Small Finds from ed-Dur, Umm al-Gaiwain, U.A.E.: Late 1st Cent. Bce to Early 2nd Cent. Ce (The University of Ghent South-East Arabian Archaeological ... Umm al-Gaiwain, United Arab Emirates, 4) 9789042944275, 9789042944282, 9042944277

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The University of Ghent South-East Arabian Archaeological Project Excavations at ed-Dur (Umm al-Qaiwain, United Arab Emirates)

Vol. IV

SMALL FINDS FROM ED-DUR, UMM AL-QAIWAIN, U.A.E. (LATE 1ST CENT. BCE TO EARLY 2ND CENT. CE) by

Ernie Haerinck (†), Bruno Overlaet, An De Waele and Parsival Delrue Edited by Bruno Overlaet

PEETERS LEUVEN 2021

EXCAVATIONS AT ED-DUR (UMM AL-QAIWAIN, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES) VOL. IV: SMALL FINDS FROM ED-DUR, UMM AL-QAIWAIN, U.A.E. (LATE 1ST CENT. BCE TO EARLY 2ND CENT. CE)

The University of Ghent South-East Arabian Archaeological Project Excavations at ed-Dur (Umm al-Qaiwain, United Arab Emirates)

Vol. IV SMALL FINDS FROM ED-DUR, UMM AL-QAIWAIN, U.A.E. (LATE 1ST CENT. BCE TO EARLY 2ND CENT. CE) by

Ernie Haerinck (†), Bruno Overlaet, An De Waele and Parsival Delrue Edited by Bruno Overlaet

PEETERS LEUVEN 2021

© 2021 - Peeters - Bondgenotenlaan 153 - B-3000 Leuven-Belgium D/2021/0602/129 ISBN 978-90-429-4427-5 eISBN 978-90-429-4428-2 A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or translated in any form without written permission from the publisher.

TABLE OF CONTENTS In Memory – Ernie HAERINCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction: ed-Dur and the archaeology of SE-Arabia The small finds from the Belgian excavations at ed-Dur A. Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Copper-base alloy objects . . . . . . . . C. Iron objects . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Lead objects . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Silver objects . . . . . . . . . . . F. Gold objects . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Bone/ivory objects . . . . . . . . . . I. Stone objects . . . . . . . . . . . . J. Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K. Shell and coral. . . . . . . . . . . . L. Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Plaster decorations . . . . . . . . . .

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IX

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. . 5 . . . . . . . . . . 23 . . . . . . . . . . 43 . . . . . . . . . . 57 . . . . . . . . . . 63 . . . . . . . . . . 65 . . . . . . . . . . 67 . . . . . . . . . . 93 . . . . . . . . . . 107 . . . . . . . . . . 131 . . . . . . . . . . 149 . . . . . . . . . . 153 . . . . . . . . . . 167

List of objects by area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

169

Plates List of Black-and-white plates Black-and-white plates . . . List of Colour plates . . . Colour plates . . . . . .

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237 243 397 399

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

419

Project support and Contact info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

441

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in memory Ernie HAERINCK (20 June 1949 – 5 October 2016)

Prof. Dr. Ernie Haerinck directed the Belgian excavations at ed-Dur from the beginning of the project in 1986 until the end of the field work in 1995. Afterwards, he returned many times to the site and to the Emirates, to study finds, give lectures and to work at other locations such as Muweilah, Kalba and Mleiha. During his last visit in April 2016 he gave an interview at the ed-Dur temple for a National Geographic Documentary on the History of the Emirates; it was only months before he passed away. Without question, Ernie Haerinck was the authority on ed-Dur and he always encouraged colleagues and students to do research on “his” site. He invited specialists for the study of the faunal remains (Wim Van Neer & Achilles Gautier), for the human remains (Pamela Stone), for mineralogical and phytolith sherd analysis (Paul De Paepe & Luc Vrydaghs) and glass (David Whitehouse, Patrick Degryse & Becky Scott). As a full-time University Professor at Ghent in Belgium, he offered his best students the opportunity to gain their first hands-on excavation experience and to focus their research on ed-Dur material. Katrien De Corte wrote her MA on the stone beads in 1994 and three of his trainees completed a PhD on ed-Dur finds. Katrien Rutten worked on the pottery assemblage (2006), An De Waele on the small finds (2008) and Parsival Delrue focused on archaeometallurgy (2008). The results from their research are incorporated in the present volume. Ernie Haerinck always recognized the importance of publishing final reports. He invited the late David Whitehouse, at the time director of the Corning Glass Museum, to write the first final report on the glass finds (1998) while he himself compiled reports on the tombs (2001) and the temple (2011). He was well advanced on what had to be the fourth and last final report on the small finds when he passed away after a short but aggressive disease. The present volume retains the concept of his manuscript and completes the series of final reports on the Belgian share in the international ed-Dur project. His biography and list of publications: In Memoriam Ernie Haerinck – Biography and Bibliography. Iranica Antiqua LII, 2017: VII-XXIII. (doi: 10.2143/IA.52.0.3269013)

INTRODUCTION: ED-DUR AND THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF SE-ARABIA The site of ed-Dur is located on the lagoon of Khor al-Beidah in the Emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain and it appears to have been the main harbour between Qatar and the Strait of Hormuz from ca. 50/25 BCE to ca. 125/150 CE. Some occupation was also present on Ghallah Island in the lagoon, but the main settlement was located behind a high dune that provided shelter from the elements. It is a large site, covering several square kilometres and had fortified buildings, ephemeral habitations, a graveyard and a temple. It is often referred to as a “single period” site since there is hardly any stratigraphy and its occupation dates from a culturally uniform period. Nevertheless, some earlier and later presence is still attested at the site. Archaeological remains were first noticed at ed-Dur during the construction of a highway along the coastline. An Iraqi team directed by T.A. Madhloom explored the site in 1973/74 and excavated a fortress (Salman 1974: m-n, pl. 12a; al-Qaisy 1975). A few years later, in 1980/81, J.-F. Salles surveyed ed-Dur and collected surface pottery (Salles 1984). The site became well

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known by locals and ex-pats who were interested in the archaeology of the UAE and some of them regularly walked the site, sometimes with a metal detector, looking for archaeological remains and picking up stray finds. Of special interest among these early discoveries are several coin hoards and a unique bronze bowl of Levantine Iron Age inspiration (Haerinck 1998a: 278; 1998b; Overlaet & Yule 2018). When plans were made in 1986 to create an airport and the site was likely to be lost, Shirley Kay, the wife of the British Consul at Dubai, alerted Remy Boucharlat to the threat. As director of the French archaeological team working at Mleiha in neighbouring Emirate Sharjah, he contacted his colleagues at Gent University (Ernie Haerinck), Aarhus University (Dan Potts) and University College London (Carl Phillips). It was the start of a joined international project on ed-Dur. The very same year, they visited the site and with the support of Umm al Qaiwain’s ruler, H.H. Shaikh Rashid bin Ahmad al-Mu’alla, excavations started in the spring of 1987. Each of the four teams excavated in turn during one or two months. The Belgian excavations lasted for 9 years, from 1987 until 1995; all the Belgian campaigns were directed by Ernie Haerinck. Until the 1980s, few had realised the importance of SE-Arabia during what was simply referred to as the Hellenistic and Partho-Sasanian periods, a direct reference to the dominant political powers in neighbouring parts of the Near East. Following the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran and the expulsion of international research teams, however, there was a rush of archaeologists to the Arabian coast of the Gulf. It was this unexpected fall-out of the international political tensions that radically changed the understanding of the region’s past. Excavations at ed-Dur, Mleiha, Dibba and other sites in the Oman Peninsula revealed a remarkably uniform culture in the UAE and the Northern part of the Sultanate of Oman from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The region had its own coinage and maintained intense international trade connections. Michel Mouton introduced the label Pré-Islamique Récent (PIR) or Late Pre-Islamic in his innovative 1992 dissertation on the archaeology of the Oman Peninsula (Mouton 2008). His work was primarily based on the ongoing excavations at ed-Dur and Mleiha. Research has since continued but many uncertainties regarding the local chronology, the political organisation and the cultural identity of the region still remain. Period

Phase

PIR phase Mouton & Cuny 2012

Time-Span

Early Mleiha Phase Early/Mid 3rd – Mid/Late 1st Century BCE Mleiha Period

Sasanid Period

Ed-Dur Phase

Mid/Late 1st Century BCE – Early 2nd Century CE 2nd

3rd

Late Mleiha Phase

Early/Mid

Post-Mleiha Phase

Mid/Late 3rd Century – 7th Century CE

Century CE – Mid

Century CE

A B C D E

The first centuries of the PIR or Mleiha period are mainly documented by the excavations at the inland site of Mleiha, hence the label Early Mleiha Phase. The site was strategically placed halfway between the coasts of the Persian/Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Habitations, workshops and an extensive graveyard with a series of monumental tombs were among the main discoveries. Although the tombs were all plundered, what remains of the burial goods attests to the site’s strong commercial connections with Southern Arabia, the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, India and Iran. Remarkable are e.g. the large number of Rhodian wine amphora that turned up at the site (Overlaet, Monsieur, Jasim & Yousif 2019). A bilingual funerary inscription discovered in 2015 revealed that there was a “King of Oman” at the end of the 3rd century BCE (Overlaet, Macdonald & Stein 2016). In all likelihood, it was the authority behind the SE-Arabian coins that bear the throne name Abiel, “my father is god” (Macdonald 2010: 438, 444). It seems the territory of the UAE and the northern part of the Sultanate of Oman was a kingdom as early as the 3rd century BCE.

INTRODUCTION: ED-DUR AND THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF SE-ARABIA

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As far as we know, there were no significant (harbour) activities during the Early Mleiha phase at ed-Dur, but there may have been at Tell Abraq. The settlement at Tell Abraq, about 5 km from the site of ed-Dur, was once located close to a sabkha and a now silted part of the lagoon. Mleiha period constructions are present around the tell but they remain to be investigated. The ed-Dur excavations provided data on a distinct timespan from 50/25 BCE to 125/150 CE; it is the type site for this specific phase. The material of the Belgian excavations and particularly the discovery of an exceptionally well-preserved temple was elementary and the phase discussed in Mouton’s dissertation as “PIR C” is therefore also referred to as the “ed-Dur phase”. At Mleiha, this phase is documented by settlement areas, individual and communal tombs and by reused Early Mleiha phase tombs. The expansion of ed-Dur from the second half of the 1st century BCE onwards is linked to the rise to power of the South Mesopotamian kingdom of Characene (Haerinck 1998; Callot 2010: 393). This Parthian client kingdom came to dominate the Gulf’s sea trade; it was along the sea routes that the bulk of trade goods then arrived in the Oman peninsula. Shipping routes may have replaced or upscaled the traditional camel caravans. Coastal sites such as ed-Dur on the West coast and Sohar and Dibba on the East coast developed into stopovers on the international trade routes. Ed-Dur relied strongly on the Characene connection and subsequently lost its importance when the wars of the Roman emperor Trajan (116/117 CE) ended the dominant position of this Mesopotamian trade partner. There remained a reduced presence at ed-Dur in the later part of the 2nd and in the 3rd/4th centuries CE (Late Mleiha phase or PIR D) (Lecomte 1993; Mouton & Cuny 2012) but the main information on this timespan derives from a fort and a fortified manor at Mleiha. This site’s prosperity ended in the 3rd century CE when it was apparently deserted on short notice, given the unusually large amount of luxurious and valuable goods left behind. The so-called “palace”, a fortified manor at Mleiha, was besieged and burned down. This event more or less coincides with the rise to power of the Sasanian dynasty in Iran and Mesopotamia but it remains unclear who the assailants at Mleiha actually were. The Sasanians aspired to monopolise the longdistance trade routes between the Far East and the Mediterranean and as early as 262 CE, the Sasanian king Shapur I lists the Arabian territories in his trilingual Res gestae divi Saporis inscription at Naqs-i Rustam as part of his dominions. Whether Sasanian control, be it direct or indirect, ever extended beyond the coastal areas, however, is highly improbable (Mouton & Cuny 2012; al-Jahwari et al. 2018: 724-725). The historical names of ed-Dur, Mleiha and other sites in the Oman Peninsula remain unknown; local written sources are extremely rare (Stein 2019). The above mentioned late 3rd century BCE funerary inscription from Mleiha mentions a “King of Oman” but it is difficult to know the exact significance of the name “Oman”. It is only in first century CE classical sources that “Oman” is indisputably used as a geographical name. Both the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Voyage around the Erythraean Sea) and Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis Historia (Natural History) refer to “Omana” as a shipping destination. Ed-Dur is a likely candidate for Omana, since it is the only known harbour of importance on the Arabian side of the Gulf, and since it has its heydays in the first century CE (Potts 1988: 152-155; 1990, ii: 306-310, 316-317; Salles 1993: 509-511). Other sites have also been suggested, however; e.g. Sohar and Dibba on the Gulf of Oman coastline (Jasim 2006: 236; Jasim & Yousif 2014: 74). Whitehouse first suggested the Omana of the classical sources need not necessarily be a single place (Whitehouse 1998: 68). It could very well refer to a region or to both a settlement and a harbour like it was the case for Muza and Gerrha (Groom 1994: 201). Ship’s pilots may have used the name Omana for any destination on the Peninsula; it may have referred to Mleiha, probably the capital of the region’s kingdom, and to any of its harbours along its coasts (Overlaet, Macdonald & Stein 2016: 139-140).

A. COINS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Abiel and the Arabian coinage. General observations on the local SE-Arabian coins. The ed-Dur coin finds. Metrology, die axes and local economy. Chemical and microstructural analyses – production methods. Classification of the coin assemblage. Catalogue. a. Arabian coinage. Obols n° 1-12 (Pl. 4) Drachms n° 13-14 (Pl. 4) Drachms n° 15-17 (Pl. 4-5) Drachms n° 18-20, tetradrachm n° 21 (Pl. 5) and obols n° 36-37, 40-45 (Pl. 6) Tetradrachm n° 22 (Pl. 5) Tetradrachm n° 23 (Pl. 5) Obols n° 24-33 (Pl. 6) Obols n° 34-35 (Pl. 6) Obols n° 38-39 (Pl. 6), drachms n° 52-56 (Pl. 7) Obols n° 46-49 (Pl. 6) Obol n° 50 (Pl. 6) Obol n° 51 (Pl. 6) Tetradrachms n° 57-61 (Pl. 7-8) Tetradrachms n° 62-73 (Pl. 8-10) Tetradrachms n° 74-79, drachms 80-85, obols n° 86-103 (Pl. 11-13) Tetradrachms n° 104-105 (Pl. 14) Coins n° 114-117 (Pl. 16) b. Foreign coins n° 106-113 (Pl. 15-16). c. Ingot n° 118 (Pl. 16).

---------A total of 117 coins were found, 8 of these are of foreign origin while 109 others (61 obols, 20 drachms and 28 tetradrachms) can be considered as indigenous to SE-Arabia. An important series of contributions have been published on NE- and SE-Arabian coinage in the last decades, yet many questions still remain on the identity of the local rulers, the chronology and the significance of the iconography (see e.g. Arnold-Biucchi 1991; Potts 1991a, 1994 & 2010; Haerinck 1998b & 2008; Mitchiner 2004; Callot 2004 & 2010; Huth & Van Alfen 2010; Macdonald 2010; Van Alfen 2010). 1. ABIEL

AND THE

ARABIAN COINAGE

When Alexander the Great imposed his reign over the Near East in the late 4th cent. BCE, he created a vast empire that reached to Central Asia and the Indus River but it failed to include the Arabian Peninsula. His premature death in 323 BCE had prevented him from bringing Arabia within his realm. Nevertheless, Alexander and his successors had a massive influence on ancient Arabia.

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The Seleucids were well aware of the important role of Arabia in the international trade but since the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf was at the periphery of their empire, it largely escaped the direct Seleucid territorial expansion. In the 3rd cent. BCE the Seleucids had a fragile presence in the very north of the Gulf. This Seleucid presence on the border of their territory prompted local Arab rulers to demonstrate their own identity and authority. One way to do so was issuing coins, imitations of Alexander coinage and of early Seleucid issues of the Alexander type, seemed most appropriate. They presumably started their issues somewhere in the 3rd cent. BCE, maybe simultaneously in NE- and SE-Arabia, but this remains a point of discussion. By initially copying the iconography and the name of Alexander in Greek and by adding the name of their main god (Shams/Shamash) or the S-Arabian shin (s2), they created their own distinct coinage. On some issues Alexander’s name was replaced by the name of the local ruler in Hasaitic script with S-Arabian letters or in Aramaic. During some four centuries many coin issues in a variety of styles were produced in Arabia.

Fig. A-1. Coins found by the Belgian expedition and details of the bird, horse protome and full horse on the right arm of the seated figure (details 1, 23 and 64 not to scale). (for n° identifications, see list infra)

Abiel (‘b’l / ‘by’l) is one of the most common names written on NE- & SE-Arabian coins. The etymological meaning is to be understood as “my father is god” (Macdonald 2010: 438, 444). Possibly he or she was a charismatic ruler or founder of a dynasty, but for the moment this cannot be ascertained. In fact, much about these coins remains problematic, the mints, their chronology, the identity of the rulers… Archaeology has unfortunately been of little use to establish the chronology. Most coins are known from collections and have no ascertained archaeological provenance. The

A. COINS

7

main sites in SE-Arabia, such as Mleiha and ed-Dur, did provide excavated coins but for the most part, these sites do not have a clear stratigraphy. Both sites display a mainly horizontal distribution of archaeological features. Only a few stratified coins are reported from Mleiha (Callot 1997: 18-19; Mouton 2008: 264-266, Pl. 9-10; Mery & Mouton 2011: 110 bottom row Area H). In view of this, the coins from the ed-Dur excavations are of particular importance because the site as a whole is well dated. The finds illustrate the later phase of the SE-Arabian coin production. Michael Macdonald and Peter Van Alfen published in 2010 a detailed study on the Abiel coins. While Macdonald approached the coins from an epigraphic point of view, Van Alfen concentrated on the study of the dies. Macdonald classified the coins in four “Epigraphic traditions”, comprising six groups (A to F). Amongst these groups he distinguished three groups with a vertical “two-name” Abiel (A, B and C), one group (D) with a vertical “one-name” Abiel, one (E) with circumference two-name Abiel and finally one group (F) with circumference one-name Abiel. His epigraphic tradition 1 consists of groups A and B. Tradition 2 is represented by several subgroups of coins of group D, while tradition 3 is made up of coins of several other subgroups of group D. Finally, his tradition 4 comprises groups E and F. Furthermore, among the two-names issues providing a patronym or matronym there are some that suggest that at least 4 female rulers must have existed (Macdonald 2010: 410-415). Coins of three of these rulers were found so far only in the central area of Eastern Arabia, while coins of the fourth one, with the text ‘by’l brt Bgln or “Abiel daughter of Baglan”, are up to now only reported from Mleiha in SE-Arabia. As such, it seems there were two regions with rulers using the name Abiel, only differentiated by their respective patronym/matronym. The existence of female rulers is not exceptional, nor is the fact that different rulers could have had the same name (Macdonald 2010: 413-414, 444). Macdonald suggested that since several rulers used the name Abiel followed by their father’s or mother’s name, Abiel can be interpreted as a dynasticor throne-name that became a sign of authority (Macdonald 2010: 437-438). It would not have been relevant whether this was a man’s or a woman’s name, the ruler assumed it on accession regardless of his/her given name or gender. The existence of contemporary rulers using the name Abiel, “my father is god”, in the central region of the Arabian shores of the Gulf, somewhere in the area of Bahrain and in NE-Arabia should for the moment not be excluded. It would simply indicate the presence of separate political units. We should keep in mind that Mleiha knew its heydays particularly in the 3rd to 1st cent. BCE (Early Mleiha or PIR A/B phase), when monumental tombs were constructed and western objects, such as Greek black glazed pottery and Rhodian amphorae (Monsieur et al. 2013; Overlaet et al. 2019), reached the city. At that time Mleiha was an important centre in the trans-Arabian overland trade and the port at ed-Dur was not yet the vast harbour site it would become at the end of the 1st century BCE. The discovery in 2015 of a bilingual Aramaic – Hasaitic funerary inscription indicated that there was a “king” in SE-Arabia who probably resided at Mleiha and claimed the title “King of Uman”. Uman in the inscription could either be the name of the city or the region in general. It does not reveal either whether this ruler was a man or a woman. The tomb and its inscription are dated to the late 3rd cent. BCE (Overlaet, De Prez & Pincé 2018; Overlaet, Macdonald & Stein 2016). Unfortunately, the name of the ruler is not mentioned, it could be an Abiel, maybe even the female ruler ‘b’l brt Bgln mentioned on silver coins reportedly found at Mleiha (Potts 1994: Class S2; Haerinck 1999). On this particular type of coin, a close Alexander imitation, the seated person on the reverse holds an eagle as on the Greek issues instead of a horse protome or a full horse. However, the coins have no Greek legend but an Aramaic one. There is no date palm nor anchor/trident shown in the field. This type of coin is attributed by several scholars to

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the latest decennia of the 3rd cent. or early 2nd cent. BCE (Potts 1994: 81-83: Class S2; Haerinck 1999; Haerinck 2008; Callot 2004: 27-28, 121; Callot 2010; Van Alfen 2010: 564, 567, numismatic style 16 and Macdonald’s epigraphic tradition 4, group E: two-name Abiel). 2. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

ON THE LOCAL

SE-ARABIAN COINS

The coastal settlement of ed-Dur is a late 1st cent. BCE-1st/early 2nd cent. CE site where mainly the late issues with one-name vertical Abiel name were excavated, besides (maybe earlier coins or coins which were produced over a period spanning several centuries) issues with a vertical S-Arabian shin (s2). Some foreign coins were found as well, which is not surprising for a harbour site. In general D.T. Potts’ classification system for NE- and SE-Arabian coins is used (Potts 1991a & 1994), although a certain identification was not always possible (particularly in the case of obols). Potts classified the coins on a typological basis and distinguished some sixty subcategories. He assigned them to two different traditions according to their find-places: a NE-Arabian one (mainly coins found at sites such as Thaj, Hofuf and Jebel Kenzan) and a SE-Arabian one, the latter mainly known from Mleiha and ed-Dur. The earliest issues probably date to the 3rd cent. BCE and the latest ones were likely minted in the 1st cent. CE or slightly later and possibly stayed for some time in circulation. Other classifications were proposed by scholars such as Michael Mitchiner (2004) and Olivier Callot (2010). Michael Macdonald (2010) and Peter Van Alfen (2010) took a new approach. As stated supra, Macdonald focused on epigraphic and not on stylistic characteristics and proposed four epigraphic traditions, while Van Alfen presented a detailed die study with twenty numismatic styles based on non-epigraphic evidence. In the long production period of more than 300 years there seems to be a general tendency towards a greater simplification of the original design. This phenomenon goes seemingly together with a reduction in weight and most likely of a loss of metal quality from silver towards billon. All scholars seem to agree that one can distinguish early and late series. The coins found at ed-Dur belong mostly to the late issues, probably to be dated from the middle or late 1st cent. BCE to the late 1st cent. CE, or eventually slightly later. Some could be earlier. There are basically two large groups in the ed-Dur assemblage: the obols with vertical South-Arabian shin (ca. 10%), and the Abiel coins of the protome (ca. 10%) or full horse series (ca. 70%). 3. THE ED-DUR COIN

FINDS

Amateur archaeologists, working with metal detectors during their Friday outings found quite a number of coins at ed-Dur. Based on the known collections, the excavated coins presented here may represent only some 15 to 20% of those found at ed-Dur. Coins, particularly the small obols, are difficult to distinguish in the fine desert sand while excavating. At some point, it was decided to use a metal detector and revisit the excavation dumps; it proved to be successful. Whereas all the sand from the tombs had systematically been sieved from the very beginning of the project making sure that no coins had been missed, this had not been possible with the sand of the occupational areas due to the massive amount. By using a metal detector on the dumps from these occupation areas we salvaged metal items that had escaped attention, including a number of coins. The vast majority of these coins are the so-called Abiel issues. Unfortunately, the contexts in which these coins were found do not

A. COINS

9

provide much information. Of the 117 coins, 48 were found in occupation layers (5 tetradrachms on the mud floor UF 6712 in area BS, see ed-Dur III: 23) and 69 were surface finds or come from the dumps. Eleven coins were unearthed around the temple in area M, there were none inside the temple. These coins include 3 obols and 3 drachms, as well as 3 foreign coins (one Ujjain: M 82; one Hadrami: M 81 and one possibly Imperial Greek from the Mediterranean: M 80) (ed-Dur III: 10, Pl. 57). Two tetradrachms, M 63 and M 64, both of Potts’ Class XLVIIIa (1991a & 1994), were found near the large fireplace, East of the temple. Coin M 64 was badly damaged by the heat of the fire. Six coins come from inside plundered tombs and 2 from their exterior. Five obols were found in plundered graves: area N tombs 1, 5 & 19 (ed-Dur II: Pl. 11 n° 2, Pl. 16 n° 8 & Pl. 56 n° 12) and area BQ tombs 5 & 12 (ed-Dur II: Pl. 239 n° 1 & Pl. 247 n° 2), and one drachm comes from area BQ tomb 16 (ed-Dur II: Pl. 251 n° 1). One obol and one tetradrachm were found in the outer rectangular entrance of the large tomb of area AV. Thirteen unplundered tombs (including the large tomb in area AV) were discovered but only one obol was found in the burial chamber of the largely unplundered area AV vaulted tomb G 5156 (ed-Dur II: Pl. 100 & 129 n° 79). The other graves contained no coins, though the vast majority were tombs for infants with only two tombs probably for adults. It is thus impossible to conclude that it was common practice to provide the dead with a coin (mostly placed in or on the mouth), a custom known in the Greek and Roman West. On Bahrain a coin or a bead was sometimes placed in the mouth of the deceased during the Tylos period (Hellenistic/Parthian periods) (Herling 2003: 298). It does not seem to have been a common practice in SE-Arabia. The coins collected by amateurs, mainly using metal detectors, were mostly stray finds, but at least three hoards have been reported. Two of these were found in jars on the surface or in the subsurface and each contained 38 coins (Potts 1991a: 79, 97-101). A third hoard seems to have counted some 40 coins. 4. METROLOGY,

DIE AXES AND LOCAL ECONOMY

Amongst the excavated local coins, we can distinguish tetradrachms, drachms and obols. Although the Arabian coins follow more or less the Attic weight standard, corrosion and subsequent cleaning have in most cases resulted in a loss of weight. The catalogue lists the weight after cleaning and, when available, also the weight as found. There is quite some weight difference between the maximum and the minimum for the three denominations. The following table presents the metrology of the coins found by the Belgian team. DENOMINATION

(28) DRACHM (20) OBOL (61)

TETRADRACHM

ED-DUR

ORIGINAL

ATTIC STANDARD 17.2 g 4.25 g 0.72 g

AVERAGE

14.8 g 3.6 g 0.8 g

MEAN

15.0 g 3.7 g 0.9 g

MAXIMUM

17.4 g 4.0 g 1.1 g

MINIMUM

13.2 g 2.9 g 0.4 g

Van Alfen made a study of the dies and the metrology of the Abiel coins in various collections and concluded that die axes appear to be random (Van Alfen 2010: 558-562). He suggested, though with some caution, that due to the decreasing silver content in the late SE-Arabian Abiel coins there was an overvaluation on their intrinsic silver value. This may explain their absence

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in other regions. Although the SE-Arabians must have been well aware of the fact that their coins were not appreciated beyond their borders, they remained an important political statement and could still be used in the local economy. Following Van Alfen, this would indicate that there existed a well-established monetization in the local economic system. In how far these coins were used in the SE-Arabian economy is difficult to judge, however, since there is a lack of written sources. The evidence is faint and we may wonder if barter had not remained the dominant system in commercial transactions. Do the 800 to 1000 coins known from Mleiha and ed-Dur (covering some 350 or more years at Mleiha, and some 150 years at ed-Dur) indicate that this was a thoroughly monetized society? Many coins may have been melted down but still the number seems low for such a long period. During the Early Mleiha phase, prior to the mid 1st cent. BCE, the Abiel coins were probably all produced at Mleiha. During the heydays of ed-Dur, when the later coin series were produced, there may have been a mint at ed-Dur as well, but this can at present not be ascertained. 5. CHEMICAL AND MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSES –

PRODUCTION METHODS

Until recently, little research had been done on the composition of Arabian coins. Seven coins from Mleiha were analysed by XRF, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (Boucharlat & Drieux 1991: 113-114; Mouton 2008: 271-272) and 8 more by PIXE/PIGME, proton induced X-ray/ gamma-ray emission (Bird & Potts 1996). However, Delrue (2006b; 2008: 317-361) was able to analyse 101 coins, all from the Belgian excavations at ed-Dur. The analyses were performed with SEM-EDX (scanning electron microscope – energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer). In order to do so, a small portion of the rim was polished to expose corrosion-free metal. Only silver, copper, tin and lead were retained for elemental analysis. Gold and zinc were not detected. Tin was present only in a limited number of coins but in fairly low weight percentages. Lead values were almost all below 2 wt%, with an average of 1.6 wt% and it thus seems that lead was not intentionally added. Some coins (all obols of Potts’ Class XLVII-2) contain a considerable amount of iron (Delrue 2008: 341, 571-573). It is certain that specific alloy compositions were used for certain classes. Copper and silver (billon) are the two major components of all coins, but there is a great variation in the silver/ copper ratios (Delrue 2006b; 2008: 318, fig. 90 & 571-573). All silver coins contained at least a fraction of copper. In general, obols contain much more silver and the tetradrachms more copper. The drachms are somewhere in the middle as to silver content but with one group with a higher concentration. Lead was most probably not intentionally added and tin was present only in a small number of coins, but always in coins with a relatively low silver content. Not one tin-bronze coin was attested. Delrue observed that the different classes as defined by Potts are mirrored in the compositional data. Coins belonging to a particular class do have a similar chemical composition, as well as the coins struck with the same die. He presented several boxplots illustrating the different classes and the differences in weight range but more importantly the range in silver content. Furthermore, a deliberate process of surface silver enrichment, pickling or depletion silvering, particularly on coins with lower silver levels was observed (Delrue 2006b: 87-89; 2008: 327-337). This created a silver-rich surface on a baser copper-base alloy core. The remains of a silver skin are clearly visible on AV 23 (coin n° 63). It was also observed that the coins were probably hot-struck; there were no indications for coin casting (Delrue 2006b; 2008: 337-340, 354-357). However, this question could not be fully addressed since only one tetradrachm (Pl. 10 n° 71, BR 106) could be analysed by sectioning. The analysis of its microstructure points to hot striking after having been cold worked for

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11

the flattening of the cast blank (Delrue 2008: 333-340, 361, 456). Most of the coins do have a slightly convex-concave shape with the edge of the reverse side often raised. The slightly convex obverse side indicates that the hero’s head was engraved in the anvil die. The fact that they were struck is also indicated by the rather frequent fractures and cracks on the edges of the coins, as well as by the deformed microstructure observed under the microscope. Such fractures can occur when a blank is cold as well as hot struck. These observations raise questions on the coin mould fragments found at Mleiha. A casting mould for the obverse of tetradrachms was found by workmen digging trenches for water-pipes in Mleiha area CW. It later turned out to be the location of a large fortified building (“Fort CW”; Boucharlat & Drieux 1991: 110-113; Mouton 2008: 268, fig. 152). The mould depicts the Heracles head in the style of the late series coins. Fragments of a reverse side mould with the seated person holding a horse were found during the excavations of the building (Mouton, Mokaddem & Garczynski 1997: 38-39, fig. 26; Benoist, Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003: 66). However, both mould fragments were for separate series since their coin diameter was different, so at least two casting moulds to produce Abiel coins once existed. All known coins appear to be die-struck, however, and it was suggested these moulds may have been used to produce fakes (Delrue 2008: 337-340, 361, 456; Van Alfen 2010: 559). This would be strange given the fact that these mould fragments were found in what seems to be the site’s most important building of the late Mleiha phase. Whether for genuine or counterfeit coins, cast Abiel coins obviously existed in the late Mleiha phase but they remain to be discovered. 6. CLASSIFICATION

OF THE COIN ASSEMBLAGE

The vast majority of the coins were modelled after Alexander the Great’s coinage showing the head of Heracles wearing the pelt of the Nemean lion on the obverse and a seated person holding a staff on the reverse. On Alexander’s coins this enthroned person represents Zeus but on the Arabian coins he was most likely seen as the solar deity Shams/Shamash (Robin 1974). Alexander’s name written in Greek was replaced by an Aramaic legend which is sometimes misspelled or even illegible. These coins are imitations, or imitations of imitations, of Alexander’s coins. Obols and drachms are quite often a good grade silver while silver tetradrachms (the oldest ones?) are very rare since most tetradrachms were made of billon (an alloy of silver and copper with variable percentages). Characteristic for SE-Arabian issues is the fact that, except for a few issues, Greek writing is rarely used (Potts 1994: Classes L & LI) (e.g. Pl. 5 n° 22), Aramaicent is preferred. The seated person can hold a bird (eagle?), a horse protome (probably a rhyton) or a fully depicted horse on his outstretched right arm. Both the eagle and the horse can be interpreted as symbols of the sun-god Shams/Shamash (Haerinck 1994b: 408-411). The eagle, the horse protome and finally the full horse issues probably stand for a chronological evolution but this is hard to prove since different coin issues could have been minted simultaneously and coins may have stayed in circulation over a long time. The horse protome is a representation of a rhyton, it can clearly be distinguished on some coins (Fig. A-1). When present, the lapidary or cursive Aramaic legend with the name Abiel of three or four letters is often defective or illegible. Abiel issues represent some 70% of the ed-Dur coin finds. Besides ed-Dur and Mleiha where the vast majority of coins originated, another seven coins of which certainly two with the complete horse (the others being too decayed to distinguish)

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were excavated at Dibba on Sharjah’s East coast (Jasim & Yousif 2014: 69, 73, fig. 43 n° 1-4), and at Tawian/Tawyeen in the northern mountains of Fujairah Emirate, to the west of Dibba (Haerinck 2008: 65). Coins of the complete horse type are very exceptionally found outside SE-Arabia. A few coins are reported from excavations at Khor Rori, ancient Sumhuram in SE-Oman, some 20 km to the North of Salalah (Sedov 2008: 302) and one is a stray find from al-’Atqiyah/al-Nedj in Central Oman (Yule 2016: fig. 29); another one in a collection is said to be from Sialkot in Pakistan (Mitchiner 2004: 507, 512). One could suggest that the date palm and the trident/anchor are iconographic details that refer to the respective sites of Mleiha and ed-Dur (Haerinck 2008: 75). They may refer to the main economic activities at both sites which seem to have been part of a single political entity (Overlaet, Macdonald & Stein 2016: 139-140). The palm tree is shown on the coins with horse protome and the full horse, but not on the eagle issues of SE Arabia (it can also appear on some issues that are probably from NE-Arabia). The date palm could refer to palm gardens and their produce. Palm gardens are still found at Mleiha and all along the al-Madam / Mleiha / Dhaid / Falaj al-Mualla corridor. The trident/anchor monogram on the late SE-Arabian coin series may point to the harbour of ed-Dur. Potts suggested that this symbol derived from the three-pronged anchor, one of the royal symbols of the Seleucids and also attested on e.g. Elymaean coins (Potts 1991a: 80). However, O. Callot expressed doubt since the Seleucid anchors all have an additional horizontal “anchor-stick”, not present on the SE-Arabian coins (Callot 2004: 30, 95; 2011: 270). The trident monogram also appears incised on some pottery sherds from ed-Dur, identified as S-Mesopotamian and NE-Arabian (Fig. J-11; Rutten 2006/2008: Pl. 6, lines 4 & 5, see n° 1151= group 14, probably S-Mesopotamian & n° 1442 = group 15, probably NE-Arabian). This raises the question where and when these signs were incised, in their region of origin, in transport or at ed-Dur. The trident/anchor monogram also occurs on a boulder from Mleiha (Abbas 2009: 94-95, fig. 3), on a stone from Madha on the East Coast (personal information by Eisa Yousif), as well as on a sherd from Akkaz in Kuwait (Robin 2011: 253 n° 8, fig. 1 n° 8). Another monogram that appears on some full-horse issues is a caliper-like monogram behind the back of the seated person (Fig. A-1 n° 79). A second one between the legs of the throne is depicted on some 20 coins in Potts’ class XLVII (Potts 1991a: 89 n° 428, 441; Potts 1994: 72 n° 396-402) and on a unique coin in class LI (Potts 1991a: 96 n° 489; Potts 1994: 41 n° 178). It is present on only one coin found during the excavations (Pl. 12, n° 79 = BJ 8) but appears on coins from several collections (Haerinck 1996b; 1998b: 292-297 n° 155-163; Callot 2004: 43-44 n° 44-45; Van Alfen 2010: n° 293-298, 302-304, 308-312, 317-322). A third caliper is rarely shown. This monogram has never been attested on coins from NE-Arabia. Haerinck (1996b & 1998b: 292-297 n° 155-163: drachms and tetradrachms) already reported on the same or very similar symbols present on a large stone seal found during the initial prospection of the site in 1998 (Boucharlat et al. 1988: 22, fig. 13 n° 13), on two pottery sherds (see Chapter on Pottery) (Rutten 2006/2008: Catalogue n° 1191 & 1444 / pottery groups 14, S-Mesopotamian & 15, NE-Arabian), on a disc-shaped lead ingot from ed-Dur, on the flat bezel of a finger ring said to be from ed-Dur as well as on the bezel of a finger ring from Kharg island (Iran) showing

A. COINS

13

the head of a Characene king, probably Attambelos IV. Since then, two more objects were found with the same symbol. One is a sherd from the excavations at Akkaz in Kuwait (Callot 2011), the other is a silver ring from a tumulus in Hamad Town on Bahrain (Salman & Andersen 2009: 12, 52, figs. 10 and 94). Similar or related monograms appear on coins from Characene (Hill 1965: 291-298; Dobbins 1996: 88-89, 98) and on some issues from Seleucia (McDowell 1935: Pl. 1). Callot (2011: 271) sees this caliper as the sign of a specific authority, perhaps a royal one, inspired on Characene issues, especially those of Attambelos IV (53/54-63/64 CE) (Dobbins 1996: 88 n° 13, Pl. 13 n° 12: Seleucid era 375, i.e. 63 CE). Since SE-Arabia and Characene had a strong commercial partnership it is not excluded that a ruler from SE-Arabia copied this monogram to underline their relationship. As such it may be a monogram that stands for ed-Dur or the Mleiha / ed-Dur kingdom. Another possible attempt to copy a Characene legend is found on coin n° 22 (Pl. 5), where the (pseudo?) Greek legend on the reverse could mention part of the name of an Attambelos and the head on the obverse is a bearded representation not unlike some Characene kings. Yet another imitation of S-Mesopotamian Characene coin iconography may be the cone-like object on some SE-Arabian coins copying a seated Heracles with his club (see below). A cone-like object can sometimes be seen on tetradrachms and more rarely on drachms (Fig. A-1 & Pl. 14: n° 104 & 105, BS 80 & 95) (Potts’ class XLIX: 1991a: 94; 1994: 76). Most of such coins in collections are said to be from ed-Dur. The object is shown in front of the enthroned person, who can be facing left or right (Haerinck 1994c). It could be a seated Heracles that is meant to be represented with the conical object being the stylised or misunderstood representation of his club (Haerinck 1994c & 1998b: 298-299). This could again be a Characene influence since this iconography appears more recognisable on their coins. Another particularity is the presence of what looks like a wart or skin lesion on the cheek or just below the right eye of Heracles (Haerinck 1998b: 287-288). A wart is sometimes seen on the forehead of kings on Parthian coins; it is also shown on some Kushan coins, on sculptures from Hatra and on figurines from Central Asia (Invernizzi 1990; Potts 1991a: 81). Its significance is not clear. It could be understood as a dynastic symbol, some kind of hereditary dynastic sign of the royal family. As such, it may have been regarded as a sign of legitimacy, since skin lesions can be hereditary. It could also be a temporary mark, such as the ones used during some religious festivities. Most of the ed-Dur coins can be attributed to known types but a few were apparently previously unattested (22-23, 50, 13-14, 15-17 and 34-35). Some coins remain at present unidentified (51), are difficult to attribute (9-12) or cannot be attributed to a specific group (114-117, Coin 115 could be Potts’ class XLIII and 116 class XXXIII) (1991a: 78 & 67). Most of the coins belong to Macdonald’s Epigraphic Tradition 3, while some belong to his Epigraphic Tradition 2 (all obols 24-33). 7. CATALOGUE The coins on Plates 4 to 16 are all depicted on scale 2:1, an unusual choice in numismatic studies but necessary to be able to distinguish the minuscule details of the iconography. There are 61 obols, 19 drachms and 28 tetradrachms.

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a. Arabian coinage Obols n° 1-12 (Pl. 4): Class XIVc (Potts 1991a: 34-36; 1994: 18-19; not included in Van Alfen 2010 or Macdonald 2010). They have a blank obverse but on some this is slightly raised. On the reverse a vertical S-Arabian shin (s2) is in front of the knees of the enthroned figure, facing left. N°s 10 to 12 could also belong to Potts class III (1991a: 21; 1994: 57). The s2 is likely the sign for the sungod Shams/Shamash, the main deity on the Arabian shores of the Persian Gulf (Robin 1974). It is not always easy to distinguish the eagle on the hand of the enthroned person. No anchor/ trident and no date palm are shown. Coins of class XIVc are the only ones in our assemblage that circulated in NE-Arabia as well as in SE-Arabia. Most scholars agree that this type was produced over a long time, that they were already circulating in the 3rd cent. BCE and were in use in 1st cent. CE ed-Dur. Drachms n° 13-14 (Pl. 4): Class S5 (Potts 1994: 60). These coins are related to Van Alfen’s Numismatic Series 3 (Van Alfen 2010) and, although we have no legend, are linked to Macdonald’s Epigraphic Tradition 2 (Macdonald 2010). Such coins are almost exclusively known from SE-Arabia. On the obverse a debased head of Heracles facing right can be seen. On the reverse, there is an enthroned person facing left, with the left arm curled around a staff. The person holds a protome (or a full horse?) on the outstretched right arm. To the right, behind the staff an upwards pointed anchor monogram is shown. There is no legend. A date palm is depicted in front of the seated person (but not on coin n° 14 which was badly struck). Drachms n° 15-17 (Pl. 4-5): These three coins are unique issues. As far as we know these coins are the only ones on which the Heracles head on the obverse is facing left. On the reverse the enthroned figure, facing left, is depicted with an outstretched right arm supporting a full horse (well visible on n° 17). His right arm is curled around the staff. The figure has a triangular torso with broad shoulders and narrow waist. The torso is decorated with three dots, indicating the navel and the nipples. An anchor/trident is directed towards the stomach. The open small egg- or oval-shaped feature behind the loin is also very rare. Such an element is only present on very few coins (Potts 1991a: 97 n° 493 & 501; Van Alfen 2010: n° 360-364, Numismatic Series 14 and Macdonald’s Epigraphic Tradition 3). An inscription is present on the right of the staff. The triangular torso relates these coins to Potts’ class XLVI. Drachms n° 18-20, tetradrachm n° 21 (Pl. 5, Pl. E) and obols n° 36-37, 40-45 (Pl. 6): Class XLVI (Potts 1991a: 84-85; 1994: 66-67); Van Alfen (2010) Numismatic Series 13; Macdonald (2010) Epigraphic Tradition 3. While n° 18-20 show on the obverse debased representations of Heracles’ head facing right, n° 21 has a much finer representation. On the reverse an enthroned person holds a protome or eventually a full horse on his outstretched right arm. His left arm curls around a staff. There is an anchor/trident, usually directed to his stomach, a palm tree on the left as well as a legend of up to four letters behind the staff. Characteristic for the enthroned person on these issues is his triangular torso with narrow waist and broad shoulders and with navel and nipples indicated by small dots. These coins are exclusively found in SE-Arabia.

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15

Tetradrachm n° 22 (Pl. 5): AG 2 is a unique coin with a high silver content (94 wt%). Tetradrachm n° 23 also has a very high silver content which makes both coins exceptional amongst the tetradrachms. On the obverse of n° 22 a head of Heracles is shown, facing right. It is remarkable that he seems to have a beard, which is not found on other coins from SE- or NE-Arabia, possibly with the exception of a similar coin published by Potts (1994: 77 n° 413). On the reverse an enthroned person, with a rather realistic torso is facing left. He is probably holding what could be a full (?) horse on the bent right arm. There is an illegible legend behind the staff. Although illegible this inscription (of two lines?) is seemingly made up of Greek letters. Two letters tau followed by an alpha and possibly a mu can be recognised and this could represent a very bad copy of the name of the Characene ruler Attambelos. If so, the top line could read Basileoos. This could also explain the presence of the beard since a beard can be seen on several Characene issues. Greek on Arabian coins is very rare in the late period and it is present only on Potts’ class L with eagle and on class LI (Potts 1991a: 94-100; 1994: 40-41), types only found at Mleiha and ed-Dur in SE-Arabia. This raises the question of their production date. Mitchiner (2004: 501502) suggested that the Greek inscription on Potts’ class L should be read as “Helios”, but this is very unlikely if we look at Potts’ coin 176 (1994) on which the rho of Alexander’s name is clearly shown. On our coin 22, there is no palm tree, nor an anchor/trident, but in front of the enthroned person, at the height of his knees, is a monogram (compare to Potts 1991a: 95 n° 485-487, 99-100 n° 506-527; 1994: 40 n° 173 & 175) and possibly an s2 below it as on the above-mentioned coins in Potts 1991a & 1994. Tetradrachm n° 23 (Pl. 5): This tetradrachm is of a unique type. Like the previous coin, it has an unusual high silver content (96% wt). On the obverse there is the debased head of Heracles facing right. On the reverse there is the enthroned person facing left. He holds a horse protome (rhyton) on his outstretched right arm while the left arm is curled around the staff. An Aramaic legend of 4 letters is visible on the right, behind the staff. There is a palm tree on the left, but no anchor/trident. An unidentifiable sign is present in front of his belly. Obols n° 24-33 (Pl. 6): Class II (Potts 1994: 53); Van Alfen Numismatic Series 2, particularly 2.2 (2010); Macdonald’s Imitation of Epigraphic Tradition 1 (2010). These coins bear a debased head of Heracles on the obverse (except on n° 33 which has a blank obverse). There is an enthroned person on the reverse with his left arm curled around a staff and a horse protome on the outstretched right arm. Sometimes there are some remains of letters. A date palm is on the left in front of the knees, but no s2 and no anchor/trident. Coins of Class II are known from SE- & NE-Arabia. Obols n° 34-35 (Pl. 6): Both coins have blank obverses and seem to be unknown types. The seated figures are facing right and they hold the staff in their right hand. On coin 34 there is a palm tree on the left, behind the seated figure instead of in front of him. He holds a horse on his left arm. A few letters are visible in front of him. The palm tree on coin 35 stands to the right, in front of the seated figure. On the left arm there is an animal (an eagle?). No anchor/trident can be seen on the coins.

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Obols n° 38-39 (Pl. 6), drachms n° 52-56 (Pl. 7, Pl. E): Class XLIV (Potts 1991a: 79-80; 1994: 62-64); Van Alfen (2010) Numismatic Series 6; Macdonald (2010) Epigraphic Tradition 3. On the obverse there is a debased head of Heracles facing right. On the reverse there is an enthroned person holding a staff with his bent left arm, who supports a full horse on the outstretched right arm. A date palm and an anchor/trident pointing to the stomach are present. Between the back of the enthroned figure and the staff he is holding, there are two small horizontal bars, just above the seat (except on n° 56; conf. Potts 1994: n° 326). The four-letter Aramaic legend of Abiel is in most cases clearly visible. This coin type is exclusively found in SE-Arabia. Obols n° 46-49 (Pl. 6): Class XXXIII (Potts 1991a: n° 300-303). These obols have a blank obverse and can be considered as variants of Potts’ classes XXIXXXXII. They are very debased coins with an almost abstract representation, although a throne and a very stylised stick-like figure can still be recognized. On coins 46 to 48 he is facing left, on coin 49 right. There is no legend. A few of these coins were found in NE-Arabia, but they mainly occur in SE-Arabia. Obol n° 50 (Pl. 6): This is so far a unique type with on the obverse a debased head of Heracles facing right and, on the reverse, an enthroned figure facing left while holding a protome or full horse. In front of the seated figure is what seems to be a very debased palm tree and to the right there are some signs that can be interpreted as letters. The whole representation is very stylised; one could even get the impression that the figure is standing upright but the throne is still recognisable. Coin 50 is possibly to be attributed to Potts’ class XLVII. This class is only reported from SE-Arabia, although one coin is said to come from an unknown site in Yemen. Obol n° 51 (Pl. 6): The coin is too damaged to allow a detailed identification. Only the stylised hair of a debased head of Heracles facing right on the obverse can still be recognised. Tetradrachms n° 57-61 (Pl. 7-8): Class XLV (Potts 1991a: 81-83; 1994: 64-65); Van Alfen (2010) Numismatic Series 9; Macdonald (2010) Epigraphic Tradition 3. On the obverse there is a debased head of Heracles looking to the right. On the reverse there is a seated person facing right with an outstretched left arm supporting a full horse and with the right arm curled around a staff. An anchor/trident is pointing towards his stomach and a date palm is shown on the right. On the left there are defective Aramaic letters mentioning the name Abiel. Only tetradrachms are known, they were exclusively found in SE-Arabia. Tetradrachms n° 62-73 (Pl. 8-10, Pl. E): Class XLVIII a & b (Potts 1991a: 90-93; 1994: 74-75); Van Alfen (2010) Numismatic Series 6.1 & 6.2; Macdonald (2010) Epigraphic Tradition 3. Both subclasses are very similar with the only difference that the enthroned person on class XLVIIIa is facing left (n° 62-67) and right on XLVIIIb (n° 68-73). On the obverse the Heracles head, facing right as usual, is depicted; it is rather debased but nicely executed. On the reverse a seated person (facing left or right) holds a full horse on the outstretched arm. The other arm is curled around a staff. In front of the figure there is a symbol in the shape of a Greek lambda as

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well as a date palm. Behind the person there is an upward pointing anchor/trident with a second bar below it. Behind the staff several Aramaic letters are shown, mentioning the name Abiel. This class is only attested in SE-Arabia, mainly with tetradrachms, but some drachms are known as well. Tetradrachms n° 74-79, drachms n° 80-85, obols n° 86-103 (Pl. 11-13, Pl. E): Class XLVII (Potts 1991a: 86-89; 1994: 68-73); Van Alfen (2010) Numismatic Series 10-12; Macdonald (2010) Epigraphic Tradition 3. On the obverse the debased head of Heracles is facing right. There is an enthroned person on the reverse. The figure has a rectangular torso and is facing left with in front an anchor/trident pointing towards the stomach. A date palm is shown at the left side. There is a full horse on the outstretched right arm; the left arm curls around a staff. Behind the staff is a debased Aramaic inscription. One of the coins (79: BJ 8) shows additionally a caliper behind the seated person and between the throne legs. On the caliper see the discussion supra (Potts 1991a: n° 428, 441, 489; Potts 1994: 41 n° 178, 72 n° 396-402; Haerinck 1996b; 1998b: 294-296, n° 155-163; Callot 2004: 43-44 n° 44-45; Van Alfen 2010: n° 293-298, 302-304, 308-312, 317-322). Tetradrachms n° 104-105 (Pl. 14): Class XLIX (Potts 1991a: 94; 1994: 76); Van Alfen (2010) Numismatic Series 8; Macdonald (2010) Epigraphic Tradition 3. This is a less common type of which only tetradrachms and drachms are known. On the obverse the Heracles head is facing right with a wart/skin lesion below the right eye whereas on other coins this is usually positioned on the cheek. On the reverse an enthroned figure is facing left or right. On these two tetradrachms they face right. The outstretched left arm supports a clearly drawn full horse. The figure holds a staff with the right hand. Behind the back of the seated figure is an anchor/trident with an additional stroke underneath pointing upwards. Abiel is written in Aramaic letters behind the staff. In front of the person sitting on the throne is a diagonally drawn conical object. It is not joined to his lap but joins the hand. Behind the head some horizontal lines are present. The cone possibly represents Heracles’ club in which case Characene coins were the probable source of inspiration (see supra) (Haerinck 1994c). This type of coin is only attested on sites in SE-Arabia. Coins n° 114-117 (Pl. 16): It is possible that these four coins are also Arabian coins, eventually belonging to Potts’ classes XXIX-XXXII (Potts 1991a: 67). Coin 117 is too badly preserved to be attributed to any region although a few remains on the obverse (?) could be interpreted as the faint outlines of Heracles’ hair. n°

Inv. n°

denomination, weight, die axis, size

UF n°

Loc n° Tomb n° Plates

1 2

AV 14 N 114

Obol: 0.82g.; 10.3 × 1.1 mm. Obol: 0.96g.; 10.7 × 1.2 mm.

4269 2422

E 5157 G 3837

N5

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

BS 27 BO 55 BS 157 BS 160 AH 58 BS 98 BQ 157

Obol: 0.9g.; 11.3 × 1.3 mm. Dump Obol: 0.9g.; 10.6 × 1.1 mm. Dump Obol: 0.9g.; 260°?; 10.5 × 1.1 mm. Dump South Obol: 1.0g.; 9.9 × 1.7 mm. Subsurface Obol: 0.9g.; 9.4 × 1.4 mm. Obol: 0.9g.; 11.4 × 1.4 mm. 6567 Obol: 0.9g.; 10.9 × 1.3 mm. -

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n°

Inv. n°

denomination, weight, die axis, size

UF n°

Loc n° Tomb n° Plates

10 11 12

BK 4 BM 27 N 36

Obol: 0.9g.; 220°; 10.5 × 1.3 mm. Obol: 0.8g.; 140°; 11.0 × 1.3 mm. Obol: 0.48g.; 10.3 × 1.1 mm.

2405

G 3831

N19

13 14 15

BS 69 BS 171 M 78

Drachm: 3.7g.; 0°; 16.0 × 1.9 mm. Drachm: 3.7g.; 135°; 16.1 × 2.2 mm. Drachm: 4.0g.; 170°; 14.6 × 2.2 mm.

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-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 25 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 26 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 27 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 28 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 29 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 30 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 31 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 32 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 33

34

Drachm: 4.0g.; 190°; 15.8 × 2.4 mm. Dump E Drachm: 3.3g.; 90°; 14.6 × 2.4 mm. Drachm: 3.5g.; 30°; 16.1 × 2.4 mm. 6656 Dump Drachm: 4.0g.; 90°; 15.3 × 1.9 mm. 6587 Drachm: 3.8g.; 100°; 16.2 × 2.1 mm. Dump (6523 ?) BS 96 Tetradrachm: 15.8g.; 280°; 6538 25.1 × 2.7 mm. AG 3 Tetradrachm: 16.1g.; 270°; 23.5 × 3.7 mm. BQ 136 Tetradrachm: 16.5/15.62g. before / 5943 after cleaning; 180°; 26.7 × 3.2 mm. BS 259 Obol: 1.0/0,9g. before / after 6756 cleaning; 300°; 9.5 × 1.7 mm. BS 68 Obol: 0.9g.; 0°; 9.9 × 1.3 mm. Dump BS 107 Obol: 1.0g.; 310°; 9.8 × 1.2 mm. 6620 BS 39 Obol: 1.0g.; 180°; 9.7 × 1.2 mm. 6556 BO 44 Obol: 0.8g.; 310°; 9.7 × 1.1 mm. BS 108 Obol: 0.9g.; °?; 9.1 × 1.9 mm. Dump/ 6620? BS 294 Obol: 0.9g. 6719 Dump BS 82 Obol: 0.9g.; 0°; 10.5 × 1.1 mm. 6557 ED 2 Obol: 0.9g.; 80°; 9.9 × 1.1 mm. Surface BS 260 Obol: 0.5/0.4g. before / after 6751 cleaning; 20°; 9.1 × 1.0 mm. BQ 41 Obol: 0.3g.; °?; 10.1 × 0.9 mm. 5967 G

vol. IV: Pl. 4 n° 10 vol. IV: Pl. 4 n° 11 vol. IV: Pl. 4 n° 12 vol. II: Pl. 56, 59:12 vol. IV: Pl. 4 n° 13 vol. IV: Pl. 4 n° 14 vol. IV: Pl. 4 n° 15 vol. III: Pl. 57:6 vol. IV: Pl. 5 n° 16 vol. IV: Pl. 5 n° 17 vol. IV: Pl. 5 n° 18 vol. IV: Pl. 5 n° 19 vol. IV: Pl. 5 n° 20

6269

BQ5

35

BQ 125 Obol: 0.46g.; 10.2 × 1.2 mm. (broken)

5982

G 6276

BQ12

36 37 38

ED 1 BS 102 BS 275

Surface 6567 6661

P 7100

-

vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 34 vol. II: Pl. 239:1 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 35 vol. II: Pl. 247:2 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 36 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 37 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 38

6611 6620 Surface Surface Dump E Dump South Dump Surface

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 39 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 40 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 41 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 42 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 43 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 44 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 45 vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 46

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

BQ 143 BO 40 BS 286 BS 183 BS 33

Obol: 1.1g.; 160°; 10.3 × 1.3 mm. Obol: 0.9g.; 260°; 9.4 × 1.4 mm. Obol: 1.0/0.9g. before / after cleaning; 260°; 10.2 × 1.6 mm. BS 50 Obol: 0.9g.; 310°; 10.3 × 1.3 mm. BS 114 Obol: 0.9g.; 190°; 9.5 × 1.4 mm. ED 7 Obol: 1.0g.; 0°; 9.7 × 1.6 mm. BQ 152 Obol: 0.8g.; 90°; 10.7 × 1.1 mm. BQ 144 Obol: 1.0g.; 0°; 10.0 × 1.3 mm. BS 158 Obol: 0.8g.; 180°; 9.6 × 1.1 mm. BR 99 Obol: 1.0g.; 270°; 10.5 × 1.8 mm. ED 10 Obol: 0.9/0.8g. before / after cleaning; 11.1 × 1.2 mm.

A. COINS

n°

Inv. n°

denomination, weight, die axis, size

47

AV 161 Obol: 0.5g.; 11.2 × 1.1 mm.

48

BS 234

Obol: 0.7/0.4g. before / after cleaning; 9.4 × 1.0 mm.

49

BS 109

Obol: 0.6g.; 30°; 10.4 × 1.1 mm.

50

BQ 148 Obol: 0.6g.; 0°; 9.3 × 1.1 mm.

51

ED 12

Obol; damaged

52

BQ 54

Drachm: 3.0g.; 350°; 14.4 × 2.9 mm.

53

BS 91

54

BS 101

19

UF n°

Loc n° Tomb n° Plates

5502

G 5156

AV2

6757 Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 48

6541

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 49

vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 47 vol. II: Pl. 100, 129:79

Dump W

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 50

Surface

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 6 n° 51

5938

G 6234

BQ16

Drachm: 3.9g.; 0°; 16.2 × 2.4 mm.

6563

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 7 n° 53

Drachm: 3.8g.; 320°; 15.4 × 2.6 mm.

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 7 n° 54

vol. IV: Pl. 7 & E n° 52 vol. II: Pl. 251:1

55

BR 105 Drachm: 3.4g.; 5°; 14.9 × 2.4 mm.

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 7 n° 55

56

M 73

Drachm: 2.90g.; 260°; 14.5 × 2.3 mm.

5761

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 7 n° 56 vol. III: Pl. 57:4

57

BS 254

Tetradrachm: 15.0/13.2g. before / after cleaning; 20°; 23.8 × 3.7 mm.

6707

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 7 n° 57

58

BM 26

Tetradrachm: 13.1g.; 190°; 24.6 × 3.6 mm.

-

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 7 n° 58

59

BS 284

Tetradrachm: 14.2/13.7g. before / after cleaning; 190°; 24.6 × 3.2 mm.

6712

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 7 n° 59

60

BS 285

Tetradrachm: 13.8/13.1g. before / after cleaning; 180°; 25.1 × 3.2 mm.

6712

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 8 n° 60

61

BQ 137 Tetradrachm: 15/12.85g. before / after cleaning; 340°; 25.4 × 3.3 mm.

5943

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 8 n° 61

62

BS 172

Tetradrachm: 17.4g.; 0°; 26.4 × 3.7 mm.

6582

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 8 n° 62

63

AV 23

Tetradrachm: 13.65g.; 170°; 26.7 × 3.1 mm.

4269

E 5157

64

M 63

Tetradrachm: 13.75g.; 0°; 26.5 × 2.9 mm.

4304

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 9 & E n° 64 vol. III: Pl. 57:8

65

M 64

Tetradrachm: 13.87g.; 170°; 26.3 × 2.7 mm.

4304

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 9 n° 65 vol. III: Pl. 57:7

66

ED 5

Tetradrachm: 15.0g.; 90°; 25.4 × 3.2 mm.

Surface

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 9 n° 66

67

BS 236

Tetradrachm: 16/14.8g. before / after cleaning; 160°; 26.1 × 3.3 mm.

6712

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 9 n° 67

68

BS 71

Tetradrachm: 15.0g.; 310°; 24.7 × 3.4 mm.

6527

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 10 n° 68

69

BS 43

Tetradrachm: 14.8g.; 300°; 25.8 × 3.6 mm.

6609

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 10 n° 69

70

BS 148

Tetradrachm: 14.2g.; 320°; 24.4 × 3.4 mm.

6577

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 10 n° 70

71

BR 106 Tetradrachm

-

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 10 n° 71

72

BS 235

Tetradrachm: 16.4/15.0 g. before / after cleaning; 20°; 29.2 × 3.4 mm.

6712

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 10 n° 72

73

BS 237

Tetradrachm: 14.9/13.8g. before / after cleaning; 100°; 25.7 × 4.3 mm.

6712

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 10 n° 73

74

N 310

Tetradrachm: 15.4g.; 340°; 24.3 × 4.0 mm.

-

T

-

vol. IV: Pl. 11 n° 74

vol. IV: Pl. 8 n° 63

E. HAERINCK (†)

20

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

n°

Inv. n°

denomination, weight, die axis, size

UF n°

Loc n° Tomb n° Plates

75

BQ 5

Tetradrachm: 15.1g.; 0°; 23.3 × 4.2 mm.

5914

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 11 & E n° 75

76

BS 169

Tetradrachm: 15.4g.; 350°; 24.0 × 4.5 mm.

6636 Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 11 n° 76

77

BQ 142 Tetradrachm: 15.5g.; 260°; 24.4 × 3.3 mm.

Dump E

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 11 n° 77

78

BO 43

Tetradrachm: 15.1g.; 300°; 21.1 × 5.5 mm.

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 12 n° 78

79

BJ 8

Tetradrachm: 15.4g.; 0°; 22.2 × 5.3 mm.

-

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 12 n° 79

80

BQ 104 Drachm: 3.7g.; 350°; 14.3 × 2.7 mm.

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 12 n° 80

81

BS 106

Drachm: 3.6g.; 130°; 14.8 × 2.6 mm.

6620

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 12 n° 81

82

M 79

Drachm: 3.8g.; 15°; 13.4 × 3.5 mm.

-

-

-

vol. III: Pl. 57 n° 5 vol. IV: Pl. 12 n° 82

83

BR 100 Drachm: 3.4g.; 340°; 14.2 × 2.3 mm.

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 12 n° 83

84

BS 127

Drachm: 4.0g.; 0°; 16.2 × 2.4 mm.

6573

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 12 n° 84

85

BO 62

Drachm: 3.4/2.9g. before / after cleaning; 90°; 14.5 × 2.4 mm.

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 12 n° 85

86

BQ 145 Obol: 0.7g.; 170°; 9.3 × 1.3 mm.

Dump E

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 86

87

BQ 147 Obol: 0.8g.; 45°; 10.0 × 1.2 mm.

Dump W

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 87

88

N2

Obol: 0.864g.; 270°; 10.1 × 1.6 mm.

536

G 1033

1

vol. II: Pl. 10-11 n° 2 vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 88

89

BK 3

Obol: 0.7g.; 100°; 8.8 × 1.1 mm.

-

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 89

90

BS 170

Obol: 0.9g.; 190°; 9.5 × 1.3 mm.

6582

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 90

91

BS 162

Obol: 1.0g.; 160°; 9.1 × 1.4 mm.

Surface

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 91

92

BS 159

Obol: 0.7g.; 190°; 9.6 × 1.1 mm.

Dump South

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 92

93

BS 156

Obol: 0.9g.; 110°; 9.5 × 1.3 mm.

Dump South

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 93

94

M 77

Obol: 1.0g.; 340°; 10.5 × 1.4 mm.

-

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 94 vol. III: Pl. 57 n° 3

95

BS 279

Obol

6760 Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 95

96

BQ 149 Obol: 0.7g.; 200°; 9.5 × 1.6 mm.

Dump W

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 96

97

BQ 139 Obol: 0.8g.; 20°; 10.0 × 1.8 mm.

-

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 97

98

M 74

Obol: 0.6 g.; 180°; 9.4 × 2.1 mm.

5761

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 98 vol. III: Pl. 57 n° 2

99

ED 29

Obol: 0.8g.; 0°; 9.7 × 1.6 mm.

Fort

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 99

100

BS 262

Obol: 1.1/0.8g. before / after cleaning; 0°; 9.3 × 2.0 mm.

6659

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 100

101

M 68

Obol: 0.846g.; 90°; 9.6 × 2.5 mm.

Dump N-side temple

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 101 vol. III: Pl. 57 n° 1

102

BQ 150 Obol: 0.9g.; 0°; 9.5 × 1.7 mm.

Dump W

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 102

103

BQ 138 Obol: 0.74g.; 30°; 9.6 × 1.5 mm.

-

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 13 n° 103

104

BS 80

Tetradrachm: 15.2g.; 160°; 26.0 × 3.4 mm.

6533

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 14 n° 104

105

BS 97

Tetradrachm: 15.0g.; 350°; 25.9 × 3.6 mm.

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 14 n° 105

A. COINS

114

BM 28

115

BS 40

116 117

BR 101 BS 277

Obol (?): 0.4g.; °?; 9.9 × 0.6 mm. Obol: 0.5g.; 240°; 8.1 × 1.1 mm. Obol: 0.6g.; 10.7 × 0.7 mm. 3.8g. Coin?

21

-

-

-

Dump

-

-

Surface 6760

-

-

vol. vol. vol. vol.

IV: IV: IV: IV:

Pl. Pl. Pl. Pl.

16 16 16 16

n° n° n° n°

114 115 116 117

b. Foreign coins n° 106-113 (Pl. 15-16) The Belgian team found 8 foreign coins (Haerinck 1998a & 2008: 77-78; Potts 2010: 69-70, Pl. 2; Delrue 2008: 313-315, 326-327, fig. 89, Tab. 42). Three were found outside the temple in area M during the 1994 season when a metal detector was used. The temple itself had already been fully excavated in 1987 and 1988 and the sand of the floor level had at the time been systematically sieved so no small finds, such as coins, could have been overlooked. The eight coins include: an Indian Ujjain coin from Madya Pradesh (M 82) (ca. 150-75 BCE); a 1st century CE Hadrami coin (M 81) (see Callot 2004: n° 116; Sedov & Aydarus 1995: 23, 47, type 5), two coins from Persis (BS 278 & ED 11) (Ardashir II: ca. 2nd half of 1st cent. BCE), one coin from Nabataea (BS 72) (Aretas IV: ca. 9 BCE - 40 CE), one coin from Gaza (BS 70) (1st to 3rd cent. CE) and finally two Mediterranean coins (M 80 & BO 56). Several more foreign coins in private collections are said to come from ed-Dur (Haerinck 1998a) while others would come from Mleiha (Haerinck 1998c; Callot 2004). These provenances listed by collectors and coin dealers can, unfortunately, not be corroborated. No Characene (mainly of Attembelos II, IV and VI) or Roman coins (Augustus and Tiberius) are present in the excavated ed-Dur assemblage, though they are present in collections (Potts 1988; Haerinck 1998a; Callot 2004; Potts 2010). One Characene coin was a surface find during the Iraqi expedition at ed-Dur in 1972/73 (Salles 1979: 84, fig. 13). Other coins, like Indian, Parthian, Persis, S-Arabian and Nabataean coins are mentioned in collections. Some of the foreign coins were analysed (Delrue 2008: 313-315, 326-327, 573, fig. 89). Coins 113 and 108 are true leaded tin-bronzes. Coin 110 belongs to the same category but has a much higher lead level. Coin 109 also has a considerable copper and lead percentage. The Nabataean coin 107 is from leaded copper with a low tin content. Persis coins 111 and 112 are both of good quality silver. The Indian coin 106 is from an unalloyed copper with very low levels of silver and tin. n°

Inv. n°

Remarks

106

M 82

3.6g.; squarish; Indian Ujjain

107

BS 72

108

BS 70

109

M 81

110

M 80

111

BS 278

112

ED 11

113

BO 56

4.3g.; 0°; 19.1 × 2.5 mm.; Nabataean 6.9g.; Gaza; 0°; 22.2 × 2.5 mm.; Nabataean? 3.9g.; obv. head with rays; rev. lion? S-Arabian 6.9g.; °?; 20.2 × 3.3 mm.; Greek Imperial? 0.8/0.6g. before / after cleaning; 270°; 12.4 × 0.9 mm.; Persis 0.64g.; 180°; 12 × 2 mm.; Persis 1.9g.; °?; 11.6 × 3.1 mm.; Askalon?

UF n°

Loc n°

Tomb n° Plates

-

-

-

6527

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 15 n° 106 vol. III: Pl. 57 n° 9 vol. IV: Pl. 15 n° 107

6527

-

-

vol. IV: Pl. 15 n° 108

-

-

-

-

-

6760

-

-

vol. vol. vol. vol. vol.

Surface

-

-

Dump

-

-

IV: Pl. 15 n° 109 III: Pl. 57 n° 10 IV: Pl. 15 n° 110 III: Pl. 57 n° 11 IV: Pl. 16 n° 111

vol. IV: Pl. 16 n° 112 vol. IV: Pl. 16 n° 113

E. HAERINCK (†)

22

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

c. Ingot n° 118 (Pl. 16) The small, 12.1 g. bar-shaped object n° 118 is possibly an ingot destined for the production of coins. It has 33 wt% silver and the same chemical composition (billon) as most of the local coins (Delrue 2008: 267-268). It is possible that such ingots were made in small pottery moulds (see chapter on Pottery). n°

Inv. n°

Remarks

118

BJ 10

12.1g.; oval shaped lump

UF n°

Loc n°

-

-

Tomb n° Plates -

vol. IV: Pl. 16 n° 118

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Socles. Oil lamp. Ram’s head (patera). Stepped fragment. Wine sets and Vessels. Stirring sticks / spatulae. Mirrors. Lock plates. Nails. Pins and needles. Torque. Anklets and bracelets. Finger-, toe- and miscellaneous rings. Bells. Decorative elements / pendants. Figurines. Chapes. Spindles. Miscellanea & unidentified objects.

---------The excavations produced a considerable amount or copper-based alloy finds. Two, to some extent complementary research projects focused on their composition and technology. Lloyd Weeks (2004) analysed samples with proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE); Parsival Delrue (2006a; 2006b; 2008) applied SEM-EDX (scanning electron microscope – electron dispersive X-ray spectrometry) for microstructural analyses and chemical elemental composition, optical microscopy for the metallography of the microstructures and ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry) for lead isotope analyses (LIA) and trace elements. In the following chapter, only some highlights of these studies are incorporated. For the complete data see Weeks 2004, Delrue 2006a, 2006b and 2008. The analysis revealed the presence of distinctive alloy groups: – unalloyed copper (less than 2% tin or zinc and less than 4% lead) – tin-bronze – low or natural tin-bronze (copper with 2 to 5% tin) – medium tin-bronze (copper with 5 to ca. 15% tin) – high tin-bronze (copper with more than ca. 15% tin) – brass (copper with more than 5% zinc and less than 5% tin) – gunmetal (copper with more than 5% zinc and more than 5% tin) – leaded copper (copper alloy with more than 4% lead) Many ed-Dur items had a high amount of zinc and lead. The analyses indicated that unalloyed copper (22%), tin-bronze (51%) and leaded tin-bronze were the main alloys used at ed-Dur

24

E. HAERINCK (†)

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

(mostly medium tin-bronze, high tin bronze is less common). Furthermore, a remarkable amount of brass was used; gunmetal on the other hand was rare. In general, the important number of objects made of brass is surprising. Brass is considered a typical Roman alloy that appeared around the 1st cent. BCE and quickly became popular. The average zinc level in the ed-Dur examples is high and indicative of brass that was remelted a limited number of times or only slightly diluted with copper or bronze. The latter option can explain the small amounts of tin sometimes detected in the alloy. In general, the zinc levels in de ed-Dur brasses are in accordance with the values of Roman brass. The trace elements (manganese & iron) strongly suggest that the zinc used in the brass came from smithsonite. Smithsonite was the ore used to produce Roman brass by cementation, whereas the Eastern tradition was centred on sphalerite ores as source of zinc. This indicates the ed-Dur brass is of Roman origin, rather than Indian. The Periplus states that the Romans exported brass vessels to East Africa; it is imaginable that brass continued its voyage to Arabia (Delrue 2006; Delrue 2008: 245). To this can be added that the LIA of most brasses are clustered together. Although this fingerprint is very difficult to use to trace the origin of the brass (since it is the mixed result of the lead isotope ratios of the copper and the zinc), it does indicate that the same “ingredients” were used to produce the brass (Delrue 2008: 242). There is no archaeological evidence that copper was produced or that large-scale metalworking took place at ed-Dur (Lloyd 2004; Delrue 2008: 133-247). No crucibles, moulds nor production waste such as copper slag was found. Nevertheless, at least some small-scale metal working should be expected at a harbour site of the extent of ed-Dur. This view is also supported by the discovery of some iron smithing slag and litharge (related to a possible silver extraction process from copper-silver alloys, see infra). The litharge may point to the import and trade of ingots or finished objects or eventually to some recycling activities. At the moment, there is no evidence for copper extraction in SE-Arabia during the Mleiha / PIR period, but copper alloy working and smelting must have been practiced. Some small-scale workshops were attested at Mleiha; copper and iron slag were recovered in several areas (trenches AH, BE, BV, CZ/Area 7, E and L) (Ploquin et al. 1999; Mouton 2008: 199-202). Jasim excavated a pit in area CZ that yielded no less than 8 kg of copper slags (Jasim 2001: 128). The presence of such slag suggests small-scale smelting in crucibles rather than a large-scale production activity (Delrue 2008: 140-142). The objects in Fig. B-1 can all be considered as imports from the Roman/Mediterranean world because of their type and/or the composition of the metal. To this list should possible be added

Fig. B-1. Various copper-alloy objects: socles, patera handle, stepped fragment and oil lamp.

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

25

a fragmentary head of a woman that was found during the 1986 survey at the site (Boucharlat, Haerinck, Phillips & Potts 1988: fig. 13 n° 5). It reflects a western, Hellenistic style and was an attachment from a vessel, not unlike the base of a ring handle attachment that was discovered at Mleiha (Mouton 2008: 76, note 214, fig. 43). Although it shows a rather crude workmanship it could be of Roman origin. It is a high leaded tin-bronze (Delrue 2008: 212) with ca. 15 wt% of tin and 22.4 wt% of lead (ICP-MS). The Mleiha attachment is also described as a leaded tin-bronze of which the fraction of lead was larger than that of tin. The high lead content must have given these objects a white to grey colour. 1. SOCLES Two small socles with traces of soldering lead on top to fix some statuette or effigy were discovered inside the temple building (Fig. B-1). Unfortunately, these effigies had been removed in antiquity. The first is a circular, bell-shaped socle with multiple mouldings (M 15) (H. 5.4 cm; diam. 7.2 cm). It was found inside the building, at some 50 cm from the S-wall of the temple. There is lead-solder at three points on the top surface. Their size and position would agree with a standing person whose staff or weapon rested on the support, such as e.g. a Heracles with his mace. The second socle M 7 was found in front and very close to the fireplace at the centre of the temple. It is cubical and was decorated with a separately cast bust on the front. The figure wears a toga, has a rounded face and curly hair. Five lead-solder points once fixed an effigy on the flat top. A study of the metal of M 7 showed that it is a leaded medium tin-bronze (6.2 wt% Sn). The high lead content (21.7 wt% Pb) gave the object a white-grey colour (Delrue 2008: 212-213, fig. 42). Both these bronze socles are well known Roman types (see Keim & Klumbach 1951: Taf. 38; Fleischer 1967: 67, 194, Taf. 49, 131; Boucher 1971: 46-47, 112; Arsenbeva 1984: 151, Tab. LIII). Inv. n°

Remarks

M7

Pedestal. Square shape; draped male bust; lead-attachment points on top; l: 9.5 cm, w: 9.4 cm, h: 8.5 cm Pedestal. Circular, bell-shaped; lead-attachment points on top; diam: 5.4 cm h: 7.2 cm

M 15

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

632

R 1114

-

vol. IV: pl. 17-18 n° 2, pl. F vol. III: pl. 53 n° 2

645

R 1114

-

vol. IV: pl. 17-18 n° 1, pl. F vol. III: pl. 53 n° 1

2. OIL LAMP The bronze oil lamp M 14 with a crescent moon-shaped handle is of a well-known Roman type (Fig. B-1). It was found wedged between the stones of the N-wall of the temple (area M), close to floor level and c. 2.20 m from the northeast corner; slightly above and to the left of the plastered channel that ran through the wall (see ed-Dur III: 9, fig. 6, Pl. 53). Its nozzle was slightly sticking out of the wall but it would not have been possible to use the lamp. Since the inside walls of the temple were originally plastered, it can only have been wedged between the stones once the temple was already in some state of decay and the plaster had fallen from the walls. The lamp may have been used in the temple, an almost identical unprovenanced lamp bears a 1st cent. CE dedicatory inscription to the deified Nabataean king Obodas (al-Salameen & Shdaifat 2014).

E. HAERINCK (†)

26

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DELRUE

Such Early Imperial lamps are widespread in the Roman world and were produced in Italy during the 1st cent. CE. (see Loeschke 1919: Pl. II, XVIII-XIX, XXI; Russell 1973: Pl. XXXA; Bailey 1996). A similar lamp was e.g. found at Pompeii where the eruption of the Vesuvius in 79 CE provides a datum ante quem (Thubron 1981: 163). The ed-Dur lamp belongs to D.M. Bailey’s group with “rounded bodies and volute spines” (Bailey 1996). Roman oil lamps were exported as far as the Indian subcontinent as documented by a Tamil poem and excavations in India (Sidebotham 1986: 25; Bailey 1996: vii, 27-28). Inv. n°

Remarks

M 14

Oil lamp; moon-shaped handle; no metal analysis available; l: 13.7 cm, w: 5.4 cm, h: 6.1 cm

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

643

W 1117

-

Plates vol. IV: pl. 17 & 19 n° 3, pl. F vol. III: fig. 6; pl. 53 n° 4

3. RAM’S HEAD (PATERA) The ram’s head AV 5 was found at the entrance of a large vaulted tomb (ed-Dur II: 41, Pl. 70-73) and most probably once decorated the handle of a patera (Fig. B-1). A patera is a bowl or pan with an omphalos and a long, usually ribbed handle. The tip of the handle is often decorated with such a ram’s head. They were already in use in the Hellenistic world but became popular in the Roman Empire during the 1st cent. CE. One example was also found in Yemen (Simpson 2002: 136 n° 169). Although pateras were also used for cooking, or simply as tableware to serve food, they were mainly used in religious activities, such as libations (Kozloff 1981: 183-184; see also Muscarella 1988: 445 n° 594). The ram’s head was cast in a (Roman) leaded medium tin-bronze alloy (7.6 wt% of tin) (Delrue 2008: 211-212). A small amount of zinc was also detected. Because of the presence of ca. 1 part lead (17.3 wt% Pb by ICP-MS) on 4 parts copper or bronze, it can be called “caldarium”. Caldarium (ca. 20% leaded alloy) has a very white colour and can easily be cast. Inv. n°

Remarks

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

AV 5

Ram’s head (patera handle); l: 3.8 cm, w: 3.7 cm, h: 3 cm

4269

G 5156

G 5156 vol. IV: pl. F vol. II: pl. C 1, 94 & 117 n° 26

4. STEPPED

Plates

FRAGMENT

A small square tip was filled with lead or copper alloy (Fig. B-1). Filling with lead also occurs on a set of 3 eagle claw shaped feet from some kind of stand found in a tomb at Mleiha (Jasim, Uerpmann & Uerpmann 2016: 139). Increasing the weight of the feet would have rendered a tripod more stable. It suggests a similar function for the stepped fragment. Inv. n°

Remarks

M1

Stepped fragment; Filled with copper alloy or lead; l: 2.7 cm, w: 2.4 cm

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

627

-

-

Plates vol. IV: pl. 20-21 n° 9 vol. III: pl. 53 n° 3

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

27

5. WINE-SETS AND VESSELS Three-part wine sets Wine-sets are due to Western influence borrowed from Egypt (Moorey 1980). Such sets were present in different cultures in the Mediterranean and the Near East from the Iron Age onwards. A drinking set usually consists of a strainer or sieve, a ladle and a bowl. According to classical authors, such as Pliny the Elder and the anonymous writer of the “Periplus Maris Erythraei” (Casson 1989: 154, 270), as well as inscriptions, wine seems to have been a very common drink in late Pre-Islamic Arabia (Maraqten 1993: 95-96, 105). Grapes, dates or cereals could be used to produce local wines, such as in S-Arabia, but wine was also imported from the West as is illustrated by the numerous Rhodian amphorae found at Mleiha (Monsieur et al. 2013; Overlaet et al. 2019). According to Pliny the Elder wine was also produced in Bahrain (Rackham 1945: 29 NH 12:23). Several complete and fragmentary strainers, ladles and bowls were excavated by the Belgian team inside the large vaulted communal tomb in area AV (G 5156) which contained at least 27 individuals (Haerinck 1994b; ed-Dur II: 41-47, see particularly Pl. 89a, Pl. 93-95, Pl. 115-120). A complete set was found together at the rear end of tomb AV (AV 113 to 115). The Danish team found another set in a large tomb at ed-Dur (area A, see Potts 1989a: 14-16, fig. E-H). It included a spouted bowl with the head of a bull. The bowls have a small sieve for filtering the liquid where the spout is attached to the bowl. Inside the bowl and horse spout of AV 113 were remains of what seemed to be a petrified residue. Unfortunately, this was removed during conservation and has not been analysed. Comparable or identical objects of the ed-Dur phase (PIR C period), particularly ladles and spouted bowls, were found at other sites in SE-Arabia and are present in Sharjah Emirate, at Dibba, on the Gulf of Oman (Jasim 2006: fig. 55: 7-8: one ladle and one bowl) and at Mleiha,

Fig. B-2. Vessels, sieves and ladle from area AV.

E. HAERINCK (†)

28

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

in the Dhaid plain (Benoist, Mokaddem & Mouton 1997: fig. 11 n° 6; Mouton, Mokaddem & Garczynski 1997: 47, fig. 25 n° 4; Jasim 1999: 83, fig. 33 n° 2-3; Mouton 2008: fig. 88-90; Overlaet 2018: fig. 17; 2021a & b). Spouts are also present in Oman at al-Rustaq, Samad and Sama’il/al-Baruni (Yule 2001: Taf. 240, 447, 533 & 534) and at Sumhuram (Avanzini 2007: fig. 5). A ladle was excavated at Bahrain (at Karranah, see Herling 2003: Abb. 50 n° 1; at Shakhoura, see Salman & Andersen 2009: 100, fig. 170) and a spout is reported at Jebel Kenzan (Potts 1989b: fig. 118-119). In view of the widespread occurrence in SE-Arabian (ed-Dur, Mleiha, Dibba, Sohar…) of the bowls with animal protomes, it stands within reason to suppose that they were locally produced (Overlaet 2021b). The microstructural and chemical analyses demonstrated that the ladle AV 115 and sieve fragments AV 7 are of medium tin-bronze (Delrue 2008: 213-215, fig. 43); the lead isotope signature of AV 7, AV 104 & AV 115 indicate that imported tin-bronze was used (Delrue 2008: 215, 246). Bowls with an animal protome The bowl AV 113 had a spout in the shape of a horse protome (cfr. the horse protome rhyton or horse represented on the outstretched right arm of the sitting figure on the reverse side of coins). Another isolated spout (AV 104) was cast to shape but not finished. The horse-spout AV 104 is of leaded low tin-bronze (4.7 wt% tin; 22.2 wt% of lead by ICP-MS) and must have had a white/grey or silvery colour. Sieves or strainers The smaller strainers have two horizontal handles decorated with incised stylised animals. One strainer was excavated by the Belgian team inside the large tomb (AV 114) and several fragments outside, near the entrance (AV 7). Another one was discovered in a tomb by the Danish team (Potts 1989: 16, fig. H). The undecorated vessel without handles (AV 158) comes equally from inside the large tomb in AV and shows a large, flat rim with numerous perforations on the body. The sieve AV 7 is made of unleaded medium-tin bronze (Delrue 2008: 213-215, fig. 43 n° 1). Ladles The ladles (AV 115, fragment AV 135 and another found by the Danish team, see Potts 1989a: 16, fig. G) have a curved top that ends in an animal head (horse/antelope?). Furthermore, AV 115 shows a unique incised decoration of crudely rendered lions (three facing right on the upper part of the handle and two facing left on the lower part). Inv. n°

Remarks

AV 104 Horse protome; compare bowl AV 113; l: 3.9 cm, w: 2.4 cm, h: 5.7 cm AV 113 Bowl with horse protome; found with AV 114-115; l: 20.4 cm, h: 9.6 cm

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

5505

G 5156

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. C 2, 93 & 117 n° 24 G 5156 vol. IV: pl. G vol. II: pl. C 3 & 4, 93, 116

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

Inv. n°

Remarks

29

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AV 114 Sieve; decorated, found with AV 113-115; l: 22.1 cm, w: 10.1 cm, h: 3.5 cm

5503

G 5156

AV 115 ladle; incised lions; found with AV 113-114; h: 25.8 cm, l: 1.4 cm, th: 0.1 cm

5503

G 5156

AV 135 ladle (fragm.); part of handle; h: 7.6 cm

5501

G 5156

AV 158 Sieve; diam: 17 cm, h: 7.2 cm AV 7 Sieve (fragm.)

5502 4269

G 5156 E 5157

G 5156 vol. IV: pl. G vol. II: pl. D 2, 94 & 118 n° 28 G 5156 vol. IV: pl. H vol. II: pl. D 3-4, 95, 119-120 n° 31 G 5156 vol. IV: pl. F vol. II: pl. 95 & 120 n° 30 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 94 & 118 n° 27 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 8

Fig. B-3. Metal vessels, decorated (bowl?) fragments and loop handle.

Bowls Very few plain metal bowls were found, which may indicate their rarity. Possibly, glass bowls had largely replaced bronze bowls als the more luxurious drinking bowls in the ed-Dur phase (Overlaet & Yule 2018). Three bowls were found in the vaulted tomb G 5156 (Area AV) which also contained the wine-set. Analyses by P. Delrue (2008: 215-216, fig. 44) have shown that the very corroded bowls AV 55 and 56 are both made of tin-bronze. The material of BS 54 was identified as probably Roman gunmetal. A clamp was found together with BS 54, which suggests that the vessel had been repaired. Three small fragments may have belonged to decorated bowls (AV 8: uncertain if from a vessel; BQ 7 found in a plundered grave; BS 44 from an occupation layer). Another fragment was picked up on the surface during the initial 1986 survey. It is a flat sheet fragment with an incised bovine leg (Boucharlat, Haerinck, Phillips & Potts 1988: 7, fig. 13). A complete decorated bowl was found by a metal detectorist in 1977. It imitates the decoration on much older Levantine Iron Age bowls and thus differs from the familiar SE-Arabian repertoire (Overlaet & Yule 2018). Decorated bowls were particularly popular in the last centuries BC but probably remained in use in the early centuries CE.

E. HAERINCK (†)

30

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DELRUE

AT 6, found in a grave, is a handle, but it is unknown to what kind of vessel it belonged. Similar handles were e.g. found in the tomb of Amud at Mleiha, on Failaka (Caubet & Salles 1984, fig. 69 n° 225) and in the Roman world (cfr. Berenike, Egypt. Sidebotham & Wendrich 1998: fig. 9-25). Inv. n°

Remark

AT 6

Handle; with some traces of iron; h: 3.8 cm, th: 0.4 cm AV 112 Bowl, plain AV 55 Bowl, plain; found inside slightly bigger bowl AV 56. Arrowheads AV 54 found inside AV 55; h: 4.7 cm, diam: 17.2 cm AV 56 Bronze bowl, plain; AV 55 found inside it; h: 10 cm, diam: 22.9 cm AV 8 Incised decoration; l: 1.9 cm, w: 0.5 cm BQ 7 Found just outside grave; decorated; l: 5.8 cm, w: 4 cm BS 44 Floral decoration (palmtree?); l: 2.2 cm, w: 2 cm BS 54 bowl fragments (plain); h: 1.4 cm, diam: 6.4 cm N 116 Bowl, plain; h: 3.5 cm, diam: 8.9 cm

6. STIRRING STICKS /

UF n°

Loc n°

Tomb

Plates

4263

G 5154

2

5503 5502

G 5156 G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 93 & 115 n° 21 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 93 & 115 n° 22

55O2

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 93 & 115 n° 23

4269 5961

E 5157 G 6266

2

vol. IV: pl. 20 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 236 n° 2

6609

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 3

6525

G 7001

6

vol. II: pl. 301 n° 2

2420

G 3840

8

vol. II: pl. 23 & 24 n° 1

vol. II: pl. 171 n° 2

SPATULAE

These objects have a broad, flattened tip and could have been used for stirring. It is not excluded that AV 157, from the large tomb G 5156 in Area AV, might have belonged to a wineset deposited in the tomb (for pictures of the object as found in situ at the rear end of the tomb; see ed-Dur II: Pl. 88 b & c). Comparable items were found at Bahrain (During Caspers 1980: Pl. XXX n° 4; Jensen 2003: 161, fig. 15.9; Salman & Andersen 2009: 98, 104, 136, 148, fig. 165, 199, 300, 334), in Central Oman (Yule 2001: 111), at Dura-Europos in Syria (Toll 1946: 123, Pl. XLIII, Pl. LVIII) and at Aï Khanoum in Afghanistan (Guillaume & Rougeulle 1987: Pl. 16 n° 4-6).

Fig. B-4. Copper-alloy stirring sticks / spatulae.

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

Inv. n°

31

Remarks

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AV 157 Cleaned; l: 22.5 cm BQ 106 l: 14.7 cm BS 231 l: 14 cm

5502 5970 6656

G 5156 -

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 95 & 120 n° 29 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 21 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 20

7. MIRRORS Two fragments were identified as possible mirrors (M 38 & BQ 16), both from the occupation layer below surface. Additionally, a surface find from the 1986 survey should be mentioned: 1 mm thick bronze mirror, with two concentric circles around the rim, and a series of circles around the centre point (Boucharlat, Haerinck, Phillips & Potts 1988: 7, fig. 13 n° 1). M 38 is made of tin-bronze (Delrue 2008: 209-210). The 1986 find is a high tin-bronze like contemporary Roman and Chinese Han mirrors. However, this fragment is not leaded (although lead globules were seen in the microstructure) whereas Roman mirrors have a lead content of 5 to 10 wt%. BQ 16 has a different composition; it contains only ca. 6 wt% of tin. This fragment was annealed and was afterwards heavily worked as evidenced by the numerous strain lines and deformed annealing twins. Inv. n°

Remarks

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

M 38 BQ 16

mirror fragment; diam: 7 cm, th: 0.2 cm mirror (?); l: 9.2 cm, w: 9.1 cm

2352 5921

3812 -

-

8. LOCK

Plates vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 1 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 28

PLATES

Lock plates with an L- or T- shaped keyhole were attached to wooden boxes. AV 160 is a circular plaque, discovered in the large vaulted tomb G5156 in Area AV. Some remains of wood were still present. The square example BQ 153 is made of unalloyed copper and was found on the surface. It is decorated with a punched decoration. These lock plates were widely used in the Roman world as attested by several finds e.g. at Straubing in Germany (Keim & Klumbach 1951: Taf. 41). Complete wooden boxes with lock

Fig. B-5. Two copper-alloy lock plates.

E. HAERINCK (†)

32

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DELRUE

plates were found in a sarcophagus near the town of Mangalia, in Rumania (Cat. exp. 1994: 204 and 206). Such boxes also found their way to the Middle East, or may have been locally produced. Examples were found at Susa in SW-Iran (Boucharlat & Haerinck 2011: 74, Pl. 11) and at Aï Khanoum in Afghanistan (Francfort 1984: 63, Pl. 23, Pl. XXV; Guillaume & Rougeulle 1987: 30, Pl. 12, Pl. VIII; Rapin 1992: Pl. 58). Inv. n°

Remarks

AV 160 With key hole and nails, some traces of wood; diam: 7.3 cm BQ 153 For a wooden box; l: 7.1 cm, w: 7 cm

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

5502

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 33

Surf.

-

-

Plates

vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 16

9. NAILS Eleven nails were registered. They have different forms, ranging from small nails (L 3, BM 30, BO 52 & BR 53) with rounded or flattened heads and with circular to square pin section to large nails with square pin section and large disc-shaped heads. Similar nails were found at Dibba (Jasim & Yousif 2014: fig. 37, 38, 42). Three nails (BQ 154, BS 185 & 287) are unusual; they have a cross pattern with four dots in low relief on the bottom of the flat, disc-shaped head. The pattern is not decorative but functional and would have been invisible once the nail is hammered into a (wooden) object. This relief pattern assured a tight grip in the wood. Nails M 84 and BQ 154 were made of unalloyed copper but AV 160 (still attached to a lock plate, see above) is from brass (14 wt% zinc; 1.3 wt% tin) (Delrue 2008: 224-225, fig. 49).

Fig. B-6. Copper-alloy nails.

Inv. n°

Remarks

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

L3

Nail; l: 3.5 cm

603

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 2

M 83

Square section, fragment; l: 5.5 cm

-

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 4

M 84

Square section, fragment; l: 3.8 cm

-

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 10

BM 30

Nail; l: 2.7 cm

-

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 8

BO 51

Nail; l: 6.2 cm

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 3

BO 52

Nail; l: 2.7 cm

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 9

BQ 154

Nail; square section, disc-shaped head; l: 0.9 cm

Surface

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 7

BR 53

Nail; l: 2.5 cm

6041

G 6311

21

BS 113

Nail; l: 2.2 cm

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 5

BS 185

Nail; disc-shaped top; l: 2.2 cm

6644

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 6

BS 287

Nail; l: 2.3 cm

6656

G 7101

11

vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 9

vol. II: pl. 307 n° 1

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

10. PINS AND

33

NEEDLES

Some 12 pins and needles have been found. The main part of all of these has a circular section. The simplest ones are small, plain pins; others are perforated at the top which suggests that they were used as sewing needles. Three pins have decorated heads and were most likely used as hairor clothing pin. Pins with a square head and cross-shaped top like AV 148 were excavated in ed-Dur phase tombs at Mleiha (Mouton, Mokaddem & Garczynski 1997: fig. 25 n° 5) and Dibba (Pellegrino et al. 2019: 60, fig. 27 n° 28).

Fig. B-7. Copper-alloy pins and needles.

Inv. n°

Remark

AV 148 Pin, moulded decoration; l: 15.2 cm, th: 0.3 cm BQ 19 Plain pin, fragments (3); l: 5.8 cm, th: 0.2 cm BQ 93 Needle, perforation in top, complete; l: 12.7 cm, th: 0.4 cm BR 13 Plain pin, small fragment; l: 2.5 cm, th: 0.1 cm BS 110 Plain pin, top broken off; l: 11.1 cm, th: 0.3 cm BS 241 l: 12.8 cm, th: 0.4 cm BS 274 Pin, decorated head; l: 14.4 cm, th: 0.3 cm BS 60 Needle, perforated; l: 11.1 cm, th: 0.2 cm M 44 Plain pin, Plain pin, fragment; l: 3.9 cm, th: 0.3 cm N 189 Needle, top broken; l: 13.6 cm, th: 0.3 cm N 239 Plain pin; l: 7.1 cm, th: 0.2 cm N 59 Pin, moulded shaft; l: 11.4 cm, th: 0.3 cm

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 38

5962 5944

G 6266 G 6235

2 15

vol. II: pl. 236 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 249 n° 1

6008

G 6300

11

vol. II: pl. 268 n° 1

6541

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 14

6757 6719 6526 2369

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 15 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 16 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 17 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 19

2426 2427 2405

G 3843 G 3839 G 3831

16 7 19

vol. II: pl. 44 & 46 n° 6 vol. II: pl. 19 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 8

11. TORQUE This is a unique find for SE-Arabia since no other torques have been reported from the region. However, there is no doubt that this was a torque as it was found in situ in the tomb of a child (ed-Dur II: Pl. 20-24; for the textile imprint see Haerinck 2002b). A torque was also found at Bahrain (Jensen 2003: 146, fig. 10.3).

E. HAERINCK (†)

34

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N 117

Torque, some traces of textile imprint; diam: 12.8 cm, th: 0.4 cm

2420

G 3840

8

DELRUE

Plates vol. IV: pl. D vol. II: pl. E 1, 23 & 24 n° 6

Fig. B-8. Copper-alloy torque, anklets and bracelets.

12. ANKLETS

AND BRACELETS

The distinction between bracelets and anklets is not always evident and sometimes impossible to make, particularly when tombs have been robbed. Only four objects can unambiguously be identified as anklets since they were found in situ on skeletons of children (tombs G 3840 in Area N and G 5158 in Area AV, see ed-Dur II: Pl. 21 & 144). In both cases they had an anklet with open ends on each of their legs. AV 15 showed some textile imprints (Haerinck 2002b). All four were analysed (Delrue 2008: 218-219). Anklets N 121 and 122 are medium tin-bronzes with 11.6 wt% tin, while anklet AV 16 had 10.6 wt% tin. N 121 shows some evidence of mild working after casting and is partly annealed (annealing twins appear, but also the remains of the cored structure). Anklet N 122 on the other hand shows evidence of working (strain lines and elongated lead inclusions) and final annealing (twins) but no coring is present. Anklet AV 16 was worked and afterwards annealed, followed by additional cold working. Three objects can be identified as bracelets since they were found in situ on the arms of the skeleton (N 119, N 120 and N 252). The other rings shaped objects were found loose in or near the plundered tombs. They are probably bracelets, but may also have been anklets. They have open or overlapping ends, or they are extendible (N 119 and 120, AV 102 and 103) to adjust them the thickness of the wrist (or ankle). N 190, 191 and 192 are made of twisted wire. N 191 had little loops at the end and combines bronze and iron wire. Several could be analysed (Delrue 2008: 218-219, fig. 45). Bracelets/anklets BQ 70 (7.2 wt% tin) and BR 26 (11.9 wt% tin) are made of medium tin-bronze. They were worked and annealed, followed by some additional cold working. Bracelets and anklets are widespread and were found on many sites (see e.g. Toll 1946: 116; Negro Ponzi 1970-71: 398; Musche 1988: 199, 203-204, 206, 304-305, 327). Particularly the simple open and overlapping specimens are very common. The extendible bracelets are less common. They can be compared to finds from Nippur (McCown et al. 1978: Pl. 62 n° 13) and Tell Mahuz (Negro-Ponzi 1970-71: fig. 86). Twisted wire bracelets were e.g. also at Dura Europos (Toll 1946: 116, Pl. XXXIV, XXXVII, XXXVIII, XLIII, L, LII & LVII).

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

Inv. n°

Remark

AV 102 Extendible bracelet, (not cleaned), with adjustable ends; silver?; diam: 4.9 cm, th: 0.8 cm AV 103 Extendible bracelet (not cleaned); diam: 4.6 cm, th: 0.7 cm AV 15 Anklet, on right leg; some imprints of textile; diam: 4.6 cm, th: 0.3 cm AV 16 Anklet, on left leg; diam: 5 cm, th: 0.4 cm AV 44 Bracelet, with overlapping ends; see also AV 45; diam: 4.4 cm, th: 0.3 cm AV 45 Bracelet, with overlapping ends; see also AV 44; diam: 4.3 cm, th: 0.3 cm BQ 70 Bracelet, fragment; diam: 4.6 cm, th: 0.4 cm BR 26 Bracelet; th: 0.3 cm N 119 Extendible bracelet, on right arm; some traces of textile imprints; diam: 4.5 cm, th: 0.9 cm N 120 Extendible bracelet, on left arm; diam: 4.3 cm, th: 0.9 cm N 121 Anklet, on right leg; diam: 5.1 cm, th: 0.3 cm N 122 Anklet, on left leg; diam: 5 cm, th: 0.4 cm Bracelet, made of twisted wire; diam: 4.9 cm, N 190 th: 0.3 cm N 191 Bracelet, made of twisted wire, two loops at the opening of the bracelet (bronze and iron); diam: 6.2 cm, th: 0.4 cm Bracelet, made of twisted wire; diam: 5.1 cm, N 192 th: 0.3 cm Bracelet, with overlapping ends; diam: 5 cm, N 252 th: 0.3 cm

13. FINGER-,

35

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

5505

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 35

5505

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 34

4271

G 5158

G 5158 vol. II: pl. 146 n° 2

4271 5526

G 5158 G 6001

G 5158 vol. II: pl. 146 n° 1 G 6001 vol. II: pl. 149 n° 1

5526

G 6001

G 6001 vol. II: pl. 149 n° 2

5970 6026 2420

G 3840

8

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 13 vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 12 vol. IV: pl. D & F vol. II: pl. E 2, 23 & 24 n° 4

2420

G 3840

8

2420

G 3840

8

vol. IV: pl. D & F vol. II: pl. 23 & 24 n° 5 vol. II: pl. 23 n° 2

2420 2426

G 3840 G 3843.

8 16

vol. II: pl. 23 & 24 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 44 & 46 n° 5

2426

G 3843

16

vol. II: pl. 44 & 46 n° 3

2426

G 3843

16

vol. II: pl. 44 & 46 n° 4

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 38 n° 4

TOE- AND MISCELLANEOUS RINGS

Several objects can be identified as finger rings because of their shape (those with flat bezel, with engraved bezel, cavity for inset…). Others, such as BR 91 and the simple rings AV 40 were found in situ on the fingers of the skeleton. For the same reason N 253 is identified as a toe-ring. It was found in situ on the left foot of the skeleton. Exact identifications are, however, not always possible. Some larger rings could, for example, have been used to suspend a dagger or sword. Rings with different types of bezel were produced in post-Achaemenid times and were widespread (e.g. Musche 1988: 219, 223-224, 267, 295 & 306). Some finger rings have simple flat, plain bezels (N 251; BR 103). It is well possible that such “blanks” were produced to be later engraved or even that they were painted with some decoration. Comparable rings are reported from Failaka (Caubet & Salles 1984: 99, fig. 45, 48 and 69;

E. HAERINCK (†)

36

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DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

Salles 1986: 257, fig. 98). A few examples do have engravings on the bezel (M 76; N 6; BO 49), but the images are difficult to recognise (N 6: a bird?). A small bronze ring with an engraved bucranium on the bezel was found during the initial survey in 1986 (Boucharlat, Haerinck, Phillips & Potts 1988: 7, fig. 13 n° 2). Comparable finds are reported from Failaka (Salles 1986: 257, fig. 94 n° 419), Dibba (Pellegrino et al. 2019: 58-59, fig. 27) and Central Oman (Yule 2001: 114-115: Ri01, Taf. 49 n° 7.2, Taf. 175 n° 8). Several finger rings have a deepened bezel for insets (N184; BO 47 and 48). Inset material can be glass(paste) or a gemstone (see also Beads). Comparable rings are found at e.g. Failaka (Salles 1986: 257, fig. 94 n° 418) and Dura-Europos (Toll 1946: 122). Silver ones with inset come from Dibba in Sharjah Emirate (Jasim 2006: 233, fig. 57-58) and Bahrain (Salman & Andersen 2009: fig. 91). The decorated intaglios N 75 and BO 63 probably also belonged to finger rings (see infra, chapter on beads). The finger ring BR 96 is unusual as it has an openwork circular bezel with a star pattern. It is made of brass (c. 20 wt% Zn and some Sn) that was annealed after it had been worked. Similar finger rings are reported from Dibba (Jasim 2006: fig. 55 n° 1 and fig. 57 middle) and Bahrain (Jensen 2003: 140, fig. 9.9; Salman & Andersen 2009: 47, fig. 75). A ring similar in concept was found at Tell Umar, Iraq (Waterman 1933: 70, fig. 2). Only a few of the rings were analysed (N 251, BO 47, BO 49 & BR 103) (Delrue 2008: 217218, fig. 45). They were all made of brass. The first three are very similar in composition as they have a high zinc content (ca. 19 wt%) which might suggest a Roman/Mediterranean origin. Dungworth (1997: 909) mentions Roman finger rings from N-Britain that were made of brass. All these rings have gone through a phase of working and subsequent annealing, with (some) additional cold working afterwards. BR 103 has a different composition; it was made of leaded brass (12 wt% zinc, 1 wt% tin, 7 wt% lead). The microstructure is also different since it is in as-cast condition with coring. The open worked fragment BR 96 (Delrue 2008: 221) is made of brass (ca. 20 wt% zinc and some tin). After working it was annealed, but strain lines are still visible, indicating that the working may have been intensive.

Fig. B-9. Copper-alloy rings.

Inv. n°

Remark

AH/T.1-54 Ring, overlapping ends; diam: 1.7 cm, th: 0.3 cm AV 150 Large ring, to attach sword?; l: 3.8 cm, th: 1.9 cm AV 40 3 rings found on one finger of right hand; diam: 2.1 cm, th: 0.3 cm

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

5725

G 6106

G 6106 vol. II: pl. 164 n° 1

5503

G 5156

4274

G 5156

-

Plates

vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 36

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 83 & 84 n° 5-6

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

37

Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

AV 71

Ring, open ends; from sword?; diam: 2.4 cm, th: 0.5 cm Finger ring, fragment, oval bezel for inset; diam: 1.7 cm, th: 0.2 cm Finger ring, glass inset; diam: 1.3 cm, th: 0.3 cm Finger ring, engraved bezel; diam: 1.5 cm, th: 0.2 cm Ring, overlapping ends; diam: 0.8 cm, th: 0.2 cm Finger ring, fragment, oval-shaped bezel; diam: 2.3 cm, th: 0.2 cm Ring, open ends; diam: 2.8 cm, th: 0.2 cm Finger ring (flat band) with incised decoration; diam: 1.9 cm, th: 0.1 cm Finger Ring; openwork bezel (star pattern), ring is missing; l: 1.7 cm, w: 1.6 cm Ring, open ends; diam: 1.7 cm, th: 0.2 cm Finger ring, fragment; engraved bezel; diam: 1.6 cm, th: 0.2 cm Finger ring, oval bezel for inset; diam: 2.1 cm, th: 0.2 cm Ring, open ends; diam: 1.7 cm, th: 0.3 cm Finger ring, oval bezel, from left hand; diam: 1.9 cm, th: 0.2 cm Toe-ring. With overlapping ends, from left foot; diam: 1.6 cm, th: 0.1 cm Large ring, from dagger?; diam: 2.2 cm, th: 0.8 cm Finger ring, engraved bezel: eagle (?); diam: 1.6 cm, th: 0.4 cm

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 37

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 3

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 5

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 2

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 9

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 4

5825 6065

G 6219 -

1 -

vol. II: pl. 259 & 260 n° 3 vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 7

6069

G 6319

9

vol. II: pl. 266 n° 1

647 Surf.

F 1122 -

-

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 11 vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 1

2426

G 3843

16

vol. II: pl. 44 & 46 n° 7

2425 2432

G 3838 G 3847

6 13

vol. II: pl. 18 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 37 & 38 n° 3

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 38 n° 2

2405

G 3831

19

vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 6

536

G 1033

1

vol. II: pl. 10 & 11 n° 1

BO 47 BO 48 BO 49 BO 50 BR 103 BR 8 BR 91 BR 96 M 17 M 76 N 184 N 237 N 251 N 253 N 50 N6

Plates

14. BELLS Two types of bells can be distinguish: rattle bells and bells with a clapper. They were found in tombs, often in association with beads. Rattle bells show a globular body with a slit in the lower part and a suspension loop on top. One or more pellets inside provides the sound. N 124, N 128 and N 132 fitted in a string of beads (ed-Dur II: Pl. 23 n° 11-13). BR 104 is the only leaded gunmetal, with ca. 5 wt% lead, ca. 9 wt% tin and ca. 4 wt% zinc (Delrue 2008: 219, fig. 45).

Fig. B-10. Copper-alloy bells.

E. HAERINCK (†)

38

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

Bells with clapper are conical with an open-base and a free-swinging (iron) clapper. BO 29 is made of 19 wt% zinc brass (Delrue 2008: 219, fig. 45). BQ 66 was clearly incorporated in a string of beads (ed-Dur II: Pl. 23 n° 11-13, Pl. 245 top right). Similar bells occur at e.g. Bahrain (Salman & Andersen 2009: 15, 141, fig. 18, 326-327) and Dura-Europos in Syria (Toll 1946: 121). Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AH 18 AV 20 BR 104 BO 29 BQ 66

Rattle bells (×2); h: 1.1 cm, diam: 0.7 cm Rattle bell. Rattle bell; h: 1.4 cm, diam: 0.9 cm Bell with clapper; h: 0.9 cm, diam: 1.9 cm Bell, clapper lost, with BQ 65; h: 1.7 cm, diam: 2.2 cm Rattle bell; h: 1.5 cm, diam: 0.9 cm Rattle bell; h: 1.4 cm, diam: 0.8 cm Rattle bell, stuck together with N 133; h: 1.3 cm, diam: 0.8 cm Bell with iron clapper; h: 3 cm, diam: 2 cm

2472 4271 Dump 5907 5973

G 3892 G 5158 G 6274

5 G 5158 10

vol. II: pl. 159 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 146 & 147 n° 3 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 10 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 12 vol. II: pl. 245 n° 1

2420 2420 2420

G 3840 G 3840 G 3840

8 8 8

vol. II: pl. 23 & 24 n° 12 vol. II: pl. 23 & 24 n° 11 vol. II: pl. 23 & 25 n° 13

2426

G 3843

16

vol. II: pl. 44 & 46 n° 8, 9

N 124 N 128 N 132 N 186

15. DECORATIVE

ELEMENTS

/

PENDANTS

Fig. B-11. Two copper-alloy objects.

Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AV 85 BO 16

Pendant; l: 5.5 cm, w: 5.3 cm Function unknown; diam: 2.8 cm, h: 1.6 cm

5504 5901

G 5156 -

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 32 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 5

16. FIGURINES Only two small copper-alloy figurines were found. AH 1 represents a horse-and-rider pendant with a suspension loop on the back of the rider (Haerinck 2003: 88-89, fig. 1), while a dog (?) shaped pendant BQ 151 has a perforation for suspension through the body (Haerinck 2003: 90-91, fig. 3). A horseman was also found at Mleiha (Jasim, Uerpmann & Uerpmann 2016: 91). In the past visitors with metal detectors found several small figurines of dogs (?), lizards and snakes at Mleiha and at ed-Dur (Haerinck 2003). However, no further information is available. Quite

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

39

similar dog (?) figurines were found at Dumat al-Jandal (Saudi Arabia) (al-Dayel 1988: Pl. 37 n° 14) and at Masdjid-i Solaiman (Ghirshman 1976: Pl. 101) and Qasr-i Abu Nasr near Shiraz in Iran (Whitcomb 1985: fig. 64i).

Fig. B-12. Two copper-alloy figurines.

Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AH 1

Horse and rider; object has been cleaned;

2461

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 36 & 40 n° 1

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 36 & 40 n° 2

with loophole BQ 151

Animal (dog?)

17. CHAPES Chapes are quite common in SE-Arabia in Mleiha period / PIR-contexts. One was also found during the initial survey at ed-Dur in 1986 (Boucharlat, Haerinck, Phillips & Potts 1988: 7, fig. 11 n° 3). Other examples were found in Mleiha, Dibba (Pellegrino et al. 2019: fig. 27) and Central Oman (Yule 2001: Taf. 120 n° 5.1-5.2, Taf. 132 n° 5; 2019: 160-162, Fig. 10).

Fig. B-13. Copper-alloy chape.

Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AV 105 BQ 118

some wood stuck inside; l: 1.8 cm, th: 0.8 cm l: 2.5 cm, w: 2.3 cm

5505 5984

G 5156 -

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 n° 41 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 4

18. SPINDLES Only one spindle whorl of copper-base alloy metal was found; the numerous whorls at ed-Dur were usually made of stone, bone or occasionally also of lead. The hooked pin that went through the spindle was, however, often made of a copper-base alloy. Inv. n°

Remark

BQ 155

Spindle whorl; surface; copper-base; diam: 1.7 cm, h: 0.4 cm Needle for spindle; with hook; l: 2.4 cm, th: 0.2 cm

N 60

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

-

-

-

2405

G 3831

19

Plates vol. IV: pl. 49 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 9

E. HAERINCK (†)

40

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N 68 N 256 AV 13

Needle for spindle; fragment. Soft stone whorl; bronze needle inside whorl. Needle for spindle; with hook; l: 1.4 cm, th: 0.1 cm Needle for spindle; with hook; l: 2.2 cm, th: 0.1 cm Bronze needle for (bone) spindle whorl.

2405 2432 4269

G 3831 G 3847 E 5157

19 13 -

vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 13 vol. II: pl. 37 & 38 n° 5 vol. IV: pl. 49 n° 1

6059

G 6316

18

vol. II: pl. pl. 278 n° 1

6069

G 6319

9

vol. II: pl. 266 n° 2-3

BR 87 BR 94

19. MISCELLANEA & UNIDENTIFIED

Plates

OBJECTS

Several beads made of copper-alloy were excavated but are discussed in more detail in the chapter on beads. A round bead N 118 is a heavily leaded medium tin-bronze (ca. 21 wt% by EDX) (Delrue 2008: 219). A lead enriched layer can be observed at the rim of the polished section, which is probably due to segregation upon cooling. This is commonly known as “lead sweat” and gave the bead a grey appearance. A lion bead (BK 5), probably an Indian import, is the only object made of heavily leaded copper (Delrue 2008: 219-220). Two altar beads, BS 302 and N 138, were made of unalloyed copper, BS 302 was gilded. Furthermore, there are some bi-metallic daggers with an iron blade and a brass ring-pommel handle (Delrue 2006a; Delrue 2008: 221-223) (see chapter on iron). Three examples were excavated by the Belgian team (AT 13, AV 79 & BL 14), several more by the British team. AT 13 and BL 14 had between 18 and 20 wt% zink, which gave them a golden yellow colour. Many metal objects, particularly small fragmentary items that were not found in a specific context, remain unidentified. Sometimes a function can be suggested but excavated parallels are needed to ascertain their original use. Some items remain enigmatic, despite being familiar from other excavations. Small perforated plaques like N 83, AH 46 and BS 62 (also present in iron, see infra) may have been used to strengthen e.g. the tips of leather belts of bow quivers or saddles. Similar objects were excavated at e.g. Asimah in Ras al-Khaimah Emirate (Vogt 1994: 19, fig. 8 n° 27) and in Central Oman (Yule 2001: Taf. 185, 211, 213, 305). The items in this group are made of unalloyed copper (ED 9), brass (N 51, BS 66) or bronze (N 83, BS 64, BS 92 and BS 64) (Delrue 2008: 226-227, fig. 51). Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

AH 46

plaque, function?; 2 perforations; l: 2.9 cm, w: 1.2 cm Hoof-shaped vessel?; copper-alloy & silver base. Rivet (bronze with some traces of iron); from sword (?); l: 4.4 cm, th: 2.1 cm Function?; l: 2.5 cm, w: 1.1 cm Fibula?; l: 1.7 cm, w: 0.9 cm Incised fragment (from bracelet?); l: 1.7 cm, w: 1 cm Wire (folded); found on top of skull; l: 1.4 cm, th: 0.1 cm Ring?; square; l: 1 cm, th: 0.1 cm

2485

G 3900

9

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 100 & 129 n° 78

5504

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 40

4269 Dump Dump

E 5157 -

-

5973

G 6274

10

vol. II: pl. 245 n° 2

6019

G 6307

2

vol. II: pl. 262 n° 1

AV 58 AV 83 AV 9 BO 59 BO 60 BQ 67 BR 21

Plates vol. II: pl. 162 n° 1

vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 18 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 14 vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 14

B. COPPER-BASE ALLOY OBJECTS

41

Inv. n°

Remark

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

BS 104 BS 129 BS 154 BS 168

Function (?); perforated; l: 1.9 cm, w: 1.9 cm Small hook?; l: 1.8 cm, th: 0.3 cm Function (?); l: 4 cm, w: 2.2 cm Function (?); perforated; l: 2.3 cm, w: 1.9 cm Needle?; square section; l: 4.6 cm, th: 0.3 cm Small ring; diam: 1.2 cm, th: 0.2 cm Folded piece; l: 5.6 cm, w: 2 cm Fragment; l: 4 cm, w: 3.7 cm plaque, function?; 2 iron nails; l: 2 cm, w: 0.7 cm Horse equipment?; fragment; l: 7.5 cm, w: 3.5 cm Kohl-stick?; l: 10.7 cm, th: 0.5 cm Needle?; fragment; l: 5.3 cm, th: 0.3 cm Function?; l: 3.5 cm, w: 2.2 cm Plaque; folded; l: 5.2 cm function?; l: 2.9 cm, w: 1.7 cm Hook; of wine set?; l: 5.1 cm, w: 1.1 cm Staples?; function?; l: 1.2 cm, th: 0.1 cm Fragment; l: 5.5 cm, w: 4.6 cm plaque; function?; 2 iron rivets; l: 9.4 cm, w: 1.9 cm

6541 6573 Surface Surface

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 20 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 12 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 7 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 22

6641

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 11

6711 6719 6760 Dump

G 7052 -

9 -

vol. II: pl. 305 n° 1 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 26 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 21 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 13

Dump

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 6

9 19

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 13 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 18 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 23 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 24 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 15 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 25 vol. II: pl. 28 n° 3 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 22 n° 27 vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 7

BS 177 BS BS BS BS

228 257 268 62

BS 64 BS 83 BS 88 BS 92 ED 44 ED 48 ED 9 N 249 N 51 N 83

6533 Dump 6563 Surface Surface Surface 2429 G 3841 2404 T 2405 G 3831

Plates

C. IRON OBJECTS 1. Arrowheads. a. Lanceolate shaped arrowheads. b. Trilobate arrowheads. c. Arrowheads with pronounced mid-rib. d. Arrowheads with circular section. e. Arrowheads with square section. f. Spoon-shaped arrowheads. g. Possible arrowheads. 2. Daggers, blades, swords & accessories. a. Unidentified blades. b. Daggers and long swords. c. Ring-pommel daggers. d. Accessories: small iron plaques with rivets/nails. 3. Spearheads, lance-heads or pikes. a. Spear-heads. b. Lance-heads/pikes. 4. Implements. a. Blade shears. b. Razors. c. Nails. d. Needles/Pins. e. Large bent pieces. f. Fishhooks. 5. Finger rings. 6. Unidentifiable objects.

---------Iron is the best represented metal at the site, but most of the ed-Dur iron was unfortunately badly preserved. Although iron ores are available in SE-Arabia there is no evidence for iron production at ed-Dur. Iron is relatively rare before the Mleiha period, and some of the iron found at Iron Age sites in the region appears to have been imported from as far as the Zagros region (Stepanov et al. 2018). The limited availability of wood for fuel could explain this preference for imported iron. The “Periplus Maris Erythraei” specifically refers to trade in iron (Casson 1989: 27-29) and it may have reached the site as ingots or as finished product. Some items must have been locally produced or at least worked since smithing slag was found (Pl. 27: sBO 1349 and sBS 1131). The Belgian team recorded some 70 fragments of slag with a total weight of about 3 kg. There was no concentration in specific areas of ed-Dur; it was found dispersed over the site. Analysis confirmed that the slag is smithing slag (Delrue 2008: 400-404, 443-447) and not the result of a smelting process. It is not related to a crucible slag as previously proposed by Ploquin (Ploquin et al. 1999: 179). The size of the slag found at ed-Dur is indicative for small-scale secondary smithing by a smith with basic skills to do some repairs or produce small objects such as arrowheads or nails. Large finished objects were probably all imported.

44

E. HAERINCK (†)

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

Smithing hearths for such work can be simple pits dug in the sand that are given a clay lining (Delrue 2008: 406-407, 410-411, 442). Parts of this lining can sometimes fuse to the slag (sBO 1349 and BS 1131; Delrue 2008: 442). Such small hearths, with a diameter of 25 to 100 cm and a depth of merely 10 to 30 cm, can be difficult to identify on extensive single layer sites such as ed-Dur; they are often disturbed and can easily be confused with domestic fireplaces. One such hearth was, however, identified in area BR (UF 6055 in Square V 3 = sBR 982). It appeared as a burned spot (110 × 80 cm surface; depth: 8 cm) with a few fired clay fragments in situ. The use of portable forges has been suggested to explain the apparent lack of more smithing hearths. At Mleiha several fragments of large pottery vessels with a spout near the flat base were interpreted as “portable forges” (Ploquin & Orzechowski 1997: 25-36; Briand, Dalongeville & Ploquin 1997: 51; Ploquin, Orzechowski & Briand 1999: 172). A few fragments of such large spouts were identified at ed-Dur (BQ 033, BS 5481); they belonged to K. Rutten’s pottery group 9 (orange to brown with coarse vegetal temper) of SE-Arabian origin (Rutten 2006/2008: cat. n° 567 & 568). It is unlikely, however, that such vessels were portable smithing hearths or could hold crucibles as suggested by the French researchers. Delrue looked at the alternative possibility that they could be pot-bellows but later rejected this. Pot-bellows were widely used in the Near East but are usually only some 30 cm high. A complete vessel from Mleiha on display in the Sharjah Archaeological Museum shows that they are far too high to function efficiently as pot-bellow (Delrue 2008: 443-447, fig. 149-152). Since the pottery type was first published, several more fragments and vessels were discovered at Mleiha (Haerinck & Overlaet 2018a: 76, PL. 22:3) and in Oman (Yule 2016: 44-45). Its specific function remains to be determined. The iron objects presented here are discussed within several large categories. There are weapons (arrowheads, spear- and lance blades, swords…), implements (shears, razors, fishhooks, nails, rivets…) and ornamental objects (finger rings). Many fragmentary objects remain unidentified, however. 1. ARROWHEADS Arrowheads are the largest group of iron artefacts at ed-Dur and excavations at the contemporary site of Mleiha indicate that they are among the most common burial goods of this period. At Mleiha arrows were placed together in bundles or in quivers of 20 to 35 (Boucharlat & Garczynski 1988/1997: 63). The arrowheads are often found corroded together while the shafts have completely disappeared, leaving occasionally some mineralized wood. The Laboratory for Wood Biology and Xylanium at the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Brussels, examined a few remains of ed-Dur arrows but could only conclude that the shafts were not made of reed or bamboo. Various types of arrowheads are sometimes found together, but due to corrosion it is not always possible to distinguish the exact shapes. Possibly, each type had its specific use in hunting

Fig. C-1. Various types of iron arrowheads from ed-Dur.

C. IRON OBJECTS

45

or warfare. Game does not seem to have been of much importance in the ed-Dur diet, however (Van Neer & Gautier 1993: 113; Van Neer et al. 2017) and the presence of arrows in tombs may have to be seen in a military context or as a token of prestige or gender identity. a. Lanceolate shaped arrowheads The lanceolate/ovoid shaped arrowheads can be classified in Mouton’s arrowhead typology (Mouton 1991) as types A to E, with the majority belonging to types C, D & E. The main distinction Mouton made is where the broadest part of the arrowhead is situated: for type A this is close to the tip, type B has parallel sides, type C is at its widest near the base and type D at the middle. Type E is similar to type D but without a distinct transition to the tang. The tangs are always round in section. There is a considerable variation in the length of the arrowheads. Such arrowheads are found at most contemporary sites in the UAE, e.g. at Mleiha (Mouton 1991), at Bitnah (Corboud, Castella, Hapka & im Obersteg 1996: 24-26, Pl. 79-80) and at Asimah (Vogt 1994: fig. 8 n° 17-24, fig. 36 n° 4-7), but also in Central Oman during the Samad period (Yule 2001a: 103-105, P11-P12; Yule 2019: 153-154, Fig. 5). b. Trilobate arrowheads Trilobate arrowheads are well represented in the assemblage (Delrue 2007). In general, the tangs of these arrowheads are slenderer than those of other types. The blade varies between 2.4 cm and 6.1 cm without its tang, the average is 3.5 cm. The type seems to have been particularly popular in the ed-Dur phase. They were found in the Oman Peninsula at Mleiha (Mouton 1991; Mouton, Mokaddem & Garczynski 1997: fig. 43 n° 3) and Dibba (Jasim 2006: fig. 55 n° 15-18) but they are absent in the Samad Late Iron Age (Yule 2019: 164-169, fig. 12-16). Some specimens were found in Tylos period burials on Bahrain (Lombard & Salles 1984: fig. 8 n° 1-3; Herling 2003: Abb. 492, 50r). Trilobate arrowheads are well known from the Roman world (1st c. BCE to 4th c. CE) and the Parthian Near East (Delrue 2007). Their production does demand some specialised technical skills and it is well possible that the ed-Dur trilobate arrowheads represent Parthian imports. c. Arrowheads with pronounced mid-rib Rare type. Similar arrowheads are reported from Dibba (Jasim 2006: fig. 55 n° 9-10, 13-14). d. Arrowheads with circular section Rare type, only three specimens were recorded. e. Arrowheads with square section Rare type, only one such arrowhead was recorded. f. Spoon-shaped arrowheads Rare type, two such arrowheads from the same tomb were recorded.

E. HAERINCK (†)

46

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

g. Possible arrowheads Several finds were too corroded or fragmentary to ascertain their identification as an arrowhead. Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

2422 2422 2483 2484 2484 4269 5502 5723 Dump 5825 6041 6056 6525 6712

G 3837 G 3837 G 3898 G 3899 G 3899 E 5157 G 5156 G 6103 G 6219 G 6311 G 6314 G 7001 -

5 5 7 8 8 G 5156 G 6103 1 21 17 6 -

vol. II: pl. 16 & 17 n° 7 vol. II: pl. 16 & 17 n° 6 vol. II: pl. 160 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 161 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 161 n° 3 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 6 vol. II: pl. 99 & 125 n° 63-64 vol. II: pl. 193 n° 1 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 7 vol. II: pl. 259 & 260 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 10 vol. II: pl. 276 & 277 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 301 n° 5 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 5

503 2405 4255 4255 2483 2485 5504 5503 5724 5982 6041 6041 6041 6041 -

R.1004 G 3831 G 3849 G 3849 G 3898 G 3900 G 5156 G 5156 G 6276 G 6311 G 6311 G 6311 G 6311 -

19 11 11 7 9 G 5156 G 5156 12 21 21 21 21 -

vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 8 vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 5 vol. II: pl. 32 & 33 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 32 & 33 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 160 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 162 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 99 & 127 n° 65 vol. II: pl. 99 & 127 n° 66 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 9 vol. II: pl. 247 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 17 vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 13 vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 12 vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 15 not illustrated

6041 6525

G 6311 G 7001

21 6

vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 16 vol. II: pl. 301 n° 4

5746 6041

G 6125 G 6311

1 21

vol. II: pl. 196 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 17

5940

-

-

Lanceolate shaped arrowheads N 173 N 174 AH 36 AH 38 AH 40 AV 6 AV 54 BI 1 BO 53 BR 4 BR 59 BR 67 BS 55 BS 245

Arrowhead Arrowheads (2) Arrowhead (1) Arrowhead (1) Arrowhead? Arrowheads (4) and some tangs Arrowheads (8). Found in bronze bowl Arrowheads (2) and other iron fragments Arrowhead (1) Arrowheads (3); one complete Arrowheads (3) Arrowhead (1) Arrowhead (1) Arrowhead (1) Trilobate arrowheads

L2 N 66 N 302 N 303 AH 35 AH 45 AV 81 AV 134 BJ 7 BQ 117 BR 54 BR 55 BR 56 BR 57 ED 64

Arrowhead (1) Arrowhead (1) Arrowhead (1) Arrowheads (3 or 4) Arrowhead (3) Arrowhead (1) Arrowheads (5) Arrowheads (11) Arrowhead (1) Arrowhead (1) Arrowheads (2) Arrowhead (1) Arrowheads (2) Arrowheads (2) Arrowhead (1). Former sample s0020 Arrowheads with pronounced mid-rib

BR 58 BS 56

Arrowhead (1) Arrowhead (1) Arrowheads with circular section

BL 3 BR 61 BQ 77

Arrowhead; 2 fragments Arrowheads (3 different types corroded together) Arrowhead; 2 fragments

vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 14

C. IRON OBJECTS

Inv. n°

Object

47

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

5773

-

-

6041

G 6311

21

2500 5926 6506 -

-

-

Plates

Arrowheads with square section BM 12

Arrowhead (1)

vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 10

Spoon-shaped arrowheads BR 60

Arrowheads (2)

vol. II: pl. 284 & 286 n° 11

Possible arrowheads AF 4 BQ 34 BS 18 BQ 160

Arrowhead? Arrowhead? Arrowhead? Arrowhead?

2. DAGGERS,

BLADES, SWORDS

&

vol. IV: pl. 28 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 1 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 4 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 3

ACCESSORIES

Due to the heavy corrosion and their fragmentary condition it is not always possible to distinguish between the different types of weapons (see also Potts 1998b: 191-199).

a. Unidentified blades Some of the following iron fragments may have been parts of daggers, swords, knifes, or other edged implements, even arrowheads, but could not be satisfactorily identified. Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

AH 9 AH 47 AV 97

Dagger; fragments 2460 Blade?; small fragment 2485 Dagger?; with remains of wood and woven 5504 reed (cf. AV 68) Arrowheads (2); fragments 5747 Blade or arrowheads; fragments (2) 6008 Blade. Former sample sBQ 1191 Surface Blade. Former sample sBQ 821 5961 Blade. Former sample sBS 1327 6642

G 3900 G 5156

vol. IV: pl. 28 n° 16 9 vol. II: pl. 162 n° 2 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 97 & 123 n° 50

G 6126 G 6300 -

G 6126 11 -

BL 6 BR 14 ED 60 ED 61 ED 62

Plates

vol. II: pl. 197 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 268 n° 2 not illustrated not illustrated not illustrated

b. Daggers and long swords All daggers and swords from ed-Dur had double edged blades and they were all found in tombs. The hilt was made of perishable material. Only a few completely preserved ones have been recovered and even these were always broken. Usually only fragments were found, making it often difficult to distinguish between long and short swords. Swords were always kept in a scabbard and traces of wood, textile or bitumen (Haerinck 2002b: 251-252, fig. 7-8), but occasionally also of leather and cow-hide (pers. comm. Carl Phillips) can be left on the blades. The longest swords seem to have been c. 1 m in length, others are only some 55 to 60 cm long (Ed-Dur II: Pl. 97 n° 42-44). The Danish team found a long sword with a ca. 1 m long blade in

E. HAERINCK (†)

48

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

area A. It had an ivory disk fixed to the hilt with a bronze rivet (Potts 1989a: 15; 1998b: 195). The French team excavated some well-preserved swords attributed to the late Mleiha phase (PIR D) (Mouton 2008: fig. 15 n° 1-2; fig. 116 n° 1). In Central Oman double-edged swords with tang exist but the most common sword types are single edged (Yule 1999: 179, fig. 36, 41; 2001a: 119 S14, Taf. 464 n° 1; 2019: 169-171, Fig. 18). The long swords were possibly imported from the Parthian world since there is no evidence of specialised iron-working at ed-Dur. They are depicted on statues from Hatra (Safar 1974: Pl. 75, 173, 197, 212, 246) and comparable ones were found at Hassani Mahaleh, Ghalekuti II and Nouruz Mahaleh in the N-Iranian province of Gilan (Sono & Fukai 1968: Pl. LXVI n° 9, LXXIII n° 8, LXXVII n° 12, XXXIX n° 10, XLIV n° 8, XLV n° 11; Egami, Fukai & Masuda 1966: Pl. XXXVI n° 4, XXXVIII, 1 & XLVI n° 1).

Fig. C-2. Two long iron swords found in tomb G5156.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

N 103

Likely grip of sword

2422

G 3837

5

vol. II pl. 16 & 17 n° 3

N 154

Dagger-sword; fragment

2422

G 3837

5

vol. II: pl. 16 & 17 n° 5

N 172

Tip of sword

2422

G 3837

5

vol. II: pl. 16 & 17 n° 4

N 175

Fragment of sword; round section: from grip?

2422

G 3837

5

vol. II: pl. 16 & 17 n° 2

N 304

Sword; fragment

4255

G 3849

11

vol. II: pl. 32 & 33 n° 4

AV 29

Long sword; several pieces but almost complete. Wood; textile and bitumen. Iron but handle with traces of bronze inlay (?)

4273

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 97 & 122 n° 42

AV 68

Different fragments of swords and a complete sword. With traces of bitumen, reed and wood (cf. AV 97)

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 97, 122 & 123 n° 43, 47 & 48

AV 72

Sword/dagger. With wood and leather imprints

5504

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 97 n° 49

AV 121 Sword/dagger; fragment

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 97 & 123 n° 45

AV 138 Sword. Traces of wood on handle, traces of leather or textile on blade

5502

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 97 & 122 n° 44

BC 3

Dagger; fragment

5606

G 6082

G 6082 vol. II: pl. 187 n° 2

BM 18

Dagger. Traces of wood and bronze

5775

G 6130

G 6130 vol. II: pl. 209 n° 2

BR 62

Dagger; several fragments

6041

G 6311

21

vol. II: pl. 284 & 287 n° 18

BR 70

Sword. With traces of wood

6056

G 6314

17

vol. II: pl. 276 & 277 n° 5-6

C. IRON OBJECTS

49

c. Ring-pommel daggers At least three fragmentary daggers with an iron blade and copper alloy ring-pommel were found by Belgian and two more by the British archaeologists (Delrue 2006a; 2008: 221-223, 460-469, fig. 47, 155-156). Two of them were analysed. The ring-pommels have a high copper and zinc content indicating that they are made of brass. With a zinc percentage of 10 to 20% they must have had a golden yellow colour when polished. A brass nail like object is the guard of such a ring-pommel dagger (AV 83; see § B: copper-base n° 23). It is similar to the guard of dagger AW 63, excavated by the British team (Delrue 2006a: 203, fig. 1; Delrue 2008: 222, fig. 47). The ring-pommel was attached to the iron core of the handle with one or more rivets (see BL 14), a technique probably used on all the daggers. The handle was made of organic material, possibly wood. Some pottery figurines from ed-Dur show riders carrying similar daggers at the waist (Pl. 43-44, BR 11, BS 2 & ED 50). Weapons with ring-pommel were widespread in Central Asia and the Middle East (Daems 2004a: 97-99; Delrue 2006a: 207-210, fig. 2; 2008: 465-469, fig. 155-156). A few very similar daggers were found at Jidd Hafs on Bahrain. In the Parthian Empire and its buffer states such daggers are known from Palmyra, Hatra, Commagene… (Delrue 2006a). At Palmyra these daggers are depicted on sculpture (Tanabe 1986: 180, 467, 470, Pl. 147, 441, 444). At Dura-Europos a bronze shaft with ring was possibly the handle of a knife (Toll 1946: Tomb 40, Pl. LII). An iron knife with a wooden handle and ring-pommel is reported from the ed-Dur phase camel cemetery at Mleiha (Jasim 1999: 89 fig. 29). Although the brass is probably of Roman origin (see supra, copper-base alloy objects), the weapons may have been produced somewhere in the Parthian world using imported brass ingots. The ed-Dur daggers are probably not locally produced since there is no evidence for brass working at the site.

Fig. C-3. Iron and brass handles from ring-pommel daggers.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

AT 13

Dagger. Loop-handle made of brass and blade of iron Dagger. Loop-handle made of brass and blade of iron Dagger. Loop-handle made of brass and blade of iron

4264

G 5155

3

5504

G 5156

5753

G 6150

AV 79 BL 14

Plates vol. II: pl. 172 n° 1

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 96 & 121 n° 39 5

vol. II: pl. 199 n° 1

E. HAERINCK (†)

50

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

d. Accessories: small iron plaques with rivets/nails Iron plaques with small rivets/nails were probably used to hold scabbards or quivers together or to strengthen them. They also exist in copper-alloy or silver. Some still have traces of wood on the inside. Similar Sasanian ones from Jebel Emalah (Sharjah Emirate) probably belonged to the scabbard of a sword (Potts 1998a: 134-135, fig. 8; 1998b: 201; Potts identified them as possibly a gauntlet) and many were found associated to arrowheads in Central Oman (Yule 2001: Taf. 211 n° 3, 226 n° 10, 311 n° 15, 397, 413 n° 1, 457 n° 9; 2019: Fig. 10). Inv. n°

Object

AV 31 AV 67

Plaque with two nails Plaque. Function unknown; some imprints of wood, with two nails BO 32 Plaque. Fragments with nails; some traces of wood BQ 112 Plaque with two nails

3. SPEARHEADS,

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

4270 5503

G 5156 G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 99 & 128 n° 75 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 99 & 128 n° 74

5908

G 6161

4

vol. II: pl. 215 n° 3, 4

5981

G 6275

11

vol. II: pl. 246 n° 1

LANCE-HEADS OR PIKES

a. Spearheads Spears (or javelins) can be used for hunting or combat; they are light projectiles that can be thrown considerable distances. Their use in the Oman Peninsula during the Mleiha period is depicted on bronze bowls from Oman (Yule 2019: 156, fig. 7). Several of the ed-Dur spearheads had remains of wood left in the hollow shaft. Some probably had a midrib. The differentiation from lance-heads or pikes is somewhat speculative and based on size, weight and cross-section of the points.

Fig. C-4. Two iron spearheads found in tomb G5156.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AV 64 AV 78

Spearhead. Spearheads (2). Socketed, with traces of wood in the hollow shaft; as well as some bronze plaque

5501 5504

G 5156 G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 98 & 124 n° 54 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 98 & 124 n° 51

C. IRON OBJECTS

51

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

AV 98 BC 4

Spearhead. Fragments Spearhead. Socketed, some traces of bronze; fragment Spearhead. Fragment of shaft? Spearhead. With traces of wood and bronze; fragment head Spearhead. Fragment Spearhead. Traces of wood and bronze, fragments

5504 5606

G 5156 G 6082

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 98 n° 52 G 6082 vol. II: pl. 187 n° 3

5723 5943

G 6103 -

G 6103 vol. II: pl. 193 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 17

5944 6041

G 6235 G 6311

BI 1 BQ 83 BQ 95 BR 63

15 21

Plates

vol. II: pl. 249 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 284 & 287 n° 19

b. Lance-heads/pikes A lance is a heavier weapon than a spear or javelin and although it can be thrown short distances, it was primarily used for thrusting in close combat. A pike is not intended to be thrown, but is a thrusting weapon with a sharp point. The main morphological difference with a spear is its overall length and/or its more robust head. The differentiation between lance-heads or pikes and spearheads is often questionable in the present archaeological context given that in most cases only small fragments remained. The use of a lance is depicted on an Early Mleiha phase (PIR A/B) decorated bowl fragment excavated at Mleiha. It shows a horseman with a long lance charging at a foot soldier (Mouton 2008: fig. 24 n° 7; Overlaet 2018: fig. 16). Such long lances would not have fitted in the burial pits, however; one would expect only relatively short lances or pikes to have been placed in the tomb. The weight and size of the point and its circular cross-section was the reason to classify the following items in this category. AV 53 is the bestpreserved example. It has a long heavy point with circular cross-section that changes at the base into a square cross section. Most of the other fragments are relatively small and in the case of BP4, AF8 and BO24, the identification thus remains very tentative. In contemporary Oman, lances seem also to have been rare (Yule 2001: 80-83, S 3032; 2019: 156).

Fig. C-5. Selection of possible iron lance-heads/pikes.

E. HAERINCK (†)

52

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

AF 8

Lance-head?

2501

-

-

AV 53

Lance-head/pike

5502

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 97 & 123 n° 46

AV 80

Lance-head/pike

5504

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 98 & 125 n° 56

BO 24

pike or lance-head?

5904

R 6160

BP 4

Lance-head?

5816

G 6216

BR 17

Lance-head

6011

G 6301

12

vol. II: pl. 269 n° 2

BS 56

Lance-head

6525

G 7001

6

vol. II: pl. 301 n° 3

-

Plates vol. IV: pl. 28 n° 11

vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 12

G 6216 vol. II: pl. 227 & 228 n° 4

4. IMPLEMENTS a. Blade shears Blade shears consist of two blades connected at the end farthest from the point. Blade shears are still used today, mainly to shear animals but they can of course be used for other purposes. The cutting edges of a blade shear pass each other as the shearer squeezes them together. At ed-Dur they were probably used for shearing sheep, the main part of the livestock (Van Neer & Gautier 1993: 114), goats and camels. Similar blade shears were found in Mleiha period tombs on Ghallah island, just opposite ed-Dur (Mouton 2008: 108, fig. 137: 3 & 5). They are also reported from Bitnah (Corboud, Castella, Hapka & im Obersteg 1996: 157, Pl. 24-26) and Bidya (al-Tikriti 1989: Pl. 97B).

Fig. C-6. Two iron blade shears found in tomb G5156.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AV 61

Shear

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 99 & 128 n° 70

AV 66

Shears (3)

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 99 & 128 n° 67-69

AV 69

Shear

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 99 & 128 n° 71-73

BM 4

Shear

5767

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 2

BO 42

Shear

-

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 7

BQ 28

Shear

5926

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 8

BR 41

Shears?

6043

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 30 & 32 n° 10

BR 72

Shear

6043

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 30 & 32 n° 11

C. IRON OBJECTS

53

b. Razors Two of the three iron razors that were found in the ed-Dur tombs had remains of a wooden handle. The sharp razor BR 88 was found wrapped in a plain weave cloth (Haerinck 2002b: fig. 9).

Fig. C-7. Iron razor wrapped in textile.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

BC 2 BR 88

Razor. With two nails in handle Razor. With imprints of textile and traces of wood Former sample sBQ 892

5606 6056

G 6082 G 6314

G 6082 vol. II: pl. 187 n° 1 17 vol. II: pl. 276 & 277 n° 8

5938

G 6234

ED 59

16

Plates

not illustrated

c. Nails Most nails were found in tombs and may have been part of coffins, boxes or other furniture. Some 15 nails were, however, excavated at the main entrance to the Shamash temple (M 6 and M 16), some 40 to 60 cm above the floor level (Ed-Dur III: 8, Pl. 52 n° 2). These were probably part of the wooden door of the temple. There is a folded one with a semi-spherical head that shows this door must have been (at this point) 3.5 cm thick (Pl. 24 & 27 n° 36). The technique to hammer a large nail completely through the wood and then hammering the excess length at 90° angles in the back of the wood is still used today in woodworking. An exact parallel for its use was picked up by one of the team members in 1982 at the deserted coastal village of Jazirat al-Hamra in the Emirate of Ras al-Khaimah (Pl. 27 n° 38). A copper-alloy nail with the same shape was a surface find at ed-Dur (Pl. 27 n° 37). Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

M6

Nails (14)

629

D 1113

-

M 16 N 61 N 82

Nail (2 fragments) Nails (2) Nail

647 2405 2405

F 1122 G 3831 G 3831

19 19

Plates vol. III: pl. 52 n° 1-2 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 27 n° 36 not illustrated vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 56 n° 4

E. HAERINCK (†)

54

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DE WAELE

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Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N 85 AT 11 BO 36 BQ 46

Nails and fragments Nails (at least 5) & blade? Nails? (2) Nails (13 + several fragments) & some traces of wood, one fragment with traces of textile and bitumen. Nail? Nail

2405 4261 5908 5968

G 3831 G 5153 G 6161 G 6272

19 1 4 08

6622 6539

-

-

BS 90 BS 99

DELRUE

Plates vol. II: pl. 56 n° 1-2 vol. II: pl. 170 n° 1 & 2 vol. II: pl. 215 n° 5 vol. II: pl. 242 n° 1

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 27 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 26

d. Needles/Pins Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

BL 12 BQ 102 BS 175 BS 239 ED 63

Needle Needle (?) and some other fragments Needle Pin Pin. Former sample sBR 971

5751 5943 6583 6757 6041

6129 G 6311

21

Plates vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 25 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 23 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 24 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 22 not illustrated

e. Large bent pieces Several large iron pieces were found in the fill of the main entrance to the temple in Area M. Like the iron nails that were found at this location, they could belong to the wooden entrance door (Ed-Dur III: 8). Other objects remain unidentified. Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

M2 M5 M6

Handle of door?

627

-

-

Nail (or pin?) Handle? from wooden door of temple

629 629

D 1113 D 1113

-

BQ 33 Pin? Bent BQ 105 Hook?

5926 5978

-

-

vol. III: pl. 52 n° 1 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 34 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 32 vol. III: pl. 52 n° 1-2 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 35 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 29 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 31

BS 246 BS 290

6712 6719

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 33 vol. IV: pl. 24 & 26 n° 30

Object Bent fragment

Plates

f. Fishhooks Apart from fish from the nearby lagoon, the best represented taxa at ed-Dur are pelagic (deepsea) fish caught in open sea. The large amount of species like tuna, as well as the presence of large-sizes of demersal (i.e. living at the sea bottom) fish like jacks/trevaillies (Carangidae) and emperors (Lethrinidae) indicates that open sea fishing was intensively practised. The fishhooks that were found indicate line-fishing (see lead line weights discussed infra). Due to the very corroded state of the fishhooks it is impossible to say whether they were barbed.

C. IRON OBJECTS

55

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

ED 56 ED 57 ED 58

Fishhook. Former sample sBO 855 Fragments fishhooks. Former sample sN 254 Fishhook. Former sample sBS 1201

5969 2405 6564

G 6270 G 3831 -

6 19 -

5. FINGER

Plates not illustrated not illustrated not illustrated

RING

Iron was only sporadically used for jewellery. Only one finger ring with an oval bezel for an inset was found. Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

AH 48

Finger ring. Strongly corroded; oval bezel for inset

2491

-

-

Plates vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 6

6. UNIDENTIFIABLE OBJECTS A large number of iron objects are too corroded to identify. Some may have been nails, knives, knobs or rings, or were part of larger objects (weaponry, furniture…) (BR 29). Object BS 75 (5.2 × 3.0 cm) seems to be a scale of armour. Similar ones were found in tombs at Mleiha (Mouton 2008: 107, fig. 87) and scale armour is depicted on a bronze bowl fragment from the same site with a horseman fighting a foot soldier (Mouton 2008: fig. 24; Overlaet 2018: fig. 16). Several scales dating to the 1st cent. BCE-1st cent. CE were found in tomb 1 at Janussan mound IIA (Lombard & Salles 1984: 33-59, fig. 13). Object BS 16 was probably a dovetail clamp although no architectural remains with this system were discovered at ed-Dur. It may also be an ingot or even something of more recent date… Another utilitarian iron object was identified as a chisel by the Danish team (Potts 1989a: 20-21, fig. N), and a fragment of a saw was excavated in a small structure during the initial prospection in 1986 (Boucharlat, Haerinck, Phillips & Potts 1988: fig. 10 n° 12). Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

M 66 N 50 AH 37 AH 49 AT 11

4310 2405 2483 2498 4261

G 3831 G 3898 G 5153

19 7 1

AT 12 AV 69

Disc. Perforated Bronze ring & iron fragments maybe of sword Blade? Fragments (6) Small fragment. Function unknown Nails (at least 5) & blade? + some fragments of blade? Nail or sword? Different fragments

4263 5503

G 5154 G 5156

BI 1 BI 2 BL 3 BO 24

Arrowheads (2) and other iron fragments Ring? Point? Round point; function unknown

5723 5723 5746 5904

G 6103 G 6103 G 6125 R 6160

Plates vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 6 vol. II: pl. 160 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 24 n° 28 vol. II: pl. 170 n° 1 & 2

2 vol. II: pl. 171 n° 3 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 99 & 128 n° 71-73, 76-77 G 6103 vol. II: pl. 193 n° 1, 2, 4 G 6103 vol. II: pl. 193 n° 3 1 vol. II: pl. 196 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 13

E. HAERINCK (†)

56

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

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Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

BP 4

Scraper, point and ring

5816

G 6216

BQ 49 BQ 76 BQ 78 BQ 94 BQ 114 BR 20 BR 29 BR 64 BR 68 BR 69 BR 71 BS 16 BS 62

Knife Point Knife with nail Hook? Knife? Fragments Rods (4) Fragments Point? Rings (2) Scraper? Chisel? Clamp? Iron fragments Plaque. Bronze & iron; 2 perforations and iron nails Lamella? Knife Fragments Unknown function. Bronze & iron

5935 5940 5940 5944 5943 6019 6034 6041 6056 6056 6056 6517 Dump

G 6235 G 6307 G 6311 G 6356 G 6314 G 6314 -

15 2 21 17 17 17 -

6531 6574 6712 Surface

-

-

BS 75 BS 128 BS 230 ED 48

Tomb

DELRUE

Plates vol. II: pl. 227 & 228 n° 3, 4&5 vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 3 vol. IV: pl. 28 & 29 n° 15 vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 9 vol. II: pl. 249 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 6 vol. II: pl. 262 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 30 & 32 n° 14 vol. II: pl. 284 & 287 n° 20 vol. II: pl. 276 & 277 n° 2 & 3 vol. II: pl. 276 & 277 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 276 & 277 n° 7 vol. IV: pl. 30 & 32 n° 13 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 13 vol. IV: pl. 30 & 32 n° 12 vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 4 vol. IV: pl. 30 & 31 n° 5 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 15

Finally, some bi-metallic items can be mentioned. There is a copper-alloy bell with an iron clapper (Fig. B-10, N 186; vol. II: Pl. 44 & 46 n° 8-9), a bracelet with two small loops at the opening made of twisted copper-alloy and iron wire (Fig. B-8, N 191; vol. II: Pl. 44 & 46 n° 2) and small rectangular copper-alloy plaques with iron nails (BS 62: Pl. 20 - 21 n° 13; N 83, vol. II: 56 & 59 n° 7).

D. LEAD OBJECTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Figurine. Button. Spindle whorls. Shell-shaped objects. Line weights / net sinkers. Unidentified lead items.

---------Two pyramid shaped objects with a perforation at the top were found during the 1986 survey at ed-Dur. They were interpreted as weights for fishing lines or nets (Boucharlat, Haerinck, Phillips & Potts 1988: 7, fig. 17 n° 7-8). Furthermore, an amateur archaeologist had found a large disc-shaped lead object with a caliper-like monogram, possibly an ingot (24 cm. in diameter) (Haerinck 1998b). This monogram, also familiar from local coins, appears on some S-Mesopotamian and NE-Arabian pottery sherds (e.g. at ed-Dur and Akkaz) and is identical or similar to monograms on coins of Characene and on some issues from Seleucia. It also appears on a Characenian seal found on Kharg island (Iran) and on a silver ring from Bahrain but it is never found on coins from NE-Arabia. The caliper sign has been discussed above (see chapter on coins), but its significance remains unclear. Some 35 lead objects and 75 lead samples were registered. Most are small folded pieces, probably line-weights or net-sinkers, but there was also a camel figurine, a button with the image of a Roman head, two shell shaped objects and three spindle whorls. Worth mentioning is also a bell-shaped lead artefact with an iron ring attached to the top that was excavated by the Danish team in area Z (Potts 1989a: 26-27, fig. AA; Potts 1990: 287). It resembles stone weights used until recently by pearl divers (compare Carter 2012: 222). No evidence of lead production or lead working was found at ed-Dur. However, given its low melting point (327°) it is easy to cast and local workshops undoubtedly worked with lead. It was also used to improve the liquidity of copper-base alloys or to change the colour of the alloy. Lead could be expulsed from the alloy to the surface when it cooled down after the casting process, giving the metal a grey appearance called “lead sweat”. Delrue (2008: 251-288, 531) analysed several artefacts by SEM-EDX and by ICP-MS for lead isotope analyses (LIA). The SEM-EDX analyses showed that all the recovered objects were made of unalloyed lead. The LIA showed that most of the samples plot closely together indicating that the material came from the same source. It was possible to obtain a sample of the “ingot” and the results fell in the middle of the lead cluster. The lead isotope analyses suggest a Sardinian or eventually a Spanish ore source. The Romans extensively mined Spain and Sardinia until ca. 50 CE and lead was a by-product of silver production. By 70 CE British and Welsh ore fields became the main lead and silver sources. A Roman provenance for the ed-Dur lead is convincing. According to the “Periplus Maris Erythraei” the Romans traded lead from Egypt to Barygaza and Muziris (India) despite the presence of ore sources on the Indian subcontinent itself (56: 18.19): “In this port of trade (Barygaza) there is a market for: wine, principally Italian but also Laodicean and Arabian;

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copper, tin, and lead; coral and …” (49: 16.21) (Casson 1989: 27-29, 81). It may thus have ended up at ed-Dur, although the route from the East Mediterranean, through Syria and Iraq is possible as well. The isotope analysis resulted in two outliers in the LIA plots (Delrue 2008: 258, 264, 279, 288). No match was found with any ore source in the database for the Indian lead button (BS 269) with a Roman type head. The second item was a large oval bowl-shaped fragment with a irregular bottom found by the Danish team (Z 19; ingot?). It contained more silver as trace element compared to the other analysed samples. The closest matches for the lead isotope ratios of Z 19 are found in ores from the Indian Subcontinent and more specifically from Rajasthan. Neither the “Periplus” nor Pliny the Elder’s “Historia Naturalis” mention the export of lead from India but the study of Indian lead coinage showed that the Indian mines of Zawar (Rajasthan) opened-up in the second half of the 1st cent. CE (Delrue 2008: 287-288). 1. FIGURINE A small perforated headless camel figurine. It was probably cast in a double mould (Haerinck 2003: 89-91, fig. 2). Camel figurines and pendants are common in pre-Islamic Arabia and reflect the close relationship between man and camel (Ludwig 2015). Similar pieces, said to come from Mleiha and ed-Dur, have been acquired by the Sharjah Archaeological Museum (Haerinck 2003: 89).

Fig. D-2. Lead camel pendant from ed-Dur.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

BO 46

Figurine, headless camel

Dump

-

-

Plates vol. IV: pl. 36 & 40 n° 3

2. BUTTON This circular lead button (diam. 1.6 cm) has two small loops at the back. It shows a portrait of a Roman emperor in a beaded circle. In all probability, the object comes from India, where such

Fig. D-2. Lead “button” with Roman imperial portrait, possibly of Indian provenance.

D. LEAD OBJECTS

59

buttons were produced in metal (gold, silver or lead), pottery or faience. They usually copied the portraits of Augustus or Tiberius from Roman denarii and aurei (Deo 1991: 40-41, fig. 3.1 & 3.2). They occur at numerous sites in the Deccan and North India (Ghosh 1990: 177-178; Nath 1995: 153; Jyotsna 2000: 64). The ICP-MS analysis shows that the object has a very low silver content (Delrue 2008: 264, 280). The isotope analysis of BS 269 differentiated the object from the other ed-Dur items, supporting its probable Indian origin. Inv. n°

Object

BS 269

Knob with Roman head

3. SPINDLE

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

6712 (dump)

-

-

Plates vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 31

WHORLS

Only 3 of the numerous spindle whorls found at ed-Dur were made of lead, the others are of copper-alloy, bone/ivory or softstone. They were found on the surface of the site and on an excavation dump. Their shape and decoration are identical to other spindle whorls.

Fig. D-3. Lead lath turned spindle whorls from ed-Dur.

Inv. n° Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

BS 167 BS 306 ED 4

Surface Dump Surface

-

-

Whorl Whorl Whorl

4. SHELL-SHAPED

Plates vol. IV: pl. 49 n° 3 vol. IV: pl. 49 n° 4 vol. IV: pl. 49 n° 5

OBJECTS

Two lead objects were cast in the shape of a shell of the Arcidae-family. Molten lead was probably simply poured in an open mould made by the impression of a shell. Their function is unknown. Such lead shells could be used as an alternative monetary-like system for counting, selling or exchanging specific goods, or they could be used as gaming pieces. M 85 was found in the temple area and a use as some kind of ex-voto or offering should not be excluded either. Similar shells are occasionally encountered in excavation reports. Two lead shells were excavated at Olynthus (Greece) in a domestic building and on a street. They were described as “lead weights” and as a possible “child’s plaything” (Robinson 1941: 469, pl. CXLIX). Others were excavated at Samaria in Palestine (c. 200 CE) and were considered to be “playing pieces for some game” (Crowfoot et al. 1957: 477).

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Fig. D-4. A solid cast lead shell from ed-Dur.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

M 85 BS 140

Folded fragments + lead shell Shape of a shell

6627

-

-

5. LINE

WEIGHTS

/

Plates vol. IV: pl. 33 - 35 n° 33, 40-42 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 32

NET SINKERS

Lead is an ideal material as a line weight because it is heavy and easy to fold. Most lead line weights were simple folded rectangular pieces (Chavane 1990: 289-290). Several such line weights were found at ed-Dur (weighing up to ca. 20 g) and were registered as objects (15) or samples (18). Almost all of them were found in occupation layers across the site. Although rarely reported in excavation reports and sometimes described as “clamps, agrafes or crampons”, this type of fishing equipment is known from many coastal sites since the 2nd millennium BCE. They are reported from Greece, the Syrian coast, Kuwait, Bahrain… (Chavane 1990: 290; Oleson, Fitzgerald et al. 1994: 70). Examples from the first centuries CE are reported from Akkaz in Kuwait (Gachet-Bizollon 2011: 286, fig. 1 n° 1). During the initial 1986 survey of the site two lead weights with a perforation at the top were found that may have been used as net sinkers or may have been attached to fishing lines (Boucharlat, Haerinck, Phillips & Potts 1988: fig. 13 n° 7-8; compare to Salman & Andersen 2009: 139, figs. 316-317).

Fig. D-5. Lead line-weights from ed-Dur.

D. LEAD OBJECTS

61

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

M 85 BJ 9 BM 29 BO 57 BQ 146

Folded fragments + lead shell Folded piece Folded pieces (3) Folded piece Folded fragments

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 33 - 35 n° 33, 40-42 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 13 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 19-21 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 22 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 14-18

BR 102 BS 103 BS 111 BS 144 BS 255 BS 264 BS 265 BS 267 BS 281 ED 47

Folded fragments Folded piece Folded piece; perforated Folded piece Folded piece Folded piece Folded piece Folded piece Folded Folded pieces (2)

Dump Dump E &W Dump 6567 6542 6575 6707 6655 6656 6754 6760 Surface

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 2-4 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 7 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 23 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 1 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 5 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 9 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 10 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 8 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 6 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 11-12

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

6. UNIDENTIFIED LEAD

Plates

ITEMS

Inv. n°

Object

AH 33 AV 10 BB 4 BO 58 BQ 163 BR 10 BS 266 BS 283 BS 293 ED 3 ED 45 ED 46 M 85

Disc shaped object; function? Folded piece Folded piece Small piece, 2 perforations Disc shaped Folded Weight? oval shaped, perforated Squarish object Net sinker? Molten piece Flat and rectangular object Folded fragments + lead shell

2483 G 3898 4269 E 5157 5545 Dump Dump 6000 6659 6719 6719 Dump Surface Surface Surface -

7 -

Plates vol. II: pl. 160 n° 4 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 35 n° 37 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 35 n° 36 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 29 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 30 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 35 n° 38 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 34 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 24 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 26-28 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 35 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 35 n° 39 vol. IV: pl. 33 & 34 n° 25 vol. IV: pl. 33 - 35 n° 33, 40-42

E. SILVER OBJECTS Only a few silver items were recovered during the excavations. Two silver earrings were found with the intrusive skeleton UF 4272 in the large vaulted tomb G 5156 and are likely to be dated slightly later than the majority of the 1st cent. CE material from the lower part of the tomb. A 2nd/3rd to 4th cent. CE date can be suggested for AV 25 and AV 42. Similar earrings have been excavated at Asimah (UAE) (Vogt 1994: fig. 20) and at Tall Seh Hamad, a necropolis of ParthianRoman date (Novak et al. 2000: Abb. 29). A small silver nail or rivet (M 18) was found at the floor level of the temple in area M. It can be compared to a small object from Asimah (UAE) (Vogt 1994: fig. 36). An unusual item is the curved copper-base alloy vessel AV 58 which had a silver bottom. Furthermore, there is a small silver object, probably an ingot (see Coins chapter: n° 118), which was cast in a small pottery mould (see Pottery chapter). Silver is a soft material with a melting point of 962°C and it is often alloyed with a small amount of copper to harden it. Several of the finds and some items registered as samples were analysed by SEM-EDX with lead isotope analyses (LIA) using ICP-MS (Delrue 2008: 266-288, 549). Some of the lead isotope fingerprints are partly covered by those of Spanish and Sardinian silver ores, others by British and Welsh ores. However, other silver sources are not to be excluded, more particularly sources in France, Germany and Iran. The ores from Oman as a whole show little overlap with the exception of the small silver ring ED 16, which is only covered by a data point of Omani origin (Delrue 2008: 288, 459). Although some gold and silver is present in the Hajjar mountains, there is no evidence of late Pre-Islamic SE-Arabian gold and silver production. Silver working activity at ed-Dur is attested by the discovery of three litharge fragments: 2 samples from area BO (sBO 722 and sBO 724a) and 1 sample from area AW (sAW 13; excavated by the British team) (Delrue 2008: 271-277). Litharge consists mainly of lead oxides and is a typical waste product of the silver extraction process. The high copper content in the litharge cakes shows that the silver was probably extracted from copper-silver alloys, maybe during the recycling of coins as this is the only well documented category of objects at ed-Dur that is made of this alloy. Billon or copper-silver alloy was also occasionally used for other items, e.g. a decorative nail head or button (M 75: billon), but there is no documentation for its extensive use apart from coins. The low silver content in the litharge fragments shows that the craftsmen had a good knowledge of the complex extraction process. The mechanism to extract silver from a debased alloy involves the melting of the impure silver with lead. The melt was subsequently oxidised by blowing air across it. This formed the litharge which oxidised and dissolved any base metal that was present, before it was absorbed by the hearth lining. Silver dissolves readily in lead metal, but is insoluble in litharge. The purified silver was thus left behind on the surface of the hearth at the end of the process (Delrue 2008: 255). This process can be performed in a crucible but a simple hearth or small pit in the ground sufficed. Of key importance in the process is the lining that was used. For the cupellation process at ed-Dur, the lining was made from a calcium-rich material, possibly crushed shells or ground-up beach-rock (farush) (Delrue 2008: 289). The three litharge fragments have a more or less flat bottom; two have a small depression at the topside were the silver rich button must have been collected (Delrue 2008: 273). All have parts of the rim preserved indicating that the original shape of the container in which they were melted must have been round. The lead isotope fingerprints of the litharge fragments cluster with

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those of the majority of the lead objects from ed-Dur, indicating that the lead used for the cupellation was all of the same origin. Additionally, this gives circumstantial evidence that they date to the same period and are not the result of an activity that postdates the ed-Dur phase occupation.

Fig. E-1. Two silver earrings, an unidentified silver wire item (clasp?) and a fragmentary copper-alloy vessel with a silver base.

Inv. n°

Object

M 18 M 19

Silver nail/rivet; l: 0.9 cm, th: 0.3 cm Unknown type of object; traces of gilding. Kohl stick? l: 2.5 cm, w: 1.2 cm Knob?

M 75 N 26 N 27 N 301 AV 25 AV 42 AV 58 BL 5 ED 16

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

647 647

F 1122 F 1122

-

vol. IV: pl. 24 & 25 n° 1 vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 17

-

Dump NE-corner G 3831

-

vol. IV: pl. 20 & 21 n° 11

19

vol. II: pl. 56 n° 11

G 3831

19

vol. II: pl. 56 n° 10

G 3849 G 5156 G 5156 G 5156

11 G 5156 G 5156 G 5156

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 8

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 10

Silver? Tiny fragment.; electrum? foil 2405 or cover; l: 0.8 cm, w: 0.6 cm Silver; twisted wire, tiny fragment.; 2405 l: 0.5 cm For stringing beads? l: 1 cm, w: 0.6 cm 4255 Silver earring; l: 3.2 cm, w: 1.7 cm 4272 Silver earring; l: 3.8 cm, w: 1.7 cm 4272 Hoof-shaped vessel? Copper-alloy with 5503 silver base; l: 7.7 cm, h: 6.5 cm Silver, ring, very small; diam: 0.6 cm, 5745 th: 0.2 cm Silver, ring, annular; diam: 1.3 cm, Surface th: 0.3 cm

Plates

vol. II: pl. 32 & 33 n° 5 vol. II: pl. 79 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 79 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 100 & 129 n° 78

F. GOLD OBJECTS Very few gold ornaments were found at ed-Dur but since the tombs were extensively plundered, this may not be representative. The provenance of the ed-Dur gold remains unknown. The objects were not analysed, the quantification of e.g. platinum group trace elements, could eventually provide definite answers. Gold and silver are present in the Hajjar mountains but there is no clear evidence of Late Pre-Islamic SE-Arabian gold or silver extraction. The “Periplus Maris Erythraei” mentions gold among the trade goods exported from Omana (36.10-12): “Both ports of trade (Omana and Apologos) export to Barygaza (India) and Arabia….gold….”, but this does not exclude the possibility that the gold arrived in Omana from elsewhere. Almost all the gold objects from ed-Dur were found in the few unplundered tombs (Pl. H). Earrings AV 73, AV 82 and N 115 have wire around the extremities; similar ones were excavated at Shakhoura (Lombard 1999: 194 n° 308), at Tall Seh Hamad (Syria) and throughout the Nabateaean empire (Lindner 1986: Abb. 58; Musche 1988: Taf. VIII; Parlasca et al. 1997: Abb. 160a; Novak et al. 2000: Abb. 51). Earrings such as AV 100 and AV 149, with a gold bead on the ring, are familiar from al-Hajjar (Bahrain) and Saar (Bahrain) (Lombard 1999: 194 n° 309; Jensen 2003: fig. 15.1). The type of bead made of hollow globules (AV 139) is found in NE- & SE-Arabia from the Iron Age into the 1st/2nd cent. AD. Identical or very similar beads have been found at Rumeilah (Iron Age; Boucharlat & Lombard: 1985, pl. 73), Mleiha (Mouton 2008: fig. 28 n° 1; Jasim 1999; fig. 8, fig. 11 n° 9-11; Overlaet, Haerinck et al. 2016 & 2018: fig. 7), Dibba (Jasim 2006: fig. 63 n° 28), Samad (Oman) (Yule 2001: 250, 252-253, 344, Taf. 89, 95, 98 & 407), Shabwa (Yemen) (Morrison 1991: 385) and Dahran (Saudi Arabia) (Potts 1989b: 57). Gold was occasionally used to enhance silver or copper objects. A possible kohl-stick of silver (M 19) (Delrue 2008: 286) and a copper bead (BS 302) show remains of gilding.

Fig. F-1. Gold earrings and bead from ed-Dur.

Inv. n°

Object

M 65 N 115

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb 8

Wire. Part of gold earring (?); l: 2.2 cm Earring. Found below skull, on left ear; 3.10 g.; diam: 1.6 cm, th: 0.3 cm AV 073 Earring; 3.50 g.; diam: 1.6 cm, th: 0.3 cm

4311 2420

G 3840

5504

G 5156

AV 082 Earring; 9.710 g.; diam: 2.2 cm, th: 0.6 cm

5504

G 5156

Plates

vol. IV: pl. 23 n° 15 vol. IV: pl. H vol. II: pl. 23 & 24 n° 7 G 5156 vol. IV: pl. H vol. II: pl. E 4, 100 & 129 n° 80 G 5156 vol. IV: pl. H vol. II: pl. E 4, 100 & 129 n° 81

E. HAERINCK (†)

66 Inv. n°

– B. OVERLAET – A.

Object

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AV 100 Earring / pendant; 6.30 g.; diam: 2 cm th: 0.3 cm

5505

G 5156

AV 139 Bead; 0.20 g., made of 5 hollow globules; h: 0.2 cm, diam: 0.9 cm

5502

G 5156

AV 149 Earring / pendant; 8.20 g.; diam: 1.9 cm, th: 0.3 cm

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. IV: pl. H vol. II: pl. E 4, 100 & 129 n° 82 G 5156 vol. IV: pl. H vol. II: pl. E 4, 100 & 129 n° 84 G 5156 vol. IV: pl. H vol. II: pl. E 4, 100 & 129 n° 83

G. BEADS 1. Minerals. a. Quartzes: Agate (70), Carnelian (79), Chalcedony (29), Amethyst (11) and Rock-crystal (32). b. Garnet group: Almandine (14) and Pyrope (2). c. Azurite (1). d. Hematite (1). 2. Natural rock. a. Magmatic stone (3). b. Sediment stone: Calclutite (11), Calcarenite (3) and Silica clastic (1). c. Metamorphic stones: Soft-stone/Chlorite (3). 3. Animal origin. a. Bone (2). b. Shell (109). c. Coral (6). d. Pearls (112). 4. Beads made of artificial material. a. Frit/faience (152). b. Glass and glass-paste (576). c. Red sediment (14). d. Pottery beads (1). e. Metals: Copper-base alloy beads (29) and gold (1). 5. Unidentified beads (14).

---------Some 1228 beads were registered during the nine excavation seasons from 1987 to 1995. In 1993, the Umm al-Qaiwain government granted permission to temporarily export a selection for identification and analysis at Ghent University. Some 505 or c. 41% of the beads, including all the stone ones, were studied at Ghent University’s geology department in the context of a Master study (De Corte 1994). Apart from 7 artificial beads that were analysed with destructive methods, they were afterwards all returned to the Emirate. The results of this geological study were later incorporated in a paper on the bead typology at ed-Dur (De Waele 2007). Most of the beads were found in graves (De Waele 2007: 299-300) and although the majority of these were looted (107 out of 121), many still contained beads that were apparently overlooked by the plunderers. Only in two children’s tombs beads were found in the exact position that they had been mounted (Area N: G3840, tomb 8 and area BQ, G 6274, see ed-Dur II: Pl. 22-25, 244-245). Furthermore, several tombs are of special interest because they contained large numbers of beads: G 3847 / tomb 13 Area N

adult female?

G 3843 / tomb 16 G 3831 / tomb 19 G 5156

Area AV

Area BR

G 5158

Ed-Dur II: 25-26, Pl. 36-39 Ed-Dur II: 27-28, Pl. 42-48 Ed-Dur II: 29-32, Pl. 54-60

with last inhumation (complete skeleton)

Ed-Dur II: Pl. 137-140

large group at rear of tomb

Ed-Dur II: Pl. 89, 106, 137-140

two children

Ed-Dur II: Pl. 144-147

G 6001

Ed-Dur II: Pl. 148-149

G 6219 / tomb 1

Ed-Dur II: Pl. 258-261

G 6312 / tomb 15

Ed-Dur II: Pl. 274

68

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In general, although some beads may have been produced locally, most of the ed-Dur beads were probably imported from the Indian subcontinent or from the Roman and Parthian world. As to their material, there are two large groups: approx. 30% are made of natural (mineral, rock, shell, coral, pearl, bone & clay) and approx. 70% of artificial material (glass and glass-paste, frit/ faience, metal). 1. MINERALS Minerals include microcrystalline quartzes (agate, carnelian & chalcedony), macrocrystalline quartzes (amethyst & rock-crystal), garnets, azurite and hematite.

a. Quartzes The microcrystalline quartzes that belong to the chalcedony family include agate (70) and carnelian (79); 29 chalcedony beads remain undefined (De Waele 2007: 300-301). Although with worldwide occurrences, including in Egypt, Ethiopia, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman… (Dud’a & Rejl 2003: 82; Mouton 1999a: 276; Kenoyer & Frenez 2018: 398-399), some of the largest exploited chalcedony sources are found in India (Deccan, Gujarat State… see Inizan 1995: 23; Jyotsna 2000: 105). India traded beads with the Roman Empire (Allchin 1979: 98); in the Periplus it is e.g. mentioned that agate was exported from the port of Barygaza to Roman Egypt (Casson 1989: Periplus § 48: 16.15, 49: 16.29; cf. Potts 1990: 313). The ed-Dur beads could very well have an Indian origin but other chalcedony sources, including local ones, must be considered. A large and easily accessible source for agate, chalcedony, chrysoprase and carnelian was present in Ras al-Khaimah (Vogt 1996: 112; Charpentier, Brunet, Méry & Velde 2017). The macrocrystalline quartzes include amethyst and rock-crystal (De Waele 2007: 301-302). Agate (70) The most common types are (following the classification in Beck 1928) circular beads (type I.C.1.a.), short circular oblate (type I.B.1.a.) beads, long circular barrels (type I.1.b.), long elliptical barrels (type II.D.1.b.) and long square truncated bicones (type IX.D.2.f.). One bead, AT 14, appears to be unfinished since it was not perforated. Agate beads are quite common finds for different periods but at ed-Dur there are two types that are informative. The drop-shaped pendants N 259, N 263, N 286, AV 19 (n° 4: ×1), AV 111 (n° 137: ×2), AV 111 (n° 148: x4) and BQ 158 (n° 16) with a flat polished top and circular section seem to have been a typical Indian product (Colour pl. L; Beck 1941: 8; De Waele 2007: 300-301, fig. 14). An example was also found at Shakhoura (Bahrain) (Lombard 1999: 197-199). The leech-shaped pendant AV 111 n° 138 was typical of the Mauryan period (end 4th - beginning 2nd century BCE) and was produced in N-India (colour pl. L); however, the form remained popular in the early centuries CE (Deo 2000: 65-66). Examples were found at Samad (Oman) (Yule 2001: Taf. 89) and on Failaka in Sanctuary B6 (Calvet, Caubet & Salles 1984: 12, fig. 7e; Caubet & Salles 1984: fig. 43, 53). Three blank insets (AV 111 n° 128, 129 & 130) were discovered as well. In the Augustan period, small gems set in jewellery, especially rings, became very popular. Manufactured in India, for instance at Arikamedu, they were shipped to the Roman Empire to be engraved (Francis 1991: 37).

G. BEADS

69

Fig. G-1. Selection of agate beads and gemstones.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N 19

Agate (1)

2402

T

-

Plates vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 15

N 58

Agate (1). Very small

2405

G 3831

19

vol. II: pl. 56 n° 23

N 74

Agate (1)

2405

G 3831

19

vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 24

N 76

Agate (1)

2405

G 3831

19

vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 25

N 222

Agate (1)

2426

G 3843

16

vol. II: pl. 45 n° 22

N 248

Agate (1)

2429

G 3841

9

vol. II: pl. 28 n° 8

N 257

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 10

N 258

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 12

N 259

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 6

N 260

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 9

N 261

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 11

N 263

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 7

N 264

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 17

N 265

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 14

N 266

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 15

N 286

Agate (1)

2432

G 3847

13

vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 8

AH 16

Agate (2)

2473

G 3893

2

vol. II: pl. 157 n° 1

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 25

AT 14

Agate (1)

-

-

AV 19

Agate (1)

4271

G 5158

G 5158 vol. II: pl. 146 & 147 n° 4

AV 43

Agate (4)

5526

G 6001

G 6001 vol. II: pl. 149 n° 4-7

AV 57

Agate (2)

4274

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 83-85 n° 9

AV 59

Agate (1)

5503

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 106 & 137 n° 135

5502

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. G, 106 & 137-138, 148 vol. IV: pl. L

AV 111 Agate (18) BC 6

Agate (1)

5603

G 6080

G 6080 vol. II: pl. 185 n° 3

BM 17

Agate (1)

5781

G 6130

G 6130 vol. II: pl. 209 n° 9

BO 25

Agate (1)

5807

G 6201

6

vol. II: pl. 220 n° 1

BO 54

Agate (1)

House/ Floor

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 19

BQ 2

Agate fragment (bead or ring?) (1)

5914

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 17

BQ 20

Agate (1)

5962

G 6266

2

vol. II: pl. 236 n° 4

BQ 89

Agate (1)

5943

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 26

-

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 - 53 n° 16

BQ 158 Agate (8) BR 1

Agate (7)

5825

G 6219

1

vol. II: pl. 259 & 261 n° 8

BR 9

Agate (2)

5825

G 6219

1

vol. II: pl. 259 & 261 n° 19-20

BS 273

Agate (1)

6719

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 14

70

E. HAERINCK (†)

– B. OVERLAET – A.

DE WAELE

– P.

DELRUE

Carnelian (79) Although most of the important sources are located in India, good quality carnelian is also known from Yemen and thick and accessible veins are present in Ras al-Khaimah Emirate where they were exploited for bead making (Mackay 1933: 154; Vogt 1996: 112; Charpentier, Brunet, Méry & Velde 2017). The seven most important carnelian bead shapes found at ed-Dur are circular (Beck 1928: type I.c.1.a), short circular oblate (type I.B.1.a.), short and long circular barrel (type I.1.b.), circular bicone (type I.B.2.e.), short circular truncated (type I.2.f.) and large square truncated bicones (type IX.D.2.f.). Furthermore, there are three etched carnelian beads (BQ 65, BQ 164, ED 18) but two more were found by the French team and one by the British team) (Pl. 51-52 n° 27-28, Colour pl. L; De Waele & Haerinck 2006: 36-38, fig. 3-5). These beads are most probably of Indian origin. They differ in decoration from Bronze and Iron Age etched beads. Etched beads of the last centuries BCE and the early centuries CE were found at Mleiha and Kalba (Jasim 2006: 229, note 27; Jasim, Uerpmann & Uerpmann 2016: 87), at Dayah and at Wadi al-Qawr (Ras al-Khaimah Emirate). More examples were found in a large grave at Dibba (Jasim 2006: 62, fig. 63 n° 17-22; Jasim & Yousif 2014: 74, fig. 54 n° 59-60, 71-76). In Oman they are present at Samad (Yule 2001: 99, Abb. 5.9). One of the beads (BQ 65) was found in the simple pit burial of a child. The globular bead was strung in a necklace together with stone, glass and shell beads and with a bronze bell in the middle (Ed-Dur II: Pl. 244-245). Two carnelian insets with engraved decoration were found (and one undecorated inset BQ 158 n° 29; additionally, there were three undecorated agate insets AV 111 n° 128-130, and one pyrope BO 35). On N 75 the Greek/Roman goddess Athena/Minerva was portrayed (Colour Pl. L). She is recognisable by her helmet, shield and spear as well by the crawling snake at her feet. The depiction of this goddess was very popular because of her protective powers. War gods are often represented on red stones since red is the colour of blood and life (Guiraud 1996: 28, 31-32; Henig 1997: 99; Henig 2002: 90). The decoration on the tiny inset BO 63 is not detailed enough to allow a correct identification of the represented person. Several decorated insets were found at Dibba and Mleiha (Jasim 2006: 233, fig. 56 n° 2-3, fig. 57-61; Jasim & Yousif 2014: 776, fig. 46-48; Haerinck & Overlaet 2013: 31 & 2018b: 35) and on Bahrain (Højlund & Andersen 1994: 392, fig. 1969-1970: Qal’at al-Bahrain; Lombard 1999: 196).

Fig. G-2. Selection of carnelian beads and gemstones.

G. BEADS

Inv. n°

Object

N 24 N 55 N 57 N 77 N 107 N 168 N 222 N 243 N 262 N 285 AH 10 AV 19 AV 20 AV 37

Carnelian (1) Carnelian (1) Carnelian (1) Carnelian (1) Carnelian (3) Carnelian (1) Carnelian (2) Carnelian (1) Carnelian (1) Carnelian (1) Carnelian (1) Carnelian (2) Carnelian (1) Carnelian: (1). See also AV 38 and AV 57. AV 38 Carnelian (4). See also AV 37 and AV 57. AV 51 Carnelian (1) AV 57 Carnelian (1) AV 111 Carnelian (24). Very large number of different materials, al found together. BQ 65 Carnelian (2) (one etched) BQ 158 Carnelian (5). One (n° 29) an inset BQ 164 Etched carnelian (1) BR 1 Carnelian (12). In different places of grave. BR 9 Carnelian (3) BR 27 Carnelian (1) BS 23 Carnelian (1) BS 304 Carnelian (1) ED 18

Etched carnelian (1)

N 75

Carnelian, oval. Athena (1.4 × 1 × 0.2 cm) Carnelian (0.7 × 0.5 × 0.1 cm)

BO 63

71

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

2405 2405 2405 2405 2422 2422 2426 2429 2432 2432 2471 4271 4271 4274

G 3831 G 3831 G 3831 G 3831 G 3837 G 3837 G 3843 G 3841 G 3847 G 3847 G 5158 G 5158 G 5156

19 19 19 19 5 5 16 9 13 13 G 5158 G 5158 1

vol. II: pl. 56 n° 26 vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 29 vol. II: pl. 56 n° 27 vol. II: pl. 56 n° 28 vol. II: pl. 16 n° 22 vol. II: pl. 16 & 17 n° 21 vol. II: pl. 45 n° 18, 23 vol. II: pl. 28 n° 9 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 16 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 13 vol. IV: pl. 51 n° 22 vol. II: pl. 146 & 147 n° 6 & 7 vol. II: pl. 146 & 147 n° 5 vol. II: pl. 83 & 84 n° 24

4274

G 5156

1

5502 4274 5502

G 5156 G 5156 G 5156

5973

G 6274

10

5825

G 6219

1

vol. II: pl. 245 n° 3-4; vol. IV: colour pl. L vol. IV: pl. 51-53 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 27 vol. II: pl. 259 & 261 n° 8

5825 6021 6522 6725

G 6219 G 7000 G 7055

1 1 10

vol. II: pl. 259 & 261 n° 17, 18 & 21 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 20 vol. II: pl. 296 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 306 n° 1

Surface

-

-

2405

G 3831

19

-

-

-

vol. II: pl. 83-85 n° 11-13

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 106 & 138 n° 146 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 83-85 n° 10 G 5156 vol. II: pl. G, 106 & 138 n° 139-150 vol. IV: colour pl. L

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 28 vol. II: pl. H 1; 56 & 59 n° 19; vol. IV: colour pl. L vol. IV: pl. 51-52 n° 30

Chalcedony (29) The 29 undefined chalcedony beads are of white, grey or grey-blue microcrystalline quartz. Short circular oblate (Beck 1928: type I.B.1.a.) and particularly the long square barrel shapes (type IX.D.1.b.) are the most common. There are also some rare cornerless cubes (AV 111 n° 166-167 and BC 6 n° 5), a shape that was also produced in glass in South-India (Lankton 2003: 63, fig. 7.1). Chalcedony beads are widely found and are e.g. reported from Oman (Yule 2001: 438, Taf. 50, 250 & 400) and from Dhahran (Saudi Arabia) (Potts 1989b: 59).

E. HAERINCK (†)

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Fig. G-3. Selection of chalcedony beads.

Inv. n°

Object

N 268 Chalcedony (1) AH 14 Chalcedony (1) AV 111 Chalcedony (24). Large number of different materials, all found together. BC 6 Chalcedony (1) BQ 59 Chalcedony (1) Q 65 Chalcedony (1)

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

2432 2473 5502

G 3847 G 3893 G 5156

5603 5971 5973

G 6080 G 6273 G 6274

13 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 28 2 vol. II: pl. 157 n° 3 G 5156 vol. II: 106 & 139 n° 163167 G 6080 vol. II: pl. 185 n° 5 9 vol. II: pl. 243 n° 3 10 vol. II: pl. 245 n° 5

Amethyst (11) Amethyst has a typical translucent/transparent purple colour. Although there is the possibility of an Arabian manufacture, it is very likely that these beads came from India. Beads made of amethyst appear to have been quite popular in India from the 3rd mill. BCE till the Gupta period (3rd-6th cent. CE) (Ghosh 1990: 220), but the stone was also processed into beads elsewhere, for instance in Roman Egypt (Lucas & Harris 1962: 388). The two most common types are short circular bicone (Beck 1928: type I.B.2.e.) and standard circular truncated bicone (type I.2.f.). Similar beads turned up at Mleiha (mound AI, unpublished) and Saruq al-Hadid (Boraik Radwan 2018: 119) in the UAE, at Samad in Oman (Yule 2001: 250, Taf. 89), at Dhahran (Potts 1989b: 57) and Thaj in SA (Bibby 1973: 20), and at al-Markh (Jensen 2003: 129, fig. 4.2:8) and Shakhoura on Bahrain (Lombard 1999: 197; Salman & Andersen 2009: 84, 124, fig. 153, 243).

Fig. G-4. Selection of amethyst beads.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N 78 N 169 N 255 N 284 AV 111

Amethyst (1) Amethyst (2) Amethyst (1). From neck Amethyst (1) Amethyst (6). Very large number of different materials, all found together.

2405 2422 2432 2432 5502

G 3831 G 3837 G 3847 G 3847 G 5156

19 5 13 13 2

Plates vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 30 vol. II: pl. 16 n° 23 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 21 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 22 vol. II: pl. G, 106 & 138 n° 151-153 vol. IV: colour pl. L

G. BEADS

73

Rock crystal (32) The Belgian team excavated 32 beads in rock crystal, a transparent colourless quartz that is found worldwide (Lucas & Harris 1962: 403; Musche 1993: 437; Dud’a & Rejl 2003: 262). In India rock crystal was popular from the Maurya period (end of the 4th - beginning of the 2nd cent. BCE) untill the early centuries CE. Pliny the Elder (NH 37.8.9) mentioned the Roman preference for Indian rock crystal. The two most common types are the long ovoid ellipsoid (Beck 1928 type III.D.1.a.) and the long rectangular pear-shape (type X.D.1.9.). However, there are also eight vase-shaped pendants (AV 47, AV 111 n° 162 (× 6) and N 271). This shape was very popular in the Parthian Empire and in Roman Egypt between the 1st cent. BCE and the 3rd cent. CE. The type was also made in other materials such as frit or faïence (see infra). Such vase-shaped pendants of rock-crystal were e.g. excavated at Hassani Mahale (Iran) (Sono & Fukai 1968, Pl. LXIV: 7-8), Tell Seh Hamad (Syria) (Novak, Oettel & Witzel 2000: Abb. 16), ancient Bactria and Chorasmia (Staviskij 1995: 198-199) and at Kausambi (India) (Deo 2000: Pl. IX n° 2). Others shapes include a “melon” shape (AV 57 n° 14) and a frog that can be compared to an agate fragmentary frog bead from Taxila (N 270, Beck 1941: Pl. II: 24). Rock crystal beads are attested in a late pre-Islamic context in the Arabian Peninsula at Asimah (Vogt 1994: 35) and Mleiha (Mouton 2008: fig. 48 n° 1) in the UAE, at Maysar and Samad in Oman (Yule 2001: 231, 253, 357, Taf. 26, 98 & 447) and at Karranah (Herling 2003: Abb. 50y) and Shakhoura (Lombard 1999: 197, 201; Salman & Andersen 2009: 134, fig. 289, 291) on Bahrain.

Fig. G-5. Selection of rock crystal beads.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

N 23 N 79 N 104 N 196 N 255 N 270 N 271 N 272 N 273 AV 47 AV 57 AV 111

Rock crystal (1) Rock crystal (3) Rock crystal (2) Rock crystal (1) Rock crystal (2). From neck Rock crystal (1). Frog shape Rock crystal (1). Bottle-shape Rock crystal (1) Rock crystal (3) Rock crystal (1). Bottle shape Rock crystal (1) Rock crystal (13). Very large number of different materials, all found together.

2405 2405 2419 2426 2432 2432 2432 2432 2432 5502 4274 5502

G 3831 G 3831 G 3843 G 3847 G 3847 G 3847 G 3847 G 3847 G 5156 G 5156 G 5156

19 19 16 13 13 13 13 13 G 5156 G 5156 G 5156

BR 93 BS 276

Rock crystal (1) Rock crystal (1). Half of bead

6065 6760

-

-

vol. II: pl. 56 & 59 n° 33 vol. II: pl. 56 n° 31, 32 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 32 vol. II: pl. 45 & 48 n° 27 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 24 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 27 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 26 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 25 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 23 vol. II: pl. 106 & 138 n° 161 vol. II: pl. 83-85 n° 14 vol. II: pl. G, 106 & 138 n° 158-162 vol. IV: colour pl. L vol. IV: pl. 51-53 n° 31 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 33

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b. Garnet group: Almandine (14) and Pyrope (2) Almandine and pyrope belong to the garnet group (De Waele 2007: 301-303). Its colour varies from red to violet-red and reddish-brown. Almandine is found e.g. in Tanzania, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka; pyrope occurs in Tanzania and India (Dud’a & Rejl 2003: 161-162, 258). Garnet beads and insets were produced and traded on a large scale in India from the 4th c. BCE onwards; they became very popular in the first centuries CE. By studying the colour, nature and spatial order of the inclusions, the Dutch gem specialist P.C. Zwaan (National Geology and Mineralogy museum, Leiden) was able to attribute the garnet beads AV 111 n° 154, 156-157 and BQ 103 to Tanzania, while BQ 130 has the characteristics of the garnet from Sri Lanka. The two most common types are the circular (Beck 1928: type I.C.1.a.) and the standard circular barrel (type I.C.1.b.). Garnet beads were found at Samad (Oman) (Yule 2001: 354, Taf. 438), in NE-Saudi Arabia at Dhahran (Potts 1989b: 57) and Thaj (Eskoubi & al-Aila 1985: 52, Pl. 49a) and at Shakhoura on Bahrain (Lombard 1999: 199).

Fig. G-6. Selection of garnet beads.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AH 12 Almandine (1) AV 43 Almandine (3), AV 111 Almandine (5). Very large number of different materials, all found together (source Tanzania). BC 6 Almandine (1) BO 26 Almandine (1) BQ 59 Almandine (1) BQ 103 Almandine (1) BQ 130 Almandine (1) (source Sri Lanka)

2473 5526 5502

G 3893 G 6001 G 5156

2 vol. II: pl. 157 n° 2 G 6001 vol. II: pl. 149 n° 8 G 5156 vol. II: 106 & 138 n° 154-157

5603 5807 5971 5943 Dump

G 6080 G 6201 G 6273 -

G 6080 6 9 -

vol. II: pl. 185 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 220 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 243 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 35 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 36

BO 35 BS 288

5908 6722

G 6161 -

4 -

vol. II: pl. 215 n° 6 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 34

Pyrope; inset (1) Pyrope (1)

c. Azurite (1) Azurite is a blue copper carbonate formed by the oxidation of copper sulphides. It is sometimes mistaken for blue frit. Only one such bead was identified; it has a long circular barrel shape (Beck 1928: type I.D.1.b.).

Fig. G-7. An azurite bead.

G. BEADS

75

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

BQ 20

Azurite (1)

5962

G 6266

2

Plates vol. II: pl. 236 n° 5

d. Hematite (1) Hematite is a widespread mineral found in e.g. Turkey, Iran and the Oman Peninsula (Dud’a & Rejl 2003: 106 & 275). The bead is facetted. An irregular hematite bead was found at Karranah (Bahrain) (Herling 2003: Abb. 49k).

Fig. G-8. A hematite facetted bead.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

BS 252

Hematite (1)

6712

-

-

Plates vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 38

2. NATURAL ROCK Magmatic stones are a solidification and crystallisation of magma, while sedimentary stones consist of limestones (calcarenite and calclutite) and silica-stones. Metamorphic stones (e.g. softstone) are a transformation of magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic stones, formed under the impact of high temperature and pressure. Short and long circular barrel shapes (Beck 1928: type I.1.b.) are the most common in the group of natural rock beads.

a. Magmatic stone (3)

Fig. G-9. Selection of magmatic stone beads.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N 235 N 254 BR 93

Magmatic (1). Black Magmatic (1). Black Magmatic (1)

2428 2432 6065

G 3844 G 3847 -

18 13 -

Plates vol. II: pl. 41 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 19 vol. IV: pl. 51-53 n° 40

E. HAERINCK (†)

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b. Sediment stone: Calclutite (11), Calcarenite (3) and Silica clastic (1)

Fig. G-10. Selection of sediment stone beads.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

AH 11 AH 52 AV 107 AV 111

Calclutite (1). Black Calclutite (1). Brown Calclutite (1) Calclutite (1). Very large number of different materials, all found together. Calclutite (1) Calclutite (1). Brownish-black/white Calclutite (1) Calclutite (2) Calclutite (1) Calclutite (1)

2481 2498 5501 5502

G 3892 G 5156 G 5156

5 G 5156 G 5156

vol. II: pl. 159 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 55 vol. II: pl. 106 & 139 n° 168 vol. II: pl. 106 & 139 n° 170

5825 6046 6048 6065 6556 6558

G 6219 G 6312 G 6313 G 7041

1 15 16 2

vol. II: pl. 259 & 261 n° 22 vol. II: pl. 274 n° 1 (top) vol. II: pl. 274 n° 7 vol. IV: pl. 51-53 n° 72, 74 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 70 vol. II: pl. 297 n° 1

AH/T.3-55 Calcarenite (1) BQ 38 Calcarenite (1) BQ 158 Calcarenite (1)

5727 5967 -

G 6108 G 6269 -

N 149

2420

G 3840

BR 9 BR 35 BR 36 BR 93 BS 41 BS 67

Silica clastic stone (1). Found under head, light brown

G 6108 vol. II: pl. 165 n° 2 5 vol. II: pl. 239 n° 5 vol. IV: pl. 51-53 n° 37 8

vol. II: pl. 23 & 25 n° 17

c. Metamorphic stones: Soft-stone/chlorite (3) There are no indications for soft-stone bead making at ed-Dur but the manufacturing of small soft-stone artefacts and beads is documented at Mleiha (Mouton 1999b: 229-233, fig. 48 n° 7). Many soft-stone beads of the ed-Dur phase / PIR C have been found in SE-Arabia: Asimah (Vogt 1994: fig. 37 n° 18), Bitnah (Corboud, Castella et al. 1996: Pl. 29 n° 14), Mleiha (Mouton 1999b: fig. 4 n° 10; Jasim 2001: fig. 30 n° 3), Samad (Yule 2001: 279, 344, 438, Taf. 49, 200, 407).

Fig. G-11. A soft stone-bead with incised decoration.

G. BEADS

Inv. n°

Object

BQ 109 Soft-stone bead? (1): dark grey, perforated BR 30 Soft-stone: dark grey, incised decoration. Bead or seal? BS 189 Soft-stone bead (1)

3.

77

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

Dump 6000

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 121 n° 5 vol. IV: pl. 121 n° 7

-

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 41

ANIMAL ORIGIN

a. Bone (2) Only two bone beads were found (De Waele 2007: 304, fig. 8). No indications for bone bead production were found at ed-Dur, but a bone workshop where pins, spatulas, spoons and beads were made was excavated at Mleiha (Barbier 1999: 213, fig. 5). One bead is short circular oblate (Beck 1928: type I.B.1.a.) and the other is a long circular barrel (type I.D.1.b.). Bone beads were found at Mleiha (Mouton 2008: fig. 28 n° 3, 48 n° 19, 100 n° 9-11), at al Bustan in Oman (Yule 2001: 372, 375, Taf. 486, 497), at Dhahran (NE-Saudi Arabia) (Potts 1989b: 57) and on Bahrain at different sites such as al-Markh (Jensen 2003: 129, 145, fig. 4.2 n° 2, fig. 9.26 n° 1), Karranah and Saar (Herling 2003: 119, Abb. 48n & Abb. 123).

Fig. G-12. Selection of bone beads.

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N 127 BR 9

Bone (1) Bone (1)

2420 5825

G 3840 G 6219

8 1

Plates vol. II: pl. 23 & 25 n° 38 vol. II: pl. 259 & 261 n° 29

b. Shell (109) Shells beads were quite common (De Waele 2007: 304). Often the shell itself was still largely preserved allowing an identification of the species. These are mainly not edible shellfish, such as tusk shells (Dentalium octangulatum) (c. 30), cowries (Cypraea) (c. 28) and conus shells (Conidae) (c. 10). More than 30 beads cannot be identified since the shell has been completely reshaped into beads. The most common are the short and long circular barrel, the short and long cylinder and the short lenticular convex bicones (Beck’s 1928: types I,1.b., I.2.b. and IV.B.1.e.). Inv. n°

Object

L6 M 23 N5

(1) Long circular cylinder (1) Sawn-off gastropod (2) Short lenticular convex bicone

UF n° 606 652 536

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

G 1100 G 1100 vol. II: pl. 152 n° 3 F 1118 / 9 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 77 G 1033 1 vol. II: pl. 10 & 11 n° 5

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Fig. G-13. Selection of shell beads.

Inv. n° N 15 N 129 N 178

Object

(1) Short lenticular convex bicone (1) Sawn-off gastropod: conus (1) Sawn-off cowrie with glass bead inside N 198 (1) Trochidae N 208 (2) Dentalium sp. N 217 (7) Sawn-off gastropod (Conus: one 5.1 cm; 6 smaller 3.1 cm) N 223 (3) Sawn-off cowrie N 230 (1) Breastbone of cuttle-fish pierced as bead AH 13 (1) Sawn-off gastropod AH 15 (1) Dentalium sp. AH 29 (1) Dentalium sp. AH 34 (4) Dentalium sp. AH 50 Shell fragment used as a pendant? or natural perforation? AT 8 (1) Sawn-off gastropod AV 12 (1) Gastropod AV 18 (3) Sawn off-cowrie AV 20 (2) Dentalium sp. (1) (n° 20), sawn-off cowrie (1) (n° 21) AV 26 (1) Sawn-off cowrie AV 37 (1) See also AV 38 and AV 57, long ovoid barrel AV 38 (1) See also AV 37 and AV 57, irregular bead AV 43 (14) Gastropod AV 57 (1) AV 106 (1) Sawn-off cowrie AV 111 (8) Very large number of different beads, all found together: shell (8)

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

538 2420 2426

G 1034 G 3840 G 3843

4 8 16

vol. II: pl. 14 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 23 & 25 n° 39 vol. II: pl. 45 n° 38, 70

2426 2426 2426

G 3843 G 3843 G 3843

16 16 16

vol. II: pl. 45 n° 69 vol. II: pl. 45 & 47 n° 68 vol. II: pl. 45 & 47 n° 74

2426 2426

G 3843 G 3843

16 16

vol. II: pl. 45 & 47 n° 71 vol. II: pl. 45 & 47 n° 75

2473 2471 2475 2483 2491

G 3893 G 3891 G 3895 G 3898 -

2 1 4 7 -

vol. II: pl. 157 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 156 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 158 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 160 n° 6 vol. IV: pl. 131 n° 3

4263 4269 4271 4271

G 5154 E 5157 G 5158 G 5158

2 G 5158 G 5158

4272 4274

G 5156 G 5156

vol. II: pl. 171 n° 5 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 78 vol. II: pl. 146 & 147 n° 21 vol. II: pl. 146 & 147 n° 20 & 21 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 79 n° 5 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 83 & 84 n° 27

4274

G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 83-84 n° 23

5526 4274 5505 5502

G 6001 G 5156 G 5156 G 5156

G 6001 G 5156 G 5156 G 5156

vol. II: pl. 149 n° 11 vol. II: pl. 83-84 n° 23 vol. II: pl. 106 & 140 n° 220 vol. II: pl. 106 & 137-140 n° 215-222

G. BEADS

79

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

BQ 4 BQ 35 BQ 65

(1) Gastropod: conus (2) Sawn-off cowries (2) Dentalium sp. (n° 9), gastropod sp. (n° 10) (1) Top of shell (1) Dentalium (3) Dentalium sp. (2) (n° 5), sawn-off cowrie (1) (n° 6) (3) Dentalium sp. (1) Sawn-off cowrie (1) Short cylinder (1) Mother of pearl (4) Sawn-off cowrie (10)

5915 5966 5973

G 6162 G 6271 G 6274

1 7 10

vol. II: pl. 235 n° 8 vol. II: pl. 241 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 245 n° 9-10

5970 5975 5982

G 6276

12

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 54 n° 80 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 66 vol. II: pl. 247 n° 5-6

5954 5985 Dump Dump 5825

G 6277 G 6219

18 1

6008 6013

G 6300 G 6303

11 8

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 65 vol. II: pl. 252 n° 1 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 71 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 75 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 54 n° 79 vol. II: pl. 259 & 261 n° 14-16 vol. II: pl. 268 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 265 n° 8-9

6029 6048

G 6310 G 6313

20 16

vol. II: pl. 279 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 274 n° 8-9

6052 6065 6070 6515 6711 6712 6724 6725

E 6315 G 6320 G 7052 G 7055

10 9 10

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 69 vol. IV: pl. 51-53 n° 76 vol. II: pl. 267 n° 2 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 73 vol. II: pl. 305 n° 8-9 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 67 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 68 vol. II: pl. 306 n° 2

BQ 71 BQ 81 BQ 116 BQ 128 BQ 129 BQ 131 BQ 133 BQ 162 BR 1 BR 15 BR 19 BR 28 BR 36 BR 66 BR 93 BR 97 BS 8 BS 229 BS 250 BS 298 BS 303

(1) Sawn-off cowrie (7) Long circular barrel (6) & Dentalium sp. (1) (1) Dentalium sp. (1 irregular bead) (2) Dentalium sp. (n° 8), Cyprea sp. (n° 9) (1) Dentalium sp. (1) Long circular cylinder (1) Dentalium sp. (1) (irregular bead) (2) Dentalium sp. (1) and circular (1) (1) Dentalium sp. (1) Dentalium sp. (1) Long circular

Plates

c. Coral (6) Six coral beads were found of which four are of Corallium rubrum. This red coral was highly appreciated in antiquity. Pliny the Elder mentions: Coral is also found in the Red Sea, …; also in the Persian Gulf … (NH. 32.11; Jones 1963: 477). According to the Periplus and Tamil Sangam literature, Mediterranean coral was highly prized by the Indians and exported to Arabia and India (Casson 1989: 21-22, 42, 163, 165, 191, § 28:9.16, 39:13.8b, 49:16.21, 56:18.19;

Fig. G-14. Selection of coral beads.

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Francis 2002: 112; Deo 2000: 22). Pliny the Elder stated that Coral is as valuable among the Indians as Indian pearls, … are among the Romans. (NH. 32.11; Jones 1963: 477). This coral was likely the Corallium rubrum. The beads from ed-Dur could be local, but they could also come from the Mediterranean and/or the Red Sea. Natural coloured coral was also excavated at Dibba (Jasim 2006: fig. 63 n° 31-33). Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N 209 AH/T.3-55 AV 111

(1) Coral (1) Corallium rubrum (2) Coral. Found together with a very large number of different beads. One cor. rubrum; one whitish (1) Corallium rubrum (1) Corallium rubrum

2426 5727 5502

G 3843 G 6108 G 5156

16 vol. II: pl. 45 & 47 n° 67 G 6108 vol. II: pl. 165 n° 4 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 106 & 140 n° 222

5808 5816

G 6202 G 6216

7 vol. II: pl. 221 n° 1 G 6216 vol. II: pl. 227 & 228 n° 6

BO 28 BP 2

Plates

d. Pearls (112) Almost all of the pearls were found in tombs. Most of them were perforated (91%); tiny ones had no perforation but could still be used to embellish objects. An Indian ivory comb from Dibba depicts a reclining woman with a minuscule pearl inlead on the forehead (Jasim 2006: 230, fig. 41-43). The Roman world was willing to pay huge sums for pearls. Pliny the Elder states that …The first place therefore and the topmost rank among all things of price is held by pearls… and … the most costly product of the sea is the pearl… (NH 9.54; NH 37.78; Rackham 1940: 235; Eichholz 1962: 331). Several classical authors (see Carter 2005: 143, tab. 1) drew attention to the Persian Gulf, and particularly to Bahrain in relation to pearls and pearling. Again, it is Pliny the Elder (NH 9.54) who commented: … those round Arabia on the Persian Gulf… are specially praised (Rackham 1940: 235). Pearls are also mentioned in the Periplus: at the mouth of the Persian Gulf where there is much diving for pearl oysters… (Periplus 35:11.26-27) and Both ports of trade (Apologos and Omana) export to Barygaza (India) and Arabia pearls in quantity but inferior to the Indian … (Periplus 36:12.10-12; Casson 1989: 71, 73, 178, 182). It is safe to state that the population of ed-Dur was involved in some oyster harvesting since large pearl oyster shells (Pinctada radiata) are commonly found at the site. A lead diver bellshaped weight with an iron ring was found in area Z (Potts 1989a: 26, fig. AA). Robert Carter (2005: 166) also observed that: … pearling was a significant industry during the 1st-2nd centuries CE …. It appears therefore that ed-Dur had easy access to pearls, and although it is not close to the main body of pearl banks, some of the inhabitants were involved in pearl fishing.

Fig. G-15. Selection of natural pearls.

G. BEADS

81

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

N3 N 11 N 14 N 18 N 56 N 105

(1) Large pierced pearl (1) Small pierced pearl (1) (1) (1) Broken (7)

536 538 538 2400 2405 2405

G 1033 G 1034 G 1034 T G 3831 G 3831

1 4 4 19 19

N 106 N 165 N 218 N 221 N 222 N 238 AH 25 AH 30 AH 39 AI 2 AV 43 AV 111

(1) (2) (1) (9) (7) (1) (1) (1) Not perforated (2) Not perforated (4) Tiny pearls, one not perforated (45) (20) Very large number of different beads, all found together (2) Pearl (1) (1) (1) Not perforated (1)

2422 2422 2426 2426 2426 2425 2475 2475 2483 2512 5526 5502

G 3837 G 3837 G 3843 G 3843 G 3843 G 3838 G 3895 G 3895 G 3898 G 3861 G 6001 G 5156

5 5 16 16 16 6 4 4 7 G 3861 G 6001 G 5156

5603 5776 5775 5758 5915

G 6080 G 6132 G 6130 G 6152 G 6162

G 6080 G 6132 G 6130 1 1

BC 6 BM 20 BM 25 BO 18 BQ 4

4. BEADS

Plates vol. II: pl. 10 & 11 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 14 n° 5 vol. II: pl. 14 n° 3 vol. IV: pl. 51 & 52 n° 13 vol. II: pl. 56 n° 20 vol. II: pl. 56 n° 21, 22; 59 n° 22 vol. II: pl. 16 n° 20 vol. II: pl. 16 n° 19 vol. II: pl. 45 n° 20 vol. II: pl. 45 & 48 n° 19 vol. II: pl. 45 & 48 n° 19 vol. II: pl. 18 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 158 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 158 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 160 n° 5 vol. II: pl. 166 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 149 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 106 & 137-140 n° 125-127 vol. II: pl. 185 n° 2 vol. II: pl. 210 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 209 n° 8 vol. II: pl. 212 n° 1 vol. II: pl. 235 n° 2

MADE OF ARTIFICIAL MATERIAL

a. Frit/faience (152) Frit/faience beads are made of a paste of finely powdered quartz grains, fluxes and oxides. Colours varied from blue to green, white, yellow, orange, brown, red, purple and black depending on the metal oxides and impurities (colour pl. L). Frit and faience are made of the same material but faience has a glazed surface, while frit does not. However, they cannot always be distinguished since the glazed surface can disappear due to soil conditions. Therefore, frit and faience are discussed together. Almost all the frit/faience beads were found in tombs. The vast majority (ca. 90%) have simple shapes. The most common types are the circular, short circular oblate, short circular barrel, long rectangular barrel, short circular cylinder, short circular bicone and the standard circular cylinder with two convex ends (Beck 1928: types I.C.I.a, I.B.1.a, I.1.b, X.D.1.b, I.2.b, I.B.2.e and 1.C.4.f.b). Other types include collar-beads (× 3), bottle/vases (× 4), altars (× 3), melons (× 6), grapes (× 1), fists (× 4), male genitals (× 1) as well as one scarab and an Aphrodite/Venus statuette. There are three collar-beads (N 282, AV 111 n° 176, BR 66 n° 45). Similar ones were also made in glass(paste) (see infra). Melon beads (at ed-Dur also found in glass) are known in Egypt since the 4th/3rd millennium BCE and were widespread, both in time and place. They were very

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popular in the Roman world and were made in a variety of materials (Eisen 1930: 21-22, 25-26; Dubin 1995: 12). Bottle- or vase-shaped beads (N 134; AV 111 n° 174 & 175; BS 31) were also produced in rock crystal. Some beads resemble the horned altars (N 181-183) that were widespread in the Near East during the Hellenistic/Roman and Parthian periods and familiar from e.g. Aila (Jordan), Palmyra (Syria), Assur (Iraq) and Failaka (Kuwait) (Andrae & Lenzen 1933: Taf. 36; Colledge 1976: 52-53; 1977: 109; Caubet & Salles 1984: fig. 44, 201). Frit/faience beads of this shape were also found at Dura-Europos in Syria (Toll 1946: Pl. XLVI). One bead represents male genitals (N 269), another represents a bunch of grapes (BR 36) (some authors suggest the grapes may represent a vulva: Musche 1988: 171; Novak, Oettel & Witzel 2000: 56), and four others show a fist with the tumb between the index and the middle finger (N 135, N 179, N 180, AV 111 n° 177). This is the so-called mano-fica (Lankton et al. 2003: 85, Fig. 9.8). Representations of male or female genitals are widespread in the ancient world and had a symbolic or apotropaic value. They could be fertility amulets, symbols of power or protection against the evil eye (MacGregor 1985: 106; Dubin 1995: 14; Massart 2002: 102). Such beads were found at many sites in the Near East and Central Asia (see Toll 1946: Pl. XLIIIXLVI, L, LIV; Wetzel, Schmidt & Mallwitz 1957: 43, Taf. 41; Sono & Fukai 1968: 19, pl. LXIV; Kleiss 1977: Abb. 52; Haerinck 1983: 126-127; MacGregor 1985: 106; MüllerWinkler 1987: 183; Staviskij 1995: 195, 199; Deo 2000: 90, fig. 17). Identical beads were excavated on Bahrain (Karranah & Saar: Lombard 1999: 200) and at Dibba in the UAE (Jasim 2006: fig. 63, phallic, melon and vessel-shaped beads). One scarab shaped bead is registered. Examples dating to the last centuries BCE - first centuries CE were excavated at Mleiha (Jasim, Uerpmann & Uerpmann 2016: 113), Shabwa (Yemen), Tall Seh Hamad (Syria), in Bactria and Taxila (Pakistan) (Marshall 1951: 744; Morrison 1991: 388, 390, fig. 2; Staviskij 1995: 195; Novak, Oettel & Witzel 2000: 55, Abb. 109), and also at Karranah (Bahrain) (Herling 2003: Abb. 48-49). Finally, a unique pendant represents most likely Aphrodite/Venus (N 176).

Fig. G-16. Selection of beads in frit or faience.

G. BEADS

83

Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

L 12 N7 N 126 N 134

613 534 2420 2420

G 1032 G 3840 G 3840

2 8 8

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 44 vol. II: pl. 12 n° 3 vol. II: pl. 23 & 25 n° 18 vol. II: pl. 23 & 25 n° 19

2420

G 3840

8

vol. II: pl. 23 & 25 n° 20

N 163 N 164 N 176

(1) Frit, light green glaze (1) Frit, orange (1) Frit, light green glaze, melon-shape (1) Frit, light green glaze, ribbed bottle-shape (1) Frit, light green to light blue glaze, fist-shape (6) Frit, green, brown and black frit (9) Frit, light green & light brown (1) Frit, green glazed pendant: Aphrodite

2423 2423 2426

G 3842 G 3842 G 3843

17 17 16

N 179

(1) Frit, light green glaze, fist-shape

2426

G 3843

16

N 180

(1) Frit, light green glaze, fist-shape

2426

G 3843

16

N 181

(1) Frit, light green glaze, altar-shape

2426

G 3843

16

N 182 N 183 N 185 N 194 N 195

2426 2426 2426 2426 2426

G 3843 G 3843 G 3843 G 3843 G 3843

16 16 16 16 16

N 219 N 221 N 222 N 224 N 269

(1) Frit, light green glaze, altar-shape (1) Frit, light blue glaze, altar-shape (3) Frit, white (4) Frit, light green glaze, tubular (1) Frit, light green glaze, ribbed melon-shape (1) Frit, light brown glazed (21) Frit, orange & light to dark brown (2) Frit, light green to dark brown (1) Frit, light brown (1) Frit, light green glaze, male genitals

vol. II: pl. 49 n° 3, 6-10 vol. II: pl. 49 n° 1, 3-5 vol. II: pl. H 4; 44 & 46 n° 14 vol. IV: colour pl. L vol. II: pl. 44 & 46 n° 12 vol. IV: colour pl. L vol. II: pl. 44 & 46 n° 13 vol. IV: colour pl. L vol. II: pl. 44 & 47 n° 15 vol. IV: colour pl. L vol. II: pl. 44 & 47 n° 16 vol. II: pl. 44 & 47 n° 17 vol. II: pl. 45 n° 33 vol. II: pl. 45 & 47 n° 35 vol. II: pl. 45 & 47 n° 36

2426 2426 2426 2426 2432

G 3843 G 3843 G 3843 G 3843 G 3847

16 16 16 16 13

N 274 N 282 AH 31 AH 32 AH 34 AV 20 AV 21

(1) Frit, green (1) Frit, green glaze (3) Frit, orange (2) Frit, light brown (1) Frit, orange (2) Frit, light green to light brown (17) Frit, light brown

2432 2432 2475 2475 2483 4271 4271

G 3847 G 3847 G 3895 G 3895 G 3898 G 5158 G 5158

13 13 4 4 7 G 5158 G 5158

AV 22

(14) Frit, green to light brown

4271

G 5158

G 5158

4274

G 5156

G 5156

5526

G 6001

G 6001 vol. II: pl. 149 n° 9, 10 & 13

4274 5501 5502

G 5156 G 5156 G 5156

G 5156 vol. II: pl. 83 & 85 n° 17 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 106 & 139 n° 171 G 5156 vol. II: pl. 106 & 139 n° 168-169, 172-177 vol. IV: colour pl. L

N 135

AV 38

(1) Frit, green. See also AV 37 and AV 57. AV 43 (3) Frit, orange, light brown & one green glazed scarab (n° 13) AV 57 (10) Frit, orange AV 63 (1) Frit, light green to light brown AV 111 (14) Frit, orange, green, dark blue & red and yellow. Very large number of different beads, all found together.

Plates

vol. II: pl. 45 n° 34 vol. II: pl. 45 n° 28, 29, 30 vol. II: pl. 45 n° 31 vol. II: pl. 45 & 47 n° 32 vol. II: pl. H 3, 37 & 39 n° 36 vol. IV: colour pl. L vol. II: pl. 37 n° 29 vol. II: pl. 37 & 39 n° 35 vol. II: pl. 158 n° 4 vol. II: pl. 158 n° 6 vol. II: pl. 160 n° 6 vol. II: pl. 146 & 147 16 vol. II: pl. 146 & 147 n° 11-13, 17-19 vol. II: pl. 146-147 n° 11-13, 17-19 vol. II: pl. 83 n° 22

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Inv. n°

Object

UF n°

Loc. n°

Tomb

Plates

BC 6

(1) Frit, orange

5603

G 6080

G 6080 vol. II: pl. 185 n° 6

BQ 4

(1) Frit, turquoise; melon-shape

5915

G 6162

1

BQ 59

(1) Frit. Several other beads

vol. II: pl. 235 n° 7

5971

G 6273

9

vol. II: pl. 243 n° 4

BQ 141 (1) Frit, orange

-

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 49

BQ 161 (1) Frit, green

-

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 43

BR 36

(1) Frit, light green; grapes

6048

G 6313

16

vol. II: pl. 274 n° 6 vol. IV: colour pl. L

BR 66

(1) Frit, green

6052

E 6315

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 45

BS 31

(1) Frit, green glaze, bottle-shape

6524

-

-

vol. IV: pl. 51 & 53 n° 46

b. Glass and glass-paste (576) Almost all glass or glass-paste beads were found in tombs and they represent c. 85% of the beads made of artificial materials. The large number of these mass-produced beads is easily explained by the fact that the raw ingredients were widely available, that the fabrication was relatively inexpensive and that such beads were nice and durable. Glass beads were produced on a large scale in the Roman Empire. Beads as well as raw glass that could be used for local productions was systematically exported. The Periplus 49:16.23 & 56:18.19 mentions the trade in raw glass from Roman Egypt to the Indian ports of Barygaza and Muziris (Casson 1989: 81, 85, 208). Since approx. the 4th cent. BCE India exported glass beads (Deo 2000: 27; Kanungo 2004: 26-28). Most beads have simple forms. The most common types are: circular (Beck 1928: type I.C.1.a.), circular oblate (type I.1.a.), long circular ellipsoid (I.D.1.A.), short tabular oblate (type XVI.B.1.A.), circular barrel (type I.1.b.), short ovoid barrel (type III.B.1.b.), long circular pear-shape (type I.D.1.g.), circular cylinder (I.2.b.), long square cylinder (type IX.D.2.b.), short rectangular bicone (type X.B.2.e.), short circular truncated bicone (type I.B.2.f.) and the short circular cylinder with one convex end (type I.B.4.d.b.). Particularly the cylinder oblate and the circular barrel are the most common, each with more than 300 examples as well as the circular cylinder with almost 160 examples. Some rare types have to be mentioned, particularly the standard hexagonal bicone (Beck 1928: type XIII.C.2.e.) (AV 111 n° 179). BR 9 (n° 26) looks like etched carnelian and N 148 has ribs. N 281 is a drop-shaped pendant with a projection for the perforation. Several simple glass beads were found at other sites in the UAE (e.g. at Asimah, Vogt 1994: 17, fig. 8:6, fig. 37:10-11, 17; near Ghalilah site 5, Donaldson 1985: fig. 4 n° 3; at Mleiha, Mouton 2008: fig. 28 n° 7 & Benoist, Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003: fig. 6 n° 22). Numerous glass(-paste) beads were found in Oman, particularly at Samad (2426 beads from 31 graves) (Yule 2001: 100). Such beads were also found on Bahrain (e.g. Højlund & Andersen 1994: 392, fig. 1971; Herling 2003: 19, Abb. 48-50, 137, 169, 176, 195; Jensen 2003: 151, 153, fig. 4, 9, 14-15; Salman & Andersen 2009: fig. 152, 268, 270, 293, 311). Some beads like the collar-beads (N 123, N 137) (beads decorated with a ring around the apertures), the hexagonal bicone bead (AV 111 n° 179) as well as the turtle bead (N 177) were probably produced in India. The oldest collar-beads in India and Mesopotamia date from the 3rd/2nd millennium BCE, but it was specifically from the 4th cent. BCE that they were produced

G. BEADS

85

on a large scale in South-India, particularly at Arikamedu. They were very popular between the last centuries BCE and the 3rd century CE. According to the few remaining Tamil bead-makers, such beads would have been used as clasps in necklaces (Francis 1986: 117). Three collar-beads in frit/faience were excavated at ed-Dur. A single translucent green hexagonal bicone bead (AV 111 n° 179) was discovered. It may have been an imitation of beryl, possibly originating in India where glass was often used to imitate precious and semi-precious stones (Abraham 2016: 6). Pliny the Elder also refers to such forgeries, mentioning that The Indians have found a way of counterfeiting various precious stones, and beryls in particular, by staining rock-crystal (NH 37.20; Eichholz 1962: 227). The turtle bead (N 177) could be assigned to India where it was a symbol of longevity (Deo 2000: 87; Jyotsna 2000: 47-48). The manufacturing technique (mosaic technique) of beads AV 111 n° 212 (with human face; colour pl. L), BQ 59 n° 6, BR 9 n° 28 and BR 18 (with flower pattern) points to the Roman world as its place of origin. The mosaic technique was popular in Roman Egypt and the Levant between the 4th/3rd cent. BCE and the 1st cent. CE (Dubin 1995: 24). A similar bead with flower pattern was excavated at Arikamedu (Cimino 1994: pl. XLIII:1). Beads with human faces such as AV 111 n° 212 were produced in Alexandria (Egypt) and glassmaking centres in Syria and Palestine between 100 BCE and 100 CE. According to some authors these faces would depict

Fig. G-17. Selection of glass and glass-paste beads.

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the Greek Medusa and the lines around the head would be stylised snakes (Stern & SchlickNolte 1994: 411; Antonini 1999: 64). On the Arabian Peninsula such beads are attested on Bahrain (e.g. at Saar, see Nenna 1999: 197) and at Baraqish in Yemen (Antonini 1999: 64, 67, fig. 19). Four beads (N 143(?), N 197(?), BQ 65 n° 6, BQ 161 n° 61) may be imitations of banded agate (Lankton et al. 2003: 55). Bead BR 9 n° 26 looks like an imitation of an etched carnelian bead. Eye-beads are represented by 11 examples (N 9, N 144, N 146, N 150, N 226 (×2), N 229, AV 111 n° 208, BQ 4 n° 5, BR 9 n° 28, BR 19 n° 1). Such beads are amongst the most ancient and widespread beads used as a protection against evil and were made in all sorts of materials (Jyotsna 2000: 70-72). Some monochrome and undecorated, particularly simple and mostly very small beads (diam.