and Khattri (2012) as exemplified by Alexander et al. (2021), with follow-up surveys and comparisons like those of Kusi et al. (2020).

References Alexander, J.S., Agvaantseren, B., Gongor, E., Mijiddorj, T.N., Piaopiao, T., Redpath, S., Young, J., Mishra, C., 2021. Assessing the effectiveness of a community-based livestock insurance program. Environ. Manage. 68, 87–99. Allen, P., Macray, D., 2002. Snow leopard enterprises description and summarized business plan. In: Contributed Papers to the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy Summit. International Snow Leopard Trust, pp. 15–24. Allen, P., McCarthy, T., Bayarjargal, A., 2002. Conservation de la panthe`re des neiges (Uncia uncia) avec les eleveurs de Mongolie. In: Chapron, G., Mountou, F. (Eds.), L’Etude et la Conservation des Carnivores. Societe Franc¸aise pour l’Etude et la Protection des Mammife`res, Paris, pp. 47–53 (in French). Anwar, B., Jackson, R., Nadeem, M.S., Janecka, J.E., Hussain, S., Beg, M.A., Mohammad, G., Qayyum, M., 2011. Food habits of the snow leopard Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775) in Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 57, 1077–1083. Bagchi, S., Mishra, C., 2006. Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). J. Zool. 268, 217–224. Bagchi, S., Sharma, R., Bhatnagar, Y., 2020. Change in snow leopard predation on livestock after revival of wild prey in the Trans-Himalaya. Wildlife Biol. 2020 (1), https:// doi.org/10.2981/wlb.00583. Bayarjargal, A., 2004. Women’s Development Through Nature Conservation: Can Protected Areas Improve Women’s Livelihood? Case Study in Altai Tavan Bogd National Park Western Mongolia. MA Thesis, Development Studies Center, Kimmage, Dublin, Ireland.

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Chetri, M., Odden, M., Devineau, O., Wegge, P., 2019. Patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and other large carnivores in the Central Himalayas, Nepal. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 16, e00536. Dickman, A.J., Macdonald, E.A., Macdonald, D.W., 2011. A review of financial instruments to pay for predator conservation and encourage human–carnivore coexistence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 108, 13937–13944. Dickman, A., Begg, C., Bhalla, S., Cotterill, A., Dolrenry, S., Hazzah, L., Macdonald, D., 2018. Incentives for lion conservation and financial tools for co-existence (Chapter 6). In: Guidelines for the Conservation of Lions in Africa. IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, Muri/Bern, Switzerland. Version 1.0. Ferraro, P., Simpson, R., 2002. The cost-effectiveness of conservation payments. Land Econ. 78, 339–353. Fox, J.L., Sinha, S.P., Chundawat, R.S., Das, P.K., 1991. Status of snow leopard Panthera uncia in northwest India. Biol. Conserv. 55, 282–298. Gratwicke, B., Seidensticker, J., Shrestha, M., Vermilye, K., Birnbaum, M., 2007. Evaluating the performance of a decade of Save The Tiger Fund’s investments to save the world’s last wild tigers. Environ. Conserv. 34, 255–265. Gurung, G.S., Thapa, K., Kunkel, K., Thapa, G.J., Kollmair, M., Mueller Boeker, M., 2011. Enhancing herders’ livelihood and conserving the endangered snow leopard in Kangchenjunga Conservation Area of Nepal Himalaya. Cat News 55, 17–21. Huggins, L., Hansen, O., Naftel, H., 2021. Cameras for Conservation: Direct Compensation as Motivation for Living With Wildlife. The Center for Growth and Opportunity, Utah State University. Hussain, S., 2000. Protecting the snow leopard and enhancing farmers’ livelihoods: a pilot Insurance Scheme in Baltistan. Mt. Res. Dev. 20, 226–231. Hussain, S., 2003. The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers. Oryx 37, 26–33. Ikeda, N., 2004. Economic impacts of livestock depredation by snow leopard Uncia uncia in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, Nepal Himalaya. Environ. Conserv. 31, 322–330. Jackson, R.M., Roe, J.D., Wangchuk, R., Hunter, D.O., 2006. Estimating snow leopard population abundance using photography and capture-recapture techniques. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 34, 772–781. Kusi, N., Sillero-Zubiri, C., Macdonald, D., Johnson, P., Werhahn, G., 2020. Perspectives of traditional Himalayan communities on fostering coexistence with Himalayan wolf and snow leopard. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 2, e165. Li, J., Yin, H., Wang, D., Jiagong, Z., Lu, Z., 2013. Humansnow leopard conflicts in the Sanjiangyuan Region of the Tibetan Plateau. Biol. Conserv. 166, 118–123. Loch-Temzilides, T., 2021. Conservation, risk aversion, and livestock insurance: the case of the snow leopard. Conserv. Lett. 14, e12793.

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Mallon, D., 2006. SLE Evaluation final report. Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle WA, USA. Unpublished Report. Margoluis, R., Salafsky, N., 2001. Threat reduction assessment: a practical and cost-effective approach to evaluating conservation and development projects. Conserv. Biol. 13, 830–841. McCarthy, K.P., Fuller, T.K., Ming, M., McCarthy, T.M., Waits, L., Jumabaev, K., 2008. Assessing estimators of snow leopard abundance. J. Wildl. Manage. 72, 1826–1833. Mijiddorj, T., 2011. Pastoral Practice and Herders’ Attitude Towards Wildlife in South Gobi, Mongolia. MSc Thesis, Wildlife Institute of India, Saurashtra University. Mishra, C., Suryawanshi, K., 2014. Managing conflicts over livestock depredation by large carnivores. In: HumanWildlife Conflict in the Mountains of SAARC Region – Compilation of Successful Management Strategies and Practices. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, pp. 27–47. Mishra, C., Allen, P., McCarthy, T., Madhusudan, M.D., Bayarjargal, A., Prins, H.H.T., 2003. The role of incentive programs in conserving the snow leopard. Conserv. Biol. 17, 1512–1520. Mishra, C., Redpath, S., Suryawanshi, K., 2016. Livestock predation by snow leopards: conflicts and the search for solutions. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, pp. 59–67. Mishra, C., Young, J., Fiechter, M., Rutherford, B., Redpath, S.M., 2017. Building partnerships with communities for biodiversity conservation: lessons from Asian mountains. J. Appl. Ecol. 54, 1583–1591. Morrison, K., Victurine, R., Mishra, C., 2009. Lessons learned, opportunities and innovations in human wildlife conflict compensation and insurance schemes. Report prepared for the Wildlife Conservation Society Trans Links Program. Namgail, T., 2009. Mountain ungulates of the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India. Int. J. Wilderness 15, 35–40. Namgail, T., Fox, J.L., Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2007. Carnivorecaused livestock mortality in Trans-Himalaya. Environ. Manage. 39, 490–496. Namgail, T., van Wieren, S.E., Prins, H.H.T., 2013. Distributional congruence of mammalian herbivores in the TransHimalayan Mountains. Curr. Zool. 59, 116–124. National Statistical Office of Mongolia, 2011. Census and Survey. National Statistical Office of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar. Nyhus, P., Fischer, F., Madden, F., Osofsky, S., 2003. Taking the bite out of wildlife damage: the challenge of wildlife compensation schemes. Conserv. Pract. 4, 37–40. Rajashekariah, K., Chandan, P., 2013. Value Chain Mapping of Tourism in Ladakh. WWF-India, Lodhi Estate, New Delhi. Roberts, D., Khattri, N., 2012. Designing a Results Framework for Achieving Results: A How to Guide. World Bank, Washington, DC.

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Rosen, T., Hussain, S., Mohammad, G., Jackson, R., Janecka, J., Michel, S., 2012. Reconciling sustainable development of mountain communities with large carnivore conservation. Mt. Res. Dev. 32, 286–293. SLN (Snow Leopard Network), 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Revised 2014 Version, Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, WA, USA. Snow Leopard Network, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Revised Version. Available from: http://www. snowleopardnetwork.org/docs/Snow_Leopard_ Survival_Strategy_2014.1.pdf. (Accessed 15 May 2015). Subba, S.A., Shrestha, A.K., Thapa, K., Malla, S., Thapa, G.J., Shrestha, S., Ottvall, R., 2017. Distribution of grey wolves Canis lupus lupus in the Nepalese Himalaya: implications for conservation management. Oryx 51, 403–406.

Sultan, H., Rashid, W., Shi, J., Rahim, I., Nafees, M., Bohnett, E., Rashid, S., Khan, M.T., Shah, I.A., Han, H., ArizaMontes, A., 2022. Horizon scan of transboundary concerns impacting snow leopard landscapes in Asia. Land 11, 248. Wang, S., Macdonald, D., 2006. Livestock predation by carnivores in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Bhutan. Biol. Conserv. 129, 558–565. Wangchuk, R., Jackson, R.M., 2002. A Community-Based Approach to Mitigating Livestock-Wildlife Conflict in Ladakh, India. Snow Leopard Conservancy India Trust, Ladakh, India. Zabel, A., Holm-M€ uller, K., 2008. Conservation performance payments for carnivore conservation in Sweden. Conserv. Biol. 22, 247–251.

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C H A P T E R

18 Livestock husbandry and snow leopard conservation

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00074-1

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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S U B C H A P T E R

18.1 Corral improvements Ghulam Mohammada, Bayarjargal Agvaantserenb, Ajay Bijoorc,h, Kuban Jumabay Uluud, Khalil Karimove, Zalmai Mohebf, Tatjana Roseng, Gustaf Sameliush, and Amruddin Sanjeri a

Baltistan Wildlife and Conservation Development Organization (BWCDO), Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan bMongolian Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (SLCF), Ulannbaatar, Mongolia cNature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India dSnow Leopard Foundation, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan e Association Natural Conservation Organizations of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Tajikistan fWildlife Conservation Society, Kabul, Afghanistan gIlbirs Foundation, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan hSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States iWildlife Conservation Society, Kabul, Afghanistan

Introduction Livestock depredation and retaliatory killing in response to such events are some of the key sources of snow leopard mortality across their range (SLN, 2014). Livestock depredation rates due to snow leopards and other carnivores, such as wolves, vary widely from under 1% in parts of Mongolia and China (Schaller, 1998; Schaller et al., 1994) to over 12% of livestock holdings in some parts in Nepal and India ( Jackson et al., 1996; Bhatnagar et al., 1999; Mishra, 1997), but they generally average 3%–5% (Mallon, 1991; Oli et al., 1994; Namgail et al., 2007; Maheshwari et al., 2010; Wegge et al., 2012; SLN, 2014; Mijiddorj et al., 2018; Samelius et al., 2021). However, the amount of livestock predation by snow leopards alone, as reported in the literature, ranges between 0.3% and 4% with an average of 2.1% of the livestock holding across the range. Snow leopards sometimes break into livestock corrals, often as a result of poor maintenance and design, killing many domestic goats

and sheep during the attack and thereby inflicting substantial economic damage and emotional trauma to the livestock owners ( Jackson and Wangchuk, 2004). People often respond to these attacks by killing the snow leopard and sometimes selling their body parts. Improvements to livestock corrals have increased livestock protection by reducing depredation by snow leopards (Bhatnagar et al., 1999; Jackson and Wangchuk, 2001, 2004; Samelius et al., 2021). Many corrals seen in snow leopard habitats do not have a proper roof and have gaps in the walls allowing snow leopards and other carnivores to easily climb in. At other times, poor maintenance and local people’s lack of material and financial resources to make improvements have led to some roofs and walls to collapse, leaving the livestock vulnerable to predation. This is where corral improvements have emerged as a very important conflict mitigation tool across many of the snow leopard range countries, including Afghanistan, India, Kyrgyzstan,

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Design of corrals across the snow leopard range: Examples from Afghanistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Tajikistan

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Nepal, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Tajikistan. Corral improvements, or predator proofing of corrals, may seek to eliminate livestock losses in corrals, although 100% predator-proof corrals are expensive and difficult to construct. Proofing of corrals typically involve securing the corral to prevent entry by snow leopards and other large predators. Corrals can come in different sizes and forms, depending on how large the herds are, the needs of the families, and the materials available. Communal corrals may be larger and accommodate as many as 700 sheep and goats.

Design of corrals across the snow leopard range: Examples from Afghanistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Tajikistan In the Wakhan National Park of Afghanistan, snow leopards and wolves frequently predate on livestock, causing significant loss of income and threatening food security. Wolves are responsible for over 90% of livestock predation in the area (Simms et al., 2011); however, snow leopard predation, although relatively low, often results in more livestock killed when it happens inside corrals. In retaliation for these incidents, snow leopards and wolves are killed. The predation problem attributed to snow leopards stems largely from the livestock corrals in Wakhan. The traditional corrals either used communally or privately by families in Wakhan are often low-walled structures with no roof (for summer use) or lose roof coverage (in winter) that offers very limited protection against predators and which the predators can very easily gain access. When inside and surrounded by terrified livestock, snow leopards often kill multiple animals (Simms et al., 2011). The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and the WakhanPamir Association (WPA) have been addressing this problem through corral improvements and construction of “predator-proof corrals” (Simms et al., 2011) (Fig. 18.1.1).

FIG. 18.1.1 Roof of a family corral in the Wakhan, Afghanistan. Photo courtesy Zalmai Moheb.

Since 2010, 39 predator-proof communal corrals have been built that all the community members in those areas can use and access. In addition, 1079 traditional personal corrals within 34 villages along the Wakhan Valley have been predator-proofed in snow leopard predation hotspots. The corrals have successfully reduced livestock losses and consequent retaliatory killing in the area. On one occasion, however, a snow leopard intruded into an improved household corral where it killed 22 sheep and goats and injured another eight in 2018, but later investigation showed that the roof of that corral had collapsed and was repaired poorly with a layer of dry vegetation. Demand for more corrals is very high among the communities in the Wakhan National Park and its surrounding buffer areas, i.e., Ishkashim and Zibak. The corrals have thick, high stone walls, and a wire mesh roof, which prevent snow leopards and wolves from gaining access. The corrals are approximately 15 m (9–21 m) long, 8 m (5–12 m) wide, with 2–3 m high walls. The size of the predator-proof corral depends on the number of livestock owned by the communities. Herders in Pamir region, where livestock is the only source of livelihood, and

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people have relatively higher number of livestock, ask for larger corrals (at least 10 m
20 m) to accommodate their livestock. Predator-proof corrals are built from local materials—stone, timber, and wire—and they are able to house over 500 sheep and goats. Based on the corral project experience in Wakhan, it is important to plaster, with local material (a mixture of dirt and straw), the corral walls on both sides. This will strengthen the corral walls, enabling them to stay firm for a longer period, and also protect against humidity in those high altitudes. In India, more than 200 predator-proof livestock corrals have been built in Ladakh and Spiti, by Snow Leopard Conservancy—India Trust and Nature Conservation Foundation, benefiting more than 120 communities. Herders report that in the past, they used to sleep outside the corrals to fend off potential snow leopard attacks, but this is no longer necessary as snow leopard attacks do not occur where the corrals have been predator-proofed. The work involved in reinforcing corrals ranges from fixing metal

FIG. 18.1.2

grills on open windows and replacing old doors, to enclosing the open roof with a meshed frame, to reconstructing the entire corral in some cases. The size of corrals varies from 4.5 m long, 3 m wide, and 1.5 m high, where herders own up to 30 sheep and goats, to 9 m long, 14 m wide, and 1.2 m high, with meshed frames where individual livestock holdings may reach 500. Parts of these structures, especially the meshed frames, are prone to damage from harsh weather and hence require routine maintenance to remain effective (Fig. 18.1.2). In Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia, the Snow Leopard Trust, Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation, and Snow Leopard Foundation have supported the construction of tall fences to improve nighttime corrals for large herds of goat and sheep (with mean livestock holding of about 400 sheep and goats in Mongolia and about 350 in Kyrgyzstan). The fences are 2 m tall and consist of wire-mesh nets supported by metal poles (see Samelius et al., 2021). The fences in Mongolia are about 18
18 m and in Kyrgyzstan about

A family corral in Spiti valley, India. Photo courtesy Tanzin Thinley, Nature Conservation Foundation. III. Conservation solutions in situ

Design of corrals across the snow leopard range: Examples from Afghanistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Tajikistan

15
15 m. The fences in Mongolia are built around existing stone corrals when possible, to provide shelter from the wind, and the fences in Kyrgyzstan are supported with a wire mesh roof to prevent predators from jumping in. The fences have succeeded in reducing livestock losses (see Samelius et al., 2021) but are not as strong as small buildings or other structures made from stone or heavy wood and thus require regular maintenance such as adding soil or rocks to places where the soil and goat dung had washed away under the fence. The herders also suggested complementing the fences with some type of wind break, which would require more support poles if attached to the fence. We suggest supplementing the fences with guard dogs when using open-top fences to deter predators from approaching or attempting to dig under fences (Fig. 18.1.3).

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In north-eastern Pakistan, the Baltistan Wildlife Conservation and Development Organization (BWCDO) has constructed more than 60 improved and predator-proof corrals. The average size of the corrals is 15
6 m, and they accommodate 300 sheep and goats. Most of the corrals are constructed by the local communities on a cost-sharing basis. Like in Tajikistan, India, and Afghanistan, there have been no reports of snow leopard attacks on livestock in the predator-proof corrals in Pakistan. Prior to the construction of the predator-proof corrals, there were many attacks on livestock. In one instance in 2004, in the village of Hushe in the Ganche valley, a snow leopard attacked an unprotected corral and killed 18 sheep and goats. Despite the loss, the community released the snow leopard. In 2011, in Manthal, near Skardu, a snow leopard that had attacked livestock was

FIG. 18.1.3 A traditional corral in southern Mongolia with a tall fence built around it to reduce nighttime losses. The purpose of the traditional corrals is not to keep predators out but to keep the herd together and to provide shelter from the wind. Photo courtesy Gustaf Samelius. III. Conservation solutions in situ

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FIG. 18.1.4

18. Livestock husbandry and snow leopard conservation

A communal corral in Basho Sultanabad, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Photo courtesy Ghulam Mohammad.

heavily beaten by the community and later died. On another occasion, in 2019, a snow leopard found its way into a makeshift corral built by the people of village Mendi in Skardu district. Fifty-six livestock were killed inflicting huge financial losses for the community. The community demanded compensation in the form of a new corral, which BWCDO constructed for them on an emergency basis setting an example of tolerance for other villages (Fig. 18.1.4). In Tajikistan, the international conservation organization Panthera, the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF), and the Association of Nature Conservation Organizations of Tajikistan (ANCOT) have supported the improvement and predator proofing of more than 120 corrals to date. Most of them are small and meet the needs of single families, although some of them are larger and used communally and may keep as many as 700 sheep and goats. The gaps in the wire mesh used to cover the roof are wide to let the snow fall through, preventing accumulation and possible collapse of the roof. The first corrals were built in 2013, and since then, no livestock depredation events have been recorded.

Measuring the success of corral improvements and documenting problems Currently, there is still limited empirical evidence to demonstrate the impact of systematic measures to improve livestock husbandry, such as corral improvements, on depredation rates and the retaliatory killing of snow leopards. To begin with, formalized records of improved corrals are largely lacking (but see Samelius et al., 2021), despite the fact that many structures have already been predator-proofed. As described above, none of the improved or predator-proofed corrals have experienced depredation—while in some cases, in the same villages, the nonimproved corrals and poorly maintained improved corrals have experienced livestock losses. While the design is different, there are some interesting parallels between corral improvements and improvements to bomas (Swahili name for traditional livestock enclosures) in East Africa to deter lion predation on livestock (Lichtenfeld et al., 2015); these authors provide an evidence-based account of the significant impact boma improvements have on reducing livestock depredation and the

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How to improve corrals sustainably to enable more widespread use in the future?

retaliatory killing of lions and leopards. Over a period of 10 years, there were only two recorded depredations, in both cases because the gate of the fortified boma was not properly constructed, and a leopard was able to enter and kill sheep and goats. There have been similar instances, in Hushe, Baltistan, in Pakistan, and Wakhan National Park in Afghanistan. In Hushe of Pakistan, a door to a regular corral was not properly secured and the sheep and goats ran out and were killed by snow leopards and wolves. In a similar case, a snow leopard intruded through a poorly repaired part of a previously improved personal corral and killed 22 sheep and goats in Wakhan of Afghanistan. Therefore, poor oversight or poor maintenance could compromise the effectiveness of corral improvements.

How to improve corrals sustainably to enable more widespread use in the future? Significant funds and human resources are necessary to improve livestock corrals across the greater part of the snow leopard range. The key is to ensure that corral improvements benefit high-risk depredation sites and high-density snow leopard areas. There are situations when conservationists respond to the request to build a predator-proof corral without concrete proof that a snow leopard was responsible for the alleged depredation. Assessment of which species of predator was responsible for the depredation can be achieved through a combination of interviews with livestock owners, depredation records (including images of livestock injured or killed), diet assessment, and camera trap surveys. Preference for the types of predator-proof corral (i.e., communal, or personal corrals) differs by location and the socioeconomic situation of herder communities. In some places, community corrals are mostly used by wealthy families, with more livestock, while herders with a

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smaller number of livestock become marginalized. In addition, in villages with scattered houses, communal corrals are likely to be used more often by the nearby households especially during winter. Families who either have a smaller number of livestock or live away from the communal corrals do not use them as frequently. In areas with scattered houses in a village, it might be useful to build several small personal or communal corrals in different parts of the village instead of a single large communal corral. While local labor can be provided for free and materials such as rocks and wood can be sourced locally at little or no cost, the expense of purchasing and transporting wire mesh and cement, often from China or Iran, remains high and beyond the budgets of many small mountain communities. Another challenge is maintenance of the corrals over time. As predator-proof corrals age, and parts such as doors, require replacement, neglect in performing repairs eventually causes the corrals to cease being predator-proof, exposing the livestock to predation. It is therefore crucial to stress the importance of proper maintenance to the owners of the corrals and ensure that responsibility for maintenance is clearly stated in an agreement between the conservation organization and the corral owners. Corral maintenance should be the responsibility of the owners although it is important that conservation organizations help with advice and support as well as ensure that corral owners understand the importance of proper maintenance. In fact, maintenance and sustainability of corrals remain a challenge for poor and remote communities. Finally, the success of corral improvements in reducing conflict, while undoubtedly important across snow leopard range, still remains difficult to fully evaluate, including measuring the proportion of reduced predation resulting from improved corrals versus nonimproved corrals. This will continue to require further monitoring and research.

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18.2 The role of village reserves in revitalizing the natural prey base of the snow leopard Charudutt Mishraa,d, Yash Veer Bhatnagara,d, Pranav Trivedia,d, Radhika Timbadiaa,d, Ajay Bijoora,d, Ranjini Muralia,d, Karma Sonama,d, Tanzin Thinleya,d, Tsewang Namgailb, and Herbert H.T. Prinsc a

Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States bSnow Leopard Conservancy India Trust, Leh, Union Territory of Ladakh, India cEnvironmental Sciences Group—Resource Ecology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands dNature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India

Introduction Ungulates play important roles as drivers of ecosystem functions and as prey of large carnivores (Mishra et al., 2016). Wild mountain ungulates such as the bharal or blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), argali (Ovis ammon), and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) form the main prey of the endangered snow leopard, which specializes in feeding on ungulates ( Jackson et al., 2010; Johansson et al., 2015). The abundance of wild ungulates in any area is the key determinant of snow leopard abundance (Suryawanshi, 2013). The primary productivity of the dry and cold landscapes in which snow leopards occur is in general low compared to tropical and temperate rangeland systems ( Jackson et al., 2010; Mishra et al., 2010; Namgail et al., 2012), and they support relatively low densities of wild ungulate prey, typically ranging from mv , and ev ≫ iv

(A.1)

(ii) For the intervening landscape units between any two village reserves, it is conceptually useful to estimate the desirable wild ungulate population size (Nm)—which will be a function of the trade-off between conservation and rangeland use objectives—and ensure that populations are maintained around that level (Eq. A.2): N m ¼ K  f ðAÞ, and bm + im  mm + em (A.2) where f(A) is a function by which the wild ungulate population size is reduced below carrying capacity as a result of an acceptable level of anthropogenic pressure. The size and number of village reserves should be large and adequately interspersed within a matrix of multiple-use landscape units to enable the conservation of viable wildlife populations. At a minimum, the coupled landscape-level guiding principle for village reserves and multiple-use landscape units should be to aim for the total spillover from village reserves to at least offset the net individuals lost from multiple-use units due to mortality and emigration, i.e., Eq. (A.3): X

Nv ðev  iv Þ 

X

N m ðb m  m m  em Þ (A.3)

This assumes that as the livestock grazing intensity in a multiple-use landscape unit increases, one can expect a decline in the density of wild ungulates. It will need to be counter-balanced by establishing a suitable village reserve in the proximity such that the inequality condition above continues to hold.

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18.3 The Ecosystem Health Program: A tool to promote the coexistence of livestock owners and snow leopards Muhammad Ali Nawaza, Hussain Alib, and Jaffar ud Dinb a

Environmental Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar bSnow Leopard Foundation, Islamabad, Pakistan

Introduction Livelihood systems throughout the snow leopard’s (Panthera uncia) range are predominantly agro-pastoral where livestock plays a central role. The mean livestock holding per household is 40 animals in northern Pakistan, including goats ¼ 11.64, sheep ¼ 12.3, cattle ¼ 13.33, and yaks¼ 3.44. Livestock serves as the main source of cash income in such communities besides providing milk, milk products, and meat. Families sell an average of 4.4 animals each year, which constitutes some 13% of their holdings. Animals sold are usually replaced by births. However, disease and predation, which often operate in parallel, cause considerable livestock loss, affecting the local economy. The annual loss to disease in northern Pakistan ranges between 0% and 54% across different valleys, averaging 1.56% of livestock holdings. Highest mortality occurs in the first year of vaccination and gradually drops by 59% in later years. Predation by snow leopards and other large carnivores is another major threat to livestock and a key cause of retaliatory killings. However, the disease death toll is estimated to be 1.5–5 times greater than that by predation. In fact, it was found that herders were more inclined to tolerate

occasional losses to predation if losses to disease were reduced or controlled. It is this set of facts that motivated a conservation-based incentive program for local communities, the “Snow Ecosystem Health Program” (EHP), which is administrated by the Snow Leopard Foundation (SLF), an independent Pakistan conservation NGO. The EHP promotes the peaceful coexistence of livestock owners and snow leopards through indirect compensation for livestock predation and by improving overall ecosystem health. The program is a conflict mitigation and management tool that increases both incomes and tolerance toward snow leopards by reducing disease-based livestock mortality. The EHP is named as such because the risks associated with livestock health cannot be isolated from wildlife or people. Thus, an ecosystem approach to health issues is being increasingly recognized and touted as it examines animal and human health issues holistically. According to Osofsky et al. (2005), “the state of health of an ecosystem can be judged by criteria very similar to those used for evaluating the health of a person or animal, namely, homeostasis (having a balance between system components), absence of disease, diversity and complexity, stability and resiliency, and vigor and scope for growth.”

III. Conservation solutions in situ

Program implementation mechanism

Program implementation mechanism The EHP makes vaccines available to rural communities, empowering them economically. In return, the communities agree to limit their herd sizes—accounting for reproduction—to ensure that there is no increase in competition with wild prey. Communities are also required to refrain from poaching snow leopards and their primary wild prey. The program is implemented in seven steps:

Site selection Site selection is based on the presence of snow leopards and prey species, depredation pressure, and livestock movement in the area as determined by snow leopard and prey surveys and herder interviews.

Social mobilization Program orientation is provided through meetings with concerned communities. A Conservation Agreement is signed if the community agrees to the program. This specifies the responsibilities of the parties (Table 18.3.1).

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to vaccinate animals according to vaccination calendars. Trained vaccinators are referred to as Ecosystem Health Workers (EHWs).

Vaccine delivery The EHW’s role is an important one. The vaccine delivery system involves determining vaccine quantity and type in consultation with vaccination calendars and local officials of the Livestock Department. Vaccines are then purchased from the production source by SLF to ensure quality and validity and given to the EHWs along with registration forms. The completed forms are later returned to the implementing agency. Considered self-employed, the vaccinators receive a small payment from each household for their services.

Conservation fund A fund is created in each community and serves two purposes. First, it encourages farmers to pay for vaccines and formalizes the system of payment, procurement, and vaccination. Second, it provides a small financial buffer against minor emergencies such as unexpected disease outbreaks or increases in vaccine costs.

Training Trainees are selected from communities in consultation with local community organizations. Centrally located and conducted by relevant experts, the trainings enhance understanding of livestock diseases, while teaching trainees how

Cost sharing The concerned conservation agency, in this case SLF, bears the full cost of vaccines in the first year while participants begin contributing to the vaccination fund. In the second year, the

TABLE 18.3.1 Key points in Conservation Agreements with local communities. Local community

Implementing agency

• • • •

• Arrange for community members to receive training in administering vaccines • Develop vaccination calendars • Provide vaccines at subsidized rates • Monitor the program and its environmental impacts

Select persons for vaccine-administration training Pay the community share of vaccine costs Maintain constant herd sizes by selling animals Record and report snow leopard and wild ungulate sightings, and report predation • Protect snow leopards and wild ungulates

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conservation agency covers 75% of the cost of vaccines and provides the remaining 25% to strengthen the vaccination fund. The unpaid portion of the year’s vaccination cost is borne by the participants. In the third year, half the cost of vaccines is provided by the conservation agency, and the remaining 50% goes into the vaccination fund. Again, the unpaid portion of the year’s vaccination is covered by the participants. Finally, in the 4th year, the participants pay for their vaccinations themselves while the agency’s contribution goes into the vaccination fund. Cost sharing stops at this point. In some communities, SLF bears the full cost for the 5 years for vaccines, transportation, and the CLEW’s payment. The community organization deposit PKR 25,000–50,000 each year into to the vaccination fund. The community organization involves the maximum farmers in the vaccination program. At maturity, farmers pay 50 PKRs/household/vaccination campaign to keep the program running.

Monitoring The program is monitored biannually and involves implementing agency staff, the Wildlife Department, and the community organization. Monitoring entails reviewing vaccine administration, examining its impacts on livestock health and community well-being, and looking for signs of snow leopard poaching. In addition, the impact of the Conservation Agreements is assessed through periodic specialized snow leopard surveys that assess the occurrence and abundance of snow leopards.

Program success in resolving conflicts The EHP was initiated in Kuju village in district Chitral, Pakistan, in 2003. It has been replicated to a larger landscape. By 2022, vaccination program is operational in 11 districts of snow leopard range, including 22 valleys in

Gilgit-Baltistan, 15 valleys in Chitral (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), and 4 valleys in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Fig. 18.3.1). The program involves 81,000 households and has vaccinated 1.5 million livestock in the past 15 years. The program has trained 66 persons in GilgitBaltistan, 38 in Chitral, and 17 in AJ&K over the last 18 years, as ecosystem health workers. As a result, there are at least three active EHWs at each program site, who have successfully vaccinated 114,879 heads of livestock in Chitral, 109,425 in GB, and 31,578 in AJ&K during the year 2021. The EHP was assessed through household structured interviews in 2016 and 2019 and focused on program effectiveness and its impact on livestock health and productivity, herders’ incomes, and changes in attitudes toward snow leopard conservation. Both reviews concluded that the EHP had been a positive experience for the communities as it had reduced livestock mortality and improved livelihoods. These measures contributed significantly to reducing retaliatory killings of snow leopards, as evidenced by zero poaching in program communities.

Reduction in disease-caused mortality and impacts on community well-being Livestock production and productivity were affected by the widespread occurrence of vectors and diseases prior to the EHP. The program improved both productivity and household incomes. Review results showed that livestock losses to disease varied significantly across the program area. However, mortality reduced significantly with the age of the program, and we observed a negative correlation (r 0.96) between disease-caused mortality and years of vaccination. Communities were losing 2.6% of their holding at the onset of the program, which reduced to 0.5% after 3 years of vaccination. This 80% reduction in mortality is significant in economic terms. Economic loss due to disease-related mortality for an average household was PKR 56,497

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Program success in resolving conflicts

FIG. 18.3.1

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Ecosystem Health Program operations in 2022.

(US$ 297). Comparing this figure to the average annual household cash income of PKR 96,000 (US$ 960) in program villages, the loss from disease-related mortality was equivalent to 1.75 months of household income. Mortality reductions can be regarded as savings. The financial gain per household from animals sold was estimated at PKR 11,604 (US$ 116). Income gained through vaccination programs therefore enables a general improvement in standards of living. Healthy livestock are a principal source of animal protein, a basic requirement for body growth and maintenance (FAO, 1996). A major direct effect of animal diseases on human beings is the loss of protein and milk. The latter

is particularly important for children. Animal products also supply other nutrients, minerals, and vitamins (Hush-Ashmore and Curry, 1992). The review found increases in both livestock and local consumption, an overall positive impact of vaccination services on livestock health and productivity and human well-being.

Stabilizing herd size and avoiding pressure on the environment Herd size is largely dependent on range resources, which vary considerably with altitude, aspect, season, labor availability, and cropping patterns. Households within snow leopard range

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traditionally sell relatively few cattle (1.8 per household). Household consumption is also low at 1.5 animals. The largest share is considered a long-term investment, especially for families possessing no other sources of income. Community Conservation Agreements stipulated that participating communities would not increase their livestock holdings. Compliance was evaluated through surveys in Chitral where respondents were questioned about their herds. Some 72% of herders reported stable herd sizes and another 14% felt that herd sizes had decreased. However, the remaining 13% reported increased herd sizes. Though the livestock numbers slightly increased in few households, the average herd size for the participating communities did not increase, hence the agreement was considered to be in compliance. In addition, communities have not reported any expansion of grazing lands in the last 5 years—herders were reportedly using existing pastures that also support the snow leopard’s natural prey species.

Enhanced tolerance toward snow leopards Mountain communities are generally hostile toward carnivores. For example, a recent survey in Musk Deer National Park in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), where there are currently no ongoing carnivore conservation efforts, showed that 72%–86% of people wanted to reduce or eliminate populations of snow leopards, brown bears, and wolves (Ahmad, 2015), Similarly 53% of respondents wished to eliminate carnivores in Misgar Valley of Pakistan when there were no conservation interventions in the valley. Attitudes changed after conservation work (trophy hunting, livestock insurance, and vaccination), and currently 49% of respondents in the Misgar Valley believe carnivores are important for maintenance of the ecosystem (Bano et al., 2021), despite serious levels of livestock

depredation. In areas where EHP was operation for more than 3 years, 83% respondents expressed a desire to see increased or maintained snow leopard populations in their valleys. Just 6% preferred a population decrease, and 10% wanted complete elimination. These figures probably indicate higher tolerance for snow leopards in our program sites over ecologically similar nonprogram sites. Moreover, there have been no reports of snow leopard or prey species being poached in the area since the program began.

Conclusions and recommended practices The EHP has been very effective in helping reduce livestock mortality and improving incomes. EHW training has strengthened local capacity and helped poor herders adopt technical management options for improved livestock systems. Herd sizes are stable or declining, despite reductions in mortality, and there have been no expansions of natural pastures. Overall acceptance of snow leopards is apparent, despite the associated economic loss. The program is cost-effective and lean in terms of staff time and overall budget (approximately US$ 5000 per site for the 4-year cost sharing period). Its low input, low maintenance, and high impact clearly distinguish it from other conservation programs. The following measures are considered good practices that can strengthen program implementation and increase the chances of success.

Strengthening community organizations Community organizations must be strong enough to deliver programs. Success in this regard requires effective social mobilization, organization, and engagement. Social mobilization helps idea acceptance and adoption, paving

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Acknowledgment

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the way for collective action. People can be brought together to form community organizations that create and spread awareness about the social and economic benefits of organized action. This allows resource pooling and collective planning and management. When required, program interventions can even be revisited. An ongoing systematic approach is required for effective engagement with community organizations (e.g., monthly meetings). Rights and responsibilities must be clearly defined and in line with overall conservation and development goals. The focus of such exercises is to strengthen community organizations through maximum representation and create an environment of empowerment.

possessing a matriculation qualification performed better and stayed in the community longer. Proper training means that EHWs become committed, cost-effective workers, who make efforts to convince livestock owners of the merits of vaccination. Naturally, EHWs require remuneration to maintain their motivation. This is generally based on the number of animals vaccinated. The EHW role can also be expanded to provide first aid services, manage reproductive disorders, and treat injuries and common diseases. Given suitable professional training, EHWs can become breadwinners for their families, and remote communities can receive cost-effective veterinary services at their doorsteps.

Establishing vaccination funds

Program monitoring

Community-level vaccination funds can help program communities attain financial selfsufficiency. Such funds encourage people to pay for their own vaccines and provide savings for minor emergencies. While resource mobilization and savings are not new concepts, regular contact and community meetings are necessary to motivate community members to deposit their monetary shares regularly. The fund also sustains the program after donor support is terminated.

The entire process demands an effective monitoring system and regular field team visits to community organizations. The following measures are recommended:

Enhancing EHW capacity EHW capacity and commitment are important factors in program delivery and sustainability. Selection through community organizations is based on education, experience with livestock, and staying potential. Candidates possessing a high school education—or less—are unable to assimilate training effectively. Conversely, candidates possessing higher education levels were found to have low staying potential as they were likely to leave the community in search of better jobs. It was found that mid-career persons

• A participatory data monitoring system involving community organizations should be developed. Variables could include livestock population, disease-caused mortality, livestock depredation, sightings of snow leopards, and prey species. Such information could be collected by the field offices on prescribed formats. Random data checks at the household level are also recommended. • Key performance indicators to meet program requirements need to be developed in collaboration with community organizations. These would make both communities and field teams part of the process and therefore, accountable.

Acknowledgment We are grateful to Van Tienhoven Foundation and Fondation Segr
e-Whitley Fund for Nature for supporting our work.

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19 Religion and cultural impacts on snow leopards conservation

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00075-3

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19.1 Introduction Betsy Quammen Yellowstone Theological Institute, Bozeman, MT, United States

Snow leopards live in vast, rugged landscapes that also support some of the most remote human cultures in the world. And, like the biodiversity that resides in these most difficult of climates and landscapes, the human communities have adapted to their environments in amazing and unique ways. These cultures have learned to interpret the divine in their geography, wildlife, and other natural elements. Their religions offer unique understanding of landscape—mountains, lakes, and animals are often characters in sacred stories. Whether communities adhere to Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, shamanistic practices, or a syncretistic blend of traditions, many of the people inhabiting the realm of the snow leopard see the world through their religion and religion through their world. In order for us to protect the last of the Earth’s threatened species, it is imperative for us to understand the worldviews of people who live with vulnerable wild populations. From a practical point of view, we must initially determine if there are conflicts between wildlife, humans or livestock, and work to remedy those conflicts. But to gain a further understanding of the local religion, ritual, and stories, we might learn something more effective that reinforces the importance of that species. Many religions view animals as sacred.

Of course, religion can be interpreted in many ways—ways that might harm species and ways that might encourage species protection. For centuries, Taoism has encouraged the use of medicines that contain the parts of rare animals. However, in the past few years, Taoist priests in China are beginning to urge the discontinuation of threatened species in traditional medicine. By working with these religious leaders, the British organization Alliance of Religions and Conservation is helping to slow poaching through relationship building, education, and reform. When I discussed my personal interest in the power of religious belief with Dr. George Schaller several years ago, he told me a story of his own experience connecting wildlife protection with local traditions. When he would visit a home in his study area on the Tibetan Plateau, he would give his host a picture of Milarepa, the Buddhist ascetic who abhorred hunting and the eating of meat. This would sometimes lead to a discussion on the tenets of Buddhism and the implications of killing of snow leopards and other wildlife. But as I’ve said, religions inspire multiple interpretations. During another conversation I had with Dr. Alan Rabinowitz about Buddhism and species protection, Alan expressed his frustrations with Southeast Asian Buddhists’ insistence it is karmically appropriate for a leopard

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that kills prey to be poached in consequence. When I shared Alan’s frustration with my friend Dekila Chungyalpa, the former director of the World Wildlife Fund Sacred Earth Initiative, she told me about a meeting with His Holiness the Dalai Lama when he asked her jokingly if it was possible to teach tigers to eat a vegetarian diet. Religions are stories. They are mirrors of culture. They are allegorical, not quantitative. When considering science and religion, Dr. Steven J. Gould described these two ways of interpreting the world as “nonoverlapping magisterial.” They can reside together. And when 85% of the people on this planet practice a faith, it is important to reach out and understand those traditions (ARC http://arcworld. org). In understanding spiritual practices, we might find a cultural framework that could lead to unique methods in species protection. Beliefs can be supportive of protecting nature depending on the way sacred text is read, interpreted, and practiced. This is where education and relationship building are imperative. When I have worked with religious leaders on conservation projects, I have never had anyone say they aren’t interested in helping. When

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priests, rabbis, ministers, and lamas are asked for their help and leadership, I have always found them to be willing to collaborate and often deeply grateful for being asked. A religious leader who has information on species protection and the delicate balance of ecology often becomes a great partner in species protection. Religions do require patience—remember, the faiths are ancient and the very idea of conservation is incredibly modern in comparison. Scientists have the ability to approach the world in a measured and analytical way. They have data to offer and numbers to back their positions. But in reaching the people who live with the snow leopard, religions have something much more forceful and persuasive, as the reader will surely come to understand as they consider the four essays in this chapter. Religions have stories, dances, art, songs, and passion. If a scientist explains the parameters of a viable population of snow leopards to a herder in Tibet, it will mean nothing. But if a monk reminds the herder that Milarepa turned himself into a snow leopard during a snow storm, next time the herder sees a leopard, he will see Milarepa. And that snow leopard may live to see another day.

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19.2 Tibetan Buddhist monastery-based snow leopard conservation Juan Lia, Hang Yinb, and Zhi Lua,b a

Center for Nature and Society, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China bShan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing, China

Introduction Nature worship is pervasive in traditional religions and cultures, which originated in Central and South Asia, including Buddhism, Daoism, Hinduism, Jainism, Shinto, Sikhism, and Zoroastrianism. These religions regard nature as a critical aspect of divinity that should be treated with reverence (Nasr, 1996); thus, they play an important role in biodiversity conservation, which comes mainly in two forms. First, it is a tradition to protect sacred species and sacred natural sites around religious structures. Second, the religions indirectly protect the biodiversity by shaping their followers’ view and behavior on nature (Dudley et al., 2009). As a major branch of Buddhism—one of the primary religions in Asia, Tibetan Buddhism teaches that all life is connected and interdependent, and respect and compassion should be shown for all living beings (Dorje, 2011). It has been practiced in the Tibetan Autonomous Region in China; Mongolia; Kalmykia, Buryatia, and Tuva in Russia; Bhutan, northern Nepal and northern India for hundreds to thousands of years (Harvey, 2012; Fig. 19.2.1). Tibetan sacred sites include sacred mountains, lakes, relics, forbidden areas, and pilgrim routes, and it has been shown that they may contribute significantly to biodiversity conservation (Anderson et al., 2005;

Salick et al., 2007). Among them, Tibetan sacred mountains have the largest land cover, they are administered by monasteries and local communities, and Tibetan Buddhist monasteries are usually located near the sacred mountains and in the center of traditional Tibetan communities (Shen et al., 2012). They are not only the centers of culture and religion but also important participants in environmental protection. They organize patrolling around the sacred mountains and educate the communities on environmental issues. We find that Tibetan Buddhism is crucially involved in snow leopard conservation due to its substantial overlapping range with snow leopards, particularly in the portion of the species’ range where mainstream conservation strategies face many difficulties (Li et al., 2014). To be specific, the nature reserves only cover 0.3%–27% of snow leopard habitat in the snow leopard-range countries except Bhutan (57%), and most of them are highly understaffed (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003). Incentive programs have been successful in addressing human-snow leopard conflict in several sites but are difficult to replicate at a large scale for lack of baseline ecological and socioeconomic data (Mishra et al., 2003). In areas where such mainstream strategies are not practical, Tibetan Buddhism may be providing a crucial complementary strategy for environmental protection.

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Connections between Tibetan Buddhism and snow leopards

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FIG. 19.2.1 Global range of snow leopards and Tibetan Buddhism. The regions under the influence of Tibetan Buddhism (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2003) could cover about 80% of global snow leopard range (see Chapter 3).

Connections between Tibetan Buddhism and snow leopards Snow leopard global range overlaps substantially with the area of Tibetan Buddhism influence, including the whole Tibetan Plateau, part of Mongolia and Russia, Bhutan, Nepal, and northern India (Fig. 19.2.1). Snow leopards might have originated in the hinterland of QinghaiTibetan Plateau 3 million years ago, where they evolved to adapt to the cold and high elevation environment and then gradually spread to the surrounding mountains (Deng et al., 2011). Tibetan Buddhism originated 5 centuries BCE in northern India and later spread to the whole Tibetan Plateau and surrounding area. Although

separated by millions of years, snow leopards and Tibetan Buddhism followed similar paths of range expansion and ultimately reached similar areas. More interestingly, snow leopards and Tibetan Buddhist monasteries selected similar sites on a smaller scale. Both of them usually select sites or habitats backed with high rugged mountains and containing rivers (Gyatsho, 1979). The snow leopard is adapted to its particular ecological niche in the rugged mountains with shorter limbs, and strong chest muscles, which is the result of the long-term evolution. Whereas, Buddhism stress that monasteries should look like a lotus when viewed from the sky, so they prefer to build on the rugged mountains with large white rocks as a background.

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In the process of long-term coexisting, Tibetan Buddhism also developed cultural connections with snow leopards. It is recorded in the Buddhist scriptures that snow leopards own the rocky mountains, they are the leader of all carnivores and are one of the protectors of the sacred mountains. These legends demonstrate that snow leopards have a sacred place in Tibetan Buddhism.

Scientific study of monasteries’ role in snow leopard conservation To further explore the role of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in snow leopard conservation, we selected the heart of global snow leopard habitat, the Sanjiangyuan Region in Qinghai Province, China, as our study area. The Sanjiangyuan region extends over 360,000 km2 and includes the 150,000 km2 Sanjiangyuan National

Nature Reserve. Tibetans account for 90% of population living here, and they follow Tibetan Buddhism. There were at least 336 monasteries formally recorded by the government in this region (Pu, 1990). Using snow leopard presence points and relevant environmental variables (elevation, ruggedness, land cover, etc.), we built a snow leopard distribution model in the Sanjiangyuan region. We found that 90% of monasteries were located within 5 km of snow leopard habitat, and 46% were located in the snow leopard habitat (Fig. 19.2.2). The distance of monasteries to snow leopard habitat is significantly lower than random points (P ¼ .000). This fit well with the tight natural connections between Buddhist monasteries and snow leopards we described above. We also found that the sacred mountains around monasteries are estimated to protect 8342 km2 of snow leopard habitat, while the core zones of Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve only cover

FIG. 19.2.2 Distance from Buddhist monasteries to snow leopard habitat in Sanjiangyuan Region. Ninety percent of monasteries were located within 5 km of snow leopard habitat, 65% were within 1 km, and 46% were in snow leopard habitat.

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Future prospects

7674 km2. Furthermore, there are only 21 conservation stations in Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve, with only 2–3 employees per station. In contrast, the 336 monasteries routinely organize active patrols around their sacred mountains. Hence monastery-based conservation might provide effective protection within snow leopard habitat in the Sanjiangyuan region, especially in the most remote parts. Monastery-based conservation has other advantages for snow leopards. The rugged mountains that snow leopards inhabit usually serve as administrative boundaries. It is difficult for governments to manage these areas effectively due to boundary issues. In contrast, the influence of monasteries can cross administrative boundaries. Besides the organized patrols, monasteries also provide environmental education to the local communities. To understand the influence of Tibetan Buddhism on local people’s hunting behavior, we did 144 semistructured household interviews across the Sanjiangyuan Region from 2009 to 2011. Most of them reported that they did not kill wildlife. Out of 144 interviewees, 34 people claimed that they did not kill wildlife because it is prohibited by the government; 25 people said that they did not kill wildlife because it was a sin in Buddhism; 35 people mentioned both reasons. Altogether 60 people attributed their nonkilling behavior to Buddhism, accounting for 42% of those interviewed. This seemed to indicate a strong religious influence on local people’s behavior, which should play an important role in protecting snow leopards and other sympatric wildlife.

previously done a lot of work on environmental conservation, including garbage collection, tree planting, patrolling sacred mountains, and so on. Monastery leaders readily accepted our offer to cooperate on snow leopard conservation. We provided them with funding to buy hiking boots, binoculars, cameras, and GPS units for patrollers. We also provided funds to compensate those households who lost livestock to snow leopards and other carnivores and to make promotional materials related to snow leopard conservation. We trained monks in basic snow leopard survey methods, including identification of scrapes and scats in the field, and how to monitor blue sheep scientifically. As part of the collaboration, we requested the senior Rinpoche or Khenpos to highlight the importance of snow leopards in their yearly ceremonies. We also distributed snow leopard posters and publicized the Law of The People’s Republic of China on The Protection of Wildlife at the same time. In the process of this pilot conservation project, one problem we encountered was that monasteries and local communities do not have legal rights to evict illegal miners or poachers from their sacred sites, especially those from outside the community. We suggested that local government and nature reserves could confer some management rights to monasteries and communities to help them stop the illegal activities. Another suggestion we made was for nongovernmental organizations and local governments to train the monks and community members in wildlife monitoring techniques and ecology, to supplement their traditional conservation practices.

Pilot conservation projects cooperating with monasteries Future prospects Since 2011, Shan Shui Conservation Center and Peking University, in collaboration with Panthera and the Snow Leopard Trust, have cooperated with four monasteries in the Sanjiangyuan Region. All four monasteries had

Although this monastery-based conservation strategy has many advantages, there is concern that young people are losing faith in religion under the impact of modernization. In the

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process of modernization, the traditional religious beliefs are challenged and might be gradually substituted by reason and science. But one study indicated that Tibetan young people did not differ from their elders in use and appreciation of sacred sites (Allendorf et al., 2014). This question is complicated and still needs further investigation. Another worry is that monasteries also shelter other animals such as stray or feral dogs in addition to snow leopards. We recorded that there were more than 500 stray dogs in one monastery in Nangqian County in 2011. Although these dogs were fed by monks, they would still form packs to prey on blue sheep, the main food source of snow leopards. Feral or stray dogs may also indirectly harm snow leopards and other

wildlife as disease reservoirs (Young et al., 2011). Further investigation is needed to understand the potential influence of the stray or feral dogs. In summary, Tibetan Buddhist monasteries could have already contributed substantially to the snow leopard conservation given their tight connections. We have also shown the feasibility of cooperating with monasteries on snow leopard conservation in Qinghai Province, China. So we suggest that monastery-based conservation as a snow leopard conservation strategy could be extended to other areas under the influence of Tibetan Buddhism, which may cover as much as 80% of snow leopard range, and the whole mountain ecosystem will also be protected.

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19.3 Shamanism in Central Asian snow leopard cultures Apela Coloradoa and Nargiza Ryskulovab a

Worldwide Indigenous Science Network, Lahaina, HI, United States bWorldwide Indigenous Science Central Asian Consultant, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Out of sense of responsibility before our ancestors and future generations, we indigenous cultural practitioners stress the central role of snow leopard in the survival of humanity facing a civilization crisis, which threatens our mountains with the cold breath of the death. Colorado (2014)

The deepening of our global crises has brought conservationists and ICPs, Indigenous Cultural Practitioners an unexpected and paradoxical possibility, linking Western science with its direct opposite—indigenous science, a partnership that may save the snow leopard and its habitat. Until recent times, science and conservation have dismissed the “sciencea” of people indigenous to snow leopard habitat and looked at ancient knowledge and practices as anecdotal, irrelevant, or even superstitious. At the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, “everybody was talking about the ecological knowledge of indigenous people, but certainly no one was talking about the spiritual origin of it as claimed by indigenous people themselves…We, scientists, were not talking about it because we were afraid

we would not be taken seriously” (Narby, 1998). The result is a hidden exploitation. Data are taken from the community, empirically confirmed and used, but its origin cannot be discussed because it contradicts the axioms of science. This view is a luxury we can no longer afford. As early as 1987, the United Nation’s Brundtland Report and the 1992, Article 21 of the Rio Earth Summit specifically called for researchers to take indigenous knowledge into account. Informally, this is happening. Conservationists have included local knowledge in their research and increasingly enlist the support of communities to halt predation and increase protection. Unfortunately, the relationship has been built on a foundation of separation and usurpation of indigenous wisdom. Indigenous people are seen and used as a source of data but are not included as co-equal partners. Also, indigenous wisdom has been vetted through Western lenses without any parameters or checks for reliability, vigor, or accountability. The mono-cultural

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Terms such as Traditional Knowledge, Local Knowledge and even Traditional Ecological Knowledge if used to define the entire indigenous way of knowing and being is inaccurate and maintains western scientific colonialism. Knowledge can be extracted and exploited whereas pluralism in science necessitates communication, sharing of resources and relationship. The Science of Indigenous people addresses multiple dimensions while simultaneously secures data based on observation.

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scientific paradigm is failing to protect the snow leopard, yet without meaningful participation in conservation projects and policy formation, indigenous science is likewise limited. What is an ICP and what is the relevance of indigenous wisdom to conservation? The term “shaman” derives from anthropology and religious studies and was meant as a metaconcept, an overarching term and refers to a holy person with religious, magical powers able to interface the spiritual and material world. But the term is problematic. On the one hand, it opened a place for indigenous wisdom within the Western mind. On the other hand, because science came with colonization, it simultaneously reframed the indigenous way of knowing to suit the Western paradigm. Indigenous people became viewed as fodder for research. The ancient, earth-based way of knowing and being was deprecated, often reduced to overworked ideas of New Age Shamanism thus, losing all specificity—its strength. Indigenous science is embedded wisdom. In The Lost World of the Kalahari, Van der Post (1958) proposes the term “Great Memory” for the capacity of indigenous peoples to remember events in the parahistory or great cycles of time. “Learning by analogy from the narrated oral history or story is more than mere historical records: it is equally the deep-rooted awareness of the natural laws of life itself….On the one hand, ‘memory’ means a process of learning, by rote, tribal history preserved through the centuries. On the other hand, together with this highly specialized memorizing art, there…is another form of ‘memory’ something approximating cross cultural or ‘archetypal’ memory, and the ability to bring the past into the present, along with the future (Deloria, 1999). The Great Memory involves more than the oral tradition of storytelling, which is a cultural outgrowth of it. It is a faculty, ‘synonymous with a heightened, or deepened level of consciousness.’ In a 2003 interview with National Public Radio and the National Geographic Society,

anthropologist and explorer Wade Davis elaborated, “Just as there is a biological web of life, there is also a cultural and spiritual web of life the ‘ethnosphere.’ It’s really the sum total of all the thoughts, beliefs, myths, and institutions brought into being by the human imagination. It is humanity’s greatest legacy, embodying everything we have produced as a curious and amazingly adaptive species. The ethnosphere is as vital to our collective well-being as the biosphere. And just as the biosphere is being eroded, so is the ethnosphere—if anything, at a far greater rate.” Indigenous science is a repository of data gleaned across the millennia and accrued in intimate association with the land, but its primary power lies in the propensity or ceremony, to access the Great Memory or ethnosphere. Chagat Almashev, PhD, Altaian, observes: “According to the concept of Altai people, information, knowledge and wisdom are existing all around. When people, elders, deal with information, they use some verbs or notions to note these sacred objects. For instance, ‘belem’ means knowledge or information is existing around, everywhere. In order to catch this information, they use the verb ‘ailanderar’…make things go around and find the proper one, to look for any solution or problems or anything. It’s a silence sitting around fire, talking—it’s like virtual travel somewhere. It’s a typical ceremony for ICPs. To travel and see things even the future they say’ belge.’ It’s all ‘belim.’” What is it that enables the multidimensional functionality of indigenous science? How is it that a way of knowing can heal, communicate across species, and “remember” knowledge in vast cycles of time? In China, the clarity that comes from the ability to decipher underlying meanings of symbols, including natural phenomena, is the ‘light of the gods’ and brings the individual soul into harmony with the cosmos…. “The principle behind divination known as synchronicity recognizes an essential link between inner and outer reality. ….The dynamic

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Snow leopard work brings the sciences together

interaction between complementary pairs of opposites is believed to create images that mirror the structure of the human psyche and of life itself. The dialectic operates by exploiting contradictions against a common ground of similarity rather than by, linear logic. A dramatic illustration of indigenous science nexus is Prasena, a Tibetan practice that allows the ‘unconscious mind to project visionary images onto the surface of a mirror’ (Hope, 1997). Altaian shaman Danil Mamyev puts it this way: “Indigenous knowledge never speaks in direct language, but it is important to know the meaning underneath.” Shamans use metaphor— ways of thinking about one thing in terms of another. Such practices permit the use of sensory, emotional, and cognitive information. The “image-based right hemisphere of the brain comes to dominate the left where most language processing takes place” (Hope, 1997). The combination of various mental states and the movement between them generates creativity, imagination, and access to other dimensions of knowing. Japarkul Raimbekov, Kyrgyz Indigenous Cultural Practitioner (ICP) and Guardian of the sacred snow leopard site of Arashan Mountain, elaborates on indigenous research protocols: “I started my spiritual journey 18 years ago. My vision and mission became to tell people about Altyn Dor, the Golden Age, the renewal of humanity. About five or so years ago, I met Apela [Colorado]. This fateful meeting happened on the sacred site ‘Arashan’ where my vision and Apela’s became one. It was about Uluu Ot, the ancient fire of love that united all living beings. As I was speaking of my vision, the Kasiet—or aura—I perceived around her transformed into light. The spirit of the snow leopard manifested. This was exactly as it had happened in ancient times and so connected this modern time with the past. First came the fire, Uluu Ot, then the spirits of all animals and then humans. In this way we brought back the connection of humanity to the fire and to the spirits of the animals.

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Kyrgyz people don’t use the term ‘shamans;’ we have other terms, such as jaachy, kuuchu, bakshy. Each of these people has different abilities. Fire was the main tool for connecting to spirituality. They lit the fire, they called out to the ancestors and to the spirits of animals. Each animal also has a spirit animal. The highest of the animals for us was a snow leopard that lived on the top of the mountain and looked upon people and connected us to higher worlds. This link between humans, animals and nature was very strong and progressive thanks to bakshys who renewed and held that connection. Their rituals and traditions instilled in people the order of the things. So we don’t have to invent anything. We just have to revive things as they were, remember we are one with Nature and with all living beings, and that all things are creations of love and spirit, humans as well (interview and translation by Nargiza Ryskulova, November 2014).

Snow leopard work brings the sciences together This is what we’ve been looking for, a place where science and spirituality come together. Rodney Jackson, Snow Leopard Scientist & Founder, Snow Leopard Conservancy

There is an increasing recognition that cultural and biological diversity are deeply linked and that conservation programs should take into account the ethical, cultural, and spiritual values of nature. Science is increasingly looking to indigenous wisdom to extend baseline data, provide personal witness, raise new questions, and answer critical environmental issues that science cannot find answers for. “The snow leopard is a protector of sacred mountains, a unifying force and a source of spiritual power and wisdom. A link between the spirit and natural word, the snow leopard draws the attention of shamans in preserving its habitat” (Phalnikar, 2014).

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Kyrgyz oral history records a time and sacred fire that unified people. In 2010, in furtherance of the vision at the sacred snow leopard site of Arashan, Kyrgyz elders reignited Uluu Otb to call upon the spirit of the snow leopard, “protector of sacred mountains, a unifying force and a source of spiritual power and wisdom” (Tedlock, 2005). More than 50 ICPs from around the world lit ceremonial fires in their own lands at the same time. We did so to reawaken and renew our relationships, our science and to create an ongoing forum to achieve these ends. Three years after the sacred fires were lit, snow leopard ICPs and scientists met in Ashu, Kyrgyzstan, to draft a policy statement to present to a global snow leopard meeting. Given the infrastructure needs of such a high profile meeting, one would imagine Russia or China would be a more likely venue. Instead, the Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum met in Kyrgyzstan and there endorsed the Bishkek Declaration on Snow Leopard Conservation and the GSLEP, Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program. Prior to this meeting, the Worldwide Indigenous Science Network partnered with the Snow Leopard Conservancy to assemble an alliance of snow leopard cultural practitioners drawn from several Central Asian countries. Guardians made use of the convening to formulate their own global conservation strategy calling for a deep networking of sacred sites, shamans, and sacred species first within the cultural frame and secondly working with scientists and conservationists to formulate new bio-cultural approaches in nature conservation and ecosystem management. The outcome of their meeting was the development of “The Indigenous Cultural Practitioners Statement to the Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum.”

The rock carvings transfer consciousness of what survives disaster. We must get into that mind set, to comprehend the ancient messages with our minds. Ilarion Merculief, Aleut

On October 23, 2013, history was made. Japarkul Raimbekov delivered the ICP statement to the global assemblage. Indigenous wisdom contributed to the critical plan for the survival of snow leopards in the wild. At the conclusion of the Ashu meeting, Japarkul led our group of ICPs and conservationists to Chopan Ata, a 42 ha, boulder-strewn, petroglyph site on the shores of Lake Issyk Kul. Conventional wisdom holds that ceremonial ways of the Snow Leopard are lost; as Japarkul was about to show us, this view is false. The midday August sun beat down upon us as we trekked from our bus to a massive boulder, more than a meter across (Fig. 19.3.1). Facing the stone, Japarkul raised his serpent staff ornamented with tiny bells and shook it as he called out to the ancestors, asking permission to enter the sacred knowledge and to be at the site. Then, satisfied, he gently gestured to the incised images of snow leopards, ibex, and a human being and began to interpret. “The sheep are returning to the earth; the snow leopards are ascending. Both will become extinct. It is up to the human being to create balance to prevent this from happening.” He looked at us expectantly with his traditional white kulpak hat and robe; it was as if the snow peaked mountains behind us had just stepped forward. The silence was intense. He turned again and this time focused on the etching of the man. Two things were striking. The man held a bow and a line connecting the human with a snow leopard. Western science has taken this image to mean that early Central Asians used the snow leopard to hunt for them. This is a superficial

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Unthinkable in linear time, Kygyz Elders maintain that this particular type of ceremonial fire had last been ignited when humanity dispersed out of Central Asia.

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Going forward

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FIG. 19.3.1 Petroglyph with snow leopard, ibex, and human images on the shore of lake Issykul, Kyrgyzstan. Photo courtesy Worldwide Indigenous Science Network.

interpretation. Japarkul explained, the connection is a metaphor for the need to align ourselves with the wisdom of the snow leopard and illustrates that in so doing we mediate the destructive shadow of humanity and create unity and harmony with nature. We looked at the rock. It was as if our week’s deliberations and the codification of the shamans’ statement for global snow leopard protection had been anticipated and was now mirrored to us in this ancient message. This was the world’s first gathering of snow leopard shamans and the shamans with conservationists, but it felt as if we had known each other and the path ahead through all time.

Going forward If the knowledge of the primordial mind, its holism, sustainability, underlying physics and outlook is to survive, elders must be given a voice in the world and supported to express it; their knowledge must be translated and organized so that future generations can access the life-sustaining wisdom. Ethical scientists must consider the impact of their research on

indigenous people and our “master scientists,” the ICPs, and change behavior to provide for real partnership and collaboration, including sharing resources. This collaboration can serve as a catalyst to strengthen culture, safeguard the earth, and foster the emergence of a new type of science—one that consciously links analytical and holistic thought. This is not meant to supplant Western science, but to accord it its proper place among diverse ways of knowing. Nor will a new, linked science displace the indigenous way of knowing. As Slava, Altaian snow leopard ICP puts it: “Conservationists need to recognize spiritual sites… the rituals and traditions and everything they bring. This is not about allowing us to work; it’s about not hindering our work—and not bringing the scientific framework into our world.” Other ICPs are committed to working with conservationists. Altai ICP Danil Mamyev states, “The Uluu Ot has given us a new start… We recognize the value of linking our traditional knowledge with conservation science and are ready for cooperation” (IUCN, Jeju South Korea, Interview, September 2012). True collaboration is like the Cholpon Ata cord that connects humanity with the snow

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leopard. To join with integrity, we must allow indigenous science to function on its own terms and to permit scientists to stay in a dual consciousness, fully embodied by indigenous science while being entirely aware that indigenous science is the other, not the self. This is the way to honor all phenomena (Bosnak, 2008). The combined wisdom with the right

technology and the energy of local communities can deliver change where the snow leopard and the planet need it most. We have come to crisis, we are at edge of time when we need to reconnect to natural world, animal world…connect our ways of knowing, and realize our internal potential to transform. Danil Mamyev, Altai Elder

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19.4 Snow leopards in art and legend of the Pamir John Mock American Institute of Afghanistan Studies, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States

Throughout the Pamir-Hindu Kush region that spans the mountains of present-day Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, parallels in complex symbolic categories suggest that the mountain communities share knowledge that transcends linguistic and social boundaries (Mock, 2011). This indigenous knowledge is contextually grounded in people’s interactions with land, weather, and biodiversity over considerable time. Hence, this indigenous knowledge can be said to have an ecological foundation (Kassam et al., 2010) and is recognized as essential to addressing complex environmental issues (Lynch and Hammer, 2013). The symbolic linkages between biological and cultural diversity find representation in stories and art produced by indigenous people. This brief chapter presents examples of such representations from Afghanistan and Pakistan and discusses the role of indigenous knowledge in addressing environmental and conservation issues. Rock art uses rock surfaces as a “canvas” to tell stories grounded in indigenous knowledge that is specific and vital to the culture in which it was produced (Safinov, 2009). In the Pamir-Hindu Kush region, we find numerous depictions of wild ungulates and hunters with spears and bows on foot and on horseback (Mock, 2013). The rock art was typically composed on several rock panels with multiple

images on each panel. This clustering of rock art has led scholars to assume that such places were “sanctuaries” where symbolically significant compositions were made on rock. The context in which the person(s) who produced the rock art and the motivations for the production of particular images are often obscured by time. The “semantics” of the story of such rock art are also difficult to interpret. However, the significance of the rock art is not in doubt; it was produced to record important events or features of the environment that resonated significantly with the people who took the time to produce it. In Wakhan District of north-east Afghanistan, I observed a depiction of what appears to be a long-tailed felid, most probably a snow leopard (Fig. 19.4.1; Mock, 2013). This panel is located in the settled area of Wakhan, home to indigenous Wakhi people. Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) inhabit this area (Simms et al., 2011). Depictions of snow leopards in higher elevation areas of Wakhan have (so far) not been observed, which agrees with the observed presence of snow leopards in Wakhan; they seem to be more abundant in the side valleys of the settled area of Wakhan. It is not possible to say who made this depiction of a snow leopard, when they made it or why they made it. However, when viewed through the lens of indigenous knowledge of snow leopards

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FIG. 19.4.1 Rock art depicting what appears to be a snow leopard in Wakhan District of north-east Afghanistan. Courtesy John Mock.

contained in stories told today, we can understand some of the significance that snow leopards have to Pamir-Hindu Kush people and perhaps glimpse a motive for this rock art depiction. One aspect of the region’s indigenous knowledge is the concept of alpine places as pure and separate from the lower, less pure human domain (Steinberg, n.d., The Mountain Institute, unpublished report). Such high places are the realm of spiritual beings, and the plants and animals of the environment share an association with the cultural concept of purity and the presence of spiritual beings (Dodykhudoeva, 2004; Kassam, 2009; Mock, 1998). Plants such as primrose (Primula macrophylla) and wild rue (Peganum harmala) carry spiritual and ritual

connotations and usages for mountain people (Mock and O’Neil, 2002). Wildlife such as ibex (Capra sibirica), urial (Ovis orientalis), argali (Ovis ammon polii), and snow leopard also carry connotations of purity and spirituality. The mountain people of the region, and indeed throughout Central and South Asia, are familiar with pari, who are female supernatural beings of the high mountains. Wakhi people who live in Pakistan, China, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan have their own word for pari: mergichan. The mergichan inhabit the mergich realm, which is the realm of the mountains and high pastures. It is a pure, even sacred realm, where the supernatural mountain spirits tend their wild flocks of mountain sheep and ibex. Humans only enter the mergich realm during summer, and only after ceremonially announcing to the mergichan that the people will displace them for the summer and asking them for a favorable influence on the livestock and dairy production. The mergichan are not malevolent beings, but their displeasure can be provoked. They are angered by “impure” actions that pollute the mergich realm. As powerful beings, they need to be propitiated to ensure the success of summer herding and dairy production by the community as a whole, and for success at hunting by individual men. The mergichan can assume the guise of a mergich animal, and in that form they can both harm and help men. Hunters cultivate a positive relationship with the mergichan and the mergich realm in order that the mergichan should reveal the location of the wild game to them through signs or through a dream. The knowledge of how to gain the favor of the mergichan includes knowledge of the habits of the wild game, the landscape within which they dwell, the vegetation they prefer for food, and a general respect and reverence for all that is mergich. From a Western perspective, this seems very much like an environmental ethic.

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19. Religion and cultural impacts on snow leopards conservation

Wakhi people regard the snow leopard as a mergich animal that lives in mergich areas. It rarely interacts with people, is hard to see, powerful, beautiful, and potentially dangerous. As such, it exemplifies many of the qualities of the mergichan, and so is an appropriate animal shape for them to assume. Currently, in the Wakhi community of Shimshal in Pakistan, villagers are engaged in a process of integrating their concept of mergich with a modern conservation ethic through the Shimshal Nature Trust (2015). The younger generation sees this as a way to make the old concepts again relevant. A similar process is underway in the Wakhi villages that manage the buffer zone area of the Khunjerab National Park through the Khunjerab Villagers Organization (2015). These community-based organizations, which both maintain websites, are important examples of cooperative efforts to integrate old and new knowledge into a framework that can be shared between people inside and outside the Wakhi community to develop a new significance for the mountain landscape (Abidi-Habib and Lawrence, 2007; Ali and Butz, 2003). The following Wakhi story from Shimshal village of how mergichan assumed the guise of a snow leopard and became the protective spirit partner of a Wakhi man exemplifies “old” knowledge that can serve as a scaffold for a new integrated significance. I recorded and translated the story as part of my research in northern Pakistan (Mock, 1998). It is like a miracle. Someone sees something and then it vanishes. My own father, a miracle happened to him. What sort of miracle? My father went with the people to Lemarz Keshk, below Furzin. In the evening my father went to the spring for water. When he went for water, he saw a woman with a white scarf, a pitek. He lay down into a low area so he was hidden, looking. “What sort of thing was this?” he thought. People never came there, so a woman would never go there either. Then his uncle came and he said to him,

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“O Uncle, a woman came here, a woman with a white scarf stood here, and now she has vanished down here.” He said, “Ya Maula, what can it be?” Well, it became dark. Night fell, and they ate dinner and slept. They had nothing but an old blanket. They both covered themselves with that, and slept. In the night, my father dreamt that two horses came with two riders. He dreamt one horse came and passed over him, and one came and sunk its teeth into his leg. He awoke suddenly and something heavy was on his body. He tried to sit up, but he couldn’t. It was very heavy. He was still sort of asleep, and he moved a little, then shook his blanket and saw a snow leopard, with eyes like that. And it sat on top of him, like this. And it moved off of him and slowly went outside. It went out, and he felt a lot of pain. He said, “O Uncle, wake up! My leg hurts, something came on top of me. Go out and shine a light.” He got up and they made a fire, and saw a lot of blood. Blood, he was bleeding. And then he was very scared. He said, “What thing was this, what happened?” They sat a while, but it didn’t come. Then they closed the door with a stone and slept. While they slept, it grabbed the door and tossed the stone aside. It came and yanked their blanket and took it down to the trees. Then they got up and made a fire. “O God, what is this thing?” they said. They saw it seemed like a snow leopard. It came toward the door of the hut and his uncle was going to shoot at it when he fainted. He went unconscious and the snow leopard became a horse and went away. They sat and sat and it grew light. Their companions were at the settled area down river, where they cultivated barley. People were there for harvesting. My father came there, and said, “Someone come with us, and give us a dog, too, we were so frightened.” They refused to come. He took a dog and tied it at the door that night. It came again and it grabbed that dog and tossed it far away. It came again and it wouldn’t let them sleep all night long till dawn. It took the shape of a snow leopard. It put itself into a snow leopard skin. They returned to Shimshal. There, the khalifa (spiritual leader) said that it was a pari. The pari itself took on the guise of a snow leopard. It took on the skin of a snow leopard and then attacked them like that. Then what happened to my father? It happened like this, that this pari was with him continuously, with my father. It came itself as a snow leopard. I myself and my brother Shifa, we both saw it. Our father was with us, at Arbob Purien. We were there together when it came. It came and I saw it first. I said,

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“Ya Ali, what thing has come? A snow leopard.” It came and stood on the far side. It stood there and didn’t come near us. It turned and left. My father was there, too. And until his dying day, that never was a danger to anyone, but to his dying day that pari was with him. A pari in the shape of a snow leopard. It would assume the shape of a snow leopard and come. That pari was ready to make friends with him. Whenever he was preparing to hunt somewhere, that pari said to him at night in a dream, “In such and such

place go and hunt. To such and such place don’t go and hunt, no game is there.” Whether ibex, or whether small game, he would go and it would be there. Such miraculous things happened with him. You can ask other Shimshalis if such things were or not. They will tell you. Up until his death, this was with him. Then it ended when he went from this world. Now it is no longer like this with us. Pari are not close to us. We live more at ease. My father was different. A snow leopard came to him. This event occurred.

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19.5 The order “barys” and title “snow leopard”: The snow leopard in symbolism, heraldry and numismatics Olga Loginova Snow Leopard Fund, Ust Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan

The rare and mysterious snow leopard has since ancient times been a totem and symbol in many nations of Central Asia. In those days, snow leopards were worshipped as sacred animals. People respectfully referred to the snow leopard as “The Lord of the Celestial Mountains” or “The owner of the snowy peaks.” From time immemorial, the tradition has survived of depicting this beautiful and graceful animal in rock drawings, on plates made of precious metal, to decorate clothing and weapons, and on the arms, coins, and standards of entire countries and individual cities. The image of the snow leopard even today is widely represented in art, literature, and in symbolism, numismatics, and heraldry. Unfortunately, from the Middle Ages to the mid-20th century, attitudes to wildlife and nature in general took on an exploitative and unthinking character. The slogans of conquest and transformation prevailed and nature seemed inexhaustible. Large predators were particularly affected by persecution. In Central Asia and Kazakhstan, the tiger (Panthera tigris) and cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) were completely extirpated, but high and inaccessible mountains have kept the snow leopard from extinction. In the 1950–60s, it was declared a harmful predator like the wolf and

was destroyed even in nature reserves! Despite negligible damage to livestock and no danger at all in relation to people, snow leopards were persecuted widely across their range, except where Buddhism was widespread—a religion that prohibits killing animals. Only in 1948, when the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) was founded, and then later with other international and local environmental organizations, did the situation begin to improve. A variety of “Red Books” were published, and relevant laws prohibited killing of rare and endangered species of animals and plants. The theme of “Red Book species” became popular in philately, calendars, badges, and coins. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and formation of independent states in Central Asia, the snow leopard appeared on the emblems of the cities of Almaty, Astana (Kazakhstan), Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan), and Samarkand (Uzbekistan). The snow leopard has become a symbol of States in whose territory he resides—Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. A winged snow leopard is depicted on the emblem of the Russian republic of Khakassia. And even Tatarstan—located in the middle reaches of the Volga, where not only the snow leopard but also the common leopard (Panthera pardus), never occurred, has now

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adopted the “white leopard” as its symbol. Over the centuries, from the era of the great conquests of Genghis Khan, there have been great migrations of peoples, mixing of cultures and beliefs, and transformation of languages, symbols, and traditions. The snow leopard became the official symbol of Kazakhstan, proposed by President Nursultan Nazarbayev in his “Address to the Nation—Strategy 2030.” Archeological finds in the Altai, Semirechye, in the Issyk kurgan (burial mound) and other sites in the vast extent of the former Golden Horde confirm the widespread symbolism of the snow leopard, common leopard, and tiger. From these “big three” large cats in Central Asia, the snow leopard survives the best, dwelling in the inaccessible mountains. For the ancient Saks and Oirats and other peoples, it was also sacred, as were the “Celestial Mountains” (Tien Shan), “Golden Mountains” (Altai), and “Roof of the World” (Pamir). Gold decoration on the pointed headdress of the Saka king—“winged snow leopard in the mountains” recovered in 1969 from the Issyk burial mound near Almaty, demonstrated the high standard of jewelry making of the Saka craftsmen of the Empire of the Great Kushans. Snow leopards are depicted on gold and silver coins and postage stamps around the world, such as in Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, and Nepal. Many countries, even those where snow leopards can be seen only in zoos, regularly issue stamps with the image of this cat. The image of a snow leopard also appears on state awards and currency of Kazakhstan and Russia. Russia has issued a large number of collector’s gold and silver coins of the highest quality showing the image of snow leopard, common leopard, tiger, and other rare animals. This series of coins is called “Save Our World.” On each note of the Kazakhstan tenge, can be seen a watermark in the form of a snow leopard, replacing Lenin as depicted in the currency of the USSR. There are collectable silver and gold

tenge with “barys”—snow leopard—on the face. One of the main orders (honorary awards) of Kazakhstan is also called “Barys” (snow leopard). This Order was established in 1999 and is awarded for outstanding achievements in strengthening statehood and sovereignty of the Republic of Kazakhstan; in securing peace, consolidation of society and the unity of the people of Kazakhstan; in the state, industrial, scientific, social, cultural, and social activities; in strengthening cooperation among peoples, mutual enrichment of national cultures, and friendly relations between states. Sculptures depicting the snow leopard are not uncommon in cities and by highways. In almost every valley near most major roads in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, one can see a concrete sculpture of a snow leopard. As a rule, there is also a spring of pure water, car parking, and a view of the mountains. In the center of the capital of Kazakhstan, Astana, and in the city of Ust-Kamenogorsk, there are several sculptures of the snow leopard, and in Almaty there is a bronze sculpture of this rare cat in the middle of Gorkiy Park. Snow leopards are also loved by artists. Two ice hockey teams in the top division of the Kazakhstan Hockey League have snow leopard related names “Barys” of Astana and “Ak Bars” (meaning white leopard) from Kazan. The Astana Youth Team is proudly referred to as the “Snow Leopards.” A snow leopard cub became the symbol of the ice hockey team “Kaztsink-Torpedo” from Ust-Kamenogorsk. It was devised by 12-year-old Georgiy Gaikov from Zyryanovsk and called “Barsik.” This beautiful clay figurine won a competition in 2003 and became the mascot of the hockey club. In January and February 2011, the Asian Olympic Games—Asiad 2011—took place. They were held simultaneously in the two capitals of Kazakhstan, the official—Astana, and southern—Almaty. The mascot was a snow leopard cub named Irby. His image adorned billboards and posters in the streets of Almaty and Astana

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References

for a year and the image of Irby on souvenirs and as a puppet is still sold in the cities of Kazakhstan. In 2013, the student Olympics were held in Kazan, and the mascot selected was the snow leopard, named Yuni—from the English pronunciation of the word University. For mountaineers in Russia and Central Asia, the snow leopard is not only a symbol but also a title. Climbers who manage to climb all five 7000-m peaks in the former Soviet Union (Pobeda Peak and Khan Tengri in the Tien Shan, Peak Somoni and Korzhenevskaya in the Pamirs, and Lenin Peak in the Pamir-Alai) are assigned the highest title “Snow Leopard.” The title is equivalent to the rank of Master of Sport, international class. The award is “Snow Leopard Russia” with a picture of the snow leopard and the mountains. The snow leopard is also widely used as the brand name of various products, not only in the region but also in the world. The snow leopard is equally popular as the name of shops, hotels, and campsites in the region. The symbolism of the snow leopard can play a significant role in shaping and strengthening its positive image as a living symbol of national pride and an object of the peoples of Central Asia and therefore contribute to its conservation.

References Abidi-Habib, M., Lawrence, A., 2007. Revolt and remember: how the Shimshal Nature Trust develops and sustains social-ecological resilience in northern Pakistan. Ecol. Soc. 12, 35. Ali, I., Butz, D., 2003. The Shimshal governance model—a community conserved area, a sense of cultural identity, a way of life. Policy Matters 12, 111–120. Allendorf, T.D., Brandt, J.S., Yang, J.M., 2014. Local perceptions of Tibetan village sacred forests in Northwest Yunnan. Biol. Conserv. 169, 303–310. Anderson, D.M., Salick, J., Moseley, R.K., Xiaokun, O., 2005. Conserving the sacred medicine mountains: a vegetation analysis of Tibetan sacred sites in Northwest Yunnan. Biodivers. Conserv. 14, 3065–3091. Bosnak, R., 2008. Embodiment: Creative Imagination in Medicine, Art and Travel. Routledge, London.

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Colorado, A., 2014. Scientific pluralism. In: Peat, F.D. (Ed.), The Pari Dialogues Volume 2: Essays in Indigenous Knowledge and Western Science. Pari Publishing, Pari, Tuscany, Italy. Deloria Jr., V., 1999. If you think about it you will see that it is true. In: Deloria, B., Foehlner, K., Scinta, S. (Eds.), Spirit and Reason. Fulcrum Publishing, Boulder, Colorado, USA, pp. 40–60. Deng, T., Wang, X., Fortelius, M., Li, Q., Wang, Y., Tseng, Z.J., Takeuchi, G.T., Saylor, J.E., S€ail€a, L.K., Xie, G., 2011. Out of Tibet: Pliocene woolly rhino suggests high-plateau origin of Ice Age megaherbivores. Science 333, 1285–1288. Dodykhudoeva, L.R., 2004. Ethno-cultural heritage of the peoples of West Pamir. Coll. Antropol. 28 (Supplement 1), 147–159. Dorje, O.T., 2011. Walking the path of environmental Buddhism through compassion and emptiness. Conserv. Biol. 25, 1094–1097. Dudley, N., Higgins-Zogib, L., Mansourian, S., 2009. The links between protected areas, faiths, and sacred natural sites. Conserv. Biol. 23, 568–577. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2003. The Atlas of Faiths. Encyclopedia Britannica, Chicago. Gyatsho, T.L., 1979. Gateway to the temple: manual of Tibetanmonastic customs, art, building and celebrations. Bibliotheca Himalayica. Series III, vol. 12. Kathmandu. Harvey, P., 2012. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press. Hope, J., 1997. The Secret Language of the Soul. Chronicle Books, San Francisco, USA. Kassam, K.-A., 2009. Viewing change through the prism of indigenous human ecology: findings from the Afghan and Tajik Pamirs. Hum. Ecol. 37, 677–690. Kassam, K.-A., Karamkhudoeva, M., Ruelle, M., Baumflek, M., 2010. Medicinal plant use and health sovereignty: findings from the Tajik and Afghan Pamirs. Hum. Ecol. 38, 817–829. Khunjerab Villagers Organization, 3 March 2015. Website. Available from: http://www.kvo.org.pk. Li, J., Wang, D., Yin, H., Zhaxi, D., Jiagong, Z., Schaller, G.B., Mishra, C., McCarthy, T.M., Wang, H., Wu, L., Xiao, L., Basang, L., Zhang, Y., Zhou, Y., Lu, Z., 2014. Role of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in snow leopard conservation. Conserv. Biol. 28, 87–94. Lynch, A., Hammer, C., 2013. Editorial: protecting and sustaining indigenous people’s traditional environmental knowledge and cultural practice. Policy. Sci. 46, 105–108. McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA. Mishra, C., Allen, P., McCarthy, T., Madhusudan, M.D., Bayarjargal, A., 2003. The role of incentive programs in conserving the snow leopard. Conserv. Biol. 17, 1512–1520.

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Mock, J., 1998. The Discursive Construction of Reality in the Wakhi Community of Northern Pakistan (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Berkeley. Mock, J., 2011. Shrine traditions of Wakhan Afghanistan. J. Persianate Stud. 4, 117–145. Mock, J., 2013. New discoveries of rock art in Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor and Pamir: a preliminary study. The Silk Road 11, 36–53. Plates III–IV. Mock, J., O’Neil, K., 2002. Trekking in the Karakoram & Hindukush. Footscray, Australia, second ed. Lonely Planet Publications. Narby, J., 1998. The Cosmic Serpent: DNA and the Origins of Knowledge. Tarcher/Putnam Books, New York, USA. Nasr, S.H., 1996. Religion and the Order of Nature. Oxford University Press. Phalnikar, S., 2014. Tying Conservation With Faith to Protect a Big Cat. Available from: https://www.dw.com/ en/tying-conservation-with-faith-to-protect-a-big-cat/ a-17925539. (12 December 2022). Pu, W., 1990. Tibetan Buddhist Monasteries of Gansu and Qinghai. Qinghai People’s Publishing House, Xining. Safinov, D.G., 2009. On the interpretation of Central Asian and South Siberian rock art. Archaeol. Ethnol. Anthropol. Eurasia 37 (2), 92–103.

Salick, J., Amend, A., Anderson, D., Hoffmeister, K., Gunn, B., Zhendong, F., 2007. Tibetan sacred sites conserve old growth trees and cover in the eastern Himalayas. Biodivers. Conserv. 16, 693–706. Shen, X., Lu, Z., Li, S., Chen, N., 2012. Tibetan sacred sites: understanding the traditional management system and its role in modern conservation. Ecol. Soc. 17, 13. Shimshal Nature Trust, March 3, 2015. Website. Available from: http://www.snt.org.pk. Simms, A., Moheb, Z., Salahudin, Ali, H., Ali, I., Wood, T., 2011. Saving threatened species in Afghanistan: snow leopards in the Wakhan Corridor. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 68, 299–312. Steinberg, J., n.d. The horns of the ibex: preserving and protecting mountain cultural landscapes in Central Asia. Unpublished report for the Sacred Mountains Program of the Mountain Institute, Washington, DC. Tedlock, B., 2005. The Woman in the Shaman’s Body. Bantam Books, New York, USA. Van der Post, L., 1958. Lost World of the Kalahari. William Morrow and Company, NY, USA. Young, J.K., Olson, K.A., Reading, R.P., Amgalanbaatar, S., Berger, J., 2011. Is wildlife going to the dogs? Impacts of feral and free-roaming dogs on wildlife populations. Bioscience 61, 125–132.

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20 Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00076-5

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20.1 The trophy hunting program: Enhancing snow leopard prey populations through community participation Muhammad Ali Nawaza, Jaffar Ud Dinb, Safdar Ali Shahc, Ashiq Ahmad Khand, Tahir Rasheede, Babar Khanf, and Tom McCarthyg a

Environmental Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar bSnow Leopard Foundation, Islamabad, Pakistan cWildlife Department, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar, Pakistan dEvK2Minoprio, Islamabad, Pakistan eWWF—Pakistan, Inside Ali Institute of Education, Lahore, Pakistan fInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal gSnow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States

Introduction Mountain-dwelling communities in the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) range are growing in population and increasing their dependence on natural resources. However, the natural resource base, particularly pastures and wild habitats, are shrinking and gradually losing their productivity. This often spawns humanwildlife conflict where human livelihood needs and conservation becomes competing interests. For example, Pakistan’s Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) province’s human population has quadrupled in the past four decades and livestock numbers have grown at an annual rate of 3.5% since 1976 (Khan, 2003). Rangelands in Pakistan occupy about 20% of snow leopard habitat and provide critical grazing areas for wild and domestic ungulates. Rangelands assessed to be burdened and overgrazed 20 years ago (Khan, 2003) are experiencing even higher degradation due to progressively increasing livestock numbers.

In economic terms, livestock is a source of cash income and contributes more than 11.5% to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) in 2021. More than 8 million rural families are engaged in livestock production and derive 35%–40% of their income from this source according to the 2020–21 Pakistan Economic Survey (Government of Pakistan, 2022). On the other hand, the lack of economic gain associated with wild ungulates motivates communities to hunt them, which eliminates competition on pastures and crop damage, besides providing meat. Economic incentives are considered helpful in changing human attitudes toward wildlife (Mishra et al., 2003) and enable locally supported conservation actions. Incentives may include monetary compensation, arable land, grazing rights, employment, education, and access to amenities (Hotte and Bereznuk, 2001; Karanth, 2002). The sustainable-use approach of conservation states that the authority to

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The history of trophy hunting in Pakistan

regulate natural resources rests with local communities, who traditionally use and appreciate their utilitarian value, and are negatively affected by their degradation (IUCN et al., 1991). This approach promotes local participation and support for conservation by allowing extractive use of resources (Mishra et al., 2003). The trophy hunting program in Pakistan operates along the same lines. It assumes that a combination of recreational hunting and other forms of wildlife uses such as ecotourism can generate sufficient benefits and incentivize local communities to conserve wildlife and habitats in the long term. Pakistan is actively promoting communitybased wild resources management as a conservation tool to ensure that the financial benefits derived from limited trophy hunting go directly to local communities. The idea is that the communities use an equitable share of these financial benefits to sustain the management program.

Trophy animals in Northern Pakistan Pakistan hosts 7 Caprinae species with 11 subspecies occupying habitats from the hills in the southern deserts to the high-alpine areas of the Himalayas (Hess et al., 1997). Five of them share habitat with the snow leopard. These include the Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica), blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), markhor (Capra falconeri), Ladakh urial (Ovis vignei), and Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii). Trophy hunting is restricted to the first three as the populations of the Ladakh urial and Marco Polo sheep are too small and restricted. The markhor is highly prized as a trophy animal for its long, spiral horns. Two IUCNrecognized subspecies occur in Pakistan, namely the flare-horned markhor (Capra falconeri falconeri) and straight-horned markhor (Capra falconeri megaceros). The former includes what are known as Pir Panjal or Kashmir

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markhor found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province in areas such as Chitral, Dir, and Swat, and the Astore markhor mainly found in GilgitBaltistan. Straight-horned markhor are sometimes subdivided into the Kabul markhor and Suleiman markhor.

The history of trophy hunting in Pakistan The idea of using trophy hunting as a conservation tool was floated in the mid-1970s by the late Major (retired) Amanullah Khan, who witnessed declining populations of large ungulates in habitats where he used to hunt. The practice began in the late 1970s under Mr. Abdur Rehman Khan (late), the then Conservator of Wildlife, KP. He allowed limited markhor hunting in Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP), turning 50% of the revenue over to local communities. Similarly in the 1980s, Sardar Naseer Tareen, a tribal chief of Torghar in Balochistan, managed trophy hunting as a commercial enterprise, successfully marketing the trophy hunting of straighthorned markhor. There were also other instances of trophy hunting in Durreji, Lasbella district in Balochistan and Kirthar National Park in Sindh. Trophy hunting was interrupted in 1991 by the then National Council of Wildlife (NCCW), which believed the practice was damaging ungulate populations. Trophy hunting was therefore restricted as part of the overall ban on the hunting of mammals by the Cabinet Division, Government of Pakistan. The first organized efforts to promote community-managed trophy hunting were initiated in GB, the former Northern Areas. The idea was put forward by Agha Syed Yehya Shah, a political and religious leader of Nagar Subdivision, Gilgit and Mr. Ghulam Rasool, a retired Divisional Forest Officer (Wildlife), Northern Areas. A proposal was submitted to the Agha Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) with the idea that people could be compensated for

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the cost of meat in return for wildlife protection and sustaining this as a livelihood option through ibex trophy hunting, once the alreadydepleted population had recovered. AKRSP sent this proposal to the Northern Areas Forest and Wildlife Department, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)-Pakistan. Mr. Ashiq Ahmad Khan was asked to assess the feasibility and validity of the proposal in 1989–90. This was being done at a time when the Cabinet Division had already banned hunting countrywide—including in GB—and when hunting wild ungulates was considered more as a cultural practice and source of food, rather than anything else. In addition, there was no precedent for the government sharing hunting revenues with communities. Surveys were conducted to assess ibex populations and study the general environment and attitudes to see if a program like this could work. This was done recognizing the importance of the task and its demonstration value. This was regarded as a good opportunity to establish a replicable model for the conservation of both ungulates and predators. A report was prepared and submitted to the government of the then Northern Areas, recommending the trophy hunting program for the Bar Valley. It was suggested that the local community be granted a loan equivalent to the cost of meat for 1 year. The formula worked such that the money would stay as a loan and be returned by the community when the first trophy hunting took place. WWF-Pakistan agreed to pay the money and signed an agreement with the community. The money was generated through trophy hunting in 1994 and the loan was returned. However, it was donated back for the construction of a health unit in the Bar valley. Communities in other valleys followed the program with interest. There were calls for program replication once it had been established that an actual monetary benefit was available

to those who protected wild animals in their areas. Several valleys were immediately closed for illicit hunting and social organizations were formed, each trying to initiate similar programs.

Program implementation mechanism Community organization and the availability of harvestable trophy animal populations are the main prerequisites for such programs. Nongovernment organizations (NGOs), including the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Snow Leopard Foundation (SLF), IUCN, and WWF-Pakistan, have each played vital roles in organizing communities through social mobilization and assessing trophy animal populations. The procedure requires that communities form a social organization with wide participation through membership and elect office bearers. They can then approach the provincial government to initiate trophy hunting and have their area declared as a community-managed hunting area. The provincial governments evaluate each case and then approach the federal government for permit allocation, if the case is deemed feasible. The major steps involved in implementing a trophy hunting program are permit allocation, marketing, fees, and trophy hunting revenue distribution. Permit allocation Provincial governments are authorized to allocate hunting quotas for community-based trophy hunting programs (CTHPs) for species not covered by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). There is a complete ban on big-game hunting everywhere else in Pakistan. The Ministry of Climate Change (MoCC) allocates trophy hunting quotas for CITES-listed species to the federating units for trophy hunting within community conservation areas. This is done through the Office of the Inspector General of Forests within MoCC, which is the CITES Management Authority (CMA) in Pakistan.

III. Conservation solutions in situ

The current status of trophy hunting programs in snow leopard range

Marketing Provincial governments issue permits to foreign hunters or outfitters through open bidding, once quotas have been allocated to them [the provinces]. Foreign hunters participate directly in the bidding process or purchase permits from successful outfitters. Outfitters also handle import/export permit applications for hunters’ firearms (Adhikari et al., 2021). Fees Permit fees for hunting markhor have increased over time through competitive bidding with the first permits selling for US$ 35,000 in 1999. The prices increased substantially over time and reached the highest bid ever of US$ 165,000 in 2021 (Adhikari et al., 2021). Ibex permit fees amounted to US$ 3100–3700 for foreigners, US$ 1100–1500 for Pakistanis in 2015 and have since increased to US$ 5600 for foreigners, while permit fees for nationals were much reduced in 2018–19 and now stand at between Rs. 50,000–80,000 (US$ 240–386). The fee for blue sheep in 2014–15 was US$ 8600 and US$ 5000 for foreigners and Pakistanis, respectively, and is little changed as of 2022. Distribution of trophy hunting revenues Fees were divided until 2000 with 25% going to the government as a license fee and 75% to the community as a trophy fee. The National Council for the Conservation of Wildlife (NCCW) changed this to 20/80 in the summer of 2000 to conform to the Conference of Parties (CoP) 11 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), in which Pakistan’s 1998 annual report stated “Village communities participating in markhor conservation will receive 80% of the revenue from hunting” (CITES, 2000). Markhor conservancies in Chitral are spread over a large area encompassing numerous villages that protect and conserve animals during most of the year. Hunt locations are a matter of chance and hunters’ personal preferences.

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This means that custodian communities may lose interest in markhor conservation if revenue is handed over to a single village. To this end, the following strategy has been adopted in KP to fully engage communities in conservation efforts:

▪ Half of the community share in Chitral’s two markhor conservancies goes to the community where the hunt actually took place. The remaining 50% is divided equally among the remaining collaborative communities. ▪ The Kaigha conservation area of Kohistan operates differently; the total share goes to the Kaigha Conservation Committee, which represents the entire valley. Communities in GB are well organized. Valley conservation committees (VCCs) have elected representation from all communities of the community-controlled hunting area (CCHA) and receive and manage community trophy hunting revenues. The governments of KP and GB distribute trophy fees to communities at annual ceremonies in Peshawar and Gilgit, respectively.

The current status of trophy hunting programs in snow leopard range Gilgit-Baltistan The community-based trophy hunting program in GB was first initiated in the Bar Valley in 1989 (Khan, 2011) and later replicated in seven other sites by IUCN during the period 1995–99 (Mir, 2006). In 2011, both the government and communities sought to expand the program’s portfolio by establishing new communitymanaged conservation areas (CMCAs) or community-controlled hunting areas (CCHAs). This was a result of having evaluated program paybacks in the form of increased species populations and communities’ socioeconomic status.

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20. Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards

As of 2021, there was a network of 59 protected areas, including 49 community conservation areas covering about 30% of Gilgit-Baltistan’s 72,496 km2 (Adhikari et al., 2021) Game Reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and national parks feed populations in the adjoining CMCAs. The ibex was initially designated as a trophy hunting species due to its wide distribution and high density in the region. Markhor were added to the list of huntable trophy animals in 2001 and blue sheep in 2004. The period 2000–19 saw 641 ibex, 41 markhor, and 46 blue sheep—732 animals—hunted by foreigners

and Pakistanis, generating more than US$ 3.2 million (Table 20.1.1). On average 34 ibex, 2 markhor, and 3 blue sheep were hunted per year (Parks and Wildlife Department, GilgitBaltistan, 2014). As the replication and expansion of the trophy hunting program continued, new quotas were proposed in 2014–15, which remain in effect in 2022 and include 4 markhor, 8 blue sheep, and 60 ibex. Most of the allocations are based on the results of ungulate surveys conducted by SLF and the GB Parks and Wildlife Department (Ali et al., 2014). Snow leopards

TABLE 20.1.1 Revenue generated through trophy hunting of wild ungulates in GB, 2000–19. Year

Ibex

Markhor

Blue sheep

Total revenue (USD)

Community share (USD)

Wildlife Department share (USD)

2000–01

15

1

0

15,000

12,000

3000

2001–02

9

1

0

12,500

10,000

2500

2002–03

11

2

0

62,000

49,600

12,400

2003–04

23

2

0

70,000

56,000

14,000

2004–05

23

3

2

109,000

87,200

21,800

2005–06

31

2

0

94,000

75,200

18,800

2006–07

20

3

4

177,700

142,160

35,540

2007–08

25

3

2

252,500

202,000

50,500

2008–09

24

1

2

105,520

84,416

21,104

2009–10

19

3

0

178,920

143,136

35,784

2010–11

17

1

2

103,500

82,800

20,700

2011–12

17

1

1

94,800

75,840

18,960

2012–13

12

3

6

196,800

157,440

39,360

2013–14

16

4

0

262,550

210,040

52,510

2014–15

59

3

4

284,604

227,683

56,921

2015–16

71

0

1

79,748

63,798

15,950

2016–17

109

2

5

318,929

255,143

63,786

2017–18

70

2

9

310,474

248,379

62,095

2018–19

74

4

8

483,108

386,486

96,622

Total

645

41

46

3,211,653

2,569,321

642,332

III. Conservation solutions in situ

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The current status of trophy hunting programs in snow leopard range

have been reported in all GB protected areas and some of them, especially those in the Karakoram-Pamir area, are considered strongholds of the large cat (Government of Pakistan, 2013).

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa The wildlife wing of the KP Forest Department began the Chitral Conservation Hunting Program, a trophy-hunting program for markhor, in 1983. This was not a community-based conservation program as all proceeds went to the government. Developed by Dr. Mohammad Mumtaz Malik, Conservator of Wildlife, this program operated in cooperation with a hunting organization called the Shikar Safari Club. It lasted 8 years until the GoP banned the export of trophies along with all big game hunting throughout Pakistan. Members of the Shikar Safari Club hunted 16 markhor during 2 licensed hunts per year in and around CGNP during the period 1983–91 ( Johnson, 1997a). In 1997, a CoP meeting in Zimbabwe approved six annual export permits for markhor trophy hunting in Pakistan. Hunting was allowed in community-protected areas, only.

The world’s largest markhor population is found in CGNP and the surrounding valleys of Chitral district. The KP Wildlife Department organized communities residing in Chitral’s markhor habitats to actively participate in the animal’s conservation and enjoy program benefits. The Gehret and Toshi-Shasha conservancies were consequently established in Chitral district. The Gehret Conservancy is located on the northeastern side of Chitral town, has an area of about 600 km2 and includes the valleys of Gehret, Kessu, Jughor, Nerdet, Kaghuzi, and Goleen Gol. The Toshi-Shasha Conservancy is located on the northwestern side of Chitral town, has an area of about 500 km2, and encompasses several villages, including Seen-Lasht, Boriogh, Bothtoli, and Karimabad. Of KP’s total area (74,521 km2), nearly one-quarter is within the 165 protected and community-managed conservation areas (Adhikari et al., 2021). Some 69 markhor hunts have taken place in the Chitral and Kohistan district of KP since the inception of the trophy hunting program in 1999 (Table 20.1.2). Through the 2018–19 hunting season, the KP program had earned USD 4,290,100, with 80% of that amount (USD 3,432,080) having been distributed among the

TABLE 20.1.2 Revenue generated through markhor trophy hunting in KP, 1999–2019. Year

Markhor hunted

Total revenue (USD)

80% share paid to community

20% government share remitted to treasury

1998–99

3

45,000

36,000

9000

1999–2000

2

44,300

35,440

8860

2000–01

3

81,000

64,800

16,200

2001–02

1

28,000

22,400

5600

2002–03

3

91,500

73,200

18,300

2003–04

4

132,000

105,600

26,400

2004–05

4

180,000

144,000

36,000

2005–06

4

212,500

170,000

42,500

2006–07

4

227,000

181,600

45,400 Continued

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20. Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards

TABLE 20.1.2 Revenue generated through markhor trophy hunting in KP, 1999–2019—cont’d Year

Markhor hunted

Total revenue (USD)

80% share paid to community

20% government share remitted to treasury

2007–08

4

284,000

227,200

56,800

2008–09

4

291,300

233,040

58,260

2009–10

3

220,000

176,000

44,000

2010–11

3

216,000

172,800

43,200

2011–12

4

313,500

250,800

62,700

2012–13

4

317,000

253,600

63,400

2013–14

4

357,100

285,680

71,420

2014–15

3

266,500

213,200

53,300

2015–16

2

167,600

134,080

33,520

2016–17

3

233,500

186,800

46,700

2017–18

4

321,300

257,040

64,260

2018–19

3

261,000

208,800

52,200

Total

69

4,290,100

3,432,080

858,020

custodian communities of the Chitral and Kohistan districts (Table 20.1.2). The Program has contributed significantly to socioeconomic uplift and helped revive local species, as evidenced by the markhor’s population growth in both districts. KP currently allows markhor trophy hunting by foreigners only; there have been no legal markhor hunts by domestic hunters. Trophy hunting of the Himalayan ibex by foreign hunters is quite limited and is usually offered as part of flare-horned markhor hunting packages. However, it should be noted that ibex hunts by local hunters have been increasing over time.

Achievements, opportunities, and lessons learned Achievements The Program’s biggest achievement is the discernable recovery of ibex, markhor, and blue sheep populations that had previously reached

alarming levels due to illicit and unsustainable hunting by local communities. The Program has instilled a sense of ownership of wild ungulates among local communities; it is now much more difficult for outsiders to openly hunt wild ungulates. Both government sources and local residents report increased ibex, markhor, and blue sheep populations—a result of reduced poaching. For example, the KP Wildlife Department’s annual markhor census in CGNP showed empirical evidence of population growth, from 343 in 1985 to 1722 in 2014 and reaching an alltime high of 2868 in 2019. In KP as a whole, the species increased from 2493 in 2009 to 4878 in 2016. Similarly, in Gilgit-Baltistan, markhor numbers increased from 1900 in 2012 to 2800 in 2016 (Adhikari et al., 2021). A range-wide density pattern of ibex reported by Ahmad et al. (2022) shows a positive impact of trophy hunting program on ibex populations. Perhaps the clearest indicator of success, in the 2015 IUCN Red List assessment, the global

III. Conservation solutions in situ

Achievements, opportunities, and lessons learned

status of markhor was downgraded from Endangered to Near Threatened (Michel et al., 2015). In that assessment, it was noted that “There is no observed, estimated, projected or inferred continuing decline of the total population. However, stable and increasing subpopulations are restricted to areas with sustainable hunting management and protected areas. Were these conservation activities to cease in the future, poaching would likely increase, possibly changing positive trajectories in these areas downward….” At least through 2014, the recovery of ungulate prey populations seemingly benefited snow leopards whose numbers were stable or increasing, as evidenced by camera trapping studies, which found higher snow leopard photo captures in trophy hunting areas (Nawaz et al., 2016). More recent data being analyzed via Spatially Explicit Capture-Recapture (SECR) methods will be made public in 2022 (see Chapter 43). The Program has been consistent with its rationale and trophy hunting has generated substantial monetary amounts over the past 22 years. Local communities benefit directly from their share of hunting fees, which have amounted to approximately USD 6.0 million through 2019 (USD 3.4 million in KP and USD 2.6 million in GB). In addition, there has been a multiplier effect that has not been quantified, involving a significant cash injection into the local economy with measurable long-term wildlife conservation and habitat benefits. Other communities are still waiting for various government departments or private enterprises to initiate social development programs, whereas the trophy hunting program has already allowed considerable social development in wildlife-rich valleys. Wildlife departments, which are generally underfunded, have utilized their share of hunting fees to enhance law enforcement and improve protected areas management and strengthen relationships with local communities.

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Opportunities Protected areas with potential trophy hunting sites are more likely to be accepted and protected by custodian communities. Khunjerab National Park has been accepted because of the government’s commitment to start a trophy hunting program in the Park’s buffer zone, and this remains an effective tool, even today. This has made the creation of larger protected areas much easier. Social organizations are a basic requirement for ensuring species and ecosystem conservation, and creating social organizations is difficult where people see no incentives. The trophy hunting program has provided people opportunities to come together and undertake social activities. Snow leopard protection is part of the trophy hunting program, but can only be achieved if taken seriously by plan supervisors. The Program has made it possible to extract community commitments even for species that hold no attraction, or those that people even actively dislike. Agreement flaws or improper monitoring are to blame where this is not the case.

Lessons learned Incentives for earning money from a natural resource are popular with communities. It is important to note that such programs can be very wasteful if not planned properly. Such programs must insist on community commitment in the early stages. Trust is an essential component of trophy hunting programs. However, communities need time to fully accept and own the concept. Launching such programs without constant monitoring may well result in failure. Endangered species require more attention. This is often in contrast to communities’ thoughts. To this end, trophy hunting programs must be marketed as complete packages where animals of little or no interest to communities

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20. Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards

are accorded the same respect and status as animals of interest. This is especially important as certain species are protected by international conventions and obligations due to their endangered status. Habitat protection is a basic component of species sustainability and is often ignored by communities when it comes to grazing animals in areas that are sources of income through trophy hunting programs. This is because livestock are individually owned while trophy hunting benefits are shared by the community at large. Habitat protection must be stated as a priority in initial planning stages; communities are not otherwise likely to reduce livestock numbers, which cause overgrazing and disease. Conservation decision-making processes are influenced by local, national, and international socioeconomic factors associated with the contexts where they take place. Conservation can also significantly affect socioeconomic development and lead to improvements in people’s lives. Hunting was traditionally a sport of rulers and wealthy individuals. Large tracts of land were set aside as royal hunting grounds where access and entry were limited. Violations were dealt with severely, although people in far-flung areas did hunt on a limited scale for survival. The trophy hunting program provides an excellent opportunity to engage communities in decision-making processes that help erode the frustration they experienced in the past, turning it into a positive attitude toward conservation. The conservation of human heritage may revitalize intangible aspects of cultural traditions. The practice of conservation can promote economic prosperity, support disaster recovery, and foster social cohesion among groups. However, conservation can also be used to shape political and economic development, following agendas that may not correspond to the needs or desires of communities.

Desirable future ▪ More effective agreements with local communities with essential components such as the protection of associated species (such as snow leopards) and their habitats, formalized on paper; ▪ The formulation of local committees and trainings for regular system monitoring; ▪ Frequent monitoring visits by responsible staff from the Wildlife Department to ensure agreement adherence; ▪ Formal monitoring committees comprising representatives of community, conservation organizations, and provincial governments who conduct periodic site visits; ▪ Developing conservation and social development plans that are vetted by the aforementioned monitoring committee; ▪ Measures to prevent communities from inviting local hunters on their own and hunting immature animals; ▪ Independent population assessments through improved scientific census techniques. ▪ Trophy hunting should be community-based only and shall be implemented in designed community conservation areas under relevant provincial/territorial wildlife laws. ▪ Designation of future areas for Community-Based hunting programs should be based on credible surveys of the hunted species and a previous history of involvement of local communities in their conservation. ▪ Gain an improved understanding of the complex socio-ecological aspects of mountain ecosystems, which will lead to more transparent and equitable benefit sharing within participating communities. ▪ Promote thinking beyond trophy hunting which can add resilience for both communities and ecosystems.

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Context

S U B C H A P T E R

20.2 Argali sheep (Ovis ammon) and Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) trophy hunting in Mongolia Richard P. Readinga and Sukh Amgalanbaatarb a

Coalition for International Conservation & Butterfly Pavilion, Denver, CO, United States b Ulaanbaatar State University, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Introduction Mongolia supports relatively large populations of argali sheep (Ovis ammon) and Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), the preferred prey of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in that country. While the Mongolian Law on Fauna of 2012 prohibits general hunting of both species, labeling argali and ibex as Rare (i.e., vulnerable or threatened), the law does permit limited trophy hunting using special use permits issued by the Mongolian Government’s Ministry for Nature, Environment, and Tourism (hereafter Ministry) and its precursors (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002; Wingard and Odgerel, 2001; Wingard et al., 2019). Foreign hunters pay high fees for both species, but especially argali, because of their impressive size and large horns. The Altai argali subspecies (O. a. ammon) grow to be the largest sheep in the world; some males weigh over 200 kg with horns over 165 cm long (Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000; Schaller, 1998). Sustainable hunting programs require wellmanaged populations and local support, ideally with money generated from the hunting going back to conservation management and to benefit local communities (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002;

Harris, 1995; Harris and Pletscher, 2002; Shackleton, 2001; Wegge, 1997). We, and others, believe that the best approach entails developing community-based programs with external review and a high level of transparency (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002). Here, we evaluate trophy hunting for argali and ibex in Mongolia, briefly describing the social and ecological context, the challenges to and controversies surrounding trophy hunting, and providing recommendations for improvement.

Context While globally argali and ibex are both listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Reading et al., 2020a,b), the “Mongolian Red List of Mammals” assessed argali as Endangered and ibex as Near Threatened (Clark et al., 2006) and the most recent Mongolia Red Book lists them both as Rare (Shiirevdamba et al., 2013). Argali and ibex occur in scattered and fragmented populations across much of northern, western, central, and southern Mongolia, inhabiting mountains, valleys, canyons, plateaus, and areas with rocky

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20. Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards

outcrops (Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000; Mallon et al., 1997). Argali prefer rolling hills, plateaus, and gentle slopes, while ibex generally occur in more rugged, steep, and mountainous terrain (Schaller, 1998). Data from the Mongolian Academy of Sciences suggest that populations of argali and ibex have remained relatively stable over the past 15– 20 years, following decades of decline (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2012; Bold et al., 1975; General and Experimental Biology Institute, 1986; Harris et al., 2009; Institute of Biology, 2001; Lhagvasuren et al., 2010; Lushchekina, 1994) (Fig. 20.2.1). Unfortunately, the survey methods used preclude rigorous population estimates, but since methods remained comparable, the trends are likely correct. Harris et al. (2009) provided the most rigorous estimates of mountain ungulate densities for the country, with point estimates of 19,701 argali (95% confidence limits (CL) of 9193–43,135) and 24,371 ibex (95% CL of 13,840–43,873) in 2009. Unfortunately, it has been over a decade since the last nationwide survey for mountain ungulates. Major threats to argali and ibex in Mongolia include poaching, competition with livestock,

and rapidly increasing natural resources extraction (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2012; des Clers, 1985; Mallon et al., 1997; Reading et al., 2010, 2015). Argali compete with livestock, particularly domestic sheep and goats, for limited forage and water (Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000; des Clers, 1985; Mallon et al., 1997; Schuerholz, 2001). Livestock numbers in Mongolia increased dramatically after the fall of socialism, but especially after 1993 when most herds were privatized (Fig. 20.2.2) (Reading et al., 2010, 2015). Total livestock numbers in Mongolia increased from 24.7 million animals in 1989 to 71.0 million in 2019, or an increase of 287.4% (Mongolian Statistical Information Service, 2020). Cashmere goats, in particular, have increased almost six times from 4.96 million in 1989 to 29.3 million in 2019 (Mongolian Statistical Information Service, 2020; Fig. 20.2.2) due to their highly marketable wool. Goats heavily impact environments they inhabit, resulting in substantial degradation of pasturelands (Berger et al., 2013; Schuerholz, 2001). In addition, as livestock numbers increase, herders dominate water sources and move their animals into more marginal lands

FIG. 20.2.1 Argali Ovis ammon population estimates for Mongolia, 1975–2009. Source: Mongolian Academy of Sciences— Institute of Biology. Photo courtesy Richard Reading.

III. Conservation solutions in situ

Context

261

FIG. 20.2.2 Number of livestock and cashmere goats in Mongolia, 1959–2020. Source: Mongolian Statistical Information Service, 2020. Mongolian Statistical Information Service: Livestock. Available from: https://www.1212.mn/stat.aspx?LIST_ID¼976_ L10_1. [20 December 2020]. Photo courtesy Richard Reading.

that were traditionally little grazed, often displacing wild ungulates (Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000; Lushchekina, 1994; Mallon et al., 1997; Schuerholz, 2001). Poachers in Mongolia kill argali and ibex for meat (subsistence poaching) and to sell parts, particularly horns, in Asian markets (commercial poaching) (Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000; Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002; des Clers, 1985; Mallon et al., 1997; Wingard and Zahler, 2006). Very limited law enforcement, especially outside of protected areas, and the increasing ease of international commerce have led to increases in poaching (Wingard and Zahler, 2006; Zahler et al., 2004; Wingard et al., 2019). Even formerly abundant and widespread species such as red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Siberian marmots (Marmota sibirica) became critically endangered due to poaching in the early 2000s (Clark et al., 2006). While the former has recovered enough to be delisted (Shiirevdamba et al., 2013), the latter remains endangered due to continued poaching (Clayton, 2016; Wingard et al., 2019).

Mining represents the third greatest threat to argali and ibex in Mongolia. Mining companies have leased over 45% of Mongolia for exploration or extraction (Anonymous, 2007; Reading et al., 2010, 2015; see Chapter 10). In addition, tens of thousands of illegal wildcat miners (i.e., the so-called “ninja” miners of Mongolia) have destroyed millions more hectares (Farrington, 2005; World Bank, 2006). Many of these areas represent prime argali and ibex habitat. Habitat loss and degradation due to global warming and off-road vehicle use represent additional threats (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002).

Trophy hunting A well-managed, community-based trophy hunting program in Mongolia could offer a sustainable approach to management that would generate resources for effective conservation actions and to build and maintain support among local populations. Unfortunately, thus far, developing such an approach has proved elusive.

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20. Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards

Previously, the Mongolian Scientific Authority, currently the Institute of Biology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, issued recommendations to the Ministry for the number of argali and ibex trophy licenses to issue each year based on recent research (when available) or expert opinion (more common). The Mongolian Cabinet would then make the final decision on number of licenses. The number of licenses issued for argali always fell well below the recommended numbers until 2002, when licenses exceeded the recommendation by a factor of two (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002). Under Mongolian law, the Ministry must actively manage and conduct population surveys for hunted populations every 5 years, and local governments must survey population every year following a hunt using funds generated by the hunting (Wingard and Odgerel, 2001). In 2013, management of trophy hunting in Mongolia began to change. Mongolian provinces (aimags) began conducting argali and ibex surveys in that year, as a sign of significant progress toward more rigorous, scientific management of populations. Under the Mongolian Law on Fauna, provincial governors must also develop and implement management plans for their provinces using funds derived from hunting fees, and they have begun doing so. The law further requires that the company (or community in one instance) that conducts the hunts must develop and implement a management plan for their hunting zone using their own funds. These activities are starting to occur, so Mongolia has made real progress in the last 5+ years (2016–21). Despite substantial progress, trophy hunting for mountain ungulates in Mongolia still faces several challenges and controversies. One the greatest challenges to managing mountain ungulates, especially argali, stems from the large fees trophy hunters are willing to pay to harvest an animal, creating a strong enticement for corruption. For example, companies typically charge > US$50,000 to hunt an Altai argali

(Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002, 2012). Mongolian law requires that at least 50% of animal use fees (which vary depending on the species and location of the hunt but are always far less than the total fees; for example, $20,000 for an Altai argali) be spent on wildlife conservation. However, we have been unable to clarify how much, if any, of the money that trophy hunting generates actually goes to where Mongolian law states it should (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002). In addition, Government quotas continue to increase despite a lack of evidence that hunted populations are similarly increasing. The companies that conduct the hunts are now responsible for making recommendations on quotas, which, given the potential for high profits, results in a potential conflict of interest that can lead to inflated estimates. Lack of transparency in how the Government determines quotas for special purpose argali and ibex hunting and spends the income generated by trophy hunting have led to allegations of corruption and calls for community-based approaches (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002 and citations therein, 2012; Schuerholz, 2001). Mongolia lacks a national conservation management plan for argali and ibex, despite the real benefits such a plan would provide. Similarly, other than a heavily studied population of each species in Ikh Nart Nature Reserve (Wingard et al., 2011), most populations receive little research attention. The Institute of Biology conducts only nationwide surveys of the overall numbers of mountain ungulates at a gross level on an irregular basis (i.e., in 1975, 1985, 2001, and 2009; Amgalanbaatar et al., 2012) and private companies and nongovernmental organizations conduct more limited surveys at the local level. Still, hunted populations of argali and ibex remain poorly understood and the Ministry has yet to share data on animals harvested (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002; Schuerholz, 2001). The Mongolian media has argued that corruption characterizes the Ministry’s management of trophy hunting (summarized in Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002, 2012).

III. Conservation solutions in situ

Recommendations

Increased local opposition to trophy hunting represents a major challenge to developing community-based approaches. Opposition stems from the lack of tangible benefits from trophy hunting (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002). Since trophy hunting companies and most of their staff are based in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, very little money from trophy hunting reaches the local people (Schuerholz, 2001). Worse, the federal government reduces budget support to local governments based on the number of hunting licenses the region receives, so at best local governments can break even from license revenues, and if they do not sell all of their licenses, they can actually lose money (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002).

Recommendations Trophy hunting could generate income for sustainable conservation management of argali and ibex, while also providing benefits to local people (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002; des Clers, 1985; Harris and Pletscher, 2002; Johnson, 1997b; Liu et al., 2000; Shackleton, 2001; Wegge, 1997). We argue that doing so will require more and better managed communitybased approaches characterized by (1) transparency and accountability in all aspects of the program, (2) external review and oversight, (3) a mix of top-down and bottom-up authority that enjoys local community support, (4) strong and active local involvement, and (5) effective, adaptive argali conservation management using funds generated by hunters. Transparency includes providing the public with information about where money generated from trophy hunting goes and the results of conservation management actions, especially surveys of exploited populations (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002; Harris and Pletscher, 2002; Wegge, 1997). In addition, governments, individuals,

263

and organizations involved in the program must be held accountable for their actions. Trophy hunting generates large sums of money, so transparency and accountability can help stem the potential for corruption. External review and oversight would also help stop corruption, direct funds to conservation and local people, and ensure program efficacy. We support Amgalanbaatar et al.’s (2002) proposal to create an external committee comprised of people with pertinent expertise, who do not stand to gain or lose from trophy hunting (see also Schuerholz, 2001). Such a committee could oversee a community-based approach to trophy hunting that relied on a mix of top-down and bottom-up authority. Incorporating a bottom-up approach would ensure strong and active local involvement. Mongolian law requires the involvement of the Ministry and other government officials, but combining that with community operated trophy hunting organizations, in which benefits also accrued to the local community, would help develop and maintain strong local support (Harris and Pletscher, 2002; Johnson, 1997b; Wegge, 1997). See Schuerholz (2001) and Amgalanbaatar et al. (2002) for more details. Finally, we recommend approaching argali and ibex trophy hunting from an adaptive management perspective (Holling, 1978). This requires gathering substantial data on the consequences of different management actions (especially target population dynamics), frequent and frank evaluation, and altering approaches based on those evaluations (Kleiman et al., 2000; Shackleton, 2001; Wegge, 1997). Money generated by trophy hunting should go to support such community-based trophy hunting programs, including paying for monitoring, hiring, and training rangers to stop poaching, improving livestock management in hunting areas, and covering the costs of program oversight and management.

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Conclusions Trophy hunters seek to harvest argali and ibex in Mongolia due to the animals’ large body size and horns. Yet, little, if any, money generated by trophy hunting of mountain ungulates in Mongolia goes to conservation management or to benefit local people. We support calls by others (Amgalanbaatar et al., 2002; Schuerholz, 2001) for dramatic changes to trophy hunting in Mongolia. We suggest that community-based trophy hunting programs could provide money and strong incentives for sustainable conservation of these charismatic species, as well as engender enduring local support. Furthermore, we believe transparency, external oversight, a

mix of top-down and bottom-up authority, substantial local involvement, and adaptive management should characterize such a program. Although the challenges to changing trophy hunting in Mongolia are formidable, we argue that the benefits to hunters, local people, and, most importantly, argali, ibex, and their ecosystem are worth the hard work it will require.

Acknowledgments Funding for this work was provided by the Argali Wildlife Research Center, Denver Zoological Foundation, and Mongolian Conservation Cooperative. We thank Ts. Batbayar Chimed-Ochir, S. Dulamtseren, T. Galbaatar, R. Harris, H. Mix, D. Munkhbaatar, Z. Namshir, Yo. Onon, O. Shagdarsuren, G. Wingard, J. Wingard, and Kh. Zorig.

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S U B C H A P T E R

20.3 Hunting of prey species—A review of lessons, successes, and pitfalls: Experiences from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan Stefan Michela, Tatjana Rosenb, and Zairbek Kubanychbekovb a

Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU), Berlin, Germany bIlbirs Foundation, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Development of hunting management of mountain ungulates in the postSoviet era During the market-oriented reforms of the later 1980s, private business became involved in the emerging trophy hunting by foreigners, providing local services such as permits, transportation, accommodation, and guiding for hunters who bought their tours via western outfitters. The system of hunting management areas, as it evolved during the Soviet period, where game was harvested by managers to fulfill state plans, or by domestic sport-hunters, allowed for the development of area-based private game management. Now, hunting management areas are assigned to legal entities providing them with rights and responsibilities concerning game on the assigned territory, but not with land-use rights, e.g., livestock grazing. Contracts on hunting concessions cover periods of 10 years (Tajikistan) or 15 years (Kyrgyzstan).

Kyrgyzstan In Kyrgyzstan, there were nearly 100 hunting concessions offering hunts on argali (Ovis ammon) and Asiatic ibex (Capra sibirica) by 2010. Many concessions were too small for the

conservation of ungulate populations sufficient for a biologically sustainable and economically viable operation. In this situation, rangers were not employed, guards of hunting camps poached for subsistence and trade in meat, quotas were exceeded and hunters guided into areas outside of the actual concessions. The law “On hunting and game management” (2014) defines minimum area sizes (70,000 ha for argali; 20,000 ha for ibex), and fewer but larger blocks are assigned. The Government expects from these and other reforms a strengthened motivation to sustainably manage wildlife. Since 2016, the Government created larger blocks of typically 100,000 ha or larger to be assigned to a single concessionaire. As such huge blocks include areas used by numerous villages, it is difficult for community-based organizations to apply successfully for these blocks and to establish their management in an inclusive way. There has been criticism from national conservation NGOs that hunting quotas for foreigners present a threat to the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) population by causing a reduction of prey. Anecdotal information collected by the authors from hunters and outfitters suggested a decline in the trophy quality, attributed to overhunting. The annual hunting quotas of 89 argali out of estimated 16,000 within game

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management areas (0.55% of the population) and 700 (including quotas for local hunters) Asiatic ibex out of estimated 37,500 (1.87%) should not by themselves lead to a population decline. In 2020, due to the restrictions related to Covid-19, only 25 argali and 34 ibex have been shot by hunting tourists on the basis of these quotas. Since trophy hunters are primarily after mature males, and the target species have a polygynous mating system, the impact on reproduction is likely negligible. However, long-term data on age and size of harvested trophy males have not been assessed for trends (Almaz Musaev, Hunting Department, pers. comm. 2015). If trophy sizes declined, it could be related to the take of younger males (in absence of older ones) or represent a genetic change, i.e., smaller trophies of same age males than decades ago due to selective hunting for large males, as found by Coltmann et al. (2003) in a population of bighorn sheep. Poaching and in the past also legal hunting by locals (quota 1200 ibex in 2012) certainly had a higher impact on the ungulate populations than trophy hunting of annually 350 old male ibex at that time. After 2012, the Government reduced the domestic ibex quota (2013: 800; 2014: 400), and since then no separate quotas for foreign and domestic hunters are determined. Until 2014, domestic hunting permits were not areabound, leading to open access and lack of sustainable management of game populations. The acting hunting law allows hunting only in assigned areas, and hunters have to obtain permits from the area managers (Almaz Musaev, pers. comm. 2015). These regulations, coupled with facilitation by NGOs, has led to the establishment of several community-based organizations, aiming to rehabilitate ungulate populations while providing hunting opportunities for members and outsiders, thus creating income for wildlife management and improved livelihoods. However, in 2017 and 2019, draft bills were introduced in the Parliament to ban hunting

throughout Kyrgyzstan until 2030. Both initiatives were dismissed. As a compromise, hunting restrictions on certain species of wild animals were introduced wherein hunting would be suspended for Asiatic ibex, argali, roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and Himalayan snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis) by regions. Currently (2021), there are nine communitybased nonprofit organizations for wildlife management: “Bek Tozot” and “Janaidar” in the Alay valley of Osh region, “Shumkar Tor” in ChonKemin valley of Chuy region, “Sook” and “Kara-Kujur” in Naryn region, “Chunkur-Tor,” “Ak-Bulun,” “Baiboosun,” and “Jargylchak” in Issyk-Kul region. Two of these organizations have been assigned game management areas, while the other organizations still act on the basis of temporary agreements with the respective government agencies. One community-based organization dissolved after their area of interest was designated as a protected area. Because of the moratoria and pending or only recent official assignment of hunting grounds, no hunts have been conducted. The conservation and antipoaching work is currently supported by local and international NGOs and through limited income from tourism.

Tajikistan In Tajikistan, the types of hunting management areas include private commercial concessions, family-based management areas, and the more recently formed “community-based conservancies.” Examples of each follow. Concessions managing Marco Polo argali Most of the range area of Marco Polo sheep outside of strictly protected areas is covered by commercial hunting concessions, at least as far as areas with considerable populations of the species are concerned. The holders of these concessions joined into an association in 2010, the “Association of Hunters,” and this association

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arranges the allocation of quotas among its members. The Murgab concession is one of them, located in the south-eastern Pamirs, covering roughly 2000 km2 and managed by the same family since the early 1990s. This concession has the reputation of doing successful antipoaching work by controlling the area through its own staff, informal networks, and collaboration with police, national security service, and border guards. Their annual quota for Marco Polo argali (O. a. polii) is about 40 rams; a slightly lower number of ibex is also taken by trophy hunters. Several researchers have surveyed areas of the concession, applying different methods. The data somewhat uniformly indicate a growth in argali numbers until recently. Fedosenko and Lushchekina (2005) estimated in November 1995 about 1500 argali in the concession area, and Schaller and Kang (2008) in February and March 2005 recorded 2200 argali in an area covering about 37% of the concession. Surveys during the Winters of 2009/10, 2010/11, and 2011/12 by Valdez et al. (2015) yielded counts of 8649, 8392 and 7663 argali, respectively. While the latter multiyear data set may indicate a slight decrease, the results might be influenced by migration patterns. Panthera (unpublished data) in September 2013 conducted point surveys from 40 random observation points within 1600 km2 of the Murgab concession and in the Madiyan and Pshart valleys about 70 km away, which are not managed as hunting concession but are otherwise ecologically comparable. In the concession, they estimated densities of 2.7 argali and 0.9 ibex per km2 while in the unmanaged area, they found densities of only 0.01 argali and 0.7 ibex per km2. Livestock densities were also higher in the concession area. The differences in numbers of individual snow leopards detected on camera traps in Summer 2012: 16 in Murgab and 6 in the unmanaged area matched these differences in prey densities (Kachel, 2014). The relative

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difference (2) in snow leopard density estimates between the two sites (0.87 and 0.46 per 100 km2) was less than the relative difference in wild ungulate densities (5). Not all commercial concessions have the same positive reputation as Murgab and none we are aware of control poaching to the same extent. For ensuring sustainability of harvest levels, the quota in each of the concessions should be determined by the government instead of issuing a country-wide quota as currently the practice. Markhor conservancies In 1997, there were fewer than 350 markhor (Capra falconeri heptneri) in Tajikistan (Weinberg et al., 1997). While the Dashtijum Strict Protected Area and Dashtijum Reserve were established in the early 1970s to protect markhor, fuelwood cutting, unregulated grazing, and poaching as well as weak enforcement due to inadequate funding, hampered the conservation of the species. The establishment of the first conservancies around the Dashtijum Strictly Protected Area and Reserve by local families since 2004 led to significantly intensified protection of markhor and subsequent population recovery. In 2012, the surveyed number was over 1000 animals, approximately 80% of which recorded in the conservancy areas (Alidodov et al., 2012, 2014). These conservation efforts were spurred by the promise of trophy hunting once populations had recovered—as local communities saw conservation as an opportunity to improve their the livelihoods. In 2017, the number of markhor recorded grew to 1901 animals (Broghammer et al., 2017), of which 85% were in conservancy areas. Harvest quotas are set in line with conservation priorities to minimize impact on population numbers, demographic structure, and genetics. Quotas are area-specific and based on the status of the local population size, set at a maximum of 1% of the entire population in the conservancy,

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or up to 5% of “trophy-aged” animals, i.e., males above 7 years of age. Of the $100,000–$120,000 that a markhor hunter pays for his entire hunt, $41,000 goes directly to the government to pay for the license. Of that, $8200 is redirected to the national government, and the rest is split between regional and local authorities. Most of what’s left—more than 60%—stays with the conservancy to pay for the rangers’ salaries, patrolling costs, and community livelihood projects. A camera trap survey by Panthera (not published) covering 40 km2 of one of the conservancies in 2013 yielded six individually recognizable snow leopards. Subsequent camera trapping continues to yield data on the existence of a stable population. The community-based conservancies During and after Tajikistan’s civil war (1992– 97), poaching was rampant, especially in the Pamirs where food was insufficient, arms were easily accessible, and enforcement of hunting regulations was virtually absent. Ibex and argali populations suffered from this intensive pressure. Since 2008, with support from foreign organizations, the authors of this subchapter started a facilitation and empowerment process in selected valleys of the Pamirs aimed at traditional hunters and other community members interested in the sustainable use of wildlife. Pilot sites were selected that could be controlled by community members, which were large enough to host at least a few hundred ibex. During the participatory analysis and planning processes, local hunters understood that past declines of ibex and argali were a direct effect of unregulated and intensive hunting, and that such declines in prey had also resulted in lowering of snow leopard numbers. While poaching was considered much less intensive than in the early 2000s, continuous pressure prevented a recovery of ungulate populations, reducing hunting opportunities as well as prey

availability for snow leopards. Local hunters agreed to establish legally recognized control over the areas used by them, prevent community members as well as outsiders from poaching, and after recovery of the ibex and argali populations start regulated use, based on surveys and agreed quotas. In Tajikistan, the administrative levels below the district (jamoats and villages) have no formal authority to manage natural resources. Thus it was not possible for communities to take over hunting management. As an alternative, consideration was given to vesting management in the community-based nongovernmental organizations (Village Organizations and their associations at the jamoat level), which had previously been established with assistance from the Aga Khan Development Network as local institutional structures for rural development. These organizations, however, did not see conservation, wildlife management and hunting as part of their mandate, and traditional hunters had no interest in integrating “their resource” in a broader institutional context. Hence, community members wishing to manage local wildlife and hunting established local NGOs and included in their bylaws the conservation and sustainable use of game animals in designated areas, ecotourism, and support of the well-being and development of their communities. The first of these NGOs, “Parcham” in the Ravmeddara Gorge of Bartang Valley, was registered in November 2008, and acquired land-use rights over 470 km2 assigned by the authorities of Rushan District. Soon after, the State Committee on Environmental Protection of GBAO Region recognized the 12 active members of Parcham as volunteer game wardens. The State Forestry Agency in September 2011 assigned to Parcham the rights and responsibilities on game management in this area. None of the members of Parcham were paid by external donors, but they did receive assistance in institutional development and equipment funded by the German government. In late autumn of

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FIG. 20.3.1 International hunter and local villagers celebrate first successful ibex hunt in the area of “Parcham,” GBAO, Tajikistan. Photo courtesy Keegan McCarthy.

2012 the first hunting tourist visited the area and took an ibex (Fig. 20.3.1) for the first time members of Parcham and the community earned legal income from wildlife use, as well as meat and a contribution to a micro-credit scheme. Since that time, numerous hunters and wildlife tourists have visited the area, Parcham supported the social economic well-being of its communities, generated income for its members and other families, people from neighboring villages joined the organization and the managed area grew to about 900 km2. Following the example of Parcham, other communities established similar organizations and applied for the assignment of hunting management areas. Some attempts were unsuccessful where communities lacked sufficiently energetic organizers, private concessionaires had already been assigned the rights, or where areas were not suitable. In addition to Parcham, conservancies have been established in the Pamirs and the Pamir-Alay: in the Wakhan, managed by the NGOs Yoquti Darshay (2010;

413 km2) and Yuz Palang (2013; 415 km2), in the northern Alichur, managed by the NGO Burgut (2013; 927 km2) and in the upper Zerafshan valley, managed by the NGO Sayohi Kuhistoni Mastchoh (2019; 800 km2) as well as in the upper Bartang valley the NGO Guldara (2018; no area formally assigned yet). The officially assigned areas of these community-based conservancies at the end of 2021 cumulatively covered 3455 km2 plus an additional approximately 1000 km2 within Tajik National Park. These NGOs together have about 60 volunteer rangers who protect and manage wildlife. Scientists from supporting NGOs, together with the traditional hunters, surveyed populations of mountain ungulates through direct counts. Populations initially appeared to increase, although real trends in population sizes are difficult to determine due to varying survey frequency since conservancy establishment, variations in survey effort, and detectability. Still, these surveys show minimum population numbers observed on the territory

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of each conservancy. Recorded ungulate densities per km2 conservancy area ranged from 0.5 to 1.44 in Ravmeddara, Darshay, and Zong (ibex) and 0.36 to 1.42 in Alichur (ibex and argali together). The total numbers recorded for these 4 sites during most recent surveys in Winters 2016–20 were 2192 ibex and 577 argali. Ungulates are now less shy and easier to observe, possibly a response to reduced poaching pressure. Survey data are used for quota setting for trophy hunting, allowing for 1 male ibex or argali to be taken per 100 animals recorded, if at least 5 males are estimated to be older than 8 years. Camera trapping by Panthera and Tajik NGOs (not published) yielded records of substantial numbers of individually recognized snow leopards present in the conservancy areas: Ravmeddara (Winter 2011/12: 6 snow leopards); Darshaydara (Summer 2013: 5); Zong (Summer 2013: 1), Alichur: (Spring 2013: none; Summer 2014: at least 3; Summer 2016: 5; and Summer 2018: 9).

Challenges In Kyrgyzstan, management plans and regular surveys are required of each concession holder and these requirements are enforced. The Department of Biodiversity Conservation and Protected Areas encourages concessionaires to involve scientists from the National Academy of Sciences in these activities and supports the establishment of conservancies through the allocation of areas to community-based organizations. However, the performance of private concessions is still poorly controlled, few have effective antipoaching measures in place, and sometimes hunts occur outside the assigned areas. In Tajikistan, state institutions such as the Committee for Environmental Protection, the State Forest Agency, and the Academy of Sciences rarely collaborate with the communitybased conservancies and the private hunting

concessions, and seldom support their work. Management plans and surveys are required, but these requirements are not enforced, and wildlife surveys are conducted almost exclusively in the context of externally funded projects or lack any reliability. In Kyrgyzstan, as the reallocation under the hunting law led to a reduction of hunting blocks, political resistance emerged, which may challenge not only this process but also sustainable hunting in general. Quota allocation is formally based on survey results, but the practice is to distribute the centrally established quota with little consideration of actual local population numbers and trends. In Tajikistan, allocation of hunting grounds is on a first come-first served basis, and in the case of competition for blocks, political influence and financial power decide. The situation is complicated by legal and institutional uncertainty. The State Forest Agency is formally authorized to assign hunting grounds, but district authorities often assign them as well without proper documentation and without informing the State Forest Agency. Quotas are set arbitrarily for ibex and argali and are not area-specific. The timings of quota-setting and hunting seasons do not take into account market demand. In community-based conservancies in Tajikistan, during the hunting seasons of 2012/13 through 2020/21, 90 foreign hunters legally harvested 90 Asiatic ibex in 5 conservancies. While nature tourism provides some income for conservancies and community members, hunting tourism provides much more substantial income per tourist. Key challenges faced by community-based wildlife management and related trade include serious weaknesses in governance. In both countries, the NGOs running the conservancies are still institutionally weak, have inadequate partnerships with government, and need to invest more into building their own human capacity. The lack of specific and transparent mechanisms to make decisions on the spending of funds generated by hunting

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Conclusions and prospects

through equitable and transparent benefit allocation and to make sound investments for their future is a critical challenge. Market access for the community-based conservancies is difficult as most foreign outfitters have already established relations with concessions, and the international demand for hunts on Asiatic ibex is limited. A key challenge faced by the community-based conservancies is direct or indirect competition with much more powerful private hunting interests, who have traditionally controlled vast hunting areas in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan and who are not necessarily supportive of the emergence of more inclusive and locally owned wildlife management efforts. The more lucrative argali hunts have thus far been allocated to a communitybased conservancy on few limited occasions only and this generated enormous conflict with some private hunting concession holders. In Kyrgyzstan private concessions currently control all areas with huntable argali populations. In Tajikistan the association of private concession holders has the right to distribute the country-wide argali quota, so far preventing the allocation of a quota to community-based conservancies. Thus, these conservancies have only limited cash income and rely on the motivation of their members stimulated by the occasional income from tourism and hunting, meat obtained in hunts by foreign hunters, and the option of some subsistence hunting. Achieving sustainability of the latter is a challenge as wildlife populations in the conservancies are too small to sustain higher harvest, and subsistence hunting brings a risk of reducing trophy hunting and ecotourism opportunities. Allocation of revenues from permit fees includes shares for the local administrative levels, which is of some significance in the case of argali and markhor. While in Kyrgyzstan these revenues have encouraged some interest in the conservation of argali at local level (A. Musaev, pers. comm., 2012), in Tajikistan so far the lack of local budget authority and

transparency impede the use of these revenues for community development and thus the creation of incentives at the local level. In both countries, investment by concessionaires in the management of ungulates is insufficient. In Kyrgyzstan, concessionaires in the past could be reimbursed a percentage of the permit fee if they showed evidence of investment in wildlife management. These activities were often of questionable value (predator control or purchase of forage for “emergency” feeding of wildlife) and since 2020 this allocation has been canceled. The noncommercial, community-based conservancies, while having much less funding, are more effective, as their members carry out their activities either voluntarily or in the context of other activities like herding of livestock. Some private concessions have been accused of illegal activities, such as guiding hunters into protected areas, changing a hunter’s trophy for a poached trophy of larger size, selling hunts exceeding the allocated quota, and even illegal trophy hunts on endangered species such as snow leopard and Tien Shan brown bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus). In some communitybased conservancies, internal control, peerpressure, and support from some community members are not yet sufficient to ensure full compliance, and the work is further hampered by outsiders, including police and other officials, poaching or hunting, which is beyond the control of the conservancies.

Conclusions and prospects Hunting management of its prey is far from a panacea for the conservation of the snow leopard. However, in societies where hunting bans cannot be realistically enforced, and where protected areas are limited in space and insufficiently guarded, it is an important and effective approach to create substantial incentives for conservation of mountain ungulates

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by local people. Some private concessions have shown impressive conservation results, while others obviously fail to sustain the resource they use. Hardly any of them provide incentives to the local communities. The assignment of rights to manage and use wildlife to local community institutions is a new development in the countries of the former Soviet Union. First experiences in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan show that this approach can reestablish a sense of ownership, and that even limited revenues from hunting and nature tourism create incentives for local people to refrain from poaching and to protect mountain ungulates.

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Mongolian Statistical Information Service, 2020. Mongolian Statistical Information Service: Livestock. Available from: https://www.1212.mn/stat.aspx?LIST_ID¼976_L10_1. (20 December 2020). Nawaz, M.A., Ud Din, J., Shah, S.A., Kahn, A.A., 2016. The trophy hunting program: enhancing snow leopard prey populations through community participation. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 220–229. Parks and Wildlife Department, Gilgit-Baltistan, 2014. Brief Note on Trophy Hunting Program for GilgitBaltistan, 2014–15. Parks and Wildlife Department, Gilgit-Baltistan. Reading, R.P., Bedunah, D.J., Amgalanbaatar, S., 2010. Conserving Mongolia’s grasslands with challenges, opportunities, and lessons for America’s Great Plains. Great Plains Res. 20, 85–108. Reading, R.P., Wingard, G., Selenge, T., Amgalanbaatar, S., 2015. The crucial importance of protected areas to conserving Mongolia’s natural heritage. In: Wuerthner, G., Crist, E., Butler, T. (Eds.), Protecting the Wild: Parks and Wilderness, the Foundation for Conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 257–265. Reading, R., Michel, S., Amgalanbaatar, S., 2020a. Ovis ammon. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e. T15733A22146397., https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK. 2020-2.RLTS.T15733A22146397.en (23 February 2021). Reading, R., Michel, S., Suryawanshi, K., Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2020b. Capra sibirica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T42398A22148720., https://doi.org/10. 2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T42398A22148720.en (23 February 2021). Schaller, G.B., 1998. Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, USA. Schaller, G.B., Kang, A., 2008. Status of Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon polii in China and adjacent countries: conservation of a vulnerable species. Oryx 42, 100–106. Schuerholz, G., 2001. Community based wildlife management (CBWM) in the Altai Sayan Ecoregion of Mongolia feasibility assessment: Opportunities for and barriers to CBWM. Report to WWF-Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Shackleton, D.M., 2001. A Review of Community-Based Trophy Hunting Programs in Pakistan. Mountain Areas Conservancy Project, Pakistan. 59 pp. Shiirevdamba, T., Adiya, Y., Ganbold, E., Tserenkhand, G. (Eds.), 2013. Mongolia Red Book. Ministry of

Environment and Green Development of Mongolia, Environmental Protection Fund, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Valdez, R., Michel, S., Subbotin, A., Klich, D., 2015. Status and population structure of a hunted population of Marco Polo Argali Ovis ammon polii (Cetartiodactyla, Bovidae) in Southeastern Tajikistan. Mammalia 80, 49–57. Wegge, P., 1997. Preliminary guidelines for sustainable use of wild caprins. In: Shackleton, D., The IUCN.SSC Caprinae Specialist Group (Eds.), Wild Sheep and Goats and their Relatives: Status Survey and Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, pp. 365–372. Weinberg, P.I., Fedosenko, A.K., Arabuli, A.B., Myslenkov, A., Romashin, A.V., Voloshina, I., Zeleznov, 1997. Commonwealth of independent states. In: Shackleton, D.M. (Ed.), Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, pp. 172–193. Wingard, J.R., Odgerel, 2001. Compendium of Environmental Law and Practice in Mongolia. GTZ Commercial and Civil Law Reform Project and GTZ Nature and Conservation and Buffer Zone Development Project, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Wingard, J.R., Zahler, P., 2006. Silent steppe: The illegal wildlife trade crisis in Mongolia. Mongolia Discussion Papers, East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department, World Bank, Washington, DC. Wingard, G.J., Harris, R.B., Amgalanbaatar, S., Reading, R.P., 2011. Estimating abundance of mountain ungulates incorporating imperfect detection: argali Ovis ammon in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia. Wildl. Res. 17, 93–101. Wingard, J., Pascual, M., Rude, A., Houle, A., Gombobaatar, S., Bhattacharya, G., Munkhjargal, M., Conaboy, N., Myagmarsuren, S., Khaliun, T., Batsugar, T., Bold, T., 2019. Mongolia Silent Steppe II: Mongolia’s Wildlife Trade Crisis, Ten Years Later. Zoological Society of London, Legal Atlas, and IRIM, London, UK. 216 pp. World Bank, 2006. Mongolia: A review of environmental and social impacts in the mining sector. Mongolia Discussion Papers, East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department, World Bank, Washington, DC. Zahler, P., Lhagasuren, B., Reading, R.P., Wingard, J.R., Amgalanbaatar, S., Gombobaatar, S., Barton, N.W.H., Onon, Y., 2004. Illegal and unsustainable wildlife hunting and trade in Mongolia. Mong. J. Biol. Sci. 2, 23–32.

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21 Environmental education for snow leopard conservation Qurbonidin Alamshoeva, Chagat Alamshevb, Kuluipa Akmatovac, Vladimir (Norbu) Ayusheevd, Maria Azhunovae, Slava Chelteuvf, Buyanbadrakh Erdenetsogtg, Rinchin Garmaeve, Darla Hillardh, Lyubov Ivashkinai, Erdembileg Khurelbataarj, Tungalagtuya Khuukhenduuk, Almagul Osmanoval, Sujatha Padmanabhanm, Zhaparkul Raymbekovn, Sayfidin Shaidoeva, and Mike Weddleo a

Kuhhoi Pomir, Murgab, Tajikistan bFoundation for Sustainable Development of the Altai, GornoAltaisk, Altai Republic, Russia cRural Development Fund, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan dSoyot Khambo Lama and Head of the Association of Small-Numbered Indigenous Peoples of Buryatia, Buryatia, Russia eBaikal Buryat Center for Indigenous Cultures (BBCIC), Ulan-Ude, Russia fShaman and Guardian, Sacred Irbistuu Mountain, Kosh-Agach, Altai Republic, Russia gAssociation for Protection of Altai Cultural Heritage, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia hSnow Leopard Conservancy, Sonoma, CA, United States iFoundation for Sustainable Development of the Altai, Gorno-Altaysk, Russia jIndependent Writer-Historian k Nomadic Nature Conservation, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia lTaalim Forum, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan m Kalpavriksh Environment Action Group, Pune, Maharashtra, India nSacred Site Guardian, Talas, Kyrgyzstan oJane Goodall Environmental Middle School, Salem, OR, United States

Introduction Across the 12 snow leopard (Panthera uncia) range countries, the need for Environmental Education (EE) has become more critical as poaching of the cats and their prey and conflicts between livestock herders and the cats, intensifies. Efforts to date have been largely limited to identifying

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00054-6

key objectives and target audiences and the implementation of relatively small-scale EE activities with a focus on snow leopards and their habitat. School-based EE has introduced teachers to experiential learning rather than the traditional rote system. Very few range country EE programs have started with pilot projects aimed at testing and evaluating how EE is best presented, whether

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the audience is school children, youth, adults, or a combination of both. We found none that attempted to assess, qualitatively or quantitatively how (or if) EE led to any changes in conservation behavior over the long term. It has become clear that changing behaviors, which negatively affect the local or global environment or an endangered species such the snow leopard, are complex, time-consuming, and demanding in terms of resources ( Jacobson et al., 2006). While a discussion of the many components involved in designing, implementing, and evaluating EE programs is beyond the scope of this paper, we focus on different approaches to EE for school-age children and the need for moving from awareness to action.

What is EE? EE came into practical existence in 1975 during a conference in Belgrade (then Yugoslavia), where delegates ratified the Belgrade Charter outlining the basic structure of EE. Two years later, UNESCO and the UN Environment Program held the Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education in Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia, where the goals, objectives, and guiding principles of EE were established (McCrea, 2006). Most individuals develop their interest, understanding, and attitudes toward animals and conservation through an accumulation of experiences from different sources at different times, i.e., helping to care for a family pet, learning about biology in school, watching nature shows, reading about animals, and visiting parks, farms, and zoos. None of these experiences alone can be said to “cause” someone to know or care about animals (Falk, 2014). Good EE teaches students a sense of place, interconnectedness, and stewardship. All environmental education can be reduced to three elements: knowledge, compassion, and action.

These elements need not be addressed in any prescribed order. Students may start by acquiring knowledge about an environmental issue: habitat loss for an endangered species, for example. After learning about the species, they may develop compassion and then they want to take action. Alternatively, the students might start by taking action. They might want to learn why they are taking this particular action, which brings them knowledge. From that knowledge, they develop compassion. Perhaps the student hears or sees a particular situation that engenders compassion. The student wants to gain knowledge of the situation and then wants to take action. There are many techniques available for creating education and outreach for conservation. School curricula often include environmental topics, but too few offer comprehensive programs or focus on achieving conservation goals. Yet the need for conservation education continues to increase as problems become more complex ( Jacobson et al., 2006).

Challenges in teaching snow-leopard-focused EE Throughout the snow leopard range countries, public education is free. Annual incomes in rural regions range from about USD 400 to USD 2000. Generally, urban centers have excellent capacity, in terms of facilities and access to materials, to deliver EE. But rural primary schools, particularly in remote villages, often lack such basic amenities as electricity, classroom furniture, or even pencils and paper. Teachers are not always recruited from the local community and may not be viewed—or feel themselves—as fitting into the culture. Thus, absenteeism and turnover are high. Where there is a functional school, teachers may already have a full classroom schedule and be reluctant to add EE. Even where EE is part of the official curriculum, teachers seldom have access to relevant

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Different approaches to snow leopard EE

EE curricula or teaching guides. Another challenge is the lack of trained personnel. EE employs the principles of experiential education (learning by direct experience), which has been a widely recognized teaching model since the 1970s. Many of the range country school systems still use rote teaching. While this may have its place in certain subjects such as mathematics, range country teachers and students are invariably excited by experiential, interactive EE, where the classroom is often a mountain meadow or streamside. The launching of the Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Plan (see Chapter 49) is promising in terms of greater individual government support for EE. But not all range country governments are stable, and politics can also be a constraint. A case in point is Nepal, where in the early 2000s, the Snow Leopard Conservancy’s EE programs were cut short by the Maoist revolution and the flight into exile of three key individual partners. In Russia, the current regime is supportive of snow leopard conservation and education, highlighting EE efforts on the official government web page. Conversely, government officials have been caught poaching by helicopter, which flies in the face of conservation efforts. In addition, strained relations between Russia and the United States have led to extreme scrutiny and tightened restrictions on all Russian nonprofits with links to Western NGOs, such as requiring their staff to register as foreign agents.

Different approaches to snow leopard EE The goals of EE are the same across the snow leopard range countries: to instill in children a sense of place and interconnectedness, knowledge, and appreciation for the biodiversity of their homelands; and to encourage them to understand the importance of harmonious coexistence between humans and wildlife and issues of wildlife conservation so they can become future stewards of their natural environment.

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Since 1986, professionals involved in captive management of snow leopards, field-based research, conservation, and education have met every few years to exchange information and updates. Since the first meeting, EE has had a presence in snow leopard conservation planning (Ale, 1995; Cecil, 1986; Dexel, 2003; Hunter et al., 1992; Jafri and Shah, 1992; Mallon and Nurbu, 1986). We are not attempting in this space to present a comprehensive overview of the numerous EE programs targeted specifically for snow leopards and their habitat—sponsored by the Snow Leopard Conservancy, the Snow Leopard Trust, WWF, and others—in snow leopard range countries over the past three decades. Instead, we illustrate several different “approaches” to EE focused on snow leopards and their high-mountain habitat, as representative of current programs rangewide, aimed at primary and secondary school students.

Ri Gyancha, India—A school-based approach Ladakh lies in the trans-Himalayan region of Jammu & Kashmir, the northernmost state in India. These high mountains are home to a unique assemblage of wildlife, including the endangered snow leopard and Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus) as well as native herbivores. Ladakh’s population of less than 0.3 million exerts significantly less pressure on the region than in other parts of India. This, coupled with the strong value of nonviolence that encourages a harmonious coexistence with wildlife, has meant that the area’s native fauna has survived over the years. However, a wide network of roads has brought change along with modern development to the people, and tourism has seen a phenomenal increase. This has led to rapid changes in people’s aspirations and lifestyles, some of which have had a negative impact on the region’s fragile environment.

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Literacy is currently over 70%. Path-breaking innovations in education include the creation of locally relevant primary textbooks for Leh district. However, while access to education has become easier even for children who live in very remote villages, there is a need to improve the quality of education. In a place as unique as Ladakh, education must help children strengthen their relationships with their rich natural and cultural heritage. In 2006, the Snow Leopard ConservancyIndia Trust (SLC-IT) initiated a collaborative EE program with the Pune-based NGO Kalpavriksh. The program, funded by the Snow Leopard Conservancy U.S. and Association for India’s Development, was prompted in part by the dearth of localized educational resources. The fun and activity-filled program focused mainly on Ladakh’s wild biodiversity, threats faced by snow leopards and other fauna and flora, and conservation actions to tackle them. The program was field-tested in 10 schools in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh during the first 3 years. The EE content was put together from many sources: articles, research studies, interviews with local persons, information gathered from the Wildlife Department and local NGOs. Content included posters, nature activity cards, worksheets, and a board game. There is often a wealth of information that exists that does not percolate down to the school curriculum, information that is crucial for the health of our planet and the survival of species. A successful EE initiative should distil relevant information from various sources and creatively bring it into the program. The EE materials were published in 2010 in the form of a resource kit titled Ri Gyancha (“Jewels of the Mountains”) for educators in Ladakh. Besides ready-to-use educational material, the kit also includes a handbook with valuable information on Ladakh’s wildlife as well as a description of over 80 activities that could be part of an EE program. Ri Gyancha was released by His Holiness The Dalai Lama and Shri Jairam

Ramesh, the then Minister of State for Environment and Forests. Government and private school teachers were trained in the use of the kit, and collaborations were developed with other local NGOs so that the program could reach more schools. A revised edition of Ri Gyancha was published in 2014, affirming the great need for localized information and resources. The program has been implemented in 45 schools in communities that have reported conflict with snow leopards. In each school, the program is implemented over 2 years and often culminates with a small project that tackles a village-level issue initiated with help from the community and a special event in the village where children take the lead and share what they have learned with their families. Ishey Dolma, a Class 7 student reported, “There have been many changes in me. . .I got a lot of knowledge about plants, animals and birds. I didn’t know anything before and through these games I learnt many things.”

Nomadic Nature Trunks and the Land of the Snow Leopard Network, How EE in a box has expanded across international boundaries Nomadic Nature Conservation (NNC) launched its first Nomadic Nature Trunk program in 2007 in Mongolia’s Eastern Steppe region, funded by Wildlife Conservation Society in partnership with Conservation Ink and Denver Zoo. Mongolia is half the size of India, but its human population is less than 3 million. The capital, Ulaanbaatar, is home to about 1.5 million people, while the same number live scattered throughout the mountains and remote steppes. These herders have retained their traditional nomadic culture, adding modern conveniences such as solar power and motorized vehicles. While many rural children are sent to boarding schools, herder communities and families living in small towns needed access to quality education.

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Different approaches to snow leopard EE

“Nomadic Nature Trunks” are traveling classrooms-in-a-box that provide a 3-week curriculum, with interactive lesson plans and hands-on projects. Lessons are designed to promote positive perceptions of nature and the environment, increase scientific and cultural knowledge, and encourage environmental stewardship. Each trunk includes activities and materials such as stuffed animals representing the local wildlife, posters, maps, animal track replicas, books and games focused on regionspecific biodiversity and conservation concerns. In 2012, the Snow Leopard Conservancy partnered with NNC to produce a set of trunks with activities focused on EE in the remote Altai Mountain region of Mongolia. NNC staff held trainings to teach the proper use of the materials in “train-the-trainer” workshops. Teachers and administrators liked the program because of its compatibility with the Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) curriculum, which incorporates EE into other subjects. Teachers wanted greater access to the trunks and wanted to keep them longer, ideally for each school to have its own trunk. The trunks have also been a resource for the wider community. Staff of the Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park used one as part of a cross-border summer camp with Mongolian, Chinese, and Russian participants. Javzansuren, a public awareness specialist, and Byamba, a herder in the Yamaat Mountains, both said the lessons are important and appreciated, they are appropriate for nomadic people and provide knowledge about the wildlife of the mountains, causes of habitat loss, and importance of mountain ungulates. In 2019, members of the Land of the Snow Leopard Network (LOSL) invited NNC to join the network and to expand the Nature Trunk program into the five regions. LOSL’s 100+ members include shamans, sacred site guardians, educators, youth, herders, scientists, revered elders, and conservationists working together in Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Russia’s Altai and Buryat Republics, and Tajikistan. This informal

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network, facilitated by SLC, is a unique conservation collaboration rooted in indigenous understanding of the sacredness, cultural heritage, and ecological significance of the snow leopard. Driven by indigenous communities, the goal is to create pathways for their meaningful participation in conservation planning for snow leopards. Preservation of traditional cultural practices and transferring this rich knowledge to younger generations are central to ensuring long-term ecosystem and community sustainability. LOSL’s leaders have implemented their own forms of community-based conservation and education programs, using a holistic approach blending traditional and Western science to mitigate human-wildlife conflict with snow leopards while preserving sacred mountain ecosystems. New Nature Trunk activities were developed that focus on the sacred nature of snow leopards to multi-faith communities. During the Covid-19 pandemic, LOSL’s Country Coordinators were trained via Zoom to teach teachers how to conduct all 25 lessons. At the time of this writing, lessons were also being video-taped with student/ teacher volunteers, to serve as a resource for future trainers and teachers. See the Monitoring and Evaluation section below for a discussion of qualitative program evaluation.

Snow leopard day festival, Altai Republic, Russia, and Tajikistan The Altai Republic covers some 93,240 km2 and supports just over 200,000 people, whose main occupations are herding and farming. The Altai Mountains run roughly along the republic’s western border and south into Mongolia. In 1998, UNESCO recognized the Golden Mountains of Altai, as a World Heritage Site. To the indigenous Altaians, for whom cultural and spiritual practices are deeply intertwined and rooted in reverence for the natural world, snow leopards are sacred totem animals.

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Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the people are bringing back the ancient ceremonies and rituals that reaffirmed the community’s spiritual connections to their sacred lands and animals. However, also since 1991, poaching in the Altai and trade in wildlife parts have grown, partly in response to the sudden loss of state sponsored jobs. Conservation and education efforts are particularly critical here, as both snow leopards and their prey were severely diminished by 2010. Collaborative research with Mongolian biologists indicated the possibility that snow leopards from Mongolia could—if protected—repopulate the Golden Mountains of the Altai. In 2010, the local NGO Foundation for Sustainable Development of Altai (FSDA) and the Ukok Nature Park initiated the Altai Republic’s first Snow Leopard Day Festival. It was held in the small town of Kosh-Agach, gateway to Quiet Zone Ukok Nature Park, one of three areas within the World Heritage Site. The park’s then deputy-director and cultural expert worked with middle school teachers to design art contests, traditional dances, plays, and other activities, embracing the sacred nature of the snow leopard. WWF-Russia, FSDA/Altai Assistance Project, the Republic’s Education Ministry, and Snow Leopard Conservancy provided funding and technical support. The program grew to include schools in four remote districts as well as a day of celebrations in the main square of Gorno-Altaisk, the republic’s capital. In Tajikistan’s Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast, wildlife festivals centered on the flagship Snow Leopard have been held since 2015. LOSL’s country coordinator has spearheaded this and other EE efforts with volunteers in the Pamir Mountains ecoclub. The Pamir mountains cover 45% of Tajikistan’s land area of just over 140,000 km2, supporting some 230,000 of the country’s 10,000,000 inhabitants. In this remote region, government control, telephone communication, roads, and regular

transport are lacking. Students, teachers, and community members participate in the festivals, sharing their traditional dishes, clothes, crafts, songs, and dances. Since October 2019, snow leopards have 11 times been captured, forgiven, and released back into the wild or passed to experts in the biological institute instead of being killed by herders in retaliation for preying upon livestock. Two international hunting companies were firsttime festival sponsors. Originally, they perceived snow leopards as enemies because they prey on wild sheep and reduce the available game. As a result of the festivals, they began offering expeditions to photograph the snow leopard and realized that this can generate substantial income.

Cross-border EE exchanges International partnerships between Western and range country schools give students the opportunity to learn about life and cultures in other parts of the world and to collaborate on meaningful real life environmental issues. Conservation biology is normally taught in high school or university, but our case study here took place in a middle school in Salem, the state capital of Oregon. With a population of around 150,000, it is a blend of urban and rural cultures. An hour’s drive from the Pacific Ocean and the Cascade Mountains, Salem is ideally situated for student field trips. The temperate rainforests of Western Oregon are renowned for their complex ecosystems, fascinating wildlife, and rich cultural history. The Jane Goodall Environmental Middle School (JGEMS) is named for Dr. Goodall but has no connection to her organization. JGEMS started in 1995 as a Roots & Shoots Club, which evolved into a class and then an entire school focused on environmental science and community service. Early in the program, one JGEMS teacher spent a sabbatical year traveling around

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Monitoring and evaluation

the world making connections with conservation and education organizations, including the Snow Leopard Conservancy. Starting in the sixth grade, students learn in the classroom and field about old growth forest ecology, river and wetland ecology, taxonomy, and endangered species. Students working with the Snow Leopard Conservancy became experts on the cats, developed their own recovery plan, including what they would do for the animal where it lives as well as what they could do in Salem, Oregon, to help. One group exchanged artwork with a school in northern India and raised money for a corral improvement project there. Besides raising money for their partner organization, the group also visited a local elementary school to talk to younger students about snow leopards and wildlife conservation in general. They presented and defended their recovery plan to the class, along with administrators and other staff.

Zoos and snow leopard EE Zoos that keep snow leopards maintain myriad programs to educate children generally about the cats, threats to their survival, and conservation challenges and opportunities. These zoos may also have in situ EE programs overseen by their own staff, or they may help fund an outside partner such as the Snow Leopard Conservancy or Snow Leopard Trust.

Monitoring and evaluation In environmental education and indeed, conservation management, evaluation has been a weak point. Also, there is significant uncertainty about the differences between outputs, outcomes, and impacts, between the short, medium, and long-term effects of EE. Further, EE programs face the problem of measuring developments, which are essentially long-term but having to do this under the eyes of stakeholders

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anxious for progress, in the short to medium term (Fien et al., 2001). “The real things, the ways in which environmental education can change someone’s life, are much more subtle and difficult to measure” (Thomson et al., 2010). Despite our dedication to developing effective EE, it is difficult to measure success by actual behavior changes. Even the term “behavior change” means different things to different people ( Jacobson et al., 2006). EE program leaders, as well as donors, have relied heavily on quantitative methods for monitoring and evaluation. Further, conservation biology has traditionally resisted the use of qualitative data. But in the past few years, efforts have been made to establish structures and standards for collecting and presenting this “soft” data, both in decision-making and in assessing a program’s success and/or relevance (Sutherland et al., 2018). This is good news especially where EE programs are community-based and largely driven by indigenous educators/conservationists. However, structuring and standardization of qualitative data collection present a paradox for indigenous communities, where linear worldviews are foreign to the people/cultures involved. First Nations Environmental Health Innovation Network (FNEHIN) (2021) presents a description of linear versus circular worldviews in an undated poster, Cyclical worldview: understanding environmental health from a First Nations perspective. According to FNEHIN, a linear worldview is orderly, progressive, and certain, with a beginning and an end. The world can be understood by a cause-and-effect relationship between separate events. Common to Indigenous peoples and many other cultures is a cyclical worldview that is continuous, uncertain, recurring, and fluid. All events are connected, regardless of when the event occurs. See the Conclusions section for recommendations on encouraging greater understanding between program leaders, donors, and local/ indigenous communities about qualitative monitoring and evaluation.

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Further, the various techniques compared in the British Ecological Society Journal special issue, Qualitative Methods for Eliciting Judgments for Decision Making (2018) are generally applied by mainstream scientists to community/indigenous groups to try to gather qualitative data from them, rather than the effort being driven by the indigenous groups. In the case of LOSL’s monitoring, the members themselves created questionnaires for teachers and students and conducted interviews with community members and others to assess EE programs in Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Russia, and Tajikistan. In terms of quantitative methods for monitoring and evaluating EE programs, these have traditionally relied heavily upon questionnaires and “before and after” quizzes. These methods generate the kind of numerical and other quantitative data that donors have traditionally expected or required in assessing the success and/or relevance of a particular program. We propose that qualitative approaches are more likely to be acceptable and indeed workable, especially among local and indigenous groups who appropriately should be driving education efforts in their communities. We found no broad-based qualitative and/ or quantitative assessments of snow leopard range country EE. While many programs have carried out immediate assessments, i.e., before-and-after tests or questionnaires, we found no long-term tracking of students, from their school years into young adulthood, when they would begin making life choices and when the impact, if any, of their EE experiences would begin to show. In the absence of such assessments, we might gain some insights from the experiences of the zoo EE community. Falk (2014) cites the Multi-Institutional Research Project, funded by the US National Science Foundation. In this project, a random sample of 1862 zoo and aquarium visitors agreed to fill out questionnaires, then participate in followup interviews a year later. The initial visit

prompted many individuals to reconsider their role in environmental problems and conservation action and to see themselves as part of the solution. In the follow-up interview, about half mentioned a particular animal or species as the highlight of their visit, and over half gave detailed descriptions of what they learned, describing how their visit either reinforced or added to their prior understandings. Most believed that zoos play an important role in species preservation and in increasing their visitors’ awareness of conservation issues. We can perhaps infer from the results of this study that where our snow leopard EE students have a direct or indirect experience of the cats in their natural habitat, a similar proportion will carry the impact into their future lives. A few examples: In Ladakh, between 2013 and 2015, there were two episodes of snow leopards either overtly threatening or actually raiding livestock pens. The latter incident resulted in severe economic loss to the herder. As local educators from SLC-IT had conducted EE in both communities, they were able to convince the herders to take non-lethal measures to save the lives of snow leopards. In the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan, Snow Leopard Day festivals have been held each year beginning in 2015, spearheaded by LOSL’s Tajikistan coordinator. Between 2019 and 2021, 11 snow leopards, caught while raiding livestock, were forgiven and either released back into the wild or taken to holding facilities. (Q. Alamshoev, LOSL Country Coordinator, Tajikistan, personal communication.) Nepalese student Ramesh Sunar grew up considering animals more as targets for his slingshot than as part of a healthy Himalayan ecosystem. He was taught to use trail cameras during an EE camp in the mountains. When his cameras captured the images of six wild snow leopards, Ramesh became a studentteacher, passing on his knowledge, skills, and passion to the younger boys and girls.

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Conclusion

Cassidy Huun attended JGEMS from 2004 to 2006 and graduated in 2014 with a degree in biology from the University of Oregon. In a recent communication, she wrote: “My time at JGEMS provided me with the skills necessary to think of all situations as a whole. I learned about ecosystems and how so many different species have interactions that keep the system working. This way of thinking can be applied to so many situations and has greatly shaped the way I have lived my life. Everything I do has an impact on others and the environment. Environmental education has instilled in me a responsibility for all of my actions, but it is a responsibility that I am happy to take on.”

From awareness to action Just as monitoring and tracking of EE are challenging, Jacobson et al. (2006) are among many EE specialists who realize that moving people from awareness to action is not a simple task, yet it is a critical one. “Environmental education has failed because it’s not keeping pace with environmental degradation, with human impacts on the environment” (Nijhuis, 2011). On August 20, 2013, WWF declared that the planet had reached Earth Overshoot Day—the point when humanity had used as much of our renewable natural resources as earth can regenerate in 1 year. The results of a survey about climate change, conducted at 10 zoos and five aquariums across the USA, illustrate the need to find ways in which the general public can feel empowered to turn what they learn about EE into action for conservation. The vast majority of survey respondents acknowledged the human role in climate change. Nearly twothirds agreed that it is mostly human-caused, and 69% also wished to personally do more to address this issue, but many perceived significant obstacles, including perception of low personal impact on addressing climate change, pessimism that people in general are not willing to change their behavior or do what is needed to

address the issues, and lack of knowledge about effective and affordable actions (Luebke et al., 2014). While these hard facts may be the foundations for a sense of hopelessness, the snow leopard EE community can effect positive change for the future of these cats.

Conclusion Our tendency has been to forge ahead under our gut instinct that EE is a critical component of any conservation effort and that exposure to EE at an early age will lead to adult conservationists. Surely, as we have illustrated, that is true to some extent, but we must also realize it’s not enough to do EE programs and trust that they will create the passion and commitment in young adults to change the world. We need to move beyond the passive to the active, and both time and collective power are of the essence. Although we recommended, in the first edition of this book, that the term “Environmental Education” be replaced with “Responsible Citizenship Education” (RCE) (Nijhuis, 2011), there has been no effort to move toward this change. Rather than invest time and effort in “rebranding,” it seems that our collective energy might better be placed in recognizing that environmental responsibility is both our individual and collective obligation and to build on the work of remarkable young people like Greta Thunberg to support conservation action on the ground. We need to nurture more EE specialists, train them in monitoring and evaluation, and see that both quantitative and qualitative techniques are embedded into every project. If ever there was a symbol of wild nature, and thus a unifying force for conservation action, snow leopards are it. They are beautiful, mysterious, rare, and sacred. And as virtually all the snow leopard EE programs attest, artists, poets, writers, and actors can be powerful motivators for responsible citizenship.

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Joe Rohde, former Executive Designer at Disney Imagineering, made a painting expedition to Mongolia to raise money for snow leopard conservation. In his blog, he wrote “I sat in a snow leopard’s cave, looking out at its dwindling remnant of the world, and thought, “If we can’t save this creature . . . what can we save?” I think it is our time now, the artists, storytellers, spiritual leaders, the poets. The rational scientific arguments for wildlife conservation and sustainable living are well-made and well-distributed . . . and it is not enough. People are not rational beings. They are the stuff that dreams are made on, creatures of poetry, spirit, and emotion. If they are to change, as they must. . . then it will be story that changes them.” The Snow Leopard Network (SLN) was established in 2002 to facilitate the exchange of information and promote sound, scientifically based conservation of snow leopards through networking and collaboration between individuals, organizations, and governments (see Chapter 47). We believe this network should be mobilized to turn awareness to action: • We should encourage artists, writers, and poets to join the SLN and help motivate action. • SLN should have a student division where young people with an interest in Central Asia’s high-mountain diversity can interact and seek international support, if necessary, for their ideas and action plans. Students need to know—as part of every EE program—how their political process works and what the opportunities are for action at the local, state, and national levels to turn their beliefs into policy. We need the next generation of leaders in each of the range countries to be grounded in appreciation for snow leopards, their fragile mountain habitat, and the ancient human cultures sharing the land. Via the SLN, this student division could track their progress and support each other. • Zoos that keep snow leopards should also join the SLN. With 175 million people walking through the gates of AZA-accredited zoos each year, these institutions have the

power to be incredibly effective agents for education and conservation action. The SLN member organizations need their help in moving from awareness to action. • SLN should house an online library of resources for teachers, NGOs, and club organizers. Everyone wants to reinvent the wheel, producing their own materials, but there are excellent resources available now that can be easily adapted for different conditions across the snow leopard’s range countries. • Philanthropy is in its nascent stages in the range countries, and few programs are selfsustaining financially, instead relying on funding from the Europe and the United States. The collective power of the SLN could be brought to bear on changing the culture of giving in the range countries. • We need to ensure that donors understand why they must invest in EE for the long term, and that funding for evaluation and longterm monitoring are part of the investment. Since the first edition of this book, social media and other online communications have become effective channels for informing, motivating, and funding conservation action. We have seen, during the Covid pandemic, that virtual fundraising efforts reach thousands more people, across the globe, than in-person events. Online webinars and conferences can be valuable tools in education, also enabling international participation without the high cost of travel and accommodation. Electronic communications should be encouraged and facilitated where possible, but at the same time, we recognize that there are limitations. Remote villages in the snow leopard’s habitat are generally without access to the internet, even though the herder communities are especially important players. Where governments block access to social media for political reasons, it may be dangerous for individuals to risk being tracked on line. Indigenous

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References

communities particularly value in-person meetings, where ceremonies and other cultural traditions rely on people coming together to discuss issues and find solutions. • Finally, we need to continue to celebrate our successes, whether they are long or short term, while also learning from our failures.

References Ale, S.B., 1995. The Annapurna Conservation Area Project: A Case Study of an Integrated Conservation and Development Project in Nepal. pp. 155–169. British Ecological Society, 2018. Special Feature: Qualitative Methods for Eliciting Judgements for Decision Making. Vol. 9. Issue 1. Cecil, R., 1986. Educational programming for snow leopard conservation. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Seattle/ Dehradun, pp. 247–248. Dexel, B., 2003. Snow leopard conservation in Kyrgyzstan: enforcement, education and research activities by the German Society for Nature Conservation (NABU). In: International Pedigree Book for Snow Leopards (Uncia uncia). Vol. 8, pp. 18–20. Falk, J.H., 2014. Evidence for the educational value of zoos and aquariums. In: World Association of Zoos & Aquariums (WAZA) Magazine. Vol. 15. Fien, J., Scott, W., Tilbury, D., 2001. Education and conservation: lessons from an evaluation. Environ. Educ. Res. 7, 379–395. First Nations Environmental Health Innovation Network (FNEHIN), 2021. Cyclical Worldview: Understanding Environmental Health from a First Nations Perspective.

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Available from: https://lfs-indigenous.sites.olt.ubc.ca/ files/2014/07/CyclicalWorldviewEngFinal.pdf. (Accessed 5 July 2021). Hunter, D.O., Jackson, R., Freeman, H., Hillard, D., 1992. Project snow leopard: a model for conserving central Asian biodiversity. In: Fox, J.L., Du, J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Seattle, pp. 247–252. Jacobson, S.K., McDuff, M.D., Monroe, M.C., 2006. Conservation Education and Outreach Techniques. Oxford University Press. Jafri, R.H., Shah, F., 1992. The role of education and research in the conservation of snow leopard and its habitat in northern Pakistan. In: Fox, J.L., Du, J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Seattle, pp. 271–277. Luebke, J.F., DeGregoria Kelly, L., Grajal, A., 2014. Beyond facts: the role of zoos and aquariums in environmental solutions. In: World Association of Zoos & Aquariums (WAZA) Magazine. Vol. 15. Mallon, D.P., Nurbu, C., 1986. A conservation program for the snow leopard in Kashmir. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Seattle/Dehradun, pp. 207–214. McCrea, E., 2006. The roots of environmental education: how the past supports the future. In: Environmental Education and Training Partnership (EETAP). Nijhuis, M., 2011. Interview with Charles Saylan: green failure: what’s wrong with environmental education? In: Yale Environment, p. 360. Sutherland, W., Dicks, L.V., Everard, M., Geneletti, D., 2018. Qualitative methods for ecologists and conservation scientists. Br. Ecol. Soc. J. 9 (1), 7–9. Thomson, G., Hoffman, J., Staniforth, S., 2010. Measuring the Success of Environmental Education Programs. Sierra Club of Canada, BC.

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C H A P T E R

22 Law enforcement in snow leopard conservation Maxim Koshkina, Andrea Moshierb, Zairbek Kubanychbekova, and Almaz Musaevc a

Ilbirs Foundation, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan bPanthera, New York, NY, United States cState Agency for Environment Protection of Kyrgyz Republic, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Snow leopards—Illegal killing and trade Conflict cycles and killings In all 12 snow leopard (Panthera uncia) range states, it is illegal to kill or trade them, with a narrow legal exception for zoos to trade captivebred animals. However, snow leopards in the wild are increasingly at risk from both deliberate and incidental human encounters. A survey of experts by Nowell et al. (2016) concluded that the bulk of fatalities are attributed to retaliatory killings from human-wildlife conflict (55%), direct poaching for trade (21%), and death as trap/snare bycatch or from opportunistic killings (18%). The people living in closest proximity to snow leopards tend to be livestock-dependent communities. The snow leopard’s natural ungulate prey base is decreasing due to overharvesting and poaching in many parts of the species’ range. The combination of these factors creates a prime environment for human-wildlife

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00034-0

conflict cycles to emerge and perpetuate. Where wild prey is limited, snow leopards will seek nearby livestock as an alternate food source, resulting in a significant financial loss for the owner. These interactions foster a baseline attitude of hostility toward the predator, and many herders are easily triggered into killing the cats in retaliation for lost assets or even preemptively. The snow leopard’s carcass or parts are then often sold to traders (EIA, 2018). While conflict and opportunistic killings have a clear, albeit less direct, link to the illegal snow leopard trade, direct targeted poaching, and collection of snow leopards is also likely to be happening at a greater rate than current reporting suggests—easily confounded by the cats’ cryptic nature, remote habitats, and the clandestine nature of trafficking. Broadly speaking, there are three categories of poacher: • Professional (those whose primary income is generated through hunting)—targeting specific species, including snow leopard.

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• Amateur—generalists or opportunists (including retaliatory killing). • Trophy/sport hunters—involved in the trade and killing of snow leopards and their prey. The most common poaching method for snow leopards is via steel-jawed leg traps or snares. In a minority of instances, local residents may contribute to poaching, whether as guides, hunters, or simply a source of information. Though preventative interventions such as predator-proof corrals, livestock guarding dogs, and alternative livelihood support have been deployed widely across snow leopard range to mitigate conflict and retaliatory killings, an effective suite of complementary legislation and enforcement activities to tackle poaching and trade is lacking. State and local law enforcement agencies are often underresourced, understaffed, poorly educated on snow leopard issues, and/or untrained on wildlife and poaching intervention strategies. Further, the inconsistent and weak prosecutions and sentencing for crimes relating to snow leopards and their prey species do not serve as strong deterrents for future offenders (Nowell et al., 2016). These factors are exacerbated by some porous international borders in the region that facilitate movement of poachers and traders. The Eurasian Economic Union’s lifting of customs and international trade boundaries between members, which includes snow leopard range states Russia, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan, is a formalized example of this phenomenon. The fact that snow leopards inhabit remote and poorly accessible habitats spanning a varied geopolitical landscape will be insurmountable if conservation and law enforcement strategies do not facilitate a holistic network approach, with complementary action happening at the local (engaging with communities), state, and regional (wildlife enforcement networks (WENs)) and international (INTERPOL) levels.

High-level trade and criminal linkages In the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime’s World Wildlife Report, Executive Director Ghada Waly prefaces “wildlife crime to be a business that is global; lucrative, with high demand driving high prices; and extremely widespread…with nearly every country in the world playing a role in the illicit wildlife trade” (UNODC, 2020). Snow leopard trade falls under this characterization. Criminal syndicates are well-practiced in subversion of the law and underpin many illegal wildlife trade rings, and they have the networks and niche expertise to navigate the global nature and logistical challenges of trafficking contraband. The high-level of facilitation required to complete trade from source to end consumer means that a seemingly isolated offense, where a herder kills a snow leopard in retaliation and sells it onward, can scale up to the level of organized crime. When poaching filters up to that tier, profits from illegal trade may end up being channeled into other criminal activities and illicit supply chains, such as weapons smuggling and counterfeit products. A growing body of evidence supports that organized criminals are involved in the trade of Asian big cats and their body parts including: • The increasingly sophisticated nature of poaching. Teams are being deployed and supported in distant and remote sites harboring big cats (often nations foreign to the poacher). • Multiple shipments are being confiscated, an indicator that the true number of shipments is likely much higher than recorded seizures (Nowell et al., 2016). • Offenders are increasingly being represented by high-quality attorneys, and prosecuted offenders are often reoffending (Nuwer, 2019).

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Case study

Criminals at any level exploit weaknesses in law enforcement systems. Police, border forces, and wildlife rangers are all instrumental in apprehending and deterring poachers and traffickers. At the base level, there is a strong need for mainstream law enforcement agencies to receive specific training for and awareness of illegal wildlife trade and the demand for snow leopards and their parts. The first building block of the following case study illustrates how educating enforcers on these elements contextualizes capacity building efforts. Since boundaries on a map do very little to restrict snow leopards or traffickers, enforcers and range governments must also recognize the need for increased cross-border cooperation. Across snow leopard range states, these efforts can be difficult to achieve due to geopolitical, historical, security, and social factors. Global intergovernmental organizations such as INTERPOL and the World Customs Organization, as well as their regional counterparts, also have a duty to connect agencies, implement decisions, facilitate action, present innovative solutions, drive positive change, and ultimately assist in the identification of crimes and criminals. Work through these agencies does not preclude bilateral law enforcement work, as countries can collaborate directly through their embassies as well as judicial channels. Wildlife crime networks reap the benefits of organization without the burden of bureaucracy. To successfully scale effective ground-level policing all the way up to international operations and build a counter-network, range states must agree to work in concert and develop information sharing pathways and opportunities for joint enforcement.

Case study Detention of ibex poachers in Kyrgyzstan On October 18th 2020, a team consisting of two state rangers and one checkpoint monitor working from the Bosogo ranger checkpoint in

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Kyrgyzstan’s Naryn Province registered a suspicious vehicle. The enforcement outpost is strategically located to control a direct access route to a large area of habitat important for snow leopards and their ungulate prey species. Neither the car, a white 4
4 Lada Niva, nor driver had previously been registered at the checkpoint. The vehicle was subsequently recorded passing through the checkpoint multiple times during the following week; the same driver sometimes on his own or accompanied by different passengers. As checkpoint staff were familiar with the area’s regular visitors and consulted their registration database, they were able to pay extra attention to the new vehicle. Though several vehicle searches did not find firearms or illegal items, the team continued to be suspicious when the driver provided false information about the contents of the car’s trunk during the last check. Additionally, the day prior to the detention, an anonymous source provided information suggesting that the group might be planning illegal hunting in the area. As a result, on October 23rd when the vehicle was registered again at the checkpoint, a team deployed a few hours later to follow it into the mountains. At 05:30 on October 24th, they stopped the vehicle and performed a search, seizing a firearm and plastic sacks containing the meat of five ibexes and detaining the suspects. The primary offender is believed to be a 47-year-old man, accompanied by two younger men. Information suggests that at least one of the offenders hunted the ibexes during one of the previous visits to the area and stored the firearm and meat at an accomplice’s house in the mountains. On the night of the detention, they were transporting the meat and firearm to a village, using a much longer route to avoid passing through the checkpoint. The team apprehended them just in time before they left the area policed by the outpost. The number of ibexes hunted suggests that the poachers were planning to sell the meat,

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rather than hunting for personal consumption. The detention team collaborated with the police department to provide all the evidence and information they had collected relating to the arrest, to support a case in court. The poachers were successfully prosecuted and sentenced to a fine of USD 6000.

Capacity building prior to detention What made this detention possible? It was carried out by a team of rangers from Kyrgyzstan’s State Agency of Environmental Protections and Forestry (SAEPF) Department of Biodiversity Conservation and Protected Areas (DBCPA), mentored by a checkpoint monitor installed at Bosogo under a Panthera project “Building International Capacity and Transnational Networks to Counter Big Cat Trafficking” funded by the US State Department’s Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL). As a foundation to capacity-building interventions with ranger teams, the project first employed the Sustainable Wildlife Anti Trafficking Organization Development (SWATOD) model to profile Kyrgyzstan’s snow leopard enforcement efforts. SWAT-OD uses a three-phase approach to audit a country’s resources, ability, culture, and other variables that can inform tailored interventions. Phase 1, Research and Assessment, entails remote research and in situ assessments of the host country’s baseline wildlife crime enforcement/ prosecutions; depth of trade issues; past counter-trafficking efforts; and cultural, political, and socioeconomic norms. Phase 2, Analysis, conducts four analyses: (1) a Wildlife Trafficking Threat Analysis, (2) Institutional Development Analysis, (3) Job Task Analysis, and (4) Training Needs Analysis. Phase 3, Organizational Development, emphasizes collaboration with the host country to develop and implement assistance plans as well as monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Following the

SWAT-OD process, a curriculum was developed to gradually improve DBCPA enforcers’ effectiveness, and they began receiving training under a “building block” approach. The first block builds the capacity of rangers at checkpoints. Bosogo is one of three checkpoints supported by the INL project, strategically located along key access routes to territories rich in wildlife and responsible for protecting approximately 27,000km2 of snow leopard habitat. The outposts had previously been used by the DBCPA to control priority conservation areas, but they were routinely underequipped and understaffed. The project invested resources in training rangers and adequately equipping the three checkpoints to increase their effectiveness in (a) serving as a deterrent for wildlife crime and (b) becoming a useful tool for collecting information on active and potential offenders visiting the area. Rangers received “Effective Checkpoint Operations” training that included theoretical and practical sessions on officer safety, vehicle search, fraud documentation, recording field data, detecting deception, and the context for poaching and illegal wildlife trade regionally and worldwide. Following the workshops, a checkpoint monitor employed by the project was positioned at each outpost to mentor rangers in implementing those skills. With around-the-clock assistance from checkpoint monitors, teams rapidly began generating large volumes of information, including vehicle, firearm, and persons registration data; informal interviews generated additional information. All materials were then digitized and became readily available for analysis and enforcement planning. The system came together on October 18th, 2020. Training received by the rangers and the checkpoint monitor allowed them to recognize a poaching threat by being thorough in their registration of people and vehicles and by conducting interviews with potential offenders and community contacts—which generated the anonymous tip.

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I think that there is a mutual benefit from our joint round-o-clock work with the rangers. With time, we began to fully understand each other’s needs, strengths and weaknesses and this makes us more effective in our work. Narsbek Sydykov, Bosogo Checkpoint Monitor

The second building block involves the effective use of information. Analysis of information generated in the field can provide valuable knowledge products that support the strategic use of resources, as well as helping identify current problems and prepare for future ones. Once teams were confident with collecting information and storing the resulting data, the INL project recruited and trained an analyst stationed at DBCPA headquarters in Bishkek to help organize and analyze the large volume of data generated from checkpoints and other sources. Analyst placement within the DBCPA was crucial to ensure information was managed and secured according to DBCPA protocols and Kyrgyz law. The analyst uses a SMART Profiles system to organize data from the checkpoints, and once these data are verified and analyzed, the analyst can develop intelligence products for field-level rangers and their commanding DBCPA senior staff. The analyst can also produce checkpoint and patrol briefings to enable better planning for operations in the field. In addition to handling the new data streams developed by the project, the analyst assists DBCPA staff in digitizing and analyzing older data on previous detentions, registered hunting firearms, hunting permits, etc. The analyst is also tasked with training and mentoring a DBCPA staff member in this comprehensive skillset, to ensure analytical work will carry on after the project is completed. Although the team did not need to consult the analyst for the operation on October 24th, 2020, they did access the SMART Profiles database from the checkpoint to confirm the status of the suspicious entities. The team also used locally sourced information to plan the time/ day and location of apprehension.

The third block focuses on intelligence-led mobile patrolling. Intelligence products generated by the analyst not only describe geographical and/or social patterns to wildlife crime, they can be used for strategic patrol planning, so that checkpoint monitors and rangers on mobile patrols can access the most up-to-date information. Prior to deployment, rangers attend a workshop that includes modules on officer safety, data recording, biological monitoring using camera traps, first aid, and a recap of topics from the checkpoint training. During patrols, the teams follow detailed field protocols and record data on detentions, wildlife, and community contacts. They are also responsible for installing and maintaining camera traps that monitor wildlife populations and threats. With time, we started to realize that our patrols can be more effective once we take into account data collected from various sources. Receiving patrol briefings and planning routes according to intelligence gives us substantial advantages and allows us to use limited resources more wisely. Irsaliev Avtandil, DBCPA Ranger

The fourth building block highlights community engagement. Once foundational ranger and analytical skills and resources were established, the project employed two community researchers to map the communities adjacent to critical snow leopard habitat and understand opportunity structures for poaching and the socioeconomic drivers of wildlife crime. They conduct structured and semistructured interviews with community leaders and engage with the wider community, building a network of contacts that in the future can help support alternative livelihood programs and conflict mitigation interventions (Fig. 22.1).

Capacity building postdetention Detention of a poacher is one stage of the law enforcement process. Even if an offender is caught red-handed, with plenty of evidence

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FIG. 22.1 Sources of information (left circle) and potential actions such information can support after processing by the intelligence analyst (right circle).

recorded and collected, the prosecution outcome can be unpredictable. Lack of communication between agencies responsible for different stages of the process; absence of qualified prosecutors specialized in wildlife crime; strong lawyers hired by poachers; court sessions lasting for months—those are only some examples of limitations that can hinder a successful prosecution. On October 24th, 2020, the team’s implementation of the skills learned during training modules on crime scene investigation and management undoubtedly contributed to the poachers’ sentencing. The INL project also supports a multistakeholder workshop series for the agencies involved in wildlife crime prosecutions, including rangers, police, prosecutors, and judges. The cradle-to-grave syllabus mimics a real-life poaching incident, and trainees assess the case in detail from the detention phase through the trial in court. This model provides a platform for the agencies to jointly identify, discuss, and find working solutions for process issues; and overall creates opportunity to establish and improve communications. Organizing a series of prosecution workshops is the next most important logical step in our work to combat illegal wildlife trafficking. We are hoping that these workshops will become an important platform

for us and our colleagues at other agencies to solve some issues which are hindering effective prosecution of wildlife crime, such as imperfect legislation, lack of communication and collaboration between agencies and lack of awareness of the importance of wildlife crime prosecution. Almaz Musaev, Head of DBCPA

Importance of developing preventive capacity—Left of “bang” theory If an incident of snow leopard trafficking is depicted as a line, the beginning is marked the moment a crime is planned, and the line extends until the cat is sold to a third party, with a “bang” in the middle representing when the animal is killed or captured. When a poacher or trader is caught and prosecuted toward the end of the line, after the animal was killed or trapped, it is a case of law enforcement intervening in a reactive capacity. Wildlife crime prosecutions in Kyrgyzstan and other snow leopard range states are largely based on that approach. A less common and more timeconsuming approach emphasizes prevention. The hallmark is earlier intervention on the timeline and identifying pre-event indicators before a crime is committed, e.g., enabling enforcers to prevent the death of an animal and disrupt criminal networks—thus, proactive intervention left of the “bang” (Fig. 22.2).

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Recommendations

FIG. 22.2

Left of “bang” theory representation.

Following the detention of poachers on October 24th, 2020, rangers conducted a postapprehension interview and determined the poachers came from a nearby town. Over time, information from other arrests can be assimilated with information from other streams, such as the checkpoints and community contacts, to locate communities from where many poachers originate and understand their motivations. Analysis of these more comprehensive datasets can guide community engagement, livelihood, and education programs. Rather than canvassing an entire village or landscape, detailed knowledge of the circumstances surrounding poaching enables teams to target specific pockets of society, e.g., families engaged in cattle breeding with regular access to wildlife-rich areas, or schools with a high proportion of children from poachers’ families in their student body. Over time, employing a well-rounded suite of activities in the project area should serve to decrease and prevent crimes against snow leopards, their prey, and wildlife in general. Once the most cost-effective, sustainable, and efficacious approach has been trialed and adopted by DBCPA, it will then be replicated more widely. Case studies of this nature, whether describing successes or missteps, should be disseminated widely, so that the conservation and enforcement communities can proactively prevent wildlife crime rather than merely react to it.

Recommendations Improving protection and counteracting poaching Crimes against snow leopards and their prey take place in remote areas often isolated from any meaningful law enforcement. Moreover, habitats are increasingly being disturbed and are under rising pressure from low-income herding families for whom even small amounts of money make a huge difference to their quality of life. Finally, many law enforcement staff working in wildlife protection are inadequately paid, undervalued, and receive very little, if any, professional training. Subsequent low levels of motivation mean these individuals are not incentivized to risk their personal safety for a snow leopard. Detection, arrest, evidential procedure, and prosecution must improve. An audit and overhaul of current systems are crucial, and governments must acknowledge that organized criminals are operating freely, and that there is a correlation between smuggling wildlife products across borders and trafficking in people, arms, and other vices. Governments must commit to increasing the number of personnel and the priority and provision of professional training, funding, and equipment allocated to snow leopard protection.

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Community engagement is also vital for success in counteracting snow leopard poaching. An intelligence-led enforcement paradigm capitalizes on the information and relationships that can be cultivated from communities trying to coexist with the cats. As exemplified in the case study, community research provides clarity on the drivers of poaching. That baseline understanding serves as a jumping off point to build rapport, establish a network of community contacts, guide ranger patrols, discuss snow leopards’ ecological and tourism value, employ conflict mitigation, explore alternative livelihoods, etc. Efforts to achieve robust enforcement and improved protection of snow leopards and their prey will lack power without leveraging a community engagement element.

Frontline enforcement efforts Snow leopards occupy rugged terrain, often in sparsely populated areas with poor access. While these factors often create conditions for poachers to operate covertly and with little interference, the mountainous topography of their environment limits accessibility for everyone, rangers and poachers alike. Setting up checkpoints along key access routes, as in the case study, may be sufficient to control a large area of habitat and substantially disrupt poaching and trafficking routes. However, despite serving as deterrents for poaching and movement of wildlife contraband, checkpoints alone do not guarantee that those activities will cease completely. With time, poachers are likely to change their behaviors and attempt, for example, to find alternative access/exit routes. Additionally, checkpoints are unlikely to resolve retaliatory killings of snow leopards or subsistence poaching for ungulates by local villagers and shepherds. Mobile patrolling efforts can strongly complement the work of checkpoints by expanding efforts over larger areas, serving as a crime deterrent, and being unpredictable in time and

space. In the described case study, while the checkpoint team raised the initial alarm, intercepting the ibex poachers was only possible by sending a mobile team to follow their vehicle tire tracks in the snow. Disadvantageously, patrolling can be relatively costly and often requires serious commitment from governments to be sustainable, especially if large distances and 4
4 vehicles are involved. In some parts of snow leopard range, such as Mongolia or Tajikistan, terrain often allows effective use of vehicle patrols. In countries such as Kyrgyzstan, with a network of roads and tracks along major valleys, but with limited vehicle access to some of them, a combination of vehicle and horseback patrols is most effective. Foot patrols may be used in smaller areas or some protected territories. Mobile patrols can also be used as conservation tools to raise awareness, since they present unique opportunities to interact with people living in remote areas and can support wildlife monitoring. A combination of checkpoints and mobile patrolling is likely the minimum requirement in what should be a suite of ground-level activities, bespoke to countries’ unique contexts, to protect snow leopards and their habitats. Frontline enforcement efforts are best supported by an intelligence-led process that involves the assimilation of information from multiple sources such as patrols, checkpoints, and community contacts, to identify poaching hotspots, plan future patrol routes, and guide other intervention opportunities.

Law enforcement technologies While technology is used as a capacity multiplier across all disciplines of law enforcement and conservation, its application for snow leopards must be strategic and contextdependent. Biological monitoring tools and techniques for snow leopards (radio collars, camera traps, DNA, etc.) had to be adapted to the cats’ unique environmental conditions, cryptic behaviors, and the resources available to

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Recommendations

conservation agencies, so too must law enforcement technologies. They should be applied relative to authorities’ existing capacity levels and be the best fit for the species and surrounding communities. Across the spectrum of wild cat conservation, that scenario may look quite different for snow leopards compared to the use of technology for protecting lions, for example. The action arc for employing law enforcement technologies should first assess existing capacity gaps and identify areas where a technological intervention could aid in filling them. For instance, some snow leopard range states are still working with paper records of criminal detentions, firearms permits, and hunting licenses, when simple digitization could significantly increase access to data. Programs such as SMART Profiles support this. In other instances, as was the case when the INL project was revamping DBCPA checkpoints in the case study, rangers may not have access to reliable communications technologies to support patrolling and basic safety protocols in the hostile conditions of the field. Provision of GoPro cameras with body harnesses to the ranger teams was another instance where relatively basic tech was a high-value addition to operations. Used during both checkpoint vehicle searches and mobile patrols, the bodycams allow hands-free wide-angle detailed capture, compared to the alternative use of smartphones. Rangers can start recording video before a vehicle search begins or people are approached, providing strong evidence for court if something illegal is discovered. The GoPros also increase security; violence or threats directed at rangers are less likely when video is being recorded. Enforcement agencies and the nongovernmental (NGO) or intergovernmental (IGO) organizations that work with them should avoid the temptation to “leapfrog” over the step of emplacing fundamental technologies and going straight to allocating resources for high-tech interventions, buying drones for example.

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Unmanned aerial vehicles and other new technologies are certainly powerful tools that could potentially be leveraged for snow leopard conservation and enforcement efforts, where appropriate. However, if agencies do not have the necessary operational and data management technologies in place to manage and respond to the information gathered by those sophisticated tools, deploying them becomes moot. When looking to employ law enforcement technologies for the benefit of snow leopards, the emphasis must be on building strong foundations with baseline tech and scaling up to continuously fill capacity gaps where possible.

Law enforcement collaboration In order to foster strong law enforcement collaboration against wildlife crime, genuine longterm political will and dedication to multistakeholder engagement and network building are required. Applicable at all levels, locally, nationally, and internationally, law enforcement successes for snow leopards are nearly impossible without close collaboration between all the contributors involved in combatting wildlife crime. In addition to obvious agencies such as police, customs and environmental ministries, NGOs and IGOs can play crucial roles in improving the capacity of those groups and the dialog between them. NGOs also often hold information that can be valuable for law enforcement agencies and have access to additional funding. On the small scale, open collaboration helps avoid replication of efforts and encourages an efficient use of available funds and resources. More broadly, it presents opportunities for snow leopard range states to share lessons learned; allowing successful approaches to proliferate more quickly and potentially preventing enforcers from implementing techniques that were proven failures elsewhere. Lessons learned from the INL project featured in the case study reinforced that the effectiveness of prosecution processes for wildlife criminals is highly

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dependent on interstakeholder information and communication flows. Also that long-term, comprehensive resource allocation and inputs are more effective toward snow leopard protection than short-term, disjointed efforts, as exemplified by the thorough scope of capacity building, information streams, mentoring, and succession plans. Commitment to collaboration as a best practice in law enforcement is relevant now more than ever, due to the global and increasingly organized nature of wild cat trafficking. To quote Fahlman (2015), “it takes a network to defeat a network.”

References EIA, 2018. Out in the Cold—The Ongoing Threat of Snow Leopard Trade. Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), London, UK. Available from: https://eia-

international.org/report/the-ongoing-threat-of-snowleopard-trade/. (25 January 2021). Fahlman, R.C., 2015. Elephant Crime Intelligence System Assessment. The World Bank, Washington, DC. Available from: https://openknowledge.worldbank. org/bitstream/handle/10986/21754/944710ESW0P1490 ent0Web003013020150r.pdf?sequence¼1&isAllowed¼y. (1 August 2021). Nowell, K., Li, J., Paltsyn, M., Sharma, R.K., 2016. An Ounce of Prevention: Snow Leopard Crime Revisited. TRAFFIC, Cambridge, UK. Available from: https://www.traffic. org/site/assets/files/2358/ounce-of-prevention.pdf. (25 January 2021). Nuwer, R., 2019. How the Case Against an Alleged Poaching Kingpin Fell Apart. National Geographic. Available from: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/ thai-court-dismisses-case-against-suspected-poachingkingpin. (1 August 2021). UNODC, 2020. World Wildlife Crime Report 2020: Trafficking in Protected Species. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), New York, USA. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/ wildlife/2020/World_Wildlife_Report_2020_9July.pdf. (1 June 2021).

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C H A P T E R

23 Transboundary initiatives and snow leopard conservation Tatjana Rosena, Koustubh Sharmab, Philip Riordanc, and Peter Zahlerd a

Ilbirs Foundation, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan bSnow Leopard Trust, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan cMarwell Wildlife, Southampton, Hampshire, United Kingdom dZoo New England, Boston, MA, United States

Transboundary conservation and snow leopards Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are the top predators of high-elevation ecosystems that can be characterized by relatively low productivity. Snow leopards have large home range sizes, up to 500–800 km2 ( Jackson et al., 2008). Most protected areas in snow leopard range are too small to harbor self-sustaining populations of snow leopards ( Johansson et al., 2016). It is therefore essential to design conservation strategies at a large enough scale to ensure the long-term persistence of snow leopard populations ( Jackson et al., 2010). Larger populations are more likely to persist, retain greater genetic variation, and be less vulnerable to stochastic events. Landscape-scale planning for intact metapopulations can safeguard dispersal corridors between core snow leopard populations, maintain genetic variation, and improve resilience to climate change (SLN, 2014).

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00025-X

Political borders rarely align with ecological landscapes (Lo´pez-Hoffman et al., 2010). This is particularly true of mountain regions where national boundaries commonly follow ridgelines. Across their range, snow leopards and their wild ungulate prey occur on both side of those ridgelines. It is estimated that up to a third of the snow leopard’s range is located within 50–100 km of an international border between the 12 range countries (Singh and Jackson, 1999). Telemetry studies in Pakistan, Nepal, and Mongolia have shown that snow leopards periodically cross borders that are not fenced (Poyarkov et al., 2020). The need for transboundary landscape cooperation, supported by other international agreements, has not surmounted the difficulties posed by political sensitivities. Nevertheless, surprising progress has been made toward transboundary cooperation in recent years, with multiple initiatives poised to significantly enhance transnational conservation of snow leopards and their associated ecosystems.

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The most obvious argument that could be put forward as motivation for the establishment of transboundary conservation initiatives is that political boundaries and the processes that put them in place are infamous for ignoring natural boundaries and processes (WWF and ICIMOD, 2001). As a result, ecosystems of various scales throughout the world are divided by international boundaries, with each portion often fragmented by linear infrastructure such as border fences and subjected to different management regimes, policy and legal frameworks, and socioeconomic conditions. This “political fragmentation” of ecosystems compromises their ability to function optimally and retain their natural species assemblages, which is consistent with more common forms of fragmentation. The ability of governments to achieve conservation targets is also compromised, especially for species such as the snow leopards that move across political boundaries and whose populations encompass multistate ecosystems.

Rationale for transboundary collaboration There are multiple reasons for encouraging transboundary landscape cooperation in snow leopard conservation (Zahler and Schaller, 2014). The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program document (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013) recognized five conservation issues that should transcend international boundaries to be effectively managed. These include: illegal wildlife trade, knowledge sharing for institutional capacity and leadership development, transboundary cooperation, research and monitoring, and large-scale infrastructure development. The primary objective of transboundary cooperation is to facilitate the range countries’ efforts in addressing challenges pertaining to snow leopard conservation across adjoining landscapes in a coordinated manner. Protecting the global population, movement routes, and gene flow requires cooperation

between all 12 countries in the region (Riordan et al., 2015). From the perspective of conservation, the benefits from transboundary collaboration to snow leopards, their ecosystems, and the other biodiversity, is clear. For example, transboundary cooperation may facilitate scientific research and monitoring of populations enabling joint research programs, eliminating duplication, enlarging perspectives, maximizing skills toward standardize research methods, and leading to the sharing of equipment and data. Neighboring states with different levels of technical expertise, knowledge, capacity, and financial resources can benefit by combining their respective strengths through transboundary cooperation. Focused, practical examples could enhance existing intergovernmental agreements and partnerships, strengthen working relationships, and enhance an open exchange of information, experience, and knowledge. Additionally, sharing management techniques and systems for protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) and development of community-led conservation initiatives within snow leopard landscapes would also benefit snow leopard conservation. This can include sharing conservation education information and materials, lessons related to improvements in rangeland management, livestock protection initiatives such as corral improvements, and even training of community rangers for wildlife monitoring and enforcement. Communities on either side of an international border are often closely linked, sharing language, customs, and even direct familial ties, and this can lead to natural collaborations that can greatly enhance conservation. Viewed from the perspectives of the countries, transboundary benefits will need to align with government policy priorities, particularly those concerning internationally agreed targets (e.g., goals and targets under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity). A greater understanding of country policy priorities is therefore essential

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Rationale for transboundary collaboration

to either ensure transboundary efforts are aligned and have greatest chance of success or understand obstacles and adjust approaches accordingly. Another key aspect is keeping track of personnel changes and keeping records; this is essential to avoid loss of institutional memory, which can cause transboundary planning to falter or stop. Policy strategies and development might not always be clear, however, at least to nongovernmental bodies. For example, a review of policy planning scenarios across Asia (IPBES, 2018) failed to identify any future-casting development models in much of snow leopard range. Those that were identified as having crossborder significance were mostly concerned with water provision, particularly in the context of climate change. Scenario archetypes that describe plausible future pathways as distinct from “Business as Usual” frequently focused on increased global and regional security and enhancement of borders. This clearly presents challenges for transboundary efforts that need to be considered and adaptive planning should be adopted accordingly. Regardless of perspective, there are clearly threats and challenges that cross political boundaries. Many emerging zoonotic diseases do or will require international responses (Keatts et al., 2021). While we still know little about the threat of zoonotic diseases to snow leopards (see Chapter 9), they are known to impact snow leopard prey species, often due to close proximity to livestock and lack of effective vaccination or veterinary responses. Examples include a fatal outbreak of sarcoptic scabies among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) in Pakistan and a pleuropneumonia outbreak in Tajik markhor (Capra falconeri) (Ostrowski et al., 2011). Proactive information sharing and joint action can facilitate efficient monitoring and control of outbreaks between international borders. Direct threats to snow leopards and their prey from poaching and illegal trade could more

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easily be controlled through improved transboundary cooperation beyond existing international agreements. Snow leopard pelts are known to be transported across international borders, and the fur trade typically targets international tourists, aid or development staff, and military personnel who then transport them across borders as souvenirs (Kretser et al., 2012; Mishra and Fitzherbert, 2004; Wingard and Zahler, 2006). To control such trade, coordinated collection and sharing of information should occur among enforcement agencies and personnel, as well as bilateral training activities (e.g., among border guards). Border fences at national boundaries present a significant and direct physical threat to both snow leopards and their ungulate prey species (Wingard et al., 2014; see Chapter 11). These fences are often impenetrable barriers and stop critical movements, fragmenting populations impeding dispersal to find new territories, prey, and mates and increasing risks of extirpation (Pestov et al., 2020). For many ungulate species, movements to seasonal grazing pastures and avoiding potentially fatal winter weather are necessary survival mechanisms. Finding solutions to these physical border threats requires bilateral agreements—especially in cases where both countries have constructed fences on their sides of the border, creating a double barrier. Transboundary cooperation can also facilitate harmonization of laws and regulations related to wildlife management that can benefit snow leopards and other wildlife. An example of this is trophy hunting—a number of snow leopard range countries allow trophy hunting for wild caprids, e.g., argali (Ovis ammon), ibex (Capra sibirica), markhor (Capra falconeri), but rarely are these initiatives coordinated. This means that their movement across international borders can result in their being hunted on both sides, without recognition of the overall effect on the local population. More coordinated sharing of monitoring data can improve each nation’s adaptive planning and management

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for trophy hunting to ensure that offtake remains sustainable, which has obvious benefits to snow leopards that depend upon those same species for food (Rosen, 2012). Another example highlighting the need for such harmonization across borders is that of poachers moving between two countries and facing different penalties. Finally, transboundary coordination can provide clear benefits outside of wildlife conservation such as increasing financial opportunities and improving livelihoods for local people (McCallum et al., 2014). The development of high-profile transboundary protected areas could attract increased economic investment into these regions, provide jobs for local people, and also open opportunities for various types of information sharing and cooperation in the region. Even where protected areas are not directly joined across borders, transnational cooperation for management and tourism has the potential to enhance local economies on both sides. Trust and leadership are vital to developing such joint working frameworks, which has the added benefit of presenting investors with security and reassurance for long-term development and growth. In the GSLEP program, snow leopards have brought many countries that are otherwise embroiled in political and diplomatic tensions to the same platform. Decisions during Steering Committee Meetings of the GSLEP program, which includes Ministers from range country governments, are made on consensus, facilitating dialog, interaction, and mutual respect. Transboundary cooperation in wildlife conservation can help build relationships and thus peace and security in regions where relations are otherwise sensitive or even at odds. Such use of wildlife conservation initiatives for what is sometimes called “track-two diplomacy” (informal dialog to open channels of communication between nations using noncontroversial topics such as wildlife conservation) is a subject unto itself and outside the reach of this chapter,

but a great deal has been written on the subject, and readers are encouraged to investigate the topic (for example, see Sandwith et al., 2001; Schoon, 2012; Verma, 2011; Westing, 1998).

The legal framework for transboundary conservation Transboundary conservation emerges from and is a special case in a number of international agreements, with associated laws and policies offering support for the legal application of this concept. There are many types of legal instruments that can play a role in promoting transboundary cooperation (Vasilijevi
c et al., 2015). These vary in their level of formality and include multilateral treaties such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), bilateral agreements, and Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs). However, at the same time, one of the biggest impediments in transboundary conservation can be additional legal, diplomatic, and administrative effort required, which can disincentivize governments from participating. Perhaps one of the most important transboundary frameworks for the conservation of the snow leopard is provided by CMS (the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals). By definition, it is a convention that requires transboundary cooperation as a tool for managing migratory species across their borders. An important outcome of the 11th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention (CMS COP11) was the adoption of the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI), an innovative and comprehensive framework for the conservation of 18 species of Central Asian mammals, including the snow leopard and one of its key prey species, the argali (Rosen and Roettger, 2014). One of the initiatives under CAMI is to foster the

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Challenges in implementing transboundary conservation

development of transboundary solutions to facilitate the removal and/or mitigation of border fences. Connectivity conservation science has also been addressing the questions of where and how to maintain and restore landscape linkages, as discussed in Hilty et al. (2020). These guidelines provide a framework for establishing ecological corridors and connectivity areas between protected areas and OECMs while creating ecological networks. At the 13th meeting of the Conference of the Parties in 2020, CMS endorsed the Guidelines’ definition of ecological connectivity. Enforcement is an important element of transboundary conservation and collaboration. Illegal wildlife poaching and trafficking across borders require development of specific frameworks to address and respond to this threat. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna) plays a pivotal role in ensuring that all trade in endangered species is legal and sustainable. It is also a key partner in an innovative partnership called the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC). In addition to CITES, the ICCWC brings together INTERPOL, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the World Bank, and the World Customs Organization. Each of the international organizations offers specialized expertise that supports national enforcement agencies and subregional and regional networks involved in the fight against illegal trade (Vasilijevi
c et al., 2015). While formal agreements provide the strongest legal basis for long-term transboundary cooperation, informal agreements can also promote cooperative, friendly relations where the situation is not favorable to more formal arrangements. Informal approaches supplement, complement, and often enhance the more formal processes of governance. Informal arrangements can take the shape of collaborations between researchers, NGOs, or community-based conservancies from bordering countries. Such collaborations help ensure more effective implementation of wildlife conservation

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goals, and they normally do not require many resources or complex bureaucratic procedures. However, without sufficient coherence underpinning “top-down” and “bottom-up” priorities and motivations, such efforts risk losing agency buy-in.

Challenges in implementing transboundary conservation All transboundary initiatives are subject to certain limitations that include the inherent weakness of international or bilateral agreements, changes in political relationships that can affect implementation and progress, and changes in personnel and resources that decrease the effectiveness of efforts. Existing local and subregional informal agreements risk being eroded if collaborations are limited to top-down political agreements (Mason et al., 2020) and lack sufficient public understanding or consensus between those involved with implementation. Political indifference and lack of commitment toward common and regional issues shared by countries can impede the establishment of a transboundary conservation initiative. These are often led by countries’ environmental ministries and can lack the participation and support of other important ministries (for example, finance, security, and development). Regional instability and insecurity will also negatively influence the effectiveness of existing transboundary agreements and collaborative initiatives (Vasilijevi
c et al., 2015). There are also management challenges specifically relating to involvement of local communities ( Jones, 2005). They range from the lack of government will to engage with local communities, both in terms of comanagement arrangements and ensuring their representation in decision-making processes (Dressler and B€ uscher, 2008), lack of local capacity, adequate internal communication and transparency to facilitate local engagement

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with protected area authorities (B€ uscher and Schoon, 2009), and a failure to ensure that local communities benefit from initiatives (and thus buy into the effort and work toward its successful implementation). Other challenges to transboundary projects include protracted processes associated with amendments of legal and policy instruments; different interpretations of and institutional responses to legal and policy implementation requirements; and limitations and disparities in ecosystem and species management capacities, as well as in the capacities required to implement systematic conservation planning. External social, economic, and/or political dynamics, both immediately adjacent to and far removed from the area, can add layers of complexity that can frustrate approaches unless they are fully understood and integrated into management plans. A significant challenge is avoiding unrealistic expectations that are easily created (stakeholder engagement processes need to be handled very carefully to guard against this); the ability to ensure that benefits are equitably distributed to beneficiaries, particularly where the necessary structures and processes are either not yet in place or are unclear or not transparent (see Chapter 16); language barriers; cultural, historical, and political differences; development disparities, particularly as this relates to the access to resources and capacity for implementation; and a lack of leadership at (multiple) appropriate levels of governance. There are also complexities related to sharing governance responsibilities and/or appointing an objective, nonpartisan representative to coordinate implementation; significant differences in terms of land uses and plans for adjacent areas; and conflicting resource management policies, such as adjacent areas that may or may not allow trophy hunting. Finally, the concern about loss of sovereignty often becomes an issue, despite the fact that international agreements related to cooperation and coordination do not supersede a nation’s own laws and regulations.

Transboundary conservation initiatives and current status of transboundary protected areas Participants at international conferences held over the past few decades have regularly advocated for transboundary collaboration for the conservation of snow leopards and associated biodiversity, including the establishment of Transboundary Protected Areas (SLN, 2014). Several transboundary, ecosystem-level projects within snow leopard range have been initiated. A memorandum of understanding (MoU) for the conservation of snow leopard, its prey base and habitat in the Western Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai Mountain ranges has been endorsed and signed between the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Republic of Tajikistan, and the Republic of Uzbekistan. The GEF funded Western Tien Shan project (2017–22) aimed to improve and increase cooperation between four protected areas, all of which hold snow leopards: Chatkal Nature Reserve (Uzbekistan), Sary-Chelek and Besh-Aral Nature Reserves (Kyrgyzstan), and Aksu-Djebagly Nature Reserve (Kazakhstan). Objectives also included strengthening institutional capacity and national policies, supporting regional cooperation, and enhancing income generation within the protected areas. A recently concluded project, funded by GEF, implemented by the Snow Leopard Trust and United Nations Development Program, titled “Transboundary Cooperation in Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Conservation,” focused on building knowledge, capacity, and tools for effective transboundary conservation of snow leopard ecosystems; developing global monitoring frameworks for snow leopard ecosystems; and disseminating knowledge and toolkits through the GSLEP platform. The “Mountains of Northern Tien Shan” project (2013–16) was developed with the assistance of GIZ (German International Cooperation) and Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU). Within this project, a transboundary

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Transboundary conservation initiatives and current status of transboundary protected areas

protected area was planned (but not realized) encompassing three existing protected areas: Chon-Kemin National Park (Kyrgyz Republic), Chu-Or National Park, and Almaty Reserve (Republic of Kazakhstan). With the view to strengthen conservation in the Central and Inner Tien Shan of Kyrgyzstan, in 2016, Khan Tengri Natural Park (more than 1870 km2) in the east of the country was established. This protected area borders the Republic of Kazakhstan and links Sarychat-Ertash Reserve in Kyrgyzstan with Tomur Reserve in Xinjiang, China. The Tien Shan Ecosystem Development project, also funded by GEF, was launched in 2009 to support management of protected areas and sustainable development in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. The Pamir-Alai Transboundary Conservation Area project (PATCA) was funded by the EU and examined the option of creating a transboundary protected area across the border between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. A biological database was assembled, but no further action was taken, although proposals to establish a transboundary protected area still exist, and a protected area is slated to be established in the Alai valley under a forthcoming GEF project. The ongoing Altai-Sayan Ecoregion project, which began in 2007, aimed to enhance cooperation on biodiversity conservation between Mongolia and Russia in the Altai-Sayan region, and the snow leopard was one of the project’s focal species. Subsequently, the governments of Russia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan prepared and signed agreements to establish the UvsNuur and Altai Transboundary Nature Reserves in 2011–12, with the UNDP-GEF Project “Biodiversity Conservation in Altai-Sayan Ecoregion” providing a coordinating role. A threats assessment was completed in 2012, along with the drafting of the Altai-Sayan Ecoregion Conservation Strategy (WWF, 2012). Most recently, WWF-Mongolia and WWF-Russia

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successfully lobbied their governments to begin in 2020 the process of removing the border fence in the Republic of Altai on the Ukok plateau. So far 8 km of barbed wire has been removed to facilitate wildlife migrations (WWF, 2021). The Pamir International Protected Area has been proposed in the eastern Pamirs where the borders of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and China meet (Schaller, 2007; Xie et al., 2007). This would encompass multiple reserves, including one in China, two in Pakistan, two in Tajikistan, and three (at the time in development, more recently combined into one national park, Wakhan) in Afghanistan, totaling 35,870 km2. The most significant PAs containing snow leopards are Zorkul Nature Reserve (870 km2) in Tajikistan, Wakhan National Park (over 10,000 km2) in Afghanistan, Taxkorgan Nature Reserve (15,863 km2) in China, and Khunjerab National Park (6150 km2) in Pakistan. This initiative even had a map of the proposed transboundary protected area that was agreed upon by all four countries (Xie et al., 2007). Unfortunately, the initiative then suffered from many of the problems inherent in transboundary initiatives—replacement of key staff in Tajikistan leading to a lack of institutional memory and thus interest and political upheaval in Pakistan being just two. However, the initiative did lead to further conservation activities including a meeting on transboundary conservation in Dushanbe, Tajikistan (Zahler et al., 2011), a transboundary health initiative looking at livestock diseases that may be transmitted to wild snow leopard ungulate prey in the Pamirs of Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan (Ostrowski et al., 2012), and a study of climate change impacts on local communities in the greater Pamirs region in Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan (WCS, 2014). Over the years, there have been several informal bilateral initiatives, especially between Afghanistan and Tajikistan, at the level of exchanging experiences in wildlife

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management, capacity building, and collaboration on scientific research. However, China’s prioritization of building of new impassable border fences along the border with Tajikistan as well as mining exploration complicated discussion of transboundary conservation. Rapid government changeover in various countries involved in the initial effort left little institutional memory across the region. Ultimately, on the grounds of national security interests and to some extent the freedom to potentially pursue mining exploitation, there has been lack of political will to pursue the Pamir initiative. Nepal has signed agreements with China and India to facilitate biodiversity and forest management, encompassing six border-protected areas under the initiative known as the Sacred Himalayan Landscape. This effort covers about 39,021 km2 in the eastern and central Himalaya, with 74% located in Nepal, 24% in Sikkim and Darjeeling areas of India, and the remaining 2% in Bhutan (SLN, 2014). The large Qomolangma Nature Reserve (34,000 km2) is located on the Chinese side. The Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) Conservation Initiative is a collaborative effort of ICIMOD, UNEP, and regional partners from China, India, and Nepal. It represents a sacred landscape significant to hundreds of millions of people in Asia and around the globe, as well as the source of four large rivers (Indus, Brahmaputra, Karnali and the Sutlej), which serve as lifelines for large parts of Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Bilateral initiatives also exist in the Kangchendzonga landscape between Bhutan and Nepal and also between India and Nepal. In 2010, an MoU was signed between Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regional Forestry Department (XUARFD) and the Gilgit-Baltistan Forest, Wildlife Parks and Environment Department, Pakistan. The agreement was for the conservation of wildlife species along the Pakistan-China border area with regard to generating and sharing knowledge about wildlife species and their habitats and developing a joint management

plan addressing the issues of wildlife species and their habitats, together with suggested measures for minimizing negative anthropogenic influences on the environment and helping socioeconomic development of the local communities. Following that, in 2011, China participated in a consultation aimed at providing a platform to share the progress made toward the conservation of the ecologically contiguous landscape between China and Pakistan and to develop a common strategic framework of action for the landscape (ICIMOD, 2012). After that, ICIMOD launched the Hindu Kush Karakoram-Pamir Landscape (HPKL) initiative, focused on China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. In 2018, partners from protected areas in Afghanistan, China, Pakistan, and Tajikistan created the “Bam-e-Dunya” (Persian phrase for “roof of the world”) network to promote long-term conservation and sustainable mountain development in the HKPL. The partnership aims to enhance knowledge exchange, technology transfer, and capacity building, while also identifying joint opportunities and challenges related to conservation and development in the interconnected protected areas. These include: Wakhan National Park in Afghanistan; Taxkorgan Nature Reserve in China; Broghil, Khunjerab, and Qurumbar national parks in Pakistan; and Zorkul Nature Reserve in Tajikistan (IISD, 2018). A potential boost to transboundary conservation initiatives across snow leopards landscapes is adoption of the landmark resolution initiated by the Kyrgyz Republic entitled “Nature knows no borders: transboundary cooperation—a key factor for biodiversity conservation, restoration and sustainable use.” Adopted in April 2021 during the plenary meeting of the 75th session of the UN General Assembly and co-sponsored by 60 Member States, the goal of the resolution is to strengthen transboundary cooperation on the conservation of biological diversity through joint actions to provide future generations with a clean, safe, and stable environment, with the rational use of natural

III. Conservation solutions in situ

References

resources based on the principles of sustainable development and the implementation of the CBD’s Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework and the 2030 Targets. The adoption of the resolution was welcomed as a positive, proactive step by the Kyrgyz Republic in the development of transboundary collaboration on biodiversity conservation and countering the challenges associated with climate change.

Conclusions Given the challenges described, and in light of the snow leopard’s broad regional distribution across a number of range countries, transboundary collaboration is critical for snow leopard conservation efforts to succeed. At the very least, this must include the sharing of knowledge, intelligence on poaching and illegal trade in snow leopards and their parts, and best practices for conservation interventions. A concerted effort must be undertaken to overcome obstacles and facilitate processes to make snow leopard transboundary conservation and collaboration a more frequent and more effective solution to the larger landscape threats facing snow leopards across their range.

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en, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2016. Land sharing is essential for snow leopard conservation. Biol. Conserv. 203, 1–7. Jones, J.L., 2005. Transboundary conservation: development implications for communities in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 12, 266–278. Keatts, L.O., Robards, M., Olson, S.H., Hueffer, K., Insley, S.J., Joly, D.O., Kutz, S., Lee, D.S., Chetkiewicz, C.L., Lair, S., Preston, N.D., Pruvot, M., Ray, J.C., Reid, D., Sleeman, J.M., Stimmelmayr, R., Stephen, C., Walzer, C., 2021. Implications of zoonoses from hunting and use of wildlife in north American Arctic and boreal biomes: pandemic potential, monitoring, and mitigation. Front. Public Health 9, 627–654. Kretser, H., Johnson, M., Hickey, L.M., Zahler, P., Bennett, E., 2012. Supply and demand for wildlife trade products available to military personnel serving abroad. Biodivers. Conserv. 21, 967–980. Lo´pez-Hoffman, L., Varady, R.G., Flessa, K.W., Balvanera, P., 2010. Ecosystem services across borders: a framework for transboundary conservation policy.

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Front. Ecol. Environ. 8, 84–91. Available from: https:// doi.org/10.1890/070216. (9 December 2021). Mason, N., Ward, M., Watson, J.E.M., et al., 2020. Global opportunities and challenges for transboundary conservation. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 4, 694–701. https://doi.org/10. 1038/s41559-020-1160-3. McCallum, J., Vasilijevic, M., Cuthill, I., 2014. Assessing the benefits of transboundary protected areas: a questionnaire survey in the Americas and the Caribbean. J. Environ. Manag. 149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman. 2014.10.013. Mishra, C., Fitzherbert, A., 2004. War and wildlife: a postconflict assessment of Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor. Oryx 38, 102–105. Ostrowski, S., Thiaucourt, F., Amirbekov, M., Mahmadshoev, A., Manso-Silva´, L., Dupuy, V., Vohobov, D., Ziyoev, O., Michel, S., 2011. Fatal outbreak of Mycoplasma capricolum pneumonia in endangered markhors. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17, 2338–2341. Ostrowski, S., Yacub, T., Zahler, P., 2012. Transboundary Ecosystem Health in the Pamirs. Wildlife Conservation Society, American Association for the Advancement of Science, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Lahore, Pakistan, p. 34. Pestov, M.V., Muhashov, A.T., Terentyev, V.A., Rosen, T., 2020. Border Fences in Mangistau Region, Kazakhstan, Threaten the Migration of Goitered Gazelle. Newsletter 04/2020, Central Asian Mammal Imitative (CAMI), CMS, UNEP, pp. 9–10. Poyarkov, A.D., Munkhtsog, B., Korablev, M.P., Kuksin, A.N., Alexandrov, D.Y., Chistopolova, M.D., HernandezBlanco, J.A., Munkhtogtokh, O., Karnaukhov, A.S., Lkhamsuren, N., Bayaraa, M., Jackson, R.M., Maheshwari, A., Rozhnov, V.V., 2020. Assurance of the existence of a trans-boundary population of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) at Tsagaanshuvuut—TsaganShibetu SPA at the Mongolia-Russia border. Integr. Zool. 15, 224–231. Riordan, P., Cushman, S., Mallon, D., Shi, K., Hughes, J., 2015. Predicting global population connectivity and targeting conservation action for snow leopard across its range. Ecography 39. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.01691. Rosen, T., 2012. Analyzing gaps and options for enhancing argali conservation in Central Asia within the context of the convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals. Report Prepared for the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Germany and the GIZ Regional Program on Sustainable Use of Natural Resources in Central Asia, Bonn. Rosen, T., Roettger, C., 2014. The Central Asian Mammals Initiative: Saving the Last Migrations. UNEP/CMS Secretariat.

Sandwith, T., Shine, C., Hamilton, L., Sheppard, D., 2001. Transboundary protected areas for peace and co-operation. In: Phillips, A. (Ed.), Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 7. World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA). World Conservation Union (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland. Schaller, G., 2007. A proposal for a Pamir International Peace Park. In: USDA Forest Service Proc RMRS. vol. 49, pp. 227–231. Schoon, M.L., 2012. Governance in southern African transboundary protected areas. In: Quinn, M., Broberg, L., Freimund, W. (Eds.), Parks, Peace, and Partnerships. University of Calgary Press, Calgary. Singh, J.J., Jackson, R.M., 1999. Transfrontier conservation areas: creating opportunities for conservation, peace and the snow leopard in Central Asia. Int. J. Wilderness 5, 7–12. SLN, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Revised 2014 Version. Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, Washington, USA. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program. Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. Vasilijevi
c, M., Zunckel, K., McKinney, M., Erg, B., Schoon, M., Rosen, T., 2015. Transboundary Conservation: A Systematic and Integrated Approach. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 23, World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA). World Conservation Union (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland. Verma, K., 2011. Siachen—from battlefield to ’peace park’? The South-Asian Life & Times 2011 (October-December), 50–59. WCS, 2014. Mitigating Climate Change Threats in the Transboundary Pamirs. Unpublished report to the United States Forest Service. Westing, A.H., 1998. Establishment and management of transfrontier reserves for conflict prevention and confidence building. Environ. Conserv. 25, 91–94. Wingard, J., Zahler, P., 2006. Silent Steppe: the illegal wildlife trade crisis in Mongolia. Mongolia Discussion Papers, East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department, World Bank, Washington, DC. Wingard, J., Zahler, P., Victurine, R., Bayasgalan, O., Buuveibaatar, B., 2014. Guidelines for addressing the impact of linear infrastructure guidelines on migratory large mammals in Central Asia. Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). Technical Report, Bonn, Germany. WWF, 2012. Altai-Sayan Ecoregional Conservation Strategy. World Wide Fund for Nature. Available from: https:// conservationstandards.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/ 3/2020/10/ASER-STRATEGY>. (22 August 2022).

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Appendix

WWF, 2021. Breaking Barriers j How WWF removed barbed wire at Russia-Mongolian border for free migration of snow leopard and wild ungulate. Available from: https://updates.panda.org/breaking-barriers-how-wwfremoved-barbed-wire-at-russia-mongolian-border-forfree-migration-of-snow-leopard-and-wild-ungulate. WWF, ICIMOD, 2001. Ecoregion-Based Conservation in the Eastern Himalaya: Identifying Important Areas for Biodiversity Conservation. WWF Nepal, Kathmandu. Xie, Y., Kang, A., Wingard, J., Zahler, P., 2007. The Pamirs Transboundary Protected Area: A Report on the 2006 International Workshop on Wildlife and Habitat Conservation in the Pamirs. Wildlife Conservation Society. Unpublished Report, 52 p. Zahler, P., Schaller, G.B., 2014. Saving More Than Snow Leopards. Op Ed. Available from: https://www. nytimes.com/2014/02/02/opinion/saving-more-thanjust-snow-leopards.html. (9 December 2021). Zahler, P., Rosen, T., Watson, J., Ostrowski, S., 2011. The Tajik Pamirs: Transboundary Conservation and Management. Wildlife Conservation Society, United States Forest Service, Committee for Environmental Protection under the Republic of Tajikistan. 29 pages.

Appendix Table A.1 shows protected areas for all range countries that are located on or within approximately 10–30 km of an international boundary. These areas, as well as all other documented non-transboundary protected areas, are also depicted in Fig. A.1. This information was compiled from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre’s Protected Areas Data Unit (PADU) GIS dataset, supplemented by listings published by country protected area agencies, NGOs and INGOs. Experts were contacted where information was known to be contradictory, out of date or lacked recently proposed or established protected areas (e.g., Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, and Russia). There is still an urgent need to validate and update the database on protected areas within snow leopard range on a country-by-country basis.

TABLE A.1 boundary.

Protected in each range country located on, or within approximately 10–30 km of, an international

Afghanistan

Wakhan National Park (approx. 10,000 km2)

Bhutan

Jigme Dorji National Park (4316 km2); Wangchuk Centennial Park (4914 km2), Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (1186 km2) and Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary (750 km2)

China

Yaluzangbudaxiagu Nature Reserve (8982 km2); Qomolangma National Nature Reserve (34,000 km2); Taxkorgan Nature Reserve (15,863 km2), Tomur (Tuomeurfeng) Nature Reserve (2299 km2); Kanas (Hamasi) Nature Reserve (2500 km2); and Buersenheli Nature Reserve (88 km2)

India

Changtang Wildlife Sanctuary (+4000 km2); Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary (767 km2); and Khanchendzonga National Park (1794 km2)

Kazakhstan

Katon-Karagajsky National Park (6434 km2); Zhongar-Alatausky National Park (3560 km2); Tarbagataisky National Park; Ile-Alatau National Park (1993 km2), and Almatinsky Special Reserve (SR) (which also merges with the Almaty Wildlife Reserve) Aksu-Jabagly (Aksu-Zhabaglinsky) SR (1218 km2); and Sairam-Ugamsky National Park (1500 km2)

Kyrgyzstan

Besh-Aral Nature Reserve (632 km2); the Wildlife Sanctuaries of Sandalash and Manas; and Khan Tengri State Nature Park (1870 km2)

Mongolia

Altai-Tavan Bogd National Park (6361 km2); Sillkhem Mountain A (781 km2) & B (696 km2) National Parks; Tsagaan Shuvuut Mountain Special Protected Area (339 km2); Altai-Tavan Bogd National Park (6361 km2); Great Gobi (Gobi A) Special Protected Area (53,000 km2); Tsagaan Shuvuut Uul Special Protected Area, UvsNuur Special Protected Area, Tesiin gol Nature Reserve, Altan Els Special Protected Area, Khankhokhii NP, Khyargas Nuur National Park and Turgen Uul Special Protected Area; Uuvs Lake Special Protected Area (4423 km2)

Nepal

Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park (1148 km2), Gaurishankar Conservation Area (2179 km2), Langtang National Park (1710 km2), Annapurna Conservation Area (7629 km2), Manaslu Conservation Area (1663 km2). Continued III. Conservation solutions in situ

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TABLE A.1 Protected in each range country located on, or within approximately 10–30 km of, an international boundary—cont’d Shey-Phoksundo National Park (3555 km2); Kanchenjunga Conservation Area (2035 km2); and Api Nampa Conservation Area (1903 km2) Pakistan

Khunjerab National Park (6150 km2), Central Karakorum or K2 National Park (9738 km2), Chitral Gol National Park (77 km2), Agam Besti Wildlife Sanctuary (267 km2); and Kilik-Mintaka Wildlife Sanctuary (650 km2)

Russia

Katunskiy Nature Reserve (Zapovednik) (1516.4 km2), Belukha National Park (1313 km2), Argut National Park (205 km2), the Sailyugem National Park (1184 km2), Shavla Refuge (3288 km2); the Ukok Plateau National Park (2542 km2); Ubsunurskaye Kotlovina Nature Reserve (3232 km2), and Tunkinskiy National Park (11,836 km2)

Tajikistan

Zorkul Strict Nature Reserve (870 km2); and Tajik National Park (2200 km2)

Uzbekistan

Ugam-Chatkal National Park (5746 km2); Chatkal Nature Reserve; Hissar Natural Reserve (809.861 km2)

FIG. A.1 Protected areas (PAs) located within approximately 10–30 km of an international boundary. These areas, as well as all other documented nontransboundary PAs are shown. GIS dataset, supplemented by listings published by country PA agencies, NGOs and INGOs. Map courtesy of the Snow Leopard Conservancy.

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C H A P T E R

24 Corporate business and the conservation of the snow leopard: Worlds that need not collide Paul Hotham, Pippa Howard, Anna Lyons, Helen Nyul, and Tony Whitten Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Introduction The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) lives in some of the most beautiful but sensitive and remote landscapes in the world. These landscapes are increasingly targeted by corporate business for mineral extraction, for example, precious metals and coal, and other forms of large-scale development including alpine tourism, road building, dams, pipelines, and other infrastructure. Chapter 8 of Snow Leopard Survival Strategy highlights the potential future threats from the development sector—“Major infrastructural developments are either planned or under construction in different parts of the snow leopard’s range, particularly in those countries undergoing rapid economic growth like India, China, Russia and Kazakhstan. These include mineral exploration and extraction, new gas and oil pipelines, new road and rail transportation networks, and hydro-electric power facilities

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00041-8

associated with large or medium-sized dams …,[elsewhere] upstream water-storage facilities are expected to grow significantly.” The chapter goes on to say that “… it becomes increasingly important for range countries to put into place, or act upon, existing regulations in order to minimize negative environmental impacts through careful planning, appropriate mitigation measures and related ‘Best Practices’ ” (Snow Leopard Network, 2014). The strategy effectively makes an urgent call for action and for engagement in processes to ensure that the best possible practices are applied in relation to the planning and mitigation of potential impacts on the snow leopard and its habitats. The range and scale of developments and corporate actors implied here are enormous. In order to review the issues with corporate business more effectively, the following chapter primarily focuses on the extractive industry (which is made up of the mining, quarrying, dredging, and oil and gas extraction industries). However,

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the processes and principles described apply equally well to other large developments. Extractive industry often brings to mind largescale operations; however, the scale of activity may extend from intensive high-impact but localized operations such as that found at the Kumtor Mine in the Tien Shan mountains of Kyrgyzstan to low-impact but extensive activities such as that typically found with artisanal mining, which takes place in some areas of Mongolia, China, and the Himalayan countries. The activities of extractive industry are always cited in literature as a threat, and while those impacts are often obvious at a local scale, there appears to be little scientific evidence compiled concerning their direct and indirect impacts on the snow leopard and its prey across its range. Similarly, while the impacts of other large-scale development can be projected, for example, the potential impacts of building a large-scale dam in a mountain habitat can be predicted, their impacts on snow leopards are difficult to determine until site-specific proposals have been put forward. Although we lack breadth of evidence for the snow leopard, the impacts of large-scale developments and the extractive industry on other Central Asian species, for example, the critically endangered saiga antelope make it safe to assume that activities of an industrial nature are likely to both directly and indirectly affect the snow leopard. This may occur first through either acute or chronic damage to habitat and ecosystem function and second from the “ripple effect” of ancillary activities such as the development of road and rail networks and villages, which fragment and open up remote landscapes to hunting, poaching, and livestock grazing. On the other hand, the presence of more engaged and enlightened companies may provide opportunities for mobilizing resources for conservation and research activities, provide safe havens for snow leopard prey species, and create barriers to more unscrupulous companies exploiting the area.

Significantly more research and case work need to take place into the large-scale development and extractive industry aspects of snow leopard conservation, especially a thorough quantitative assessment of their impacts on snow leopards, their prey species, and habitats. In the meantime, it would be wise to follow the precautionary principle “where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992). Today, many businesses are adopting approaches to mitigate their impacts on ecosystems, habitats, and species and are utilizing charismatic species such as the snow leopard as a focus for channeling efforts to meet corporate environmental and social responsibility (CSR) requirements. However, it is recognized that the application of CSR and other approaches is often nonexistent within companies based in countries that are not signatories to global agreements and protocols and may be inadequately implemented by companies that are based in countries carrying such obligations. First, it is useful to consider why a company should manage its impacts on biodiversity at all.

Business case for conservation A range of business drivers encourage companies to engage in biodiversity conservation and impact mitigation measures. These drivers relate to the development of (i) operational efficiencies; (ii) competitive advantage, social license, and market positioning; and (iii) complying with legislation and lender bank requirements. Essentially, the business that understands how biodiversity supports or presents risks to its operation is able to make better informed decisions and improve its performance in relation to

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Business case for conservation

managing business risk, achieving social and environmental goals, and improving the financial bottom line. Sound management of biodiversity and ecosystem services is also an effective way of building trust and confidence with stakeholders and a means by which to engage them to secure the long-term effectiveness of mitigation and conservation activities.

Operational efficiencies Companies are increasingly identifying benefits to their operations through adopting environmental practices that incorporate sustainable use measures. For example, recycling water within the operation not only reduces the costs associated with extracting water and controlling effluent emissions but also reduces the amount of water taken from habitats that snow leopards or their prey rely on. Understanding social and environmental risks at a landscape or ecosystem scale benefits an operation by enabling it to manage risks and take advantage of opportunities. It also ensures timely interventions through the early application of a mitigation hierarchy to avoid, minimize, restore, offset, and, where residual impacts may remain, offset impacts and dependencies on biodiversity and ecosystem services. The benefits of this approach include better operational risk management, which results in positive social and environmental outcomes. Importantly, the early application of the mitigation hierarchy within a landscape-scale analysis of the mine at the concept stage provides opportunities for the effective analysis of alternatives whereby the operation can seek to maximize avoidance of habitat, for example, that is important to snow leopards.

Competitive advantage, social license, and market positioning Companies have also realized competitive advantages when they start to employ better environmental practices. Competitive advantages

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within the extractives sector include obtaining the legal and social license to operate, which ultimately results in access to land. Businesses that implement policies and strategies to manage impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services are more likely to be able to demonstrate that they can manage projects sensitively. This will become even more important as areas of extraction become increasingly remote and perhaps found within sensitive areas. Gunningham et al. (2004) stated that “good citizen measures are justified on the grounds that enhancing the firm’s reputation for good environmental citizenship (and avoiding a reputation for bad environmental citizenship) will in the short or long run be good business” and further that companies with improved environmental performance have better reputations and “it is argued, will gain readiest access to the means by which to make future profit: development approvals, preferred access to prospective areas and products, the ear of government, the trust of regulators, the tolerance of local communities, and the least risk of being targeted by Environmental NGOs.” Market positioning requires the companies to set themselves high standards that might set the bar for other companies. For example, the middle-sized mining company Eramet wanted global recognition for its highly specific products and activities from its nickel mine in Halmahera, Indonesia. It is committed to adhering to IFC PS6 (see later) and will be one of the first pilots for the Business and Biodiversity Offset Program (BBOP) standard (BBOP, 2012).

Case study Anglo American considers water to be a material issue. Water is a fundamental requirement for its operations and for the communities where it operates. Increasing demand and competition for water resources, compounded by the potential effects of climate change. are increasing the potential for water shortages, cost escalations, and growing legislative complexities. Using the

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World Resources Institute’s Aqueduct tool, about 75% of Anglo American’s sites would fall within water-stressed areas. Work is under way to develop site and catchment-specific assessments that will provide the company with a more complete assessment of business water risk. The integrated site and regional water balances will help understand the impact of any changes in the catchment area, including heat maps related to future climate change and increased water demand within the catchments. This assessment takes into account factors such as climate models, population, agriculture, and industry growth. Anglo American is also investing in FutureSmart Mining, technological innovations aimed at operating water-neutral mines where freshwater is not diverted or affected (Anglo American Group Water Policy 2018, Sustainable Mining Plan 2018, Anglo American Sustainability Report 2019; all available at https://www.angloamerican.com).

Complying with legislation and lender bank requirements Awareness of the importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services has increased, as has recognition of the value of these to local communities and the contribution of these services to national economies. This has fueled the growth in policies that refer to biodiversity and ecosystem offsets as a potential or required tool to meet government targets to balance development with environmental stewardship. There has been a significant rise in government policies, guidance, and legislation that require or enable biodiversity offsets since 1965, with acceleration in the last 10 years. It is estimated that over 100 countries globally have incorporated the principle of no net loss into public policy (Bull and Strange, 2018). Financial institutions have also been incorporating no net loss and/or net gain objectives into their environmental safeguard systems. International Finance Corporation (IFC)

Performance Standard 6 (PS6) is the bestknown financial lending requirement. PS6 requires a net (biodiversity) gain for impacts on critical habitat and no net loss (of biodiversity) where feasible for impacts on natural habitat (IFC, 2019). Habitat that supports snow leopards could be considered critical habitat, and all appropriate steps should be taken to avoid affecting this habitat, if it is to receive IFC funding.

Case study IFC’s eight Environmental and Social Performance Standards (PS) define IFC clients’ responsibilities for managing their environmental and social risks. Where projects trigger a PS, they must show in a detailed report whether mitigation measures can be designed and implemented in a satisfactory way to adhere to the requirements set out in the relevant PS. The implementation of actions necessary to meet the requirements of the PSs is managed though the company’s Social Environmental Management System, in the case of PS6, this is the Biodiversity Action Plan. PS6 recognizes that protecting and conserving biodiversity is fundamental to sustainable development. The requirements set out in PS6 have been guided by the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 and specifically address how companies can avoid or mitigate threats to biodiversity arising from their operations as well as sustainably manage natural resources. For example, paragraph 16 contains seven criteria, which identify critical habitat: (i) critically endangered and endangered species; (ii) endemic and restricted-range species; (iii) migratory and congregatory species; (iv) unique assemblages of species; (v) key evolutionary processes; (vi) key ecosystem services; (vii) biodiversity of significant social, economic, or cultural importance to local communities (IFC, 2019).

Many development/multilateral banks follow IFC PS6 guidelines or have developed similar

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Business case for conservation

approaches themselves, for example, European Bank of Reconstruction and Development (2008). In addition, financial institutions that abide by the Equator Principles (Equator Principles, 2013) have agreed to follow PS6 in their loan agreements. PS6 is thus becoming a major driver of biodiversity offsets within industry, even for companies that do not normally use multilateral finance, for the following reasons: • PS6 is viewed as leading practice by many stakeholders. Therefore, corporations are increasingly using PS6 as a global bestpractice benchmark. • The Equator Principles Financial Institutions (more than 111 institutions in 37 countries) have committed to follow PS6 for all relatively large projects in developing countries.

FIG. 24.1

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• Nations (especially non-OECD) that own a percentage of extractives projects often obtain their financing from development/ multilateral banks, which increasingly follow PS6 or similar. • In joint-venture or multipartner projects, one partner may have PS6-related financing, which can impact schedules and costs for all partners. • Purchase of small or medium-sized companies or projects that were started with bank finance results in inheritance of loan conditions. Having explored the business case for why a company should manage its impacts on biodiversity, we now explain the five key steps in applying the mitigation hierarchy and best practices (Fig. 24.1).

Applying best practices as a company in snow leopard territory.

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Stage 1: Baseline data—Identifying priority sites for snow leopard The Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) process (stage 2) relies on baseline information to predict and evaluate project impacts, to assess alternative actions, and to support mitigation and monitoring plans. Baseline data need to be specific and relevant, up to date, reflect the seasonality of the site, and collected using standardized methodologies. If there is an expected time lag before implementation, for example, dams or offshore oil and gas developments, it is important to understand baseline trends to estimate what the baseline will look like when the project is implemented, taking into account other projects that are likely to occur in the interim (Abaza et al., 2004). Detailed information on snow leopard ranges is becoming increasingly available as the number of field surveys and use of camera trapping and genetic analysis increases. The Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) identified 23 landscapes to be secured by the year 2020 (Chapter 49). The value of planning across large spatial scales is widely advocated (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003; Snow Leopard Network, 2014). By overlaying data on new developments, infrastructure, and habitat with snow leopard ranges, potential zones of conflict between snow leopard conservation and current or potential developments can be identified. These then translate into conservation priorities to be addressed. At a regional and site level, further studies of extractive concession areas must be undertaken to identify habitats that support snow leopards and thus better understand the potential level of risk posed to their populations. Ideally this work would be undertaken at the project concept stage so that appropriate mitigation plans can be developed to avoid impacts, then minimize, and then restore them. Project planners should use the biodiversity baseline to design, construct, and plan the

operational phases of the development ensuring maximum avoidance of impact. Aspects to be aware of include: • Areas of high biodiversity value or endemism and critical threatened ecosystems • Sensitive sites such as rivers, wetlands, and ridges • Graves and other culturally significant sites • The latest published versions of conservation plans Practices to prevent and limit the biodiversity impacts caused by developments include: • Avoiding activities in sensitive environments • Disturbing as few sites as possible, minimizing the footprint • Using existing access roads and disturbed areas in preference to disturbing new areas • Using lighter or more effective equipment • Managing chemicals, hydrocarbons, and waste to prevent pollution • Timing activities to avoid disturbance of seasonal parameters • Rehabilitating disturbances as soon as possible Stage 2: Environmental and social impact assessment—Establish threats and impacts ESIA is arguably one of the most important and widely used tools to guide sustainable development. ESIA uses relevant studies to ensure that social and environmental concerns are integrated into decision-making. Specifically, it aims to identify the social and environmental impacts of development proposals early on in project planning and investigate how to avoid or minimize them (Abaza et al., 2004; International Association for Impact Assessment, 2003; Retief et al., 2011). When implemented correctly, ESIA can integrate environmental issues into decision-making in a way that considers conservation needs alongside those of developers, governments, and societies alike. ESIAs need to be undertaken early in a

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Business case for conservation

project to result in proper application of the mitigation hierarchy (specifically avoidance through the alternatives analysis); incorporate meaningful stakeholder participation; integrate broad environmental, social, and economic impacts; and coordinate measures by all actors through strong legislation and institutional governance. The ESIA process should assess all direct and indirect environmental impacts from project conception and exploration through to closure.

The ESIA system ESIA systems differ from country to country, but generally involve the following stages: 1. Screening: Assess development proposals against regulations in order to determine which proposals require a full or partial ESIA. 2. Scoping: Determine the key issues and impacts (direct and indirect) that are relevant for decision-making and require further study and may include creation of a Terms of Reference (ToR). 3. Baseline assessment: Undertake in-depth studies on key issues such as water resources, terrestrial ecology, aquatic ecology, and cultural heritage. 4. Identification and evaluation of impacts: Identify potential social and environmental impacts and develop actions to avoid, mitigate, or offset them. 5. ESIA report: Describe the business case for proposed development, legislative context, existing environment, and predicted impacts; document the significance of residual impacts; and outline mitigation, management, and offset measures. 6. Review and decision-making: Determine whether the ESIA report satisfies its ToRs and whether the development should be approved or rejected. 7. Follow-up: Monitor development impacts against the predetermined baseline and assess

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the effectiveness of mitigation measures; ensure that developers comply with conditions of approval; and evaluate the effectiveness of the ESIA as a whole to ensure that learning can be fed back into the ESIA process to improve future practice (e.g., Abaza et al., 2004; Morrison-Saunders et al., 2007).

Stage 3: Apply the mitigation hierarchy to develop management actions to mitigate impacts Proper use of the mitigation hierarchy should seek to avoid impacts, then minimize, then restore, and finally, only use offsets to compensate for the residual impacts after all other options have been exercised. The hierarchy is used to establish an order of preference for mitigation measures in order to achieve no net loss or a net gain of biodiversity, starting with avoidance and working through the other stages as necessary. 1. Avoidance: measures taken to avoid operational impacts on biodiversity, such as careful placement of project infrastructure or temporal planning of activities. The biggest opportunity for avoidance is during options analysis in the ESIA phase and project development. Avoidance measures significantly reduce impacts on biodiversity, thereby reducing future costs of restoration, offsets, and closure. 2. Minimization/reduction: measures taken to reduce the duration, intensity, and/or extent of impacts (including primary, secondary, and cumulative impacts, as appropriate) that cannot be completely avoided. It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between avoidance and minimization because some actions have aspects of both. 3. Restoration: the reestablishment of ecosystem structure (diversity), composition (species), and function (processes) to bring it back to its predisturbance state or to a healthy state close

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to the original. Restoration differs from rehabilitation in that restoration is a long-term process that accounts toward no net loss or net positive impact of biodiversity. 4. Rehabilitation: the preparation of safe and stable landforms on sites that have been disturbed, followed by revegetation with the aim of establishing a specific habitat type. Rehabilitation is important for improving basic ecosystem functions such as erosion control and water quality regulation. 5. Offset: measures taken to environmentally compensate for any residual adverse impacts that cannot be avoided, reduced, or restored, in order to achieve no net loss or a net gain of biodiversity. Offsets include positive management interventions, such as

FIG. 24.2

restoration of degraded habitat, arrested degradation or averted risk, protecting areas important for biodiversity conservation (BBOP, 2009a,b). 6. Additional conservation actions: a broad range of activities that benefit biodiversity or the ecosystem, but where effects or outcomes are difficult to quantify in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem service gains. Examples include scientific research, environmental education, and building capacity and expertise in conservation organizations. These form an essential part of a company’s contribution to biodiversity conservation, often underpinning the success of other mitigation actions and are highly valued by interested stakeholders. However, they are NOT offsets (Fig. 24.2).

Mitigation hierarchy effect on predicted biodiversity impacts (after BBOP, Rio Tinto, 2004).

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Biodiversity offsetting

Case study The presence of the Kumtor Mine has provided benefits to snow leopard conservation in the Central Tien Shan region of Kyrgyzstan. In the late 1990s, multilateral lenders (EBRD and IFC) engaged an NGO to review the biodiversity aspects of Kumtor’s Environmental Impact Assessment. The review made recommendation on mitigation measures for the mine, ranging from no-hunting policies to wildlife monitoring, which Kumtor adopted and continues to report results against in their annual environmental reports. The lenders also encouraged the Kyrgyz government to establish the Sarychat-Ertash Reserve (SCER) adjacent to the mine site. Once established, the lenders and Kumtor mobilized funds and resources to support NGO-led initiatives that have built the capacity of the reserve, developed a reserve management plan, and supported biodiversity-focused research and community development efforts. A strict no-hunting policy is still being applied on the mine site that acts as a barrier to poachers. The number of argali (Ovis ammon) on the reserve has increased from 750 to 2500 head, making it the largest population in Kyrgyzstan. The population of ibex (Capra sibirica) has stabilized at 750–850 heads. Research also confirms that the number of snow leopards present in and around the SCER has increased significantly to 18 individuals (Prizma, 2014).

Environmental management plans Following the ESIA, the company must include measures to prevent or mitigate biodiversity impacts in an Environmental Management Plan (EMP). Site exploration should not commence before legal permission is granted and an approved EMP is prepared. EMPs should take into account the identified direct and indirect impacts on biodiversity and ensure that

activities avoid, minimize, or restore impacts in areas with high biodiversity value, for example, known snow leopard habitat. Adequate management, mitigation, and rehabilitation measures should be identified for each phase of the project within the EMP and the full cost of rehabilitation and the long-term management of impacts before the project commences. If a company already operates in habitats that support snow leopards and an ESIA was not required previously, managers should mitigate the impact of the mine through minimization, restoration, and offsetting, aiming for no net loss or a net gain to that habitat. All companies have an excellent opportunity for conserving threatened ecosystems on those parts of a property unaffected by extractive activities.

Biodiversity offsetting Most initiatives aiming toward a no net loss or net positive impact for biodiversity are framed around the mitigation hierarchy as outlined earlier and in particular utilize the concept of biodiversity offsets. Biodiversity offsets operate through various mechanisms, which include: securing or setting aside land, management actions, and defined conservation and livelihoods activities. They can be used to expand or buffer existing protected areas, create new protected areas, enhance or restore habitats, and protect or manage species. In each case, a conservation gain should be achieved that is relative and related to the impacts of development on a particular species, habitat, or ecosystem. If positive outcomes are achieved through the timely application of the mitigation hierarchy, biodiversity offsets may not be required. A wide range of organizations are working on offsets toward a no net loss or net positive impact, including companies with no net loss or net positive impact commitments, such as De Beers, BC Hydro, Norsk Hydro, and Teck and Anglo American; companies such as Eni

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24. Corporate business and the conservation of the snow leopard

and Shell and Newmont that have a commitment to the application of the mitigation hierarchy; financial institutions such as the EBRD and IFC; intergovernmental organizations, for instance, the CBD and the IUCN; and a variety of nongovernmental organizations collaborating directly with the private sector in the field including Birdlife International, Fauna & Flora International, and The Nature Conservancy.

Biodiversity action plans Biodiversity action plans (BAPs) are a common framework used by companies to help them manage activities specifically related to biodiversity and ecosystem services. BAPs are developed in a variety of ways. The overarching goal of a BAP, however, should be to serve as a repository of information related to biodiversity and ecosystem services that highlights their importance within the company’s area of influence (direct and indirect impacts) as well as the management of those impacts to meet specific objectives, such as net positive impact or no net loss. The process of identifying risks and setting targets through the application of the mitigation hierarchy should be clearly communicated in the BAP, with all activities once identified being integrated into the company’s environmental management system (EMS) should they have one.

Case study The UNDP, in partnership with the Mongolian Ministry of Environment and Green Development, Ministry of Mines and Energy, and Ministry of Industry and Agriculture, with funding from the GEF, is collaborating with the private sector to develop the Land Degradation Mitigation and Offsets in Western Mongolia project. Starting in 2015, the project aims to reduce the negative impacts of mining on rangelands in snow leopard habitat of the western mountain and steppe region by incorporating the mitigation hierarchy and offset into

landscape level planning and management. The project will then work with selected mining companies, in close cooperation with local government and communities, to pilot best practice approaches. The aim is to conserve biodiversity and enhance ecosystem services while maintaining ecological function, including pastureland and water quality and quantity. The project will also capture lessons, to be fed into other initiatives seeking to address large-scale development impacts in sensitive landscapes. Key criteria provide a decision support framework for selecting sites where the approaches will be implemented. These include the ecology, cultural and historical heritage, socioeconomics, and institutional context. The project sites are highly biodiverse, being remote and in excellent ecological condition. In addition, Sutai Khairkhan, a nationally significant sacred mountain on the border of the Hovd and Gobi Altai Aimags, lies within this snow leopard landscape; the project will contribute to the protection of this important area. The project will also promote collaboration between the different land users to their mutual benefit while protecting vital resources through sustainable development initiatives. Existing activities and sustainable pastoralism projects will contribute to the suite of potential activities.

Another important aspect of BAPs is that they should also align with national biodiversity strategy and action plans (NBSAPs). NBSAPs articulate that the target countries are committing to deliver to achieve the goals and targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Alignment with the NBSAP and, for example, snow leopard conservation objectives, will ensure that the company’s objectives are appropriate and help meet overarching national targets and commitments. Stage 4: Monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of actions Responsible companies must be able to manage risks, ensure that operations deliver conservation objectives as planned, and identify and

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Opportunities

respond to unexpected problems in a timely manner. Through monitoring changes to natural systems over time, companies can evaluate their impacts and respond appropriately to meet agreed environmental objectives and targets. Monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity through a plan-do-check-act cycle are a key component of project implementation and adaptive management that helps businesses: • Manage risks by analyzing the effects of actual or predicted impacts and identifying new issues as they appear. • Meet targets by reviewing environmental performance to measure success against company objectives and improve approaches. • Increase environmental benefits by ensuring the greatest possible environmental outcomes at each project stage. • Create business benefits by communicating transparently with stakeholders and being able to demonstrate performance. • Learn and adapt by using analysis to evaluate the success of current methods, adapt management, and potentially improve company policies. Stage 5: Modify and update actions Monitoring approaches vary greatly depending on the landscape and biodiversity in question, but all use indicators to identify and measure change. Indicators help identify issues and understand trends by presenting information about complex and changing ecosystems in a way that businesses and their stakeholders can understand. It is useful to recognize that many companies are familiar with international conservation framework conventions and are “signed” up to their implementation. This includes the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) and the CBD, both of which make explicit reference to how the private sector can focus on maintaining habitat and

species viability and support conservation efforts in locations. CMS has also recently produced guidelines on mitigating the impact of linear infrastructure and related disturbance on mammals in Central Asia (Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 2014).

Opportunities While researching for this chapter, the authors received a comment from the extractives sector regarding the reluctance of some groups to engage with the sector for reasons including fear of reputational impact, negative reaction from memberships, and the belief that extractive companies are inherently evil. As we bring this chapter to a close, it is useful to consider the opportunities that, given the chance, corporate business could provide in support of conservation. It is undeniable that the corporate world has a significant impact on biodiversity and communities, but where there are impacts, there are also opportunities for change. The land area under corporate management is vast. Often community livelihoods are overwhelmingly dependent on successful businesses. The extractive industries, in particular, frequently operate in areas of highest biodiversity value that often have low livelihood opportunities for local people. The activities and attitudes of business therefore exert a significant influence on the long-term viability and sustainability of an environment on which we all depend. Some companies are making efforts to support worthwhile conservation activities, but they struggle with many groups being unwilling to see them as a genuine partner. The corporate sector increasingly views partnership and collaboration with conservation groups as the best way to tackle the demanding and complex issues associated with operating in biologically sensitive environments. The corporate sector needs an active and engaged conservation sector in order to find ways to improve

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biodiversity performance. Positive and transparent engagement between the sectors can result in reduced environmental impacts, improved business biodiversity performance, and business practices toward conservation, while providing tangible benefits to conservation. Benefits include enhanced funding for conservation, increased number and area of designated sites, and enhanced conservation capacity. Although challenging, NGO-corporate partnerships have the potential to elevate biodiversity conservation to new levels, provided that they are well designed and benefit from clear objectives and equal commitment on both sides. While not compromising their roles as defenders of communities and biodiversity, NGOs and other actors could benefit from understanding the position of corporate business and using processes such as ESIAs, IFC PS6, and the mitigation hierarchy as leverage points to hold business to account and as a means to positively engage to ensure that the best possible effort is put into the conservation of the snow leopard and its habitat. The key to a good working partnership is the early identification of common goals and objectives, the development of a partnership work plan, and good communication.

Conclusions Although we lack significant quantifiable evidence for the snow leopard, the impacts of largescale developments and the extractives industry present a current and significant future threat to biodiversity. However, the corporate and conservation worlds need not always collide. The presence of progressive and engaged companies provides opportunities for mobilizing resources for wider biodiversity conservation; provides safe havens for snow leopard and their prey species; and creates barriers to more unscrupulous companies exploiting snow leopard range areas. They also present an

opportunity for positive engagement by NGOs and other actors in key planning and decisionmaking processes. For reasons of operational efficiency, competitive and market advantage, legislative compliance, and good citizenship, companies are increasingly looking to mitigate their impacts through the application of good practices such as ESIA and the mitigation hierarchy. Companies should always conduct credible participatory ESIAs and commit to avoid, minimize, or mitigate any environmentally damaging effects. Where there is doubt, companies should adhere to the CBD’s precautionary principle, especially when operating in the most important snow leopard landscapes. It is also imperative that companies communicate what they do, not only to demonstrate that they are behaving responsibly but also to establish widely recognized best practice norms that encourage recalcitrant companies to adopt similar practices. Some companies are trying to support worthwhile conservation activities, and these provide opportunities to ensure that the best possible effort is put into the conservation of the snow leopard and its habitat.

References Abaza, H., Bisset, R., Sadler, B., 2004. Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental Assessment: Towards an Integrated Approach. United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva. Available from: https:// www.unep.org/resources/report/environmental-impactassessment-and-strategic-environmental-assessmenttowards. (Accessed 20 October 2022). BBOP, 2009a. Business, Biodiversity Offsets and BBOP: An Overview. Forest Trends, Washington, DC, USA. BBOP, 2009b. Compensatory Conservation Case Studies. Forest Trends, Washington, DC, USA. BBOP, 2012. Biodiversity Offsets: Principles, Criteria and Indicators. Forest Trends, Washington, DC, USA. Bull, J.W., Strange, N., 2018. The global extent of biodiversity offset implementation under no net loss policies. Nat. Sustain. 1, 790–798. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893018-0176-z. Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 2014. Convention on Migratory Species. Available from: http:// www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/COP11_

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References

Doc_23_3_2_Infrastructure_Guidelines_Mammals_in_ Central_Asia_E.pdf. (Accessed 2 July 2015). Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992. https://www.cbd. int/convention/articles.shtml?a¼cbd-00. (Accessed 1 April 2015). Equator Principles, 2013. Equator Principles III – 2013. Available from: http://www.equator-principles.com. (Accessed 20 October 2022). European Bank of Reconstruction and Development, 2008. Performance Requirements. Available from: www.ebrd.com/ downloads/about/sustainability/ESP_PR01_Eng.pdf. Gunningham, N., Kagan, R.A., Thornton, D., 2004. Social license and environmental protection: why businesses go beyond compliance. Law Social Inquiry 29, 307. IFC, 2019. Performance Standard 6 Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources. International Finance Corporation, Washington, DC, USA. International Association for Impact Assessment, 2003. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, vol. 21, no. 1. pp. 5–11. Beech Tree Publishing, Surrey. Available from: https://www.iaia.org/../sections/sia/IAIA-SIAInternational-Principles.pdf (20 October 2022).

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McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. International Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, WA. Morrison-Saunders, A., Marshall, R., Arts, J., 2007. EIA Follow-Up International. Best Practice Principles. Special Publication Series No. 6. Fargo, USA. Prizma, 2014. Creating Paper Parks or Biodiversity Value in Kyrgyzstan? Available from: http://prizmablog.com/ 2012/05/15/creating-paper-parks-or-biodiversityvaluein-kyrgyzstan/. (Accessed 22 August 2022). Retief, F., Welman, C.N.J., Sandham, L., 2011. Performance of environmental impact assessment (EIA) screening in South Africa: a comparative analysis between the 1997 and 2006 EIA regimes. S. Afr. Geogr. J. 93 (2), 154–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2011.592263. Rio Tinto, 2004. Rio Tinto Biodiversity Strategy. Rio Tinto. Available from: www.riotinto.com/documents/../ RTBidoversitystrategyfinal.pdf. (Accessed 20 October 2022). Snow Leopard Network, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Available from: https://snowleopardnetwork.org/ resource-centre/research-methods/1975-2/.

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S E C T I O N I V

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C H A P T E R

25 Management of captive snow leopards in the EAZA region Emma Nygrena, Alexander Sliwab, and Leif Blomqvistc a

Nordens Ark, Hunnebostrand, Sweden bEAZA Felid TAG Chair, Cologne Zoo, Cologne, Germany c Former Studbook Keeper 1976–2019, Nordens Ark, Hunnebostrand, Sweden

Introduction

Snow leopards in focus in the 1970s

The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) has a long history in European zoos with the taxon exhibited for the first time in Antwerp Zoo in 1851 (Rieger, 1980). Although the first litter was born in Wroclaw Zoo in 1910, it is safe to say that prior to the 1960s, most snow leopards, not only in Europe but also in North America, imported from the wild did not survive long and only a handful reproduced. Before 1960, when collection from the wild was the usual means of acquiring snow leopards for zoos, only four wild-caught pairs in European zoo collections bred. Of these pairs, descendants of the successful breeding pair in Copenhagen from the late 1950s, “Hassan” (studbook # 85) and “Muddi” (studbook # 86), are still represented in the current population while the gene lines of the three other pairs have gradually disappeared.

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00012-1

Snow leopard reproduction thus remained sporadic in Europe, and it was not until the late 1970s that births were to become more common. Due to poor breeding results and high neonatal mortality, the species became a subject of intense focus and the desire to establish a self-sustaining population. This was encouraged in particular by three European zoo directors, Ilkka Koivisto (Helsinki), Peter Weilenmann (Zurich), and Walter Encke (Krefeld) by initiating a global Snow Leopard Conference hosted by Helsinki Zoo in 1978. The aim of the symposium was to establish standard management protocols to improve breeding and to devise methods by which essential information could be compiled and exchanged between zoo professionals (Blomqvist, 1978a). At the end of the 1970s, the future of the snow leopard population still seemed bleak in Europe,

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and in 1979, 29 pairs produced six litters, meaning only 21% reproduced. The cub mortality rate was high, and 38% of the population consisted of wild-born individuals while the age structure of the stock indicated an unstable population heading for extinction. The need for closer cooperation between zoos had become even more evident after the mid1970s when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which strictly regulated the trade in wild animals, came into force. Zoos had to build up selfsustaining populations of animals in order not to have to rely on the import of wild individuals. Captive propagation now became the prime method for replenishing zoo collections. As a result, the European Endangered Species Program (EEP) was established in 1985, with breeding programs for 19 threatened species kept in European zoo collections. The number of programs expanded quickly, and in 1987, the snow leopard was integrated into the EEP program.

Global studbook 1976 All isolated populations, whether in the wild or in captivity, lose part of their gene diversity with each generation. It may therefore seem surprising that a number of founders that bred several decades ago are still represented in the current stock in Europe and North America. The reason for this is simple: captive snow leopards have been recorded in an international studbook since 1976 (Blomqvist, 1978b). The studbook was first maintained by Leif Blomqvist at Helsinki Zoo and from 2010 until 2019 at Nordens Ark when the task was taken over by Emma Nygren. The most recent international studbook was published by Blomqvist (2018), covering the global status of the captive population in 2017. The international studbook allows one to follow each individual in detail by ancestry, location, and dates of birth and death. Instead of being merely a book-keeping tool, the studbook has aspired to be a proactive tool for population

management. Thanks to the studbook, a number of animal exchanges between the main breeders in Europe and North America took place in the 1970s and 1980s, and many of the old founders that bred during these years are therefore still represented on both continents. Several papers describe the types of analyses of studbook data that help to characterize captive populations under intensive management (Mace, 1986; Wharton and Freeman, 1988). Once completed, these analyses are translated into facts and figures, which, along with information on the species’ basic biology, form a picture of the population status and of the biological constraints faced by the studbook keeper. These facts and their synthesis provide the basis for understanding the importance of each individual in the population and the type of recommendations most appropriate for that particular animal (Leus, 2011). Today, the vast majority of snow leopards worldwide are part of regional, cooperative breeding programs functioning under regional zoo associations. Most of the jointly managed snow leopards live in Europe and North America, with smaller populations maintained in Australia, India, and Japan (Gillespie and Hibbard, 2013; Jha, 2013; Jha and Rai, 2013; Taniguchi and Namaizawa, 2013).

Breakthroughs in the 1980s The breakthrough came in Europe in the 1980s, when the number of cubs finally exceeded the number of deaths. This improvement can be attributed to the higher status the taxon attained through being managed in an international studbook in addition to its incorporation in the pan-European breeding program. As illustrated in Fig. 25.1, the captive population continued to prosper with high growth rates until the mid1990s, when it finally peaked in 1996 with 217 animals in 93 institutions. Due to lack of holding capacity, breeding restrictions were then imposed

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Goal of the EEP: To maintain a genetically intact population with high gene diversity

FIG. 25.1

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Development of the snow leopard EEP 1987–2020. Photo courtesy Alex Sliwa.

with the result that the population declined to 181 animals by 2006. During the following years, the number of births again exceeded the number of animals lost (Fig. 25.2), and the population reached 224 animals in 2013. The population has since started to decline again, and at the beginning of 2021, the EEP population stood at 187 (97 males, 90 females) animals in 82 institutions (ZIMS for Studbooks for Snow, 2021). The goal of the snow leopard EEP is to increase the population size and ideally maintain it at around 250 animals. As felid exhibits increase in size to meet the modern animal welfare and exhibit needs, the number of different species that can be maintained at sustainable population levels decreases. Space limitations and competition with other endangered cat species of the same size will therefore be the main factors limiting population growth in the future.

Goal of the EEP: To maintain a genetically intact population with high gene diversity Gene diversity (GD) is considered vital to all organisms for their future evolution. A sufficient level of genetic variability must therefore be retained to allow the captive populations to adapt to potential environmental changes as well as to resist diseases and other stresses. The primary goal for the breeding program has consequently been to keep the population demographically robust and genetically representative of its wild counterparts and to sustain these characteristics for a foreseeable future. Preserving the gene pool maximizes the chances that the snow leopard stock will adapt to a variety of environmental conditions in the future. It is well known that all isolated populations, whether they exist in the wild or in captivity,

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FIG. 25.2

25. Management of captive snow leopards in the EAZA region

Births and deaths in snow leopard EEP 2005–2020. Photo courtesy Alex Sliwa.

inevitably lose a part of their GD with each successive generation. The speed of this process depends partly on the size of the population but also on the time that has elapsed (Gilpin and Soul
e, 1986). Small and isolated populations like the snow leopard EEP are known to lose their GD more rapidly that larger ones, and breeding restrictions can quickly destabilize the age structure in the population.

Founder representation Although 165 wild-caught snow leopards have arrived in Europe and the former Soviet Union, only 35% of them (28 males and 29 females) have bred in the region. Among these 57 individuals, breeding success has been variable. Several founders that have reproduced in the past and had only a few offspring no longer have a visible representation in the current gene pool, while successful breeders with

several offspring that have also bred are strongly represented. Due to the disparities in the founder representation and to losses in bottlenecks, some of the GD that can be found in wild populations will therefore always be lost regardless of how successfully the population is managed. Because of the uneven breeding success, the founder contribution is highly skewed among the 187 living descendants, which do not contain the genomes of all the original founders. Thanks to the early establishment of the studbook and the numerous animal exchanges between North America, Japan, and Europe, gene lines from descendants of these founders have also been added into the European population. The current population therefore shows traces of 53 founders, which significantly exceeds the minimum of 20 unrelated wild individuals generally recommended to capture 97.5% of the GD of the wild population (Leus et al., 2011). However, in the last 8 years, the EEP population has

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Suggestions for improvement

lost representation of three founders, which is a loss of 5%. This illustrates that small populations will inevitably lose genetic variability even when under management. It is therefore important that the Snow leopard EEP is prepared to include new founders if they become available. There are currently no founders alive in the EEP program, but there are potential founders alive in non-EAZA parks in Russia and Kyrgyzstan that ideally should be incorporated into the gene pool.

Effective population size Many individuals in the population have not bred due to a variety of factors such as age, poor health, and sterility. As a result of these factors, the “Effective Population Size” (Ne) of potentially breeding animals is substantially smaller than the actual population size (N). The ratio of Ne to N is therefore an important indicator of the demographic and genetic health status of the population, informing the rate at which GD is lost. The smaller the Ne, the more GD has been lost. In wild populations, the ratio of Ne/N is usually about 0.1 (Frankham, 1995), whereas in captive conditions, it is to some extent possible to decide how many and which individuals will breed and with whom. Captive populations therefore have a Ne/N ratio that is larger than that of wild populations, usually ranging from 0.2 to 0.4 (Frankham et al., 2002; Mace, 1986). In the snow leopard EEP, the Ne/N ratio exceeds these figures, being 0.54 (Table 25.1). In other words, 54% or 52 males and 47 females of the population consist of successful breeders.

Founder genome equivalents An even better measure of the health status of the captive stock takes into consideration not only the unequal founder contribution but also the loss of alleles due to pedigree effects. This is the basis for the concept of “founder genome equivalents” (Fge) or the number of founders

TABLE 25.1 Genetic and demographic summary of EEP population, January 1, 2021. Current Population size (N)

97.90

Number of descendants

97.90

Effective population size (Ne)

65.99

Ne/N

0.5401

Percentage of pedigree known

100

Gene diversity (GD)

0.9485

Mean Kinship (MK)

0.0505

Founders (F)

53

Founder genome equivalents (Fge)

9.90

Mean inbreeding (F)

0.0198

required to achieve the observed levels of GD in the population if all wild-caught animals were equally represented and would have retained all their alleles. Analyses undertaken by the software package PMx (Ballou et al., 2011) show that the Fge value for the snow leopard EEP is 9.903, but would be 17.63 if all the wild-born animals had bred in an optimal manner (Table 25.1). The loss of alleles due to pedigree effects has consequently eroded the levels of diversity. As presented in Table 25.1, the European stock has lost 5 % of its GD and is currently equivalent to the same amount of diversity that can be found in only 10 animals randomly caught from the wild. Again, with optimal management, which is unrealistic to achieve, the GD could be increased to that found in about 17 unrelated animals.

Suggestions for improvement The EEP population of snow leopards with its 187 individuals is the largest subpopulation worldwide and contains 94.9% of the GD

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existing in the other subpopulations. The mean inbreeding coefficient (F) for snow leopards is most likely one of the lowest among the existing breeding programs and has decreased from 0.022 in 2001 (Blomqvist, 2003) to 0.019 in 2020. The population therefore seems to be healthy and not at any imminent risk of extinction. One has to remember, however, that the smallest effective population size for which genetic drift is balanced by mutation is estimated to be 500 animals (Frankham et al., 2002). The health status of the population cannot be ascertained only in terms of numbers. If a population is not constantly managed, its status can change quickly, and as stated above, small populations are more prone to extinction than large ones. With well-planned management where pairings are based on mean kinship values and where breeding with underrepresented gene lines are prioritized and closely related individuals are not mated, the GD can be further improved. Genetic drift and inbreeding depression can also be alleviated by introducing new genes through exchanges with other continental programs. The EEP has, since its establishment, been proactive in exchanging animals with other regional programs, thus improving the GD not only in its own population but also on a global scale. Possibilities to recruit additional wildcaught animals are highly limited; however, there are possibilities that could be explored. Due to human-wildlife conflict or confiscations from the illegal wildlife trade, there are still wild snow leopards that end up in range country rescue and rehabilitation centers (see Chapter 28). Sadly, many of these snow leopards can’t be rehabilitated and released back to the wild, but they could instead become valuable additions to improve the founder base in the captive stock. Another possibility would be collection of semen from wild-caught males during radiocollaring studies and artificial insemination of captive females. Also, in the past, there was a sizeable population of founders, which are not

linked with the rest of the captive population in Chinese zoos (Tan and Liao, 1988). If descendants of these founders are alive and could be incorporated with the jointly managed population, the EEP would have excellent prognosis for the future. An incorporation of snow leopards in Chinese zoos into the globally managed population is therefore a top priority in coming years.

Toward global management Recent analyses show that a number of zoo populations are both too small and based on too few founders to fill the conditions for future sustainability (Lees and Wilcken, 2009). The contribution of such small populations to species conservation is therefore of less importance than commonly advertised. The World Zoo Conservation Strategy has consequently urged all conservation-orientated networks to intensify their efforts toward more intensive species conservation. Because of the growing concern of long-term sustainability of wild animal populations in human care, Global Species Management Programs (GSMPs) have already been established for inter alia Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica; Cook and Arzhanova, 2013) and red pandas (Ailurus fulgens; Glatston, 2013). By linking ongoing snow leopard breeding programs into a universal GSMP, the global census as well as the effective population size would increase with the positive effects this would have on the GD. The establishment of a snow leopard GSMP would also facilitate animal transfers between regional breeding programs and encourage mutual cooperation between zoos. By working more closely together, husbandry and management practices would be easier to share than they are today, resulting in a global approach for the species’ management. A higher profile of the snow leopard would without doubt promote its conservation in situ and ex situ.

IV. Conservation solutions ex situ

References

Why keep snow leopards in captivity? The actual number of wild snow leopards is difficult to estimate due to the species’ secretive nature and the remote, inaccessible areas it inhabits. Although there are efforts underway to arrive at reliable snow leopard population estimates for all 12 range countries, such as the Population Assessment of the World’s Snow Leopards (PAWS) (Anonymous, 2020 and see Chapter 34), current knowledge is inadequate to generate reliable figures. However, it is well documented that severe declines took place in the former Soviet Central Asian republics after the breakup of the Soviet Union (McCarthy et al., 2017; Koshkarev and Vyrypaev, 2000; McCarthy and Chapron, 2003; Theile, 2003). The reasons for the decline include habitat loss and fragmentation, illegal poaching, and persecution by herders for killing their livestock. As local human populations continue to move deeper into the mountain areas, these threats are not likely to disappear, and the future of the wild population is therefore far from safe. Informed zoo visitors therefore often expect captive-bred snow leopards to be released back into the wild. Due to political and biological aspects, this is currently not a realistic option for the snow leopard (see Chapter 28). However, in a scenario of a further decline in the wild, it is important to keep in mind that a self-sustaining backup population in captivity must be maintained if we are to safeguard the species from extinction. It is also fair to say that the ex situ population has played an important role in providing useful knowledge for ongoing field research ( Johansson et al., 2013, 2020). Because of the snow leopard’s secretive nature and its inaccessible habitats, it is difficult and expensive to study snow leopards in the wild. Field workers must often rely on indirect methods such as GPS telemetry to gather basic data on the species’ ecology, habitat use, home range size, and seasonal movements (see Chapter 30). The use of telemetry for radio-

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collaring and tracking wild snow leopards would not have been possible if exact data on safe anesthesia from zoological collections had not been available. Zoos also offer many advantages to behavioral researchers as well as for collection of precise life history information for the secretive life of the snow leopard. The snow leopard is a “flagship” species that generates funding support for broader conservation efforts, thus protecting many other species in its range that have decreased in numbers. With more than 700 million worldwide visitors per year, the global zoo community has a huge potential to play an important role in environmental education and wildlife conservation. A number of European zoos display graphics oriented toward field conservation, and many of them are among the main providers of conservation funding. Based on information available in the EAZA Conservation Database, EAZA members contributed more than €17.8 million and 62,200 staff hours to wildlife conservation globally in 2020. More specifically for snow leopards, 26 institutions have added their conservation support in the database, and together they contribute around €100,000 annually to snow leopard conservation. The snow leopard can be seen as an icon for biodiversity conservation in the alpine ecosystem of Central Asia, and it is without doubt easier to attract funding for such charismatic species than for a number of other species. Fundraising activities for in situ conservation has during the last years developed rapidly among zoos and offers excellent possibilities to finance not only projects run by the zoos themselves, but more commonly, to fund other conservation organizations working with snow leopards in the wild.

References Anonymous, 2020. PAWS Summit Proceedings. Available from: https://globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/ uploads/2021/03/PAWS-SUMMIT-Proceedings_final. pdf. (Accessed 22 August 2022). Ballou, J.D., Lacy, R.C., Pollak, J.P., 2011. PMx: Software for Demographic and Genetic Analysis and Management of

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Pedigreed Populations (Version 1.0). Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield, IL, USA. Blomqvist, L., 1978a. First international snow leopard conference in Helsinki 7th–8th March 1978. International Zoo News 153, 5–6. Blomqvist, L., 1978b. First report of the snow leopard studbook, Panthera uncia, and the 1976 World register. Int. Zoo Yearb. 18, 227–231. Blomqvist, L., 2003. Captive status of the snow leopard in Europe 2001. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow leopards, (Uncia uncia). vol. 8. Helsinki Zoo, pp. 27–30. Blomqvist, L., 2018. International Pedigree Book of Snow leopards, Panthera uncia. vol. 11 Nordens Ark Foundation. 81 pp. Cook, J., Arzhanova, T., 2013. Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica). EEP Status and Recommendations 2013. Zoological Society of London. Frankham, R., 1995. Effective population size/adult population size ratios in wildlife: a review. Genet. Res. 66, 95–107. Frankham, R., Ballou, J.D., Briscoe, D.A., 2002. Introduction to Conservation Genetics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Gillespie, J., Hibbard, C., 2013. ASMP snow leopard report 2012. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow leopards, Uncia uncia. vol. 10. Nordens Ark Foundation, Sweden, pp. 21–23. Gilpin, M.E., Soul
e, M.E., 1986. Minimum viable populations: processes of species extinction. In: Soul
e, M.E. (Ed.), Conservation Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass, USA, pp. 19–34. Glatston, A., 2013. Red pandas go global-Officially. WAZA Zoo News 1, 21–22. Jha, A.K., 2013. Conservation breeding of snow leopard at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow leopards, Uncia uncia. vol. 10. Nordens Ark Foundation, pp. 14–16. Jha, A.K., Rai, U., 2013. Conservation Breeding Programme of Snow Leopard. Ex-Situ Updates 2/1: 2-4. Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi, India. € Malmsten, J., Mishra, C., Lkhagvajav, P., Johansson, O., McCarthy, T., 2013. Reversible immobilization of freeranging snow leopards (Panthera uncia) with a combination of medetomidine and tiletamine-zolazepam. J. Wildl. Dis. 49, 338–346. € Samelius, G., Wikberg, E., Chapron, G., Johansson, O., Mishra, C., Low, M., 2020. Identification errors in camera-trap studies result in systematic population overestimation. Sci. Rep. 10, 6393. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-020-63367-z. Koshkarev, E.P., Vyrypaev, V., 2000. The snow leopard after the break-up of the Soviet Union. Cat News 32, 9–11. Lees, C.M., Wilcken, J., 2009. Sustaining the Ark: the challenges faced by zoos in maintaining viable populations. Int. Zoo Yearb. 43, 6–18.

Leus, K., 2011. The global captive population of the red panda – possibilities for the future. In: Glatston, A.R. (Ed.), Red Panda. Biology and Conservation of the First Panda. Academic Press, London, UK, pp. 335–356. Leus, K., Bingaman Lackey, L., van Lint, W., de Man, D., Riewald, S., Veldkam, A., Wijmans, J., 2011. Sustainability of European Association of Zoos and Aquaria bird and mammal populations. WAZA Magazine 12, 11–14. Mace, G.M., 1986. Genetic management of small populations. Int. Zoo Yearb. 24 (25), 167–174. McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, USA. McCarthy, T., Mallon, D., Jackson, R., Zahler, P., McCarthy, K., 2017. Panthera uncia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T22732A50664030. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T22732A50664030. en (28 July 2021). Rieger, I., 1980. Some aspects of the history of ounce knowledge. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Panthera uncia. vol. 2. Helsinki Zoo, pp. 1–36. Tan, B., Liao, Y., 1988. The status of captive snow leopards in China. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proc. of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium. International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India, Bombay, India, pp. 151–166. Taniguchi, A., Namaizawa, H., 2013. JAZA snow leopard annual report. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow leopards, Uncia uncia. vol. 10. Nordens Ark Foundation, pp. 17–20. Theile, S., 2003. Fading Footsteps: The Killing and Trade of Snow Leopards. Traffic International. Wharton, D., Freeman, H., 1988. The snow leopard, Panthera uncia, a captive population under the Species Survival Plan. Int. Zoo Yearb. 27, 85–98. ZIMS for Studbooks for Snow Leopards. Nygren, E, 2021/03/31. Species360 Zoological Information Management System. Retrieved from http://zims. Species360.org.

Further reading Blomqvist, L., 2013. Snow leopard EEP 2012. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow leopards, Uncia uncia. vol. 10. Nordens Ark Foundation, pp. 24–32. Gusset, M., Fa, J.E., Sutherland, W.J., 2014. A horizon scan for species conservation by zoos and aquariums. Zoo Biol. 33, 375–380. € 2010. McCarthy, T., Murray, K., Sharma, K., Johansson, O., Preliminary results of a long-term study of snow leopards in South Gobi, Mongolia. Cat News 53, 15–19.

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C H A P T E R

26 Role of zoos in snow leopard conservation: The Species Survival Plan® in North America Jay Tetzloffa and Karin R. Schwartzb a

Blank Park Zoo, Des Moines, IA, United States bRoger Williams Park Zoo, Providence, RI, United States

Introduction

Management of snow leopards in North American zoos

With snow leopard populations declining throughout their native range in Asia, the management of snow leopards in ex situ facilities (under managed care) has become ever more important. Zoos play an important role in maintaining populations that are genetically diverse and demographically stable. In addition, zoos have key roles in spreading awareness and education and are involved in research, funding, and technical support for conservation of the species in the wild. This chapter offers an overview of the history of snow leopards in zoos within North America, the scientific and breeding management program to maintain a sustainable North American population, research to further knowledge on health, behavior, nutrition, reproduction, and husbandry, and impact on conservation of snow leopards in the wild.

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00020-0

Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) were first exhibited in North America in 1903 when the New York Conservation Society/Bronx Zoo acquired a wild-caught male. Two wild-caught females were brought to the Bronx Zoo in 1904, and a number of wild-caught animals were brought to the zoo through 1913. Between 1914 and 1936, additional zoos acquired wild-caught snow leopards including San Francisco Zoo, Franklin Park Zoo, St. Louis Zoo, and Chicago Zoological Society/Brookfield Zoo (Tupa, 2020). There was very little known about snow leopards at that time and the living conditions were poor such that most snow leopards did not survive more than 1–3 years. The first captive births occurred in 1945 when two cubs were born at Brookfield Zoo. However, the cubs did not survive.

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Births were not common until the 1960s and were responsible for much of the growth that occurred from the early 1970s to the early 1990s. In the late 1970s, it became evident that wildlife populations were declining in the wild and access to the collection of animals from the wild was becoming increasingly more difficult. This realization inspired a group of zoo professionals to create the Species Survival Plan (SSP) concept as a cooperative breeding and conservation program administered by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) (AZA, 2022a). AZA’s first SSPs were created in 1981. The Snow Leopard SSP began in 1982. The Species Survival Plan programs are designed to implement strategies to maintain sustainable populations that are genetically diverse, demographically stable, and behaviorally competent. This requires a collaboration of institutions for cooperative management dedicated to the long-term survival of the species under managed care. Each SSP Program coordinates the individual activities of participating member institutions through a variety of breeding and health management, conservation, research, husbandry, and educational initiatives. The Snow Leopard SSP works under the supervision of the Felid Taxon Advisory Group (TAG), which oversees the management all feline AZA Animal Programs (AZA, 2022b).

Population management strategy and tools Each SSP identifies qualitative data (population challenges, goals, management actions, conservation education, husbandry and care, and exhibit design) and quantitative data (population census, genetic diversity, species biology, age distribution, projected population trends, and imports/exports/transfers) to analyze the potential sustainability of the species population. These data populate the SSP Sustainability Database and guide the direction for collection management (AZA, 2022c). The SSPs rely on the expertise of the Steering Committee composed

of the Coordinator (now termed the Program Leader), Vice Coordinator (AZA Regional Studbook Keeper), and seven members elected by SSP Institutional Representatives. Advisors also contribute their expertise to advise, design, evaluate, and implement conservation management decisions. Current advisors in the fields of education, field conservation, husbandry, nutrition, pathology, reproduction, and veterinary medicine aid the Snow Leopard SSP in making science-based decisions. The cornerstone of the SSP is the Population Analysis & Breeding and Transfer Plan which provides breeding (or “do-not-breed”) recommendations to maintain demographically stable populations with the greatest possible genetic diversity for the long-term future of a healthy and sustainable population. These plans are dependent on accurate records on the origin and parentage for each individual in the population. These data are maintained in recordkeeping programs such as Species360 Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS), a global web-based application for maintaining animal records including collection inventories, life history, physiology, reproduction, behavior, and health (Species360, 2022). Species360 (previously the International Species Information System) has a membership of over 1300 zoological facilities worldwide that maintain their animal records in ZIMS. All members have access to the global data in ZIMS, facilitating collaborative animal husbandry and breeding management processes. ZIMS for Studbooks is used to develop the studbook for each species, compiling origin and pedigree data that is used for population management analysis. Studbook analysis promotes pairings of least related individuals that will maximize the retention of genetic diversity and minimize inbreeding to support population sustainability. Working with the AZA Population Management Center and the Reproductive Management Center based at the Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, IL, the Program Leader and Institutional

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Management of snow leopards in North American zoos

Representatives develop the Population Analysis & Breeding and Transfer Plan. AZA designates different levels for each SSP depending on population size, the number of AZA institutions involved, and the projected gene diversity. Each level (Green, Yellow, Red, and Candidate Program) has minimum management requirements (see AZA, 2021b for criteria for all four levels). The Snow Leopard SSP is designated for midlevel management as a yellow SSP because it meets the criteria for having a population size greater than 50 individuals, more than three institutions involved, and less than 90% projected gene diversity.

AZA Snow Leopard SSP—Status of the North American population As of February 2023, there were 61.56 (male. female) snow leopards in 53 AZA institutions participating in the Snow Leopard SSP. The latest Population Analysis and Breeding & Transfer Plan (AZA, 2021a) identifies the historical and current genetic and demographic status of the population and makes breeding recommendations to support further sustainability. Fig. 26.1A shows the trends of the SSP population: there was an increase in captive births and a strong decrease in the number of wildcaught individuals from 1970 to the present. Snow leopard numbers in the SSP hit a peak in the 1990s. A decrease in births and a decrease in the number of spaces within zoos have contributed to the decline over the past 20 years. As Figs. 26.1B and 26.2 show, the male-to-female ratio is even which is positive since this species is solitary except for breeding pairs and females with offspring. It is common for zoos to keep a male and female together whether for breeding or not. A strategy to increase cubs being produced has been implemented at some institutions with the philosophy of giving a female more opportunities to produce cubs. If a female was successful in the summer, the cubs would be moved to

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another part of the zoo or another institution altogether. By removing the cubs, the female may cycle again that next winter. In some ways, one might consider this similar to a doubleclutching strategy in bird species. The goal is to maximize the number of offspring from a given pair. Some institutions have been very successful with this concept while some have not. Further long-term research will be needed to fully understand if this strategy should be considered and/or continued.

Reproduction Snow leopards reach sexual maturity between the ages of 2 and 3 years (Wharton and Freeman, 1988), but exceptions do occur and care should be taken when male offspring are kept with females. Snow leopards are highly seasonal breeders in both captivity and the wild. In the captive North American population, breeding occurs from January through June. Parturition occurs in late spring or early summer, with 89% of births in April, May, or June (Wharton and Mainka, 1997; Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002). The estrous cycle of the snow leopard has been reported to be 25–38 days (Graham et al., 1995; Schmidt et al., 1993), but a recent study suggests that the estrous cycle is much shorter (12.7
0.6 days; ReichertStewart et al., 2014). During estrus (4–8 days), pairs will copulate 12–36 times per day, with intromission lasting 15–45 s (Reichert-Stewart et al., 2014; Wharton and Mainka, 1997). Spontaneous ovulation has not been observed in snow leopards (Reichert-Stewart et al., 2014). If the female ovulates, but does not conceive after mating, she will experience a pseudopregnancy, or nonpregnant luteal phase, and return to estrus in 45.7
5.7 days with a range of 11–72 days (Brown et al., 1994; Schmidt et al., 1993; Reichert-Stewart et al., 2014). If pregnancy is achieved, gestation is 93–103 days (ReichertStewart et al., 2014; Wharton and Mainka, 1997). Litter sizes range from one to five cubs,

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(A)

By Origin

200

Number

150

Wild Caught Captive Born Origin ?

100

50

0 1920

1940

(B)

1960 Year

1980

2000

2020

By Sex

100

Number

80

Males Females Sex ?

60 40 20 0 1920

1940

1960 Year

1980

2000

2020

FIG. 26.1

Census of snow leopards in the North American population from 1900 to 2020 by origin (A) and sex (B). From Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2021. Population Analysis & Breeding and Transfer Plan. Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia). AZA Species Survival Plan® (SSP) Yellow Program. AZA Population Management Center, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL.

averaging about 2.3 cubs per litter (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002; Wharton and Mainka, 1997) (Fig. 26.3). Although male snow leopards produce spermatozoa throughout the year, some reports indicate a decline in both the quantity and quality of sperm produced during the summer and fall nonbreeding season ( Johnston et al., 1994; Roth et al., 1997). During the breeding season, 2.5
0.5 mL of semen containing 172.8
37.3 million sperm (37.0
4.8% normal morphology) was collected from proven males (n ¼ 5) using electroejaculation (J. Herrick, unpublished data).

Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) may have the potential for the management of captive populations, but these techniques remain experimental and results are sporadic. Although population managers should not rely on artificial insemination (AI) or in vitro fertilization (IVF) for routine offspring production, these techniques may offer the only chance for reproduction for individuals with behavioral issues or physical conditions that limit/prevent copulation. It should be noted that few attempts have been made to produce cubs using these techniques in the last 20 years (Roth et al., 1997).

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Management of snow leopards in North American zoos

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FIG. 26.2 Age structure of the Snow Leopard Species Survival Plan (SSP) population. N, number of individual animals. Dark blue indicates individuals of reproductive age. Light blue indicates individuals of postreproductive age (females) or nonreproductive status (males). From Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2021. Population Analysis & Breeding and Transfer Plan. Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia). AZA Species Survival Plan® (SSP) Yellow Program. AZA Population Management Center, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL.

To date, only a single cub has been produced from AI in snow leopards and no cubs have been produced following IVF/ET. Research to improve the efficiency of AI and IVF/ embryo transfer (ET) should be done in cooperation with SSPs who could identify suitable candidates. Currently, a collaboration between Omaha’s Henry Doorly Zoo and Aquarium, Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, and Miller Park Zoo has been working through logistics, protocols, and procedures toward the production of snow leopard cubs via artificial insemination. The zoos in Omaha and Cincinnati have dedicated incredible resources (staff expertise, funding, and equipment)

toward solving the assisted reproduction question with each utilizing a different method. These techniques provide the only opportunity to introduce new genetics into the managed population without removing animals from the wild. Semen collection and sperm cryopreservation can be performed under field conditions, allowing valuable genetic material to be collected whenever a wild male is anesthetized. Although hypothetical at this time, work with other felid species indicates this may be a feasible approach for snow leopards (Swanson, 2006). Given the potential of ART for the management of ex situ populations, continued

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FIG. 26.3 Seven-year-old female snow leopard and cubs (male and female, born June 3, 2021) at Toledo Zoo, Toledo, OH, United States. Photo courtesy Stephen Linsky, Toledo Zoo.

development of these techniques for use in snow leopards is important. Some challenges have come from the advances in veterinary care. Snow leopards are living longer under human care, which can create management issues. Female snow leopards are no longer fertile after the age of 15 years of age so while they may still remain a great exhibit animal to educate and engage guests, they will not be reproducing. The aged female could be housed with a male that is still fertile, which creates a management issue for the institution that may not have the space to bring in another fertile female to pair with their breeding male. The strategy for the SSP in regard to new or renovated exhibits is to encourage enough spaces to successfully manage a breeding pair, their offspring for 2 years, and an older animal (usually female). Although contraception is currently not recommended by the Snow Leopard SSP due to health concerns with the implants and the need to increase the breeding possibilities, the AZA Wildlife Contraception Center (WCC) at the St. Louis Zoo was created in 2000 to assess contraception efficacy, reversibility, and safety

for animals not recommended for breeding. The mission of the AZA WCC is to provide information and recommendations to the AZA community about contraceptive products that are safe, effective, and reversible. These recommendations are used by zoo professionals to make informed decisions on how to sustainably manage their animal collections. The WCC includes scientists, veterinarians, and animal managers with research and management expertise in wildlife contraception.

Husbandry The snow leopard is known as a seasonal breeder, and this causes husbandry and management dilemmas. Should a breeding pair be kept together in the nonbreeding season? Research has begun to determine if there is a management style that increases the chances of cubs being born. Some institutions leave their pair together year-round, while others only introduce a pair at the beginning of the breeding season. If separated, it means that either the male or female would not be on exhibit and visible to the public. Separating could mean less of

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Management of snow leopards in North American zoos

an exhibit in the eyes of the public and an increase in the amount of time staff must spend on the species due to multiple “groups” and shifting that is required. The personality of the individual cats also plays into the management strategy. Not all pairs can be housed together during the nonbreeding season even if the institution wants to keep them together. Aggression to the point of a fatality is very rare in snow leopards, but constant aggression during the nonbreeding season can be detrimental for the pair during the breeding season. On the opposite side of aggression, some pairs may be more stressed if separated. The holding institution must devise a management strategy based on the understanding of the social dynamics of their snow leopards and the general philosophy of the staff. AZA Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs) and SSPs are in the process of developing Animal Care Manuals (ACMs) for each taxon to provide standards for animal care and welfare, taking into account the physical, psychological, and emotional health of the animals (AZA, 2022d). Recognized species experts such as biologists, veterinarians, nutritionists, reproduction physiologists, behaviorists, and researchers working within the TAGs and SSPs contribute to the development of ACMs, which are based on information reflecting the current science, practice, and technology of animal management. These manuals compile knowledge on the basic requirements, best practices, and animal care recommendations to advance the capacity for excellence in animal care and welfare. These dynamic manuals are considered works in progress, since practices continue to evolve through scientific learning. The use of information within each ACM should comply with all local, state, and federal laws and regulations concerning the care of the species specified. Recommendations in the manuals for management approaches, diets, medical treatments, or procedures may require adaptation to the specific needs of individual animals and for particular circumstances in each institution.

ACMs provide up-to-date information gained from a large body of scientific expertise. Each relevant area should be as comprehensive as existing knowledge allows and could include: Taxonomic information

Ambient environment

Habitat design and containment

Records

Transport

Nutrition

Veterinary care

Social environment Behavior management

Nutrition A formal nutrition program is recommended to meet the behavioral and nutritional needs of snow leopards under managed care. Diets should be developed using the recommendations of veterinarians as well as the nutrition advisor of the Snow Leopard SSP. A few detailed studies have been conducted to determine the specific nutrient requirements of snow leopards. The AZA Nutrition Advisory Group, in a study on snow leopard diets, showed that diet effects semen quality (Iska et al., 2017). A diet with high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids can impact the oxidative status of sperm effecting a reduction in sperm quality. Other nutrition parameters were explored that served to improve sperm production. Until more data become available specifically for snow leopard, the domestic cat serves as a model for most nutrient parameters. In the wild, snow leopards typically eat most of the prey they capture and kill, including some bones, fat, and viscera. The addition of bones, appropriate carcass parts, or whole prey is behaviorally enriching and may have a positive effect on dental and digestive health. Therefore, the SSP makes this a requirement for the keeping of snow leopards.

Disease recognition and management Disease issues in snow leopards are similar to other large felid species. A retrospective study in snow leopards in North American zoos taken

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from records from 2000 to 2008 revealed the following health issues in order of most common to least common: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Parasites: roundworms most common Wounds and trauma Arthritis and hip dysplasia Vomiting Diarrhea Hematuria/hematochezia Renal failure Cystitis Upper respiratory infection Lingual papilloma, fibropapilloma Septicemia Ear infections Coloboma, eyelid agenesis, microphthalmia

Most of these issues are common in all felids and many are related to renal disease and old age. Currently, the Snow Leopard SSP is seeking to unravel the issues of congenital coloboma and eyelid deformities and the prevalence and significance of papillomavirus. Colobomas or eyelid deformities in which all or a portion of the lid margin does not form have continued to be found in several cubs each year. It is usually seen in cubs at birth and is a congenital defect. It is currently found in about 6%–10% of the North American population. This percentage could be higher and current research is ongoing to determine the prevalence and significance of this defect (Kilburn et al., 2019). It is still unknown if it is related to a genetic component or not and is probably multifactorial. An investigation by Gripenburg (1985) was unable to prove if colobomas in snow leopards were genetically related but did rule out a chromosomal abnormality. Several factors from Vitamin A deficiencies or overdoses to virus infection during eye development in the womb have been suggested but none proven. Cases have been seen in Europe as well. The defects are usually mild and range from small defects to eyelid agenesis and some deeper into the

fundus. Symptoms range from none to epiphora and blepharospasm from facial hair similar to entropion. It can be corrected by entropion surgery, pedicle flap, or reconstructive surgery. There has been one case of a litter with two cubs with more severe deformities including anophthalmia, blindness, and microphthalmia, while a third cub in the same litter had severe congenital defects of the heart, bilateral colobomas, and one underdeveloped eye (K. Helmick, Woodland Park Zoo, United States, personal communication). Affected and normal cubs may occur in the same litter, and the same parents may produce normal litters and abnormal litters. It continues to be a complex issue to resolve. Papillomavirus is known to be present in the captive snow leopard population, but what is unknown is its prevalence, mode of transmission, significance to reproduction, and overall impact on the SSP. Research is being done to assess prevalence in the North American population. In felids, it appears to be species-specific and to be eight distinct different viruses (Sundberg et al., 2000). In domestic cats, it is more commonly found in immune-deficient animals. (i.e., FIV, Chediak-Higashi syndrome) (August, 2005). The virus is a member of the lambdapapillomavirus genus and tentatively named in snow leopards UuPV-1 for oral lesions and UuPV-2 for cutaneous lesions (Sundberg et al., 2000). Individuals infected with UuPV-1 may have whitish flat plaques sublingually. UuPV-2 papillomas appear as small black masses in the skin on the head, neck, and limbs. Transformation of the papillomas to cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, with an effective mortality rate of 100%, has been reported in two captive snow leopards ( Joslin et al., 2000). It is rare to see both clinical lesions in the same animal. The SSP is recommending complete surgical removal of papillomas when found. Other modalities have been used such as cryotherapy and possible beta radiation therapy (August, 2005). Currently, the SSP is not limiting

IV. Conservation solutions ex situ

Management of snow leopards in North American zoos

movement because of the virus or clinical disease. It is probable that most of the snow leopards have been exposed or are positive but only some show clinical symptoms. Current research is aimed at answering these questions. At the end of 2019, a new coronavirus, SARSCoV-2, was identified and found to have zoonotic properties. SARS-CoV-2 causes a disease, COVID-19, and the spread became a global pandemic. Many zoological institutions in North America closed their doors to the public in March 2020 in response to the growing threat of infection spread. Nevertheless, the first COVID-19 cases in big cats were reported in April 2020 at a New York zoo when five Malayan tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) and three African lions (Panthera leo leo) tested positive (ABC News, 2020). In December 2020, two snow leopards at a Kentucky zoo became the next big cats to test positive after exhibiting coughing and wheezing symptoms. Transmission of the virus was believed to be through keepers that were asymptomatic yet positive for COVID-19. Although measures were taken to reduce the risk of spreading COVID-19 to species that were found to be susceptible in North American zoos, the disease was contracted by several snow leopards in the SSP population. The spread of the disease soon turned deadly for snow leopards. In early October 2021, six big cats (tigers and snow leopards) at a South Dakota zoo exhibited COVID-19 symptoms and the 2-year-old snow leopard was the only one that succumbed to the disease. Later that month, a female and two male snow leopards ranging in age from 8 to 11 years old died of COVID-19 complications at a Nebraska zoo. Five big cats (a Sumatran tiger [Panthera tigris sumatrae] and four snow leopards) at an Illinois zoo tested positive in December 2021 and a month later the 11-year-old snow leopard died of COVID-19induced pneumonia. Studies show that felines are highly susceptible to COVID-19 because they have an enzyme ACE2, very similar to the enzyme in humans,

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in the cells of their respiratory tracts. The virus causing COVID-19 binds to ACE2 to gain entry to cells and infect the individual (Kr€ uger et al., 2021). The similarity in the structure of ACE2 between humans and felines facilitates the zoonotic spread of the disease. Although big cats including lions, tigers, and jaguars have contracted COVID-19, the disease may be more deadly in snow leopards for unknown reasons. More research must be done to see if this is related to the higher prevalence of ACE2 in this species. The first COVID-19 vaccines for nonhuman species were developed in July 2021 by Zoetis, a veterinary pharmaceutical company. Zoetis donated 11,000 doses of the experimental vaccine to protect over 100 mammalian species including snow leopards in 70 zoos, sanctuaries, universities, and other zoological facilities in 27 states (Seeking Alpha, 2021). North American zoos are continuing to vaccinate the species under their care that are susceptible to COVID-19, including snow leopards, as the vaccine becomes available. Zoological institutions that are Species360 members maintain health records in the Medical module of ZIMS. ZIMS compiles health data globally to give an overview of species-specific health issues and relevant death information. The medical module of ZIMS performs analysis on death information compiled from husbandry death records or the medical necropsy records. The scope for the analysis can be by taxonomy, geography (global, continent, or institution), and within a specific date range. A morbidity and mortality report for snow leopards on relevant death information between the years of 1982 (when the SSP was formed) and 2022 identifies the most known common causes of death in the ex situ North American snow leopard population (Fig. 26.4A and B) (Species360 Zoological Information System, 2021). Infectious disease was the most overall common cause (47%) with noninfectious disease the next most common cause (20%). Further breakdown of the noninfectious disease category showed that

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FIG. 26.4 ZIMS Relevant Death Information (RDI) Analysis for the ex situ North American snow leopard population showing (A) overall causes of death and (B) detailed analysis of the noninfectious disease or condition causes of death. The solid bars indicate a single RDI cause and the patterned bars indicate multiple causes. From Species360 Zoological Information System, 2021. ZIMS Morbidity and Mortality Analysis: Relevant Death Information, Panthera uncia. Available from: http://zims.Species360.org. Filters: North_American_population; date_range_Jan1982_to_May2022.

geriatric causes were most prevalent (38%) with degenerative (27%) and neoplasia (24%) causes following. A survival statistics analysis showed that the median life expectancy (MLE) for both males and females was 15.1 years and the observed maximum longevity was 21 years for males and 22 years for females (AZA, 2021a). In comparison, life expectancy for snow

leopards in the wild is estimated to be 10–12 years (Snow Leopard Trust, 2022).

Exhibit design Zoos have come a long way since the 1970s, when the goal for an exhibit was to be able to keep it clean and see the animal. Showing off the

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FIG. 26.5 A female snow leopard rests on the rockwork in the naturalistic habitat at Toledo Zoo. Photo courtesy Corey Wyckoff, Toledo Zoo.

animal in sterile cages that had bars for containment was the norm. Snow leopard exhibits today focus on being naturalistic. Exhibits are creative, functional, and safe and may include rocks (or artificial rockwork), logs, and ample space for the snow leopards to utilize (Fig. 26.5). Containment is glass and/or mesh that enhance guest viewing. The guest can be “entertained” while experiencing the snow leopard. Natural sounds pumped in and interpretive and interactive graphics are part of the guest engagement and education. Story lines also can be intertwined in multiple exhibit areas. Modern exhibits include a management area that works well for the staff. Quality and quantity of space are important for successful management. SSP institutions are recommended to provide enough space so they may hold a postreproductive animal (usually a female) and a breeding pair. The institution should have the capacity to hold any cubs born for 2 years. The behavior of the snow leopard is incorporated into any quality design. Animal enrichment and training incorporated into an exhibit design is a newer concept. Training walls, where the public can observe animal-staff interactions, are becoming common. Designated feeding and training times provide zoo staff opportunities to “show off” individual snow leopards. Another new enrichment concept is a trail

system where different route choices are offered to snow leopards daily, mimicking to at least a small degree, choices made in the wild. The complexity of exhibits of today is key for a successful exhibit.

Education While a good deal of Snow Leopard SSP activities focus on managing the population, one cannot ignore the important role our audiences play in snow leopard survival. Educating guests and facilitating an emotional connection with this animal are at the heart of saving the species. These connections may be brief, but can create a life-long memory, which may, in turn, spur action to help the wild snow leopard population. Many zoo educational programs take the audience’s age into account when developing education programs for snow leopards. While helping to preserve the species is the goal, younger audiences (younger than 11 or 12 years old) first need to develop appreciation and empathy for these animals if we want them to take action on their behalf in the future. This approach is described in Beyond Ecophobia (Sobel, 1996). Educators often engage these younger audiences with questions. Developmentally appropriate questions may include those focused on the snow leopard’s adaptations, habitat, and

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its role in the ecosystem or care at the zoo. Questions may include asking the child to find the snow leopard in the exhibit/habitat (which works well with a naturalistic exhibit) or having them provide explanations for why they think the snow leopard has such a long tail or why there is a box of hay in the exhibit (enrichment). Institutions that have the capacity may want to provide additional experiential interactions with the younger audience. A keeper-led training session in which the snow leopard’s trained behaviors are demonstrated can be an unforgettable experience. Tangible items, such as skulls or pelts, provide an additional opportunity for these younger audiences to experience snow leopards in a very concrete way. Through these guest-focused interactions, zoos can provide emotional and cognitive connections that will lead to long-lasting memories and, eventually conservation action. With audiences older than 12 years old, engaging in discussions related to conservation issues is developmentally appropriate and important as these youth are starting to wonder and care more about the world beyond their backyard (Sobel, 1996). Many AZA institutions tell stories related to human-snow leopard conflict in the wild; stories that can continue to deepen an individual’s emotional connection and interest in learning more. Successful snow leopard conservation depends on the local people living in snow leopard regions valuing these animals enough to want to save them. Some AZA institutions have partnerships with organizations such as Snow Leopard Trust, Snow Leopard Conservancy, Panthera, or the Wildlife Conservation Society among others with successful snow leopard conservation projects. Zoos may provide educational materials via these partnerships that help local people develop a better understanding of the ecological role of snow leopards and instill a will to coexist with them. In turn, sharing these conservation stories with zoo guests can inspire them to take action to help. Zoos can explain that

these programs or partnerships in the local communities are funded by the guests’ admission to the institution. Opportunities can be provided to make direct contributions to snow leopard conservation organizations. It is important to engage the zoo guests’ interest for the conservation of this species. Animals in AZA institutions are animal ambassadors for their wild relatives. Animal ambassadors help create those meaningful connections, and in turn give zoos the opportunity to create conservationists that want to help the species’ counterparts in the wild.

Collaboration and challenges Collaboration is the key to any conservation breeding program. No program can be successful without the individual institutions working together. The issue is that the institutions are just that, individual institutions with their own agenda, philosophy, and mission. The institutions in the Snow Leopard SSP have worked hard to think about what is in the best interest of the captive North American population. The nearly 70 institutions in the Snow Leopard SSP work as well together as any program in AZA. Zoos are constantly making decisions that benefit the entire population even if it may not benefit their particular institution. The collaboration is not only on the regional level but also reaches out into the global scale. There are multiple programs across the world with the largest being in Europe (European Endangered Species Programs). Periodically, snow leopards are exchanged across programs. The exchanges are beneficial for both programs and for the international global captive population. By trading within the two programs, new genetics are passed along to bolster the sustainability of both programs. This must be balanced against the fact the import/export process for a United States institution takes about a year for completion, which can be a drain of time and resources.

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References

The Snow Leopard Species Survival Plan strives to educate and engage zoo guests about this amazing animal. The sustainability of the ex situ snow leopard population could be crucial in saving this endangered species in the wild.

References ABC News, 2020. Eight Big Cats at the Bronx Zoo Have Been Discovered to Have Tested Positive for COVID-19. Available from: https://abcnews.go.com/US/big-cats-testpositive-covid-19-zookeeper-accidentally/story? id¼70303070. (Accessed 28 June 2022). Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2021a. Population Analysis & Breeding and Transfer Plan. Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia). AZA Species Survival Plan® (SSP) Yellow Program. AZA Population Management Center, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL. Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2021b. Species Survival Plan® (SSP) Program Handbook. Association of Zoos and Aquariums, Silver Spring, MD, pp. 26–30. Available from: https://assets.speakcdn.com/assets/ 2332/aza_species-survival-plan-program-handbook. pdf. (Accessed 25 February 2022). Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2022a. Species Survival Plan® Programs. Available from: https:// www.aza.org/species-survival-plan-programs. (Accessed 25 February 2022). Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2022b. Taxon Advisory Groups. Available from: https://www.aza. org/taxon-advisory-groups. (Accessed 25 February 2022). Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2022c. The SSP Sustainability Database: A Platform for Population Sustainability. Available from: https://www.aza.org/ssppopulation-sustainability. (Accessed 25 February 2022). Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2022d. Animal Care Manuals. Available from: https://www.aza.org/ animal-care-manuals. (Accessed 28 May 2022). August, J.R., 2005. Consultations in Feline Internal Medicine. vol. 5 Elsevier Health Sciences. Brown, J.L., Wasser, S.K., Wildt, D.E., Graham, L.H., 1994. Comparative aspects of steroid hormone metabolism and ovarian activity in Felids, measured noninvasively in feces. Biol. Reprod. 51, 776–786. Graham, L.H., Goodrowe, K.L., Raeside, J.I., Liptrap, R.M., 1995. Non-invasive monitoring of ovarian function in several felid species by measurement of fecal estradiol17β and progestins. Zoo Biol. 14, 223–237. Gripenburg, U., Blomqvist, L., Pamilo, P., Soderlund, V., Tarkkanean, A., Wahlberg, C., Varvio-Aho, S.L., Virtaranta-Knowles, K., 1985. Multiple ocular coloboma

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(MOC) in snow leopards (Panthera uncia). Clinical report, pedigree analysis, chromosomal investigations and serum protein studies. Hereditas 102, 221–229. Iska, C., Morris, C., Herrick, J., 2017. Evaluation of diet influence on oxidative stress and its impact on semen quality in snow leopards (Uncia uncia). In: Ward, A., Coslik, A., Brooks, M. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference on Zoo and Wildlife Nutrition, Zoo and Wildlife Nutrition Foundation and AZA Nutrition Advisory Group, Frisco, TX. Available from: https://nagonline.net/ 12209/evaluation-of-diet-influence-on-oxidative-stressand-its-impact-on-semen-quality-in-snow-leopardsuncia-uncia/. (Accessed 28 May 2022). Johnston, L.A., Armstrong, D.L., Brown, J.L., 1994. Seasonal effects on seminal and endocrine traits in the captive snow leopard (Panthera uncia). J. Reprod. Fertil. 102, 229–236. Joslin, J.O., Garner, M., Collins, D., Kamaka, E., Sinabaldi, K., Meleo, K., Montali, R., Sundberg, J.P., Jenson, A.B., Ghim, S.-J., Davidow, B., Hargis, M., Clark, T., Haines, D., 2000. Viral papilloma and squamous cell carcinomas in snow leopards. In: Proceedings of AAZV/IAAAM, pp. 155–158. Kilburn, J.J., Backues, K.A., Kain, S., Pucket, J., 2019. Lip-tolid transposition and husbandry management for severe bilateral eyelid coloboma in three snow leopards (Panthera uncia). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 50, 688–695. Kr€ uger, N., Rocha, C., Runft, S., Kr€ uger, J., F€arber, I., Armando, F., Leitzen, E., Brogden, G., Gerold, G., P€ ohlmann, S., Hoffmann, M., Baumg€artner, W., 2021. The upper respiratory tract of felids is highly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 22, 10636. Reichert-Stewart, J.L., Santymire, R.M., Armstrong, D., Harrison, T.M., Herrick, J.R., 2014. Fecal endocrine monitoring of reproduction in female snow leopards (Uncia uncia). Theriogenology 82, 17–26. Roth, T.L., Armstrong, D.L., Barrie, M.T., Wildt, D.E., 1997. Seasonal effects on ovarian responsiveness to exogenous gonadotrophins and successful artificial insemination in the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 9, 285–295. Schmidt, A.M., Hess, D.L., Schmidt, M.J., Lewis, C.R., 1993. Serum concentrations of oestradiol and progesterone and frequency of sexual behavior during the normal oestrous cycle in the snow leopard (Panthera uncia). J. Reprod. Fertil. 98, 91–95. Seeking Alpha, 2021. Zoetis Donates COVID-19 Vaccines to Help Support the Health of Zoo Animals. Available from: https://news.zoetis.com/press-releases/press-releasedetails/2021/Zoetis-Donates-COVID-19-Vaccines-toHelp-Support-the-Health-of-Zoo-Animals/default.aspx. (Accessed 28 June 2022). Snow Leopard Trust, 2022. Snow Leopard Facts/Life Cycle. Available from: https://snowleopard.org/snowleopard-facts/life-cycle/. (Accessed 30 May 2022).

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Sobel, D., 1996. Beyond Ecophobia. The Orion Society, Great Barrington, MA, pp. 2–6. 9–12. Species360, 2022. Available from: https://www.species360. org/ (25 February 2022). Species360 Zoological Information System, 2021. ZIMS Morbidity and Mortality Analysis: Relevant Death Information, Panthera uncia. Available from: http://zims. Species360.org. Filters: North_American_population; date_range_Jan1982_to_May2022. Sundberg, J.P., Van Ranst, M., Montali, R., Homer, B.L., Miller, W.H., Rowland, P.H., 2000. Feline papillomas and papillomaviruses. Vet. Pathol. 37, 1–10. Sunquist, M., Sunquist, F., 2002. Wild Cats of the World. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Swanson, W.F., 2006. Application of assisted reproduction for population management in felids: the potential and reality for conservation of small cats. Theriogenology 66, 49–58. Tupa, L., 2020. AZA Regional Studbook – Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia). vol. 8 Association of Zoos and Aquariums, Silver Spring, MD, p. 245. Wharton, D., Freeman, H., 1988. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia): a captive population under the Species Survival Plan. Int. Zoo Yearb. 27, 85–98. Wharton, D., Mainka, S.A., 1997. Management and husbandry of the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Int. Zoo Yearb. 35, 139–147.

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27 Captive snow leopards as ambassadors of wild kin

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00077-7

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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27.1 Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park: Supporting snow leopards in the wild, sharing the message at home Ted Waleij Slight and Thomas Lind Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park, Kolma˚rden, Sweden

Introduction At the beginning of the 21st century, Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park made the strategic decision to redesign the polar bear enclosure and exhibit an endangered species, attractive to the public and providing educational opportunities. Thus, our first pair of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) arrived in 2006 from Nordens Ark Zoo in Sweden and Marwell Zoo in the United Kingdom. Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park, through Kolma˚rden Foundation, has a long history of in situ conservation and development, through collaboration and financial support to carefully selected organizations and projects around the world. Projects that Kolma˚rden supports include Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), southern ground hornbills (Bucorvus leadbeateri), and Cross River gorillas (Gorilla gorilla diehli), to name just a few. In the spring 2008, Kolma˚rden was contacted by the Snow Leopard Trust (SLT), to see if we would be interested in collaboration on a comprehensive long-term study of snow leopards in South Gobi, Mongolia. The proposed snow leopard project fitted well into our conservation priorities, especially with our new cats on exhibit. And the fact that the leader of the field study was a Swedish PhD student brought national pride, so it was not difficult for us to decide to support it.

The Science Director of the Snow Leopard Trust was invited to Kolma˚rden later that year and gave a presentation to the Foundation and the staff, which convinced us even more that this was a project that Kolma˚rden would be proud to be a part of. With snow leopards on exhibit, and the foundation supporting an exciting new project in the field, we decided that the snow leopard would be Kolma˚rden’s Animal of the Year for 2009. Fundraising activities for the project were already in full swing by the time the park opened on 1 May, in the form of collection boxes, SMS donations, and the selling of handicrafts from Snow Leopard Enterprises (another SLT program in Mongolia) in our souvenir shops. The Year of the Snow Leopard was a huge success for the park, for our fundraising and for snow leopards in the wild through our support for the Mongolian field study. Our funding of that program has continued over the past 13 years and will continue for many years to come. This has allowed us to get even more involved in the field project. In May 2011, we visited the research camp in the Tost Mountains of South Gobi, Mongolia. A film crew had already been there for a few weeks, and researchers managed to catch two snow leopards during that time, providing a lot of

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Introduction

good footage for the film, so we also had high hopes of seeing a snow leopard during our stay there. However, like Peter Matthiessen in his famous book The Snow Leopard, we knew the animal was there, but never saw one during our brief stay. Still, to be in that place and see how research in the field works and to see the tracks of a snow leopard were very exciting. To visit in situ projects that we are funding is important, and a firsthand experience that allows us to share an even more convincing conservation message with our visitors at the park and get them more excited about helping save endangered wildlife half a world away. One very positive outcome was having Kolma˚rden name one of the study animals in the wild. We decided that the eighth female snow leopard to be caught and fitted with a GPS collar would be named “Dagina.” She is a long-distance ambassador telling her story, while the public watch snow leopards at Kolma˚rden and better understand their wild cousins. Since then, we have received many reports and pictures from the Tost Mountains, telling us that Dagina has thrived. During 2019, at the age of 10, she gave birth to three cubs making her the oldest known snow leopard in the wild to give birth. Her age, her many litters, and her frequent appearances over the years have given researchers invaluable information about the life of snow leopards. So, in what ways can captive snow leopards help to save snow leopards in the wild? Thanks to its beauty and agility the snow leopard inspires people and raises their awareness of the vulnerability of the species in the wild. Snow leopards in Kolma˚rden are important for fundraising efforts to support field conservation, but they can also provide useful information to field researchers, such as data on types of anesthesia that could best be used to capture wild snow leopards during collaring. Zoos have allowed researchers to test camera traps in their exhibits, to better plan snow leopard surveys. And zoo leopards have been fitted with some

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of the first GPS collars to see how snow leopards adapt to them. Beyond just funding field research, zoos can provide information that improves field methods and makes them safe for wild cats. Recently, a scientific camera-trap study was published in Nature ( Johansson et al., 2020) suggesting that the size of wild snow leopard populations might be overestimated, due to cameratrap identification errors. This study was made possible thanks to the commitment of seven different zoos in Europe. The Swedish zoo Nordens Ark proposed the idea of using camera traps on captive snow leopards whose identity was certain, to evaluate the accuracy of photo identification in the wild. Alongside leading snow leopard researchers, the project was joined by Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park, Orsa Predator Park, € ari Zoo, Cologne Zoo, Korkeasaari Zoo, Ath€ and Wuppertal Zoo. This collaboration contributed vital information to the conservation of wild snow leopards that could only have been attained in zoos. There are numerous examples of how snow leopards at zoos can provide information valuable to conservation. As is well known, the protection of a threatened species includes several possible approaches, some more obvious than others. Estimating the number of individuals in a wild population is crucial of course, but so is the general understanding and knowledge of the species. For instance, knowledge about an animal’s physiology is directly linked to wildlife medicine, which can play an important role in the protection of a threatened species. Here at Kolma˚rden, we have a unique collaboration between our vet clinic, the company Interspectral, Link€ oping University, and Link€ oping University Hospital. Through this collaboration, our veterinarians have access to a CT scanner and advanced software for medical investigation of animals kept at the park. In December 2020, our female snow leopard, Mia, was scanned during anesthesia to investigate the status of her reproductive organs (see Fig. 27.1.1).

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FIG. 27.1.1

CT scan of a Kolma˚rden snow leopard. In December 2020, two veterinarians and one snow leopard caretaker participated in the thorough investigation of Mia’s reproductive organs, at Link€ oping University Hospital. Photo credit: Louise Guevara, Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park.

Because of her role as a breeding female in the breeding plan coordinated by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA), her fertility was a question of high importance. Not only did this scan confirm that Mia has an intact reproductive system but it also generated astonishing illustrations of Mia’s inside, from the smallest blood vessel to bones and skin. These images yield veterinary insights that would be impossible to achieve without captive snow leopards. Sharing information with our visitors about snow leopards is a key function for our staff. It is quite common to stand at the exhibit and hear visitors say they cannot see any snow leopards,

and when you point out a cat lying on the rocks, they are amazed by how well camouflaged they are. Such occasions give us the opportunity to talk with people and get them fascinated by more than just their ability to hide on a bare rock, and also to be touched by their beauty and concerned with their plight in the wild. Our commitment to in situ conservation, such as the Mongolian project, can then be explained. There are many who have never seen a snow leopard before, or for that matter even heard of them. This moment, when they first become acquainted with the majestic cat, will hopefully stay in their minds forever. Besides research projects and medical insights, there are many examples of zoos working together for the health and conservation of snow leopards. One such event took place in 2008 when we were thrilled to receive our first litter of snow leopard cubs at Kolma˚rden. Unfortunately, the mother, Binu, failed to care for them. However, thanks to Nordens Ark, one surviving cub, Irma, could be transported to a surrogate snow leopard family. After being raised at Nordens Ark, Irma was moved to Twycross Zoo in the United Kingdom in 2010, and a year later she gave birth to two healthy cubs that she reared successfully, thus contributing to the breeding plan. As mentioned, the management of snow leopard breeding and exchanges falls under the guidance of EAZA, more specifically the EAZA Ex situ Programme (EEP; see Chapter 25) for snow leopards. Success stories like Irma’s allow zoos to continue to breed, care for, and exhibit healthy snow leopards who serve as ambassadors for the cats in the wild. Over the years that Kolma˚rden has had snow leopards in its animal collection, they have become one of our most popular attractions, engaging both visitors and staff members. Apart from the engaging character of the animals themselves, Kolma˚rden has arranged an array of interactive activities and facilities for our visitors. Among these are competitions of different sorts, campaigns

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FIG. 27.1.2 The Snow Leopard Trust field station at Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park. Right next to the enclosure holding our two snow leopards one can find a constructed “field station” rigged with field equipment and a screen showing recent pictures, videos, and information from the conservation project in Mongolia, supported by Kolma˚rden Foundation. Photo credit: Ted Waleij Slight, Kolma˚rden Wildlife Park.

collecting funds for SLT, and our Mongolian field station right next to the snow leopard enclosure (see Fig. 27.1.2). Additionally, during both 2020 and 2021, the staff members of Kolma˚rden joined forces with enthusiasts across the world, in the funding campaigns organized by SLT called Run 24 for Snow Leopards and Strides for Snow Leopards: 40 for 40.

With the support and commitment of our visitors, as well as all employees at Kolma˚rden, we are able to support in situ conservation and take great pride in doing so. More information about Kolma˚rden Foundation and the various conservation projects it supports can be found at www. kolmarden.com.

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27.2 From a zoo came a true snow leopard champion Fred W. Koontz Field Conservation, Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, WA, United States

The role that zoo animals play in developing concern in zoo visitors for animal welfare and environmental protection is a topic of active investigation (e.g., Clayton et al., 2011; Kelly et al., 2014; Luebke and Matiasek, 2013). However, unstudied is the inspirational affect that zoo animals have on zoo volunteers and employees, and consequently, the impact that these persons have on wildlife conservation. One example of the latter is Helen Freeman (Fig. 27.2.1), a volunteer-turned-employee of Seattle’s Woodland Park Zoo, who by her own words had “a love affair with the snow leopards” for 35 years (Freeman, 2005). Helen Freeman was a volunteer docent in 1972 when Woodland Park Zoo acquired their first 2 snow leopards (Panthera uncia), Nicholas and Alexandra, captured in the mountains of Kyrgyzstan, then known as Kirghizia, a Republic of the Soviet Union. Little published information was available to guide the zoo’s curator and keepers in caring for the cats. For example, Lee Crandall’s (1964) classic reference “Management of Wild Mammals in Captivity” devoted less than 2 pages to P. uncia and presented only a few bits of husbandry information. Upon the snow leopards’ arrival, Helen immediately took up observations in the zoo’s Feline House. Nicholas and Alexandra showed signs of stress in acclimating to captivity, which sparked Helen’s

empathy and desire to improve their situation (Freeman, 2005). This heartfelt reaction toward these 2 individual animals would lead to Helen’s career-long endeavor to understand and care for all snow leopards serving as ambassadors in zoos—and to protect their wild counterparts in Central Asia. Helen Elaine Maniotas, born in 1932, graduated from Washington State University in 1954 with a degree in business administration. After marrying Stanley Freeman and raising 2 sons to school age, in the early 1970s she volunteered at Woodland Park Zoo and studied animal behavior at the University of Washington, receiving her B.S. degree in 1973. This second degree obtained at mid-life secured her employment at Woodland Park, serving as Behavioral Research Coordinator and Curator of Education. Helen’s interest in animal behavior, environmental education, and wildlife conservation came at an important time in zoo history. The 1970s to mid-1990s were a period of rapid change in North American and European zoos, most significantly: (1) old-styled barred cages were replaced with naturalistic enclosures; (2) wildlife conservation became the highest priority for modern zoos dictating new animal acquisition ethics (Koontz, 1995), development of multi-zoo breeding programs (Hutchins and Wiese, 1991) and support for field conservation

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FIG. 27.2.1 Helen Freeman with her beloved snow leopards. Photo courtesy: Snow Leopard Trust.

(Conway, 2003); and (3) animal behavior studies became recognized by zoo leaders as essential to improve animal care (Kleiman, 1992). Helen was one of a small group of zoo biologists working in the 1970s and 1980s whose work and enthusiasm served as catalysts for building today’s animal conservation breeding programs for endangered species. Helen’s research on Nicholas and Alexandra was one of the first zoo studies that quantified animal behavior in a systematic way by using a behavioral catalog of snow leopard activities (Freeman, 1975) and by combining breeding records of zoos she demonstrated that a zoo’s geographic location had little effect on the timing of parturition (Freeman and Braden, 1977). When Helen sought to help zoos breed more snow leopard cubs by recognizing signals of mating compatibility and recognizing the limitations of small sample size at any one zoo, she convinced Bronx, Brookfield, Calgary, Portland, and Woodland Park zoos to use trained volunteers to collect standardized behavioral observations together (Freeman, 1983). This multinational effort revealed key correlates to snow leopard breeding success, which allows

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curators to make informed decisions on whether to change pairs after a certain period of time (Freeman, 1983); historically, this project served as an early example of the utility of multi-zoo observational studies and the legitimacy of using trained volunteers. Aided by Helen’s applied research, Nicholas and Alexandra went on to parent 29 cubs. Helen and her colleagues took advantage of these births to document snow leopard maternal behavior, cub development, and management procedures (Freeman and Hutchins, 1978; O’Connor and Freeman, 1982). Ironically, after 75 years of mostly failing to breed snow leopards, by 1982 improved husbandry of the species in North American zoos was at the point of causing a snow leopard population explosion (Wharton and Freeman, 1988). As a result, Helen’s focus changed from producing more cubs to managing captive populations. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) in 1980 launched their Species Survival Plan (SSP) Program to cooperatively manage specific, and typically endangered or threatened, species populations within AZAaccredited Zoos and Aquariums and their partners (see Chapter 26). In 1984, with Helen Freeman as its first Species Coordinator, AZA’s Snow Leopard SSP was initiated, at a time when less than 40 SSP programs existed (Wharton and Freeman, 1988). Under Helen’s leadership, the Snow Leopard SSP program excelled and became a model for many subsequent conservation breeding programs. Today, one of 500 AZA SSPs, the Snow Leopard SSP maintains a population of about 140 animals from a founder base of 54 wild snow leopards in 53 managed locations within North America; planned breedings manage loss of genetic heterozygosity and produce demographic stability, averaging 15 cubs born each year (Tetzloff et al., 2020). While helping many zoos throughout the 1970s to successfully manage captive snow leopards, Helen realized the cats were struggling in the wild. In 1981, Helen founded the

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International Snow Leopard Trust (now known as Snow Leopard Trust or SLT) with a mission to protect snow leopards and their habitat. She served as Executive Director until 1996, and thereafter assisted the SLT Board until her death in 2007. SLT, among many successes, became known for its leadership in developing a global snow leopard conservation strategy (e.g., McCarthy and Chapron, 2003) and for its community-based, partnership approaches to wildlife conservation (e.g. SLT, 2014). At SLT, Helen traveled widely to Asia, Europe, and throughout North America on behalf of snow leopards, ultimately becoming one of the world’s foremost experts on the conservation of the species. During her career, Helen rightfully received many awards. Largely unrecognized, however, it is the broader role she played in the modernization of North American and European zoos. Her pioneering work in applied animal behavior, conservation breeding programs, species-

focused field studies, and community-based conservation undoubtedly inspired many others volunteering and working in zoos. Today, SLT and Woodland Park Zoo continue Helen’s legacy through their conservation, education, and research efforts. Woodland Park’s snow leopards inspire our children and adult guests with their playful behavior and naturalistic setting, and zoo employees and volunteers still speak of Helen often, celebrating how one person can make a difference. Her legacy also lives on at all snow leopard SSP zoos, where the cats each year inform millions of persons about the plight of wild snow leopards and efforts to save them. Since 2013, SLT and Woodland Park have worked together to support the Snow Leopard Foundation of Kyrgyzstan—the homeland of Nicholas and Alexandra, the 2 ambassador cats at Woodland Park Zoo that Helen fell in love with, starting an avalanche of concern for snow leopards living in zoos and in the wild.

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27.3 Ambassadors from the roof of the world Patrick R. Thomas and Colleen McCann Bronx Zoo, New York, NY, United States

The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) has had a long and successful history with snow leopards (Panthera uncia) at its New York-based zoos. The Bronx Zoo was the first zoo in North America to exhibit the species when it acquired a male in 1903 (Wharton, 1982), and snow leopards have been on display nearly continuously since then. For much of that time, the snow leopards were exhibited alongside other big cat species in the zoo’s Lion House. In 1986, the snow leopards were moved to the Himalayan Highlands, a series of naturalistic habitats that received the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) Exhibit Award for excellence. The Himalayan Highlands was one of the first exhibits to incorporate conservation as one of the main messaging themes, highlighting the pioneering field work of Rodney Jackson and George Schaller. Building on our breeding and husbandry success, in 2009, WCS opened a second snow leopard facility, the Allison Maher Stern Snow Leopard Exhibit at the Central Park Zoo, providing the opportunity to manage the 2 populations cooperatively through its integrated animal collection plan within the guidelines of AZA’s Snow Leopard Species Survival Plan (SSP) program. Beginning in the 1960s, the Bronx Zoo began an extremely successful snow leopard breeding program that to date has produced nearly 80

surviving cubs, more than any other zoo in North America. It has also been an active and integral member of the AZA’s Snow Leopard SSP since its inception in 1984. Dan Wharton, a former WCS staff member, served as Species Coordinator for the program for 20 years (1987–2007). Because WCS has conservation programs and projects in more than half of the 12 snow leopard range countries, it is uniquely qualified to meet the USFWS’s in situ enhancement requirement when applying for permits to import or export zoo-born snow leopards from other regional programs, e.g., European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) and South-East Asian Association of Zoos and Aquariums (SEAZA) to enhance the genetics of the regional populations. Snow leopards born at the zoo have been sent to zoos in 7 countries and over 30 US states. The Bronx Zoo has always been known for its exhibitory and displaying animals in naturalistic habitats, and the snow leopard exhibit is no exception. The Himalayan Highlands has 3 exhibits for snow leopards as well as exhibits for red pandas (Ailurus fulgens), alpine pheasants (tragopans, Tragopan spp. or monals, Lophophorus spp.), and white-naped cranes (Grus vipio). Each of the snow leopard exhibits depicts a different habitat frequented by the cats: a mountain meadow, a scree slope with running

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stream, and a birch-shaded alpine hillside with large rocky outcroppings. The Central Park Zoo has 2 snow leopard exhibits: a meadow and a granite hillside. The exhibits and corresponding enrichment program for snow leopards at both zoos provide the animals with mental and physical stimulation, offer the cats some choice and control over their environment, and encourage a wide spectrum of species typical behaviors. This allows visitors to observe active, engaged snow leopards. These two elements also provide an opportunity for zoo guests to see the animals as they would appear in nature (Fig. 27.3.1). The animals serve as ambassadors, inspiring the 2 zoos’ approximately 3 million annual visitors to care about snow leopards and their conservation. The interpretive panels at the exhibits educate zoo guests about the threats facing snow leopards (loss of prey species, retaliatory killings for losses of livestock, and poaching for their pelts), and the WCS field efforts employed to conserve them. Attached to the exhibits at both the Bronx and Central Park Zoos are a series of holding enclosures. The snow leopards are

brought off exhibit into these enclosures each evening, and all breeding, parturition, and rearing of young cubs are done in the off-exhibit areas where the animals can be closely observed and managed. While the beauty, grace, and athleticism of all snow leopards are capable of inspiring awe and can create a desire among zoo visitors to help save the species, possibly no other snow leopard has served as a better ambassador than Leo, a wildborn animal that was orphaned when his mother was illegally killed in northern Pakistan. Leo was still a very young cub at the time of his mother’s death and would not have been able to survive on his own in the wild. He was successfully hand-reared by a Pakistan wildlife official, but because there were no facilities in Pakistan equipped with the housing, resources, and expertise to properly care for an adult snow leopard, the Pakistani government, in a unique collaboration with the US State Department, IUCN-Pakistan, World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan, and WCS, made the decision to send Leo to the Bronx Zoo. As a growing cub in Pakistan, Leo had gained tremendous notoriety—he was even visited by

FIG. 27.3.1 Leo, a wild-born orphan snow leopard from Pakistan, in the exhibit at Bronx Zoo. Photo credit: Julie Larsen Maher, Wildlife Conservation Society.

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then President Pervez Musharraf, who flew to northern Pakistan specifically to see him. Once he was moved to the Bronx Zoo, Leo proved to be nearly as popular in New York as he was in Pakistan. Musharraf’s wife came to see him when she traveled to New York, as did numerous Pakistani government ministers. He was also visited by Claudia McMurray, the former US Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans, Environment and Science, and a person instrumental in his transfer from Pakistan to the Bronx Zoo. Leo even had a children’s book “Leo the Snow Leopard: The True Story of an Amazing Rescue” written about him. It chronicled his early life and eventual move to New York. The intent of the book was to inspire our next generation to care about conserving this emblematic species, and some of the proceeds of the book’s sales went to snow leopard conservation. Inspiring guests is not the only role for the zoo’s snow leopards. The Bronx Zoo also engages in a wide range of research, aimed at producing results that will not only benefit snow leopards in zoos but also enable conservationists to better protect animals in nature. The Bronx Zoo historically (and currently) has had one of the largest snow leopard populations of any zoo in the world and utilizes it, whenever possible, to advance knowledge about the species and their in situ and ex situ management. One study evaluated the effectiveness of a proprietary scent developed by a WCS biologist to attract and stimulate snow leopards to rub up against hair traps for genetic research. This scent had been used previously to assess the genetics of local Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) and ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) populations by extracting DNA from hair follicles that were collected on the traps (Weaver, 1999; Weaver et al., 2010). Another study involved using digital facial and body images of the zoo’s snow leopards from different angles to assess the ability of field researchers to use camera traps to identify individual snow leopards by their unique markings and/or vibrissae patterns. While camera traps

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have been successfully employed to individually identify shorter-haired felids like tigers (Panthera tigris) and cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) (Karanth and Nichols, 1998; Marmewick et al., 2008), at the time of this study it was unknown if camera trap images could reliably identify individual snow leopards that could have their longer coat patterns altered by strong winds or precipitation. An offshoot of this study tested various digital camera traps in the snow leopards’ exhibits to see which models were most effective at “capturing” snow leopards in different environmental conditions. The Bronx Zoo also participated in a multizoo project that involved sending fecal samples from all the zoo’s snow leopards to Working Dogs for Conservation to help train dogs to not only identify snow leopard feces from the scat of other carnivores but to also discern the stool samples of individual snow leopards. DNA extracted from noninvasively collected snow leopard stool can be used to establish species distributions, estimate population density, and form the basis for conservation genetic analyses (Rodgers and Janecka, 2013). The zoo has also spearheaded a number of academic studies involving snow leopards. One Master’s thesis examined the effects of operant conditioning on cortisol levels (Savastano, 2005); a second focused on the variables that influence reproductive success in the SSP population (Marek, 2011); a third assessed snow leopard personality traits (Gartner and Powell, 2012). A PhD dissertation conducted a noninvasive genetic assessment of snow leopard population structuring across its range, assessed what region(s) SSP founder animals originated from for AZA population management, and compared the genetic vs computer model-based relatedness of the SSP animals for ex-situ management (Makkay, 2017). The vast majority of people who visit the Bronx Zoo will never have the opportunity to travel to central Asia. Far fewer still will ever have the privilege of seeing a snow leopard in

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the wild. Recognizing this, the Bronx Zoo utilizes the species’ charisma to inspire care of snow leopards and the places they inhabit. Because it is a flagship species that occupies a broad swath of mountain ranges across central Asia and found over such a vast area (an estimated 1.2–1.6 million km2), conserving snow leopards protects many other alpine species that share its environment. There could be no better ambassador for “the roof of the world.”

References Clayton, S., Fraser, J., Burgess, C., 2011. The role of zoos in fostering environmental identity. Ecopsychology 3, 87–96. Conway, W., 2003. The role of zoos in the 21st century. Int. Zoo Yearbook 38, 7–13. Crandall, L.S., 1964. The Management of Wild Mammals in Captivity. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Freeman, H., 1975. A preliminary study of the behaviour of captive snow leopards. Int. Zoo Yearbook 15, 217–222. Freeman, H., 1983. Behavior in adult pairs of captive snow leopards (Panthera unica). Zoo Biol. 2, 1–22. Freeman, H., 2005. Life, Laugher and the Pursuit of Snow Leopards. Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, USA. Freeman, H., Braden, K., 1977. Zoo location as a factor in the reproductive behavior of captive snow leopards, Uncia uncia. Zool. Garden JF (Jena) 47, 280–288. Freeman, H., Hutchins, M., 1978. Captive management of snow leopard cubs. Der Zoologischer, 49–62. Gartner, M.C., Powell, D., 2012. Personality assessment in snow leopards (Uncia uncia). Zoo Biol. 31, 151–165. Hutchins, M., Wiese, R.J., 1991. Beyond genetic and demographic management: the future of the species survival plan and related AAZPA conservation efforts. Zoo Biol. 10, 285–292. € Samelius, G., Wikberg, E., Chapron, G., MisJohansson, O., hra, C., Low, M., 2020. Identification errors in cameratrap studies result in systematic population overestimation. Nat. Sci. Rep. 10, 6393. Karanth, K.U., Nichols, J.D., 1998. Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic captures and recaptures. Ecology 79, 2852–2862. Kelly, L.D., Luebke, J.F., Clayton, S., Saunders, C.D., Matiasek, J., Grajal, A., 2014. Climate change attitudes of zoo and aquarium visitors: implications for climate literacy education. J. Geosci. Educ. 62, 502–510.

Kleiman, D.G., 1992. Behavioral research in zoos: past, present, and future. Zoo Biol. 11, 301–312. Koontz, F., 1995. Wild animal acquisition ethics for zoo biologists. In: Norton, B., Hutchins, M., Stevens, E., Maple, T. (Eds.), Ethics on the Ark. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London, pp. 127–145. Luebke, J.F., Matiasek, J., 2013. An exploratory study of zoo visitors’ exhibit experiences and reactions. Zoo Biol. 32, 407–416. Makkay, A.M., 2017. Comparing in-situ and ex-situ patterns of genetic diversity in snow leopards (Panthera uncia) for conservation and management. Fordham University. PhD dissertation. Marek, M., 2011. Variables influencing breeding success of captive snow leopards (Uncia uncia) managed by the AZA’s Species Survival Plan. Columbia University. M. A. thesis. Marmewick, K., Funston, P.J., Karanth, K.U., 2008. Evaluating camera trapping as a method for estimating cheetah abundance in ranching areas. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 38, 59–65. McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, USA. O’Connor, T., Freeman, H., 1982. Maternal behavior and behavioral development in captive snow leopard (Panthera uncia). Int. Pedigree Book Snow leopards 3, 103–110. Rodgers, T.W., Janecka, J.E., 2013. Applications and techniques for non-invasive faecal genetics research in felid conservation. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 59, 1–16. Savastano, G., 2005. The effects of operant conditioning on cortisol levels in captive snow leopards, Uncia uncia. City University of New York. M.A. thesis. SLT, 2014. Snow Leopard Enterprises. Available from: http://www.snowleopard.org/learn/communitybased-conservation/snow-leopard-enterprises. (Accessed 9 December 2021). Tetzloff, J., Tupa, L., Lynch, C., 2020. Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia), AZA Species Survival Plan. AZA Population Management Center, Chicago, IL, USA. Weaver, J.L., 1999. Lynx Survey in the Adirondack Park. Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY. Weaver, J.L., Wood, P., Paetkau, D., Laack, L.L., 2010. Use of scented hair snares to detect ocelots. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 33, 1384–1391. Wharton, D., 1982. The history of the snow leopard at the New York Zoological Park. Int. Pedigree Book Snow Leopards 3, 51–53. Wharton, D., Freeman, H., 1988. The snow leopard Panthera uncia: a captive population under the species survival plan. Int. Zoo Yearbook 27, 85–98.

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C H A P T E R

28 Rescue, rehabilitation, translocation, reintroduction, and captive rearing: Lessons from the other big cats Dale G. Miquellea, Ignacio Jim
enezb, Guillermo Lo´pezc, Dave Onoratod, Viatcheslav V. Rozhnove, Rafael Arenas-Rojasf, Ekaterina Yu. Blidchenkoe, Jordi Boixaderg, Marc Criffieldd, Leonardo Ferna´ndezc, Germa´n Garrotec, Jos
e Antonio HernandezBlancoe, Sergey V. Naidenkoe, Marcos Lo´pez-Parrac, Teresa del Reyc, Gema Ruizc, Miguel A. Simo´nh, Pavel A. Sorokine, Maribel Garcı´a-Tardı´oc, and Anna A. Yachmennikovae a

Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, NY, United States bFundacio´n Global Nature, Las Rozas (Madrid), Spain cLIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain dFlorida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Naples, FL, United States e A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia f LIFE+ Iberlince project: Recovery of the Historic Distribution Range of the Iberian Lynx, Andalusia, Spain gIberian lynx Ex Situ Conservation Program, Andalusia, Spain hDepartment of the Environment of the Regional Government of Andalusia, Ja
en, Spain

Introduction The capacity to rescue, rehabilitate, and release wild (or captive) individuals back into the wild to supplement existing or recreate lost populations can be extremely useful components of a conservation “toolkit” ensuring long-term persistence and recovery of large felid

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00017-0

populations. What these processes all have in common is that they require “hands-on” management, i.e., animals are either captured in the wild or managed in captivity with the intent of release back into the wild. Individuals in distress (wounded, diseased, and starving) may be captured in the wild (rescued), held in captivity (for rehabilitation and/or assessment),

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and released back into the wild (reintroduction/ translocation). Additionally, individuals may be raised in captivity (from wild or captive sources) for restoration or supplementation of a wild population. In nearly all cases, these types of management actions are highly controversial. When the primary goal is long-term viability of a wild population, “rescue” attempts of lone individuals may often seem to have little to do with conservation objectives, and often require excessive investments of time, labor, and funding (Jackson and Ale, 2009). For this and other reasons, such management protocols need to be critically examined before they are applied to a large felid population in the wild. However, with social media instantaneously spreading information of conflicts, interactions, and appearances of animals in distress, the global demand for effective and professional responses will only grow in the foreseeable future. This form of “instantaneous spotlighting” represents both a problem and an opportunity. The global public will expect responses, and the absence of an appropriate response (e.g., because it is not a conservation priority) will often be deemed unacceptable. However, the value of such rescue efforts as a media tool to influence local, national, and international opinions should not be underestimated, and may be an important component of an outreach program to foster support for big cat conservation. Therefore, while in the short-term rescue and rehabilitation efforts may require significant financial and logistical investments, payoffs in terms of public and political support for conservation initiatives may make such efforts worthwhile. Captive rearing is a labor-intensive, major financial investment that should only be considered when effective alternatives do not exist. Some of the same skills needed for rescue and rehabilitation can be applied to captive breeding programs intended to supplement or restore wild populations. Both types of activities require

the ability to care for animals that will eventually be released into the wild and therefore these animals must not only retain a healthy fear of humans but also must be capable of successfully hunting wild prey. While some projects have invested millions of dollars attempting to re-wild large felids, others appear to have had some success on a “shoestring” budget. Therefore, determining the key components of a captive breeding or rehabilitation program will assist in managing the financial costs of such efforts and improve chances of success. While there are multiple rehabilitation and release examples for other large felids, there have been relatively few incidents where handling of wounded or stray snow leopards (Panthera uncia) has been necessary. Currently, there are at least two examples of rehabilitation centers being created for snow leopards. In 2002, The Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU) opened a Snow Leopard Rehabilitation Center in Sasyk-Bulak Valley of Issyk-Kul District in Kyrgyzstan, the first in Central Asia. The center was built in order to keep confiscated animals in their natural habitat and hopefully to release them back into the wild after recovery. The enclosure covers 7000 m2 and has held up to seven snow leopards. The main goals and objectives of the Rehabilitation Center are to save endangered wildlife, promote a positive attitude toward wildlife among local communities; treat, care, and rehabilitate injured wildlife; and release wildlife back into the wild after rehabilitation. However, to date, no snow leopards have been released back into the wild from the NABU rehab center, either because animals were badly injured (e.g., were missing a paw after being caught in a steel trap) or because they were taken at a young age and never learned to hunt wild prey. In 2015 the Parks and Wildlife Department of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan, with assistance from the Snow Leopard Foundation, created a

IV. Conservation solutions ex situ

Case study 1. Planning a jaguar reintroduction in Argentina: Combining science, publicity, and public policy

rehabilitation center initially to house a single female snow leopard who had been kept in a roadside enclosure since its rescue from the wild in late 2012. There were also plans to use the facility for the treatment of other snow leopards that may come into captivity, as well as for captive breeding, educational, and recreational purposes. Because the snow leopard brought to the rehab center had already spent 2 years in a roadside facility and was acclimated to people, she was not considered a candidate for release. An attempt to mate this female with a male that had come into captivity elsewhere in Pakistan was unsuccessful. While the initial intent of this center was not release back into the wild, collectively the experiences to date demonstrate how difficult it can be to have the proper facilities, training, and plans for rehabilitation, recolonization, and release efforts to be successful for snow leopards. Given the growing threats of human encroachment and climatic changes on snow leopards and their habitat, the need for rescue and rehabilitation of snow leopards will no doubt only grow. Additionally, there are likely to be other reasons to improve the capacity to manage snow leopards in captivity and release them back into the wild. Given the current patchy nature of snow leopard habitat and ongoing fragmentation due to human activities, the need for genetic restoration/augmentation may arise more quickly than expected. At the same time, with changing environmental conditions associated with climate change and human pressures, it may not be long before consideration of supplementation, restoration, or even assisted colonization into newly suitable habitat might be considered as options for snow leopards. To be prepared for such management options in the future, it is useful to consider examples and lessons learned from work with other large felids. In this chapter, we review four case studies from around the world to understand what potential opportunities and pitfalls lay ahead for their implementation with snow leopards.

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Case study 1. Planning a jaguar reintroduction in Argentina: Combining science, publicity, and public policy The jaguar (Panthera onca) is the largest terrestrial predator in the Neotropics, where it has been extirpated from 54% of its original range and is globally classified as near threatened (Caso et al., 2012). In Argentina, the species is classified as critically endangered after a 95% decline of its historical range (Aprile et al., 2012), and it presently occurs as 3 disjunct populations that total approximately 200 individuals within the Yungas, Chaco and Atlantic Forest ecoregions in the northern part of the country (Di Bitetti et al., 2016). During the 20th century, the jaguar disappeared from the Ibera´ region in Corrientes Province, northeastern Argentina (Parera, 2004). In 1983, the provincial government of Corrientes established the 13,000 km2 Ibera´ Nature Reserve (INR) to protect an entire river basin covered by wetlands, grasslands, and patches of forest. In 1999, The Conservation Land Trust (CLT) purchased 1500 km2 inside INR with the intention of creating a 7000 km2 national park. As negotiations for creation of the park proceeded, CLT began exploring the potential for restoring viable populations of extirpated mammals, including the jaguar. CLT led a two-staged process, first assessing feasibility of a jaguar reintroduction, then planning how best to conduct it.

Assessing the feasibility of a jaguar reintroduction into INR Kelly and Silver (2009) recommended that any such initiative should “be contingent on the proper combination of suitable habitat, sociocultural tolerance by local and national communities and the resources in time, money and expertise to carry out such a project responsibly,” largely following recommendations from other experts (Kleiman et al., 1994; Macdonald, 2009). Accordingly, the feasibility study addressed three main issues.

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Habitat suitability To assess whether there is sufficient suitable habitat within INR for a viable jaguar population De Angelo (2011) conducted a GIS-based habitat suitability assessment using existing information on habitat types, presence of cattle and human populations, roads and human access, watercourses, and distribution/abundance of potential prey. De Angelo (2011) estimated that INR contained 2500 km2 of quality habitat and 4000 km2 of suboptimal habitat that is currently protected and almost devoid of humans or livestock. Within this potential jaguar core area, based on densities obtained from similar landscapes, “70 to 90 jaguars could create a significant population with high chances of long-term survival, even though it would need proper genetic and demographic management” (De Angelo, 2011). Public support To determine whether there was sufficient support for a large carnivore reintroduction, Caruso and Jim
enez P
erez (2013) assessed the attitudes of both urban and rural residents of Corrientes Province. They discovered that 95% of the people support the return of jaguars with results independent of the respondent’s gender, age, or location. These results were obtained prior to any media campaigns to promote jaguar reintroduction, suggesting that jaguars were already viewed very positively by the public. Caruso and Jim
enez P
erez (2013) suggested that for Corrientes Province the jaguar could act as a bridge between a proud provincial heritage and a hopeful future in which ecotourism could provide a means of economic development. With such strong local support, the only other groups that could thwart jaguar reintroduction would be scientists, conservationists, or government officials. We discuss engagement with these groups below. Capacity and commitment The final component of a preliminary assessment was identifying an organization willing to commit long-term resources and expertise to lead

such a complex endeavor. In this case, CLT would clearly fill this role, as it had already invested more than 5 million US$/year for conservation activities in INR for the previous 16 years and was committed to maintain this level of investment until their lands are donated to the government and all extirpated species were re-established. Also, since 2006 CLT had established and trained a team that had experience in successful reintroduction programs for giant anteaters and pampas deer (Jim
enez P
erez, 2013).

Planning and negotiating a jaguar reintroduction plan Once it was determined that INR had sufficient habitat, public support, organizational capacity and commitment, the best technical strategy had to be designed to mesh with the best political strategy before negotiating with agencies responsible for authorization. To derive a technical reintroduction plan with high probability of success, representatives of CLT first visited other jaguar conservation projects, such as in the Brazilian Pantanal, and other felid reintroduction programs, such as the rewilding initiative at Pilanesberg National Park and the South China Tiger Project (both in South Africa), the Iberian Lynx ex situ conservation program in Spain (see below), and two tiger reintroduction projects in India. Second, over a period of 4 years, CLT held meetings, workshops, and consultations with jaguar experts from Argentina, Brazil, Europe, and the United States, plus other international experts in large felid reintroductions. These activities included national and regional experts as advisors and supporters in an adaptive planning process that produced a strategic vision document (CLT, 2012), which has been updated regularly. This strategic vision was based on the following premises: (a) with a total national population of only 200 individuals, it was not ethically or biologically justifiable nor politically feasible to translocate wild jaguars from other regions of Argentina to INR; (b) at this phase of the

IV. Conservation solutions ex situ

Case study 1. Planning a jaguar reintroduction in Argentina: Combining science, publicity, and public policy

program it was also not politically or administratively feasible to obtain permits for translocation of jaguars from a healthy population in neighboring countries like Brazil; however, it was believed that such permits might be possible in the future if initial successes could be demonstrated; (c) due to the above constraints, the first animals to be released should be born from captive jaguars in a facility within INR and provided the opportunity to learn to hunt native prey while avoiding any positive stimulus from or affiliation to humans; (d) the facility and first release site should be located within remote high-quality habitat inside INR to minimize dispersal to less secure areas; and (e) with an initial captive-born nucleus established, wild jaguars potentially translocated in the future would be less likely to show homing instincts or disperse away from the area. Based on these principles, a three-step jaguar reintroduction plan for INR was derived. Phase one would include construction of a breeding facility for captive jaguars from zoos that would produce viable offspring born in large pens situated on the best habitat inside the reserve. Also, media reports regarding individuals born at the facility would assist in promoting the jaguar reintroduction program across Corrientes. In Phase Two, jaguars born and raised onsite (demonstrating the ability to successfully hunt and avoid human contact) would be released inside INR to establish a core population. Ideally, the establishment of such a nucleus would help to initiate Phase Three, which would include capturing, translocating, and releasing wild jaguars from viable populations in neighboring countries to boost demographic growth and genetic viability of the reestablished population. Homing behavior of wild translocated animals would be minimized through soft releases from acclimatization pens. After receiving input from national and international experts, the program had to be reviewed and approved by the provincial and national wildlife authorities. Initial meetings with provincial authorities soon made clear that they were only willing to approve the first

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phase—an on-site breeding facility—before considering possible authorizations of jaguar releases. Approval of the first phase by provincial authorities required a year and a half of meetings and adjustments to the strategic document. Approval by national authorities required another 2 years of protracted negotiations involving more meetings and formal presentations. In December 2014, an on-site jaguar breeding facility was approved by both regional and federal authorities. Construction had already began in a remote area of INR in September 2013, and the Experimental Jaguar Breeding Center was ready to hold two captive breeding pairs and their offspring by the time the plan was approved. Technical details are described in the management plan (Solı´s et al., 2014). Negotiating and achieving final governmental authorization was probably the most taxing and, at the same time, most critical part of the entire process. With permits in hand, the first female jaguar was transferred to the breeding center in 2015 after going through a quarantine phase. Along the route to the center, the jaguar was met with unexpected enthusiasm from local villagers. On January 2021, after getting authorization from provincial and national authorities for Phase 2 of the project, the first wild-born female was released with her two cubs. A second female and her two cubs were released in April, while a female born at the breeding center in 2018 was released on September 2021. Finally, a rescued wild male individual was released in January 2022. The four adult jaguars that have been released carry GPS collars, and all eight free-ranging animals are regularly monitored and in good health, hunting their own prey without any assistance from humans. The first jaguar releases were celebrated by local, national, and international media.

Conclusions on developing a reintroduction plan Following Seddon et al. (2014), the jaguar reintroduction project in INR is both a rewilding

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initiative to restore the ecological role of the jaguar as the top predator in this vast wilderness, and a species conservation initiative to recover a critically endangered species at the national level. Nevertheless, despite the existence of extensive highquality habitat, strong support by local residents and the scientific community for the reintroduction effort, and the existence of a capable and committed organization to see the process to fruition, there were still significant bureaucratic and political obstacles to overcome before approval and initiation of the project. Perhaps the most useful lesson is that delineation and approval of a feasible reintroduction plan require wisdom, patience, persistence, communication skills, empathy with other points of view, and sufficient flexibility to adapt an “ideal” vision to political and bureaucratic constraints so that implementation becomes a reality.

Case study 2. The Iberian lynx: Restoring a population on the verge of extinction The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is a mediumsized felid endemic to the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal). Formerly widespread, only about 100 individuals remained in the wild in 2002 in 2 isolated populations in Andalusia Province of southern Spain (Andu´jar-Carden˜a and Don˜ana) (Guzma´n et al., 2004). Given the small size of this remnant population, the Iberian lynx was the only felid species listed as “Critically Endangered” (IUCN, 2003). Starting in 2002, four consecutive EU-funded conservation projects were developed by the Andalusian Regional Government of the Environment to halt the decline of the remaining populations (mainly by increasing carrying capacity, decreasing mortality rates, and managing population genetics) and restore extinct populations through reintroductions (Simo´n, 2013). A captive-breeding program was initiated in 2004 with the main goal of providing individuals for release (Vargas et al., 2008). Here we summarize methods and results of the

reintroduction program that began in 2006, and continues to the present. As a result of these efforts, the IUCN downlisted Iberian lynx to “Endangered” (IUCN, 2015).

Identification of suitable habitat Optimal areas for reintroduction were selected in a two-stage process: (1) preselection based on GIS habitat suitability analyses and (2) definitive selection based on fine-scale field studies of habitat suitability, prey density, public support and potential threats. In the first stage a suitability model using presence/absence data (generated both by radio-tracking and photo-trapping studies conducted between 2002 and 2006) was generated (Gill-Sa´nchez et al., 2011). Beginning in 2006, 11 areas were preselected throughout the Iberian Peninsula as optimal for Iberian lynx reintroduction based on the habitat suitability analyses, size (a minimum of 10,000 ha), and the potential for integration into a metapopulation (Gaona et al., 1998; Palomares, 2001). Between 2007 and 2014, fine-scale studies collected data on habitat quality, rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) density (the Iberian lynx’s primary prey), public support, and threats analyses. All values derived by these methods were compared with the same variables obtained within the current range of Iberian lynx (Simo´n, 2013). To date, six areas have been selected for reintroductions. First releases began in Guadalmellato in 2009 and continue to the present.

Origin of released individuals Both wild-caught and captive-raised individuals have been used in the reintroduction process. Both males and females were removed from a wild population for translocation when it was determined that removal would have no significant impact on the existent population (Palomares, 2002). Wild individuals were selected based on their age (young sexually mature), social status (only nonresident individuals) and genetic origin (closely related individuals were not released in the same area). Once

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Case study 2. The Iberian lynx: Restoring a population on the verge of extinction

captured, all individuals were given an extensive health assessment and placed in quarantine for 2–6 weeks to avoid the introduction of any diseases into the recovering populations. Captive individuals were selected to maximize genetic diversity and were kept in large natural enclosures with a complex environment similar to that found in the wild. Contact with keepers was minimized. Since promoting natural behaviors is considered essential for the survival in the wild (Griffin et al., 2000; Hartmann-Furter, 2009), candidates for release were only fed live prey, mainly wild rabbits (80%–100% of their diet in the phases prior to release). Mothers generally hunt and provide food for young cubs, but cubs are able to kill prey on their own as early as 103days after birth (Yerga et al., 2012). A network of tunnels was built for rabbits in the training enclosures to mimic the complicated process of both locating and capturing prey in the wild. Moreover, unpredictability of food availability and the occasional use of hunger were used to promote exploration and foraging behavior, as well as to mimic natural conditions. To prevent association of humans with food, we developed a system of automatic feeders connected to a timer. To promote avoidance behavior toward humans, lynx-human contacts were kept to a minimum and negative stimuli (shouting or throwing water on them) discouraged contact. Human handling was avoided while social interactions with other lynx were encouraged. A health assessment was conducted on all captive Iberian lynx to ensure only healthy individuals in good condition were released. When a limiting health problem or disease was detected during check-ups, the individual was removed from the program. The sex ratio of released individuals was kept near to 1:1 for each release year.

Release and monitoring Released individuals were radio-tagged to allow postrelease monitoring. A soft-release approach was initially used in all areas, with enclosures of 1–8 ha built in areas of optimal

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habitat and prey density (Simo´n, 2013). The number of individuals soft-released at any given time ranged from 2 to 4 and time spent in the enclosure ranged between 3 and 210 days. Once a nucleus population (at least two pairs) of wild individuals had settled into a given area, individuals were released directly into a site (hard releases). In cases where soft releases were performed within a stable adult home range, fights between incoming individuals and resident territorial individuals were recorded.

Results and conclusions From 2009 through 2021, 336 (305 captiveborn and 31 wild translocated) Iberian lynx were released into the 6 reintroduction areas. After release, distances explored by individuals ranged from 0 to 1124 km (mean 36 km). Most releases ended with temporary or final settlement of the individual in unoccupied areas with high prey abundance (Rueda et al., 2021). Distance between the release site and the center of a home range ranged from 0 to 285 km with no variation in dispersal distance between the sexes. There were no differences in dispersal distances between soft- and hard-released individuals. Annual mortality rate in the first year after release was 0.28 and nearly identical for captiveraised (0.31) and wild-caught individuals (0.27). Reproduction has been recorded every year since the first release in all populations. The population of Iberian lynx living in the wild has increased from 59 individuals in 2002 to 1111 in 2020. The original recovery goal of 5 populations totaling 300 individuals within Sierra Morena (Simo´n et al., 2012; Simo´n, 2013) has already been vastly exceeded, yet reintroductions will continue in eight new areas by 2030. Moreover, a project focused on connecting all “nuclei” populations is currently being implemented. These results suggest the project has been highly successful in both translocating wild Iberian lynx and developing protocols for raising young Iberian lynx for reintroduction. Similar mortality rates of captive-reared and wild

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translocated lynx are a strong indicator of the success of the rearing program and suggests that similar approaches may be successful with other medium and large felids. Although some human-Iberian lynx conflicts have been documented (Garrote et al., 2013; Lo´pez et al., 2014), mitigation programs are in place. Welldesigned programs with appropriate training to develop hunting skills and negative conditioning toward humans may be some of the key components to insure success.

Case study 3. Genetic restoration as a management tool for endangered felids: Lessons learned from the Florida panther Many large carnivore populations have become isolated and reduced in size due to a combination of unregulated harvest and habitat loss associated with human development (Wolf and Ripple, 2017; Woodroffe, 2001). Inbreeding is inevitable in small populations and can have a major impact on long-term population viability and risk of extinction (Frankham et al., 2002; Hedrick et al., 2014). That scenario has transpired for the Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), a subspecies of puma that once ranged across the southeastern United States, which is now restricted to 40 years (Onorato et al., 2010). Early research revealed that many of the remaining panthers exhibited congenital anomalies including high incidences of defects such as kinked tails, thoracic “cowlicks” of fur, cryptorchidism, atrial septal defects, depressed immune systems,

and detrimental sperm characteristics (Roelke et al., 1993). These anomalies were presumed to be a consequence of low levels of genetic variation associated with inbreeding depression (Roelke et al., 1993). Minimum counts of panthers remaining in the wild in the early 1990s indicated the population likely consisted of as few as 20–30 individuals (McBride et al., 2008). The combination of the extremely small population size and observed impacts of inbreeding depression led wildlife managers in 1991 to establish a captive breeding program with kittens removed from the wild. The captive breeding program was discontinued in 1992 for two reasons: (1) heightened concerns that the genetic health of the wild population had reached a critical point where the continued survival of the panther population was in question and (2) logistical constraints regarding the necessary space for captive breeding facilities and the length of time needed before captive breeding might feasibly contribute to recovery (potentially several panther generations). A different, more expedient approach was necessary to reverse what appeared to be the panther’s inevitable rendezvous with extinction.

Developing a plan for genetic restoration In 1994, the FWC, National Park Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, and nongovernment organizations, along with experts in the field of carnivore biology and conservation genetics convened to develop an alternate approach to recover the Florida panther. The result was a plan to release eight female pumas from western Texas (Puma concolor stanleyana) into the wilds of South Florida (Seal, 1994). Pairing these females with wild male Florida panthers was predicted to improve levels of heterozygosity in the population (Seal, 1994). Pumas from Texas were chosen because Florida panthers historically experienced a level of gene flow with that subspecies when panthers were distributed across their historical range throughout the Southeastern United States.

IV. Conservation solutions ex situ

Case study 3. Genetic restoration as a management tool for endangered felids: Lessons learned from the Florida panther

This periodic exchange of breeding animals ceased when panthers became isolated in South Florida. Genetic restoration would therefore mimic this gene flow that used to occur naturally. In theory, genetic restoration had the potential to improve the long-term outlook for the panther through revitalized genetic variation and in turn result in a population comprised of individuals that may genetically more closely resemble those that were historically distributed across the Southeastern United States. Females rather than males were selected for release because managers could more accurately document the level of genetic introgression by sampling kittens from litters of radio-collared Texas females. Documenting the litters of uncollared female panthers sired by a male Texas puma would be nearly impossible. The plan for genetic restoration was not without critics. For instance, Maehr and Caddick (1995) proposed that outbreeding depression could result and lead to the loss of localized adaptations. While such a scenario merited contemplation, the overall consensus was that genetic restoration held the most promising, expedient, and perhaps last chance to avert the extinction of Florida panthers.

Implementation and results Between March and July 1995, eight female pumas from west Texas were released at five different locations in South Florida (Onorato et al., 2010). Upon release, the Texas females adapted quickly to the vastly different landscape. By October 1995, less than 6 months after release, a Texas puma produced the first documented admixed litter. Accounting for the 90-day gestation period for pumas (Currier, 1983), fertilization by a male Florida panther occurred less than 3 months after release. Eventually, a minimum of 20 kittens born to Texas pumas were documented (Onorato et al., 2010). In subsequent years, breeding by the F1 generation of admixed panthers was verified, along with several backcrosses to the Texas pumas. An

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extensive assessment of the effects of genetic restoration on the panther highlighted the benefits that ensued (Johnson et al., 2010; Van De Kerk et al., 2019). Admixed panthers exhibited a lower prevalence of kinks, cowlicks, cryptorchidism, atrial septal defects, and sperm anomalies while showing marked improvements in genetic heterozygosity and survival rates of both kittens and adults (Benson et al., 2011; Hostetler et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 2010; Van De Kerk et al., 2019). Furthermore, population viability analyses demonstrated that genetic restoration had a significant impact improving the outlook for the long-term persistence of the panther population (Hostetler et al., 2013; Van De Kerk et al., 2019). The benefits associated with genetic restoration are perhaps best exemplified by the most recent minimum count data that shows an increase from 26 in 1995 to 149 panthers in 2015 (McBride and McBride, 2015).

Conclusions While other factors invariably played a role in the dramatic turnaround for the Florida panther (including acquisition and protection of >120,000 ha of land, wildlife highway underpasses, legal protection under the Endangered Species Act) genetic restoration can most certainly be deemed a success (Johnson et al., 2010; Onorato et al., 2010). In retrospect, there is little doubt that managers in 1994 assumed some level of risk when deciding to implement genetic restoration of a large carnivore in situ. Only limited control over the progression and outcome of genetic restoration was possible. While panthers remain endangered, the outlook for recovery today is much improved compared to two decades ago. The lessons learned from our experiences with genetic restoration in Florida should be contemplated for use in other regions of the world where options of releasing conspecifics into the wild to reinvigorate dwindling wildlife populations have the promise of averting future extinctions.

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Case study 4: Rescue, rehabilitation, and reintroduction of Amur tigers into historic range in the Russian Far East Historically, the best habitat for Amur, or Siberian tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), probably existed in northeast China and the Korean peninsula, but today at least 90% of the remaining wild population resides in the Russian Far East. Tigers originally also occurred along both sides of the Amur River—in Amur Oblast and the Jewish Autonomous Region (JAR) in Russia, and in the Lesser Khingan Mountains of Heilongjiang Province China (Heptner and Sludskii, 1992; Ma, 2000), but animals in these areas largely disappeared in the 1970s and 1980s. Today, although suitable habitat remains in this historic part of its range, nearly all Amur tigers reside in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains of Primorye and Khabarovsk Provinces, Russia and in south-west Primorye and the neighboring Changbaishan Mountains of Jilin Province, China (Hebblewhite et al., 2012; Miquelle et al., 2007). Orphaned tiger cubs are not uncommon in the Russian Far East, perhaps because females with cubs are more likely to stand their ground and protect cubs, making them more susceptible to poachers with firearms. In the past, most orphaned cubs went into captivity since there were no facilities for rehabilitation, although there were a few attempts to retain cubs in the wild (Goodrich and Miquelle, 2005). However, because these few individuals had little impact on dynamics of the Sikhote-Alin population, estimated in 2005 at 430–500 individuals (Miquelle et al., 2007), these rescues, rehabilitations, and releases back into the wild were little more than animal welfare cases. In 2012, the A.N. Servetsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, of the Russian Academy of Sciences, with support from the Russian Geographic Society, completed construction of a tiger rehabilitation center in Alekseevka,

Primorye, in time to receive a female cub orphaned at approximately 4 months of age (Rozhnov et al., 2021). In 2013, five more tiger cubs arrived at the facility, all 3–5 months of age. Since then, the NGO Amur Tiger Centre has overseen the rehabilitation of another nine tigers (ANO Tiger Annual Reports: http:// amur-tiger.ru/en/about_us/). Instead of the standard practice of sending these cubs to zoos, or releasing them back into the remaining tiger population in the Sikhote-Alin, it was decided to attempt to use the majority of these tigers (n ¼ 13) to recolonize lost habitat in the JAR and Amur Oblast, where tigers had been absent for nearly 40 years.

Rescue and rehabilitation of orphaned cubs In most cases, local villagers or hunters contacted authorities when abandoned cubs appeared. In every instance, attempts were made to confirm that cubs were indeed abandoned. Techniques for capturing cubs varied with their size and condition: some were so weak they could simply be wrapped in a jacket and carried out, while others in better condition required immobilization before handling. Cubs were often held in temporary facilities near the capture site for treatment (administering fluids, first feeding, and medical needs) and physical assessments before being transferred to the rehabilitation center. Cubs were kept in quarantine for 1 month before release into one of the six enclosures at the center. Most cubs were kept alone in an enclosure or jointly with another cub of the same approximate age (sometimes of the same litter). One female died while still in quarantine, apparently from a viral infection (FHV). No other tiger cubs showed any symptoms of illness, though many were in poor condition upon capture. Blood was collected from cubs upon arrival and prior to release and screened for 17 pathogens. Tigers had antibodies to feline calicivirus (3 of 6), Toxoplasma

IV. Conservation solutions ex situ

Case study 4: Rescue, rehabilitation, and reintroduction of Amur tigers into historic range in the Russian Far East

gondii (3 tigers), feline panleukopenia virus (5 tigers), Trichinella sp. (1 tiger), and were negative for all other 13 pathogens tested. Because these four pathogens are common in wild tigers of the Russian Far-East (Goodrich et al., 2012; Naidenko et al., 2012), all cubs were still considered suitable candidates for release. Chain-linked fencing 4.5 m high (with an inward overhang of 1 m at the top) enclosed pens ranging in size from 0.3 to 0.7 ha. Natural vegetation was retained in the enclosures, but degree of cover varied in each, from largely forested with brushy undercover to mostly open tall grass fields. Water was available ad libitum. Human contact with animals throughout the rehabilitation period was minimized by placing sheeted material on enclosure fences to block visual contact, by installing multiple video cameras to monitor activities remotely, and by providing food through boxed enclosures that could be opened remotely. Tigers were fed almost exclusively wild game, although the first cub was fed some beef (without the hide). At 7–8 months of age, small live prey (domestic rabbits and pheasants) were presented to cubs, who actively hunted these prey. When cubs reached 11 months of age, live young wild boar (Sus scrofa) and young sika deer (Cervus nippon) were released into the pens. Larger prey (subadult/ adult wild boar and sika deer) were presented to tigers older than 15 months of age after their permanent teeth were fully developed. For the 6 months prior to release, tigers were provided only live natural prey items, and thus, were wholly dependent on their own abilities to capture prey. Intervals between presentation of live prey ranged from 7 to 12 days. Each cub had successfully killed at least 24 wild boar and/or sika deer before it was considered ready for release (Blidchenko et al., 2015). New stimuli, especially in relation to hunting, were presented to tiger cubs at appropriate times relative to their ontological development (Yachmennikova et al., 2018).

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Before release, individuals were tested for their reaction to human presence. A person walked along the perimeter of a tiger enclosure while observers (via the remote video system) scored the reactions of the tiger(s). None of the tigers attempted to approach the encroaching human or showed any signs of aggression.

Reintroduction of cubs into historic range Suitability assessments were conducted at potential release sites in the JAR and Amur Oblast (Aramilev, 2013). Yearly surveys of ungulate densities conducted in protected areas and hunting leases suggested that prey densities were adequate to support tigers. The sites selected for initial releases were all in remote locations. Extensive discussions and agreements with government agencies and governors of these regions occurred prior to release, and special funds were allocated to ensure local wildlife agencies would be able to monitor tigers after release. Teams with experience in resolving human-tiger conflicts were also prepared to travel to the sites if necessary. Educational and outreach programs were conducted in villages close to release sites prior to release. No extensive surveys were conducted to assess public opinion of the reintroduction program, although informal assessments suggested many local people were opposed to the idea of returning tigers to the area (Aramilev, 2013). From spring 2013 through spring 2021, a total of 13 tigers (8 females, 5 males) were released into the recovery region, usually at the age of 18–20 months (Rozhnov et al., 2021), mimicking the time when subadult tigers normally disperse from their natal home range (Goodrich et al., 2010). All were affixed with GPS collars and were monitored for the lifespan of the collar (ranging from 3 months to 3 years). Camera traps are also used to monitor individuals and the growing population.

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All released females established home ranges (n ¼ 7, status of most recently released tigress is still unclear), mostly within protected areas, although the amount of time required to settle into territories varied. Males generally traveled extensively, settling into a region only if they encountered a female. One male covered over 1200 km between May and December 2013, including an extensive wandering through the Lesser Khingan Mountains of Heilongjiang Province China, before returning to Russia after the Amur River froze over (Rozhnov et al., 2014). A second male moved over 600 km in an easterly direction following the Amur River, and also entered China, where he fed extensively on domestic animals. When he returned to Russia in December 2014, he continued to rely on domestic animals (dogs) and did not show adequate fear of humans and was therefore captured and removed from the wild. All other released tigers appear to be surviving almost exclusively on wild prey. Of 82 kills located by examining clusters of GPS locations and snow tracking (Rozhnov et al., 2021), only 3 (2 young cattle and 1 dog) were domestic: 87% were wild ungulates (including 67% wild boar). So far, 4 females have produced 6 litters (totaling no less than 12 cubs), sired by both wild males (who occasionally disperse from the main population to the east), and rehabilitated males released as part of this program (Rozhnov et al., 2021; ANO Tiger Annual Reports: http://amur-tiger.ru/en/about_ us/). Some of these offspring have survived and dispersed, adding to the population size. At least three tigers have moved across the international border into China, and then returned, suggesting that dispersal and establishment of a population on that side of the border is also a possibility if prey populations are restored there. Discussions about the creation of transboundary protected areas between China and Russia in this region are ongoing and would greatly improve the chances of developing a viable subpopulation of tigers in this region.

Conclusions Goodrich and Miquelle (2005) suggested three indicators of success for translocating tigers in Russia that are applicable here (1) survival through the first winter with evidence of predation on wild prey; (2) lack of conflict with people or domestic animals; and (3) successful reproduction. These translocated cubs were mostly successful in meeting these indicators: (1) 11 of 13 survived their first winter and all but 1 tiger (who was recaptured) have concentrated mainly on wild prey as a source of food; (2) aside from depredation on a few dogs and cattle, conflicts with humans have been rare; and (3) multiple females have given birth and successfully reared young, with some of these cubs already dispersing across this region. Successful reproduction suggests that this group of tigers is in the process becoming a self-sustaining population, representing a rare case of restoration of tigers into their former range (Rozhnov et al., 2021).

Lessons learned Find common ground with key constituents Rescue, rehabilitation, and recovery operations require direct handling of animals and therefore will generally be controversial and highly scrutinized. Therefore, success will often be dictated by the preliminary work done in developing a defensible plan and garnering support from scientists, the appropriate agencies, political entities, and the public. Each of the case studies to varying extents was successful because they were able to identify key constituencies and found means of agreeing on programmatic goals and methods. The case study on jaguar reintroductions perhaps most clearly underscores the need for compromise and patience in dealing with a variety of interest groups. To conduct genetic restoration of the Florida panther, strong support from the scientific community was a

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Lessons learned

critical component of garnering political support. The captive-rearing program for Iberian lynx required years of debate among local, national, and international political and scientific organizations to reach a consensus plan that is now probably the best example of using captive-raised individuals to restore a wild felid population.

Develop effective public outreach In none of the studies did public opinion negatively impact the process, but given the strong sentiments that large carnivores generally evoke, these may be more the exception than the rule. Working to restore large felids into their former range (in three of the case studies) is likely to be controversial, so outreach to and education of the public is likely to be an important component in nearly all situations (Garrote et al., 2013; Goodrich, 2010). Incorporating a structured decision-making process as an integral part of these projects should be considered in order to improve prospects for lasting and effective conservation (Brignon et al., 2019). Rescue work with large felids receives lots of publicity both locally and globally, so while these activities may be largely viewed as animal welfare issues, they help build public and financial support for the larger goal of felid conservation. The importance of this aspect of animal rescue work should not be underestimated as a rationale for having the capacity to do such work professionally. It is important to have a well-defined message and mechanism for getting information to the public. For example, a common misconception in Florida is that admixed panthers are much more aggressive than the “original” Florida panthers, and that they are not afraid of people (Rodgers and Pienaar, 2017). There is no scientific basis for these claims, but they are pervasive in segments of the public that are not in favor of Florida panther recovery. Therefore, it is important to be prepared to address such concerns with convincing evidence, and ideally, envisage and address potential criticisms before they work their way into the public consciousness.

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The release of rehabilitated, captive-reared, or translocated animals can be effective media opportunities that are intensively covered and provide an opportunity to convey important messages to the public. In organizing such events, film/photo opportunities must be provided to media, but in a way that does not compromise the purpose of the release (or other event). Just as importantly, there should be a clear message that is defined beforehand to be conveyed to the media, remembering that they are your means of outreach to the public. The preparation of printed materials prior to the event is a good way to ensure that the proper information gets into the hands of journalists. However, it must be remembered that all events must be planned for maximum benefit to the animals, not to accommodating spectators.

Incorporate the knowledge and experience of the global scientific, zoo, and conservation communities to develop a defensible plan Most of the case studies relied on input from experts with experience in carnivore conservation and recovery, with staff often conducting site visits to learn from others. Knowledge of how to construct facilities, plan releases, and handle animals exists, but within a relatively small circle of specialists. Having this group of experts review existing plans and advise on how best to proceed will improve prospects for success. Learning by trial and error is not recommended.

Ensure suitable habitat exists and reasons for extirpation are known and mitigated If restoration into historical range is the goal, identification of a sufficiently large tract of suitable habitat that has some form of legal protection and sufficient prey densities is critical before any plans are initiated. Identification of the release site must be a precursor to any captive-breeding programs intended to restore

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wild populations of felids. Just as importantly, it must be clear why the former population went extinct, and whether those threats have been sufficiently mitigated.

Health care and disease screening of captive individuals and reintroduction sites A quarantine period should be strictly adhered to when snow leopards first come into a rehabilitation center to avoid exposing other individuals to potential diseases. There already exists a set of pragmatic recommendations on health care and husbandry of newly captured individuals, including recommendations for nutrition, infectious disease risk, and necessary vaccinations of snow leopards brought into captivity and being managed for release back into the wild (Ostrowski and Gilbert, 2017). For translocations or restorations, individuals should be thoroughly screened for feline-specific diseases and other health problems. Consultation with wildlife veterinarians is imperative, and ideally, wildlife veterinarians are a part of the team that manages captive individuals and assesses sites for reintroduction, for instance, to determine if any new epidemiological threats could be problematic to a project. The occurrence of a disease in a captive individual slated for release may not present a problem if the same disease is common in the wild population (as was the case for Amur tigers), but screening both captive and wild populations is necessary to make this determination (Lewis et al., 2020). There already exists an excellent example of how to conduct disease risk assessments for big cats prior to reintroduction (Lewis et al., 2020). Screenings to assess the presence of recessive genetic disorders, if feasible, should be contemplated.

Release of captive-reared versus wild individuals For restoration/supplementation of a population, it is almost always preferable to use wild individuals as a source. Wild individuals have already demonstrated their ability to survive

in the wild and should be innately wary of humans, while some level of acclimatization to humans is almost unavoidable in captive conditions. However, wild individuals are likely to disperse further (Belden and McCown, 1996), although use of soft releases may temper that tendency. Wild Iberian lynx were released only into areas where a population was already established, thus reducing the likelihood of dispersal. When wild individuals are not available, captive rearing is an expensive, time-consuming option, but one that has demonstrated success, as in the case with Iberian lynx.

With captive-reared individuals, it is essential to minimize human contact, and probably preferable to provide negative reinforcements Holding pens should be designed to minimize human contact (visual, auditory, and olfactory). It is especially important to avoid associating the presence of humans with food (e.g., a keeper bringing food to the enclosure). The larger the felid, the more important this issue becomes. The one tiger that was removed from the wild after release in the Russian Far East was kept in an enclosure with little cover and closest to the facilities where keepers worked and was therefore forced into closer association with humans. Assessing how large felids respond to negative reinforcements (as was done with Iberian lynx) would be a useful line of investigation assisting future release programs.

Better to release females (first) In most cases females are likely preferred over males as the source for genetic restoration into a population that is endangered. Use of females permits researchers to more effectively document the level of admixture as reproduction of radio-collared females can be closely monitored via sampling kittens at dens, whereas pairings between translocated males and uncollared wild females already in the population are

IV. Conservation solutions ex situ

Lessons learned

more difficult to document without extensive genetic sampling of the population. Experience in the Russian Far East demonstrated that rehabilitated male tigers tended to disperse long distances, while tigresses more often remained relatively close to the release site. Similar long-distance dispersals of male felids in translocation projects have been documented (Belden and McCown, 1996). Therefore, it may be wise to establish a nucleus population by first releasing females, and then releasing males into the home ranges already established by females in hopes males will encounter females (through visual or olfactory cues) and be less likely to disperse.

Hard vs soft releases Soft releases were used initially for Iberian lynx to develop a nucleus population, but once populations were established, hard releases appeared to be effective. In Florida, though the sample size was small (eight animals), no observable difference was found in movements of Texas pumas after hard versus soft releases. Hard releases were used for most tigers in Russia, but the few soft releases did not appear to dramatically impact dispersal tendencies.

Genetic restoration For genetic restoration: (1) determine the level of genetic introgression necessary to positively impact the population that is in peril; (2) whenever possible select conspecific stock from an area that previously may have interbred with the focal population (e.g., Texas pumas and Florida panthers) so that genetic restoration is not altering the population that is endangered, but mimicking what historically happened naturally; and (3) be prepared to explain (with data, historic distribution patterns, genetics) why admixed animals are not significantly different from the original stock for which you are initiating genetic restoration.

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Closely monitor released individuals The process of translocation and restoration of felids is still in its infancy and much is still unknown. Therefore, clearly documenting the process and monitoring released individuals will greatly inform future efforts. Additionally, because skepticism and criticism are likely when releasing either wild- or captive-reared animals, scientifically defensible documentation of successes and failures is important. Basic information on kill rates (to document the ability to hunt in the wild), encounters with humans, habitat selection, and reproduction are vital to determining success. With the increased use of GPS collars, it is now possible to collect multiple locations per day that allow the fine-scale analysis of movement patterns after release. Such collars are especially useful in remote areas as they have the ability to transmit data to researchers via cellular phone or satellite networks (see Chapter 30). However, the drawbacks of GPS collars (such as short battery life, high failure rate, and size) need to be considered, and compared to the pros and cons of deploying “traditional” VHF collars. To document reproduction and mortality, having radio-collars that last 3+years is preferred and minimizes the need to recapture animals on an annual basis (something that is logistically impossible in many situations). VHF collars typically function for more than 4 years, but, for large felids, will often require the use of aerial telemetry to locate them, which is expensive, poses risks to staff, and may not be feasible in some cases.

Be prepared for conflicts and the need to remove individuals A response plan should exist prior to translocating animals so that agencies, the public, private landowners, and NGOs are aware how felid-human conflicts will be dealt with. Having these protocols developed and approved by all stakeholders prior to releasing, a large predator is highly recommended.

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References Aprile, G., Cuyckens, E., De Angelo, C., Di Bitetti, M.S., Lucherini, M., Muzzachiodi, N., Palacios, R., Paviolo, A., Quiroga, V., Soler, L., 2012. Familia felidae. In: Ojeda, R.A., Chillo, V., Dı´az, G.B. (Eds.), Libro Rojo de los Mamı´feros Amenazados de la Argentina. Sociedad Argentina para el Estudio de los Mamı´feros, Buenos Aires, Argentina, pp. 92–101. Aramilev, V.V., 2013. Scientific basis for reintroduction of Amur tigers into Amur Oblast. Report for the governmental contract №0123200000313002189-Kot 30.09.2013, Institute of Geography, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 44 pp. Belden, R.C., McCown, J.W., 1996. Florida panther reintroduction feasibility study. Final report 7507, Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission, Tallahassee, FL, USA. 70 pp. Benson, J.F., Hostetler, J.A., Onorato, D.P., Johnson, W.E., Roelke, M.E., O’Brien, S.J., Jansen, D., Oli, M.K., 2011. Intentional genetic introgression influences survival of adults and subadults in a small, inbred felid population. J. Anim. Ecol. 80, 958–967. Blidchenko, E.Y., Rozhnov, V.V., Sonin, P.L., Yachmennikova, A.A., Sorokin, P.A., Naidenko, S.V., Hernandez-Blanco, J.A., Chistopolova, M.D., 2015. Rehabilitation of orphaned tiger cubs (Panthera tigris altaica) in the Center for rehabilitation and reintroduction of tigers and other rare animal species. In: Proceedings of International Workshop on the Rehabilitation and Reintroduction of Large Carnivores 25-27 November 2015. KMK Scientific Press, Moscow, p. 73. Brignon, W.R., Schreck, C.B., Schaller, H.A., 2019. Structured decision-making incorporates stakeholder values into management decisions thereby fulfilling moral and legal obligations to conserve species. J. Fish Wildl. Manag. 10, 250–265. Caruso, F., Jim
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IV. Conservation solutions ex situ

S E C T I O N V

Techniques and technologies for the study of a cryptic felid

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C H A P T E R

29 Snow leopard research—A historical perspective Don Huntera, Kyle McCarthyb, and Tom McCarthyc a

Rocky Mountain Cat Conservancy, Fort Collins, CO, United States bDepartment of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States cSnow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States

In the beginning When India collided with Eurasia, it brought with it an abundance of wildlife, including many different cat species. As the two continental plates buckled and rose over 50 million years, the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and its assemblage of wild ungulate prey remained atop what would become the highest mountains on earth. Indeed, seven major ranges emerged, forming the great arc of snow leopard habitat through Central Asia, where for millennia snow leopards lived free of human contact. Only in the last few thousand years have people moved upward from valleys and into their range. Early snow leopard accounts are usually of myth and mysticism and generally free of the disdain typically reserved for large carnivores. This is likely due to their elusive nature, beauty, and that they are especially wary of people and have never preyed on humans, although more than capable. As explorers, intrepid naturalists, and hunters ventured further into the mountains of Central Asia modern literature would begin to

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00002-9

include the first details of the snow leopard. These accounts, as reviewed by Schaller (1977) and Sunquist and Sunquist (2002), led to the first targeted snow leopard study in the early 1970s. Koshkarev (1997) also notes the early Russian accounts of snow leopard. In this chapter we will cover a three decade period, 1970–2000, during which the science of snow leopard research moved from skilled observation (boots, binoculars, and notebook) to sensing animal movement via satellite; those engaged in snow leopard study would shift from primarily western scientists to well-trained scientists within the range countries; and, the status of the snow leopard would move from a hunted species to one given full protection by all countries. A historic review of the first 30 years of snow leopard research must begin with a perspective on the conditions particular to this cat. Its vast range, extreme habitat, and elusive nature make snow leopards exceedingly difficult animals to study. To enter the cat’s domain, researchers, especially westerners, require permits and provisions from countries that often have ongoing

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civil unrest or political instability. Border disputes, sensitive areas, military patrols, poor quality maps, and fickle bureaucrats often presented barriers greater than the mountains and western researcher’s field plans were often stymied by suspicious bureaucracies. Maps, especially in the 1970s and 1980s, were rarely available or considered “top secret.” United States Defense Mapping Agency 1:1,000,000 Operational Navigation Charts (ONC) were often the only means of navigation in the mountains and for mapping snow leopard distribution. At the beginning of this period China, the Soviet Union and its allies (e.g., Mongolia) were relatively closed countries that required special arrangement to access remote areas. Thus, in the early years, the approach to snow leopard study was driven more by opportunity for access than any overarching, systematic scheme of range-wide scientific assessment. Pioneering researcher George Schaller would cast a long shadow across snow leopard range that continues to the present. A renowned scientist before entering the mountains of Central Asia, Schaller became the archetypal snow leopard biologist, characterized by compassion for the species combined with exceptional observation skills and unrelenting perseverance in the field. He succeeded in opening the secret world of the snow leopard through his unique ability to take meticulous field observations and transcribe them into scientific literature and popular outlets. He used a comfortable writing style that engaged armchair naturalists worldwide, helping to make the snow leopard an iconic symbol of Central Asian wildness. Further, his work and words inspired talented scholars to follow in his footsteps. Presently, the snow leopard is often labeled as “charismatic megafauna,” a characterization that carries no scientific meaning but animals deserving of the title do attract the people and funds needed for research. However, prior to 1970, the “charisma” of the snow leopard was little known. Schaller (1971) introduced the

snow leopard to the world when he penned an engaging account of his first encounter with the cat. Jackson and Hillard (1986) would add to that with another National Geographic piece. But perhaps no publication brought the snow leopard more firmly into the general public’s eye than Peter Matthiessen’s The Snow Leopard (1978). Matthiessen, an author, naturalist, and Buddhist acolyte, accompanied Schaller on a trek into the Dolpo region of western Nepal, ostensibly to study blue sheep, but buoyed also with the hope of seeing a snow leopard. The poignant account of that journey, on which he never saw a snow leopard, won him a national book award and launched the snow leopard into global recognition. A year before Schaller and Matthiessen’s famous trek, two cats taken from the wild in the Soviet Republic of Kirghizia (now Kyrgyzstan) were sent to Seattle’s Woodland Park Zoo where they came under the watchful eye of Helen Freeman, a volunteer docent. Filled with passion and energy, and recognizing how little was being done to understand or conserve the cats in the wild, Freeman started The International Snow Leopard Trust (ISLT) in 1981. Five years later, this NGO hosted an international snow leopard symposium in India. Three more would be held in range countries, the last in Islamabad, Pakistan in 1995. These symposia became critical forums for field researchers to share results, for range countries to represent their interest and showcase accomplishments, and for colleagues to interact. From its inception in 1981 through 2000, ISLT grew and became the international hub for snow leopard people and information. The Trust, as it came to be known, raised money to support field studies, hired in-country staff to conduct projects, and regularly published news about snow leopards as well as symposia proceedings. Importantly, it helped fund many of the needs identified during the symposia, including the development of common survey and monitoring protocol.

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1994) authored range-wide status reviews and perspectives.

Field surveys Of the first documented field studies, Schaller’s observation of a snow leopard in Chitral Gol in northern Pakistan (Schaller, 1972, 1980) set the stage for a type of research that would become the most common in early snow leopard literature. Typically cited as “field survey,” “status report,” or “observations”—these approaches collected information through a variety of methods such as scanning a hill slope for snow leopard (seldom actually seen) or prey, interviewing local people, walking transects noting scats or scrapes, and transcribing local records of predation. Observational studies of snow leopard sign and prey were the most practical given the expense and difficulty of live animal research (radio collaring). They answered the most basic questions of presence/absence and distribution, while adding incrementally to life history information. However, the disparity of these mixed methods made it difficult to infer results for the leopard population in total (see “The need for standard methods” section). Such field studies would continue through the ensuing three decades covering much of the species range. From Pakistan in the early 1970s, Schaller would turn his attention to western China beginning in the mid-1980s (Schaller, 1998; Schaller et al., 1987, 1988a,b). In Mongolia, Bold and Dorjzunduy (1976) carried out an early study and Mallon (1984a) described the cat’s range followed by others (McCarthy and Munkhtsog, 1997; Schaller et al., 1994). Ahmad et al. (1997) would return to northern Pakistan; Koshkarev (1989, 1997) surveyed portions of Kyrgyzstan, Eastern Siberia and Western Mongolia; Mallon (1984b, 1991), Fox et al. (1988, 1991), and Chundawat and Rawat (1994) surveyed Ladakh; and Jackson et al. (1994), Jackson and Ahlborn (1988, 1989), Oli et al. (1993, 1994), and Oli (1994a,b) would venture into the Himalaya range of Nepal. Fox (1989,

Live animal research Field surveys provide only limited information about a species. Radio telemetry is an essential tool to learn about animal movement, home range, feeding habits, and day-to-day activity. Further, with several animals radio collared is possible to study social behavior, mating, and territoriality. By the 1970s, radio telemetry was a proven method for tracking mountain lion (Felis concolor), a similar sized cat to snow leopard, in remote central Idaho (Hornocker, 1969). Schaller and Mel Sunquist made the first attempts to capture snow leopard in Chitral Gol in 1974 using box traps but were unsuccessful after one and a half months of effort. Eight years later, Rodney Jackson first captured and radio collared a snow leopard in west Nepal ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1989). This seminal study lasted 4 years with a total of five animals collared. It produced a revealing corpus of data on snow leopards far beyond what could be learned by field surveys alone. Jackson collected data on food habits, habitat preferences, activity patterns, home range, abundance, density, and importantly, marking patterns. His findings suggested that sign—scats, tracks, scrape, and feces—may be reliable indicators of snow leopard presence and relative abundance. The relatively high sign and cat density in his study area were eventually used by researchers to infer comparative densities in other regions and in different habitat types. Density is a key metric for estimating the total number of snow leopards that exist in the wild—a pervasive question posed to researchers. Jackson’s research had to overcome many obstacles including an extremely remote study site that required a 200-mile small plane ride from Kathmandu and then 10 days of walking over two high passes. With no examples to follow, he carried in equipment he could only hope

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29. Snow leopard research—A historical perspective

would work, including leg hold snares (Novak, 1980) and VHF radio collars. This technology, advanced for its time, required multiple locations to triangulate a location. Signal bounce off the rocky broken terrain made it difficult to pinpoint the direction to the collar, a dilemma that would plague all future VHF-based snow leopard collaring studies. Once the source was established, the direction was taken by handheld compass and later plotted on topographical maps to determine the location of the cat and home-range size determined by rudimentary minimum convex polygon methods. In extreme terrain at high altitudes location points of the five leopards, he eventually collared were hard earned. Over the 4 years that cats were followed, they utilized home ranges of between 11.7 and 38.9 km2 with substantial overlap both within and between sexes. From Jackson’s first snow leopard capture in Nepal, through the late 1990s, only a few researchers would again attempt live animal studies. While studying mountain ungulates in Ladakh, Chundawat et al. (1988) captured an adult male snow leopard in a cage trap made of local material. It slipped the collar, providing only minor information on movement and activity during 2.5 months in late winter. During that period, the cat’s home range was estimated to be 19.0 km2. Nepal was again the site of snow leopard capture and collaring in 1990 when three cats were fitted with VHF transmitters by Oli (1997). Cats were tracked for only 1–2 months (late December–late February). Home-range sizes were reported as 13.8 to 22.3 km2 with substantial overlap, much as reported by the five cats tracked by Jackson and Ahlborn (1989). In 1990, Schaller et al. (1994) initiated an ecological study of snow leopards in the Altai Mountains of southwest Mongolia and VHFcollared a single adult male. Over a 41-day period in November and December, they located the cat on 36 different days and report

a home-range size of 12 km2. The study was suspended for nearly 3 years due to economic and political uncertainty as Mongolia adjusted to the freedom from decades of communist rule. In 1993, the study was reinitiated under the leadership of Tom McCarthy and over the ensuing 5 years five more snow leopards were collared (McCarthy, 2000). The first four of those cats were again fitted with VHF collars, but in contrast to all previous studies, initial homerange estimates for some of the cats were quite large, in excess of 140 km2. McCarthy speculated that they could be even larger, given that the cats could not be relocated for long periods by ground-based telemetry. By this time, Argos satellite PPT collars had proven effective for tracking wildlife (Fancy et al., 1988). In February 1996, McCarthy placed an Argos collar on a female snow leopard (all three authors collaborated in the study). As expected, the satellite telemetry data showed that females utilized an area far greater than previous VHF estimates, exceeding 1500 km2. With that finding alone, the era of VHF collaring of snow leopards came to an end. As explained in Chapter 30, telemetry technology has moved ahead rapidly and now even the Argos PTT is a relic with only one deployed on a snow leopard. Beyond eliminating the need to ground track snow leopards, through steep rugged terrain, at elevations up to 5000 m and in temperatures below 30°C, new technology means more accurate and more frequent locations of collared cats. Combined, McCarthy and Jackson recorded just 781 locations, while VHF tracking 10 cats over 8 years. Today, a single GPS-collared snow leopard can easily provide more data points every few months. The pioneers of early snow leopard research overcame many challenges and hardships to eke out the beginnings of the current scientific understanding of the species. In doing so, they exemplified snow leopard research as an enterprise of science and spirit.

V. Techniques and technologies for the study of a cryptic felid

Steady march of science

Advances in the lab to support work in the field Quality maps were a rarity in the early years of snow leopard research, and satellite imagery was only marginally useful (Prasad et al., 1991), as high mountains tend to cast shadows and have large areas of exposed rock, making image classification difficult. Yet most facets of snow leopard research are spatial in nature, from field surveys to delineation of potential protected areas. This led Hunter and Jackson (1997) to model snow leopard habitat across all 12 range countries, despite the shortcomings in satellite imagery. Using model parameters derived from snow leopard literature and expert input, they employed geographic information system (GIS) tools to produce maps of total, good, fair, and protected habitats (Fig. 29.1). The resultant visual representation of the snow leopard’s vast and fragmented range reinforced the general consensus that the species is not in imminent danger of extinction, but rather threatened with localized extirpations. The new maps also showed the importance of China, with more than 60% of the total snow leopard range and provided the basis for new and more accurate estimates of density and total population size. The maps were an integral planning tool for snow leopard conservation efforts for more than a decade, when an expert knowledge mapping process in 2008 (see Chapter 3) updated them with more current information. The need for standard methods Helsinki Zoo sponsored the first international snow leopard symposium in 1978 with a focus on captive snow leopard care and breeding. Succeeding symposia continued the emphasis on zoo animals until the International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India hosted the fifth symposium in Srinagar, India, in 1986

383

with the primary topic of snow leopard conservation in the wild. Subsequent symposia became the de facto forum for presenting “status” reports by a range of country representatives, as well as survey data by individual scientists. Given the nature of early snow leopard research, reports provided abundance estimates extrapolated from a wide variety of methods, from actual field research to heuristic estimates by experts—a good starting point but far from scientifically valid or comparable. Jackson and Fox (1997) reviewed the variability of population estimates from several different surveys and cited the need for a common set of standard methods. Spearheaded by ISLT, Project Snow Leopard (PSL) was presented at the snow leopard symposium in Xining, China (Freeman et al., 1994; Hunter et al., 1994). This was a strategy for uniting snow leopard range countries and other organizations to work toward shared goals for snow leopard conservation, modeled to some degree after India’s successful “Project Tiger.” As originally perceived, PSL would tackle many of the range-wide threats confronting snow leopard conservation. Targeted multinational workshops would focus on transboundary parks, travel corridors between parks, reducing livestock predation, improving reserve management, and curtailing international trade in snow leopard parts. Project Snow Leopard also introduced the Snow Leopard Information Management System (SLIMS; see below), which included standard methods for surveys and a common database to store and share all types of snow leopard data. On another level, PSL was presented as a means for promoting biodiversity conservation for all of Central Asia. By this time, the snow leopard was recognized as an ecological apex species, or “indicator” species, for the high mountain ecosystems it occupied. Therefore, improvements in snow leopard conservation

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29. Snow leopard research—A historical perspective

Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) Habitat

Russia

Kazakhstan Mongolia

n sta gyz r y K

Uzbekistan Turkmenistan

China

tan kis i j Ta

Afghanistan

Pakistan India

Nep

al

Bhutan Myanmar Snow leopard range map from Hunter and Jackson (1997) including: Good Habitat—549,706 km2, Fair Habitat— 2,475,022 km , for a total of 3,024,728 km2 of Potential Habitat.

FIG. 29.1

2

would benefit many other species, 15 of which were also endangered. Project Snow Leopard relied on several key elements for success: an unprecedented amount of cooperation among the 12 range countries, adequate funding and oversight, building an information network, and developing common methods vetted by field use and updated via periodic workshops or symposia.

Snow Leopard Information Management System Delegates of the Xining symposium unanimously endorsed PSL and urged all countries to adopt and use the SLIMS. The concept of SLIMS began with an ISLT-sponsored workshop in 1990 attended by representatives from Pakistan, India, Nepal, China, Mongolia, Russia, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS).

V. Techniques and technologies for the study of a cryptic felid

Steady march of science

From the workshop came also the Snow Leopard Survey and Conservation Handbook ( Jackson and Hunter, 1996), the field survey portion of SLIMS. As envisioned, SLIMS was to meet PSL objectives by using common field methods to make survey results more consistent and robust and adopt a standardized computer database to store and share data. The handbook contained information about snow leopard ecology, data forms, and detailed instructions for conducting field surveys at two levels: Firstorder surveys focused on signs (scats, tracks, and scrapes) to establish snow leopard presence-absence; with second-order surveys that sought to use sign density to arrive at relative snow leopard abundance. Field surveys also assessed prey diversity and abundance. Many of the handbook’s data sheets and instructions were translated into several local languages, with the entire handbook translated into Chinese and Russian. SLIMS software, developed by the USFWS, was designed for personal computers to be located in nodes in each country and connected via the emergent worldwide web with a central node at ISLT. The SLIMS software user interface was designed for easy entry of data collected as prescribed in the Handbook. The SLIMS Handbook and software were envisioned as dynamic tools that could be improved upon with feedback from users. Training in field methods and software use became a priority for ISLT and its international partners. Workshops were held in China 1993, 1996; Pakistan 1994, 1995; Mongolia 1994; Bhutan 1997, 2000; and Nepal 1999. Pakistan was the first to implement SLIMS on a countrywide basis. SLIMS discussion SLIMS proved successful in many ways and yet fell short of its original goals. All of the in-country workshops were very well received and let international experts interact with national biologists and park staff. These

385

workshops elevated the importance of the snow leopard in the countries and brought attention to the needs of wildlife departments often overlooked in national bureaucracy. SLIMS training introduced many scientific principles and the importance of meticulous data collection to both field biologists and upper-level managers. SLIMS aimed at consistency across 12 countries and called for regular surveys in each country. These laudable and optimistic goals for SLIMS faced several insurmountable issues. Though approved by all countries, PSL and SLIMS were not front funded and required ISLT and partners to continually seek funds for expensive field surveys. Placing a computer node in each country and finding the right people to train were also problematic. China’s provinces proved too large and disconnected for a single national node. The first-order surveys were most easily learned by local staff, indeed, these simple presence-absence procedures were soon in use beyond the workshops. Secondorder surveys were, however, not as easily learned and proved too difficult for park-level staff to comprehend. Thus, each country varied in its capability to implement SLIMS. With the turn of the century, improved methods for estimating snow leopard abundance, such as fecal genetics and camera traps (see Chapters 31 and 32, respectively), were emerging tools that moved beyond what SLIMS surveys and analyses could provide. Today, sign-based abundance estimates are generally discredited (McCarthy et al., 2008), yet basic SLIMS presence-absence surveys are still widely employed across the range, and in some cases are providing data for much advanced analytical methods such as occupancy modeling. PSL and SLIMS were visionary for their time and brought snow leopard scientists and conservationists across the range together using common methods and sharing information. They set the stage, as this chapter does, for the scientific advances and progress in snow leopard conservation described in ensuing chapters.

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References Ahmad, I., Hunter, D.O., Jackson, R., 1997. A snow leopard and prey species survey in Khunjerab National Park, Pakistan. In: Jackson, R., Ahmad, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Islamabad, Pakistan. International Snow Leopard Trust and World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan, Seattle, USA and Islamabad, Pakistan, pp. 92–95. Bold, A., Dorjzunduy, S., 1976. Information on the Snow Leopard Uncia uncia in the Southern Gobi-Altai. vol. 11 Trudi Obshchei i Eksperimentalnoi Biologii (Ulan Bator), pp. 27–43 (in Mongolian). Chundawat, R., Rawat, G., 1994. Food habits of snow leopard in Ladakh, India. In: Fox, J.L., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Xining, China. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle and Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology, pp. 127–132. Chundawat, R., Rogers, W.A., Panwar, H.S., 1988. Status report on snow leopard in India. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Srinagar, India. International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India, pp. 113–121. Fancy, S.G., et al., 1988. Satellite Telemetry: A New Tool for Wildlife Research and Management. No. FWS-PUB-172. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. Fox, J.L., 1989. A Review of the Status of and Ecology of Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia). International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA. 40 pp. Fox, J.L., 1994. Snow leopard conservation in the wild—a comprehensive perspective on a low density and highly fragmented population. In: Fox, J.L., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Xining, China. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle and Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology, pp. 3–16. Fox, J., Sinha, S., Chundawat, R., Das, P., 1988. A field survey of snow leopard presence and habitat use in northwestern India. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Srinagar, India. International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India, pp. 99–111. Fox, J.L., Sinha, S., Chundawat, R., Das, P., 1991. Status of snow leopard Panthera uncia in Northwest India. Biol. Conserv. 55, 283–298. Freeman, H., Jackson, R., Hillard, D., Hunter, D.O., 1994. Project snow leopard: a multinational program spearheaded by the International Snow Leopard Trust. In: Fox, J.L., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Xining, China. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle and Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology, pp. 141–152.

Hornocker, M.G., 1969. Winter territoriality in mountain lions. J. Wildl. Manag. 33, 457–464. Hunter, D.O., Jackson, R., 1997. A range-wide model of potential snow leopard habitat. In: Jackson, R., Ahmad, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Islamabad, Pakistan. International Snow Leopard Trust and World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan, Seattle, USA and Islamabad, Pakistan, pp. 51–56. Hunter, D.O., Jackson, R., Freeman, H., Hillard, D., 1994. Project snow leopard—a model for conserving central Asian biodiversity. In: Fox, J.L., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Xining, China. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle and Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology, pp. 247–252. Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G., 1988. Observations on the ecology of snow leopard in West Nepal. In: Freeman, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Srinagar, India. International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India, pp. 65–87. Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G., 1989. Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Nepal—home range and movements. Natl. Geogr. Res. 5, 161–175. Jackson, R., Fox, J., 1997. Snow leopard conservation: accomplishments and research priorities. In: Jackson, R., Ahmad, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Islamabad, Pakistan. International Snow Leopard Trust and World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan, Seattle, USA and Islamabad, Pakistan, pp. 128–145. Jackson, R., Hillard, D., 1986. Tracking the elusive snow leopard. Natl. Geogr. (June 1986), 793–809. Jackson, R., Hunter, D.O., 1996. Snow Leopard Survey and Conservation Handbook. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA. 154 pp. Jackson, R., Wang, Z., Lu, X., Chen, Y., 1994. Snow leopards in the Qomolangma Nature Preserve of the Tibet Autonomous Region. In: Fox, J.L., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Xining, China. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle and Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology, pp. 85–95. Koshkarev, E., 1989. Snow Leopard in Kirgizia: Population, Ecology, and Conservation. Academy of Sciences of Kirgizia, Frunze (In Russian). Koshkarev, E., 1997. Has the snow leopard disappeared from eastern Sayan and western Hovsogol? In: Jackson, R., Ahmad, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Islamabad, Pakistan. International Snow Leopard Trust and World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan, Seattle, USA and Islamabad, Pakistan, pp. 96–107. Mallon, D.P., 1984a. The snow leopard Panthera uncia in Mongolia. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards. vol. 4, pp. 3–9.

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Mallon, D.P., 1984b. The snow leopard in Ladakh. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards. vol. 4, pp. 23–37. Mallon, D.P., 1991. Status and conservation of large mammals in Ladakh. Biol. Conserv. 56, 101–119. Matthiessen, P., 1978. The Snow Leopard. Viking Press, New York, NY. 350 pp. McCarthy, T.M., 2000. Ecology and Conservation of Snow Leopards, Gobi Brown Bears, and Wild Bactrian Camels in Mongolia (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Massachusetts, Amherst. McCarthy, T., Munkhtsog, B., 1997. Preliminary assessment of snow leopard sign surveys in Mongolia. In: Jackson, R., Ahmad, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Snow Leopard Symposium, Islamabad, Pakistan. International Snow Leopard Trust and World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan, Seattle, USA and Islamabad, Pakistan, pp. 57–64. McCarthy, K.P., Fuller, T.K., Ming, M., McCarthy, T.M., Waits, L., Jumabaev, K., 2008. Assessing estimators of snow leopard abundance. J. Wildl. Manag. 72, 1826–1833. Novak, M., 1980. The foot-snare and leg-hold trap: a comparison. In: Chapman, J.A., Pursley, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Worldwide Furbearer Conference, Maryland. vol. 3, pp. 1671–1685. Oli, M., 1994a. Ghost in the snow. BBC Wildlife 12, 30–35. Oli, M., 1994b. Snow leopards and blue sheep in Nepal: densities and predator: prey ratio. J. Mammal. 75, 998–1004. Oli, M.K., 1997. Winter home range of snow leopards in Nepal. Mammalia 61, 353–360. Oli, M., Taylor, I., Rogers, M., 1993. Diet of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. J. Zool. 231, 365–370. Oli, M., Taylor, I., Rogers, M., 1994. Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock: an assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Biol. Conserv. 68, 63–68.

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Prasad, S.N., Chundawat, R.S., Hunter, D.O., Panwar, H.S., Rawat, G.S., 1991. Remote sensing snow leopard habitat in the trans-Himalaya of India using spatial models and satellite imagery: preliminary results. In: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Advanced Technology in Natural Resource Management. American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Washington, DC, pp. 519–523. Schaller, G.B., 1971. Imperiled phantom of Asian peaks: first photographs of snow leopard in the wild. Natl. Geogr. (November 1971), 702–707. Schaller, G.B., 1972. On meeting a snow leopard. Wild Kingdom 7, 7–13. Schaller, G.B., 1977. Mountain Monarchs. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 425 pp. Schaller, G.B., 1980. Stones of Silence. Viking Press, New York. Schaller, G.B., 1998. Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 373 pp. Schaller, G.B., Hong, L., Talipu, H.L., Junrang, R., Mingjiang, Q., Haibin, W., 1987. Status of large mammals in the Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Biol. Conserv. 42, 53–71. Schaller, G., Li, H., Talipu, Ren, J., Qiu, M., 1988a. The snow leopard in Xinjiang, China. Oryx 22, 197–204. Schaller, G., Ren, J., Qiu, M., 1988b. Status of snow leopard in Qinghai and Gansu Provinces, China. Biol. Conserv. 45, 179–194. Schaller, G., Tserendeleg, J., Amarsanaa, G., 1994. Observations of snow leopard in Mongolia. In: Fox, J.L., Jizeng, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, Xining, China. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle and Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology, pp. 33–46. Sunquist, M., Sunquist, F., 2002. Wild Cats of the World. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 452 pp.

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C H A P T E R

30 From VHF to satellite GPS collars— Advancements in snow leopard telemetry € Orjan Johanssona,b, Shannon Kachelc, Anthony Simmsd, and Tom McCarthye a

Grims€ o Wildlife Research Station, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden bSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States cPanthera, New York, NY, United States dIndependent eSnow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States

Introduction In terms of wildlife research, an ideal species for a biologist to study would be one that occurs at high densities in open habitat with a mild climate, which moves around at a steady pace and is easy for humans to follow, is not afraid of humans, and is active during daylight hours. In such a situation, it would be easy to conduct field studies and generate robust data on most aspects of the species’ ecology. Unfortunately, though, there are not many, if any, species like this. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is the complete opposite. The habitat where snow leopards are found is typically remote and inaccessible, the climate very harsh, and humans are poorly adapted to move around in it. Further, the species is highly elusive, its coat pattern camouflages perfectly with the surroundings, and it occurs in low densities. Together, this makes the animal almost impossible to detect directly. In such a situation, the best option to collect data on aspects of the species’ ecology

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00042-X

is to fit some kind of tracking device to a number of individuals. This in turn requires a safe and efficient method to capture and sedate the animals. In this chapter, we describe the three different tracking technologies that have been used in snow leopard research to date and provide an overview of the studies that employed them.

VHF telemetry—The first studies The technology Wildlife research entered a new era when the first radio-collar was fitted to a grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) in the early 1960s (Craighead and Craighead, 1965). This technology was a major breakthrough for studying wildlife because for the first time it allowed researchers to acquire data remotely without having to physically observe the animal (Fuller and Fuller, 2012). Since this first study,

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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30. Advancements in snow leopard telemetry

the basic technology has been improved but the principles remain the same: a transmitter fitted to the animal emits a signal that is picked up by an antenna-receiver combination, which is operated by the researcher. Commercial radio-collars send pulse signals broadcasted in very high frequency (VHF) radio waves, in bands between 30 and 300 megahertz (MHz) where each device/collar has a unique frequency, enabling identification of which animal is being tracked. The signal generated by the collar is transformed by the receiver into an audible, repetitive “beep.” In general, the closer the receiver gets to the transmitter, the stronger the beep. However, signal strength is also dependent on the type of antenna. There are two types of antennae: omnidirectional and directional. The first (omnidirectional) receives signals from all directions while the latter picks up stronger signals in the direction of the transmitter or from where the signal bounces (see “signal bounce” further down). Omnidirectional antennas are useful when searching for a collar’s signal and can, for example, be fitted to a vehicle; however, a directional antenna is required to determine where the signal comes from. VHF works best at relatively short ranges. The technique has its limitations, mainly that transmitted signals are easily blocked by landforms such as hills and mountains, or even vegetation. In addition, estimates of the collar location can be difficult to obtain or be erroneous as a result of signal “bounce,” when the signal is deflected by land structures. This occurs in almost all environments, but is particularly problematic in mountainous terrain such as snow leopard habitat. The extent of the error is difficult to assess, but can be substantial and may result in errors of up to many kilometers in location estimates. The main tracking methods used when working with VHF collars are homing in, triangulation, and aerial telemetry. Homing in can be used to find an animal at

close range and is done by determining in which direction the signal is strongest and then moving toward it. The method can be useful for making direct observations, or to locate dead animals, dens, and kills. Triangulation is primarily used to determine an animal’s approximate location from afar. With this technique, the researcher listens for signals from sites that can be identified on a map and determines the compass bearing to each signal (the collared animal). By repeating this process, two or three times in close repetition, it is possible to approximate the animal’s location remotely, if the signals appear to be coming from the same place. Conversely, if multiple compass bearings are taken and the signals appear to be coming from different locations, then either bounce is occurring (White and Garrott, 1990) or too much time has elapsed between the bearings and the animal has moved a substantial distance. Aerial telemetry is usually the only viable option when working in areas that are too difficult to access by ground transport, or too remote, and for species that range over substantial areas (Miller et al., 2010).

Snow leopard studies For large felids such as snow leopards, the advent of VHF telemetry provided a means of collecting data that had previously not been possible. The first telemetry study of snow leopards was conducted by Rodney Jackson in Nepal between 1982 and 1985 ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1989). This pioneering work was later followed by studies in India (Chundawat, 1990), Mongolia (Schaller et al., 1994), Nepal (Oli, 1997), and Mongolia (McCarthy, 2000) (Table 30.1). These early telemetry studies began to answer several fundamental ecological questions about the species, such as habitat use, home range size and overlap, and movement patterns. However, the limitations of VHF in mountainous terrain also made the research difficult because

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VHF telemetry—The first studies

TABLE 30.1

Telemetry studies of snow leopards using VHF collars.

Country

Year

Number of individuals collared

Nepala

1982–84

5

370 (121–545)

122 (28–206)

142 (36–245)

19 (11–36)

1989

1

70

28

28

19

1991

1

41

1991

3

41 (27–60)

1994

4

714 (530–985)

b

India

Mongolia

c

d

Nepal

Mongolia

e

Days followed

Days located

Average # positions per individual

Average home range size (km2)

12

31 (17–61)

14 (10–16)

16 (10–22)

39 (23–84)

69 (14–142)

Numbers presented are means and range. Home ranges were calculated using Minimum Convex Polygon 100%. a Jackson (1996). b Chundawat (1990). c Schaller (1994). d Oli (1994). e McCarthy et al. (2005).

covering the distances required to obtain reliable locations for triangulation—or picking up any signal at all—while traveling by foot in snow leopard habitat is often impossible (Fig. 30.1). As such, historic VHF studies report significant periods of time when the collared animals could not be located (Chundawat, 1990; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1989; McCarthy et al., 2005; Oli, 1997). This raised the question of whether the snow leopards were close by, but the collar signals were blocked by landforms, or if the animals utilized larger home ranges than the tracking teams could cover, thereby putting the animals beyond the detection range of the telemetry equipment. Furthermore, once the cats had been located, the extreme ruggedness and topographic variation sometimes caused unpredictable signal behavior (Oli, 1994). Therefore, all historic VHF studies report rather small home ranges compared to recent GPS-based studies. The largest home ranges were found in an area with relatively low prey densities (McCarthy et al., 2005). This could explain the larger home ranges, as range size and food abundance are typically negatively correlated (Tuqa et al., 2014). An alternative explanation could be that the mountainous

terrain in Mongolia is gentler than in the Himalayas, which allowed the researchers to cover more ground, and that the collar signals were not as easily blocked in that study area than in the steeper Himalayan mountains. To illustrate the difficulties with VHF technology in snow leopard habitat, McCarthy et al. (2005) determined that one male snow leopard which had not been heard from for several months had crossed approximately 45 km of steppe to a different mountain system out of range of the telemetry equipment they were using. In addition, Chundawat (1990) collared and tracked one snow leopard for a 2½ month period during a study in Ladakh, India. Substantial effort was invested on tracking the animal and monitoring its movements. However, as is common with VHF telemetry in mountainous habitat, much time and effort were spent acquiring reliable locations, and the accuracy of tracking was severely compromised by signal bounce (Chundawat, 1990). These are not uncommon problems with VHF telemetry and by no means reflect poorly on those studies. One of the main ways to overcome such problems is through the use of aircraft to track the collared animals. However, in many cases,

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FIG. 30.1

Tracking snow leopards using VHF radio telemetry is extremely difficult in the steep rocky terrain. Figure (A) shows the area in Nepal where Rodney Jackson conducted his study ( Jackson, 1996). Figure (B) shows Tom McCarthy in central Mongolia (McCarthy, 2000).

there were no suitable aircraft in the study area countries, and the study areas were located far from the nearest airfield; and even if aircraft had been available, it would have been costly and quite a dangerous undertaking to aerial track as snow leopard habitat is generally

remote and mountainous with highly unpredictable weather. To summarize, the early VHF studies provided insights into many aspects of snow leopard ecology that had previously been unknown. However, all studies struggled to track the

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GPS telemetry

collared animals, which resulted in small numbers of potentially inaccurate locations for each individual. Further, in more than half of the studies, very few individuals were collared and mostly for short durations (Table 30.1).

Argos PPT telemetry The technology Argos satellite collars incorporate platform transmitter terminals (PTTs) that transmit signals to Argos satellites (Soutullo et al., 2007). As an Argos satellite passes over a collar it measures the “Doppler shift” in the PTT’s signal (Soutullo et al., 2007). The data are then downlinked to earth stations where the collar’s location is calculated. One location is calculated per satellite pass and at least four uplinks must be received to pinpoint the location (http:// wildlifecomputers.com/learn/tracking_argos, Accessed 24 February 2015). Each location is given an accuracy class depending on signal strength. The estimated error can be substantial, e.g., up to 59.6 km (Mate et al., 1997). Since locations are only obtained when satellites overpass the study area, researchers cannot select the time of the day when locations will be attempted. Satellite overpasses at any specific site are a function of latitude, with best coverage near the poles and worst near the equator (Mate et al., 1997; Soutullo et al., 2007; Tomkiewicz et al., 2010).

Snow leopard studies In 1996, during a snow leopard telemetry study in the Altai Mountains, Mongolia (McCarthy, 2000), a single Telonics ST-10 Argos PTT weighing 800 g was placed on a female snow leopard. To maximize battery life, it was programmed to transmit daily for the first 30 days, and then alternate days until the battery was depleted (estimated at 12–14 months). The

collar also had a VHF transmitter to allow ground telemetry. The initial satellite data set included 107 locations. For any location that was questionable, the Argos-supplied data quality statistics for that point were taken into account. Eventually, 91 locations were accepted as likely accurate. The calculated home range using PTT data was unexpectedly large, much of it falling well outside the mapped study area. Home ranges of snow leopards in the study area calculated using minimum convex polygons for groundbased VHF telemetry locations, ranged from 14 to 142 km2 (Table 30.2). For the Argos PTTcollared female, the VHF-based home range was approximately 58 km2, while the most conservative home range estimate using the Argos data was 1590 km2, more than an order of magnitude greater than the largest home range that had been determined for any snow leopard using VHF telemetry. Even though the accuracy of some Argos PTT locations was questionable (McCarthy, 2000), the data strongly suggested that snow leopard studies would benefit from a technology that was not dependent on a researcher’s ability to ground-track VHFcollared animals in the extremely rugged habitat they occupy.

GPS telemetry The technology The GPS, which became fully operational in 1993 (McNeff, 2002), utilizes low-orbiting satellites that send out constant “messages” containing information about the satellite’s location and the current time. These messages are received by GPS devices which then calculate their location by triangulation (Tomkiewicz et al., 2010). At least three satellites are needed to acquire a location, although for a “three-dimensional position,” which increases accuracy, a minimum of four satellites are required (McNeff, 2002). The accuracy

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394 TABLE 30.2 1994–97.

30. Advancements in snow leopard telemetry

Radio-telemetry history of four snow leopards in the Saksai River study area, Gobi-Altai, Mongolia, Collared snow leopards M-Red

M-Blue a

F-Green

F-Yellow

Capture date

3/15/94

9/10/94

3/28/96

2/16/96

Total locations

24

84

26

Ground 23

Satellite 91

Total 114

Days located

22

61

17

22

79

94

Days attempted location

207

191

41

85

199

300

Success rate (%)

10.6

31.9

41.5

25.9

39.7

31.3

Mean interval (days)

9.4

3.1

2.4

3.9

2.5

3.2

Consecutive days located

9

28

10

Last location

11/24/96

11/22/96

9/9/97

a

31 8/7/97

2/18/97

8/7/97

Subsequent captures on 9/15/94 and 5/10/95.

of GPS locations, or “fixes,” is currently within a few meters; however, this can vary depending on time, location, habitat, number of satellites detected, etc. Besides being highly accurate, GPS has 24-h coverage, which is a significant advancement on Argos PTT (Tomkiewicz et al., 2010). The first wildlife studies employing GPS collars were conducted in the 1990s. At this time, collars weighed around 1800 g and could only be fitted to large species such as moose (Alces alces) (Rempel et al., 1995). Over time, the size and weight of collars continually decreased and new features were added. For instance, most GPS collars now include accelerometers, which measure how much the collar is moving in two or three axes, providing detailed activity data. Mortality sensors can also be incorporated, which alert the researcher if the animal has not moved for a specified length of time. Thermometers are another common feature, measuring ambient temperature and helping the researcher to profile the animal’s habitat preferences. It is also possible to fit collars with cameras, programmed to record either video or take photos

at given intervals. In addition, collars can be programmed to automatically drop off the host animal at a specified date and time. The most basic GPS collars have no means of communication, instead storing all their data in an internal memory to be later downloaded. This collar type is often referred to as “store onboard” (Tomkiewicz et al., 2010). They weigh less and are often the cheapest of available models. However, if a store onboard collar is lost, for example, due to malfunction, the data it has collected are also lost. Therefore, as a safeguard to losing data, and to allow access to the data in “real time,” GPS collars can be equipped with features that allow remote data transferal. The data can be transmitted through radio signals (UHF or VHF) to a handheld receiver, via Global System for Mobiles (GSM), or through satellite systems such as Argos, Iridium, and Globalstar (Tomkiewicz et al., 2010). Similar to Argos PTT collars, GPS collars with remote data transfer do not require researchers to physically track and locate collared animals in the field. This frees up large amounts of time and other resources. Communication can be one-way,

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GPS telemetry

meaning that the collar will only send data; or two-way, meaning the collar can both send and receive data. Collars with one-way communication have to be programmed prior to deployment and cannot be changed once on an animal, whereas two-way systems enable the researcher to define a new program schedule for the collar, check battery status, activate the drop-off, etc., while the collar is deployed on the host animal. Of the collar types currently available, the most suitable for snow leopard studies are GPS collars with satellite communication. GSM is generally not appropriate because most parts of the snow leopard’s range lack this service. Similarly, VHF and UHF download collars are generally not suitable because they only work at relatively short ranges (meaning that the collared animal has to be located and approached on foot as with traditional radio telemetry). Satellite communications systems, such as Iridium and Globalstar, overcome the aforementioned limitations. Collars using the iridium system can support both one-way and two-way communication and can “bundle” data and transmit it in short bursts, with up to 18 GPS locations in each bundle (Tomkiewicz et al., 2010). Bundling in this way can prolong a collar’s battery life, but it also increases the risk of losing quantities of data if the transmission fails. Globalstar collars only feature one-way communication; however, the data can be transmitted to satellite instantly as it is gathered or can be programmed to send up to 6 GPS locations in a single upload. Immediate upload minimizes the risk of data loss and offers a more real-time flow of information to the researcher, yet it consumes more battery power and thus reduces collar life.

Snow leopard studies The first study to fit GPS collars on snow leopards took place in Chitral Gol National Park, Pakistan, in 2006 (McCarthy et al., 2007). This

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study saw a female snow leopard equipped with an Argos GPS collar (TGW 3481, Telonics) programmed to take three GPS locations per day. However, despite thorough initial testing of the collar, it did not uplink any positions once deployed on the host animal. The same snow leopard was recaptured approximately 2 months later, and the collar was replaced. The new collar uplinked all locations taken during the predeployment test period, but again, once fitted to the host snow leopard the uplinks ceased. Similar problems were being faced by other wildlife researchers in the region. It was determined that unexplained “noise” in the Argos frequency range in parts of Europe and Asia was effectively drowning out the weak (0.5 W) signal of collars such as the one used in Pakistan. Since the Chitral collars worked well prior to deployment, it is assumed that the animal’s body absorbed just enough of the signal to prevent it being detected by Argos satellites over the background noise. The collar was equipped with an automatic drop-off which worked as planned (1 year after deployment). Once the collar had dropped off, the signals again reached the Argos satellites successfully. When retrieved, the collars were found to have recorded 842 locations (collar 1: 82 fixes, collar 2: 760 fixes), and the calculated home range of the leopard was approximately 850 km2 and showed her to cross into eastern Afghanistan. The number of location points obtained in this study, tracking one cat for a single year, nearly equaled all previous telemetry studies combined. In 2008, the first GPS collar with Globalstar communication was fitted to a snow leopard in Tost Mountains of South Gobi Province, Mongolia (see Johansson et al., 2013 for details). North Star (King George, United States) collars were first used, during 2008–2009, but after several malfunctions researchers switched to GPS-Plus collars (Vectronic Aerospace, Berlin, Germany in 2010). Taking one GPS fix every 7 and 5 h for the North Star and the GPS-Plus collars, respectively, the temporal resolution

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FIG. 30.2 Adult snow leopard fitted with a GPS collar (Vectronic GPS Plus with Globalstar communication).

and lack of spatial-constraint bias provided by these collars have led to new insights into many aspects of snow leopard ecology. For instance, it had been deemed too difficult to locate kill sites from VHF-collared snow leopards ( Jackson, 1996); however, the increased accuracy of GPS collars and real-time uplinks have allowed kill sites—and also den sites—to be identified and searched efficiently ( Johansson et al., 2015) (Fig. 30.2). Since the early 2010s, multiple snow leopard research and monitoring efforts have used GPS collars for a variety of purposes across the species’ range (Fig. 30.3). The Tost project (in its 15th year at the time of publication) continues to yield an incomparable volume of data and scientific insights, even as concurrent projects elsewhere have the potential to help the snow leopard research and conservation community reach a more generalized understanding of the species across a diversity of ecological contexts (Fig. 30.4). In particular, these data from different landscapes present an opportunity for the various parties to explicitly synthesize and investigate patterns of the species’ spatial ecology with respect to variation in anthropogenic,

climatic, and physical environmental factors. Unfortunately, with the exception of projects in Afghanistan (Rahmani, 2014) and Kyrgyzstan (Kachel et al., in press), nothing yet has been published or otherwise disseminated from the other projects represented in Fig. 30.3. In summary, GPS collars provide researchers with an effective tool for studying the snow leopard. The sheer volume, quality, and variety of data this technology has yielded to date are significantly refining findings from earlier telemetry studies and is broadening our understanding of the species. Nonetheless, some evident hurdles seem to remain in disseminating the findings of GPS studies to ensure that the hard-earned data—obtained at often substantial financial cost and not-insignificant risk to individual animals—are put to the best use possible.

Conclusion While the early VHF studies yielded insights into many previously unknown aspects of snow leopard ecology, it is clear that for low-density, far-ranging species that inhabit inaccessible terrain, GPS collars are far more effective, given the volume of data, accuracy of locations, and the ability to track numerous individuals simultaneously. Nonetheless, the reliability of collar communication and performance can be a limitation with GPS telemetry. It is therefore recommended that researchers field test each collar in the assigned study area for at least 24 h prior to deployment, although even then failures may occur as was the case with the well-tested GPS-Argos collars in Pakistan. Just as critical equipment should be tested before being put into service, it is also important to subject research plans and study designs to rigorous scrutiny to ensure that study questions are answered, and goals are achieved. The volume of high-resolution data generated from GPS collars is not a substitute for good study

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Conclusion

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FIG. 30.3 Approximate locations of snow leopard satellite collaring projects to-date, with studies resulting in publications shown in green, with size proportional to the number of individuals collared: (A) McCarthy (2000), (B) McCarthy et al. (2007); (C) Johansson et al. (2013) and others; (D) Rahmani (2014); (E) Kachel et al. (in press); gray circles represent the approximate locations collaring efforts for research or monitoring purposes which have not been published or otherwise disseminated.

design. There have been several unpublished short-term GPS studies of snow leopards, which collared very few (1 or 2) individuals. Given that the physical capture and chemical immobilization required to fit a snow leopard with a collar carry real risk of injury—or even death—to the animal, we believe it will typically be far better to combine and concentrate resources in an attempt to study more animals for a longer time. Committing resources to studying more animals

for longer will result in more representative data and more reliable inferences. We refer readers to Johansson et al. (2022) for further introduction and guidelines to navigating the ethical and logistical considerations of capturing and collaring snow leopards (and other species for that matter), including the need to clearly articulate research questions, well-justified sample-size targets, humane protocols, and a sustainable commitment of resources.

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FIG. 30.4 GPS collars can provide high-resolution location data across a variety of settings in which ground-based telemetry would be infeasible. Panels show GPS locations from a single individual snow leopard recorded at a 5-h interval over a 10-month period in the arid Tost Mountains, Mongolia, 2010–11 (top) and from a different individual in the Tien Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan, 2015–16 (bottom).

Finally, large felids depend on stealth and explosive rushes to catch prey, and for snow leopards this occurs in very steep terrain. In such a situation, it cannot be stressed strongly enough that collar weight and how well it is fitted can affect the host animal’s survival. As such, we recommend that collars not exceed 2% of the animal’s body weight.

References Chundawat, R., 1990. Habitat selection by a snow leopard in Hemis National Park, India. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards. vol. 6. Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, pp. 85–92. Craighead, F.C., Craighead, J.J., 1965. Tracking grizzly bears. Bioscience 15, 88–92. Fuller, M.R., Fuller, T.K., 2012. Radio-telemetry equipment and applications for carnivores. In: Boitani, L.,

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Powell, R.A. (Eds.), Carnivore Ecology and Conservation: A Handbook of Techniques. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Available from: http://wildlifecomputers. com/learn/tracking_argos. (Accessed 24 February 2015). Jackson, R., 1996. Home Range, Movements and Habitat Use of Snow Leopard in Nepal. Doctoral Dissertation, University of London, UK. Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G., 1989. Snow leopards (Panthera unica) in Nepal – home range and movements. Natl. Geogr. Res. 5, 161–175. € Kachel, S., Weckworth, B., 2022. Guidelines Johansson, O., for telemetry studies on snow leopards. Animals 12 (13), 1663. € Malmsten, J., Mishra, C., Lkhagvajav, P., Johansson, O., McCarthy, T., 2013. Reversible immobilization of freeranging snow leopards (Panthera uncia) with a combination of medetomidine nad tiletamine-zolazepam. J. Wildl. Dis. 49, 338–346. € McCarthy, T., Samelius, G., Andren, H., Johansson, O., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2015. Snow leopard predation in a livestock dominated landscape in Mongolia. Biol. Conserv. 184, 251–258. Kachel, S., Bayrakcismith, R., Kubanychbekov, Z., Kulenbekov, R., McCarthy, T., Weckworth, B., Wirsing, A., in press. Ungulate spatiotemporal responses to contrasting predation risk from wolves and snow leopards. J. Anim. Ecol. Mate, B.R., Nieukirk, S.L., Kraus, S.D., 1997. Satellitemonitored movements of the northern Right Whale. J. Wildl. Manag. 61, 1393–1405. McCarthy, T.M., 2000. Ecology and Conservation of Snow Leopards, Gobi Brown Bears, and Wild Bactrian Camels in Mongolia. Doctoral Dissertation. Paper AAI9960772 http://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/ AAI9960772. McCarthy, T.M., Fuller, T.K., Munkhtsog, B., 2005. Movements and activities of snow leopards in southwestern Mongolia. Biol. Conserv. 124, 527–537.

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McCarthy, T., Khan, J., Ud-Din, J., McCarthy, K., 2007. The first study of snow leopards using GPS satellite collars underway in Pakistan. Cat News 46, 22–23. McNeff, J.G., 2002. The global positioning system. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 50, 645–652. Miller, C.S., Hebblewhite, M., Goodrich, J.M., Miquelle, D.G., 2010. Review of research methodologies for tigers: telemetry. Integr. Zool. 5, 378–389. Oli, M.K., 1997. Winter home range of snow leopards in Nepal. Mammalia 61, 355–360. Rahmani, H., 2014. Snow Leopard Habitat Preference Modeling in the Wakhan Corridor Using Satellite Telemetry Data. Thesis, University of Leeds. Rempel, R.S., Rodgers, A.R., Abraham, K.S., 1995. Performance of a GPS animal location system under boreal forest canopy. J. Wildl. Manag. 59, 543–551. Schaller, G.B., Tserendeleg, J., Amarsanaa, G., 1994. Observations on snow leopards in Mongolia. In: Fox, J.L., Du, J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium. Snow Leopard Trust and the Chicago Zoological Society, Chicago, USA. Soutullo, A., Cadahia, L., Urios, V., Ferrer, M., Negro, J.J., 2007. Accuracy of lightweight satellite telemetry: a case study in the Iberian Peninsula. J. Wildl. Manag. 71, 1010–1015. Tomkiewicz, S.M., Fuller, M.R., Kie, J.G., Bates, K.K., 2010. Global positioning system and associated technologies in animal behaviour and ecological research. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 365, 2163–2176. Tuqa, J.H., Funston, P., Musyoki, C., Ojwang, G.O., Gichuki, N.N., Bauer, H., Tamis, W., Dolrenry, S., Van’t Zelfde, M., de Snoo, G.R., de Longh, H.H., 2014. Impact of severe climate variability on lion home range and movement patterns in the Amboseli ecosystem, Kenya. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2, 1–10. White, G.C., Garrott, R.A., 1990. Analysis of Wildlife RadioTracking Data, first ed. Academic Press, London.

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C H A P T E R

31 Conservation genetics of snow leopards Charlotte Hackera,⁎, Imogene Cancellareb,⁎, Jan E. Janeckaa, Anthony Caragiuloc, and Byron Weckworthd a

Department of Biological Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States bDepartment of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States cAmerican Museum of Natural History, Institute for Comparative Genomics, New York, NY, United States d Panthera, New York, NY, United States

Introduction The advent of molecular approaches to studying the evolution and ecology of nonmodel organisms has revolutionized the potential for better understanding of rare and elusive species. The rapid development of these tools and the substantial reduction in their costs have allowed them to be widely used and to become an essential component in wildlife conservation. If the goal of conservation biology is to reduce the risks of extinction and preserve biodiversity, then the inclusion of conservation genetic techniques is required to describe the genetic diversity and population dynamics in threatened and endangered species (Eisner et al., 1995; Frankel and Soul
e, 1981). The understanding and description of patterns of genetic diversity are then used in interdisciplinary applications that inform management and conservation policy.

⁎

A near-universal threat for many endangered species is small population size, fragmented habitat, and challenges or barriers to connectivity. Snow leopards are a low-density species spread across the naturally fragmented high mountain ranges of Asia with declining populations and increased fragmentation due to human infrastructure expansion and climate change. Genetic methods are ideally suited to describe, model, and evaluate the impacts of these threats on snow leopard populations. Further, molecular tools can also facilitate an improved approach to filling other knowledge gaps in our understanding of snow leopard distributions, abundance, and their ecology and evolution. Indeed, a number of excellent studies have already begun to add important information and knowledge toward snow leopard conservation, yet, as compared to other imperiled big cats, snow leopards lag far behind in the

Contributed equally to this work. Lead author order was determined by flipping a coin.

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00062-5

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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volume and advancement of genetic-based research (Weckworth, 2021). In this chapter, we review the development of genetic and genomic tools for snow leopards and their application in monitoring efforts, landscape genetics, phylogeography, and diet. We also highlight how these tools and applications are advancing and the largely untapped potential for next-generation sequencing (NGS). Finally, we outline the substantial knowledge gaps in snow leopard molecular ecology and evolution and highlight the priorities which require urgent attention.

Non-NGS studies Mitochondrial DNA One of the first studies to characterize snow leopard genetics was by Zhang et al. (2007), who developed snow leopard-specific primers to amplify a section of the control region in the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA). The control region is highly variable, and speciesspecific primers are often necessary to characterize intraspecific variation. While Zhang et al. (2007) used skin and hair samples from 12 snow leopards from China, the primers developed are broadly applicable for use in wildlife forensics, species identification, and population genetic studies using noninvasive snow leopard samples. Wei et al. (2009) went a step further and amplified the entire mtDNA genome of the snow leopard, which, as expected, was structured similarly to other felids (Li et al., 2016). Having the full mtDNA genome (i.e., mitogenome; see Glossary for relevant definitions) enabled researchers to design primers to examine any mitochondrial gene region for phylogeography and evolutionary studies of the Pantherines. Previous research found limited diversity in mtDNA markers of wild snow leopard populations (e.g., Janecka et al., 2017); however, only partial

segments of a few mtDNA gene regions have been explored (but see NGS section below). A comprehensive and representative analysis of snow leopard mtDNA diversity is lacking.

Microsatellite development Whereas mtDNA provides information at the population and species level, finer-scale genetic analysis through individual identification is an essential advancement for studying snow leopards. Individual identification of snow leopards was made possible through a panel of polymorphic microsatellite loci, originally developed for domestic cats (Felis catus) (Menotti-Raymond et al., 2003; Waits et al., 2007). From this panel, Waits et al. (2007) reported 48 polymorphic microsatellite loci in snow leopards with numbers of alleles per locus ranging from 2 to 11 and identified 10 loci with significant power to discriminate among individuals. The work done by Waits et al. (2007) was advanced when snow leopard-specific microsatellite primers were designed ( Janecka et al., 2008). These had a higher success rate when used with scat samples because they amplified shorter DNA segments and primed to a snow leopard-specific sequence, improving efficiency over those developed for the domestic cat. Using these redesigned primers, Janecka et al. (2008) were one of the first to examine microsatellite diversity in wild snow leopards in different portions of their range (northwest India, central China, and southern Mongolia) using noninvasive genetic techniques. Noninvasive genetics approaches rely on samples containing genetic material that can be collected without direct contact with individuals, for snow leopards this is most often from fecal samples. This approach increases the number of individuals that can be sampled, improving sample sizes over invasive practices such as captures. Noninvasive genetics provide similar data to camera traps, with greater precision on species and individual identification and can also provide data on sex, diet, and disease.

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Non-NGS studies

Janecka et al. (2008) were followed by Karmacharya et al. (2011) which focused on Shey Phoksundo National Park (SPNP) and Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA) in Nepal. Other local population estimates include one study from Pakistan (Aruge et al., 2019), one from Nepal (Chetri et al., 2019), two from India (Singh et al., 2022a, 2022b),and two from China (Zhou et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2019). With the proper sampling strategy, noninvasive genetic methods can be powerful tools for estimating the presence and abundance (e.g., SCR) of snow leopard populations of interest. At a wider scale, these same data allow for studies to examine

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population genetic dynamics and the impacts of connectivity and barriers to gene flow on populations using landscape genetic approaches. See Fig. 31.1 for a spatial representation of snow leopard research topics to date.

Landscape genetics Landscape genetics combines the fields of landscape ecology and population genetics to explore the relationship between environment and microevolutionary and population processes (i.e., effective population size, inbreeding, gene flow, genetic drift, migration, and selection) by

FIG. 31.1 Distribution of genetics-based research topics on snow leopards in peer-reviewed publications from 2007 to 2021. Colored polygons represent approximate study site locations across potential snow leopard range. Red lines represent mountain ranges (from Li et al., 2020). Genetic information of snow leopards in Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, India, and large tracts of China are missing from the current literature. Applied efforts in these areas will be necessary for management decisions at local levels and for tying into broader species protection initiatives.

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quantifying the effects of landscape composition, structure, and fluctuations on patterns of genetic variability. The complex relationships between landscape ecology, demography, and population genetics are spatially and temporally dynamic, and the underlying ecological and evolutionary processes are influenced by landscape heterogeneity. Landscape genetic approaches provide a framework through which to address a variety of ecological questions, including the influence of intervening landscapes on gene flow between sample locations (e.g., matrix resistance, isolation-by-distance). These methods are also applied to understand population connectivity, including detecting barriers, evaluating movement corridors, and predicting how genetic connectivity might change in response to future landscape changes. By combining genetic data with landscape ecology and spatial analysis, researchers can: (1) validate existing ecological data, such as density estimates from field surveys, or connectivity models; (2) identify routes of connectivity among metapopulations subgroups, and (3) examine the genetic, demographic, and habitat factors responsible for the loss of adaptive potential and polymorphism. Identifying these processes can help determine if the threat to a population is genetic (e.g., inbreeding contributing to further population decline due to reduced fitness) or demographic (e.g., increased stochasticity due to small, fragmented populations). A few recent studies have modeled rangewide snow leopard habitat using occurrence records, bioclimatic variables, topographic complexity, and land cover. These indicated a pattern of continuous habitat patches connected by narrow corridors of varying resistance (Li et al., 2020; Riordan et al., 2016). Riordan et al. (2016) predicted that three areas are critical for snow leopard connectivity: the west Himalayan-Karakorum-Pamir region was predicted to have moderate to high levels of snow leopard movement between the

Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and Altan-Sayan ranges; the Dzungarian region between China and Kazakhstan showed restricted corridors, resulting in potentially isolated populations in adjacent mountain ranges; and the Gobi desert region in China, which represents a route of high-cost distance and may involve steppingstone dispersal efforts. Similarly, Li et al. (2020) used spatial prioritization tools and identified 7 large continuous habitat patches across snow leopard range. Their work corroborated Riordan et al. (2016) and demonstrated that the largest core habitat patches are in the Tien Shan-Pamir-Hindu Kush-Karakorum and Altai regions. Linkage within each of these regions is critical to maintaining global snow leopard metapopulation dynamics. While the aforementioned habitat modeling studies have not been validated with genetic data, there are a few publications that provide a promising start. Korablev et al. (2021) completed a wide-ranging study in the northern and western portions of the species’ range and applied landscape genetics to describe population structure and better understand habitat connectivity and barriers to gene flow. They found that habitat fragmentation most heavily influenced the observed genetic divergence. The authors also compared heterozygosity between northern snow leopards (Russia and Mongolia) with the western portion of the range (Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan) and identified greater diversity for western cats. Shrestha and Kindlmann (2020) identified 22 snow leopard individuals from noninvasively collected samples across four areas of Nepal and overlaid the genetic data from six microsatellite markers with habitat suitability maps. The authors reported a low amount of suitable habitat between three genetic clusters. Populations were either isolated or connected by only a few corridors. The authors also reported annual mean temperature and altitude as the most important factors predicting habitat suitability

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Non-NGS studies

for snow leopards. Atzeni et al. (2021) used an explicit restricted variable optimization approach to determine landscape constraints to snow leopard gene flow in the Qilian mountains of Gansu Province, China. Fine-scale low topographic ruggedness and habitat connectedness were found to facilitate gene flow, while habitats that were either too homogeneous or too heterogeneous increased resistance to snow leopard movement. Hacker et al. (2022) observed population differentiation between snow leopard populations in China and Mongolia, with some evidence of occasional dispersal between the two countries. The authors showed high connectivity between populations within Mongolia, whereas the mode of isolation for snow leopards in northwestern China was difficult to discern. Lastly, Janecka et al. (2017), in a phylogeography study, provided the most geographically comprehensive report on snow leopard genetic diversity and structure to date, matching some results from Riordan et al. (2016) and was consistent with the climate refugia and connectivity described in Li et al. (2016).

Phylogeography The paleoecological history, as well as phylogeography of species occupying high-altitude regions of Asia, is under-studied. Janecka et al. (2017) genotyped 70 snow leopard individuals across 8 of the 12 range countries: Bhutan, China, Mongolia, India, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan, and Tajikistan. Results provided molecular support for three primary genetic clusters that Janecka et al. (2017) proposed to be classified as subspecies. The most significant divergence observed was between snow leopards sampled in the Altai/Gobi-Altai Mountains (Northern Cluster) and the northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) (Central Cluster; Janecka et al., 2017). This phylogeographic break is consistent with the 500 km gap in mapped habitat dominated by the Gobi Desert (Kitchener et al., 2017). Although there are occasional reports of snow leopards in the areas separating these

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two genetic clusters, connectivity between these areas was not detected as sufficient to maintain gene flow ( Janecka et al., 2017). The second most significant phylogeographic break occurs in the trans-Himalaya region between Ladakh and Nepal. In Janecka et al. (2017), samples from Ladakh clustered with the Western Cluster (Pakistan/Tajikistan/Kyrgyzstan) and were divergent from the Central Cluster (Nepal/Bhutan/Tibet/Qinghai). The break in this area has been questioned because there are many adjacent mountain ranges that at cursory examination seem to represent continuous snow leopard habitat (Senn et al., 2018). However, recent habitat models indicate reduced and patchy habitat connectivity in the trans-Himalaya area connecting the Karakoram/Pamirs and the western QTP/ Himalayas (Li et al., 2016; Riordan et al., 2016), consistent with results indicating reduced gene flow through this region ( Janecka et al., 2017). In addition, numerous sympatric species, including important snow leopard prey (Siberian ibex Capra sibirica, argali Ovis ammon, blue sheep, Pseudois nayaur) have distributional boundaries in this area that mirror that of snow leopards (www.iucn.org, accessed 2023), further supporting a phylogeographic boundary in the trans-Himalaya. Finally, the third phylogeographic boundary suggested by Janecka et al. (2017) occurs between the western Altai (western Mongolia/ southern Russia) and the northern Tien Shan (Kyrgyzstan) separating the Western Cluster and Northern Cluster. Snow leopard distribution in this region is patchy and discontinuous. The geography of this division is similar to that between Mongolia and China, albeit the gaps in habitat are not as extensive. However, the distances between smaller, lower altitude mountain chains are shorter, and therefore they may act as stepping stones for connectivity. This is reflected in the higher levels of admixture detected between the Northern and Western Clusters, indicating more frequent dispersal between Mongolia/Russia to Kyrgyzstan, and

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potential other nearby areas (possibly western Xinjiang) (Korablev et al., 2021).

Advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods specifically for snow leopards NGS gives scientists the ability to look deeper into the genomes of organisms and understand complex relationships between genes and potential adaptations. NGS massively amplifies and sequences short stretches of DNA in parallel, which makes the already fragmented nature of noninvasive DNA samples well suited for this methodology. To date, only two published studies use NGS to characterize snow leopard populations. Janjua et al. (2020) used double digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD-seq) to develop a reference sequence library for snow leopards. They identified 697 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and although the reference library was created using snow leopard wild-caught blood samples, the authors developed probes for DNA capture using the sequence library that have the potential to be used for genotyping individuals from scat samples. The benefit of a genotyping-bysequencing approach is that SNPs have a much lower error rate than microsatellites and are not prone to individual scoring bias and can therefore be used and compared across multiple studies from different researchers and data sets, so long as the same SNP panel is used in each. Additionally, 3 mitochondrial genes, totaling 3369 base pairs, were investigated for 96 snow leopard scat samples ( Janjua, 2020). A total of 22 informative variants were identified. While spatial structure could not be investigated due to limited sample sizes, results improved upon previous mtDNA studies that found little or no mtDNA diversity (e.g., Janecka et al., 2017). Advances in NGS technology have increased the scope of genetic questions that can be answered for snow leopards. Cho et al. (2013) reported 109 gigabases of total snow leopard

sequence data with 40X coverage and compared these data to the genomes of the tiger and lion. This comparison highlighted a unique amino acid change in snow leopards that is consistent with adaptation to high altitudes. Specifically, snow leopards exhibited a unique mutation in the EGLN1 gene (Lys39>Met39), which is a homolog that potentially mediates high-altitude adaptation (Cho et al., 2013) and is also a gene that has adaptive alleles in humans and Tibetan wolves (Zhang et al., 2014). Amino acid changes in the EGLN1 and EPAS1 (the second gene with candidate alleles in snow leopard) account for hypoxia tolerance in naked mole rats, and EPAS1 is implicated in high-altitude adaptation in Himalayan wolves (Werhahn et al., 2018, 2020). This led Cho et al. (2013) to hypothesize that the amino acid changes observed in snow leopards also confer an adaptive advantage to high altitude. Janecka et al. (2020) did low-coverage sequencing of five snow leopard genomes and genotyping-by-sequencing of scat samples from Pakistan and Mongolia and found no variation in EGLN1, suggesting the adaptive allele is fixed in snow leopards, whereas EPAS1 was polymorphic. Additional sequencing of snow leopard lung tissue showed higher expression of a downstream gene involved in the hypoxia inducible pathway, supporting the idea that these alleles are adaptive (Janjua et al., 2020). Janecka et al. (2020) sequenced five snow leopard genomes at low coverage and genotyped scat for the EGLN1 and EPAS1 SNPs. This study showed potential adaptive differences between two divergent elevational zones (Mongolia and Pakistan) for the EPAS1 polymorphism. In addition, NGS technology has recently expanded the number of microsatellite loci available to researchers. Zhou et al. (2021a,b) mined a recently reported snow leopard genome from the CNGB Nucleotide Sequence Archive (accession CNP0001205) and identified over 1 million microsatellites with 1–6 base pair nucleotide motifs. The advancement of NGS has unlocked the genetic potential of museum collections as

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Molecular dietary analysis

biobanks (Yeates et al., 2016). Schmid et al. (2017) describe a method using hybridization capture combining high-quality DNA with degraded DNA from museum specimens of the same species. This builds on the approach developed by Janjua et al. (2020). The inclusion of snow leopard museum specimens could potentially improve sample sizes and elucidate the demographic histories of snow leopard populations at the geographic origins of these collections.

Molecular dietary analysis There have been a number of previous studies examining snow leopard prey use (covered in Chapter 4), the majority of which lack any genetic methodology (reviewed in Janecka et al., 2020). However, DNA metabarcoding using NGS now allows for a noninvasive molecular approach to determining diet. This method can be faster, more accurate and inclusive, and eliminates observer bias (Pompanon et al., 2012; Valentini et al., 2009). Few published studies have used this technique for snow leopards. The first used MT-RNR1 (12S RNA) primers to investigate the prey items in 88 snow leopard scats from the Tost Mountains of South Gobi, Mongolia (Shehzad et al., 2012). This seminal study showed the utility of DNA metabarcoding in elucidating snow leopard diet, but complications in using MT-RNR1 to discern wild versus domestic sheep necessitated the use of a 1-base pair difference in a segment of MT-CYB as an additional marker. Further research using MT-RNR1 found a similar issue in discerning wild versus domestic goats (Jevit, unpublished data). A later study addressed this issue by designing caprid-specific primers for a segment of MT-CO1 (COX1), and, in conjunction with MT-RNR1 for noncaprid species, discerned prey items in 165 snow leopard scats from Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, and China (Hacker et al., 2021). Janjua (2020) compared the use of five barcode genes and complete mitochondrial

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sequences in determining prey from 63 snow leopard scat samples from 6 range countries and found utility in both methods, though each found a few occurrences of unique prey items not detected in the other. The use of 5 collective barcoding genes was faster than the use of complete mitochondrial sequences. A study published in Chinese also explored snow leopard diet in China by amplifying a segment of MT-RNR2 (16S RNA) in 22 snow leopard scats from the Wolong National Nature Reserve (Lu et al., 2019). The number of sequencing reads generated during NGS is finite. In an effort to allocate as many reads as possible to species of interest, researchers may design oligoblockers to avoid generating reads for nontarget species. For example, reads mapping to snow leopard would not be necessary for scat samples that have already been genetically confirmed, and thus reads would be better used for determining prey species alone. Both Shehzad et al. (2012) and Lu et al. (2019) found snow leopard oligoblockers to be necessary in obtaining enough sequencing reads belonging to the prey item of interest while Hacker et al. (2021) did not. In addition, Shehzad et al. (2012) and Hacker et al. (2021) sequenced a subset of samples with and without UnciB oligoblockers and found contrasting results in their ability to block the amplification of snow leopard DNA. Comparisons between two different Illumina platforms and clean-up methods (NextSeq500 with gel excision versus MiSeq with bead purification) further found that the NextSeq500 method mapped significantly more reads to reference sequences than the MiSeq (Hacker et al., 2021). It is important to note that DNA metabarcoding is a very sensitive process, and even slight modifications in laboratory practices or PCR protocols can cause differences in cross-comparisons between labs. Sensitivity in NGS methods can lend itself to high contamination risk both as a result of human error and “tag jumping,” even in dedicated sequencing cores (Hacker et al., 2021; Pompanon et al., 2012). Researchers should be

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cognizant of the number of suggested measures to prevent such issues (Zinger et al., 2019). When adequate controls are in place, the scale and scope at which studies using NGS methodology can be done could potentially transform current knowledge of snow leopards. However, as is standard with NGS methodologies, both its cost and required expertise can be prohibitive.

Comparison of genetics with traditional methods (e.g., camera traps) A few studies have compared the use of noninvasive genetic techniques to more traditional carnivore survey methods. McCarthy et al. (2008) compared the accuracy of Snow Leopard Information Management System (SLIMS) sign surveys to other abundance estimators, including genetic analysis of snow leopard scat, in Kyrgyzstan and China. The study found that noninvasive genetic methods of snow leopard abundance did not correspond to SLIMS sign surveys, with more snow leopards generally detected through genetic analysis. McCarthy et al. (2008) concluded none of the abundance estimators agreed and that estimating snow leopard numbers with confidence requires greater effort and better documentation. These findings are similar to those of Janecka et al. (2011) in Mongolia, which estimated 5–6 individuals/100 km2 based on noninvasive genetics compared to 1.5 individuals/100 km2 based on camera trapping.

Major gaps and priorities for filling For several decades, research on snow leopards has focused on their range, population size, connectivity, ecology, and evolution, yet significant knowledge gaps remain, making implementation of conservation objectives difficult at all scales. Relative to other big cat species, there are significantly fewer peer-reviewed

publications focusing on snow leopards across research disciplines, and fewer still focusing on genetic data and methods (Weckworth, 2021). Regardless of the discipline, empirical work using molecular methods can address a myriad of questions, either independently or implemented alongside other methods, such as survey and monitoring efforts. However, despite the demonstrated usefulness of molecular methods to spatially delineate populations, identify conservation units and landscape corridors, and understand the drivers of extirpation (e.g., genetic fitness, effective population size, and population isolation), the direct incorporation of genetic data into conservation planning is rare. Previous range-wide efforts to identify important landscapes for snow leopards, including the population surveys by The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP), have not thoroughly accounted for genetic connectivity between populations nor taken advantage of noninvasive genetics (Li et al., 2020), suggesting an urgent need to prioritize comprehensive analyses of snow leopard molecular ecology. The aforementioned sections have characterized studies covering the development of snow leopard molecular tools and their applications, including evolutionary relationships, local population estimates, and dietary analyses. Yet, important questions remain on the patterns and processes that shape snow leopard genetic diversity. The solution to this challenge requires more intensive range-wide sampling for genetic data in an effort to corroborate existing studies and provide new information to fill key knowledge gaps for range-wide patterns and local or regional indices.

Priority knowledge gap—Phylogeography Janecka et al.’s (2017) study on range-wide snow leopard phylogeography identified distinct regions of neutral nuclear genetic diversity

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Major gaps and priorities for filling

and highlighted the need for transboundary efforts to classify genetic clusters as conservation units for management efforts. Despite biogeographical and molecular evidence for three range-wide genetic clusters that correspond to the three climate refugia identified in Li et al. (2016), incomplete spatial coverage of the data set necessitates increased sampling to fill gaps in snow leopard distribution and further clarify the study’s findings. Additionally, the mechanisms resulting in the lack of observed mitochondrial diversity in Janecka et al. (2017) are not known. Understanding the phylogeographic dynamics of snow leopards via phylogenetic methods, and comparing them to contemporary patterns, will further characterize the impact of climate oscillations (as in Li et al., 2016) and inform the foundation and context by which particular regions or populations of snow leopards can be evaluated. Importantly, this includes defining range-wide snow leopard conservation units that could then receive independent IUCN Red List assessments (e.g., subspecies, populations) and subsequent regionalized approaches to snow leopard conservation.

Priority knowledge gap—Multiscale population metrics Decades of research on snow leopard ecology have demonstrated that snow leopards typically associate with rugged, arid, mountainous habitat above the treeline. Landscape characteristics related to elevation, ruggedness, slope, and terrain with significant ridgelines and cliff edges are consistently associated with snow leopard movement and habitat use. These movement choices and habitat associations may influence gene flow and associated population metrics, but whether these factors significantly impact functional connectivity or are present throughout the range, is not known. Understanding the effects of these and other processes on

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neutral or adaptive genetic variation requires analyses at varying spatiotemporal scales to further resolve where genetic boundaries exist. For example, genetic assessments at small spatial scales are important for evaluating local populations, particularly those where inbreeding depression may threaten population viability. However, small sample sizes and large distances between study locations limit extrapolation beyond local population descriptions. More studies quantifying the genetic patterns of populations at various spatial scales are needed to build a comprehensive genetic network for snow leopards. Due to their extensive distribution and ability to travel great distances, survey efforts spanning broad spatial scales are also needed to understand genetic connectivity range-wide, describe metapopulation dynamics, and confirm relevant management units within the species. Additionally, multiscale frameworks are needed to identify which spatial scale(s) (and the associated landscape heterogeneity) are most important to snow leopard genetic differentiation and diversity, and to help identify unique landscape factors important for genetic connectivity.

Priority knowledge gap—Landscape genetics To date, there are only two published studies combining population genetic data with landscape and ecological data (Korablev et al., 2021; Shrestha and Kindlmann, 2020). While these studies serve as benchmarks for snow leopard landscape genetics, results cannot reliably be extrapolated onto other populations because ecological relationships may not be consistent across spatial scales or locations. Studies examining genetic relationships at varying spatial scales will be useful for understanding how populations are influenced by landscape and microevolutionary forces and provide further

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evidence for establishing relevant management units for unique populations (e.g., habitat selection and fine-scale gene flow can be detected at small spatial scales, whereas metapopulation dynamics are likely only reflected at broader spatial scales). For example, in their range-wide analysis of habitat suitability, Li et al. (2020) found border fences, railways and major roads may impede global snow leopard linkages, but each of the seven continuous habitat patches identified in the study likely face differing threat levels from poaching, anthropogenic development, and climate change. While large patches of snow leopard range are hypothesized to have remained stable throughout climate oscillations since the last glacial maximum (Li et al., 2016), more studies are needed to determine the unique landscape and environmental variables that influence snow leopard gene flow and to identify how metapopulations are structured. Another important consideration in addition to spatial scale for landscape genetics studies, and genetics research in general, is choosing the appropriate sampling scheme. Appropriate field sampling design is critical for genetic research questions (Oyler-McCance et al., 2013). Arbitrarily defined scales, or fine-scale sampling schemes designed for non-genetic studies, such as occupancy modeling, may fail to capture appropriate variability in the landscape and/or lead to erroneous conclusions about genetic patterns. For example, genetic patterns of local autocorrelation will cause samples to appear strongly clustered if the sampling scheme occurs at a spatial scale similar to or smaller than the autocorrelation itself. For rare and elusive species like the snow leopard, systematic sampling—sampling that attempts to cover the landscape in an even, systematic grid—can both minimize the concerns with spatial autocorrelation that contribute to incorrectly identifying the landscape process influencing population structure, and is likely the most realistic study design given the often impassable terrain across the range.

Priority knowledge gap—Genetic data from key range countries There are some areas of the snow leopard range from which genetic information is greatly lacking. Specifically, the genetics of snow leopards in Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, India, and large tracts of China are missing from the current literature. Applied efforts in these areas will be necessary for management decisions at local levels and for tying into broader species protection initiatives. Genetics has a number of positives for conservation research, yet the integration of genetic data into conservation policy and management remains rare. However, genetic analyses can be a prohibitively expensive approach that may require specialized training and equipment ( Janecka et al., 2020). More importantly, NGS may be unavailable in some snow leopard range countries. However, genotyping microsatellite loci has become a more commonplace practice that laboratories can more easily accomplish with fewer necessary instruments at a more cost-effective price. At minimum, scientists conducting snow leopard research in the field can collect scat samples and store them for processing at a later date when such technologies are available, whether in their own research institute or via a collaborative effort with another group.

Necessary steps to overcome knowledge gaps Successfully addressing knowledge gaps in snow leopard genetics will require a series of actionable steps to acquire the resources necessary across the species’ extensive distribution. First, standardized and correctly executed range-wide sampling efforts are needed. This will include careful consideration of the number of snow leopard-positive scat samples needed to answer research questions of interest. Second, laboratory protocols must also be standardized

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Glossary

and appropriate for generating the data necessary to support a particular hypothesis. For example, population metric studies using microsatellites cannot rely on the smaller number of microsatellites typical for noninvasive studies in other taxa because of the low genetic diversity that snow leopards exhibit. Combining genetic data sets at present is nearly impossible. This can be due to even small differences in laboratory approaches. While the broad conclusions between two research groups examining a scat sample set may be the same, the underlying data will likely show differences due to the variation in allele sizing and genotyping for microsatellites. In an effort to combine data sets, and thus increase research scope, laboratories working together must take standardized approaches. Third, training of in-country scientists and local community members living in snow leopard habitat will be vital to the success of long-term research efforts. Training range-state scientists will facilitate local capacity building in noninvasive genetic techniques and allow for improved transboundary cooperation through knowledge-sharing among snow leopard range countries. Fourth, working across borders will be critical, as snow leopard populations are distributed across mountain ranges that also serve as political boundaries (see Chapter 23). Lastly, protocols that optimize SNP analysis from noninvasive DNA collections will be critical in advancing snow leopard genetics into the rapidly developing technologies of conservation science and will better enable data to be combined across studies. To improve on the investment in developing and using molecular techniques across the snow leopard conservation community, recent efforts have been made through collaborations to provide genetics training and guidelines for scat collection and molecular protocols. Initiatives for in-person courses and training opportunities have been undertaken in Pakistan, China, Bhutan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan at various research institutions with the goal of equipping scientists with the resources and knowledge to

pursue conservation genetics in their laboratories. In recent years, several comprehensive book chapters on snow leopard genetics have been published to provide context for both background and need (Caragiulo et al., 2016a,b; Janecka et al., 2020; Weckworth, 2021). For an even broader impact, the Snow Leopard Network (SLN) initiated the creation of a pocket guide and protocol booklet for scat collection, storage, and DNA extraction and made them available online. This not only provides resources for scientists but also assists in standardizing methods across research groups. In conjunction, SLN hosted a four-week virtual seminar in the fall of 2020 for researchers on the utility of genetics for snow leopard conservation, serving as both an introductory primer to more complex techniques, analyses, and applications as well as the facilitation of ongoing communication and collaboration potential between snow leopard researchers. The seminar series is currently hosted online for others to independently review. These efforts are encouraging and will ideally serve to catalyze both increased awareness and interest in the use and application of conservation genetics to snow leopards.

Glossary Alleles, Alternative forms of the same sequence or locus. Control region (D-loop), Noncoding section of mtDNA where replication starts, often highly variable in sequence composition as compared to other regions of mtDNA. DNA barcode, A short DNA sequence commonly used in DNA metabarcoding. The primer annealing region is conserved and all species of interest, but the internal region is variable enough to discern species based on its nucleotide order. DNA metabarcoding, The determination of multiple different species in a given sample via sequencing of a DNA barcode. Effective population size, The number of individuals in a population that contribute genetic information to the next generation. Gene flow, The movement of genetic information from one population to another.

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Genetic diversity, The sum of various alleles within a population or species. Genetic drift, The random fluctuations in allele frequencies within a population can be detrimental to small populations with low genetic diversity. Genetic markers, A variable DNA sequence at a known location on the chromosome. Genetic stochasticity, Random variation that occurs in the frequency of particular alleles in a population over time. Genome, The complete set of genetic information found in an organism. Genomic DNA, The entirety of DNA found in the nucleus of an organism that constitutes biological information and is inherited from one generation to the next. Genotype, The unique genetic makeup of a particular individual, i.e., the specific alleles at a locus. Genotyping, The determination of an individual’s genotype. Heterozygosity, The possession of two different alleles for a particular sequence in an individual, lends itself to greater genetic variability and therefore potential adaptability. Isolation-by-distance, The concept that genetic differences are a result of and positively correlated with Euclidean geographic distance between two individuals or populations. Landscape genetics, The study of correlations between population genetics and landscape ecology. Locus (loci: plural), The specific physical location, or “genetic address” of a particular sequence on a chromosome. Low-coverage sequencing, Determination of nucleotide order for a sequence or genome that has only been done, or repeated across a targeted region of interest, a small number of times. Microsatellite (short tandem repeat), A repetitive sequence of nucleotides that is often noncoding and often highly variable between individuals of the same species. mtDNA, Small, circular DNA found in the mitochondria of the cell that is maternally inherited. Next-generation sequencing (NGS), A high-throughput process where many DNA fragments are sequenced in parallel approach to determine the order of nucleotides. Oligoblockers, Stretches of DNA sequences specifically designed to bind to DNA in a particular species that is not a target species for sequences to be generated during next-generation sequencing protocols. Phylogeography, The study of biogeography and genealogy to understand how historical processes and biogeographic events have shaped modern species distributions and genetic lineages. Polymorphic, A genetic sequence or trait that is variable within a population. Population genetics, The study of the genetic diversity, history, and structure of a population.

Primers, A short single-stranded nucleic acid sequence designed to complement and bind to a specific segment of DNA to make numerous copies of said segment during PCR (polymerase chain reaction). Sanger sequencing, A first-generation sequencing method used for determining the nucleotide sequence of DNA. In the sanger method, a single DNA fragment is sequenced at a time, whereas in NGS millions of fragments are sequenced per run.

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C H A P T E R

32 Camera trapping—Advancing the technology Wai-Ming Wong and Shannon Kachel Panthera, New York, NY, United States

Camera-trapping applications and considerations From the pioneering efforts of Jackson et al. (2006), camera trapping has justifiably matured into a workhorse of snow leopard research and monitoring—a trend that is reflected in terrestrial wildlife research globally. The appeal is almost self-evident: camera-trap images and videos not only help to raise awareness and promote interest in conservation but they also have the potential to provide unambiguous, economical insight into a range of questions in snow leopard ecology and conservation. Moreover, unlike other techniques and technologies presented in this book, camera traps are uniquely capable of providing concurrent fine-scale insight into the spatiotemporal ecology of multiple species—including humans—raising the prospect of exploring species interactions that may be otherwise intractable. However, like any method, camera trapping has important limitations, pitfalls, and challenges. The relative simplicity of deploying camera traps belies the often intensive and sophisticated study design,

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00018-2

data processing and management, and analytical approaches necessary to make sense of camera trap data. Nonetheless, ongoing improvements in study design tools, emerging data processing solutions (for example, increasingly sophisticated image recognition software), and advances in camera technology all suggest that cameras will continue to play a central role in improving our knowledge of snow leopards and their ecosystems for the foreseeable future.

Distributions and abundance Most snow leopard camera-trapping applications in the literature are concerned with documenting and describing the species’ abundance (e.g., Jackson et al., 2006) and distribution (e.g., Alexander et al., 2016), and with good reason: these variables are the bedrock of ecology (K
ery and Royle, 2016). They are likewise critical to understanding population trends through time and space. Although historically most efforts aimed at estimating snow leopard density and distributions have been concerned with landscapes on the order of 100–1000 km2

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(Suryawanshi et al., 2019), coordinated largescale collaborative efforts can expand the area of inference by multiple orders of magnitude. For example, Bayandonoi et al. (2021) used a combination of spatial capture-recapture (Royle et al., 2014) and occupancy models (MacKenzie et al., 2006) to estimate snow leopard occupancy and density across more than 400,000 km2 of potential snow leopard habitat in Mongolia (see Chapter 44), establishing benchmarks against which future population change and range expansion or contraction can be evaluated. This work was conducted under the auspices of the Population Assessment of the World’s Snow Leopards, or PAWS, initiative (Sharma et al., 2019), which is sure to propel the use of camera traps in coming years, building research and monitoring capacity throughout snow leopard range and beyond that will improve our collective understanding of snow leopard population and landscape ecology. Individual detection/nondetection data such as those generated by camera traps can in fact help us unify these aspects of snow leopard ecology to some extent (Royle et al., 2017), helping us understand not only where and how many snow leopards live but also why they live where they live by shedding light on snow leopard population dynamics (e.g., Sharma et al., 2014), movement, resource selection, and connectivity (e.g., Pal et al., 2021). Yet despite the impressive efforts underway, snow leopard research and conservation have yet to realize the full potential of the insights that camera traps can offer into the species’ ecology beyond the state variables of abundance and distribution.

Species interactions and communities Compared to other common methods to study and monitor snow leopards, camera traps can collect unbiased data on all species in a community simultaneously, providing a uniquely powerful perspective into spatial and temporal interactions among snow leopards, other

carnivores, prey, livestock, humans, and the landscape itself. However, using cameras in a manner that is conducive to investigating community dynamics, or even just estimating densities of multiple species concurrently, may entail difficult tradeoffs, especially when resources are limited—cameras set to maximize snow leopard detections are unlikely to provide an unbiased sample with respect to other species (Burton et al., 2015). In applied and exploratory research, this may not be an insurmountable issue. For example, Rovero et al. (2018) and Salvatori (2021) used multispecies co-occurrence occupancy models (Rota et al., 2016) to explore the impact of livestock on snow leopards, wolves, and ibex in Mongolian protected areas, finding evidence that livestock may displace snow leopards and their wild prey. In both cases, inference was restricted to expected snow leopard habitat—cameras were set only in locations where snow leopard detections were expected, effectively ignoring large portions of the ecosystem—but that tradeoff may be reasonable when targeted information is needed for conservation or to generate hypotheses for future testing. Because snow leopards are individually identifiable (Fig. 32.1), we typically estimate density using SCR models, which use spatial recaptures (detections of the same individual in different locations) to estimate the parameters of a submodel of individual space use and thereby estimate detection probabilities and ultimately density across the study area (Royle et al., 2014). By contrast, most other mediumsized and large mammals in the high mountains of Asia are not reliably identifiable from individual markings. Although multiple modeling frameworks exist to estimate density in unmarked populations, they often entail much stricter assumptions of spatially random sampling (e.g., Moeller et al., 2018; Rowcliffe et al., 2013)—assumptions that can be impossible to meet in practice in many snow leopard landscapes without excluding some strata and can run directly counter to the incentive to

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FIG. 32.1 Unique spotting patterns of two different snow leopards at a camera trap in the Pamir Mountains, Tajikistan. Photo courtesy: Shannon Kachel (Panthera).

maximize detections for SCR models. Study design and analytical hurdles notwithstanding, thoughtfully designed camera-trap studies, have tremendous potential to shed light on snow leopard interactions with other species, including humans.

Temporal activity patterns and interactions Cameras record events not only in space, but in time as well, creating opportunities to investigate previously intractable questions regarding fine-scale (i.e., daily) patterns of snow leopard activity and temporal niche (Frey et al., 2017). From such data, we can learn about interactions between snow leopards and their prey and sympatric carnivores (e.g., Salvatori, 2021), and potentially how humans might influence those temporal behaviors, niche partitioning, and ultimately, community structure. Yet to date, nearly all published camera-trap studies of snow leopards (and potential human effects on them) have focused on questions of distribution and abundance–we see ample opportunity to better understand how humans might affect snow leopards and sympatric species in the temporal dimension.

Field experiments Camera traps are increasingly put to use in manipulative and opportunistic field experiments to investigate the mechanistic underpinnings of behavioral ecology (Caravaggi et al., 2017), species interactions (Smith et al., 2020), and conservation interventions (e.g., Keim et al., 2019; Spencer et al., 2020). For snow leopards, integrating cameras into experimental research could help close the knowledge gap that exists concerning the efficacy (and mechanisms) of interventions meant to reduce livestock depredation and human-wildlife conflict with snow leopards (Rashid et al., 2020). For example, one could use cameras to evaluate (in far more granular detail compared to relying on livestock depredation occurrence) if and how audio/visual deterrents influence snow leopard detection rates or intensity of use outside of corrals. In other settings, simulated cues could be used to investigate how humans, livestock, and domestic dogs influence snow leopards at fine scales. But of course, even in an experimental context, cameras remain imperfect detectors. However, with careful experimental design, correcting for detection may be unnecessary— detection rates themselves may be a suitable response variable (Smith et al., 2020).

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From exploration to inference The numerous advantages of camera trapping notwithstanding, many exploratory small-scale snow leopard studies result in little more than a confirmation of the species presence and a minimum count of individuals. Limited resources, low densities, low detection rates, and sparse data are all common issues in snow leopard camera trapping, and data-hungry, error-bound estimates of target variables (critical for evaluating change over time) are provided in only a subset of the literature (Snow Leopard Network, 2014; Suryawanshi et al., 2019)—camera trapping clearly remains a substantial undertaking. At relatively fine scales, investigators can maximize detection by identifying travel routes (ridgelines, narrow gullies, and cliff bases) and marking sites (saddles, prominent boulders, or outcroppings and drainage constrictions) that snow leopards predictably visit ( Jackson et al., 2006). But given the effort required, conservationists and researchers should strive to increase the value of their hard-earned data by adopting rigorous design approaches (including simulation, e.g., Dupont et al., 2021; Durbach et al., 2021) that maximize the possibility that the data will be usable—and unbiased—for their intended purpose. In general, investigators should scale up their efforts to enable error-bound, inferential estimation whenever possible (i.e., allocate more resources to camera trapping projects). It can be easy to overlook that in many (though not all) analytical frameworks, camera trap data are handled as a sample of space and/or time. From this vantage point, the tendency of smaller scale camera trapping efforts to deploy cameras only in areas where snow leopard detections are more likely can be counterproductive for some research and monitoring goals, potentially limiting the spatial scope of inference, or worse, engendering systematic bias. Indeed, Suryawanshi et al. (2019) found evidence that abundance and density estimates drawn from smaller study areas were systematically

overestimated relative to those from larger areas due to biased sampling with respect to habitat. Where SCR models detections of individuals, occupancy models detections of species, thus it is not altogether uncommon for camera trappers to pivot from SCR to occupancy if they fail to achieve adequate spatial recaptures of identifiable individuals, for example. Both approaches incorporate spatial variability and uncertain detectability to arrive at error-bound estimates of target parameters, and in some cases, data designed to meet the needs of SCR models may be suitable for occupancy modeling if sampling is representative of the landscape of interest. However, the information needs of SCR in particular may dictate sampling strategies that result in data that is potentially inappropriate for alternative analytical frameworks, depending on decisions made in the study design phase. The team behind PAWS, has produced excellent, freely-available practical guidance and design tools for using camera traps to estimate snow leopard occupancy and density. For comprehensive treatment of these subjects, we refer readers to the relevant literature (e.g., Royle et al., 2014) and to Chapter 34. Though resource-intensive, a philosophical shift in allocation of energy and resources toward better and more appropriately scaled sampling will enhance the rigor of snow leopard research and conservation efforts.

Individual identification If planned analyses will require the identification of individual snow leopards, investigators should ideally capture images of each animal from multiple angles by placing either paired cameras on opposite sides of trails or single cameras in locations where animals can be expected to linger (Sharma et al., 2014), or using lure to hold the animal’s attention and encourage investigation. Cameras set to capture multiple images, with no delay between triggers, further increase the chance of capturing multiple identifiable markings.

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Overview of camera trap technology

Identification errors are an often-overlooked and underappreciated source of unquantified uncertainty in camera-trap analyses (e.g., spatial capture-recapture models) that rely on identification of individual snow leopards ( Johansson et al., 2020). Different types of identification errors lead to divergent biases in the resulting population estimates—lumping different individuals together as a single individual can lead to underestimates of abundance, whereas splitting individual capture histories inflates those estimates. Although Johansson et al.’s (2020) findings suggest splitting errors are far more prevalent (and accordingly, that published camera-based density and abundance estimates may be systemically overestimated), the actual bias in published density and abundance estimates is challenging to ascertain, as protocols for resolving individual identity vary considerably. For example, studies may differ in the number of observers used for classifying individuals, the methods for including or excluding partially identified individuals or unclassifiable images, the methods for resolving interobserver discrepancies, and the methods for detecting and resolving errors in identification (Choo et al., 2020). Thus, population estimates conducted by different authors in different landscapes may not be directly comparable due to different biases flowing from identification error protocols. In the long term, ongoing advances in the accessibility and development of image recognition software (see below) and statistical modeling approaches that handle identity probabilistically (e.g., partial identity models, Augustine et al., 2018) should help resolve the challenges associated with identification errors. In the interim, however, improved standards for reporting individual identification protocols (e.g., Choo et al., 2020) as well as strict standards for identification (e.g., requiring agreement between multiple observers, and requiring multiple distinct marking patterns to) can reduce the probability of identification errors.

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Ethical considerations There is increasing recognition that camera trapping carries ethical and legal considerations that must be anticipated prior to study implementation. For example, researchers may be obligated to report illegal activity captured on camera, even as cameras might infringe on people’s reasonable expectations of privacy (Sandbrook et al., 2018). To aid researchers navigate these potential dilemmas, Sharma et al. (2020) propose a set of guidelines anchored in participatory principles that emphasize forthright a priori communication with stakeholders. The minor inconvenience of such communications carries not only ethical benefits but it can also serve as platform from which to engage communities as partners in the co-creation of research and conservation—a worthy goal in its own right (Mishra et al., 2017).

Overview of camera trap technology Development of equipment Observing animals in the wild has long been a fascination to hunters, scientists, and wildlifeenthusiasts. The ability to do so has been greatly augmented with the development of photographic technology. In the 1890s, photographer and conservationist, George Shiras, pioneered the field of camera traps. Shiras used trip wires and a flash bulb to capture photographs of rarely seen animals, which were subsequently published in National Geographic (Shiras, 1906). The first purely scientific use of camera traps was in the 1920s when ornithologist, Frank M. Chapman, used trip wires and bait to survey the species present on Panama’s Barro Colorado Island, labeling it a “census of the living” (Chapman, 1927). However, due to technological difficulties, including battery power, equipment size, and trigger mechanism, camera trapping was considered a specialist activity unique to intrepid enthusiasts rather than

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mainstream researchers for decades (Kucera and Barrett, 1993). In the late 1980s, remote cameras became popular among deer hunters who used them to scout potential hunting grounds for trophy bucks (Kays and Slauson, 2008). Manufacturers scrambled to meet this new demand by combining 35 mm cameras with active and passive infrared motion sensors. Remote cameras quickly transitioned from being bulky, complicated and expensive to small, simple, and affordable. Biologists finally rediscovered remote cameras in the 1990s having realized that camera trap data can be combined with statistical analyses to answer fundamental ecological questions (Karanth, 1995; Mace et al., 1994). Today, camera trapping continues to be transformed by novel technologies. Advanced trigger mechanisms such as miniaturized heat and motion sensors have replaced wires and pressure pads. Invisible infrared flash units provide nighttime black and white images without the startling effect of conventional flash. Modern batteries and low-power microelectronics allow these devices to operate unsupervised for extended periods in remote locations. The shift from analog/film cameras to digital systems has enabled much greater storage capacity for data, instant viewing of images, and the ability to record metadata that comes with the images. The newest models of digital camera traps are now being integrated with wireless communication networks, such as cellular or satellite, allowing for real-time transmission of camera trap images taken in some of the most remote regions of the world (Olliff et al., 2014; Whytock et al., 2021).

Assessment of future directions Technological innovations in camera trapping are improving conservation capabilities around the world by facilitating real-time monitoring (Kays et al., 2011), wildlife surveillance (Gula et al., 2010) and public engagement

(www.zooniverse.org). With global biodiversity in rapid decline, advances in technology are becoming ever more important in helping us solve complex conservation challenges. Understanding this need, conservation organizations are working with a range of experts to develop innovative and integrated technological tools that will revolutionize numerous facets of wildlife conservation ranging from biological monitoring to law enforcement. Through developing and using technology, we can more efficiently and effectively collect, process, and analyze data at different spatial and temporal scales. This in turn can better enable us to identify threats, develop mitigation strategies, and test their effectiveness. GSM-based cameras The retrieval of camera-trap data is often arduous and costly. Threatened species of interest, like the snow leopard, live in remote areas that are difficult to access. It may take several days of driving to reach a village closest to the study area. From there, reaching actual field sites can require additional days of travel on foot. Certain emerging camera trap models now feature a Group Special Mobile (GSM) module integrated directly into the device. These GSM camera traps require a SIM card from a GSM provider and use existing cell towers to transmit photographs via a cellular network, much like a smartphone. Most GSM camera traps send the photograph roughly 60 s after a picture is taken to an email address or cell phone. There are a number of GSM camera trap models available on the market such as the Covert Code Black 3G, Reconyx SC950c, and the HCO Blackout ScoutCam. While GSM camera traps have the potential to revolutionize many aspects of wildlife conservation and monitoring, these cameras have a number of advantages and disadvantages (Table 32.1). For conservationists in the middle of a global poaching epidemic, GSM cameras may prove to

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Overview of camera trap technology

TABLE 32.1

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Advantages and disadvantages of using GSM camera traps.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Cellular coverage is already widespread throughout the world and constantly growing

Telecommunications companies tend not to build cellphone towers in remote wildlife areas

A single tower can provide a circular area of coverage with a radius of up to 35 km under ideal conditions

The signal can be weakened by a variety of factors including terrain (e.g., mountains) and weather (e.g., precipitation).

Cheap hardware costs and data rates

Limited use in areas with low GSM coverage

Cameras can be configured remotely using GSM network

Energy expenditure is high

Real-time image transfer allows for rapid response to incoming information (e.g., poachers)

Network outages can be a common occurrence in developing regions

be an invaluable law enforcement tool by enabling park rangers to respond to real-time photographs of intruders in a protected area. While commercially available GSM cameras act as forest sentries by transmitting images of any passing animal or human being, the indiscriminate transmission of all images poses a number of concerns. Park rangers may be inundated by large numbers of photographs, leading to data management issues. Additionally, indiscriminate image transmission can quickly reduce camera battery life while increasing the associated data charges. To address this issue, Panthera, a nonprofit organization dedicated to the conservation of wild cats, developed the PoacherCam GSM camera trap, which is now in its seventh iteration. The PoacherCam features a human-detection algorithm that enables

FIG. 32.2

the camera to differentiate between humans and animals. In areas with GSM coverage, the camera allows for real-time transfer of human images, for example, after detecting illegal entry of people in a protected area (Panthera PoacherCam, 2022). These images are transferred to an online web server and subsequently sent by email to designated recipients (Fig. 32.2). This technology can facilitate law enforcement and antipoaching efforts by enabling timely and targeted response to potential threats. Additional algorithms to detect vehicles and boats will further aid law enforcement efforts. Furthermore, algorithms developed to detect specific species of wildlife could potentially mitigate human–wildlife conflict by alerting villagers to the presence of the conflict species.

Flow diagram showing the PoacherCam data transmission of human illegal activity to recipient.

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Limitations

The use of GSM camera traps as a real-time monitoring and antipoaching tool may be restricted depending on geography. In many countries, cellular coverage is still limited and often unreliable, making traditional and more affordable camera traps a better option than GSM versions. One solution is to create a cellular network, and a number of companies and organizations are developing “network-in-a-box” (NIB) technologies that can create a private, high-bandwidth cellular network that can be easily deployed at any time and at any location. For example, NuRAN Wireless, a Canadian specialist communications company, develops energyefficient GSM technology that can be deployed in some of the world’s most remote places. However, while the technology is rapidly advancing, the initial costs to create a private cellular network across a National Park or Protect Area maybe significant and require multiple NIBs to ensure adequate coverage. Satellite-based cameras The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) developed the world’s first satellite-enabled camera trap—the Instant Wild CT1X (Zoological Society of London, 2015) which allows near real-time image transmission from virtually anywhere on earth. Designed as an alerting system to strengthen antipoaching operations and improve the efficiency of biodiversity monitoring in remote locations, this system allows researchers to place cameras in sites that lack cellular coverage. The cameras are preprogrammed to communicate with a dedicated central satellite node placed within a 1 km range. Up to 10 cameras can connect to one node. Following image capture and transmission from camera to node, images are prioritized and sent via satellite to a secure server to be assessed through dedicated user software. Images are attributable to specific cameras and nodes allowing the user to

determine exactly where and when activity occurs. Furthermore, the system combines simple traditional ground sensors using magnetic and seismic activity to trigger alarms, warning of the proximity of humans. These alerts not only provide an early warning mechanism but are also capable of determining the direction of travel of the poacher and potentially determining the number of personnel in the hunting party. With integrated seismic and magnetic sensors and near real-time data transmission, the Instant Wild CT1X has proven to be an effective alerting system and instrumental reconnaissance tool to help tackle animal poaching in East Africa. They have also been used to monitor wildlife in very remote and difficult terrain as the satellite transmission together with improved battery life could reduce maintenance visits to just once a year. Limitations

The satellite-based camera’s ability to function in some of the most remote regions of the world is desirable to scientists and park rangers as this overcomes the significant limitation of the GSM camera traps. However, satellite-based cameras are expensive to mass produce for the market where they are in low demand. Furthermore, data transmission rates can be prohibitively expensive if sending large amounts of data. Due to high costs, consumer satellite technology is not nearly as popular as consumer cellular technology. Consequently, there has been significantly less time and money directed toward the commercialization of the hardware needed for satellite communication. For the more tech-savvy individual, custommade satellite camera traps can be made using off-the-shelf camera traps and the appropriate components. A group of researchers in Gabon, Central Africa, aimed to create a robust, fieldready system that could provide real-time alerts from camera traps at an affordable cost in areas without GSM, long range radio (LoRa) or WiFi coverage and without the need to install additional infrastructure such as communication

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Camera-trap data management

stations or meshed networks. Whytock et al. (2021) modified a standard Bushnell camera trap and customized existing open-source hardware to rapidly create a “smart” camera trap system. When images are captured, wireless communication between the camera and a nearby self-contained computer resource, called a “smart bridge,” activates the WiFi SD card, creating a local WiFi Network. The smart bridge boots a Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 that joins the WiFi network and retrieves the images from the camera. Images are then tagged by an artificial intelligence species classification algorithm and delivered to the end user within minutes over the Iridium satellite network. .

Camera-trap data management Management of camera-trap data is growing increasingly laborious due to the impressive storage capabilities of modern digital cameras (potentially up to 500 gigabytes, depending on the memory card). Despite the accelerated pace in the development of digital image capture, researchers still lack adequate software solutions to process and manage the increasing amount of information in a cost-effective way. Camera-trap studies can generate huge quantities of images, usually only some of which are used by investigators. However, it is advised that all photographic data is recorded for all nontarget species, including humans, as this information can be extremely valuable to management and can potentially serve as auxiliary data to predict the target species’ presence, distribution, or abundance. Not only are the data likely to be useful to examine interspecific interactions or impacts of human use, but a complete database will also make later analyses much easier, as researchers will not have to labor through the original photographs (Sunarto et al., 2013). Furthermore, a complete database enhances the ability to compare across sites or share data and contribute information to other projects

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interested in different species. Consequently, there is a real need for data management systems and robust analytical methods to turn the many images generated into scientifically valid conclusions.

Developments in image data storage and processing Digital photographs can already be annotated with metadata such as time, date, and geographical coordinates. Popular storage formats for digital images, like the Joint Photographic Expert Group (JPEG), also support the storage of custom metadata through open standards like Exchangeable Image File Format (EXIF) and Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP). This means all kinds of nonvariable annotations (e.g., species in a photograph) can be stored within the image file itself. However, retrieval of annotated information will require reading and parsing all the files in a collection, and this is generally significantly slower than data retrieval from an external database. File management, data annotation, and data extraction are key components of camera-trap data management (Harris et al., 2010; Sundaresan et al., 2011). Traditionally, researchers have developed their own camera-trap databases using a spreadsheet application such as Microsoft Excel or Access. However, documenting camera-trap data this way is often slow and error-prone resulting in inconsistent labeling and tagging that can complicate data retrieval and sharing (Chaudhary et al., 2010; Harris et al., 2010). Furthermore, these solutions are difficult to extend and customize and lack attributes targeted to a particular study. Consequently, these basic frameworks are limited and cumbersome and are not designed for targeted ecological camera-trap studies, such as capture-recapture type surveys. Realizing these issues, researchers are starting to develop protocols to manage camera trap data in a more efficient way.

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Harris et al. (2010) offer a generic method of managing camera-trap data by organizing photos into specific folders, labeling species, and number of animals captured in each photo and then generating a text file that lists all file names and the directories within which they are contained. Camera-trap data come with a large amount of ancillary data, such as date, time, species, individual ID, and gender, and generic methods, such as those described by Harris et al. (2010), do not offer a way to capture this critical information (Sundaresan et al., 2011). To address these issues, researchers are working with technologists to develop single software programs to make it easier to manage camera trap data and produce information in a cost-efficient way that is relevant to critical conservation questions. A camera-trap data management software program should serve two primary functions— organize files and manage the metadata associated with those individual files (Krishnappa and Turner, 2014). Examples of existing databases specifically formatted to manage camera trap data include DeskTEAM, Camera Base (Tobler, 2010), TRAPPER, and more recently Aardwolf (Scotson et al., 2017). Single software programs such as these greatly reduce data tagging inconsistencies and irrecoverable data losses by managing entire data workflow from file management to data extraction. While these camera-trap data management software systems have the ability to format data in a cost-efficient way, it also is important to address the analysis that follows data extraction specific to a study. Currently, more advanced software systems are being developed that have the capability to manipulate the data in order to produce data input files for various statistical analyses.

Crowdsourcing Citizen science is a general term normally used to describe scientific work that has been undertaken by members of the general public,

often, though not always, in collaboration with scientists or institutions. It is a form of crowdsourcing where many individuals contribute to a common goal and can provide a sense of purpose and community. The development of userfriendly technology and the large volume of camera trap images being generated means there is now both the possibility and the demand for citizen science to help collect and classify data. Some of the most popular and established online citizen science projects involve observing and identifying features of interest of an image. Through the Zooniverse (2022) web platform, individuals can help gather data for scientistdriven projects by identifying animal species in camera-trap images accessed through an online portal or mobile app. In addition to the citizen science image classification projects, there are projects where citizens can contribute camera-trap data they collected themselves. There are a number of benefits to this approach, as it can effectively and affordably increase team size, ability to place cameras across a wider geographic area, and accessibility to private lands.

Artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the big technological promises for the coming decades, particularly coupled of big data. AI is a broad term that includes machine learning methods for data analysis. Automation based on AI algorithms could strongly benefit conservation by accelerating the extraction of useful information from the increasing amounts of data being collected (Kwok, 2019), particularly by sensors such as camera traps. Such time-consuming tasks have traditionally been performed manually, which can be time-consuming and prone to errors. AI-based automation could provide accurate insights in near realtime and help inform decisions in a timely manner. A popular application is in automated identification of species, or sometimes even individuals from camera-trap images. It typically

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References

requires specialized skills to train models, but programs exist to facilitate this task. Wildlife Insights (2022) and PantheraIDS (2022) are two examples of data management platforms with AI capabilities. Both platforms apply convolutional neural networks, via deep learning, to automatically identify species, habitats, humans, vehicles, and blank images. Additionally, the platforms have the ability to process, manage, and store data, and perform sophisticated analyses (spatially explicit capture-recapture analyses and occupancy modeling) and descriptive statistics (activity patterns and presence/ absence maps). As the machine learning process becomes more powerful, it is likely that both platforms will be able to identify additional species, and perhaps individuals, across a wide range of habitats, and conduct more types of analyses. Such platforms will greatly increase the efficiency of data management and analyses and the subsequent reporting process.

Future directions in technology Today, cameras are smaller, lighter, more energy-efficient and affordable than their predecessors, ultimately making camera trapping more environmentally friendly and logistically feasible. Coupled with the developments of wireless communications and AI-automated systems, it is likely that camera traps will become better integrated with other data collection tools (e.g., drones and acoustic sensors) to record more detailed biological, climatic, and other environmental parameters. Another potential development is the use of threedimensional imaging with multilenses (Moynihan, 2010). Theoretically, a single camera with multiple lenses linked to the unit via a wireless connection would enable an animal to be photographed from different angles at the same time. This would allow the user to create a three-dimensional model of the image subject,

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thus facilitating the identification of species, individuals, and/or physical condition. Many of the technological advances in the gaming and cellular world can be applied to camera-trap sensors, allowing the human body to be scanned, and its movements recorded and analyzed. The development of “Smart” cameras with the integration of AI, WiFi, Bluetooth, and onboard processing power used in combination with existing databases and software suites might enable camera traps to automatically identify species, individuals and gender, measure body mass, describe general physiological condition and characterize movement. Eventually such new technologies will become more accessible and economical. Citizen science and the development of AI-automated systems is rapidly advancing, and if used in combination, could transform the way conservation biologists implement and manage large-scale projects, While the developments in camera-trap technology and camera-trap data management systems are significantly improving our ability to monitor wildlife and mitigate threats, they also come with limitations that may have an impact on study designs. It is essential to choose the relevant equipment to collect the data needed, as not all technology is suitable for any specific research project (Trolliet et al., 2014). Subsequently, the choice of camera trap equipment should be appropriate for the purposes of the study and the data needs to be managed appropriately.

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C H A P T E R

33 Drones for snow leopard conservation Don Huntera, Rodney M. Jacksonb, Bariushaa Munkhtsogc, Bayaraa Munkhtsogc,d, and Ben Huntere a

Rocky Mountain Cat Conservancy, Fort Collins, CO, United States bSnow Leopard Conservancy, Sonoma, CA, United States cInstitute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia dWildlife Institute, College of Nature Conservation of the Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China eLongshadow Media, Aspen, CO, United States

Introduction Drones (unmanned aerial systems (UAS; UAVs) have moved from hobbyist toy to serious analytical tool in less than a decade (Anderson and Gaston, 2013; Chabot and Bird, 2016; Duffy et al., 2020; Linchant et al., 2015). Drones are supplanting traditional aerial platforms like satellites and low-flying aircraft, performing similar tasks as effectively but cheaper, quieter, and safer (Beaver et al., 2020; Christie et al., 2016; Watts et al., 2010; Wiegmann and Taneja, 2003). With capabilities ranging from multispectral sensors to high-resolution imagery, drones fill niches in many facets of wildlife conservation, especially law enforcement, population censusing, and habitat assessment. Early proof-of-concept projects for wildlife used highly sophisticated ex-military drones that were expensive and complex to operate. In other cases, scientist-entrepreneurs modified hobby drones to vet different conservation applications (see www.conservationdrones. com). These seminal applications definitively

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00060-1

proved the value of drones for a wide range of wildlife applications (e.g., Gonzalez et al., 2016; Havens and Sharp, 2016) and helped to delineate the operational range for wildlife— consisting of near distances to 5–10 km. Early drone applications brought awareness to the sensitivity of certain species to low-flying drones (Bennitt et al., 2019), which led to recommendations for flights to remain at or above disturbance thresholds (Hodgson, 2016; Scobie and Hugenholtz, 2016). Sandbrook (2015) reported on the social aspects of using drones for wildlife conservation. Drones used for snow leopard (Panthera unica) conservation must contend with the cryptic nature of the species and its extremely rugged habitat. It is unlikely drones will ever be useful to count snow leopards in the wild, though Bushaw et al. (2019) derived a minimum abundance of cryptic meso-carnivores by flying at night. Behavioral data may potentially be derived from monitoring radio-collared snow leopards. Snow leopard prey present much easier targets for drones to detect and possibly

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improve upon census precision (Hodgson et al., 2016). Prey species, especially wild sheep and goats, typically prefer steep and rugged terrain. Maintaining camera angles and consistent heights above the ground can be challenging in rugged terrain. More accurate DEMs will eventually help drones accurately follow terrain at a steady height (Trajkovsk et al., 2020). More studies are needed to determine the full range of drone usefulness across the spectrum of snow leopard conservation. For now, drones show great promise for improving the precision of prey census. The pathway of drone technology into the toolbox of wildlife professionals closely parallels the now ubiquitous self-triggering remote camera trap. In both technologies, wildlife applications are a small segment of commercial markets; therefore, wildlife professionals often must adapt new innovations to specific tasks, which takes time and comes with unavoidable risks. Cost, flight training, and regulation complexities continue to keep many wildlife specialists from using drones. However, advancements in drone automated flight capabilities are taking place rapidly, with each new generation of equipment more capable, easier to use, and less expensive. Drones were used successfully to detect wild sheep and goats in Mongolia’s Ikh Nart Nature Reserve. This case study helped to illuminate the capability and issues of drones in prey censusing, one aspect of snow leopard conservation. The primary goal of this study was to validate drone technology as an effective tool for snow leopard conservation.

Mongolia case study Established in 1996, Ikh Nart lies about 300 km southeast of Ulaanbaatar in the East Gobi Province. Its 66,000 ha fall inside Dalanjargalan and Airag counties. Predominantly arid steppe, this landscape features rocky outcrops and deep drainages interspersed with grassland and

shrubs. It provides ideal habitat for domestic livestock grazing and for argali (Ovis ammon), the world’s largest sheep species and occasional prey of snow leopard. Other ungulates include Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa), and Asiatic wild ass (Equus h. hemionus). Ikh Nart is also inhabited by a rich collection of meso-predators, small mammals, snakes, and birds. Ikh Nart was chosen as a case study for several key reasons. Foremost, is the presence of argali and ibex. These are sheep and goat species representative of common prey throughout snow leopard range. Moreover, argali in the reserve are part of the longest running wild argali sheep study in the world. The decadeslong study centers on annual surveys conducted in August by Ikh Nart staff, Denver Zoo collaborators, and local herders. They collect sighing data along 16 transect routes 2 km wide and 4 km long. These established routes have been programmed as autonomous flights for the drone, thus replicating the coverage of ground-based surveys. For this study, a commercial-grade drone, DJI Matrice 210, was equipped with a radiometric thermal sensor, Zenmuse XT2, and a 30X zoom camera. The quad-copter-style drone was built for rugged conditions, variable weather, and heavy payloads. Depending on the payload, it has a flight ceiling of up to 5000 m and operation time of about 30 min. It can accommodate up to three sensors and maintain operator control to 8 km. Navigation software allows the drone to fly preprogrammed flight lines, as well as by the pilot, in accordance with local and international aviation regulations. The XT2 radiometric sensor is matched to the M210 craft. It collects a temperature value for each pixel (640  510) in the image and assigns a preselected color for temperature ranges (isotherm), such as warm-blooded animals. Ungulates radiate heat from 23.9°C to 32.2°C, which differs from their surroundings, especially in

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Mongolia case study

the twilight times of dusk or dawn and through the night (Mortola, 2013). During daylight hours, real color video cameras help to fly the craft and to map vegetation and habitat features of prey escape cover such as vegetation and broken rocky terrain. Color video cameras can map the presence and extent of human influences such as individual settlements and herder camps with livestock. The zoom camera can magnify ungulate-sized animals from 0.75 km distance. Prior to the case study in Ikh Nart, a series of successful tests were carried out in Colorado targeted at mountain lion (Puma concolor) prey. Censusing targets at Ikh Nart were primarily argali and ibex. The PIs joined the Reserve’s survey teams in August 2019 to fly transects and compare results to ground surveys. Transect flights at Ikh Nart were programmed to fly a pattern to replicate ground surveys where an observer walks a 4 km transect noting animals 1 km on either side (8 km2 total). The drone was programmed to fly at an altitude of 100 m at 10 m/second for 4 km along a northwesterly route, turn, and come back to the takeoff point. The XT2 gimbal angle was set to 22 degrees from the horizonal. This height and camera angle, tested in Colorado, assured a video swath about 0.5 km wide beneath the craft. Early tests at Ikh Nart showed the craft capable of flying an entire transect without a battery change (Fig. 33.1), approximately 17 km, covering 8 km2 in 20 min. The XT2 has two onboard cameras, one with normal color, the other radiometric thermal. In video mode, both cameras record simultaneously. The normal color camera was adjusted manually to the current light conditions, whereas the XT2 was set to capture thermal signals with an emphasis on the midrange of warm-blooded animals. This isotherm setting makes the XT2 especially suited to “see” wild animals. Isotherm assigns a specific color palette (i.e., they show up yellow in the image) to animals that emit a thermal signature within the

range of warm-blooded animals. As the craft flies, onboard software records performance parameters such as elevation, speed, battery usage, number of satellites in use, software reliability, time to complete flight assignment, and so forth. The project team pilots followed current United States FAA regulations for drone flight (see https://www.faa.gov/uas/commercial_ operators/), including staying below 400 ft (122 m), not flying over people or in controlled airspace (not an issue for the selected study sites), and implementing appropriate risk management measures. At the time, Mongolia had published limited guidelines, which generally follow the FAA guidelines. Flight routes for 10 transects were preloaded using mission planning software. The researchers/drone pilots prepared in advance a detailed preflight checklist and specific flight protocols for the test flights in Ikh Nart. Multiple flights over 5 days clearly demonstrated the drone’s ability to detect argali and ibex. Field conditions, weather, and communication issues limited flights that could be compared with ground surveys. From all the flights, transect 4 (T4, Fig. 33.1) produced the most relevant results. T4 began at about 06:00, before thermal crossover, and captured six separate animal sightings (times from IR footage): Transect 4 (time along transect and number individuals detected in group) 0.22 2:28 3:25 4:55 10:12 13:44 Total

8 argali 4 argali 3 argali (possible double count) 4 argali 14 argali 4 argali 34–37 animals

The flight of T4 confirmed that drones “see” more than ground-level observers. T4 was flown at the time for best thermal detection, within

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FIG. 33.1

33. Drones for snow leopard conservation

Transect 4 flight path with animal sightings.

battery capacity, and found animals that would not have been seen by traditional methods, compelling evidence for the value of drones in ungulate censusing in this type of terrain. Also, some individual animals were added to the count later with the aid of better monitors. It is worth noting that animals on the move made detection much easier, especially in tandem with thermal imagery. Postprocessing included video and GPS transect coordinates matched using Drone2Map and ArcGIS Full Motion Video (Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., Redlands, CA, United States). More accurate position data for animal sighting made it possible to postprocess a map showing the location of animals relative to the centerline of the transect used by ground

observers (Fig. 33.1). Using a low-resolution (90 m) digital elevation model, a viewshed map was produced that showed (Fig. 33.2) and quantified the percent of Transect 4 visible to ground observers (Table 33.1). Data postprocessing suggests that future drone counts should be compared to ground Distance surveys to generate sampled “sightability” curves (Buckland et al., 2001), which assume the observer sees every animal on or close to the survey line, but that observations drop off with distance from it. By comparing surveys conducted with both methods it should be possible to arrive at several metrics or values of aerial versus ground surveys, including a “correction” metric for transect and point totals.

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Conclusions

FIG. 33.2

Transect 4 viewshed with animal sightings.

TABLE 33.1

Percent of area visible at close to ground level and at 2 m (i.e., eye level).

Viewshed

Hectares

km2

% of total km2 in Transect 4

At ground level

442.7

4.4

55.30%

At 2 m height

586.7

5.9

73.29%

A videographer joined the team to visually capture the intricacies of the study and make it possible to share the results of the study in advance of scientific publications. All facets of the study were professionally filmed, and footage shared among partners. A short film was produced that detailed the project in the field, which helped to get results out quickly to

interested scientists while growing public interest (see YouTube: Ghosts of the Gobi).

Conclusions The case study demonstrated that drones detected ungulates to a degree that measurably improved upon ground-based surveys,

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although sample size was small (34–37). Results showed that drones equipped with thermal sensors can “see” terrain (thus animals) obscured from ground observers by hills, rock outcrops, trees, drainages, and so forth. This case study confirmed the value of drones but, at the same time, showed the need to quantify the improved accuracy over traditional survey methods. For example, GIS and a high-resolution digital elevation model could map and quantify the viewshed of ground observers. Animals detected by the drone outside the human viewshed would equate to improved accuracy and more robust measure of abundance. A drone-aided survey approach could produce a better metric for prey population estimations across snow leopard range. Also, more studies are needed to quantify savings in time, efficiency, and cost of drones over traditional methods as well as to validate the method in different areas or terrain conditions and with larger sample sizes. The case study showed that a drone can fly a 17 km transect in about 20 min, capturing a permanent record of the survey. With 16 transects to survey in Ikh Nart, drones could save time, cost less, and reduce temporal disturbance to the animals. Drones are becoming less expensive and more sophisticated but with easier user interfaces, which will help to expand use. On the other hand, airspace rules and restrictions, government oversight, and an increase in controlled airspace, especially no-fly areas, will hamper the advancement of drones in conservation. This may be particularly true in sensitive international border areas, which makes up much of snow leopard habitat. Powerful lithium batteries and US State Department constraints on the thermal sensor added an extra burden to travel and field logistics. On the positive side, all equipment withstood international travel, jostling of unimproved roads, and field conditions. For the case study, test flights were new and exploratory. The drone covered the same area as ground observers but from 100 m above and

in far less time. Some animals fled as the drone neared and some did not. Most animals displayed a general nervousness attributed to some degree of poaching when animals migrate outside the reserve. Also, invasive captures take place each year when horsemen are used to herd animals into capture nets for telemetry tagging. Drone disturbance to argali and ibex appears minor, especially if conducted only once or twice per year. And the flight response enhanced detectability when viewing imagery: animals that moved as the drone passed overhead were easier to see on video. So long as surveys are infrequent, the overall stress to the animals will be minimal. For drones in snow leopard conservation, there are many variables that merit continued testing such as varying the height of the drone. Ideally, the drone should fly a consistent altitude above the ground, but this is possible only with fine-scaled DEMs as well as more sophisticated craft equipped with expensive terrain-following navigation. Smaller, less expensive drones should be tested to compare time, speed, and general use for detecting animals. Animals are best detected before thermal cross-over in early morning. More tests are needed to establish an optimum time bracket, including nighttime flights. Technology advances, such as vertical takeoff fixed wing (VTOL or tilt rotor) craft which are capable of longer flights (albeit at higher airspeeds) offer the potential to survey larger areas than quadcopters like the M210 and Mavic 2 (DJI#) used in this study. Multiple drones on a single mission might also become more practical. It should be noted that the Mongolia Case Study occurred in the mildest of snow leopard habitat. (Note: Following the Ikh Nart flights, the authors flew tests in the Tost Uul Reserve in mountainous terrain. And prior to the Mongolia case study, Dr. Jackson successfully flew above blue sheep in Nepal in rugged terrain at 4150 m.) Drones have been flown above 7500 m, but flight time and payloads are very restricted. The steep terrain that typifies most snow leopard habitat will challenge drone use for years to come. As better elevation models

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Addendum

come online, so too will craft adapted to fly in rugged country, following terrain at a specified height. Until then, drone use in snow leopard country will remain limited. Results suggest that drones will play an important role in snow leopard conservation in the future as evidenced by success of this case study and by the upward trajectory of drone technology. The need for more effective snow leopard prey surveys will continue to grow. Drones should someday make it possible to quickly and efficiently survey snow leopard prey numbers. Like all advanced tools and methods, many trials and tests precede a successful package. We are not there yet. The case study in Mongolia moved drones a few steps closer to becoming a valuable tool for snow leopard conservation.

Addendum The research team returned to Ikh Nart in 2022 for a second phase of tests using drones to census snow leopard ungulate prey. With less expensive and more advanced craft, the team logged 43 autonomous mission flights and detected more than 250 argali and ibex. Topography obscured 31% of the censused area from human observers—but not the drones. More than 14% of the animal detections were in obscured areas. Results reinforced the value of censusing snow leopard prey from the air, but the authors believe more work is needed to make drones a rugged, easy-to-use, and inexpensive tool for snow leopard conservation. They hope to return to Mongolia for more tests.

References Anderson, K., Gaston, K.J., 2013. Lightweight unmanned aerial vehicles will revolutionize spatial ecology. Front. Ecol. Environ. 11, 138–146. Beaver, J.T., Balwin, R.W., Messinger, M., Newbolt, C.H., Ditchkoff, S.S., Silman, M.R., 2020. Evaluating the use of drones equipped with thermal sensors as an effective method for estimating wildlife. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 44, 434–443.

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Bennitt, E., Bartlam-Brooks, H.L.A., Hubel, T.Y., Wilson, A.M., 2019. Terrestrial mammalian wildlife responses to Unmanned Aerial Systems approaches. Sci. Rep. 9, 2142. Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Laake, J.L., Borchers, D.L., Thomas, L., 2001. Introduction to Distance Sampling: Estimating Abundance of Biological Populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Bushaw, J.D., Ringelman, K.M., Rohwer, F.C., 2019. Applications of unmanned serial vehicles to survey mesocarnivores. Drones 3, 28. Chabot, D., Bird, D.M., 2016. Wildlife research and management methods in the 21st century: where do unmanned aircraft fit in? J. Unmanned Veh. Syst. 3, 137–155. Christie, K.S., Gilbert, S.L., Brown, C.L., Hatfield, M., Hanson, L., 2016. Unmanned aircraft systems in wildlife research: current and future applications of a transformative technology. Front. Ecol. Environ. 14, 241–251. Duffy, J.P., Anderson, K., Shapiro, A.C., Spina, A., DeBell, F.L., Glover-Kapfer, P., 2020. Drone Technologies for Conservation. WWF Conservation Technology Series 1(5). WWF. Gonzalez, L.F., Montes, G.A., Puig, E., Johnson, S., Mengersen, K., Gaston, K.J., 2016. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Artificial Intelligence revolutionizing wildlife monitoring and conservation. Sensors 16, 97. Havens, K.J., Sharp, E.L., 2016. Techniques to Survey and Monitor Animals in the Wild: A Methodology. Elsevier and Academic Press, Amsterdam. Hodgson, J.C., 2016. Best practice for minimizing unmanned aerial vehicle disturbance to wildlife in biological field research. Curr. Biol. 26, R387–R407. Hodgson, J.C., Baylis, S.M., Mott, R., Herrod, A., Clarke, R.H., 2016. Precision wildlife monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles. Sci. Rep. 6, 22574. Linchant, J., Lisein, J., Lejeune, P., Vermeulen, C., 2015. Are unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) the future of wildlife monitoring? A review of accomplishments and challenges. Mammal Rev. 5, 239–252. Mortola, J.P., 2013. Thermographic analysis of body surface temperature of mammals. Zool. Sci. 30, 118–124. Sandbrook, C., 2015. The social implications of using drones for biodiversity conservation. Ambio 44 (Suppl. 4), S636–S647. Scobie, C.A., Hugenholtz, C.H., 2016. Wildlife monitoring with unmanned aerial vehicles: quantifying distance to auditory detection. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 40 (4), 781–785. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsb.700. Trajkovsk, K.K., Grigillo, D., Petrovi, D., 2020. Optimization of UAV flight missions in steep terrain. Remote Sens. 12, 1293. Watts, A.C., Perry, J.H., Smith, S.E., Burgess, M.A., Wilkinson, B.E., Szantoi, Z., Ifju, P.G., Percival, H.F., 2010. Small unmanned aircraft systems for low-altitude aerial surveys. J. Wildl. Manag. 7, 1614–1619. Wiegmann, D.A., Taneja, N., 2003. Analysis of injuries among pilots involved in fatal general aviation accidents. Accid. Anal. Prev. 35, 571–577.

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C H A P T E R

34 PAWS: Population Assessment of the World’s Snow leopards Koustubh Sharmaa, Justine Shanti Alexandera,m, Ian Durbachb,c, Abinand Reddy Kodib, Charudutt Mishraa, James Nicholsd, Darryl MacKenziee, Som Alef, Sandro Lovarig,h, Abdul Wali Modaqiqi, Lu Zhij, Chris Sutherlandb, Ashiq Ahmad Khank, Tom McCarthyl, and David Borchersb,c a

Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States bCentre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom cCentre for Statistics in Ecology, the Environment, and Conservation, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa dDepartment of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States eProteus, Outram, New Zealand fDepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States gResearch Unit of Behavioural Ecology, Ethology and Wildlife Management, Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy hMaremma Natural History Museum, Grosseto, Italy iFreelance Consultant, Afghanistan jCenter for Nature and Society, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China kEvK2Minoprio, Islamabad, Pakistan lSnow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States mDepartment of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Introduction “How many snow leopards are there?” For anyone working on snow leopards, this is perhaps the question people ask them most frequently. Indeed, this simple question has proven to be notoriously difficult to answer. Population size and trends help communicate the status of a species, and the performance of

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00006-6

conservation efforts. Estimates of population abundance and density are sought after by managers, researchers, donors, politicians, and members of local communities. However, despite more than 40 years of research and conservation efforts, we still do not know how many snow leopards there are in the world. Recently developed spatial capturerecapture methods have been used successfully

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to provide rigorous estimates of populations at the local level (Alexander et al., 2015; Chetri et al., 2019; Sharma et al., 2020), but extrapolating these estimates to larger landscapes, provinces, or countries without a systematic plan and sampling design is likely to result in estimates that are substantially biased. Estimates of the global snow leopard population size have varied from one educated guess to another, which have made it difficult for decision makers to rely on these for making policies or taking conservation action. At the International Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Conservation Forum in 2017, organized by the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP), heads of the snow leopard range countries or their representatives endorsed the Bishkek Declaration 2017a that highlighted several priorities for snow leopard conservation, including the need for a scientifically robust estimate of global snow leopard population size. It was recognized that although many studies had used statistically robust methods to estimate snow leopard abundance in a few dozen sites, the selection of these sites was not conducted in a manner that would allow reliable projection of population estimates to large parts of the snow leopard range. Sampling at local levels was typically biased toward protected areas or otherwise the best available sites or habitats (Suryawanshi et al., 2019). Similarly, uncorrected errors in individual identification from camera-trap images likely led to population overestimation in some sites ( Johansson et al., 2020). For studies using fecal genetics, there was ambiguity in individual identification using microsatellite markers due to the subjectivity in scoring them (e.g., Natesh et al., 2019). All these factors made it difficult to use data from well-executed local-level studies to contribute to a reliable global estimate. On the instruction of the GSLEP Steering Committee, which consisted of the Environment

Ministers of snow leopard range countries, a new initiative called the Population Assessment of the World’s Snow Leopards (PAWS) was launched. This would be the first unified attempt to estimate the global snow leopard population based on statistically robust sampling using standardized methods. The guidelines (Sharma et al., 2021) identified several subtasks to achieve this ambitious task including collaborations, fundraising, training and capacity building, data management (sampling design, data collection protocols, analysis and interpretation), and scientific and public outreach. An international panel composed of researchers involved in studying snow leopard ecology and statistical ecology was created to help guide this initiative. Implementation of the PAWS initiative included more than an attempt to arrive at a robust population estimate. It pioneered methodological developments and the creation and delivery of a series of applied training programs in all 12 countries. In addition, the ongoing effort plans to provide an updated and accurate distribution map of snow leopards; a fresh identification and mapping of threats faced by snow leopards across their range; identify potential refugia for snow leopards along various climate scenarios; and an estimate the size and distribution of prey populations using reliable and replicable methods in selected parts of snow leopard range. Further capacity development of conservationists, managers, and frontline staff is also a priority area of action.

The approach Estimating snow leopard abundance at different spatial scales—local, regional, national, and global—requires (i) a suite of complementary approaches that are flexible enough to cater to the realities of surveying across such large

a

https://globalsnowleopard.org/the-bishkek-declaration-2017-caring-for-snow-leopards-and-mountains-our-ecologicalfuture/. V. Techniques and technologies for the study of a cryptic felid

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areas; (ii) an understanding that surveys are conducted by a variety of organizations with a broad range of objectives, besides abundance estimation; (iii) recognition that snow leopard ecology may differ in different parts of the range; (iv) that data may be sharable only in partial or summarized form; and (v) that past surveys have often used judgmental sampling rather than sampling with a valid statistical design. Species abundance can be estimated in two ways—model-based inference and designbased inference. Model-based inference builds a model relating environmental covariates to density and uses this model to extrapolate to unsampled areas, while design-based inference selects a sample of locations throughout the study region using a valid statistical design and infers overall density by averaging over the survey points. Across a large area, modelbased inference requires that important covariates have been identified, adequately sampled (e.g., high density areas and low/no density areas), and that covariate effects are stable across the area. Design-based inference requires that survey sites have been chosen using a valid statistical design, so that these are objectively representative of the broader area in a probabilistic sense (e.g., the probability of being included in the sample being the same for all points in the area) and so can be used to draw conclusions about this area. The PAWS approach uses both model-based and design-based inference and is based on the following principles: (1) estimates are constructed “bottom up”—global estimates of abundance are obtained by adding together country estimates; country estimates may be obtained by adding together estimates from more homogenous subregions (such as at the state or province level for large countries); (2) regional and country estimates are obtained using model-based or designed based inference where it is logistically feasible and biologically realistic to do so; (3) all surveys within a recent time frame (up to 5 years) whose design is sufficient for analysis with spatial capture-recapture

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methods are included in the regional or countrylevel assessments; and (4) where model-based inference is not possible, past surveys using judgmental sampling are used only to predict abundance within the chosen sites; designbased estimates are used to infer abundance in the remainder of the region using surveys whose location is selected using a valid statistical design. Defining the snow leopard distribution, or specifically a probabilistic representation of the likelihood of occurrence, has been identified as an important step toward estimating the global snow leopard abundance. It provides a gradient for stratification that is required for both model- and design-based inference. The PAWS guidelines (Sharma et al., 2019) recommend the use of occupancy-based methods (e.g., Taubmann et al., 2016; Ghoshal et al., 2019; Bayandonoi et al., 2021) wherever possible to infer snow leopard distribution. Several snow leopard distribution maps, suggested by experts or developed using species distribution models, have been prepared in the past using presence-only data. These existing maps, however, overlook the fact that snow leopards can be present in a particular area and yet not be detected, or conversely, snow leopards may no longer be present in an area which are still recorded on the distribution maps due to past occurrence. A recent study, ranging across 400,000 km2 in Mongolia, highlighted concerns about relying on presence-only data or expert opinions to create distribution maps of snow leopards (Bayandonoi et al., 2021). In some sites of the study, snow leopards were found to be occupying areas where they had never been reported present by expert opinion; and conversely, snow leopards were found to be missing (or occurring at too low a density to detect) from areas where they were earlier presumed to be present. Occupancy methods require repeated data collection from multiple sampling units, which are typically defined as areas that have a specific, albeit unknown, probabilities of being used

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by the animals of interest. In the case of snow leopards, information on occupancy can be generated by detecting scrapes or pugmarks on trails, setting up camera traps for an extended period of time, or interviewing people with local knowledge. Despite their value, it might take several years to conduct country-wide distribution surveys using occupancy methods. The PAWS process, therefore, provides the flexibility for using whatever latest knowledge is available to define all areas of potential snow leopard distribution. Planning abundance surveys based on potential distribution allows reliable estimates of snow leopard abundance to be obtained as long as the defined study area is explicitly stated, i.e., the abundance estimates represent only the area that is defined by the currently known potential snow leopard distribution that comprise the survey region, and that they say little about areas outside the defined area. Estimates of snow leopard abundance also require the use of a robust and flexible framework. PAWS recommends that the spatial capturerecapture (SCR) framework (Borchers and Efford, 2008) be used to estimate snow leopard abundance. This is to be applied in sites that can be surveyed intensively using camera traps or genetic sampling methods. Snow leopards are elusive and rarely seen, and thus impossible to count via direct sightings. However, each individual can be identified through its unique pelage pattern recorded in photographs or DNA from their fecal samples, as long as the photographs and genetic samples are of the required quality. We proposed SCR because it provides a general and flexible framework for estimating animal abundance and density under conditions that include variation resulting from environmental covariates, imperfect detection, behavioral responses, and observed and unobserved heterogeneity in detectability (Borchers and Efford, 2008). The SCR framework requires sampling snow leopards across several hundred square kilometers using a number of data collectors

(e.g., camera traps, scat survey transects, acoustic receivers, or telemetry equipment). The two critical pieces of information required to apply the SCR framework are (a) where the data collectors are at during the survey time and (b) and which individual snow leopards have been recorded on which data collectors, and on how many occasions. In most applicable cases, these data collectors are either camera traps that are left in the field following an intensive sampling design for several weeks to take pictures of snow leopards that walk past the camera or transects designed in a way to allow the collection of purported snow leopard feces. Using the above analytical frameworks, the PAWS approach encompasses two broad steps. First, we assess where snow leopards could be (i.e., define the survey area) and decide which sites within this will be sampled using arrays of camera traps or sets of transects (macro-level site selection). Then, we decide where to place cameras or transects within each of these sampling areas for SCR-based estimation of density and abundance (micro-level site selection). The PAWS process mandated the development of several tools such as macro-level survey design for SCR, how to choose where to set up camera traps (survey design), how to set up cameras, good practices for estimating snow leopard population abundance, fecal swab sampling protocol, scat sampling protocol, DNA extraction and processing for species ID, how to extract snow leopard images using Microsoft AI tool, better practices for individual ID, data analysis with SECR, and several specific training toolkits to facilitate its implementation by a diverse range of government agencies, researchers, NGOs, and institutions.

Macro survey designs Our simulations showed that in the absence of a balanced sampling design, any assessment of snow leopard populations using data

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FIG. 34.1 Panel (A) shows a hypothetical snow leopard activity center density surface, from which 500 snow leopard populations were simulated (mean population size 1347 individuals). Each of these populations was surveyed with camera trap arrays either placed preferentially in high-density regions (“Preferential,” purple regions) or using a spatially well-balanced design (“Balanced,” green regions). Panel (B) shows that estimates from preferential surveys overestimated animal density (+23% bias, on average; purple dotted line) while those estimates obtained from spatially well-balanced surveys were unbiased (green dotted line).

from multiple existing surveys is likely to be positively biased (Fig. 34.1). Before the inception of the PAWS initiative in 2017, we estimated that roughly 2% of the global snow leopard range had been surveyed using statistically sound methods. Most of these were biased toward selecting those sites that represented better quality habitat (Suryawanshi et al., 2019) or used designs that were not fit for the purpose (Nawaz et al., 2021). Statistically, it is critical to not only plan how much to sample but also where to sample. For instance, in Mongolia, several organizations, including the Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation, World Wildlife Fund, Wildlife Conservation Society, Protected Areas, and independent researchers, had been collecting data using camera trapping over the past 5 years. Until 2019, data were cumulatively available from 26 camera-trapping surveys representing roughly 25% of the entire snow leopard range in the country. While 25% coverage might appear to be adequate, we found that applying these camera-trapping estimates to entire potential snow leopard habitat in

Mongolia led to a substantial overestimation of abundance. Simulations assuming a mean density of 0.5 snow leopards per 100 km2 produced a snow leopard population of about 1328 individuals. Using a simulated camera-trap study of the population, the snow leopard density was estimated for each grid cell in the survey region. This estimated density of the simulated population was then used to estimate snow leopard abundance across the entire country by multiplying it by the total number of grid cells likely to be occupied by snow leopards. Treating the existing camera trapping data as representative of the whole region led to an abundance estimate of 1664 individuals, which is 25% higher than the simulated value of 1328. The same simulation was run 500 times, using SCR analysis to estimate abundance. The average of these estimates was 23% higher than the simulated value, indicating that the current trapping effort was inadvertently sampling some of the most suitable snow leopard habitats and so resulting in positively biased estimates. The same simulated population, when surveyed

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500 times using SCR methods with a balanced sampling design generated unbiased estimates. To address such biases, a toolb with a graphical user interface was created to develop sampling guidance across large landscapes. It uses existing knowledge, data, and availability of resources to provide guidance on where to sample next to balance the survey effort. Macro-level selection of sites is a critically important step in ensuring that local scale studies are conducted in areas that contribute to the task of extrapolation, and the tools developed under PAWS initiative help with the site selection.

Micro survey designs SCR allows for the estimation of abundance and density of snow leopard populations and an understanding of population dynamics over a period of time. It also helps understand habitat use at different scales. The data can be used to answer questions about impact of conservation efforts in sites with different levels of conservation action. SCR methods are founded on the principle that animals use space heterogeneously and typically spend more time nearer their activity centers than farther away from it (Efford, 2004; Borchers and Efford, 2008; Royle and Young, 2008). This, in turn, leads to a greater probability of individual animals being captured (or photographed) close to the centers of their activity ranges as opposed to their fringes. The spatial data on animals encountered multiple times at different locations during a survey provide the required information to estimate the detection function and the number of animals that were not captured (hence not enumerated). Collectively, this information is then used to estimate the population density from an area of interest. SCR methods require animals to be sampled in such a way that there is a high probability of them being encountered at more than one

b

location. Closed-population SCR methods also require populations to be closed to large-scale systematic changes, thus requiring the sampling period to be short enough, e.g., 60–90 days. Typically, camera-trapping studies have been designed keeping in mind the recommendation of at least two cameras within each potential home range. Some of these design constraints are relaxed in SCR surveys in lieu of other requirements, such as getting an adequate number of recaptures of snow leopards on multiple cameras. In SCR, one has the opportunity of setting up more than one camera in close proximity to another (e.g. as close as 500–1000 m in case of snow leopards). In fact, setting up a few cameras within close vicinity (such that there are many cameras in a potential home range) of each other may help inference in certain cases (Durbach et al., 2020; Dupont et al., 2021). The sampling design recommendations choose the locations of a fixed number of data collectors in a survey region so as to maximize the precision with which abundance or density is estimated, without any further constraints on data collector locations (such as placement on a regular grid or predetermined spacings between detectors). These recommendations typically provide several sites covering a few square kilometers each, within which the field teams can either set up camera traps or walk on trails to collect genetic data on individual snow leopards.

Modular guides Members of the PAWS panel and others helped develop modular guides and instruction sheets for the various steps of the PAWS process. These resources have benefited from a number of contributing organizations from the private and public sector, universities, and civil society organizations. The tools and resources have been made available publicly and cover each step envisaged under the PAWS process, from

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planning through implementation and analysis (https://globalsnowleopard.org/gslep-projects/ paws/paws-resources/). Decades of natural history observations and species-specific research have enabled field practitioners to fairly accurately identify locations within landscapes where they can expect snow leopards to either leave feces or be photographed by a camera trap. The purpose of the PAWS field data collection is to record individual snow leopards on multiple occasions and locations to estimate a detection function and estimate the number of snow leopards that were not recorded on camera or whose scats were not collected during genetic sampling surveys. Using experience from setting up hundreds of camera traps in the field, a pictorial guide was developed detailing the best practices on the configuration, height, angle, and methods for securing the camera traps. Similar guides have been prepared to collect and store genetic data from purported snow leopard feces in the field so they can be analyzed using microsatellite or genomic frameworks. Other resources, including how to estimate snow leopard density and abundance, best practices for individual identification of snow leopards from camera-trap photos, and how to analyze snow leopard data using the secr package have been made available for anybody interested in using the PAWS process. An online tool to train and self-assess one’s ability to identify individuals was developed to facilitate consistency of data quality, given that the analytical methods heavily rely on the correctness of the individual identities for accurate, unbiased abundance estimates. Lastly, codes of conduct to prevent conflict and coersive action and protect the privacy of local stakeholders (Sharma et al., 2020) are promoted for practitioners using camera traps not just for snow leopards, but other species as well.

c

Capacity building The PAWS effort requires (1) widespread adoption of the PAWS methodological protocols, (2) adequate capacity in each country for implementation, and (3) full ownership by and contribution of national institutions toward the PAWS effort. A help-desk team was set up to assist in training, capacity building and data processing of the PAWS protocols. It helps create good practices, manuals and training modules, and support in planning and analysis of national survey data. The help desk comprises of practitioners in statistics, artificial intelligence, ecology, computing, genetics, equipment, data organization, and training workshops. In 2017 several pilot workshops have been conducted online as well as in-person in Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, China, and Pakistan. These training modules cover topics such as estimating snow leopard abundance using SCR methods, occupancy surveys to estimate species distribution, and best practices for estimating ungulate abundance. Between 2017 and 2021, a total of 39 in-person and online training were delivered. At least 412 participants have taken part in various PAWS focused training workshops reaching all 12 snow leopard range countries. During the COVID-19 period, a series of online workshops were organized with thematic experts on study designs, data processing, genetic sampling, prey surveys, threat assessment, and fundraising. The proceedings of the online workshops and training modulesc have been made available and are accessible on the GSLEP website.

PAWS so far The PAWS initiative has received support from the 12 snow leopard range countries. In all countries, efforts are being made by the

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Governments in collaboration with NGO partners, institutions and individuals to align ongoing research and monitoring priorities with the larger goal of estimating provincial, national, regional and global snow leopard abundance. Each country has updated its snow leopard distribution map following occupancy approaches or other agreed means to define the potential snow leopard distribution that underpins the PAWS estimates. As an example, Mongolia, which has the second largest snow leopard population in the world, has showcased strong collaboration and partnership between NGOs, Institutions, and Government agencies. It is one of the first countries to have estimated nation-wide snow leopard distribution (Bayandonoi et al., 2021) using an occupancy framework covering nearly half a million square kilometers. The team then used a balanced sampling approach to ensure that the 23 micro-level survey sites were representationally distributed. Using these data, a preliminary analysis revealed an abundance of 953 snow leopards with a confidence interval of 806 and 1127 (Bayandonoi et al., 2021). The estimates are likely to improve further with additional survey sites from ongoing surveys providing more spatial capture recapture data for different occupancy strata (low, medium, high). Other countries are making similar progress with occupancy distribution estimates and/or are filling knowledge gaps in potential snow leopard distribution with updated information and presence-only distribution analysis. In India, population estimation for the entire province of Himachal Pradesh has been completed, resulting in an estimate of 51 (95% CI: 34–73) snow leopards over 26,842 km2 of potential snow leopard habitat (Suryawanshi et al., 2021). During the online Steering Committee Meeting of the GSLEP program in October 2022, a detailed update was prepared and shared with the delegates from across the world. Over 169 PAWS-compliant surveys have been conducted to date (Fig. 34.2), out of which 50 were added in 2021–2022, despite the challenges of COVID-19.

Several more surveys are planned in the near future using the balanced sampling approach to minimize potential bias in finalizing regional and national PAWS estimates. Collectively, more than 7608 camera-trap stations have been used to generate data on snow leopard abundances, covering an area of approximately 205,000 km2. Nearly 10% of the estimated snow leopard range has been surveyed so far, an increase of 400% from when PAWS was initiated in 2017. So far, surveys in Mongolia, India, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, and Bhutan have covered the entire breadth of the potential covariates that can affect snow leopard density. In other countries, areas with lower snow leopard densities are so far underrepresented. Up to 35% of the sites sampled so far are from outside protected areas, indicating a reasonably diverse coverage. The survey efforts to date represent one of the most ambitious scientific efforts to estimate a wildlife population using a decentralized, yet unified approach involving multiple governments, organizations, and individuals.

PAWS next steps The PAWS team continues to work with partners to identify survey coverage gaps based on known information on occupancy-based distribution or other potential distribution surfaces. Teams will assess if existing surveys cover an adequate range of high- and low-terrain ruggedness values, a key variable for predicting snow leopard density. The joint assessment will identify where future surveys should be targeted. A synthesis report on survey coverage at the global level is also being planned. The quest for robust and unbiased estimates of snow leopard populations has led the PAWS initiative to invest in statistical research and innovate novel methods. This has involved investigating potential sources of bias in the population estimation process during data collection, data processing and analysis. Methods and tools have been developed identifying which sites to

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FIG. 34.2 A total 169 surveys have already been completed by October 2022 across potential snow leopard range using PAWS-compliant methodologies. Additional surveys designed using the balanced sampling approach are underway to minimize potential bias in finalizing regional and national PAWS estimates.

survey and where to place camera traps to reduce sampling bias during data collection. While inherently labor intensive and tedious, the data themselves were assumed to be errorproof. However, recent studies have shown that both sources of raw data—genetic samples and photographs used to identify individuals—are highly prone to error ( Janjua et al., 2020; Johansson et al., 2020). These errors tend to lead

to overestimation of population size. Tools and training are not only helping researchers reduce these errors but also quantifying them such that they can be appropriately accounted for. Furthermore, statistical methods have been developed (Dupont et al., 2021; Reddy et al., unpublished) to check for “ghosts” or erroneous individuals introduced to capture histories, which is one of the more common consequences

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of misidentifications ( Johansson et al., 2020). SCR models make assumptions on how animals move and use their habitats, yet data from SCR surveys themselves are usually too sparse to verify many of these assumptions. Auxiliary data from telemetry or GPS collars have been used where possible to corroborate model assumptions or for modeling plausible alternatives (unpublished). Additional work is also underway to incorporate range-level information on wild prey species of snow leopards and major threats to snow leopard survival. Following the PAWS approach of agreeing on and standardizing a methodological framework, methods for each of these two supportive components are being developed through consultations within working groups and subject experts. An understanding of the significance of threats and how they vary across the range and over time will assist in using the PAWS estimates for establishing priorities for conservation efforts (i.e., developing refuge sites). Climatic change will upset our present knowledge of plant associations, in turn herbivore distribution and numbers, in turn suitable habitat for carnivores such as the snow leopard. The distribution and abundance of snow leopards may thus change within just a few decades. The present climatic instability is likely going to impact the numbers of snow leopards present at local level, which will call for relatively frequent monitoring of the population at regional level. The development of user-friendly software and methodological approaches, e.g., through an appropriate network of sampling areas, should be instrumental to assess variation in the status of snow leopards through the coming decades.

Conclusion The PAWS initiative has multiple layers with its anticipated outputs greater than the sum of its parts. A robust estimate of snow leopard populations at the global level requires robust in-country estimates. It requires a dedicated

effort to bring about close cooperation and coordination between national and international organizational partners and government agencies. The PAWS initiative has benefited from the widespread acceptance and ownership from all snow leopard range country governments and teams, ensuring its viability and relevance within countries and across regional and national borders. The training and capacitybuilding programs, research and resource material developed under the PAWS initiative have shown the potential for its application to other species. PAWS aims to complete several national and regional snow leopard estimates by 2023, thereby paving the way for more effective and reliable monitoring of carnivore species and conservation programs across the world. The Population Assessment of the World’s Snow leopards hopes to set up a major milestone in informed decision making for species conservation through state-of-the-art wildlife abundance and distribution monitoring toolkits.

References Alexander, J.S., Gopalaswamy, A.M., Shi, K., Riordan, P., 2015. Face value: towards robust estimates of snow leopard densities. PLoS One 10, e0134815. Bayandonoi, G., Lkhagvajav, P., Alexander, J.S., Durbach, I., Borchers, D., Munkhtsog, B., Sharma, K. (Eds.), 2021. Nationwide Snow Leopard Population Assessment of Mongolia: Key Findings. Summary Report. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Borchers, D.L., Efford, M.G., 2008. Spatially explicit maximum likelihood methods for capture-recapture studies. Biometrics 64, 377–385. Chetri, M., Odden, M., Sharma, K., Flagstad, Ø., Wegge, P., 2019. Estimating snow leopard density using fecal DNA in a large landscape in north-central Nepal. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 17, e00548. Dupont, G., Royle, J., Nawaz, M.A., Sutherland, C., 2021. Towards optimal sampling design for spatial capturerecapture. Ecology 102, e03262. Durbach, I., Borchers, D., Sutherland, C., Sharma, K., 2020. Fast, flexible alternatives to regular grid designs for spatial capture–recapture. Methods Ecol. Evol. 12, 298–310. Efford, M.G., 2004. Density estimation in live-trapping studies. Oikos 106, 598–610.

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Ghoshal, A., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Pandav, B., Sharma, K., Mishra, C., Raghunath, R., Suryawanshi, K.R., 2019. Assessing changes in distribution of the Endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia and its wild prey over 2 decades in the Indian Himalaya through interview-based occupancy surveys. Oryx 53, 620–632. Janjua, S., Peters, J.L., Weckworth, B., Abbas, F.I., Bahn, V., Johansson, O., Rooney, T.P., 2020. Improving our conservation genetic toolkit: ddRAD-seq for SNPs in snow leopards. Conserv. Genet. Resour. 12, 257–261. € Samelius, G., Wikberg, E., Chapron, G., Johansson, O., Mishra, C., Low, M., 2020. Identification errors in camera-trap studies result in systematic population overestimation. Sci. Rep. 10, 1–10. Natesh, M., Taylor, R.W.,Truelove, N., Palumbi, S.R., Hadly, E.A., Petrov, D.A., Ramakrishnan, U., 2019. Empowering conservation science and practice with efficient and economical genotyping from poor quality samples. Methods Ecol. Evol. 10, 853–859. Nawaz, M.A., Khan, B.U., Mahmood, A., Younas, M., Din, J.U., Sutherland, C., 2021. An empirical demonstration of the effect of study design on density estimations. Sci. Rep. 11, 13104. Royle, J.A., Young, K.V., 2008. A hierarchical model for spatial capture-recapture data. Ecology 89, 2281–2289. Sharma, K., Borchers, D., Mackenzie, D., Durbach, I., Sutherland, C., Nichols, J.D., Lovari, S., Zhi, L., Khan, A.A., Modaqiq, W., McCarthy, T.M., Alexander, J.S., Mishra, C., 2019. Guidelines for estimating snow leopard abundance and distribution using a combination

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of spatial capture-recapture and occupancy models. Submitted to the Steering Committee of the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program; with financial support from Global Environment Facility. United Nations Development Program and Snow Leopard Trust, p. 54. Sharma, K., Fiechter, M., George, T., Young, J., Alexander, J.S., Bijoor, A., Suryawanshi, K.S., Mishra, C., 2020. Conservation and people: towards an ethical code of conduct for the use of camera traps in wildlife research. Ecol. Solut. Evid. https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.12033. Sharma, R.K., Sharma, K., Borchers, D., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Suryawanshi, K.R., Mishra, C., 2021. Spatial variation in population-density, movement and detectability of snow leopards in a multiple-use landscape in Spiti Valley, Trans-Himalaya. PLoS One 16, e0250900. Suryawanshi, K.R., Khanyari, M., Sharma, K., Lkhagvajav, P., Mishra, C., 2019. Sampling bias in snow leopard population estimation studies. Popul. Ecol. 61, 268–276. Suryawanshi, K., Reddy, A., Sharma, M., Khanyari, M., Bijoor, A., Rathore, D., Jaggi, H., Khara, A., Malgaonkar, A., Ghoshal, A., Patel, J., Mishra, C., 2021. Estimating snow leopard and prey populations at large spatial scales. Ecol. Solut. Evid. 2 (4), e12115. Taubmann, J., Sharma, K., Uulu, K.Z., Hines, J.E., Mishra, C., 2016. Status assessment of the Endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia and other large mammals in the Kyrgyz Alay, using community knowledge corrected for imperfect detection. Oryx 50, 220–230.

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35 Snow leopard status and conservation in Afghanistan Zalmai Moheba, Sorosh Poya Faryabia, and Richard Paleyb a

Wildlife Conservation Society, Kabul, Afghanistan bIndependent, London, United Kingdom

Introduction: Historical records and past conservation efforts One of the first scientific observations of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in Afghanistan comes from the Second Danish Expedition (1898–99) in the Pamirs. Olufsen (1899) wrote in his expedition record that “The long-haired, light-grey panther with black spots is very common here and is much hunted. One specimen had a height of 70 centimetres, was 130 centimetres from snout to base of tail, and had a tail a metre long.” Nearly 70 years later, Kullman (1965 cited in Hassinger, 1973) reported seeing a snow leopard skin in Kabul, which allegedly came from Wakhan. The presence of snow leopards in Wakhan was later confirmed by Petocz et al. (1978), and subsequently by a slew of records since the beginning of this century (Fitzherbert and Mishra, 2003; Habib, 2008; Habibi, 2003; Mishra and Fitzherbert, 2004; Moheb et al., 2012; Schaller, 2004; Simms et al., 2011, 2013; UNEP, 2003). The second area where snow leopards have been recorded is in the eastern province of Nuristan (approximately 100 km south

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00040-6

of Wakhan) where Petocz and Larson (1977) reported observing a snow leopard feeding on an ibex (Capra sibirica) carcass in winter. Three decades later, data from satellite telemetry showed that in summer 2007, a collared female snow leopard moved from Chitral Gol National Park in Pakistan to the eastern parts of Nuristan (McCarthy et al., 2007), which indicated this area as suitable habitat for snow leopard. Questionnaire surveys in 2006–08, suggested the possible presence of snow leopard at higher altitudes in central Nuristan (Karlstetter, 2008). Based on statements from local communities in the 1970s, Habibi (2003) also reported the presence of snow leopards in the eastern provinces of Laghman and the Ajar Valley of Bamyan Province in central Afghanistan. However, it should be noted that no records of snow leopard have since been recorded from Bamyan Province, and it may be that the original report was the result of confusion with common leopard which was recorded by camera trap as recently as a decade ago (Moheb and Bradfield, 2014). Conservation efforts in Afghanistan go back to the 1960s and 1970s when international organizations, with the encouragement of the

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Afghan government, conducted countrywide surveys for wildlife. This resulted in a proposal by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) that 14 locations across Afghanistan should be designated as protected areas. Four of these lay within snow leopard range in northeastern Afghanistan. However, in the aftermath of the 1979 Soviet invasion, and the protracted period of conflict that followed, these recommendations remained unrealized. It was not until the collapse of the previous Taliban government in 2001 that conservation efforts were resumed. Consequently, sustained and coherent snow leopard conservation interventions are a relatively new phenomenon in Afghanistan.

Present status of snow leopards in Afghanistan Assessment of existing and potential snow leopard geographical range A number of assessments of snow leopard range in Afghanistan, both contemporary and historical, have been conducted over the past three decades (Habibi, 2003; Hunter and Jackson, 1997; McCarthy and Chapron, 2003). However, the most recent and comprehensive was undertaken by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) under the GEF-funded Program of Work on Protected Areas (POWPA) in 2008. Using both previous survey records and priority zone analysis covering the whole of Afghanistan, the first tentative distribution map for snow leopard was produced, which has since been enhanced by data from later reports and field observations. The resulting map (Fig. 35.1) shows those areas of preferred habitat in Afghanistan where the presence of snow leopards has been confirmed through direct or indirect observation (ca. 12,229km2); where interviews with local communities suggest it is likely (ca. 4641 km2), and where their presence

is unconfirmed as yet (ca. 34,437 km2). The current geographical model shows that the snow leopard overall distribution range lies within 10 provinces in north and northeastern Afghanistan; however, the current confirmed presence areas are only in Badakhshan and Nuristan provinces (Fig. 35.1). At an international snow leopard conservation conference in 2008 in China (see Chapters 3 and 48), experts designated the Wakhan District as a priority Snow Leopard Conservation Unit and later it was designated as one of 23 global Snow Leopard Landscapes by the Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013 and see Chapter 49). Fitzherbert and Mishra (2003) had already identified the area between Ishkashim and Qala-e Panja (the lower part of the Wakhan district) as the main stronghold for the species, but the presence of snow leopards has also been confirmed in the Big Pamir and Little Pamir Mountain ranges which fall within the same district (Simms et al., 2011, 2013). Field surveys conducted by WCS have recorded evidence of snow leopards in Zebak and Ishkashim districts (Ismaily and Simms, 2013), which are west and south-west of and adjacent to Wakhan District. In December 2019 and January 2020, two snow leopard capture incidents were reported from Maymai District of Darwaz in northern Badakhshan (Rajabi, 2020; A. Rajabi, personal communication). Similarly, another snow leopard capture incident was recently (March 2023) reported from Keran-wa Mujan District of Badakhshan (Moheb et al., Submitted for publication). In a questionnaire survey conducted by WCS on 480 people in Panjshir Province in April-May 2021, significantly more respondents (42%) reported the presence of “leopards” in Paryan District than in the other seven surveyed districts (S. Ostrowski, personal communication). Based on the presence of suitable habitat for snow leopard in this high elevation district (>90% of which is above 3000 m asl), it is suggested that snow leopards are likely present in this area (Fig. 35.1).

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Current threats to snow leopard populations

FIG. 35.1

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Map of confirmed, likely, and unconfirmed presence of snow leopard in Afghanistan.

Estimates of snow leopard population in Afghanistan There is no accurate estimate of snow leopard population size in Afghanistan currently available. However, recent efforts have been made by WCS to estimate snow leopard numbers in Afghanistan based on a 2012–13 assessment of appropriate habitat and the density of the species in Wakhan National Park, which was further extrapolated to the rest of the species’ distribution range. This population estimate reports the number of snow leopards as ca. 189 to 224 adults for the species range in Afghanistan (Ostrowski and Moheb, 2021), which is approximately >6% of the estimated global adult population (IUCN, 2016). Although we do not have data on

population trends for the entire snow leopard range in Afghanistan, questionnaire surveys carried out in 2006–07 in Nuristan (Karlstetter, 2008) and in 2011–12 in northern Badakhshan (Moheb and Mostafawi, 2012, 2013) suggested there may have been an overall decline in snow leopard populations in these two areas.

Current threats to snow leopard populations The major threats to the survival of the snow leopard in Afghanistan are declines in prey species, brought about by competition with domestic livestock and hunting for meat, and to a lesser extent killing of snow leopards in retaliation for

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livestock predation (Habib, 2006; Moheb, 2020). Although data on prey species are lacking for most snow leopard range, community-based surveys in the north of Badakhshan Province suggest that prey populations have shrunk since the 1970s (Moheb and Mostafawi, 2011, 2012, 2013). A decrease in availability of prey is likely to have impacted negatively on individual snow leopard survival and reproductive rates, and local communities claim that predation of domestic livestock has increased accordingly. Surveys of mountain ungulates in Wakhan indicate that Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) and Marco Polo argali (Ovis ammon polii) populations are relatively stable (Moheb et al., 2022; Rajabi and Rooyesh, 2021b). Moheb (2020) reported ca. 0.3% mortality of overall livestock holdings in Wakhan Valley due to snow leopard predation in 2018. The resulting economic loss, though limited across all communities, has significant implications for the individual families affected, and can generate negative attitudes toward large predators in general, and especially the snow leopard. Mishra and Fitzherbert (2004) relayed reports from local communities of 10 snow leopard killings in Wakhan for the period 1989–2002. Similar to this, Moheb (2020) reported 19 snow leopard deaths (of which 7 are reported as retaliatory killings) based on community reports for the period 2008–18 in Wakhan National Park. Snow leopards are a valuable commodity in the wildlife trade, and though evidence from the Wakhan suggests they are hunted primarily in retaliation, rather than for commercial reasons (Fitzherbert and Mishra, 2003), pelts are sold for significant sums of money in Afghan wildlife markets. A complete pelt has been reported to sell for as much as $300–1500 USD in Kabul in 2006–07 ( Johnson and Wingard, 2010). Maheshwari et al. (2016) reported a similar range of $500–1000 USD for a complete snow leopard pelt in Kabul market in 2014. Rodenburg (1977) estimated that 50–80 skins were sold in Afghan markets per year in the

mid-1970s. Recent estimates are lacking but visits to the fur markets of Kabul by WCS staff showed that pelts were still very much available in 2014, though the provenance of the pelts was uncertain. Some traders stated their origin is Badakhshan in Afghanistan, while others claimed they came from neighboring snow leopard range countries.

Measures to conserve the snow leopard in Afghanistan Since 2006, WCS in coordination with the Afghan National Environmental Protection Agency and the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock has been implementing the following measures to conserve the snow leopard and its prey species in Afghanistan.

Research on snow leopard and prey species Research was initially conducted in Badakhshan and Nuristan provinces, but due to growing insecurity the research in Nuristan ceased in 2010. A wide array of methodologies has been employed to gain a better understanding of snow leopard status, ecology, and conflict with humans. These include camera trapping, satellite telemetry of collared cats, monitoring of prey species, habitat preference modeling, and interview-based approaches. The first camera trap photographs of snow leopards were taken in the Hindu Kush Mountains of the western Wakhan District in 2009. With the aim of collecting sufficient data to make population estimates using photo capturerecapture techniques, more than 40 camera traps were deployed during the periods 2012–13, 2017–18, and 2019 (Rajabi, 2020; Read, 2016), and the geographical scope has been extended to areas of the Big Pamir and Little Pamir Mountains to the north and east. Not all these data have been fully processed; however, based on densities derived from analysis of the 2012–13

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Measures to conserve the snow leopard in Afghanistan

data sets, a rough estimate for Wakhan (10,950 km2) of 110–136 adult snow leopards was calculated. This has been further extrapolated by Ostrowski and Moheb (2021) to produce an estimated population of 189 to 224 for the entire range within Afghanistan (51,308 km2). Satellite collaring operations were implemented in Wakhan District in 2012–13, and four snow leopards were collared (one of them twice) using GPS collars (Vectronic Aerospace, Berlin, Germany) on three separate expeditions. In June 2012, two male snow leopards were collared followed by a female that was accompanied by two 14–16-month-old cubs in September. The following year in September a male and a female were collared. Each collar was programmed to remain in place for 13 months. The purpose of this research was to provide data on snow leopard movements, home range, establish comprehensive monitoring systems, and develop current and future habitat preference models (see Rahmani, 2014). In addition, this research has been used to inform conservation and management activities across snow leopard range in Wakhan and beyond. Wild ungulates such as Siberian ibex, markhor (Capra falconeri), and Marco Polo sheep along with small mammals such as marmots (Marmota caudata), hares (Lepus spp.) and rodents constitute the major prey species for snow leopards in north-east Afghanistan, with the extent of predation on urial (Ovis vignei) remaining unclear. Comprehensive surveys of selected prey species were conducted between 2015 and 2020 in the Hindu Kush and Pamir ranges of Wakhan National Park that reported relatively stable populations of Siberian ibex and Marco Polo sheep (Moheb et al., 2022; Rajabi and Rooyesh, 2021b). In addition, primary surveys conducted for mountain ungulates in Zebak, Ishkashim, and Gharan districts (adjacent to Wakhan) confirmed the presence Siberian ibex and urial, whereas reconnaissance

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surveys in Darwaz in northern Badakhshan Province confirmed the presence of Siberian ibex and markhor (Ismaily and Simms, 2013; Moheb et al., 2018). Snow leopards are known to prey on livestock across most of their global range including the Wakhan National Park in Afghanistan. Livestock predation surveys carried out in 2018 revealed that snow leopard predation accounted for a 0.47% loss of overall livestock holdings across the Wakhan Valley. Poor condition of local corrals, insufficient protection by herders, lack of effective dogs, and insufficient wild prey species have been proposed by the herders as the major factors for livestock predation in Wakhan Valley. During the 2018 livestock predation survey, the Wakhi herders proposed several potential solutions to decrease livestock predation by large predators including the snow leopard (Moheb, 2020). These solutions included more care by shepherds, keeping active dogs, and building predator-proof corrals (see Chapter 18.1). Understanding predator-prey dynamics is important for snow leopard conservation and for ensuring their coexistence with local communities. Livestock predation by large predators jeopardizes coexistence with local communities living across the species’ range including the Wakhan National Park. To mitigate livestock predation by large carnivores in the park, it is crucial to understand the scope and intensity of predation, and the predator(s) involved in predation incidents. Wildlife Conservation Society introduced the Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool (SMART) in 2015 to monitor snow leopard predation incidents in WNP. The community rangers now use SMART to investigate alleged cases of livestock predation by large carnivores including the snow leopard, monitor wildlife poaching, and also record wildlife observations. The SMART tool has helped in the identification of intervention hotspots in WNP that require more conservation effort (UNDP, 2020).

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The legal and management frameworks The snow leopard has been receiving protection under a number of policy and legal instruments in Afghanistan. These include the Environmental Law, National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, National Protected Area System Plan, Presidential Decree No. 25 banning all hunting, and Afghanistan’s Protected Species List. In addition, Afghanistan is a signatory to several international conventions linked to snow leopard conservation such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). On March 30, 2014, the Government of Afghanistan declared the Wakhan District (ca. 10,950 km2) as the country’s second national park. The park covers more than 60% of Afghanistan’s confirmed snow leopard habitat and is managed as an IUCN Category VI protected area. The ratification of Wakhan National Park’s Management Plan at the district and provincial level and establishment of the Protected Area Committee (PAC) have been completed. The Protected Area Committee for Wakhan National Park comprises of elected community members and representatives of civil society and the local authorities. This offers a real landscape-scale opportunity to address threats and improve the park management.

Threat mitigation efforts As management of protected areas has grown in effectiveness, conservation agencies have been better able to address the direct threats to snow leopards through monitoring of illegal hunting and application of the law, although law enforcement has continued to present many challenges in a country that has experienced long-term conflict and where the application of conservation legislation is not always regarded as priority. Furthermore, after the establishment

of the Islamic Emirate in August 2021, despite their good intention toward wildlife conservation (Moheb et al., Submitted for publication), there are many uncertainties in terms of funding sources and the direction future conservation efforts will take given the arised resource limitations. At the national level, the issue of illegal trade in wildlife is receiving increasing attention. In cooperation with the previous Government of Afghanistan, WCS has implemented programs to raise awareness among police and customs officials of Afghanistan’s wildlife-related laws and policies, as well as its commitments to international conventions. Having identified potential hotspots for human-snow leopard conflict through predation surveys, WCS is endeavoring to mitigate conflict by training shepherds on improved techniques for guarding their flocks and through facilitating the building of 39 predator-proof communal corrals and predator proofing 1120 household corrals across Wakhan District since 2010. To date there has only been one successful incident of snow leopard predation on livestock secured in a predator-proofed household corral in 2018 in Wark Village at Lower Wakhan. Later investigation revealed that this corral’s roof had collapsed and been poorly repaired before the predation incident. The hope is that as more corrals are built and predation of livestock is further reduced, a corresponding downward trend in retaliatory killing of snow leopards will be observed. In an effort to prevent spillover to wild ungulates of livestock diseases such as peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and sarcoptic mange ca. 126,000 sheep and goats have been vaccinated against PPR and ca. 14,000 treated against mange in WNP in 2017–20 (Ostrowski and Rajabi, 2019; Rajabi and Rooyesh, 2021a,b). These attempts at direct mitigation have been underpinned by broader efforts on the part of government and NGOs to promote wildlife conservation in Afghanistan, with the snow leopard as one of several flagship species.

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Measures to conserve the snow leopard in Afghanistan

To reduce habitat degradation as a conservation action for mountain ungulates, the Afghan government together with their international counterparts have reforested ca. 450 ha of alluvial fans and scrublands in Wakhan, Ishkashim, and Zebak districts of Badakhshan. This reforestation program aimed to reduce the negative impact of shrub collection for fuelwood by local communities, increase the communities’ wellbeing, and enhance the ecosystem resilience in snow leopard range in northeastern Badakhshan. Capacity development and awareness programs across the snow leopard range have motivated conservation action on the part of communities and government agencies. This includes the publishing and dissemination of informative brochures, posters, calendars, and story books with messages on the values of snow leopards and reasons to conserve them. Training on law enforcement and wildlife legislation has been provided to customs officers, the border police, national police academy, protected area rangers, and community representatives (Ostrowski, 2020; Rahmani, 2016; UNDP, 2016). In addition, a junior ranger program has been established in all 14 schools along the Wakhan Valley (Roshan, 2019) to promote awareness of snow leopards and mountain ungulates and the need to conserve them among the young people of Wakhan. At the national level, WCS has engaged with the staff of government ministries, university academics, and NGOs to enhance their understanding of conservation more broadly.

Community-based conservation Since launching snow leopard conservation initiatives in 2006, all partners have acknowledged that local community participation is an essential ingredient of success. This is reflected in the emphasis on comanagement and equitable benefit sharing in several national laws and policies including the Environment Law

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and the National Protected Area Systems Plan (Environment Law, 2007; NPASP, 2010). Some of the most immediate threats to the survival of snow leopards come from the actions of local people, but those same individuals and communities can be converted into allies of the snow leopard. To help achieve this, a legally registered community governance institution, the Wakhan Pamir Association (WPA), was established in 2010, which is empowered to make decisions relating to conservation and natural resource management on behalf of its constituent communities. The engagement of communities in conservation efforts in Wakhan is covered more fully in Chapter 16.

Transboundary initiatives The belief that the Pamir Mountains are a critical haven for snow leopards, and that their management as a holistic landscape is critical to conserving the species in Afghanistan, has prompted a number of initiatives aimed at enhancing transboundary cooperation. Indeed, satellite telemetry has shown that snow leopards have no respect for international boundaries and cross them at will (McCarthy et al., 2007; Zahler and Schaller, 2014). In 2011, WCS implemented a project between Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan focusing on the management of diseases common to livestock and wildlife, which are known to be a significant threat to key snow leopard prey species such as ibex, markhor, Marco Polo sheep, and urial. This was followed in 2013 by a Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment in the Pamir region, which aimed at getting a better understanding of how climate change is affecting mountain communities and their natural environments in these three countries. A recent development that may also reinforce transboundary conservation of the snow leopard is the signing of a memorandum of understanding between the Afghan and Tajik governments in 2020 (Ostrowski and Paley,

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2020). Through this both parties agreed to cooperate on exchange of environmental and climate change information for sustainable development, conservation of biodiversity. In the same year, Afghanistan together with China and Pakistan were signatories to a declaration agreeing to improve scientific cooperation in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region to improve strengthen policies related to mountain environments and community livelihoods (ICIMOD, 2020).

Conclusion Since 2006, the Afghan government and its international partners have developed a sustained and coherent program for conserving snow leopards. The approach as described in this chapter has been a holistic one, based on sound science and encompassing a broad range of conservation tools, which include legal protection, threat mitigation, and, crucially, community engagement. Afghanistan has also been an active participant in the World Bank Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Program, developing its own National Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Plan (NSLEP) in 2013. This included commitments by the Afghan government to continue monitoring snow leopards, enforcing wildlife protection legislation, and establishing further protected areas across the snow leopard range in Afghanistan such Wakhan National Park and recently proposed (2020) Nuristan National Park. In August 2021, Afghanistan underwent significant political changes that will inevitably affect the context in which conservation is implemented. It is too early to assess with confidence what the opportunities will be to continue conservation efforts under the new Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, or the extent to which continued support will be forthcoming from international donors.

Acknowledgments The work described in this chapter is the result of the joint efforts of Afghanistan’s National Environmental Protection Agency, the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, the Wildlife Conservation Society, and the People of Afghanistan between June 2006 and July 2021. Snow leopard conservation activities in Afghanistan have been funded by the United States Agency for International Development (2006–13), the World Food Program (2013–14), the United Nations Development Programme and the Global Environment Facility under star 5 and 6 allocations (2014–current), the National Geographic Society (2012–13 and 2016–17), Fondation Segre (2017–19), and the European Union (2019–current). Wholehearted thanks are also due to the people of Wakhan district for their engagement and support to snow leopard conservation in its core landscape in Afghanistan. We are grateful to Stephane Ostrowski from WCS Temperate Asia Region for providing technical support during the write up and Rohullah Sangar from WCS Afghanistan for updating the snow leopard range map for this chapter. The content of this chapter is the sole responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the above-mentioned donor organizations.

References Environment Law, 2007. Environment Law of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Official Gazette No. 912, 25 January 2007 (Original in Dari). Fitzherbert, A., Mishra, C., 2003. Afghanistan Wakhan Mission Technical Report. United Nations Environment Program and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 101 pp. Habib, B., 2006. Status of large mammals in proposed Big Pamir Wildlife Reserve, Wakhan, Afghanistan. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Habib, B., 2008. Status of mammals in Wakhan Afghanistan: Afghanistan wildlife survey program. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Habibi, K., 2003. Mammals of Afghanistan. Zoo Outreach Organization, Coimbatore, India. Hassinger, J., 1973. A survey of the mammals of Afghanistan resulting from the l965 street expedition. Fieldiana Zool. 60, 156–158. Hunter, D.O., Jackson, R., 1997. A range-wide model of potential snow leopard habitat. In: Jackson, R., Ahmad, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Snow Leopard Symposium, Islamabad, November 1995. International Snow Leopard Trust WWF-Pakistan, Lahore and Seattle, pp. 51–56.

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ICIMOD, 2020. Ministerial Declaration on the HKH Call to Action. Available from: https://www.icimod.org/wpcontent/uploads/2020/11/20201015_Declaration_Signed_MinisterialMountainSummit_ICIMOD.pdf. (12 September 2022). Ismaily, S., Simms, A., 2013. Large mammal survey of Zebak and Ishkashim districts 2012 & 2013. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. IUCN, 2016. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available from: https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/ 22732/50664030. (12 September 2022). Johnson, M.F., Wingard, J.R., 2010. Wildlife trade in Afghanistan. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Karlstetter, M., 2008. Wildlife surveys and wildlife conservation in Nuristan, Afghanistan including scat and small rodent collection from other sites. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Maheshwari, A., Niraj, S.K., Sathyakumar, S., Thakur, M., Sharma, L., 2016. Snow leopard illegal trade in Afghanistan: a rapid survey. Cat News 64, 57–58. McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. ISLT and SLN, Seattle, USA. McCarthy, T., Khan, J., Ud-Din, J., McCarthy, K., 2007. The first study of snow leopards using GPS satellite collars underway in Pakistan. Cat News 46, 22–23. Mishra, C., Fitzherbert, A., 2004. War and wildlife: a postconflict assessment of Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor. Oryx 38, 102–105. Moheb, Z., 2020. Livestock Predation and Snow-LeopardHuman Conflict in the Wakhan Valley of Wakhan National Park, Northeastern Afghanistan (PhD thesis). University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA. 248 pp. Moheb, Z., Bradfield, D., 2014. Status of the common leopard in Afghanistan. Cat News 61, 15–16. Moheb, Z., Fuller, T.K., Zahler, P., 2022. Snow leopardhuman conflict as a conservation challenge – a review. Snow Leopard Rep., 11–24. Moheb, Z., Mostafawi, S.N., 2011. Biodiversity reconnaissance survey in Shahr-e Buzurg District, Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Moheb, Z., Mostafawi, S.N., 2012. Biodiversity reconnaissance survey in Darwaz region, Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Moheb, Z., Mostafawi, S.N., 2013. Biodiversity reconnaissance survey in Maymai District, Darwaz Region, Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Moheb, Z., Mostafawi, S.N., Noori, H., Rajabi, A.M., Ali, H., Ismaily, S., 2012. Urial survey in the Hindu Kush Range

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in the Wakhan Corridor, Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Moheb, Z., Mostafawi, S.N., Zahler, P.I., Fuller, T.K., 2018. Markhor and Siberian ibex occurrence and conservation in northern Afghanistan. Caprinae News 2018, 4–7. Moheb, Z., Rajabi, A.M., Jahed, N., Ostrowski, S., Zahler, P.I., Fuller, T.K., 2022. Using double-observer surveys to monitor urial and ibex populations in the HinduKush of Wakhan National Park, Afghanistan. Oryx, 1–7. Moheb, Z., Sahel, K., Fazli, M., Hakimi, M., Submitted for publication. Safeguarding snow leopards in Badakhshan, Afghanistan. Snow Leopard Rep. NPASP, 2010. National Protected Area Systems Plan of Afghanistan. NPASP. Olufsen, O., 1899. Through the Unknown Pamirs: The Second Danish Pamir Expedition (1898-99). Translations accessed from: http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/
volk/ sylvia/Pamir1.htm#one. Ostrowski, S., 2020. Transboundary conservation of mountain monarchs in Afghanistan and Pakistan, Fondation Segre. Final Project Report. Unpublished, Wildlife Conservation Society, New York. Ostrowski, S., Moheb, Z., 2021. A population estimate for snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Afghanistan. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Ostrowski, S., Paley, R., 2020. Transboundary collaboration on environmental protection moves forward in Central Asia. CMS/CAMI Newsl. 10, 4–5. Ostrowski, S., Rajabi, A.M., 2019. Preventive treatments of livestock at livestock-wildlife interface in Wakhan National Park in 2017–2019. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Petocz, R., Larson, J.Y., 1977. Ecological Reconnaissance of Western Nuristan With Recommendations for Management. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Petocz, R.G., Habibi, K., Jamil, A., Wassey, A., 1978. Report on the Afghan Pamirs. Part 2: Biology of Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Rahmani, H., 2014. Snow Leopard Habitat Preference Modeling in the Wakhan Corridor Using Satellite Telemetry Data (M.Sc. thesis). University of Leeds, UK. Rahmani, H., 2016. Police and customs awareness workshop on Afghanistan’s wildlife protected species illegal trade. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Rajabi, A.M., 2020. An adult snow leopard captured in Wurfad Village, Mahmai District, Badakhshan 13 December 2019. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York.

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Rajabi, A.M., Rooyesh, H., 2021a. Marco Polo sheep survey in Big Pamir, Wakhan National Park. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Rajabi, A.M., Rooyesh, H., 2021b. Vaccination at livestockwildlife interface in Wakhan National Park in 2020. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Read, S., 2016. Abundance Estimation of Snow Leopards in Eastern Afghanistan (M.Sc. Dissertation). Montana State University, USA. Rodenburg, W.F., 1977. The Trade in Wild Animal Furs in Afghanistan. FAO, Rome. Roshan, F., 2019. Environmental education program (EEP) on climate change. Unpublished Report, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), New York. Schaller, G.B., 2004. The Status of Marco Polo Sheep in the Pamir Mountains of Afghanistan. National Geographic Society (Grant No.EC-0182-04) and WCS. Simms, A., Moheb, Z., Salahudin, I., Ali, H., Ali, I., Wood, T., 2011. Saving threatened species in Afghanistan: snow leopards in the Wakhan Corridor. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 68, 299–312.

Simms, A., Ostrowski, S., Ali, H., Rajabi, A.M., Noori, H., Ismaili, S., 2013. First radio-telemetry study of snow leopards in Afghanistan. Cat News 58, 29–31. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP). Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. UNDP, 2016. Establishing integrated models for protected areas and their co-management in Afghanistan. Annual Project Progress report. Unpublished, Wildlife Conservation Society, UNDP-Kabul. UNDP, 2020. Establishing integrated models for protected areas and their co-management in Afghanistan, project closeout report. Unpublished, Wildlife Conservation Society, UNDP-Kabul. UNEP, 2003. Afghanistan: Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment. United Nations Environment Program, Nairobi, Kenya. Zahler, P., Schaller, G.B., 2014. Saving more than just snow leopards. The New York Times. Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/02/opinion/saving -more-than-just-snow-leopards.html?_r¼0. (12 September 2022).

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C H A P T E R

36 The snow leopard in Kyrgyzstan Askar Davletbakova, Koustubh Sharmab, Zairbek Kubanychbekovc, Kubanychbek Jumabayuulud, Tolkunbek Asykulove, Chyngyz Kochorovf, Rakhim Kulenbekovc, Jarkyn Samanchinag, Imogene Cancellareh, Byron Weckworthi, Shannon Kacheli, and Tatjana Rosenc a

National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic bSnow Leopard Trust/ Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic cIlbirs Foundation, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan dSnow Leopard Trust/Snow Leopard Foundation in Kyrgyzstan, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic eNABU Kyrgyzstan, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic fGSLEP Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic g Fauna and Flora International, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic hDepartment of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States iPanthera, New York, NY, United States

Snow leopard habitat and distribution Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Kyrgyzstan inhabit about 89,000 km2 (Fig. 36.1), including portions of the northern, southern, and western Tien Shan and the Pamir-Alai range. The northern Tien Shan includes the Kyrgyz and Chu-Ili ranges; the Kungey and Terskey Ala-Too ranges which border Djetim Bel, from the river Uzungush and east to the Kakshal range. The southern Tien Shan consists of the Ferghana and Moldo-Too ranges, the southern side of the Djetim range, and to the south the Kakshal range. The western Tien Shan is bordered by the Ferghana range on the east; by the rivers

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00036-4

Kara-Kulzha and Kara-Darya to the south; the Talas range to the north; and the Pskem range to the north-west. The Pamir-Alai system includes the Turkestan, Alai, and Trans-Alai ranges. The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (Snow Leopard Network, 2014) estimates 300–350 individuals for the whole country, though recent workshops suggest roughly 150–250 individuals. Surveys are still ongoing and a more accurate estimate is expected by 2023. A genetic study conducted in 2009 in the Sarychat-Ertash Reserve showed a minimum of 18 snow leopards in a 1341 km2 area ( Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014), whereas

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FIG. 36.1

36. Snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan

The habitat of the snow leopard in Kyrgyz Republic.

preliminary results from systematic camera trapping in 2014 revealed a minimum of 15 snow leopards in the same area (Jumabay-Uulu et al., unpublished data). Preliminary camera trapping in Naryn shows at least five snow leopards using an area of 200 km2. Surveys in the Ala-Too range indicated the presence of at least 16 individuals across nearly 2000 km2 area. New surveys are undergoing in Naryn, Jangart, and in three nascent community-based conservancies in the Alai valley. Snow leopards are reported from eight state nature reserves (SNR) and seven state nature parks (SNP): Besh-Aral State Reserve (632 km2), Kara-Buura SNR (615 km2), Karatal-Japyryk SNR (364 km2), Padysha-Ata SNR (305 km2), Kulun-Ata SNR (274 km2), Naryn SNR (910 km2), Sarychat-Ertash SNR (1341 km2), Sary-Chelek Biosphere Reserve (238 km2), Ala Archa State Nature Park (194 km2), Kara-Shoro SNP (120 km2), Chong-Kemin SNP (1265 km2), Karakol SNP (382 km2), Kan-Achuu SNP (304 km2), Alatai SNP (568 km2), and KhanTengri SNP (2758 km2).

Status of snow leopard prey Key snow leopard prey in Kyrgyzstan includes argali (Ovis ammon), Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), and red deer (Cervuselaphus). Marmots (Marmota spp.), pikas (Ochotona spp.), and snowcock (Tetraogallus spp.) also constitute important prey (e.g., Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014). According to the latest survey by the Ministry of Natural Resources, Ecology and Technical Supervision of the Kyrgyz Republic (2019–20), there are an estimated 50,000 ibex and 17,500 argali in the Kyrgyz Republic. Under a new hunting law established in 2014, hunting of ungulates is allowed only in assigned areas and hunters must obtain permits from the area managers. A new law and involvement of NGOs has encouraged the establishment of the first community-based hunting conservancies in Chon Kemin, Aksu (Issyk-kul) and the Alay valley, aimed at restoring ungulate populations while providing direct financial incentives to the community members through trophy hunting. Subsequently, similar conservancies have also

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National action plan, the NSLEP, and management plans for protected areas

been established in Kara-Kujur and Kochkor areas of Naryn Province. For further description of the law and the work of the community-based hunting conservancies in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, see Chapter 20.3.

Legal protection Hunting of snow leopards and possession and trade of snow leopards or snow leopard parts is prohibited in Kyrgyzstan through the Law on the Animal World (1999). Hunting of snow leopards has been prohibited since 1948, and the species has been listed in the national Red Data Book of the Kyrgyz SSR since 1985. The snow leopard is listed as “critically endangered” in the second edition of the Red Book of the Kyrgyz Republic (Government of Kyrgyzstan, 2006). The fine for harming a snow leopard has been increased from 500,000 soms (US$6000) to 1,500,000 soms (US$18,000). Species listed in the Red Book are generally protected, but can be harvested based on special decisions by the government.

Threats to snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan Key threats identified to the snow leopard include killing of snow leopards for their skin and other parts; intentional and incidental trapping; poaching and excess hunting of the prey base; and habitat destruction and fragmentation. While legal protection may have contributed to a decrease in trapping and killing of snow leopards, high-altitude pastures, construction of permanent settlements, linear infrastructure, including border fences, and mines are severely impacting and fragmenting the habitat. Unofficial records suggest that four to five snow leopards are imported from neighboring Tajikistan every year and possibly taken elsewhere. An occupancy-based study conducted in the Alai valley seems to indicate high levels of local extinctions of snow leopards (Taubmann et al.,

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2016), a possibility indicated by other studies (Izumiama et al., 2009; Watanabe et al., 2010). According to the local people, there could be fewer than 20 snow leopards left in the entire Pamir-Alai range by 2014. Poaching and excess hunting of the prey base, especially argali and ibex, decimates their population, which in turn likely suppresses snow leopard densities. Poaching is often done by local people, or even armed officials for recreation and sport. Establishment of community-based hunting conservancies and other community-based conservation programs as well as incentive programs to reward rangers and citizens who apprehend poachers are progressively addressing this issue.

National action plan, the NSLEP, and management plans for protected areas In 2013, the National Strategy for Snow Leopard Conservation in the Kyrgyz Republic for 2013–23 as well the National Action Plan were adopted in the framework of the Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum in Bishkek (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013 and see Chapter 49). In June 2014, during the National Focal Points Action Planning, Leadership and Capacity Building Workshop, the Sarychat landscape (13,200 km2) was identified to be secured as part of the GSLEP program’s goal of securing at least 20 landscapes by 2020. The Management Plan for the Central Tien Shan Landscape was prepared and approved by the State Agency for Environmental Protection and Forestry under the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic (SAEPF Order No. 01-9/329 of December 11, 2019). Since 2021, the SAEPF has been transformed into a full-fledged Ministry of Natural Resources, Ecology and Technical Supervision of the Kyrgyz Republic. Another transboundary landscape, AlaiGissar (approximately 30,000 km2), was also identified as a snow leopard and mountain

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36. Snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan

ecosystem, which will be secured as part of the Pamir-Alay project being finalized through the GEF-7 System for Transparent Allocation of Resources (STAR) cycle of grants. The Kyrgyz Ala-Too landscape covering 13,000 km2 is identified as another important landscape by the country to understand the impacts of climate change on biodiversity, livestock, and human populations and develop pilot climate-resilient livelihood programs based on ecosystem services. A climate-smart management plan is currently being prepared to replicate the pilot interventions across this landscape and ensure its protection in the long run.

countries that share the Western Tien Shan was signed in 2021 at the highest levels, and it is expected to provide prioritization to snow leopard conservation in this transboundary landscape. A project focusing on transboundary cooperation for snow leopard conservation was concluded in 2021 by Snow Leopard Trust and UNDP that focused on developing toolkits, guidelines, and content to facilitate research, conservation, and policy interventions for snow leopard conservation across international borders. Additional transboundary initiatives are discussed in Chapter 23.

Research Transboundary conservation initiatives Over the years, there have been several initiatives aimed at stimulating cross-border collaboration between scientists and conservation officials across the region. Some involved joint surveys, such as one organized on the border between Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan by scientists from both counties (FFI, 2007). GIZ coordinated training and exchanges between staff of forest and hunting departments of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and also brought members from nascent community-based hunting conservancies in Kyrgyzstan to similar established hunting conservancies in Tajikistan. The US-based NGO Panthera brought hunting conservancy members from Tajikistan to nascent hunting conservancies in Kyrgyzstan. A technical workshop brought together experts from Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and the Kyrgyz Republic to identify transboundary snow leopard landscapes in Central Asia, as well as stimulate cross-border collaboration (Mallon and Kulikov, 2015). The biodiversity of Western Tien Shan has remained poorly documented until the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the Kyrgyz Government initiated a project with funding from GEF under the sixth cycle of STAR allocation grants. An MoU for transboundary cooperation between the four

From October 2015 to September 2018, Ilbirs Foundation, Panthera, and SAEPF deployed GPS collars on seven adult snow leopards (three male, four female) in Sarychat-Ertash SNR, with the overarching goal of improving scientific knowledge of snow leopard spatial ecology and predation ecology (Kachel, 2021). All four females captured showed signs of current or previous lactation, and all but one were confirmed to have dependent young for at least a portion of the monitoring period. The evidence surrounding the only mortality observed during the study, that of a lactating female in late winter of 2018, precluded a definitive determination of the cause of death, but a necropsy suggested that the animal died of starvation following major injuries incurred in a fall, even as unhealed lacerations on the animal’s face suggested the animal had recently fought with another snow leopard. Home ranges estimated using adaptive local convex hulls (and thus directly comparable with estimates from the Gobi desert) were seemingly much smaller (male 73 km2  29 SD, female 38 km2  11 SD) than those in Mongolia (male 207 km2  63 SD, female 124 km2  41 SD; Johansson et al., 2016), possibly reflecting the higher prey density and habitat quality in Sarychat. By contrast, home ranges estimated using methods that integrate movement and resource

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NGOS working in Kyrgyzstan on conservation of snow leopards

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FIG. 36.2 Individual 95% home ranges estimated via integrated resource selection + movement models for three male (M1, M2, M3) and three female (F1, F2, F4; F3 omitted for clarity) snow leopards monitored via GPS collars between October 2015 and September 2018 in Sarychat-Ertash SNR, Kyrgyzstan.

selection (Calabrese et al., 2016)—and thus better account for the limitations and uncertainty in data that were plagued by inconsistent collar performance—were 175 km2  74 SD for males and 81 km2  23 SD for females (Fig. 36.2). Investigations of 338 GPS clusters resulted in the location of 183 prey items, including 129 ibex and 39 argali. Evidence of smaller prey, including newborn ungulates, marmots, and snowcocks, could not be reliably detected at kill sites, even when present. Kill-site clusters and movement data suggest that summertime snow leopard diets in Sarychat are dominated by marmots and neonate ungulates. In August 2019, researchers from Panthera and Ilbirs Foundation conducted noninvasive scat collection surveys at multiple sites throughout southern Kyrgyzstan as part of a range-wide study on snow leopard genetic connectivity. Preliminary genetic diversity results suggest slightly higher levels of heterozygosity for Kyrgyz snow leopards compared to those from other range countries sampled. This

corroborates previous results on large-scale population genetic diversity for snow leopards (Korablev et al., 2021; Cancellare et al., unpublished data). Additionally, based on genetic data from scat samples collected throughout the Tien Shan Mountains, and those collected throughout southern Kyrgyzstan, snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan show a high degree of genetic connectivity with individuals in the Pamir Mountains including snow leopard range in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan (Cancellare et al., unpublished data).

NGOS working in Kyrgyzstan on conservation of snow leopards Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU) NABU, a German organization established in 1899, was one of the first international environmental organizations to become active in the

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36. Snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan

conservation of wildlife in Kyrgyzstan, including the iconic snow leopard. NABU started work in 1994, when it organized the first Issyk-Kul Conference at which it was decided to create a biosphere reserve in Eastern Kyrgyzstan (Biosphere Reserve “Tenir-Too”) with a total area of over 60,000 km2. In 1998, at the second conference, the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve was created, with a total area of 43,000 km2. In 1999, NABU started its project “Snow Leopard,” the first for this new specially protected natural area. The monitoring department of the NGO conducted studies in 2020–21 on the Turkestan ridge in the territories of the protected areas “Sarkent,” “Surmo-Tash,” and Leilek forestry. Since 2001, the antipoaching unit “Gruppa Bars” (Group Snow Leopard) has worked to protect snow leopards by patrolling their habitat and persecuting poachers. The four members of this group have experience in environmental and security-related work (including weapons handling) and have scientific and legal education. The unit also has the power to arrest suspects and seize live wild animals that are otherwise destined for illegal trade. The objectives of the Gruppa Bars are to reduce poaching of snow leopards and other endangered wildlife, inter alia through: • assisting relevant government agencies in their operational work for nature protection, especially in combatting poaching • awareness raising and outreach to the public • monitoring snow leopards using camera traps • monitoring the habitat of the snow leopard using camera traps. Gruppa Bars, together with employees of state agencies, regularly conducts visits to local communities, primarily in the habitat of the snow leopard, to raise awareness and reduce poaching. The team has detained more than 300 poachers and seized dozens of skins and hundreds of weapons and traps, contributing to the reduction of snow leopard poaching in

the country. Since 2000, NABU has confiscated 12 snow leopards from poachers or others illegally holding the cats. In 2020 alone, together with local rangers, three snow leopards were rescued. In 2002, NABU opened a Snow Leopard Rehabilitation Center in Sasyk-Bulak Valley of Issyk-Kul District, the first in Central Asia (see details in Chapter 28).

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) WWF has been active in Kyrgyzstan since 1999, initially through the Econet project, a platform for developing protected nature areas of different status and territories with different sustainable use of nature resources. In 2009, WWF started working on developing a concept for the conservation of the Central Tien Shan mountains and wildlife. In 2013, this culminated in the approval of a Global Environment Facility (GEF)/UNDP project to establish Khan-Tengri National Park. WWF supports Sarychat-Ertash State Nature Reserve through technical support and capacity-building activities. WWF also holds an annual festival called “The home of the Snow Leopard,” which brings together people that live in the proximity of the SarychatErtash reserve. It also supports a fund for the development of the villages Ak-Shiyrak and Enilchek (outside Sarychat-Ertash). Money from the fund goes toward antipoaching activities. A DNA survey conducted in Sarychat-Ertash in 2011 by WWF confirmed the presence of approximately 20 snow leopards (WWF, personal communication, 2015).

Snow Leopard Trust (SLT) in Partnership with the Snow Leopard Foundation in Kyrgyzstan (SLFK) SLT has been actively partnering with local organizations in Kyrgyzstan since 2003. It has earlier worked in the Sarychat-Ertash State Nature Reserve as well as the villages of Ak-Shiyrak and Enilchek and recently expanded

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

NGOS working in Kyrgyzstan on conservation of snow leopards

its conservation, education, and research programs to the Kyrgyz Ala Too Mountain range. Other than providing training to the rangers, leading sign and camera-trap based surveys, engaging village communities through various community-based conservation programs (e.g., Snow Leopard Enterprises, predator-proofing corrals, beekeeping, plantations, socially and environmentally responsible tourism, etc.), and implementing conservation education program across the country, it has provided valuable support to the Government and the GSLEP program for policy and guidance. In areas where SLT/ SLFK work, community members sign a conservation agreement, which is reviewed and signed annually. These agreements provide the conservation linkage to the activities that provide direct and indirect economic benefit to the local communities and encourage the communities to protect the snow leopards and wild prey living in their area from poaching and illegal hunting. Fulfillment of their collective conservation agreements leads to additional financial incentives for the entire community. Since 2014, SLFK/SLT, in collaboration with Interpol and the Protected Areas Department of Kyrgyzstan, and with support from the UK government’s Illegal Wildlife Trade Challenge Fund, started an initiative to train frontline rangers and reward them for their performance. In 2014, the citizen ranger’s rewards program was piloted in Sarychat and Naryn, rewarding rangers and community members who successfully stopped illegal hunting. In 2015, it was replicated across the 19 protected areas in the country. A series of training programs for the frontline and senior officials are planned in the next several years to improve their efficiency. In 2015, with support from The Christensen Foundation, SLFK has also initiated a project to address the issues of biodiversity and cultural erosion by beginning to amass a repository of bio-cultural folklore and creating an educational strategy for children living in and around snow leopard habitats in Kyrgyzstan. Since 2014,

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SLT/SLFK has conducted systematic cameratrap surveys in Sarychat-Ertash SNR. Up to 40 different snow leopards have been identified over the years, and the data are currently being analyzed using spatially explicitmark recapture to estimate not only abundance but also population dynamics. SLT/SLFK set up the first comanaged Protected Area in Kyrgyzstan by collaborating with the Government for comanagement of a 250 km2 area that used to be a hunting concession. In 2018, encouraged by the success of the collaboration, two more areas were added into the comanagement model. Later, with support of UNEP’s Vanishing Treasures Program, and IUCN SOS’s project, several pilot programs were initiated to augment livelihoods while ensuring climate resilience and nature conservation.

Fauna and Flora International (FFI) FFI started its work with Sarychat-Ertash SNR in 2004 aimed at staff capacity building, improvement of the technical and material base, strengthening antipoaching activities, conducting biodiversity surveys with specialists from the Kyrgyz National Academy of Sciences, and developing a management plan for the reserve. In 2005–06, FFI carried out a project in the three villages situated in the immediate proximity of Sarychat-Ertash: Enilchek, Ak-Shyirak and Karakolka in order to develop alternative incomegenerating activities and reduce poaching on snow leopard and its prey base.

Ilbirs Foundation The Ilbirs Foundation has operated since 2015, working for the conservation of viable populations of snow leopards, other predators and wildlife species as an integral part of Kyrgyzstan’s nature by promoting and encouraging local communities living in high mountainous regions of the country to preserve natural resources and further sustainable livelihoods.

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36. Snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan

Some of the implemented projects have been financed and supported by Panthera, UK Aid, CEPF, UNDP, and UNEP among others. Some of the work includes supporting the development of community-based conservancies, training conservation dogs for the Kyrgyz Customs Service to detect illegally traded wildlife parts; participating in the first snow leopard collaring study in Kyrgyzstan; and conducting camera trap surveys in the Alai valley, Kungay Alatoo, Terskey-Alatoo, Kyrgyz Ala-Too, Naryn to contribute to the PAWS range-wide monitoring efforts (see Chapter 34). Since 2019, as part of an international project “Building international capacity and transnational networks to counter big cat trafficking,” run in collaboration with Panthera and funded by a US State Department (INL) grant, the NGO helps to increase capacity of local law enforcement agencies to combat poaching and illegal wildlife trade. The project provides equipment, training, and mentoring to the staff of law enforcement agencies, including effective checkpoint operations, joint mobile patrols, camera trapping, data collection, and analysis. Since 2018, in partnership with SLT/ SLF and GSLEP, it implements UNEP’s Vanishing Treasures project aimed increasing snow leopards and the communities they coexist with resilience to climate change.

Future needs There is scope for much additional snow leopard research in Kyrgyzstan. It will be vital to expand research to more areas across the country, including community-based conservation areas and hunting concessions to gain a better understanding of snow leopard distribution and densities, and in particular the factors that affect variable densities. While it is crucial to estimate snow leopard abundance to complete the country’s commitment to PAWS, organizations working in the country may need to prioritize a few pilot sites for long-term monitoring to

continuously review and investigate upcoming threats such as feral dogs, disease transmission, and poorly planned infrastructure. Broadening the areas covered with genetic sampling will not only help estimate populations, but will also help understand the patterns of genetic connectivity for snow leopards in Central Asia that forms the bottleneck for the species’ northern and southern lobes of global distribution. There is also a need to step up efforts to support the establishment of community-based conservancies in snow leopard habitat.

References Calabrese, J.M., Fleming, C.H., Gurarie, E., 2016. ctmm: an R package for analyzing animal relocation data as a continuous-time stochastic process. Methods Ecol. Evol. 7, 1124–1132. FFI, 2007. Central Asia snow leopard workshop, Bishkek 19-21 June 2006. Meeting Report, Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, UK. Government of the Kyrgyz Republic, 2006. Red Book of the Kyrgyz Republic. Kyrgyz Republic, Bishkek. Izumiama, S., Anarbaev, M., Watanabe, T., 2009. Inhabitation of larger mammals in the Alai valley of the Kyrgyz Republic. Geogr. Stud. 84, 14–21. € Rauset, G.R., Samelius, G., McCarthy, T., Johansson, O., Andren, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2016. Land sharing is essential for snow leopard conservation. Biol. Conserv. 203, 1–7. Jumabay-Uulu, K., Wegge, P., Mishra, C., Sharma, K., 2014. Large carnivores and low diversity of optimal prey: a comparison of the diets of snow leopards Panthera uncia and wolves Canis lupus in Sarychat-Ertash Reserve in Kyrgyzstan. Oryx 48, 529–535. Kachel, S., 2021. Large Carnivore Ecology and Conservation in the High Mountains of Central Asia (Dissertation). University of Washington. Korablev, M., Poyarkov, A., Karnaukhov, A., Zvychainaya, E., Kuskin, A., Malykh, S., Istomov, S., Spitsyn, S., Aleksandrov, D., Hernandez-Blanco, J., Munkhtsog, B., Munkhtogtokh, O., Putinsev, N., Vereshchagin, A., Becmurody, A., Afzunov, S., Rozhnov, V., 2021. Large-scale and fine-grain population structure and genetic diversity of snow leopards (Panthera uncia Schreber, 1776) from the northern and western parts of the range with an emphasis on the Russian population. Conserv. Genet. 22, 397–410. Mallon, D., Kulikov, M., 2015. (Compilers). Transboundary Snow Leopard Conservation in Central Asia: Report of

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References

the FFI/CMS Workshop, 1-2 December 2014. Fauna & Flora International and Convention on Migratory Species, Cambridge, UK and Bonn, Germany. Snow Leopard Network, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Revised version 2014.1, Snow Leopard Network. Available from: www.snowleopardnetwork.org. (12 September 2022). Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem Recovery Program. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic.

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Taubmann, J., Sharma, K., Uulu, K., Hines, J., Mishra, C., 2016. Status assessment of the endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia and other large mammals in the Kyrgyz Alay, using community knowledge corrected for imperfect detection. Oryx 50, 220–230. Watanabe, T., Izumiyama, S., Gaunavinaka, L., Anarbaev, M., 2010. Wolf depredation on livestock in the Pamir. Geogr. Stud. 85, 26–35.

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C H A P T E R

37 Conservation of snow leopards in Kazakhstan Alexey Gracheva,b,c, Yuriy Gracheva, Saltore Saparbayeva,c,d, Maxim Bespalova,c, Yerlik Baidavletova,c, Altynbek Dzhanyspaeva,d, and Philip Riordane,f,g a

Institute of Zoology of Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty, Kazakhstan bSnow Leopard Foundation, Almaty, Kazakhstan cWildlife Without Borders, Almaty, Kazakhstan dAlmaty State Nature Reserve, Talgar, Kazakhstan eMarwell Wildlife, Winchester, Hampshire, United Kingdom fWildlife Without Borders, London, United Kingdom gUniversity of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom

Introduction The northwestern edge of the snow leopard’s global range occurs in Kazakhstan, covering the Tien Shan, Dzhungar Alatau, Tarbagatai, Saur, and Altai mountain ranges (Heptner and Sludsky, 1972; Grachev and Fedosenko, 1977; Sludsky, 1973). These transboundary mountain systems neighbor Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, China, and Russia. With increasing economic development from the middle of the 20th century, the distribution area and number of snow leopards in Kazakhstan began to decline. Snow leopards have disappeared from the peripheral ridges of the Western Tien Shan, the Ile Alatau, and Dzhungar Alatau ranges. The ongoing work in Kazakhstan reported here suggests that snow leopards are recovering, though not uniformly, remaining absent from

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00059-5

some key areas, such as the Saur, Tarbagatai, and Uzynkara (Ketmen) ridges. These areas are important for population connectivity and transboundary cooperation (Chapter 23) and also offer insights into edge-of-range conservation in a changing world.

Distribution Western Tien Shan Snow leopard habitat includes the western end of the Talas Alatau, the Karzhantau ridge, and the northwestern slopes of the Ugam and Maidantal ranges, along which runs the border with Uzbekistan. The Kyrgyz Alatau is transitional between the Western and Northern Tien Shan, and the Kyrgyzstan border runs along the ridge (Fig. 37.1).

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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FIG. 37.1

37. Conservation of snow leopards in Kazakhstan

The current distribution of the snow leopard in Kazakhstan.

In Talas Alatau, snow leopards occur in the Aksu-Zhabagly Nature Reserve along the gorges of the Zhabagly, Aksu, Koksay, Aksai, Maidantal, Baldarbek, and Balabaldarbek rivers. On the Ugam Ridge in the Sairam-Ugam National Park, snow leopards occur along the valleys of the Sairamsu, Sary-Aygyr, and Ugam rivers (Grachev, 2016). In the Kyrgyz Alatau, occupancy has only been consistently recorded along the Aspara and Merke gorges.

Northern Tien Shan The Northern Tien Shan includes the Ile Alatau, Kungei Alatau, Ketmen (Uzynkara), and Terskey Alatau ranges. The primary snow leopard habitats occur on the northern slopes up to 4000 m. Camera trapping and other surveys in Almaty Nature Reserve and Ile-Alatau National

Park between 2012 and 2021 indicated snow leopard presence widely across the region (e.g., Shilik, Turgen, Issyk, Talgar, Malaya and Bolshaya Almatinka, Kargalinka, Aksai, Kargauldy, Kaskelen, Chemolgan, Uzyn-Kargaly, Karakastek, and Kastek). In Almaty Reserve, snow leopards are encountered down to 1200 m (Fig. 37.2). In the eastern spurs of the Ile Alatau, the low mountains Turaigyr, Syugaty, Bolshoe, and Small Buguty, snow leopards are only occasionally encountered. There are anecdotal reports of snow leopards in the Turaigyr, Boguty, and Charyn Canyon mountains, but camera-trap studies in the Bolshiye Boguty mountains in the winter 2015–16 did not confirm their presence. The Kolsai Kolderi National Park is located on the northern slope of the eastern part of the

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Distribution

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FIG. 37.2

Snow leopard in Almaty Reserve in 2021, with the highest peak of the Northern Tien Shan, Talgar peak (5017 m) in background. Photo courtesy Saltore Saparbayev.

Kungey Alatau. The creation of this national park in 2007 has improved habitats and snow leopards are more frequently encountered. As a result of research by the Institute of Zoology between 2012 and 2020 using camera traps, snow leopards were recorded in almost all large gorges—Kaindy, Saty, Kulsai, Kurmekty, Taldy, Kutorga, Malye and Bolshie Uryukty, Karakiya, Karasai, as well as in the upper reaches of the Shelek River. The western part of the Ketmen (Uzynkara) ridge is located within Kazakhstan, with the eastern part in China. Snow leopards do not appear to live permanently in these mountains, although animals from neighboring China are anecdotally reported to have visited. However, residents and workers at hunting farms, located in the central part of the ridge, consider the snow leopard to be absent. The eastern part of the northern slope of the Terskey Alatau ridge is located within

Kazakhstan, connected to the Kyrgyz Republic and China. In the 1970s and 1990s, the snow leopard was recorded in the upper reaches of the Karkara, Tekes, Bolshoi Kokpak, and Bayankol rivers (Fedosenko, 1982; Zhiryakov and Baidavletov, 2002). In 2018–19, they were also recorded on camera traps in the tracts bordering China and Kyrgyzstan.

Zhetysu (Dzhungar) Alatau The Dzhungar Alatau consists of a series of east-west parallel ridges stretching for about 400 km, with isolated peaks exceeding 4000 m. The border with China runs along the crest of the ridge, with the northern slope in Kazakhstan. Two national parks, Zhongar-Alatau (3560 km2), Altyn-Emel (3077 km2), and three wildlife sanctuaries (Verkhne-Koksuisky, Toktinsky and Lepsinsky) are found here.

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37. Conservation of snow leopards in Kazakhstan

Snow leopard signs and sightings have been recorded over the past 20 years in numerous river valleys (from east to west: Chindaly; Tokhty; Terekty; Zhamanty; Kyzyltal; Tastau; Tentek; Lepsy; Aganakatty; Maly Baskan; Sarkand; Aksu; Bien; Koksu; and Usek), on the southwestern spurs of Toksanbay and Koyandytau ridges (Annenkov, 1992; Tushkenov, 2017; Zhatkanbayev, 2012). On the Altyn-Emel ridge, snow leopards have previously only rarely been recorded, but in recent years, they have become more frequent. Also, since 2017, a breeding population has been recorded year-round in the desert lowlands of Sholak, Degeres, Matai, in the Altyn-Emel National Park at an elevation of 1000 m. Due to high air temperatures, especially in summer (up to 40°C and more), predators lead mainly a nocturnal lifestyle, waiting out the summer heat in caves and rock niches. Concentrations of predators are observed near water sources, sometimes snow leopards can also be found in reed beds near watering places (Fig. 37.3). Until the mid-1950s, the snow leopard was quite common in these mountains and its long absence followed uncontrolled illegal hunting in previous years.

Tarbagatai and Saur The western half of the Tarbagatai ridge and the northern slope of its eastern half are located within Kazakhstan, neighboring China along the ridge of the Eastern Tarbagatai. The maximum elevation of the ridge is approximately 3000m. Snow leopards have always been rare in Tarbagatai. In the 1960s and 1970s, no snow leopard tracks were found here, but in the late 1980s and early 1990s, several occurrences were recorded into Eastern Tarbagatai, apparently animals moving from China. Tarbagatai National Park (1435 km2) was created in 2018 but, as yet snow leopards are not permanent residents. Saur ridge, with a maximum elevation of 3722 m, also shares the state border with China. Snow leopards were rare here in the middle of the 20th century (Sludsky, 1973). Anecdotal accounts of snow leopards by local communities were reported in 2010, 2013, and 2014 in the upper reaches of the Kenderlyk, Karaungur, Akkezen, and Chagan-Obo rivers. Camera trap surveys during 2017 in the Saur mountains failed to record snow leopards, although a snow leopard family group was observed in 2021 in the Ushtas tract, in the upper reaches of the Darnaozek River (tributary of the Kenderlyk River). At present, there are no protected areas on Saur.

Altai

FIG. 37.3 Snow leopard in the reed thickets in the desert mountains of Altyn-Emel National Park (960 m), June 2022. Photo courtesy Saltore Saparbayev.

The Kazakh part of Altai includes several ridges of this vast mountain system. Snow leopards occur in the Southern Altai, Tarbagatai (Bukhtarminsky), Sarymsakty, and Katunsky ridges, although infrequently. Occasional snow leopards are recorded on the Kholzun, Koksuisky, and Ivanovsky ridges, which lie north of the main habitat. There are two key snow leopard habitats in the region, the first in the eastern half of the Southern Altai ridge and the Tarbagatai (Bukhtarminsky) ridge and the second along the steep and inaccessible Sarymsakty ridge.

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

Conservation efforts

Most records in these areas, both past and present, are located on the territory of the KatonKaragai National Park in the basin of the Bukhtarma River. Snow leopard tracks are very rarely found on the Katunsky Ridge and on the Ukok Plateau, to the north of their core area.

Conservation efforts Research and monitoring Long-term research on snow leopards in Kazakhstan has been carried out by the government-based Institute of Zoology since its foundation in 1932. Early work laid the foundations for biodiversity conservation in Kazakhstan including the creation of protected areas, publishing the Red Book of Kazakhstan (Gvozdev, 1978), and providing critical policy guidance for species and habitat protection. The Red Book of Kazakhstan lists snow leopard as Category III: “a rare species whose range and number are decreasing.” A Snow Leopard Conservation Strategy for Kazakhstan was developed in 2011 and National Action Plans have been produced in 2015 and 2020), further adopting the Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) Bishkek Declarations (2013, 2017). The recently established Snow Leopard Monitoring Center at the Institute of Zoology strengthens efforts to understand the state of snow leopard populations and their prey throughout Kazakhstan and establish effective conservation measures. This research was funded by the Science Committee of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Program No.BR18574058). Key areas of snow leopard habitat have been surveyed annually since 2012, working with protected area teams. In 2019, the first molecular genetic studies were initiated, making it possible to identify individuals and their sex. In 2021, with the support of the UNDP and partners from the Severtsov Institute of Ecology

475

and Evolution in Moscow, three snow leopards were tagged with satellite collars in Altyn-Emel National Park. Further satellite telemetry studies will be implemented in other regions of Kazakhstan to understand survival and movement at the edge of their range.

National policy and legislation The snow leopard is a national and state symbol of Kazakhstan, with great social and cultural significance. Their protection is enshrined by environmental policies and tightly observed regulations. In the 30 years since Kazakhstan’s independence, 10 new protected areas have been created in snow leopard habitats, leading to apparent population increases. At the legislative level, the protection of the snow leopard in Kazakhstan is regulated by key laws under the Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan: “On the protection, reproduction and use of Wildlife” and “On Specially Protected Natural Territories.” In 2019, punishments for poaching snow leopard were further strengthened, leading to fines exceeding US$20,000 and imprisonment .

Protected areas Protected areas have been established in Kazakhstan’s mountain ecosystems, with three nature reserves (IUCN Category Ia) and seven national parks (Category II) in snow leopard range. Aksu-Zhabagli State Reserve (1319 km2) and Sairam-Ugam National Park (1500 km2) are in the Western Tien Shan. Almaty Nature Reserve (717 km2), Ile-Alatau National Park (1992 km2), Kolsai Kolderi (1610 km2), and Charyn (1270 km2) are in the Northern Tien Shan. Altyn-Emel (3077 km2) and the newly created Zhongar-Alatau National Park (3560 km2) are in the Dzungar Alatau. Markakol Nature Reserve (1030 km2) and Katon-Karagai National Park (6434 km2) are in Altai. There are no

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37. Conservation of snow leopards in Kazakhstan

reserves or national parks in Saur and the key ridges of Kyrgyz, Ketmen, and Terskey Alatau in the Tien Shan, although there are four wildlife sanctuaries (IUCN category IV): Almatinsky (5124 km2), Verkhne-Koksuisky (2400 km2), Toktinsky (1870 km2), and Lepsinsky (2580 km2). Snow leopards and their ecosystems are relatively well protected in the Western Tien Shan and the Ile Alatau and Kungei Alatau ridges in the Northern Tien Shan, as well as in the Altai. In the Dzungar Alatau, it would be desirable to expand the existing national park eastwards. Effective protected areas are most urgently needed in Saur, Ketmen, Terskei, and the Kyrgyz Alatau. Currently, the Kazakhstan government is working with other agencies, such as UNDP, to create new protected areas and improve existing sites.

Population status Population size The population of snow leopards in Kazakhstan at the beginning of the 1980s was estimated at 180–200 individuals (Fedosenko, 1982). In the

TABLE 37.1

early 1990s, the number of snow leopards in Kazakhstan was estimated from the literature at 80–100 individuals (Loginov, 1995). Estimates in the early 2000s were 100–110 individuals (Zhiryakov and Baidavletov, 2002); in the early 2010s, 110–130 (according to IoZ unpublished data); and in the late 2010s, 130–150 individuals (IoZ, Unpublished data). At present, the total number of snow leopards in Kazakhstan is estimated to be 141–183 individuals, with 77–97 in the Tien Shan, 60–77 in the Dzhungar Alatau, 3–6 in Altai, and 1–3 in Saur (Table 37.1).

Western Tien Shan In the early 1980s, the snow leopard numbers in the Aksu-Zhabagly Nature Reserve were estimated at 10–12 individuals, with a population density of 1.3–1.6 individuals per 100 km2 (Burgelo, 1986). By the early 1990s, estimates had declined to 7–8 animals (0.9–1.0 individuals per 100 km2: Shakula, 1995); with further declines to 2–3 individuals by the late 1990s (Kolbintsev, 2001). The current population of snow leopards in the reserve is estimated at 8–10 individuals. Additional animals in the

Current number and average density of snow leopard populations in Kazakhstan. Habitat area (km2)

Current range (km2)

Estimated population average density (per 100 km2)

Number of individuals

Method useda

Ranges Karzhantau, Ugamaskiy, Maidantalskiy, Talasskiy

2400

1700

0.7–0.9

12–15

Q, S-T, CT

Kyrgyz Alatau

2600

800

0.6–1.0

5–8

CT

Ile Alatau

8800

3100

1.1–1.5

35–45

CT

Kуungey Alatau

2200

1900

0.7–0.8

13–15

CT

Terskey Alatau

2600

1700

0.7–0.8

12–14

Q, CT

Uzynkara (Ketmen)

4300

n/a

–

0

Q

Region and range Western Tien Shan

Northern Tien Shan

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Population status

TABLE 37.1

Current number and average density of snow leopard populations in Kazakhstan—cont’d Habitat area (km2)

Current range (km2)

Estimated population average density (per 100 km2)

Number of individuals

Method used

Ranges Toksanbay, Dzhungar Alatau (Central), Kungey, Tastau

16,000

9500

0.5–0.6

50–60

Q, S-T, CT

Sholak, Degeres, Matai, AltynEmel, Koyandytau ridge

1700

1400

0.7–1.2

10–17

Q, CT

Saur

4300

n/a

–

1–3

Q, S-T, CT

Tarbagatai

4200

n/a

–

0

Q

Altai

14,700

1800

0.2–0.3

3–6

Q, S-T, CT

In total

63,800

21,900

Region and range Dzungar Alatau

Saur-Tarbagatai

a

141–183

Q, questionnaire; S-T, snow-tracking; CT, camera traps.

Sairam-Ugam National Park, on the Karzhantau, Ugam, Maidantal, Talassky ridges, give a total estimate at 12–15 individuals, with an average density of 0.8 individuals per 100 km2. In the Kyrgyz Alatau, camera trapping in the Merken Forestry Enterprise in 2020 suggested a population of 5–8 individuals (average density of 0.81 individuals per 100 km2), probably due to movement of animals from neighboring Kyrgyzstan.

Northern Tien Shan In the Ile Alatau, the number of snow leopards in the early 2000s was estimated at 30–35 individuals, of which 20–25 individuals continue to live and breed in Almaty Reserve (Dzhanispaev, 2002; Zhiryakov and Baidavletov, 2002), with frequent sign and sighting encounters recorded. The creation of the Ile-Alatau National Park in 1996 secured significant areas of habitats in protection, and numbers increased due to movement of animals from Almaty Reserve. Recent

field surveys have estimated the snow leopard population in the Ile Alatau at 35–45 individuals, with an average density of 1.29 individuals per 100 km2. We estimate densities in two key areas on the territory of the Ile-Alatau National Park and the Almaty Reserve at 2.31 and 2.28 individuals per 100 km2, respectively. Despite intensive human impacts on these mountain landscapes due to proximity with large urban centers, including the “super-city” of Almaty, the number of snow leopards in Ile Alatau remains stable and has potential to grow. In Kungei Alatau, camera trap surveys between 2015 and 2017 yielded estimates of 13–15 snow leopards, with an average population density of 0.74 individuals per 100 km2 (Grachev et al., 2017). In the Kazakh part of the Terskey Alatau, in an area of 1700 km2, recent surveys suggest 12–14 snow leopards, with an average density of 0.76 individuals per 100 km2. Previously, in the late 1990s, the number of snow leopards here did not exceed 2–3 individuals (Zhiryakov and

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Baidavletov, 2002). Increased protection has been afforded by high-end hunting concessions, with well-organized and resourced protection and the absence of livestock in key areas, leading to increased numbers of wild ungulates.

Dzhungar Alatau In the Dzhungar Alatau in the 1980s, 65–70 snow leopards occurred across 8200 km2, but the number decreased to 50 individuals by 1990, of which 11 snow leopards lived in the western half of the ridge, 20–25 in the eastern half, the rest lived along the state border on the ridges (Annenkov, 1992). Results of recent surveys in the northeastern part of the Dzhungar Alatau from the upper reaches of the Tentek River in the west to the end of the ridge in the area of the Dzungarian Gate in the east suggest 15–20 extant snow leopards. The total population in the Dzhungar Alatau (including Toksanbai, Dzhungar Alatau (Central), Kungei, Tastau ridges) is estimated at 50–60 individuals, and the average density is 0.58 individuals per 100 km2. Surveys carried out in 2020–21 along the southwestern spurs of the Dzhungar Alatau, on the Sholak, Degeres, Matai, Altyn-Emel, Koyandytau ridges, suggest 10–17 individuals (average density of 0.96 individuals per 100 km2), with 10 individuals breeding in the Altyn-Emel National Park.

Saur-Tarbagatai Recent limited surveys in the Saur and Tarbagatai mountains did not suggest snow leopard numbers were recovering here either. Snow leopard were only encountered in the Saur mountains in 2021, with the number in these mountains estimated at only 1–3 individuals, with possibly none resident.

Altai In the Kazakhstan Altai between the 1970s and 1990s, snow leopard occurred across approximately 1800 km2, supporting an estimated 14–18

individuals (Baidavletov, 1997). By 1995, this had declined to 10–15 (Zinchenko, 1995), and by 2000, only 7–8 individuals were estimated to remain (population density of 0.3–0.4 individuals per 100 km2: Zhiryakov and Baidavletov, 2002). Estimates of 10–12 individuals were made in 2009 (Loginov and Loginova, 2009). Recent surveys between 2017 and 2021 suggest that numbers remain low, 3–6 individuals (average density of 0.25 individuals per 100 km2).

Threats Poaching and trafficking Poaching and trade in snow leopard parts in Kazakhstan were recorded during the 1990s and early 2000s but have become infrequent more recently. There remains insufficient official statistics on poaching and trade, but our surveys among communities in snow leopard habitats and analysis of social network data suggest that 3–5 snow leopards are illegally killed in Kazakhstan each year. The issue of poaching is most acute in the mountains of the Dzungar Alatau, where large areas of snow leopard habitat remain unprotected. In the Kazakhstan Altai, snow leopard can be accidentally captured by traps set by poachers targeting musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) and brown bear (Ursus arctos). Evidence is scarce but by-catch might at least partially explain apparent declines in snow leopard numbers in this region. Elsewhere, poaching impacts on snow leopard are not considered to significantly affect populations. Recent cases of direct and indirect persecution of snow leopard have been attributed to conflict with livestock farmers. Pastoralists are increasingly using chemically undetermined poisons imported across the border with China, to control other predators, mainly wolves, which are also threating snow leopard. Increasing populations of snow leopard in Kazakhstan, including beyond protected areas, requires

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ongoing monitoring. Thus far, cases have been recorded in the Tien Shan and the Dzungar Alatau. Reduction in the snow leopard’s natural prey due to illegal hunting remains the most important issue and requires further attention by national and local authorities.

Habitat degradation The number of livestock declined sharply in the 1990s but has increased again in many areas within the snow leopard’s range, including some protected areas. This has driven declines in natural prey species abundances through competition and reduced breeding rates. Snow leopard prey switching to livestock occurs where natural prey has disappeared leading to conflict spirals with farmers, and potentially further persecution.

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suburbs. Snow leopards appear to have vacated these areas, allowing jackals and domestic dogs to become problematic for wildlife.

Disturbance Disturbance factors affecting wildlife have been exacerbated by the massive and uncontrolled movements of people to the mountainous areas near the city of Almaty. Increases in accessibility for both organized and informal tourism coincide with the snow leopard breeding season, particularly in winter. The previous inaccessibility of snow leopard habitats was one of the main factors contributing to the species conservation. Further efforts are now urgently required, consolidated across numerous sectors, to ensure that snow leopards remain a contemporary cultural emblem of Kazakhstan and not a history lesson.

Infrastructure development Infrastructure developments are causing increased habitat fragmentation, further isolating snow leopard populations. Road and rail infrastructure is being newly built, reconstructed, or enhanced in response to new economic opportunities developments, such as the modern “Silk Road” along the Ili Basin. These have obstructed movement of snow leopards between the Northern Tien Shan and the Dzhungar Alatau, which is indicated as an important area for range-wide connectivity (Riordan et al., 2015). Enhancements and new fences, including at borders, negatively affect regular seasonal migrations and movement of key prey species, including Argali (Ovis ammon) and Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica).

Human population growth and urbanization The snow leopard range in Kazakhstan is increasingly facing pressures from urban expansion, including the mega-city of Almaty, which has engulfed two large mountain gorges of the Malaya Almatinka and Bolshaya Almatinka rivers, into built-up and heavily populated

Climate change Recently observed climate change is having fundamental environmental impacts, such as a shift in the timing and nature of snow cover in these mountains. This is especially noticeable in the Northern Tien Shan, with very little snow cover until the end of winter and the beginning of spring. This in turn results in ski resorts needing to produce artificial snow, leading to increased disturbance with polluting and noisy modern technology, as well as due to the increase of people in the mountains in winter. The Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan recently approved a Concept of Development for the tourism industry until 2023, resulting in more planned large-scale projects to build tourist infrastructure in the mountains of Kazakhstan. Against further and ongoing climate change we anticipate the negative impacts on the survival of the snow leopard will only magnify. Elsewhere, in the desert spurs of the Ile and Dzhungar Alatau, where snow leopards live at low elevations, water sources (springs and small rivers) have been drying earlier. Remaining water sources, especially those outside of protected

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areas, are utilized by cattle herders and become inaccessible to snow leopards and their prey. Furthermore, declines in drinking water quality have been observed across the Turkestan region in south Kazakhstan. In response, government launched a project to build several reservoirs along almost the entire length of the mountain river Ugam (about 30 km) in Sairam-Ugam National Park (Western Tien Shan). Such a large-scale project is expected to lead to further degradation of snow leopard habitats at the very edge of the species’ range.

References Annenkov, B.P., 1992. Modern distribution, numbers and conservation of rare mammals in Dzungarian Alatau range. In: Protection and Study of Rare and Endangered Species of Animals in Nature Reserves. Protection and Study of Rare and Endangered Animal Species in Nature Reserves: A Collection of Scientific Papers, Moscow, pp. 69–74 (In Russian). Baidavletov, R.Z., 1997. On the biology of snow leopard in the Southern Altai. In: Rare Species of Mammals of Russia and Adjacent Territories: Theses of Reports of the International Meeting, Moscow, p. 9 (In Russian). Burgelo, T.B., 1986. Brief reports on snow leopard. In: Rare Animals of Kazakhstan. «Nauka» of Kazakh SSR, Alma-Ata, p. 54 (In Russian). Dzhanispaev, A.D., 2002. Distribution and numbers of snow leopard in the central part of the Ile Alatau. Selevinia 1–4, 208–212 (In Russian). Fedosenko, A.K., 1982. Snow leopard. In: Mammals of Kazakhstan, Vol. 3, Part 2 Carnivora (Mustelidae, Felidae). «Nauka» of Kazakh SSR, Alma-Ata, pp. 222–240 (In Russian). Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) Bishkek Declarations, 2013. https:// globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/ The-Bishkek-Declaration-on-the-Conservation-of-SnowLeopards.pdf. Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) Bishkek Declarations, 2017. https:// globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/ Bishkek-Declaration-2017_EN.pdf. Grachev, Y.A., 2016. Predatory and ungulate mammals of the Aksu-Zhabagli nature reserve and adjacent ridges of the Western Tien Shan. In: Proceedings of the Aksu-Zhabagli State Nature Reserve. vol. 11, pp. 437–456. Almaty. (In Russian). Grachev, Y.A., Fedosenko, A.K., 1977. Modern distribution and number of snow leopard in Kazakhstan. In: Rare

Mammals of the Fauna of the USSR and Their Protection. Nauka, Moscow, pp. 18–22 (In Russian). Grachev, A.A., Grachev, Y.A., Akhmetov, H.A., Saparbayev, S.K., 2017. The National Park "Kolsai Kolderi"—one of the key areas of conservation and reproduction of snow leopard in Kazakhstan. In: Current Issues of Biodiversity Conservation of the Northern Tien Shan. Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference. Saty, pp. 6–10 (In Russian). Gvozdev, E.V. (Ed.), 1978. Red Data Book of the Kazakh SSR. Part 1. Vertebrates. Kainar, Alma Ata (In Russian). Heptner, V.G., Sludsky, A.A., 1972. Snow leopard, irbis, Uncia Schreber, 1775. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. 2., Part 2 Carnivores (Hyenas and Cats). Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow, pp. 212–244 (in Russian). Kolbintsev, V.G., 2001. The current state of populations of rare species of vertebrates in the Aksu-Dzhabagly reserve. In: Biological Diversity of the Western Tien Shan, Proceedings of the Aksu-Dzhabagly State Nature Reserve. vol. 8, pp. 139–140. Kokshetau. (In Russian). Loginov, O.Y., 1995. Distribution of snow leopard in the republics of the former USSR. Irbis 2, 9–12. Bulletin of the Snow Leopard Conservation Center (In Russian). Loginov, O.Y., Loginova, I., 2009. The Snow Leopard. A Symbol of Celestial Mountains. Satura, UstKamenogorsk. 168 p. (In Russian). Riordan, P., Cushman, S.A., Mallon, D., Shi, K., Hughes, J., 2015. Predicting global population connectivity and targeting conservation action for snow leopard across its range. Ecography 39, 419–426. Shakula, V., 1995. Snow leopard in Aksu Dzhabagly nature reserve. Bulletin "Irbis" 12, 5–9 (In Russian). Sludsky, A.A., 1973. Distribution and number of wild cats in the USSR. In: Proceedings of the Institute of Zoology of the Kazakh SSR. vol. 34. «Nauka» of Kazakh SSR, Alma-Ata, pp. 6–106 (In Russian). Tushkenov, S.N., 2017. Irbis in the Zhongar Alatau. Current issues of biodiversity conservation of the northern Tien Shan. In: Current Issues of Biodiversity Conservation of the Northern Tien Shan: Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference, Saty, pp. 17–21 (In Russian). Zhatkanbayev, A.Z., 2012. Meetings of the snow leopard in South-Eastern Kazakhstan. In: Zoological and Game Management Researches in Kazakhstan and Adjacent Countries: Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference, Almaty, pp. 108–110 (In Russian). Zhiryakov, V.A., Baidavletov, R.Z., 2002. Ecology and behavior of snow leopard in Kazakhstan. Selevinia 1–4, 184–199 (In Russian). Zinchenko, Y.K., 1995. Irbis in the mountains of the Kazakhstan Altai. Irbis 2, 12–16. Bulletin of Snow Leopard Conservation Center (In Russian).

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38 The snow leopard in Tajikistan Abdusattor Saidova, Khalil Karimovb, Ismoil Kholmatovc, and Tatjana Novikovad a

National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Tajikistan bAssociation Natural Conservation Organizations of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Tajikistan cTajik National University, Dushanbe, Tajikistan d National Biodiversity and Biosafety Centre, Dushanbe, Tajikistan

Snow leopard habitat in Tajikistan Tajikistan, with a total area of 141,000 km2, is located in the southeastern part of Central Asia and shares borders with Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and China. The mountains, which occupy 93% of the country’s territory, belong to the Pamir, Pamir-Alay and part of the Tien Shan mountain systems. The mountain areas of Tajikistan are characterized by unique flora and fauna; almost 80% of the country’s biodiversity is concentrated in them. The mountain ecosystem in Tajikistan is of great importance for the survival of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia). Recent research showed that in the next 40 years, the cold and arid environment of the mountains of Tajikistan would serve as a snow leopard refuge from climate change impacts and as a genetic corridor between northern and southern populations (Li, 2016). Tajikistan is located in the center of the distribution and its mountains play a key connecting role in the entire snow leopard range. The presence of snow leopards and their wild prey are indicators of a healthy mountain ecosystem of

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00024-8

unique ecological, economic, esthetic and spiritual significance. In Tajikistan, the snow leopard is distributed within 20 mountain ranges—Turkestan, Zeravshan, Gissar, Karategin, Khazratishoh, Vakhsh, Darvaz, Academy of Sciences, Peter the Great, Vanj, Yazgulem, Rushan, Shakhdara, Pshart, Muzkul, Sarikol, South Alichur, North-Alichur, Vakhan, and Zaalai. The total habitat of the snow leopard in Tajikistan covers about 85,700 km2, which represents 60% of the total area of the country and about 2.8% of the current global range of the species. Snow leopard are widely distributed in the Pamir, Pamir-Alay, and Tien Shan systems, which cover 70% of the total area of distribution of the snow leopard in Tajikistan. The population density is thought to be highest in the Rushan, Yazgulem, Vanj, Shugnan, Ishkashim, Sarykol, and Trans-Alay ranges. The Pamir and Pamir-Alay ranges are the main link between the southeastern part of the global range of the species (particularly the Hindu Kush and the Karakoram ranges) and the Tien Shan system and the northern part of the range.

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The optimal habitat of the snow leopard in almost all parts of the country is located at an altitude of 2000–4500 m. However, in some areas, the terrain and the availability of prey drive snow leopards to lower elevations, even as low as 1000 m. While snow leopards inhabit alpine and subalpine zones with rugged relief, steep slopes, and deep gorges across most of its range, the eastern Pamirs are characterized by high-elevation plateaus and snow leopards there use alpine meadows abutting cliffs and other rocky formations.

Snow leopard population status Due to the inaccessibility of habitats, the snow leopard is still a difficult subject of observation and research, and therefore it is very difficult to estimate their numbers. In the mid-1960s, the number of snow leopards in Tajikistan was estimated at approximately 1000 individuals. Snow leopard hunting has been officially banned in Tajikistan since 1968. Until that time, due to attacks on livestock, the snow leopard was considered a harmful predator and was subjected to regular persecution by local hunters and shepherds. For example, from 1953 to 1965, procurement offices in Tajikistan purchased more than 450 snow leopard skins from hunters. This may indicate that despite a high rate of offtake, there was a stable population of the snow leopard in Tajikistan in the 1950–60s. However, given the lack of scientific population assessments during that period, it is little more than conjecture. The total number of snow leopards in Tajikistan is now officially estimated at 250 individuals (Red Book of the Republic of Tajikistan, 2017). Since 2012, camera traps and identification of individuals based on DNA analysis have been used to study the distribution and population of the snow leopard in Tajikistan. The studies covered selected areas of the range on individual mountain ranges (Sarikol, North Alichur, South Alichur, Shakhdarya, Rushan, Darvaz, Gissar, and Zeravshan ridges).

Analysis of the data confirms the presence of more than 130 snow leopard individuals in the surveyed areas. This assessment of the snow leopard population since 2012 has been carried out so far in a limited area of its range. For many years, there were no reliable data on the distribution of the snow leopard within the Gissar, Zeravshan, and Turkestan ranges (Gissar-Alay). While localized camera-trap studies have been conducted, there is as yet no reliable country-wide population estimate, but rather an educated guess of 250–280 snow leopards in Tajikistan, mostly concentrated in the Pamirs. Field research in June-August 2014–16 in the Gissar and Zerafshan ranges confirmed the presence of snow leopards and a preliminary estimate of eight individuals (ANCOT, Unpublished data). In the context of UNEPs Vanishing Treasures program in 2021, large-scale camera trapping was conducted across potential snow leopard habitat in upper Bartang of Western Pamir covering approximately 2000 km2 with 100 cameras and 18 individuals were identified (ANCOT, Unpublished data).

State of key prey species The main prey species of the snow leopard in Tajikistan include Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii), markhor (Capra falconeri), urial (Ovis vignei), red marmot (Marmota caudata), tolai hare (Lepus tolai), pika (Ochotona roylei), chukar (Alectoris chukar), Himalayan snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis), and Tibetan snowcock (T. tibetanus). Of these species, ibex, Marco Polo sheep, urial, and markhor are legally harvested by sport hunters. Sustainable use, through hunting tourism, can be an incentive to conserve these species, thus ensuring the availability of prey for the snow leopard and the integrity of the ecosystem and promoting socioeconomic development of local communities living in the snow leopard range.

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Protected areas where snow leopards occur There are 3 reserves, 1 biosphere reserve, 1 national park, 3 nature parks, and 13 reserves with regulated natural resource use in Tajikistan, which are located in different natural zones and cover the main types of natural ecosystems. The total area of protected areas is more than 3.1 million hectares, which is about 22% of the total territory of the country. Snow leopards are found in several protected areas, including Tajik National Park (26,116 km2), Zorkul State Reserve (SR) (877 km2), Romit SR (161 km2), Dashtijum SR (534 km2), three Natural Parks (Shirkent, Sarikhosor, Jagnob), and eight reserves with regulated natural resource use. A camera-trap study conducted in summer of 2016 in Zorkul SR showed the presence of at least 13 different snow leopards (Karimov et al., 2018). Marco Polo sheep, ibex, and marmots constitute the main prey for snow leopards in this reserve. Of great importance for the conservation of the snow leopard is the Tajik National Park, which is the largest park in Central Asia. Due to the complex mountainous terrain and the absence of most human activity, this park preserves untouched landscapes of the snow leopard. In 2013, the Tajik National Park was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Community-based and private conservancies In the Pamirs, including the westernmost edges in the Darvaz range, and in the Hazratisho range in Shuroabad, community and familybased conservancies have developed trophy hunting programs for ibex, argali, urial, and markhor that provide financial incentives to limit poaching of wild prey species and reduce livestock overgrazing. Such programs may have forestalled or even reversed local declines in ibex, argali, markhor, and snow leopard populations, but all of the typical caveats concerning limited

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evidence drawn from potentially biased population surveillance monitoring apply (e.g., Michel et al., 2015; ANCOT, Unpublished data). Surveys using both camera trap and fecal genetic methods have been conducted in several of these conservancies, providing lower bound estimates for snow leopard numbers and showing in some areas very high snow leopard abundance. A 2012 survey in the Murghab hunting concession in Jarty Gumbez (1000 km2) in the eastern Pamirs showed 19 snow leopards using camera data (23 snow leopards according to the genetic analysis) and 6 snow leopards using camera data (16 snow leopards according to the genetic analysis) in Pshart and Madiyan valleys (1000 km2), both sites also in the eastern Pamirs (Kachel et al., 2016). A 2013 survey in the Zighar conservancy (40 km2) in the Darvaz Range showed 6 snow leopards. Another 2013 survey in Darshaydara (500 km2) showed also 6 snow leopards and 1 snow leopard in nearby Zong (500 km2). A survey in 2014 in the Alichur conservancy (900 km2) in the eastern Pamirs showed 3 snow leopards (Panthera, Unpublished data). In the Ravmeddara conservancy (500 km2) in the Bartang valley and in Guldara conservancy and upper Bartang including Sarez and Tanimas, a survey conducted in 2019 showed the presence of 26 snow leopards. Community-based conservancies in Tajikistan that have implemented trophy-hunting programs for mountain ungulates received the 2014 International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) Markhor Award, highlighting the potential impact of community-based conservancies in Central Asia.

Threats to snow leopards in Tajikistan Snow leopards face many threats to their survival, ranging from retaliatory killing as a result of livestock-snow leopard conflict, illegal trade in snow leopards and their parts, and decline in the prey base.

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Decline of key prey species This occurs mainly because of poaching, which is the main limiting factor in the number of snow leopards. The reduction in populations of mountain ungulates in many parts of the country is suspected to have dramatically affected the population of snow leopards. Previously, during Soviet Union times, the population of Marco Polo sheep decreased from 70,000 animals in the 1960s to 25,000 animals in the early 1980s, due to intensive hunting and poaching, including from members of geological expeditions working each year in the Pamirs (National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, Institute of Zoology and Parasitology, Unpublished data). The civil war (1992–97) caused a further sharp decline in the population of mountain ungulates (ibex, markhor, urial, and Marco Polo sheep) given the general availability of weapons. In recent years, poaching has decreased in some places thanks to protected areas and hunting concessions that are actively interested in the conservation and sustainable use of Marco Polo sheep and ibex. This has led to a partial recovery in the populations of argali and ibex. Over the past decades, a large-scale census of the Siberian ibex, the main prey of the snow leopard, has not been carried out in Tajikistan. The total number of ibex throughout Tajikistan was previously estimated to be approximately 40,000 individuals. According to the latest data, the minimum number of Siberian ibex in the Pamirs is about 24,000 individuals (Oshurmamadov, 2021). The Marco Polo sheep population in the Pamirs is estimated every 5 years. In January 2018, numbers were estimated at 26,500 individuals. A survey conducted in NovemberDecember 2021, counted over 29,000 Marco Polo sheep (Unpublished Report of National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, Institute of Zoology and Parasitology YEAR?), and this increase is expected to have had positive effects on the snow leopard.

Urial is common in the low mountains of Southwestern Tajikistan (Aktau, Karatau-Pyanj, Buritau, Aruntau, Teriklitau) and adjacent mountain ranges (Vakhsh, Khazratishokh). In addition to poaching, urial populations are greatly influenced by overgrazing. The population of urial is estimated at 2700 individuals. The urial sheep, after the death of the last known specimen in 2013, has likely disappeared from the Tajik Wakhan and Badakhshan; populations in other parts of the country continue to decline and thus have little nutritional value for the snow leopard. Ibex have also witnessed a decline in many parts of Badakshan, but in some parts of the Pamir far away from human settlements the population is stable. Markhor are found in the southwestern part of the of Pamir range, in the Darvaz and Hazratishoh ranges along the border with Afghanistan. Conservation efforts in community-based and other hunting conservancies have resulted in a notable increase in markhor numbers. In March 2017, 1901 markhor were counted (Broghammer et al., 2017).

Degradation and fragmentation of habitat The past 20 years have witnessed increasing human pressure on mountain ecosystems and biodiversity in Tajikistan. Overgrazing, development of mineral deposits, intensive use of mountain land for farming, construction of new settlements and growth of existing mountain villages, construction of roads and new power lines, and increased erosion of mountain slopes create the preconditions for the degradation and fragmentation of snow leopard habitat, including that of its prey. Of particular relevance is the assessment of the impact of climate change on mountain ecosystems.

Reduction in the prey base as a result of competition with livestock The reduction in prey is also due to competition with livestock, as the number of domestic herds and lands allocated to pasture use

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increase. Over the past 20 years, the number of small cattle in the Pamirs (Murghab region) has increased by 40%. According to statistics, there are currently 103,218 cattle and 342,805 small livestock within the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region. Overgrazing and haying on the alpine meadows are thought to deprive Marco Polo sheep and ibex from access to grazing grounds, especially in the winter and significantly reduces their survival and reproduction.

Decrease in prey availability as a result of collection of wild plants for fuel From the 1990s until 2015, due to the energy crisis, the main natural resource used by local people in the Pamirs was teresken (Ceratoides papposa), which was widely used as fuelwood. Intensive uprooting of teresken year after year has led to the degradation of the high steppe ecosystem and pastures (Breckle and Wucherer, 2006). This causes shortages of winter forage and general land degradation. The most affected areas seem to be those where argali are already absent due to poaching and grazing. In recent years, due to the provision of local population with coal and other alternative energy sources, as well as the reconstruction of the Murgab hydroelectric power station, the pressure on teresken communities has significantly decreased.

Poaching in connection with illegal trade in snow leopard skins, bones, and derivatives Snow leopard skin is a valuable commodity and in great demand. Previously, the specialized local poachers used traps and rifles to kill snow leopards for their fur and other body parts. More than 20 traps were confiscated in 2014 in the eastern Pamirs alone. Often, attacks on livestock are used as an excuse to kill snow leopards and then illegally sell their body parts. In recent years, in connection with the strengthening of conservation activities by nature

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protection inspectors, protected area rangers, hunting concessioners, and community-based organizations, the poaching of snow leopards may have decreased. Anecdotal information provided by the Committee for Environmental Protection under the Government of Tajikistan suggests that each year 4 to 5 snow leopards are killed for their skin and other parts. Demand for snow leopard bones comes mainly from outside Tajikistan and with increasing trade relationships with neighboring countries, border patrols lack the capacity to address the illegal trade of snow leopard parts going out of the country. At the beginning of 2021, as part of the UNDP-GEF project “Conservation and sustainable use of the Pamir-Alay and Tien Shan ecosystems for the conservation of the snow leopard and the sustainable life of communities,” a hunting concessioner created a 100 ha rehabilitation center in the Murgab region for the maintenance of wounded and sick snow leopards.

Retaliatory killing as a result of attacks on livestock Livestock depredation and retaliatory killings are observed every year in the Pamirs. In an extensive analysis of carnivore distributions and livestock depredation in the Pamirs conducted in 2019–20, snow leopard depredation risk was consistently high throughout the valleys of the western Pamirs, and particularly elevated in communities along the middle to upper reaches of Yazgulom, Bartang, Gunt, Roshtqala and Wakhan Valleys (Kachel et al., 2022a). Many of the snow leopard attacks occur in late fall and winter when there is a lot of snow in mountains and important alternative wild prey like marmots (Kachel et al. 2022b), and newborn ungulates are not available. Poorly protected corrals create conditions not only for mass killing of livestock but also for capture and retaliation against snow leopards as well. In most cases, the attacking snow leopard enters the corral from an

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opening in the roof and cannot get out. The snow leopard then kills all the animals in the corral. The fate of snow leopards stuck in pens varies from killing and sale on the black market to rehabilitation and translocation by nature conservation authorities. It is not clear that such translocations are successful by any measure, for example, in preventing future livestock depredations or preserving the attacking snow leopard. Only one such animal in Tajikistan has been monitored after release: in 3 months of GPS location data obtained before collar failure, the snow leopard never displayed behaviors characteristic of hunting wild or domestic ungulates and never settled into a stable home range (Panthera, Unpublished data). It should be noted that a clear mechanism for compensating the damage caused by the snow leopard to pastoralists by state bodies has not yet been developed. Damage is occasionally— but unpredictably—compensated by international funds and environmental projects, but the unpredictability of these ad hoc compensation opportunities seems to have contributed to a perverse incentive for pastoralists to capture the offending snow leopard as evidence to boost their chances of receiving compensation. Predator proofing of corrals has been an effective means of reducing conflicts with snow leopards in Tajikistan and other parts of snow leopard range (see Chapter 18.1). Since 2013, national and international conservation organizations (e.g., and the Association of Nature Conservation Organizations of Tajikistan, Panthera, and the Aga Khan Foundation) in collaboration with local livestock herders have jointly predator proofed more than 120 nighttime corrals in numerous villages across the Pamirs. No depredation events have been recorded at any site where corrals have been fortified, thus eliminating retaliatory incidents in those areas. Snow leopards remain potentially vulnerable to indiscriminate retaliation and control efforts targeting wolves, particularly in the Pamirs, where wolf attacks on livestock are commonplace,

and coordinated culling efforts have been undertaken in recent years (Kachel et al. 2022a).

Legal protection In the first edition of the Red Book of Tajikistan (Narzikulov, 1988), the snow leopard was given the status of a “rare species with a declining trend.” In 2015. the second edition of the Red Book of Tajikistan was published, in which the snow leopard was given the status of “endangered” to be comparable to the IUCN category (IUCN, 2001). At the same time, the conservation status of the main prey species of the snow leopard (markhor, Marco Polo sheep, urial) was also revised, taking into account the new categories of IUCN (2001). The system of protection and use of resources of rare and endangered species of animals and plants listed in the Red Book is regulated by the laws of the Republic of Tajikistan “On Environmental Protection” (2011), “On Fauna” (2008), “On protection and use of flora” (2004), “On specially protected natural areas” (2011), “On hunting and game management” (2014), “On pastures” (2013), Forest Code (2011), as well as a number of by-laws. In accordance with the rates for compensation for damage, provided for by the Decree of the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan in 2014 “The procedure and amount of compensation for damage caused to the forest fund and other objects of the flora and fauna by individuals and legal entities,” a fine of 6000 times the calculated value is levied. The damage caused, which exceeds 30 times the calculated value, is considered in accordance with the Criminal Code of Government of the Republic of Tajikistan (1998). In addition, for violations of the current legislation, according to the Administrative Code of Government of the Republic of Tajikistan (2008), individuals and legal entities that have committed offenses, depending on their types and degree, are subject to fines.

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References

In 2000, Tajikistan ratified the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), where snow leopards are listed under Appendix I. In 2015, Tajikistan joined the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES).

The snow leopard action plan In 2018, by a resolution of the Committee for Environmental Protection under the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan, the National Action Plan for the Conservation of the Snow Leopard in Tajikistan for the period 2018–22 was approved. Currently, the National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, with the support of ANCOT, UNEP and within the framework of the Project “Conservation and sustainable use of the Pamir-Alay and Tien Shan ecosystems for the protection of the snow leopard and sustainable livelihoods of communities,” is initiating the process of updating the national action plan. The draft plan is still awaiting final government approval.

NSLEP 2014–20 In 2013, the Tajik government endorsed the National Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Priorities (NSLEP) plan, developed in the context of the Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP, 2013).

Future needs and priorities Priorities include reducing human-snow leopard conflicts, through the use of predator proof corrals, livestock guard dogs, and improved husbandry practices. Therefore, financial resources need to be identified to help communities in these actions. Addressing the threats to the key snow leopard prey (Marco

487

Polo sheep, ibex and markhor) in particular from poaching is also critical and is being accomplished by the community conservancies and the antipoaching networks. These need to be expanded to have a greater impact across the range in Tajikistan. The capacity of protected area staff to also has to be increased, including by providing equipment and vehicles to patrol the areas. It is also necessary to establish collaboration and partnerships across different ministries (such as Security and Customs) to increase the ability to track and combat illegal trade in snow leopards and their parts, including through technical support.

References Breckle, S.W., Wucherer, W., 2006. Vegetation of the Pamir (Tajikistan): land use and desertification problems. In: Spehn, E.M., Liberman, M., Korner, C. (Eds.), Land Use Change and Mountain Biodiversity. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 227–239. Broghammer, T., Herche, C., Lovari, S., 2017. Survey of Populations of Heptner’s Markhor Capra falconeri heptneri in Tajikistan. IUCN Species Survival Commission Caprinae Specialist Group, https://doi.org/10.13140/ RG.2.2.13523.60961. Government of the Republic of Tajikistan, 1998. Criminal Code of the Republic of Tajikistan. Government of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe (in Russian). Government of the Republic of Tajikistan, 2008. Administrative Code of the Republic of Tajikistan. Government of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe (In Russian). GSLEP, 2013. Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program: A New International Effort to Save the Snow Leopard and Conserve High-Mountain Ecosystems. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. Karimov, K., Kachel, S.M., Hackl€ander, K., 2018. Responses of snow leopards, wolves and wild ungulates to livestock grazing in the Zorkul Strictly Protected Area, Tajikistan. PLoS ONE 13 (11), e0208329. Kachel, S.M., McCarthy, K.P., McCarthy, T.M., Oshurmamadov, N., 2016. Investigating the potential impact of trophy hunting of wild ungulates on snow leopard Panthera uncia conservation in Tajikistan. Oryx 51, 597–604. IUCN, 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1, second. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

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38. Snow leopard in Tajikistan

Kachel, S., Anderson, K., Shokirov, Q., 2022a. Predicting carnivore habitat use and livestock depredation risk with false-positive multi-state occupancy models. Biol. Conserv. 271, 109588. Kachel, S.M., Karimov, K., Wirsing, A.J., 2022b. Predator niche overlap and partitioning and potential interactions in the mountains of Central Asia. J. Mammal. gyac026. Li, J., McCarthy, T.M., Wang, H., Weckworth, B.V., Schaller, G.B., Mishra, C., Lu, Z., Beissinger, S.R., 2016. Climate refugia of snow leopards in High Asia. Biol. Conserv. 203, 188–196.

Michel, S., Rosen Michel, T., Saidov, A., Karimov, K., Alidodov, M., Kholmatov, I., 2015. Population status of Heptner’s markhor Capra falconeri heptneri in Tajikistan: challenges for conservation. Oryx 49, 506–513. Narzikulov, M.N., 1988. Red Date Book of Tajik SSR. Publishing Hause “Donish”, Dushanbe. 336pp. Oshurmamadov, N., 2021. The Ecology of the Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) in the Pamirs. PhD dissertation abstract. Dushanbe. 29 p. (in Russian). Anon., 2017. The Red Book of the Republic of Tajikistan, second ed. 497 pp.

V. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

C H A P T E R

39 The snow leopard in Uzbekistan Alexander Esipova, Mariya Gritsinaa, Elena Bykovaa, Bakhtyor Aromovb, Mikhail Paltsync, and Yelizaveta Protasd a

Institute of Zoology, Uzbek Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan bGissar State Nature Reserve, Shakhrisabz, Uzbekistan cSole Proprietorship, East Syracuse, NY, United States dCentral Asia Programme, WWF Russia, Moscow, Russia

Snow leopard status Uzbekistan is the range state with the smallest snow leopard (Panthera uncia) population, on the westernmost edge of the range. The Uzbekistan population remains relatively unstudied, fragmented, and in many ways data deficient. It is nonetheless a very important, as a healthy peripheral population serves as an indicator of the health of the species as a whole. The snow leopard is included in the Red Book of the Republic of Uzbekistan (Esipov and Bykova, 2019b), as a locally endangered species and is subject to a set of protection measures. The fine for hunting a snow leopard is 300 times the minimum wage for citizens and legal entities of Uzbekistan, and 40,000 US dollars for foreign citizens, converted at the exchange rate of the Central Bank. The penalty is calculated for each snow leopard or body part (for example, head, skin, and other), regardless of age, size, weight, or sex. Depending on the severity of the violation, criminal liability may also arise in accordance with the Criminal Code of the Republic of

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00058-3

Uzbekistan (Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. 290 of October 20, 2014). In Uzbekistan, the snow leopard is found in the Western Tien Shan (Ugam, Maidantal, Talass Alatau, Pskem, and Chatkal ranges) and the Western Pamir-Alay system (Turkestan, Zarafshan, Baysun, and Gissar ranges) (Fig. 39.1). Snow leopard habitats in Uzbekistan are transboundary with the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, and the Republic of Tajikistan. The total area of snow leopard habitat in Uzbekistan is around 10,000–11,500 km2, about 0.36% of the global range (Kreuzberg-Mukhina et al., 2004; Esipov et al., 2016; Paltsyn et al., 2022). In 2018–2019, as part of the UNDP/GEF/State Committee on Ecology and Environmental Protection’s project on “Sustainable natural resource and forest management in key mountainous areas important for globally significant biodiversity,” we started developing and testing the “Snow Leopard Monitoring Program in Uzbekistan” based on the existing “Methodological Recommendations for Testing the Snow Leopard Grid

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FIG. 39.1

39. The snow leopard in Uzbekistan

Current distribution of snow leopard in Uzbekistan. Courtesy: Anna Ten & Rustam Ibragimov.

Monitoring System in Russia and Central Asia.” The monitoring program is based on two approaches: 1. Occupancy estimate based on a survey of a set of transects within each grid cell (spatial replicates) (MacKenzie et al., 2006); 2. Estimating population density via the spatial capture-recapture (SCR) method (Royle et al., 2014) based on camera traps ( Jackson et al., 2005; Wong and Kachel, 2016) and fecal DNA analysis ( Janecka et al., 2011; Caragiulo et al., 2016). In the course of snow leopard monitoring in 2018–19, a total of 145 days (904 person-days) were spent in the field, and 113 spatial grid cells

were examined. The presence of snow leopards was found in 34 grid cells (30%). The density of snow leopard signs in different grids varied from 0 to 0.33/km of transect length, with maximum values found between October and May, both in the Tien Shan and Gissar. Also during this same period, the maximum densities of wild ungulates (ibex, wild boar, and Siberian roe deer) were recorded in snow leopard habitat (2.9–5.8 individuals /10 km2) and the minimum density of domestic animals in alpine pastures (0–67 head /10 km2). However, despite initiating these studies, the selected methodological approach and the primary data obtained, calculation of population size is still based on expert estimates.

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The total snow leopard population in Uzbekistan is estimated at 96–107 individuals, with 46–47 in the Western Tien Shan and 50–60 in the Western Pamir-Alay. The population size also varies seasonally due to transboundary movements. As of today, there is still no reliable information on some parts of the range including Zaamin Reserve, Jizzakh region, Gissar range outside Gissar Reserve, and the Tupalang and Surhandarya river basins.

Habitat In Uzbekistan, snow leopards typically inhabit elevations of 2200–4300 m asl, preferring areas with rugged topography, such as rocky gorges and crags interspersed with small plateaus and alpine vegetation. This landscape provides good cover and is inhabited by Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), its most important prey species in Uzbekistan. Snow leopards usually stay in the open juniper (Juniperus) forest zone and higher. In winter, snow leopards migrate vertically, following the ungulates to lower elevations, usually not descending below the juniper zone, around 2500–2800 m, except in very snowy winters. For example, in Western Tien Shan (Pskem mountain range), the snow leopard has been regularly detected at elevations of 1500–2000 m asl in winter (Gritsina et al., 2016).

Prey species In Uzbekistan, the Siberian ibex constitutes the snow leopard’s key prey species. Secondary prey sources can be wild boar (Sus scrofa), Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), red marmot (Marmota caudata), Menzbier’s marmot (Marmota menzbieri), tolai hare (Lepus tolai), red pika (Ochotona rutila), relict ground squirrel (Spermophilus relictus), and various rodents, as well as ground-nesting birds, such as Himalayan snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis), chukor partridge (Alectoris chukar), and other species (Ishunin, 1961; Aromov, 2016). In Gissar

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Reserve, the red marmot constitutes a significant prey species, particularly in spring/early summer. Occasional depredation of domestic livestock (cattle, goats and sheep, horses, and donkeys) does occur. Kill site inspections were documented in Gissar Reserve in 1981–2013 and 2015–2020 (Aromov, 2016; authors’ unpublished data). During this time period, 153 Siberian ibex killed by leopards were discovered and described. Based on these findings, snow leopard kills comprise 60% male and 40% female ibex. Male ibex killed by snow leopards were found to be in the 5–7, 10, and 13–15 year age classes. Outside the reserve, over the same period of time, 43 kills of domestic animals such as sheep, goats, horses, and cattle were found (Aromov, 2016). Siberian ibex The Siberian ibex is widespread in both the Western Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay, and its geographic range largely coincides with that of the snow leopard. Males are more frequently preyed upon than females (see above). Approximately 1200–1300 reside in the Western Tien Shan (Dyakin, 2002), of which around 400 are in Chatkal Reserve (Bykova and Esipov, 2006; according to Chatkal Reserve monitoring data) (Fig. 39.2). Gissar Reserve in the Pamir-Alay contains up to 2600 individuals (according to Gissar Reserve monitoring data). The smallest population, 35–40 individuals, is in Zaamin Reserve. Menzbier’s marmot An endemic species of the Western Tien Shan. Its range is divided into two separate areas, with two subspecies, the northern Talas range and southern Chatkal range. The Talas part of the range is located in Kazakhstan on the Ugam ridge. The Chatkal part of the range is located in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. In Uzbekistan, it is confined to the Chatkal ridge and the Angren plateau (Fig. 39.3). In the past, it also occurred on the Kuramin Ridge in Tajikistan, where it has now gone locally extinct

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39. The snow leopard in Uzbekistan

FIG. 39.2 Siberian ibex is the main prey species of snow leopard in typical habitats. Ochildy, Chatkal reserve. Photo credit: Dmitry Golovtsov.

FIG. 39.3

Menzbier’s marmot on Chatkal ridge. Photo credit: Alexander Esipov.

(Kapitonov, 1978; Mashkin and Baturin, 1993; Esipov, 2005; Esipov and Bykova, 2019a). The total population size is estimated at 10,000 individuals with an average density of 3–5 individuals per km2 across its range (Esipov and Bykova, 2019a). Red marmot Found in the mountains of the Western Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai (Gissar ridge). In the Tien Shan, it is distributed in the Ugam and Pskem

ridges (Korelov, 1956), and in the eastern part of the Chatkal ridge (Mitropolsky, 2005). Found sporadically on the eastern part of the Turkestan ridge (Davydov, 1964). The Western Tien Shan population is estimated at 3000–4200 individuals (Mitropolsky, 2005; monitoring data of the Ugam-Chatkal National Natural Park) and about 4000 in the Gissar State Reserve (Esipov et al., 2000; monitoring data of the Gissar Reserve). Kamashi and Yakkabag State forest sanctuaries held 340 individuals on 71,300 ha in 2014–2017 (monitoring data of the Kamashi and Yakkabag forest sanctuaries). The species is decreasing and is completely extirpated in the upper reaches of the Kalasai, Igrisu, and Jindydarya rivers up to the borders of Gissar reserve (Bykova and Esipov, 2005).

Sympatric carnivores The gray wolf (Canis lupus), Turkestan lynx (Lynx isabellinus), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) might compete with the snow leopard for prey, but further study is needed. Wolf counts have not been conducted in a long time, but population size for Uzbekistan overall was estimated at 1500 including 1200 individuals in the mountain regions and 300 in the deserts (according to unpublished government figures in 1992). The population has likely decreased since then, but more recent studies conclude that the wolf is a common species (Kashkarov, 2002b; Mitropolsky, 2005), and its numbers have increased. In the Chatkal Nature Reserve there are 1.5–2.5 wolf observations per 100 cameratrap photos, with at least 2 known breeding pairs (D. Golovtsov, personal communication) in 2016–2020. The overall wolf population in Western Tien Shan is estimated at 230–250 individuals, present at all elevations (Dyakin, 2002). Wolf status along the Gissar Range is not well known. In the Gissar Reserve, there are approximately 50 individuals, and the population has been increasing over the past 5 years (monitoring data of the Gissar Reserve). In the Zaamin Reserve, there are camera-trap photos

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addition, herding dogs can seasonally compete with the snow leopard for food as they prey on marmots, ground squirrels, and juvenile ungulates (for example, wild boar).

Existing protected areas and their conservation effectiveness (Chatkal, Gissar and Zaamin reserves)

FIG. 39.4 A lynx female with two kittens in UgamChatkal biosphere reserve (Bashkyzylsay). Photo credit: Dmitry Golovtsov.

documenting at least 5–7 individuals (M. Khasanov, personal communication). The lynx is listed in the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan. It has been sporadically reported in the Tashkent Region, extending into neighboring Kazakhstan (Mitropolsky, 2005; B. Tuichiev, Burichmulo Forestry Farm and A. Mokh, personal communications). It was photographed by camera traps in the Chatkal range (Fig. 39.4), altering our understanding of its distribution in the Western Tien Shan (Bykova et al., 2018; Esipov et al., 2014, 2015), where Turkestan lynx inhabits a wide range of altitudes, from 1300 to 3550 m asl. The relative abundance index (RAI) of lynx in Chatkal Reserve (Maidantal site) is 1.40; 0.20 in the Bashkyzylsay site of the Ugam-Chatkal biosphere reserve; 0.51 in the Shavazsay site of the Ugam-Chatkal biosphere reserve (Bykova et al., 2018). In Gissar, the lynx has been recently confirmed in all available habitat types (Y. Protas and B. Aromov, Gissar Reserve, Uzbekistan, unpublished data). Population in the Gissar reserve is about 150 individuals and has been increasing over the past 5 years according to yearly monitoring data. In Zaamin Reserve, there are also regular observations, including camera-trap observations (M. Khasanov, personal communication). In

In Uzbekistan the snow leopard is protected in 3 Strict Reserves (SR): Chatkal, Gissar, and Zaamin; one Biosphere reserve: Ugam-Chatkal (established by splitting Chatkal SR into two sites) and 2 National Parks (NP): Ugam-Chatkal and Zaamin (Figs. 39.5 and 39.6, Table 39.1). Together, these encompass approximately 65% of the total snow leopard habitat. However, only about 7.5% of the total area is inside Strict Reserves. The Ugam-Chatkal NP covers most of the Western Tien Shan mountain range and directly borders Sairam-Ugam NP and Aksu-Jabagly Reserve in Kazakhstan, and Besh-Aral Reserve in Kyrgyzstan; the new Padysha-Ata Reserve in Kyrgyzstan is also located close by, thus greatly increasing overall protection, since animals are able to migrate along existing ecological corridors. However, no neighboring protected areas exist near Gissar Reserve. Snow leopard population density is likely close to maximum inside reserves and is much higher than in neighboring unprotected territories (Mitropolskaya, 2009). However, PAs do not afford complete protection, as about 35% of snow leopard habitat is outside protected areas, and there is a high level of poaching and anthropogenic disturbance all over. Where the protected areas are small and do not include seasonal habitats (e.g., ibex winter range lies outside Chatkal Reserve), the ungulate population can migrate and experience increased seasonal poaching (Mitropolskaya, 2009).

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FIG. 39.5

39. The snow leopard in Uzbekistan

Snow leopard protected areas in Western Tien Shan (Uzbekistan).

Chatkal biosphere reserve The snow leopard population is estimated at 2–3 individuals. From 2017 to 2019, 4 photographs of snow leopards were obtained in the basins of the Tereklisay and Tashkeskensai rivers, at 2000–3000 m asl, from mid-August to the end of October. In 2018–2019, the data were collected as part of monitoring using SCR approach in Snow Leopard Grid (under GEF/ UNDP/State Committee on Ecology and Environmental Protection). The snow leopard population was likely negatively affected by the administrative expiration of the wildlife sanctuary formerly located in the Akbulak River basin bordering on the reserve. Currently, the process is underway to create a buffer zone for the

reserve, which will include the territory of the Pulatkhan plateau, which contains snow leopards, Siberian ibex, and Menzbier’s marmot. Gissar biosphere reserve The largest Strict Reserve in the country contains the highest snow leopard population size and density. The most complete data on Uzbekistan snow leopard ecology comes from here. The latest population estimate is a maximum of 32–35, varying seasonally with movements across the border. Good snow leopard habitat inside the reserve totals about 500 km2, in the Kizilsu and Tanhaz river valleys and the mountains around them. The snow leopards mainly remain in the alpine and subalpine meadows

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FIG. 39.6

495

Snow leopard protected areas in Western Pamir-Alay (Uzbekistan).

in the summer, coming down into the open juniper forest in the winter, shifting between 4300 m and 2200 m elevation. In the Gilan sector in the north, snow leopards are present only in the warmer months, migrating to the warmer south-facing slopes across the border in Tajikistan in winter. The population has been steadily increasing in all the years for which data are available (Table 39.2). This may be due to improved protection measures implemented since the reserve’s inception in 1975, lack of tourists, relocation of 2 villages, and more recently, seasonal emigration of human population for temporary work. Data have been collected since 1981 with regular twice-yearly sign counts along permanent

transect routes in the reserve, allowing comparison over several decades. Visual encounters occasionally take place, sometimes including cubs. Thirty-nine visual encounters with cubs have been recorded between 1981 and 2020. In 2013, the first camera-trap study was launched in Gissar Reserve. Although inadequate data were obtained to estimate population size, the presence of snow leopards was confirmed photographically for the first time, with at least 2 individuals and 6 capture events over 3 field seasons in 2013 and 2014. In 2018, the Snow Leopard Monitoring Program developed as part of the UNDP/GEF/Goscomecology project was initiated, and as a result there were 32 capture events in 2018–2020. Snow leopards

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496 TABLE 39.1

Name of pa (Established year)

39. The snow leopard in Uzbekistan

Snow leopard habitat in Uzbekistan coverage by protected areas. Snow leopard presence Geographical placement

IUCN category

Year round

Seasonal

Tashkent City Government

WEST TIEN-SHAN Maidantal section: north-facing slope of Chatkal range

Ia

+

+

429.5 (incl. core, buffer, and transition zones)

Tashkent City Government

WEST TIEN-SHAN Boshkyzylsai section: western Chatkal range and surrounded areas

None

Kashkadarya Region

942.3 (incl. core and buffer zones)

State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan for Nature Protection

PAMIR-ALAY West-facing slope of Gissar range

Ia

Jizzakh Region

268

Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of the Republic of Uzbekistan

PAMIR-ALAY North-facing slope of the Turkestan range

Ia

UgamChatkal National Park (1990)

Tashkent Region

5746

Tashkent City Government

WEST TIEN-SHAN Pskem River basin, western and northern slopes of Chatkal range

II

Zaamin National Park (1976)

Jizzakh Region

241

Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of the Republic of Uzbekistan

PAMIR-ALAY North-facing slope of the Turkestan range

II

Location

Area km2

Administered by

Chatkal Biosphere Reserve (1947)

Tashkent Region

247.06

UgamChatkal Biosphere Reserve (2016)

Tashkent Region

Gissar Biosphere Reserve (1983) Zaamin mountain and juniper Reserve (1926, 1960)

Strict reserves

+

+

+

+

National parks

have been recorded in all parts of Gissar Reserve, but the largest number of captures was made in 2020 (28 capture events). The largest number of captures was made in the Tankhaz area (21 of 28 captures), where snow leopards are found in Gandagarim, Kashkabulok, and Karankule sites at an altitude of 3200–4300 m asl (Fig. 39.7).

+

+

Snow leopards were also identified using noninvasive genetic analysis of mitochondrial 12S RNA, obtained from feces (this research is conducted in the framework of the EF/ UNDP/State Committee on Ecology and Environmental Protection project) (Nishanova et al., 2019a,b, 2020). By using this method, 8 individual snow leopards were distinguished,

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TABLE 39.2 Estimated snow leopard population in Gissar Biosphere Reserve in 2015–20 (Gissar Reserve, Uzbekistan, unpublished data). 2015

25

2016

26

2017

24–26

2018

26–28

2019

28–32

2020

32–35

497

improved, and the reserve staff started to conduct regular monitoring. The snow leopard population is likely very small; earlier it was estimated as 2–3 individuals. Current status is unknown. Аt the end of 2020, camera-trap research was introduced. Zaamin National Park Zaamin National Park is located on the northern slopes of the Turkestan ridge on the border with Tajikistan. Snow leopards are recorded on the territory of the park as vagrants, and their numbers are unknown. Ugam-Chatkal National Park

FIG. 39.7 Camera trap photo of two snow leopards (male and female) in Kashbulak, Tankhaz site, Gissar Reserve in 2020. Photo credit: Gissar Nature Reserve/UNDP.

3 from the Gilan area, 3 from the Kyzylsu area, 1 from the Miraki area, and 1 from the Tanhaz area of Gissar Reserve. There is ongoing research to determine the sex–age composition of the population. Snow leopard population status still has not been studied in areas around Gissar Reserve where it might be present, such as the Tupalang River basin or Surkhandarya region of Uzbekistan (Western Gissar). Zaamin reserve In the past, the Zaamin Reserve did not conduct research or sign counts because this protected area is entirely inside a designated border zone and was closed to all visitors, including researchers. Currently, the situation

The Ugam-Chatkal National Park covers most of the Western Tien Shan mountains located in the Tashkent region, with the exception of the northern slopes of the Kuramin ridge. The Chatkal Nature Reserve and the Ugam-Chatkal Biosphere Reserve are part of the Ugam-Chatkal National Park. The park borders on the Sairam-Ugam National Park and the Aksu-Dzhabagly Nature Reserve in Kazakhstan and is near the Besh-Aral and Padysha-Ata reserves in Kyrgyzstan. The existence and proximity of these protected areas in the Western Tien Shan significantly enhances their conservation effect, since animals are able to move between them along existing ecological corridors. Camera-trap images of 5 snow leopards were obtained in Ugam-Chatkal National Park (Pskem sub-region) in 2015–2019. In 2018–2019, data were collected as part of monitoring using SCR approach in Snow Leopard Grid (under GEF/UNDP/State Committee on Ecology and Environmental Protection). The best habitats are the Oygaing, Akbulak, and Sargardon areas. According to expert evaluation, the number of snow leopards in the park is estimated at 10–15 individuals.

Planned protected area expansion The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (National Biodiversity Strategy Project Steering Committee, 1998) calls for extending

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the protected area network and increasing the total area covered to 10% of the country. The Strategy for the Conservation of Biological Diversity in the Republic of Uzbekistan for the period 2019–2028 was approved in 2019. The new strategy includes targets related to the protected area network and aims to expand total area of PAs to 12% of the country. At the development stage of this strategy in 2019, the PAs covered only 4.64% of the country’s area; currently, it has increased to 8.46%. The Snow leopard conservation action plan in Uzbekistan for 2021–2030 was approved in 2021 and includes actions to optimize and increase territorial protection for snow leopards: – Conduct zoning of the Ugam-Chatkal State National Natural Park, allocating 51,300 ha for the creation of a strict reserve in the upper reaches of the Pskem River (by 2022). – Create a new national park called “Upper Tupalang” in the Surkhandarya region in the upper reaches of the Tupalang river (by 2022). We also recommend the following steps to optimize protection and expand the protected area network: (1) Expand the Chatkal Reserve by adding the Akbulak River Basin and several territories on the southern slopes of Chatkal range, specifically the south-facing slopes of Kurgantash mountain, which serves as a wintering area for ibex and snow leopards; create an ecological corridor between Boshkyzylsay and Maidantal sections of the reserve. (2) Expand Zaamin Reserve and Zaamin National Park by including the north-facing slopes of the Turkestan Range.

Threats Traditional snow leopard hunting Historically, snow leopards were hunted for skins, both for clothing and status. Killing a snow leopard was considered prestigious and

demonstrated the hunter’s skill. In the Soviet era, red-listing and hunting bans were enacted, though poaching still occurred. In the period from 1960 to 1995, 11 snow leopards were killed near the Gissar Reserve (Aromov, 2001). A survey of the local population (Bykova et al., 2004) revealed snow leopard hunting by the local community. The survey covered the period from 1975 to 2003, and 6 out of 10 cases revealed by the survey related to hunting snow leopards for their skin or for sale to private zoos. The analysis showed that for the period of the survey, 3–4 snow leopards were harvested annually in the Tien Shan part of the range; 2 in the Turkestan part of the range, and 1 in the Sangardak part of the range. The latest poaching of snow leopards occurred in the Akbulak river basin (Western Tien Shan) in 2004, and an attempt was made to sell the skin for USD 1000 (A. Nuridjanov, personal communication). Live capture of cubs and adults Although cubs were not captured from this region during the Soviet era, it later became popular to capture young cubs for private zoos. By the early 2000s, there were multiple documented cases of illegal captures. A cub would sell for about USD 1000 on the illegal market and a live adult could bring USD 5000-10,000. Current information on the capture and selling of individuals is not available. Conflicts with local herders There is a widespread belief that snow leopards adversely impact the domestic animal population. In reality, this is greatly exaggerated, and snow leopards attack domestic livestock only occasionally. Goats and sheep are depredated the most, with cattle, horses, and donkeys less frequently. A total of 82 cases of snow leopards attacking domestic animals have been recorded for the Gissar Range outside the reserve. In one single attack, 35 individual domestic animals were killed, although the

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Snow leopard status

average is 5.5 per case, and retaliatory killing after such incidents does occur (Bykova et al., 2004). Such incidents may be related to a diminished natural prey base, as a result of disease, overhunting, etc., which forces snow leopards to switch to other prey types. Predation on livestock increases in winter, when preying upon ibex becomes harder due to heavy snow. In summer, livestock herds are often left unguarded in the daytime, or guarded by children, who cannot always protect the animals. Poor construction of summer corrals contributes to this problem, since they are easy to enter (low walls, no roof ), but at the same time prevent livestock from escaping. In the winter, snow leopards may penetrate pens through roofs covered only with reeds. Villages near reserves also pose a problem; for example, Gissar Reserve is surrounded by 11 Uzbek and Tajik villages. Conflict between the reserve and the mostly unemployed residents of Tashkurgan and Chopukh villages was finally resolved through forced relocation of the 500 villagers into low-lying farmland in the 2000s. Armed human conflict Minefields, which are a relic of the civil war in neighboring Tajikistan, were located along the border near Gissar and Zaamin Reserves where animals cross during seasonal migrations. There are known cases of brown bear (Ursus arctos), ibex, and other large animals triggering mines. Recently, the mines were defused. Natural mortality Western Tien Shan receives deep snow in winter, and avalanches are common. Local residents say at least 3 snow leopards have been killed by avalanches while hunting ibex in the Pskem river valley in recent years. Decrease of prey species populations Loss of wild ungulates is a significant threat. The ibex is intensively poached along its entire range. On average, 30 ibex are poached each

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winter just from Pskem Village in UgamChatkal National Park (Kashkarov, 2002a). The Pamir-Alay ibex are vulnerable to poaching even inside protected areas. Despite large sections of the Turkestan and Gissar ranges being classified as border regions with highly restricted access, ibex populations are heavily poached near the Tajik border. Disease periodically causes prey populations to decrease. For example, an outbreak of sarcoptic mange caused a steep decline of ibex populations in the 1970s. Subsistence hunting Traditional hunting by local residents for meat and skins is illegal and not easily measured. Target species are ibex and wild boar harvested for meat and skins and marmots collected for their purported medicinal properties. Regulations limiting travel and tourism in mountain border regions, and the ban on possession of rifles by civilians, are intended to stabilize or increase wild ungulate numbers. However, the low quality of life in the remote mountain villages and loose law enforcement result in continued poaching. Residents of remote villages usually possess very limited understanding of hunting laws and poorly understand the objectives of protected areas. Wildlife is perceived as a free, unlimited resource. People are not concerned with sustainable use because they have short-term goals. Sport hunting Hunting for sport is practiced mainly by city residents, who usually hunt legally, although unlicensed hunts have been reported. Birds are usually the main object, with ungulates taking second place. Legal hunting has resulted in ungulate population declines. For example, in the late 1980s, commercial wild boar hunting in West Tien Shan led to a disruption of breeding female numbers and a steep decline in overall population size. Today, that population is on the increase, but has still not recovered to its former size. Wild boar is not the preferred snow

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leopard prey, but this demonstrates the effects of overexploitation on a formerly numerous species. Disturbance factors: Human land use, collection of natural products High mountain regions are frequently visited by pastoralists, tourists, hunters, and residents collecting herbs, nuts, and fruit. Recreational activity in Uzbekistan is largely associated with the mountain regions, which contain numerous resorts, vacation homes, children’s camps, etc. Recreational activity creates ever-increasing pressure on mountain areas, due to urban population growth, hiking, skiing, paragliding, rafting, and other sports, particularly in the Tien Shan Range around Tashkent, and less so in the Pamir-Alay Mountains. A new disturbance factor is the construction of a number of hydroelectric power plants (according to the Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan dated 05/02/2017 “On the program of measures for the further development of hydropower for 2017–2021”), some of which are located in or near snow leopard habitat (see, for example, the Pskem hydroelectric power plant, which will become the second largest plant in Uzbekistan after Charvak HPP). The construction and expansion of mountain villages, road building and electrification, use of mountainsides for food cultivation (fruit and nut trees, cereals, potato), and tree cutting all contribute significantly to wildlife habitat loss and soil erosion. Grazing: Competition between wild prey and livestock Use of high elevation alpine meadows for seasonal grazing is widespread in the country. In the Soviet era, these pastures were used by both local pastoralists, as well as those from nearby republics. Today herd sizes have shrunk due to economic hardship. Use of pastures is allowed only for Uzbekistan nationals, and only if they have a license granted by the appropriate

agency. Such a license stipulates the type and number of animals to be grazed. Until 1990, the Pskem River basin was under active agricultural use. All alpine territories were used for grazing from March to September, up to 4500 m elevation, mostly by Kyrgyz herders under long-term lease agreements. Such use stopped in the early 1990s when the Central Asian Republics gained independence. The Chatkal and Gissar ranges, with higher human populations, still receive substantial pressure from agriculture, particularly pastoralists. For example, there are 187,800 ha of pasture inside the Ugam-Chatkal National Park (Western Tien Shan). According to the data provided in the Management Plan of the UgamChatkal National Park, the number of livestock is 34,208 head of cattle, 41,785 small ruminants, and 2587 horses, and according to the official data, the regions of Bostanlyk, Parkent, and Kanangra contain 161,900 head of cattle and 364,100 head of small ruminants (Beshko, 2016). Lack of accurate information on pasture load is one of the reasons for the impossibility of adequate management of pasture use. A preliminary calculation of the pressure on the pastures of the Ugam-Chatkal National Park based on the available data on the livestock population and characteristics of the park’s pastures showed that one head of cattle accounts for 0.69 ha this is already above the maximum stocking density of 1 per ha for this type of pasture’ permissible load for these types of land (Mardonov, 2017).

History of the snow leopard national strategy and action plan The Snow Leopard Conservation Strategy and Action Plan was prepared in 2004 (Kreuzberg-Mukhina et al., 2004), based on prior conservation plans by the IUCN Cat Specialist Group (Nowell and Jackson, 1996) and the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy and

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Chapron, 2003), but unfortunately, the tasks and activities planned within the framework of the document were practically not implemented for a number of reasons and the document was not approved at the state level. The National Strategy calls for recognizing the problem of species survival in the modern world, developing guiding principles for decision making on conservation, building an information network for collection and use of data on snow leopard populations, and developing a platform for continued cooperation between stakeholders and international action plans. In 2013, a review of the National Strategy and Action Plan was conducted. Following this, the National Priorities for Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection in Uzbekistan 2014–2020 (NSLEP) was developed (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). This document is part of the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program, drafted at the Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum meeting on October 22–23, 2013, in Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic (Chapter 49). The recommended NSLEP Priority Actions were • Human-snow leopard conflict reduction through improved livestock pens; • Effective guard dog training and use; • Improved agricultural methods; • Reduction in snow leopard threats, such as poaching, habitat degradation from overgrazing, human overpopulation, and village growth; • Improved equipment and skills capacity of protected areas for effective snow leopard protection; stimulating local resident participation in conservation of snow leopard and its prey; • Expanding snow leopard research and monitoring programs; • Conducting an education program using mass media and educational institutions; • Increasing the capacity of key ministries and agencies and their employees to detect and

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prevent illegal trade in live animals and their parts; • Technical assistance for illegal trade detection through training seminars for border guards and customs officers; • Increased collaboration and transboundary cooperation with neighboring countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Unfortunately, the NSLEP was never approved at the government level, but it did lay the foundation for a new “Snow leopard conservation action plan in Uzbekistan for 2021-2030,” which was developed with support of the GEF/ UNDP/State Committee on Ecology and Environmental Protection project “Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and Forestry in Key Mountain Areas Important for Globally Significant Biodiversity” in 2018–2019. The draft Snow leopard conservation action plan was discussed in the framework of the technical workshop in Tashkent (April 3, 2018) and finally approved by government in April, 14, 2021. It includes the following actions: • conduct scientific research and monitoring of snow leopard populations and its main prey species; • assist in improving the regulatory framework aimed at preserving the snow leopard and high mountain ecosystems; • improve the existing system of territorial protection; • research the extent of illegal trade and suppress trade in the snow leopards, its derivatives, and prey species; • raise awareness of the value of the snow leopard, the need for its protection, and the preservation of mountain ecosystems; • support and develop sustainable use of natural resources; • strengthen international and interregional cooperation; • ensure sustainable funding for activities aimed at preserving the snow leopard and high mountain ecosystems.

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Uzbekistan’s role in GSLEP process: Nomination of 24th snow leopard landscape “The Western Tien Shan” Nomination of Western Tien Shan Snow Leopard landscape prepared by UNDP/GEF/ Goskomecology project presented at the Steering Committee Meeting of GSLEP, Issyk Kul, Kyrgyz Republic, June 14–15, 2018, and International Conference for Snow Leopard Conservation, Shenzhen, China, September 3–7, 2018. The Western Tien Shan Snow Leopard landscape jointly used by the Republic of Kazakhstan (3.8%), the Kyrgyz Republic (67.7%) and the Republic of Uzbekistan (28.5%). Snow leopard habitat in the western Tien Shan landscape of Uzbekistan is about 5600 km2.

References Aromov, B., 2001. Snow leopard in the Gissar reserve. In: Proceedings of the Reserves of Uzbekistan. 3. Chinor ENK, Tashkent, pp. 121–125 (in Russian). Aromov, B., 2016. Snow leopard in the Gissar state reserve. In: Modern Problems of Conservation of Rare, Endangered and Poorly Studied Animals of Uzbekistan. Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, pp. 72–73 (in Russian). Beshko, N.Y., 2016. Report on pasture status and their use in project area. UNDP/GEF project. In: Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and Forest Management in Key Mountain Regions Important for Globally Significant Biodiversity. Tashkent, 33 p. (in Russian). Bykova, E.A., Esipov, A.V., 2005. Modern distribution of the red marmot in Uzbekistan. In: International Marmot Conference. Chinor ENK, Tashkent, pp. 28–29 (in Russian). Bykova, E.A., Esipov, A.V., 2006. Modern status of ungulate game species in Uzbekistan. Selevinia, 194–197 (in Russian). Bykova, E., Esipov, A., Aromov, B., Kreuzberg, E., 2004. Questionnaire as method of collecting data on endangered species such as snow leopard. In: Protected Areas of Central Asia. Chinor ENK, Tashkent, pp. 208–214 (in Russian). Bykova, E., Golovtsov, D., Esipov, A., 2018. The population status of the Turkestan Lynx in the Chatkal range, Western Tien Shan, Uzbekistan. Nat. Conserv. Res. 2, 92–107 (in Russian). Caragiulo, A., Amato, G., Weckworth, B., 2016. Conservation genetics of snow leopards. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World:

Conservation from Genes to Landscapes. Elsevier, New York, pp. 368–374. Davydov, G.S., 1964. Long-tailed, or red marmot - Marmota caudata Geoffr. and Menzbier’s marmot - Marmota menzbieri Kaschkarov. In: Rodents of Northern Tajikistan. Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Tajik SSR, Dushanbe, pp. 15–22 (in Russian). Dyakin, B., 2002. Game species resources in Western Tien Shan. In: Biodiversity of Western Tien Shan: Protection and Sustainable Use. Tashkent, pp. 90–97 (in Russian). Esipov, A.V., 2005. State of the isolated Chimgan population of Menzbir’s marmot. In: International Marmot Conference. Tashkent, pp. 50–51 (in Russian). Esipov, A.V., Bykova, E.A., 2019a. Menzbier’s marmot. In: Red Book of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Tashkent, Tasvir, pp. 300–301. Esipov, A.V., Bykova, E.A., 2019b. Snow leopard (irbis). In: Red Book of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Tashkent, Tasvir, pp. 334–335. Esipov, A.V., Bykova, E.A., Kreuzberg, E.A., Vashetko, E.V., Aromov, B., 2000. The current state of the snow leopard and its main prey species in the Gissar reserve, Uzbekistan. In: Conservation of Biodiversity in Protected Areas of Uzbekistan. Chinor ENK, Tashkent, pp. 61–67 (in Russian). Esipov, A., Golovtsov, D., Bykova, E., 2014. Camera trapping experience in Chatkal biosphere nature reserve, Uzbekistan. In: Environment and Natural Resource Management. Tyumen State University Publishing House, Tyumen, Russia, pp. 96–98 (in Russian). Esipov, A., Golovtsov, D., Bykova, E., 2015. Fauna of Mammals and Birds of Western Chatkal Ridge by Camera Trapping in Vestnik of Tyumen University. Tyumen State University Publishing House 1, Russia, pp. 141–150 (in Russian). Esipov, A., Bykova, E., Protas, Y., Aromov, B., 2016. The snow leopard in Uzbekistan. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes. Elsevier, New York, pp. 445–454. Gritsina, M.A., Nurijanov, D.A., Marmazinskaya, N.V., Abduraupov, T.V., Soldatov, V.A., Barashkova, A.N., 2016. Some rare faunistic records of mammals on the territory of Uzbekistan. Modern problems of conservation of rare, endangered and little-studied animals of Uzbekistan. In: Materials of the Republican Scientific and Practical Conference, September 9–10, 2016, Tashkent, pp. 77–82 (in Russian). Ishunin, G., 1961. Mammals (carnivores and ungulates). In: Fauna of Uzbek SSR. Vol. 3. Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek USSR, Tashkent, p. 230 (in Russian). Jackson, R.M., Roe, J.D., Wangchuk, R., Hunter, D.O., 2005. Surveying Snow Leopard Populations with Emphasis on Camera Trapping: A Handbook. The Snow Leopard Conservancy, Sonoma, California.

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Janecka, J.E., Munkhtsog, B., Jackson, R.M., Naranbaatar, G., Mallon, D.P., Murphy, W.J., 2011. Comparison of noninvasive genetic and camera-trapping techniques for surveying snow leopards. J. Mammal. 92, 771–783. Kapitonov, V.I., 1978. Menzbier’s marmot. In: Marmots, Distribution and Ecology. Nauka, Moscow, pp. 126–151 (in Russian). Kashkarov, R., 2002a. On the fauna of mammals (Carnivora and Artiodactyla) in Pskem river basin. Selevinia: Kazakhstan Zool. J. 1-4, 150–158 (in Russian). Kashkarov, R., 2002b. Modern status and resources of carnivorous mammals (Canidae, Ursidae, Mustelidae). In: Biodiversity of Western Tien Shan: Protection and Sustainable Use. Tashkent, pp. 115–121 (in Russian). Korelov, M.N., 1956. The Nature and Economic Conditions of the Mountainous Part of Bostandyk. Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, Alma-ata. 326 p. (in Russian). Kreuzberg-Mukhina, E., Bykova, E., Esipov, A., Aromov, B., Vashetko, E., 2004. Strategy and Action Plan for Conservation of the Snow Leopard in Uzbekistan. Uzbek Zoological Society and State Committee of Nature Protection, Tashkent (in Russian). MacKenzie, D.I., Nichols, J.D., Royle, J.A., Pollock, K.H., Hines, J.E., Bailey, L.L., 2006. Occupancy Estimation and Modeling: Inferring Patterns and Dynamics of Species Occurrence. Elsevier, San Diego. Mardonov, B.K., 2017. Report on land use data analysis in the Ugam-Chatkal National Natural Park. UNDP/GEF project. In: Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and Forest Management in Key Mountain Regions Important for Globally Significant Biodiversity. Tashkent (manuscript) 44 p. (in Russian). Mashkin, V.I., Baturin, A.L., 1993. Menzbier’s Marmot. Research Institute for Hunting (Management) and Animal Breeding, Kirov (in Russian). McCarthy, T., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. International Snow Leopard Trust & Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, USA. Mitropolskaya, Y., 2009. The ratio of protected areas of Uzbekistan and areas of the most important mammal species and communities. In: Actual Problems of Zoological Science. Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, pp. 10–12 (in Russian).

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Mitropolsky, O., 2005. Biodiversity of Western Tien Shan. In: Data on the Mammals and Birds in Chirchik and Akhangaran Rivers Basins. Central Asia Transboundary Project/GEF, Tashkent-Bishkek, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan. 166 p. (in Russian). Nishanova, S.S., Chernova, A.R., Gritsina, M.A., Bykova, E.A., Abdulaev, A.A., Turdikulova, S.U., 2019a. Application of an innovative non-invasive genetics methodology to study the snow leopard in Uzbekistan. In: International Conference of Young Scientists “Science and Innovations”. Tashkent the Center of Advanced Technologies, pp. 66–67 (In Russian). Nishanova, S.S., Chernova, A.R., Kapralova, Y.A., Gritsina, M.A., Bykova, E.A., Abdulaev, A.A., Turdikulova, S.U., 2019b. Experience of using non-invasive genetics methodology to study the population of the snow leopard in Uzbekistan. In: Achievements and Prospects of Biophysics and Biochemistry. Tashkent, pp. 59–61 (in Russian). Nishanova, S.S., Abdurakhimov, A.I., Gritsina, M., Dalimova, D.A., Bykova, E.A., Abdullaev, A.A., Turdikulova, S.U., 2020. Identification of snow leopard habitats in Uzbekistan by non-invasive molecular genetic method. Global Science and Innovations 2020: Central Asia. Biol. Sci. 4, 64–65 (in Russian). Nowell, K., Jackson, P., 1996. Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland. Paltsyn, M.Y., Gritsina, M.A., Bykova, E.A., Ten, A.G., Esipov, A.V., Aromov, B., Soldatov, V.A., Golovtsov, D.E., Abduraupov, T.V., Kuzmina, L.A., Sherimbetov Kh.S., Mardonova L.B., Khyrramov F.N., Akhadov A.A., 2022. Snow Leopard Monitoring Methodology in Uzbekistan. Tashkent, 44 p (in Russian). Royle, J.A., Chandler, R.B., Sollman, R., Gardner, B., 2014. Spatial Capture-Recapture. Academic Press, Elsevier, New York. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program. Annex. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. Wong, W.M., Kachel, S., 2016. Camera trapping: advancing the technology. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes. Elsevier, pp. 383–394.

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C H A P T E R

40 Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan Tshewang R. Wangchuka and Tashi Dendhupb a

Bhutan Foundation, Washington, DC, United States bUgyen Wangchuck Institute for Conservation and Environment Research (UWICER), Bumthang, Bhutan

Introduction Bhutan lies in the Eastern Himalayas, where precipitation is higher (Baillie and Norbu, 2004) than other parts of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) range. Vegetation, therefore, grows at much higher altitudes here, with trees often growing up to 4750 m (Miehe et al., 2007) on north-facing slopes. Forest connectivity from the southern border on the Indian plains to alpine meadows and the high Himalayas adjoining the Tibetan border allows for the movement of lowland species such as tiger (Panthera tigris) to over 4200 m ( Jigme and Tharchen, 2012). Locally, snow leopard is known as chen, chengo, sa, or tsagay in the different regions of northern Bhutan. However, in the national language, Dzongkha, it is popularly known as gangzig (literally “leopard of snow-capped mountains”). Photographs, genetic evidence, and encounters with herders have confirmed the presence of snow leopards in five protected areas, viz. Jigme Khesar Strict Nature Reserve (JKSNR; 609.5 km2; previously Toorsa Strict Nature Reserve), Jigme Dorji National Park (JDNP; 4316 km2), Wangchuck Centennial National Park (WCNP; 4914 km2), Jigme Singye

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00035-2

Wangchuck National Park (JSWNP; 1730 km2), and Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS; 1521 km2). The documentation of snow leopard presence in JSWNP and BWS is recent (Letro et al., 2021; Lham et al., 2021a,b). A single individual was camera trapped in JSWNP in 2017, once every month from June to September. The individual was not previously recorded during the nationwide snow leopard survey and was not recorded after September 2017. Hence, the individual is thought to be a transient. JSWNP is centrally located and away from the snow leopard habitat of the northern protected areas. Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) are also absent, and therefore, it is highly unlikely that a resident population exists here. The presence of a snow leopard from BWS also comes from a camera-trap survey that recorded snow leopards at three different locations during the winter of 2017. Until then, no confirmed evidence of the species has been recorded from BWS; however, based on anecdotal evidence and herders’ accounts of predation on livestock, its occurrence here was suspected from a very long time ago. Prey density (especially blue sheep) is very low in this area. There is also relatively less livestock husbandry in the alpine

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pastures here compared to the western parts of northern Bhutan. A further detailed survey of snow leopards in BWS would provide for a better understanding of possible snow leopard conservation units and define its eastern limit for Bhutan. This could be rigorously done in an occupancy framework (such as MacKenzie et al., 2002) using noninvasive techniques (either camera traps or fecal DNA sampling). Outside protected areas, the species was known to occur only in Paro Territorial Forest Division (PTFD; 2315.76 km2) (DoFPS, 2016). During the recent nationwide tiger survey of 2022, snow leopards were documented for the first time from the Dagala area under Thimphu district and the Gedu area under Chukha district (Tandin pers comm).

Snow leopard population status and habitat distribution in Bhutan Bhutan has an estimated 96 (95% CI: 79–112) snow leopards as per the recent nationwide snow leopard survey using camera traps (DoFPS, 2016). The density was estimated at 1.08 (SE  0.09) individuals per 100 km2 for the whole country, although a few areas like the JDNP had a much higher density of 6.1 individuals/100 km2. A systematic genetic sampling from 2008 in JDNP yielded a total of 40 unique individuals from 64 confirmed samples (T.R. Wangchuk et al., unpublished data), suggesting a stable snow leopard population in the area over the years. JDNP remains the stronghold of snow leopards in Bhutan, with the largest suitable habitat in the country (ca 2606 km2) compared to other protected areas (Lham et al., 2021a,b). This could be explained by a relatively high blue sheep density at 8.5–9.3 individuals per km2 (Leki et al., 2018). On the other hand, WCNP, the largest national park in Bhutan, has an estimated 2.39–3.36 individuals/100 km2, although the park also encompasses significant potential snow leopard

habitat in terms of area (2345 km2). However, the Park has a blue sheep density of 1.8–2.4 individuals per km2 (WCNP and WWF, 2016), which suggests that snow leopard density and distribution are primarily driven by prey. Outside of protected areas, PTFD reported six individuals in 2015–16. So far, snow leopard presence has been confirmed from numerous camera trap photos, DNA samples, carcasses, and direct sightings from JKSNR, JDNP, JSWNP, WCNP, PTFD, and recently from BWS. In many instances, groups of three and even four snow leopards (most likely groups with mother and grown cubs) have been photographed or sighted by park staff and herders. In one such location, near Bongtey La Pass in JDNP, a herder sighted a group of four snow leopards (K. Dorji, personal communication, 2014). Groups of snow leopards with grown or nearly-grown cubs indicate that they are breeding and surviving into maturity. A seemingly contiguous landscape with no obvious breaks in habitat connectivity comprising JKSNR, JDNP, WCNP, JSWNP, BWS, and PTFD, their biological corridors, encompass Bhutan’s possible snow leopard habitat (Fig. 40.1). Toward the north, this habitat extends further into the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China after crossing the Bhutan Himalayas. However, it needs to be confirmed if the Kurichhu River, originating in Tibet, poses a potential break in snow leopard habitat connectivity as it flows through BWS. Within the ca. 9000 km2 general range in Bhutan, the snow leopard mainly restricts itself to an elevation belt of 3500–5500 m with occasional forays into lower habitats such as alpine valley floors or subalpine forests, usually traversed in transit. At the lower limits, snow leopards often overlap with tiger and leopard (Panthera pardus), making Bhutan the only place in the world for this unique phenomenon where these three large cats occur in the same habitat. Inhospitable barren rocks, snowfields, and permanent ice lie above the upper limit.

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Snow leopard population status and habitat distribution in Bhutan

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FIG. 40.1 Protected area network of Bhutan. Snow leopard confirmed in Jigme Khesar Strict Nature Reserve (bright green), Jigme Dorji National Park (dark blue), Wangchuck Centennial National Park (purple). It is expected (but not confirmed) in Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (brown).

Snow leopard habitat in Bhutan overlaps with that of five other felids—golden cat (Catopuma temminckii), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), leopard, Pallas’s cat (Otocolobus manul), and an occasional tiger (Thinley, 2013; Wangchuk et al., 2004; WWF, 2012). However, these cats (with the exception of Pallas’s cat) restrict themselves to the vicinity of forested areas, whereas snow leopard is mostly confined to higher, open, and rocky areas. Canids present in snow leopard habitat include red fox (Vulpes vulpes), wild dog (Cuon alpinus), and wolf (Canis lupus). In addition, Himalayan black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and the Himalayan weasel (Mustela sibirica) are also found in the same areas. The most common prey

for snow leopard in Bhutan is blue sheep (Lham et al., 2021a,b). Smaller animals such as marmot (Marmota himalayana), Royle’s pika (Ochotona roylei), and various phasianids have been known to contribute to snow leopard diet in similar habitat in Nepal (Oli et al., 1993), and from evidence in our scat samples, we believe this to be true for Bhutan as well. A diet study of snow leopards in Bhutan showed that blue sheep (60.8%) consisted of the majority of snow leopard diet, followed by Himalayan marmot (19.1%), musk deer (3.4%), and goral (2.5%) (Lham et al., 2021a,b). Yak is the most common livestock species in the snow leopard habitat, and young yaks often contribute to the snow leopard diet (14.2%).

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Threats Direct threats Habitat degradation and persecution by poachers and angry herders are major causes of snow leopard population decline globally. Such threats common elsewhere (poaching, retaliatory killings, habitat destruction, and prey depletion) are minimal in Bhutan. While livestock predation by snow leopard is recorded all across its range in Bhutan, retributive killing is rare. This mainly stems from a general aversion toward killing animals influenced by Buddhist values and fear of the law. There is general awareness that it is illegal to kill a snow leopard or blue sheep. However, attitudes of herders who lose livestock to snow leopards could potentially change from tolerance to anger, this shift often propagated by the introduction of the hitherto unknown concept of “human-wildlife conflict.” While some levels of predation were always tolerated by herders traditionally, the foreign concept of “conflict” (often introduced by conservationists based on experiences from Africa, the American west, and India whereby predators were persecuted in retaliation for predation), coupled with ineffective processes of monetary compensation, are primarily responsible for this shift in attitude. For Bhutan, preventing this shift in attitude is of utmost importance for snow leopard conservation. If livestock mortality is the main cause of contention and probable retaliation in the future, we propose alternative methods of solving this problem without going down the path of ineffective monetary compensation, which is flawed for two reasons. First, the amount generally allotted for compensation cases is far less than the cost of a yak. Second, and more importantly, tedious verification requirements make the process lengthy and bureaucratic. Both these reasons cause herders to raise their expectations only to be quashed with inaction by authorities. In some areas, e.g., Soe, we found that herders lose an equal number or more yaks to gid disease

(also called sturdy or stagger) than to predation. Treating yaks and dogs (which are the definitive hosts for the parasite responsible, Taenia multiceps) and thus reducing yak mortality from gid disease was found to be a more practical and effective way to help herders maintain healthy numbers of yaks rather than to only give attention when herders lose their cattle to predation, which is inevitable in Bhutan where yaks are free ranging and not corralled like small-bodied livestock like sheep and goats which are common in other parts of the range (see Chapter 18.3 for more examples). Indirect threats Since predator populations depend directly upon prey species, sustaining a prey base is essential for the long-term survival of the snow leopards. Snow leopard habitats are also growing grounds for the highly valued caterpillarfungus association (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), which is valued for its medicinal properties (see Chapter 12). Although the extent has not been quantified, disturbance of the habitat by Ophiocordyceps collectors in summer will most likely have a negative impact on the health of the prey species, which will ultimately affect snow leopard survival. With recent changes in the economy (e.g., large income from Ophiocordyceps) and social structure (children moving away to schools and rural to urban migration), there is reason to believe that the yak herding economy is also changing, and people in many areas are giving up yak herding, especially in JKSNR. The absence of human and livestock presence in the alpine meadows tends to encourage unpalatable woody vegetation such as rhododendron shrubs to take over open meadows, thereby reducing habitat for important snow leopard prey such as blue sheep. The extent and effect of this recent phenomenon are poorly understood and needs to be studied urgently, along with quantifying potential yakblue sheep competition in other areas where livestock numbers may be increasing.

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Climate change While the Himalayan region in general bears the brunt of climate change through decreasing snow mass and increased frequencies of unpredictable freak weather patterns, it is still unclear how climate change might affect snow leopards (see Chapter 8). Using coarse resolution 500-m habitat covariate maps, Forrest et al. (2012) paint a bleak future whereby Bhutan could lose up to 55% of snow leopard habitat under a scenario of increased emissions. The model considers snow leopard habitat contraction from possible upward shift of forests, but fails to account for corresponding range expansion from upward movement of alpine meadows and snow leopard adaptation to hypoxia, all appreciably long-term phenomena that cannot be ruled out. Such alarmist messages based on models simulated on coarse resolution and scant timeseries data run the risk of distracting focus away from important present threats.

Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan As an apex predator, conserving snow leopards allows for the conservation of myriad species living with it. The entire snow leopard habitat in Bhutan is a treasure trove of alpine flora and fauna including many medicinal herbs. Income from collection of medicinal herbs contributes to livelihood of highland communities, while the plants themselves provide health benefits to many people who use traditional medicine. Snow leopard habitat serves as the main pasture and grazing ground for yakrearing communities. It is also the source and main catchment area for the major river systems of Bhutan. Almost all the rivers of the country originate in snow leopard country. For Bhutan, a country that generates over 14% of its GDP from the sale of hydropower, conserving and protecting the watersheds in snow leopard habitat are of utmost importance.

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Therefore, investments in snow leopard and habitat conservation have the added benefit of not only helping sustain upland communities but also continued generation of national income through hydropower production from its fast-flowing rivers. Snow leopard habitat, by virtue of occupying the highlands of Bhutan, is also important for spiritual Buddhist practitioners. Many places with religious and cultural significance fall in these areas and are used by hermits and ascetics in their spiritual pursuits. The following list includes major initiatives undertaken by the government, communities, and conservation partners that contribute toward snow leopard conservation: (1) In protecting the livelihood of the people and conserving wild biodiversity, managing human-wildlife interactions has been a priority. To address potential retaliation on snow leopards by communities for predating on livestock, awareness creation among the communities on the importance of the species and the ecosystem is being undertaken by park officials through frequent village meetings. The Department of Forests and Park Services (DoFPS) also collaborates with schools in the respective parks in creating awareness of the species and on landscape conservation initiatives. (2) To minimize grazing pressure from livestock, the government has initiated livestock intensification initiatives by introducing high-value cattle breeds. Efforts are also under way to improve livestock breeds to increase their productivity. (3) A monetary compensation program for herders who lost cattle to predators had been started in 2003 but has since run out of funds. The compensation schemes are currently at a halt. An endowment fund is proposed at the central level, and the implementation modalities have been worked out. However,

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its operation is yet to commence and is awaiting approval from the government. The lack of compensation schemes has resulted in cases where people have stopped reporting livestock kills to the department. (4) As communities are instrumental for longterm conservation, JDNP and WCNP have started community-based conservation initiatives. In these two parks, several yak herders have been modestly compensated for livestock losses through direct cash payment, solar lighting facilities, electric fencing, improved pasture development, and community-based ecotourism ventures. Conservation committees have been formed within the communities and they have been trained in wildlife monitoring skills to assist park staff. This approach is gaining momentum as it promotes better partnership with local community members in conservation programs. (5) Park authorities have instituted the Jomolhari Mountain Festival in JDNP, and the Nomad Festival in WCNP to boost tourism, increase awareness and garner public support in conservation. However, the Nomad Festival is no longer organized due to funding constraints and poor community participation. (6) Currently, a snow leopard conservation and highlanders’ livelihood upliftment program in northern Bhutan, covering most of the areas falling within the snow leopard range, is under implementation by the government. This program is implemented in partnership with WWF-Bhutan Program, the Bhutan Foundation, the Bhutan Trust Fund for Environment Conservation, Global Environmental Facility, and the Snow Leopard Conservancy. This program includes livestock insurance programs, improving access to healthcare, and increasing education and awareness on snow leopard conservation.

Chronology of snow leopard conservation efforts in Bhutan (1) First Snow Leopard Information and Management System (SLIMS) training in Bhutan was held in May 1997 to provide hands-on training in detecting snow leopard sign and counting blue sheep. (2) SLIMS workshop and training was conducted in 2000 and 2007, funded by WWF Bhutan, International Snow Leopard Trust and Royal Government of Bhutan. (3) In 2005, the government, in collaboration with WWF, organized the consultation workshop to develop a regional strategy and action plan to conserve the snow leopard in the Himalayas. It brought together international experts and those from snow leopard range countries who helped prepare the strategy. It identified four main areas to address snow leopard conservation in Bhutan and neighboring countries: (i) protecting snow leopard habitat and ecosystems, (ii) management of human wildlife conflicts, (iii) management of illegal wildlife trade in snow leopard body parts, and (iv) transboundary initiatives and cooperation. (4) Systematic and opportunistic snow leopard surveys were carried out in JDNP using fecal DNA in 2008. Results are currently being finalized for publication. (5) Opportunistic and systematic field surveys using camera traps have been conducted in WCNP and JDNP from 2009. (6) Bhutan participated in the discussions on global snow leopard conservation held in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan in 2012 (GSLEP, see Chapter 49) and has been actively involved with this initiative. (7) JDNP initiated a participatory community assessment to establish a community-based snow leopard conservation program for the Jomolhari region in the park involving the communities of Soe Yutoed and Yaksa.

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Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan

(8) In 2014, DoFPS carried out a snow leopard sign and prey surveys across all potential snow leopard habitats in northern Bhutan including BWS and Sakten Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS). (9) In 2015, DoFPS conducted a nationwide snow leopard survey using camera traps for population estimation, the first country to do so among the range countries. The study estimated 96 (95% CI: 79–112) individuals. No snow leopards were detected in BWS and SWS. (10) A team led by the DoFPS radio-collared two female snow leopards in Jigme Dorji National Park in September 2016. (11) In 2017, park officials’ camera trapped the snow leopard for the very first time in BWS. (12) Snow leopard conservation action plan for Bhutan (2018–23) was finalized and endorsed by the DoFPS in 2019. (13) Beginning August 2022, the DoFPS has started the second nationwide snow leopard survey. Camera traps are being used to estimate snow leopard and prey (blue sheep) abundance and density, while DNA obtained from scats will be used to estimate snow leopard genetic diversity and gene flow.

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Future plans In order to guide evidence-based snow leopard conservation, a few information gaps have to be closed. These include: (1) Build upon data from the first nation-wide survey on population estimates and distribution of snow leopards and prey for all the protected areas with snow leopards to feed into a parkwide and national snow leopard population trend monitoring program. (2) Establishing how habitat covariates explain snow leopard and prey distribution and

(9)

(10)

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testing for the functionality of existing biological corridors. Understanding movement patterns of snow leopards to better define home range sizes, to refine population metrics, and to understand movement behavior. The one radio-telemetry study carried out by JDNP and WWF was inconclusive, and data are unavailable. Mapping critical habitats and areas of high livestock predation to better explain causes of livestock mortality in order to properly guide appropriate counter measures. Understanding the effects of human and livestock presence and absence on vegetation communities in mountain pasture systems. Monitoring for poaching and illegal trade of snow leopard, feeding into the national database on illegal wildlife trade. Developing appropriate education and awareness materials on snow leopard conservation, and using it for herders, school children, Ophiocordyceps collectors, enforcement personnel and general public. Initiating snow leopard tourism in snow leopard habitat to increase awareness and generate revenue for locals so benefits from conservation flow to communities. The annual Jomolhari Mountain Festival is a good example. Engaging yak-herding communities in helping the park staff monitor snow leopard and prey populations through snow leopard conservation committees as has been done in JDNP. Collaborate with researchers from other parts of the range to contribute toward better understanding of population genetics and phylogeography of snow leopards globally to inform conservation.

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Conclusion While the conservation of endangered large cats remains a race against time in most countries across its range, Bhutan presents a unique opportunity for proactive and preemptive conservation. Strong political will for conservation is exemplified by a constitutional mandate of maintaining at least 60% of the country under forest cover at all times, and having set aside over half of the country as protected areas and biological corridors. Core Buddhist beliefs of compassion toward all sentient beings and tolerance enable an environment that is conducive for humans to coexist with many other species. Frequent encounters with female snow leopards with two or three cubs allude to a bright future for snow leopards in Bhutan. There are minimal direct threats to the cat and its prey that roam undisturbed in our mountains. Nevertheless, potential threats could arise from a shift in attitude by herders who lose yaks to snow leopards. When the scale of tolerance is tipped toward retaliation, it might be too late. For that matter, it is of utmost importance that the snow leopard be seen as an asset whose conservation would provide direct benefits to communities that share the mountains with them. A combination of science and pragmatism, a better understanding of the human-livestock-snow leopard interface, and prompt action informed by evidence will ensure that Bhutan continues to play an important role in snow leopard conservation.

References Baillie, I.C., Norbu, C., 2004. Climate and other factors in the development of river and interfluve profiles in Bhutan, Eastern Himalayas. J. Asian Earth Sci. 22, 539–553. DoFPS, 2016. National Snow Leopard Survey of Bhutan 2014–2016 (Phase II): Camera Trap Survey for Population Estimation. Department of Forests and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan.

Forrest, J.L., Wikramanayake, E., Shrestha, R., Areendran, G., Gyeltshen, K., Maheshwari, A., Mazumdar, S., Naidoo, R., Thapa, G.J., Thapa, K., 2012. Conservation and climate change: assessing the vulnerability of snow leopard habitat to treeline shift in the Himalaya. Biol. Conserv. 150, 129–135. Jigme, K., Tharchen, L., 2012. Camera-trap records of tigers at high altitudes in Bhutan. Cat News 56, 14–15. Leki, T.P., Rajaratnam, R., Shrestha, R., 2018. Establishing baseline estimates of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) abundance and density to sustain populations of the vulnerable snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in Western Bhutan. Wildl. Res. 45, 38–46. Letro, L., Duba, D., Tandin, T., Wangdi, S., 2021. Rare capture of a snow leopard in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Bhutan. Cat News 73, 29–32. Lham, D., Cozzi, G., Sommer, S., Wangchuk, S., Lham, K., Ozgul, A., 2021a. Ecological determinants of livestock depredation by the snow leopard (Panthera uncia). J. Zool. 314, 275–284. Lham, D., Cozzi, G., Sommer, S., Thinley, P., Wangchuk, N., Wangchuk, S., Ozgul, A., 2021b. Modeling distribution and habitat suitability for the snow leopard in Bhutan. Front. Conserv. Sci. 87. MacKenzie, D.I., Nichols, J.D., Lachman, G.B., Droege, S., Andrew Royle, J., Langtimm, C.A., 2002. Estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are less than one. Ecology 83, 2248–2255. Miehe, G., Miehe, S., Vogel, J., Co, S., La, D., 2007. Highest treeline in the northern hemisphere found in Southern Tibet. Mt. Res. Dev. 27, 169–173. Oli, M.K., Taylor, I.R., Rogers, M.E., 1993. The diet of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. J. Zool. 231, 365–370. Thinley, P., 2013. First photographic evidence of a Pallas’s cat in Jigme Dorji National Park, Bhutan. Cat News 58, 27–28. Wangchuck Centennial National Park & Word Wildlife Fund (WCNP & WWF), 2016. Population Statue and Distribution of Snow Leopards in Wangchuck Centennial National Park, Bhutan. Wangchuck Centennial National Park and World Wildlife Fund, Thimphu. Available from: https://wwfasia.awsassets.panda.org/ downloads/wwf_sl_report_05_10_2016_super_final_ compressed_1.pdf. (11 January 2022). Wangchuk, T., Thinley, P., Tshering, K., Tshering, C., Yonten, D., Pema, B., 2004. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Bhutan. Department of Forestry and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan. WWF, 2012. Near Threatened Pallas’s Cat Found in WCP. Available from: http://www.wwfbhutan.org/?206453/ Near-threatened-Pallas-Cat-found-in-WCP. (15 February 2022).

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C H A P T E R

41 Securing India’s snow leopards: Status, threats, and conservation Yash Veer Bhatnagara,g, V.B. Mathurb,e, S. Sathyakumarb, Ranjana Palb, Abhishek Ghoshala,b,c,f, Rishi Kumar Sharmad, Ajay Bijoora,c, R. Raghunatha, Radhika Timbadiaa,c, and Panna Lalb a

Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India bWildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India cSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States dWorld Wide Fund for NatureIndia, New Delhi, India eNational Biodiversity Authority, Chennai, India fBombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India gInternational Union for Conservation of Nature, New Delhi, India

Snow leopard range in India The Himalayan high altitudes extend over an arc of ca. 2500 km along the north and northeastern boundary of India, stretching across the four Indian States of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh and two Union territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh. The alpine tracts of the Himalaya and the arid marginal mountains of the Tibetan Plateau in the rain shadow of the main Himalayan range known as Trans-Himalaya (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988; Rodgers et al., 2000) together constitute ca. 120,000 km2 of snow leopard (P. uncia) habitat in India (Fig. 41.1). These tracts show a gradient of increasing aridity from east to west and south to north. Snow leopards mostly occur in the more arid, nonforested tracts in India between 3200 and 5200m (Chundawat, 1992; Fox et al., 1991). There were rare reports of them

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00003-0

occurring 3 years) and multidimensional studies on snow leopard and its prey (e.g., Upper Spiti, Hemis, and Upper Bhagirathi basin) vs. (2) “moderate”: where some structured surveys on snow leopard and prey have been carried out (e.g., Johar, Kangchenjunga National Park) vs. (1) “Preliminary”: where general surveys on prey and snow leopard have been carried out (e.g., Arunachal Pradesh), or (0) “no information”: areas yet to receive research attention (e.g., parts of the Kashmir Himalaya, and the Dhauladhar range in Himachal Pradesh) (Fig. 41.1). Our review of studies since 2016 shows a substantial increase (Fig. 41.1) across the snow leopard range. Till 2016, a substantial third of the snow leopard range (spanning ca. 100,347km2) had not received research attention (score “0”), which has reduced to just 5%, mainly in small pockets of Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh. The bulk of this improvement is due to status surveys carried out in the northeastern Himalaya and Jammu & Kashmir. At present, preliminary information (score “1”) on snow leopard or prey is available for 80% of the snow leopard range (ca. 79,745 km2), compared to 56% in 2016. Systematic studies on snow leopard or prey species cover 7% of snow leopard habitat (ca. 6537 km2), which was the same in 2016. Long-term studies or areas with consistent research effort are limited to 8% of snow leopard range (ca. 7886. km2) and include Hemis National Park (in Ladakh), Upper Spiti landscape (in Himachal Pradesh), and Upper Bhagirathi basin (in Uttarakhand), but have increased from 4% in 2016. Hence, there has been an increase in the spread and quality of information in the past five years, and the unstudied areas have substantially declined. Most of the information is based on status surveys (Maheshwari et al., 2013; Habib et al., 2016; Shrotriya et al., 2015) and short-term

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research (Ahmad et al., 2018; Bhattacharya et al., 2020), but long-term research is available for a few areas ( Jamwal et al., 2019; Pal et al., 2021a,b,c; Sharma et al., 2015, 2021; Suryawanshi et al., 2012, 2017). Rapid advances in field and analytical methods have helped in overcoming some of the limitations posed by the rugged mountainous terrain for understanding the status of snow leopard (Pal et al., 2021c; Sharma et al., 2021; Suryawanshi et al., 2021) and prey (Pal et al., 2021b; Shrotriya et al., 2015; Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Robust snow leopard density estimates are available for a few newer areas (Table 41.1) and are expected to be available for the entire snow leopard range by late 2023. In addition to snow leopard and wild ungulate surveys, there is a substantial increase in socioecological and human dimensions research in snow leopard range especially in shared multiple-use landscapes. Such studies include the role of traditional ecological knowledge and institutions, contemporary changes in pastoral societies, effects of state policies on rangeland management (Singh et al., 2015, 2020, 2021), in-depth understanding of humanwildlife relationships (Bhatia et al., 2017, 2021a,b), role of ecosystem services in coupled socioecological systems (Murali et al., 2017, 2019, 2020), and potential disease transmission between livestock and wild ungulates (Khanyari et al., 2021). Despite an increase in the number and coverage of studies, several important thematic areas remain poorly understood. Information on demographic parameters of snow leopards such as their survival and mortality rates remain scarce. Other important aspects such as dispersal, the role of interactions between snow leopards and freeranging dogs, and disease ecology require greater attention. Climate change studies on species in snow leopard range are still in their infancy (Bhattacharyya et al., 2019; Dar et al., 2021; Forrest et al., 2012). Additionally, understanding of social dimensions of snow leopard research lags far behind ecological research despite its obvious

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importance in shared multiple-use landscapes that comprise a large part of the snow leopard range in the country. However, several long-term projects have been initiated and are likely to fill in several critical gaps in snow leopard knowledge soon.

Progress in snow leopard population estimation in India In the 1980s, a guesstimate of snow leopard population in India was presented along with other range countries (Fox, 1989). Of the estimated ca. 4000–7500 snow leopards globally, 400 to 700 were estimated for India. There is an urgent need to make a revised estimate of snow leopard abundance using improved methodology, especially since reliable density estimates are now available (see Table 41.1). The challenges to monitor snow leopards and estimated population parameters are discussed in Chapter 34. Given the constraints, we attempted to provide a revised guesstimate of snow leopard population size in India using a two-step approach that guesstimated 516 (from 238 to 1039) snow leopards (Bhatnagar et al., 2016). Since the last version of this chapter, the MoEFCC, Government of India, have initiated a national snow leopard monitoring program called the “Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India” or SPAI that systematically covers over 70% of the potential snow leopard range in the country through an unprecedented exercise that involves capacity development of staff and volunteers, inputs from knowledge partners, and carrying out the surveys in two steps (see below). The SPAI is based on the global effort initiated by the Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection (GSLEP) called the Population Assessments of the World’s Snow Leopards (PAWS) and will contribute to the global estimate. SPAI involves two steps to be implemented simultaneously, as the results from the first would inform and help improve the design of the second. The first step is to systematically

assess the spatial distribution of snow leopards (as a function of habitat covariates). This occupancy-based approach based on data on sign and interview surveys, field and geospatial mapping would lead to a refined snow leopard distribution map, and a layer of base data that will help in stratification for snow leopard population sampling. In the second step, snow leopard abundance would be estimated through camera trapping and genetic tools in habitat patches (>500 km2) of low, medium, and high quality (as identified in step 1) as a function of heterogeneous density across space. In addition, abundance estimates for major prey at selected sites would be carried out. After the official launch of SPAI by MoEFCC in October 2019, activities such as national and state consultations, training, and capacity-building workshops, periodic interaction with specialists supervising the effort, procurement of equipment, field surveys, analyses of data have been initiated. Two range states, Himachal Pradesh (potential snow leopard habitat ca. 28,000 km2) and Uttarakhand (ca. 12,000 km2) have completed the SPAI surveys including the occupancy and camera trapping surveys. The estimated population in Himachal Pradesh is 51 to 73 individuals, at a density of 0.08 to 0.37 individuals/100 km2 (Anonymous, 2021; Suryawanshi et al., 2021), while in Uttarakhand it is 103 to 145 at a density of 0.7 to 1.04 individuals/100 km2 (WII-UKFD, 2022). In the remaining snow leopard range states/UTs, Step 1 (Occupancy) covering over half of the snow leopard habitat in India is nearly completed, and Step 2 exercises are in progress. India would have a national estimate for the snow leopard population by October 2023.

Challenges in snow leopard conservation Detailed understanding of global and countrywide threats to snow leopard and habitat is available based on multiple assessments

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Challenges in snow leopard conservation

undertaken over the past decade (SLN, 2014; Sharma and Singh, 2020; World Bank, 2013). In this section, we provide a summary of conservation challenges and recent issues of national relevance. Local communities in the snow leopard range of India are agro-pastoralists and are mostly Tibetan Buddhists and Pahadis of different ethnic backgrounds (Bhatnagar and Singh, 2011; Mishra et al., 2006). In addition, numerous transhumant communities graze livestock, mainly sheep-goats, in the snow leopard range during summer (Bhasin, 2011; Saberwal, 1996). Most of the local communities depend heavily on a variety of ecosystem services from the snow leopard habitat, such as water, agriculture, pastures, biomass, and dung for fuel, fodder, and nontimber produce (Murali et al., 2019, 2020). The people pervasively, and sometimes heavily use the mountains, including areas within protected areas (PA), for sustenance (PSL, 2008). Given that wildlife is widespread in the snow leopard habitat in India, there is an extensive human-wildlife interface. This creates a wide range of situations where human activities can negatively impact wildlife and vice-versa. What is noteworthy is that in most places, traditional pressures posed by local communities often are declining, whereas emerging ones from development and climate change are becoming more important. The list below is indicative of the larger conservation issues posed to the snow leopard and are not in any order of importance as this varies across the range in India (PSL, 2008).

Livestock grazing As mentioned earlier, resident and migratory livestock grazing has resulted in decimation and poor population performance in the wild prey of snow leopard in many areas of the Himalaya (Bagchi et al., 2004; Bhattacharya and Sathyakumar, 2011; Bhattacharya et al., 2012; Bhatnagar et al., 2000; Ghoshal, 2017; Kittur et al., 2010; Koetke et al., 2020; Mishra et al.,

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2004; Suryawanshi et al., 2010). Low occurrence of wild prey in vast areas of presumably good habitats, such as the Lahaul valley in Himachal Pradesh, has been observed, potentially due to long-term intense grazing (Ghoshal et al., 2019). Investigations in Nanda Devi region in Uttarakhand reveal that there is substantial diet overlap between wild and domestic ungulates (Bhattacharya and Sathyakumar, 2011; Bhattacharya et al., 2012). Berger et al. (2013) further suggest cashmere or pashmina production is becoming an important threat to snow leopard due to competition from increasing population of the cashmere goats. Livestock grazing intensity is often a function of market forces, and recent observations suggest their dynamic nature. For example, the abundance of native livestock in much of Lahaul, Spiti, and Ladakh appears to be declining (Singh et al., 2015), but those of transhumant herders from the foothills appear to be increasing drastically. There was a substantial intensification of livestock grazing in the Changthang contributing to declines of local wildlife (Singh et al., 2015). While competition with wildlife was and is still significant in the landscape, its impact on wildlife can be dynamic.

Human-snow leopard-wild prey interaction Livestock is often lost to wild carnivores, including snow leopards, in the entire range. In some areas, the problem is intense with high economic losses and negative attitudes (Bhatia et al., 2017; Bhatnagar et al., 1999; Suryawanshi et al., 2014). The issue gets compounded due to crop losses, including to valuable cash crops, by wild herbivores and omnivores (USL, 2011) and even a perception of pasture degradation due to wild ungulates such as kiang (Bhatnagar et al., 2006). Occasionally, retaliatory killing of wildlife, including snow leopard, may even find its way into the illegal wildlife trade market (Nowell et al., 2016; Theile, 2003; also see Chapter 7).

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Emerging threats Infrastructure development, including expansion of road network, railway connectivity (e.g., proposed Bilaspur-Leh project involving Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh, and the CharDham project in Uttarakhand), and hydropower (Rajvanshi et al., 2012), especially in the areas bordering China and Pakistan, has received an increased emphasis over the past few decades. Additionally, development of tourism infrastructure is growing in the snow leopard habitat (PSL, 2008; World Bank, 2013). These activities generally involve an influx of relatively large numbers of immigrants, especially laborers within a short period into landscapes that usually support very low human densities. They often exacerbate local biomass usage through poaching and collecting other valuable natural resources from the region. Increased garbage produced by tourist and defense camps, along with garbage mismanagement in the expanding

villages and towns, is facilitating population increase of free-ranging dogs that have emerged as a serious threat to wildlife and livestock due to depredation (Ghoshal, 2011; Home et al., 2017; Hughes and Macdonald, 2013; Suryawanshi et al., 2013; USL, 2011). The development drive, while important for the region, underscores the enhanced responsibility of both infrastructure development and conservation agencies to strike a balance toward convergence with biodiversity management.

Conservation efforts in India Of the 965 PAs in India (http://wiienvis.nic.in/ Database/Protected_Area_854.aspx), 57 include areas that lie within potential snow leopard range. Many PAs include the less-used forests below 3200 m and/or permafrost areas above 5200 m (Table 41.2). The combined notified area for the

TABLE 41.2 Protected areas (PAs) across the snow leopard range (3200–5200 m) in India covering the six States/Union Territories—Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. The Estimated Areas are based on available polygons in the WII PA Database. The snow leopard habitat is the percent of a PA that covered the potential snow leopard habitats (3200–5200 m).

State

S. No.

PAs (national park—NP; wildlife sanctuary—WLS; wetland—WL; SECURE Landscape)

Notified geographic area (km2)

Estimated geographic area (km2)

% Snow leopard habitat

Jammu and Kashmir

1

Baltal Thajwas WLS

211

–

–

2

Dachigam NP

171

170

44

3

Gulmarg WLS

139

196

60

4

Hirapora WLS

115

–

–

5

Hygam WL

7

–

–

6

Kishtwar NP

400

–

–

7

Lachipora WLS

94

–

–

8

Limber WLS

44

42

32

9

Malgam WL

5

–

–

10

Norrichain (Tsokar) WL

2

11

Overa Aru WLS

511

430

78

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Conservation efforts in India

TABLE 41.2 Protected areas (PAs) across the snow leopard range (3200–5200 m) in India covering the six States/Union Territories—Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. The Estimated Areas are based on available polygons in the WII PA Database. The snow leopard habitat is the percent of a PA that covered the potential snow leopard habitats (3200–5200 m)—cont’d

State

S. No.

PAs (national park—NP; wildlife sanctuary—WLS; wetland—WL; SECURE Landscape)

Notified geographic area (km2)

Estimated geographic area (km2)

% Snow leopard habitat

12

Rajparian WLS

20

–

–

13

Tsomoiri (Ramsar Site) WL

120

–

–

1839

838

65

Subtotals Ladakh

1

Changthang Cold Desert WLS

4000

18,792

56

2

Hemis NP

3350

5100

81

3

Karakoram (Nubra Shyok) WLS

5000

19,387

34

12,350

43,279

49

Subtotals Himachal Pradesh

1

Great Himalayan NP

755

831

79

2

Pin Valley NP

675

720

60

3

Chandra Tal WLS

39

37

79

4

Churdhar WLS

66

61.7

12

5

Daranghati WLS

172

37

6

6

Dhauladhar WLS

944

1009

78

7

Gamgul Siahbehi WLS

109

112

28

8

Kanawar WLS

61

68

26

9

Kais WLS

14

13

29

10

Kibber WLS

2220

968

36

11

Kugti WLS

379

355

87

12

Lippa Asrang WLS

31

29

100

13

Manali WLS

32

36

32

14

Nargu WLS

278

265

6

15

Raksham Chitkul WLS

304

330

81

16

Rupi Bhaba WLS

738

718

63

17

Sainji WLS

90

97

73

18

Secha Tuan Nala WLS

103

503

86

19

Talra WLS

40

37

5

20

Tirthan WLS

61

66

58

21

Tundah WLS

64

371

62 Continued

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

TABLE 41.2 Protected areas (PAs) across the snow leopard range (3200–5200 m) in India covering the six States/Union Territories—Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. The Estimated Areas are based on available polygons in the WII PA Database. The snow leopard habitat is the percent of a PA that covered the potential snow leopard habitats (3200–5200 m)—cont’d

State

S. No.

PAs (national park—NP; wildlife sanctuary—WLS; wetland—WL; SECURE Landscape)

Notified geographic area (km2)

Estimated geographic area (km2)

% Snow leopard habitat

22

Shikari Devi WLS

72

68

1

23

Sangla (Raksham Chitkul) WLS

304

296

98

7551

7028

64

Subtotals Uttarakhand

1

Askot Musk Deer WLS

600

477

8

2

Gangotri NP

2200

2441

51

3

Govind NP

472

376

59

4

Govind Pashu Vihar WLS

480

786

59

5

Kedarnath WLS

975

1054

52

6

Nanda Devi NP

625

545

45

7

Valley of Flowers NP

88

75

86

5440

5754

49

Subtotals Sikkim

1

Khangchendzonga NP

1784

2474

55

2

Kyongnosla Alpine WLS

31

28

100

3

Pangolakha WLS

128

134

47

4

Shingba (Rhododendron) WLS

43

45

93

5

Barsay WS

104

143

4

6

Maenam WLS

35

24

1

2125

2848

53

Subtotals Arunachal Pradesh

1

Dibang WLS

4149

4589

75

2

Kamlang WLS

783

679

11

3

Namdapha NP

1808

1875

8

4

Yordi-Rabe Supse WLS

492

385

3

5

Mehao WLS

281.5

287

0.3

Subtotals

7514

7815

47

Total

36,819

67,562

51

SECURE Himalaya Landscape Ladakh

1

Changthang Landscape

15,907

62

Himachal Pradesh

2

Lahul Pangi Landscape

8059

72

Himachal Pradesh

3

Kinnaur Landscape

5718

79

523

Conservation efforts in India

TABLE 41.2 Protected areas (PAs) across the snow leopard range (3200–5200 m) in India covering the six States/Union Territories—Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. The Estimated Areas are based on available polygons in the WII PA Database. The snow leopard habitat is the percent of a PA that covered the potential snow leopard habitats (3200–5200 m)—cont’d

State

S. No.

PAs (national park—NP; wildlife sanctuary—WLS; wetland—WL; SECURE Landscape)

Notified geographic area (km2)

Uttarakhand

4

Gangotri Govind Conservation Landscape

7143

45

Uttarakhand

5

Darma Byans Valley

2205

74

Sikkim

6

Khangchendzonga Upper Teesta Landscape

3347

71

42,378

65

Totals

Estimated geographic area (km2)

% Snow leopard habitat

Biosphere reserves Himachal Pradesh

1

Cold Desert BR

7770

9067

60

Uttarakhand

2

Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve

5861

5435

65

Sikkim

3

Khangchendzonga

2620

2388

63

Arunachal Pradesh

4

Dehang-Dibang

5112

4447

88

21,362

21,338

67

Totals

Area of PAs and percentage of snow leopard habitat within each PA have been calculated using available polygons from the Wildlife Institute of India database-2006, updated on 26 November 2021. Note that recent landscapes under the SECURE Himalaya Program and the PSL often include other PAs and areas outside. Area of snow leopard habitat within the Changthang Cold Desert WLS, Karakoram WLS, and Kibber WLS has been corrected (see text for details). All figures have been rounded off.

57 PAs is ca. 37,000km2, with an average size of ca. 634km2, with just 8 PAs covering greater than 1000 km2. For calculating the actual area of snow leopard range under protection, we used PA polygons from the PA database in the Wildlife Institute of India and the potential snow leopard range within it (3200–5200 m). However, polygons were available for only 48 PAs, as many States are still in the process of digitizing the PA boundaries. We recognized issues regarding boundaries of certain PAs (e.g., Changthang WLS—calculated area ca. 18,000 km2 vs. notified area 4000 km2; Karakorum WLS—calculated area 19,000 km2 vs. notified area 5000 km2; Kibber WLS—calculated area 960 km2 vs. notified area 2200 km2). Based on the available 48 PA polygons (estimated area of PAs— 67,562 km2), the area of snow leopard habitat

within PAs is ca. 34,260 km2 or ca. 34% of the potential snow leopard range in India (98,477 km2 under Indian control). The remaining 9 PAs totaled to a notified area of 972 km2, but we could not ascertain their actual area and area under snow leopard habitat.

Landscape-level conservation At 34%, a substantial proportion of snow leopard range in India is under legal protection, where all forms of consumptive use are restricted under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (Anonymous, 2002) . In the early 2000s, it was realized that given the pervasiveness of snow leopard and people’s dependence, enforcing exclusionary PAs can have limitations

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41. Securing India’s snow leopards

for both conservation and livelihoods. Additionally, the staff strength and capacity of the primary agency mandated for conservation, the State Forest, or Wildlife Departments, were often inadequate (PSL, 2008; USL, 2011). This led to inefficient monitoring and inability to engage with stakeholders for conservation activities (World Bank, 2013). Nearly 70% of snow leopard range is still unprotected, and studies indicate that many wildlife strongholds remain in such regions (Chundawat and Qureshi, 1999; PSL, 2008). With successful recent experiments using participatory conservation in the Trans-Himalaya including socially fenced grazing-free reserves (Mishra et al., 2003) where community agrees to stop or reduce damaging use (see Chapter 18.2), conflict resolution and livelihood support ( Jackson and Wangchuk, 2004; Jackson et al., 2010), the MoEFCC and the Himalayan States, with assistance from conservation agencies, developed an innovative participatory, knowledge-based, and landscape-level program for conservation planning and action in the snow leopard range, the Project Snow Leopard (PSL, 2008). This was perhaps a trigger for other similar programs such as the SECURE Himalaya and GSLEP at the national and global levels, respectively. The 6 SECURE Landscapes (ca. 42,400 km2), 1 PSL landscape (ca. 3800 km2, with over 5 more in the pipeline), 4 biosphere reserves (ca. 21,300km2), and the proposed GSLEP landscapes (46,600 km2) are in different stages of preparing management plans or conservation strategies (Fig. 41.2). These overlapping landscapes (totaling to ca. 57,362km2), which include many PAs, now cover close to half (58%) of snow leopard range in the country. India has thus seen a clear move from managing snow leopards in exclusionary PAs to comanaging with stakeholders in large landscapes in the recent decade. It is optimistic that various categories of conservation landscapes and PAs now cover most of the extent of snow leopard range from

Arunachal Pradesh in the east to Jammu & Kashmir in the west (Fig. 41.2).

The way forward Under PSL each state is identifying at least one landscape of 1000 to 5000km2 and preparing and implementing management plans. The landscapes will typically include a mosaic of high-quality snow leopard habitats (PAs and socially fenced areas) interspersed in a matrix of habitat under multiple use, often of poorer quality. PSL management envisages that these nonexclusionary landscapes will serve as source populations that will maintain or augment local wildlife populations (Bhatnagar and Mishra, 2014; Mishra et al., 2010; PSL, 2008). Each village cluster will formulate and implement proactive protection and mitigation mechanisms to offset people-wildlife conflicts. Conservation agencies will work in tandem with local government and civil society organizations to boost local incomes based on indigenous enterprises. There will be new structures and organizations (such as committees and government aided registered Societies) at the state, landscape, and village cluster levels to facilitate participatory planning and implementation of conservation interventions. The emphasis will be on ecological, social, and institutional knowledge (especially since ca. 85% of snow leopard range remains either unstudied or with only preliminary knowledge), capacity building, coordination through convergence of activities among agencies, and concerted and sustained action. In the future, greater emphasis needs to be laid on preparation and implementation of management plans. Under the PSL, even amidst persisting challenges, the MoEFCC has spent over USD 1.8 million since 2011 on planning and implementation across the six states/UTs, including the Upper Spiti Landscape in Himachal Pradesh (USL, 2011), which are showing promising results. Since 2019, the MoEFCC has increased

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

Conservation efforts in India

525

FIG. 41.2 The 57 Protected Areas and snow leopard landscapes in India (see also Table 41.2). Note the almost continuous coverage of conservation landscapes from east to west along the Himalaya. The transition from exclusionary PA centric to an inclusive landscape-level approach is taking place since about 2009 when the PSL was announced.

efforts toward the national snow leopard monitoring under the SPAI, its related capacity enhancement, in collaboration with knowledge partners such as WII, NCF, and WWF-India. The SPAI will provide baselines and help identify priority conservation areas. Further, the MoEFCC has initiated the process of establishing the “Snow Leopard Cell,” which can give the necessary support for the states to develop and implement innovative conservation and monitoring programs. With well over a decade sincethe PSL document was formulated, it is now important to update it based on national commitmentsfor climate change and sustainable development to make these interlinkagesandconnectionsmoreexplicit.Thiswould be beneficial for mobilizing additional financial

andlogisticssupport.Areasoffocusinanyrevision can include (a) contribution of PSL toward India’s commitments to become a net-zero economy by 2070, (b) UN’s Post-2020 global biodiversity framework (https://www.cbd.int/article/draft1-global-biodiversity-framework), (c) UN’s Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) goals and targets (COW, 2020), (d) clear guidelines to involve other relevant divisions of the MoEF&CC, such as, climate change, wetlands, biodiversity, and land degradation for activities and funding under PSL, (e) clear guidelines to involve other relevant ministries,suchas,home,defense,waterresources, for activities and funding under PSL, (f ) contribution toward GSLEP’s commitments of securing landscapes through landscape-level management planning (SLWC, 2013), and (g) increased

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41. Securing India’s snow leopards

partnership with GSLEP for advanced capacity building, particularly in terms of knowledge sharing on survey techniques, data analyses, community-based conservation, enterprise-based livelihoods improvement, ecotourism etc. With continuing concerted and innovative efforts by multiple partners, we are hopeful that India will achieve effective conservation of snow leopard in its entire range by 2030.

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basin, Western Himalaya: understanding distribution along spatial gradients of habitats and disturbances. Oryx 55, 657–667. Pal, R., Bhattacharya, T., Qureshi, Q., Buckland, S.T., Sathyakumar, S., 2021b. Using distance sampling with camera traps to estimate the density of group-living and solitary mountain ungulates. Oryx 55, 668–676. Pal, R., Sutherland, C., Qureshi, Q., Sathyakumar, S., 2021c. Landscape connectivity and population density of snow leopard across a multi-use landscape in Western Himalaya. Anim. Conserv. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv. 12754. Polunin, O., Stainton, A., 1984. Flowers of the Himalaya. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. PSL, 2008. The Project Snow Leopard. Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. Rajvanshi, A., Arora, R., Mathur, V.B., Sivakumar, K., Sathyakumar, S., Rawat, G.S., Johnson, J.A., Ramesh, K., Dimri, N.K., Maletha, A., 2012. Assessment of Cumulative Impacts of Hydroelectric Projects on Aquatic and Terrestrial Biodiversity in Alaknanda and Bhagirathi Basins, Uttarakhand. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Technical Report. Rodgers, W.A., Panwar, H.S., 1988. Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. Vol. I & II Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Rodgers, W.A., Panwar, H.S., Mathur, V.B., 2000. Wildlife Protected Area Network in India: A Review (Executive Summary). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Saberwal, V.K., 1996. Pastoral politics: gaddi grazing, degradation, and biodiversity conservation in Himachal Pradesh, India. Conserv. Biol. 10, 741–749. Sathyakumar, S., 1993. Status of mammals in Nanda Devi National Park. Scientific and ecological expedition on Nanda Devi. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, pp. 5–15. Sathyakumar, S., 1994. Habitat Ecology of Major Ungulates in Kedarnath Musk Deer Sanctuary, Western Himalaya. Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat. Sathyakumar, S., Bhattacharya, T., Bashir, T., Poudyal, K., 2014. Developing a monitoring programme for mammals in Himalayan protected areas: a case study from Khangchendzonga National Park and biosphere reserve, Sikkim, India. Parks 20, 35–48. Schaller, G.B., 1977. Mountain Monarchs: Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalaya. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA. Sharma, R.K., Singh, R., 2020. Over 100 Years of Snow Leopard Research: A Spatially Explicit Review of the State of Knowledge in the Snow Leopard Range. WWF, Gland, Switzerland. Sharma, R.K., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mishra, C., 2015. Does livestock benefit or harm snow leopards? Biol. Conserv. 190, 8–13.

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Sharma, R.K., Sharma, K., Borchers, D., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Suryawanshi, K.R., Mishra, C., 2021. Spatial variation in population-density of snow leopards in a multiple use landscape in Spiti Valley, Trans-Himalaya. PLoS One 16, e0250900. Shrotriya, S., Reshamwala, H.S., Mahar, N., Habib, B., Suhail, I., Takpa, J., 2015. Distribution and Population Estimation of Ungulates in Changthang Region, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, India. Technical Report, Wildlife Institute of India and Department of Wildlife Protection, Govt. of J&K. Singh, R., Sharma, R.K., Babu, S., 2015. Pastoralism in transition: livestock abundance and herd composition in Spiti, Trans-Himalaya. Hum. Ecol. 43, 799–810. Singh, R., Sharma, R.K., Babu, S., Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2020. Traditional ecological knowledge and contemporary changes in the agro-pastoral system of upper Spiti landscape, Indian Trans-Himalayas. Pastoralism 10, 15. Singh, R., Sharma, R.K., Bhutia, T.U., Bhutia, K., Babu, S., 2021. Conservation policies, eco-tourism, and end of pastoralism in Indian Himalaya? Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 5, 613998. SLN, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Revised 2014 Version Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, Washington, USA. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program. Kyrgyz Republic, Bishkek. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mishra, C., 2010. Why should a grazer browse? Livestock impact on winter resource use by bharal Pseudois nayaur. Oecologia 162, 453–462. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mishra, C., 2012. Standardizing the double-observer survey method for estimating mountain ungulate prey of the endangered snow leopard. Oecologia 169, 581–590. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Redpath, S., Mishra, C., 2013. People, predators and perceptions: patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and wolves. J. Appl. Ecol. 50, 550–560.

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C H A P T E R

42 Conservation of snow leopard in Nepal Gopal Khanala, Karan B. Shahb, Rodney M. Jacksonc, and Som Aled a

Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal bNatural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal cSnow Leopard Conservancy, Sonoma, CA, United States dDepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States

Distribution status, abundance, and ecology Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are distributed in the Himalayan range in Nepal, primarily within alpine and subalpine zones between elevations of 3000 and 5000m. Their presence has been confirmed in ten protected areas (PAs) (Table 42.1 and Fig. 42.1) and outside PAs in Humla, Mugu, Manang, and Sankhuwasabha districts. Snow leopard habitat is divided into three distinct landscapes to facilitate conservation aligning with the priority landscape approach under the Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Program (GSELP): Eastern landscape, Central Landscape, and Western Landscape. Collectively, these landscapes are estimated to comprise almost 13,000 km2 of potential snow leopard habitat (WWF Nepal, 2009) (Fig. 42.1). Snow leopard densities vary throughout Nepal. Based on radio-telemetry, Jackson and Ahlborn (1989) reported a density of 10–12 snow leopards per 100 km2 in the uninhabited Langu Valley of Mugu district, which is now part of

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00044-3

Shey Phoksundo National Park. Using noninvasive genetic techniques, Karmacharya et al. (2011) estimated four adult snow leopards in
500 km2 of Shey Phoksundo National Park and five in Ghunsa and Yagma regions in Kangchenjunga Conservation Area. WWF Nepal (2009) estimated 2.6 snow leopards per 100 km2 in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, based on a one-time sign survey and fecal genetics. Lovari et al. (2009) estimated four adult snow leopards in Sagarmatha National Park (1148 km2), while a minimum of three adult snow leopards inhabited Jomsom, Lubra, and Thini areas of Mustang in 2011, based on camera trapping in ca. 75 km2 (Ale et al., 2014). Subsequent camera trapping in 2012–13 revealed 2 additional individuals making a total of 5. Using camera-trap photographic capture-recapture data, Khanal et al. (2020a,b) estimated 2.51 snow leopards per 100 km2 in Upper Dolpa and 1.21 snow leopards per 100 km2 in Lower Dolpa. In the Annapurna-Manaslu region, the snow leopard density was estimated to be 0.95 (SE ¼ 0.19) animals per 100 km2 using DNA

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

532 TABLE 42.1

42. Snow leopards in Nepal

Protected areas in Nepal harboring snow leopards. Snow leopard presence through

Protected area

Area (sq. km)

Radio/GPS collar

Genetics

Cameratrap/photo

Sign survey

Local interview

Source

Langtang National Park (LNP)

1710

*

*

Khatiwada (2004) and Chalise (2011)

Api Nampa Conservation Area (ANCA)

1903

*

*

Khanal et al. (2020b)

Gaurishankar (GCA)

2179

*

*

Koju et al. (2021)

Shey Phoksundo (SPNP)

3555

Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA)

7629

Makalu-Barun National Park (MBNP)

2233

Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA)

2035

Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA)

1663

Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park (SNP)

1148

Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (DHR)

1325

*

*

*

*

*

Khanal et al. (2020a) and Karmacharya et al. (2011)

*

*

*

*

Ale et al. (2014), Chetri et al. (2019a,b), Oli (1997)

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Karmacharya et al. (2011) and Thapa (2006)

*

*

Devkota et al. (2017)

*

*

Wolf and Ale (2009)

*

DNPWC, Nepal (2017)

*The star sign (*) denotes the means by which we knew the presence of the snow leopard in Nepal’s protected areas.

analysis of snow leopard scats (Chetri et al., 2019a). Overall, the western region appears to have higher densities of snow leopards than the eastern part of Nepal. However, the drivers apparently causing these underlying differences have yet to be revealed, although variation in the size of areas sampled and different techniques used for population estimation may have resulted in different estimates. Jackson and Ahlborn’s (1990) classic study projected 300–500 snow leopards in approximately

27,432 km2, based upon expert opinion, local interviews, and a simple GIS model. Two decades later, using a model based on relationships between sign surveys, genetic analyses, and the extent of potentially suitable habitat, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) narrowed down the historic numbers to 301–400 in about 13,000 km2 (WWF Nepal, 2009) (Table 42.1). Various studies indicate that the snow leopard’s altitudinal range in the country extends

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Distribution status, abundance, and ecology

FIG. 42.1

533

Protected areas (PA) and areas outside PAs with snow leopard presence (DNPWC/WWF Nepal).

from 2700 to 5600 m. Dispersing individuals may cross higher mountain passes. For instance, Shah and Baral (2012) reported signs along the TashiLapcha-La pass (5755 m) between Rolwaling and Everest regions in eastern Nepal. Ghangjenwenga, one of the four GPS satellite collared snow leopards in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, was recorded even at 5858 m, the highest elevation attained by a snow leopard across the range to date (Acharya et al., 2019). Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) are the principal wild prey of snow leopards in Nepal (Ale and Brown, 2009; Devkota et al., 2013; Lovari et al., 2009; Oli et al., 1993; Oli, 1994; Wegge et al.,

2012). Livestock, whether we like it or not, are important prey of snow leopards. Three decades ago, for instance, Oli et al. (1993) found almost 30% of their diet consisting of livestock in parts of Manang. Subsequently, from Nar and Phu regions of Manang, Wegge et al. (2012) recorded an even higher amount (42%) of livestock in the snow leopard’s diet. A more detailed study in Sagarmatha National Park indicated that Himalayan tahr (48%), musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) (20%) and livestock (Bos spp.) (15%) were the three most preferred prey of snow leopards (Lovari et al., 2009). There exist seasonal and regional variations in snow leopards’ prey consumption patterns.

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

534

42. Snow leopards in Nepal

For example, recently Shrestha et al. (2018) reported in Mustang that blue sheep constituted 69% of their winter diet, while domestic livestock such as yak and goat were consumed substantially in summer (54% of the total diet), contrasting with Sagarmatha National Park, where Himalayan tahr was the most preferred prey species (62%–71% of diet) in both seasons. Sex-specific differences in prey preference have been reported from Mustang region, where livestock remains occurred more frequently in scats from males (47%) than from female (21%), suggesting that male snow leopards are more likely to employ this high-risk but high-gain strategy, which involves consuming easily accessible domestic prey even if it poses greater risk of anthropogenic mortality (Chetri et al., 2017).

Conservation threats and challenges Conflicts over livestock depredation and resulting retaliatory killing have been considered two most severe threats to snow leopards across Nepal ( Jackson et al., 1996). While reported cases of retaliatory killing have declined in regions like Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, thanks to the community efforts (Gurung et al., 2011), it is not known if this applies elsewhere in Nepal. However, livestock depredation by snow leopards continues to occur, often leading to mass depredation events inside poorly constructed corrals. Studies show considerable variation in livestock depredation by snow leopards across Nepal, potentially due to site-specific differences in livestock herding practices, terrain ruggedness, and densities of predator as well as prey—both biotic and abiotic factors (Aryal et al., 2014; Chetri et al., 2017, 2019b; Jackson et al., 1996; Khanal et al., 2020a; Oli et al., 1994; Shrestha et al., 2018; Wegge et al., 2012). The poaching of the snow leopard and its prey species—blue sheep, musk deer, Himalayan tahr—continue to threaten its population ( Jackson, 1979b; Nowell et al., 2016). More recently, habitat loss and fragmentation due to

linear infrastructure development, such as road and power-grids, have emerged as a threat (see Chapter 11). Potential poachers now have increased access to remote lands via new road networks. For example, as many as 13 NorthSouth Road corridors are being constructed or proposed for construction, traversing snow leopard habitat in Nepal. These road networks are estimated to directly impact
625 km2 of snow leopard habitat while also increasing poacher access (WWF Nepal, 2018). In addition to human-snow leopard conflict, loss of wild prey poses challenges to snow leopard conservation, such as in Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park where lack of sufficient wild prey has constrained the recovery of the snow leopard population (Ale et al., 2007; Lovari et al., 2009). Recently, the collection of Cordyceps and other Non-Timber Forest Products—especially in west Nepal in places like Shey Phoksundo and Annapurna—has caused disturbance to snow leopard and its prey (see Chapter 12). In addition, such activities have apparently exposed local snow leopard populations to poachers from outside (Lama, 2017).

Strategies to mitigate conservation threats Strategies to mitigate conservation threats to snow leopards utilize coarse-filter and fine-filter approaches (cf. Noss, 1987). The former aims to preserve entire communities of flora and fauna by protecting large extents of habitat, for instance, by establishing protected areas (ecosystem approach), while the latter focuses on protecting species. Nepal uses both approaches to conserve its snow leopards. Snow leopard conservation in protected areas (ecosystem approach) Conservation practices using the ecosystem approach in Nepal began in the 1970s by establishing protected areas (e.g., Royal Chitwan National Park), which also targeted iconic species such as the tiger and rhino in lowlands. In 1984, Shey Phoksundo National Park was

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

Distribution status, abundance, and ecology

established as a high-altitude national park to protect snow leopards and other iconic mountain species and their habitats. The first-ever radio-collaring study of snow leopards was conducted in the western sector of this park in the early 1980s (Jackson, 1996). Subsequently, it caught conservation attention, and WWF Nepal and other organizations began supporting research and conservation ( Jackson, 1979a, 1996; WWF Nepal Program, 2008). Since 2019, the Shey Phoksundo National Park has initiated long-term research and monitoring using cutting-edge technologies such as camera trapping, satellite telemetry, and conservation genetics (Shey Phoksundo National Park, 2021a). In Sagarmatha National Park, an ecosystem approach is being applied to conserve the snow leopard and other biota, following the return of snow leopards after an absence of nearly four decades (Ale and Brown, 2009; Lovari et al., 2009). These individuals may have begun dispersing into adjoining valleys, such as Rolwaling (Ale et al., 2010) and this was recently confirmed by camera trapping (Pandey et al., 2021). In Lamtang National Park, research and conservation started as early as 1982 (Green, 1982); however, it was not until 2003 that researchers confirmed the presence of snow leopards for the first time in the area (Chalise, 2011; Khatiwada, 2004). Integrated conservation and development project with community-based approach The community-based approach on Nepal’s snow leopard conservation dates back to the early 1990s with what Heinen and Shrestha (2006) aptly termed the “dawn of social conservation.” While implementing varieties of community-focused conservation and development activities, this also targets specific species (in our case, the snow leopard). In accordance with the Third Amendment to the National Parks and Wildlife Protection Act 1973, several conservation areas were designated in 1996. These included reserves managed for integrated conservation and development, corresponding

535

to IUCN Category VI (managed resource or extractive) reserves. The first local Snow Leopard Conservation Committee comprising seven members was established in Annapurna, the country’s first designated Conservation Area (Ale, 1997). This committee operated under the Annapurna Conservation Area Project’s legal village level unit known as Conservation Area Management Committee. Actions like hiring communal herders and patrolling snow leopard habitat to deter poachers were launched. Similarly, WWF Nepal started a community-based conservation and livelihood improvement program in Kanchenjunga Conservation Area in 1997, focusing on snow leopards as a Flagship Species. As a result, community participation in conservation improved, with a claimed 28% increase in the snow leopard population between 2009 and 2013. To date, Nepal has established five Conservation Areas where participatory approaches are emphasized to conserve biodiversity. This approach has successfully been extended to buffer zones surrounding national parks to enhance park-people relationships. The common denominator of community-based participatory approach consists of a host of actions, including forming local snow leopard committees, Women’s Groups, Anti-Poaching Units, and the Buffer Zone Council. Conservation beyond protected areas Few PAs in Nepal are large enough to contain a viable population of snow leopards. Over 65% of Nepal’s snow leopards ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1990) and as much as 28% of their habitat (WWF Nepal, 2009) may fall outside PAs. Although researchers have corroborated the species’ presence outside protected areas, for instance, Rolwaling valley between Sagarmatha and Langtang National Park (Ale, 2010) and Humla (Lama et al., 2018), limited information is available to make an objective assessment of such status across Nepal. Lately, some efforts have been made to address this gap. For example, WWF Nepal

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42. Snow leopards in Nepal

started a camera trap survey in the Arun valley, a potential corridor between Kanchenjunga Conservation Area and Makalu-Barun National Park, in 2019 (WWF-Nepal, pers. comm.). In addition, a team of researchers has launched a promising snow leopard project in Humla and Mugu districts through funding from the 2021 Rolex Award for Enterprise (https://www.rolex.org/rolexawards/environment/rinzin-phunjok-lama).

Legislative, policy, and related programmatic responses to snow leopard conservation Legislative and policy tools Nepal has been at the forefront of promulgating appropriate policies and programmatic tools targeting biodiversity conservation. The National Parks and Wildlife Protection Act 1973 strictly prohibits harming or killing snow leopards and emphasizes strict punishments against poaching or trading in snow leopard and other wildlife parts. The Government of Nepal has played a leading conservation role through its participation in GSLEP. The first National Snow Leopard Conservation Action plan was prepared in 2005 and updated in 2012 to include emerging threats like climate change and the proliferation of rural roads. The most recent action plan (2017–21) aims to estimate the nationwide population of snow leopards and scale-up community-managed livestock insurance schemes (DNPWC, 2017). Nepal also prepared the first-ever climateresilient Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Management Plan (2017–26) for the Eastern Snow Leopard Landscape. Community-based conservation initiatives Nepal has pioneered community-based biodiversity conservation. Government agencies and other INGOs and NGOs, dedicated to biodiversity conservation, have long supported community-based initiatives to reduce poverty and improve the income of local communities,

while safeguarding the region’s flora and fauna. For example, the US-based Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC) helped establish womenoperated community-based savings-and-credit (SAC) micro-finance schemes in four settlements in 2011 in the Sagarmatha National Park. The SAC uses its funds to provide loan programs to its members, and 25% of net profits go to snow leopard conservation (e.g., patrolling, partially compensating livestock losses, and undertaking conservation awareness activities). Recently, Pangje Foundation, a nonprofit based in Colorado, has been active in education, conservation, and monitoring local snow leopards—deploying school children and village youth—in Dolpa (Shey Phoksundo National Park) and Manang (Annapurna Conservation Area). WWF Nepal has helped establish and run community-managed livestock insurance schemes (LIS) to help offset economic losses due to livestock depredation by snow leopards (see Chapter 17.3). Currently, there are nine community-run LIS across three mountain protected areas vested with nearly USD 150,000 (
18 million NRS) in endowment funds for compensating for livestock loss from snow leopards. In Shey Phoksundo National Park, as many as 500 households benefited from this scheme (Shey Phoksundo National Park, 2021a). Alongside the livestock insurance program, the Government of Nepal’s Wildlife Damage Relief Guidelines 2013 has been instrumental in providing compensation to snow leopard-victim families In 2020–21, Shey Phoksundo National Park disbursed nearly USD 38,000 to 150 households (Shey Phoksundo National Park, 2021b).

Paradigm shift in research and monitoring: Sign surveys to satellite telemetry Snow leopard research in Nepal has seen a considerable shift toward the use of modern and cutting-edge technologies such as camera

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

References

traps and satellite GPS collars. The sign-based presence-absence survey of snow leopards formed the first line of research until 2010 in assessing snow leopard presence and relative abundance across comparable habitats. One of us formalized the sign survey protocol for snow leopards in 1996 through the Snow Leopard Information Management System (SLIMS) ( Jackson and Hunter, 1996). Following this protocol, Nepal published the snow leopard Monitoring Guidelines in 2007 (Thapa, 2007). While SLIMS continues to be used for presence-absence surveys, more advanced tools and techniques, including camera traps, GPS collars, and noninvasive genetics, are increasingly employed (Acharya et al., 2019; Ale et al., 2014; Chetri et al., 2019a,b; Oli, 1997). To date, Nepal has collared nine snow leopards with satellite GPS collars generating a wealth of data on their spatial ecology (Acharya et al., 2019; Shey Phoksundo National Park, 2021a). In addition, the participation of local communities in research and conservation interventions has empowered them, making conservation more sustainable. For example, since 2008 Shey Phoksundo National Park has trained over 100 community members as “snow leopard citizen scientists” and 35 frontline park staff, and most of them are regularly involved in snow leopard research and monitoring (Shey Phoksundo National Park, 2021a).

Looking ahead: From more boots on the ground to capacitating guardians of the mountains Nepal witnessed a groundbreaking VHF radiotracking study of snow leopards in the 1980s ( Jackson, 1996) and pioneered community initiatives for conservation (Gurung et al., 2011). In 2017, Nepal made substantial progress by developing the first-ever climate-resilient landscape management plan for the Eastern Landscape,

537

and construction of the first-ever snow leopard research center in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area has begun. In addition, there have been timely policy responses to conservation needs with regular updating of national-level conservation action plans in 2005, 2012, and 2017. Despite these progresses, snow leopard conservation continues to be challenging given Nepal’s rugged and remote terrain, which makes law enforcement and resource management taxing. Because nearly 30% of snow leopard potential habitat is located outside of the active protection zones, Nepal needs to focus, increasingly, on areas outside of PAs for snow leopard research, conservation, and monitoring. Transboundary cooperation is also vital, because Nepal’s snow leopards share habitat with China and India. Given the habitat specificity of snow leopards and site-specific differences in conservation challenges, more boots are required on the ground in the long-term to ensure reliable knowledge is generated. The high dependence of rural livelihoods on pastoralism means that the future of Nepal’s snow leopards ultimately rests in the hands of local communities, especially livestock herders who primarily bear the cost of depredation by snow leopards and wolves. We, therefore, need locally designed and focused, community-driven projects to help alleviate existing people-wildlife conflicts— along with policies and legislation aimed at deterring poaching and other harmful activities to snow leopard, its prey, and habitat. Large and small-scale initiatives will only work if they bring about fundamental, long-term behavioral changes toward snow leopards.

References Acharya, H., Subba, S., Shrestha, S., Khanal, G., Aryal, K.P., Dhakal, Y., 2019. Satellite Telemetry on Snow Leopards in Kangchenjunga Conservation Area. Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, Taplejung, pp. 1–60.

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Ale, S., 1997. The Annapurna Conservation Area Project: a case study of an integrated conservation and development project in Nepal. In: Jackson, R., Ahmad, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Snow Leopard Symposium, Islamabad, November 1995. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, USA, pp. 155–169. Ale, S., 2010. Assessment of snow leopards and their corridors in Nepal’s East Himalayan Eco-region. Report submitted to Rufford Small Grants, UK. Ale, S.B., Brown, J.S., 2009. Prey behavior leads to predator: a case study of the Himalayan Tahr and the snow leopard in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal. Isr. J. Ecol. Evol. 55, 315–327. Ale, S., Thapa, K., Jackson, R., Smith, J.D., 2010. The fate of snow leopards in and around Mt. Everest. Cat News 53, 19–21. Ale, S.B., Shrestha, B., Jackson, R., 2014. On the status of snow leopard Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775) in Annapurna, Nepal. J. Threat. Taxa 6, 5534–5543. Ale, S.B., Yonzon, P., Thapa, K., 2007. Recovery of snow leopard Uncia uncia in Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park, Nepal. Oryx 41, 89. Aryal, A., Brunton, D., Ji, W., Barraclough, R.K., Raubenheimer, D., 2014. Human-carnivore conflict: ecological and economical sustainability of predation on livestock by snow leopard and other carnivores in the Himalaya. Sustain. Sci. 9, 321–329. Chalise, M.K., 2011. Snow leopard (Uncia uncia), prey species and outreach in Langtang National, Park, Nepal. Our Nature 9, 138–140. Chetri, M., Odden, M., Wegge, P., 2017. Snow leopard and Himalayan wolf: food habits and prey selection in the Central Himalayas, Nepal. PLoS ONE 12, e0170549. Chetri, M., Odden, M., Sharma, K., Flagstad, Ø., Wegge, P., 2019a. Estimating snow leopard density using fecal DNA in a large landscape in north-Central Nepal. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 17, e00548. Chetri, M., Odden, M., Devineau, O., Wegge, P., 2019b. Patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and other large carnivores in the Central Himalayas, Nepal. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 17, e00536. Department of National Parks and Widlife Conservation, Nepal, 2017. Snow Leopard Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2017–2021). Department of National Parks and Widlife Conservation, Kathmandu. Devkota, B.P., Silwal, T., Kolejka, J., 2013. Prey density and diet of Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. Appl. Ecol. Environ. Sci. 1, 55–60. Devkota, B.P., Silwal, T., Shrestha, B.P., Sapkota, A.P., Lakhey, S.P., Yadav, V.K., 2017. Abundance of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and its wild prey in Chhekampar VDC, Manaslu Conservation Area, Nepal. Banko Janakari 21, 11–20.

Green, M.J.B., 1982. Status, distribution and conservation of the Snow leopard in North India. In: International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards: Proceedings of a Symposium, pp. 7–10. Gurung, G., Thapa, K., Kunkel, K., Thapa, G., 2011. Enhancing herders’ livelihood and conserving the snow leopard in Nepal. Cat News 55, 17–21. Heinen, J.T., Shrestha, S.K., 2006. Evolving policies for conservation: an historical profile of the protected area system of Nepal. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 49, 41–58. Jackson, R., 1979a. Snow leopards in Nepal. Oryx 15, 191–195. Jackson, R.M., 1979b. Aboriginal hunting in West Nepal with reference to musk deer Moschus moschiferus moschiferus and snow leopard Panthera uncia. Biol. Conserv. 16, 63–72. Jackson, R.M., 1996. Home Range, Movements and Habitat Use of Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) in Nepal (PhD thesis). London University, London. Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G., 1989. Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Nepal: home range and movements. Natl. Geogr. Res. 5, 161–175. Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G., 1990. The role of protected areas in Nepal in maintaining viable populations of snow leopards. In: Interantional Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards Panthera uncia. vol. 6, pp. 51–69. Jackson, R.M., Hunter, D.O., 1996. Snow Leopard Survey and Conservation Handbook. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle. Jackson, R.M., Ahlborn, G., Gurung, M., Ale, S.B., 1996. Reducing livestock depredation losses in the Nepalese Himalaya. In: Proceedings of the Seventeenth Vertebrate Pest Conference 1996. vol. 30, pp. 241–247. Karmacharya, D.B., Thapa, K., Shrestha, R., Dhakal, M., Janecka, J.E., 2011. Noninvasive genetic population survey of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Kangchenjunga conservation area, Shey Phoksundo National Park and surrounding buffer zones of Nepal. BMC Res. Notes 4, 516. Khanal, G., Mishra, C., Ramesh Suryawanshi, K., 2020a. Relative influence of wild prey and livestock abundance on carnivore-caused livestock predation. Ecol. Evol. 10, 11787–11797. Khanal, G., Poudyal, L.P., Devkota, B.P., Ranabhat, R., Wegge, P., 2020b. Status and conservation of the snow leopard Panthera uncia in Api Nampa Conservation Area. Nepal. Oryx 54, 421–428. Khatiwada, J.R., 2004. The Status of Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) and its Impact on Principal Prey Species in Langtang National Park. Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. Koju, N.P., Bashyal, B., Pandey, B.P., Shah, S.N., Thami, S., Bleisch, W.V., 2021. First camera-trap record of the snow leopard Panthera uncia in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal. Oryx 55, 173–176.

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References

Lama, T.L., 2017. Impact of Yartsagunbu (Ophicordyceps Sinensis) Collection on Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Dolpa District, Nepal. Pokhara University. Lama, R.P., Ghale, T.R., Suwal, M.K., Ranabhat, R., 2018. First photographic evidence of Snow Leopard Panthera uncia (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) outside current protected areas network in Nepal Himalaya. J. Threat. Taxa 10, 12086–12090. Lovari, S., Boesi, R., Minder, I., Mucci, N., Randi, E., Dematteis, A., Ale, S.B., 2009. Restoring a keystone predator may endanger a prey species in a human-altered ecosystem: the return of the snow leopard to Sagarmatha National Park. Anim. Conserv. 12, 559–570. Noss, R.F., 1987. From plant communities to landscapes in conservation inventories: a look at the nature conservancy (USA). Biol. Conserv. 41, 11–37. Nowell, K., Li, J., Paltsyn, M., Sharma, R.K., 2016. An Ounce of Prevention: Snow Leopard Crime Revisited. TRAFFIC, Cambridge, UK. Oli, M.K., 1994. Snow leopards and blue sheep in Nepal: densities and predator: prey ratio. J. Mammal. 75, 998–1004. Oli, M.K., 1997. Winter home range of snow leopards in Nepal. Mammalia 61, 355–360. Oli, M., Taylor, I., Rogers, D., 1993. Diet of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. J. Zool. 231, 365–370. Oli, M.K., Taylor, I.R., Rogers, M.E., 1994. Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock - an assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Biol. Conserv. 68, 63–68. Pandey, B., Thami, S., Shrestha, R., Subedi, N., Chalise, M.K., Ale, S.B., 2021. Snow leopards and prey in Rolwaling Valley, Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal. Cat News 74, 14–19.

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Shah, K., Baral, H.S., 2012. Nepalma Hiuenchituwako Sanrakshan (Conservation of Snow Leopards in Nepal). Himalayan Nature, Kathmandu Nepal (In Nepalese). Shey Phoksundo National Park, 2021a. Snow Leopard and Prey Conservation in Shey Phoksundo National Park and Buffer Zone. Shey Phoksundo National Park, 2021b. Shey Phoksundo National Park-Annual Report (2020-21). Shrestha, B., Aihartza, J., Kindlmann, P., 2018. Diet and prey selection by snow leopards in the Nepalese Himalayas. PLoS ONE 13, e0206310. Thapa, K., 2006. Study on Status and Distribution of Snow Leopard and Blue Sheep Including People Interaction: A Case Study from Kanchanjunga Conservation Area. Taplejung and Shey-Phoksundo National Park, Dolpa, Nepal. Thapa, K., 2007. Snow Leopard Monitoring Guideline. WWF Nepal, Kathmandu. Wegge, P., Shrestha, R., Flagstad, Ø., 2012. Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation on livestock and wild prey in a mountain valley in northern Nepal: implications for conservation management. Wildl. Biol. 18, 131–141. Wolf, M., Ale, S., 2009. Signs at the top: habitat features influencing snow leopard Uncia uncia activity in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. J. Mammal. 90, 604–611. WWF Nepal, 2009. Estimating Snow Leopard Populations in the Nepal Himalaya. WWF Nepal, Kathmandu Nepal. WWF Nepal, 2018. Infrastructure Assessment in Snow Leopard Habitat of Nepal. WWF Nepal, Kathmandu Nepal. WWF Nepal Program, 2008. Northen Mountain Landscape Programme (1996–2008): A Retrospective. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu Nepal.

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C H A P T E R

43 The current state of snow leopard conservation in Pakistan Jaffar Ud Dina,b, Shoaib Hameeda,c, Hussain Alia,c, and Muhammad Ali Nawazd a

Snow Leopard Foundation, Islamabad, Pakistan bInstitute of Biological Sciences, Department of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia cDepartment of Zoology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan dEnvironmental Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

Introduction The snow leopard range in Pakistan falls in the mighty mountain ranges of Hindu Kush, Pamir, Karakoram, and Himalaya spread across 80,000 km2 in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) and Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) provinces and state of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) (Government of Pakistan, 2017). These magnificent mountain ranges are home to 5 of the world’s 14 peaks higher than 8000 m, including K-2, the secondhighest peak in the world (8611 m), Gasherbrum I, Gasherbrum II, Broad Peak, and Nanga Parbat. In addition, there are more than 160 peaks in the 7000 m category and another 700 peaks in the 6000 m category (Government of Pakistan and IUCN, 2003). Often termed as the “third pole,” these mountain ranges have the largest glacier reserves outside the polar region and serve as origins of biogeographical diversity (Din et al., 2020). Snow leopard range in Pakistan harbors

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00007-8

rich biological diversity with Palearctic affinities. The majority of the country’s forest cover and medicinal plants occur here, in addition to five species of wild sheep and goats, including the flare-horned markhor (Capra falconeri), Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex), Ladakh urial (Ovis orientalis vignei), blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii), plus Kashmir musk deer (Moschus cupreus). Sympatric carnivores include gray wolf (Canis lupus), Himalayan lynx (Lynx isabellinus), brown bear (Ursus arctos), black bear (Ursus thibetanus), and other smaller canids and felids (Din and Nawaz, 2010; Din et al., 2013; Hameed et al., 2014). Snow leopard habitat displays unique biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, due to its remoteness, rich history, and comparatively limited development. The key functions and services include watershed protection, genetic resources, wild crop cultivars, traditional knowledge, customary laws, and spiritual

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43. Snow leopard conservation in Pakistan

and cultural values. More than 9 million people currently occupy the area, and the many different mountain tribes they represent have dwelt in these remote valleys for centuries. There are at least a dozen local dialects, most of which stem from ancient civilizations. Examples of historic linkages include the Kalash tribe from three small hamlets in the Chitral district of KPK province who claim to be the descendants of Alexander the Great and the Buddha sculptures in districts Gilgit and Diamer of GB province, which are thought to have been created in the ninth millennium BCE, roughly the late Stone Age (Dawn, 2011). Mountain passes, including those on the famous Silk Route, are still used for trade (Din et al., 2019). Old folk tales and songs from the region reference wild cats, and people often name their children “Purdoom” (snow leopard). This is an excellent example of the intimate relationship between local people and snow leopards (Din, 2014). Another cultural connection is the Indus River, which is said to resemble a snow leopard’s mouth. Similarly, local stories often speak of a snow leopard “in the old days” that hung over a ledge to allow a hunter to pass by. Traditionally, however, snow leopard hunting remained a sign of bravery and dignity for the Rajas, Maha Rajas, Walis, and Mehtars (tribal chiefs) who displayed pelts as a matter of pride and prestige for almost two decades (Government of Pakistan, 2017). Despite the socioeconomic and ecological importance of snow leopards and their habitat, our understanding of snow leopard ecology and conservation needs was very limited until the International Snow Leopard Symposium held in Pakistan in 1995 (for a comprehensive history of early snow leopard research and conservation in Pakistan see Khan, 2016). Although the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act of 1962 and the ensuing Provincial Wildlife Act of 1975 did provide protection status to the snow leopards in the country. The seminal surveys of snow leopards and their natural prey by George Schaller in the 1970s provided the first-ever clue of the snow leopard status and conservation

issues in the country (Schaller, 1976). Later, Roberts (1997) and Hussain (2003) provided naı¨ve estimates of snow leopard numbers (300 to 420 individuals) for Pakistan. Other conservation organizations including WWF-Pakistan, Baltistan Wildlife Conservation and Development Organization (BWCDO), Snow Leopard Conservancy, and IUCN also contributed to snow leopard conservation in various ways. However, the snow leopard research and conservation work in Pakistan picked up with the launch of the Pakistan Snow Leopard Program by the Snow Leopard Trust in the late 1990s which led to the first-ever GPS collaring of a snow leopard in 2006 (McCarthy et al., 2006). The inception of the Snow Leopard Foundation (SLF) in 2008 provided a dedicated and focused platform to foster the conservation agenda of snow leopards in the country. The development of the GSLEP in 2013 (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013) and revision of the Provincial Wildlife Acts (KPK Wildlife Department, 2015) by the range provinces upscaled the SLF initiatives in the country. Despite all these efforts and having “Endangered Status” (Sheikh and Molur, 2004) in the country, snow leopards are facing a myriad of threats which call for a holistic and integrated conservation approach to ensure the coexistence of these majestic cats with humans in the highlands of Pakistan.

Threats and challenges Much like in other parts of its range, snow leopards in Pakistan are facing mounting human-induced and climate change-driven threats. Climate change is reportedly reducing the productivity of alpine grassland and the area of available habitat as the treeline shifts upward (see Chapter 8). Growing human populations and ill-planned developmental activities such as mines, roads, and dams have arisen as an emerging threat to the cats, their prey species, and habitat (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013 and see Chapters 10 and 11).

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Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms

The National Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Priorities (NSELP) (Government of Pakistan, 2017) categorize threats to snow leopards into three broader categories including threats to the human community, snow leopards, and ecosystems inhabited by these cats, respectively. With over half of Pakistan’s human population living below the poverty line, the agropastoral communities perceive snow leopards as pests when the cat clashes with humans and their livestock (Din et al., 2017). The high demand for snow leopard hides and body parts in the black market makes them prone to poaching for trade (Nowell, 2016 and see Chapter 7). Another emerging threat is the spread of pandemics and zoonotic diseases that requires urgent attention. Lack of understanding of snow leopard distributional patterns in combination with a myriad of barriers inflicted by the remote

FIG. 43.1

543

terrain and socioecological realities of the landscapes (Din et al., 2022), often results in the formulation of vague conservation strategies. The cumulative scores of various threats based on their area of influence, intensity, and urgency are provided in Fig. 43.1.

Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms An overview of snow leopard research and conservation history in Pakistan The historical context of snow leopard research and conservation in Pakistan was covered earlier in this chapter, and it is evident that efforts made between 1962 and 2008 provided a platform for a more focused, long-term

Area of influence, intensity, and urgency of major threats to snow leopards in Pakistan.

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43. Snow leopard conservation in Pakistan

approach. With the passage of time, snow leopard conservation and management efforts gained momentum and both government agencies and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) fostered the conservation agenda in the country. The SLF, as a dedicated institution, upscaled the snow leopard conservation paradigm in Pakistan since its establishment in 2008. The SLF for the first time steered postgraduate degree programs in wildlife management in collaboration with academia which boosted carnivorefocused research initiatives in the country. Moreover, the research and conservation efforts were expanded to remote and unexplored areas, and on-field training opportunity was provided to the postgraduate students. The available snow leopard estimates (Din and Nawaz, 2011; Hussain, 2003; Roberts, 1997; Schaller, 1976) were based on anecdotal reports and sign surveys with limited spatial coverage which were extrapolated to the entire range in the country. However, during the past decade, various studies focusing on the land use/land cover changes (LULCC) on snow leopard habitat in Pakistan (Khan et al., 2021), habitat suitability (Hameed et al., 2020), and range contraction (Mahmood et al., 2019) were undertaken using the latest modeling techniques which improved our understanding of spatial ecology of snow leopards. The least explored landscapes such as the Karakoram-Pamir were focused on in most of the studies, where important ecological parameters such as ecosystem services (Din et al., 2020), spatiotemporal dynamics of human-snow leopard conflict (Din et al., 2019), and occupancy patterns of snow leopard (Din et al., 2022) were understood. Moreover, limited studies on the feeding habits of snow leopards (Anwar et al., 2011; Hacker et al., 2021; Khatoon et al., 2017) revealed that up to 70% of the diet consisted of domestic livestock followed by wild mammals and birds. Some advanced-level research to test the effect of study design on density estimations was also

applied to snow leopard data (Nawaz et al., 2021). The research and conservation initiatives have now expanded to large landscapes in the Himalayas, Karakoram, Pamir, and the Hindu Kush mountain ranges of northern Pakistan.

Current status of snow leopard and prey research Snow leopard and sympatric carnivores As a leading carnivore conservation organization in Pakistan, the SLF has collected much data during the past decades by the application of camera traps, molecular genetics, sign-based site occupancy modeling and human-carnivore interaction surveys from the major portion of snow leopard range. Camera-trapping studies have been ongoing since 2006. To date, 940 camera-trap stations were set in 20 study sites during 24 survey sessions resulting in 33,000 trap days (Fig. 43.2). Data have been collated and is being analyzed by the application of the spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) method. Results will be made public in 2022. In addition to snow leopard information, substantial data on many other carnivores including, wolf, brown bear, lynx, fox (Vulpes vulpes), jackal (Canis aureus), stone marten (Martes foina), weasel (Mustela nivalis), etc., have been collected and much of the data have been published (Ahmad et al., 2016; Ali et al., 2020; Awan et al., 2021; Bischof et al., 2013; Din et al., 2013; Hameed et al., 2014, 2022; Kabir et al., 2017; Khattak et al., 2020). Human-carnivore interaction surveys were conducted in most of snow leopard range in Pakistan. Around 4000 households from nearly 400 different villages have been interviewed so far (Fig. 43.3). Currently, surveys are being conducted in the remaining areas to fill the gap and to cover the entirety of the snow leopard range in the country.

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Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms

FIG. 43.2

Camera-trap effort of Snow Leopard Foundation and presence of snow leopard in Pakistan.

FIG. 43.3

Watershed valleys and selected village locations of human-carnivore interaction surveys.

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43. Snow leopard conservation in Pakistan

Sign-based site occupancy surveys were conducted in Khunjerab National Park and its buffer zone, Qurumber and Broghil National Parks, Misgar-Chipursan valleys in the Pamir, Phandar Valley, and Basha-Arandu Valleys from 2010 to 2017. A total of 193 sites with 1607 repeat survey points were searched for signs of snow leopards (Din et al., 2022). The presence was detected through five types of signs (scrapes, pugmarks, feces, scent spray, and claw-raking). A multipronged research strategy was augmented with extensive genetic sampling starting in 2009. Genetic sampling efforts were accelerated

FIG. 43.4

in 2018 and have now been completed across most of the range (Fig. 43.4). Over 950 scat samples of snow leopard, wolf, brown bear, lynx, fox, stone marten, and other carnivores have been collected so far. These samples will be analyzed in 2022 to estimate the population of snow leopards and other major carnivores in the country. Wild prey Viable populations of prey species can indicate a healthy predator population (Suryawanshi et al., 2012). Several large, meso, and small mammals have been identified in the diet of snow leopards in Pakistan (Anwar

Genetic sampling efforts through 2020.

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Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms

et al., 2011). As mentioned earlier, the Pakistan snow leopard range harbors five large ungulate species of economic and ecological importance. Prior to the initiation of trophy hunting as a conservation incentive program in the early 1990s, the population of these majestic wild sheep and goats was declining due to poaching, competition with livestock, and habitat degradation (Nawaz et al., 2016a,b). The trophy hunting program not only supported the conservation cause of these species but also promoted the need for adopting science-based research to have accurate population estimates of the species offered

FIG. 43.5

547

for sustainable harvesting. The adoption of reliable survey methods was also realized with time. The SLF introduced the “Double Observor Count” method (Suryawanshi et al., 2012) to estimate the population of key ungulate species in the snow leopard range in 2020. Being a statistically robust tool, this method was adopted by the government wildlife departments and the SLF research team built the capacity of their field staff in the application of this survey method through onfield training. Subsequently, SLF led extensive collaborative surveys of wild ungulates in snow leopard range (Fig. 43.5), which yielded the

Area covered to survey different species of wild ungulates in the snow leopard range.

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43. Snow leopard conservation in Pakistan

first-ever detailed population estimates of the species over an area of 41,633 km2 area. The outcomes of these surveys (Table 43.1) helped the government to allocate a trophy hunting quota based on realistic estimates. The status of wild sheep and goats is comparatively better understood now and annual monitoring of these species will continue.

Conservation measures Adopting a landscape approach for snow leopard conservation Despite being stealthy and solitary by nature, snow leopards require vast swaths of landscapes. Home ranges thus range from 144 to 240 km2 to over 1500 km2 (Government of Pakistan, 2017; Johansson et al., 2016). There are over 170 PAs of different categories established across the global snow leopard range and 40% of these are smaller than the average home range of snow leopard ( Johansson et al., 2016). The National Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Priorities (NSLEP) which was developed to secure the GSLEP goal of “securing 20 by 2020” enforces adopting a landscape approach for snow leopard conservation. Three out of the 20 snow leopard model landscapes including the KarakorumPamir (38,245 km2), Hindu Kush (13,888 km2), and Himalaya (7055 km2) are represented in northern Pakistan and cover an area of 59,188 km2 (74% of snow leopard range in the country). These landscapes encompass many PAs and the coverage of PAs is increasing over time. In 2021, two new National Parks and a Biosphere Reserve were established in the Himalaya Landscape. Management plans of the three landscapes have been drafted and their implementation started. Fifty-seven percent of the range (80,000 km2) is already under protected area coverage including 13 National Parks (25,996 km2), 52 Community Controlled Hunting Areas (26,958 km2), 8 Game Reserves (884 km2), and 3 Wildlife Sanctuaries (583 km2), respectively (Fig. 43.6).

Human-carnivore conflict mitigation and compensation measures Human-carnivore conflict has been a challenging conservation issue for wildlife managers worldwide. The mountain communities in the snow leopard range are largely dependent on livestock farming as a source of family income. Livestock losses to large carnivores such as snow leopards are always hard to tolerate for the affected families and they retaliate and kill the predators in retribution. Community-based conservation programs including human-carnivore conflict mitigation, compensation, and disease control measures have now expanded to cover the major portion of the snow leopard range (Fig. 43.7). SLF alone helped communities build 40 predator-proof corrals in winter and summer pastures of its project sites (Fig. 43.8 and 43.9). These have been augmented with corrals constructed by other conservation institutions such as the BWCDO, WWF, and the government wildlife departments in the snow leopard range provinces. Additionally, livestock insurance schemes have been implemented in over 50 valleys by the SLF and its collaborators (see Chapter 17.3). Ecosystem health and livelihood improvement initiatives Livestock rearing is the major source of income of the highland communities. The ecosystem health program (EHP) introduced by the SLF and its partners helps herders to protect their livestock from diseases and control the spread of diseases from livestock to wildlife. In return, the agropastoral communities support the conservation agenda of the snow leopard and other carnivores in their respective valleys (Nawaz et al., 2016a,b and see Chapter 18.3). Over 250,000 animals are being vaccinated biannually in the SLF program sites in GB, KPK, and AJK. More than 50% of the human population in the snow leopard range live below the poverty

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Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms

TABLE 43.1

Population of the wild ungulates by sites surveyed in 2020–21.

Study site/valley

Ibex

Blue sheep

Markhor

Astak and Tormik

171

–

–

Astore

46

–

–

Bagrote

38

–

–

Basha and Baraldu

320

–

–

Booni Wildlife Division

681

–

–

Broghil National Park (BNP)

193

–

–

CGNP Buffer zone

0

–

609

Chipursan

84

–

–

Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP)

0

–

2479

Chitral Wildlife Division

1172

–

2718

Daniyor

30

–

109

–

101

Dashkin-Mushkin-Turbuling (DMT) Gulkin and Hussaini

706

–

–

Gulmit

130

–

–

Haramosh

46

–

29

Hopper and Hisper

373

–

–

Hushe and Thalay

308

–

–

Ishkoman

94

–

–

Khunjerab National Park (North)

676

–

–

Khunjerab Villagers Organization

358

71

–

Khyber

372

–

–

Mastuj Wildlife Division

373

–

–

Misgar

400

–

–

Passu

221

–

–

Qurumbar National Park (QNP)

114

–

–

Rakaposhi

112

–

–

Shimshal

802

703

–

Shounter Valley

108

–

–

Sikenderabad

47

–

35

Skoyo-Karabathang-Basingo (SKB)

141

–

43

Total

8116

774

6123

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FIG. 43.6

43. Snow leopard conservation in Pakistan

Distribution of the different protected area categories established in the snow leopard range in Pakistan.

line and largely depend on ecosystem services as a means of livelihood (Din et al., 2020). The SLF has initiated a myriad of livelihood improvement measures in tandem with the sustainable land and forest/range management activities in the snow leopard landscapes. The strengthening and expansion of the Snow Leopard Enterprises (SLE, see Chapter 17.2) model, fruit processing and apiculture projects focusing on women, provision of LPG cylinders and stoves as an alternative to fuelwood for over 600 households, water conservation through the installation of solar water pumps, construction of water channels, water ponds, protection

walls, afforestation and development of fruit orchards are some of the key interventions undertaken in the program sites. Under the SLE component, a brand “Punaar” was developed to market the items produced by women artisans. A flagship conservation project “Communitybased Conservation Tourism” was conceived and launched in one valley in GB. This innovative conservation model is comprised of a state-ofthe-art Glamping Site, a View Point, and a Tourist Information Center & Natural History Museum. The eco-friendly livelihood improvement model is operated by the valley conservation committee

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Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms

FIG. 43.7

551

Snow Leopard Foundation Conservation sites in Pakistan.

and the revenues generated are used to upscale conservation initiatives in the valley. Moreover, a National Strategic Plan to promote ecologically responsible tourism in the snow leopard landscapes as an outcome of the initiative was developed and shared with the federal government for endorsement. All these initiatives are supporting the conservation cause of snow leopards and their ecosystems and inculcating a sense of stewardship for snow leopards in the stakeholder involved by promoting public-private partnership.

Capacity building and awareness raising A lack of awareness, support, skills, and expertise required to understand snow leopard conservation needs are major threats to the survival of snow leopards in Pakistan. Organizations such as WWF-Pakistan, IUCN, and BWCDO are implementing community sensitization programs in snow leopard habitats. SLF is working with schools and youth in conservation program sites by establishing nature clubs and developing and helping implement action plans.

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43. Snow leopard conservation in Pakistan

FIG. 43.8

Winter predator corral in the program sites. Photo courtesy Snow Leopard Foundation, Pakistan.

FIG. 43.9

Summer predator corral in the program sites. Photo courtesy Snow Leopard Foundation, Pakistan.

Capacity-building efforts by SLF in carnivore assessment techniques through theoretical and field training are also underway. More than 30 nature clubs are operational in schools and postgraduate research of over 30 students was facilitated along with training of about 300

government and NGO staff in ecological research. These initiatives are furthered with the development and dissemination of thematic audiovisual resource material to develop a skilled human resource base in the country as well as raise awareness in the masses.

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References

Lessons learned and way forward Despite the unprecedented success achieved over the years of effort, there is much yet to be done to foster the conservation agenda of snow leopards, their wild prey, and fragile ecosystems holistically. Emerging threats, such as climate change, the influx of unplanned development in the snow leopard landscapes, and escalating but largely unnoticed poaching and trade in snow leopards and their wild prey, are the key conservation challenges to be tackled in the future. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic calls for the adoption of the One Health paradigm while focusing on zoonotic diseases in the snow leopard range.

References Ahmad, S., Hameed, S., Ali, H., Khan, T.U., Mehmood, T., Nawaz, M.A., 2016. Carnivores’ diversity and conflicts with humans in musk deer National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 62, 565–576. Ali, A., Khattak, M.N.K., Nawaz, M.A., Hameed, S., 2020. Conflicts involving brown bear and other large carnivores in the Kalam Valley, Swat, Pakistan. Pak. J. Zool. 55, 1889–1896. Anwar, M.B., Jackson, R., Nadeem, M.S., Jane
cka, J.E., Hussain, S., Beg, M.A., Muhammad, G., Qayyum, M., 2011. Food habits of the snow leopard Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775) in Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 57, 1077–1083. Awan, M.N., Awan, M.S., Nawaz, M.A., Hameed, S., Kabir, M., Lee, D.C., 2021. Landscape associations of Asiatic black bears in Kashmir Himalaya, Pakistan. Ursus 2021, 1–10. Bischof, R., Hameed, S., Ali, H., Kabir, M., Younas, M., Shah, K.A., Din, J.U., Nawaz, M.A., 2013. Using timeto-event analysis to complement hierarchical methods when assessing determinants of photographic detectability during camera trapping. Methods Ecol. Evol. 5, 44–53. Dawn, 2011. Threatened Rock Carvings of Pakistan. Available from: https://www.dawn.com/news/629659/ basha-dam-threatens-thousands-of-ancient-rockcarvings. (14 February 2022). Din, Z., 2014. Hunters Become Guards of Snow Leopard in Chitral. Dawn.com. Available from: http://www. dawn.com/news/1152206. (11 November 2021). Din, J.U., Nawaz, M.A., 2010. Status of the Himalayan lynx in district Chitral, NWFP, Pakistan. J. Anim. Plant. Sci. 20, 17–22.

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Din, J.U., Hameed, S., Shah, K.A., Khan, M.A., Khan, S., Ali, M., Nawaz, M.A., 2013. Assessment of canid abundance and conflict with humans in the Hindu Kush Mountain Range of Pakistan. Wildl. Biol. Pract. 9, 20–29. Din, J.U., Nawaz, M.A., 2011. Status of snow leopard and prey species in Torkhow Valley, District Chitral, Pakistan. J. Anim. Plant Sci. 21 (83), 840. Din, J.U., Nawaz, M.A., Mehmood, T., Ali, H., Ali, A., Adli, D.S.H., Norma-Rashid, Y., 2019. A transboundary study of spatiotemporal patterns of livestock predation and prey preferences by snow leopard and wolf in the Pamir. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 20, e00719. Din, J.U., Nawaz, M.A., Norma-Rashid, Y., Ahmad, F., Hussain, K., Ali, H., Adli, D.S.H., 2020. Ecosystem services in a snow leopard landscape: a comparative analysis of two high-elevation national parks in the Karakoram–Pamir. Mt. Res. Dev. 40, R11. Din, J.U., Ali, H., Ali, A., Younus, M., Mehmood, T., NormaRashid, Y., Nawaz, M.A., 2017. Pastoralist-predator interaction at the roof of the world: conflict dynamics and implications for conservation. Ecol. Soc. 22 (2). Din, J.U., Hameed, S., Ali, H., Norma-Rashid, Y., Adli, D.S.H., Nawaz, M.A., 2022. On the snow leopard trails: occupancy pattern and implications for management in the Pamir. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 29, 197–203. Government of Pakistan, 2017. Pakistan National Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Priorities (NSLEP). Ministry of Climate Change, Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, IUCN, 2003. Northern Areas Strategy for Sustainable Development. IUCN Pakistan, Karachi. Hacker, C.E., Jevit, M., Hussain, S., Muhammad, G., Munkhtsog, B., Munkhtsog, B., Zhang, Y., Li, D., Liu, Y., Farrington, J.D., Balbakova, F., Alamanov, A., Kurmanaliev, O., Buyanaa, C., Bayandonoi, G., Ochirjav, M., Liang, X., Bian, X., Weckworth, B., Jackson, R., Janecka, J.E., 2021. Regional comparison of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) diet using DNA metabarcoding. Biodivers. Conserv. 30, 797–817. Hameed, S., Din, J.U., Shah, K.A., Kabir, M., Ayub, M., Khan, S., Bischof, R., Nawaz, M.A., 2014. Pallas’s cat photographed in Qurumber National Park, GilgitBaltistan, Pakistan. Cat News 60, 21–22. Hameed, S., Din, J.U., Ali, H., Kabir, M., Younas, M., Rehman, E., Bari, F., Hao, W., Bischof, R., Nawaz, M.A., 2020. Identifying priority landscapes for conservation of snow leopards in Pakistan. PLoS ONE 15, e0228832. Hameed, S., Ahmad, S., Din, J.U., Nawaz, M.A., 2022. Human perceptions about the Himalayan Brown Bear and other carnivores in Chitral District in the Hindu Kush Range, Pakistan. Pak. J. Zool. 54, 1249–1258. Hussain, S., 2003. The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers. Oryx 37 (1), 26–33. € Rauset, G.R., Samelius, G., McCarthy, T., Johansson, O., Andren, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C., 2016. Land

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sharing is essential for snow leopard conservation. Biol. Conserv. 203, 1–7. Khattak, R.H., Hussain, A., Rehman, E.U., Nawaz, M.A., 2020. Population structure of blue sheep (Pseudios nayaur) in Shimshal Valley Gilgit-Baltistan Pakistan. Pakistan J. Zool. 52 (2), 699. K.P.K. Wildlife Department, 2015. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Wildlife and Biodiversity Act, 2015. Available from: http://kpwildlife.com.pk/Downloads/wildlife_act_ 2015.pdf. (25 November 2021). Kabir, M., Hameed, S., Ali, H., Bosso, L., Din, J.U., Bischof, R., Redpath, S., Nawaz, M.A., 2017. Habitat suitability and movement corridors of grey wolf (Canis lupus) in Northern Pakistan. PLoS ONE 12, e0187027. Khan, A., 2016. Snow leopard conservation in Pakistan—a historical perspective. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 482–485. Khan, T.U., Mannan, A., Hacker, C.E., Ahmad, S., Amir Siddique, M., Khan, B.U., Luan, X., 2021. Use of GIS and remote sensing data to understand the impacts of land use/land cover changes (LULCC) on snow leopard (Panthera uncia) habitat in Pakistan. Sustainability 13, 3590. Khatoon, R., Hussain, I., Anwar, M., Nawaz, M.A., 2017. Diet selection of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in Chitral, Pakistan. Turk. J. Zool. 41, 914–923. Mahmood, T., Younas, A., Akrim, F., Andleeb, S., Hamid, A., Nadeem, M.S., 2019. Range contraction of snow leopard (Panthera uncia). PLoS ONE 14, e0218460. McCarthy, T.M., Khan, J., Din, J.U., McCarthy, K.M., 2006. First study of snow leopards using GPS-satellite collars in Pakistan. Cat News 46, 222–223.

Nawaz, M.A., Din, J.U., Buzdar, H., 2016a. The ecosystem health program: a tool to promote the coexistence of livestock owners and snow leopards. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 188–196. Nawaz, M.A., Din, J.U., Shah, S.A., Khan, A.A., 2016b. The trophy hunting program: enhancing snow leopard prey populations through community participation. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 220–229. Nawaz, M.A., Khan, B.U., Mahmood, A., Younas, M., Din, J.U., Sutherland, C., 2021. An empirical demonstration of the effect of study design on density estimations. Sci. Rep. 11, 1–9. Nowell, K., 2016. An Ounce of Prevention: Snow Leopard Crime Revisited. TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, UK. Roberts, T.J., 1997. Mammals of Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Karachi. Schaller, G.B., 1976. Mountain mammals in Pakistan. Oryx 13, 351–356. Sheikh, K.M., Molur, S., 2004. Status and red list of Pakistan’s mammals. In: Based on the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan Workshop. IUCN, Pakistan. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. Suryawanshi, K.R., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mishra, C., 2012. Standardizing the double-observer survey method for estimating mountain ungulate prey of the endangered snow leopard. Oecologia 169, 581–590.

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44 Current status and conservation of snow leopards in Mongolia Bayaraa Munkhtsoga,b, Claudio Augugliaroc,d, Rana Bayrakcismithe, Bariushaa Munkhtsoga,f, and Tom McCarthyg a

Institute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia bWildlife Institute, College of Nature Conservation of the Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China cDepartment of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland dWildlife Initiative NGO, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia ePanthera, Seattle, WA, United States fIrbis Mongolian Center, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia g Snow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States

Introduction Mongolia’s snow leopard (Panthera uncia) population is second in size only to that of China’s and stands at about 950 adult cats, according to the most recent estimation (Bayandonoi et al., 2021). They are distributed mainly in western Mongolia, along the mountain systems of Mongolian Altai, Gobi Altai, and Trans Altai Gobi, with possible sparse occurrence in Khangai. The species’ northeasternmost presence was confirmed in the Khovsgol mountains bordering Russia (Bayandonoi et al., 2021), whereas their southeasternmost presence point documented in the South Gobi, about 600 km south of Ulaanbaatar (Augugliaro et al., 2019). The status of snow leopards in Mongolia had been discussed prior to 1989 (Bannikov, 1954; Bold and Dorjzunduy, 1976; Mallon, 1984; O’Gara, 1988; Zhirnov and Ilyinsky, 1986) and most

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information concerned distribution, abundance, and basic food habits. Bannikov (1954) provided the first account and distribution map of snow leopards in Mongolia, summarizing the information on population status. Schaller et al. (1994) estimated a population of 1500–1700 cats inhabiting 107 counties of 10 provinces of Mongolia. The species is estimated to occur at densities of 0.75) of being used by snow leopards, followed by 135,200 km2 (8%) moderately high (Psi 0.5–0.75); 230,400 km2 (14%) moderately low (Psi 0.25–0.5); and the remaining 73% low probability (Psi 0.25) (Bayandonoi et al., 2021). Since 1997, monitoring of key snow leopard populations in western Mongolia has been carried out by staff from Uvs Lake Basin SPA, Altai Tavan Bogd, Siilkhem and Khar Us Lake National Parks with the support of WWF Mongolia and UNDP/GEF. Park biologists were trained in monitoring methodology in 1998, 2004, 2006 and recent years. The software program “Biosan” was developed by WWF Mongolia Program Office and endorsed by the Ministry of Environment and Green Development in 2007 to aggregate data collected by park staff, and the program was updated several times. The mobile application SMART is used for monitoring of biodiversity in the state protected areas and inspection of law violations.

Wildlife law enforcement Between 1997 and 2022, there were 51 cases discovering or prosecuting poachers for killing 192 snow leopards (Unpublished report, Irbis Mongolia and SLC) and between 1999 and 2013 state inspectors discovered 19 cases (2 in Bayankhongor Province, 4 in Gobi-Altai, 1 in South Gobi, 7 in Khovd, 4 in Bayan-Olgii, and 1 in Ulaanbaatar) of illegal hunting and trade of skin of snow leopards. Guilty parties were sentenced up to 1.6 years in prison. Between 2000 and 2011, there were a number of instances when snow leopard pelts were smuggled to Russia’s Altai Republic from Mongolia and the violators were prosecuted. However, state and local nature protection agencies and inspectors have extremely limited or nonexistent funding, staff, and/or equipment to effectively patrol or monitor border posts. Additionally, local residents are known to possess a significant number of illegal and unregistered weapons used for poaching. It is imperative that additional funding from the central budget be allocated to law enforcement to ensure effective work by state and provincial nature protection agencies in the fight against illegal hunting in snow leopard habitat. It is also necessary to devote more attention to the fight against the illegal trade in endangered species and their parts. Cooperation between conservation and enforcement agencies is urgently needed to address illegal trade in snow leopards and other rare species. WWF’s extensive experience in creating and supporting interagency antipoaching brigades can be used to advance such initiatives. Snow leopard conservation enforcement is insufficient in most protected and unprotected areas in Mongolia. There is also a need to increase cooperative patrolling in transboundary areas between Russia and Mongolia. Additionally, the expansion of local protected areas with effective management and enforcement

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Future needs to mitigate snow leopard threats

plans should be financed by the local government and central budget or these areas will remain as only paper-protected areas.

Legal framework to empower communities to co-management wildlife and habitat The project “Nature Conservation and Sustainable Management of Natural Resources, Gobi Component” funded by GTZ (1999–2006), formed Herder Communities to increase herders’ livelihoods through collaborative community-based natural resource management. After 2001, the number of donorsupported development projects in Mongolia, especially in the countryside, increased considerably. And based on the success in the Gobi, almost every development project has encouraged and supported herders in establishing herder associations to deliver interventions, encourage pasture management and livestock production, promote income-generating activities such as value-added processing of livestock products or livelihood diversification into nonlivestock-related activities, or arrange joint marketing of dairy products. The Mongolian government legalized “Community” as an officially recognized rural institution through the amendment of the Environmental Protection Law (2006). Under this concept, the Herder Community Organizations are allowed to designate Community Responsible Areas for managing natural resources within their territories. In order to increase the effectiveness of local communities’ conservation efforts, it is necessary to cultivate strategies to develop communitymanaged resource use of local protected areas, improve conditions for economic development by attracting funding to develop tourism, small businesses, and service-related alternative employment. Development of sustainable pasture use management plans that account for the needs of wild ungulate species in snow

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leopard habitat should be a high priority. To reduce livestock losses that lead to conflict, interventions such as predator-proof corrals (see Chapter 18.1) and methods to improve livestock guarding are needed. The highly successful Snow Leopard Enterprises model should be expanded to offer incentives and help compensate herders for the loss of livestock. More community-based inspection teams are needed to actively patrol and protect rare species by engaging local residents who reside in snow leopard habitat. And more emphasis should be placed on developing sustainable ecotourism opportunities to observe snow leopards, its habitat and sign, by providing guiding services, accommodation, transport, food, etc.

Future needs to mitigate snow leopard threats In this chapter, we have shown the evolution of snow leopard research and conservation in Mongolia, a country that is critical to the survival of the species. Despite extensive efforts in recent years to understand and better protect the species, there is much still to do. We close by listing several actions we feel are urgently needed to ensure a long future for Irbis—Mongolia’s snow leopard. First, the state and local protected area network must be expanded, and the capacity of the staff and the administration must be elevated. Snow leopard need to be carefully protected where their presence has been assessed, especially on the edge of protected areas, for instance in the Small Gobi strictly protected areas in South Gobi, where pressure due to mineral extraction is prevalent. More scientific research is needed on snow leopard prey and the disturbance caused by livestock. While some steps have been taken, more needs to be done to reduce competition between livestock and wild ungulates in snow leopard areas. To reduce

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conflict with herders, such antidepredation actions as predator-proof corrals and spreading the use of corrals across the year need to be expanded. Also the use of a larger number of shepherd dogs has been revealed as an important factor to mitigate attacks by large carnivores according to a recent study conducted in the Mongolian Altai (Augugliaro et al., 2020). To alleviate the high cost of depredation on livestock, more support is needed for sustainable alternative income generation for herding families in snow leopard habitat. Environmental education and awareness raising need to be conducted at many levels; from villages in snow leopard habitat to the broad national public— snow leopards are a national treasure and people need to have them firmly in their consciousness. Laws pertaining to illegal hunting of snow leopard prey need much stronger enforcement. And lastly, a more thorough review of the potential impacts of mineral extraction on snow leopards and their ecosystem needs to be urgently undertaken.

References Augugliaro, C., Paniccia, C., Janchivlamdan, C., Monti, I.E., Boldbaatar, T., Munkhtsog, B., 2019. Mammal inventory in the Mongolian Gobi, with the southeasternmost documented record of the Snow Leopard, Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775), in the country. Check List 15, 565–578. Allen, P., McCarthy, T., Bayarjargal, A., 2002. Conservation de lapanthe‘re des neiges (Uncia uncia) avec les e ´leveurs ˜ e ´tude Et La Conservation DesCarnide Mongolie. LO ˜ e ´tude et la Protection vores. Societe ´ Franc ¸aise par LO desMammife‘res, Paris, pp. 48–53. Augugliaro, C., Christe, P., Janchivlamdan, C., Baymanday, H., Zimmermann, F., 2020. Patterns of human interaction with snow leopard and co-predators in the Mongolian western Altai: current issues and perspectives. Glob. Ecol. Conserv., e01378. Bannikov, A.G., 1954. Mammals of the Mongolian People’s Republic. Academy of Sciences, Moscow (In Russian). Bayandonoi, G., Lkhagvajav, P., Alexander, J.S., Durbach, I., Borchers, D., Munkhtsog, B., Sharma, K. (Eds.), 2021. Nationwide Snow Leopard Population Assessment of Mongolia Key Findings. Summary Report. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

Berger, J., Bayarbaatar, B., Charudutt, M., 2013. Globalization of the cashmere market and the decline of large mammals in Central Asia. Conserv. Biol. 27, 679–689. Bold, A., Dorjzunduy, S., 1976. Report on snow leopards in the southern spurs of the Gobi Altai. In: Proceedings of the Institute of General and Experimental Biology— Ulaanbaatar. vol. 11, pp. 27–43 (In Mongolian with Russian abstract). Karimov, K., Kachel, S.M., Hacklander, K., 2018. Responses of snow leopards, wolves and wild ungulates to livestock grazing in the Zorkul Strictly Protected Area, Tajikistan. PLoS ONE 13, e0208329. Krofel, M., Groff, C., Oberosler, V., Augugliaro, C., Rovero, F., 2021. Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) predation and consumption of an adult yak in the Mongolian Altai. Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 33, 636–643. Mallon, D., 1984. The snow leopard, Panthera uncia. In: Mongolia. International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards. vol. 4. Helsinki Zoo, Finland, pp. 3–10. McCarthy, T.M., 2000. Ecology and Conservation of Snow Leopards, Gobi Brown Bears, and Wild Bactrian Camels in Mongolia (PhD thesis). University of Massachusetts. 134 pp. McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. International Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, USA. Mijiddorj, T.N., Justine, S.A., Gustaf, S., Ruchi, B., Rawat, G.S., Dutta, S., 2018. Corrigendum to: Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the South Gobi, Mongolia. Wildl. Res. 45, 381–381. O’Gara, B., 1988. Snow leopards and sport hunting in the Mongolian People’s Republic. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium. vol. 5, pp. 215–225. Rovero, F., Augugliaro, C., Havmøller, R.W., Groff, C., Zimmermann, F., Oberosler, V., Tenan, S., 2018. Co-occurrence of snow leopard Panthera uncia, Siberian ibex Capra sibirica and livestock: potential relationships and effects. Oryx 54, 118–124. Schaller, G.B., Tserendeleg, J., Amarsanaa, G., 1994. Observations on snow leopards in Mongolia. In: Fox, J.L., Du, J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium (Xining, Qinghai, China, July 25–30, 1992). International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, pp. 33–42. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP). Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. Zhirnov, L.V., Ilyinsky, V.O., 1986. The Great Gobi National Park—A Refuge for Rare Animals of the Central Asian Deserts. Academy of Sciences, Moscow (In Russian).

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45 Snow leopard conservation in Russia Alexander Karnaukhova, Mikhail Paltsynb, Andrey Poyarkovc, Jos
e Antonio Hernandez-Blancoc, Miroslav Korablevc, Maria Chistopolovac, Alexander Kuksind, Denis Malikove, Sergei Malykhc, Viatcheslav V. Rozhnovc, Sergei Spitsynf, and Jennifer Castnerg a

WWF Russia, Altai-Sayan Ecoregional Office, Krasnoyarsk, Russia bUnited Nations Development Program, Syracuse, NY, United States cA.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia dTuvinian Institute for Exploration of Natural Resources, Russian Academy of Sciences—Siberian Branch, Kyzyl, Russia eSailyugemsky National Park, Kosh-Agach, Russia f Altaisky State Nature Biosphere Reserve, Yailyu, Russia gThe Altai Project, East Lansing, MI, United States

Introduction Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Russia represent the northernmost segment of the species’ range and their distribution is currently limited to the Altai-Sayan Ecoregion. Areas presently inhabited by snow leopards total 16,500 km2 of suitable habitat and almost 32,800 km2 of transient habitat, which are home to 65 snow leopards (2% of the estimated global population). The few stable snow leopard populations in Russia occupy no more than 12,000 km2 in the mountains of Altai and Tyva (Karnaukhov et al., 2020). Given the small population and characteristics of its distribution (remote mountainous locations), collecting accurate information about the distribution and population of snow

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leopards is a significant challenge. In order to unify the process for field data collection, in 2017, WWF developed the first standardized program for snow leopard population monitoring in Russia. Later that year, this program was introduced at the International Forum for the Conservation of Snow Leopards and their Ecosystems in Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan). Today, this program lies at the foundation of the PAWS (Population Assessment of the World’s Snow Leopards, see Chapter 34) protocol developed by the Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection program (GSLEP). In this section, we attempt to consolidate the results of snow leopard population monitoring work in the Russian Federation, as well as recent achievements in snow leopard conservation. Increasing effort in Russia has recently been

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devoted to engaging local communities in conservation activities, resulting in significant gains in the conservation of specific populations.

Current status of the snow leopard in Russia The first snow leopard conservation strategy for the Russian Federation was published in 2002, when the Russian population of snow leopards was estimated to be 100–150 animals. The second strategy was issued in 2014 and estimated the presence of 70–90 animals. However, neither expert assessment was backed up by field data. The first large-scale snow leopard population survey in Russia took place in 2015. In 2016–17, a monitoring program was developed in the Russian Federation, and in winter 2017, the program was first used to survey the population. Subsequently, NextGIS Collector mobile software was developed to monitor snow leopards, and field information began to be gathered using this app. As a result, a system for regular monitoring was established from 2016 to 2021. Detailed data on Russian snow leopard distribution were collected in winter 2019. Trail cameras confirmed the presence of 65 individual cats in Russia, including 18 kittens in 9 litters. Forty-four individual snow leopards were identified in Altai Republic—the region with the largest population—including 13 cubs in 6 litters. Twelve individuals were found in southwestern Tyva Republic, including 2 yearlings from a single litter. Buryatia Republic has nine cats, including three cubs in two litters. Given that the distribution of snow leopards in Russia is largely associated with the RussiaMongolia border, transboundary collaboration on species conservation is a first-order priority. For example, the presence of snow leopards on Russia’s Chikhachev Ridge is seasonal in nature: deep snow cover forces them to travel over the ridge to the southern macroslope on

the Mongolian side in winter. Chikhachev Ridge is a key site for the free genetic exchange among population groups in Russia and Mongolia. Sailyugem Ridge is another important corridor; modest growth has been documented annually in the cat’s population since Sailyugemsky National Park was established in 2010 (with an accompanying increase in enforcement). From there, snow leopards disperse via Southern Chuisky Ridge into the Argut River basin. In Tyva Republic, the transboundary TsaganShibetu Ridge is the most important migratory corridor and the location of the best-studied transboundary group (Poyarkov et al., 2020) on the Russia-Mongolia border. From TsaganShibetu, snow leopards can travel deeper into Tyva Republic along Shapshal Ridge, where the population has also stabilized since the creation of Tyva Nature Park. The Eastern Sayan Ridge in Buryatia Republic is the northeastern boundary of the global range of snow leopards. For a long time, this population was considered to be exclusively Russian, but in 2020, reliable information about the presence of snow leopards on adjacent Mongolian territory was obtained: two males were noted in Hovsgol Aimag in Mongolia, 150–200 km from data points where these same individuals were recorded in Russia (Karnaukhov et al., 2018, 2020). Understanding population size, density, and spatial distribution is a prerequisite for developing measures for rare species conservation (Karanth, 1995). Modern methods of automatic photo-recording (Glover-Kapfer et al., 2019), individual identification of photo-captured animals (Nichols et al., 2011), and a new mathematical approach for analysis of capture-recapture data for large carnivores (Gopalaswamy et al., 2012) enable comparable results to be obtained not only on the density and size of the population but also spatial distribution data, using a single, highly effective, and noninvasive methodology.

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Current status of the snow leopard in Russia

Data gathered during survey work were later analyzed using the Spatially Explicit CaptureRecapture (SECR) method (Royle et al., 2009). SECR overcomes the limitations of classical methods, such as (1) a brief capture season to satisfy the assumption that populations do not undergo substantial changes during surveying, (2) sample size as a critical factor for method efficiency, (3) ignoring spatial aspects of capture history, and (4) complicated interpretation of results in the absence of a clear calculation of the effective capture area. The first two limitations are critical when applied to large carnivore studies due to the vast size of home ranges, long distances traveled by animals, and low population densities. The last two limitations were addressed by considering spatial aspects of captures and behavioral responses to trail cameras, as well as a clear algorithm for calculating effective trapping area using knowledge of the species’ spatial use (e.g., telemetry data). In this way, animals with home range centers outside the state space (effective capture area plus buffer) are not captured in trail camera arrays. SECR has adequate self-testing, providing p-levels to understand the validity of produced models. After the SECR method was successfully tested on the Russian population of Amur tiger (Hernandez-Blanco et al., 2013) we applied it as a potential snow leopard monitoring method. This method is especially important for monitoring and assessing population size— a task designated as one of the highest priorities in the national snow leopard strategy (Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, 2015). For our surveys, we used infra-red (IR) trail cameras (Reconyx, Bushnell, Seelock) deployed with standard protocols for snow leopard monitoring as well as standard identification methods (Karnaukhov et al., 2020). For analysis, we used SPACECAP (Gopalaswamy et al., 2012) for the R programming environment with data from four study areas: one nontransboundary population grouping in Sayano-Shushensky Nature

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Reserve, Krasnoyarsk region (2010–12); and three confirmed (Poyarkov et al., 2020) transboundary population groupings: (1) TsaganShibetu Ridge, Tyva Republic (2010, 2011, and 2018), (2) Chikhachev Ridge, Altai Republic (2018 and 2020), and (3) Eastern Sayan Ridge, Buryatia Republic (2020). In Sayano-Shushensky Nature Reserve, we deployed a matrix of 22 trail camera stations covering an effective capture area (minimal convex polygon (MCP)) of 118.6 km2. The state space (with a buffer of 20 km, applied to all study areas) was 2474 km2. The trail camera array effort of 8483 trail camera/nights registered 312 captures of 8 individual snow leopards. In 2010–11 on Tsagan-Shibetu Ridge, we deployed a matrix of 45 trail camera capture stations within an effective capture area of 173.6 km2 and a state space of 2433 km2. The matrix operated for 7627 trail camera/nights and recorded 28 captures of 8 individuals. We divided the entire period into four capture seasons of 180 days each. During the snowless period in 2018 on Tsagan-Shibetu, we deployed a transboundary matrix of 71 capture stations within an effective capture area of 3175 km2. The state space totaled 10,140 km2 and was divided by the Russian-Mongolian border into two almost equal halves. The matrix operated for 7100 trail camera/nights over a 100-day capture season and recorded 36 captures of 13 individuals. In spring 2018, we deployed a transboundary matrix of 38 capture stations within an effective capture area of 3175 km2 on Chikhachev Ridge. The state space totaled 4766 km2 and equally covered both sides of the border. The matrix operated for 8850 trail camera/nights with a capture season of 100 days and recorded 41 captures of 12 individual snow leopards. We also analyzed data from the April 2020 Chikhachev matrix set deployed only on the Russian side (effective trapping area of 199.5 km2) and covering a state space of 3189 km2. The matrix capture season ran for

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45. Snow leopard conservation in Russia

200 days (1995 trail camera/nights), but we shortened it to 122 days (1700 trail camera/nights) without substantial enhancement, probably due to an excessive aggregation of trail camera stations. We obtained 14 captures of 5 individuals. The estimated data from this site and time period need to be enhanced with data from the Mongolian side of the border. In 2020, we deployed a matrix of 25 capture stations with an effective capture area of 4146 km2 on the Eastern Sayan Ridge. The state space was 12,970 km2, an area mainly covering the Russian side of the border, and the matrix operated for 214 days, 5350 trail camera/nights, and fixed 16 captures of 5 snow leopard individuals. For analytical purposes, we shortened the capture period to 185 days (3095 trail camera/nights), substantially enhancing the quality of the model. The results are shown in Table 45.1.

TABLE 45.1

Genetic structure of snow leopard populations in Russia and adjacent countries Russia is the northernmost stronghold of the species’ global range. Together with snow leopards in northern Mongolia, this part of the species’ distribution is considerably isolated from most of the remaining enormous range (Li et al., 2020; McCarthy et al., 2016). Field study of potential habitats and subsequent modeling showed the cat’s range in Russia to be fragmented (Kalashnikova et al., 2019; Karnaukhov et al., 2018; Lukarevskiy and Poyarkov, 2008). Together, these factors may result in limited gene flow, reduced genetic diversity, and increased population vulnerability. Genetic surveys are needed to assess genetic diversity, population structure, and gene flow at both regional and large-scale levels (Korablev et al., 2021).

Population density (using SECR) of four snow leopard groupings in Russia in different seasons and years.

Study area

Capture season duration, year

Density, individuals/100 km2 (mean
standard deviation)

Bayesian P-value

Individuals within state space

SSNR

2010/07/01–2010/12/27

0.17
0.02

0.88

3.11

SSNR

2010/12/28–2011/06/25

0.32
0.12

0.59

5.80

SSNR

2011/06/26–2011/12/22

0.18
0.04

0.59

3.27

SSNR

2011/12/23–2012/06/19

0.34
0.02

0.54

6.15

TS (R)

2010/07/01–2010/12/27

0.66
0.35

0.54

16.27

TS (R)

2010/12/28–2011/06/25

0.36
0.33

0.55

8.89

TS (R)

2011/06/26–2011/12/22

0.36
0.36

0.55

8.83

TS (R)

2011/12/23–2012/06/19

0.75
0.56

0.55

18.34

TS (TB)

2018/05/29–2018/09/05

0.53
0.20

0.52

50.71

C (TB)

2018/05/29–2018/09/05

0.43
0.11

0.44

22.06

C (R)

2020/05/05–2020/09/03

0.18
0.03

0.81

5.74

ES

2020/04/03–2020/10/04

0.04
0.01

0.68

5.99

SSNR, Sayano-Shushensky Nature Reserve; TS (R), Tsagan-Shibetu (Tyva, Russia); TS (TB), Tsagan-Shibetu (transboundary data); C (R), Chikhachev Ridge (Altai, Russia); C (TB), Chikhachev Ridge (transboundary data); ES, Eastern Sayan Ridge (Buryatia, Russia). All population groupings are transboundary except SSH. Optimal models have an approximate Bayesian P-value of 0.5.

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

Genetic structure of snow leopard populations in Russia and adjacent countries

The data will provide insight on population connectivity for snow leopards as well as identify vulnerable populations. We analyzed 114 snow leopards identified from noninvasively collected scat samples from Russia and northern Mongolia (n ¼ 74), as well as from Kyrgyzstan (n ¼ 24) and Tajikistan (n ¼ 16) (western population range) between 2010 and 2020 (Fig. 45.1). Genetic analysis was carried out using a panel of eight polymorphic microsatellites ( Janecka et al., 2008): PUN 229, PUN 124, PUN 935, PUN 1157, PUN 894, PUN 132, PUN 272, and PUN 843. Sex of animals was determined using Y-linked amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc-finger genes ( Janecka et al., 2008; Pilgrim et al., 2005). The data obtained showed low to moderate levels of genetic diversity in the studied populations. The highest expected (HE) and observed

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(HO) heterozygosity and allelic richness (AR) were recorded in Kyrgyzstan (HE ¼ 0.66
0.03, HO ¼ 0.70
0.04, AR ¼ 3.17), whereas the lowest diversity was found in a peripheral subpopulation in Buryatia Republic of Russia (HE ¼ 0.41
0.12, HO ¼ 0.29
0.05, AR ¼ 2.33). In general, cats from the western range exhibit higher genetic diversity (HE ¼ 0.68
0.04, HO ¼ 0.66
0.03, AR ¼ 4.95) than those from the northern range (HE ¼ 0.60
0.06, HO ¼ 0.49
0.02, AR ¼ 4.45). Multiple population structure analyses based on Wright’s F-statistics (FST), assignment testing, Bayesian clustering, and discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) revealed significant population differences both on a larger level and in Russian habitat (Fig. 45.2 and Table 45.2). The resulting patterns of genetic structure point to the considerable isolation of Russian

FIG. 45.1 Distribution of sampling localities: (1–2) Altai; (3) Chikhachev Range; (4) Tsagan-Shibetu Range; (5) Shapshal Range; (6) Western Sayan Range, Sayano-Shushensky Nature Reserve; (7–9) Eastern Sayan, Buryatia Republic; (10) Tsaaganshuvuut Range; (11) Mongolian Altai Range; (12) Terskey Ala-Too Range; (13) Pamir Range. Snow leopard potential range after McCarthy et al. (2016).

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45. Snow leopard conservation in Russia

FIG. 45.2 Population structure analysis of snow leopards. (A) Bayesian clustering within the northern and western parts of the range; (B) Bayesian clustering within the northern part of the range; (C) DAPC scatterplot within the northern part of the range. TS, Tsagan-Shibetu, Shapshal and Tsaaganshuvuut Ranges; ALT, Altai; CHI, Chikhachev Range; SSNR, SayanoShushensky Nature Reserve; BUR, Buryatia; KG, Kyrgyzstan; TJ, Tajikistan. Numbers in the circles correspond to sampling sites from Fig. 45.1. TABLE 45.2 Mean FST values and percent of correct assignment in snow leopard subpopulations from Russia and adjacent territory in Mongolia. Locality

FST—mean in pairwise comparisons, northern range

Assignment—percent of correctly assigned individuals

Altai

0.097 (P  0.05)

54.5%

Chikhachev Ridge

0.161 (P  0.05)

71.4%

Tsagan-Shibetu/Shapshal/ Tsaaganshuvuut

0.098 (P  0.005)

68.8%

Western Sayan—Sayano-Shushensky Nature Reserve (SSNR)

0.187 (P  0.005)

85.7%

Eastern Sayan—Republic of Buryatia

0.222 (P  0.005)

83.3%

and Mongolian snow leopards from those in other parts of the global range (Fig. 45.2A) and show slightly decreased genetic diversity in this northern population. In addition, we identified fragmentation of these populations in Russia,

primarily revealed through the genetic distinctiveness of animals in Western Sayan (SSNR), Chikhachev, and Eastern Sayan (Buryatia) (Fig. 45.2B and C). Significant differences between the SSNR and Chikhachev subpopulations and those in

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

Snow leopard dietary analysis

nearby Altai and Tsagan-Shibetu, as well as among those populations, suggest restricted gene flow among these sites. This may be caused by behavioral mechanisms influencing the social structure of subpopulations (Fox and Chundawat, 2016; Johansson et al., 2018) or by environmental discontinuity and poaching pressure, the latter of which is significant in this region (Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, 2015). However, the TsaganShibetu-Shapshal-Tsaaganshuvuut area appears to be the key territory connecting subpopulations in this part of the northern range. This is supported by Bayesian clustering and assignment testing, both of which detected the presence of heterogeneous genotypes in the Tsagan-Shibetu area (Fig. 45.2B). We found that snow leopards from Buryatia are the most genetically isolated, as inferred from population structure analyses (Fig. 45.2B and C, Table 45.2). Moreover, this subpopulation is probably demographically unstable and most likely experiencing inbreeding, as indicated by extremely low genetic diversity. The Eastern Sayan is geographically far removed from other Russian subpopulations and is isolated by ecologically unsuitable habitats (Paltsyn et al., 2018). Although heterozygosity in Western Sayan’s snow leopards is not depleted (HE ¼ 0.57, HO ¼ 0.58), the viability of this subpopulation seems questionable due to significant genetic isolation (Fig. 45.2B and C, Table 45.2). Moreover, the subpopulation was extirpated by 2016 and did not recover until two cats from Tajikistan were introduced there in 2019 (Sayano-Shushensky State Nature Biosphere Reserve, 2019). We can conclude that subpopulations in Buryatia and Western Sayan are the most vulnerable and require individualized approaches to conserve them and restore abundance. Notably, population connectivity of snow leopards within Russia is limited not only between geographically distant subpopulations but also

571

between closely located populations. Only 28% of dispersal habitat in Altai-Sayan ecoregion is located within protected areas (Kalashnikova et al., 2019). In this regard, protecting natural connectivity between subpopulations remains essential.

Snow leopard dietary analysis Knowledge of the snow leopard’s food spectrum is an important link in studying the species’ ecology and monitoring populations. Diet analysis highlights food preferences in different habitats, aids identification of livestock conflicts (proportion of livestock in the diet), and is an indirect marker of the population status of wild ungulates and other potential prey in a study area. Scats collected during tracking and on survey transects were used for dietary analysis. The main challenge is the correct identification of the species depositing the feces (Anwar et al., 2011). The most accurate method for species identification of scats is molecular genetic analysis ( Jumabay-Uulu et al., 2014; Korablev et al., 2021; Lovari et al., 2013). Collecting samples for dietary and molecular genetic analysis is carried out according to standard protocols (Rozhnov et al., 2019). Snow leopard diet in Russia was assessed in three regions: Altai, Tyva, and Buryatia Republics. Samples (n ¼ 236) were collected during all field seasons over an 8-year period. All samples underwent species verification using molecular genetic analysis (Korablev et al., 2021). In most cases, the microstructure of hair cuticles contained in scats allows determination of prey species (Rozhnov et al., 2019). Diet was assessed by the occurrence of prey hair in collected samples, and a hair structure survey was carried out using light microscopy. For each region, we formed a reference sample collection of all potential prey hair, both wild species and livestock. We compared hair from feces with

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45. Snow leopard conservation in Russia

hair from the reference collection and identified them using reference keys (Oli, 1993). The Siberian ibex plays the most important role in snow leopard diet in all three study areas. In Tyva, that species accounts for the largest share of their diet (about 27%). In Altai and Buryatia, the most common prey found is the marmot. For many snow leopard populations, marmots are the most important small prey (Lhagvasuren and Munkhtsog, 2002; Oli et al., 1993), accounting for 53% of scat content in Altai and 28% in Buryatia. In Tyva, where we identified the most diverse diets, marmots were found in only 10% of scats, along with Siberian ibex, small livestock (sheep and goats), mouse-like rodents, hares, pikas, ground squirrels, argali, birds, and domestic dogs (listed in descending order of frequency). The food spectrum of snow leopards in Altai and Buryatia is less diverse: marmots, Siberian ibex, small livestock, and small rodents (in descending order of frequency) were found in both regions, along with argali sheep (7%) in Altai and pika (5%) in Buryatia. In conclusion, the most important snow leopard prey in Russia is the Siberian ibex. The proportion of its remains found in scats may not be the largest (as in Tyva) but is the highest in terms of consumed biomass. Second in importance are marmots. During snowless periods, these large rodents may become the main food source, especially in Buryatia, where diversity of potential prey species is low. Livestock plays almost the same role in all Russian population groupings, comprising a steady 13%–17% of diet. Conflict situations with snow leopards in Russia are rare in contrast to neighboring Mongolia ( Johansson et al., 2015) and other countries (Bagchi and Mishra, 2006; Wegge et al., 2012; Aryal et al., 2014; Lyngdoh et al., 2014). Livestock remains are more commonly found in snow leopard scats in Tyva, probably because this population grouping is transboundary with Mongolia (Poyarkov et al., 2020), where the number of livestock is

higher than in Russia. There were no documented remains of livestock or domesticated yaks in Russian samples. We also collected samples in Mongolia on the Tsaaganshuvuut Range within the habitats of the transboundary snow leopard population (Poyarkov et al., 2020). There, the proportion of small livestock remains in the diet was almost half their total diet (48%), the rest consisting of marmot (42%) and Siberian ibex (7%). Thus, the food spectrum of a given transboundary population significantly differs depending on where samples are collected.

Snow leopard conservation in Russia Poaching remains the greatest threat to Russian snow leopards. Although the direct killing of these cats for trafficking has dramatically decreased (today, direct poaching is generally incidental), illegal traps (mostly wire snares targeting musk deer) still kill several cats annually. Additionally, overharvest of Siberian ibex remains a critical problem; with few exceptions, its population is inexorably declining throughout its range. Accordingly, the cat’s prey base is declining. This can result in increased attacks on domestic livestock. Earlier, livestock attacks had only been documented in Tyva Republic, but in recent years, attacks also began occurring in Altai. This is a complex issue and not one that can be solved only through strengthened antipoaching measures conducted by the government. In 2014, WWF launched a project to engage residents—primarily former poachers that had targeted snow leopards—in activities to preserve the species. Participants deploy trail cameras in snow leopard habitat and check them regularly, while simultaneously destroying illegal hunting gear they discover and educating residents they encounter. If a cat is found and confirmed in a tracker’s assigned area, the person receives a stipend at year’s end. Project

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

References

participants are also equipped with field gear and equipment and receive financial support for their expeditions. There are eight current participants in the project serving as caretakers of 3720 km2 of snow leopard habitat. Overall, the project’s participants protect at least 15 individual cats. The second area of work, also based on active community participation in conservation, is the creation of community-led patrols. Government nature protection committees lack sufficient resources to establish an effective enforcement system for snow leopard protection. The remote and difficult habitat is essentially outside the control of the state agencies with legal jurisdiction. Involving interested residents in conservation activities in the form of patrols and unifying them under the auspices of public environmental inspections are effective instruments in protecting snow leopards. While community inspectors have no legal authority, representatives of the local Committee for the Protection of Wildlife, Border Patrol, and/or police usually join the patrols. These community brigades have been established in three key areas for snow leopard conservation: the Republics of Altai, Tyva, and Buryatia. The community patrol in Tyva is currently the most effective, arresting 4 offenders in Ubsunur State Reserve and confiscating 16 illegal firearms in 2021. Additionally, community inspectors conduct outreach, highlighting the hunting laws and protections for snow leopards. Local hunters and poachers are well apprised of community patrols and avoid hunting illegally and the high risk of being prosecuted.

Conclusion Snow leopard conservation is challenging due to the remoteness and limited accessibility of snow leopard habitats, extreme poverty in local communities, weak economic development in

573

most range countries, limited funding options for the conservation of this species, and lack of government enforcement. Often conservationists must act despite limited background information on snow leopard populations and the threats facing them, as well as operating in unstable socioeconomic and political situations. In such conditions, success is impossible without trial and error. We hope that lessons learned in Russia will encourage other snow leopard conservation practitioners to disseminate their experiences broadly to enable more effective conservation measures and secure a sustainable future for this charismatic wild cat.

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Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Yak in Lhasa, P.R. China. ILFI, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 69–75. Li, J., Weckworth, B.V., McCarthy, T.M., Liang, X., Liu, Y., Xing, R., Li, D., Zhang, Y., Xue, Y., Jackson, R., Xiao, L., Cheng, C., Li, S., Xu, F., Ma, M., Yang, X., Diao, K., Gao, Y., Song, D., Nowell, K., He, B., Li, Y., McCarthy, K., Paltsyn, M.Y., Sharma, K., Mishra, C., Schaller, G.B., Lu, Z., Beissinger, S.R., 2020. Defining priorities for global snow leopard conservation landscapes. Biol. Conserv. 241, 108387. Lovari, S., Minder, I., Ferretti, F., Mucci, N., Randi, E., Pellizzi, B., 2013. Common and snow leopards share prey, but not habitats: competition avoidance by large predators? J. Zool. 291, 127–135. Lukarevskiy, V.S., Poyarkov, A.D., 2008. Modern status of the snow leopard population in Russia. Zool. Zhurnal 87, 114–121. Lyngdoh, S., Shrotriya, S., Goyal, S.P., Clements, H., Hayward, M.W., Habib, B., 2014. Prey preferences of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia): regional diet specificity holds global significance for conservation. PLoS ONE 9, e88349. McCarthy, T., Mallon, D., Sanderson, E.W., Zahler, P., Fisher, K., 2016. Biogeography and status overview. In: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards: Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes. Elsevier, London, pp. 23–42. Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, 2015. Strategy for Snow Leopard Conservation in the Russian Federation. Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment of the Russian Federation, Moscow. Nichols, J.D., O’Connell, A.F., Karanth, K.U., 2011. Camera traps in animal ecology and conservation: what’s next? In: Camera Traps in Animal Ecology. Springer, Tokyo, pp. 253–263. Oli, M.K., 1993. A key for the identification of the hair of mammals of a snow leopard (Panthera uncia) habitat in Nepal. J. Zool. 231, 71–93. Oli, M.K., Taylor, I.R., Rogers, D.M., 1993. Diet of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. J. Zool. 231, 365–370. Paltsyn, M.Y., Jackson, R., Gibbs, D.P., Egorova, E.V., Karnaukhov, A.S., Malykh, S.V., Spitsyn, S.V., Kuksin, A.N., Malikov, D.G., Kuzhlekov, A.O., 2018. Materials to the Program for Monitoring and Accounting the Number of Snow Leopard in Russia and the Countries of Central Asia (in Russian). WWF Russia, Krasnoyarsk. Pilgrim, K.L., McKelvey, K.S., Riddle, A.E., Schwartz, M.K., 2005. Felid sex identification based on noninvasive genetic samples. Mol. Ecol. Notes 5, 60–61. Poyarkov, A.D., Barisuaa, M., Korablev, M.P., Kuksin, A.N., Alexandrov, D.Y., Chistopolova, M.D., HernandezBlanco, J.A., Munktogtokh, O., Karnaukhov, A.S.,

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Janecka, J., Lkhamsuren, N., Bayaraa, M., Jackson, R., Maheshwari, A., Rozhnov, V.V., 2020. Assurance of the existence of a trans-boundary population of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) at Tsaaganshuvuut—TsaganShibetu SPA at the Mongolia-Russia border. Integr. Zool. 15, 224–231. Royle, J.A., Karanth, K.U., Gopalaswamy, A.M., Kumar, N.S., 2009. Bayesian inference in camera trapping studies for a class of spatial capture–recapture models. Ecology 90, 3233–3244. Rozhnov, V.V., Yachmennikova, A.A., Hernandez-Blanco, J.A., Naidenko, S.V., Chistopolova, M.D., Sorokin, P.A., Dobrynin, D.V., Sukhova, O.V., Poyarkov, A.D.,

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Dronova, N.A., Trepet, S.A., Pkhitikov, A.B., Pshegusov, R.H., Magomedov, M.-R.D., 2019. Study and Monitoring of Big Cats in Russia. KMK Scientific Press, Moscow. Sayano-Shushensky State Nature Biosphere Reserve, 2019. On the Results of Monitoring the Snow Leopard Population in 2019. Available from: http://sayanzapoved.ru/ ob-itogah-monitoringa-populjacii-snezhnogo-barsav-2019-godu.htm. [17 July 2021] (In Russian). Wegge, P., Shrestha, R., Flagstad, Ø., 2012. Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation on livestock and wild prey in a mountain valley in northern Nepal: implications for conservation management. Wildl. Biol. 18, 131–141.

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C H A P T E R

46 Snow leopard status and conservation in China Kun Shia, Lingyun Xiaob,c, Luciano Atzenia,d, Zhuoluo Lyud, Yixuan Liud, Jun Wanga,e, Xuchang Liangf, Yanlin Liug, Xiang Zhaoh, Justine Shanti Alexanderi, Byron Weckworthj, Zhi Luk, and Philip Riordanl,m a

Wildlife Institute, School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China bSchool of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China cDepartment of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China dEco-Bridge Continental, Beijing, China eCenter of Biodiversity and Protected Areas, Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China fWildlife Conservation Society, Beijing, China gCollege of Life Sciences, Qinghai Normal University, Xining, Qinghai, China hShanshui Conservation Center, Beijing, China iSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States jPanthera, New York, NY, United States kCenter for Nature and Society, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China lMarwell Wildlife, Southampton, Hampshire, United Kingdom mMarwell Wildlife, Winchester, Hampshire, United Kingdom

Overview on snow leopard status in China Distribution, population, historical information, and notable knowledge gaps As the most important snow leopard range country, China contains as much as 60% of the potential habitat (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003), and approximately 60% of the global population of snow leopard (Riordan and Shi, 2016). An estimated 2500–4500 individuals inhabit over 1.7

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00021-2

million km2 of suitable habitat, which includes numerous mountain ranges across five provinces and two Autonomous Regions (A.R.) in West and Central China (Alexander et al., 2016b; McCarthy and Chapron, 2003; McCarthy et al., 2017; Snow Leopard China, 2018). Currently, snow leopards in China are known to be present in Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia (Fig. 46.1). Among them, Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, and Sichuan contain the largest extent of snow leopard habitat. China also shares over 10,000km of national

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

FIG. 46.1 Snow leopard global range (upper map) and range extent in China (lower map). Adapted with permission from Wang, J., 2021b. A multiscale assessment of snow leopard distribution, habitat-use and landscape connectivity in a new national park in China. PhD Thesis. Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK. *Snow leopard range map source: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D., Sanderson, E.W., Zahler, P., Fisher, K., 2016. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview. In: McCarthy, T. M., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 23–42. ** Map of China source: Resource and Environment Science and Data Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences. https://www.resdc.cn/data.aspx?DATAID¼200.

Overview on snow leopard status in China

borders with 10 out of the remaining eleven snow leopard range countries and one possible range state (i.e., Myanmar) (Riordan and Shi, 2016). There was scarce information on the existence and public acknowledgment of snow leopards in ancient times of China. Conceivably, this may be attributed to the inconvenience in conserving traditional knowledge as well as the elusive nature of snow leopards and the uninhabited landscapes they often roam. Regardless, the snow leopard is deemed as lesser known and less culturally significant relative to other big cats, such as tiger and leopard, in China’s historical records. Not until 1950, the snow leopard was recognized by the authorities as a notable species requiring scientific investigation in its natural habitats (Riordan and Shi, 2016). Since then, the snow leopard gradually emerged in the public eye and started receiving attention and investments from the government and academic institutions. The snow leopard was targeted as one of the main priority species in the species-focused assessment of the first and the second China national surveys on terrestrial wildlife resources in the late 1990s and mid2010s, respectively. Ensuring the year when the snow leopard was listed as the Class I National Key Protected Species, China devoted continuous efforts to snow leopard research and conservation spanning from political and legislative developments to ecological research and public education. The snow leopard has become a well-known flagship species representing the highland mountain ecosystem and confers protection to many other sympatric species that share the same habitat (Riordan and Shi, 2016). With the country’s growing efforts in constructing national-wide ecological projects across China, conservation strategies related to snow leopards focused on areas such as identifying suitable snow leopard habitats and ecological corridors, conducting a comprehensive assessment on snow leopard population covering multiple mountain ranges, etc. As of 2016, a protected area complex of 740,000 km2 falls in the snow leopard range in China, 50% of

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which are designated as suitable snow leopard habitats. However, the lack of continuity between habitats and data deficiency in understudied areas remain major challenges in preserving healthy snow leopard populations in China (Riordan and Shi, 2016). As one of the best snow leopard landscapes across China, Sanjiangyuan was one of the first few places to conduct snow leopard surveys (Liu et al., 2016). After three decades, Sanjiangyuan has upgraded to be a National Park known for the diverse groups of wildlife it sustains and the fertile ecosystems upon which the snow leopard and other species depend. Longterm studies and on-the-ground work has made Sanjiangyuan National Park home to a healthy population of snow leopards. It is also an exemplary case of community-based snow leopard conservation (Liu et al., 2016). Besides the areas recognized as snow leopard hotspots, there exist understudied regions, such as Yunnan, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, though belonging to the historical snow leopard distribution range, these areas seldomly report sightings of snow leopards in modern days (Wang, 2021b). However, since 2010, verified records show the presence of snow leopards after a long time of silence. It is an indication that the mountains in these regions could be important linkages between snow leopards’ population and landscapes (Riordan et al., 2015; Riordan and Shi, 2016), thus highlighting the need for more in-depth studies covering unsurveyed range to fill the gaps of current knowledge. Severe gaps of knowledge still exist in China with regard to country-wide population numbers. Current figures still stem from previous reports (e.g., McCarthy et al., 2017; Riordan and Shi, 2016; McCarthy and Chapron, 2003), and to date it is not possible, given the current status of research, to provide more robust and reliable figures. One reason for this lack of information is the exceptionally low coverage of surveys in the snow leopard range (Snow Leopard China, 2018). This report highlighted how surveys in China (as of 2018) encompassed an

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46. Snow leopards in China

Extent of snow leopard habitat area covered by scientific surveys in China.

Province

Habitat area (km2)

Actual coverage (km2)

% of SL habitat

Xinjiang

476,398

2315

0.49

Inner Mongolia

21,762

0

0

Gansu

105,815

4300

4.06

Qinghai

330,768

14,680

4.44

Tibet

660,798

4503

0.68

Yunnan

15,756

0

0

Sichuan

160,366

4578

2.85

China

1,771,662

29,934

1.69

Adapted with permission from Snow Leopard China, 2018. Snow Leopard Survey and Conservation Status in China 2018. Available from: http://www. snowleopardchina.org/ (Accessed 11 January 2022).

embarrassing 1.69% of the snow leopard range in the country (Table 46.1).

Protected areas Across the snow leopard range in China, protected areas (PAs) were estimated to encompass approximately 30% of the extent on average (Riordan and Shi, 2016). All PAs reported in the snow leopard range in China are labeled as Nature Reserves, administered both at National or Local levels. In 2017, the National Forestry and Grasslands Administration established a pilot scheme for National Parks in China, which included Qilian Mountains TABLE 46.2

National Park. Other exceptions in the Chinese snow leopard range are represented by Sanjiangyuan National Park (Qinghai/Tibet) and by the Giant Panda National Park (Sichuan), the latter overlapping partially with the snow leopard range (Wang, 2021b). Wang (2021b) summarized the percentage of the Chinese snow leopard range currently covered by protected areas (Table 46.2). He estimated that about 23% lies within nature reserves (NRs), which is higher than the global average overlap for the species (14%–19% in Deguignet et al., 2014). Additional information on Chinese protected area management and National Park designations are available in Wang (2021b) (Fig. 46.2).

Area and percentage of snow leopard range in China and Chinese Nature Reserves (NRs).

Snow leopard rangea

Area (km2)

China (km2)b

%

NRs (km2)c

%

Extant

3,006,597

2,171,955

72.2

504,736

23.2

Possibly Extant

3,496,979

2,224,668

63.6

510,888

23

a

Snow leopard range map source: IUCN Red List Panthera uncia (McCarthy et al., 2017). Map of China source: Resource and Environment Science and Data Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences. https://www.resdc.cn/data.aspx?DATAID¼200. Map of nature reserves in China source: Resource and Environment Science and Data Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences. https://www.resdc.cn/data. aspx?DATAID¼272. The layer collected 477 nature reserves in China up to 2018. Taxkorgan Provincial Nature Reserve in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region was not included in the original layer and was added in by author. The layer of Taxkorgan Nature Reserve was provided by the nature reserve administration bureau. Adapted with permission from Wang, J., 2021b. A multiscale assessment of snow leopard distribution, habitat-use and landscape connectivity in a new national park in China. PhD Thesis. Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.

b c

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Snow leopard conservation in China

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FIG. 46.2

Distribution of the snow leopard extent in China and Chinese-protected areas. Reproduced with permission from Wang, J., 2021b. A multiscale assessment of snow leopard distribution, habitat-use and landscape connectivity in a new national park in China. PhD Thesis. Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK. *Snow leopard range map source: McCarthy, T., Mallon, D., Sanderson, E.W., Zahler, P., Fisher, K., 2016. What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview. In: McCarthy, T. M., Mallon, D. (Eds.), Snow Leopards. Elsevier, New York, pp. 23–42. ** Map of China source: Resource and Environment Science and Data Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences. https://www.resdc.cn/data.aspx?DATAID¼200. *** Map of nature reserves in China source: Resource and Environment Science and Data Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences. https://www.resdc.cn/data. aspx?DATAID¼272. The layer collected 477 nature reserves in China up to 2018. Taxkorgan Provincial Nature Reserve in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region was not included in the original layer and was added in by Wang, J., 2021b. A multiscale assessment of snow leopard distribution, habitat-use and landscape connectivity in a new national park in China. PhD Thesis. Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK. The layer of Taxkorgan Nature Reserve was provided by the nature reserve administration bureau.

Snow leopard conservation in China As early as the 1950s, snow leopards started to attract attention in the scientific community in China regarding their mysterious ecology and status. In 1988, with the enactment of the “The law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife,” the snow leopard

was designated as a Class I on the List of National Key Protected Species in China. Since then, China has given top priority to the research and conservation of this elusive and captivating big cat. The snow leopard, apart from its deep cultural and spiritual connection in Chinese history (Li et al., 2013b; Riordan and Shi, 2016), also symbolizes the unique ecosystem of the vast

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46. Snow leopards in China

highland plateau that harbors a majority of biodiversity hotspots in China. Looking back at the history of snow leopard conservation in China, there has been increased focus and research on the species since the 2000s (Alexander et al., 2016b; Snow Leopard China, 2018). Over the last 10years, there has been a growing number of national organizations and researchers playing leading roles in the conservation of China’s snow leopards. In addition, there is increasing collaboration between organizations, research institutes, and the government which has led to a rapid rise in the establishments of comprehensive and long-term snow leopard conservation projects. The majority of this work is multifaceted, incorporating both scientific research and community-based conservation approaches. This has allowed efforts to cover larger areas of snow leopard distribution and enhance local community involvement in snow leopard conservation. In the past decade, substantial achievements have been made in policy changes, community-based practices, and public involvement.

Government policies China’s actions in policy making and implementation regarding wildlife and environmental protection began to accelerate since the concept of “ecological civilization” was raised at the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 2011. One of the major changes in national policy in recent years was the establishment of the National Park system, which brought dramatic progress to the Protected Areas System in China (Xu et al., 2017). With the enactment of the “Guidance for Establishing the Natural Protected Area System based on National Parks”, the “National Park” is designated as the highest level of protected areas in China (Peng, 2019). Although the National Park System is a newly introduced concept in China and is still in its development phase, its role in supporting a more systematic and effective system of wildlife and environment protection is promising. The establishment of National Parks serves to

integrate small, scattered areas of protected lands, allowing larger patches of continuous landscapes to be protected from human disturbance (Li et al., 2021a), which is especially important for animals with larger home ranges, such as the snow leopard. The establishment of National Parks also mitigated the issue of decentralized management concomitant with the fragmented distribution of Protected Areas resulted from the lack of a unified management agency, which should be the fundamental direction of the future development of the National Park System (Li et al., 2016b; Zhao et al., 2016). To date, China has designated 10 National Park pilots to protect the most important biodiversity hotspots in China (Huang et al., 2018). These include the Qilianshan National Park in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, Sanjiangyuan National Park in Qinghai, and Giant Panda National Park in Sichuan, all of which cover large parts of important snow leopard landscapes in China (totaling over 200,000 km2). The development of China’s National Park system emphasizes the mutual development of both the local community and conservation actions. Local communities, especially those living within core zones of National Parks, depend on the rich natural resources for their livelihoods. They also experience negative interactions with wildlife, especially large carnivores including the snow leopard, including incidents of livestock depredation (Wang et al., 2014). Therefore, it is crucial to establish links between local communities and snow leopard conservation. The establishment of National Parks provides opportunities for innovative management strategies to be introduced to promote community-based conservation (Huang et al., 2018). The Chinese government has been actively addressing human-wildlife conflict (HWC) by perfecting compensation mechanisms for damage caused by wildlife, especially large carnivores such as the snow leopard (Chen et al., 2016). Although snow leopards rarely attack humans and are of cultural significance to ethnic minority communities in the Northwest such as

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

Snow leopard conservation in China

the Zang and Uyghur people, frequent conflicts may still affect people’s perspectives toward the snow leopard, which in turn may hinder the effective implementation of conservation actions. The “Law of The People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife” clearly states that the local government should compensate for any damages caused by protected wildlife species under this law. In response to this regulation, many provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities have introduced regional policies on the detailed implementation of such compensation systems. In Qinghai, Gansu, Tibet A.R., Sichuan, and Xinjiang A.R., local governments work with insurance companies to verify reported snow leopard damages and decide on the amount of compensation in a case-by-case manner (Chen et al., 2016). The implementation of such compensation systems is expected to raise people’s tolerance level toward conflicts and economic damage. In recent years, efforts by NGOs, authorities, and other social organization have built upon the current compensation system, with many specifically designed for losses attributed to snow leopards. Starting from 2016, the Zaduo county government, Qinghai, together with Shanshui Conservation Center (SCC) and the local community in Lancang River district, Sanjiangyuan National Park, funded the first community comanaged HWC foundation. The first phase of funding reached a total amount of USD 31,000 (Luo, 2016). The community comanagement mode of this foundation hands over the management, verification, and other specific tasks to the local community themselves. A management committee is elected by the herders and the local community sets specific compensation standards and verification rules according to their own needs (Luo, 2016).

Community-based conservation The involvement of the local community is increasingly considered fundamental in many conservation frameworks (Hacker et al., 2020b). In the case of snow leopard conservation

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in China, community-based conservation is of paramount importance considering that snow leopard distribution in China mainly comprises areas inhabited by diverse ethnic and cultural groups. Communities in the area have adopted nomadic pastoralism as their predominant lifestyle, which entails certain degrees of land overlap between the human settlement and snow leopard populations. Therefore, solving underlying HWC and achieving coexistence of human and snow leopard requires large-scale coordinated efforts where scientists, government officials, and local communities work cooperatively and in tandem on all fronts. In some areas of China, community-based conservation practices have gone through their trials and errors and have now made breakthroughs in terms of community involvement, capacity building, as well as realization and utilization of indigenous people’s knowledge in conservation implementation. Below we showcase some examples. Qinghai The Sanjiangyuan National Park, piloted in 2015, is key habitat for snow leopards in China. It is also one of the first and most well-promoted National Parks in China to explore communitybased conservation and the first to award a franchise for community-based tourism (Peng, 2018). Focusing on the rich local wildlife resources, including the high encounter rate of snow leopards, and in cooperation with the local government, a community-based conservation initiative, the “Valley of the Cats,” located in the Lancang River district of the Park, started to operate in 2018 in Angsai Township, Zaduo County, Yushu Prefecture (Townshend, 2019). Through 2019, two years after the initiation of the project, the “Valley of the Cats” hosted 98 domestic and international tourist groups with a total of 302 visitors and operating revenue reached USD 1.01 million. Of that income, 100% stays in the community, within which 45% goes to the host families, another 45% is used as public welfare funds for the community to improve local livelihood and healthcare and the

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46. Snow leopards in China

remaining 10% contributes to snow leopard conservation (Karumbaya, 2020). The “Valley of the Cats” provides alternative livelihoods for herding families in Sanjiangyuan National Park, thus reducing their exploitation of natural resources, effectively protecting the natural environment and wildlife while promoting local development. This National Park Franchise-based ecoexperience initiative will certainly continue to bring vitality into community development and accelerate the goal toward human-snow leopard coexistence, and ultimately, a win-win green development. With regard to capacity building, Sanjiangyuan National Park has employed a total of 16,421 pastoralists on an ecological stewardship program, which ensures that each household within the park partakes in project maintenance (Snow Leopard China, 2018). In subsequent years, the Sanjiangyuan National Park Administration invested more than USD 3 million in community-related subprojects focusing on educating and training local staff on topics in environmental policies and laws, infrared camera monitoring, antipoaching patrols, and biodiversity (Snow Leopard China, 2018). As of June 2019, the platform has 9 functional monitoring sites with 264 local rangers in Yushu Prefecture and Banma County (Guoluo Prefecture), covering an area of about 7000 km2 ( Jia et al., 2020). Data collected has been used for analyses and assessments of snow leopard density and population dynamics, wildlife richness, etc. Tibet A.R. In 2016, with the support of the Tibet A.R. Forestry Department, Xainza County launched a snow leopard research and conservation project which empowered the local conservation force by training six local wildlife stewards to participate in every task. Similarly, the Yuanwang Wildlife Conservation organized recurring training sessions on both theoretical and pragmatic fronts available to all staff. The subjects revolved around wildlife sign identification, infrared camera trapping, GPS systems,

and field survey designs. The six pastoralistturned wildlife stewards have shown tremendous potential, likely attributable to their familiarity with the area and indigenous knowledge. They soon became the backbone of the monitoring mission, responsible for a 2000 km2 monitoring network and surveying prey animals, assisting the Changtang Nature Reserve Administration in conducting camera-based monitoring and training nature reserve rangers. Moreover, this pilot team has also taken initiatives in local wildlife rescue, conducting grid patrols, awareness-raising programs, antipredator facilities, and more. The team’s performance has generated outputs far surpassing the expected results and has demonstrated that indigenous people are fully capable of taking on key roles in wildlife conservation. Xinjiang A.R. In 2016, with support from the East Tien Shan State Forest Administration, Wild Xinjiang established the first monitoring station at the Nanshan project site in collaboration with several other NGOs, including SCC and China Green Development Foundation as part of the effort to establish the Urumqi River Snow Leopard Reserve, Xinjiang’s first PA. This project led to the founding of two forest stewardship offices and a community-based conservation network that consists of 20 pastoralist households. Through continuous community surveys and the hosting of workshops and training sessions, the local pastoralist community has expressed its understanding and support for snow leopard conservation. HWC has been alleviated, and no incidents of wildlife poaching were reported in two consecutive years. To translate the project outcomes to activities on the ground, the East Tien Shan State Forest Administration devised a plan for its 11 sub-bureaus to carry out snow leopard surveys and management capacity building based on this pilot project and aiming to establish an East Tien Shan National Park in the future.

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

Snow leopard conservation in China

Public participation and the role of social media in snow leopard conservation Conservation efforts undertaken by research institutes, NGOs, and governmental agencies are the central force and cornerstone forsnow leopard conservation in China. At the same time, another unprecedented force has sprung up and made a unique contribution, that being internet-based platforms and services that are flourishing in China. In terms of public promotion and education, particularly relating to topics in environment and biodiversity conservation, the power of social media has made an indelible mark. This new form of promotion offers an effective way to motivate engagement in the conservation of flagship species, including the snow leopard. Because young adults who are typically concerned by the biodiversity crisis also make up most mobile service users, internet-based promotion is a promising approach to accelerate and scale up the impacts of snow leopard conservation among the public. Internet-based awareness-raising programs Alipay

Alipay is one of China’s most popular online payment and lifestyle platforms and has become an essential app service used daily. In August 2016, Alipay turned the power of its digital technology to promoting climate action by launching “The Alipay Ant Forest” project (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2021). The mobile program rewards its users with “green energy points” if they take simple actions to reduce their emissions. The accumulated green energy points will be converted into donations for reserves and parks and transformed into on-the-ground work by local NGOs and the community. Once the users complete the designated activity, which serves as a process to reinforce users learning about snow leopards and highlands ecosystem, a virtual achievement medal will be obtained which

585

in turn can unlock corresponding tangible rewards. Such promotions have exceeded Alipay’s expectations by attracting large numbers of users in a short period and eliciting significant behavioral change. Early results indicate a strong potential to use digital technology in collective efforts to safeguard the planet’s biodiversity and ecosystem. WeChat

Tencent’s WeChat, a widely used Chinese multipurpose messaging, social media, and mobile payment app, jointly with WWF launched a mini-program around International Snow Leopard Day in 2020. Featuring interactive activities around the theme “Where is the mysterious snow leopard” the mini-program is intended to engage the public with snow leopard conservation and raise awareness through games and a series of fun facts about snow leopards (Tencent, 2020). The program promotes the conservation significance of snow leopards in mountain ecosystems and as a flagship species. Users gain Kudo points and experience the work of snow leopard rangers in Sichuan Wolong National Nature Reserve by looking through the installed camera traps in the reserve. Through eco-friendly commute records tracked by the WeChat pedometer, users can trade in walking step counts to unlock photos and footage of snow leopards and other sympatric species along with fun facts. This program allows the public to deepen their understanding of snow leopards as an endangered species and evokes a deeper connection to snow leopard conservation by virtually experiencing the work of local rangers and conservationists, making this a highly effective awareness-raising program. JD WCS

In addition to the upsurge of internet-based promotion of snow leopard conservation, JD. com, an e-commerce company, has taken

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46. Snow leopards in China

another approach by examining the data processing needs of snow leopard research. During the 2019 4th China Innovation Challenge (Tianjin Economic Development Zone), JD.com took on the topic of environmental support and challenged participants to develop an AI-based program for snow leopard individual identification through data mining techniques and machine learning algorithms (Yingying Youth Innovation Commune, 2019). The goal of the challenge was to unveil the often unnoticed yet crucial part of snow leopard conservation to the public, hoping to highlight the data processing step in snow leopard studies, and elicit the interest of young adults to actively join snow leopard conservation work. Crowdfunding Tencent public welfare

To promote and fundraise for the Sanjiangyuan National Park snow leopard conservation project, SSC started an online fundraising campaign on September 9, 2018, in the spirit of the 9/9 public welfare day initiated by Tencent, a China’s tech giant known for its internet-based services and social media platform (SSC, 2018). The money raised was to be used to resolve HWC and organize a training session for the local communities to carry out antipoaching patrols and wildlife monitoring. Through browsing the fundraising website, donors learned about HWC in general, the conflicts that are taking place in Sanjiangyuan’s community, as well as the options to alleviate the issue. Donors received camera-trap photos of snow leopards taken in the park and stories from the park patrol team. The fundraising website enticed visitors to learn the complexities of HWC and how snow leopards are threatened due to the conflicts. The campaign eventually raised a total of USD 82,000 for the conservation project budget. In 2019, China Green Foundation together with Faw Toyota Motor Sales Co., and SCC,

launched the “Safeguard Snow Leopard Action.” This major public welfare initiative under the China Green Foundation’s “Nature China” brand encourages donations for snow leopard conservation and rewards participants, based on their contribution level, with such things as snow leopard photos, merchandise, and even the opportunity to join snow leopard monitoring at the project site. Funding from this project has supported a 700 km2 camera-trap monitoring area in Dingqing County, Tibet A.R. where over 100 images of snow leopards were captured. Through these images, local conservationists have identified nearly 20 individual snow leopards, indicating a healthy snow leopard population in the area. In addition, together with the local community, the project has also carried out anti-poaching patrols, HWC surveys, grassland habitat restoration, and many other conservation efforts, yielding considerable success (FAW TOYOTA, 2019). Sina Weibo

In 2019, a fundraising event was held on the popular Chinese social media platform, Sina Weibo, titled #Safeguard Snow Leopard Habitat Action# to raise money for the snow leopard protection project in Dingqing County, Tibet, A.R, and in Zaduo and Zhiduo Counties, Qinghai Province. The project’s target of USD 300,000 was to support activities such as antipoaching patrols, community-based monitoring, HWC compensation, and ecological surveys. Since the platforms that hosted the event have China’s highest daily website traffic, it was expected have far-reaching positive impacts on public awareness of snow leopard conservation needs. Public events

Research institutions, NGOs, and governments have also hosted multiple public events around snow leopard conservation themes. Such events bring together large numbers of

VI. Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates

Research and monitoring

scholars and the public to discuss relevant topics. In July 2015, Peking University (PKU) and SCC held the first International Snow Leopard Forum that convened homegrown snow leopard conservation groups to explore current and future approaches in protecting snow leopards, which in turn inspired the founding of the Chinese Snow Leopard Conservation Network (Snow Leopard China, 2018). Yearly meetings of Snow Leopard China have been organized since 2015, which took place in Urumqi, Xining, Yushu, and Beijing. Besides exchanging ideas, those routine meetings generated two major outputs: the Snow Leopard Survey Handbook in 2016 and the Status of Snow Leopard Survey and Conservation, China in 2018. In October 2020, the 8th International Snow Leopard Day event, led by Beijing Forestry University (BFU) and Eco-Bridge Continental (EBC) in collaboration with the IUCN Commission on Education and Communication (CEC), Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP), Snow Leopard Network (SLN), and other institutions, was held in Beijing and Kunming (Shi, 2020). The event attracted broad audiences from various fields and raised public awareness by spotlighting the conservation effort and existing threats to snow leopards.

Research and monitoring The journey of snow leopard research in China—A comprehensive review Snow leopards are distributed in seven provinces and autonomous regions in China: Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Tibet A.R., Xinjiang A.R., and Inner Mongolia, covering at least 13 different ethnic and cultural groups (Alexander et al., 2015b). According to a recent WWF report (Sharma and Singh, 2020), China is one of the countries with the highest contribution to snow leopard-based literature, and the

587

most contributing in terms of range extent covered by studies (over 270,000 km2). However, existing research has included a mere 25% of the Chinese snow leopard range, with research biased toward larger provinces like Qinghai and Xinjiang, as already highlighted by two previous syntheses of snow leopard research in China (Alexander et al., 2016b; Snow Leopard China, 2018). In China, much of the earlier body of snow leopard work has been kept out of the spotlight and was inaccessible to a wide audience. Many investigations sit in the form of dissertations, internal reports, and faunal inventories, the majority of them written in the Chinese language, which are difficult to consult even by Chinese nationals. This is exemplified by gaps in snow leopard-related work that characterized the 1990s (Alexander et al., 2016b), and for which our bibliographic research has retrieved only large mammal inventories. Much of the earliest ecological work has been reported by Alexander et al. (2016b) and Snow Leopard China (2018), especially with regard to surveys of the Chinese range in which snow leopards were believed to be locally extinct or very rare (Inner Mongolia; Wang and Schaller, 1996). Much of the ecological literature focusing on snow leopards comes from surveys implemented to establish the status of the species and its main prey and interactions with other carnivores. Many studies conducted before 2010 were rather general and concentrate less on underlying conservation issues, many of which included sociological research related to human-snow leopard conflicts along with investigations of snow leopard ecology, yielding limited contribution regarding snow leopard conservation per se. Despite that, there has been a clear upward trend in the amount of snow leopardfocused publications in China over the past decades (Fig. 46.3). The trend is a manifestation of the increasing effort and attention targeted on snow leopard conservation in China since the

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46. Snow leopards in China

FIG. 46.3

The number of snow leopard-focused publications in China for all years prior to 2000 and by year of publication in 5-year intervals since 2000.

early 2000s, while it also represents the expanding breadth and depth of knowledge that scientists and conservationists have gained on varying topics of snow leopard ecology and conservation. The pioneering works of Liao (1985) and Schaller et al. (1988) described distribution and status, along with estimates of abundance, in Qinghai and Xinjiang. These were followed by a compelling report on snow leopard distribution in China (Ma et al., 2002). Later, snow leopard work of this kind focused predominantly in Xinjiang, surveying the whole province (Ma et al., 2005), or specific localities like Tomur National Nature Reserve (Turghan et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2011a), Muzat Valley in Tomur (Ma et al., 2006), the Baytag mountains (Xu et al., 2007), and the Kunlun Mountains (Xu et al., 2008). Riordan and Shi (2010) first reported on snow leopard and blue sheep status from Taxkorgan National Nature Reserve. Later works in Xinjiang include Pan et al.’s (2016) survey in Bortala Mongolian Autonomous Prefecture, Buzzard et al.’s (2017a) surveys across the whole Tien Shan mountains, Cui et al.’s

(2020) biodiversity assessment in the Kanas River valley in the Chinese Altai, and the preliminary survey by Chu et al. (2020), who conducted research in the Kalajialeke area of the Chinese Altai, near the border with Mongolia. In Sichuan, Peng (2009) browsed 40 years of research data to report on abundance and distribution of snow leopard in the Hengduan mountains in Ganzi Prefecture, while Tang et al. (2017) assessed basic snow leopard habitat preferences and activity patterns in Wolong National Nature Reserve. In the same province, Hu et al. (2018) compared mammal diversity between the Siguniang Mountains and Wolong, Li et al. (2020) documented the retreat of large carnivores from much of the giant panda range, and Shi et al. (2021) assessed spatiotemporal relationships between snow leopard and red fox in the Qionglai Mountains. Qiao et al. (2021) reported that snow leopards appear to also be present around the Gongga mountains of Sichuan. In Qinghai’s Sanjiangyuan National Park, Li et al. (2013a) measured the degree of temporal segregation of mammals passing through a junction between two valleys, providing increased

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understanding of interspecific interactions and competition patterns. In the same fashion, Alexander et al. (2016b), in the Qilianshan National Nature Reserve of Gansu, assessed temporal interactions between snow leopards and sympatric carnivores, highlighting a high degree of overlap with red foxes and lynxes. Only one study of this kind is present in Yunnan, where Buzzard et al. (2017b) failed to obtain any photographic capture of snow leopards, despite local people claiming them to be present. With regard to Inner Mongolia, records of snow leopards have been rare and they were considered to be nearly extinct from the region by the 1980s (Wang and Schaller, 1996). However, there have been 3 recorded sightings of snow leopards by local herders in the past decade. The first record was in April 2011, where a snow leopard was sighted in the North of Langshan Mountain. Then in March 2013, a snow leopard was sighted and photographed in the southwest tip of Langshan mountains (Inner Mongolia Forestry Administrations, unpubl.). The most recent record was in September 2021, when a snow leopard was sighted near the border of China and Mongolia, northeast of Daqingshan Mointain. Similarly, in October 2020, camera traps placed by PKU obtained video of snow leopards at the border between the provinces of Inner Mongolia and Ningxia in Helan Mountain National Nature Reserve (Tang, 2021). This was the first record of snow leopards in Helan Mountains in almost 50 years, before which the snow leopard was thought to have been disappeared from the region. More work is needed to confirm the existence of stable snow leopard populations in these two provinces and to ascertain possibilities of connectivity between Mongolia and China through these stepping-stone habitats (Hacker, 2021). Statistical modeling of habitat suitability and connectivity routes has received increased attention in recent years. However, such efforts remain limited in number and spatial coverage, with the two exceptions represented by the

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assessments of Riordan et al. (2015) and Li et al. (2020). Earlier works focusing on determinants of distribution investigated habitat preferences across the Altai, Beita, Tien Shan, and Tomur Mountains of Xinjiang (Xu et al., 2006a, b), using principal component analysis and Chi-square goodness-of-fit tests. Much of the currently available estimates of suitable habitat in China have been implemented through the MaxEnt algorithm (Phillips et al., 2006), with only Forrest et al. (2012) and Ma et al. (2021), adopting alternative approaches. The pioneering work of Li (2012), who modeled the country-wide relative probability of occurrence through a combination of climatic, land cover, human activity, and topographic factors, set the stage for subsequent analyses. Qiao et al. (2017) estimated roughly 354 km2 of snow leopard habitat in Wolong Nature Reserve, Sichuan, using scant photographic data from 2010 to 13. Bai et al. (2018) used multiple-source occurrence data to calculate about 7000 km2 of suitable habitat inside Qomolangma National Nature Reserve, Tibet A.R. (22.7% of the extent), roughly 1000 km2 less than Jackson et al.’s (1994) estimates. Chi et al. (2019) assessed the habitat overlap between snow leopards and blue sheep in Sanjiangyuan National Park, Qinghai, finding 16,621 km2 of habitat overlapped (13.6% of the park extent). Xiao et al. (2019) used a combination of modeling, zonation, and connectivity methods to identify core snow leopard habitats in the same region under the influence of anthropogenic disturbance. In the central Tien Shan Mountain of Xinjiang, Ma et al. (2021) concluded that elevations between 1700 and 2900m were the strongest determinant of habitat preference. Atzeni et al. (2020) represented the first application of a multiscale pseudo-variables optimization (McGarigal et al., 2016) comparing the Qilianshan landscape across Gansu and Qinghai to Qomolangma National Nature Reserve in Tibet A.R, suggesting the emergence of local limiting factors as major determinants of habitat in different landscapes.

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46. Snow leopards in China

Other modeling exercises were intended to assess distribution shifts under climatic change. Forrest et al. (2012) evaluated the impacts of an upward shift of tree line on snow leopard habitat in the Himalayas. Li et al. (2021b) projected changes in suitable habitat under mild climatic change up to 2050 in Qinghai province, estimating a shift of 90 m upwards and an overall range contraction of about 74,000 km2. Li et al. (2016a) modeled climatic oscillations since the Last Glacial Maximum until 2070, emphasizing the key role of several Chinese landscapes as strongholds for snow leopard persistence. Li et al. (2022a) predicted a geographical northwest shift of the snow leopard global range and an upward habitat shift of 100 m by 2070. The importance of the Chinese range for overall range-wide landscape connectivity was emphasized by Riordan et al. (2015) and Li et al. (2020), the latter delineating several important Landscape Conservation Units within China. Recently, Li et al. (2022b) modeled distribution and connectivity in the Qilian Mountains (Gansu and Qinghai), evaluating to what extent highways and railways could disrupt the continuity of snow leopard habitat. Likewise, the doctoral dissertations of Wang (2021a) and Atzeni (2021) provide additional connectivity modeling examples from Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve and Qilian Mountains National Park in Gansu, and Qinghai respectively, emphasizing the importance of those landscapes for regional connectivity and genetic diversity. Despite a dramatic increase in machine learning modeling methods, only two studies assessed snow leopard probability of site use through occupancy analyses. The first notable example is Alexander et al. (2015d), who surveyed 480 km2 in Qifeng, Gansu, inside the Qilianshan National Park, finding that the probability of site use increased with increasing elevation. Later, Alexander et al. (2016a) covered 3392 km2 in the same area, finding that the occurrence of blue sheep was the strongest predictor of snow leopard presence in the area.

Many field investigations were intended to provide preliminary estimates of abundance and densities. However, all these studies suffered from a geographical bias (the majority conducted in Xinjiang), and from a methodological bias, as the estimates were usually derived through sign surveys or indirect methods relying on natural prey availability. Only a few studies used rigorous capture-recapture approaches, three of them adopting spatially explicit methods. In Xinjiang, Ma et al. (2006) surveyed the Muzat valley near Tomur National Nature Reserve, concluding that photographic and sign data supported the presence of 5–8 individuals, corresponding to 2.0–3.2 animals per 100 km2. Also in Tomur, Xu et al. (2011a) derived snow leopard density from camera and sign information as well as from Siberian ibex abundance, finding a cross-methods density of 1.59–3.47 animals per 100 km2 and possibly as many as 37.78–76.46 individuals. Xu et al. (2011b) report 2.0–3.2 individuals per 100 km2 over 250 km2 in Tomur, Xinjiang. The first study adopting appropriate capturerecapture methods was McCarthy et al. (2008), which compared camera data to indirect methods based on ibex and argali counts in Tomur National Nature Reserve, estimating 1.1 and 0.74 animals per 100 km2, using prey biomass and camera data, respectively. They also identified as many as 9 snow leopards through genetic methods. In Xinjiang’s Tien Shan Mountains, Wu et al. (2015) surveyed 1643 km2 and estimated as many as 1.31–2.58 snow leopards per 100 km2 calculated from ibex densities of 154  23 per 100 km2. Spatially explicit capturerecapture methods were applied only by Alexander et al. (2015c), who reported an average of 3.31 individuals per 100 km2 over 480 km2 in Qifeng, Gansu. Alexander et al. (2016c), collated data from 2013 to 14 for the same area, showing fluctuating densities spanning 1.46–3.29 snow leopards per 100 km2. Wang (2021b) surveyed the area of Shule Nan Shan in Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve,

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Research and monitoring

Gansu, finding an average of 1.4 individuals per 100 km2 over 1881.6 km2. In Tibet A.R., Chen et al. (2017) investigated four sites inside Qomolangma National Nature Reserve, estimating 1.8–2.5 animals per 100 km2. Finally, Zhang et al. (2020) adopted a combined approach of sign surveys and camera trapping to estimate the population density of snow leopards in the Yage Valley region of the Sanjiangyuan National Park, finding 9–14 individuals in the core region and possibly 4–6 snow leopards per 100 km2 on the northern bank of the study area, cut by the Yangtze River. Liu et al. (2019) reviewed the scant information relative to density surveys from 1980 to 2018, compiling a database of 35 peer-reviewed papers and 28 unpublished studies, revealing that only 29,934 km2 (1.7%) of snow leopard habitat in China was surveyed for snow leopard density and abundance. Genetic research on snow leopards in China has advanced no faster than in other parts of the species’ range (Weckworth, 2021). Despite individual identification methods being refined in 2008 (Jane
cka et al., 2008) and improved over the years (Janecka et al., 2013, 2014, 2017), few studies have adopted, or adequately applied, genetic methods to generate baseline knowledge on patterns of genetic variability across the Chinese range. This fact underlies a serious obstacle to the implementation of landscape-level and national-level conservation measures, and is further, hindered by a lack of coordination for the adoption of standardized methods across different snow leopard research groups. To briefly summarize China snow leopard genetic research to date, Jane
cka et al. (2008) first used genetics methods to identify individual snow leopards in China, Zhang et al. (2009) assessed snow leopard mitochondrial DNA diversity in Qinghai, and then Zhang et al. (2014) used genetic methods to determine the composition of the fecal microflora from four individuals. Wang et al. (2014) used DNA-based species identification to validate the histological analyses of snow leopard diet composition along

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with that of co-occurring carnivores in Taxkorgan National Nature Reserve, Xinjiang. With regard to population genetics studies, Zhou et al. (2015) compared snow leopard samples from Qinghai and Gansu using mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers, postulating about the presence of a unique population. Zhang et al. (2019) compared Qilianshan and Sanjiangyuan National Parks, through a combination of mitochondrial and autosome markers, suggesting the existence of three distinct groups. Atzeni et al. (2021), focusing on Qilianshan and Yanchiwan National NRs in Gansu, ran multivariate methods based on Moran’s Eigenvector Maps to look for spatial genetic structures, finding a weak but significant structure between macro-geographic areas, likely confounded by snow leopards’ large dispersal abilities. Hacker et al. (2021) improved the assessments from Zhang et al. (2019) and Zhou et al. (2015), comparing snow leopard genetic diversity and structure across several Chinese provinces, also investigating proxies for historical connectivity between China and Mongolia. Two studies adopted metabarcoding approaches to estimate prey items in the snow leopard diet. Lu et al. (2019) focused on the Qionglai mountains of Wolong National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, while Hacker et al. (2021) provided a range-wide assessment of snow leopard diet, highlighting differences among countries and macro-regions. In regard to diet studies, it is worth mentioning Liu et al. (2003), who assessed snow leopard diet for the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Xinjiang, and Sichuan, and the meta-review from Lyngdoh et al. (2014), whose results were supported by the work of Hacker et al. (2021).

Recent advancement in snow leopard research in China—First cases of snow leopard satellite tracking Satellite collaring studies on snow leopards have been carried out in many range countries ( Johansson et al., 2016, 2021; McCarthy et al.,

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46. Snow leopards in China

Basic information of the first 3 collared snow leopards in China.

Name

Sex

Estimated age

Weight

Collared date

Su Ye

Female

3–4 years

25 kg

February 2021

Ling Zhe

Male

3–4 years

44 kg

March 2021

Na Yin

Male

5–7 years

35 kg

April 2021

2005; see Chapter 30), which yielded valuable information on the ecological and ethological aspects of this elusive big cat. In July 2020, the National Forestry and Grassland Administration (NFGA) approved the capturing and collaring of snow leopards for the first time within the Gansu Jiuquan district (Yanchiwan) of Qilianshan National Park, for the purpose of scientific research and conservation. The field team, led by the Wildlife Institute of BFU and EBC, successfully captured and collared 2 male and 1 female snow leopards in 2021 under this permission (Table 46.3; Fig. 46.4), subsequent tracking results show that all individuals are in good conditions and valuable data are continuously being received. “Ling Zhe”’s case (Fig. 46.4) was unique in that it was found wandering in a human residence in Menyuan County, Qinghai, adjacent to Qilianshan National Park before being collared and released. It still remains unclear why and how it appeared in a human residence; nevertheless, recent tracking revealed it has traveled a total of 790 km from where it was released, reaching the east-most border of snow leopard distribution range in Qilianshan Mountains. Because the cat was relatively young, this may indicate a dispersal event and provide unique insight for future studies. The collaring of a further 4 snow leopards in Qilianshan National Park has also been initiated and results should be generated by mid-2022. Qilianshan National Park is among the most important snow leopard landscapes in China, and the location of the first collaring events,

Yanchiwan, was identified as one of the 23 key snow leopard landscapes GSLEP in 2014 (Murali et al., 2017). With more than a decade of systematic research in this area, the population status and distribution of snow leopards in Yanchiwan and Qilianshan National Park have been initially revealed (Alexander et al., 2015a,b,c,d, 2016a,b,c; Atzeni et al., 2020). Nevertheless, the amount and quality of data provided by satellite tracking is far beyond that from historic monitoring methods. China shares boundaries with 10 other snow leopard range countries, hence studies on the home range and movement pattern of snow leopards in China is of great importance to transboundary research and conservation. Future snow leopard satellite tracking in their key cross-border distribution areas, such as the Qomolangma National Nature Reserve, could greatly benefit global snow leopard conservation.

Challenges to snow leopard conservation in China Similar to other big cat species and protected wildlife worldwide, poaching and illegal trading have been the main challenges to snow leopard conservation in China for the past halfcentury (Li and Lu, 2014; Maheshwari and Niraj, 2018, see Chapter 7). However, with continuous reinforcement of laws and regulations, the impacts of poaching and illegal trading, along with retaliatory killing, now appear to be less of a threat to snow leopard survival in

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Challenges to snow leopard conservation in China

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FIG. 46.4 Capturing location of the first three collared snow leopards in China. “Su Ye” and “Na Yin” were captured and released in Subei County, “Ling Zhe” in Menyuan County of Qilianshan National Park.

China (Hacker et al., 2020a; Li et al., 2013b). In many areas, snow leopards are only responsible for a small number of livestock losses compared to wolves and diseases, and local pastoralists’ attitudes toward snow leopards are overall neutral or positive. The use of snow leopard parts in Traditional Tibetan practices has also largely disappeared since the late 1990s (Li et al., 2013b). On the other hand, following the rapid economic and demographic development in Central and Western China, which is also where the majority of snow leopard habitat is situated (Alexander, 2015; Chen et al., 2011), challenges related to human activities, such as overgrazing, road construction, habitat degradation, prey

loss, and climate change have become focal topics for snow leopard research in China (Li et al., 2016a, 2021b, see Chapters 6, 8 and 11). It has been suggested that about 30% of snow leopard habitat in the Himalaya may be lost due to a shifting treeline and consequent shrinking of the alpine zone (Forrest et al., 2012), a consequent upward shift of treeline and displacement of grassland will lead to habitat fragmentation and decrease in prey population (Shen, 2020). China holds more than 60% of the world’s snow leopard habitat, and this vast scale has made it more difficult for research and monitoring to be carried out in a coordinated manner.

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46. Snow leopards in China

Research and monitoring of snow leopards are still largely focused on populations within protected areas. Sites outside protected areas potentially occupied by snow leopards or used as migration corridors have attracted less attention, yet securing those areas may be crucial to growth and connectivity of snow leopard populations. At the same time, dissemination and communication of existing data and knowledge remain inadequate. Most of snow leopard range is remote and poorly accessible with relatively impoverished human populations; therefore, the lack of funding and conservation capacity at the grassroots level has become a common issue hindering snow leopard research and conservation in China. In many cases, though often indirectly, the making of local policies has negatively affected snow leopards due to a lack of awareness. For example, it has become a common practice for many local governments in western China to carry out regular marmot and pika eradication programs with the aim of plague control and grassland restoration (Alexander, 2015; Lambert et al., 2020). Marmots and pikas may constitute a significant portion of snow leopard diets seasonally, and the sharp decline of those small mammal populations can have a substantial negative impact. The use of grassland fences impacts landscape connectivity, use of resources, and may induce direct mortality of wild ungulate species (Greenfield et al., 2021; Tsering, 2009; see Chapter 11). Fences were widely established to enclose pastures for management purposes; however, their immediate threats to wild ungulates may affect snow leopards through prey loss. Such shortsighted policies are a reflection of the lack of bottom-up communication and indicate a neglect of conservation concerns in favor of development. Many gaps exist in the conservation actions taken to alleviate these challenges. Conservation measures appropriate to local conditions may lead to overall strengthened snow leopard conservation practices on a national and regional scale.

The way forward China as a lead for snow leopard conservation The primary importance of China for snow leopards is well documented. Over recent years, this importance has been further acknowledged and the species’ range in China is a critical component of range-wide assessments, such as IUCN Red List, and activities, such as GSLEP. The notable increment in collaborative effort among the government and private sector has greatly empowered snow leopard conservation in China, especially over the past decade. During an international meeting held in Beijing in 2008, relatively few Chinese attendees were present and only three presentations on work in China were made over a three-day program. Ten years later in 2018, an international meeting held in Shenzhen was attended by 170 Chinese academics and conservationists working on snow leopard and the program included more than 20 presentations on work in China over two days. The rapid change in snow leopard-related activities in China has emerged with the mobilizing of a newly invigorated science and conservation community. Chineseled teams have seized the initiative to publish research on priorities across the global snow leopard range (e.g., Li et al., 2016; Li et al., 2020; Riordan et al., 2015). Following the escalation of snow leopard conservation work within the country, China must now consider its next steps. According to Snow Leopard China (2018), which was the first attempt to assess the gaps in snow leopard conservation in China using standardized and quantitative methods, priority should be given to actions directed at insufficient grassroots conservation capacity, limited capacity and motivation of community-based conservation, human population growth and poverty, and climate change. The scale of snow leopard range in China and the effort required to enact

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The way forward

conservation measures means that this will require wide participation. In part due to recent advancements in the model of conservation and the unique social media culture in China, the attention given to scientific research, government policies, conservation mechanisms, protected area management, and financial allocation is booming. For snow leopards, the role of their mountain ecosystems in providing fresh water to billions of people is by far the most important economic driver. With administrative control over the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and key mountain ranges, China has been developing protection measures to secure vital ecosystem services, such as enhancing protected areas and improving agriculture (Chen et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2017). China’s lead on green recovery and technologies can provide a model that unifies sustainable economic growth with biodiversity and ecosystem protections, nature-based solutions for climate change, and inclusive environmental participation. What is clear in China and elsewhere is the continuing need to promote the economic case for biodiversity and environmental protection and restoration. Amid multiple competing policy priorities, with ministries and agencies making their pitches, the realization is dawning that every part of it depends on a long-term sustainable global environment. China and the world face climate instability and the devastation that increasingly drives millions of people from their homes and former lives, erodes ecosystem functions that support agriculture and the food that we eat, and contributes to the contamination and scarcity of clean water. These are global problems, requiring global solutions, that China now has the ability to assist with. Throughout snow leopard range, there are few policymaking scenarios and models that can inform and guide sustainable development (Gundimeda et al., 2018). So-called “Business as Usual” (BAU) approaches are promoted as the default in the absence of alternative

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depictions of plausible future pathways. Improved policy development using appropriate scenario archetypes that take holistic approaches could offer significant advantages to China in the promotion of a sustainable vision (Sitas et al., 2019). An important step would be taken through a Natural Capital Audit (L€ u et al., 2017) that would also pinpoint the value of snow leopards and their habitats. As the world moves toward more sustainable models of governance, these measures combined with enhanced protected area and National Park designations would secure long-term protection of China’s natural treasures. Simple immediate forward-thinking steps could include protected status for all land above an elevation of 5000 m. With ample actions led by ecological civilization, snow leopard conservation in China will certainly become the impetus for building a future of harmonious coexistence of humans and wildlife. China, being the country where the largest population of snow leopard is found, is now on track to lead the way for the future of pioneering thoughts and practices in the field of snow leopard and mountain conservation.

International cooperation Many of the important areas for snow leopards lie along international borders, with the Chinese border extending over 10,000 km2. China’s Belt and Road Initiative demonstrate the economic basis on which bilateral and multilateral agreements can be implemented. Despite being mostly trade related (Wang, 2021a), such mechanisms open diplomatic channels for dialogue on nontrade areas of mutual interest. The current and widely reported problems facing the global environment require multinational solutions, to which most nations, including China and her regional partners, have committed (IPBES, 2019; IPCC, 2021). The opportunities and mechanisms offered through

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46. Snow leopards in China

current agreements can be arranged more harmoniously and China would take a more important role among nations in snow leopard range. Transboundary conservation provides a basis for international cooperation for snow leopards. As a special case of wider international diplomacy and cooperation, transboundary conservation is primarily concerned with joint activities across contiguous landscapes either side of international borders. Now that China has resolved the designation of most of the borders shared with other snow leopard range states, the opportunities to strengthen the commitments made in agreements, such as GSLEP, are within reach. Looking forward, utilizing existing intergovernmental programs and agreements, China should actively lead initiatives to develop longterm, wide-scale transboundary conservation for snow leopard. As ever, continued courage and effort are required by all parties to cooperate and ensure snow leopards survive into their otherwise uncertain future. If we try, we can succeed. Another Chinese proverb offers a salient thought: “Be not afraid of going slowly. Be afraid only of standing still.”

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The future of snow leopards

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C H A P T E R

47 Sharing the conservation message Rana Bayrakcismitha, Heather Hemmingmooreb, Sibylle Norasc, and Imogene Cancellared a

Panthera, Seattle, WA, United States bGrims€o Wildlife Research Station, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Riddarhyttan, Sweden cSnow Leopard Network, Melbourne, VIC, Australia dPanthera, New York, NY, United States

Introduction The methods and tools used to communicate conservation messages have changed substantially in recent years through improved communication speed and ability to engage with larger audiences in unprecedented ways. Global social media fundamentally enhance conservation organizations’ capacity to reach the public and change unidirectional communication into real-time engagement. Meanwhile, mobile phone technology expansion provides the opportunity to reach more remote areas and improve connections with residents of snow leopard range countries. Despite these technological advances, communication barriers remain among and between scientists, field assistants, and the public living inside and outside snow leopard range countries, including language fluency for guest/foreign researchers and translation limitations in peer-reviewed publications. Additionally, for many remote mountain villages, communication access such as phone service remains an

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00029-7

issue, highlighting the need for comprehensive approaches to communicating conservation. Furthermore, while social media facilitates increased engagement with the public, this relatively new medium raises challenges of its own. Like effective conservation programs, effective communication requires understanding, input, and active support from the general public, scientific community, and government sectors. Building constructive dialog between stakeholders includes sharing information and ideas, especially concerning solutions and failures. It is essential to share knowledge gained from failed efforts, rather than to deemphasize such projects (see Chapter 45). Communication should encourage collaboration and involvement in programs targeted at saving snow leopards. How that message is communicated varies depending on who is conveying the information and intended recipients, including the public, scientific community, and government. Recipients drive the key messages, methodology, and style of communication.

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Communicating conservation messages with the public The public is the largest and most diverse group of stakeholders and includes interested people both within and outside snow leopard range. They provide one of the largest pools of potential financial support for conservation NGOs and the capacity to influence governmental policy through lobbying and activism. Regardless of the conservation goal, fostering feelings of environmental and social responsibility is essential to instill a culture of conservation that people carry throughout their lives. Youth engagement and education are also important to facilitate a generational shift in cultural attitudes favoring conservation, ensuring that species and ecosystems will persist for further generations.

Methods of communication with the public Traditional media, including television, newspapers, radio, and websites, still provide a common source of conservation information and are powerful tools for informing and sharing conservation stories. However, recent studies show social media plays an increasingly important role in conservation science, messaging, and awareness (Di Minin et al., 2015; Toivonen et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2018), leading organizations to rely on these platforms for a myriad of conservation efforts, including storytelling, data sharing, and fundraising.

Social media In the era of information technology, over 50% of the world’s internet-using population uses social media (DataReportal—Global Digital Insights, 2021). The resulting potential for increased public engagement via online science communication has important implications for conservation. Specifically, these platforms

facilitate the sharing of ideas, stories, and information through the building of virtual networks and communities. NGOs, government, and scientists can communicate directly with peers, stakeholders, researchers, government representatives, and the public. Many organizations have embraced social media as an effective means of distributing information through their already-engaged member base and expanding their audiences via increasing public awareness of wildlife conservation. One key benefit of using social media for conservation communication is the incorporation of emotion into content. Individual and public feelings about conservation can motivate and inspire, suggesting the importance of human emotions in wildlife conservation (Castillo-Huitro´n et al., 2020). Because social media provide opportunities to engage with conservation by sharing opinions, experiences, research, and knowledge, positive messaging and conservation storytelling can also impact individual species. This narrative-centered learning has been shown to increase online engagement with animal-focused science, including through the use of interactive content (Hinde et al., 2021). Additionally, linking online content with images increases the popularity of charismatic species, and platforms where readers can interact directly with authors and experts encourages greater interaction between scientists and the public (Papworth et al., 2015). Taken together, social media can directly impact public, political, and financial support for conservation. Snow leopard conservation lends itself to this model because pictures and videos of the iconic cat captivate social media users.

Popular media Popular books and documentaries help capture the public’s imagination regarding snow leopards. Peter Matthiessen’s classic book The

VII. The future of snow leopards

Challenges in communicating with the public

Snow Leopard (1978) established the mystique of the elusive cat and its popularity still endures. The BBC’s Planet Earth series (2006 and 2016) reached millions of viewers with breathtaking footage of snow leopard behavior, from cubrearing to hunting, while educating the public on biodiversity. Wildlife conservation-oriented documentaries and films are an excellent method of engaging the public. Such films even command their own festivals such as the annual international Jackson Hole Wildlife Film Festival (United States) and the Wildscreen Festival (United Kingdom).

Challenges in communicating with the public Snow leopard conservation is complicated and involves multiple stakeholders: NGOs, universities, governments, people living in range countries, and the general public. Each group has different, overlapping, or sometimes opposing agendas and priorities. As a result, it is critical that communicators clarify their specific conservation message, engage in two-way dialog, minimize the use of jargon, and clearly state necessary calls to action. While social media platforms facilitate the spread of information, they can also facilitate the spread of messaging that is counter to conservation goals, whether it is in the form of actual falsehoods (misinformation or disinformation), or simply biased reporting. Such conflicting sources of information can confuse users and lead to apathy, anger, or “slacktivism” (wherein people perform a token action and feel their civic duty is finished without taking concrete action; Rotman et al., 2011), which can break down essential dialogs between stakeholders. Additionally, the trafficking of illegal wildlife products, most notably the exotic pet trade, has been encouraged and facilitated by communities on many social media

607

platforms (ACCO, 2020). Unfortunately, efforts from conservation organizations to combat these effects by holding social media providers accountable have been met with limited success. For this reason, it is important for scientists and conservation organization who choose to utilize social media to remain engaged in the conversations that develop surrounding the material they release.

Key conservation messages for the public Conservation messages for the public have two distinct goals: • Educating the public regarding the role of the snow leopard in its ecosystems • Instilling a sense of responsibility toward the species and environment as a whole One outcome of effective conservation messaging is inspiring the public to actively participate in snow leopard conservation, via volunteering, donating money, or participating in ecotourism in snow leopard range areas, e.g., visiting traditional homestays. As a charismatic species, snow leopards easily capture the public’s attention. People generally appreciate iconic wildlife and can often be moved by emotive imagery and information. Snow leopards are frequently used alongside giant pandas, polar bears, and other appealing species by both local and international conservation NGOs to inspire the public to action and to raise funds. Using snow leopards to convey more general conservation goals, these organizations work to instill a culture of conservation and convey the message that endangered species conservation is everyone’s responsibility.

Positive messaging Studies by psychologists and conservation researchers have explored the efficacy of diverse communication approaches. Most now suggest

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47. Sharing the conservation message

that messages focused purely on environmental destruction are counterproductive because people become overwhelmed, apathetic, and uninspired. These studies suggest the message is more powerful and more likely to encourage engagement and action, when doomsday stories of species extinction and habitat loss are balanced with those of hope and success (Harre, 2011; Swaisgood and Sheppard, 2010). However, optimistic narratives should not ignore threats, thereby justifying the status quo. Rather, as the Common Cause for Nature Report (Blackmore and Holmes, 2013) suggests, conservation communications should be clear about both problems and solutions so people understand why action is important. The report suggests the most effective communications illustrate the intrinsic value of nature, highlight actions that can be taken at both individual and community levels, encourage caring for other people (including those who live alongside wildlife), and inspire creativity in how they show support for conservation. The first two decades of the 21st century produced many positive snow leopard stories, including the use of remote camera trapping technology that has documented higher numbers of snow leopards than expected in some study areas. Other positive news includes the success of NGOs encouraging people in snow leopard habitat to see benefits in living harmoniously with the animals. One such example is the Snow Leopard Conservancy—India Trust’s Himalayan Homestays program demonstrating that the ecotourism-linked snow leopard conservation program has improved local attitudes toward the cats (Vannelli et al., 2019). As the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy 2014 (Snow Leopard Network, 2014) shows, there is still real and significant work to be done on snow leopard research and conservation; however, organizations should not be tempted to inflate bad news to attract funding and support for needed activities.

Communicating conservation messages within the scientific and conservation community The snow leopard conservation community includes scientists and conservationists (independent or associated with NGOs, universities, or governmental agencies), students, and communities that live alongside wildlife. Associated conservation messages often pertain to: • Current status of the species in all range countries, including threats and protection levels • Ongoing research and conservation projects • Knowledge and data sharing Timely communication among these groups is critical for the exchange of ideas and research techniques, to ensure that limited funding is utilized effectively, to generate support for research and conservation initiatives, to facilitate collaboration, and to support advocacy in government. Traditional methods of interaction within the scientific community, aside from direct personal communication, occur predominantly via publications and conferences. Publications allow data transfer and learning between professionals, while conferences stimulate idea exchange and encourage future personal communication. Conferences have been especially successful for the professional snow leopard community. Important collaboration and knowledge sharing between scientists and researchers is now also facilitated by social media platforms.

Conferences A series of eight international snow leopard symposia were conducted between 1978 and 1995, in Finland (1978), West Germany (1980 and 1984), United States (1982), India (1986), USSR (1989), China (1992), and Pakistan

VII. The future of snow leopards

Communicating conservation messages within the scientific and conservation community

(1995). The proceedings from four symposia were published in the International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards (Blomqvist, 1978, 1980, 1982, 1990) and the rest as conference proceedings (Blomqvist, 1984; Fox, 1994; Freeman, 1986; Jackson and Ahmad, 1997). The 9th symposium, the Snow Leopard Survival Summit, was held in Seattle, Washington, United States, in May 2002, with a record 65 participants from 17 countries. In contrast, just 14 participants from 6 countries were able to attend the very first symposium (L. Blomqvist, 2015, Nordens Ark, Sweden, personal communication). The 2002 Summit was hosted by the International Snow Leopard Trust and Woodland Park Zoo. The meeting led to two significant and innovative conservation outcomes: The first was the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003), a document that identified threats to snow leopards and strategies to combat them through research, conservation actions, and national action plans (updated in Snow Leopard Network, 2014). Second, the Snow Leopard Network (SLN), a global community of professionals and organizations that facilitates communication between snow leopard researchers and conservationists, was created (see below). The conference on Range-wide Conservation Planning for Snow Leopards took place in Beijing in 2008. More than 100 people from 17 countries attended with the goal of initiating rangewide conservation planning for snow leopards (see Chapter 48) and using expert knowledge to update range maps (see Chapter 3). The exercise clearly demonstrated where knowledge of snow leopard status is available or missing, allowing a more comprehensive and targeted focus to future research and conservation efforts (Williams, 2008). The first Global Snow Leopard Forum was held in October 2013 in Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic (see Chapter 49), hosted by the World Bank’s Global Tiger Initiative and the Kyrgyz

609

Republic president, Mr. Almazbek Atambaev, to specifically engage government officials from the range countries in addition to scientists and conservationists. This conference resulted in the joint Bishkek Declaration between all range of country governments committing to collaborative transboundary conservation policies as articulated in the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). The 2nd International Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Forum was held in August 2017 and resulted in the adoption of “2017 Bishkek Declaration: Caring for Snow Leopards and Mountains— Our Ecological Future” (Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program, 2017).

The Snow Leopard Network (SLN) The SLN is an international consortium of experts, practitioners, and organizations dedicated to facilitating “sound scientifically based conservation of the endangered snow leopard through networking and collaboration between individuals, organizations, and governments.” (http://snowleopardnetwork.org). A primary aim of SLN involves updating and supporting the implementation of the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003; Snow Leopard Network, 2014), and it facilitates research and communication to this end. The updated SLSS (SLN, 2014) is available as a living document on the SLN website. SLN members include scientists from multiple institutions and organizations, government officials, conservation organizations, and members of the public. Membership is no-cost and has grown from 65 founding members to over 400 individuals and organizations. An Executive Director, along with a Steering Committee consisting of a Chairperson and six members elected every 3 years, provide leadership with support

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47. Sharing the conservation message

from one part-time staff person. The SLN hosts an extensive bibliography of articles and reports from its previous grant program (2003–16). The SLN website is available in English, eight range country languages, and French. In 2020, SLN began offering virtual training modules and webinars for practitioners on topics ranging from community conservation to genetics.

Challenges in communicating within the scientific community Even with technological advances and the targeted SLN organization, communication challenges still exist within the scientific community. As with public communication, language barriers among the science community can present challenges in sharing information. Professional rivalries, refusal to share data, and differences in opinion over scientific rigor may also occur, slowing timely data dissemination. Sharing information across platforms in a professional manner between scientists is critical without isolating individuals or organizations.

Communicating the conservation message with the government Maintaining communications with policymakers and various government bodies is essential to inform and influence conservation policy and maintain working relationships that enable further research and conservation programs.

Methods of communicating with government Professionals working in snow leopard conservation communicate directly with governments of range countries through personal connections, informal channels, funding relationships, and via intergovernmental agreements such as GSLEP. Conferences such as the

2013 Global Snow Leopard Forum allow for discourse between governments and the scientific community and private sector. Ideally, these forums not only inform official policy but also allow for ad hoc and one-on-one meetings. Communication also takes place between international NGOs and governments to ensure that officials receive current information regarding snow leopard status and conservation best practices. NGOs and government agencies also regularly form active conservation and research partnerships. Because range country governments are ultimately responsible for conservation policy within their borders, it is essential for snow leopard researchers and conservation NGOs to maintain strong relationships with governments to help facilitate appropriate development, implementation, enforcement, and improvement of conservation policy. Scientists, NGOs, and local communities can also provide input into the creation of protected areas and cooperation with adjacent countries. Additionally, social media allows real-time communication between experts and government representatives during conservation emergencies. The public can even use social media to engage in conservation policy discourse with their representatives.

Challenges in communicating with governments Establishing dialog with governments regarding snow leopard conservation can be challenging. Some officials may not have the necessary background or knowledge to adequately assess conservation threats and proposed projects. When political agendas include conservation programs, governments must contend with the competing needs of many species and ecosystems. Where conservation is not a priority, governments may focus on interests that often conflict with conservation goals, such as road construction or mining. Additionally, the variety

VII. The future of snow leopards

References

of political structures and turnover of government officials in range countries can alter the political landscape so dramatically that conservation work supported by one administration may be rejected by the next. Ongoing engagement is essential to ensure collaboration with and between governments and effective conservation policy within range countries.

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The snow leopard conservation community should continue to actively engage with the general public and governments as well as within their own scientific and conservation community, resulting in increasingly effective conservation programs facilitating the survival of the snow leopard.

References Conclusions It is vital to convey snow leopard conservation messages within range countries to not only educate but also foster feelings of national pride in the species. However, transboundary communications can be challenging as access to media may be complicated by bureaucracy, legal restrictions for certain social networking service (SNS) platforms, censorship, language and cultural barriers, and lack of infrastructure. Online language barriers are reduced as free translation services become more dependable and widely used, but are not wholly reliable. Regardless, including local communities in public communication remains important to ensure that conservation messaging reflects the values, needs, and knowledge of those living alongside wildlife. Looking forward, communication through technological channels should continue to improve and language barriers be further reduced, making it possible to affect evergrowing audiences. However, reaching more people is only part of the goal: the desired outcomes of snow leopard conservation messages are often about changing long-held perceptions and behavior, including engendering a sense of pride and responsibility to the snow leopard and the ecosystem in which it resides. Behavioral changes are often based on personal engagement and trust. Therefore, it is important to continue to engage with politicians, scientists, individuals, and communities in snow leopard range and in the broader international community.

Alliance to Counter Crime Online (ACCO), 2020. Two Clicks Away: Wildlife Sales on Facebook. Available from: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5e3a7fb845f8c668 df48d437/t/5f8d9d26b6b09842cbd7eca7/1603116334186/ ACCO+2+Clicks+Away+Wildlife+Sales+on+Facebook+ Oct+2020+FINAL.pdf. (Accessed 7 July 2021). Blackmore, E., Holmes, T. (Eds.), 2013. Common Cause for Nature: Values and Frames in Conservation. Available from: http://valuesandframes.org/initiative/nature. [15 November 2014]. Blomqvist, L. (Ed.), 1978. First International Snow Leopard Conference, 7–8 March 1978, Helsinki. Proceedings Published in International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Panthera uncia. vol. 1. Helsinki Zoo, Helsinki. Blomqvist, L. (Ed.), 1980. Second International Snow Leopard Conference, 9–10 October 1980, Zurich Zoo. Proceedings Published in International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Panthera uncia. vol. 2. Helsinki Zoo, Helsinki. Blomqvist, L. (Ed.), 1982. Third International Snow Leopard Symposium, 22–25 June, 1982, Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle. Proceedings Published in International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Panthera uncia. vol. 3. Helsinki Zoo, Helsinki. Blomqvist, L. (Ed.), 1984. Forth International Snow Leopard Symposium, 20–21 September 1984, Krefeld Zoo, West Germany. Helsinki Zoo, Helsinki. Blomqvist, L. (Ed.), 1990. Sixth International Leopard Symposium, October 2–7, 1989, Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, USSR. Proceedings published in the International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Panthera uncia. vol. 6. Helsinki Zoo, Helsinki. Castillo-Huitro´n, N.M., Naranjo, E.J., Santos-Fita, D., Estrada-Lugo, E., 2020. The importance of human emotions for wildlife conservation. Front. Psychol. 11, 1277. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01277. DataReportal—Global Digital Insights, 2021. Digital 2021: Global Overview Report. Available from: https:// datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-global-overviewreport. (2 August 2021). Di Minin, E., Tenkanen, H., Toivonen, T., 2015. Prospects and challenges for social media data in conservation science.

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Front. Environ. Sci. 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs. 2015.00063. Fox, J. (Ed.), 1994. Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, 25–30 July 1992, Xining, Qinghai, Peoples Republic of China. Proceedings published by International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, USA. Chicago Zoological Society, Chicago. Freeman, H. (Ed.), 1986. Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium, October 1986, Srinagar, India. International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle. Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program, 2017. 2nd International Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Forum. Available from: https://globalsnowleopard.org/ announcement/international-snow-leopard-ecosystemforum-summit-2017/. (16 December 2021). Harre, N., 2011. Psychology for a Better World: Strategies to Inspire Sustainability. Available from: http://www.psych. auckland.ac.nz/uoa/home/about/our-staff/academicstaff/niki-harre/psychologyforabetterworld. (15 November 2014). Hinde, K., Amorim, C.E.G., Brokaw, A.F., Burt, N., Casillas, M.C., Chen, A., Chestnut, T., Connors, P.K., Dasari, M., Ditelberg, C.F., Dietrick, J., Drew, J., Durgavich, L., Easterling, B., Henning, C., Hilborn, A., Karlsson, E.K., Kissel, M., Kobylecky, J., Krell, J., Lee, D.N., Lesciotto, K.M., Lewton, K.L., Light, J.E., Martin, J., Murphy, A., Nickley, W., Nu´n˜ez-De La Mora, A., Pellicer, O., Pellicer, V., Perry, A.M., Schuttler, S.G., Stone, A.C., Tanis, B., Weber, J., Wilson, M., Willcocks, E., Anderson, C.N., 2021. Education and outreach: march mammal madness and the power of narrative in science outreach. elife 10, e65066. Jackson, R., Ahmad, A., 1997. Eighth International Snow Leopard Symposium, 12–16 November 1995, Islamabad, Pakistan. Proceedings published by International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle. WWF-Pakistan, Islamabad. Matthiessen, P., 1978. The Snow Leopard. Viking Press, New York. McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G. (Eds.), 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle. 125 pp.

Papworth, S.K., Nghiem, T.P.L., Chimalakonda, D., Posa, M.R.C., Wijedasa, L.S., Bickford, D., Carrasco, L.R., 2015. Quantifying the role of online news in linking conservation research to Facebook and Twitter. Conserv. Biol. 29, 825–833. Planet Earth: Mountains, 2006. Television Series. British Broadcasting Company Natural History Unit, United Kingdom. Rotman, D., Vieweg, S., Yardi, S., Chi, E., Preece, J., Shneiderman, B., Pirolli, P., Glaisyer, T., 2011. From slacktivism to activism: participatory culture in the age of social media. In: Proceedings of the 2011 Annual Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, pp. 819–822. Snow Leopard Network, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy, Revised 2014 Version. Available from: http:// www.snowleopardnetwork.org/docs/Snow_Leopard_ Survival_Strategy_2014.1.pdf. (2 July 2015). Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP). Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. Swaisgood, R., Sheppard, J.K., 2010. The culture of conservation biologists: show me the hope! Bioscience 60, 626–630. Toivonen, T., Heikinheimo, V., Fink, C., Hausmann, A., Hiippala, T., J€arv, O., Tenkanen, H., Di Minin, E., 2019. Social media data for conservation science: a methodological overview. Biol. Conserv. 233, 298–315. Vannelli, K., Hampton, M., Namgail, T., Black, S., 2019. Community participation in ecotourism and its effect on local perceptions of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) conservation. Hum. Dimens. Wildl. 24, 180–193. Williams, N., 2008. International conference on range-wide conservation planning for snow leopards: saving the species across its range. Cat News 48, 33–34. Wu, Y., Xie, L., Huang, S.-L., Li, P., Yuan, Z., Liu, W., 2018. Using social media to strengthen public awareness of wildlife conservation. Ocean Coast. Manag. 153, 76–83.

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C H A P T E R

48 Global strategies for snow leopard conservation: A spot-joining synthesis Eric W. Sandersona, Urs Breitenmoserb, Roland B€ urkic, Christine Breitenmoser-W€ urstenb, Kim Fishera, Tabea Lanzb, David Mallond, Tom McCarthye, and Peter Zahlerf a

Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Programs, Bronx, NY, United States bIUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, Bern, Switzerland cFoundation KORA, Bern, Switzerland dDepartment of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom eSnow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States fZoo New England, Boston, MA, United States

Introduction The idea of a strategy derives from the ancient Greek concept of “strategia,” or the art of the troop leader. Strategies are a matter of command and generalship (Thesarus Linguae Graecae, 2011). Generals concern themselves with highlevel decision making to obtain a specified objective, especially under conditions of uncertainty and limited resources where not every option can be pursued simultaneously. In military terms, strategy is distinguished from tactics, which are the subset of skills required to meet the objective, such as logistics or intelligence. The idea of a “strategy” came into use in the Eastern Roman Empire around the 6th Century and was only translated into the Western vernacular in the 19th Century, though the notion

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00026-1

of being “strategic” is as old as human decision making itself (Freedman, 2013). Tzu (2007), the famous Chinese strategist, wrote in the Art of War that unity, not size, is a source of strength. In more recent times, Mintzberg et al. (2002) defined strategy as “a pattern in a stream of decisions” not simply planning, while McKeown (2012) argues that “strategy is about shaping the future,” achieving “desirable ends with available means.” Strategic thinking has left the purely military realm and entered politics, business, sports, and even conservation. A good conservation strategy articulates a vision, sets one or more time-bound goals, determines actions to achieve that goal, and mobilizes resources to execute those actions (cf. Groves et al., 2003). In other words, a strategy articulates how the conservation goals are achieved by

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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48. Strategies for snow leopard conservation

means of various actions, usually mitigating a threat or helping a species recover. Conservation strategies are for conservationists: they allow us to come to a consensus on actions, convince others to provide the necessary resources, then deploy those resources wisely and effectively in coordinated actions. Strategic planning for species conservation according to a report prepared by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)’s Species Survival Commission (SSC)’s Species Conservation Planning SubCommittee (2017) should be participative, transparent and informed by the best available science. In the realm of big cat conservation, strategies for the jaguar (e.g., Sanderson et al., 2002), lion (IUCN Cat Specialist Group, 2006), and tiger (Dinerstein et al., 1995; Sanderson et al., 2006) have had another big advantage: they led to increased investment. Most species are not so lucky. The vast majority lack explicit strategies for their conservation (IUCN-SSC, 2017). They lack funding for conservationists to help them reach goals. They even lack goals. The implicit or default goal under the IUCN Red List framework is to become a “Species of Least Concern.” Least Concern species are not critically endangered, endangered, threatened, or vulnerable, which is to say, they have the lowest current risk of extinction. Although most conservationists would agree that avoiding species extinction is desirable and must be a precondition for other goals, few would consider that this is the end goal for conservation. Rather, it should be considered an intermediate step toward the long-term conservation of a species (Sanderson, 2006). Redford et al. (2011) suggested an affirmative definition for successful species conservation. They write that any species that is successfully conserved will have the following characteristics: (a) be self-sustaining demographically and ecologically, (b) be genetically robust, (c) have healthy populations, (d) have representative populations distributed across the historical

range in ecologically representative settings, (e) have replicate populations within each ecological setting, and (f ) be resilient (i.e., able to continue to express key demographic, genetic, behavioral, and ecological attributes even when disturbed by climate change or other factors) across the range. Subsequently, this notion of a well-conserved species has been codified in the IUCN’s new Green Status Assessment process (Akc¸akaya et al., 2018; Grace et al., 2021). What does any of this have to do with snow leopards? For one, conservationists have long been worried about the status of the species and wanted to do something about it. Zoological institutions were in the lead in the 1970s, after the first snow leopard studbook was released to help manage ex situ populations (Blomqvist, 1978a). The first international conference on snow leopards was held at Helsinki Zoo, Finland, in 1978 (Blomqvist, 1978b). Other conferences followed: at Zurich Zoo, Switzerland, in 1980 and at the Woodland Park Zoological Gardens, Seattle, USA, in 1982. The focus remained mainly on captive breeding programs, although the idea of potential releases into the wild was floated (Eisen, 1982). In situ conservation became more prominent at the fourth conference at Krefeld Zoo, Germany (Blomqvist, 1984), though conservation breeding continued to be discussed (e.g., Blomqvist, 1990). The next 4 snow leopard conferences were held in the range countries (Fig. 48.1): 1986 in India (Freeman, 1988), 1989 in Kazakhstan (Blomqvist, 1990), 1992 in China (Fox and Du, 1994), and 1995 in Pakistan ( Jackson and Ahmad, 1997). These meetings brought additional focus on the in situ conservation status of the species (Freeman, 1988). Under the IUCN Red List Guidelines, the snow leopard is currently considered “Vulnerable” (McCarthy et al., 2017), a change in status from “Endangered” that resulted from assessments made in 1986, 1988, 1990, 1994,1996, and 2008 (Baillie and Groombridge, 1996; Groombridge, 1993; IUCN, 1990; IUCN

VII. The future of snow leopards

Introduction

615

FIG. 48.1 Snow leopard range states. Range states are countries that overlap the potential distribution of snow leopards as shown in Fig. 48.3.

Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1986, 1988; Jackson et al., 2008). The 2017 change in status proved to be controversial in the snow leopard conservation community (cf. Ale and Mishra, 2018). Although much of the disagreement centered around the mistaken idea that the assessment was based on overly optimistic population estimates (the assessment actually used the lowest accepted population number for the species, 4000), it highlighted the long-standing problem of the paucity of data on snow leopard numbers, given their low density and extensive range. These challenges also relate to how to conserve this species (Suryawanshi et al., 2021), so few animals across such a wide area.

To address these problems, and with the surge of interest in conserving snow leopards in the wild, not just in zoos, a number of conservation organizations became active across snow leopard range in the early 21st century (Table 48.1). These organizations included international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), national NGOs, and networks of organizations. Collectively, these groups substantively increased the knowledge base about snow leopards, leading not only to betterinformed discussions and assessments of status but also the desire and ability to develop strategic plans, based on the best scientific information.

VII. The future of snow leopards

TABLE 48.1 websites.

List of selected international and national NGOs and the snow leopard range countries in which they are active according to their International NGOs

Country

a

FFI

b

NABU

Panthera

c

d

SLC

SLT

Afghanistan

X

India

X

Kazakhstan

g

WWF

NCF

h

i

SLCF

SLFj

SLFKk

SLFPl

SSCCm

X X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X

X

X

Mongolia

X

X

Nepal

X

X

Pakistan

X

X

Russia

Uzbekistan

WCS

X

China

Tajikistan

f

X

Bhutan

Kyrgyzstan

National NGOs e

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X

(X) X

Organizations are listed in alphabetical order of the abbreviations. a Fauna & Flora International: http://www.fauna-flora.org/species/snow-leopard/ (Accessed 29 January 2015). b Naturschutzbund Deutschland e.V.: http://www.schneeleopard.de (Accessed 29 January 2015). c Panthera: http://www.panthera.org/programs/snow-leopard/snow-leopard-program (Accessed 29 January 2015). d Snow Leopard Conservancy: http://snowleopardconservancy.org/ (Accessed 29 January 2015). e Snow Leopard Trust: http://www.snowleopard.org/ (Accessed 29 January 2015) including Snow Leopard Enterprises. f Wildlife Conservation Society: http://www.wcs.org/saving-wildlife/big-cats/snow-leopard.aspx (Accessed 29 January 2015). g World Wildlife Fund: http://wwf.panda.org/ (Accessed 29 January 2015). h Nature Conservation Foundation: http://ncf-india.org/ (Accessed 29 January 2015). i Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Snow-leopard-Conservation-Foundation-in-Mongolia/161537973927505 (Accessed 29 January 2015). j Snow Leopard Fund: http://www.slf.kz/en/ (Accessed 29 January 2015). k Snow Leopard Foundation, Kyrgyzstan. l Snow Leopard Foundation, Pakistan: https://www.facebook.com/snowleopard.pakistan?fref¼ts (Accessed 29 January 2015). m Shan Shui Conservation Center.

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Four snow leopard strategies

Not one, but 4 strategies for the snow leopard were developed in collaboration between and among governments, conservation organizations, academic institutions, and development agencies over the first two decades of the 21st century: the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003); the Snow Leopard Rangewide Assessment and Conservation Planning (Williams, 2008; McCarthy et al., 2009; see Chapter 3); the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (hereafter GSLEP; Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013; see Chapter 49); and the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy, Revised Version 2014.1 (Snow Leopard Network, 2014). Hereafter, these will be referred to as SLSS 2003, SLRAC 2008, GSLEP 2013, and SLSS 2014, respectively. Many of these strategies pick up elements of the Redford et al. (2011) prescription for successful conservation, anticipating the Green Status process (Akc¸akaya et al., 2018). Comparative analysis also reveals how snow leopard conservationists have evolved their strategic thinking over time. This chapter identifies areas of convergence and highlights points of divergence among these strategies by considering their goal/vision statements, especially those that address the “why,” “where,” and “how” of snow leopard conservation. “Why snow leopard conservation” expresses the values people see for the species. Convergence of values among governments, scientists, conservationists, and communities suggests a basis for cooperation. “Where” refers to geographic representations of snow leopard range and conservation sites in the 4 conservation strategies. Understanding the distribution of snow leopard across an immense range (>3,000,000 km2), and showing how that range intersects with nation-states, ecological settings, and threats to the species, suggests where conservation efforts should be optimally distributed from a strategic perspective. “How” refers to the conservation activities necessary to fulfill the vision of conservation of the species. If “why” and “where” are strategic

elements, then “how” brings in the logistics, including the kinds of expertise necessary for the conservation of this species. More importantly, bringing the why, where, and how of snow leopard conservation together suggests an emerging strategic synthesis for snow leopard conservation against which future progress can be measured.

Four snow leopard strategies Snow leopard survival strategy (SLSS 2003) In 2002, approximately 60 snow leopard specialists, including researchers, advocates, and conservationists from range states and elsewhere met in Seattle, USA, for the Snow Leopard Survival Summit. In a foreword to the first SLSS, Urs and Christine Breitenmoser (CoChairs of the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group) wrote, “that across mountain ridges and deserts, national borders and cultural barriers—the common values for which we fight, far outweigh the few differences that separate us.” What those values were is not clearly expressed, but the Executive Summary emphasizes that the SLSS is necessary to “save the endangered snow leopard” and the title of the volume (a “survival strategy”) suggests the main driver was avoiding extinction, consistent with the IUCN Red List assessment process (Table 48.2). The SLSS 2003 set out the following tactical objectives: 1. Assess and prioritize threats to snow leopards on a geographic basis; 2. Define and prioritize conservation, education, and policy measures appropriate to alleviate threats; 3. Prioritize subjects for snow leopard research and identify viable and preferred research methods;

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618 TABLE 48.2 Conservation valuea Avoid extinction; existence value

48. Strategies for snow leopard conservation

Comparison of values for snow leopards in four 21st century conservation strategies. SLSS 2003 (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003)

SLRAC 2008 (Williams, 2008; McCarthy et al., 2009, Chapter 3)

GSLEP 2013 (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013, Chapter 49)

SLSS 2014 (Snow Leopard Network, 2014)

[X]

[X]

[X]

[X]

Ecological functionality of species

X

Ecosystem services of habitat

[X]

X

X

Cultural significance

X

X

X

Representation on an ecological basis

X

X

X

Representation on a national basis a

[X]

[X]

Implicit values in the strategies, as interpreted by the authors.

4. Build a network of concerned scientists and conservationists to facilitate open dialogue and cross-border cooperation; 5. Gain consensus on a fundamental Snow Leopard Survival Strategy document that will be made available to the range states in conservation planning at national and local levels. The SLSS document itself satisfied the 1st, 3rd, and the 5th objective, upon publication. The process of writing the SLSS 2003 also was vital to the creation of the Snow Leopard Network, which remains an active organization, satisfying the 4th objective (see Chapter 47). On its own terms, the SLSS 2003 was an immediate success. Geographically, the SLSS 2003 divided and assessed snow leopard range by political units, i.e., range states, or the countries where snow leopards have been reported (Fig. 48.1;

Table 48.3). Status assessments were provided for 12 range states and one other where status was uncertain (Myanmar); the legal status was reported for those 12 confirmed states. Threats and research needs were evaluated in 4 snow leopard regions, which were agglomerations of nation-states or parts of nation-states. The SLSS 2003 thus set the precedent for thinking about snow leopard populations in biogeographic groupings that crossed international boundaries. These regions included the Himalaya, including the Tibetan Plateau and other parts of southern China, India, Nepal, and Bhutan; the Karakorum and Hindu Kush Range, including Afghanistan, Pakistan, and southwest China; the Commonwealth of Independent States and western China, including Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Xinjiang Province in China; and the Northern snow leopard range, which included China’s Altai

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619

Four snow leopard strategies

TABLE 48.3

Geographic treatment of snow leopard range in four 21st century conservation strategies.

Geographic description

SLSS 2003

By nation states

13

By ecological region or setting

a

SLRAC 2008

GSLEP 2013

b

c

SLSS 2014

11

12

4 regions

9 ecological settings

None

None

Number of units, areas, or landscapes

None

69 snow leopard conservation units

20 snow leopard landscapes

186 protected areas

Extent of potential range (km2)

3,024,728

3,256,840

Not given

1200,00–3,000,000 +

Extent of occupied habitat (km2)

1,846,000

1,230,881d

1,766,000

various

a b c d

13

Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakstan, Kyrghz Republic, Myanmar, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Kazahkstan and Myanmar were not represented. Myanmar was not represented. Definitive plus probable range (see Chapter 3).

and Tien Shan Mountains, Mongolia, and Russia. SLSS 2003 included an extensive analysis of threats to the species followed by a section on actions to address those threats (Table 48.4). The potential actions considered were grazing management, income generation (for people living near snow leopards), cottage industries, an ungulate trophy hunting program (recognizing the competition between human hunters and snow leopards for the same prey), reducing poaching and trade in snow leopard parts, reducing livestock depredation by snow leopards, animal husbandry (for livestock), and conservation education and awareness. Each action type was addressed at the “policy” and “local community” level. The remainder of the strategy was given to the identification of research and information needs and a short section on range state action planning.

Snow leopard range-wide assessment and conservation planning (SLRAC) (2008) In 2008, a similar but not identical group of researchers, conservationists, and government officials met in Beijing, China, at a meeting

organized by Panthera, the Snow Leopard Network, Snow Leopard Trust, and the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) (Williams, 2008; McCarthy et al., 2009, 2016). The purpose of this meeting was to develop a range-wide assessment and conservation vision for the snow leopard, using procedures described by the IUCN SSC (2008; since revised, see IUCN SSC, 2017) and in related planning efforts for large wild felids, including jaguars (Sanderson et al., 2002), lions (IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, 2006), cheetahs (Durant, 2007), and tigers (Sanderson et al., 2006; Dinerstein et al., 2007). Working together, this group prepared a conservation vision statement for the snow leopard, explicitly linked back to data sets developed through the range-wide assessment: A world where snow leopards and their wild prey thrive in healthy mountain ecosystems across all major ecological settings of their entire range, and where snow leopards are revered as unique ecological, economic, aesthetic and spiritual assets.

A vision like this one represents an aspirational state, which may never be realized, but whose expressed values guide conservation efforts (Table 48.2). In this vision statement, snow leopards, their wild (as opposed to domesticated)

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620 TABLE 48.4 strategies.

48. Strategies for snow leopard conservation

Comparison of suggested actions for snow leopard conservation in four 21st century conservation

Actions to conserve snow leopards

SLSS 2003

SLRAC 2008

GSLEP 2013

SLSS 2014

X

X

X

X

X

X

Engage local communities in conservation Use participatory approach, integrate community needs into snow leopard conservation Employ community-based conflict mitigation/ resolution Improve livestock husbandry, including monitoring of depredation events

X

X

Livestock insurance/compensation and vaccination programs linked to snow leopard conservation

X

X

X

Support construction of predator proof corrals

X

X

X

Encourage alternative livelihoods for local communities other than livestock grazing, including savings, and credit programs and ecotourism

X

X

X

Work on climate change adaptation strategies with communities

X

Managing habitat and prey based on scientific monitoring Establish long-term monitoring of snow leopard, prey, and habitat

X

X

Create/enhance/expand protected area networks

X

X

Create management and monitoring plans for existing protected areas Support sustainable pasture and grazing management

X X

Support restoration in degraded landscapes to attain snow leopard conservation Manage ungulate trophy hunting programs in a sustainable way compatible with snow leopard needs

X X

X

(also see build capacity and enhance conservation policies and institutions below)

X

X

X

X

Combatting poaching and illegal trade Improve/enforce laws on conservation, hunting/poaching, trade

X

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X

621

Four snow leopard strategies

TABLE 48.4 Comparison of suggested actions for snow leopard conservation in four 21st century conservation strategies—cont’d Actions to conserve snow leopards

SLSS 2003

SLRAC 2008

Education and outreach to relevant communities (e.g., development agencies, military, tourists)

GSLEP 2013

SLSS 2014

X

Regularly monitor markets for illegal snow leopard and prey parts

X

X

(also see engage local communities activities above)

X

X

X

(also see transboundary management and enforcement below)

X

X

X

X

X

X

Initiate/enhance transboundary cooperation, including bilateral and multilateral agreements

X

X

Foster a landscape-level approach to conservation, including no net-loss policies for biodiversity

X

X

(also see build capacity and enhance conservation policies and institutions below)

X

Transboundary management and enforcement

Capacity building for border and customs officials

X

Establish transboundary protected areas

X

X

Engage industry in snow leopard conservation Use snow leopards as indicator species of impacts from development

X

Invite industrial officials to relevant snow leopard conservation events

X

Consult with development-oriented ministries regarding snow leopard conservation priority areas, including through the environmental and social assessment process

X

X

X

X

X

X

Build capacity and enhance conservation policies and institutions Improve treaty (e.g., CITES, CMS) implementation

X

Improve and strengthen national laws regarding snow leopard conservation

X

Build national capacity for research, monitoring, and enforcement, including workshops and seminars

X

X

X

X

Continued

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622

48. Strategies for snow leopard conservation

TABLE 48.4 Comparison of suggested actions for snow leopard conservation in four 21st century conservation strategies—cont’d Actions to conserve snow leopards

SLSS 2003

SLRAC 2008

GSLEP 2013

Develop/Implement National Snow Leopard Action Plan

X

X

Establish rescue centers for rehabilitation of orphan cubs, injured adults

X

(also see build awareness of snow leopards and snow leopard conservation efforts)

SLSS 2014

X

Research and monitoring Assess status of snow leopards, prey, and habitat relative to conservation goals

X

Assess impact of climate change on snow leopards, prey, and habitat

X

X

X

X

X

Build awareness of snow leopards and snow leopard conservation efforts Establish awareness campaigns to facilitate snow leopard conservation at all levels

X

Provide educational materials to schools about snow leopard conservation

X

X

X X

X

(also see engage local communities activities above)

prey, and healthy mountain ecosystems are considered a joint unit for conservation. Multiple instances of this unit are valued across different “ecological settings” that collectively encompass the entire range. In other words, one example population, or even several in the same ecological circumstances, would not satisfy the vision statement. Rather, variable combinations of snow leopards, prey, and “healthy mountain ecosystems” are desired, where unique ecologies are to be treasured and conserved. These could include different habitat usage patterns, different prey bases, different home ranges or dispersal patterns, or different behavioral repertoires. To bring even greater clarity, the vision statement was directly linked to a map that

described 7 ecological settings that collectively span the potential range of the species (Fig. 48.2; Table 48.3). The experts assembled at that meeting created consensus maps displaying snow leopard conservation units (SLCUs), ecological settings, and the potential range of the species (McCarthy et al., 2016). The ecological values of snow leopards were explicitly coupled with other kinds of values, including both material (ecological and economic) and nonmaterial (aesthetic and spiritual) benefits to people. The language is unusual, coupling a spiritual concept, “reverence,” with an economic one, “assets.” After consideration of a conservation vision for the species, the research community was joined by government representatives from most

VII. The future of snow leopards

Four snow leopard strategies

623

FIG. 48.2 Ecological settings defined for potential snow leopard range in 2008 at the Snow Leopard Range-wide Assessment and Conservation Planning (Williams, 2008). Ecological settings are portions of the range where snow leopards have a distinct relationship to the prey and ecosystems where they live.

of the range states to develop country-specific action plans. Those action plans highlighted a wide variety of conservation actions for snow leopards, as indicated in Table 48.4.

Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) (2013) In October 2013, representatives of 12 range state nations and a variety of snow leopard conservation and ecosystem protection partner organizations (similar but not identical to the

groups that produced the SLSS 2003 and the SLRAC 2008) met in Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic, to launch a new international effort to save the snow leopard and conserve high-mountain ecosystems (see Chapter 49). This process was aimed at creating a policy framework for snow leopard conservation among range state governments. To that end, an important output of the meeting was the jointly agreed Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards, which acknowledged that snow leopards were

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624

48. Strategies for snow leopard conservation

an irreplaceable symbol of our nation’s natural and cultural heritage and an indicator of the health and sustainability of mountain ecosystems” and recognized that mountain ecosystems inhabited by snow leopards provide “essential ecosystem services, including storing and releasing water..., sustaining pastoral and agricultural livelihoods…; and offering inspiration, recreation, and economic opportunities.

Thus the Bishkek Declaration creates a symbolic relationship between the conservation of snow leopards and the ecosystem services provided by snow leopard habitat (Table 48.2). The Bishkek Declaration was published with an extensive report describing the new program

(Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). At the core of the report is the idea that snow leopards, their wild prey, and their ecosystems form a joint unit for conservation. It goes on to elaborate on the various ecosystem services provided to people in Central and South Asia by this unit, including cultural services, water services, biodiversity, medicine, agro-pastoralism, carbon sequestration and storage, and recreation and economic opportunities. The collected authors argue that “many of the threats to snow leopards and to their prey and ecosystems have the potential to degrade the provisioning of these ecosystem services.”

TABLE 48.5 Overview of National Action Plans (NAP) of snow leopard range countries and summary of elements suggested by IUCN/SSC (2008a,b). ZOPP and LogFrame elements Country

Year

Drafting

SLSS

End

Afghanistan

no NAP available

Bhutan

no NAP available

China

no NAP available

India

2008

Kazakhstan

Vi

Go

Ob

National Committee

+

x

x

x

2013

Snow Leopard Fund

(+)

x

Kyrgyzstan

2013

Unknown

x

Mongolia

2005

Not available

x

Nepal

2013

Draft. & rev. teams



x

x

Pakistan

2008

WWF-Pakistan



x

x

Russia

2012

WWF-Russia



x

Tajikistan

2010

Tajik Acad. Sc., int. NGOs

Uzbekistan

2004

Working Group

Re

Ac

In

Implementation factors Imp

x

TL

Act

x

Bud

x

x

x

x x

x

x x

x

x

x

x

x

 

x

x

x

Year ¼ year of release or endorsement; Drafting ¼ group that developed the NAP; SLSS ¼ Snow Leopard Survival Strategy 2003 (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003) considered; End ¼ formally endorsed by parliament (Mongolia), the government or a ministry; ZOPP and LogFrame elements: Vi ¼ Vision, Go ¼ Goal, Ob ¼ Objectives, Re ¼ Results or Targets, Ac ¼ Actions, In ¼ Indicators; Implementation factors: Imp ¼ Implementation addressed, TL ¼ time line defined, Act ¼ Actors defined, Bud ¼ Budget for implementation outlined. For all range countries, an NSLEP was published as an appendix to the GSLEP (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013), which may partly have superseded the NAP listed here.

VII. The future of snow leopards

Four snow leopard strategies

To address where to conserve snow leopards, the GSLEP described an explicit goal called “20 by 2020,” which states: The goal of GSLEP is for the 12 range countries, with support from interested organizations, to work together to identify and secure 20 snow leopard landscapes across the big cat’s range by 2020.

Secure snow leopard landscapes are defined as those that (a) contain at least 100 breeding age snow leopards conserved with the involvement of local communities, (b) support adequate and secure prey populations, and (c) have functional connectivity to other snow leopard landscapes, some of which cross international boundaries (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). A proposed set of 20 landscapes were described on a map that collectively ensures that the 12 nations that have supported the Bishkek Declaration each have at least 1 area important for snow leopards. Conservation of these areas is described under the slogan: “Secure 20 by 2020” (Table 48.3). Actually securing snow leopard landscapes of course requires actions on the ground (Table 48.4). The Bishkek Declaration recognized this by describing a set of 5 “direct impact activities” and 3 “enabling activities” for snow leopard conservation, namely: 1. engaging local communities in conservation, including promoting sustainable livelihoods, and addressing human–wildlife conflict; 2. managing habitat and prey based upon monitoring and evaluation of populations and range areas; 3. combatting poaching and illegal trade; 4. transboundary management and enforcement; 5. engaging industry; 6. building capacity and enhancing conservation policies and institutions; 7. research and monitoring; and 8. building awareness.

625

These 8 activities were further elaborated in the GSLEP 2013 as a set of “good practices for snow leopard, prey, and habitat conservation” and a further set of activity “portfolios.” National action plans (NAPs) were developed in 9 of the 12 range countries (Snow Leopard Network, 2014). Afghanistan, Bhutan, and China have no NAPs but did develop related plans (see below under NSLELPs). Plans from Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and Tajikistan were developed but not approved by the authority in charge (Snow Leopard Network, 2014). Most NAPs were drafted by a special commission, and the involvement of interest groups and local people was not considered or remained unclear. Only two NAPs refer to the SLSS 2003 as an overarching document. Most plans define objectives and actions, but elements facilitating the monitoring (e.g., results/targets and indicators) or a chapter explaining the implementation— including a time line, responsibilities and a tentative budget—are mostly lacking. A summary of these plans also presented a list of objectives, activities, and a rough budget, and these are presented in Table 48.5. In addition, the Annex to the GSLEP (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013) contained chapters on “National Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Priority” (NSLEP) for each of the 12 range countries. The NSLEPs built on many elements of a NAP, such as habitat assessment, threats, monitoring, research, and institutions involved, with a focus on prioritization.

Snow leopard survival strategy, revised version 2014.1 (SLSS 2014) The Snow Leopard Network, which formed after the first SLSS meeting, published an updated SLSS in 2014. The values for snow leopards were updated with a wider perspective, in keeping with the GSLEP 2013 (see above), which was being developed concurrently (Table 48.2). SLSS 2014 emphasizes the iconic nature of the

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626

48. Strategies for snow leopard conservation

cat and its ecological dependency on prey species and healthy rangelands. This passage is worth quoting in full: The iconic snow leopard is the least known of the ‘big cats’ due to its elusive nature, secretive habits and the remote and challenging terrain it inhabits. As an apex predator, its survival depends on healthy populations of mountain ungulates, the major prey; these in turn depend on the availability of good-quality rangeland minimally degraded by concurrent use from livestock and humans. The snow leopard has a large home range size, so viable populations can be secured only across large landscapes. The snow leopard therefore represents the ideal flagship and umbrella species for the mountain ecosystems of Asia. Snow leopards share their range with pastoral communities who also require healthy rangelands to sustain their livestock and livelihoods. Moreover, these high altitude mountains and plateaus provide invaluable ecosystem services through carbon storage in peat lands and grasslands, and serve as Asia’s ‘water towers’, providing fresh water for hundreds of millions of people living downstream in Central, East and South Asia.

From this basis, SLSS 2014 reiterated the first 3 action-oriented goals of SLSS 2003 for the 2014 revision. The revised SLSS provided updated status assessments for 12 countries and mentioned Myanmar again as a possible range state (Table 48.3). As previously, the approach to snow leopard geography emphasized political boundaries based on range states. SLSS 2014, like its predecessor, included a new review of threats to the species, along with a revised set of action items for each threat (Table 48.4). Chapters were dedicated to explaining and suggesting action-oriented responses to livestock competition, livestock depredation, illegal trade, climate change, and large-scale infrastructure development, including mining, electrical power infrastructure, and linear barriers (e.g., railroads, highways, and fences). A separate chapter titled “conservation actions” focused on community-based conservation efforts to help local people see the presence of wild snow leopards as beneficial or at least neutral. These include handicrafts, savings and credit programs, corral

improvements, livestock insurance, veterinary assistance, ecotourism, education, and awareness raising. Research needs were also revised.

Why conserve snow leopards? All 4 strategies describe a set of broadly shared values for snow leopards, which have evolved over the first decade and a half of the 21st century (Table 48.2). In the SLSS 2003, the values of snow leopard conservation were largely implicit. A group of people who already shared an interest in conservation and feared for the future of the species gathered together to make a strategy for conservation. Their efforts were tactically focused: What does the conservation community know about snow leopards? What are the most important threats and places? How do we cooperate better to save the species? Values and geographies were not expressed explicitly and underlying geo-political issues largely ignored. It is not surprising therefore that the SLRAC 2008 planning meeting attempted to fill gaps in the earlier work by making an explicit value statement through a vision statement, and a more exact description of the geography through a well-established and globally recognized range-wide assessment process. This process carried with it an emphasis on ecological, as opposed to political, geography. The Beijing vision statement asserts the importance of the shared conservation units comprised of snow leopards and their prey and the mountain ecosystems where they live. Multiple instances of these units are desired for conservation across the range, an idea later expressed more generally for all species by Redford et al. (2011). The GSLEP 2013 and SLSS 2014 further build and expand on the idea of a conservation unit by placing snow leopard conservation in the context of ecosystem services. The “reverence” for snow leopards as “assets” in the SLRAC 2008 vision has been complemented by a carefully articulated argument for ecosystem services

VII. The future of snow leopards

Where to conserve snow leopards?

delivered both to people who share snow leopard range and the millions that benefit from mountain “water towers” downstream. Nearly one-third of the world’s current human population draws power, irrigation, industrial waters, and fishery benefits from snow leopard habitat (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). SLSS 2014 represents the leading expression of this concept to date by chaining the ideas together logically. The snow leopards as a predator depend on wild prey (largely grazing and browsing ungulates), which in turn depend on functioning mountain ecosystems. Functioning mountain ecosystems also provide carbon storage, water, and agro-pastoral opportunities for local, often impoverished, communities. It is clear from this logic, as elaborated in the 4 strategies and other chapters of this book, that snow leopards are dependent on functioning mountain ecosystems in Asia. It is perhaps less clear that the ecosystems are dependent on snow leopards as such (see relevant discussion in Ray et al., 2005). No one claims that snow leopards directly provide water or sequester much carbon. What depends on snow leopards in particular are the cultural values of the species, whether we describe these as “cultural services” or “revered assets” or “existence values.” Snow leopards are beautiful, valuable, and iconic in their own right, and they are also symbolic of the beautiful, valuable, iconic ecosystems where they live. They are truly “flagship species” for the vast and extraordinary mountain ranges of Asia.

Where to conserve snow leopards? The strategies express 2 different ways of framing the geography of species conservation: conservation by nation-state or conservation by ecological setting (Table 48.2). Three of the 4 strategies considered here adopt contemporary political geography as the frame for

627

conserving a species that evolved over 2 million years (see Chapter 1). A political perspective dominates because human decision making about conservation is in fact political and state specific; countries do not have a formal influence on what happens beyond their boundaries except through international agreements between sovereign states (such as the Bishkek Declaration). Political cooperation is necessary because snow leopards often inhabit transboundary mountains, where high ridges demarcate polities as well as watersheds. Moreover, cooperation is necessary, across nations and across sectors, because of the limited resources for snow leopard conservation and the immensity of the task require pooling resources together. The main difficulty with politically defined goals for conservation is that they may be hindered by other aspects of the political process that have nothing to do with conservation (Czech et al., 1998; Leader-Williams et al., 2010). Other political priorities may and do intervene, leading to science being sidelined or ignored, and/or limiting participation. The GSLEP 2013 landscapes, for example, identify only a few marginal areas in China, despite the fact that science clearly indicates that broad swaths of China are important snow leopard habitat (Li et al., 2020). No one knows the scientific status of the small corner of potential range in Myanmar where the species might occur, so that country did not participate in the GSLEP process. An ecological lens on snow leopard geography is complementary to a politically oriented system of conservation priorities. Ecological conservation focuses on what makes a particular conservation unit (e.g., snow leopards, prey, and ecosystem characteristics) distinctive in terms consistent with long-term coevolution of the species and other aspects of the ecosystem (Dinerstein et al., 1995; Sanderson et al., 2002). Distinctiveness can be defined in terms of predator-prey relations, habitat use,

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48. Strategies for snow leopard conservation

behavioral differences, or for ecosystems, differences in provisioned ecosystem services (cf. Hidasi-Neto et al., 2015). Once one has integrated the concept of ecological distinctiveness within a species, and mechanisms to define it, then one can also express goals for conservation in terms of the ecology of the species. These logical interconnections are all deeply satisfying to scientifically minded conservationists. For example, in the SLRAC 2008, that expression is a vision to conserve areas important for snow leopards within the 7 major ecological settings defined across the entire potential range of the species. The implicit rationale is that conservation of these areas will conserve snow leopards, evolutionary potential, ecological functionality, and provide the widest possible diversity of ecosystem services. Subsequently, Li et al. (2020) showed how these landscapes can be connected into larger “landscape conservation units” based on connectivity analysis. The disadvantage of the ecological approach to conservation is that no one person or organization has responsibility for snow leopards in, for example, the Himalayas. Cooperation is required. The best of all possible worlds is to find overlap between ecological and political conservation priorities. Comparison of the snow leopard conservation units produced in Beijing and the snow leopard landscapes produced in Bishkek shows that there is substantial overlap, especially through the mountain ranges that ring snow leopard range (Fig. 48.3). There are many more SLRAC snow leopard conservation units (69) than the GSLEP’s “20 by 2020 landscapes,” but the landscapes make up for that by crossing or encompassing multiple conservation units. The only area where there is not substantive agreement is in China, where the GSLEP process analysis shows only 3 landscapes, while the conservation units from the SLRAC 2008 are numerous, varied, and in the case of the Tibetan Plateau, geographically enormous.

How to conserve snow leopards? There is no one way to conserve snow leopards—there are lots of ways (Table 48.4). One might expect a diversity of conservation approaches given the vast geography of the species, encompassing not only many different ecologically and geographically distinct mountain ranges but also many different countries and cultures. The art of the conservation strategies is picking the right approach in the right place and the right time (often in an environment of constrained resources). This not a recipe for choosing whatever seems most expedient but rather tailoring conservation activities for the local context. A wide range of different activities have been suggested about how to conserve snow leopards—a virtual panoply of 21st century conservation strategies—and many of them have been tried in different places, at different times, and by different organizations. Table 48.4 combines the suggested conservation activities from these 4 strategies into a coherent framework. Only 3 approaches to snow leopard conservation are shared across all 4 strategies: local community involvement, capacity building for snow leopard conservation, and improved implementation of treaty obligations (e.g., CITES, CMS) on behalf of signatory snow leopard range states. Fourteen other approaches are endorsed by 3 of the strategies. Detailing these shared approaches is beyond the scope of this chapter, but are discussed in other chapters of this book (e.g., Chapters 17, 18, and 20).

A strategic synthesis Given the evolving expressions of values for snow leopard conservation and the significant overlap in conservation geography among the 4 strategies, the snow leopard conservation community is well placed for a strategic synthesis

VII. The future of snow leopards

A strategic synthesis

629

FIG. 48.3 Geographic overlap between the “20 by 2020 snow leopard landscapes” defined by GSLEP 2013 (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013) and the snow leopard conservation units defined by SLRAC 2008 (Williams, 2008). A snow leopard conservation unit was defined as a Type I if it contains a population of resident snow leopards large enough to be potentially self-sustaining over the next 100 years (note this implies a stable prey base by definition); Type II if it contains fewer snow leopards than Type I (i.e., not self-sustaining for 100 years), but with adequate habitat such that snow leopard numbers could increase if threats were alleviated; or Type III, if snow leopards are definitely extant in the area, but have inadequate habitat or wild prey, or the population is too small or too threatened to be considered viable over the long-term without large investments to reduce threats in the short term (see McCarthy et al., 2016).

(Mishra et al., 2018). Table 48.1 highlights many (but not all) of the nongovernmental organizations working on snow leopard conservation with governments across the range. Table 48.2 shows how the values for snow leopard conservation have evolved over time, to the current emphasis on the cultural values of snow leopards and the ecosystem services of the mountain

ecosystems they represent. Table 48.3 indicates that there are many opportunities for snow leopard conservation, which can be framed in overlapping political and ecological geographies. Table 48.4 suggests there is agreement on a small number of approaches to range-wide conservation (community engagement, capacity building, and international agreements), and many

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other approaches that are recommended across multiple strategies. On the basis of these similarities, we suggest the following vision statement, which draws from the 4 strategies and represents a shared aspirational state of the species in the future: A world where snow leopards and their wild prey thrive in representative healthy mountain ecosystems across snow leopard range and where those snow leopard landscapes provide ecological, economic, aesthetic and cultural benefits to people in the mountains and downstream watersheds.

As a goal, the snow leopard conservationists and range states should commit to: By 2030, to have successfully conserved snow leopard populations with their wild prey in nationally and ecologically representative, healthy mountain landscapes that provide abundant ecosystem services to local and downstream populations.

Expressing the goal in the context of the 4 strategies enables conservation “generals” working in governments, conservation organizations, and civil society to divide and conquer the conservation problem. Terms are now well defined. Everyone agrees that there should be enough snow leopards to ensure long-term population viability of representative populations (see Chapter 3). Moreover, successfully conserved snow leopard wild prey populations should be abundant enough so that snow leopards do not depend on domesticated animals, but can maintain themselves on wild prey alone (see Chapter 4). Successful conservation includes enforced legal protections that prohibit snow leopard hunting and trade (see Chapter 22), and sustainably managed harvest of prey species (see Chapter 20). Successfully conserved healthy mountain landscapes provide ecosystem services such as water provision, carbon sequestration, agro-pastoral opportunities (consonant with snow leopard conservation), and recreational opportunities. Every range state has a part to play, and all ecological settings, as defined in the SLRAC 2008, will receive

conservation effort, which further ensures that the widest range of ecosystem services are provided. Finally, expressing snow leopard conservation in these terms parallels the Redford et al. (2011) definition of successful conservation, which moves the conversation beyond a focus on avoided extinction to a proactive definition of why and where snow leopards must be conserved.

References Akc¸akaya, H.R., Bennett, E.L., Brooks, T.M., Grace, M.K., Heath, A., Hedges, S., Hilton-Taylor, C., Hoffmann, M., Keith, D.A., Long, B., Mallon, D.P., Meijaard, E., Milner-Gulland, E.J., Rodrigues, A.S.L., Rodriguez, J.P., Stephenson, P.J., Stuart, S.N., Young, R.P., 2018. Quantifying species recovery and conservation success to develop an IUCN Green List of Species. Conserv. Biol. 32, 1128–1138. Ale, S.B., Mishra, C., 2018. The snow leopard’s questionable comeback. Science 359, 1110. Baillie, J., Groombridge, B. (Eds.), 1996. 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland. Blomqvist, L., 1978a. First report on the snow leopard studbook, Panthera uncia, and 1976 world register. Int. Zoo Yearbook 18, 227–231. Blomqvist, L., 1978b. First international snow leopard conference in Helsinki, 7th–8th March 1978. Int. Zoo News 25 (5), 5–6. Blomqvist, L. (Ed.), 1984. International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Panthera uncia. Vol. 4. Helsinki Zoo, Helsinki. Blomqvist, L. (Ed.), 1990. International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Panthera uncia. Vol. 6. Helsinki Zoo, Helsinki. Czech, B., Krausman, P.R., Borkhataria, R., 1998. Social construction, political power, and the allocation of benefits to endangered species. Conserv. Biol. 12, 1103–1112. Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E., Robinson, J.G., Karanth, K.U., Rabinowitz, A.R., Olson, D.M., Matthew, T., Hedao, P., Connor, M., 1995. A framework for identifying high priority areas and actions for the conservation of tigers in the wild. World Wildlife Fund-US, Wildlife Conservation Society, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation’s Save the Tiger Fund, Washington, DC. Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C., Wikramanayake, E., Ginsberg, J., Sanderson, E., Seidensticker, J., Forrest, J., Bryia, G., Heydlauff, A., Klenzendorf, S., Leimbruber, P., Mills, J., O’Brien, T.G., Shrestha, M., Simons, R., Songer, M., 2007. The fate of wild tigers. Bioscience 57, 508–514.

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to successfully conserve a (vertebrate) species? Bioscience 61, 39–48. Sanderson, E.W., 2006. How many animals do we want to save?: the many ways of setting population target levels for animals. Bioscience 57, 911–922. Sanderson, E.W., Redford, K.H., Chetkiewicz, C.-L.B., Medellin, R.A., Rabinowitz, A.R., Robinson, J.G., Taber, A.B., 2002. Planning to save a species: the jaguar as a model. Conserv. Biol. 16, 58–72. Sanderson, E., Forrest, J., Loucks, C., Ginsberg, J., Dinerstein, E., Seidensticker, J., Leimgruber, P., Songer, M., Heydlauff, A., O’Brien, T., Bryja, G., Klenzendorf, S., Wikramanayake, E., 2006. Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: 2005–2015. The Technical Assessment. National Fish and Wildlife Foundation - Save the Tiger Fund, Wildlife Conservation Society and World Wildlife Fund - US, Washington, DC. Snow Leopard Network, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Revised Version 2014.1. Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, WA.

Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program: A New International Effort to Save the Snow Leopard and Conserve High-Mountain Ecosystems. Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic, Snow Leopard Working Secretariat. Suryawanshi, K., Reddy, A., Sharma, M., Khanyari, M., Bijoor, A., Rathore, D., Jaggi, H., Khara, A., Malgaonkar, A., Ghoshal, A., Patel, J., Mishra, C., 2021. Estimating snow leopard and prey populations at large spatial scales. Ecol. Sol. Evid. 2, e12115. Thesarus Linguae Graecae, 2011. στρατηγία. The Thesarus Linguae Graecae Project, Irvine, CA. Available from: http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/lsj/#eid¼99950& context¼search. (Accessed 6 March 2015). Tzu, S., 2007. The Art of War. Filiquarian, Minneapolis, MN. Williams, N., 2008. International conference on range-wide Conservation planning for snow leopards: saving the species across its range. Cat News 48, 33–34.

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C H A P T E R

49 The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program Koustubh Sharmaa, Justine Shanti Alexanderb, Andrew Zakharenkac, Chyngyz Kochorova, Brad Rutherfordd, Keshav Varmae, Anand Sethf, Andrey Kushlinf, Susan Lumpkinf, John Seidenstickerg, Bruno Laporteh, Boris Tichomirowi, Rodney M. Jacksonj, Charudutt Mishrab, Bakhtiyar Abdievk, Abdul Wali Modaqiql, Sonam Wangchukm, Zhang Zhongtiann, Shakti Kant Khandurio, Bakytbek Duisekeyevp, Batbold Dorjgurkhemq, Megh Bahadur Pandeyr, Syed Mahmood Nasirs, Muhammad Ali Nawazt, Irina Fominykhu, Nurali Saidovv, Nodirjon Yunusovw, and Ranjini Muralia,b a

GSLEP Secretariat, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic bSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, WA, United States Global Tiger Initiative Secretariat, World Bank, Washington, DC, United States dSeattle Aquarium, Seattle, WA, United States eGlobal Tiger Initiative, New Delhi, India fGlobal Tiger Initiative, Washington, DC, United States gSmithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States hLeadership, Knowledge, Learning, LLC, Washington, DC, United States iNature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU), Berlin, Germany jSnow Leopard Conservancy, Sonoma, CA, United States kState Agency on Environment Protection and Forestry, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic lNational Environmental Protection Agency, Kabul, Afghanistan mMinistry of Agriculture & Forest, Thimpu, Bhutan nDepartment of International Cooperation, State Forestry Administration, Beijing, China o Inspector General of Forests (Wildlife), Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, India p Wildlife Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Astana, Kazakhstan qInternational Cooperation Division, Ministry of Environment and Green Development, Ulaanbaatar, Moingolia rDepartment of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal c

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Inspector General (Forests), Ministry of Climate Change, Islamabad, Pakistan tQuaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan uDepartment of International Cooperation, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Moscow, Russian Federation vState Agency of Natural Protected Areas, Dushanbe, Tajikistan wInternational Relations Department, State Committee for Nature Protection, Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Genesis: How the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program was formed The snow leopard (Panthera uncia), an elusive denizen of the mountains of Central and South Asia, inhabits 12 countries. Inhabiting an estimated 1.8 million km2 of area at elevations ranging from 540 to over 5000 m, snow leopards share landscapes with people who depend on various traditional forms of agro-pastoralism. The snow leopard holds cultural, ecological, and economic significance as a symbol of healthy mountain ecosystems and the communities living there, yet this cat is threatened by extinction.

Value of the snow leopard and its landscapes Snow leopard landscapes provide an invaluable array of nature’s contributions to people including ecosystem services for both people living in these landscapes as well as downstream. They are home to a unique, rich, and diverse biodiversity assemblage that underpin all ecosystem services. For example, in India alone, snow leopard habitat supports 350 species of mammals and 1200 species of birds while the Altai mountains support nearly 4000 species of plants, 143 species of mammals, and 425 species of birds (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). Local communities in these landscapes rely on provisioning services such as water for household and agricultural purposes, fuel wood, forage, medicinal plants, and natural material for housing (Murali et al., 2017a,b; Saeed et al., 2022). An economic

valuation of the provisioning services used by pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in these landscapes was estimated to be as high as 38 times their annual household income (Murali et al., 2020). Snow leopard landscapes provide water to communities living downstream and are reported to support almost one-third of the human population. Himalayan glaciers are the headwaters of 10 major river systems in Asia that maintain fisheries, support industry, and irrigate farmland (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). These landscapes also provide important regulating services such as services that underpin crop and livestock production, pest control, pollination, accumulate precipitation, and regulate seasonal runoff. They are storehouses of important genetic diversity, including of commercially important plants and animals housing more than 335 species of wild relatives of cultivated and wild relatives of all major domesticated livestock—cattle, horses, sheep, and goats (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). They are important for carbon storage and sequestration. For instance, carbon storage across snow leopard range in China equates to up to 14 gigatonnes of carbon, equivalent to almost half of the carbon stored in the forests of Asia (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013). Snow leopard landscapes are home to a number of indigenous and local communities, who derive numerous benefits from nature that directly contribute to their identity, culture, traditions, and rituals (Tsering, 2018; Sonam et al., 2022). There are different unique religions practiced across the range, such as Tibetan Buddhism, which incorporate different elements of

VII. The future of snow leopards

Framework: Key principles, structure, and approaches of the GSLEP

the landscape in their religious practices. Sacred spaces across the region are abundant, including sacred water sources and mountains (Murali et al., 2017a,b). Snow leopards, in particular, hold an iconic representation of these areas and are featured in the coats of arms and other symbols of certain nations and cities within the snow leopard range (Murali et al., 2017a). Local communities have developed traditional governance systems to manage crops, pasturelands, and water resources based on ancestral and placebased knowledge (Murali et al., 2021, 2022).

A new approach to snow leopard conservation Early in 2011, the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic began spearheading an initiative that would comprehensively address high-mountain environmental issues using the conservation of snow leopards as a flagship. The initiative received support from the then President who endorsed a proposal from Germany’s Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU) to host a Global Forum on snow leopard conservation in Bishkek. This endorsement was further backed by Germany’s Chancellor Angela Merkel in August 2011. In February 2012, the subsequent President of the Kyrgyz Republic solicited support for this initiative from the World Bank, asking then-President to help replicate the effort of the Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) for the conservation of the snow leopard. In response to the President’s request, the GTI’s Secretariat at the World Bank, in technical partnership with the Snow Leopard Trust (SLT) and NABU, provided support and guidance to develop a comprehensive program called the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP). This program aimed to involve all 12 snow leopard range countries. Subsequently, the snow leopard range countries, with many partners, held a series of meetings and worked intensively to develop individual National Snow Leopard and Ecosystem

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Protection Priorities (NSLEPs). These NSLEPs are the core of the GSLEP. In addition, the international community developed Global Support Components (GSC) to provide assistance in cases where issues extend beyond national boundaries and go beyond the capacity of any one country to address alone. These components are also integral to the GSLEP. During the development of the GSLEP, the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic prepared to host leaders in the governments of the snow leopard range countries at the first Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum. At that Forum, held on October 22–23, 2013, the government leaders issued the Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards, and unanimously endorsed the GSLEP as the road map for achieving the Declaration’s goal. The Declaration provided a blueprint for the key priorities and approaches to ensure conservation of snow leopards and their unique habitat.

Framework: Key principles, structure, and approaches of the GSLEP In this section, we explore the framework of the new approach that snow leopard range countries are taking.

Experience of the Global Tiger Initiative The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program emerged following the principles experience of the GTI and its approach of building collective engagement and actions around the tiger conservation challenges (GTRP, 2010). National governments leading the efforts The snow leopard range countries own the GSLEP. Its operations are reviewed and guided by a Steering Committee, represented by Environment Ministers from all 12 snow leopard range countries who meet periodically. The

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involvement and cooperation of national governments at high levels is essential because often the threats to snow leopards and their habitats originate either outside national boundaries or are beyond the regular influence of environment ministries and agencies. For instance, curbing demand for snow leopard’s body parts and products is a regional and global economic issue; addressing organized wildlife crime requires the involvement of national and regional law enforcement agencies; planning environmentally friendly large infrastructure projects that take into account habitat connectivity involves mining, oil and gas, and transport agencies. The Steering Committee, with inputs from different working groups of subject experts assists the countries to deliver the goals of the Bishkek Declaration, implements range-wide programs bringing various players together to work on the multisectoral challenges of conservation and development and share information to review progress.

Mutual accountability of 12 snow leopard range countries and partners The GSLEP encourages mutual accountability among the range country governments and partners. It facilitates all governments on a single platform, enabling conditions for mutual respect and consensus-based decision making and evaluation of activities. This has enabled the governments to open up a platform of collaboration and trust required for dealing with both sovereign and shared issues. With initial support from the GTI, the GSLEP Secretariat played an important role in facilitating these relationships, providing general services of support, coordination, collating working materials, and maintaining communication with and among the governments and partners with the support leadership from countries creates an opportunity to develop robust, appropriate and respectable solutions

to long-term challenges. After SLT, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and Global Environment Facility (GEF), other partners who have provided support intermittently include NABU, United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF.)

Good practices and knowledge exchange taken to scale The GSLEP has served the role of a knowledge hub enabling exchange of best practices as well as scaling up of knowledge required to achieve the broader GSLEP goals. Whether it is the Population Assessment of the World’s Snow leopards (PAWS), or capacity building for community-led conservation, the GSLEP has played an important role in coordinating expertise while aligning it with the global support components and countries’ NSLEPs. The comprehensive list of good practices for snow leopard conservation, created by May 2013, contained 24 good practices grouped into six broader themes and was used for developing and scaling up the portfolio of national and global support activities of the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013).

Preparation stage and milestones of the GSLEP and the Global Forum on snow leopard conservation The envisioned high-level forum required preparation of a robust program document that would outline effective responses to the challenge of conserving and recovering the snow leopard and its habitats. Moreover, with the range of the snow leopard spanning 12 countries with different histories, cultures, and political systems, and no previous experience of

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Preparation stage and milestones of the GSLEP and the Global Forum on snow leopard conservation

range-wide collaboration of such scale, it was essential to first build a coalition among the governments and technical partners. Early on, an Approach Paper was developed to prepare the national priorities and the global program itself. It was first discussed with the core group and then later shared with the governments to capture their concerns and establish ownership of the program, agree on a common approach and structure of national and global components, describe the context and the process, the steps and associated timelines, as well as the proposed outlines of the NSLEPs and GSLEP. Most important, it served as an agreed-upon quality measure of each of the 12 NSLEPs, their standardized and rich structure and content to follow. To ensure full attendance at the meetings and proceedings, Government representatives have always been fully sponsored. Each meeting is preceded by “structured preparation including an agenda, thematic priorities and expected outcomes in the form of a declaration, resolution or joint statement.” To establish a line of communication with the governments to ensure ownership and quality outputs, countries were requested to nominate National Focal Points. These National Focal Points would typically be high-ranking government officials working at the Environment Ministry or its equivalent State Agency. Initially, a formal group of governmental officials was established in each range country at two levels: the Minister or Director of the agency responsible for setting the national snow leopard conservation agenda; and the National Focal Point responsible for keeping track of communications among the Secretariat, national governmental agencies, and partners. In addition, several NGO and multilateral agencies’ representatives played important roles in supporting country governments with their deliverables. Maintaining two-way communication between the Secretariat and the National Focal

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Points helped establish trusting working relationships and build connectivity with thematic experts as and when required. Initially, to ensure that range governments’ take collective responsibility for developing their own national programs, the GSLEP Secretariat shared forms, templates, inputs, experiences, and practices across boundaries, with a few countries. This allowed development of exemplary-quality forms that were subsequently shared with the rest of the countries and allowed regular group communications with each country. Subsequently, during each Steering Committee Meeting, a thematic country update form is shared with the National Focal Points who share the work being done in the country through a presentation or a virtual kiosk set up online, and subsequently published as the periodic country update document. The deliberations and results of each meeting are captured in a summary report and shared with all participants. Working materials are also shared among the participants along with drafts of joint outputs. Each meeting is followed by identification of 5 key next steps and responsible entities for their completion by the agreed deadlines.

Bishkek working meeting, December 2012 The first meeting of representatives of all snow leopard range country governments was hosted by the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic in Bishkek during December 1–3, 2012. It was co-organized and co-sponsored by SLT Snow Leopard Network (SLN), NABU, and the World Bank/GTI. Its objectives were multiple: to consolidate the leadership of the range countries’ governments, articulate the benefits and value of the snow leopard and its ecosystems, attempt to define concrete national and global goals of the future program, share proven good practices, invite and engage industry and donors, and agree on specific actions that both governments and partners would have to accomplish

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between the end of the workshop and the proposed forum. Outcomes were rich and diverse. Countries presented early thinking on their national priorities and actions, and shared experience and concerns. The Bishkek Recommendations on the Conservation of Snow Leopards and Their HighMountain Ecosystems were prepared and adopted during the workshop. The recommendations became the first document collectively developed and owned by the governments of snow leopard range countries. The path to the Global Forum was discussed at length and steps forward were identified and agreed upon, including mobilizing political support, defining national priorities and the global snow leopard conservation agenda, and enhancing partner support. A short list of specific near-term tasks were also agreed on.

Bangkok planning workshop, March 2013 The next meeting was held, together with the tiger range countries, on the invitation of the Government of Thailand in Bangkok on March 9, 2013. Its objective was to assist countries with preparation of the 2013 Global Forum through a collaborative review and discussion of the “zero-draft” versions of their NSLEPs and making further improvements to ensure the consistency of the NSLEPs as the building blocks of the proposed GSLEP. Such a meeting and face-to-face discussion of the challenges and ways to overcome them was necessary to help each country complete its full draft NSLEP by the end of April 2013, as required by the Forum preparation timeline. This was achieved through developing and sharing a 9-point reference document explaining what a high-quality NSLEP would look like. It was also agreed that key documents needed for the Global Forum would include highquality NSLEPs, the GSLEP, and the

Declaration. Teams were also identified to make it happen, including the National Focal Points, technical Country Support Teams of experts, the Secretariat in Bishkek, and the Global Support Team. It was agreed that NSLEPs would be revised and final drafts will be ready by the beginning of May 2013 and that a Pre-Forum Drafting Meeting would be held in Moscow in mid-May.

Beijing international workshop on snow leopard conservation in China, May 2013 Hosted by the State Forestry Administration of the People’s Republic of China and the Wildlife Institute at Beijing Forestry University, the workshop was held in Beijing on May 26–27, 2013, this workshop was supported by the World Bank and GTI, SLT, and other organizations. The goal of this workshop was to coordinate preparation of the provincial programs on the conservation of the snow leopard and its ecosystems, review inputs into the China’s NSLEP, and to identify China’s leading positions in regional and global processes related to snow leopard conservation. China, being home to more than half of the snow leopard’s global range and population, required more detailed attention to the NSLEP preparation at the national and province levels. The workshop brought together officials of forestry administrations from seven provinces: Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Inner Mongolia, and Yunnan. Each of the provinces shared its experience in snow leopard conservation and China’s draft NSLEP was revised and finalized based on these inputs.

Moscow preforum drafting meeting of senior officials, May 2013 The purpose of the Moscow meeting on 29–30 May was to review and finalize the

VII. The future of snow leopards

The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program

drafts of key inputs for the Forum; discuss and agree on the final draft of the Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards and their Ecosystems; present and finalize in good quality all 12 NSLEPs; and review building blocks of the GSLEP. This was the final face-to-face meeting before the Forum, which was scheduled for October 2013. Step by step, the quality of the NSLEPs had improved. Each country received an individual score card and specific suggestions to improve its NSLEPs, identifying lead countries in describing each of the components. The outline of the GSLEP, which was envisioned not to be a simple summation of the NSLEPs but rather a new document inspired by them, and the Global Drafting Team were introduced too. By the time of the Moscow meeting, trusting working relationships had been developed among the teams. After half-day deliberations and overnight work by the drafting team, the consensus draft of the Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards emerged on May 29, 2013.

Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum, Bishkek, October 22–23, 2013 The Forum led by the President of Kyrgyz Republic was possible thanks to the leadership of the Kyrgyz Republic and the World Bank that helped to convene the key players, the active engagement of range country representatives, the support and experience of the GTI and NABU teams, and immeasurable support from key donors and partners such as GEF, Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC), SLN, SLT, UNDP, USAID, and WWF. After fine-tuning its language, the range country leaders issued the Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards and endorsed the GSLEP as the road map for achieving its overarching goal.

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The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program This section describes the GSLEP itself—its goal, the national priorities, global support components, factors for success, mechanism for GSLEP implementation and financing, and the expected outputs and enabling conditions. The GSLEP seeks to address high-altitude mountain issues using the conservation of the charismatic and endangered snow leopard as a flagship. The GSLEP is a range-wide effort that unites rangecountry governments, nongovernmental and intergovernmental organizations, local communities, and the private sector around a shared vision to conserve snow leopards and their valuable high-mountain ecosystems.

The common goal The snow leopard range countries and partners unanimously agreed to the shared goal of the GSLEP for the first 7 years through 2020 (Table 49.1). As stated in the Bishkek Declaration, The snow leopard range countries agree, with support from interested organizations, to work together to identify and secure at least 20 snow leopard landscapes across the cat’s range by 2020 or, in shorthand – “Secure 20 by 2020.” Secure snow leopard landscapes are defined as those that contain at least 100 breeding-age snow leopards conserved with the involvement of local communities, support adequate and secure prey populations, and have functional connectivity to other snow leopard landscapes, some of which cross international boundaries. “Secure 20 by 2020” will lay the foundation to reach the ultimate goal: ensuring that snow leopards remain the living icon of mountains of Asia for generations to come.

NSLEPs and global support components The foundation of the GSLEP is 12 individual NSLEPs. Each NSLEP incorporates a set of priority, concrete project activities to be implemented

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TABLE 49.1

Snow leopard conservation landscapes.

Country

Landscape

Area in km2

Afghanistan

Wakhan National Park

10,951

Bhutan

Snow Leopard Habitat

12,110

China

Qilian Mountains

13,600

Tianshan Mountains

2376

Pamirs

15,000

Hemis-Spiti

29,000

Nanda Devi—Gangotri

12,000

Kanchendzonga-Tawang

5630

Zhetysu Alatau (Jungar Alatau)

16,008

Northern Tien Shan

23,426

Kyrgyzstan

Sarychat

13,201

Mongolia

Altai

56,000

South Gobi

82,000

North Altai

72,000

Eastern

9674

Central Complex

9258

Western

10,436

Hindu Kush

10,541

Pamir

25,498

Himalaya

4659

Russia

Altai

48,000

Tajikistan

Pamir

92,000

Uzbekistan

West Tien Shan

17,000

Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan

Alai—Gissar

30,000

India

Kazakhstan

Nepal

Pakistan

to meet national goals and, collectively, the overarching global goal. The NSLEPs are buttressed by five Global Support Components (GSC) prepared by international organizations to address issues that transcend national boundaries and go beyond the capacity of any one country to address alone. The GSC aim to support and assist the range

countries, as needed, in the areas of wildlife law enforcement; knowledge sharing; transboundary cooperation; engaging with industry; and research and monitoring. The activities of the countries and the international community are grouped under broad themes that correspond to the commitments of the Bishkek Declaration:

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• • • • • • • •

Engaging local communities in conservation; Managing habitats and prey; Combating poaching and illegal trade; Transboundary management and enforcement; Engaging industry; Research and monitoring; Building capacity and enhancing conservation policies and institutions; and Building awareness.

The first five are direct impact activities; the last three are enabling ones to create conditions for successfully performing or improving the direct impact activities. Together, the portfolio of national activities, supported by the GSC, will move the countries toward their national and global goals.

Success factors The GSLEP represents the first-ever comprehensive, coordinated effort to conserve snow leopards and their mountain habitats, moving from isolated interventions to collective impact initiatives that unify the efforts of countries and the global conservation community to achieve a shared vision and goal. The success of the GSLEP implementation depends on scaling up known and tested key actions and good practices, which will require incremental domestic and external financing of about USD 150–250 million over the first 7 years of the program. Successful GSLEP implementation is being shaped by political support and joint collective actions by partner organizations. The GSLEP provides for regular information sharing, coordinated by a country-led Secretariat, to maintain momentum and high-level attention to progress toward the goal. Regular coordination and information sharing will also enable countries, partners, and donors to fine-tune their efforts to reflect changing circumstances and new knowledge. With about 90% of the program costs in national activities and most range

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countries reporting gaps in policy and institutional capacity, successful implementation of the program will require substantial political will, leadership, vision, and knowledge sharing to create effective institutional arrangements for national implementation, monitoring, and reporting purposes. Options for financing the program will vary by range country but include official bilateral programs; multilateral development bank programs; Global Environment Fund programs; inter- and nongovernmental organizations; private sector social responsibility programs; and various forms of payment for ecosystem services schemes. A Secretariat has been established in Bishkek with national and international staff to coordinate the activities of the countries and the international community and to help coordinate program implementation and use of funding.

Outputs and enabling conditions The outputs of the GSLEP implementation are designed to generate both enabling conditions for boosting protection and conservation efforts as well as to produce tangible results toward the common goal. Based on the national and global portfolios of activities, the following anticipated outcomes or expected areas of impact will contribute toward the program’s goal; their estimated costs and share of the total costs of each outcome are also shown. 1. Engaging local communities and reducing human-wildlife conflict—USD 16.0m/9% • Reduction in livestock predation and mortality, decreased killing of snow leopards and prey. • Snow leopard numbers maintained or increased to form viable populations. 2. Controlling poaching of snow leopards and prey—USD 41.4m/24% • Threats halted; populations of snow leopard and prey increased.

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3. Managing habitat and prey—USD 50.3m/30% • Extent of habitats protection, management, and connectivity documented and increased. • Gene flow between populations maintained or restored. • Prey numbers maintained or increased to support viable snow leopard populations. 4. Transboundary management and enforcement—USD 4.6m/2% • Reduced degradation of transboundary landscapes and poaching and smuggling of snow leopard and prey and their products. • Increased capacity for and better transboundary coordination. 5. Engaging Industry—USD 7.2m/4% • Piloted approaches for mining and other industry involvement toward joint planning and conservation of snow leopard landscapes. 6. Research and Monitoring—USD 33.7m/18% • Major knowledge gaps studied; range, key reproduction sites, existing and potential connecting corridors for snow leopard populations identified and incorporated into landscape-level planning. • Setting of baselines to track progress and effectiveness of conservation programs. • Adaptive management of conservation programs, identification of priority areas for protection. 7. Strengthening policies and institutions and strengthening capacity of national & local institutions—USD 21m/7% • Strengthened policy and institutional environment as well as law enforcement and PA management, community-based conservation, and industry participation in landscape management. • Highly trained and equipped conservation practitioners; restructured roles and responsibilities among agencies; increased funding for snow leopard conservation.

8. Awareness and communication—USD 2.6m/1% • General public and target groups better equipped with knowledge about snow leopard ecosystems and values associated with them. • Greater political and financial support for snow leopard and ecosystem conservation.

GSLEP launch, implementation, and information sharing Following the Forum, the range countries met again at the Issyk-Kul Action Planning, Leadership and Capacity Development Global Workshop in the Kyrgyz Republic. The purpose was to (i) identify a minimum of 20 Snow Leopard Landscapes in which to achieve the GSLEP’s “Secure 20 by 2020” goal, (ii) define National Priority Activities (NPAs) and Global Priority Activities (GPAs) for the first 2-year implementation plan, (iii) agree on an approach for developing key performance indicators to measure progress toward the GSLEP goal and advance preparation of specific project proposals to funding partners, and (iv) enhance the capacity of the National Focal Points and Working Secretariat staff.

Making the common goal a reality The GSLEP is benefitting the 12 snow leopard range countries, and the 24 snow leopard landscapes identified by the country governments for enhanced protection and sustainable development, encompassing c.500,000 km2 of snow leopard habitat (c.28% of the estimated global snow leopard range). The actions of individual countries are helping nearly 400 local communities living in and around 10 landscapes where on-ground projects are already being implemented.

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Impacts

Some of the notable achievements of the GSLEP so far include: • More than 140,000 km2 of snow leopard habitat spread across eight countries have so far been brought under enhanced protection. According to recent reports provided by range country governments, approximately 400 local communities are benefitting from community-based conservation and conflict management, livelihood augmentation, and capacity building programs. • Multiple toolkits have been created to improve the practice of conservation, monitor snow leopard distribution/ abundance and associated biodiversity, conduct valuation of ecosystem services and improve communications, and awareness and education about snow leopard conservation issues. More than 200 conservation practitioners from 19 countries have been trained in implementing best practices in community-based conservation. More than 400 practitioners from 22 countries have been trained in scientifically robust estimation techniques of snow leopard distribution and abundance. • Trainings and incentive programs for frontline staff have been developed and implemented to combat illegal wildlife trade and poaching. In total, more than 400 rangers are being engaged in training and capacitybuilding programs across the landscapes for monitoring and SMART patrolling. About 50 frontline staff have been trained in wildlife crime scene investigation in collaboration with INTERPOL, and about 70 citizens and rangers have so far been honored for their outstanding protection efforts. • An illegal wildlife crime database related to snow leopards has been established, containing information about incidences of illegal trade of snow leopards globally. Over time, this will allow for better monitoring and assessments of spatial and temporal trends in poaching and illegal wildlife trade.

• Strong community of agency ministers and National Focal Points has been cultivated, representing governments of the snow leopard range countries and technical partner organizations. They have met seven times since 2013 to take stock of the threats, ongoing activities and to plan future strategies. • Management plans have been developed for snow leopard landscapes in Afghanistan, Bhutan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, and Pakistan through a process that involved collaborative consultations and scientific analyses. • Engagement with the private sector has been initiated through a green investment forum and round-table meetings and development of business proposals founded on nature conservation. • Policy advisories on 11 relevant themes have been developed in order to inform better policies and management. • Initiation of the first scientifically robust estimation of wild snow leopard population across Asia (see Chapter 34). So far, more than 100 sites have been sampled using the statistically robust toolkit developed for this effort. • Development, and subsequent funding of seven projects at national levels from GEF to support NSLEPs in Afghanistan, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. According to reports from the countries, these projects, in addition to enhanced protection, are assisting c.100,000 households from at least 400 local communities.

Impacts Nearly 400 communities from snow leopard range countries are reported to either already be benefitting from on-going projects or are

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proposed as beneficiaries in the management plans developed and approved by the range country governments. These projects and management plans, broadly developed to support the NSLEPs of the snow leopard range countries, are being implemented or are in the initial stages of getting financial support for implementation. Various initiatives are being implemented on ground such as predator-proofing of livestock corrals, improving herding practices, insurance and/ or compensation for livestock losses to wild predators, livestock vaccination, training programs, and supporting livelihood enhancement programs including eco-tourism, sewing, bee-keeping, and handicraft development for national and international markets. Training, equipment support, and rewards are encouraging frontline staff to improve snow leopard protection and monitoring. The ongoing projects are estimated to be improving the capacity of nearly 500 frontline staff. The projects target representatives of the local communities equitably and pay specific attention to engaging women in conservation efforts. Recent data from Pakistan, for example, suggest that the program is benefitting is 58,800 men and 61,200 women from the local communities so far. Most communities in the snow leopard range are heavily reliant on ecosystem services for their livelihoods. Our research shows the value of just the provisioning ecosystem services to be 3.6–38 times the per household income for local communities, indicating the level of economic support to local communities that the conservation of these landscapes will sustain. Actual community-based conservation programs are helping augment incomes, offset losses incurred from negative interactions with wildlife and build resilience by diversifying sources of income. By scaling up best practices from community-based conservation programs, the GSLEP has resulted in economically

benefitting c. 400 local communities across snow leopard range. More recently, naturebased livelihood opportunities are being explored under the program to strengthen resilience against climate-change-induced uncertainties and incentivize conservation of wildlife and natural ecosystems. A Green Investment Forum and round-table conference bringing together business leaders, local entrepreneurs, and ecologists helped initiate preliminary efforts toward sustainable economic development models in the snow leopard habitats. The Bishkek Declarations and the GSLEP strategy document advocate community-based approaches for conserving snow leopards. Such approaches are typically implemented using the SLTs PARTNERS Principles (Mishra et al., 2017) for community-based conservation, which in turn ensure that the conservation initiatives in each landscape are culturally appropriate. The landscape-based approach for snow leopard conservation has also brought culturally valuable sites under enhanced protection. The conservation education strategy developed and disseminated by the GSLEP in collaboration with the SLT and other partners promotes contextualization of the education materials to reflect the local ecology and culture by drawing on local indigenous knowledge and cultural values. The GSLEP has provided a platform for regular dialogue and cooperation among snow leopard range country Governments. NGOs and multilateral agencies are collaborating to help with scaling up of best practices in research and conservation from the region.

Leadership and collective engagement The success of the GSLEP is due to a large extent to the engagement of leaders and champions who have escorted the process since the beginning. The leadership of the Kyrgyz

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Government in particular has been key to launching this initiative. They were able to call the attention of the global community to the plight of snow leopards and to mobilize the leadership of the 12 range countries. In addition to the high-level leadership that has created political space, champions have emerged throughout the process. Coalitions of change agents are starting to form and are driving the changes that are called for in each of countries and snow leopard landscapes. A workshop in June 2014 placed focus on how to develop effective leadership teams to support national institutional arrangements for GSLEP implementation. Participants engaged in a series of collaborative exercises to equip the Secretariat and National Focal Points with a set of tools and insights to help understand the complexity of the biodiversity and conservation challenges they face on the ground, and to use that understanding to develop more targeted and robust national action plans and global priority actions.

GSLEP Steering Committee The first ministerial-level meeting of the Steering Committee took place during March 19–20, 2015 in Village Koi Tash in the Kyrgyz Tien Shan Mountains. The Steering Committee unanimously elected the Honorable Minister of Climate Change from Pakistan as the Chair and the Director of State Agency on Environment and Forestry Protection of the Kyrgyz Republic as its co-chair for the next 2 years. The meeting was attended by senior officials and representatives of the Governments of 11 range countries, alongside international and national organizations. The meeting resulted in formal adoption of the resolution establishing the Steering Committee membership, roles, and operational guidelines. The Steering Committee includes the

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environment ministers of all snow leopard range countries. The six major contributing partners including GEF, GTI, NABU, SLT, UNDP, and WWF were considered as observer members of the Steering Committee to be reviewed and voted on again by the range country governments after 2 years. Management planning guidelines, jointly developed by a working group of National Focal Points and international experts, were released during the meeting. The management plans will contain a situation analysis, including current and projected threats to the snow leopards and their ecosystems within the landscape, and provide direction to securing these as per the definitions agreed upon by range countries during the June 2014 meeting. The SLT and WWF offered a small grant for each range country as matching funds to develop the management plans by the end of 2015. The Steering Committee has met seven times since 2015, and the Chairmanship has transferred from Pakistan to Nepal, and now Bhutan. During the COVID pandemic, the Steering Committee Meeting was organized on a virtual platform using state of the art tools that allowed seamless interactions and information sharing.

Vision and next steps New partnerships have been forged with multilateral agencies such as UNEP, and existing partnerships strengthened with organizations such as GEF, GEF Small Grants Program, and UNDP. The SLT has constantly fundraised and provided technical support to continue the implementation of the GSLEP and the functioning of the GSLEP Secretariat. Other partners continue to provide technical and financial support through on-going or upcoming projects. Future success of the GSLEP implementation depends on the collective leadership of all 12 snow leopard countries and various organizations involved in GSLEP implementation.

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Sustaining such collective leadership requires coherent and continuous work of key players toward conserving snow leopards in perpetuity. Political attention from heads of states is necessary to ensure leadership and a cross-sectoral approach to conservation. Supporting such political space for the GSLEP implementation creates momentum and eases coordination of national agencies dealing with environment, law enforcement, agriculture, transport, mining and energy. Effective guidance by the Steering Committee and coordination by the Secretariat is required for the 12-country program. Program coordination will be determined by the Secretariat’s capacity to ensure regular meetings of all range countries and program partners to drive the implementation agenda forward. Short-term action planning based on Steering Committee guidance and proven good practices will ensure continuous sharpening of the implementation agenda. Twelve sets of NPAs and GPAs comprising the first Two-Year Implementation Plan are the first step forward.

References GTRP, 2010. Global Tiger Recovery Program. Washington, DC, USA, Global Tiger Initiative Secretariat, The World Bank. Mishra, C., Young, J.C., Fiechter, M., Rutherford, B., Redpath, S.M., 2017. Building partnerships with communities for biodiversity conservation: lessons from Asian mountains. J. Appl. Ecol. 54, 1583–1591. Murali, R., Lkhagvajav, P., Saeed, U., Kizi, V.A., ZhumbaiUulu, K., Nawaz, M.A., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Sharma, K., Mishra, C., 2017a. Valuation of Ecosystem Services in

Snow Leopard Landscapes of Asia. Snow Leopard Trust, Nature Conservation Foundation, Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation, Snow Leopard Foundation Kyrgyzstan, and Snow Leopard Foundation Pakistan. Report Submitted to the Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded United Nations Development Program (UNDP) project on Transboundary Cooperation for Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Conservation. Murali, R., Redpath, S., Mishra, C., 2017b. The value of ecosystem services in the high altitude Spiti Valley, Indian Trans-Himalaya. Ecosyst.Serv. 28, 115–123. Murali, R., Ikhagvajav, P., Amankul, V., Jumabay, K., Sharma, K., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Suryawanshi, K., Mishra, C., 2020. Ecosystem service dependence in livestock and crop-based production systems in Asia’s high mountains. J. Arid Environ. 180, 104204. Murali, R., Bijoor, A., Mishra, C., 2021. Gender and the commons: water management in Trans-Himalayan spiti valley, India. Ecol. Econ. Soc. INSEE J. 4, 113–122. Murali, R., Bijoor, A., Thinley, T., Gurmet, K., Chunit, K., Tobge, R., Thuktan, T., Suryawanshi, K., Nagendra, H., Mishra, C., 2022. Indigenous governance structures for maintaining an ecosystem service in an agro-pastoral community in the Indian Trans Himalaya. Ecosyst. People 18, 303–314. Saeed, U., Arshad, M., Hayat, S., Morelli, T.L., Nawaz, M.A., 2022. Analysis of provisioning ecosystem services and perceptions of climate change for indigenous communities in the Western Himalayan Gurez Valley, Pakistan. Ecosyst. Serv. 56, 101453. Snow Leopard Working Secretariat, 2013. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program. Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. Sonam, K., Dorjay, R., Khanyari, M., Bijoor, A., Lobzang, S., Sharma, M., Suresh, S., Mishra, C., Suryawanshi, K.R., 2022. A community-based conservation initiative for wolves in the Ladakh Trans-Himalaya, India. Front. Ecol. Evol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2022.809817. Tsering, T., 2018. Socio-economic organisation in a border area of Tibetan Culture: Tabo, Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. Mt. Res. Dev. 38, 411–412.

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C H A P T E R

50 Future prospects for snow leopard survival David Mallona and Tom McCarthyb a

Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom b Snow Leopard Program, Panthera, New York, NY, United States

Many hundreds, likely thousands, of years ago, an unknown artist carved a set of stylized but unmistakable snow leopard images on granite boulders in the lower valley of the Zanskar River (Fig. 50.1). These striking images have been inadvertently destroyed, but the charismatic qualities that inspired them continue to inspire people to this day and drive the interest, respect, and commitment to the conservation of this iconic cat documented in this volume. The Snow Leopard Survival Summit, which took place in Seattle over several days in May 2002, was a seminal event in snow leopard conservation. It brought together 60 experts from 17 countries, catalyzed a huge increase in conservation action, and led directly to the founding of the Snow Leopard Network (SLN) and the development of the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003; Snow Leopard Network, 2014). A second key event was the launch of the Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) in 2013 (Chapter 49) which ensured high-level commitment from all 12 snow leopard range country governments, provided an overall policy framework, and unlocked access to funding from major intergovernmental donors.

Snow Leopards https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85775-8.00008-X

During the past 20 years, millions of dollars and hundreds of thousands of person-hours have been invested by governments, international and national NGOs, local communities, and others in the conservation of the snow leopard, its prey, and its habitats. These efforts encompassed policy and legislation, creation and management of protected areas, threat alleviation, antipoaching, community engagement, capacity building and training, education and awareness, field programs, scientific research, and transboundary collaboration. Local people across most of the snow leopard range depend on domestic animals—yaks, cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, and horses—for meat and milk for consumption, wool for tents, ropes, and clothing, as draft and transport animals, and to provide products for sale. Livestock exceed wild ungulates, both in number and biomass, many times over. The resulting competition for the best grazing, and disturbance caused by the presence of herds and guard dogs, may force wild ungulates to use suboptimal areas, while a further risk is the transmission of disease. Overgrazing reduces the quality and carrying capacity of rangelands, indirectly affecting the snow leopard through a reduced prey

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Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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50. Future prospects for snow leopard survival

FIG. 50.1 Rock drawings of snow leopards in the lower Zanskar valley. Photo courtesy David Mallon.

base. More seriously, snow leopards may be killed in retaliation for preying on livestock. There is a clear need for local people to have a meaningful stake in conservation through community projects, economic incentives, or alternative income generation, if snow leopards and their prey are to persist. Education programs have raised the profile and contributed to the creation of more positive attitudes toward the cat by local people and government officials. A notable series of innovative programs that engage local communities are described in Section III. These include corral improvements, livestock insurance and vaccination, grazing set-asides, and incentive and livelihood benefits such as handicrafts, ecotourism, and deployment of community rangers. Schemes to improve the physical security of night-time corrals to reduce the amount of predation on livestock and retaliatory killing have been undertaken in 6 of the 12 range

countries—Afghanistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Tajikistan—as detailed in Chapter 18.1. In total, several hundred corrals have been protected so far and no subsequent predation events have been recorded at any of them. There is therefore no doubt that these initiatives have reduced livestock mortality—and likely also the retributory killing of snow leopards. The different designs used in several parts of the range provide a range of examples that could be replicated more widely elsewhere. In fact, many more livestock are lost annually to disease than to snow leopards, 1.5–5 times more in the example described in Chapter 18.3 from northern Pakistan. Here, livestock are vaccinated in return for an agreement on limits to herd sizes and an undertaking by livestock owners not to poach snow leopards. The response was to vaccinate livestock while agreeing on limits to herd sizes and securing an undertaking by livestock owners not to poach snow leopards. The result was reduced mortality of livestock and an increase in local incomes, as well as stable, rather than increasing, herd sizes. Vaccination involves relatively low initial inputs but must be repeated annually to cover newborn animals. Another initiative has reduced grazing pressure through negotiating a village reserve (grazing set-aside), which resulted in higher numbers of wild ungulates using the area and increased use by snow leopards (Chapter 18.2). These programs are not “compensation” programs that simply pay herders for livestock losses to snow leopards and other predators. They all contain built-in conditions and formal links to positive outcomes for snow leopards that require certain actions by participating individuals or communities. These range from a portion of homestay proceeds going into community environment protection, to better livestock husbandry practices that help reduce losses to predators, and commitment to purchase own vaccines or maintain repairs to corrals. Snow Leopard Enterprises requires a

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signed contract with each community that stipulates financial bonuses will be withheld in the event a snow leopard is killed within the “community responsible area” (Chapter 17.2). Trophy hunting, if well managed, offers another form of sustainable use of wildlife that can provide much needed income to people living in remote parts of snow leopard range and thereby a strong economic incentive to protect snow leopards, their prey, and their habitat. Community-based trophy hunting programs (CTHPs) have been in practice or have been proposed in at least four snow leopard range countries (Chapters 20.1–20.3). Trophy hunting of two important prey species, ibex and markhor, has been practiced in Pakistan since the late 1970s. Tajikistan’s CTHPs hosted their first hunters in 2012, and neighboring Kyrgyzstan has established several community conservancies, but they have yet to conduct hunts. In Mongolia, it is argued that in a well-managed, community-based trophy hunting program could lead to sustainable management of ungulates while providing resources for conservation and building community support. Although benefits to conservation and communities have accrued in some instances, there are also lessons to be learned from existing programs. Among the risks is that communities may come to view snow leopards themselves as a potential trophy of great value to foreign hunters. One of the most optimistic reports is that snow leopard crime has apparently declined in all countries since 2002 (Chapter 7). This decline coincides with significant efforts that have been devoted to antipoaching measures, law enforcement, and border, customs, and trade controls. A reduction in retaliatory killing of snow leopards due to improved husbandry practices is likely another contributory factor. Some caution is needed, however, because intensified antipoaching measures may have driven the illegal trade further underground and more difficult to detect, and any snow leopard killed is still too many.

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The role of zoos in both in situ and ex situ conservation of snow leopards is highlighted, including essays on how captive snow leopards serve as ambassadors of their wild kin. A pair of “ambassador” snow leopards made what is arguably the most significant impact ever on the conservation of snow leopards in the wild, when zookeeper Helen Freeman fell in love with Nicholas and Alexandra, Woodland Park Zoo’s first snow leopards, and took up their wild cousins’ cause in 1981 by establishing the Snow Leopard Trust (SLT). Chapter 24 provides an example of corporations engaged in resource extraction potentially mobilizing resources for biodiversity conservation and even providing “safe havens” for snow leopard and their prey. Such a case can be made for the Kumtor mine in Kyrgyzstan, which effectively guards one of the primary access routes to the Sarychat-Ertash Reserve, a key snow leopard landscape in the Central Tien Shan. In addition to restricting access, Kumtor has supported, both financially and logistically, NGOs conducting snow leopard research and conservation activities within and near the reserve. While mining has recently joined the list of key threats to snow leopards, mitigation of such development may well provide a mechanism to actually strengthen and fund improvements in national policy and institutional capacity. Although these programs can surely be expected to have benefitted the snow leopard and its prey, the impacts have not always been evaluated or quantified. Nevertheless, all these successes should be celebrated, both to demonstrate that “conservation works” and to convince donors that continued investments are worthwhile. The challenge ahead lies in scaling up these examples of successful action to substantial parts of the snow leopard’s global range. Predator-proof corrals may be the most straightforward to extend further, though the costs and logistical difficulty in transporting wire mesh and other materials very long distances over difficult terrain where there are no

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roads should not be underestimated. Grazing set-asides contain great potential, but the reserve described in Chapter 18.2 covers only 5 km2, so replicating this initiative to much wider areas would require substantially higher total payments and may be unsustainable. As a conservation tool, community-managed trophy hunting has a foothold in snow leopard range, yet it will not be appropriate in all countries since cultural or regulatory obstacles may limit its applicability. For any community-based program to thrive and be sustainable, it will be essential to ensure the commitment by local people and communities over the long term. The community-based conservation programs portrayed here all succeeded, at least in part, because the instigators first sought to understand the conservation situation at a local level and then developed highly participatory methods. It follows that any conservation initiative must address the particular set of local conditions, as well as the way of life and the aspirations of the community concerned. The report that two snow leopards were translocated from Tajikistan to re-establish the species in Sayano-Shushensky Reserve in Russia (Chapter 45) is intriguing. If this population persists, it may open the way for other wild-to-wild translocations to reintroduce the species where it is locally extinct or to provide demographic or genetic reinforcement of depleted populations. Such operations should follow international guidelines and require thorough planning and full coordination among local communities, scientific experts, and government agencies, as the examples cited in Chapter 28 make clear. A huge amount of scientific research has also been conducted over the past 20 years, facilitated by significant advances in technology (satellite collars, increasingly sophisticated trail cameras, DNA analysis, metabarcoding, genomics, GIS mapping, remote sensing, and drones) and analytical and statistical techniques (enhanced rigor of survey design, occupancy

modeling, spatially explicit capture-recapture, etc.). Section V of this book (Chapters 29–34) is devoted to these rapidly developing techniques. To put these advances into context, 25 years before the first edition of this book was published in 2016, field researchers still relied on paper maps, often at small scales (1:250,000), even where maps were openly available. There was no GPS or GIS, navigation relied on the use of a compass or barometric altimeter, and locations had to be estimated; there were no camera traps and radio tracking was in its infancy. Today, GPS-satellite collars track snow leopard movements at such a fine scale that locations obtained from a single cat in 1 year would likely exceed all VHF collar data points obtained over the first 20 years of collaring studies. The preceding chapters represent the most comprehensive and up-to-date review of information on all aspects of the snow leopard ecology and conservation ever assembled. As noted in Chapter 2, recent research using the latest technologies has both confirmed and further refined our understanding of snow leopard biology and ecology. Despite this impressive body of work and new insights, our understanding of snow leopard biology and ecology is still incomplete. Among the gaps in knowledge are such fundamental parameters as the size and trend of the global snow leopard population as well as reliable estimates of prey abundance. The snow leopard is cryptic, has mainly crepuscular or nocturnal habits, and dwells in rugged, often remote, habitats that pose logistical challenges to researchers (Fig. 50.2). As an apex predator in an environment with low basal productivity, snow leopards naturally live at relatively low densities, so sample sizes tend to be low, making extrapolations problematic. Furthermore, surveys to date have tended to focus on areas of high-quality habitat that are known or suspected to harbor snow leopard populations, possibly therefore biasing estimates of density. The rangewide PAWS program (Chapter 34) has been devised to address these

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FIG. 50.2 Seemingly secure in its lofty, remote, and rugged home, it will take more than a cryptic lifestyle and superb camouflage to ensure a future for the magnificent snow leopard. Photo courtesy Raghu Chundawat.

issues in a standardized way with carefully designed protocols. Calculating a robust estimate of global population size and trend at global, regional, and national levels should be seen as a research priority. In the interim, updated population estimates for each range country have been produced, though some are incomplete, and as noted in Chapter 3, it is interesting to see that the most recent global estimate is not dissimilar to the one made in the 1980s based on much simpler methods. The snow leopard’s mountain habitat is less susceptible to wholesale destruction through large-scale conversion to agriculture or other uses than habitats such as forest and grassland. Furthermore, the range appears to remain generally intact and there are few significant natural barriers, apart perhaps from some deep valleys on the southern side of the Himalaya, to prevent snow leopards from dispersing widely. In principle, there seems little to prevent a snow leopard theoretically moving from the eastern end of the Himalaya to the west and then through the Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Pamir to the Tien Shan and Kun Lun. The northern and southern sectors of the global range may be cutoff from each other, but occasional exchange of individuals—and therefore genetic material—

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could still take place. A small number of snow leopards are caught in snares in Russia and elsewhere, but trapping and poisoning do not seem to present a systematic threat to carnivores as they do in, e.g., Africa. In many, perhaps most, parts of the range, local attitudes toward the snow leopard are less hostile than to the wolf. However, neither of these favorable factors nor the positive results of many conservation programs should be taken to imply that a slackening of conservation efforts is warranted, and there is no room for complacency. Efforts should in fact be maintained or enhanced, first to consolidate the progress made so far and then to further reduce or eliminate traditional and emerging threats. Many mountain pastures are overused for grazing and fuelwood collection, and livestock are expanding into some new areas, though at other sites, grazing pressure is declining as people move away from rural areas. The threat of anthropogenic barriers is growing— construction of roads, infrastructure, mining, and border fences. There is a widespread lack of adequate resources and other capacity to manage protected areas effectively, conduct surveys and monitoring, and implement conservation measures. Climate change is likely the most significant emerging threat to snow leopards, due to its rangewide impacts. The continuing warming trend at the global level seems inevitable, but finer-scale effects at specific sites are less easy to predict, such as the interaction of increasing temperature and changes in the amount, intensity, and seasonality of precipitation. Potential effects in the mountains of Asia include longer growing seasons, upward shifts in tree lines, lower precipitation leading to aridification, and reduced extent of glaciers. The responses by species of flora and fauna to these changes are not well understood due to the paucity of good data and lack of specific studies to date. Climate change is highly likely to affect patterns of livestock grazing with effects on mountain

VII. The future of snow leopards

652

50. Future prospects for snow leopard survival

communities and indirectly on snow leopards and their prey. If changing conditions result in longer growing seasons or greater pasture productivity, stocking densities can be expected to increase, while lower precipitation that reduces productivity and/or availability of fresh water may result in fewer livestock or abandonment of some mountain pastures. The intensity and frequency of extreme weather events are another expected consequence. However, snow leopards have long adapted to live in the lower, drier environment of the Gobi of Mongolia and northern China, demonstrating some adaptive potential to live in hotter conditions. Rocky, rugged terrain and the presence of cliff-dwelling mountain ungulates are the key determinants of snow leopard presence, as indicated in Chapter 2, not temperature or snow cover. Living at low densities over a huge global range, snow leopard conservation must operate at broad landscape scales to allow the dispersal of individuals, maintain genetic diversity, and ultimately secure viable populations. Larger populations are inherently more likely to persist, retain greater genetic variation, and are less vulnerable to stochastic factors. Landscape-scale planning for intact metapopulations helps safeguard dispersal corridors between core populations, maintains genetic variation, and enhances resilience to climate change. Achieving this will necessitate (i) action at global, regional, national, and local levels as well as close collaboration between them to ensure effective delivery, (ii) full community engagement in every part of the snow leopard’s range, and (iii) transboundary cooperation, since so many international borders run along mountain

ridges. Research has demonstrated that snow leopards strongly prefer wild ungulates, despite the number and biomass of livestock being several times higher in almost all areas (Chapter 4) so maintaining or restoring the abundance of the snow leopard’s main prey species should also be an essential strategy objective. The aim of snow leopard conservation must surely be to maintain the relatively intact and interconnected populations across most of the range over the long term. It seems obvious that the farther away from extinction a species is, the more that is to be welcomed. On the IUCN Red List, the snow leopard is currently classified as Vulnerable (defined as “a high risk of extinction”). It is important first to maintain this status, and then to reduce the risk of extinction even further, to a point where the snow leopard is no longer included in any of the threatened categories. In that way, the snow leopard can continue to inspire, as the ideal flagship for the mountains of Asia, together with their cultural, and spiritual values and serve as an umbrella species for these mountain ecosystems, all their component biodiversity and the vital services they provide, such as water storage, carbon storage, and rangeland health, on which many millions of people depend.

References McCarthy, T.M., Chapron, G., 2003. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. International Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, WA. Snow Leopard Network, 2014. Snow Leopard Survival Strategy. Revised Version 2014.1. Snow Leopard Network, Seattle, WA.

VII. The future of snow leopards

Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures, t indicate tables, and b indicate boxes.

A Acinonyx jubatus, 357 Activity and movement patterns, 22 Afghanistan, 75–76 Afghan National Environmental Protection Agency, 454 Aga Khan Foundation, 212 Aggressive interference, 137–138 Agha Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP), 251–252 Ailurus fulgens, 355–356 Alces alces, 394 Alectoris chukar, 482, 491, 556–557 Alipay, 585 Alleviating human-wildlife conflicts, 165–166 Alpine meadows, 129–131, 130f Altai distribution, 474–475 population status, 478 Altai-Sayan Ecoregion Conservation Strategy, 303 Altai-Sayan Ecoregion project, 303 Altai snowcock, 556–557 Amur/Siberian tigers, 348 reintroduction of cubs into historic range, 369–370 rescue and rehabilitation of orphaned cubs, 368–369 Animal Care Manuals (ACMs), 339 Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), 160 Annual livestock losses, 56 Antagonistic interference, 137–138 Antemortem, 95–97 Anthrax, 101 Anthropogenic threat, 114 Antwerp Zoo, 325 Appreciative Planning and Participatory Action (APPA), 167 Argali, 214, 259–263, 430, 462

Argos PPT telemetry, 393 Artificial intelligence (AI), 424–425 Asiatic ibex, 513–514 Asiatic wild ass, 430 Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 334, 353 Athari Zoo, 349 Attitudes definitions of, 150 factors, 152–153 methodological approaches, 150–152 AZA snow leopard SSP, 335

B Babesia infection, 99–100 Bacillus anthracis, 101 Bacterial disease, 101 Baltistan Wildlife Conservation and Development Organization (BWCDO), 198, 211–212, 542 Bangkok planning workshop, March 2013, 638 Barriers, 123–124 “Barsik”, 246 Barys, 246 Behavior and life history activity and movement patterns, 22 communication, 21 foraging behavior, 23–24 habitat use, 22–23 hunting behavior, 23–24 kill-site behavior, 24 life expectancy and mortality, 23 mating and reproduction, 23 sociality, 19–20 territoriality and home ranges, 20–21 Beijing international workshop on snow leopard conservation in China, May 2013, 638 Bharal, 513–514

653

Bhutan, 76 conservation, 509–511 population status and habitat distribution, 506–509 threats climate change, 509 direct, 508 indirect, 508 Big cats, 3, 9 “Biodiversity Conservation in Altai-Sayan Ecoregion”, 303 Biogeography map of, 31–33, 32f observational data, 32–33 paleontological records, 31 range of, 31–32 range-wide assessment process, 33 SLCUs, 33 spatial distribution of, 33, 34–35f Birds dietary composition, 46 status of prey, 49 Bishkek working meeting, December 2012, 637–638 Black beach erosion, 85 Black bear, 541 Blue sheep, 3, 45–49, 102–103, 104f, 214, 505–506, 533, 541 Border Roads Organization (BRO), 191 Bronx Zoo, 355–358 Brown bears, 149–150, 541 Bucorvus leadbeateri, 348 Building governance institutions, 174–175 Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS), 505–506

C Camera trapping, 17, 461–462 assessment of future directions GSM-based cameras, 420–422 satellite-based cameras, 422–423

654 Camera trapping (Continued) data management artificial intelligence, 424–425 crowdsourcing, 424 image data storage and processing, 423–424 development of equipment, 419–420 distributions and abundance, 415–416 ethical considerations, 419 from exploration to inference, 418 field experiments, 417 future directions in technology, 425 individual identification, 418–419 species interactions and communities, 416–417 temporal activity patterns and interactions, 417 “CamtrapR2.0.3”, 140 Canada lynx, 357 Canine distemper virus (CDV), 99–100 Canis aureus, 544 Canis lupus, 55, 138, 149–150, 159–160, 492–493, 507, 541 Capacity building, 443 Capra falconeri, 482, 541 Capra ibex, 541 Capra sibirica, 3, 95–97, 214, 259–263, 430, 451, 453–454, 462, 482, 513–514, 556–557 Capreolus pygargus, 491, 556–557 Captive-born snow leopard, 23 Captive rearing, 360 Captive snow leopards as ambassadors Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 353, 355 Bronx Zoo, 355–356 Central Park Zoo, 355–356 European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA), 355 Kolmarden Wildlife Park, 348–351 South-East Asian Association of Zoos and Aquariums (SEAZA), 355 Species Survival Plan, 353 Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), 355 Woodland Park Zoo, 352 Carrion provisioning, 24–25 Caterpillar fungus alpine meadow, 129, 130f decline in, 132 direct degradation, 130–131 distribution map, 129, 131f

Index

economic riches, 130–131 experimentation, 132 “ghost moth”, 129 harvested, 130 herder interviews, 131–132 legalization of, 132 season, 140 traditional medicine, 129–130 widespread consumption, 129–130 Catopuma temminckii, 507 Central Asia, 56 Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI), 300–301 Ceratoides papposa, 485 Cervuselaphus, 462 Charismatic megafauna, 380 Chatkal biosphere reserve, 494 Cheetahs, 357 Chicago Zoological Society/Brookfield Zoo, 333 Chikhachev Ridge, 566 China, 76 challenges to conservation, 592–594 conservation community-based conservation, 583–584 government policies, 582–583 public participation and the role of social media, 585–587 research and monitoring journey of snow leopard research, 587–591 satellite tracking, 591–592 status, 577–580 way forward, 594–596 Chitral Conservation Hunting Program, 255 Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP), 251, 255 Chukar partridge, 482, 491, 556–557 CITES Management Authority (CMA) in Pakistan, 252 Civil society organizations (CSOs), 172–173 Climate change, 145–146 glaciers, 83 in Kazakhstan, 479–480 pasturelands, 84–86 permafrost, 83–84 precipitation, 82–83 predicting future impacts of, 87–90 temperature, 81–82 treeline shift, 86

weather phenomena, 86–87 wetlands, 84 Climatic warming, 81 Clockwork mechanism, 137–138 Cold-adapted snow leopard, 138 Cologne Zoo, 349 Comanagement, 172–173 Common leopard interactions, 139–142 Commonwealth of Independent States and Western China (CISWC), 115–116 Communication, 21, 174–175 Community-based biodiversity protection, 161–162 Community-based conservation, 255 Qinghai, 583–584 Tibet A.R., 584 Xinjiang A.R., 584 Community-based conservation projects, 162–163 Community-based Conservation Tourism, 550–551 Community-based livestock insurance program, 199 Community-based trophy hunting programs (CTHPs), 252, 649 Community-based wildlife conservation, 166t, 167 Community conservation, 177–178 Community-controlled hunting areas (CCHAs), 253–254 Community Development Council (CDC), 181 Community-managed conservation areas (CMCAs), 253–254 Community Managed Livestock Insurance Schemes (CMLIS), 198–202 Community-managed trophy hunting, 251–252 Community Responsible Areas (CRA), 192–193, 195 Competition potential, 137–138 Conflict mitigation, 203, 208–209, 218 Conflicts over livestock predation community-based conservation programs, 61 ecological underpinnings of, 57–58 human underpinnings of, 58–59 improving social carrying capacity, 60–61 offsetting livestock losses, 60 reducing livestock losses, 59–60

655

Index

Conservation, 162–167 Russia, 572–573 Conservation Agreements, 219, 219t Conservation education, 276 Conservation genetics of snow leopards comparison of genetics with traditional methods, 408 major gaps and priorities for filling genetic data from key range countries, 410 landscape genetics, 409–410 multiscale population metrics, 409 phylogeography, 408–409 molecular dietary analysis, 407–408 necessary steps to overcome knowledge gaps, 410–411 next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods, 406–407 non-next-generation sequencing (NGS) studies landscape genetics, 403–405 microsatellite development, 402–403 mitochondrial DNA, 402 phylogeography, 405–406 Conservation in Kazakhstan conservation efforts national policy and legislation, 475 protected areas, 475–476 research and monitoring, 475 distribution Altai, 474–475 Northern Tien Shan, 472–473 Tarbagatai and Saur, 474 Western Tien Shan, 471–472 Zhetysu (Dzhungar) Alatau, 473–474 population status Altai, 478 Dzhungar Alatau, 478 Northern Tien Shan, 477–478 population size, 476 Saur-Tarbagatai, 478 Western Tien Shan, 476–477 threats climate change, 479–480 disturbance, 479 habitat degradation, 479 human population growth and urbanization, 479 infrastructure development, 479 poaching and trafficking, 478–479

Conservation messages challenges in communicating with the public conservation messages for the public, 607 positive messaging, 607–608 communicating within the scientific and conservation community challenges, 610 conferences, 608–609 Snow Leopard Network, 609–610 communicating with the government challenges, 610–611 methods, 610 communicating with the public, 606–607 methods of communication, 606 popular media, 606–607 social media, 606 Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), 39, 300 Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS COP11), 300–301 Conservation planning methods, 119 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 124–125, 456 Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), 456 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 252, 326, 456 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES), 36, 38–39, 300–301, 487 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Animals (CMS), 300 Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), 123 Corporate business baseline data, 314 biodiversity action plans, 318–319 biodiversity offsetting, 317–318 competitive advantage, social license, and market positioning, 311–312 corporate environmental and social responsibility, 310 environmental and social impact assessment, 314–315

environmental management plans, 317 extractive industry, 309–310 legislation and lender bank requirements, 312–317 mineral exploration and extraction, 309 mitigation hierarchy, 315–317 modify and update actions, 319 monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of actions, 318–319 operational efficiencies, 311 opportunities, 319–320 ripple effect, 310 Corporate environmental and social responsibility (CSR), 310 Corral improvements conflict mitigation tool, 208–209 design of, 209–212 and documenting problems, 212–213 predator proofing of corrals, 208–209 sustainably, 213 Cost sharing, 164 Covid-19 pandemic, 97–99, 161, 190, 279 Covid-19 vaccines, 341 Cross River gorillas (Gorilla gorilla diehli), 348 Crowdfunding public events, 586–587 Sina Weibo, 586 Tencent public welfare, 586 Crowdsourcing, 424 CSIRO Mk3 climate model, 90 Cuon alpinus, 507

D David Shepherd Conservation Foundation, 192 Deforestation, 133–134 Density, 18 Density estimation, 17 Department of Biodiversity Conservation and Protected Areas (DBCPA), 290–291, 295 Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), 532 Depredation, 60–61, 186, 191–192, 195, 197, 200–201 Design-based inference, 439

656 Development threats across snow leopard range, 115–117 Dietary composition birds, 46 livestock, 46 mammals, 46 prey preferences, 46–47 satellite-tracked kills, 44, 44t vegetation, 46 wild ungulates, 45–46 Dietary overlap, 139–140, 144–145 Dietary requirements and offtake rates, 47–48 Diet breadth, 138–140, 142–144 Direct conservation payments, 202–204 Disease recognition and management, 339–342 Diseases in free-ranging snow leopards causes of mortality in, 95–97 infectious diseases, 97–102 in snow leopard natural ungulate prey species mycoplasmosis in markhor and other prey species, 104–106 peste des petits ruminants in primary prey species, 106 sarcoptic mange in blue sheep and other prey species, 102–103 Disease spillover, 107 Domestic livestock, 49 Drones for snow leopard conservation introduction, 429–430 Mongolia case study, 430–433 Dusicyon australis, 63 Dzhungar Alatau distribution, 473–474 population status, 478 Dzud, 86

E Earth Overshoot Day, 283 EAZA Ex situ Programme (EEP), 350 EAZA region breakthroughs in the 1980s, 326–327 gene diversity (GD) effective population size, 329 founder genome equivalents, 329 founder representation, 328–329 global studbook 1976, 326 snow leopards in focus in the 1970s, 325–326

Index

suggestions for improvement, 329–330 toward global management, 330 Ecological civilization, 582 Ecological conditions, 138 Ecological interactions and effects carrion provisioning, 24–25 large carnivores species, 25–26 predation, 24 predation-risk effects, 25 Economic incentives, 250–251 Ecosystem health and livelihood improvement initiatives, 548–551 Ecosystem Health Program (EHP) conservation-based incentive program, 218 enhancing capacity, 223 establishing vaccination funds, 223 program implementation mechanism conservation fund, 219 cost sharing, 219–220 monitoring, 220 site selection, 219 social mobilization, 219 training, 219 vaccine delivery, 219 program monitoring, 223 program success in resolving conflicts disease-caused mortality and impacts on community wellbeing, 220–221 enhanced tolerance toward snow leopards, 222 stabilizing herd size and avoiding pressure, environment, 221–222 risks, 218 strengthening community organizations, 222–223 Ecosystem Health Workers (EHWs), 219 Ecotourism, 188–189, 199 Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) curriculum, 279 EE. See Environmental Education (EE) “Effective Checkpoint Operations”, 290 Egl nine homolog 1 (EGLN1), 10–11 EHP. See Ecosystem Health Program (EHP) Electric fencing, 151

Encountered evidence, 15, 16f Endothelial PAS domain-containing protein 1 (EPAS1), 10–11 Engaging local communities, 167 Environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA), 314–315, 317 Environmental Education (EE) from awareness to action, 283 challenges in teaching snow-leopardfocused, 276–277 cross-border EE exchanges, 280–281 elements, 276 goals of, 277 knowledge, compassion, and action, 276 monitoring and evaluation, 281–283 Nomadic Nature Trunks, 278–279 principles of, 276 qualitatively or quantitatively, 275–276 Ri Gyancha, India, 277–278 school-based EE, 275–276 school curricula, 276 snow leopard day festival, Altai Republic, Russia, and Tajikistan, 279–280 zoos and snow leopard, 281 Environmental impact assessments (EIAs), 117, 125 Environmental licensing processes, 117 Environmental management plans (EMP), 317 Environment Law, 457 Equator principles, 312–313 Equus h. hemionus, 430 Ethnographic approaches, 150–151 Eurasian lynx, 149–150 European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA), 349–350, 355 European Endangered Species Program (EEP), 326 Evolutionary timescales, 137–138 Executive Designer at Disney Imagineering, 284 Experiential learning, 275–276 Extractive industry, 309–310

F Falkland Island wolf, 63 Fallen-from-cliffs, 95–97 Fauna and Flora International (FFI), 467 Felis uncia, 3–4 Flare-horned markhor, 541

657

Index

Florida panther developing a plan for genetic restoration, 366–367 identification of a problem, 366 implementation and results, 367 Food habits, 63–64, 66f Foraging behavior, 23–24 Forward-thinking insurance programs, 160 Fossil record, 4–5 Foundation for Sustainable Development of Altai (FSDA), 280 Fox, 544 Fragmentation, 124, 126–127 Franklin Park Zoo, 333 Free-ranging snow leopards causes of mortality in, 95–97 infectious diseases, 97–102 Fuel wood, 133

G Gazella subgutturosa, 430 GEF-funded Program of Work on Protected Areas (POWPA), 452 Gene diversity (GD), 327–329 effective population size, 329 founder genome equivalents, 329 founder representation, 328–329 Genetic identification, 17 Genotyping scats, 44–45 German International Cooperation (GIZ), 302–303 “Ghost moth”, 129 Gilgit-Baltistan Forest, 253–255, 304 Gissar biosphere reserve, 494–497 Glaciers, 83 Global intergovernmental organizations, 289 Global snow leopard and ecosystem protection program (GSLEP), 36–37, 73, 314, 438, 452, 531, 565, 623–625 common goal, 639 experience of the Global Tiger Initiative, 635–636 good practices and knowledge exchange taken to scale, 636 impacts GSLEP steering committee, 645

leadership and collective engagement, 644–645 vision and next steps, 645–646 launch, implementation, and information sharing, 642–643 mutual accountability of snow leopard range countries and partners, 636 new approach to snow leopard conservation, 635 NSLEPs and global support components, 639–641 outputs and enabling conditions, 641–642 preparation stage and milestones Bangkok planning workshop, March 2013, 638 Beijing international workshop on snow leopard conservation in China, May 2013, 638 Bishkek working meeting, December 2012, 637–638 Global snow leopard conservation forum, Bishkek, October 22–23, 2013, 639 Moscow preforum drafting meeting of senior officials, May 2013, 638–639 success factors, 641 value and its landscapes, 634–635 Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum in Bishkek, 463, 639 Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Plan, 277 Global Species Management Programs (GSMPs), 330 Global strategies for snow leopard conservation global snow leopard and ecosystem protection program (GSLEP), 623–625 international and national NGOs, 615, 616t place to conserve, 627–628 reason to conserve, 626–627 snow leopard range-wide assessment and conservation planning (SLRAC), 619–623 snow leopard survival strategy (SLSS), 617–619 snow leopard survival strategy, revised version 2014.1 (SLSS 2014), 625–626

strategic synthesis, 628–630 way to conserve, 628 Global Tiger Initiative (GTI), 635–636 Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park, 279 Goitered gazelle, 430 Golden cat, 507 Golden Mountains of Altai, 279 GoPro cameras, 295 Governance building governance institutions, 174–175 building linkages and comanagement processes with, 177 conservation, 171–174 early support for, 176–177 local communities, 171 natural resources, 171 social justice and, 173 GPS telemetry, 393–396 Gray wolf, 492–493, 541 Great Gobi Biodiversity Project, 192 Great Memory, 236 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, 113 Grizzly bear, 389–390 Ground-based radio telemetry, 17 Ground-based telemetry, 382 Group Special Mobile (GSM)-based cameras, 420–422 “Gruppa Bars” (Group Snow Leopard), 466 Grus vipio, 355–356 GSLEP. See Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) GSLEP program, 300

H Habitat, 18, 159–160, 173–174 Bhutan, 506–509 Uzbekistan, 491 Habitat degradation, in Kazakhstan, 479 Habitat separation, 145 Habitat use, 22–23 Hares, 455, 556–557 Hemis National Park in Ladakh, 186 Hemitragus jemlahicus, 214, 533 Hemoparasites, 102 Herders, 192–193, 195, 197 High Asian large mammals, 146

658 Himalaya, 55, 115 Himalayan black bears, 507 Himalayan Homestays challenges, 191 concept, 187 ecological impact, 189 economic impact, 188–189 in people’s attitude, 187, 187–188f sociocultural impact, 189–190 survey methods, 188 Himalayan ibex, 541 Himalayan lynx, 541 Himalayan snowcock, 482, 491 Himalayan tahr, 214, 533 Himalayan weasel, 507 Home ranges, 17, 20–21 Human-carnivore conflict mitigation and compensation measures, 548 Human-dominated world, 26 Human-induced casualties, 95–97 Human population growth and urbanization, in Kazakhstan, 479 Human-snow leopard conflicts, 56–57 Human-snow leopard interactions, 149–153 Human-snow leopard relationships, 154 Human-snow leopard-wild prey interaction, 519 Human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs), 56, 159–160, 165–166 Hunting behavior, 23–24 Hunting techniques, 47–48 Husbandry, 197, 200–201, 338–339

I Iberian lynx identification of suitable habitat, 364 origin of released individuals, 364–365 release and monitoring, 365 results and conclusions, 365–366 Ibex, 3, 8–9, 451, 453–454 Ikh Nart, 430–433 Ilbirs Foundation, 467–468 Illegal killing, 73–75, 74t Illegal trade, 71–72 monitoring, 72–73 India, 76 challenges in conservation emerging threats, 520

Index

human-snow leopard-wild prey interaction, 519 livestock grazing, 519 conservation efforts in landscape-level conservation, 523–524 way forward, 524–526 population estimation, 518 snow leopard range in, 513–514 state of knowledge, 514–518 Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, 514 Indigenous communities, 279, 281, 284–285 Indigenous Cultural Practitioners (ICPs), 235–237 Inductive reasoning, 151 Infectious diseases bacterial and rickettsial diseases, 101 parasitic infections, 101–102 viral diseases, 97–100 In situ and ex situ conservation, 330 Instantaneous spotlighting, 360 Institutional Development Analysis, 290 Integrated conservation-development programs (ICDPs), 159 Integrating cultural conservation, 164–165 Intelligence products, 291 International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC), 301 International Finance Corporation (IFC), 312 International Forum for the Conservation of Snow Leopards and their Ecosystems in Bishkek, 565 International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL), 290 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 245, 252 International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species, 39 Internet-based awareness-raising programs Alipay, 585 JD WCS, 585–586 WeChat, 585 INTERPOL, 289

Interspecific aggressive interactions, 142–143 Interspecific kinship, 151 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 39

J Jackal, 544 Jaguar assessing the feasibility, 361–362 conclusions on developing, 363–364 planning and negotiating, 362–363 Jane Goodall Environmental Middle School (JGEMS), 280–281, 283 JD WCS, 585–586 Jigme Dorji National Park (JDNP), 505–506 Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park (JSWNP), 505–506 Job Task Analysis, 290 Juniper shrubs, 133 Juniperus convallium, 133 Juniperus tibetica, 133

K Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) Conservation Initiative, 304 Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA), 160, 198–199, 201 Karakorum/Hindu Kush (KK/HK), 115–116 Kashmir musk deer, 541 Kazakhstan, 76 Keystone species, 24–26 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 255–256 Kibber village reserve, Spiti Valley, 215–216, 216f Kill-site behavior, 24 Kolmarden Wildlife Park, 348–351 Korkeasaari Zoo, 349 Kyrgyzstan, 77, 265–266 habitat and distribution, 461–462 legal protection, 463 management plans, 463–464 national action plan, 463–464 NGOS working in Fauna and Flora International, 467 Ilbirs Foundation, 467–468 Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union, 465–466

Index

Snow Leopard Trust in partnership with Snow Leopard Foundation, 466–467 World Wide Fund for Nature, 466 NSLEP, 463–464 research, 464–465 status of snow leopard prey, 462–463 threats, 463 transboundary conservation initiatives, 464

L Ladakh urial, 541 Lamtang National Park, 535 Land of the Snow Leopard Network (LOSL), 279 Landscape genetics, 403–405, 409–410 Landscape-level conservation, India, 523–524 Landscape-level mitigation, 118–119 Landscape/watershed-level assessment, 117–118 Large carnivores, 63 Large Prey Index, 138–140, 141f Laryngeal anatomy, 10 Law enforcement case study “bang” theory, 292–293 capacity building postdetention, 291–292 capacity building prior to detention, 290–291 detention of ibex poachers in Kyrgyzstan, 289–290 frontline enforcement efforts, 294 illegal killing and trade conflict cycles and killings, 287–288 high-level trade and criminal linkages, 288–289 improving protection and counteracting poaching, 293–294 law enforcement technologies, 294–295 Legal protection, 71 Legal status, 38–39 Leo, 356, 356f Leopard cat, 507 Leopardus pardalis, 357 Lepus spp., 455, 556–557 Lepus tolai, 482, 491 Life expectancy and mortality, 23

Limbs and vertebral column, 9 Linear infrastructure, 114 conventions and agreements, 124–125 definition, 123 environmental assessments, 125 fencing, 126–127 in human activity, 124 indirect impacts, 124 legislation, 126 local and regional economies, 124 “lowland” infrastructure projects, 124 migratory or nomadic species, 123 private sector, 125 significant threat, 127 tools, 124 Live animal research, 381–382 Livestock, 46, 63–65, 67–69 Livestock corrals, 149–150 Livestock depredation, 149–150, 159–160, 208, 212–213 Livestock grazing, 519 Livestock insurance and incentives schemes economic sustainability and scaling up, 198–199 factors, 200 history and design, 198 problems and solutions, 197 Livestock predation, 149–152, 154 Local communities, 214–215, 217–218, 219t Local participation, 162–164, 163t Lynx canadensis, 357 Lynx isabellinus, 492–493, 541 Lynx lynx, 149–150 Lynx pardinus identification of suitable habitat, 364 origin of released individuals, 364–365 release and monitoring, 365 results and conclusions, 365–366

M Macro survey designs, 440–442 Mammals, 46 Management models, 161–162 Marco Polo sheep, 482, 541 Markhor, 251, 253–255, 455, 482 Marking behavior, 21 Marmot, 49, 507

659 Marmota caudata, 455, 482 Marmota himalayana, 507 Marmota menzbieri, 491–492 Marmota spp., 3 Marmots, 3, 455, 462, 556–557 Marsupial wolf, 63 Martes foina, 544 Mating, 23 Maximum entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm, 87–88 Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs), 300 Metabarcoding, 43, 45, 49 Metazoan parasites, 102 Microsatellite development, 402–403 Micro survey designs, 442 Mineral resource exploration and extraction, 118 Mining and energy development, 114 Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL), 180 Mitigation policy and practice, 117–118 Mitochondrial DNA, 402 Model-based inference, 439 Modular guides, 442–443 Modus operandi, 175 Molecular dietary analysis, 407–408 Mongolia, 77 case study, 430–433 future needs to mitigate threats, 563–564 history of conservation, 558–559 in law and policy, 559–560 legal framework, 563 research, monitoring, and capacity building, 561–562 status and threats decreases in prey, 557 infrastructure development and habitat degradation, 557–558 poaching, 558 snow leopard killing due to livestock depredation, 557 transboundary initiatives, 560–561 wildlife law enforcement, 562–563 Mongolian Gobi region, 118–119 Moose, 394 Morphological adaptations laryngeal anatomy, 10 limbs and vertebral column, 9 pelage, 6–7 physiological adaptations, 10–11

660 Morphological adaptations (Continued) skull, 7–8 tail, 9 teeth and jaws, 8–9 Moschus chrysogaster, 533 Moschus cupreus, 541 Moscow preforum drafting meeting of senior officials, May 2013, 638–639 Mountain community, 160–161 Mountain Conservation and Development Programme (MCDP), 179–180 Mountain-dwelling communities, 250 Mountain Institute and UNESCO, 186 Mountain lion prey, 431 “Mountains of Northern Tien Shan”, 302–303 Mountain ungulates, 48–49 Multiple-use snow leopard landscapes, 214–215 Multiscale population metrics, 409 Musk deer, 533 Musk Deer National Park in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), 222 Mustela nivalis, 544 Mustela sibirica, 507 Mycobacterium bovis, 101 Mycoplasma capricolum, 104–106 Mycoplasmosis, 104–106

N National biodiversity strategy and action plans (NBSAPs), 318 National Council for the Conservation of Wildlife (NCCW), 253 National Council of Wildlife (NCCW), 251 National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA), 180 “Nationally Determined Contributions” (NDCs), 113 National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE), 515–516 National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS), 515–516 National Protected Area Systems Plan, 457 National Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Priorities (NSLEPs), 458, 487, 542–543, 548, 635

Index

Natural deaths, 95–97 Natural resource, 173 Natural ungulate prey species mycoplasmosis in markhor and other prey species, 104–106 peste des petits ruminants in primary prey species, 106 sarcoptic mange in blue sheep and other prey species, 102–103 Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU), 302–303, 465–466 Nature of Interaction, 152 Nature of Interaction and Risk Perception, 152 Nepal, 77 capacitating guardians of the mountains, 537 community-based conservation initiatives, 536 conservation threats and challenges, 534 distribution status, abundance, and ecology, 531–537 legislative and policy tools, 536 sign surveys to satellite telemetry, 536–537 strategies to mitigate conservation threats community-based approach, 535 conservation beyond protected areas, 535–536 ecosystem approach, 534–535 Next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods, 406–407 NextGIS Collector mobile software, 566 NGS studies. See Non-next-generation sequencing (NGS) studies “Ninja” miners of Mongolia, 261 Nomadic herders, 192–193 Nomadic Nature Conservation (NNC), 278 Nomadic Nature Trunks, 278–279 Non-domestic felids, 101 Noninvasive genetic tools, 17 Non-next-generation sequencing (NGS) studies landscape genetics, 403–405 microsatellite development, 402–403 mitochondrial DNA, 402 phylogeography, 405–406

North American zoos collaboration and challenges, 344–345 management of snow leopards AZA snow leopard SSP, 335 disease recognition and management, 339–342 education, 343–344 exhibit design, 342–343 husbandry, 338–339 nutrition, 339 population management strategy and tools, 334–335 reproduction, 335–338 Northern Range (NRANG), 115 Northern Tien Shan distribution, 472–473 population status, 477–478 Nutrition, 339

O Ocelot, 357 Ochotona roylei, 462, 482, 507 Ochotona rutila, 491 Ophiocordyceps sinensis. See Caterpillar fungus Orsa Predator Park, 349 Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), 298 Otocolobus manul, 507 Ovis ammon, 214, 259–263, 430, 462 Ovis ammon polii, 453–454, 541 Ovis orientalis vignei, 541 Ovis vignei, 482

P Pakistan, 77 building local constituencies for conservation, 179–180b conservation measures capacity building and awareness raising, 551–552 ecosystem health and livelihood improvement initiatives, 548–551 human-carnivore conflict mitigation and compensation measures, 548 landscape approach, 548 current status of snow leopard and prey research

661

Index

snow leopard and sympatric carnivores, 544–546 wild prey, 546–548 lessons learned and way forward, 553 research and conservation paradigms, 543–552 threats and challenges, 542–543 Pakistan Economic Survey, 250 Pakistan’s Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) province’s, 250 Pakistan Snow Leopard Program, 542 Pallas’s cat, 507 Pamir-Alai Transboundary Conservation Area project (PATCA), 303 Pamir-Hindu Kush region biological and cultural diversity, 241–242 indigenous knowledge, 242 mergichan, 242–244 mountain people of, 242 Pamir International Protected Area, 303 Pamir Mountains ecoclub, 280 Pamirs, 482–486 Panthera blytheae, 5 Panthera onca assessing the feasibility, 361–362 conclusions on developing, 363–364 planning and negotiating, 362–363 Panthera pardus, 63–64, 138 Panthera tigris, 138, 357, 505 Panthera tigris altaica, 348 reintroduction of cubs into historic range, 369–370 rescue and rehabilitation of orphaned cubs, 368–369 Panthera uncia, 4–8, 64 Parasitic infections, 101–102 Paris Climate Agreement (PCA), 113 Participatory learning and action (PLA), 163–164 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), 162–163, 167 Pasturelands, 84–86 Path-breaking innovations, 278 PAWS. See Population Assessment of the World’s Snow leopards (PAWS) Pelage, 6–7 Performance Standard 6 (PS6), 312–313 Permafrost, 83–84 Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), 106

Phylogeny, 5–6 Phylogeography, 405–406, 408–409 Physical characteristics and capabilities, 18–19 Physiological adaptations, 10–11 Pianka’s index, 139 Pikas, 462, 482 PoacherCam GSM camera trap, 420–421, 421f Poaching, 71–74, 95–97, 572 Poaching and trafficking, in Kazakhstan, 478–479 Polo argali, 453–454 Population Analysis & Breeding and Transfer Plan, 334 Population Assessment of the World’s Snow leopards (PAWS), 36–38, 518 the approach, 438–443 capacity building, 443 introduction, 437–438 macro survey designs, 440–442 micro survey designs, 442 modular guides, 442–443 next steps, 444–446 so far, 443–444 Population demography, 18 Population ecology density, 18 habitat, 18 population demography, 18 Population status Bhutan, 506–509 historic estimates, 36 recent estimates, 36–38 Portfolio, 118–119 Post-mortem evaluations in freeranging snow leopards, 95–97 Precipitation, 82–83 Predator-proof communal corrals, 209 Predator-proof corrals, 208–210 Prey populations through community participation achievements, 256–257 desirable future, 258 Gilgit-Baltistan, 253–255 history of, 251–253 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 255–256 lessons learned, 257–258 in Northern Pakistan, 251 opportunities, 257 program implementation mechanism

distribution of trophy hunting revenues, 253 fees, 253 marketing, 253 permit allocation, 252 Prey preferences, 46–47 Prey species, Uzbekistan Menzbier’s marmot, 491–492 Red marmot, 492 Siberian ibex, 491 Prionailurus bengalensis, 507 Procapra gutturosa, 430 Project Snow Leopard (PSL), 198, 383 Protected area (PA), 159–160 Pseudois nayaur, 3, 102–103, 104f, 214, 216f, 505–506, 513–514, 533, 541 Puma concolor, 431 Puma concolor coryi developing a plan for genetic restoration, 366–367 identification of a problem, 366 implementation and results, 367

R Radio-collared snow leopard, 101 Radio telemetry, 381 Red deer, 462 Red fox, 492–493, 507 Red-listed Snow Leopard, 162 Red List of Threatened Species, 132 Red marmot, 482, 491–492 Red pandas, 355–356 Red pika, 491 Relict ground squirrel, 491 Religion and cultural impacts barys, 246 Pamir-Hindu Kush region biological and cultural diversity, 241–242 indigenous knowledge, 242 mergichan, 242–244 mountain people of, 242 Shamanism in Central Asian snow leopard cultures ethical scientists, 239 ICP, 235–237 snow leopard work brings the sciences together, 237–239 Tibetan Buddhist monastery-based snow leopard conservation branch of, 230

662 Religion and cultural impacts (Continued) connections between Tibetan Buddhism and snow leopards, 231–232 future prospects, 233–234 pilot conservation projects cooperating with monasteries, 233 scientific study of monasteries’ role in, 232–233 Reproduction, 23 Research in the beginning, 379–380 steady march of science advances in the lab to support work in field, 383–385 field surveys, 381 live animal research, 381–382 Resource Dependence, 152 Resource exploitation, 137–138 “Responsible Citizenship Education” (RCE), 283 Retaliation, 149 Retaliatory killing, 72–73, 75–76, 208–209, 212–213, 218, 220 Rickettsial diseases, 101 Rio Earth Summit, 235–236 Risk Perception, 152 Roe deer, 556–557 Royal Chitwan National Park, 534–535 Royle’s pika, 507 Russia, 77 conservation, 572–573 dietary analysis, 571–572 genetic structure of populations, 568–571 status, 566–568

S Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), 64–67, 535 Sailyugemsky National Park, 566 San Francisco Zoo, 333 Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve, 232 Sarcoptic mange, 102–103 SARS-CoV-2, 97–99, 341 Sarychat-Ertash State Reserve in Kyrgyzstan, 45 Sarychat landscape, 144–145

Index

Satellite-based cameras, 422–423 Satellite telemetry, 382 Satellite-tracked kills, 44, 44t Satellite tracking, 591–592 GPS collars, 15–16 Saur-Tarbagatai distribution, 474 population status, 478 “Save Our World”, 246 Sayano-Shushensky Nature Reserve, 567 School-based EE, 275–276 Shamanism in Central Asian snow leopard cultures ethical scientists, 239 ICP, 235–237 snow leopard work brings the sciences together, 237–239 Shey Phoksundo National Park, 531–532, 534–535 Shikar Safari Club, 255 Siberian ibex, 44–46, 48–49, 95–97, 214, 259–263, 430, 462, 482, 491, 556–557 Siberian roe deer, 491 “Silent” out breaks, 99–100 Sina Weibo, 586 Skull, 7–8 SLE. See Snow Leopard Enterprises (SLE) SMART Profiles system, 291, 295 Snowcock, 462 Snow Leopard Conservancy, 186, 210, 542 Snow Leopard Conservancy India Trust (SLC-IT), 187, 278 Snow Leopard Conservation Committees (SLCCs), 160 Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (SLCF), 192–193, 210–211 Snow leopard conservation units (SLCUs), 33 Snow Leopard Enterprises (SLE), 61 Mongolia challenges and opportunities, 195–196 CMLIS, 200–202 conservation contract, compliance, and consequences, 193 conservation impact, 194–195 direct conservation payments, 202–204

economic and social impact, 193–194 vision, 192 works, 192–193 Snow Leopard Foundation (SLF), 210–211, 218, 252 Snow Leopard Information Management System (SLIMS), 384–385, 536–537 discussion, 385 Snow Leopard Network (SLN), 284, 609–610 Snow leopard range-wide assessment and conservation planning (SLRAC) (2008), 619–623 Snow leopard status and conservation in Afghanistan current threats, 453–454 historical records and past conservation efforts, 451–452 measures to conserve community-based conservation, 457 legal and management frameworks, 456 research, 454–455 threat mitigation efforts, 456–457 transboundary initiatives, 457–458 present status assessment of existing and potential geographical range, 451–452 estimates of population, 453 Snow Leopard Survival Strategy, 608–609 Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (SLSS 2003), 617–619 Snow Leopard Survival Strategy, revised version 2014.1 (SLSS 2014), 625–626 Snow Leopard Survival Summit, 647 Snow Leopard Trust (SLT), 210–211, 348, 353–354, 649 in partnership with Snow Leopard Foundation (SLFK), 466–467 Social Interaction, 152 Sociality, 19–20 Social justice and governance, 173 South-East Asian Association of Zoos and Aquariums (SEAZA), 355 Southern ground hornbills, 348 Spatial capture-recapture (SCR) framework, 440

Index

Spatially Explicit Capture-Recapture (SECR) methods, 257 Specialist predator, 64, 67–68 Species Survival Plan (SSP), 353 Species Survival Plan programs, 334 Spermophilus relictus, 491 Spiti Valley, India, 65, 67 Sport hunting, 499–500 Standards for the Practice of Conservation, 167 State Agency for Environmental Protection and Forestry (SAEPF), 290, 463 Status China, 577–580 Mongolia decreases in prey, 557 infrastructure development and habitat degradation, 557–558 poaching, 558 snow leopard killing due to livestock depredation, 557 Russia, 566–568 Status of prey birds, 49 domestic livestock, 49 marmot, 49 mountain ungulates, 48–49 Steady march of science advances in the lab to support work in field, 383–385 field surveys, 381 live animal research, 381–382 St. Louis Zoo, 333 Stone marten, 544 Strategic environmental assessments (SEAs), 125 Strengthening organizations, 164 Subsistence hunting, 499 Survival of snow leopard biodiversity conservation, 649 climate change, 651–652 conservation, 652 education programs, 648 GPS-satellite collars, 650 overgrazing, 647–648 physical security, 648 predator-proof corrals, 649–650 Snow Leopard Survival Summit, 647 trophy hunting, 649 vaccination, 648

Sus scrofa, 556–557 Sympatric carnivores, Uzbekistan, 492–493

T Tail, 9 Tajikistan, 77 action plan, 487 challenges, 270–271 community-based and private conservancies, 483 community-based conservancies, 268–270 concessions managing Marco Polo argali, 266–267 future needs and priorities, 487 habitat in, 481–482 legal protection, 486–487 Markhor conservancies, 267–268 NSLEP 2014–20, 487 population status, 482 protected areas, 483 state of key prey species, 482 threats decline of key prey species, 484 decrease in prey availability, 485 degradation and fragmentation of habitat, 484 poaching in connection with illegal trade, 485 reduction in the prey base, 484–485 retaliatory killing, 485–486 Tajikistan’s Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast, 280 Taxonomic history and geographical variation fossil record, 4–5 phylogeny, 5–6 Teeth and jaws, 8–9 Telemetry, 382 Temperature, 81–82 Tencent public welfare, 586 Teresken, 485 Territoriality and home ranges, 20–21 Tetraogallus altaicus, 556–557 Tetraogallus himalayensis, 482 Tetraogallus spp., 462 The Nature Conservancy (TNC), 118 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), 151

663 Thermal sensor, 430, 433–434 Threat Reduction Assessment (TRA), 195–196 Threats Bhutan climate change, 509 direct, 508 indirect, 508 India, 520 Mongolia decreases in prey, 557 infrastructure development and habitat degradation, 557–558 poaching, 558 snow leopard killing due to livestock depredation, 557 Uzbekistan armed human conflict, 499 conflicts with local herders, 498–499 decrease of prey species populations, 499 grazing, 500 human land use, collection of natural products, 500 live capture of cubs and adults, 498 natural mortality, 499 sport hunting, 499–500 subsistence hunting, 499 traditional snow leopard hunting, 498 Thylacinus cynocephalus, 63 Tibetan Buddhist monastery-based snow leopard conservation branch of, 230 connections between Tibetan Buddhism and snow leopards, 231–232 pilot conservation projects cooperating with monasteries, 233 scientific study of monasteries’ role in, 232–233 Tibetan snowcock, 482 Tien Shan Ecosystem Development projects, 303 Tiger, 357, 505 Timber, 133 Tolai hare, 482, 491 Tost Tosonbumba Nature Reserve, South Gobi, Mongolia., 199

664 Toxoplasma gondii, 99–100, 102 Trade routes, 75, 75t Traditional medicine, 129–130 TRAFFIC, 72 Transboundary coordination, 300 Transboundary initiatives challenges in, 301–302 current status of transboundary protected areas, 301–302 high-elevation ecosystems, 297 international boundary, 307, 307–308t legal framework for, 300–301 political borders, 297 rationale for transboundary collaboration, 298–300 telemetry studies, 297 Treeline shift, 86 Trophy hunting, 649 Kyrgyzstan, 265–266 in Mongolia, 259–263 prey populations through community participation achievements, 256–257 desirable future, 258 Gilgit-Baltistan, 253–255 history of, 251–253 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 255–256 lessons learned, 257–258 in Northern Pakistan, 251 opportunities, 257 program implementation mechanism, 252–253 Tajikistan, 266–270 Tropical forest systems, 173 Trust and Nature Conservation Foundation, 210 Tsagan Shibetu Ridge, 566 T. tibetanus, 482 Turkestan lynx, 492–493

Index

Ursus thibetanus, 507, 541 US Agency for International Development, 159 Uzbekistan, 77–78 existing protected areas and conservation effectiveness Chatkal biosphere reserve, 494 Gissar biosphere reserve, 494–497 Ugam-Chatkal National Park, 497 Zaamin National Park, 497 Zaamin reserve, 497 GSLEP process, 502 habitat, 491 history, national strategy and action plan, 500–501 planned protected area expansion, 497–498 prey species Menzbier’s marmot, 491–492 Red marmot, 492 Siberian ibex, 491 status, 489–500 sympatric carnivores, 492–493 threats armed human conflict, 499 conflicts with local herders, 498–499 decrease of prey species populations, 499 grazing, 500 human land use, collection of natural products, 500 live capture of cubs and adults, 498 natural mortality, 499 sport hunting, 499–500 subsistence hunting, 499 traditional snow leopard hunting, 498

U Ugam-Chatkal National Park, 497 Uncia uncia schneideri, 4 UNESCO-initiated ecotourism program, 161 Ungulate predation, 63–64 Ungulates, 214–215, 217 United Nations, World Bank, 159 Urial, 482 Ursus arctos, 149–150, 541 Ursus arctos horribilis, 389–390

V Vaccination, 219–221, 223 Value Orientation, Social Interactions, 152 Vegetation, 46 Very high frequency (VHF) telemetry snow leopard studies, 390–393 the technology, 389–390 Village reserves, 215–217

landscape-level planning, 217 in operation, 215–217 wild ungulate population, 217 Viral diseases, 97–100 Viral infections, 99 Vulpes vulpes, 507, 544

W Wakhan National Park of Afghanistan, 209 Wakhan Pamir Association (WPA), 181, 209, 457 Wangchuck Centennial National Park (WCNP), 505–506 Watersheds, 173–174 Weasel, 544 Weather phenomena, 86–87 WeChat, 585 Western Tien Shan distribution, 471–472 population status, 476–477 Wetlands, 84 White-naped cranes, 355–356 Wild boar, 491, 556–557 Wild dog, 507 Wildlife conservation, 160 Wildlife Conservation and Development Society (WCDS), 180 Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), 180, 252, 355 Wildlife crime, 288–293, 295 Wildlife law enforcement, Mongolia, 562–563 Wildlife laws, 159 Wildlife management recommendations, 149–150 Wildlife Parks and Environment Department, Pakistan, 304 Wildlife Trafficking Threat Analysis, 290 Wild prey, 546–548 conservation management of, 67–69 local depletion of, 63 in Sagarmatha National Park, 65–67 scarcity of, 64 in Spiti Valley, 67 Wild ungulates, 45–46 Wolf, 55, 149–150, 159–160, 507

665

Index

Wolf spatiotemporal interactions, 139, 141 Woodcutting, 133–134 Wood harvesting, 133–134 Wool, 192, 196 World Bank Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Program, 458 World Customs Organization, 289 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 252, 466

World Zoo Conservation Strategy, 330 Wroclaw Zoo, 325 Wuppertal Zoo, 349 WWF-Mongolia, International Snow Leopard Trust, 192

X Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regional Forestry Department (XUARFD), 304

Y Yersinia pestis, 101

Z Zaamin National Park, 497 Zaamin reserve, 497 Zoo-based studies, 17 Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS), 334 “Zootsentr” organization, 71

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