Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition: Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Smart Learning Ecosystems and Regional ... in Sustainability Science and Technology) 9819957907, 9789819957903

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Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology

Mihai Dascalu Óscar Mealha Sirje Virkus   Editors

Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Smart Learning Ecosystems and Regional Development

Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology Series Editors Robert J. Howlett, Bournemouth University and KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK John Littlewood, School of Art and Design, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK Lakhmi C. Jain, KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK

The book series aims at bringing together valuable and novel scientific contributions that address the critical issues of renewable energy, sustainable building, sustainable manufacturing, and other sustainability science and technology topics that have an impact in this diverse and fast-changing research community in academia and industry. The areas to be covered are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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High quality content is an essential feature for all book proposals accepted for the series. It is expected that editors of all accepted volumes will ensure that contributions are subjected to an appropriate level of reviewing process and adhere to KES quality principles. The series will include monographs, edited volumes, and selected proceedings.

Mihai Dascalu · Óscar Mealha · Sirje Virkus Editors

Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Smart Learning Ecosystems and Regional Development

Editors Mihai Dascalu Department of Computer Science University Politehnica of Bucharest Bucharest, Romania

Óscar Mealha Department of Communication and Art University of Aveiro Aveiro, Portugal

Sirje Virkus School of Digital Technologies Tallinn University Tallinn, Estonia

ISSN 2662-6829 ISSN 2662-6837 (electronic) Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology ISBN 978-981-99-5790-3 ISBN 978-981-99-5540-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

The 8th International Conference on Smart Learning Ecosystem and Regional Development (SLERD) focused on the role of smart learning ecosystems in driving the green and digital transition. The conference acknowledged the need to adapt our lifestyles, consumption habits, learning methods, and tools in response to energy crises and conflicts. The future of education involves digital transformation and leveraging technology to create inclusive, equitable, relevant, and sustainable learning environments. The conference covered key topics, including fostering intelligent education and smart cities, exploring telepresence technology in education, discussing the digital transformation of education systems, and investigating game-based learning and gamification. The conference highlighted the importance of considering the environment in both industrial and economic transitions and educational institutions. Sustainable development goals extend beyond industry and economy to encompass learning institutions. Digital technologies were identified as critical for achieving climate neutrality, renewable energy, circular economy, and biodiversity restoration. However, the consumption of digital technologies must be monitored and controlled. These changes in education and technology have implications for learning and the skills needed. Adapting to a rapidly transforming technological landscape and labor market, along with developing green skills and climate awareness, are deemed essential. The conference emphasized that ensuring a fair transition requires increased social investment in education and lifelong learning within a just transition framework. Thus, the conference served as a platform for discussing and exploring innovative approaches and solutions to leverage technology for sustainable and inclusive education while also addressing the pressing environmental concerns of our time. SLERD 2023 was a hybrid event organized by Tallinn University in Estonia in partnership with ASLERD (Association for Smart Learning Ecosystems and Regional Development). ASLERD is an international non-profit interdisciplinary and scientific-professional association dedicated to supporting the development of smarter learning ecosystems and playing a pivotal role in regional development and

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social innovation. The University of Aveiro in Portugal, represented by its DigiMedia Research Group, also played a crucial role in co-organizing this hybrid edition of SLERD. The received submissions for SLERD 2023 conference comprised authors from 14 diverse countries, including EU member states such as Austria, Estonia, Finland, France, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and Romania. Additionally, submissions came from China, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States, indicating a strong global interest and partnership in the highlighted topics. Following a meticulous double-blind peer-review and meta-review process, 8 studies were accepted as extended studies, and 8 were accepted as short papers out of 24 submissions. These SLERD 2023 proceedings, published by Springer under the series Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, hold immense relevance for researchers, post-graduate students, teachers, designers, and policymakers concerned about smart learning ecosystems as catalysts for the green and digital transition. It has been a great honor to be part of this scientific community and serve as the publishing chair in this edition of SLERD. The final selection of papers reflects the outstanding work of all the authors, showcasing their excellence and the rigorous decision-making and publishing processes. We owe much of this success to the tireless efforts and unwavering support of our Conference and Program Committees, comprised of 40 international expert researchers. We extend our heartfelt appreciation to all of them for dedicating their time and organizing this event with tremendous enthusiasm and unwavering commitment. Bucharest, Romania Aveiro, Portugal Tallinn, Estonia June 2023

Mihai Dascalu Óscar Mealha Sirje Virkus

Contents

Fostering Intelligent Education and Smart Cities Academic Staff Perceptions and Attitudes Towards Learning Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sirje Virkus, Sigrid Mandre, and Tiina Kasuk Enhancing Load Evaluation in Intelligent Tutoring Systems Through Velocity-Based Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vincent Guarnieri, Laurentiu-Marian Neagu, Eric Rigaud, Sébastien Travadel, and Mihai Dascalu

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Intelligent Tutoring System and Learning: Complexity and Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michele Della Ventura

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How Cities Can Learn: Key Concepts, Role of ICT and Research Gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pradipta Banerjee and Sobah Abbas Petersen

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Smart Cities and Smart Regions Roadmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ralf-Martin Soe

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Telepresence Technology in Education Telepresence—Social Justice for the Online “Other”? Understanding Inclusive Hybrid Learning Environment in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Jessica Blakeborough and Triin Roosalu HoloLearn: Towards a Hologram Mediated Hybrid Education . . . . . . . . . 117 Bibeg Limbu, Roland van Roijen, Michel Beerens, and Marcus Specht

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Using Telepresence Robots for Remote Participation in Technical Subjects in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Mohammad Tariq Meeran, Janika Leoste, Fuad Budagov, Jaanus Pöial, and Kristel Marmor Digital Transformation in Education The Transformation of Art Teaching Process: A Qualitative Study of Digitally Mediated Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Antonina Korepanova and Kai Pata The Digital Turn in Social Work Education and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Karmen Toros, Asgeir Falch-Eriksen, Rafaela Lehtme, Koidu Saia, Alison McInnes, Sarah Soppitt, Rebecca Oswald, and Samantha Walker Sustainable Digital Transition with Students’ Experience and Smartphones at the D. Maria II School Cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Maria José Fonseca and Óscar Mealha A Case Study of Participatory Video as Teaching Digital Storytelling Against Climate-Driven Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Katharina Koller, Evangelos Kapros, Martina Lindorfer, and Maria Koutsombogera Exploring Game-Based Learning and Gamification in Education Implementation of Minecraft in Education to Introduce Sustainable Development Goals: Approaching Renewable Energy Through Game-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Tamás Kersánszki, Zoltán Márton, Kristóf Fenyvesi, Zsolt Lavicza, and Ildikó Holik A Systematic Mapping Review of Research Concerning the Use of Games in Teacher Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Francesca Pozzi, Erica Volta, Marcello Passarelli, and Donatella Persico Unplugging Math: Integrating Computational Thinking into Mathematics Education Through Poly-Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 - c, Filiz Mumcu, Mathias Tejera, Eva Schmidthaler, Branko Andi´ and Zsolt Lavicza Design of an Adaptive Hybrid Gamification Teaching Method and Its Practice in Computer Science and Animation Teaching . . . . . . . . 265 Xiaozhu Wang, Li Wang, Shengzhuo Liu, and Paul Adams

About the Editors

Mihai Dascalu is a professor at the University Politehnica of Bucharest with a strong background in Computer Science applied to Education. He has extensive experience in national and international research projects with more than 300 published papers, including 30 articles at top-tier conferences, 100+ papers indexed by ISI at renowned international conferences, and 10+ Q1 journal papers. Complementary to his competencies in NLP, technology-enhanced learning, and discourse analysis, Mihai holds a multitude of professional certifications and extensive experience on strategic projects on non-refundable funds. Moreover, Mihai obtained a Senior Fulbright scholarship in 2015, has become a Fulbright ambassador since 2018, and holds a US patent. Mihai is also a corresponding member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists. Óscar Mealha is a full professor at the Department of Communication and Art, University of Aveiro (UA), Portugal. He develops his research at DigiMedia Research Centre/UA, in the area of “Information and Communication in Digital Platforms” in the context of “Knowledge Media and Connected Communities” with several projects, masters and doctoral supervisions, and publications on interaction design and analysis techniques and methods, namely for UX design and evaluation, usability evaluation, and visualization of interaction/infocommunication activity. He is involved in infocommunication mediation projects such as “Unified Communication & Collaboration” with IT companies, “Visualization of Open Data Dashboards for Citizen Engagement and Learning” in municipalities and smart territories, and “Knowledge Interface School-Society (KISS)” with school clusters within the scientific network ASLERD. He is currently the director of 2 doctoral programs: one on New Media and the other on Information and Communication in Digital Platforms, a joint program of the University of Aveiro and University of Porto. Sirje Virkus is a professor of Information Science and Head of the Study Area of Information Sciences at the School of Digital Technologies at Tallinn University. She holds a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Studies from the Manchester Metropolitan University. She has an extensive experience working with educational innovation and research in the higher education sector in Estonia. She was ix

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one of the initiators and teachers of the international collaborative Erasmus Mundus MA program Digital Library Learning (DILL) (2007–2020). Her research interests are focused on the development of information-related competencies (data literacy, information literacy, digital literacy, media literacy), ICT innovation in education, and internationalization. She has written more than 250 research publications. She belongs to the editorial board of several high-quality scientific journals and conference program committees and book series. She has received the State Decoration with the Order of the White Star (4th Class) of the Estonian President in 2021 and appointed as an alumni of the Century of Tallinn University (among 100 people who have made a significant contribution to the development of Estonian society, education, and culture) in 2019.

Fostering Intelligent Education and Smart Cities

Academic Staff Perceptions and Attitudes Towards Learning Analytics Sirje Virkus , Sigrid Mandre, and Tiina Kasuk

Abstract The interest towards using learning analytics in a variety of educational contexts is growing, as they have a great potential to enable data-informed decisionmaking for students, faculty and staff. This paper describes a study, examining the perceptions and attitudes of university academic staff towards learning analytics in two Estonian higher education institutions. This research aimed to obtain information on how the academic staff perceived the role of learning analytics in enhancing learning and teaching in higher education, and what challenges they face. The study found that academic staff had a mostly positive perception of learning analytics and expressed the need for access to data on student progress, learning materials engagement, prior knowledge and technology familiarity. The major challenges and obstacles associated with the implementation and adoption of learning analytics in higher education from the perspective of academic staff were concerns about ethics and privacy, need for training and support, and technical challenges. The successful implementation and use of learning analytics in higher education requires careful consideration of these challenges and obstacles, as well as strategies to address them. Keywords Learning analytics · Academic staff · Perceptions · Challenges

1 Introduction In recent years, there has been a growing global interest in smart learning, encompassing various aspects such as smart learning environments, smart learning ecosystems and smart education [1]. Zhu et al. [2] have proposed a comprehensive framework for smart education, highlighting key components such as location, context S. Virkus (B) · S. Mandre Tallinn University, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia e-mail: [email protected] T. Kasuk Tallinn University of Technology, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_1

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and social awareness. Additionally, they emphasize the importance of interoperability, adaptability, ubiquity, seamless connectivity, interactivity, personalisation and data-driven approaches. Learning analytics and smart learning environments are closely interconnected as learning analytics uses data from smart learning environments to provide insights and recommendations, while smart learning environments use learning analytics to optimize personalized learning experiences. Together, they contribute to increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of education. In response to this trend, higher education institutions (HEIs) are increasingly adopting learning analytics to facilitate data-driven decision-making for students, faculty, and staff [3]. Learning analytics is considered a creative innovation in the field of learning and teaching due to its novelty, effectiveness, and holistic impact [4]. Its benefits can be broadly classified into management-related, teaching and learning-related, and research-related aspects [5]. However, despite its advantages, the widespread adoption of learning analytics across all HEIs still faces various challenges and obstacles [6]. In their comprehensive examination of patterns and trends in smart learning research and practice, Li and Wong [1] emphasize the significance of investigating teachers’ perspectives and perceptions regarding smart learning technologies. This includes exploring their preparedness to utilize such technologies, as well as identifying the challenges they face and their specific requirements for support. The aim of this paper is to present the results of a study that examined the perceptions and attitudes of academic staff towards learning analytics in two higher education institutions located in Estonia. The research process was guided by the following Research Questions (RQs): . RQ1: What is the current state of learning analytics in higher education? . RQ2: How do academic staff perceive the implementation and impact of learning analytics in higher education? . RQ3: What are the major challenges and obstacles associated with the implementation and adoption of learning analytics in higher education from the perspective of academic staff? Learning analytics is defined in this paper as “the measurement, collection, analysis and reporting of data about learners and their contexts, for purposes of understanding and optimising learning and the environments in which it occurs” [7]. This paper is structured as follows: Sect. 2 provides a review of the literature that underpins the theoretical framework of this study, and addresses RQ1. In Sect. 3, the methods for research, data collection and analysis are discussed. The findings of the study are presented in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5, the findings and conclusions are presented.

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2 Literature Review This section provides an overview of the key concepts and background information that underpin the use of learning analytics in higher education (HE). First, in the Sect. 2.1 the origins of learning analytics are discussed, Sect. 2.2 explores the definition of learning analytics and related concepts, Sect. 2.3 gives an overview of learning analytics-related activities, Sect. 2.4 investigates learning analytics in higher education and Sect. 2.5 challenges and barriers of learning analytics in higher education. This literature review was conducted based on the literature published in the Web of Science and Scopus databases in August 2021 using the keyword phrase “learning analytics”. The review was undertaken as part of the Erasmus + project “Accelerating the transition towards Edu 4.0 in HEIs”. A more comprehensive literature review on learning analytics will be published elsewhere.

2.1 The Origins of Learning Analytics The formal establishment of the field of learning analytics can be traced back to the inception of the First International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) in Banff, Alberta, Canada, in 2011 [7]. This conference was organized in response to the growing volume of data that exceeded organisations’ capacity to derive meaningful insights from it [8]. According to Ferguson [9], the development of learning analytics was propelled by the convergence of several factors, including the availability of large datasets, the widespread adoption of online learning and political concerns regarding educational standards. Nevertheless, there are several other fields that have also devoted themselves to studying data in education, albeit with slightly different methodological perspectives. One such field is Educational Data Mining (EDM) community, which was established prior to the emergence of the Learning Analytics (LA) community. The First International Conference on Educational Data Mining (EDM) took place in Montreal in 2008, while the Journal of Educational Data Mining (JEDM) was launched in 2009 following a series of workshops that had been held at major conferences since 2000 [8]. Two additional communities that place significant emphasis on data in education revolve around the ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale, which commenced in 2014, and the International Conference on Quantitative Ethnography, which began in 2019 [8]. The Learning at Scale community explores expansive, technologymediated learning environments characterized by numerous active learners and limited expert guidance to cater to individual needs. On the other hand, the Quantitative Ethnography community advocates and fosters research that integrates qualitative and quantitative analysis of human thought, behaviour and interaction.

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2.2 The Definition of Learning Analytics and Related Concepts Multiple definitions have been proposed for the term ‘learning analytics’ (LA). For instance, Elias [10, p. 4] defines LA as the “the selection, capture and processing of data that will be helpful for students and instructors at the course or individual level”. Another definition states that LA encompasses “the interpretation of a wide range of data produced by and gathered on behalf of students in order to assess academic progress, predict future performance, and spot potential issues” [11, p. 28]. Duval et al. [12] describe LA as the practice of “collecting traces that learners leave behind and using those traces to improve learning”. According to Ifenthaler [13], LA involves “the use of static and dynamic information about learners and learning environments, assessing, eliciting and analysing it, for real-time modelling, prediction and optimization of learning processes, learning environments as well as educational decision-making”. However, the definition of LA that enjoys the broadest acceptance stems from the conference organizing committee responsible for the inaugural edition of LAK. They defined LA as “the measurement, collection, analysis and reporting of data about learners and their contexts, for purposes of understanding and optimising learning and the environments in which it occurs” [7]. Brown [14, p. 1] emphasises an important aspect of this definition, namely, its clear differentiation between LA technology and its underlying purposes. The analytics technology itself provides valuable information and evidence that enable what he terms “sensemaking” or, as referred to elsewhere, decision-making. Brown underscores the critical significance of this distinction, as any institutional programme involving LA necessitates both a robust technology to capture and analyse data and effective plans and processes for taking action based on the analysis results. This widely accepted definition serves as a standard reference for LA and has received official endorsement from the Society for Learning Analytics Research (SoLAR), thereby highlighting LA’s overarching goal of leveraging data to enhance comprehensive understanding and improvement of educational systems [8]. The literature consistently emphasises the socio-technical aspect of LA [15, 16]. This viewpoint is manifested in the definition of LA endorsed by SoLAR, which states that LA utilizes data pertaining to the contextual factors influencing the learning process [7]. Similarly, the International Educational Data Mining Society (IEDMS) defined educational data mining in 2009 as aiming to “to better understand students, and the settings which they learn in” [8]. Viberg et al. [17] point out that some authors explicitly define LA as the use of student-generated data to predict educational outcomes and customize education [18, 19]. On the other hand, other scholars define LA as a tool for educators to investigate, comprehend and support students’ study behaviours while also facilitating changes in their learning environments [20]. It is worth noting that there exist several closely related terms, including Academic Analytics (AA) [21–23], Educational Data Science (EDS) [24, 25] and Educational Data Mining (EDM) [26–28].

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LA, AA and EDM are interconnected research domains. Academic Analytics (AA) focuses on facilitating institutional, operational and financial decision-making processes [23]. On the other hand, the primary objective of LA and EDM is to gain insights into the learning process of students. Through the analysis of extensive educational data, LA and EDM contribute to research and practical applications in the field of education. Both EDM and LA represent the rise of data-driven approaches in education, and their similarities indicate significant areas of overlap [17]. However, there are notable distinctions between these domains [29]. First, a key difference lies in the type of discovery that receives priority: EDM primarily focuses on automated discovery, while LA places a stronger emphasis on leveraging human judgment. Second, EDM models often serve as the foundation for automated adaptation carried out by computer systems, whereas LA models are typically developed to inform instructors and learners directly. Third, EDM researchers employ reductionist frameworks, breaking down phenomena into components and emphasizing the analysis of individual components and their relationships. In contrast, LA researchers place greater emphasis on comprehending complex systems as a whole [17]. Ferguson [9] highlights that EDM revolves around the technical challenge of extracting value from large datasets of learning-related information. Conversely, LA focuses on the educational challenge of optimizing opportunities for online learning. Lastly, AA tackles the political and economic challenge of significantly enhancing learning opportunities and educational outcomes at national or international levels.

2.3 Learning Analytics-Related Activities LA has undergone significant maturation since its inception. The field has witnessed growth in the recognition of its publication platforms, established a thriving community and exhibited an increasingly influential role in shaping policy and practice [8]. As early as 2011, the Horizon Report recognized LA as a potentially crucial future trend in the realm of learning and teaching [30]. In 2013, it further acknowledged LA as one of the foremost trends in technology-enhanced learning and teaching [31]. In 2021, the EDUCAUSE Horizon Report once again identifies learning analytics as one of the prominent technologies and practices that will have a substantial impact on the future of teaching and learning [32]. Over the past decade, numerous authors have contributed books and articles on LA, conferences, workshops and journals have incorporated the term in their titles, academic institutions have established professorships dedicated to LA, and several doctoral dissertations have been successfully completed. The subsequent sections highlight notable instances of these activities. Baker et al. [8] refer to three primary conferences that focus on data in education: . Educational Data Mining (EDM), founded in 2008; . Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK), founded in 2011 and . ACM Learning @ Scale (L@S), founded in 2014.

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Another noteworthy conference, Quantitative Ethnography (QE), was established in 2019 with a broader focus extending beyond learning and education. However, in its initial two iterations, the majority of the work presented at the conference pertained to the domains of learning and education. The establishment of the fifth conference, Artificial Intelligence and Education (AIED), predates the emergence of LA as a distinct area of research or inquiry, with its foundation dating back to 1989. Initially, AIED encompassed a broader scope, encompassing all applications and implementations of artificial intelligence in education. During its early years, AIED primarily featured research on designing intelligent systems for education and developing models of students for these systems. It can be argued that EDM originated as a separate subgroup within AIED, and AIED swiftly began publishing a substantial amount of research closely aligned with the focus of EDM [8]. Numerous other conferences have showcased the publication of research on LA and have dedicated special tracks specifically focused on LA and its associated themes. The Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) conference has published similar work to AIED throughout its history. Other conferences such as the International Conference on Learning Sciences (ICLS), Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL), the European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning (ECTEL), International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (EDULEARN), IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies ICALT Advanced Technologies for Supporting Open Access to Formal and Informal Learning, International Technology Education and Development Conference (INTED), Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation and Personalization (UMAP), Conference on Big Data Learning Analytics and Applications, ACM Conference on Recommender Systems (RecSys) publish LA work [8]. Several LA journals have been established. SoLAR established the Journal of Learning Analytics whose first issue was published in 2014. The first issue of the International Journal of Learning Analytics and Artificial Intelligence for Education was published in 2019. The Journal of Educational Data Mining (JEDM) was launched in 2009. In addition, many other journals publish articles on LA. According to the Web of Science database the main sources of LA publications are Computers in Human Behavior, British Journal of Educational Technology, Interactive Learning Environments, Computers and Education, Educational Technology Research and Development (ETR&D), Journal of Computer Assisted Learning and Technology Knowledge and Learning. In addition, there are a number of other journals that publish LA theme. Several prominent organizations centre their efforts on data in education. One such organization is the International Educational Data Mining Society (IEDMS), which was established in 2011 by the International Working Group on EDM. IEDMS serves as a bridge between researchers, the educational technology industry and various stakeholder groups. The EDM conference and JEDM are both organized by IEDMS. The Society for Learning Analytics Research (SoLAR), founded in 2011, serves as an interdisciplinary network comprising prominent international researchers who

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explore the role and impact of analytics on teaching, learning, training, and development. SoLAR has established a strong network of individual and institutional members and fostered robust connections with the educational technology industry. Notably, SoLAR has launched several initiatives, including special interest groups, webinar and podcast series, a newsletter, and a job board. The organization has been actively involved in organizing the LAK conferences, hosting the LAK Doctoral Consortium series and establishing the Learning Analytics Summer Institute (LASI) network. These initiatives aim to facilitate collaborative and open research in the field of LA, promote the publication and dissemination of LA research and provide guidance and consultancy to state, provincial and national governments [8]. The International Society for Quantitative Ethnography (ISQE) is a professional organization dedicated to supporting and advancing research that integrates qualitative and quantitative analysis of human thought, behaviour and interaction. ISQE serves as a platform for interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary scholarly engagements at the convergence of the humanities and social sciences. The society organizes the annual International Conference on Quantitative Ethnography (ICQE), hosts a monthly QE Webinar Series, and facilitates various other events that foster intellectual exchange, collaboration and community building. Furthermore, organizations such as EDUCAUSE, the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) and SURFnet are actively engaged in addressing inquiries related to LA and disseminating their findings to enhance knowledge within this domain [6]. Several doctoral dissertations related to LA have been successfully completed or are presently being supervised at diverse universities. The SoLAR PhD Thesis Hub maintains a compilation of doctoral dissertations since 2015, although it may not encompass the entirety of the database. Moreover, numerous professorships in LA have been established at universities worldwide. Since 2014, Europe has witnessed the execution of a substantial number of projects with a primary focus on LA.

2.4 Learning Analytics in Higher Education The higher education setting remains the predominant domain for research in LA. A study conducted by Dawson et al. [16] reveals that 60% of LA publications are centred around the HE context. In-depth reviews specifically focusing on HE have identified several critical aspects of LA research that merit consideration. Avella et al. [33] conducted a systematic literature review aiming to provide a comprehensive overview of the methods, benefits and challenges of LA in HE. The review identified several commonly employed methods, such as data visualization techniques, social network analysis, semantic and educational data mining encompassing prediction, clustering, relationship mining and model-based discovery. The separation of data for human judgment in data analysis was also emphasized. While challenges associated with LA research included aspects such as data tracking, collection, evaluation, analysis, limited connection to learning sciences, optimization of learning environments, and ethical and privacy concerns, the benefits were

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found to encompass targeted course offerings, curriculum development, improved student learning outcomes, behavioural and process analysis, personalized learning approaches, enhanced instructor performance, post-education employment prospects and advancements in educational research [33]. In another comprehensive overview of the field of LA [34], the focus was placed on analysing current research trends, limitations, methods and key stakeholders. The findings revealed that key areas of research in LA included the utilization of MOOCs, improvement of learning performance, student behaviour analysis and benchmarking of learning environments. The limitations highlighted in the study encompassed factors such as the time required to prepare data and obtain results, the size of available datasets and examined groups, as well as ethical considerations. Among the employed methods, prediction, distillation of data for human judgment and outlier detection emerged as the most frequently used approaches in the HE domain. The main stakeholders identified were predominantly researchers, which contrasts with the emphasis placed on learners and their learning environments in the definition of LA by a significant number of LA scholars [7, 17]. Ferguson and Clow [35] conducted an exploration into the potential of LA to enhance learning practices in HE. Their analysis focused on four key propositions regarding the impact of LA: (1) improvement of learning outcomes, (2) support for learning and teaching, (3) wide deployment and (4) ethical usage. The authors noted that many studies lacked strong evidence either supporting or refuting these propositions. Among the analysed 28 papers, the majority of evidence pertained to the proposition that LA enhance learning support and teaching, specifically related to retention, completion and progression. This evidence has been categorized as indicative of LA’s positive influence on teaching within universities. However, the research exhibited certain weaknesses, including limited geographical coverage, knowledge gaps (such as in the realm of informal learning and the absence of negative evidence), limited evaluation of commercially available tools and inadequate attention to ethical considerations. Other studies [36, 37] have also explored the research on LA and EDM in the HE context, corroborating many of the aforementioned findings as cited in [17]. In their literature review, Sin and Muthu [36] identified major trends within EDM articles, which focused on new EDM techniques and the analysis of student performance. Similarly, within LA articles, the major trends revolved around the development of LA designs and models, the utilization of LA as an assessment tool, and the exploration of methods in EDM and LA. These studies provide further support for the emerging themes and directions within the fields of EDM and LA in HE. Viberg et al. [17] investigated the utilization of LA research in various HE settings, disciplines and institutional types. They conducted an analysis of 252 papers on LA in HE that were published between 2012 and 2018. The study focused on research approaches, methods and the evidence supporting the use of LA. The evidence was evaluated based on four previously validated propositions: (1) the impact of LA on improving learning outcomes, (2) its role in supporting learning and teaching, (3) the extent of its implementation and (4) its ethical usage. The results indicated a lack of substantial evidence demonstrating improvements in students’ learning outcomes

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(9%), limited support for learning and teaching (35%), low levels of widespread deployment (6%) and ethical utilization (18%). Despite the identified potential to enhance learner practice, there has been minimal implementation of the suggested potential in HE practice over the years. However, the analysis of existing LA evidence suggests a recent shift toward gaining a deeper understanding of students’ learning experiences. Tsai et al. [44] conducted an analysis of the adoption of LA in European HE, utilizing survey and interview data collected from 83 institutions across 24 countries. The survey encompassed various aspects, including adoption status, maturity level, existing initiatives, infrastructure, strategies, policies, legal and ethical considerations, and evaluation frameworks. Within the LA maturity section, participants were asked to evaluate stakeholder engagement, success metrics, institutional culture, data capabilities, legal and ethical awareness, and training opportunities. The authors identified gaps in the roles of teachers and students regarding LA adoption and reflected on the conceptualization and application of LA. The study sheds light on the obstacles that impede the scaling of LA, presents cases of technological innovation approaches employed by HEIs and identifies challenges that researchers and practitioners need to address to harness the full potential of LA. LA was primarily perceived as a tool for improving teaching and management, with staff members as the primary users and recipients of training. However, limited student engagement and the underdevelopment of self-regulated learning were observed. The authors emphasized the importance of grounding LA in learning science principles and involving students in the design and implementation of LA initiatives. Gibson and Ifenthaler [45] assert that LA has the potential to revolutionize and reshape learning and teaching practices in HE across five key domains: (1) student recruitment, (2) fostering effective learning, (3) providing timely and relevant content, (4) employing contemporary delivery methods and (5) offering support to learners through a network of accomplished alumni who continue to make a positive impact on the world.

2.5 Challenges and Barriers of Learning Analytics in Higher Education The utilization of LA presents a set of challenges and barriers that must be addressed to ensure successful adoption. Ferguson [9] identifies two main challenges: connecting LA to learning sciences and maintaining a learner-centred approach. Sutherland et al. [46] highlight the difficulty of making data actionable for various stakeholders. Egetenmeier and Hommel [6], on the other hand, emphasize that challenges can arise in relation to LA research or the actual adoption process itself. The literature review uncovered a range of challenges associated with LA, encompassing aspects such as data tracking, collection, analysis, scope, quality, evaluation,

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theoretical and educational foundations, connection with learning sciences, optimization of the learning environment, emerging technology, and ethical concerns regarding legal and privacy issues [5, 9, 14, 30, 33, 47–58]. El Alfy et al. [5] categorized the challenges of LA into three categories: management-related challenges, teaching and learning-related challenges, and research-related challenges. Banihashem et al. [58], on the other hand, classified LA challenges into technical and educational categories. The technical challenges involve data tracking, collection and evaluation, while they identified three key educational challenges: ethics and privacy, scope and quality of data, and theoretical and educational foundations. The literature highlights several significant barriers to the implementation of LA, including (a) an unsupportive organizational culture, (b) a lack of leadership support, (c) a shortage of staff, (d) insufficient time, (e) resistance from staff, (f) limited availability of resources, g) concerns regarding ethics and privacy, (h) unclear goals for LA, (i) uneven data literacy among academics, (j) a lack of expertise in analytics, (k) insufficient availability of actionable data, (l) the relative immaturity of LA systems and tools, (m) the absence of a legal framework and (n) a failure to involve students and teachers in the design process of LA solutions [38–43]. Hence, the utilization of LA is a complex and multifaceted endeavour that gives rise to numerous considerations, encompassing ethical and legal challenges, divergent stakeholder perspectives, and decisions regarding implementation. Recognizing the imperative need for input from diverse stakeholders, it is important to acknowledge that while the education sector acknowledges the pivotal role of students, a substantial portion of the literature predominantly reflects an academic, teachercentric or institutional viewpoint [59]. Banihashem et al. [58] emphasize the crucial significance of attending to the theoretical, pedagogical and educational foundations in LA.

3 Methodology This study was conducted as part of the project “Accelerating the transition towards Edu 4.0 in HEIs” (TEACH4EDU4). The project aims to address the requirements of Industry 4.0 through a strategic partnership that will develop and foster a vision and solutions for expediting the corresponding transition within HEIs towards Education 4.0. This transition involves aligning humans and technologies to enable the acquisition of skills, competences and knowledge necessary in the twenty-first century. One specific objective of the project was to create a Guidebook on leveraging learning data to make informed decisions regarding empirical learning design. The primary target audience for this project comprises students and academic staff in HEIs. The project commenced in November 2020 and is scheduled to conclude in May 2023. Funding for the project is provided by the Erasmus + Programme, specifically under the Strategic Partnerships for Higher Education (Key Action 203) (https://teach4 edu4-project.eu/).

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3.1 Data Collection and Analysis The focus group interviews were conducted with 12 academic staff members, with the aim of gaining insight into their experiences and expectations for learning analytics and related services. The participants represented various disciplines, including information sciences, natural sciences and educational sciences. The research question addressed in these interviews was “What are the experiences and expectations of academic staff regarding the use of learning analytics to support evidence-driven teaching and learning in higher education?” The interviews took place in September 2021 and were divided into three focus groups, with participant numbers of two, six and four respectively. Each focus group session lasted for 1.5 h. The sample group consisted of ten women and two men, with ages ranging from 28 to 60+. The focus group interviews were guided by a thorough literature review, and the questions were organized into several categories: institutional policy and strategy, goals of learning analytics, necessary data for supporting learning and teaching, required services and support, ethics and privacy considerations, and challenges/ concerns associated with the use of learning analytics. This structured approach allowed the researchers to gain valuable insights into a wide range of crucial factors that can impact the implementation and acceptance of LA in HE. In addition to the focus group interviews, six additional interviews were conducted with academic staff members from two different universities. These interviewees had not participated in the previous focus group sessions. The participants represented various disciplines, including information sciences, natural sciences, educational sciences (including educational administration and management) and technologyenhanced learning. The interviewees ranged in age from 31 to 55 years. All interviews were recorded and transcribed for analysis. Two researchers performed qualitative content analysis on the interview transcripts, identifying common themes and resolving any differences through negotiation.

4 Results The second research question was How do academic staff perceive the implementation and impact of learning analytics in higher education? To answer this question, we conducted focus group interviews and individual interviews with academic staff who were capable of providing insights on this research topic. The academic staff in the study had a predominantly positive perception regarding the use and impact of learning analytics. They held the belief that learning analytics had the potential to enhance student learning by improving retention and engagement, facilitating personalized learning, and supporting evidence-based teaching practices that catered to the individual needs of students. It is worth noting that none of the study participants expressed a negative opinion on the usefulness of learning analytics. During the interviews, several participants expressed the following opinions:

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S. Virkus et al. By collecting and analysing data from various sources, such as student performance on assessments and engagement with learning materials, educators can gain insights into student progress and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly. This data-driven approach can help identify areas where students need additional support and provide targeted interventions to help them succeed I would find it helpful to have access to data on which documents students download, engage with, and which pages they visit…. Having a complete overview of the students’ profiles before the course begins is crucial to understand their needs and expectations regarding content and delivery options. I would like to receive information on students’ prior knowledge of the course topic to ensure that the course is delivered at the appropriate level. I am interested in knowing which topics and components of the courses are most enthusiastically received by participants and which are most useful for them. It is also essential to collect specific information about participants’ access and familiarity with the available technology.

The academic staff required primarily two types of statistics: (1) engagement statistics, including site statistics and logs, quiz/course activity statistics, course access, time spent learning, session metrics (tools and content accessed, frequency), (2) performance statistics, such as participation in discussions, course participation, gradebook scores (quizzes, exams, homework submissions), journals, collaborative exercises, resource utilization, course progress, frequency of access (how often a resource or activity is accessed and for how long. The lecturers mainly received data and information about students through the university-wide feedback system in the Study Information System, where both qualitative and quantitative information is analysed. The standard quality procedures and criteria of universities were surveys after each semester (students provided feedback on the content of study subjects, programmes and other aspects of academic life by completing online questionnaires). The purpose of which is to mainly facilitate the development of a self-directed learner, which also provides the opportunity for teaching staff for more systematic analyses of their teaching experience and, if required, receiving further support. Lecturers can access student feedback (number of students enrolled in the subject, number of students evaluating the subject, assessment spread in frequency and percentage and remarks made by students) in the Study Information System. Teachers can access only the evaluation results of the subjects they are responsible for. In addition, the interviewees used to gather data and information about learners on their own initiative, using various data collection methods and tools such as the learning analytics capabilities of Moodle, social software, online questionnaires and online discussion forums. Some lecturers used diagnostic surveys before the start of courses to identify students’ prior knowledge and expectations regarding course content, delivery methods and technology. The interviewees were not aware of any university, school or department-level strategies for systematic use of learning analytics. One respondent mentioned that there are some researchers at the university whose main focus is on learning analytics, but they mainly focus on schools rather than universities and their research findings

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have not found their way into higher education practice. Other lecturers felt that they were making efforts in the field of learning analytics on their own and lacked the necessary support from the university. None of the study participants had attended a course that included modern learning analytics tools, and they could not even recall being aware of such courses being offered. It was also found that the implementation and impact of learning analytics in higher education can vary depending on various factors such as organizational culture, training and support available, and individual beliefs and attitudes. The third research question was What are the major challenges and obstacles associated with the implementation and adoption of learning analytics in higher education from the perspective of academic staff? The use of modern learning analytics tools by academic staff can present several challenges. The academic staff identified three main implementation challenges: (1) concerns about ethics and privacy, (2) need for training and support and (3) technical challenges. The concerns about ethics and privacy in learning analytics include the security and ownership of data, the potential for bias in the data, and the implications of data collection and use on student privacy. There were also concerns regarding the collection and analysis of data, as well as the utilization of insights derived from learning analytics in making decisions about students. Academic staff also found that they need training and support to effectively use and interpret learning analytics data, as well as to address any concerns or challenges that arise. It was also mentioned that academic staff may not have a clear understanding of what learning analytics is and how it can be used to enhance teaching and learning. Without adequate training and support, academic staff may not fully understand how to use learning analytics or may not feel confident in their ability to use it effectively. The interviewees also expressed the view that the implementation of learning analytics requires technical expertise and infrastructure, which may not be readily available or accessible to all academic staff. This can create barriers to adoption and implementation of learning analytics, such as difficulty in interpreting the data or integrating it with existing study information systems. Thus, the successful implementation and use of learning analytics in higher education requires careful consideration of these challenges and obstacles, as well as strategies to address them. Effective communication, collaboration and support are key to overcoming these challenges and ensuring that academic staff are able to use learning analytics to improve teaching and learning outcomes.

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5 Discussion and Conclusions The paper discusses the perceptions of academic staff regarding the implementation and impact of learning analytics in higher education. The study found that the academic staff had a mostly positive perception of learning analytics, believing it had the potential to improve student learning by enhancing engagement, facilitating personalized learning and supporting evidence-based teaching practices. The study participants expressed the need for access to data on student progress, learning materials engagement, prior knowledge and technology familiarity. Academic staff mainly needed two types of statistics: engagement statistics (site and quiz/course activity, time spent learning, tools and content accessed) and performance statistics (participation, grades, resource utilization, frequency of access). The participants also mentioned that the implementation and impact of learning analytics can vary depending on factors such as organizational culture, available training and support, and individual beliefs and attitudes. The study participants note that there is a lack of university-wide strategies for the systematic use of learning analytics and that some lecturers feel unsupported in their efforts to incorporate learning analytics into their teaching practice. The major challenges and obstacles associated with the implementation and adoption of learning analytics in higher education from the perspective of academic staff were concerns about ethics and privacy, need for training and support, and technical challenges. The concerns about ethics and privacy in learning analytics included the security and ownership of data, potential for bias in the data, and implications of data collection and use on student privacy. Academic staff also found that they need training and support to effectively use and interpret learning analytics data, as well as to address any concerns or challenges that arise. The interviewees also expressed the view that the implementation of learning analytics requires technical expertise and infrastructure, which may not be readily available or accessible to all academic staff. The successful implementation and use of learning analytics in higher education requires careful consideration of these challenges and obstacles, as well as strategies to address them.

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Enhancing Load Evaluation in Intelligent Tutoring Systems Through Velocity-Based Training Vincent Guarnieri, Laurentiu-Marian Neagu, Eric Rigaud, Sébastien Travadel, and Mihai Dascalu

Abstract Personalized learning is one of the main characteristics of an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS). In the case of strength development, individualization consists in defining exercise characteristics starting from a program template and adjusting the function of several data such as trainee characteristics, calibration test results, fatigue level estimation, or estimation of the number of repetitions in reserve. A recent ITS built for supporting the development of strength skills is Selfit, currently in the second release. Most data collected within Selfit is subjective and relies on trainees’ self-evaluation abilities. To complete them with objective ones, a study evaluating the relevance of Velocity-Based Training (VBT) demonstrates that an ITS’s GUI module can collect the speed of realization of a movement performed by a trainee through computer vision technologies. A batch of 25 athletes, from which 14 experienced rugby players and 11 elite swimmers, performed 2 sets at 80% of their 1-repetition maximum back-squat in their usual practice environment. A smartphone was used to record sagittal plane video and track the shape of the weight plate from which the barbell center was derived. The added value of the approach is that the system can support the definition of an objective measure of the difference between prescribed and realized exercise. Lessons from the study support the definition of requirements to enhance the Selfit v2.0 learning individualization functionalities. V. Guarnieri · L.-M. Neagu · E. Rigaud · S. Travadel Centre of Research On Risks and Crisis Management, MINES Paris, PSL University, 1 Rue Claude Daunesse, Sophia Antipolis, France e-mail: [email protected] L.-M. Neagu e-mail: [email protected] E. Rigaud e-mail: [email protected] S. Travadel e-mail: [email protected] L.-M. Neagu · M. Dascalu (B) Computer Science Department, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei, Bucharest, Romania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_2

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Keywords Intelligent tutoring system · Strength development · Velocity-based training · Selfit

1 Introduction An Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) is an Artificial Intelligence-based computer system that provides adaptive learning [1]. The current work aims to contribute to the adaptability feature of ITS to psychomotor educational contexts. It addresses individualizing strength development to trainees’ characteristics while following a training program. Learning individualization is one of the essential characteristics of an Intelligent Tutoring System. The adaptive component within strength development refers to training session objectives, content, and instructions for trainees’ characteristics. Within an ITS, adaptability fits the needs of various trainees with different backgrounds and skills. Selfit [2, 3] is an ITS dedicated to the psychomotor domain, focusing on strength skills development. Selfit provides strength training sessions based on a general pattern of individualized strength development through initial calibration tests and continuous feedback users provide before, during, and after the training sessions. For that, a dedicated ontology—OntoStrength [4] integrating a model of the strength development domain and a trainee’s characteristics model supports a reinforcement learning-based algorithm to generate the most relevant training sessions. In the current version of Selfit, trainees’ feedback is a subjective evaluation of their fatigue level before and after the session. In addition, trainees provide the repetitions they feel they could have achieved with the same load for each exercise, also known as the internal load. Consequently, the accuracy of Selfit depends on trainees’ abilities to evaluate their state of fatigue and their ability to perform additional repetitions. Our approach to increasing the accuracy of Selfit considers complementing subjective evaluations with objective ones. Using a Velocity-Based Training (VBT) approach is a potential solution. This approach estimates the speed of realization of the learner’s movement and compares it to the theoretical one associated with the exercise. The paper aims to demonstrate the relevance of VBT for enhancing the efficiency of the individualization mechanisms of Strength development ITS, such as the Selfit ITS. First, the article presents the different approaches to monitoring strength training session efficiency and the Velocity-Based Training approach. Then, it describes the objectives, methods, data collected, and results of a study aiming at demonstrating the relevance of VBT for strength development ITS. Finally, it proposes a discussion about how to integrate VBT within the Selfit ITS.

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2 Strength Training Monitoring Strength training is a crucial factor in improving health and body aesthetics and aids in optimizing longevity [5, 6]. Adequate control of the different training variables is required to design an effective resistance training program [7]. Among these variables, the load (i.e., defined by intensity and volume) is the most critical factor in inducing neuromuscular adaptations [8]. Traditionally, loads are prescribed in a predetermined manner using specific percentages of 1 Repetition Maximum (1RM) [7]. Trainees are led to complete periodic 1RM tests, or prediction tests of 1RM, to calculate the percentages of 1RM for different exercises. This traditional prescription approach is practical and allows for accurate monitoring and progression of load over time. However, it has several things to be improved. This method is time-consuming, requires monitoring and assistance, and may be intimidating for inexperienced trainees [9]. Moreover, this method does not consider environmental factors that may impact strength during training or testing, such as sleep quality [10], nutrition [11], and life stress [12]. In addition, rates of progress and recovery are highly individual [13]. Methods of determining the intensity, such as the percentage of 1RM and RM, are based on a previous performance that may not represent an athlete’s current status. To overcome the previous limitations, a set of subjective intensity assessment methods can be used together with tools such as the rating of perceived exertion scale (RPE) or the estimation of repetitions in reserve (RIR) designed by Tuchscherer [14]. These two scales effectively estimate the internal load of a resistance training session [15] and thus allow the training variables to be adjusted. In the case of strength training, the RIR is preferred as it has the advantage of being more valid than traditional RPE for sets performed near a limit loading [16]. For example, suppose that during a training session, all participants perform the same number of repetitions per set against a given relative load. In that case, they may experience a different level of effort, as the number of repetitions they would still be able to complete in each set might considerably differ between individuals [17]. Despite its benefits, this scale is complicated to use for novice lifters because it requires a certain degree of maturity and habituation. Its lack of objective data provision makes it a method of training that should be implemented progressively only as an additional variable [18]. To overcome these limitations, the technique that is needed to complement the use of the RIR scale to provide accurate and objective data on the effort incurred is velocity-based training (VBT) [19].

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3 Velocity-Based Training in Monitoring Resistance Training Velocity-based training (VBT) is a method that “uses velocity to inform or enhance training practice” [20]. This method relies on the fact that as fatigue increases, there is a transient decline in muscle fiber shortening speeds, relaxation times, and forcegenerating capacity that cause reductions in voluntary exercise velocity [21]. As a result, a nearly perfect linear relationship exists between velocity and intensity as a percentage of maximum ability (i.e., % of RM [22]). Due to the growing interest in VBT, there has been a proliferation of devices measuring velocity for resistance training, from motion capture systems, linear transducers, and accelerometers to smartphone solutions. Although each has advantages and disadvantages, using a smartphone’s camera has become a cost-effective and practical alternative to measure movement velocity in resistance exercises validly and reliably [23]. Thismethod is based on the simple foundations of Newtonian physics, namely v = d t , where V is the mean velocity of the barbell (in m/s), d is the distance traveled by the barbell during the concentric phase, and t is the time of the concentric phase of the lift. To determine the average speed of the bar, the applications currently available require the user, before the video acquisition, to enter the amplitude of the concentric phase and then, once the acquisition has been completed, determine the duration of the concentric phase manually, frame by frame. In addition to improving the ease of measurement and non-invasive nature, VBT can be implemented in all facets of resistance training with varying degrees of interest, as seen in Fig. 1. In our case, we are interested in its integration into the management of intra-set fatigue. Furthermore, this type of monitoring can provide a perfect estimate of the number (or percentage) of repetitions performed and those left in reserve in each exercise set [19], making it a perfect complement to using an RIR scale. Velocity-based training is a potential solution for internal load evaluation and training load individualization. As mentioned above, the smartphone can be a noninvasive and low-cost solution for using velocity-based training. However, the solutions available on the market require human intervention to set all the variables necessary for calculating speed, making its use time-consuming, limited to specific

Fig. 1 Velocity-based training continuum highlighting the varying emphasis on velocity within a training program. Adapted from [20], p. 2

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exercises, and laborious in open environments. Therefore, to integrate VBT within an ITS, an alternative solution must be found to automate this analysis and facilitate the acquisition of the distance covered by the barbell and the duration of the concentric phase of the movement.

4 Experiment—Evaluating the Relevance of Velocity-Based Training in Strength Training Monitoring The study aims to estimate the relevance of considering Velocity-Based Training within an Intelligent Tutoring System dedicated to strength development for optimizing the individualization of training sessions. First, the speed of realization of a movement performed by a trainee has to be collected by ITS’s GUI module. Then, this value must support the definition of an objective measure of the difference between prescribed and realized exercise.

4.1 Computer Vision-Based Movement Speed Estimation The first requirement is the possibility of an ITS’s GUI module to ably collect the speed of movement a trainee performs. A solution based on Computer Vision (CV) techniques is envisaged using the OpenPose technology. Ota et al. [24] demonstrate the reliability of using OpenPose, an open-source CV technology, to study strength training movements. They compare the results of bilateral squat assessment obtained with OpenPose and VICON, one of the state-ofthe-art technologies for motion capture. The trunk, hip, knee, and ankle angles were calculated using both systems. This work highlighted the excellent reproducibility of the data obtained by OpenPose (ICCs = 0.92–0.96, p < 0.01). Regarding the reliability of the OpenPose tool compared to the “gold” standard VICON, the ICCs between the data obtained were almost perfect or substantial for the trunk, knee, and ankle and fair for the hip. There are two reasons for the differences, the first being that VICON is a three-dimensional motion analysis system. In contrast, OpenPose only provides two-dimensional motion data, as 2D does not allow for an accurate assessment of rotational motion. The second reason is that there are differences in angle measurement methods between OpenPose and VICON for trunk and hip angle measurements, as the hip landmarks are different, making the data comparison tricky. Given these results, Open Pose is a viable alternative for performing a study of the bilateral squat. To elaborate on Ota’s study [24], the Back-Squat exercise is further used to demonstrate the feasibility of assessing movement speed. The individual begins standing with the heels approximately shoulder width apart to perform a back squat. The toes point forward or slightly outward by no more than 10°, the knees and hips in an

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anatomically neutral and extended position, and the spine in an upright position maintaining its natural curves [25]). The descent phase (eccentric) initiates the movement with flexion of the hips, knees, and ankles (dorsiflexion) to the desired depth. The ascent is mainly done by extending the hip, knee, and ankle joints until the subject has returned to the initial position. A back squat is a triple extension mobilizing over 200 additional muscles to complete a single repetition [26]. The study uses an iPhone 12 smartphone at 60 fps to collect kinematic data about trainees performing back-squats. The phone was placed on a tripod three meters from the trainee, in the sagittal plane, above the hip line. A spirit level was used to ensure the correct placement of the smartphone. Motion analysis was based on OpenPose, an open-source software [27]), allowing kinematic tracking by recognizing twentyfive key body points from 2D videos. The tibial length (43.5 ± 3.3 cm), defined by the distance between “LKnee” and “LAnkle,” was used as a standard value to assess the bar speed, as can be seen in Fig. 2. The choice was made to use a unique object-tracking algorithm from the OpenCV library to track the displacement of the bar. Among the eight algorithms for object tracking available through OpenCV tracking API, we decided to use the Kernelized Correlation Filter (KCF) [28], whose robustness and accuracy could be appreciated in the work of Brdjanin et al. [29]. The object being tracked is marked using a rectangle to indicate its location in the starting frame, and the center point of the rectangle is used as a reference for the position of the bar. The speed estimation process first involves selecting a reference point, such as the bar. Then, to identify the different repetitions, isolate the concentric phase of each repetition and measure its duration—see Fig. 3. The first step for separating the concentric phase of the movement was to derive the function representative of the Fig. 2 Back squat execution—placement and definition of each characteristic point

Barbell Center

Left Knee

Left Ankle

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Fig. 3 Counting of repetitions and identification of the concentric phase

vertical displacement of the bar from identifying the local extremums characterized by the points for which its derivative reach zero and a change in variation occurs. The beginning of the concentric phase of each repetition was represented by the local extremum for a change in variation from negative to positive, and the end of this concentric phase by the local extremum for a change in variation from negative to positive—the blue interval in Fig. 3. The first part of the experiment demonstrates the feasibility of estimating a trainee’s back-squat movement speed. The second part aims to estimate the possibility of using the estimated speed to measure the difference between prescribed and realized exercise objectively.

4.2 Movement Speed-Based Training Monitoring The second requirement is the possibility of deducing an objective value of backsquats-based training correct realization from the speed estimation. The Open-Posebased back-squat speed estimation process has been used to collect data about twentyfive athletes to identify whether their performance follows the objective. Twenty-five athletes from which fourteen experienced rugby players (age 18 ± 3; weight 85.5 ± 11.8; height 182 ± 6.1 cm) and eleven elite swimmers (7 males and 4 females; age 20 ± 2.5 years; weight 70.5 ± 9.5 kg; height 178 ± 9.3 cm) were recruited to participate in this study, as it can be seen in Table 1. All subjects indicated that they had no existing pathologies that prevented them from squatting with heavy loads or a history of musculoskeletal injuries of the lower limb in the last

28 Table 1 Descriptive table of loads used according to body weight

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Load 10 RM Discipline

Swimming

Rugby

Mean ± standard deviation

1.219 ± 0.258

1.089 ± 0.166

Minimum

0.932

0.952

Maximum

1.786

1.538

6 months. Subjects had less than one year of back squat experience. Each subject gave informed consent to participate in this study. The data collection was carried out under the usual practice conditions of the athletes. The sessions were prescribed by their physical trainer, and an observer posture was adopted. The athletes were informed that they would be asked to perform a series of tasks to observe how they moved under different loading conditions. Anthropometric measurements and descriptive information about the population were collected (age, sex, height, and tibia length). The measurements were carried out without shoes to avoid their impact on kinematics [30]. Subjects were asked to wear light-colored, properly fitting clothing to prevent misidentification. Each group followed the usual warm-up prescribed by their physical trainer. Given the experienced population, it is assumed that fatigue does not play an appreciable role, given the volume required. Athletes randomly performed two sets of 10RM, with five minutes of recovery between sets. The subjects were instructed to descend to the lowest point where they felt in control and comfortable, with no limit to the depth of the squat, and to complete the concentric phase as quickly as possible. The data presented are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. A Kolmogorov– Smirnov test verified the normality of the different variables. A one-factor repeated measures ANOVA test (number of repetitions) was used to determine the effect of repetition on concentric speed—see Table 2. If a significant difference was found, a posthoc multiple comparison analysis was performed using a Tukey HSD test to locate significant differences. The threshold value of p is set at 0.05. The objective was to perform a “Back Squat” session at 80% of the RM until failure. According to the work of [19], the loss of speed between the first and the last repetition should be 60.2%. However, the measured values indicate a speed loss of 11.2%. Thus, we find a distance between the load estimated by the trainees to achieve the session’s objective and that necessary to achieve the expected goal. The conclusion is that trainees underestimate their potential. Instead of self-interrogating on their potential of the day and eventual progression, they adopt a standard load and perform ten repetitions without trying to achieve additional ones. Consequently, comparing the theoretical and measured speed values makes it possible to identify whether the session corresponds to the expected session.

Rep 2

Rep 3

Rep 4

Rep 5

Rep 6

Rep 7

Rep 8

Rep 9

Rep 10

CS 0.625 0.631 ± 0.104 0.622 ± 0.103 0.618 ± 0.109 0.606 ± 0.101 0.595 ± 0.111 0.594 ± 0.100 0.583 ± 0.112 0.570 ± 0.117 0.555 ± 0.111 (m/ 0.107 s)

Rep 1

Table 2 Comparison of kinematic data collected

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4.3 Lessons Learnt From the Study The experiment aimed to argue for the relevance of considering velocity-based training within an Intelligent Tutoring System dedicated to strength development for optimizing the individualization of training sessions. The first part argues for the feasibility of evaluating the speed of back-squat movement trainees perform. The second part demonstrates that comparing speed measured and theoretical values allows evaluating the distance between prescribed and realized exercise. Finally, these lessons will support the definition of principles for refining the Selfit ITS dedicated to the Psychomotor domain, particularly Strength development.

5 Integrating Velocity-Based Training Within Selfit ITS Selfit [3] is an Intelligent Tutoring System for psychomotor development, using the classical ITS architecture components and their interaction: Domain model, Student Model, Tutoring Model, and User Interface Model. The initial version of the system was built and evaluated in 2021 [3], first with a population of simulated trainees and then with real users. The results presented show the potential of the system architecture and efficiency with the end goal of increasing the population’s general health. The feedback gathered while testing the initial version of Selfit drove our team to develop an improved version called Selfit v2.0 [2]. The updated version includes performance improvements, bug resolutions, and novel functionalities. Knowledge modeling was built through OntoStrength [4], an ontology that encompasses sports movements, psychomotor profiles, and training program strategies for various cycles. It includes over 1,000 categorized exercises based on muscles, movements, joints, materials required, difficulty level, and related videos. The tutoring model was developed through a novel approach called RiERiT— Right Exercise at the Right Time [3], which uses the Contextual Multi-Armed Bandits ε-Greedy (0.1) algorithm. The multi-armed bandit algorithm represents a classic problem in reinforcement learning, demonstrating the exploration–exploitation tradeoff dilemma. Reinforcement learning involves determining the appropriate actions to take in each situation to maximize a numerical reward signal [2]. The context is defined as a subjective value computed based on a set of parameters assessed at the beginning of each training session—i.e., sleep quality, motivation to train, fatigue, and stress level. Each parameter is ranked on a 10-level scale, and the average of these values computes the current context for the trainee. The reward defined in RiERiT is the subjective trainee’s feedback related to the perceived difficulty of an exercise, which is represented by Repetition in Reserve (RIR) per set and side (i.e., left or right) for unilateral exercises and the exercise level. The user interface model for Selfit v2.0 was developed as a Progressive Web Application [31] and offers various features, including user authentication, learner

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calibration, provision of training instructions, instructional videos to aid exercise execution, and monitoring of user feedback. Selfit v2.0 monitoring is based on the initial calibration and the subjective trainee’s feedback on the RIR. The initial calibration is a set of exercises that are focused on each of the six main body movement patterns (upper body: push horizontal, push vertical, pull horizontal, pull vertical, and lower body: hip dominant, knee dominant), defined on a difficulty scale from 1 to 4. Trainees must input the number of Repetitions in Reserve for each set of exercises executed while training. RIR is manually entered by the user on a scale from −5 to +5 integer value, where negative values are defined as failure to perform the required number of repetitions in a set. In contrast, the positive values are defined as the number of repetitions the trainee feels capable of executing further before failure. The RIR metric is also known as the internal load and, together with the initial calibration, are both subjective metrics used in the tutoring content personalization. Integrating VBT will complement the personal metrics with an objective measurement of internal load through Computer Vision. This section discusses the envisioned updates required on the domain, trainee, tutoring, and user interface modules to implement the VBT load assessment within the Selfit v2.0 system. The envisioned updates are shown in Fig. 4 and will be detailed further.

Fig. 4 Envisioned Selfit v2.0 architecture updates to integrate velocity-based training

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5.1 Domain Model Updates The Selfit v2.0 Domain Module consists of a comprehensive description of the psychomotor skills competencies. This module is a subset of components from the OntoStrength ontology. OntoStrength >’s goal is to support the training process by providing answers related to training objectives, trainee evaluation, defining a training program, and the ability to adapt to trainee characteristics. The Domain Module includes a description of 770 strength training exercises, for which the OntoStrength team labeled them with a corresponding difficulty level on a 1–12 scale, the category (if it is applied in the warm-up part of training or if it is a core part of the training), the list of materials required for execution if it is bilateral (to be executed on both sides in the same time) or unilateral (to be executed on the left and the right side of the body), the number of joints implied in execution, the movement family (ballistic, complementary, or fundamental), part of the body used (lower, upper, whole body, neck, or core), and the list of all the specific movements implied in the execution. OntoStrength also maps for the Domain module 38 training session templates with generic movements and classified based on the session target in the six main body movement patterns described above. The generic sessions are planned on fixed time slots: 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 min. The envisioned updates for the Domain Module to integrate velocity-based training include two properties to be added to the Exercise class: on one part, the recommended speed for execution and, on the second part, a list of crucial body points or material points to be followed by the CV technologies to compute the speed per repetition. The list can include one or more key points to follow. For example, the critical point was the barbell used in exercise execution for the experiment described in Sect. 4.

5.2 Student Model Updates The Selfit v2.0 Student Model describes the trainee’s psychomotor skills capabilities, focusing on developing strength skills. The Student Model captures the initial trainee profile and its evolution through the training program. Currently, the data related to the trainee is a subjective measurement based on his feedback while using the Selfit system. The onboarding process of a user includes setting up a profile, where sports and medical information is filled in. Medical diseases, Injuries, or Pains must be entered into the User Interface to restrict access to specific exercises and body parts or decrease the overall training intensity. Then, an initial trainee calibration session has to be performed, where the goal is to assign a level of competency per each movement area. The user manually inputs the number of repetitions to be executed for each exercise in the calibration session. Future sessions will be tailored using the current estimated level per category. A recurrent execution of the calibration session is required preferably every month. However, it depends on the trainee’s involvement

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in the program to measure the progress while using Selfit. Each session has several exercises with several sets and repetitions to execute. The system tracks the number of Repetitions in Re-serve (RIR) per each set in each exercise, which currently is a subjective value—the input from the trainee. The RIR has high importance in adjusting the training program content and individualization. The envisioned updates for the Student Model to integrate the Velocity-Based Training include storing the start (first repletion) and end (last repetition) speed in each set executed by the trainee, and also a VBT RIR (called further VBT_RIR), computed based on start and end speed. The VBT_RIR will objectively measure the perceived difficulty in a set. The VBT_RIR is an optional field. The recording of each session should be optional. Also, the subjective RIR per set will remain mandatory. Integrating the VBT dimension in Selfit will include a new Trust parameter in the Trainee profile, which will be computed based on the difference between VBT_RIR and RIR. The Trust parameter aims to weigh the subjective RIR reported by the user in the not-recorded sessions.

5.3 Tutoring Model Updates The Selfit v2.0 Tutoring Model aims to provide personalization mechanisms for the training program through machine learning algorithms. The personalization while following a training objective should be adapted to the training phase and temporality: session, micro-cycle (one week), mesocycle (one-month), and macro-cycle (three months). Selfit v2.0 integrates a session-level personalization called Novice Trainer. It uses pre-defined templates of a session with generic exercises, filled in with exercises using the trainee calibration, the trainee’s current physical shape, assessed through a formula before each session, and a Multi-Armed Bandit strategy [32]. Evaluating the effectiveness of a session and establishing a baseline for algorithmic learning can be facilitated by examining the ratio between the anticipated and perceived levels of effort. The team which built the OntoStrength Ontology defines a set of training rules that determine the complexity of exercises, number of repetitions, number of sets, and load, which are organized on a calendar to guide the dynamic of charge. The reward defined for the Multi-Armed Bandit algorithm is the trainee’s feedback related to the perceived difficulty of an exercise (RIR) in a particular state. The updates for the Tutoring Model include using the VBT_RIR parameter, when available, to compute the reward. For sessions that are not recorded, the proposed approach is to multiply the RIR with the Trust parameter described in Sect. 5.2.

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5.4 User Interface Model Updates The Selfit v2.0 User Interface Model facilitates communication between the trainee and the system. It provides functionalities for user authentication, learner calibration, providing training instructions to users, videos to guide the exercise execution, and monitoring user feedback [2]. The User Interface Model is available on the Web1 and in the most known mobile stores: Android and iOS. Selfit v2.0 does not monitor or retain any personal and identifiable information belonging to its users (email addresses, phone numbers, or IPs). Instead, the user accounts include a username, password, and security question. In this way, the sport and medical profiles are not linked with personal information. The Computer Vision integration may expose information about the trainee through the recordings: trainee facial recognition, training environment, or other people who may appear in the videos. Considering these, using a CV library that runs on the client and does not send the recordings to the server would be recommended. It can either send the body points per recorded frame or do the computations on the client and send the start and end speed per set. A good candidate in this area is PoseNet 2.0 [33], a machine-learning model Google Creative Lab developed, allowing for real-time human pose estimation in the browser. A drawback of this method is the high computational resources required by the trainee mobile phone, which will drain the battery much faster. The other approach is to run the CV library on the server. This latter approach requires an excellent Internet connection for the trainee to upload the recorded video, and the computations done on the server will update the trainee’s state. Transferring the videos using state-of-the-art security protocols is highly recommended, as dropping the videos from the server after processing. A drawback of this approach is the delayed feedback to the trainee. The client’s own CV library approach will provide real-time feedback while performing the exercises.

5.5 Limitations While the proposed method assumes that the analyzed motion is a straightforward back-and-forth exercise and that the skeleton data displays constant, repetition-based behavior, it’s important to recognize that this property may not be present in more intricate exercises. However, it’s worth noting that most rehab or exercise training programs do not involve such complex exercises. A second limitation is the variation in the environment in which the measurement is performed. In our case, we acquired the data in a professional gym environment, where only the athletes and their sports trainers were present, thus reducing the noise.

1

https://www.selfit.app/.

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The implementation of such a video capture device could be much more complex in an open environment, such as a typical commercial gym or outdoor. Further investigations of more exercise categories in different training contexts are required to understand how these limitations impact the proposed method.

6 Conclusions The current work introduces a comprehensive description of an experiment aiming to demonstrate the relevance and the feasibility of using Velocity-Based Training to enhance the efficiency of the individualization mechanisms within Intelligent Tutoring Systems for psychomotor development. It aims to present the means of integration with Selfit v2.0, an ITS dedicated to Strength development to complete the traditional subjective feedback (fatigue level and repetition in reserve) with an objective value based on movement speed recorded through a phone’s camera positioned in front of the trainee while training. First, a computer vision-based back-squat movement speed estimation prototype has been developed. Then, the prototype was used to assess a training session of advanced athletes performing Back-Squat. The comparison between the movement speed estimated and the theoretical movement speed associated with the exercise demonstrates that athletes underestimate their performance. Consequently, they do not use the correct load and do not achieve the optimal effects from the training program. Based on the lessons of the study, a strategy of refinement of the Selfit v2.0 is proposed to integrate velocity-based training for enhancing adaptive capacities to trainees’ characteristics.

References 1. Fenza, G., Orciuoli, F.: Building pedagogical models by formal concepts analysis. In: Proceedings of 13th International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS), vol. 9684, pp. 144–153 (2016) 2. Neagu, L.-M., Rigaud, E., Guarnieri, V., Dascalu, M., Travadel, S.: Selfit v2–challenges encountered in building a psychomotor intelligent tutoring system. In: Crossley, S., Popescu, E. (eds.) Intelligent Tutoring Systems. ITS 2022. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 13284, pp. 350–361 (2022) 3. Neagu, L.-M., Rigaud, E., Guarnieri, V., Travadel, S., Dascalu, M.: Selfit—an intelligent tutoring system for psychomotor development. In: 17th International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS 2021), pp. 282–286. Springer, Athens, Greece (Online) (2021) 4. Neagu, L.-M., Rigaud, E., Guarnieri, V., Radu, E.I., Travadel, S., Dascalu, M., Rughinis, R.-V.: OntoStrength: an ontology for psychomotor strength development. Interact. Des. Arch. (S) J.—IxD&A 52, 101–118 (2022) 5. Folland, J.P., Williams, A.G.: The adaptations to strength training: morphological and neurological contributions to in-creased strength. Sports Med. 37, 145–168 (2007) 6. Winett, R.A., Carpinelli, R.N.: Potential health-related benefits of resistance training. Prev. Med. 33, 503–513 (2001)

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29. Brdjanin, A., Dardagan, N., Dzigal, D., Akagic, A.: Single object trackers in OpenCV: a benchmark. In: International Conference on INnovations in Intelligent SysTems and Applications (INISTA)). IEEE, Novi Sad, Serbia, pp. 1–6 (2020) 30. Charlton, J., Hammond, C., Cochrane, C., Hatfield, G., Hunt, M.: The effects of a heel wedge on hip, pelvis and trunk biomechanics during squatting in resistance trained individuals. J. Strength Cond. Res. 31, 1678–1687 (2017) 31. Biørn-Hansen, A., Majchrzak, T.A., Grønli, T.-M.: Progressive web apps: the possible webnative unifier for smobile development. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Web Information Systems and Technologies, vol. 1, pp. 344–351 (2017) 32. Clement, B., Roy, D., Oudeyer, P.-.Y., Lopes, M.: Multi-armed bandits for intelligent tutoring systems. J. Educ. Data Min. (JEDM) 7 (2015) 33. Jo, B.J., Kim, S.K.: Comparative analysis of OpenPose, PoseNet, and MoveNet models for pose estimation in mobile devices. Traitement du Signal 39(1), 119–124 (2022)

Intelligent Tutoring System and Learning: Complexity and Resilience Michele Della Ventura

Abstract The paper aims to investigate, through a case study, the relationship between learning and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), in a historical moment in which the rampant use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is to forcefully intertwine with the teaching–learning process. The research aims to outline, in particular, one of the possible ways of using AI with students in the study of solfeggio and ear training, through a digital tutor who supports specific activities proposed by the teacher. The project idea stems from the desire to investigate more closely the relationship between students and new technologies, and to understand their educational potential and the expression of student needs. The results show that Artificial Intelligence is a useful tool in the didactic field taken into consideration, but at the same time that there is much to be done, since the road traveled up to here can be a good starting point for reaching long-term educational goals. Keywords Artificial intelligence · Intelligent tutoring systems · Learning assessment · Learning to learn · Motivation

1 Introduction The communicative revolution linked to the spread of the Internet brings with it a whole series of dynamics and changes in the teaching/learning process. We talk about new Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and their effectiveness and functionality through the Internet. The web, therefore, is a “new medium” which joins and partly competes with the pre-existing ones, absorbing some characteristics and introducing other, different ones. It is important to assume the perspective of re-mediation [1], whereby each new medium tends not to replace the previous ones, but rather to mediate between different modes of production of meaning, in which the old and the new complement M. Della Ventura (B) Department of Music Technology, Music Academy “Studio Musica”, Treviso, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_3

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each other in a complementary way. New technologies are what distinguishes the current society from the previous one, making it an information society [2]. This is based on intangible assets such as knowledge, which in fact today acquires the status of private and at the same time collective wealth [3]. In this context, ICTs represent the facilitators par excellence thanks to the developments of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the context (also) of Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs): computer systems that aim to provide personalized instruction and feedback to users, often through the use of AI technology and without a human teacher. The main goal of ITS is to make these technologies adaptable to users, based on their individual characteristics and needs. AI therefore becomes a sort of “study companion” which adapts itself to the needs of individual students [4] and which allows not to propose a single learning “path” to the whole class, but to offer everyone what needs [5], passing over the topics that the specific student already knows to dwell on those that are more difficult [6] providing personalized feedback [7–9]. Intelligent tutoring systems have proven effective in helping to teach certain subjects such as algebra or grammar [10–13], while in the field of music research has focused on so-called open domains such as pitch feature extraction [14, 15] and music composition [16–18], and in well-formalized fields such as music theory or more specifically musical chord generation [19, 20]. Open-ended domains lack the clear goals, rules, and criteria for testing answers that are available in well-formalized domains such as arithmetic [17]. In contrast, music theory is a relatively well-formalized, theoretical domain. There is usually only one correct answer or a small set of correct answers to a question. In particular, in the subdomain of chords clear rules can be stated according to which chords can be constructed or concatenated with each other [21, 22]: this makes the domain suitable for software implementation and teaching through an ITS. More recently, a particular area of music theory has been taken into consideration, namely the one concerning the study of the rhythm (solfège) and ear training. This is the EarMaster platform which offers a learning environment (equipped with an ITS) in which the teacher can define the topics and outline the learning objectives, and the student is faced with a series of exercises proposed by the ITS, based on your specific needs. This work aims to investigate the relationship between students and new technologies, and to understand their educational potential and the expression of student needs. The research was carried out using the EarMaster platform to teach students a small subdomain of music theory that is musically important and difficult to learn: ear training and the sense of rhythm. The knowledge of this domain is modeled and exercises are developed that the system can present to the student based on his personal needs. The path highlighted the critical aspects and potential of the use of a virtual environment equipped with ITS in working with students and laid the foundations for a methodology to be developed and explored. This paper starts (Sect. 2) by examining the concepts of communication, behavior and learning, and the relationships among them: how they are considered in different fields and what forms they can take. This is followed (Sect. 3) by a description of

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the online platform EarMaster. Section 4 shows the experimental test used for the collection of information useful for the proposed investigation. Finally, in Sect. 5 the paper ends with concluding remarks on the current issues and future research possibilities with respect to the efficient enhancement of educational practices and technologies.

2 Communication, Behavior, Learning One of the significant aspects of the new media and therefore of the new digital learning environments concerns the way of communicating with the student. The new communication tools have led to a change in the form of messages: the prevalence of images over text, brevity and fragmentation, and the convergence of different forms. The meaning of a communication is determined by the technology used, so it is important to study the media not so much on the basis of the contents they convey, but on the basis of the structural criteria with which they organize the communication [23]. Paul Watzlawick defines communication as a “process of information exchange and mutual influence that takes place in a given context” [24]. It is impossible not to communicate: even the intentional absence of verbal communication, in fact, communicates our desire not to come into contact with the other. There is a property of communication that could hardly be more fundamental and, precisely because it is too obvious, is often overlooked: behavior. In general, learning can be defined as a behavioral modification resulting from or induced by an interaction with the learning environment. We learn when we are actively involved in the learning process [25], when we are asked to participate, i.e., to perform tasks or actions with high levels of awareness, responsibility, attention, and commitment [25–27]. The aim of this research is precisely to verify if these conditions are possible in a learning environment equipped with ITS. This implies a careful analysis on the one hand of the results of the individual tests carried out by the student and on the other hand of the actions carried out by the student in carrying out the tests (student’s behavior). The evaluation of the ITS intertwines with both these fields of observation, because it considers both the tests that are administered to the student on the basis of his specific needs (deduced from an analysis of the “errors” committed on each single test administered) and both from feedback returned to the student, during the course of a test, following an error or specific request from the student. Some recognized strengths of ITS are their ability to provide immediate yes/no feedback, individual task selection, on-demand hints, and support mastery learning [28–30]. In a learning environment equipped with ITS, feedback becomes an indispensable communication tool because it should provide food for thought to stimulate and accelerate the learning process [31], allowing the student to gain awareness of the level of performance achieved, thus supporting him in the search for one’s own strengths and areas for improvement.

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The next paragraph briefly reviews the individual features and design aspects of EarMaster, an online platform equipped with ITS. This will provide a good understanding as to why EarMaster has been chosen as an educational tool for this research.

3 EarMaster EarMaster is a learning environment for ear training, sight-singing practice, and rhythm training. It represents a stimulating, efficient, and interactive educational tool: students see, hear, but above all they put music theory into practice. EarMaster enables the student to hear and recognize melodies, scales, intervals, chords, chord progressions, rhythm, and cadences (Ear Training). There are activities that are proposed to the student to help him/her to improve his/her sense of the rhythm (Rhythm Training): motivating sight-reading exercises, clap-back, and dictation. After each exercise the student can monitor his/her progress, identifying strengths and weaknesses. In the case of areas that require extra work, EarMaster proposes new and different exercises based on the mistakes: it analyzes student performance in real time and adapts the content and length of the exercise accordingly. If the student has no problems, the lesson will stop early, but if he/she is struggling a bit, it will be extended with further questions to ensure they fully understand the current topic. At the same time, while carrying out an exercise, the student can interact with the ITS to receive suggestions regarding theoretical aspects. EarMaster allows the teacher to monitor the learning process of the individual student, by displaying information relating to: – – – – – – –

what exercises were done, how many times a single exercise has been performed, the type of error committed by the student in carrying out the exercise, how many times a type of error was repeated, which reinforcement exercises have been proposed to the student by the ITS, what information the student consulted during the course of the activities, what suggestions the student has requested from ITS.

4 Application and Analysis: Research Method Based on the considerations expressed in the previous paragraphs, an experimental laboratory was realized with EarMaster, in the context of teaching music theory. The laboratory was conducted for a time period of 16 weeks (from October 2022 to January 2023), with the intention of designing and implementing an (informal) learning process to support the student in listening and development education rhythmic sense (Rhythm Training): promoting the acquisition of skills and abilities;

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“guiding” the student to discover rhythmic structures, internalizing their universal and constant characteristics; stimulating the development of creativity through the support of materials with different languages (music and image). The goal, therefore, was to investigate more closely the relationship between students and new technologies, and understand their educational potential.

4.1 Participants The project involved 23 students aged from 15 to 18 (11 boys and 12 girls) and 3 teachers of Musical Theory. The students were selected, using a survey, from a sample of 85 students of different musical disciplines enrolled in the first year at public or private music schools. Some of the questions used in the survey were as follows: – – – –

how much time do you spend on self-study at home? what information technology do you use to participate in online learning activities? what are your difficulties in the online learning activities? do you carry out the learning activities independently?

To ensure confidentiality, all encoded data was anonymized using the pseudonyms of the participants.

4.2 Methodology The process was divided into four fundamental stages. Stage 1: Analysis of the recipient students of the course, in order to plan the learning process. The constructs identified in this phase can be seen as belonging to three categories [32]: (1) constructs that refer to students’ traits and states, such as interest and curiosity: students in general education programs who are interested or curious about topics are oriented toward inquiry and discovery, both of which are instructionally desirable; (2) constructs that refer to students’ beliefs, such as self-determination (the ability to make choices and have some degree of control in what we do and how we do it), goal orientation (an objective or outcome that students pursue, is a goal why students pursue it is referred to as their goal orientation, and the result is goal-directed behavior), self-regulation (students who are self-regulating know what they want to accomplish when they learn: they bring appropriate strategies

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to bear and continually monitor their progress toward their goals), and selfefficacy (“beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”); (3) constructs that refer to students’ expectations: expectations of students, and the strategies based on these expectations, play an important role in increasing or reducing students’ motivation in general education programs. On the basis of these constructs, the real design of the learning process was addressed (see Stage 2). Stage 2: Design of the learning process, understood as the student’s personal “experience.” The learning process was divided into 5 distinct modules (see Table 1) through a careful choice of the topics to be covered and their chronological presentation. In fact, EarMaster contains all the topics of music theory and a repository of 2500 exercises of progressive difficulty. The teacher has the possibility to choose which topics to discuss (which are presented to the student before the start of each activity) and the order of presentation to the student; can integrate/modify the theory lessons present (by inserting text, images, and links external to the platform) and add new lessons or new exercises that the ITS recognizes (thanks to specific teacher tags related to the topic and the level of difficulty) and use for practice or student reinforcement. For each of the modules indicated above, videos (mp4 format) were made, accessible to students on a dedicated YouTube channel, to help them identify and recognize the topics covered. Table 2 shows the synthesis of the actions carried out in the learning process. Stage 3: Technical preparation for the course. One of the relevant aspects of the project was to build a knowledge base relating to the use of EarMaster, which could represent a “transversal” substrate to be accessed through the various channels. After the ex-ante questionnaire for the detection of technological skills, two meetings were arranged with the participants in order to provide the necessary tools for their independence during the learning process. Stage 4: Learning process and monitoring. All 85 students deal with the same topics (and the same exercises) in the same weeks. The students involved in the research carried out the various activities individually and outside school hours, while the other students carried out the activities during school hours. During the first 2 weeks, students could contact the teacher via WhatsApp (in a closed group) to request only technical information relating to the use of the platform. During the first 4 weeks the teacher commented on the results obtained in carrying out each single exercise, praising the students and providing feedback useful for motivation. In the following 4 weeks (from the fifth to the eighth), the feedback was provided only in case of difficulty in passing an exercise. In the last 8 weeks, useful feedback was provided to continue the process and not related to activities carried out: constructive feedback aimed at stimulating the motivation to continue on the learning path, through the enhancement of progress.

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Table 1 Learning process activities Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Module 4

Module 5

Topic

The pulsation

Practice exercises

1a

Beat along with the metronome

1b

Missing beats

1c

Introduction to rhythmic writing

1d

Identification of rhythmic errors

1e

Rhythmic dictation

In-depth analysis

“From music to real life” Support material consisting of external links to websites or YouTube videos

Topic

Duration

Practice exercises

2a

Rhythmic duration

2b

Recognition of rhythmic errors

2c

Rhythmic reading

2d

Rhythmic reading with pauses

2e

Rhythmic dictation

In-depth analysis

“Melody and rhythm: two inseparable elements” Support material consisting of external links to websites or YouTube videos

Topic

Dotted rhythms

Practice exercises

3a

Rhythmic imitation

3b

Error recognition

3c

Sight reading

3d

Rhythmic dictation

In-depth analysis

“The tensive implications of dotted rhythms” Support material consisting of external links to websites or YouTube videos

Topic

The Syncopation

Practice exercises

4a

Syncope

4b

Syncope: rhythms and imitation

4c

Error recognition

4d

Sight reading

4e

Rhythmic dictation

In-depth analysis

“Syncopation: how to enhance it through polyphony” Support material consisting of: external links to websites or YouTube videos

Topic

The tie

Practice exercises

5a

Tie

5b

Rhythmic imitation

5c

Error recognition

5d

Sight reading (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Topic

The pulsation 5e

In-depth analysis

Rhythmic dictation

“Tie and points of value: when to use them?” Support material consisting of external links to websites or YouTube videos

Table 2 Learning process actions Synthesis of the actions carried out in the learning process Tools used Asynchronous interventions with videos recorded and shared on a dedicated YouTube channel Sharing of external links to the EarMaster platform for study and further study Detection of knowledge, skills, and competences An ex-ante survey was administered to the students for the detection of technological skills An ongoing survey was administered to the students to ascertain any personal difficulties Students were asked to carry out specific exercises for each topic A practical test was carried out in person at the end of the project (which involved all 85 students) Recovery interventions for students with difficulties More exercises have been prepared (in addition to those already present on EarMaster) for each topic of each module Periodicity and duration of the exercises Exercises lasting up to half an hour for each topic of each module An exercise (summary) of a maximum duration of one hour for each module (final test)

Every 4 weeks, a classroom meeting was organized between students and teacher, to listen to the various experiences of the students, without going into the merits of music theory and error correction. During the whole period, students could use WhatsApp to support each other in using EarMaster and to solve technical problems. The teachers’ role in all of this was complex, but it involved being more aware of the dynamics that could be created in EarMaster, observing student behavior and updating (if necessary) the teaching material to accommodate those who participate peripherally. The teachers’ role was to help students work toward effective interactivity by providing the appropriate tools and strategies. In other words, the teacher had to be creative in stimulating students’ motivation. Stage 5: Analysis of the results and “search for solutions” within the experiences of the individual students participating in the project. The proposed learning process was carried out without technical problems. The students completed the modules, even if at different times.

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At the end of the project, all (85) students carried out a final face-to-face test (with practical exercises in rhythmic reading and transcription of rhythms proposed extemporaneously) and the results obtained by the students who participated in the EarMaster project were satisfactory (see Table 3 and Fig. 1). In the initial phase of the learning path, students showed a lower performance than the students in the classroom: most of them obtained a “Sufficient” evaluation compared to the “Good” evaluation of the students in the classroom. From Module 3 the situation becomes almost similar, with an improvement in the students who reach a “Good” evaluation. This was due to the difficulty of working with an ITS, which students encountered in the initial phase: the ITS provides feedback at the end of an exercise or after making a certain action/choice, while in the classroom when faced with an uncertainty it is possible to obtain transversal help from the teacher. This required EarMaster students to have the ability to cope with stress in carrying out activities (coming out of it strengthened), to know how to resist and to positively reorganize their habits following a negative critical event (resilience). Strengths: during the course all the participants proved to be interested and involved. The need for digital was clearly perceived, which prompted even the most discouraged (lack of knowledge and mastery of technologies) to commit themselves to the maximum in order to overcome their own limits. Weaknesses: despite the students’ enthusiasm, it is necessary to underline the persistence of a “fear,” typical of technologies: “the fear of error.” This causes psychological self-defense mechanisms that hold back digital initiative and experimentation and, often, produce a rejection of the digital tool. Nonetheless, it should be noted that some of these “fears” have been overcome and most of the students (19 students) have carried out all the activities foreseen in the 5 modules. Table 3 Results Classroom Students Total students: 62

EarMaster Students Total students: 23

Assesment

Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Module 4

Module 5

Excellent

8 (12%)

12 (19%)

6 (10%)

5 (8%)

7 (11%)

Good

31 (50%)

26 (42%)

34 (54%)

33 (53%)

32 (52%)

Sufficient

21 (34%)

23 (37%)

20 (32%)

23 (37%)

22 (35%)

Insufficient

2 (4%)

1 (2%)

2 (4%)

1 (2%)

1 (2%)

Excellent

2 (8%)

1 (4%)

1 (4%)

0 (0%)

1 (4%)

Good

6 (28%)

10 (44%)

12 (52%)

13 (56%)

13 (56%)

Sufficient

13 (56%)

12 (52%)

9 (40%)

10 (44%)

9 (40%)

Insufficient

2 (8%)

0 (0%)

1 (4%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

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Fig. 1 Graphical representation of the results

By carrying out the exercises proposed on EarMaster, it was possible to extrapolate the data relating to the performance of the various modules, and analyze them (see Table 4) in order to identify the difficulties and suggest suitable corrective and support tools.

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Table 4 Activities analysis Number of students

% of completion Difficulties highlighted

5

Between 95 and 100%

Mode of interaction between user and system In general, all the students did all the exercises correctly but only repeated the first exercises more than twice due to problems related to the person-system interaction methods

6

Between 85 and 90%

Rhythmic imitation In all modules rhythmic and melodic imitation exercises were proposed and the student highlighted difficulties in these types of exercises compared to those of just listening and repetition

3

Between 80 and 85%

Tie and compound rhythms This type of exercise requires more practice and experience in listening and recognizing different rhythms

4

0.05) showed that variances in groups are not significantly different. A one-way ANOVA was performed to compare the effect of the medium on presence scores which revealed that there was no statistically significant difference in perceived presence between at least two groups (F(3, 18) = 2.059, p = 0.142; .η2 = 0.255).

3.2 Information Retention The mean scores of the groups in pre- and post-test can be found in Table 2. For each right answer they were awarded one point, with a maximum score of 7. Levene’s test (.>0.05) showed that variances in groups are not significantly different. A oneway ANOVA was performed to compare the effect of the medium on post-test scores which revealed that there was no statistically significant difference in post-test scores between at least two groups (F(3, 18) = 0.175, p = 0.912; .η2 = 0.028).

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Fig. 5 Zoom exhaustion and fatigue scale

3.3 Cognitive Load The mean cognitive load experienced by the groups is found in Table 3. The cognitive load questionnaire consisted of 1 item with a Likert response from 1 to 9. Levene’s test (.>0.05) showed that variances in groups are not significantly different. A oneway ANOVA was performed to compare the effect of the medium on cognitive load which revealed that there was no statistically significant difference in experienced cognitive load between at least two groups (F(3, 18) = 1.430, p = 0.267; .η2 = 0.192).

3.4 Zoom Exhaustion and Fatigue The mean total Zoom exhaustion and fatigue experienced by the groups is found in Table 3. The ZEF consisted of 15 items with a Likert response from 1 to 5. Levene’s test (.>0.05) showed that variances in groups are not significantly different. A oneway ANOVA was performed to compare the effect of the medium on total ZEF scores which revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between

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Table 3 Mean scores in Cognitive load, Zoom exhaustion & fatigue (ZEF), and Flow experience Group N Cognitive load Total ZEF Flow M SD M SD M SD Video conferencing (VC) TelePresence Robot (TR) Holographic Display (HD) Virtual Reality (VR)

6 5 5 6

2.43 2.18 2.85 3.47

1.09 0.63 0.96 0.70

1.93 1.95 2.18 2.36

0.42 0.59 0.44 0.75

3.14 3.03 3.22 3.20

0.34 0.32 0.20 0.25

at least two groups (F(3, 18) = 0.504, p = 0.684; .η2 = 0.077). Individual scores for the dimensions of ZEF can be found in Fig. 5.

3.5 Flow Experience The mean flow experienced by the groups is found in Table 3. The flow questionnaire consisted of 6 items with a Likert response from 1 to 5 and one optional open ended question. Levene’s test (.>0.05) showed that variances in groups are not significantly different. A one-way ANOVA was performed to compare the effect of the medium on flow experience which revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between at least two groups (F(3, 18) = 0.470, p = 0.707; .η2 = 0.073).

4 Discussions This paper presents findings from an exploratory pilot study investigating the benefits or limitations of using holograms for teacher-student communication in hybrid and online education. We compared the key benefits of holograms mediated communication found in literature against traditional VC with tools such as zoom, VR, and TR. The study was conducted using the Hololearn infrastructure (see Sect. 1.1) for the HD and VR while vendor applications were used for the TR and VC groups. The same lecture was broadcast to all the four groups after which participant’s response were collected. Presence is often touted as the key benefit of holographic communication [13, 17, 18]. To measure the presence experienced by each group, we used self-reported questionnaire from Kreijns et al. [12]. The results showed that the VR group experienced the highest presence of the teacher followed by the HD group. Immersive technologies such as VR provide the perception of being physically present in a non-physical world, i.e., the fundamental notion of presence [14]. However, other authors, such as Souza et al. [41], make a distinction between immersion induced presence as a “I am there” feeling and presence as a “we are there” experience. The

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latter of which contains more facets, such as the activities, in addition to the sense of physically being present. This notion of presence is beyond the scope of the study and results only reflect the feeling of the teacher being physically present. Unexpectedly, TR group rated the presence of the teacher lower than the VC. The key benefit of a robot is in its mobility which allows the remote teacher to maneuver itself to students/group’s social and personal space. In the context of a lecture, such as in this study, there was no movement from the robot which might have potentially affected its score in comparison to the VC group. We found no significant difference in the presence experienced between groups. The information retention scores of all the groups show an increase from the pre-test to the post-test. This was largely expected as none of the participants had any pre-knowledge on the content of the lecture used in the study, as shown by the scores of the pre-test. Further, there was no discernible difference in the mean posttest scores between the groups. Similarly, there was also no discernible difference in the amount of cognitive load between the VC, TR, and HD groups. The VR group reported experiencing a slightly higher cognitive load but this did not translate to higher scores in the post-test. In addition, the VR group reported experiencing higher levels of presence. These results are inline with findings of Frederiksen et al. [7], and Watt and Smith [46] who found that cognitive load increased significantly with the increase in realism in fully immersive VR environments. The teacher’s representation in VR is a mirror projection inside a virtual environment instead of a minimalistic model (see Fig. 4, as was the case with other peer students (see Fig. 4). However, we used one question cognitive load scale from [25] which was also administered only once. Coupling this scale with more descriptive measures of cognitive load, such as with eye tracking, can provide more insight on the environmental aspects that contributed to the cognitive load experienced. We also investigated holograms as a potential solution for addressing “Zoom fatigue” in online learning [34]. The results of ZEF scale [6] showed similar levels of total fatigue (see Table 3) across the groups with slightly higher total fatigue in HD and VR. Notably, students across VC, TR, and HD groups experienced high motivational fatigue in comparison to other types of fatigue (see Fig. 5). In contrast, students in VR also reported higher levels of visual fatigue which is well documented with VR glasses, especially in case of lower end portable VR glasses such as the ones used in this study. The HD and VR groups also reported higher emotional fatigue. Some students noted that the representation of the teacher was larger than expected in HD and VR groups. This, perhaps, induced a higher degree of close-up eye gaze compared to the VC and the TR groups which only portrayed the teacher’s head in a particular size (see Fig. 3), consequently affecting the emotional fatigue. The results of the self-reported flow questionnaire by Paredes and Vazquez [28] showed no discernible difference in the flow experienced by students across all groups, with all the groups reporting similar scores. Measures of flow experience

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often rely on long duration of measurement or measure flow in physical activities [20]. The short 15–20 min lecture used in this study can be deemed too short to get into the state of flow. However, it can also be argued that the medium in which the teacher is represented alone is largely insufficient to induce flow and requires careful instructional design.

5 Limitations and Future Work As an exploratory pilot study, the findings presented in this paper lack a proper conceptual framework to meaningfully contribute to the larger body of research. This is compounded by the limited number of participants used in the study which prevented any statistically significant differences between the groups. The short form lectures used in the study, associated with VR hardware limitations, do not allow us to draw concrete conclusions that reflect real-life applications. Similarly, the study was conducted in a controlled environment with a synthetic lecture on Japanese history which was prepared by a student who is not an expert or a teacher in Japanese history. This might have negatively affected the results of the study, especially in measure of flow and cognitive load. Last but not least, the study was conducted using asynchronous form of lecture (prerecorded) which limits the finding of the study and doesn’t explore implications for synchronous forms of lecture. In the next steps, we will research and extend the Hololearn infrastructure with features which allows the teacher to simultaneously orchestrate students across the groups during synchronous lectures. With that in place, this study will be extended to explore the benefits of holograms in synchronous communications in online/hybrid education. Furthermore, features that enable peer students across the groups to be situated within the same “lecture space” can enable higher perception of presence beyond the perception of physical realism. In addition, the visual fidelity of the holograms needs to be improved for HD and VR group. However, alternative VR experiences can also be implemented using meta humanTM from Unreal engineTM which could be a potential solution to reduce cognitive load in VR environments. This could also solve network latency problems when coupled with skeletal tracking of the teacher, including facial expressions, instead of using depth and RGB video streams as with the current version of the Hololearn infrastructure. In the long run, the results of an extended longitudinal iteration of this study will feed into our understanding of how we can design hybrid/online learning spaces which provides uncompromising learning experiences in comparison to on-site education while also providing students and teachers the flexibility of online learning. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the students who participated and contributed to the study.

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Using Telepresence Robots for Remote Participation in Technical Subjects in Higher Education Mohammad Tariq Meeran , Janika Leoste , Fuad Budagov , Jaanus Pöial , and Kristel Marmor

Abstract Remote participation in higher education courses, especially in technical subjects, is challenging, as there is a lot of practical knowledge to be applied or directly instructed, and it has to happen at the university premises since the labs are set up there. In this study, we allowed three ICT lecturers teaching at the undergraduate level to experiment with telepresence robots, augment the teaching and learning environment, and understand their readiness to adopt this technology. The experiments were documented, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants in order to obtain additional details for the experiment documentation. We found that using telepresence robots in labs requires both a well-planned teaching process and appropriate teaching environment settings to overcome technical limitations. As for future studies, there is a need for studies with bigger samples of ICT lecturers to implement these proposed scenarios to understand better the possibilities of effectively using telepresence robots for hybrid teaching in ICT subjects. Keywords Telepresence robots · Telepresent lecturer · Telepresent student · Remote participation · Remote teaching · Higher education

1 Introduction Although technology adoption is an ongoing and never-ending process, its pace varies, depending on sectors, regions and countries. In some fields, adoption has been very well embraced while in others there are resistance and obstacles which lead to partial adoption. Examples of fields with slower adoption rates are agriculture [1], healthcare [2], construction [3] and education [4]. In the field of education, adoption is embraced at a relatively slower pace than in other sectors [4, 5]. Many M. T. Meeran (B) · J. Leoste · F. Budagov · J. Pöial · K. Marmor Tallinn University of Technology, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia e-mail: [email protected] J. Leoste Tallinn University, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_8

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educational institutions are lagging behind in technology adoption due to cost of adoption, uncertainty of impact on learning outcomes and training requirements for teaching and administrative staff. However, technological solutions’ adoption is mostly seen as a factor for cost reduction, efficient use of resources and improving teaching and learning practices. For educational institutions, adoption of technology may also bring lots of benefits, as was the case with other sectors, but these solutions have to be tested, experimented and assessed to justify their effective use. One of the technological solutions that can facilitate remote work and participation is telepresence robots (TPRs) [6]. TPRs are wheeled robots with features like voice and video communication, mobility, screen sharing and allowing the remote participants/workers to feel like being physically present. These robots are remotely controlled and equipped with high-quality cameras, microphones and various types of sensors. After the COVID-19 pandemic, the need for solutions that can facilitate remote participation has become quite evident and TPR is one of them [7]. TPRs have been used in various settings to achieve different goals. In healthcare, TPRs have been used to monitor patients and consult with professionals [8]. In businesses, they are used to allow employees/partners to join meetings and have face-to-face discussion and collaboration capability in the work environment [9]. In manufacturing, they are used to monitor critical equipment remotely. In environmental protection, they are used to monitor protected natural areas [10]. In the services industry, they are used to provide virtual tourism services like visiting museums, cultural and historical places [11]. TPRs can even allow people to see attractions, visit family members and socialize with local communities remotely. In education, they can be used to allow students and lecturers who are isolated, disabled, suffering from limited mobility, having special needs or travelling, to participate and work remotely [12, 13].

1.1 Problem Studies show that the use of TPRs helps in avoiding physical travelling and commuting and in turn reduces operational costs, travel time and the carbon footprint. They also contribute towards introducing a flexible, comfortable and green working environment [6]. However, the use of TPRs in adult education with focus on their effectiveness in teaching technical subjects is not explored extensively [14]. The existing research work in this domain is mostly piloted and experimented in limited adult education settings and non-technical fields. The technical fields like computer science and information technology are unique, because they not only require the student/lecturer’s presence, but also their active participation, engagement in using software and hardware to perform technical tasks. These tasks will have to be assessed, supervised and graded. The existing body of research also is limited in systematic approaches in adoption of telepresence robots in various teaching scenarios [15]. In addition, there is a lack of empirical studies on the use of TPRs in adult education.

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The goal of this research is twofold. The first goal is to introduce and experiment the possible learning scenarios where TPRs could be used by students and lecturers in higher education settings with focus on teaching technical subjects. The second goal is to investigate the effectiveness of telepresence robots from the students’ and lecturer’s perspectives. We have formulated the following research questions to guide the research process: 1. What are the scenarios for the use of TPRs by students in technical subjects in higher education? 2. What are the scenarios for the use of TPRs by lecturers in technical subjects in higher education settings?

2 Theoretical Background In this section, an overview of the fundamental concepts and theories underlying the use of telepresence robots (TPRs) for remote participation in technical subjects in higher education is presented. This section consists of three sub-sections. Firstly, the history and development of TPRs in higher education are discussed. Secondly, methods of using telepresence robots in technical fields are presented. Finally, methods of using telepresence robots in higher education are explored.

2.1 History and Development of TPRs in Higher Education Marvin Minsky originated the term ‘telepresence’ in 1980 to characterize the sense of being physically present from a distance by the means of technology [16]. However, previous research on virtual reality and teleoperation can be associated with the development of telepresence. Telepresence technology has evolved over time to create more immersive and interactive experiences, making it an important tool for remote communication and collaboration in industries consisting of medicine, education and entertainment [16, 17]. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, educators and students have been forced to shift to remote learning, which has resulted in new challenges for the stakeholders [18]. Maintaining student engagement and interaction in remote learning environments is one of the primary difficulties faced by educators, while students often struggle to stay focused and motivated without the direct guidance of their teachers. As a result, the COVID-19 pandemic has created an opportunity for the usage of telepresence robots in higher education to address these challenges [19]. A typical TPR looks like a robot with a camera and screen that can be used to move and interact with its environment, allowing for remote control and communication [20]. TPR is an emerging technology that better supports the social presence of students and teachers when physical participation in classroom is not possible [18]. The use of TPRs in higher education and teaching technical subjects has become increasingly a

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subject of interest due to their benefits such as remote collaboration, communication, and access to expertise and equipment. Particularly, learners in rural or remote areas can get remote access to experts in various fields. Additionally, telepresence robots can facilitate collaborative learning experiences and remote teamwork in technical fields [21]. As technology advances, telepresence robots are expected to gain further adoption in these fields [18]. A research conducted by [19] focuses on limitations and benefits of using TPRs for educational purposes. It discusses the integration of TPRs in educational institutions. Authors present key findings on technical subjects, educational scenarios, use cases, together with benefits and obstacles. The article provides a detailed review of the integration strategies that facilitate the use of TPRs in educational institutions. It also discusses the implementation of TPRs in various teaching and learning scenarios such as remote teaching, advising, interaction with a teacher, collaboration between students, communication between remote and physical classes. It provides an extensive overview of the use of TPRs in education, detailing its advantages and challenges. Overall, the article offers valuable insights into the diverse educational scenarios where TPRs have been utilized. A research conducted by [22] focuses on the use of TPRs in psychology and educational sciences. Using bibliometric methods, the study analyses the publications on telepresence robots (TPRs) in the database of Web of Science, published from 1980 to 2022. According to the literature review, the research in psychology and educational sciences primarily focuses on the features, and opportunities of TPRs in education. The review suggests that one of the major benefits of TPRs is greater social presence in remote communication. However, the acceptance of TPRs for wider use is still challenging, despite their significant potential for education. The study is limited to the scientific papers on TPRs published in the Web of Science database and excludes several relevant studies that were not reflected in the database or were related to other keywords. In summary, the literature review highlights that the research efforts on TPRs are mainly conducted in computer science, with relatively low interest in psychology and educational sciences.

2.2 Methods of Using TPRs in Technical Subjects TPRs are increasingly being considered as a solution to address the challenges faced by remote workers and training employees. They allow professionals to remotely access equipment, perform maintenance and receive training even when not physically present [23]. Telepresence robots have the potential to reduce travel time and related expenses, as well as offer the possibility of remote training and support in teaching technical subjects [20]. Nevertheless, utilizing these robots can also bring several difficulties such as security issues related to storing and transmitting sensitive data, and the need for specialized training in operating, maintaining, and addressing technical problems related to the telepresence robots [14, 24]. As the telepresence robotics technology

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matures, the adoption of TPRs in teaching technical subjects in higher education is expected to increase. TPRs are beneficial in educational field for several reasons. They allow remote access to particular devices, such as laboratories or research facilities, which can be controlled by students through cameras, sensors and other tools [25]. Additionally, they promote cooperation between teams in various locations by enabling realtime discussion and problem-solving through visual feedback from the robots [14]. Moreover, TPRs facilitate remote training and troubleshooting support to students, thereby increasing the efficiency of technical support and reducing on-site visits. Lastly, TPRs, equipped with virtual reality headsets, could enable immersive virtual reality experiences, allowing virtual tours to manufacturing facilities and simulations of complex technical procedures in a safe and controlled environment [24]. Overall, telepresence robots enhance collaboration, knowledge transfer and quality control in technical fields.

2.3 Methods of Using TPRs in Higher Education TPRs have gained attention in higher education due to the numerous potential benefits they offer. They allow learners to access resources and connect remotely, while still providing an interactive and immersive learning experience [26]. These robots can also provide remote access to specialized equipment and resources, facilitate communication and collaboration between learners and instructors, and offer flexibility in terms of scheduling [18]. The use of telepresence robots in higher education offers many benefits for learners and instructors, including the use of worldwide experts in guest lectures, participation in remote classrooms, making field trips to different cultures and environments, collaborate with students from various locations, and attend remote professional development opportunities like workshops, conferences and training sessions [27]. These robots can provide significantly enhanced learning experiences and offer other previously unavailable opportunities to physically challenged students [18]. However, issues with connectivity (such as poor signal or low bandwidth), privacy (such as unauthorized access to the robot’s camera or microphone or the potential for sensitive data breach) and security (such as hacking, malware attacks or physical theft) could hinder the use of TPRs in higher education [27]. In order to successfully implement telepresence robots in higher education, these above-mentioned issues must be resolved. This includes providing learners with reliable internet connection and addressing concerns related to the protection of personal information [28].

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2.4 Summary of Theoretical Background The use of TPRs in technical subjects in higher education is a novel solution to enable remote participation. TPRs are promising in improving the quality of remote learning by allowing students to attend lectures and labs, communicate with teachers and classmates, and access technical resources from distant locations. In addition, by giving a more engaging experience with the flexibility to move around in an actual physical location, TPRs offer distinct benefits compared to traditional online learning methods, such as webinars and video conferencing. They also provide access to remote specialists’ specific technical knowledge and support, which can enhance the quality of technical education and training. Besides these advantages, TPR adoption in higher education faces obstacles, such as the cost of the technology, requirement for technical assistance and maintenance, and potential network infrastructure limitations. In order to solve these issues and assess the efficiency and possible effects of using telepresence robots in teaching technical subjects in higher education, more research is required.

3 Methodology In the autumn of 2022, the lecturers of the IT College’s ICT department were offered the opportunity to use Ohmni or Double TPRs voluntarily in their teaching activities. The condition was that the teaching had to take place in a real teaching and learning situation (instead of a simulation). The lecturer had to plan the experiment in writing beforehand, document the experiment with photos and drawings of how the teaching actually progressed using the Signavio Business Process Modelling software for academic purposes, and give an interview after the experiment to add details to those process parts that were originally left obscure. The lecturer had to use the robot in teaching at least three times and draw a process model based on the common parts of those three times to recommend to other lecturers to follow. In addition, when planning the experiment, it was always necessary to consider the possibility of interrupting the experiment if it disturbed the conduct or quality of teaching. Therefore, the experiment had to be conducted in such a way that the lecturer or the student, who were using the TPR, was located in the same building where the teaching took place, so that in case of technical failure, teaching could continue normally. The experiment took place in normal classrooms. The sample consisted of three lecturers who are also authors of the article. The other two authors took photos, documented the teaching process and conducted interviews. We used a case study approach and collected data through observation, visual materials and interviews. Qualitative research methods were used for data documentation and interview coding. The results were presented as descriptions and diagrams.

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4 Results The authors designed and conducted four experiments in which TPRs were used by students and lecturers in various scenarios at a higher education institution. The purpose of these experiments was to collect data and play out some typical and realistic scenarios in which TPRs could be used to facilitate remote participation. These experiments focused on two technical subjects, namely, programming and computer networks. In each subject, two experiments were conducted. The two programming subject experiments were more software oriented, while one of the experiments in computer networks subject was hardware oriented and the other one was related with the theoretical exam supervision. Although the lecturers experimented in several teaching situations, including theoretical lecturers, only three types of situations remained meaningful for them: 1. using a TPR for a specific activity period only, where there is a continuous feedback needed like showing your lab work to the lecture; 2. using a TPR for learning monitoring purposes time by time, being ‘idle’ and then taking a tour to visit all lab students to support them in their hands-on work and understand their progress; 3. using a TPR as a cyber-physical twin, to be able to be present in two classrooms at the same time, for example, to supervise the exam. The following results explain the cases’ process flow in detail, to share the experience, how to conduct these types of experiments safely.

4.1 Demonstrating Lab-Work Results Via TPR This experiment was based on a pair-programming task in which undergraduate students had to work in pairs to complete the task assigned to them, and then, as a group, present their work to the lecturer [29]. One pair of volunteering students was given the opportunity to present their work remotely using a TPR. The students were given extra 3 points as incentive because they had to use unknown remote presence technology—a TPR to interact with the lecturer. The justification to design this experiment was to understand if the remote telepresent (TP) students could be accepted in a physical lab next to the physically present students and if there is an extra workload for the teacher. Although the teaching situation was real, the need for the TPR was staged—that is, the volunteering students were allocated to a different class to give them feeling as if they were participating remotely. To add some more ‘real emergency remote learning’ touch to the situation, the students did not have any previous instructions on TPRs and they saw the TPR first time in their life. To ease their situation, one of the authors was sitting at the same room with experimenting students to provide them with support on using the TPR if needed.

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The computer that was used to control the TPR had camera, microphone and speakers. It was connected to the high-quality Wi-Fi network. The app for controlling the TPR was already running, so the students were able to start working on their task. For that, the lecturer had to generate a timed TPR driving link, open the link on the computer and check the camera and microphone with their colleague in another room where the TPR was located. In addition, in the room with the TPR, the lecturer had to bring in the TPR with the charger first (the weight of robot and charger together is about 14 kg) and select the appropriate place for the robot, so that the trajectory from the charger to the lecturer’s table was straight. Although the experiment lasted less than 2 h and there was no need to recharge the battery, the higher education lectures could last up to eight hours, so the realistic situation was envisaged. Using a TPR was not a challenge for the students as they found it an interesting and cool mediating tool for interacting with the lecturer. Instead, they found it interesting to have an ability to see other students presenting their work—as the robot was standing in the room where other students presented their lab work in pairs to the teacher. One of the students shared his perspective by stating: ‘I did feel more present, especially when I could move around the room. It was an interesting dimension that you don’t get when zooming at home. It was also very exciting to see others in the robot. A different kind of experience.’ We could argue that it would have been fun to let the TPR wait behind the classroom door, but unfortunately this TPR model (like most of them) was not able to cross the door threshold or knock on the door (due to lack of hands). The process flow of the experiment is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Experiment 1—students use a TPR to present their pair-programming task

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Another difference that students felt was the quality of their robot-mediated vision. They had to zoom in on the app to see the text on the lecturer’s screen. In addition, they could not show their work directly from their computer but they had to share the computer screen via the TPR’s screen. Finally, as orienting in the room with the TPR is not precise, it took some additional time for the students to reach the teacher. In conclusion, the students found the experiment interesting and thought that in a real-world emergency they would rather use a TPR to attend the lessons, compared to missing them. Another student shared his perspective in this way: ‘I would definitely come through the robot, I would attend the lectures, if possible, I wouldn’t miss it.’ TP students highlighted two other key aspects: (1) the feeling of presence was created by moving with the robot and going to the lecturer; (2) it was good to see the board while in the robot. The students did not look at the material on their computers, but followed what the lecturer showed on the board.

4.2 Evaluating Students’ Lab-Work Results Via a TPR This experiment was also conducted in pair-programming task and in conditions similar to the experiment 1. One pair of volunteering students was given the opportunity to present their work to the TP lecturers. The students were given extra 3 points as incentive because of the unknown situation. The justification for designing this experiment was to understand if the students could accept a TP lecturer evaluating their lab work. Although the teaching situation was real, the need for the TPR was staged—that is, the lecturer was controlling the robot from his office from a different location in the building. This time there were no specific challenges for students, except that it was unfamiliar to them to see their lecturer in the form of a TPR. The TPR was located at the same place where the lecturer normally sat while evaluating lab work. In addition, the length of the robot was adjusted to the sitting height. In this situation, the lecturer set up the technical infrastructure, including taking the robot to the evaluation room, preparing the driving link and checking the call quality. In a real word situation, it would have been necessary to have a dedicated technical assistant to prepare these settings, and the lecturer could have needed a short training to understand their limitations while being TP via a TPR. The experiment succeeded, although it was needed to zoom in the text on students’ computer screen to allow the lecturer to see it. There were light reflections on the screen that made reading the contents of a computer screen via a TPR sometimes complicated. To summarize, there were no technology barriers from the students’ side, as they were ICT students. However, they still stated in their interviews that the use of TPRs was only justified in emergencies (e.g., the lecturer is abroad or physically disabled): ‘It should be an extreme situation, like being in isolation because of COVID and really not being able to come.’ The process flow of the experiment is presented in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2 Experiment 2—TP lecturer assessing pair-programming tasks

4.3 Exam Supervision Via a TPR This experiment was conducted in computer networks exam at undergraduate level. The justification to design this experiment is related to the enormous workload of lecturers during the exam period. In higher education, due to the high number of students participating in exams, the lecturer has to divide the students into several groups and allocate different rooms to accommodate all students. This approach requires exam supervision/proctoring in two physical locations at the same time. Although the current common approach is to ask help from colleagues in proctoring the exam, this approach requires involvement of additional personnel and it limits the presence of the subject teacher to one particular room. If students in another room have any questions then the proctor may not be able to respond. In this experiment, the students were divided into two physical groups, located in two different rooms. In one room, the lecturer was physically present and in another room the TPR was positioned behind the students, while having a distance of 3 m. Occasionally the lecturer used the opportunity to zoom in on students’ computer screens to see how the tasks were solved. The lecturer noticed that normally, as a physical person, it would not be polite to come so close to the students’ screen to see what was happening. Based on students’ feedback from the room with the TP lecturer, they felt secure knowing that they turn to the lecturer immediately if questions occur. However, it is not sure, how many ‘cyber-physical twins’ can one lecturer handle to supervise exams in several physical locations. In addition, there is the question about remuneration: if we do not have to pay the additional supervisor, should we allocate at least part of the saved money to the lecturer who can be at several places at the same time?

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Fig. 3 Experiment 3—TP lecturer exam supervision

Fig. 4 Experiment 3—TP lecturer supervises an exam

The exam supervision process photos captured by TPR at location A (left) and the lecturer’s view while being physically present in location B (right) are presented in Fig. 3. The process flow of the experiment is presented in Fig. 4.

4.4 Lab-Work Supervision Via a TPR This experiment was conducted in computer networks subject lab work at undergraduate level. The justification to design this experiment is related to the peculiarity of teaching technical subjects, where students are expected to perform hands-on tasks and the lecturer has to supervise their work and provide them with necessary instructions and guidance to complete the laboratory task. There are occasions where the lecturer cannot be physically in the lab with the students due to isolation (e.g., due to the COVID-19 restrictions), or any other valid reason. A usual approach is to either

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Fig. 5 Experiment 4—TPR’s view—TP lecturer lab work supervision

find a substitute or cancel the session. This type of problem could be addressed with the use of TPRs. In this experiment, the lecturer was present via a TPR from the office next to the hardware lab. The students and the TPR were in the same physical lab room. The TPR was located at one corner of the lab. In this case, the lecturer was not permanently in the robot, as they were dealing with other students in their office. With the interval of 30 min, the lecturer connected with the TPR and monitored/guided actively the students in the lab, while they were completing their lab tasks. The students considered this type of supervision funny but helpful. It also freed the lecturer from sitting idle in the lab and waiting for the requests on demand. The biggest challenge related to this experiment was cleaning the lab floor from the wires to let the TPR to move around freely. In addition, some minor changes had to be done in the settings of tables and chairs to give more space to the TPR to move around. As with the previous experiment, the use of TPRs seems to be justified only in cases where the lecturer would otherwise miss their classes. As it is difficult to find high-quality substitute lecturers in some study fields, using TPRs with the help of technical assistants could positively influence learning outcomes. The photos captured by the TPR during this experiment are presented in Fig. 5. The design of the experiment is presented in Fig. 6.

5 Discussion and Conclusions Our aim in this study was, based on real-life experience of three higher education teachers, to develop telepresence robots’ usage scenarios for various higher education IT courses. The scenarios were based on typical teaching practices of three ICT lecturers. One scenario stood out where a telepresence robot was used to create a physical avatar in one room while the instructor proctored an exam from another room. This approach has potential for future research, including using AI-equipped robot assistants with telepresence capabilities and Chat GPT interfaces to conduct classes while allowing instructors to intervene remotely.

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Fig. 6 Experiment 4—TP lecturer supervises the laboratory work

While telepresence robots can be used in higher education for various scenarios, and existing classroom practices can be easily adapted, such use still requires technical support and an organized reservation system. Even with these systems in place, instances where the robot’s battery was low were reported, highlighting the importance of maintenance. It is also important not to forget about students who are physically present in the classroom. Feedback from students on the use of TPRs in teaching and learning was generally positive, with some moments of surprise and positive reaction when witnessing a realistic use of the technology. However, it is crucial to continue to consider the needs of all students. To advance this research, more usage scenarios across various subjects are needed to discover innovative approaches. This requires instructors to examine further their didactic techniques, which may initially be challenging. The study was conducted under planned conditions. Using telepresence robots under emergencies could lead to different outcomes. In addition, voluntary participation in the study could have positively biased the results. The university conducting the experiment had a high-quality internet connection, which may not be available in all settings. Further research is needed to explore the full potential of TPRs in higher education.

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Digital Transformation in Education

The Transformation of Art Teaching Process: A Qualitative Study of Digitally Mediated Teaching Antonina Korepanova

and Kai Pata

Abstract This paper argues that digital mediation in art education transforms the art teaching process at a deeper level. The transition of traditional art lessons into an online-mediated form during the COVID-19 pandemic revealed several critical constraints. The data from interviews with 23 visual arts teachers from 8 countries proves that teachers face different problems when they try to replicate their lessons in a digitally mediated environment, and they are prone to be dissatisfied with the teaching process and the results. This paper describes art-specific problems as well as challenges experienced by a wider audience, educators from other disciplines. Three types of shifting to online teaching strategies are identified, namely path-dependent, adapting to changes, and digitally fluent. Overall, digital mediation shifts the traditional art teaching process, which has been dominated by individual guidance, toward a more socially and culturally mediated process. Keywords Visual arts education · Online education · Cultural loop

1 Introduction 1.1 Background For the past years educational sector has experienced a huge leap into online education, which has tremendous effect on the ways people are being taught. Simultaneously, as preceding scholarship demonstrates, digitization poses many challenges for traditionally real mediums. Sithole [14] found that online instructors faced challenges such as large class sizes, academic dishonesty, lack of connection with students, too many emails, and lack of student self-discipline. Kebritchi [12] identified issues A. Korepanova (B) · K. Pata Tallinn University, Narva rd. 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia e-mail: [email protected] K. Pata e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_9

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related to online learners, instructors, and content development, including learners’ expectations, readiness, identity, and participation, changing faculty roles, transitioning from face-to-face to online, time management, and teaching styles. Juneja [11] highlighted the challenges and benefits of online teaching, including the need for effective use of online tools, team-based collaborative learning, and simulation and animation-based learning. Cavanaugh [5] found that teaching online can be more time-consuming than teaching in a traditional in-class format due to increased student contact and individualized instruction. Holly [10] identified challenges for faculty in adopting a constructivist approach to teaching online, which requires them to function as facilitators rather than traditional teacher-centered roles. The papers suggest that professional development for online instructors, training for learners, and technical support for content development are necessary to address these challenges. Object transformation-based professions such as art making and art teaching are under pressure because new technologies call for transformations in the core processes. Art studios have to keep up with digital change. Many university programs and courses are shifting to online or hybrid modes. This study explores art teachers’ experience in higher education during the pandemic time, discussing how online art teaching developed during the crisis. While many educators had to switch to digitally mediated teaching overnight, the process of shifting was painful for many. Empirical studies demonstrate that art educators face several problems when teaching online. Burke [4] found that online arts educators face challenges in facilitating authentic, praxis-focused arts experiences due to the traditionally embodied and collaborative nature of arts education. Wang [15] found that challenges in online teaching for oil painting conservation and restoration courses were mainly demonstrated in six aspects: the environment, the equipment, the software, the Internet, the students’ aspect, and the teachers’ aspect. The two most acute and salient factors accounting for these challenges were “less interaction” and “less practical practice.” Cutcher [6] highlighted the importance of establishing caring, attentive relationships and constructing communities of inquiry and practice to successfully deliver online arts.

1.2 Research objectives The primary aim of this study is to explore in-depth the problems that art educators encountered while moving art teaching online, and the strategies they employed to overcome these problems. Adapting to online teaching is inevitable, and understanding the problems educators face will lead to discussions about finding solutions to them. Studies on the challenges of online higher visual arts teaching are crucial in improving learning outcomes, providing access to educational opportunities for students who may not otherwise have access to them, and identifying pedagogical considerations unique to the online environment. We address the following research questions to achieve the discussed goal:

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1. What types of challenges hinder online teaching for visual arts educators? 2. How do visual arts teachers address the identified challenges? We expect that traditional art teachers (those who work with analog media) would find it harder to adapt to a digitally mediated environment. One obstacle in digitally transforming art education is that few art teachers are ready to embrace technology in their practice, and they struggle with mastering the programs [9] and fear losing the master-apprentice relationship forged during the work in the studio and paying attention to individual students in virtual mode [1, 3]. Additionally, developing and administering digitally transformed online art courses would require new digital competencies and might be time-consuming [2]. The results of this study can be useful for art teachers who are starting to work in the online format and are not aware of the critical issues that transformation may bring. Additionally, these teachers who are already teaching online could find it helpful to read about other teachers’ practices and experiences, and use the information to enrich lessons, trying out new teaching strategies.

2 Methods 2.1 Sample The sampling strategy utilized purposive sampling, where participants were selected based on specific criteria, including higher education, an active artistic career, and prior experience teaching at the university level before and during the pandemic. The first round of participants was recruited through university websites, personal emails, and social networking sites. The next round included snowball sampling, where participants who had already been interviewed suggested other suitable teachers for the study. Overall, we recruited 23 participants. To ensure a broad range of practices in the sample, the study included individuals from two groups: traditional artists (such as painters, drawers, and costume designers) and media artists (including creative coders, interactive installation creators, and video artists), with 9 and 14 participants, respectively. Aiming for diversity, we recruited individuals from various countries, including China, Russia, Estonia, Finland, Austria, Germany, the USA, and France. Regarding gender, the sample was balanced, with 11 female and 12 male teachers. However, 8 out of 11 female teachers were working with analog arts, while 11 out of 12 male teachers were working with media art. All teachers had experience working with both master’s and bachelor’s students. Only 2 teachers were recent graduates with less than 2 years of experience; the others were established professionals, with 7 artists having more than 10 years of teaching experience.

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2.2 Data Collection As this study focuses on the experiences of art educators, we designed a list of openended interview questions. The questions were intended to elicit detailed responses from the participants about their experiences and perspectives on changes to their teaching strategies. The interviews were conducted in a natural, exploratory conversational style, either online or face-to-face depending on the geography of the participants. The semi-structured interviews were conducted over video conferencing software and lasted approximately 45 min each. Online interviews were conducted using Zoom and were recorded, while face-to-face interviews were audio recorded using the Voice Memos app. The interviews were conducted in English and Russian, with 21 and 2 participants interviewed in each language respectively. English interviews were transcribed using the online AI-driven service Otter.ai, and the quality of the transcription was manually checked, with all names, locations, and identifying details removed to ensure anonymity. Russian interviews were translated and transcribed manually.

2.3 Data Analysis After transcription, the interviews were uploaded into the qualitative coding software Atlas.ti. Inductive analysis was chosen as the method for the study, and a priori codes were developed in vivo. The coding process involved several stages, including becoming familiar with the data, coding in vivo, dividing codes into categories and groups, creating a codebook, and reviewing and refining the codes. The coding process was carried out in several iterations. The first round involved categorical coding, during which the topics that participants discussed in the conversation were identified. Next, the topics of “adaptation to online teaching” and “problems in online teaching” were selected and explored for groups and categories within them.

2.4 Ethical Considerations Ethical considerations were a crucial part of this study. The research was conducted in accordance with the guidelines set forth by the institutional ethics committee. Participants were fully informed of the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without any consequences. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before the interviews. The participants were assured of anonymity and confidentiality, and pseudonyms were used during the analysis and write-up of the findings to protect their identities.

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3 Findings 3.1 Challenges Art Educators Face in Digitally Mediated Teaching Looking at the problems that arose in the data, we identified two major groups: problems connected to the peculiarities of art education, and problems connected to technology itself. The first group of problems contains specific cases that are related only to visual art education, while the second group is not discipline-specific. Within each group, we found several motives; this section will thoroughly describe the findings. Medium transformation challenges (Art-specific challenges) Limited interaction with students’ artworks. The problem is connected to the instructor’s inability of physical interaction with a student’s artwork or project in real time online, as opposed to traditional in-person instruction. Due to this limitation, the teacher may find it more challenging to offer feedback, corrections, or suggestions, since they cannot physically manipulate the students’ artwork or demonstrate techniques. Moreover, students may encounter difficulty expressing their questions or concerns about their work in an online setting, particularly if they lack the vocabulary or technical know-how to articulate what they’re trying to achieve. If you see that a student cannot do something, you show him how to do that. If he still cannot do it, you demonstrate again and explain. And this repeats until a student finally succeeds. Online teaching is harder because you cannot come to the student’s work and change it. But it is also good because you do not intervene in the process; you have to learn to explain better (Russia, traditional art teacher).

Digital distortions affect feedback. The focus of visual art education is on producing an artifact, so students create artifacts (drawings, sketches, prototypes) that they then modify significantly with the help of their teachers. With digital mediation, students need to put forth more effort to capture an image that accurately represents the physical artwork’s features; the quality of the image may be affected by the camera, lighting, and screen settings of the receiving (teacher’s) device. Teachers use these images to guide students and make suggestions for adjustments. When the received information is distorted, the quality of feedback suffers. But because they were making three-dimensional objects, it was quite difficult to actually look at them, you know, you want to touch them, want to turn them around, and everything. And Zoom is essentially 2d, and what could I say when they’ve made a thing, and then they’re showing it and then it’s too close, or it’s too far, or turned a little bit to the left? What does it even look like? What does it look like on the other side? (Estonia, traditional art teacher) It is impossible to work normally, because you don’t see the actual paintings but only (very small) photos: the quality is not always good and you don’t see the size and materiality of the paintings. Even if you write down the dimensions you don’t see and feel them - it is impossible to get a feeling for the painting and whether it has the right size or not. Picture colors don’t correspond, a surface texture does not exist in photos. So you don’t know what

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you are talking about - you speak about painting but without seeing a painting (Germany, traditional art teacher)

Analog medium-related specifics. Teaching visual arts online is challenging due to the inability to translate the embodied experience to the digital medium. The qualities of a medium must be felt and understood on a haptic level to work with it effectively. However, digital mediation cannot convey these physical aspects of art, which can lead to difficulties in developing skills and techniques in various media. We were completely lacking that material aspect of most of the artistic processes. So that was very much on the students, their personal development; it was really hard to somehow keep on track (Finland, media art teacher) It is like in a relationship, a lot of things happen on some other level. Art is connected to a medium. It is a fact that an artist feels the resistance of every medium. You should learn to work with it. Every material has some benefits and drawbacks. And this medium resistance is very hard to teach online (Russia, traditional art teacher)

Limited access to resources. Students who study art online may have limited access to materials, which could result in fewer options or lower-quality supplies than they would have in a university studio. This may restrict how art projects can be carried out in various ways. For example, students with small living spaces may not be able to work on large canvases, and media art students may struggle with personal computers that lack the necessary processing power for rendering 3D models. Universities typically have a wide range of materials and tools available for art creation, and some of these tools may be too expensive for individual use. As a result, students can test them out and share them in studios. The main problem is that if a person wants to study online he needs huge resources: if he learns classical painting, he needs models, studio, equipment. This is why it is easier to have a teacher and come to his studio to work. My offline students not only appreciate my knowledge, they also appreciate the opportunity to get rid of those mundane problems like studio rent and paying a model (Russia, traditional art teacher)

Interaction challenges (Art-specific challenges) One of the fundamental components of art education is the emotional connection between a teacher and a student. A safe and encouraging learning environment where students can express themselves creatively without worrying about criticism or failure is facilitated by emotional connection. When working on an artistic project, students may view teachers as co-authors. Conversing about artistic concepts in this situation may be very personal. Personal ties may have an impact on a student’s drive and enthusiasm for art. However, for a variety of reasons, developing emotional connections in a virtual environment can be more difficult than in-person instruction. And I realized that the energy, my physical energy, that I’m holding everybody on. You know, like a magnet, like electric plus and minus. So I’m basically, I’m plugged in and they’re working around me and this is the current; but on Zoom, there is no charge. So I cannot really hold them within the field of energy (USA, traditional art teacher)

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All of these are little fixes for some problems that come up with not being live [face-to-face]. Because I’m quite enthusiastic and I like to walk around, shouting and keeping them awake (China, media art teacher)

Technological challenges (Art-specific challenges) Technological biases in visual language The problem at hand is that sometimes the appearance of artwork created by a student may not match their intended vision due to pre-programmed features of the tools they are using. This can hinder creativity as solutions and choices made by software developers may interfere with the student’s vision. Additionally, while playing with software functionalities, students may forget about the conceptual part of an art project. Because it’s easy in this technologically based art to get lost in the technical virtuosity or the technical achievements. (Estonia, media art teacher) With computer, it’s very easy to just think: “I made this, there are some effects and there are some plugins and then I can download this and it looks fantastic”. But but when you start to talk about it and start to put meaning behind this? (Estonia, media art teacher)

Existing tools do not work well with art-related content Despite the growing prevalence of online education, many existing tools and platforms are not well-suited for the unique challenges posed by art education. Art education typically involves a heavy emphasis on visual information, with teachers working extensively with images, videos, and other multimedia content to supplement students’ learning. However, many online learning tools and platforms were not specifically designed to handle this kind of content, and as a result, may struggle to provide the level of performance and interactivity required for effective art education. So when I have a presentation with thousands files that are two gigabytes, there is no way that any of this applications like Photoshop or PowerPoint [will manage them]. They are built for different purpose. So, that’s also something that I struggled first. It’s a reason I had to develop, my own system for sharing that (Finland, media art teacher) [All online experience was] just a very unsatisfying substitute. A bit like all these frustrating “online art shows”, but unlike these - as we always had problems with the quality of transmission (bad Internet); no high-resolution images could be sent (Germany, traditional art teacher)

Mental challenges (General challenges) Attention span challenge. Compared to traditional art classes, online classes pose a challenge for teachers to maintain the attention of students. The lack of physical presence of the teacher and peers may cause students to lose focus and become disengaged, leading to difficulty in remembering lesson material and participation in discussions. I felt that the students were kind of phasing out after a couple of minutes. And it was hard, really hard for me to engage with them. So if I had a more traditional approach of just presenting a PowerPoint presentation, it probably would have been easier. But I like the way I teach now, it didn’t fit too well into into the into the online mode so far (Austria, media art teacher)

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Learning fatigue. Online learning can be exhausting for both students and teachers, as some teachers have reported. The feeling of fatigue can be overwhelming, causing symptoms similar to brain fog and disorientation. Having several online lessons in a row can significantly reduce physical activity and lead to lower energy levels. I changed some of the lectures because in the beginning, I was thinking they were too long. So in the beginning, when students were not used to work online, I had the feeling that we all were immediately tired after being online (Austria, media art teacher)

Social challenges (General challenges) Non-verbal communication limitation Observing and deciphering students’ body language can be difficult when teaching online. Understanding student engagement, motivation, and difficulties in learning depends heavily on nonverbal communication. The inability to read body language cues can lead to misunderstandings, which decreases interaction and participation in the online learning environment. And I rely on energy very heavily, it’s basically the body language, reading the body language of the students because it’s also very important when you discuss a creative job (USA, traditional art teacher)

Discussion sustainability challenge. Compared to in-person discussions, discussions in online education can be more difficult to maintain. It can be challenging for teachers to get students to participate actively in discussions without bodily cues. As one of the primary teaching strategies in art education, discussion helps students to develop their ability to analyze, critique, and self-reflect on art. Where I’m playing ping-pong with the class, and all the students, and then they’re playing ping-pong with each other while playing ping-pong with me. That’s how discussion works. And then we also absorb everybody’s work at the same time. I’m going to make references and cross-references. This is completely impossible to do online (USA, traditional art teacher)

Group dynamics disruption. Group dynamics play a crucial role in collaboration and learning in art education. Art teachers often rely on pedagogical relationships within a group, in other words, peer-to-peer learning that opens up more opportunities for artistic projects. By collaborating with group mates, students prepare for professional life because the nature of contemporary art is collaborative and interdisciplinary. So, forcing them to come to university is useful. They benefit, even from activities after class by being with each other, they make friendships or alliances. They have partnerships, projects, and all that stuff. That’s another thing that we missed from the pandemic, the online thing that didn’t have to deal with the actual class presence, but it had to do with the overall educational experience (China, media art teacher)

Lack of feedback from students. In online education, teachers’ performance may decrease due to the absence of visual cues from students. Feeling self-conscious about their appearance or the appearance of their room on the camera, students might turn their cameras off, thus leaving teachers without basic visual feedback. Teaching was kind of tough. At some point, I just had a bunch of circles with initials on the screen. And when you’re talking and explaining something, and you don’t really have an audience to react to, or even to see if they’re bored, or if there’s someone wandering or if there’s someone struggling... It’s very lonely and very tough (Austria, media art teacher)

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Class management challenges (General challenges) Participation prediction. In online education, it is especially challenging to predict how many students will participate in a lesson. Registering for courses from the comfort of their homes, students often miscalculate the time required for completing all the courses. This might be a reason for a higher drop-off rate, and for educators, this can result in uncertainty around the number of students who will participate, making it challenging to plan and execute planned activities. The class was really small. So I would do breakout rooms, but I never knew who’s gonna show up (USA, traditional art teacher)

Time Constraints. Due to the limitations of online teaching, teachers have to spend more time preparing and delivering their lessons, resulting in less time for covering the course material. I had to reduce the content, because in the on-site lessons we could cover more content. But for some reason, for the online lecture, I had to reduce the content, because otherwise it would have been too long and too much and talking into the void (Austria, media art teacher)

I tried to curate their diploma shows (in a real space at the academy) via live video transmission, but I don’t think it worked out well in the end. Also, it took three times as long compared to normal lessons (Germany, traditional art teacher)

3.2 Strategies for Adjusting to Digitally Mediated Teaching Through our research, we found that higher visual arts teachers use different strategies to make the transition from face-to-face to online teaching. Each strategy is characterized by a degree of transformation that a course goes through. We divided all experiences according to three degrees of innovativeness, identifying a group of teachers who translate face-to-face courses to digital mediums without adjustments, a group of teachers who make some changes in the materials, and a group of teachers who rewrite courses and use some experimental technologies for teaching. Path-dependent teachers Some teachers tried to replicate their in-person teaching methods online without making many changes. These educators chose to stick with their existing teaching strategies and made an effort to teach their lessons online in the same way they did in the classroom, interacting with their students through online platforms and video conferencing tools. Technology played a mediating role in the learning process. These instructors typically preferred to resume face-to-face instruction. Eight participants out of the whole sample followed this strategy, including four media art teachers and four traditional art teachers. Adapting to changes teachers Ten educators from the sample (five traditional and five media artists) embraced the shift to digital learning and updated their lesson plans to reflect it. These educators changed their teaching strategies to fit the digital environment because they

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believed that teaching online did not work well for their current programs. Structures for the lessons and courses were modified. To improve their students’ learning, they investigated various technologies and tools. Several ways to adjust to the digital environment emerged in data: 1. Prerecorded educational videos with step-by-step explanations of art making process and comments 2. Turned long discussions and workshops into a chain of mixed activities (watching videos, reading articles, conducting research, executing small practical tasks) 3. Introduced pair work to make students engage in constant dialogue with each other 4. Reorganized individual work into collaborative projects 5. Shifted toward more theoretical topics 6. Changed lesson structures and course tasks 7. Separated work in a group and individual feedback 8. Made lecture content shorter and added more breaks 9. Invited various external speakers to boost discussions. In a costume dramaturgy (social psychology of clothing) class, the teacher decided to change the structure of the class by joining all the students into one project. Instead of working on individual projects, students were required to work together to create a cohesive costume design for a play. This approach encouraged collaboration and communication among the students and allowed them to work together toward a common goal. It also ensured that their work was aligned with the other students, creating a more cohesive and polished final product. This approach stimulated the students to pay closer attention to the work of other members of the class. So in a way I just fully redid my syllabus; it’s ended up actually the best class I’ve ever taught because I realized we can only focus on just one person talking on the screen. So in order to hold the focus of everybody else, it was very important to make sure that the attention is not being scattered. So that their understanding of their characters will be heavily dependent on what they’re learning from the other person. So I made everybody depend on everybody else (USA, traditional art teacher)

Another instructor talked about how he discovered additional tools to overcome the limitations of the built-in video conferencing software functionality. This instructor understood that although video conferencing software could be a useful resource for distance learning, it could also have restrictions and disadvantages. But one important thing which I really like using is Padlet for each course; that can be a very nice tool to have the students participating in the course without interruptions. For example, on Zoom, that can be quite disruptive when someone asks a question. So, students can write on these online Padlets, and ask questions. And, they can also answer each other’s questions and have some kinds of exchanges. For the next lesson I always take a look on the Padlet and take a few questions. And I can start the next lesson with some answers to the previous questions and make some kind of connections (France, media art teacher)

Digitally fluent teachers Three media art teachers were able to transition easily to digital teaching and learning. Before the pandemic, these teachers were already

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incorporating technology into their lessons, so they felt prepared to move to online instruction. To engage their students and improve their learning outcomes, digitally fluent teachers were at ease using a variety of digital tools and platforms. They sought out new technologies and incorporated them into their teaching methodologies, such as 1. Creating platforms that suited their needs better 2. Developing new software for lecture delivery 3. Incorporating tools created for other disciplines, such as computer science. For example, one of these teachers developed software for lecture delivery. They recognized the need for a new tool to enhance the delivery of lectures specifically tailored to their subject area and unique teaching style. I don’t really like to use pre-made tools, like PowerPoints or so for other applications. So I’m interested in learning by doing so I’ve also learned myself when I put together the presentation applications for myself, so that I’m not relying on Photoshop on the PowerPoint or similar things. Now I have a slideshow that can turn into an art piece and for me, it’s more like a playground. Using some commercial software feels like kind of a burden, because they are so restrictive. They don’t allow you to do what you actually want to do. So that’s why I developed my own application (Finland, media art teacher)

However, the categorization presented here is not fixed to personal teaching preferences, and sometimes teachers who are more inventive in one course might be more conservative in giving another course. For example, one teacher described his/her experience in one course as an adapting teacher, while he/she was talking about another course where he/she chose a path-dependent strategy.

4 Discussion This study set out to investigate the challenges art educators faced when bringing art instruction online, as well as the solutions they came up with. It did this by first looking at the online teaching experiences of visual art teachers affected by the pandemic. The investigation was guided by the following research questions: (1) What types of challenges hinder online teaching for visual arts educators? and (2) How do visual arts teachers address these challenges? The results are discussed in the sections that follow, along with a possible interpretation based on media innovation theories and the technological reinforcement of the cultural loop in higher visual arts education. The results demonstrate a range of difficulties faced by art educators in digitally mediated instruction, which can be divided into two categories: art-specific and general challenges. The term “art-specific challenges” refers to issues that are unique to visual arts and include the subgroups of “medium transformation,” “interaction,” and “technological challenges.” General challenges are cross-disciplinary and any teacher working online may encounter them. Similarly, inside of the general challenges group other subgroups were identified: mental, social, and class management

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challenges. Every particular challenge inside subgroups was described and illustrated with a quotation from a participant. These difficulties greatly distress teachers and occasionally prevent the adoption of online teaching. The study identified three behavioral patterns, each characterized by the degree of transformation and adaptation to the online environment. These patterns were identified by closely examining the strategies employed by higher visual arts teachers to adapt to digitally mediated teaching. The path-dependent strategy involves emulating in-person teaching techniques online, while the adapting to changes strategy welcomes the shift to digital learning and modifies teaching techniques accordingly. The digitally fluent strategy involves using creative solutions to make the transition to digital teaching. The article provides examples of how educators changed their teaching methods to accommodate the digital environment, such as changes to lecture preparation, lecture structure, collaborative shifts for assignments, and course topic changes. Additionally, the study provides examples of how some lecturers improved the quality of their lecture delivery by developing their digital tools and platforms. We anticipated that traditional art instructors would find it more challenging to adjust to environments that use digital mediation. However, the data did not support that notion; both adapting to changes and path-dependent groups were equally represented by traditional and media artists. This suggests that the medium an art teacher uses does not imply that traditional artists are less effective in online instruction; perhaps personal traits like openness or mindset type have a greater influence on the adaptation to the new teaching mode. However, further research should be conducted to fully confirm this suggestion.

4.1 Adaptation to Online Teaching Damsa et al. [7] examined how academic teachers in Norway responded to the COVID-19 crisis and the shift to online teaching. The study identified four clusters of teacher responses, ranging from strong resistance to the transformation of teaching practices. The four clusters of teacher responses identified in the study were Resisters, Copers, Improvers, and Transformers. The group of Improvers relates to “Adapting to changes teachers,” and the group of Transformers relates to “Digitally fluent teachers.” In our study, we did not identify teachers who resisted the online education process, as the sample was smaller, and most likely participants who were strongly resistant to online teaching and did not engage in it willingly were not interested in sharing their experience. The term “path-dependent” comes from media innovation theory and refers to a phenomenon where the past development of a system or process influences its present-day development. Essentially, this means that a system’s trajectory is determined by its past, and altering it after it has been established can be difficult. Path dependency in media studies refers to how the development of digital media was influenced by earlier devices, with early digital media frequently imitating the appearance and functionality of their analog forebears [8]. Similarly, we cannot assume that

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online art education will simply replicate in-person processes but rather that it will adapt to and develop in line with the particular qualities of digital media.

4.2 Cultural Loop Online teaching in traditional painting and drawing classes may undergo a significant shift once art teachers begin utilizing digital opportunities outside of mediation environments that open up digital heritage to provide an immediate cultural loop [13]. They will add layers of algorithm-supported transmutations for art objects and encourage collaboration and reflective processes on them. We can see that these changes are being facilitated by digitally fluent teachers. The use of digital technology in art education has the potential to revolutionize traditional teaching methods. By incorporating digital heritage and algorithm-supported transformations, students can engage with art in new and innovative ways. Collaborative and reflective processes can also enhance the learning experience, creating a cultural loop that facilitates group and collective knowledge sharing. The term “cultural loop” refers to the process by which individuals in a social group develop shared meanings and understandings through repeated use of cultural artifacts, such as language or social practices. This approach lies at the core of the art teaching process, and new technologies can facilitate it at a deeper level. However, the introduction of digital tools has boosted the possibility for art teachers to use the cultural loop directly as a pedagogical method. This evolution of teaching through the cultural loop is not limited to the single artist level but can also occur through group collaboration, discussions, peer critique, and the collective accumulation of knowledge. Overall, digital transformation adds a cultural loop as a facilitator through group and collective knowledge using processes, enabling art education to evolve and grow in new and exciting ways.

4.3 Methodological Limitations Regarding this study, several limitations should be taken into account. The sample size was small, and the scope of this report does not allow for accurate and complete generalizations based on these findings. However, the study provides essential data that can be compared with other studies and provides deep insights into how visual arts teachers feel about the significant change in how they deliver their instruction. Furthermore, the dataset could not be statistically analyzed because it only included interview data, which could result in multiple interpretations. Finally, using and comparing the reflections of the two teacher groups should be done with some caution, as they represented university systems from various nations. It is also possible that some universities were better prepared for the online shift than others.

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5 Conclusion All in all, the COVID-19 pandemic has fundamentally altered conventional teaching strategies, and art education is no exception. This study clarifies the difficulties art educators encountered when adjusting to online instruction and the methods they used to overcome them. The results show that while online education has advantages, it also poses significant difficulties for art educators. Nevertheless, despite these difficulties, the art educators in this study used a variety of tactics to overcome them. The findings of this study emphasize the significance of investigating the difficulties educators encounter when adjusting to new teaching methodologies and the necessity of finding solutions to them. Overall, this study adds to the ongoing conversation about how to enhance online instruction and suggests that with the right strategies, art education can continue to thrive in the digital era. Acknowledgements We thank all art teachers who participated in the study.

References 1. Bender, D.M., Vredevoogd, J.D.: Using online education technologies to support studio instruction. J. Educ. Technol. Soc. 9(4), 114–122 (2006), publisher: JSTOR 2. Bender, D.M., Wood, B.J., Vredevoogd, J.D.: Teaching time: Distance education versus classroom instruction. Am. J. Distance Educ. 18(2), 103–114 (2004), publisher: Taylor & Francis 3. Bender, D.M.: Attitudes of Higher Education Interior Design Faculty Toward the Innovation of Distance Education. Michigan State University (2002) 4. Burke, K.: Virtual praxis: Constraints, approaches, and innovations of online creative arts teacher educators. Teach. Teach. Educ. 95, 103143 (2020), publisher: Elsevier 5. Cavanaugh, J.: Teaching online-a time comparison. Online J. Distance Learn. Adm. 8(1), 1–9 (2005) 6. Cutcher, A., Cook, P.: One must also be an artist: Online delivery of teacher education. Int. J. Educ. Arts (2016) 7. Dam¸sa, C., Langford, M., Uehara, D., Scherer, R.: Teachers’ agency and online education in times of crisis. Comput. Hum. Behav. 121, 106793 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021. 106793 8. David, P.A.: Path dependence: a foundational concept for historical social science. Cliometrica 1(2), 91–114 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11698-006-0005-x 9. Dias, L.B.: Integrating technology. Learn. Lead. Technol. 27, 10–13 (1999), publisher: Citeseer 10. Holly, C., Legg, T.J., Mueller, D., Adelman, D.S.: Online teaching: challenges for a new faculty role. J. Prof. Nurs.: Off. J. Am. Assoc. Coll.Es Nurs. 24(4), 254–258 (2008). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.profnurs.2007.07.003 11. Juneja, A., Turabieh, H., Upadhyay, H., Kiros Bitsue, Z., Hoang, V.T., Trung, K.T.: Optimization of mental health-related critical barriers in IoT-based teaching methodology. Comput. Intell. Neurosci. 2022, e4602072 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4602072, publisher: Hindawi 12. Kebritchi, M., Lipschuetz, A., Santiague, L.: Issues and challenges for teaching successful online courses in higher education: a literature review. J. Educ. Technol. Syst. 46(1), 4–29 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239516661713, publisher: SAGE Publications Inc

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13. Ley, T., Seitlinger, P., Pata, K.: Patterns of meaning in a cognitive ecosystem: Modeling stabilization and enculturation in social tagging systems. In: Cress, U., Moskaliuk, J., Jeong, H. (eds.) Mass Collaboration and Education, pp. 143–163. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Series, Springer International Publishing (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31913536-6_8 14. Sithole, A., Mupinga, D.M., Kibirige, J.S., Manyanga, F., Bucklein, B.K.: Expectations, challenges and suggestions for faculty teaching online courses in higher education. Int. J. Online Pedagog. Course Des. (IJOPCD) 9(1), 62–77 (2019). https://doi.org/10.4018/IJOPCD. 2019010105, publisher: IGI Global 15. Wang, Y., Devarajoo, K.: Challenges confronted in online teaching for oil painting conservation and restoration course. Int. J. Educ. Hum. 2(2), 28–32 (2022). https://doi.org/10.54097/ijeh. v2i2.281

The Digital Turn in Social Work Education and Practice Karmen Toros, Asgeir Falch-Eriksen, Rafaela Lehtme, Koidu Saia, Alison McInnes, Sarah Soppitt, Rebecca Oswald, and Samantha Walker

Abstract This article examines current literature on the use of digital technology in social work education. The systematic review follows the PRISMA statement and includes 14 peer-reviewed articles published in multiple academic journals from 2013 to 2021 reporting primary research with social work students and educators. Four main themes emerged from data analysis: type of learning tools as intervention; impact on the learning process; impact on professional competence; and the value in the context of preparing students for practice. Findings indicate that various interventions (simulated clients/avatars, scenarios, and activities) for developing social work competencies are used via active learning classroom, videoconferencing platform Zoom, the Web conferencing program Centra, virtual world educational format Second Life, SBIRT simulation, digital storytelling, and others. Simulated activities and exercises supported linking theoretical knowledge with practice. Furthermore, simulation-based learning contributed to mastering students’ practice skills, specifically building therapeutic relationships, assessment skills, ethical decision-making/ behaviour, and reflexivity. The overall impression of the research literature is that social work education, supported by digital technologies, has a considerable potential to train social work students to become better practitioners and that educational institutions must embrace technology to remain relevant to the field of practice. Keywords Social work education · Systematic review · Digital technology · Simulation

K. Toros (B) · R. Lehtme · K. Saia Tallinn University, Narva Rd 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia e-mail: [email protected] A. Falch-Eriksen Oslo Metropolitan University, Stensberggata 26, 1164 Oslo, Norway A. McInnes · S. Soppitt · R. Oswald · S. Walker Northumbria University, Ellison PI, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_10

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1 Introduction Two of the main aims of professional education are to prepare students for the field of practice they will enter, and also to channel new knowledge into the field of practice. Accordingly, education for a profession needs to not only be developed reflexively with the field of practice but must also include what state-of-the-art research prescribes for its practice domain. Parsons [33] captured this dynamic in his concept of the professional complex, in which education, research, and the field of practice had to be well integrated to lay claim to being a profession. What this means is that digital technology (DT) should be embedded into the profession’s epistemic composition. While this is less obvious for social work than for engineers or medical practitioners, social work has in the last two decades developed DT that merges with the field of practice [17, 44], and with the epistemic corpus of social work itself. To clarify, the global definition of social work is “a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people /…/” [16]. Emerging DT is actively shaping the process of teaching and learning in modern education [42], including social work education, research, and the field of practice [17]. Hitchcock et al. [14] emphasise that technology has a growing importance in social work and a responsibility to prepare students for what they will need once they start working because new DTs have entered the profession’s practice domain to shape social work identity. In the US in 2017, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW), Association of Social Work Boards (ASWB), Council on Social Work Education (CSWE), and Clinical Social Work Association (CSWA) created technology standards for social work practice and education to guide social workers’ use of technology, enhance social workers’ awareness of their ethical responsibilities when using technology, and inform social workers, employers, and the public about practice standards for social workers’ use of technology (p. 8). These principles indicate that, when developing professional, ethical, and competent social workers, educators should also acknowledge the obligation to teach them skills to use and manage technology [17, p. 373]. Significantly, COVID-19 has contributed to the rapid development of the use of technology in social work practice. While [28] note that COVID-19 changed social work globally, [27] outline an essential point here—the pandemic has “forced” social work practice to move towards the broader use of DT in practice as the pandemic became a forced experiment on how to communicate better through DT and utilise DT to serve the purpose of the profession optimally. Zemaitaityte et al. [43, p. 5] elaborate that technology in social work education is not new, but the pandemic has led to its widespread use. Emergency state restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic revealed new possibilities for teaching and learning, as the field of practice was forced to suddenly go digital [27]. Additionally, COVID-19 brought up the urgency of developing ICT competencies in educating social workers [43]. The abovementioned standards [30] state the need for exploring how technology enables students to master and/or acquire professional skills. Also, now that DT

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has become a more natural and general trait of social work practices, [36] indicates that technology will continue to be part of social work practice, and thus become a crucial component of contemporary social work education. Therefore, this study aims to systematically review the current literature on DT in social work education and to identify specific critical fields of focus. Also, a review will enable us to identify shortcomings or gaps in the field of social work education and its digital turn.

2 Digital Technology in Social Work and the Interconnection of Education and Practice DT has increased through the last few decades, transformed the character of the social work profession, and initiated a favourable current in expanding social workers’ ability to assist people in need [30]. Innovations in robotics have generated new opportunities to strengthen the potential of service users [3]. In practice, Breit et al. [6, p. 834] underline technology’s potential to increase accessibility to and participation in services. For instance, DT options are used to provide video counselling or selfguided web-based interfaces [35]. Hitchcock et al. [14] elaborate that service users may sometimes depend on technology to enhance their well-being. In our context, social work education must be mindful of the evolving field of technology, and take advantage of those technologies that can further the social work agenda. Hence, DT can become crucial not only to prepare competent social work professionals through practice but also to prepare future professionals for a thoroughly digitised reality for social work clients—even those clients who are unable to keep up with the fast pace of digital development. The profession depends on educational institutions (most often universities) to research new knowledge and ensure the profession is relevant to society. Therefore, DT needs to offer a wide variety of technological alternatives, including simulation, and create opportunities for future social workers to practice their skills as an essential part of their training. Simulation-based learning and Virtual Reality (VR) are emerging as promising innovative methods in social work education. [9, 15, 19] discuss how simulationbased technology offers improved facilities for learning for practice and can provide adequate preparedness for practice during education. New DT can thus support the profession in providing more relevant practice-based education than what was possible before recent developments in DT. Like human-based simulations, computer-based simulations provide students with opportunities to learn professional skills in infinite scenarios and then reflect on them [10]. Asakura et al. [1] and Lee [22] both emphasise significant opportunities to practice safely with clients in realistic settings without potential harm to social workers or their clients. Meredith et al. [27, p. 6] highlight another compelling aspect—experimental learning by virtual and augmented reality, which enables practising in ways that would not be ethical or appropriate in a real-life situation. However, they are scenarios that social work professionals are likely to meet once in the field of practice. Furthermore, once DT

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content has been generated, it can be repeated from class to class, and year to year as long as the digitised content is relevant [10, 42].

3 Methods The literature review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 statement [32], which is the updated PRISMA guideline [29] for ensuring the transparent reporting of systematic reviews [24]. Ethical approval was not required because all the data was obtained from secondary sources.

3.1 Search Strategy A literature search (hand-search) for relevant records was conducted from February 1 to February 5, 2023, using the electronic databases of Cambridge Journals Online, Academic Search Complete (via EBSCOhost Web), SAGE Publications, ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis, Oxford Journals, and SpringerLink. The search strings that were combined and used for the search engines are (“digitali*”, “digital tool”, “digital solution”, “supportive technology”, “smart education”, “virtual reality”, “virtual simulation”, “artificial intelligence”, “VR”) AND (“social work education”); (“professional*”) AND (“digital”) AND (“social work”); (“digitali*” AND “social work”); (“technol*”) AND (“social work”) AND (“practice”). The same search strings were used for all the listed databases. The search strings were intentionally broad as DT contributions within social work are expected to be few. Pre-defined search parameters included records published in English in peer-reviewed academic journals with full-text availability between January 2013 and January 2023. The time limit was set for ten years to ensure that the articles were up to date and that the findings will remain relevant in a fast-paced field of knowledge development. As the search resulted in a high number of records (see Table 1), only the titles of the records were screened initially. Titles that were clearly relevant in the context of the current study were included for the identification of studies. After 50 consecutive titles had not yielded any new relevant articles, the screening was discontinued. After evaluating 4,837 titles, 197 records were identified.

3.2 Screening In total, 197 records were potentially relevant. After removing 70 duplicates, 127 records remained for further screening for eligibility (see Fig. 1). To qualify for selection in the first phase of screening, the search terms had to occur either in the

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Table 1 Electronic search strategy Database

Search strings

Cambridge Journals Online

Records

Title evaluation

Records included

662,960

966

8

1,811

451

84

634,124

663

22

256,237

552

1

636,251

724

52

“digitali*”, “digital tool”, “digital solution”, “supportive technology”, “smart education”, Academic Search “virtual reality”, “virtual Complete (via EBSCOhost Web) simulation”, “artificial intelligence”, “VR” AND “social SAGE Publications work education”; “professional*” AND “digital” AND “social ScienceDirect work”; “digitali*” AND “social Taylor & Francis work”; “technol*” AND “social Oxford Journals work” AND “practice” SpringerLink

57,449

550

0

324,848

931

30

Total

2,573,680

4,837

197

title, abstract, or keywords and had to clearly identify the discipline (social work), domain (education), and subject (digital, technology, simulation, or virtual). This led to the exclusion of 73 records that did not meet the inclusion criteria. In the second phase of screening with the remaining 54 records, the full text was read to make the final eligibility assessment. The inclusion criteria were study type (reporting of primary research on digital technology in social work education/ training), participant type (social work educators, social work students), and technology domain (web-based devices, systems, methods, excluding social media, and social networking). This resulted in the exclusion of 40 records, so a total of 14 records met the criteria for final inclusion in the systematic review. Each article is summarised in Table 2 using the following categories: author(s) and year, study location, population and sample, method, technology domain, and main results. As shown in Table 2, mixed-method (n = 6) and quantitative studies (n = 6) dominate the included studies, while two studies involve qualitative methods. All the studies include a sample of social work students, except for two, which include both social work students and faculty/facilitators [4, 18]. The first author of this article conducted a literature search and screened each article. The second author independently screened 50% (n = 7) of the records included in the final selection to assess their compliance with the inclusion criteria. No disagreements arose regarding the eligibility. The double-screening process ensured credibility in the selection process for relevant records.

3.3 Data Analysis Thematic analysis of the main findings of the 14 articles was conducted using principles outlined by Braun and Clarke [5], which consisted of generating initial codes

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Identification Records identified from databases (n = 197): (EBSCOhost Web, n = 84, Cambridge Journals, n = 9, Sage Publications, n = 22, ScienceDirect, n = 1, Taylor & Francis, n = 52, SpringerLink, n = 30)

Record removed before screening: Duplicates (n = 70)

Screening Records screened (n = 127)

Records screened for eligibility using the combination of search terms in the title, abstract or keywords: social work, education and subject (digital, technology, simulation or virtual)

Records excluded due to eligibility criteria not fulfilled (n = 73)

Eligibility Records assessed full text for eligibility (n = 54): primary research focusing on digital technology in social work education/training, research with social work students or educators and technology domain

Records excluded due to eligibility criteria not fulfilled (n = 40)

Included Studies included in the qualitative synthesis (n = 14) Fig. 1 PRISMA flow diagram [32]

and searching for, reviewing, refining, and naming themes. To enhance the reliability of the data analysis, two of the authors, the first and second, conducted the data analysis, beginning with multiple readings of the studies to gain an overall understanding and familiarity with the data. After reading, initial codes from the data were generated. Subsequent coding involved repeated readings of the transcripts to discover patterns to code the data into potential meaning units for labels. These were named as the initial themes. After the initial themes with relevant codes were compiled, both authors met to discuss the findings. Subsequently, the pattern formation and identification process led to constructing themes independently and then together by comparing and refining themes. Consistency in the common labels and themes was achieved by deliberation and agreement. The four main themes that emerged from

MSW students

BSW and MSW students

USA

USA

Australia

USA

Carter et al. [9]

Eun-Kyoung [11]

Goldingay et al. [15]

Hitchcock et al. [16]

Sample size

BSW students N = 27

Australia

Martin [29]

Mixed: survey, open questions

Quantitative: survey

N = 125

BSW and MSW students

USA

Lee et al. [27]

Quantitative: pilot, pre- and post-test

N = 30

MSW students

USA

Lanzieri et al. [24]

Mixed: pre-test, evaluations, formative assessments

N = 17 (students), N =2 (facilitators)

MSW students, PhD student facilitators

Quantitative: preand post-test

N = 46

Avatar in virtual reality (Second Life**)

Technology-enhanced active learning classroom

VR simulation (Wonda VR)

Simulated client

Simulated client—SBIRT* (Kognito)

Mixed: survey, free Digital storytelling text comments

N = 29

Avatars (Voki), virtual communities

Simulated client

Technology domain

Quantitative: post-test

Mixed: post-test, focus groups

Method

N = 25

Kourgiantakis et al. Canada [21]

MSW students

BSW students N = 33

Population

Participants and sample

Study location

Author and year

Table 2 Overview of the studies included in the analysis

(continued)

Virtual reality-based activity did not enhance interpersonal communication skills

Positive learning experiences, facilitating active participation, developing practice skills

Beneficial impact in the learning—active learning, increases motivation to learn, enhances reflexivity

Enhancing practice skills and competencies, including therapeutic relationships

Improvement competency and readiness to conduct SBIRT with adolescent

Skill development to reflect on emotional reactions to overwhelming situations without harming real clients

Fostering culturally competent skill building

Improvement of key practice skills, including interviewing, increased self-assurance, managing emotions, etc.

Main results

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Qualitative: informal feedback

*SBIRT – Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment **Second Life – A three-dimensional virtual world

MSW students, faculty

N = 10 (41)

USA

Quantitative: preand post-test, follow-up assessment

N = 83

Wilson et al. [6]

MSW students

USA

Sacco et al. [45]

Quantitative: preand post-test, survey

MSW students

UK

Roberson and Baker [44]

NA

Mixed: post-survey Avatar in virtual reality and journal writing (Second Life)

BSW students N = 70

USA

Reinsmith-Jones et al. [38]

Avatar in virtual reality (Second Life)

Simulation—SBIRT

Virtual reality simulation

Mannequin simulation (SimMan®3G)

Qualitative: post-design

Simulation

Technology domain

MSW student N = 1

Mixed methods: survey, narrative responses

Method

USA

N = 68

Sample size

Nimmagadda and Murphy [35]

Population

Participants and sample

Students

Study location

Meredith et al. [31] UK

Author and year

Table 2 (continued)

Meaningful learning opportunities with respect to home visiting; beneficial for practicing assessment skills, reflexivity

SBIRT training increases students’ capacity to implement evidence-based interventions designed

A creative way to engage students and provide learning scenarios that are specific to desired practice skills

Beneficial in teaching social work values, skills, and knowledge; a thought-provoking and emotional experience

Enhancing interprofessional skills, including communication, and reflexivity

Empowering authentic experiential learning, development of practical skills, reflexivity

Main results

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the analysis of the studies are described in the following section. Transcripts were manually coded using word processing software.

4 Findings Findings are based on the 14 studies from four different countries (mainly the USA) published between 2013 and 2021. Four main themes emerged from the data analysis, indicating developments in digital technology and simulation-based learning in social work education across various countries in the last decade.

4.1 Type of Learning Tools as Intervention Various forms and combinations of DT simulations were included as practice-based learning for longer or shorter periods. Studies examined the experience and/or effectiveness of simulation-based learning in developing social work professionals with relevant competencies across the social work programme in general [27] or with simulated clients or avatars. This was achieved using scenarios and activities within laboratory settings [7], through active learning classrooms [23], the university’s learning management system [39], the videoconferencing platform Zoom [18], virtual communities via Centra (a Web conferencing program for interaction) [11], the platform Wonda VR™ [20], and SIMMan 3G mannequin [31]. Three studies [4, 25, 38] used avatars for the learning experiences in virtual reality, developed in the virtual world educational format Second Life. Some examples are avatars in virtual sites such as Gerontology Education Island (an immersive educational environment promoting active dialogue about ageing, elderly people, health care, policy issues, caregivers, decision-makers, and educators) and The Village (a simulated virtual 3D exercise in social justice in which students experience with difficult situations, and have to choose a solution that is the most just) [38]; simulations for home visiting [4]; and role plays as an intake assessment interview [25]. Two other studies analysed the influence of a Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) simulation [13, 40], and one study explored students’ experience with client-centred web-based digital storytelling [12].

4.2 Impact on the Learning Process Enhanced Understanding of Theory and Practice. The findings outline numerous ways that technology-based simulation influences the learning process. Students from several studies [7, 12, 20, 24] emphasised enhanced understanding of theory and practice with the help of digital tools, which means that simulation worked as a

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comprehensive learning aid. Some student comments include: “I have really enjoyed simulation, it has helped me to put all of the pieces together”, and “I am a hands-on learner, so I found this helpful when understanding the theory of social work” [27, p. 11]. Other students discussed the new way of thinking about and understanding clients’ perspectives and experiences that previously were not open to them, but where simulations had brought them closer to more relevant learning experiences, as well as the social worker’s role as an advocate of the clients [12]. Linking Theoretical Knowledge with Practice. Simulated activities and exercises supported linking theoretical knowledge to the field of simulated practice, thus forcing a more relevant choice of theory to assist practice. Here, various themes could be identified—culturally competent practice, diversity [7], Eun-Kyoung [11], sociocultural issues [11], discrimination [38], oppression and abuse [12], construction of stereotypes [11], and home visitations [4]. A student from the Meredith et al. [27] study highlighted the reciprocity of theory and practice, explaining the linkage: “In terms of case studies it allows you to apply the knowledge you have been given through lectures. It also allows you to understand real-life scenarios” [27, p. 11].

4.3 Impact on Professional Competence Preparing Students for Practice Readiness. The theme of practice readiness— students’ general perception of feeling ready to work as professionals in social work practice as a result of simulation-based learning—was identified in five studies [4, 7, 12, 13, 40]. Here, several specific themes relating to practice readiness can be outlined: self-efficacy, self-awareness, and interviewing skills. First, the perceived self-efficacy for working with clients was increased [4, 7, 11]. More precisely, the level of self-efficacy was enhanced through increased comfort in practising skills [7]. The Carter et al. study described how simulated client instruction gave students greater confidence and belief in their ability: “It kind of helps you realise you have the ability to do this job,” “(it gives you) confidence” (p. 36). Faculty members from the [4] study shared similar experiences—participation in simulation gave students more confidence in their home-visiting abilities. Second, enhanced self-awareness related to various aspects of practice [7, 11, 12, 18, 27, 31], for instance, increased self-awareness about one’s perceptions of the diversity of issues [11], and awareness of reflexivity in practice [31]. Third, emotional aspects in the learning process were detected—virtual simulations helped students to practice empathy, thereby contributing to increased empathetic awareness [11, 38]. Arriving at a new degree of empathetic understanding of clients’ situations was similarly expressed in both studies. One study [7] found that simulations for developing emotional readiness to work with clients and learning to manage emotions (anxieties, fears, discomfort) were important. One student elaborated on how working with simulated clients increased their self-awareness in this context [7, p. 36]:

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Very self-aware . . . and it’s deeper than sitting in the class and kind of talking about it. . . . It puts you into it so you get to see like the little things that you do. You get to see the things that you are actually uncomfortable with. You get to experience it and work through it before you get out there into practice.

Fourth, the analysis indicated specific readiness to implement specific knowledge and/or skills. These include interviewing skills: asking questions, active listening, reflecting, and affirming [7] and addressing the unique needs of the clients (Eun et al. 2018) and SBIRT intervention [13, 40]. Both studies explored the effectiveness of implementing SBIRT and reported the development of SBIRT competencies and readiness using online simulation training. Development of Practice of Skills. The second theme of professional competence relates to the development of practice skills. Over half of the studies discussed students’ mastering one or more practice skills via simulation-based learning [4, 7, 11, 12, 18, 20, 27, 31, 39] specifically building therapeutic relationships, assessment skills, ethical behaviour and decision-making, and reflexivity. Kourgiantakis et al. [18] confirmed that the simulations helped the students learn how to build therapeutic relationships with a client, including termination of the helping process. Furthermore, students and faculty members believed that simulations enabled them to practice assessment skills more in depth [18, 27, 39] and in a realistic home environment [4]. Student facilitators in the Kourgiantakis et al. [18] study agreed with the students about learning and developing assessment skills. Students explained how simulations gave opportunities to learn (acquired) assessment skills. For example: “Interviewing the grandparents builds up an awareness of how much planning may be needed, i.e., what do you need to know in order to make a full assessment with evidence?” [27, p. 12]. Only two studies addressed ethical behaviour and decisionmaking. The first was understanding, practising, and developing ethical decisionmaking in working with clients [12] and, the second was considering the ethics of actions [27]. Students´ experiences suggest reflexivity on the one hand as an outcome (the result of using simulations or interventions) and on the other hand as a component (an integral part of the simulation/intervention) of simulation-based learning. The simulation exercises helped students to reflect on situations “lived through”, including skills that need further practice [4]; “recognise true abilities” [7, p. 37], own perspectives and behaviour [12], and recognise situations affecting self and others [11]. One student explained her participation by saying: “Watching a recording of [my] own session with the client” was an effective way of “reflecting on what skills were utilized and what skills should have been utilized” [18, p. 116]. Various simulation-based learning exercises incorporated reflection assignments and debriefing for a more effective learning experience [12, 18, 20, 27, 31]. One student reported: “I found the exercise useful. I felt I got more constructive feedback from more structured simulations which were recorded” [27, p. 13]. Student facilitators emphasised the significance of simulation-based learning to allow students to reflect on the themes and issues studied [18].

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4.4 Value in the Context of Preparing Students for Practice Benefits. Most of the studies refer to several benefits of simulation-based learning, with realistic scenarios, safe space, and effective learning methods bringing the students closer to the field of practice. All studies except one [25] emphasised that students benefit from real-life scenarios, realistic experiences [7, 9, 39], and “authentic learning”, which can be transferred to real-life practice [12]. Most respondents in Martin’s [25] study “did not feel as if they were communicating with a real person and were not able to be expressive in SL” (p. 203). However, students reported that “the simulation exercise sensitized them to the fact that they can learn things about clients in their homes that would not be accessible in office settings” [6, p. 432], and that it gave them the opportunity “to get a real sense of what working with a real case is like, including all the complexities involved” [12, p. 798]. Furthermore, students [7, 12, 25, 27] and faculty members [4] reflected on an important aspect, namely safe practice training, without the risk of harming a real client or themselves. For instance, “You were able to practice before you actually have to go out there and talk to a real client… That way you could not mess up” [7, p. 36], and “Simulation is a safer environment where you can cut your teeth and if you make a mistake then it is not part of your assessment” [27, p. 11]. Students found it beneficial to have time to think before responding [25] and found that simulation enabled their preparation for real practice. One student elaborated, “On placement, you are more under pressure to do well, but during simulation, you don’t have the added pressure” [27, p. 11]. Another benefit was found in the effectiveness of the learning method. For instance, simulated activities were found to have a larger influence than textbooks because they offered an authentic and immersed learning experience [11, 12, 20, 21, 27] and active participation [12, 21, 27]. Challenges. The analysis found some notable challenges related to DT and simulation-based learning. First, facilitating the virtual world intervention learning process in relation to complex cases [12]—specifically the oversimplification of complex cases—can lead to misguided perceptions about real-life situations. However, DT has made it possible to make simple real-life simulations where there most likely were none. Second, technology malfunction lessens the learning experience and motivation. When asked what they found most challenging, some students replied, “using the technology” [39], and some students reported “technology not working properly” [20, 25].

5 Discussion and Concluding Thoughts The initiation of social work students into the profession, the field of practice, and the relentless social issues and problems that they face often leaves little time for real-time responses to DT developments. Either the profession chooses to locate its

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technological-epistemic platform itself, with its concurrent technological benefits, or the profession risks no longer being relevant for its time. Zorn et al. [45] argue that education about technology, its social impacts, and its effects on service delivery should be a required topic in the curriculum of all social work courses. One of the good arguments for using technology throughout education is that DT is immersed into society on multiple levels, which has consequences for how social workers navigate the field of practice and conduct their work. The digitalisation of social work education has been increasing exponentially in recent years and has widened and improved the possibilities of teaching and learning social work. Balancing DT solutions and traditional education is crucial in this context. Thus, developments in digital technology put pressure on educators to be proficient in both their specific subject and new ways of teaching it. As Reamer [37] states, social work educators must become thoroughly familiar with new standards within DT and explore their implications for contemporary social work education in the digital age. Pink et al. [34] point out that social work has emerged from the COVID-19 pandemic as a hybrid practice that integrates digital practices and face-to-face inperson interactions. This shift has impacted the realm of teaching and learning social work as more and more new technological tools are incorporated into the curricula. While technology had started to transform the nature of social work education well before the pandemic [37, 41], extreme circumstances and restrictions enforced an accelerated move towards digital solutions. This literature review demonstrates that students embrace these new methods, finding them beneficial and practical. As mentioned, the situation is more demanding for educators who face several challenges when providing up-to-date tools for training and education. Cuesta et al. [8] have outlined that the implementation of technology requires knowledge of digitalisation, as well as an awareness of its meaning in terms of ethical principles and ethical analysis (p. 1). Educators have a great responsibility in choosing ethical technological solutions when shaping future social workers. Mattison [26] emphasises how in the absence of educational competencies and certifications expected of social workers who provide e-services, the public is at risk for the delivery of homegrown technology applications that fall short of best practice standards. As the profession of social work calls for the use of evidence-based interventions in practice, the social work educational systems need to catch up. Knowing more about how virtual reality and simulation improve knowledge, skills, and attitudes is an important next step [15]. Technology has also allowed today’s social work faculties to choose from a wider variety of approaches to how they educate tomorrow’s social work professionals [42]. This requires social work educators to become familiar with AI technologies and engage in product development. Learning about and using AI technologies requires us as educators to thoughtfully wade through our likely and understandable ambivalent feelings about and discomfort with new technologies [2]. As arguments for embracing DT have gained ground, there is a need to develop and improve cooperation between those who produce or develop digital platforms and tools and the social work profession. This challenge can only be overcome with the incremental and steadfast integration of technology into the profession itself, creating

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a significant market for DT development and modernisation. The profession is therefore responsible for ensuring that DT is rapidly and systematically integrated into practice, research, and education. By embracing DT, the dependence on technological solutions will become an integrated part of the profession’s epistemic development in that the possibilities for developing social work will engage reflexively with the possibilities provided by technology. Hence, the social work profession must engage in a trustworthy manner with other professionals, such as software engineers, to reap the benefits of technological progress. Although DT scepticism is widespread within the social work profession, it has recently been shown how technological developments can help the profession to achieve aims of reducing social exclusion, fighting marginalisation, and preventing violations of individual dignity. We can assume that embracing new technology will become a more natural part of the social work ethos than it used to be. Finally, it is essential to stress the field of practice that social workers engage with, which is not only embracing technological advances but also the market in which technological developers seek to engage. If social workers were to engage in a relevant manner, their embrace of technology would likely produce a better understanding of the challenges of modern-day clients.

5.1 Limitations The study has several limitations. First, the concept of simulation in social work is multifaceted. Therefore, the same concept is used to describe multiple types of learning scenarios. This kind of conceptual confusion creates difficulties in making effective searches in research databases for this type of review [10]. Furthermore, it points to a more general point, namely that DT in social work is very much a developing field of knowledge. The terminology, and how to communicate innovative strides in the practice domain of social work have not yet been settled. Second, this study covered articles only from academic databases, and grey literature publications were not included in the study. This means that some relevant articles might have been excluded. It is reasonable to assume that there is a wide range of development work being conducted within the body of grey literature that will not make it into academic journals. Third, articles on social media and social networking were excluded, as these domains have been widely studied elsewhere. Fourth, the focus of the review is mapping practices rather than the quality of the studies.

5.2 Implications for Practice and Education The results of this review indicate that, while both social work education and the social work profession have a long way to go in mainstreaming DT, making technology a natural ally in the field of practice would seem like a natural choice. Barsky

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[3] argues that “rather than stifling innovation and new approaches to using technology in social work, policies should provide encouragement and positive guidance, supporting effective and ethical uses of technology” (p. 10). Embracing DT can thus be said to be a matter of remaining relevant to the work jurisdiction of social work while also adapting the social work profession to modern standards of professionalism. However, some lessons can be drawn: (a) by using DT, social work professional education can offer students realistic virtual scenarios, providing them with a proxy for work experience, (b) DT simulations can practically and clearly teach ethical dilemmas, how to identify them, and what to do about them; (c) by applying client simulations, DT may become a tool for measuring student performance; (d) while more relevant theoretical knowledge will be used throughout education, practical training is likely to become more attuned to the field of practice; (e) by using DT to provide students with safe spaces for volume training, DT can bridge the gap between the traditional theoretically dominated education to the field of practice; (f) the social work profession lacks large-scale linkage and dialogue with social enterprises and computer engineering within DT, which can become a part of how the profession develops.

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Sustainable Digital Transition with Students’ Experience and Smartphones at the D. Maria II School Cluster Maria José Fonseca

and Óscar Mealha

Abstract This work discusses the contribution of a learning ecosystem’s stakeholder experience to develop and validate a model of infocommunicational services capable of being mediated by a mobile app. The research uses a case study method with a sample of students (n = 135), teachers (n = 49), and parents (n = 49), and qualitative data collection techniques, and took place during the second half of 2021. The initial part of this work was developed with COVID-19 restrictions. The model was represented by a conceptual prototype of a mobile app, with 7 task scenarios and was also used as a research instrument during the inquiry moments, along 3 research phases, moderated by the research team. This work was all developed as a case study in the context of the D. Maria II school cluster at Famalicão, Portugal. The main results contain evidence that stakeholders should be directly engaged in digital transition strategies. In this case, students have a relevant role, complemented by the validation and discussion of teachers and parents. Some examples of the information and communication services that represent a takeaway of this process are access to personal information and implementation of “interest badges”; synchronous and asynchronous communication; peer assessment; collaborative work; study management, etc. Keywords Learning ecosystem · Communication · Information

M. J. Fonseca School Cluster D. Maria II de Famalicão, 4760-067 Gavião, Vila Nova de Famalicão, Portugal Ó. Mealha (B) Department Communication and Art / DigiMedia, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_11

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1 Introduction The research presented in this paper attains contributions and encourages some approaches to issues that are particularly important for SLERD 2023 related to the pertinence of smart learning ecosystems as engines of the green and digital transition. Any kind of digital transition with the contribution of a smart learning ecosystem will have to be done with the total engagement of people. Assuming the humancentric context of ASLERD, conferences are configured as learning ecosystems, mentioned in the Timisoara declaration [3], and in the scope of this work they occur in a school cluster. Students are not the only stakeholders of the learning ecosystem at the D. Maria II school cluster at Famalicão but are certainly the most relevant. For the authors, this also assumes a strategy for the future—the earlier we engage younger people (children, teenagers, and young adults) in perfectly sustainable [19] smart learning processes, the quicker we will converge to SDG 4 and 11. It takes careful reading of numerous “ways of seeing” and continuous paradigmatic discussion to understand society and the educational system in accord with the ongoing and transient structural changes brought on by the Digital Age [17, 4]. This discussion is essential to explain the rationale of the entire research process, particularly considering complexity and technology paradigms. The human mind goes beyond a person’s genetic personality and the human being defines himself by his role as an actor, in a space that he questions and adjusts to the level of his existence. Several points of view and ways of thinking have developed throughout history to explain human behavior in relation to the successes and failures of mankind’s relationship with the environment. In this alignment, the concept of a paradigm is connected to an inclusive comprehension of society within the global context, taking various structural changes into concern. This profound human-centric approach and reasoning are considered in this work to develop an infocommunicational model capable of being described as different information and human communication services for a learning ecosystem. The research process uses Case Study and Design Based Research methods () that nurture the research question with empirical evidence obtained from qualitative data in its different phases. This paper augments previously published work [9] with a detailed description and discussion of human-centric qualitative data that was collected and highlights how it influenced the design and validation of the final model that was obtained. The relevance of the prototype’s task scenarios as a representation of the model’s infocommunicational services is outlined in this paper. A direct relation between student’s opinions and the characteristics of the prototype in the 3 research phases is also reported. This empirical evidence is fundamental and drives the research to its final stage—the heuristic infocommunicational model. One of the possible spin-offs of the different infocommunicational services is to configure a mobile app to sustainably mediate the daily activities inside and outside a classroom in a learning ecosystem.

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2 Related Work and Concepts Educational ecosystems are expected to adapt to new demands in this attempt to understand human nature as they are the successors of a “revolution” brought about by Web 2.0, which is connected to global connectivity and the use of technological skills. There is still a long way to go when it comes to the use of digital artifacts for formal and non-formal learning, even while alternative teaching methodologies that foster new abilities are being developed. According to [17], the concept of complexity encompasses more than just the word complexity, the “law of complexity”, or even “an idea of complexity”, in someway refers to a set of principles that govern a person’s presence in the world as well as his capacity for dialogue, comprehension, and action. Considering the Charter of Transdisciplinarity [10]: A global view of the human person is unattainable given the current development of academic specialties, which causes an exponential development in knowledge. According to Freitas et al. [10], “an authentic education cannot privilege the abstraction of information, but teach to contextualize, realize, and globalize” (Article 11 of this agreement). The importance of intuition, imagination, sensitivity, and form in the transfer of knowledge is reexamined in transdisciplinary education. Considering the ongoing innovative movements that sometimes are blind and uncontrolled, and which cast the human being in an illusory light, it is crucial to recognize the value of the organizing of ideas. The need to reflect on issues such as accessibility, usability, effectiveness, and evaluation of mobile devices, taking into account the uniqueness of the student and the learning process, leads to Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) policies. The increase of personal devices in educational settings has been decentralizing teacher knowledge and even textbook use, due to the rapid access to different didactical resources online [1, 13]. The ability for students to bring their own mobile devices to school results first and foremost in greater access to technology, personalizes learning, and elevates student motivation and engagement, and, at the same time, teachers can explore creative ways to integrate traditional and BYOD approaches [5], considering that students’ well-being in curricular activities can improve if they use their devices, with which they are already familiar, in a more productive and motivated use. Both the mobility and the adaptability of the students’ educational experience are ultimately enhanced by the fact that they use their own devices, continuing their study in an anywhere—any time learning paradigm. In addition to empowering new study habits within a collaborative learning culture, it gives meaning to the peerto-peer work that stems from the intuitive nature of interactions with one’s own devices as seen during distance learning at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic [2]. The effectiveness of BYOD implementation in educational ecosystems will always result from educational intentionality and alignment with learning objectives [6, 14, 15]. Implementing a BYOD policy in addition to reducing costs for the institution replaces traditional assessment tools allowing teachers to assess students in a faster way and the student to get almost immediate feedback from the teacher. Although

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the BYOD model presents as main characteristics ubiquity and portability, allowing mobile learning, both autonomous and collaborative, research confirms that some teachers do not have the digital skills for this pedagogical approach [8]. It would be essential to have clear guidelines for the implementation of this model in educational settings, regulating its use, taking into account technical concerns, security, and how to deal with inequality in terms of equipment. One of the targets associated with Sustainable Development Goal 4 [19] points out the need to “ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning outcomes”. The BYOD mediated strategy, also fostered by the work reported in this paper, democratizes free access to educational resources, namely online; provides equitable opportunities to participate in the learning ecosystem, namely peer-to-peer assessment and other collaborative activities, regardless of gender. The evidence of success, provided by this BYOD strategy, is present in the level of student engagement, the increase of motivation and social empathy inside and outside the classroom activities. In the context of an educational ecosystem, from a holistic point of view, our fundamental focus was on its different actors: students, teachers, and families, (re)defining infocommunication assigned to the educational ecosystem, where smartphones enable them to enhance (create an environment for) new learning processes, and how the school library has an essential function in mediating these processes, studying the connection between humans (students) and new digital interfaces, how they work, and how they may improve new educational opportunities with a focus on smartphones. An education for autonomy, a critical mindset, and lifelong learning, where the student is also a creator of his own knowledge, has been modeled by the centrality of the student and a new way of learning. The educational ecosystem now has a greater responsibility in the development and promotion of new fundamental competencies, associated with the screening of information such as research, selection, and its critical and attentive treatment, so that students can meet the demands of the Information Society. This is due to the “explosion of information”, which has changed the way that information is screened and treated. As a result, the educational ecosystem, which serves as a place for children to study and improve their abilities and acquire the diverse literacies they need to mobilize, must change to adapt to these unexpected times [16]. Providing an interface for user interaction and access to information that takes place in different formats and spaces, accompanying the changes presents itself as an educational mission, sometimes also diplomatic, and crucial for the teacher-librarian. According to [7], motivational strategies are crucial to update learning contexts and processes and make them relevant in time. In fact, we now have an opportunity to move into the future. Yet we must do it collectively, in brand-new educational contexts created to accomplish the goals we propose, with a fresh crew of educators dedicated to identifying and enhancing the most effective and efficient kind of learning for every individual. The relevance of educational ecosystems as “intelligent environments/ ecosystems” that must adapt to the needs of continuous and transitory changes

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brought on by various educational views and policies is emphasized. These environments are “smart” and increasingly take on a role in strong mediation, social innovation, and territorial development [11]. The definition of a smart context in ASLERD’s Timisoara declaration [3] is one in which the human capital (and everyone more generally) not only possesses a high degree of skills but is also highly driven by ongoing and sufficient challenges while its primary needs, or those listed at the lower levels of Maslow’s pyramid, are somewhat met. The challenges that emerge in a basic satisfaction plan, such as the lower level needs of the Maslow pyramid, stimulate the consideration for the human factor in addition to the skills it possesses, which really is present in this “smart” notion. Offering services that are customized to needs and motivations improves operations and, in this case, satisfies students. Such a concept is also connected to the “Smart Schools” which are supported by the following two principles: (i) the basis for instruction, and all students can develop their thinking skills and (ii) learning should encourage deep comprehension and active, flexible knowledge use. These foundations allow for the creation of educational ecosystems in learning communities which are informed by understanding and thought, promote respect for all elements, and result in the development of responsible citizens. Teaching and learning are shaped, or should be shaped, based on a level of quality, requirement, guidance, and filtering, within the confines of symmetrical evolution, as part of this preparation for the challenges of a digital time, which is redesigned and is reinventing itself in new intervention scenarios. One of the targets in SDG 11 [19] … “substantially increases the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans toward inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels.”—will only take place if citizens gain awareness of these issues equipped with the appropriate literacies and competences. A BYOD policy alongside a state-supported technology plan for students in fragile socio-economic situations will equalize this opportunity for all and leverage a paradigm change. Contributing to the theoretical understanding of this proposal for an information communication model, in which the school library plays a central role in the whole process, it should be noted that when the researcher decided to understand how students used the smartphone and with what intention they did so, she was already envisioning a first version of the model. The research process was also supported by the bibliographical survey, which guided the construction of the theoretical body of research, as well as the analysis of the narratives of the different participants in the study (students, teachers, and families, in the person of the tutor) allowed the design, redesign, and validation of the model. The set of empirical evidence presented, namely the evidence regarding the infocommunicational processes, from the initial phase to the validation of the proof of concept consolidated the model. The observation of students’ narratives of interaction on smartphones, their interests, their needs as well as all the literature that supports the theoretical constructs of this research inform the infocommunicational services that are proposed in this model. Contrary to the typical and linear model, it

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had as a premise, the engagement of students, teachers, and parents in an iterative process of co-participation, co-creation, learning, design, and redesign of a model of functionalities, in the tangible version of an app for smartphones. A more natural and motivated approach to the participants in the various phases was made possible by the researcher’s close connection to the research situations—the librarian-teacher as a research observer. During the inquiry process and throughout each research phase, different actor opinions and experience scores were collected from students, parents (families), and teachers, to design and validate the different information and communication services of the model. The technological support used, in this case the smartphone, mediated by the library and the librarian-teacher allowed a close and implicated approach of all stakeholders.

3 Methodological Approach The Case Study [18, 20] research reported in this paper was coordinated by the principal researcher, a librarian-teacher, who was also a contextual observer of the relevant situations in and outside the library. A Design-Based Research (DBR) [12] process was chosen to better co-design and validate with stakeholders an infocommunicational model mediated by smartphones to be used for learning purposes. Figure 1, adapted from [9, p. 18], highlights the different qualitative data collection techniques that integrate the research process. This paper augments formerly published work with all qualitative evidence that iteratively occurred during the research process, from the perspective of the 3 different stakeholders—students, teachers, and parents. The infocommunicational model was, from a very early stage, represented and discussed as a conceptual digital prototype and used as a research instrument during the different inquiry phases to validate and improve the model.

Fig. 1 Symbolic representation, annotated in red, of different qualitative data collection phases, adapted from previously published work: [9, p. 18]

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This paper reports the qualitative contribution of all participants during the various phases of this research process and considers the different opinions of the stakeholders involved. The pertinence of this information is related to the details of how these opinions influenced the configuration of the infocommunicational model, in its different versions. Figure 1 depicts with a red annotation the different research process phases, the participants involved, and the main outcome of each phase. The work reported in this paper was conducted by the following research question—“Is it possible to define a model of infocommunicational services to be mediated by a personal device, such as a smartphone, with direct contribution of students’ daily smartphone experience narratives?”. The Management Board of the school cluster and the Portuguese Ministry of Education both formally approved the research process, which included the approval of all research tools, the study objectives, and all ethical consent forms and procedures—with code n.º 0,576,100,002.

4 Data Analysis The 3 phases of the research process integrated into the D. Maria II school cluster at Famalicão Case Study had a sample organized into 3 populations, students n = 135, teachers n = 49, and parents n = 46 participants. The 1st phase had a sample of students, in a total of n = 75, organized into 3 different cohorts, students from 5th, 7th, and 9th grades. The 5th-grade cohort, with a total of n5grade = 33, 44% (33/75), was divided into 42,42% (14/33) female and 57,58% (19/33) male. The 7th-year cohort had n7grade = 25 participants, 33,3% (25/ 75) with 48% (12/25) female and 52% (13/25) male. Finally, the 9th-year cohort had n9grade = 17, 22,67% (17/75), with 47,06% (8/17) female and 52,94% (9/17) male. The age range of the 3 cohorts’ students was between 10 and 17 years old, distributed as 18 students aged 10 years (24%); 15 aged 11 years old (20%); 15 aged 12 years old (20%); 9 aged 13 years old (12%); 4 of 14 years (5,33%); 12 of 15 years (16%); 1 of 16 years (1,33%); and 1 was 17 years old (1,33%). The sample of teachers and parents in this 1st phase had an equal amount of participants n = 20. The participating teachers belong to the same educational ecosystem, with a total of n = 20 participants, 24% female and 76% male aged between 31 and 58 years. Participants had 1 to 36 years of professional school experience and belong to different recruitment educational groups, i.e.: 220 (Portuguese and English); 290 (Religious Education); 300 (Portuguese); 330 (English); 420 (Geography); and 510 (Physics and chemistry), two from each group. In groups, 200 (Portuguese and Social Studies); 240 (Visual and Technological Education); 320 (French); 400 (History); 500 (Mathematics); 520 (Biology and Geology); 550 (Information Technology (ICT)); and 600 (Visual Arts) only one teacher. As for academic degrees, 70% (14/20) have a bachelor’s degree; 15% (3/20) master’s degree; 10% (2/20) doctorate, and only 5% (1/20) have a postgraduate degree.

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In this 1st phase, the population of parents had n = 20 participants, 75% female and 25% male. These participants had a relation with students in the 5th grade (50%), 7th grade (25%), and 9th grade (25%), and they assumed a unique role, due to affective and educational proximity to the student sample. These participants had an age range from 39 to 48 years, with an extraordinary situation of a tutor aged 15 years. Regarding their academic career: 50% (10/20) with a bachelor’s degree; 25% (5/20) have secondary education; 20% (4/20) with basic education; and only 5% (1/ 20) with a master’s degree. The 2nd phase had a sample of students, n = 60, organized in 3 cohorts of 5th (n = 18), 7th (n = 21), and 9th (n = 21) grade students. The 3rd and final phase of this research process was constituted of 2 populations, teachers (n = 29) and parents (n = 26) with the objective of validating the 2nd version of the infocommunicational services of the model. Phase 1: co-design of 7 infocommunicational services (Task Scenarios) by students, teachers, and parents Students played an important role in this research’s 1st phase. The qualitative data collected in this phase and validated by the teachers and parents was used to design the 1st version of the infocommunicational model, also represented (simulating the infocommunicational services/functionalities) in the form of a conceptual prototype (as a mobile app, described in [9]). This data was collected with a questionnaire [9], applied and moderated by the research team. To meet the goal of this paper and the relevance of the qualitative data, we will highlight one of the most important questions, closed and open question #9 [9, p. 19]—“What activities could be added in the classroom by using the mobile phone (smartphone) to enhance teaching and your learning?”. The following Fig. 2 (source: [9, p. 22]) has a synthesis of the students’ opinions. The surveys were organized with similar questions, directed to the three groups of participants: students (5th, 7th, and 9th grades), teachers (2nd and 3rd cycles), and parents, and were processed in 3 questionnaires. The characteristics presented by students in Fig. 2 and by teachers and parents in Fig. 3 result from the positioning of the actors and the different perspectives in the research. A holistic analysis shows that the 7th-grade student cohort has a leading opinion in most of the pertinent dimensions and all agree that “Distance Learning” (all cohorts >80%) can play an important role if mediated by a smartphone app. The 3 most dominant activities that are mentioned in Fig. 2 are related to “Collaboration” (all cohorts >81%), “Content search” and “Sharing information/documents”, with 5th and 7thgrade students believing that the “search” and “share” functionalities can be very important but older 9th grade students keeping their opinion, related to these 2 activities, below 69%. The following 3 most relevant dimensions that are highlighted by students are related to human “Communication”, Assessment (namely peer assessment), and “Curricular planning”, all with an opinion of pertinence above 61%. The subjective opinion of most participants leads to daily experience narratives where interaction and human communication and their daily planning are fundamental via smartphone. Some still detail the relevance of evaluating and commenting on online

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Fig. 2 Student’s contributions to the design of the 1st version of the infocommunicational services to be mediated by smartphone in or outside the classroom. Source [9, p. 22]

Fig. 3 Percentage of agreement of teachers and parents concerning smartphones to mediate a set of activities inside the classroom

activities in their social networks, an activity they would appreciate in the classroom as a co-participatory, critical-thinking, learning initiative. In the 50% opinion range, students scored the importance of following up on the school performance, decision-making processes, and dissemination of information teacher-student. The following graph in Fig. 3 shows, as an agglomerated percentage, the opinions of teachers and parents related to the previous infocommunication services highlighted by the students.

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An immediate holistic observation of qualitative results in Fig. 3 tells us that teachers are much less conservative in relation to smartphone use inside the classroom than parents. The authors will have to deepen their data analysis and find a reason for this. One of the hypotheses may be related to the digital literacy of the parents in this case study and awareness of the potential inherent to mobile devices to mediate and augment our performance in our daily activities, namely for education and training. Even so, the opinion of the parents which is meaningful and aligned with what students suggest could be the information and communication services for an app to mediate their activities at school. The 2 main services that are highlighted by both populations of this sample are related to “Information Search” and “Teacher-student sharing of documents/information”—parents score in the 70% range and teachers well above with 95% of pertinence. Parents add to this dimension of relevance the “Presentation of work” (76,47%) in the classroom, which could also be done via the smartphone connected to a smartboard or video projector. Teachers keep this “Presentation of work” possibility in the 50% score because they believe the faceto-face paradigm inside the classroom has much to be nurtured without technologymediated solutions. In the 60% cluster of relevance and specifically looking at what teachers have to say, they highlight a set of infocommunicational services that confirm what students are also suggesting. This situation establishes a conceptual reference and influences the design of the 1st version of the model and the 7 task scenarios of the conceptual prototype of a mobile application for school. This 60% range depicts the teacher’s interest in “Curricular challenges”, “Decision-making”, “Teacher-student information”, “Assessment, namely peer assessment”, “Collaborative work”, “Autonomous study”, and “Student questions”. The next step with the details of students’ experience narratives in the openanswered questions led to the design of the 1st version of the conceptual prototype with 7 task scenarios to test the following infocommunication services: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)

Student profile information Private/Group communication Course information Assignments Group work Submission of essays/documents Peer assessment and notification.

The next phase details how a second sample of students (n = 60), in the same case study (same school cluster), evaluated the 1st version of the conceptual prototype as a simulation of the above infocommunicational services in the form of 7 task scenarios. Phase 2: validation and redesign of v1.0—7 infocommunicational services (Task Scenarios) by students The participants in this phase of the research process were students (n = 60) from 5th (n = 18), 7th (n = 21), and 9th grades (n = 21). Each student was interviewed with the mediation of a conceptual prototype of an application app that integrated 7

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Fig. 4 7 Task Scenarios, v1.0: Score by 5th, 7th, and 9th grade students, n = 60

task scenarios. The inquiry was applied and moderated by the research team and each student scored her/his experience in each scenario, with an even Likert-type scale (did not like it “1” −> “6” it’s cool, loved it) and commented on the pros and cons of each scenario. The following Fig. 4 represents a radial graph with the Minimum score, 1st quarter, 3rd quarter, and Median of the experience scores of all the students for each scenario that was tested. The radial graph depicts an inspiring very high experience score for all scenarios, with a median value of 6, except for the “Group work” scenario, with a value of 5. Even the 3rd quarter is extremely high with a value of 5 or higher. The relevance of this phase is integrated into the subjective comments associated with the individual experience scores. “Group work” does not receive a high score because a significant number of students mention the classroom should have a high priority, in a face-toface paradigm, to promote, plan, and develop group work. This is coherent with the 1st student sample’s decision that situates the relevance of this infocommunicational service in the 80% range. The minimum scores were depicted in Fig. 4 radar because they represent controversial opinions that were also considered in the design process of the 2nd version of the model. The “Student profile” enlightened an important discussion related to public and private information in a student’s profile. Some students suggest personal interests should be public to promote socialization in the learning ecosystem; these even propose a “social interest badge”. Others are not keen on sharing personal interests and their experience in other extracurricular activities, such as sports, activism, and volunteering. These different opinions were considered as optional configurations of the student (or even teacher) profile. The details of these students’ subjective information and experience scores influenced the redesign of the 1st version and generated the 2nd version of the conceptual prototype (representation

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Fig. 5 7 Task Scenarios, v2.0: Score by parents, n = 26

of the infocommunicational model). The next section reports the evaluation of the 2nd version of the 7 task scenarios by teachers and parents. Phase 3: validation of v2.0—7 infocommunicational services (Task Scenarios) by teachers and parents This section reports the score and opinions of parents and teachers considering the 2nd version of the conceptual prototype, systematised in a radar plot depicted in Fig. 5. The inquiry was conducted exactly with the same procedure as the 2nd phase of this research, reported in the previous section of this document. Parents globally agree with all scenarios that were presented and proposed at this point of the research process. Only the “Assignment, doc creation and sharing” service had a difference between the Median and the 3rd quarter. All other task scenarios had a very high score for almost all elements (75%) of the sample. The discussion of these participants’ opinions will take place integrated with the teachers’ perspective synthesized in Fig. 6. Teachers also depict a global agreement on the 2nd version of the conceptual prototype. Only “Peer assessment and assignment submission” had a different value for Median and 3rd quarter. Some teachers mention that peer assessment can be a problem if students are not briefed on how to do it and how to use assessment criteria. This is in fact an issue in this context and any other peer-to-peer assessment context. If the assessment criteria are not clear to all involved in the assessment procedure, it can be compromised with profound subjectiveness and out-of-scope perspectives. The “Communication with teacher” also had some concerns, for teachers and some parents, related to the most important communication situations that should continue

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Fig. 6 7 Task Scenarios, v2.0: Score by teachers, n = 29

to be in the classroom. The major question related to this issue can be formulated as— “what “teacher-student” communication could/should be solved with the mediation of the mobile application?”. This instrument should be considered a complementary instrument for many of the services that are being discussed in this work and not a major substitute for the classroom. The main contribution of this study can be summarized as a set of infocommunicational services, capable of being used as characteristics and functionalities of a mobile application in a learning ecosystem: – – – – – – – – – –

Access to personal information and implementation of “interest badges” Student performance information Organization of information Synchronous and asynchronous conversations Interpersonal communication Collaborative work Personalized feedback to the student Study management Submitting work for assessment Peer-to-peer evaluation.

Although the results would have to be tested to be reproduced in similar learning ecosystems, the research process has characteristics capable of being applied in any other school cluster with the details considered in the infocommunicational model

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described by [9], namely with the coordination of a relevant community member, in this case study, the library teacher.

5 Conclusions With a focus on the research question “Is it possible to define a model of infocommunicational services to be mediated by a personal device, such as a smartphone, with direct contribution of students’ daily smartphone experience narratives?”—the work reported in this paper highlights how the subjective opinions of several stakeholders can in fact reveal empirical evidence, capable of validating an infocommunicational model. The research took place as a Case Study method at the D. Maria II school cluster at Famalicão, and the main characteristics of the model that was proposed and validated are not generalizable to other contexts. The research process, namely the mixed method and qualitative data collection instruments and procedures, are a reference to be applied in other smart learning ecosystems. The co-participation and human-centric/reasoning approach of this research process has evidence to be the way to solve digital transition with direct engagement of the stakeholders, namely in the design and validation of the transformation procedures. The sustainability of a culture, in context, in this situation related to human interaction inside a school is highly dependent on the stakeholders, the community’s principles, values, and corresponding procedures associated with information creation and sharing and human communication situations. This research process enlightens the need and the way to develop further into the future with the insights of today’s youth, in issues that are directly coupled to the technology-mediated transformations at stake. Acknowledgements A very special thanks to the D. Maria II school cluster educational community at Vila Nova de Famalicão, Portugal, namely all the students, teachers, and parents that participated in this case study; the research team is grateful for your critical reflections, suggestions, comments, and precious time you dedicated to this project. A very special acknowledgment to team members that also integrated this SMARTEEs project: Eleonor Silva—Multimedia Communication Master’s student; Adriana Machado, Ana Beatriz Bastos, Irla Vaz, and Rejane Fernandes—New Communication Technologies bachelor’s students at the University of Aveiro, Portugal; and Cândida Pinto, Director of the D. Maria II school cluster at Famalicão, Portugal, for facilitating and being the first supporter and fan of this research process. This work is financially supported by national Portuguese funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., under the project UIDB/05460/ 2020.

References 1. Alirezabeigi, S., Masschelein, J., Decuypere, M.: The agencement of taskification: on new forms of reading and writing in BYOD schools (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857. 2020.1716335

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2. Arthur-Nyarko, E., Agyei, D.D., Armah, J.K.: Digitizing distance learning materials: Measuring students’ readiness and intended challenges. Educ. Inf. Technol. 25, 2987–3002 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-10060-y 3. ASLERD (2016) TIMISOARA DECLARATION: Better Learning for a Better World through People Centred Smart Learning Ecosystems, pp. 1–9. http://www.mifav.uniroma2.it/inevent/ events/aslerd/docs/TIMISOARA_DECLARATION_F.pdf 4. Castells, M.: The Network Society. Edward Elgar Publishing (2004). https://doi.org/10.4337/ 9781845421663 5. Chou, P., Chang, C., Lin, C.: BYOD or not: a comparison of two assessment strategies for student learning (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.024 6. Choudhury, N., Venkatesh, T., Bhattacharya, S., Sarma, S.: Avabodhaka: a system to analyse and facilitate interactive learning in an ICT based system for large classroom. In: 7th International conference on Intelligent Human Computer Interaction, IHCI 2015 (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.procs.2016.04.082 7. Cornella, A., Cugota, L.: Educar Humanos num Mundo de Máquinas Inteligentes. Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro c/Apoio Fundação da Casa de Mateus (Programa Eco Mateus) (2019) 8. Criollo, C.S., Luján-Mora, S.: A swot analysis of bring your own devices in mobile learning. In: Conference: Mobile Learning 2018At. Lisboa (2018) 9. Fonseca, M.J., Mealha, Ó.: Student smartphone experience narratives mediated by the phygital school library for learning ecosystems. In: Dascalu, M., Marti, P., Pozzi, F. (eds.) Polyphonic Construction of Smart Learning Ecosystems—Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Smart Learning Ecosystems and Regional Development, pp. 13–28. Springer, Berlin (2023) 10. Freitas, L., Morin, E., Nicolescu, B.: Charter on transdisciplinarity. In: 1st World Conference on Transdisciplinarity, p. 3 (1994) 11. Giovannella, C.: Territorial smartness and the relevance of the learning ecosystems. In: 2015 IEEE 1st International Smart Cities Conference, ISC2 2015 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1109/ ISC2.2015.7366220 12. Hoadley, C.M.: Methodological alignment in design-based research. Educ. Psychol. 39, 203– 212 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3904_2 13. Johnson, N.: Dysfunctional devices in the classroom meet the habitus of the new. E-Learn. Dig. Media 16(3), 208–220 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/2042753019831385 14. Kibar, P., Gündüz, A., Akkoyunlu, B.: Implementing Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) model in flipped learning: advantages and challenges. Technol. Knowl. Learn. 25, 465–478 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-019-09427-4 15. Livas, C., Katsanakis, I., Vayia, E.: Perceived impact of BYOD initiatives on post-secondary students’ learning, behaviour and wellbeing: the perspective of educators in Greece. Educ. Inf. Technol. 24, 489–508 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-018-9791-6 16. MinEdu.: Ministério da Educação: “Estratégia Nacional de Educação para a Cidadania,” D.R., II.a Série, n.o 90, 10 maio 2016, p. 4 (2016) 17. Morin, E.: On Complexity. In: Montuori, A. (ed.) Advances in Systems Theory, Complexity, and the Human Sciences. Hampton Press, Cressskill, New Jersey, USA (2008) 18. Remenyi, D.: Case Study Research. Academic Publishing International Limited (2012) 19. UNESCO.: UNESCO moving forward the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2017). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247785 20. Yin, R.K.: The Case study method as a tool for doing evaluation. Curr. Sociol. 40, 121–137 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1177/001139292040001009

A Case Study of Participatory Video as Teaching Digital Storytelling Against Climate-Driven Inequalities Katharina Koller, Evangelos Kapros, Martina Lindorfer, and Maria Koutsombogera

Abstract Participatory video (PV) is a method of film-making originating in the field of international development practice. The idea is to adopt a “bottom-up” approach to film-making which can facilitate marginalised communities to introduce their voices in the final product. In this paper, we will discuss a project that seeks to implement PV for underprivileged groups in Europe concerning Climate Action inequalities. Our project aims to present a case study of whether the benefits of PV can be applied in this setting while, applying best practices for PV, the power gaps of international-development-focused implementations can be avoided. The execution of the project in 5 European countries showed that the method carries its opportunities and limitations as seen in international development projects. The results can be not only used as guiding principles for practitioners in the field of PV but are also important for policy-makers who may want to understand how and when to support and lead local PV climate-related initiatives. Keywords Participatory video · Climate-driven inequalities · Technology-enhanced learning

1 Introduction to Participatory Video (PV) Participatory video (PV) is a method of film-making originating in the field of international development practice. The idea is to adopt a “bottom-up” approach to filmmaking which can facilitate marginalised communities to introduce their voices in the final product. In turn, the final product of the video can potentially influence

K. Koller · M. Lindorfer Centre for Social Innovation, Linke Wienzeile 246, 1150 Vienna, Austria e-mail: [email protected] E. Kapros (B) · M. Koutsombogera Endurae Voice Technology OÜ, Ahtri Tn 12, 10151 Tallinn, Estonia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_12

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policy-makers or a wider community to take a deeper look into the topic of the videos and start a discussion that might otherwise be overlooked [6, 11, 13]. The PV method, therefore, has mostly been used in settings concerned with international development including, not exhaustively, in Brazil, Nepal, Mexico, Angola, Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Jamaica primarily with academics and NGOs [13]. This is true since the inception of PV at the Fogo Island project, where Canadian film producers (most notably Colin Low) introduced the method to assist an underrepresented fishing community express their concerns and problems arising from the industrialisation of their sector [10]. Subsequent films have been produced about such diverse topics as gang violence, substance abuse and addiction, child poverty, and others. Within participatory development, PV is a “relatively understudied set of practices” [9]. Still, its perceived benefits and limitations follow those of other participatory methods. In the literature, PV is described as a group process of facilitated “media production to empower people with the confidence, skills and information they need to tackle their own issues” [12]. The definition of PV is aimed at highlighting the community empowerment potential of the method, and therefore seems to be quite deliberately vague with regard to the steps of the process. Specific steps of the process can be seen as subject to flexibility based on the context of community empowerment. and the film-makers should be adapting to the circumstances [6]. PV has been celebrated as a potential method for community empowerment: both elements of (a) setting an agenda by the community and (b) the subversion of traditional film-making structures and narratives have been received positively. However, the “optimistic potential” [8] for participation as an empowerment for social change through PV has been questioned during the last decade [6], as well as the method’s feasibility in practice. Criticism of PV arises from various concerns. Not specific to PV but related to all participatory methods, team participation and hierarchy are important and their implementation can, despite all best intentions, maintain rather than challenge existing power structures. The international-development focus of PV has added the implicit biases of a North–South divide as a power struggle between the facilitators of a PV project and the participants themselves [6]. Finally, PV projects and especially participants themselves can potentially avoid talking about controversial topics in their communities in the videos for fear of consequences, thus turning the methodology into an aesthetic experience as opposed to a catalyst for change [13]. In this paper, we will discuss “Climatubers” [2], a project that seeks to implement PV for underprivileged groups in Europe concerning Climate Action inequalities. Our project aims to be a case study of whether the benefits of PV can be applied in this setting while avoiding the power gaps of international-development-focused implementations.

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2 PV as Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) PV literature [6, 11, 13] commonly understands the method as related to learning. Specifically, film-making on a specific topic can be perceived as involved in three aspects of teaching and learning: (a) learning film-making, (b) learning about the topic of the PV, and (c) learning to take part and/or manage participatory projects. Related film-making skills depend on each specific project. In our case in the context of Europe, we consider digital film-making as the storytelling vehicle, while other projects have used traditional film based on the availability of tools on the ground. Digital film-making of course does have an overlap with traditional film, as it involves learning framing a topic, writing a short script, storyboarding, recording audio and video, editing, publishing, and sharing a film. Of these, the process specialises significantly in digital storytelling at the recording step and after, even though it is true that the early steps do need to take into consideration the digital nature of the produced result. Regardless, basic storytelling techniques in script writing and storyboarding remain universal. Related skills and/or knowledge related to the topic of the PV project (climatedriven inequalities in our case) are the most subject to the criticisms concerning PV; power relations and dynamics can affect how the topic will be perceived, and how the topic will be planned, filmed, and shared. In [13], three scenarios are given: (a) PV becomes indeed a learning tool and a catalyst for change, (b) PV maintains existing power structures as the most dominant voices become heard in the videos due to unrepresentative and/or unequal participation, and (c) PV might submerse or ignore existing power relationships as participants may be unwilling to talk about inequality. Therefore, our project has the pedagogical challenge of needing to address environmental science, sociology and inequality, and knowledge of the local context for the aforementioned topics. A challenge remains as to applying PV for digital storytelling as a TechnologyEnhanced Learning (TEL) method while avoiding common PV shortcomings, our topic notwithstanding. To this effect, literature [11] suggests three “strategic pathways” to ensure that PV has a positive catalyst effect: representation, recognition, and response. Representation is about the inclusion of the voices of the challenged groups in the planning, execution, and dissemination of the PV films not just with the “voice as a process”, but with the “voice as a value”. The voice as a process can be perceived as a “process without a subject”, thus alienating the participants [1]; rather, the voice of the participants needs to be central in the PV process. Recognition is the principle of active listening, identifying the voice of the participants not only as passive but also as political, in the sense that it carries significations explicitly aiming to influence the power balance that created the underrepresentation of the participant group. Lastly, response relates to communicating the participant’s voice to related policy-makers at a level relevant to the participants, ideally in intentional dialogue where the policy-makers do not aim to erase or minimise the voice of the participants. The current progress of the project we will present in this paper will be

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about the “representation” and “recognition” strategic pathways, as the “response” phase is still pending. Insomuch as the below principles from [4] are about Science learning in informal settings and Climatubers is about climate-driven inequalities and digital skills, the following design principles are relevant to our project (see Table 1). While originally these design principles were devised for consideration before applying a TEL/learning project, here we will additionally use them with adaptations Table 1 Design principles identified from the analysis of non-formal STEM co-design outputs Design principle

Description

Celebrate diversity

Diversity exists at many levels, including the people involved in science, the contexts, the definition of science, and how one takes part in it. To benefit from diversity, one must create opportunities and facilitate environments that support various ways of being and relating to science

Employ participatory methods

Learners and communities know what is relevant to them. They involve them from the beginning and make them a part of the process and listen to, adapt, and join the community

Use existing resources

Start small, start local, and take advantage of what is easily accessible in the community. Do-It-Yourself and low-cost approaches can motivate people to get started and engage in science learning based on their own knowledge levels and possibilities

Bridge formal and informal science learning

Build networks of actors and environments connected to science learning. Take advantage of the possibilities of connecting formal, non-formal, and informal learning environments. Build on learners’ interests and support fun, free activities. Help learners pay attention to the process and avoid traditional school evaluation methods

Encourage risk-taking and learning from failure

Foster exploration and experimentation. People learn from experience, and failure can teach great lessons if appropriately structured. Do not leave learners alone when facing the unexpected, and use those experiences to trigger their curiosity and creativity

Sustain diverse competencies Science learning is not only about acquiring hard Science, Technology Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) skills. Transversal competencies such as creativity, collaboration, and communication are also important and enable diverse ways of engaging in science learning. Fostering these through transdisciplinary approaches such as STEAM will nourish the roots of a diverse, autonomous learning community Recognise learners’ accomplishments

Recognising that learning is important because it creates opportunities for advancing education and accessing jobs and also fosters learners’ motivation and self-confidence. Support learners in gaining an awareness of their achievements and choosing an appropriately ambitious challenge to set for themselves

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for PV as a “diagnostic tool” to gauge the performance of the project, which is described in the following section.

3 Design Case and Project Methodology Our project intends to deploy digital film-making as the storytelling vehicle to show climate-driven inequalities through a methodology that aims to develop digital skills and communication-related competencies (online and offline) to reach a wide audience. Considering the above, the PV process was implemented in Climatubers through workshops attended by target participants and supervised by the project partners, in five EU countries (Spain, France, Italy, Austria, and Estonia). The workshops were structured around the following five phases. Diagnosis: Target groups were encouraged to explore climate-driven inequalities through interactive exercises to enable internal discussion and feed into storyboards. These exercises were based on semi-structured group dialogue about the current situation and issues, future scenarios, and potential solutions to identified problems. The main question that triggered the storytelling process was “How climate change affects our community”, and the key elements of building the story were as follows: considerations about the impact of climate change; mapping the situation through testimonies, images, interviews with local experts, etc.; the identification of actors who could take action, such as citizens, companies, and local or national institutions; and finally, a critical perspective about how participants envision the future. Planning and training: Participants were then trained in using digital tools and practices, such as video recording, editing and post-production, online storage, and sharing of video content. Participants were encouraged to perform hands-on exercises related to this training, to promote internal role models to enhance their selfesteem and motivation. The overall film-making process, including the assignment of roles and responsibilities for each task, was planned by the participants, with the supervision of the project partners. Production: Participants produced the video recordings, with partners acting as facilitators to ensure that all participants had a voice and space to use the camera and develop their digital skills, and were able to access key stakeholders. Curation: At this stage, using the recorded videos as the base material, the final narrative was fine-tuned with the appropriate video editing: putting video clips in the desired order, adding subtitles and visuals, harmonising audio and video quality, etc. Sharing: As the last step of the process, the overall strategy for disseminating the videos was designed, including appropriate communication channels and key messages to reach the stakeholders that the participants target. The work plan of the project was not only built around the above PV phases but was also extended to include indispensable methodological aspects that frame the PV approach. First, a task was dedicated to designing and implementing, for each PV pilot, efficient strategies to engage target groups in the project activities. The objective of this task was not only to identify and categorise prospective stakeholders but also

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to promote dialogue and collaboration and develop common trust among the different involved targets. Second, a comprehensive online and offline campaign strategy to disseminate the videos has been designed and deployed, and is ongoing at the time of writing this paper. Finally, the task analysing the implementation of the PV pilots and evaluating the impact on participants is a crucial aspect of the project results, and will be presented in detail in the following sections. Overall, 142 participants took part in the implementation of PV in 5 countries (Spain: 24.6%; Estonia: 9.9%; Austria: 14.1%; Italy: 38.7; France: 12.7%) spanning a variety of profiles, such as youth (45.5%), disadvantaged adults or adults coming from vulnerable neighbourhoods (20.2%), disadvantaged youth (19.6%), seniors (5.6%), migrants (4.9%), and other adults (4.2%). Facilitators of these workshops included primarily members of the project consortium, on a convenience and availability basis; however, partners did include experts if necessary (either in climate, or in film-making in Austria and Spain, respectively).

3.1 Evaluation Methods We evaluated the PV method and its impacts on participants using a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative methods, and collecting data from both workshop participants and workshop facilitators. Study Design and Procedure. Workshop participants were assessed using a pre-/ post-design with an online quantitative questionnaire programmed on Limesurvey [7], which was distributed by workshop facilitators via an online link. Participants completed the questionnaire twice: once at the beginning of the workshop series (either before or during the first workshop session) and once at the end of the workshop series (either during or after the final workshop session). The Austrian workshop participants showed difficulties in concentrating and understanding and thus did not respond to the online questionnaire, but answered fewer questions in the form of a game. A total of 115 participants (incl. 9 from Austria) responded to both questionnaires and were included in the analysis. Workshop facilitators received a questionnaire in the format of an online document, containing both closed- and open-ended questions. Workshop facilitators were encouraged to complete the questionnaire after every workshop session if possible and send it back, but at least at the first and last workshop session. The number of facilitator questionnaires returned varies a lot between the different pilots. Insights from Spain are, e.g., overrepresented in the presentation of results. In total, we collected 51 completed questionnaires from facilitators. We also conducted one qualitative interview per pilot with workshop facilitators, which lasted between 1 and 1.5 h and took place after the last workshop was completed. Materials and Measures. The participant self-assessment questionnaire consisted of 23 closed questions in total. They covered participants’ climate change awareness, knowledge, and attitudes, attitudes towards politics and political efficacy, and orientation towards education and the job market, answered on a scale from

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Agree not at all (1) to Agree very much (5); for example, “Climate change can have bad effects for me”. Additionally, participants self-assessed their digital, creative, social, and soft skills on a scale with options No (1), Not sure (2), and Yes (3); for example, “I know how to edit a video with my smartphone.” A first version of the questionnaire was developed based on existing, validated scales measuring climate change attitudes or political efficacy and tested at the first workshop in Spain. This test showed that the questionnaire was complex, lengthy, and difficult. Thus, it was shortened, phrasing was simplified, and each question and the response scale were equipped with images. In a second test, the revised questionnaire showed better results and was then used as the final version. The questionnaire for workshop facilitators was developed for this project and consisted of two main parts. First, facilitators indicated their observations regarding the overall workshop and the participants in 7 closed questions, following the dimensions covered in the participant self-assessment, i.e., digital skills, creative skills, social skills, soft skills, and climate change attitudes and learning (e.g., “During the workshop, participants were interested in learning about climate change and its effects.”), on a scale from Not at all (1) to Very much (5), including the option “Not applicable”. Each response scale included a comment box. The second part comprised five open-ended questions asking for reflections on how participants acted, were impacted by the workshop content, how that supported the overall goals of Climatubers, and lessons learned including logistics, content, and didactics. The structured interview guideline for qualitative interviews with workshop facilitators was developed for this project and covered the recruitment process and the different PV phases as implemented in each pilot. For each phase, questions were asked about the facilitator’s experiences, useful strategies or tools in the respective phase, challenges and how they were addressed, learnings and gains for participants, and important learnings and take-aways. Some phases were also addressed with specific questions, e.g., how participants approached the topic of climate change in the diagnosis phase. The final questions asked for processes throughout the workshop was, e.g., participants’ social interactions or how climate vulnerability was approached. Analysis. The participant self-assessment questionnaire was analysed using descriptive statistics, i.e., frequencies and percentages of responses to individual items and means of individual items, as the sample per workshop group was considered too small for inferential statistics. Only those participants who responded both to the pre- and post questionnaire were considered in the analysis. The Austrian participants were surveyed using a different method resulting in a different data structure and are thus not depicted in the graphs below, but in the description of results. The closed questions of the workshop facilitator questionnaire were analysed using descriptive statistics. The open-ended questions of the facilitator questionnaire were analysed using content analysis in MaxQDA: starting with general categories resting on the content asked in the questions, responses were coded, and the codes were organised and then summarised [5]. The workshop facilitator interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using qualitative content analysis, following the conventional approach of developing codes

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inductively from the data [5]. These codes will then be organised into larger categories and summarised. However, this process is still ongoing, and the results presented below only contain the first insights.

4 Results This section presents the main evaluation results structured along three main topics: learning, empowerment, and limitations.

4.1 Learning During the PV Workshops One of the aims of the PV workshops was to stimulate learning and engagement with complex topics such as climate change or politics by improving awareness, knowledge, interest, and skills among participants. The evaluation of both participants’ and workshop facilitators’ experiences provides mixed results regarding participants’ learning outcomes. Many of the participants joined the project workshops with little awareness of climate change or its local effects, and were not familiar with the concepts of climate vulnerability or climate-driven inequalities. They perceived climate change as something distant both spatially and psychologically. Undergoing the workshops resulted in only slight increases in climate change knowledge, awareness, and engagement, according to the participant self-assessment (see Fig. 1). On the other hand, workshop facilitators reported considerably larger developments in climate interests and awareness, stressing that many participants engaged in lively discussions about climate change, were interested in becoming active, and could improve their knowledge, particularly by engaging with climate experts invited to the workshops. Other goals of the workshops were to positively influence engagement with politics and attitudes towards education and work. The participant self-assessment showed no notable improvements in this regard. Workshop facilitators only reported increased political interest among some participants to the extent that they discussed climate change measures (e.g., pros and cons of upscaling the use of electric cars) and articulated a need for action in the face of climate change. The PV methodology is designed to improve digital and creative skills through digital storytelling. Workshop facilitators reported that this was the primary interest for many participants, as learning about digital tools was seen as more interesting and useful, e.g., in the search for employment than learning about climate change. According to the self-assessment, participants could improve digital skills in the domains of social media use, photographing and filming, and editing, as well as creative skills, which was measured as the ability to make up a story and express it. Figure 2 presents the improvements in digital skills. There were no noticeable improvements in social skills (e.g., speaking in front of a group, working in a group)

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Fig. 1 Participant self-assessment results in climate change knowledge, awareness, and engagement as well as digital skills. Grey lines indicate standard deviations

or soft skills (realising responsibility for a task and finishing the task) according to the self-assessment. In contrast, workshop facilitators indicated not only large improvements in digital skills but also in social skills: many participants gained confidence during the workshops and collaboration between participants was mostly supportive and respectful. Overall, the evaluation results suggest that PV can improve digital skills—especially for the digitally inexperienced—and, albeit with mixed results, facilitate engagement and learning about complex topics, such as climate change. Notably,

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Fig. 2 Changes in climate change awareness and engagement per group

workshop facilitators perceived a greater improvement in participants than is evident in the self-assessment.

4.2 Tracing PV as a Collaborative, Technology-Enhanced Process for Empowering Socially Excluded Groups In the context of the evaluation results, we can pinpoint developments at the individual and the group level that may speak to an ongoing process of empowerment, as reflected in the workshop facilitators’ questionnaires and interviews. On the individual level, we suggest that PV contributes to empowerment if participants’ feelings of agency and self-determination were fostered by taking part in the process of collective production and assuming ownership of the resulting video. The empirical data can provide some indications that a process of individual empowerment took place, though it seems to be limited.

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First, the ability to express one’s own ideas and narratives, which is key in participatory production, was often difficult for participants. Some of the workshop facilitators indicated that their participants struggled with articulating their own climate change affectedness and creatively implementing their ideas in storyboarding and drawing. Moreover, some participants were disappointed when results (e.g., drawings, storyboards) were below their own expectations or were not as easy as they thought. However, the abilities for expressing and being proud of one’s work often improved over the course of the workshops, as participants became more comfortable in their active roles. Notably, while some participants became more confident, others (in some workshop groups) participated less or even withdrew from activities and interactions. Therefore, the participatory and self-determined approach of PV can also result in the exclusion of those who require more guidance and resources. Second, on the level of the group, we found that PV can foster empowerment by providing a forum to collaboratively explore climate and environmental issues, as reported by workshop facilitators. At least some of the participants reflected for the first time on these topics in the context of PV, and could explore their opinions in a discussion with others from their social group or community. Additionally, the self-assessment shows that the climate-related variable that increased the most was talking to family and friends about climate change, suggesting that engagement with the topic already expanded into participants’ networks. In addition, for some participants, the joint reflection and increased awareness of climate change issues motivated them to take action: they planned on getting local policy-makers involved and demanded change in their local communities. This is also evident in the videos they produced, as they included calls to action, such as expanding local green spaces or improving public transport in the community. Thus, PV motivated participants to become more active in their community and to confidently appeal for change.

4.3 Limitations of PV as a Technology-Enhanced Learning Method The implementation of PV in vulnerable communities in the European context showed several limitations. First, how much could be achieved and covered in the workshops and relatedly, how much knowledge could be conveyed, varied between workshop groups and participants and depended on the initial level of skills and knowledge among participants. In particular, those learners with low initial levels of digital skills struggled with the collective video production as they had issues with digital devices and editing tools. They required more time to cover basic skills, such as handling the devices (i.e., smartphones) at the cost of a topic engagement or other, more advanced skills like editing. The editing process, which is an important part of the PV method, was particularly difficult for many participants and often required more guidance or even intervention from workshop facilitators. Moreover, those learners with a particularly

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low level of climate interest and engagement struggled in relating to the topic of climate change, which seemed distant and irrelevant to their daily lives. While some pilots managed to connect climate change with the local context and issues perceived in the local communities, other pilots covered the topic of environment and nature or looked at the global level, which was more accessible. Target groups with these struggles also required stronger interventions and directions from workshop facilitators, thereby counteracting the participatory element of PV to some extent. Further difficulties emerged if one workshop group comprised heterogeneous participants with different levels of skills, knowledge, and interests. This can create divides within the group, whereby one part cannot follow the workshop contents, cannot participate in discussions on the same level, and requires more resources (i.e., time, personnel) to be kept engaged. While this can offer the chance for participants to engage in mutual and peer-to-peer learning, in many instances it slowed down progress and required workshop facilitators to flexibly come up with new tasks and simultaneously manage and occupy several groups instead of one. Overall, the project implemented PV in a multi-faceted way, targeting several different skills and fields of knowledge. If participants are at a basic learning level regarding skills and knowledge in all or most of these areas, PV can be overwhelming. Second, the participant self-assessment suggests that some participant groups benefited more from the Climatubers workshops, as they show a larger average improvement based on the pre-/post-assessment. In particular, (disadvantaged) adults showed the largest increases in climate change awareness and engagement (see Fig. 2), and both adults and elderly show relatively large improvements in their digital skills. Thus, youngsters benefited relatively little from the workshops, based on their self-assessment. Importantly, the initial self-assessment of climate attitudes and knowledge before the workshops started is similar across target groups, i.e., they show the same values. However, at baseline, youngsters assessed themselves to be slightly more digitally skilled than adults and the elderly, which can explain why they did not show as much improvement. Lastly, PV is a very resource-intensive method, requiring strong commitment from participants, physical and temporal space, ideally several workshop facilitators with expertise in education, digital tools, story development, climate change, shooting and editing, and working with marginalised or vulnerable populations—all at once. Already motivating participants to join and commit to workshops involves effort: many workshop facilitators indicated difficulties in reaching out to socially excluded groups and engaging participants. They often needed to clarify what the actual purpose of the project was and how climate change and digital tools are connected. The multitude of these requirements might prevent the effective application of the Climatubers’ PV approach in some contexts, especially if resources are limited. The facilitator questionnaires suggest that greater heterogeneity and lower initial skill levels require even more resources.

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5 Discussion The question arises if PV—as a very resource-intensive method—is an impactful tool to include “unheard voices” in the critical mass of social movements, such as the current climate change movement. The global climate movement is under the critique of being an elite movement of the white educated middle class which is well-resourced for participating in the public debate. Citizens who will be affected sooner or more severely by climate damage are less pictured in public climate debate or climate activism. This is often attributed to various factors, such as less resources, less awareness, and less education. Studies however show that an important lever for participation is the feeling of “belonging” [3]. Marginalised groups are more likely to get engaged in a movement if they feel that their social identity is being addressed, that their voice is being heard, that their interests are being portrayed, and that they thus feel as a part of the social “we”. The question is if the here presented experience suggests that the PV method can deliver on these promises. The Climatubers experience shows that the strength of PV is a combined development of digital and social skills. It is a creative co-creation process, which puts the learner at the centre of the learning experience and that can provide a change for the self and influence others in the process. Experiences of the facilitators showed that PV does have empowering effects when participants start to get the feeling that their own opinion or questions are legitimate and worth being heard. We saw changes in the attitudes of participants who were very insecure and reserved in the beginning (“this is what I think, but should it really be in a video?”), but gained confidence in the course of the development of the films. They gained confidence in asking their questions, standing in front of a camera or expressing their opinion. Another strength of the method proved to be that thematic discussions have been very natural and sincere in the workshops and evolved around the reflection of “how do I feel about climate change”. A critical aspect that has emerged was the relation between participation and predefined agendas. True participation would require the full autonomy of participants in choosing the film topic. In Climatubers, the theme of the films was given— “do something on climate change”. This recalls the aforementioned power-struggle between the facilitators of a PV project and the participants. For someone to get engaged in a lengthy PV process, it is required that the person is really concerned with or carried away by the topic. This was not entirely the case in the Climatubers project. The topic (climate change) was thrust upon the participants. Even though facilitators were flexible and open to any possible outcome (story of the video), the heading was predetermined. Hard-to-reach groups (as in the case of Austria where the group was composed of youngsters in socio-pedagogical support measures) could only be kept in the process, because the workshops were included in an existing course with compulsory participation. Climate change did not especially concern them, although they were part of an integrative measure which was centred on ecological activities. At the same time, we have seen that participants have approached the topic in their own way. There were moments (e.g., interactions with good interview partners in

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the shooting phase) when participants really got emotionally engaged in the topic. Recruiting participants and keeping them engaged is certainly a key challenge in PV considering the length and complexity of the method. Unsurprisingly, recruitment worked better when participants (partly) knew each other. It can be a hurdle to start a process with a group of strangers. In this sense, facilitators have to balance expected impacts (achieving social inclusion by enabling new social relations within a community) against barriers to entry. In our experience, different arguments motivated and engaged different target groups. Older adults and low-educated persons were especially interested in learning more about the handling of digital devices. Dedicated members of the community were attracted by the idea of making the community better, or of being heard or being able to talk to experts or local policy-makers; and youngsters were more excited about the idea of producing a film that would be screened at a local cinema. Public screenings—the moment when the common working result is presented on a large screen and the makers see the reactions of the audience—are an important moment of empowerment. This live experience, in contrast to an online campaign on social media, triggers a lot of emotions. Overall, concerning the connection between the PV workshops of the project and specific TEL design principles (per Table 1), we can summarise the project performance as shown below in Table 2.

6 Conclusion This paper discussed a project that seeks to implement PV for underprivileged groups in Europe concerning Climate Action inequalities. Our project aims to answer the question of whether the benefits of PV can be applied in this setting while, applying best practices for PV, the power gaps of international-development-focused implementations can be avoided. The execution of the project in 5 European countries showed that the method carries its opportunities and limitations as seen in international development projects. In summary, while there is improvement in the digital skills of several participant groups (such as adults and the elderly, while not much so for youth), empowerment concerning Climate inequalities was limited. Given the resource-intensive nature of PV, organisations wishing to implement it need to be clear about its stated objectives and limitations before moving forward with its implementation. Finally, we see that the findings are in accordance with general principles concerning participatory methods overall and in learning settings specifically. The results can be used as guiding principles for practitioners in the field of PV but are also important for policy-makers who may want to understand how and when to support and lead local PV climate-related initiatives.

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Table 2 Design principles from Table 1 and the extent of their realisation in Climatubers Design principle

Realisation in the PV project “Climatubers”

Celebrate diversity

The project achieved to a significant extent the inclusion of underrepresented groups from different age groups and regional settings

Employ participatory methods

The choice of PV was central to this project and the implementation did not present any methodological problems (regardless of the outcome of each workshop). However, some participants were still excluded or abstained from certain activities

Use existing resources

While the project was externally co-funded, the partners strived to use existing resources to the extent that they existed and were useful and available to the facilitators in each country

Bridge formal and informal science learning

This was not particularly relevant to the scope of this project

Encourage risk-taking and learning from failure

While overall risk-taking and learning from failure were encouraged, sometimes in the storyboarding and video-editing phases facilitators intervened either directly or in order to manage expectations

Sustain diverse competencies Group competencies (such as collaboration and communication) were more evident as a result of the project’s PV workshops than individual empowerment related ones Recognise learners’ accomplishments

Public projections of the films produced by the PV workshops and informal certificates provided the necessary recognition for the participants

Acknowledgements This project has received funding from the European Union’s Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency Erasmus+ programme under grant agreement No. 621393-EPP-1-2020-1-ES-EPP KA03-IPI-SOC-IN (Project ID 400621393). The European Commission’s support for the production of this document does not constitute an endorsement of the contents, which reflect the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

References 1. Castoriadis, C.: The state of the subject today. Thesis Eleven 24(1), 5–43 (1989) 2. Climatubers Project website, https://climatubers.org. Last accessed 10 May 2023 3. Daniel A., Deutschmann A.: Umweltbewegung revisited? Fridays for Future in Wien: Profil und Einstellungen einer neuen Protestbewegung. IE Working Paper No. 9 (2020) 4. Durall, E., et al.: Co-creation and co-design in technology-enhanced learning: innovating science learning outside the classroom. IxD&A 42, 202–226 (2019) 5. Hsieh, H.-F., Shannon, S.E.: Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qual. Health Res. 15(9), 1277–1288 (2005) 6. Leypoldt, L.S.: Are We Using the Practitioner Community’s Potential for Collective Reflection? A Phenomenography of Participatory Video Theories of Practice. Linnaeus University Master Thesis (2021)

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7. Limesurvey GmbH./LimeSurvey: An Open Source survey tool/LimeSurvey GmbH, Hamburg, Germany. http://www.limesurvey.org 8. Low B., Brushwood Rose C., Salvio P. M., Palacios L.: (Re)framing the scholarship on participatory video production and distribution: from celebration to critical engagement. In: Milne, E.-J., Mitchell, C., De Lange, N. (eds.) The Handbook of participatory Video, 49–64. Altamira Press, Lanham MD (2012) 9. Milne, E-J., Mitchell, C., de Lange, N.: The Handbook of Participatory Video. AltaMira Press, Latham, MD (2012) 10. National Film Board of Canada. Directors, Colin Low: https://www.nfb.ca/directors/colin-low/. Last accessed 31 March 2023 11. Plush, T.: Participatory video and citizen voice–We’ve raised their voices: is anyone listening?. Glocal Times 22(23) (2015) 12. Shaw, J., Robertson, C.: Participatory Video: A Practical Guide to Using Video Creatively in Group Development Work. Routledge, London (1997) 13. Wheeler, J.: Seeing like a citizen: participatory video and action research for citizen action. In: Shah, N., Jansen, F. (eds.) Digital (Alter)Natives with a Cause? Book 2—To Think (2011)

Exploring Game-Based Learning and Gamification in Education

Implementation of Minecraft in Education to Introduce Sustainable Development Goals: Approaching Renewable Energy Through Game-Based Learning Tamás Kersánszki , Zoltán Márton , Kristóf Fenyvesi , Zsolt Lavicza , and Ildikó Holik

Abstract Teaching STEAM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, Mathematics) is often challenging in basic education because of students’ lack of interest and motivation. New, interactive methods and innovative, stimulating learning environments are needed to make learning an experience for students instead of traditional, face-to-face teaching. Game-based educational approaches can playfully integrate the curriculum, thus providing an opportunity for education to become interactive so that the students participate in the teaching–learning process with pleasure and motivation. Minecraft is a multiplatform video game that is already popular among students and can be successfully used in game-based education. The study presents the application possibilities of Minecraft in integrated education of STEAM fields through the example of teaching a specific topic. The development was tested within the framework of a summer camp, where the 10–16-year-old participants explored the topics of renewable energy sources with Minecraft. In order to examine the success of such an approach, we examined the students’ current level of knowledge with a questionnaire about renewable energy sources, to assess the characteristics of the collaboration, we used the collaborative abilities questionnaire, and to explore the characteristics of the camp, we used the school creative climate questionnaire. Based on the experiences and researchers of the camp that the application of game-based learning with Minecraft was successful to raise students’ interest, increasing their motivation, mastering the knowledge material, productive task solving and cooperation to work on sustainable development goals. T. Kersánszki (B) · Z. Márton · I. Holik Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary e-mail: [email protected] K. Fenyvesi University of Jyväskylä, Finnish Institute for Educational Research, Jyväskylä, Finland Z. Lavicza Linz School of Education, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_13

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Keywords STEAM · Game-based learning · Minecraft

1 Introduction Teaching STEAM fields worldwide is characterised by methodological renewal, as the need for learning and teaching to become an experience is increasingly becoming important. The appearance of the idea of experiential pedagogy can be linked to the pedagogical work of John Dewey, according to whose views the student’s own experience should be at the centre of the teaching–learning process [1]. The methods based on experience-based learning [2, 3] build on the students’ direct experiences. By processing the subjective experience, they make experiences and learning itself more sustained, so students can experience the so-called flow experience, i.e. the state when learning is not felt as an obligation, it is considered interesting, it is a challenge for them, and difficulties do not deter them, but inspire them to find solutions. Learning can become an enjoyable adventure if solving tasks fill students with joy and pride. Flow is ‘the phenomenon when we become so absorbed in an activity that everything else dwarfs it; the experience itself becomes so enjoyable that we want to continue the activity at any cost, just for its own sake’ [4]. The gamification method enables experience-based learning using games and game elements [5–7]. This can make education more interesting and effective [8], raise students’ curiosity and motivates them with its evaluation system [9]. Research results prove that, besides the above, gamification improves students’ logical and algorithmic thinking, problem-solving skills and creativity [10–13]. Renninger and Bachrach [14] investigated the motivations of high school students and determined the influences that maintained their attention and motivated them. Autonomy, challenge, computers/technology, group work, individual activity, instructional conversation, novelty and personal relevance were highly motivating. The metaverse, as a new generation of virtual universes, brings the physical and digital world closer together, in which education, knowledge transfer and skill development raise new dimensions and questions simultaneously. The Minecraft Education platform interprets the aspects of the already existing physical world into the digital environment, which brings with it the digital identity of the participants (avatar), their possibilities of action within the system (transhuman abilities), the creativity to achieve the set educational goals, the cooperation opportunities, the transition from text comprehension to multimodal literacy and, last but not least, the game generated a sense of community [15]. The Minecraft ecosystem now provides a unique and forward-thinking digital experience for children strongly linked to distinctive digital literacy practices. The Minecraft game can be considered discursive because the metalanguage it uses, its rules of design and combination, and its unique world and logic create a new system of meaning [16]. Yi et al. [17] investigated the maintenance and development of long-term interest in the STEM field through the example of the application of the Minecraft game.

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They found that personal relevance played a prominent role in the use of Minecraft. Hughes [18] successfully used the Minecraft program to develop spatial skills in a summer camp for high school students. Today, children’s online games increasingly connect digital and non-digital areas, and posthumanist theories help in the creation of these time planes and meta-spaces [19]. In addition, an important question is whether, and how quickly, formal education systems are willing to incorporate the value of learning through multicultural practices in contemporary pedagogy and digital platforms.

2 Minecraft as an Innovative Educational Tool Computer games and video games—including Minecraft—are becoming increasingly widespread and popular among children, young people and adults. Like a Lego world, Minecraft is the world’s largest-selling open-world sandbox video game, with 126 million monthly users. Educational developers have noticed this game and, emphasising the peculiarities of the teaching–learning process, have developed Minecraft Education Edition, a version of Minecraft for education [17–20], which has a rich technological background and toolbox [20]. The characteristic of Minecraft is that it maps reality, and participants can create new worlds, thereby experiencing the joy of creation. The virtual world of the game consists of 3D elements, called blocks (cubes). These can be made up of natural and artificial materials and create the possibility of building different objects (e.g. buildings) and dismantling the elements. The player sees this virtual world from his point of view and can look around up to 360°. Participants can play individually and in groups, creating collaboration opportunities [20]. Minecraft is, therefore, well suited to different areas of education, especially STEAM areas [21]. When it comes to non-violent, educational games, Minecraft arguably leads the way. It can teach kids the basics of programming skills, teamwork, problem-solving and project management and provides a great environment to foster creativity and out-of-the-box thinking [22, 23]. With the help of Minecraft Education or other essential Minecraft software, educational goals can be strengthened, and intelligence factors can be more easily activated through the following areas: 1. Stimulation of creativity and project planning: Minecraft is an open-world game that allows players to create anything they can imagine using virtual blocks. This type of gameplay is ideal for stimulating creativity and project planning as players have unlimited resources to design their own worlds, buildings and objects. Players can experiment with different materials, shapes and colours to create unique structures and landscapes, helping to foster creativity and imagination. 2. Programming and logic skills: Minecraft provides an opportunity for players to learn programming and logic skills. Players can use Minecraft’s command blocks to create complex structures and automate tasks, which requires an understanding

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of basic programming concepts. This can help players develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills that are essential for future careers in technology and engineering. Teamwork, communication: Teamwork and communication are essential skills for success in any collaborative project. Minecraft provides a platform for players to work together to achieve common goals, whether it’s building a community or completing a quest. Players can communicate through chat and voice chat to coordinate their efforts and share ideas, helping to improve their teamwork and communication skills. Increasing problem-solving ability: Minecraft is a game that requires players to solve problems constantly, whether it’s navigating through a maze, defending against enemy attacks, or finding resources to survive. Players must think creatively and critically to overcome these challenges, improving their problemsolving skills. Strengthening social skills in autistic children: Minecraft can be a helpful tool for improving social skills in autistic children. The game provides a safe and structured environment where children can interact with others and develop social skills. It allows them to work together with others, build friendships, and practice communication skills, which can be particularly challenging for children on the autism spectrum. Resource management: Minecraft also provides an opportunity for players to learn resource management skills. In the game, players must gather resources such as wood, stone and food to survive and thrive. Players must learn to manage their resources effectively, balancing their needs for survival with their goals for building and creating. Perseverance, dedication: Minecraft can help develop perseverance and dedication. The game is designed to be challenging, requiring players to work hard to achieve their goals. Players must be patient and persistent, learning from their mistakes and continuing to try until they succeed. This can help develop resilience and a growth mindset, important qualities for success in life.

3 Developing and Testing Minecraft Test results and recent experience with Minecraft Education Edition show that it is a proven innovative learning tool in public education. However, this version of Minecraft offers a world, a collaborative space, that is heavily limited and controlled by teachers. In this so-called minimal world, the sense of wonder and discovery is somewhat lost, and students cannot use certain accessories (included in the basic version), depriving them of opportunities for creativity and learning valuable skills. Using Minecraft as an educational tool, the educational framework we envisioned opens an entirely new path for gamified educational methodologies. Through the evaluation of its global problems and the conceptualization and implementation of UN’s Sustainable Development Goals in Education, we can see

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that the pedagogical society needs an entirely new, innovative green development education plan, which should be created based on environmental protection and the fight against climate change, which, in addition to the development of critical competencies, uses a STEM/STEAM-focused approach increasing students’ interest in natural sciences. Minecraft proves to be an innovative learning environment that has great potential for use in education for sustainable development goals through multidisciplinary STEAM approaches. The game’s potential for learning is due to its virtual reality and game-based learning environment, which can be used to put the future at the centre of learning [24]. Studies have shown that commercial video games, like Horizon Forbidden West, can be used to create environmentally sustainable game worlds [25]. Metaverse, the virtual universe concept, can be utilised in classrooms to create new learning environments [26]. BetterGeo is a Minecraft modification designed by the Geological Survey of Sweden to help primary school students understand geology, minerals, mining, mineral processing and circular economy. The initiative has created a series of learning materials and interactive games to help teachers and students learn about raw materials. Serious gaming has also been used to communicate climate change and its effects. The game design incorporates Education for Sustainable Development’s key goals, combining comprehensive views, action competence, learner engagement and pluralism [27]. Illustration, modelling and realistic simulation provide space for detecting dangerous situations. The virtual space creates the entire field table for it, where we do not cause further natural damage by testing, we can correct our actions, but in case of a game mode change we can have similar properties as the natural person; thus we can feel the gravity of our actions, and we do not have unlimited power in the created playing field. Game-based learning can be an effective training methodology because it increases the attractiveness of learning processes, innovation, fun, productivity, and the ability to retain knowledge and acquire new skills. If Minecraft develops all of these, why don’t we also try to show scientific fields that do not fit into the framework curriculum, but we can use the studied subjects to arouse their interest, already among elementary school students? Embedding informal STEAM modules into secondary school students’ study programmes was shown to trigger both creativity level and career choice preferences [28]. Their career orientation can already be influenced here as planned.

3.1 Summer Children’s University, with Modified Minecraft Software We tested the educational application possibilities of Minecraft within the framework of a unique Summer Children’s University Camp among students aged 10–16. One of the camp’s aims was for the students to familiarise themselves with the field

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of renewable energy use in a playful way with the modified Minecraft software. The application of the game contributed to the development of students’ STEAM skills (e.g. complex natural science perspective, logical thinking, problem-solving, environmentally conscious thinking, systems approach, cooperative, collaborative and independent work). The students learned about renewable energy sources and green alternatives, designed solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear power plants in the world of Minecraft, and gained experience in urban development. The camp contributed to the development of critical infrastructure development and a safety-conscious approach. Familiarity with these fields of science would not have been possible with the primary application of Minecraft Education Edition or other Minecraft versions. We could exploit the game’s broader potential by using the original Minecraft game (Java Edition) and modifications (hereinafter referred to as mods). We had the opportunity to adapt the game to the needs of each speciality and create a simulation close to real life. Minecraft is a highly adaptable software that can easily be used not only as a game but also as an educational tool. Mods add new elements, useful functions and a new world generator to the game. In multiplayer mode, through a central server, students can participate in projects together, at the same time, just like in real life. Moreover, by using these game-changing mods, they could get a very realistic picture of the taught fields of science. For the first time, participants encountered a pre-generated and revised virtual archipelago. The developers only built their plots and houses and the basic road network for the user campers. The area of the power plants to be built later was also designated, thus ensuring the dynamics and continuity of the camp concept. Campers carried out the necessary preparations for energy sources or power plants (landscaping, procurement of raw materials, construction of additional road networks and connection of the electric transmission line to the network). On the fifth (last) day of the camp, a power plant or power park utilising renewable energy sources and alternative energy sources was located at each pre-designated installation point, which is a credit to the campers, since they built and designed the various objects using the technologies from the first foundation stone. Students also prepared a part of the electrical network created in Minecraft in a practical lab session by installing a solar energy source. On the last day of the camp, the participants could take part in an excursion where they could visit a solar park, so they could compare the solar park built in Minecraft with a real and actively producing park, thus creating a learning chain and connecting the technology created in the virtual space, the in reality, with a faithful significant other. The uniqueness of the constructed Minecraft camp was given by the developers transforming the basic game with 50 game-modifying modes, thereby giving the children a virtual experience that approximated or faithfully reflected reality.

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4 Evaluation of the Innovative Educational Experiment We aimed to collect feedback on the method used in the camp with questionnaires. On the first and last day of the camp, the students filled out a questionnaire to disclose their current level of knowledge about renewable energy sources. We also assessed the collaboration and the ‘climate’ of the camp with questionnaires. In our research, we hypothesised that the Minecraft method is equally effective regarding knowledge acquisition and collaboration.

4.1 The Measurement Tools Our questionnaire on renewable energy sources contained ten multiple-choice questions to assess the student’s current level of knowledge. We used a self-developed set of questions to assess the background variables, examine expectations and then experiences related to the camp, and reveal opinions about Minecraft’s use. To examine collaboration, we used the ‘collaborative skills questionnaire’ [29], with the help of which we received feedback on how socially competent the students proved to be in a group problem-solving situation and how well they could cooperate with their peers. The respondents filled out an 18-item self-assessment questionnaire, in which they evaluated each statement on a 7-point scale, which was aimed at measuring social skills (e.g. action, interaction, effort, adaptive responsiveness, matching behaviour to the partner’s needs, negotiation, self-evaluation, peers assessment, responsibility). The listed sub-skills comprised three larger skill elements: participation, perspective taking and social regulation. Creativity research in education emphasises the importance of creating a creative ecology in sociocultural formations of digitally networked cultures and collaborative methods of thinking. The goal is to foster greater creativity in education systems by attending to increasing creative sociality within and between diverse cultures and contexts [30]. To explore the characteristics of the camp, we adapted the ‘school creative climate questionnaire’ [31], to explore the environmental factors that measure creativity. The questionnaire contains 47 statements, which form five dimensions: group atmosphere, re-opening; encouraging diversity, autonomy; challenge, interest and limitations, and pressure. Here, too, the respondents evaluated the individual statements on a 7-point scale.

4.2 Camp Participants Fifteen students participated in the camp: 1 girl and 14 boys. Their average age was 11.6 years (the youngest student was 10, and the oldest 16). They all filled out the questionnaires so that we could examine the effectiveness of the camp.

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The camp students were no strangers to the world of computer games. 40% spend 2–3 h daily playing computer games, and 33% 1–2 h.

4.3 Results The analysis of the questionnaires revealed that students came to the camp with specific expectations. They primarily expected the camp to have fun during the camp (on a 4-point scale, average: 3.73), to spend their time usefully (average: 3.60), to take part in exciting laboratory activities (3.67) and to play together and learn about with other students (3.60). The camp met these initial expectations. Based on the student feedback, we found that the students had fun during the camp (3.87), spent their time usefully (3.80) and played and learned together (3.80). In other words, the method used contributed to making learning an experience for them so that the users’ free time is connected to the learning process. Results of the knowledge level assessment questionnaire taken on the first and last day of the camp proved that the students learned effectively in this playful form. Practical and topical questions about knowledge about renewable energy made the students think (e.g. what consumes the most electricity in an average Hungarian home, how much electricity does a Hungarian home consume on average in a year, what uses more energy: our laptop (6 h) use or making coffee with the coffee machine (15 min)). After the measurements, we found that students’ knowledge level increased during the camp: on the first day, the percentage of correct answers was 47.33%, and on the last, it was 56%. Regarding the individual questions, the percentage of correct answers was 47.33% on the first day and 60.67% on the last. The rate of improvement for individual campers is 8.67, and 13.33% for each question. The Minecraft world was well known to the students even before the camp. 86.67% of them used to play Minecraft at home, 27.67% at a friend’s, relative’s or acquaintance’s house, and 6.67% at school, in a lesson, or in a professional circle (some respondents have already played in several locations). Before the camp, every child knew this game. In the questionnaire taken on the first day of the camp, the participants answered that what they like most about Minecraft is that it provides good relaxation (on a 4-point scale, average: 3.73), that they can realise their ideas in it (average: 3.67), and that you can play together with others (average: 3.6). In education, these motivational factors can be used to the best advantage, so students can solve different tasks in a playful environment while being creative and able to cooperate with their peers. The greatest success in the camp was the large-scale and experience-influencing modification expansion because by transforming the basic game, the children felt that the game gained a new meaning for them. They liked that they could solve tasks (average: 3.87), and this game provided them with good relaxation (average: 3.87). The most significant positive difference between the initial experience with Minecraft and the application in the camp can be seen in the fact that they were

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better able to solve tasks, learned more from it and got to know better how to model the real world (Table 1). To further evaluate the applied method, we adapted the ‘school creative climate questionnaire’ [31] according to the characteristics of the camp. (The questionnaire proved reliable, the value of Cronbach’s alpha is 0.90.) The respondents considered it extremely positive that the teachers at the camp were interested in what the students thought about a topic (average: 6.73 on a 7-point scale), that they encouraged them to find new solutions (average: 6.60), and they felt, that learning in the camp made sense (average: 6.47), because they learned a lot of exciting things by searching for new solutions (average: 6.60) (Table 2). Minecraft created a perfect opportunity to focus attention on students, playful learning, support of innovations, problem-solving and support of students’ ideas in the teaching–learning process. The method helped create an open, supportive atmosphere and thus made learning more effective. The statements of the creative climate questionnaire are organised along five dimensions [31]. In our camp using the game Minecraft, the dimension of openness was the strongest, which means that the camp supported the students to be open to new things, to examine emerging questions from a new approach and to try new things. The camp was a challenge for the number of students and limited them little in their autonomy and time (Fig. 1). Table 1 Evaluation of Minecraft’s software possibilities (on a 4-point scale, N = 15) What I love about Minecraft is that…

What I liked about Minecraft during the camp was that

Average

SD

Average

SD

You can play together 3.60 with others

0.83

3.53

0.92

−0.07

You can build a new world of your own

3.40

0.74

3.67

0.72

0.27

I can realise my ideas 3.67 in it

0.62

3.47

0.74

−0.2

The graphics are good 2.87

1.13

3.20

0.94

0.33

You can learn a lot from it

2.93

0.88

3.40

0.91

0.47

I can solve tasks

3.13

0.92

3.87

0.35

0.74

Provides good relaxation

3.73

0.46

3.87

0.35

0.14

It models the real world

2.80

1.01

3.20

0.94

0.4

3.93

0.26

What I love about Minecraft is that…

Minecraft takes on a whole new meaning with so many modes

The difference between the means

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Table 2 Comparative study of collaborative abilities (own research: N = 15, research by PásztorKovács et al.: N = 2128) Group work in general (day 1)

Group work in the camp (last day)

Study by Pásztor-Kovács et al. (2020)

Average

SD

Average

SD

Average

SD

Collaborative skills (full scale)

97.80

17.62

98.87

14.68

Boy: 86.91 Girl: 89.95

Boy: 17.30 Girl: 16.43

Participation subscale

35,40

6.09

34.47

3.70

Boy: 29.45 Girl: 30.96

Boy: 6.60 Girl: 6.43

Point-of-view subscale

20.40

3.62

21.20

3.61

Boy: 19.34 Girl: 19.97

Boy: 4.33 Girl: 4.20

Social regulation subscale

42.00

9.46

43.20

9.44

Boy: 38.13 Girl: 39.02

Boy: 7.86 Girl: 7.61

Dimensions avarage: 4.62 deviation: 1,19

limits

avarage: 6.19 avarage: 5.81 deviation: 0,67 avarage: 5.53 avarage: 5.57 deviation: 0,96 deviation: 0,86 deviation: 1,35

encouragement

group

challenge

openness

Fig. 1 Dimensions of the camp’s creative climate (N = 15)

The second dominant dimension is the challenge; that is, the use of Minecraft was challenging for the participants. Because the students felt that they were learning important, exciting and meaningful things, they became more and more motivated and did not get bored. This subscale also refers to the meaningfulness of tasks and commitment to goals. Group trust and support came in third place, i.e. how much acceptance there is between group members, whether mutual attention is realised, and whether help and cooperation are typical. The use of the Minecraft method contributed to the creation of an atmosphere of trust in the community. Encouragement also played an essential role in the camp. The method has proven to encourage students to be open-minded and take risks. The students were allowed to look at the field of renewable energy sources from a new perspective, look for alternative solutions, and formulate new ideas without any punishment for making a mistake. By using Minecraft, it was possible to create an atmosphere that encourages

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students to try various intellectual and creative endeavours and to be open to new things. The dimension of limitations, on the other hand, receded into the background at the camp, meaning that the students had a great deal of opportunity to make their own decisions and were not limited by the instructors in completing their tasks. In this way, the method contributed to independent decision-making and independent task performance. The use of Minecraft also could provide an excellent opportunity for collaboration, to explore which we used the ‘collaborative skills questionnaire’ [29]. The questionnaire measures how students can cooperate with their peers in group problem-solving situations. (When examining the reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.91 for the questionnaire on the first day and 0.85 for the questionnaire on the last day). On the first day of the camp, we asked the participants to recall situations in which they had to solve some class or extracurricular task or project in pairs or in larger groups and then try to determine how typical the given statements were for them in these situations. The most characteristic of the respondents is that when they work in a group work, they usually try to solve their partial task until they succeed (average: 6.20 on a 7-point scale), that they try another strategy to solve their partial task if the previous one did not work (6 0.07) and respond to others’ suggestions (average: 6.00). The data of the questionnaire taken on the last day of the camp revealed that the participants know what kind of work they are best suited for (average: 6.02), they try to solve their tasks until they succeed (average: 6.00) and they can easily see, if they are not right (average: 6.00). The biggest positive difference in the assessment of the previous group work and the group work in the camp can be seen below: in the camp, the students made more suggestions about what task to do (difference: 0.73), they found a common voice with everyone (difference: 0.67), and they shared their ideas better with their peers (difference: 0.53). The camp created an opportunity for them to be more open to their peers and work with them better. The tasks provided space for formulating and sharing one’s ideas, as well as for thinking together. The statements of the questionnaire on collaborative abilities form three subscales, and the data of a large sample (N = 2128) taking place in the eighth grade can be used as a basis for comparison [29]. (Since only one girl participated in the camp, we did not perform a gender comparison.) In the Minecraft camp, significantly higher scores were obtained than in the previous large sample study, which indicates that the participants in the camp were characterised by harmonious cooperation, the students made efforts to in order to solve tasks, they were open to ideas and suggestions of their peers and felt personal responsibility for the group solving the set tasks. In the questionnaire taken at the end of the camp, except for the ‘participation’ scale, higher average scores were obtained than on the first day of the camp in the evaluation of the previously completed group work, that is, the collaboration in the Minecraft camp was very well realised. However, the student’s activity could have

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been increased even more, and it could have been better to encourage them to try another strategy to solve the subtasks if the previous one did not work (Table 2).

5 Conclusions The Minecraft software can be considered an innovative educational methodological tool that could teach students to acquire knowledge and skills playfully. We tested the applicability of Minecraft in education within the framework of a summer university camp. The study presented the development possibilities of Minecraft and the experience of its application. During the camp, students built their own Minecraft island world, where their island city was powered by renewable energy sources. They built and constructed these power plants. Our approach is unique because we added more than 50 game modifications to the basic game, giving children a virtual experience that is close to reality. In order to assess the effectiveness of the camp and the method used, we conducted questionnaires on the first and last day, which were primarily aimed at revealing the current level of knowledge about renewable energy sources, the collaboration taking place in the camp and the ‘climate’ of the camp. The data analysis suggested that the camp was successful to support students’ knowledge acquisition and collaboration. The Minecraft software aroused the students’ interest and increased their motivation and activity; thereby, they learned the material more effectively and could cooperate with their peers. The results of the Minecraft camp can also be used in education, for example, in the fields of STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). Students often struggle to learn science subjects, but they can learn the curriculum by playing with the Minecraft software. Gamification creates an opportunity for learning to become an experience, for students to participate more actively in the learning process, gives space to their creativity and creates opportunities for collaboration. Minecraft has various connections with the different fields of education and engineering. It can be used as an educational tool to teach subjects such as math, science and renewable energy, as well as basic engineering concepts. Furthermore, the game’s modding environment provides an opportunity for students to learn programming and game development skills, problem-solving, critical thinking and design thinking, which can be applied in a career in engineering or computer science [32].

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A Systematic Mapping Review of Research Concerning the Use of Games in Teacher Training Francesca Pozzi , Erica Volta , Marcello Passarelli , and Donatella Persico

Abstract This systematic mapping review provides an up-to-date picture of research on the use of games and game-based learning (GBL) in teacher training. Documents were retrieved systematically from Scopus and Web of Science, resulting in 38 studies that met the inclusion criteria. The review examines the evolution over time of the field, the kind of venues in which studies are being published, the proportion of primary studies being published, the type of games being employed, the type of training in which they are used and, finally, the purpose for using them in teacher training. Results highlight that only three records are secondary studies, highlighting the immaturity of the field. The experiences reported in the studies are evenly distributed between those targeting pre-service and in-service teachers, and most of them aim to stimulate the adoption of GBL in the classroom, rather than using games explicitly as a tool for teacher training. The types of games used in teacher training vary, with most being based on 2D environments, while virtual/augmented reality and board games are emerging trends. The purposes of game usage in teacher training include stimulating adoption of these technologies, and developing teaching skills, digital competences, and learning design skills, with simulators and role-playing games being used to prepare trainee teachers for class management. The review highlights a dearth of research and experiences in the field, but the emerging trends could guide future teacher training initiatives to develop teachers’ competences rather than just encouraging them to adopt these technologies in class.

F. Pozzi · E. Volta (B) · M. Passarelli · D. Persico Istituto Tecnologie Didattiche – CNR, Genoa, Italy e-mail: [email protected] F. Pozzi e-mail: [email protected] M. Passarelli e-mail: [email protected] D. Persico e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_14

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Keywords Teacher training · Teacher education · Games · Systematic mapping review

1 Introduction The “Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4”1 emphasises the importance of offering continuous and adequate training opportunities for teachers. This document, which sets the goals to be achieved in education by 2030, clearly states that “Teachers are the key to achieving all of the SDG4-Education 2030 agenda, so this target is critical […] Successful education systems that ensure quality and equity have focused on a professional development continuum that supports teachers’ own learning and improvement throughout their careers.” Hence, professional development opportunities that empower and support teachers in designing and delivering quality education form the foundation of school innovation. This concerns initial teacher training as well as continuous training for in-service teachers. One of the elements of innovation that is gaining momentum in the educational sector has to do with the use of games in the teaching/learning process. In particular, “serious games”, i.e. games designed primarily for a purpose other than pure entertainment [1], are becoming more and more popular as a means for promoting learning in class in a broad range of subjects [2–4]. This is justified by the fact that students are usually very familiar with these technologies, as it seems especially in Europe millions of people turn to video games every day for leisure and entertainment [5]. Moreover, technologies such as XR/AR/VR are making the game market more and more attractive and hold a promise for improving educational effectiveness. These technologies and—more in general—game-based learning approaches are usually considered motivating and engaging for learners, as “playing is entwined with learning and always has been” [5, p. 5], so their use in education is generally considered a desirable feature in smart learning systems. According to the consolidated principle that the way teachers are introduced to innovative teaching approaches needs to be aligned with the pedagogical approach being promoted, one would expect teacher training to incorporate game-based learning approaches. This would familiarise teachers with these methods, allowing them to gain firsthand experience in learning with and through games. On the contrary, as early as 2016, Meredith [6] conducted a literature review to investigate the impact of game-based learning (GBL) in professional development opportunities for practising K-12 teachers and concluded “there is an obvious lack of published research showing the educational effects of using GBL in teacher professional development” (p. 499). If this is the case, we should find ways to integrate this

1

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656.

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teaching/learning approach into teacher training in order to increase adoption and competent, insightful usage of GBL in the educational landscape. Starting from these considerations and in the light of the fact that Meredith [6] conducted her review back in 2016 and excluded initial teacher education and focused on K-12 staff only, we felt the need to reconsider this issue and (re-)assess the current state-of-the-art of research regarding the use of games in teacher training more broadly. Our investigation focuses also on the distinction between teacher education and teachers’ professional development, as well as the type of games involved and is not limited to K-12 staff development. The final goal is to determine whether the use of games in teacher training (encompassing both teacher education and teacher professional development) and game-based learning are sufficiently studied and applied, and to identify current trends in this field. To do so, we conducted a systematic mapping review of the literature, which was guided by the following research questions: . RQ1—What is the state of the art in research regarding the use of games in teacher training? . RQ1.1. How has the publication trend of papers about the use of games in teacher training evolved over time? . RQ1.2. What types of venues publish papers on the use of games in teacher training? . RQ1.3. What kind of studies tackles the issue of using games in teacher training? . RQ2—What are the main features of the reported/studied experiences of game usage in teacher training? . RQ2.1. In which kind of training are games used, according to the papers published in this area? . RQ2.2. What types of games are used in teacher training, according to the papers published in this area? . RQ2.3. What is the purpose of using games in teacher training, according to the papers published in this area?

2 Methods Given that we wanted to get a preliminary, overall picture of the field regarding the use of games in teacher training, we decided to carry out a systematic mapping review. A systematic mapping review helps to identify research gaps in a given topic area, but—differently from a systematic literature review—it is not based on research evidence and its main aim is to classify the existing studies, possibly by providing wide maps of the bodies of available literature [7]. To conduct the systematic mapping review, we followed the mapping process outlined by [7].

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Fig. 1 The selection procedure

The search was conducted in February 2023 on the Scopus and Web of Science databases,2 with the following Scopus string and an equivalent on WoS: TITLE-ABS-KEY(("teacher training" OR "teacher professional development")AND(("hybrid game*") OR("learning game*") OR ("game-based learning")OR("digital game*") OR ("app-based game*")OR("smart game*")OR("serious game*") OR ("board game*"))AND NOT("teacher* perception*"))AND LANGUAGE(english)

The query retrieved all studies available in English, independently of the year of publication and the type of publication (primary studies, secondary studies, etc.), including proceedings papers. According to the query, retrieved studies contained both “teacher training” (or “professional development”) and at least one of the terms indicating the type of game. We excluded papers containing “teacher’s perceptions” because from previous, exploratory searches, we detected that many retrieved studies focused on teachers’ opinions regarding the use of games in education, rather than the use of games in teacher training. Given that these studies fall outside the scope of our research questions, we decided to exclude them explicitly starting from the query. Despite this exclusion, many studies of this kind were still retrieved in our first dataset, and they were subsequently excluded during the selection process (first stage of analysis), as described below. The selection procedure used for the review is described in Fig. 1. A total of 149 papers were retrieved. After removal of duplicates, we obtained 115 papers. Titles, abstracts and keywords were read (first stage of analysis) and analysed against the following exclusion criteria: focus is on teachers’ perceptions/habits/ opinions about use of games in class; focus is on the evaluation of games; focus is on games that are not used within teacher training; focus is on teacher training that does 2

Given the exploratory nature of the study, which is aimed at providing a preliminary picture of the field, we have decided to limit the search on these two databases only.

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not explicitly use games. The resulting dataset comprised 38 records, which were read (second stage) and coded according to the following classification scheme: Year of publication; Venue of publication; Type of study; Purpose(s) of game usage in the training; Context of training; Technology used (type of game); Purpose(s) of game usage in the training. Both the above-described selection (first stage) and classification processes (second stage) were carried out by 2 coders who coded the whole dataset, after having discussed and agreed on the exclusion criteria and the classification scheme respectively. The two coders worked independently and then compared the results of coding. In case of disagreement, they discussed until the exclusion and coding criteria were interpreted consistently and the coders achieved full agreement. The method of analysis for the second stage was deductive, using the classification scheme reported above.

3 Results The 38 selected papers are listed in the Reference section and are highlighted in bold [8–45]. In the following, we report the results (maps) obtained with our analysis for each research question.

3.1 Results for RQ1—What is the State-of-the-Art of Research Regarding the Use of Games in Teacher Training? RQ1.1. Under this RQ we investigated the publication trend over time of papers about the use of games in teacher training. The first paper we identified dates back to 2008. However, while we observe an overall increase in subsequent years, no clear trend is apparent. We did observe a peak in 2014, followed by a decrease and then, in the last few years, a new increase in the number of publications (see Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Papers about the use of games in teacher training: publication trend in time

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Fig. 3 Papers about the use of games in teacher training: publication venues

RQ1.2. Under this RQ we focused on types of publication venues that include papers on the use of games in teacher training. As far as the venues hosting the studies on the topic of interest, we have considered papers published in journals, contributions hosted in conference proceedings, and chapters in books. The results are mapped in Fig. 3. RQ1.3. Under this RQ we focused on the kinds of studies (primary vs. secondary) that tackle the issue of using games in teacher training. Our dataset contains 35 primary studies and only a few (3) secondary studies. In particular, the review by Boudreaux [23] is not systematic and investigates the use of serious games as a tool for training and faculty development. The systematic literature review conducted by Gao and colleagues [32] about the use of serious games in teacher training is aimed at exploring the viability of serious games as an effective tool for teacher training. Differently from our mapping review, the review by Gao et al. [32] was focused on the impact of games on teachers’ professional development, while our review is oriented to capture and represent an up-to-date picture of research on the use of games in teacher training. The scoping review by Ade-Ojo and colleagues [44] is a systematic review of the literature on the use of physical and/or mixed-reality simulation in pre-service teacher training.

3.2 Results for RQ2—What are the Main Features of the Experiences of Game Usage in Teacher Training? Given that this research question is aimed at understanding the characteristics of the experiences reported in the selected primary studies, in the following analyses we will disregard the 3 secondary studies and consider the 35 primary studies only. RQ2.1. Under this RQ we focused on the kinds of training where games are used. Looking at the type of contexts described in the retrieved papers, we have detected 15 training paths carried out within initiatives for pre-service teachers, 14 for in-service teachers and 1 for teacher trainers. In 4 papers the training was described as addressing both student teachers and practising teachers and in 1 study this was not specified (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4 Papers about the use of games in teacher training: context/type of training

RQ2.2 Under this RQ we focused on the types of games used in teacher training according to the retrieved papers. As far as the type of games and the technology, reading the abstracts was not sufficient and it was necessary to screen the papers and/ or search the internet for further information about the games. Out of the 35 selected papers: . 6 papers mention (digital)-game-based learning (DGBL) as a means for teacher training, but it’s unclear whether they use a game or just a gameful/playful approach; . 6 papers mention the use of digital games as the object of training but no further indications are provided. Of the remaining 23 papers, games can be classified according to the taxonomy proposed by [46] as follows: . 12 games are based on 2D environments, 2 are 3D . 4 games are labelled by their authors as virtual reality environment, 5 as augmented reality . 1 uses location awareness capabilities . 6 are mobile games . 6 are online games . 3 support social presence (i.e. multiplayer games). Moreover, we can observe 6 games are simulators (and the scoping review by [44] focuses on this kind of games as well) and 4 are board games. In some cases, there are overlappings between these categories. RQ2.3 Under this RQ we focused on the purpose of using games in teacher training according to the retrieved papers. The analysis of the retrieved studies brought to light the following purposes for the use of games in teacher training: . . . . .

Supporting game (or GBL) adoption by teachers Supporting development of teaching skills (class management) Supporting development of digital competences Supporting development of learning design skills Other (i.e. supporting development of creative thinking, of self-regulated learning skills, of pro-environmental engagement, mixed).

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Fig. 5 Papers about the use of games in teacher training: purposes of the training

Figure 5 shows the distribution of the studies according to the above-mentioned classification.

4 Discussion In this systematic mapping review, we provide an overall and up-to-date picture of research in the use of games (and GBL) in teacher training, triggered by a prior study, i.e. [6], whose author lamented a paucity of studies in the field. The first fact we can observe in our data is that, even 7 years after that study, this field of research is still understudied, as overall we did not detect many studies (38). The distribution of the retrieved papers in time (see RQ1.1) does not say much, as there is no evident trend. The first paper dates back to 2008, and this shows the research field is quite recent. However, as in the second half of the lapse of time between 2008 and 2023 the number of papers more than doubled, we may assume interest in the topic is increasing. Even the distribution of the publication venues (RQ1.2) is not clearly interpretable and informative in terms of maturity of the field (usually a nascent field has a high number of papers published in conference proceedings, while a mature one has more publications on journals or chapters in book, but this is not the case). Nonetheless, as far as the maturity of the field is concerned, we should observe within our dataset there are only 3 secondary studies (one of which is a non-systematic literature review) and 35 primary studies (RQ1.3). This suggests that the field is not mature enough to support secondary studies yet. Even more importantly, we should observe the two systematic reviews [32, 44] focused on a very limited number of papers (8 and 13 respectively) and in both cases the authors concluded there is a dearth of research in the field, while they recognise there is potential in the use of these technologies for teacher professional development. The other review [23], which is not systematic, also complains about the dearth of research about games used in professional development for faculty. Therefore, there seems to be agreement about the fact the sector is still at its beginnings. However, this is in sharp contrast with the wealth of research [2] concerning GBL in schools. This could be evidence of an implicit assumption, on the parts of teachers’ trainers and researchers, that GBL

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could be suited to the training of children but not of adults, in spite of evidence of the contrary [2, 47]. As far as the experiences reported in the papers, it seems studies consider inservice and pre-service teachers evenly (RQ2.1). This is in contrast with [32], who pointed out most of the games are targeted to prospective teachers as part of Initial Teacher Education (ITE), while in-service teachers undergoing Continuous Professional Development (CPD) were not a target of the retrieved studies. Nonetheless, we note the mentioned review, although systematic, included 8 papers only, so the trend detected in our study could be more informative. Regarding the type of games used in the reported experiences (RQ2.2), first of all we should point out that this information is not prominently displayed (e.g. in titles, keywords and abstracts), which makes it difficult for readers to detect at a glance the technology used. An additional difficulty in analysing data to answer this research question came from the fact that—despite many past attempts to define taxonomies for (serious) game genres/types [48–50]—there is still no agreement on how serious games should be described or classified. In the end, we adopted the classification by Laamarti and colleagues [46], as it seemed more in line with our needs. As we observed, most games are based on 2D environments, while the 3D seems to be still underused. There are attempts to use virtual and augmented reality environments, but those are still few in numbers. An interesting observation can be made as far as the use of simulation environments for teacher training: it seems this area is gaining momentum, and this emerges not only in the 6 retrieved papers that use this approach, but also in the very recent systematic scoping review on this topic [44]. Last but not least, we retrieved 3 experiences using board games, which seems to be an emerging thread in education, and which could open interesting research directions in the near future as discussed in [51]. As far as the purposes of the game usage in the reported training experiences (RQ2.3), in this case the trend is clear, as in most studies games or GBL are used to stimulate adoption of these approaches in class. This confirms the interpretation provided by Meredith [6], who identified three distinct patterns in the use of GBL in teacher training: (1) “having teachers play games as a method of developing proficiency in a particular digital game, so that they could implement it in their classrooms”; (2) “convincing and/or persuading teachers and administrators of the potential benefits of GBL in the classroom” and (3) “playing games to learn to design them” (p. 499). Interestingly, [6] concluded that “published research only approaches this topic from a ‘train them to use [GBL] in the classroom’ perspective, rather than using GBL to teach teachers” [6, p. 500] and we should point out—despite 7 years have passed from that study—the trend has not substantially changed. A few exceptions are represented by (1) the use of simulators that are used to engage teachers in realistic simulated situations or role-playing games that feature natural interactions in the classroom, so as to prepare especially trainee teachers for class management issues, (2) the use of games to develop teachers’ learning design capacity and (3) the use of games to trigger other twenty-first century skills, such as

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digital competences or self-regulated learning skill. However, these studies are still few in numbers, and could be considered emerging trends rather than mainstream approaches.

5 Conclusions In this study, we have provided figures regarding the studies published on the use of games in teacher training. The results point out there is a dearth of research and experiences in this field, even if the interest on this topic seems to have increased; possible directions emerged from this study have to do with the use of games based on 3D environments, virtual and augmented reality, and board games. In most cases, the integration of games into teacher training still has the primary goal of triggering them to adopt these technologies in class, while the potential of using games explicitly as a tool for teacher training is still partially untapped. We believe these results can be used as recommendations to guide the design and development of future teacher training initiatives, paving the way to the implementation of smart learning ecosystems and to quality education, as it is indicated in the SDG4. At the same time, we should remember that—being a systematic mapping review—our analysis was conducted on titles, abstracts and keywords only, so this should be considered when interpreting data, especially for some of our research questions. For example, as far as the type of games is concerned, we should be aware full papers might provide more precise information. Moreover, the study presents the following limitations: we decided to exclude all the papers that have to do with teachers’ perceptions on games in education; this was done to limit the resulting papers, but of course this can imply loss of data. In addition, some of the studies retrieved regard the same games. As a consequence, our maps should be interpreted as maps of research studies, not of the games involved in the selected studies. Acknowledgements The work presented in this paper has been carried out with the support of two European projects (PLEIADE and SuperRED) both co-funded by the Erasmus+ programme of the European Union (Agreement numbers: 2020-1-IT02-KA201-080089 and 2021-1-IT02-KA220SCH-000034442 respectively). The European Commission’s support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents, which reflect the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

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Unplugging Math: Integrating Computational Thinking into Mathematics Education Through Poly-Universe - c , Filiz Mumcu , Mathias Tejera , Eva Schmidthaler , Branko Andi´ and Zsolt Lavicza

Abstract How to teach CT skills and the quality of students’ understanding of CT are research issues we need to address. In this study, an unplugged programming activity was designed, developed, and implemented. The results were evaluated to serve as an example of how CT can be integrated into mathematics education. We used the Poly-Universe educational game to design an unplugged programming activity. Then we used it to develop pre-service teachers’ CT skills and investigate their opinions about using this game in their future teaching. This game serves as an additional tool that can be employed to integrate CT and mathematics education creatively and engagingly. In this study, we investigate the possibilities of using this game to develop the pre-service teachers’ CT skills and explore their opinion about using it in their future teaching. This study is modeled by a Type 1 instructional product design and development study. Twenty-two pre-service mathematics teachers participated in this study. The study was conducted in four phases: explanation of the game, theoretical CT, practical CT, and pre-service teachers as task creators. Data were collected using a questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results showed that the participants found the activity interesting, enjoyable, and useful for - c · M. Tejera · E. Schmidthaler · Z. Lavicza B. Andi´ School of Education, Department of STEM Education, Johannes Kepler University, Science Park 5, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria e-mail: [email protected] M. Tejera e-mail: [email protected] E. Schmidthaler e-mail: [email protected] Z. Lavicza e-mail: [email protected] F. Mumcu (B) Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies, Manisa Celal Bayar University, 45900 Demirci/Manisa, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_15

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teaching. It was also found that the activity promoted collaboration and increased pre-service teachers’ confidence in problem-solving. The study provides insight into using unplugged programming and the Poly-Universe game to integrate CT principles into mathematics education. Keywords Unplugged programming · Computational Thinking (CT) · Mathematics education · Pre-service teachers · Poly-Universe

1 Introduction Computational thinking (CT) has several definitions in the literature. Wing [43] defined CT as solving problems, designing systems, and understanding human behavior using basic computer science concepts. We need to develop students’ CT skills, considered one of the 21st-century skills. All disciplines are increasingly becoming computing. Tang et al. [38], Fagerlund et al. [10], Acevedo-Borrega et al. [1], based on a detailed review of the literature, point to the following benefits of using CT in teaching: 1. CT develops students’ critical thinking, which is very important for analyzing information and problems 2. CT contributes to the development of creative and sustainable problem solving 3. CT contributes to better understanding and proper and creative use of digital technologies 4. CT encourages teamwork and communication between students. However, these researchers also indicate that to fully utilize the benefits of CT in the field of education, it is necessary to intensify research in this area. In this paper, we aim to contribute to the knowledge in this area by examining the opinions of pre-service mathematics teachers about the unplugged programming activity. Because computer science and mathematics education intersect at many points, mathematics education provides a natural environment for integrating CT. In this study, an unplugged programming activity was designed, developed, and implemented. The results were evaluated to serve as an example of how CT can be integrated into mathematics education. This study investigates the possibilities of how a CT-oriented game may advance the pre-service teachers’ general competencies and explore their opinion about using CT in their future teaching.

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2 Conceptual Framework 2.1 Computational Thinking Until recently, CT was seen as a skill that only certain specialties such as computer scientists, engineers, and software developers should possess. Today, CT serves as one of the basic skills that everyone should have from early childhood onwards. This change in the discourse on CT was triggered by Wing’s studies in 2006 and 2011. Wing [43] emphasizes that CT is a skill for everyone, not only for those interested in computer science. CT is a problem-solving skill that includes, supports, and develops dispositions or attitudes such as having confidence in dealing with complexity, working with complex problems, being tolerant of ambiguity, dealing with open-ended problems, working collaboratively, and communicating [17, p. 13]. Papert’s [26] idea that children should learn computer programming, based on Piaget’s theories of cognitive development, was ahead of its time but was not as famous as Wing’s CT for all motto. Resnick et al. [28] attribute this to the difficulty of using and learning early programming languages, the use of activities not linked to children’s interests or experiences, and the lack of people to guide them when things go wrong or motivate them when things go right. There are many definitions of CT in the literature [39]. Studies on CT operationalize CT as a combination of programming concepts and theorize their interventions but do not define the meaning of CT or clearly distinguish between CT and programming [9]. Aho [2, pp. 834–835], a well-known computer science researcher, defines CT as “Mathematical abstractions called models of computation are at the heart of computation and computational thinking. Computation is a process that is defined in terms of an underlying model of computation and CT is the thought processes involved in formulating problems so their solutions can be represented as computational steps and algorithms”. In addition, Bocconi identifies six core CT skills: “abstraction, algorithmic thinking, automation, decomposition, debugging, and generalization” [5, p.7]. Although there is no consensus on the definition of CT, the increase in CT research and the attempts of many countries to incorporate CT into their curricula are surprising [12, 34]. While CT as a stand-alone compulsory subject such as science or mathematics remains a matter of debate, it is argued that science and mathematics offer natural contexts for integrating CT [42]. Although Papert initially associated programming with mathematics, he argued it would facilitate thinking and learning in many disciplines [26]. Barr and Stephenson [4] emphasize that CT is applicable not only in computer science but also in various disciplines such as mathematics, science, and humanities. Each discipline produces a system of thinking that reflects the discipline’s epistemology [19]. For example, while mathematical thinking is prominent in mathematics education and scientific inquiry for science, the question of how CT can be taught or developed in different disciplines is worth answering. In general, CT studies are still in their infancy. The main topics of CT research are activities that promote CT in the curriculum (unplugged or plugged) [18]. Integrating

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CT into different disciplines through unplugged and plugged programming activities is also essential in making CT concrete. Block-based, text-based, and physical programming activities are used under plugged activities. Block-based programming (BBP) is considered to be the beginning of plugged activities. Although blockbased applications are frequently used to introduce children to basic CT skills from preschool onwards, little is known about the educational value of these applications [35]. BBP, with its open-ended approach and flexible design, is beneficial in that it encourages students to build knowledge through discussion, exploration, and experimentation [11]. However, although BBP is frequently used at K-12 and undergraduate levels, it is unclear how to define and operationalize what to teach, learn, and assess about CT [10, 11]. While BBP tools (e.g., Scratch, Google Blockly) are widely used for plugged activities, more research is needed on unplugged programming tools. Looking at methodological strategies in CT research, unplugged programming activities are primarily preferred in early childhood education [1]. Unplugged programming activities are a good starting point for teaching CT to individuals of all ages with no CT experience. If CT is to become a common skill taught in schools and universities, more research is needed to evaluate the potential of unplugged programming activities. How to teach CT skills and the quality of students’ understanding of CT are research issues we need to address. The inclusion of CT in elementary mathematics classrooms is characterized by activities that focus on skills (mainly sequencing, looping, conditionals, debugging, decomposition, and abstraction) and activities that focus on process-oriented activities (communication, creativity, exploration, and engagement) [25]. More research is needed on process-oriented activities and their use in accelerated mathematics [25]. Therefore, this study developed an unplugged programming activity by focusing on both process-oriented activities and skills.

2.2 Unplugged Programming Activities in Mathematics Education According to [15, p. 84], unplugged activities refer to the teaching of computer science (CS) or CT concepts without using computers. This method of unplugged programming considerably means learning CT and CS concepts without depending on computational appliances, as stated by [3]. Unplugged CS activities, which involve learning CS concepts without programming, can be fun and foster CT in students [41]. Based on the literature review, Hickmott et al. [14] indicate that there is a large amount of research in which the possibilities of applying CT in mathematics teaching are examined. These researchers also indicate that the most significant number of studies that encourage the application of CT in mathematics come from experts in the field of informatics and that most of these studies deal with programming rather than mathematical concepts. In line with this, they point to a greater need for research into

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the application of CT in mathematics teaching, where more attention will be paid to mathematical concepts. Kallia et al. [19] based on a more detailed review of the literature indicate that CT for application in mathematics teaching should have the following three essential elements: problem-solving, cognitive processes, and transposition. The same authors indicate that considering CT in mathematics education should emphasize the following aspects: abstraction, decomposition, pattern recognition, algorithmic thinking, modeling, logical thinking, and automation, followed by analytical thinking, generalization, and evaluation of solutions and strategies. Sun et al. [37] conducted experimental research in which 93 high school students participated. The students were divided into three groups, two experimental and one control. In experimental groups, students learned mathematical concepts using unplugged programming. Based on the results, these researchers indicate that connecting mathematical concepts with CT can significantly contribute to students’ proficiency in CT skills. Still, this influence is not reflected in the process of unrelated programming activities. In all the above-mentioned studies, the researchers indicate the need for additional research on integrating CT into mathematics teaching. In a study with 540 Finnish teachers, Niemelä et al. [24] explored the possibilities for integrating CT into the mathematics curriculum using the feedback provided by the teachers after a course on CT. As a result of the study, they designed a hypothetical learning trajectory for CT in mathematics education. They concluded that teachers’ attention was mainly on the pedagogical aspects of integrating CT and mathematics. Another noteworthy example of efforts to integrate CT into mathematics education can be found in Uruguay, where Plan Ceibal has developed a series of materials to incorporate both plugged and unplugged programming activities into various mathematics topics but also use CT as a vehicle to teach mathematics [6]. These materials provide educators with a comprehensive guide on integrating CT skills such as abstraction, decomposition, and algorithmic thinking into their mathematics lessons while enhancing students’ understanding of mathematical concepts. While the effectiveness of these materials has yet to be studied in depth, the initiative demonstrates the potential of combining unplugged and plugged activities to foster a deeper understanding of CT in mathematics education. It provides teachers with valuable resources for integrating CT into their curricula. Kotsopoulos et al. [20] state the following advantages of using unplugged programming: . It increases students’ ability to solve complex problems. . It increases opportunities for students to practically apply the acquired skills in everyday life. . It increases the use of manipulatives and manipulative actions in a learning process. . Students better understand different computer processes. The following section will explore an example of the educational game—PolyUniverse. We used it to develop pre-service teachers’ CT skills and investigate their

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opinions about using this game in their future teaching. This game serves as an additional tool that can be employed to integrate CT and mathematics education creatively and engagingly.

2.3 Poly-Universe Poly-Universe is an educational game designed by Hungarian artist Janos SaxonSzasz. The game is designed by combining three basic shapes (circle, square, and triangle) and four colors (green, blue, red, and yellow). The game set consists of three sets: one set of circles, one set of squares, and one set of triangles. Each set has 24 combinations of shapes and colors, as shown in Fig. 1. So, the entire set of the Poly-Universe game consists of 72 parts. In addition to the analog form of the game, Saxon [31] emphasizes that with the help of GeoGeogebra, it is possible to create interactive programs for the creation and further consideration (such as a 3D extension) of spatial-geometric components that reflect the characteristics of the Poly-Universe. This author emphasizes that this way of using the game would enable the use of the game physically and in an online environment. The combination of different shapes, colors, and connections between the elements of the game makes it suitable for use in the classroom. For example, based on experimental research, Stettner and Emese [36] conclude that this game is suitable for developing combinatorial, problem-solving, and creative thinking in mathematics education. Téglási [40] points out that with an appropriate and welldesigned pedagogical background, the Poly-Universe game can be successfully used in various areas of mathematics education, such as geometry, combinatorics, fractions, and the like. In addition to its use in mathematics, several studies confirm the

Fig. 1 Representation of the square set and examples of all shapes and elements of the PolyUniverse game [21]

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applicability of this game in biology and physical education. For example, based on a study involving fifty-six high school students, Schmidthaler et al. [33] show that the Poly-Universe game can be successfully integrated into the curriculum and objectives of biology and physical education classes. In another study with 80 Austrian secondary school students, results show that the Poly-Universe game promotes cooperation among students in biology, and digital and physical education classes and contributes to the development of a pleasant atmosphere in the classroom. Schmidthaler et al. [32] believe that this game can be successfully used in secondary schools in various subjects to promote CT, collaboration among students, and the development of students’ digital skills. The possibility of using this game is also evidenced by the fact that the development of teaching materials in which this game is used in the classroom has been supported twice by the European Commission within the framework of two Erasmus Plus projects, the first for the development of materials for students and the second for the development of materials for teachers in education and training [40]. As one of the results of these projects, a teacher’s manual was developed, presenting and describing examples of the use of this game in the teaching of science, mathematics, languages, and art.

3 Method Research should focus on designing, developing, and evaluating instructional products and programs, as well as studying design processes and tools [29]. Developmental research is divided into two categories: Type 1 and Type 2 [29]. Type 1 studies focus on a given instructional product, while Type 2 studies focus on a given design, development, or evaluation model or process. This study is modeled by a Type 1 instructional product design and development study. Developmental research differs from design-based and traditional research but can be prescriptive and meet practitioners’ needs. Research on design and development looks at specific steps in the process and how design efforts affect the development process [30].

3.1 Participants Twenty-two undergraduate students, who are pre-service mathematics teachers at Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria, participated in this study. All pre-service teachers participated in this study voluntarily, and the workshop was held twice as a part of the other subjects taught. Of the 22 participants, 14 were female and eight were male. The purpose of the study was explained to all participants before data collection, and anonymity was guaranteed.

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3.2 Design and Implementation of the Activity The unplugged programming activity developed examples of using the Poly-Universe game. In this research, unplugged programming activity was applied in the following phases: 1. Phase: In explaining the Poly-Universe game, in this phase, the pre-service teachers were shown the game, its components, and examples of good practices of how this game can be used in the mathematics classroom. 2. Phase: In the theoretical part of the CT, the pre-service teachers were provided with information and examples to reflect on CT integration in the classroom in the current literature: unplugged, tinkering, making, and remixing. 3. Phase: In the practical part of the CT, the pre-service teachers were given specific tasks to solve using the Poly-Universe game and CT—three examples of the tasks that the pre-service teachers solved are listed below. 4. Phase: The pre-service teachers as task creators: In this part, the pre-service teachers were guided to create examples using CT and the Poly-Universe game. Many CT approaches and CT concepts will be promoted and improved on the basis of the three mathematical tasks. In the first CT task example, the pre-service teachers were given instructions on the worksheet to make figures from the individual tiles of the Poly-Universe game. In this example, it was clear to the pre-service teachers that there could be more than one correct solution for the same task. An example of a worksheet for one pre-service teacher is shown in Fig. 2a, while the solution for this task is shown in Fig. 2b. As part of the second, more advanced CT task, the pre-service teachers were given the figures assembled by the Poly-Universe game and then they wrote the "code" describing the figures according to the instructions on the worksheet. An example of a figure is shown in Fig. 3b, the worksheet in Fig. 3a, and the solution in Fig. 3c. The third advanced task example was similar to the others, but instead of a figure, the participating students were given the codes and the rules, and they

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2 An example of an introductory task a and a solution b for playing the Poly-Universe Game in unplugged programming

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(a)

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(b)

(c)

Fig. 3 Example of application of Poly-Universe game in unplugged programming

were supposed to create a figure with the tiles of the Poly-Universe game. By tinkering, creating, preserving, collaborating, debugging, and problem-solving (CT approaches), a participant’s logic, evaluation, abstraction, generalization, pattern recognition, decomposition, and algorithmic thinking (CT concepts) were promoted. Taking into account that the participants in this research were pre-service mathematical teachers when designing the activity, the aim was to demonstrate exercises that were stated in previous research [15, 19, 22] to contribute to the development of mathematical skills such as logic, geometry, combinatorics, discrete mathematics— matrices, and cryptography. Overall, the activities were designed so that transposition computational thinking might be useful for enhancing mathematical thinking and reasoning in mathematics education.

3.3 Data Collection and Analysis The researchers prepared a questionnaire for the participants at the end of the activity. The questionnaire consisted of 18 questions in total. Table 1 shows the themes and questions used for data collection in this research. The questionnaire consisted of questions about the participants’ opinions on whether they found the activity interesting and fun (5 items), their opinions on whether the activity supported collaboration (4 items), their confidence in solving the problems they encountered while performing the activity (4 items), and their opinions on whether they found the activity beneficial for their teaching (5 items). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. In addition, four open-ended questions were asked in the questionnaire, and the pre-service teachers’ opinions about the activity were asked. The qualitative data were analyzed thematically to explain quantitative data.

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256 Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the questionnaire Theme

Questions

Activity

Q1

I enjoyed doing this activity very much

This activity was fun to do 22

4.32

1.041

*This course did not hold my attention at all

22

3.09

1.743

Q4

I would describe this 22 activity as very interesting

4.27

0.827

Q5

I thought this activity was quite enjoyable

22

4.27

0.883

22

4.07

0.560

Q6

Collaborative learning in my group was effective

22

3.50

1.185

Q7

I felt part of a learning community in my group

22

4.18

0.853

Q8

I actively exchanged my 22 ideas with group members

3.86

1.082

Q9

I was able to develop new 22 skills and knowledge from other members in my group

2.86

1.207

22

3.60

0.785

Q10

When participating in projects, I felt safe

22

4.32

1.171

Q11

I wasn’t afraid to make a mistake

22

2.05

1.327

Q12

I easily corrected the mistakes I made

22

4.50

1.058

Q13

*I was anxious while working on this activity

22

3.55

1.819

22

3.60

0.662

Total Benefit

Sd. 0.796

Q2

Total Confidence

Mean 4.41

Q3

Total Collaboration

N 22

Q14

I believe this activity/ course could be of some value to me

22

3.77

1.152

Q15

I think doing this course is 22 useful for becoming a better teacher

4.09

1.019

Q16

I think this is important to 22 do because it can develop my pedagogical skills

4.36

0.727

Q17

I think doing this activity could help me to be more creative in teaching

4.14

0.834

22

(continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Questions

Theme

Q18

I believe doing this activity could benefit me

Total

N

Mean

Sd.

22

4.14

0.990

22

4.10

0.783

* These

items are negative. Data were reverse-coded before analysis, and then analyses were conducted

4 Findings and Discussion The pre-service teachers’ opinions about the activity were analyzed under activity, collaboration, confidence, and benefit. In Table 1, descriptive statistics of the data obtained from the questionnaire are given.

4.1 The Pre-service Teachers’ Opinions on the Activity According to the participants, the pre-service teachers generally found the activity fun and interesting. However, the event needed to attract the participants’ attention stronger. Unplugged programming activities are uncommon in traditional classrooms, so this situation should be examined from many angles (Fig. 4). In line with the findings obtained from the qualitative data, the topics that preservice teachers liked the most about the activity are as follows: (1) Having fun, (2) Providing the opportunity to work collaboratively with peers, (3), Providing experience in hands-on activities, (4) Gamification of mathematics learning, (5) Presenting an innovative approach to mathematics education, (6) Providing interdisciplinary working opportunities, and (7) Allowing dealing with difficulties. Regarding qualitative data, some of the perceptions of the pre-service teachers are as follows:

Activity 5.00

4.41

4.32

4.27

4.00

3.09

3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 Q1

Q2

Fig. 4 Participants’ opinions on the activity

Q3

Q4

Q5

4.27

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Playing games and building shapes and patterns can be a great way to learn and apply mathematical concepts while having fun and creatively engaging with the material. I found that incorporating games, shapes, and patterns into the course curriculum was an innovative and effective way to approach mathematical concepts. These visual and interactive elements helped me visualize abstract ideas and grasp the underlying principles more intuitively. It was a challenging undertaking but also incredibly rewarding as we were able to create something innovative and impactful together. In the project, we connect biology, math, coding, and the game amazing.

Our results, as well as the teachers’ narratives mentioned above, provide additional support to previous research [15, 19, 22] that computational thinking activities can contribute to the development of students’ mathematical skills such as logic, geometry, combinatorics, and mathematical thinking and reasoning. Some pre-service teachers emphasized that the activity contributes to interdisciplinary work: “The challenge of creating something new and interdisciplinary can be both exciting and rewarding as it is in this game.” Mumcu et al. [23] argue that CT provides an integrative framework for interdisciplinary teaching and learning. The suggestions of the pre-service teachers for the development of the activity can be summarized as follows: (1) Development of the game for digital environments— especially in a virtual reality environment, as the game consists of 2D shapes, (2) Developing some permanent rules, (3) Having some flexible shapes, and (4) Using more colors.

4.2 The Pre-service Teachers’ Opinions on Collaboration When the pre-service teachers’ opinions concerning the CT approach “collaboration” are examined, they think the activity supports collaboration. However, effectiveness in acquiring new skills and knowledge from other group members remained weak. Our results are similar to the previous results of Barr and Stephenson [4], which indicate that the application of CT contributes to collaborative learning between students (Fig. 5).

4.3 The Pre-service Teachers’ Opinions on Dealing with Problems (Problem-Solving and Debugging) The pre-service teachers’ opinions about easily solving the problems they encounter during the activity and feeling safe are quite positive. However, they were afraid of making mistakes during the activity and felt anxiety while working on the activity. Precautions can be taken on these issues, considering the pre-service teachers’ experience before participating in such activities and their awareness of unplugged programming (Fig. 6).

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Collaboration 5.00 4.00

4.18

3.86

3.50

2.86

3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 Q6

Q7

Q8

Q9

Fig. 5 Participants’ opinions on whether the activity supported collaboration

Confidence 5.00

4.50

4.32

4.00

3.55

3.00 2.05 2.00 1.00 0.00 Q10

Q11

Q12

Q13

Fig. 6 Participants’ opinions on their confidence in solving the problems during the activity

Most of the pre-service teachers stated that they did not have difficulty in the activity. A pre-service teacher said, “I did not have any difficulties”. The subjects that a few of the pre-service teachers have difficulty with the activity are as follows: (1) Loudness of the environment due to group interactions, (2) Feeling lost while doing the activity because the rules are too flexible, and (3) Inability to understand the relevance of the activity to mathematics and science at the beginning of the process due to the lack of such experience before. The opinion of a pre-service teacher is provided as an example: “At first, I did not know how to use Poly-universe for coding, and I thought there was no possibility that this game could be used for coding and teaching biology. However, later on, I developed a more creative approach in the team. Initially, I needed more creativity in identifying potential applications for Poly-universe and struggled to conceptualize its broader possibilities.”

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260

Benefit 5.00 4.00

4.09

3.77

4.36

4.14

4.14

3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 Q14

Q15

Q16

Q17

Q18

Fig. 7 Participants’ perceptions of benefits of the activity

4.4 The Pre-service Teachers’ Perceptions of Benefits of the Activity The pre-service teachers found the activity beneficial in becoming better teachers, developing their pedagogical skills, being creative in their teaching, and personal benefit. Our results support the results obtained by Curzon et al. [7], which indicate that teachers find unplugged programming beneficial for teaching (Fig. 7). Pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the benefits of the activity can be summarized as follows: (1) Presenting something in an interesting way, (2) Supporting communication, creativity, and critical thinking, (3) Increasing cooperation and engagement, (4) Using games for unplugged programming, and (5) Providing awareness that unplugged programming can be used in every discipline. One of the pre-service teachers stated: “This activity can be applied to any field of study or domain of knowledge and can be used to enhance learning experiences by making the activity more enjoyable and engaging”. The results obtained in our research agree with the results of previous studies [8, 13, 22], which indicate that computer thinking can contribute to general creative and problem-solving skills, which specifically relates to the application of these skills in mathematics teaching. However, in those above-mentioned studies, it is stated that additional research is needed that will additionally examine the contribution of the application of computational thinking to the learning outcomes and skills of students of different ages before giving definitive recommendations for final application in the classroom. Our study also provides recommendations in this direction, suggesting that research is necessary primarily on the training of in-service teachers and pre-service teachers on the topic of using computational thinking in the classroom, considering that teachers are one of the main links for the application of this approach in teaching.

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5 Conclusion and Limitations This study aims to contribute knowledge about using unplugged programming to promote CT in teaching mathematics. Twenty-two pre-service mathematics teachers participated in the research. The Poly-Universe educational game was a teaching tool for unplugged programming. The pre-service teachers were presented with different ways and possibilities for applying Poly-Universe educational games in unplugged programming to promote CT. The study results indicate that the pre-service teachers found this activity interesting, engaging, and enjoyable. The activity developed a collaborative way of learning between the pre-service teachers. The pre-service teachers expressed that such unplugged programming activities can help integrate CT into their future classes. They also stated that the activity contributed to their selfconfidence in solving the problems they encountered during the activity implementation. By valuing diverse approaches to CT, such as digital or traditional methods, we can create a classroom that fosters students’ exploration and implementation of CT [3]. One of the main areas for improvement in this study is that the pre-service mathematics teachers did not develop lesson scenarios for applying the Poly-Universe educational game to promote CT in teaching mathematics. To fully see and explore the benefits of applying this approach in teaching mathematics, future research should deal with this problem.

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Design of an Adaptive Hybrid Gamification Teaching Method and Its Practice in Computer Science and Animation Teaching Xiaozhu Wang , Li Wang , Shengzhuo Liu , and Paul Adams

Abstract Gamification is recognized as a creative tool in education, particularly in the online environment, with the potential to enhance the motivation and performance of students. However, the challenges it presents are becoming increasingly evident. By examining recent research and practice, this paper proposes an adaptive hybrid gamification teaching method, which adaptively adjusts game difficulty levels based on the knowledge and learning behavior of online learning students. A hybrid game teaching strategy integrating competition, cooperation, reward, and other elements was developed, and the learning process was recorded and evaluated. Students’ situational cognitive experience, collaborative social experience, and motivation-based proactive experience were comprehensively considered. Through the teaching experiment, it was concluded that this method can adjust the game difficulty adaptively according to the students’ learning basis, reduce the cognitive load, obtain a good flow experience, effectively alleviate the low immersion of online education, and improve the students’ participation in online course learning. Keywords Gamification · Distance education · Online learning · Adaptive learning · Animation

X. Wang (B) · L. Wang The Open University of China, Beijing 100039, China e-mail: [email protected] S. Liu College of Computer Science and Mathematics, Fujian University of Technology, Fuzhou 350118, China P. Adams Department of Media, Communication and Journalism, California State University, Fresno, CA 93740-8029, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. Dascalu et al. (eds.), Smart Learning Ecosystems as Engines of the Green and Digital Transition, Advances in Sustainability Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5540-4_16

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1 Introduction Online education refers to the way that teachers and students interact on various teaching platforms and terminal devices based on the Internet. The advent of “Internet + ” and the era of artificial intelligence have promoted the vigorous development of online education, but at the same time, the problems faced by online education are increasingly obvious, mainly reflected in the following aspects: compared with traditional face-to-face education, the sense of presence in teaching, society, and cognition is relatively weak [1]; in the online environment, students have poor self-control and difficulty in focusing their attention for a long time, resulting in low participation in teacher–student interaction and student–student interaction [2]. Weak teaching immersion causes weak learning motivation and poor learning effect; students’ emotional sense of distance and loneliness easily leads to poor cognitive ability and subjectivity development and so on. At present, many scholars and institutions have made great progress in the study of online education, which has greatly alleviated some prominent problems in online education. The research content [3] is mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, it is the continuous updating of technical means, and the continuous updating of electronic devices and software platform environment. Virtual Reality (VR) devices are electronic devices that are used in a variety of applications, including gaming, education, health care, and training simulations, and the emergence of software platforms such as a CDB learning network, Tencent Conference, and cloud platform. Secondly, it is the supplement of various teaching resources, such as fiveminute micro classes, video projects, live classes, and e-books. Finally, it is the update of teaching methods, such as flipped classroom design, learning-centered guide design, leapfrog teaching, and other teaching designs. These methods effectively promote the teaching effect of online education and improve the teaching quality but have little effect on stimulating students’ subjective initiative and cognitive ability. Merlin C. Wittrock, the famous American psychologist, proposed that the improvement of students’ subjective initiative in the generative learning model can greatly improve the learning effect. How to improve students’ subjective initiative requires the guidance of effective teaching strategies, and the great effect is the gamification teaching method [4]. Many research results also show that the gamification teaching method can increase flow experience and stimulate students’ subjective initiative [5]. If the game is too difficult or too easy, the flow experience will be hindered. Flow experience will only occur when the game’s cognitive load matches the learner’s receptivity [6]. Flow theory suggests that people love games because they create flow experiences. Flow experience promotes learning motivation and knowledge absorption. Flow experience is closely related to cognitive load [7]. Flow experiences occur when the cognitive load of the game matches the learner’s receptivity. In other words, if game design is difficult for learners’ own experience and level, learners will have cognitive load and become frustrated with game learning. If the game design is relatively simple, the learners will not be interested in the game, and the game learning will be boring.

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According to a recent study that conducted a within-subject experiment on the behavioral, cognitive, and emotional pathways of learning engagement in a gamified management course, the results indicated that gamified sessions led to significantly higher levels of both behavioral and emotional engagement. However, there were no statistically significant changes in learners’ cognitive engagement [8]. Some researchers pointed out that students who participated in the gamified system had significantly higher performance compared to those who engaged in the nongamified, traditional teaching method. And, there was a positive correlation between students’ engagement in online learning activities and their course performance [9]. In addition, there is research indicating that the students in the gamification-enhanced flipped learning group produced higher quality works in the pre-class thinking activities compared to the non-gamified flipped learning group. Additionally, they scored significantly higher on the post-course test compared to their non-gamified counterparts [10]. Previous research has explored how to increase user engagement and retention in gamified education by examining factors such as the user’s game experience, the level of game difficulty, and the reward system [11]. Some researchers aim to uncover the reasons why gamification can make learning enjoyable. Previous studies have shown that using gamification in education can enhance student interest and engagement by providing immediate feedback, rewards, and a sense of achievement [12]. Using gamification as a teaching method can improve students’ participation, interest, and self-efficacy, as well as enhance their motivation to learn. Increased learning motivation and satisfaction can encourage students to actively participate in learning [13]. By introducing gamification, students’ academic performance can be improved. Additionally, gamification can create a positive learning environment, making the learning process more enjoyable [14]. Also, some scholars have cautioned that certain gamification techniques should be applied in educational settings with care, and their long-term effects on students must be carefully considered [15]. On the whole, at the present stage, a large number of research results based on game teaching are mostly aimed at primary and middle school students, and there is little research on gamified teaching focusing on the characteristics of online education and adult education students [16]. Therefore, the gamification teaching design of adult education students is one of the key issues in current research. With this in mind, aiming at the characteristics of distance education students with large differences in learning basis and diversified learning needs, this paper proposes an adaptive hybrid gamification teaching method, which adopts adaptive game strategies and sets hybrid game rules to enhance the sense of immersion and substitution in learning. In addition to further stimulating students’ subjective initiative, improving students’ cognitive ability, and promoting their subjective development, the game difficulty can be adjusted adaptively according to students’ learning abilities, reducing cognitive load and achieving a good flow experience.

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2 Adaptive Hybrid Gamification Teaching Method Model Immersion in gamified learning is a key factor affecting learning motivation and learning effect, and a good flow experience occurs when learners’ own level is closely consistent with the difficulty of the game. Therefore, in order to enhance immersion in gamified learning and flow experience, and improve learners’ learning motivation and subjective initiative, this paper explains an adaptive hybrid gamification instructional design model, as shown in Fig. 1. The teaching method design model consists of three stages. Firstly, the model evaluates students’ learning basis by analyzing their personal data, ability test results, and responses to a questionnaire survey. Based on the evaluation, students are classified into three levels: low level, intermediate level, and high level. Next, students engage in single-player and collaborative games. The single-player game aims to help students acquire unit knowledge, and students can interact with teachers to seek assistance during the game. The collaborative game is designed to cultivate students’ collaborative learning skills, which are developed through interactions between teachers and students. After students clear each level, they receive medals and credits. Then teachers will evaluate what students have learned and give them suggestions for future study. Teachers also will make improvements in the game design and methods based on teaching objectives. This model aims to enhance students’ learning experience by tailoring the teaching approach to their individual needs and abilities. In the learning process, students acquire cognitive experience through their interaction with the environment, social experience through collaboration with others, and active experience based on their motivation. Gamified learning environments that utilize virtual interactions can facilitate this process by creating game links

Fig. 1 Design model of adaptive hybrid gamification teaching method

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that are applicable to real-life scenarios. By teaching games, students can gain a better understanding of the environment and construct knowledge by integrating their personal experiences with the game information. This approach enables the formation of abstract concepts, leading to context-based cognitive experiences that enhance the learning process. Through the hybrid game of battle and collaboration, students can get guidance and cooperation from teachers and classmates to complete interaction and obtain social experience based on collaboration. Finally, on My Medal Wall, students can learn about learning outcomes and promote learning behaviors such as engagement and reflection. Positive learning feedback will enhance students’ subjective learning attitude and their attention and interest, and then train them to form the habit of observation and reflection, promote the development of subjective initiative and personal growth, and achieve the effect of active experience based on motivation. Teachers are game designers, guides, supporters, and improvers. In the game design process, the teacher extracts knowledge points according to the teaching objectives and syllabuses, and integrates them into the game process. This enables students to enjoy the fun of the game to increase their motivation to learn and absorb the lesson. In the game process, teachers guide students to complete the game, help them understand the lesson content, stimulate their subjective initiative, cultivate their cognitive ability, and help them develop subjectivity. After the completion of the game, teachers should evaluate the lesson in terms of the students’ performance, record the learning process of the game, evaluate the students’ behavior, and improve the teaching.

3 Design and Analysis of Adaptive Hybrid Gamification Teaching Methods According to students’ different foundations and learning needs, we designed hybrid gamification teaching methods for different difficulties and obtained corresponding learning behaviors and card points through the game. Finally, we obtained course grades and evaluated the learning process according to the game behaviors and Medals (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Medals

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3.1 Basic Evaluation Basic evaluation adopts various ways to assess learners’ comprehensive abilities. Students in distance education vary greatly in their individual locations and equipment. They also differ greatly in their knowledge, the amount of time they have for learning, their personalities, and other characteristics. Therefore, the game setting should match the individual learner’s ability. Only appropriate game difficulty can best promote learners’ flow experience in the learning process and obtain better learning results. Three modules—personal data, ability test, and questionnaire survey—are used to carry out the basic evaluation of learners. Firstly, to learn about learning motivation, concentration, and ability to observe and understand things through personal data, we conduct a preliminary evaluation of learners, and then obtain their professional basic level and IT operation ability through an ability test. Finally, we obtain their personality characteristics, expression ability, and collaboration ability through the questionnaire survey, and synthesize the module data to obtain the final evaluation results. This helps to determine the students’ game progress and game difficulty. The characteristics of distance education students are mainly reflected in the strong learning purpose, strong social participation, flexible learning time, and large differences in professional basic ability. Thus, lessons should be short, precise, and accurate in the design of guidance and knowledge points, focus on collaborative discussion, and promote mutual learning in the game link. They also should be diverse in the design of game progress.

3.2 Teaching Objectives Are Closely Combined with Game Objectives The purpose of the game is to promote efficient learning of knowledge among students, by facilitating teaching. Game design should not be separated from learning objectives. It is not advisable to play games only and ignore knowledge acquisition. Game design should be closely integrated with teaching objectives. First of all, sort out the teaching aims and important points of the course. Then extract the key points and link them to the most appropriate game activities. Take the Computer Network course as an example, as shown in Fig. 3. The goal of the game is to master the knowledge of the course (to understand computer network equipment and its function) or the operation ability of the network equipment (to configure the router). The learning content involves a lot of theoretical knowledge, which can be extracted from technical terms and computer network concepts—all translated into game points. The game is designed for single-player and multiplayer games, such as the "Flop Game,” to deepen the mastery and understanding of professional terms. There are homework questions on the back of the cards; students randomly select a card for testing. The multiplayer game is conducted in the way of knowledge contests, such as “you draw my guess” and “I, Masters of Island.” The “I, Masters of Island”

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Fig. 3 Gamification course framework

divides students into two teams to answer questions about the network equipment and its functions in life. Playing these two kinds of games not only deepens the grasp of concepts but also creates an active online learning atmosphere, which is conducive to promoting mutual understanding between students.

3.3 Application Scenario for Adaptive Hybrid Gamification Teaching Method Here is an application scenario for the adaptive hybrid gamification teaching method in the context of animation-related education. This scenario utilizes both online and offline elements and serves to validate the effectiveness and adaptability of our teaching method. The online component is mainly used for game-based introductions and theoretical instruction, while practical teaching emphasizes hands-on experience. In the gamebased introduction segment, teachers can choose game scenarios relevant to the subject matter and use information technology to seamlessly integrate the game introduction into the animation production process. For the theoretical instruction segment, the game process can be cleverly integrated with theoretical knowledge, simplifying complex aspects such as story script design, scene design, and object motion laws, thus increasing students’ interest and engagement. For the practical teaching segment, games from the introduction and theoretical segments can be used to design practical tasks, thereby enhancing the efficiency of teaching and learning. There are two main blended learning modes: (1) Some students participate online while others participate offline. During the game-based introduction and theoretical instruction period, all students participate online. During the practical period, students in the offline environment complete

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their tasks locally and are supervised by the teacher, while those in the online environment continue their tasks online. Due to differences in the learning environment, this mode raises issues regarding the level of supervision and the resulting differences in learning outcomes. Therefore, an online learning supervision mechanism is designed with multiple feedback nodes to track the learning progress of each student. At each feedback node, the student’s progress, including text, numerical data, and screenshots, is sent to the teacher’s control interface. By monitoring this progress, the teacher can have a complete view of all online students’ learning processes just like in offline environments. (2) All students are in an offline environment, but the teaching environment is deployed remotely due to copyright or usage constraints. In this mode, game-based introductions and theoretical instruction are conducted online, while practical tasks can be completed either online or offline. The advantage of this mode is that the online environment can be used across multiple institutions, reducing development and procurement costs while improving system efficiency. Additionally, online environments can be staffed with more experienced teachers, bridging any gaps in teaching abilities across different institutions. Separating theoretical instruction from practical instruction allows offline teachers to focus on practical teaching.

4 Analysis of Adaptive Hybrid Gamification Teaching Methods The traditional online teaching method displays the course resources in the way of listing the contents. Students first learn the learning guide and then use it to study and test according to the particular chapter. They finally obtain credits according to their learning behavior and test results [17]. This paper compares the method with traditional online teaching methods from five aspects: student characteristics, learning process guidance, teaching resource design, learning experience, and learning evaluation. The teaching method presented in this paper exhibits several distinguishing features. Firstly, it utilizes students’ foundational evaluation results to determine the starting point of the game, catering to individual learning needs, and ensuring an adaptive match between cognitive load and acceptance ability, thereby promoting the generation of flow experience. Additionally, the teaching content is seamlessly integrated with the game, incorporating various game elements such as competition, cooperation, reward, and punishment mechanisms to stimulate and sustain students’ interest in learning, ultimately resulting in a highly engaging learning experience. Furthermore, leaderboards, medal walls, learning process records, and evaluations are used to encourage learning and reflection among students. Overall, this approach offers a comprehensive and effective framework for achieving optimal learning outcomes. This paper’s method is suitable for many students, providing a better learning experience and more ways to evaluate learning. However, for the same course, the gamification instructional design method needs to put more energy into

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Table 1 Comparison of teaching methods

Student characteristics

Adaptive hybrid gamification teaching method

Traditional online teaching method

The scope is large, including students with large basic differences; adjust the difficulty of the game adaptively

Suitable for a class of students with similar basic abilities

Learning process guidance The learning process is embedded in the game process to reduce students’ learning burden for additional content

Students are required to use text or video to carry out the learning process and master the learning progress

Teaching resource design

Teaching resources are mainly It can integrate all kinds of micro, short, and precise, teaching resources extracting knowledge points and integrating them with games

Learning experience

It is immersive, interesting, competitive, and challenging

The degree of immersion, interest, competition, and challenge is poor

Evaluation of learning

Leaderboards, medal walls, learning behaviors, teacher evaluations, etc.

Learning behavior and teacher evaluation

the construction [18], and make the construction cycle longer. If the course content is updated quickly, there are shortcomings such as a low reusable utilization rate of construction resources and poor scalability (Table 1).

5 Teaching Experiment and Result Analysis From September 2021 to July 2022, the gamification teaching practice was explored in the Learning Center of Experimental School, Open University. About 427 students chose the “gamification” modified online course for learning. In order to better verify that the gamification mechanism can not only further stimulate students’ subjective initiative, improve students’ cognitive ability, and promote the development of subjectivity but also carry out adaptive adjustment of game difficulty according to students’ learning basis, we have taken the quality of homework completed by students as the key points of assessment and designed two kinds of experiments: One was a basic comparison experiment and the other was a value-added comparison experiment. Because the biggest problem in online learning is low student participation and poor homework completion, the experiment mainly compared the overall homework completion rate, homework completion rate on time, average homework scores, and average comprehensive homework scores from four dimensions.

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5.1 Basic Comparative Experiment Experimental subjects Experimental group: 427 students enrolled in the Experimental School of The Open University of China, who study in hybrid gamification online course environment. Control group: 520 students enrolled in the Hubei Branch (Note: According to the statistical data of 2020 and 2021, Hubei College was the branch with the best implementation of the form examination among the 44 branches), who study in regular online courses. Experimental results The course team made a summary and statistics of the daily assignments and the final projects submitted by the two groups of students (a total of 947 students), and compared the completion rate of the work, the quality of the work, and the quality of the final works in accordance with the requirements of teaching units. The details are as follows. Overall job completion rate and on-time job completion rate: The overall completion rate of the reference group was 55%, and the completion rate on time was 51%; compared with the experimental group, the overall completion rate was 71% and the on-time completion rate was 68%. Average homework scores and large assignments scores: The average homework score of the reference group was 65.3, and the large assignments score was 55.8; compared with the experimental group, the average homework score was 70.1 and the large assignments score was 66.3. Result analysis According to Figs. 4 and 5, the scores of students in the experimental group were higher than those in the control group in the four comparison dimensions. Most of the students in the experimental group could complete the homework well and the learning effect was greatly improved.

5.2 Value-Added Comparative Experiment Value-added experiment description In the process of gamification practice teaching, new game element variables are constantly introduced to determine whether they can test the significance of the preceding variables, so as to judge whether these elements can produce positive effects; at the same time, the experimental results can also be used to test the results of the questionnaire mentioned above.

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Fig. 4 Comparison results between overall job completion rate and on-time job completion rate

Fig. 5 Comparison results between average homework scores and large assignments scores

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Experimental subjects Of the 427 students who participated in the experiment, 70 were selected to carry out the value-added experiment, and the rest of the students were selected as a control group of this experiment. Value-added content Week 1: Add virtual credits. Week 3: Card exchange mechanism. Week 8: Digital Course Certificate. Compare dimensions Average homework score Average score for large assignments Value-added comparative analysis method The Effect Size method was used to test the results of the value-added comparison experiment. The combined standard deviation of the two groups: S2 =

(n 1 − 1)S12 + (n 2 − 1)S22 (n 1 + n 2 − n 3 )

(1)

Average score of value-added group: M1 Average score of control group: M2 Effect size : e =

M2 − M1 S

(2)

Experimental results Average homework score (Table 2). Average score for final assignments (Table 3).

Table 2 Comparison results of the average homework score

Table 3 Comparison results of average scores of major assignments

Increases the game elements

Effect size

The virtual integral

0.55

Card exchange mechanism

0.20

Increases the game elements

Effect size

Certificate in digital courses

0.71

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Result analysis From the above results, we can find that after the introduction of game elements such as virtual score and digital course certificate, the effect size of both the experiment group and the control group is more than 0.5. The average of the two groups is significantly different, which indicates that most students are more interested in these two game elements, and the learning feedback effect is significant.

6 Conclusion A large number of theoretical and practical studies on gamification teaching suggest that gamification teaching is related to flow experience and cognitive load, but only when the difficulty of the game matches the learner’s own ability can he or she obtain a better learning experience. Aiming at the characteristics of students’ learning needs in open education, this paper proposes an adaptive hybrid gamification teaching method, which can adapt to adjust the difficulty of games, record and evaluate the game process, and comprehensively consider students’ situational cognitive experience, collaborative social experience, and motivation-based proactive experience. This method adopts the adaptive hybrid game teaching method to stimulate students’ subjective initiative as a means to achieve the fundamental purpose of cultivating students’ knowledge acquisition, improving their cognitive ability, and promoting their subject development. The design of adaptive hybrid gamification teaching methods can help alleviate the problems of weak presence and low participation in online education, and also provide an important reference for the development of gamification teaching. The proposed adaptive hybrid gamification teaching method also provides a new direction for the study of distance education and lifelong education games. Acknowledgements This study was sponsored by the Engineering Research Center of Integration and Application of Digital Learning Technology, Ministry of Education in November 2022. The project “The Use of Digital Technology in Open Education: An International Perspective” (No. 1221011) received funding from the center. We are deeply appreciative of this funding, and we would like to express our gratitude to the China Adult Education Association for its support. The funding covered this project, “Innovative Research on the Remote Education Talent of Film and Animation Major—From the Perspective of National Cultural Inheritance (2021-312Y).” Declaration of Conflicting Interests The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, or publication of this article.

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