Skin, Meaning, and Symbolism in Pet Memorials: Tattoos, Taxidermy, and Trinkets 1787564223, 9781787564220

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Animal Skull Surrounded by Creosote Flowers

Source: Lauren Kane, Precious Creatures.

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SKIN, MEANING, AND SYMBOLISM IN PET MEMORIALS

Emerald Studies in Death and Culture Series Editors: Ruth Penfold-Mounce, University of York, UK; Julie Rugg, University of York, UK; Jack Denham, York St John University, UK Editorial Advisory Board: Jacque Lynn Foltyn, National University, USA; Lisa McCormick, University of Edinburgh, UK; Ben Poore, University of York, UK; Melissa Schrift, East Tennessee State University, USA; Kate Woodthorpe, University of Bath, UK Emerald Studies in Death and Culture provides an outlet for cross-disciplinary exploration of aspects of mortality. The series creates a new forum for the publication of interdisciplinary research that approaches death from a cultural perspective. Published texts will be at the forefront of new ideas, new subjects, new theoretical applications, and new explorations of less conventional cultural engagements with death and the dead. Published titles Brian Parsons, The Evolution of the British Funeral Industry in the 20th Century: From Undertaker to Funeral Director Ruth Penfold-Mounce, Death, The Dead and Popular Culture Matthew Spokes, Death, Memorialization and Deviant Spaces

SKIN, MEANING, AND SYMBOLISM IN PET MEMORIALS Tattoos, Taxidermy, and Trinkets BY

RACHEAL HARRIS

Deakin University, Australia

United Kingdom North America Japan India Malaysia China

Emerald Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2019 Copyright r 2019 Racheal Harris. Published under exclusive license. Reprints and permissions service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-78756-422-0 (Print) ISBN: 978-1-78756-419-0 (Online) ISBN: 978-1-78756-421-3 (Epub)

ISOQAR certified Management System, awarded to Emerald for adherence to Environmental standard ISO 14001:2004. Certificate Number 1985 ISO 14001

For Max, my eternal “good boy,” mourned, missed, and commemorated in ink. I carry you with me, always …

And for Elwood, who sits beside me in this moment, always (im)patiently waiting for his dinner …

CONTENTS List of Figures and Tables

xi

List of Images

xiii

Acknowledgements

xv

Introduction

3

1. Humans and Animals: Living and Loving since the Birth of the Pet-keeping Era

19

2. Tattooing as Artwork, Language, and Narrative

39

3. Memorializing Animals: Meaning and Mourning

67

4. Taxidermy: Echoes and Imitations of Life

87

5. A Union of Forms

109

Images

129

6. In the Skin: Memorial Tattoos

139

7. Animals Online: A New Frontier in Animal Studies?

163

Conclusion

185

References

191

Index

201

ix

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES . . . . . .

146

. . . . . . Recurrent Tattoo Themes . . . Instagram Influencers . . . .

142

Figure 1.

Dog to Cat Ratio

Table 1.

Tattoo Hashtags

Table 2. Table 3.

xi

146 169

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LIST OF IMAGES Front Cover. Animal Skull Surrounded by Creosote Flowers Image 2.

. . . . . . . Woman and Dog at the Piano . . . . .

18

Image 3.

Partially Concealed Tattoo on Female Thigh

38

Image 4.

Woman Nursing a Kitten.

66

Image 1.

Image 5. Image 6. Image 7.

Woman and Dog on Sofa

. . . . . . . Cremated Remains of Companion Animals . Taxidermy Mouse Encased in Necklace . .

2

74 81 83

Image 8.

Preserved Animal Fur, Cut in the Shape of a Love Heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . Taxidermy Panda . . . . . . . . . . .

Image 9.

Jackalope .

92

Image 10. Image 11.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . Bespoke Taxidermy Wolf with Wings . . .

86 93

Image 12.

Wedding Cake Topper Featuring Taxidermy Mice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Women with Taxidermy Creatures . . . . 108

Image 13.

Partially Preserved Chihuahua .

Image 14. Image 15. Image 16. Image 17. Image 18.

. . . . Completed Chihuahua Mount . . . . . Preserved Paws (Matching) . . . . . . Single Paw with Lace Adornment . . . Cat Paw . . . . . . . . . . . . . Victorian Era Paw Preservation . . . . xiii

. . . . . .

117 121 129 130 131 132

List of Images

xiv

Image 19. Image 20. Image 21. Image 22. Image 23. Image 24. Image 25. Image 26. Image 27.

Two-headed Rabbit .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. Ear Preservation . . . Mouse Purse . . . . Preserved Cat . . . . Preserved Dog . . . . Tattoo Machine and Animal Skulls . Anthropomorphic Cat Stencil . . . Completed Dog Tattoo . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

133 134 135 136 137 138 150 151

Image 29.

Flash Tattoo Design (Love Heart and Paw Print) . . . . . . . . . . . Flash Tattoo Design (Paw Print with Heart Toes) . . . . . . . . . . Cat Tattoo Design . . . . . . .

Image 30.

Man and Dog Listening to a Transistor Radio 162

Image 31.

Elwood Seeing His Tattooed Likeness .

Image 28.

Image 32. Image 33. Image 34.

. . . 154 . . . 155 . . . 159

. . 179 Elwood Responding to Tattoo . . . . . . 180 Tattoo and Portrait . . . . . . . . . . 181 Woman and Dog Looking Out over the Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sleeping Child and Collie-mix Dog . .

. . 184 Image 35. . . 190 Back Cover. Treated Animal Skeleton . . . . . . . . 209

xiv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Research, like writing, can be isolating at times. One is frequently haunted by self-doubt, coupled with the lingering question of whether what seemed like a fabulous idea to begin with will ever come to fruition. Certainly, I jumped into this with little thought as to how I was going to make it work, and with equally little consideration as to the long road that stretched out ahead. I might never have had the courage to endure if not for my ignorance, so perhaps that was for the best. I don’t believe that this project would have come together without the intervention and persistent encouragement of the following people. In various forms, they have been my cheer squad since day one and I thank them, humbly, each and every one… Dr Ruth Penfold-Mounce (University of York), Philippa Grand (Emerald Publications), and the Death and Culture Network (DaCNet), thank you for allowing me to be part of this fantastic group of researchers and to contribute to the Death & Culture series. Your continued guidance, support, and encouragement have given me the confidence to accept death studies as my true calling. I feel at last, as though I have found my kindred spirits! Roger Hillman (Australian Catholic University), without your impeccably timed interventions, I might never have come across DaCNet to begin with. Your encouragement has been tireless and your feedback invaluable. No matter how xv

xvi

Acknowledgements

much doubt I may have expressed in my abilities, you always met me with complete optimism, and I thank you for that. Anne Cummins, Professor Bridget Aitchison (Australian Catholic University), Rohan Price, and my army of patient proofreaders. Thank you for painstakingly reading and rereading my manuscript and for offering personal and professional support throughout this process. Even when I felt things weren’t looking good, you were able to find something to smile about. Lauren Kane from Precious Creatures, thank you for permission to include images of your various, and always, stunningly beautiful creations and for being so wonderfully open to engaging in this project. And finally, a heartfelt thank you to Tom Bromwell for reminding me of the importance of setting small goals, so that the larger ones might not seem so insurmountable. Your belief that this would come together in the end helped me to also believe that it would.

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Image 1. Woman and Dog on Sofa

Source: Shutterstock

INTRODUCTION Humans give meaning to life through the creation of narrative. This narrative, which begins with the self-realization that we are each an individual entity, is the conduit through which we experience the world, and all the other living beings within it. This idea has been brought to life in the work of Walter Benjamin, specifically in the way in which he details the importance of narrative specific to the death experience (Selected Writings Volume 3, 2009, p. 151). Similar themes are present in the creation mythologies discussed by Joseph Campbell (The Power of Myth, 1988), whose extensive investigation of the human journey links the core of identity creation and life purpose back to the creation of the narrative. So too, the psychological concepts of Sigmund Freud (Mourning and Melancholia, 1962) and Carl Jung (Man and His Symbols, 1964), whose beliefs about the construction of the self are the cornerstone on which an entire section of contemporary scholarship rests, are preoccupied with the narrative stories we tell ourselves. The contribution which this volume makes to an already rich field of scholarship lies in its assessment of how narrative manifests in the guise of the five senses. Of these senses (sight, sound, scent, taste, and touch), it is concerned with the last, specifically it’s conduit: skin. It is touch and skin, how we use and understand skin in the action of touching and being touched, and how we mark the human skin in response to self-narrative, which is intrinsic to the primal experience of human life and the rituals of death. Throughout the course of living, everything, from the 3

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Skin, Meaning, and Symbolism in Pet Memorials

construction of who we are to the people we love and how we celebrate, mourn, and memorialize, is anchored to the touch experience (Griffin & Evans, 2008, p. 9). The visual representation of this self-narrative then is the body. A tangible canvas for the story of who we are, it also holds the memory of what has been. In the case of mourning specifically, adornment of the skin with ink can reflect our grief. Through the absorption of the image, word, or pattern, we echo what we have surpassed by our own mortality. Historically, and in the contemporary world, the fabric of self has often been interwoven with a larger social or communal experience. In many cultures, the modification of skin represents a visual symbol of membership to a group or tribe (Ellis, 2008, p. 133). More widely, rites of passage are still communicated through marking the body with paint (Turner, 2012, pp. 492 93) or in the act of scarification (Eggertsson, 2018, pp. 7 8), and so too, community status and gender (Barron, 2017, pp. 86 91.). For men, this may include circumcision, while for women the internal process of gestation and birth can be read on the external canvas of their skin (Thompson, 2015, p. 21). In the case of both genders, adornment of skin with body paint, piercings, scars, and inks provides further proof of knowledge, social status, and sexual maturity. The skin was and is the most personal site of celebration. Throughout a life, as it experiences the passing of time, as it encounters the skin of others, it presents a living memory, a map of how a life has been lived (Patterson & Schroder, 2010, p. 259). It is not only our own self-narrative that we read in the skin but also the narrative of those we live alongside both human and animal. In the human and animal relationship, touch and skin-to-skin contact are of increased significance to how understanding is formed between species and how relationships are negotiated. Owing to a lack of common verbal

Introduction

5

language, the touch relationship is the primary communicative tool for interspecies dialog, mimicking that of the primate and mammalian creatures with which humans share so much DNA (Jablonski, 2013, p. 164). In human societies, like those in the animal kingdom, skin becomes the central component to how we experience the world and establish individuality within cultural and community hierarchies. Despite the profound role which animals, particularly domestic companion species, play in daily life, relatively few studies have taken the touch relationship as their focal point. As a result, the significance of this unique and crucial bond remains largely unconsidered in academic discussions on human and animal dynamics. This is particularly true of how we mourn animals and the death rituals we enact in response to their passing. What I will explore within this study is how the skin of humans and animals is used specifically as a site of memorialization, and how we communicate our fascination, infatuation, and grief over the animal death through the use of skin both theirs and our own. When I set out researching this project, my initial intent had been to link the Victorian Era practice of and fascination with taxidermy (specifically the anthropocentric works of Walter Potter) with the modern practice of memorial tattooing. As a tattoo enthusiast, what struck me was the similarities between the anthropomorphic elements in Potter’s taxidermy creations and the esthetics of memorial tattoos that feature companion animals. In so many tattooed representations, we see animals preserved in human form. It is their image, as their human keeper has interpreted it, which becomes the memorial narrative. This interpretation is defined through anthropomorphic traits which have been bestowed upon animals to fulfill human yearnings. When we look upon taxidermy as well, we are confronted with the same principle of narrative formation. It is a human longing,

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Skin, Meaning, and Symbolism in Pet Memorials

an urge to remain close to an animal, that drives the decision to preserve it after death. What also soon became evident in my research was that it is not only how the animal is displayed in either taxidermy or tattooing that is of importance to the narrative of death and grief as the human experiences it, but also the role of skin and touch within these processes. In the absence of a shared verbal language, everything between the human and the companion animal is built on a narrative that exists around touch. Voice and intonation, while also essential elements in establishing these close bonds, lack the clarity and intimacy that comes from touching the fur of the animal (Beck & Katcher, 1996, p. 84). While the return touch of the animal might not always be so enjoyable (as any cat owner would attest), it is equally as important to how animals communicate their feelings with us. The issue of how companion animals feel about their humans, specifically the question of how they love, if they love at all, is one that remains contested among scholars. While there are those who would believe that our animals fail to understand or conceptualize love as we would know it (Hoffman, 2014, pp. 194 197),1 there are others who are convinced of the fact that our animals do, on some emotional level, understand us (Cudworth, 2011, pp. 146 147). This debate around animal emotions and the idea of active animal participation in human experience is but one element of the complex nature of human and animal relationships.

1 Hoffman outlines four aspects which denote loving partnership; but of these, voluntariness and equality are problematic when we consider the reciprocal love relationship between human and animal. As a domestic pet has no agency in its adoption into the home, nor is it afforded the equality of a human family member, it fails to meet the prerequisites for a loving relationship structure.

Introduction

7

Throughout history, though particularly in the colonial period, we see in the collection of animal and bird specimens the desire of the human mind to understand the animal body. In examples such as the Wunderkammer or cabinet of curiosities, animal skin, hair, and bones abound. They are the antecedent parts which would, with the invention of taxidermy, become realized as part of the whole animal. In relation to death and mourning, what these examples highlight is the human yearning to express the void which an animal leaves upon its departure from our lives, something particularly true of relationships in which the animal is loved as an individual. On a deeper level, our preoccupation with the preservation of the animal form also speaks of our need to feel as though we are valued as much by our companion animals as they are by us. In relation to skin, this desire is demonstrated again in the recent prevalence of memorial tattooing that takes the pet as its focus. Recent publications such as The Breathless Zoo: Taxidermy and the Cultures of Longing (Poliquin, 2012) and Displaying Death and Animating Life: Human-Animal Relations in Art, Science, and Everyday Life (Desmond, 2016), along with edited collections Mourning Animals: Rituals and Practices of Mourning (DeMello, 2016) and Animal Death (Johnstone & Probyn-Rapsey, 2013), remind readers of the ongoing friction between wanting to know the animal world and the human need to dominate it, while the scholarship of Erica Fudge (Perceiving Animals, 2000) and Margo DeMello (Animals and Society: An Introduction to Human-Animal Studies, 2012) highlight the important role which animals play in shaping human interaction in day-today life. While Fudge looks specifically at the conflict between humans and animals in historical settings and how these might influence interspecies relationships today, the breadth of DeMello’s work encompasses not only the development of

8

Skin, Meaning, and Symbolism in Pet Memorials

Animal and Human Studies (HAS) as an academic discipline but also examines how animals have been mourned in a variety of contexts. DeMello’s focused consideration of animal and human dynamics have informed much of my approach to this work, specifically her collection Mourning Animals and her volume Humans and Animals. While the latter of DeMello’s two works does discuss mourning in detail, this study differs in its focus on the use of skin (human and animal) in this mourning experience. Elements of DeMello’s work on death along with Margo Mifflin’s study of tattooing (Bodies of Subversion: A Secret History of Women and Tattoo, 2013) play a primary role in my focus on how skin is used within the rituals of mourning, as opposed to the historic relationship it has shared with tattoos in the tribal or pop-culture setting. The literature on taxidermy has been drawn from a variety of sources. While Poliquin has been central to the concept of taxidermy as a site of longing, discussion on taxidermy as an artistic form (Aloi, 2018; Milgrom, 2010; Lemaitre, 2016), along with its value in the natural history setting, has also been drawn upon. My aim herein has been to look at how we, as an audience, interact with animal skins in a variety of settings, and more prominently when we are mourning for domestic pets. This encounter not only plays out in how we interact with the taxidermy mount of an animal, be it a museum specimen or a beloved family member, but also how we employ our own skin as a memorial site for deceased domestic pets. For the purpose of this study, I define taxidermy as any professionally preserved part of a companion animal. While traditionally the term may have been limited to full mounts or, in the case of game, head mounts, it is important to consider some of the newer forms of preservation and how the shifting trend of taxidermy as an art form shares space with modern grieving processes. As such, it is essential to consider

Introduction

9

a wider scope of preservation examples, which extend beyond the traditional full-body or head mounts. Taxi (to move) and dermis (skin) is applicable to anything that involves the use of skin. In later chapters, I discuss historical examples of commemorative taxidermy alongside newer trends, such as the preservation of paws and ears. Used as a symbol for the animal in its entirety, these more recent examples represent a new avenue of preservation which, while verging into an esthetically pleasing art form, continue to recall the Victorian Era preoccupation with animal preservation, death culture, and animal utility. As the discussion throughout the study will highlight, while we might, in the present, look at companion animals as individuals with a personality and agency of their own, we imbue them with traits which are an extension of ourselves. In their death we cling to these ideas, which in the absence of the living creature are read onto its body. In its preservation, the animal skin continues to enrich human life through its service to human grief. Rather than a peaceful death, this service to human happiness perpetuates a second and, in some examples, a third “life” for the animal. Comparatively, in the case of tattooing, it is our skin which becomes the artistic outlet, while also being the site of mourning. Tattooing represents a significant art form, one which people often fail to think too often or too deeply about, particularly in reference to its symbolic meaning. As such, the significance which the tattoo may have to the individual wearing it, along with what it might reveal about societal attitudes, ideas, and communal languages, is lost. The goal of the tattoo is not, like original taxidermy, always to strive for realism. It does not suggest an academic fascination with the study of the animal form, nor always with the specific features which make an individual pet distinct from any other in its breed. The tattoo seeks to recall the essence and

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Skin, Meaning, and Symbolism in Pet Memorials

the narrative of the animal persona as it was understood by the human to whom that relationship was paramount. It is the persona that was loved and familiar, and frequently it is this image that we see, in kaleidoscope, in the tattooed piece. Capturing the likeness of the animal in ink, we carry the relationship memory with us. As opposed to the mourning trinkets of previous eras, the tattoo cannot be lost, damaged, or cast aside. Although there has been a recent interest in tattoo preservation, in most cases, tattooed images remain with us, on the skin, until our own deaths, after which the narrative is consigned to part of the human living memory or digital legacy. Unlike taxidermy, the second life of the animal is limited to the natural term of our own. As we constructed the animal in life, in our death we write the second death of the animal. As with any form of memorialization, what is signified in the taxidermy mount and the tattooed image is the human fascination with death and our fear of forgetting or of being forgotten. As Deborah Davidson’s ongoing work with the Tattoo Project (2016 ) demonstrates, tattooing is a powerful symbol in the culture of mourning, specifically because it cannot be erased. Although her work relates almost exclusively to human relationships and the memorialization of close friends and family members through the art of the tattoo, the same sentiment is becoming clearer in the choice of tattoo as the medium through which we recognize and pay tribute to our companion animals. Rather than just an adornment or comment on the individual, tattoos today might better be understood as a form of language. More than the basic iconography or symbolism commonly associated with criminality, or the intricate designs denoting tribal bonds, tattoos speak to who we are and where we have been. Most importantly, they all too often attest to the memories we carry with us.

Introduction

11

Drawing on scholarship around tattooing, art, art history, taxidermy, human and animal studies, and death studies, my research draws together elements of each to present a crossdisciplinary consideration of the multifaceted relationship which we share with our animals. Chapter 1 considers the enduring bond between humans and animals in the domestic setting. In this chapter, I explore how animals became members of the home and their changing status within the family unit. Situating the birth of the pet-keeping era in the Victorian period, I draw on the works of Katherine Grier (2006) and Sarah Amato (2015) to create a timeline for the assimilation of animals into the home. While animals have always lived in close proximity to humans, what this chapter will discuss is the sociological changes which precipitated a shift in the human animal relationship, taking the animal from a position purely of servitude into one of affectionate companionship. This development also saw the introduction of the animal as a consumer item and accessory. Although it may not always be immediately apparent, keeping animals conveys a specific message about social status and economic prosperity (Berry, 2008, p. 79). In the Victorian Era, this was demonstrated through participation in the animal fancy or kennel club, and in the present day, it is manifest in the accessories and pet care products which we purchase for our pets during their lives. In death, it is seen in how we memorialize them. Chapter 2 looks at the history of tattooing as both a cultural tradition and social trend. Although it may seem, at first, to be at odds with the wider direction of my research, it is important for readers who do not have an in-depth understanding of the rich cultural significance of tattoo as an art form to be provided with a framework of its enduring importance both historically and across cultures. Within the human experience, tattooing, along with other forms of adornment

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Skin, Meaning, and Symbolism in Pet Memorials

and modification, has been prominent to both historical and contemporary settings. While in the context of cultural tradition it has been displayed as a status symbol, used to signify coming of age, marriage, or motherhood (among other important life events), within the scope of social trends and gender expectations, tattooing has become an avenue through which men and women are able to challenge the status quo by exercising ownership of their bodies. In the case of women specifically, this has been significant to how beauty standards are constructed and challenged. The role of tattooing within the context of gender studies, and with a view to the fact that in many places the number of tattooed women outnumbers men, makes it essential to include a brief consideration to how it is and has been used as a form of expression specifically from the feminine perspective. Regardless of the historical period under discussion, what will become evident is that the use of the animal body has been a consistent motif in tattooing across cultures. While in the tribal context the totem animal was employed to denote a geographical or familial affiliation, in colonial settings it has served as a metaphor for rebellion and a longing for freedom. In the present day, a longing for kinship with the animal body finds expression in the use of animal representations in memorial tattoo works. These examples, although they play an important role in how grief is narrated for the individual, continue to challenge the way in which humans relate to animal bodies by prompting us to consider how we conceptualize, discuss, and appraise grief over deceased animals. Chapter 3 introduces the concept of memorialization, with a specific focus on how this relates to companion animals. Within the scope of the discussion, it is important to look at the various forms of memorial which have been used to commemorate the loss of a companion animal. These include different methods of pet interment, mourning jewelry, and other

Introduction

13

tangible forms of memento mori. In Chapter 4, I move to look specifically at the art of taxidermy as a site of fascination with and mourning for the animal form. Presenting a brief history on how taxidermy has developed as an art form, I move on to an analysis of its use during the Victorian Era as a means of animal preservation and the subsequent role it played in how domestic animals have become anthropomorphized. The link between the taxidermy artist and the tattoo artist forms the basis for Chapter 5. It is here that the different ways that animal and human skins encounter each other will be discussed, with the methods of taxidermy and tattoo playing a key role in my consideration of how the skin is modified and what this modification means. Having demonstrated the strange kinship which tattoo and taxidermy share as variations of memento mori, Chapter 6 closely examines the composition and esthetics of memorial tattoo design. Of increasing importance within this process is the role of social media as a platform to share ideas and images specifically related to communicating feelings associated with mourning the death of companion animals. In contrast to previous periods, in which the animal body has been a source of fascination or an object over which we try and exert ownership, in this context, it is the human body which conveys the message. While images can be read as a final attempt to mediate the animal narrative, they also reflect the power which that narrative holds in the concept of the human self and in the role of human grief related practices. In the final chapter, my gaze moves into the future, as I investigate links between online image sharing of tattooed animals and the recent trend toward animal influencers on social media. I present a framework for how we might study the lives and afterlives of this new breed of celebrity companion animal in years to come. In the present era, the community connections we forge to each other are tenuous in

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Skin, Meaning, and Symbolism in Pet Memorials

comparison to our ancestors. Society is more frequently migrating toward an online world, dictated by social media platforms which demand ever-increasing amounts of our attention. This new landscape, marked by the constant notification tone of the mobile phone or pinging alert of the computer, can feel isolating. Certainly, it has been detrimental to how interpersonal relationships are constructed and how the physical world is navigated. As human behavioral scientists have long known, verbal communication represents only a fraction of how our species relate to, and form bonds with, each other. While we might feel, in the relative anonymity of the online world, more of a sense of freedom to share the inner narrative of who we are, in the absence of touch, these exchanges frequently feel hollow. In the developed world, daily communication of this kind is changing the way humans understand themselves and express emotion. One example is the impact it has had upon our response to dying, death, and grief. In tackling this topic through the lens of mourning for companion animals, I outline not only how we create life and death narratives in the online space but also how the animal increasingly becomes an avatar through which we express emotion online. As society moves increasingly into a digital realm, the touch relationship becomes harder to experience. It becomes necessary to consider how narrative formations which might traditionally have been centered on touch and skin are also migrating into the digital realm. When we consider the importance of data collection and the mapping of social media trends, particularly as they relate to followers, it is important to begin data collection now with a view toward the future time when the animals discussed here will no longer be alive. While it is sad to consider the mortality of any companion animal, social media animals with which we might be well acquainted provide a unique avenue through

Introduction

15

which future studies into human and animal bonds may develop. I approach this topic specifically with an eye toward these future research opportunities. Prerequisites for what constitutes a domestic or companion animal are also subject to interpretation. For the purpose of continuity, I limit my discussion to cats and dogs in the domestic setting. This decision has been made specifically because it is these species which represent the most identifiable and diverse of the domesticated pet, along with the fact that their role as companion animals reaches further back historically than some of the more exotic companion animals we see in the current era. Additionally, cats and dogs, more so than other species of companion animal, are more frequently anthropomorphized in life as well as after death. More than a pocket pet or livestock (which do also develop bonds with humans), cats and dogs are frequently understood to have their own distinct personalities. This comes from living inside the home and being an almost constant presence in the lives of their human cohabitants. In contrast to livestock, cats and dogs will be named. It is in this naming that the first elements of personality narrative begin to form. When discussing animals, the terms “pet” and “owner” have been used sparingly but do appear throughout the text. While these terms can be divisive for what they infer about the human and animal relationship, they are used here in their colloquial context and as a means of making the work engaging to a wide audience of scholars and general readers alike. It is not my intention to suggest that humans have any ownership over animals, nor that the status of pet should render the animal merely an object. Animals are in possession of their own agency to some degree but, in the domestic setting, this is invariably mediated by the status which their human cohabitator/s afford them.

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Skin, Meaning, and Symbolism in Pet Memorials

Similarly, at no point do I seek to offer a judgment about the use of the animal skin in taxidermy forms, nor is the project primarily concerned with issues of human dominance and ownership of animal bodies. While these are each compelling areas of academic discussion, they have been, and continue to be, the subject of extensive debate. What I aim to offer here is a new take on how we might view the way that companion animals are perceived and how our changing fascination manifests throughout the grief process. While this volume is by no means an exhaustive study of the rich and multilayered meanings which tattoos have held historically and continue to hold in the present day, nor the use of taxidermy in every context, it does seek to highlight at least one new avenue through which we can reconsider their respective value.

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Image 2. Woman and Dog at the Piano

Source: Shutterstock.

CHAPTER 1 HUMANS AND ANIMALS Living and Loving since the Birth of the Pet-keeping Era John Berger suggests that animals have always coexisted alongside humans; since the earliest of times they have lived and died at the center of our world (Berger, 2009, p. 3). While this is undoubtedly true, it is only in recent history that the lives of domestic creatures have begun to take a profound turn, in that their cohabitation with humans has ceased to be built solely on animal servitude and more on what they offer by way of companionship and love. For humans of the current era, to imagine life without the close presence of domestic animals is not only difficult but virtually impossible. Still, while we dwell so closely in their company and them in the company of us, rarely do we register the profound impact which this cohabitation has had on our respective lives and social evolution. In this chapter, I consider how domestic animals have transitioned from the utilitarian role of working animal into the status of pets and family members. In keeping with the larger thematic interests of my research, my focus centers on the advent of the pet-keeping era, which began the trend of integrating specific breeds of animal into the domestic space and witnessed the introduction of consumer 19

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products specifically marketed to enrich animal lives, and in turn, elevate their status within the home. The initiation of animals into the consumer sphere was responsible for the beginning of the multi-million-dollar pet industry that we have in the current day. Here, we are not only subject to a constant barrage of advertising which promises to give our pets the best life possible but are influenced by animals who are being employed to sell products to humans by capitalizing on the human and animal relationship. Car and telephone companies provide one example of this trend, often using dogs in their advertising to suggest that a certain model of car will encourage a human owner to be more active. Placing the animal (usually a dog) in the outdoor setting recalls human to animal relationships of a bygone era, in which animals worked alongside humans, often in the agrarian setting. Such images will commonly be interspliced with the act of traveling in the vehicle to reach a dramatic destination, with the dog typically shown riding in the front seat as a kind of sidekick, its head out the open window, the breeze ruffling its fur. The montage of epic landscapes and the happiness of the animal conjures an idea of one “living their best life” and thus is an effective motivator. Similarly, in 2014, the O2 phone company (United Kingdom) launched their “Be More Dog” campaign.1 The television commercials showed a cat contemplating his identity as a cat, before finally deciding that life would be better if he was more like a dog. Although the commercial is humorous, its underlying message is that humans should adopt the kind of carefree approach to life as their animals, that if we were all “more dog” our lives would be

1 Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xIQV9fcUhHw. Accessed on October 11, 2018.

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improved. Utilizing the dog and cat, the most beloved domestic pet species, also ensured that the commercial appealed to the full gamut of animal lovers. In urging us to be more like them, what the advert also reveals is that we understand them as being like us. Obviously, cats and dogs have no understanding of mobile phone plans but what this demonstrates is the emotional pull which pet-centered commercials have on the viewing public. Such forms of advertising are central to the concept that animals have personalities and desires which run parallel to their human cohabitants. In suggesting that we can or should be more similar, they create a sense of sameness. This is in complete contradiction to the legitimate wants and desires of an animal, but it does illustrate how narrative personas begin to form and suggests that these are often reflections of ourselves. In relation to narrative construction and the idea of the animal persona, it is the consumer products which are purchased for the animal that become symbolic tokens of love and affection within the human animal relationship. In the present, when the pet market offers an almost endless selection of trinkets, designed to appeal to every aspect of human interest, it is the selection of one type of product over another which contributes to the creation of the animal character. For example, while we might purchase a blue or pink collar to denote the gender of a cat or dog, choosing one which is adorned with diamantes or studs will speak of the diva or macho characteristics we have bestowed upon the animal. Although we might converse with our pet as we go through the process of making a purchase, it is always the human who answers on their behalf and in many instances the human will relate the breed type or gender of the animal to the construction of its individual personality (Cudworth, 2011, p. 140). In the case of the

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decision between diamantes or studs, the collar is ultimately a reflection of the human traits which we have read onto the animal body and which have been influenced by social attitudes related to a breed or the human characteristics we equate with elements of the animal body. Such traits become part of how we interpret animal behavior and are intrinsic to how we relate to our animals in the domestic space. Another example of this behavior can be found in single women when they adopt companion animals to address a longing for motherhood (Charles & Davies, 2011, p. 85). It is the innate female instinct which drives their urge to nurture and, in the absence of a child, represents an unfulfilled yearning within the woman. In response to this, the adopted animal enters the home in replacement of the baby. Similar to a newborn, it is christened with all the characteristics of a child (a name, possessions, and a personality narrative) and becomes the recipient of the female’s natural maternal instincts. In some instances, this will include a language which is shared exclusively between the two parties and which mimics the “baby talk” women are often heard cooing to their offspring. What these behaviors demonstrate is a personification of the animal. They are representative of the changing status, in which the animal goes from being just a kitten/cat or puppy/dog into a little person. This personified status is neither equal to that of another adult as such, nor necessarily to that of a child. Instead, it exists in the middle of the spectrum. The animal becomes the confidant and friend to the human but is always subservient to their wants and desires. The issue of how companion animals feel about their humans, specifically the question of how they love, if they love at all, is one that remains contested. While some research suggests that animals fail to understand or

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conceptualize love as we would know it (Haraway, 2003, pp. 12 13), there is equally compelling evidence to suggest that domestic animals do, on some emotional level, understand humans and feel an affection for them (Charles & Davies, 2011, pp. 74 75). This is demonstrated in their willingness to be close to us. Still, the idea of animals loving their humans is a relatively new one. While animals might always have lived and worked alongside their human caretakers, the relationships that exist between their species and ours only began to come to prominence with their transition into pets. Until recently, the animal was viewed as a utility item. Its purpose in life, and frequently in death, was to enrich the life of its human owner (Amato, 2015, p. 196). In recent history, owning animals has also been seen as a status symbol, a way for humans to define themselves among peers. To own and breed show dogs, for instance, was to suggest a certain level of affluence. This might be confirmed by membership within a specific breeding group or animal society. What these human behaviors and ideas about the place of the pet within society demonstrate is a long-standing human tendency toward dominance and control of individual animals. Unlike livestock and working animals, these creatures functioned in the guise of pets and thus, in the human narrative, they were in fact benefactors of a blessed life, one free of the hardships and demands of their working cousins. From the present human perspective, the domestic animal continues to occupy a strange territory. We claim to love our pets, though continue to control most aspects of their lives, through mediating food consumption, diet, emotions, and breeding (Fox, 2006, p. 526). While claiming to love and spoil them more than ever, never has the life of the domestic animal been so tightly controlled.

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1.1. THE BIRTH AND EVOLUTION OF PET-KEEPING The term “pet” as it is understood today is an evolution of an antiquated word, the roots of which can be traced back to the sixteenth century. Used in the Victorian vernacular, it referred to a favorite person and was used as a term of endearment. After the introduction of domestic animals into the home, the word appears to have become interchangeable, relating to humans (generally children) as well as animals, yet still indicating an elevated status or favoritism. In the present, “pet” is used almost exclusively to describe a domestic animal. Viewed in a sociological context, it represents the changing status of the animal in so far as it provides it a similar agency as was afforded to small children in the past. As Philippe Aries has highlighted, the idea of childhood is a relatively new one and one which, unsurprisingly, began to take shape in the Victorian Era. Prior to this period, children were often seen as little adults (Aries, 1962, p. 33), there was no social preoccupation with treating them in a certain way, nor were they spared from the hardships of life simply because of their age. It is only since the idea of childhood has taken hold that children have ascended in social status, and we see that companion animals have thus transcended into the position that children once held. A defining feature of this shift in social status has been that the companion animal began to be viewed as having little purpose other than to provide enjoyment for its keeper (Amato, 2015, pp. 44 45), unlike a child, it could not talk or respond in kind to the affections of its keeper. Still, because it remained comparatively small and dependent, it was loved and cared for in a similar way to a small child. As the animal lost its utilitarian function, it became sentimentalized and as a result, began to take on human traits. These too reflected many Victorian ideals

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(Cudworth, 2011, p. 144). In the sphere of the domestic pet, dogs and cats have held the mantle as the most popular species, although dogs have been the subject of academic fascination more frequently than their feline equivalents.2 Despite their popularity, cats continue to be divisive creatures, provoking as many self-proclaimed “cat lovers” as “cat haters,” though this division too has been linked back to the animal as a reflection of human personality traits (Hagan, Carpenter, Ungar, & Preotiuc-Pietro, 2017, p. 672). There are numerous reasons for this division in rank. Comparatively speaking, it is relatively recently that cats have begun the process of domestication and more recently still that they have been welcomed into the home as pets. Well into the Victorian Era, cats were understood as too temperamental to be good pets; their natural inclination for hunting. The Victorians instead designated them as working animals (used to kill mice). In addition, their breeding habits share much in common with “vermin” animals, such as rabbits. Difficulty in controlling the reproductive cycle of a female cat made it a less desirable animal to keep. Litters of kittens were often difficult to dispose of to other families and, in many instances, were drowned rather than rehomed (Grier, 2006, p. 81). As a result, the cat retains many of their predatory qualities, even in the current day, making it

2 Statistically speaking, birds outnumber both cats and dogs as household pets. Their exclusion here relates to the fact that human interaction with birds is hindered by the delicate status and the fact that they are most frequently kept caged. This creates a distance between animal and owner and, while the bird might still be an object of love and affection, its personification is hindered by the imposed distance. On another note, the short life span of many bird varieties ensures that humans are less likely to form a deep and profound bond with a single animal. The exception here might be exotic birds, which can live as long, if not longer, than their human keepers.

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difficult (at times) to cohabit with. For the cat owner, the cat is always a loved creature, but its mercurial personality, tendency to bond with one person over an entire family, and innate disinterest and mistrust of any form of training make individual animals difficult to understand. On the other hand, dogs are a pack animal, which makes them ideal companions for both the single and multi-person home. Research has further suggested that dogs are closer in personality to children, while cats have more in common with adult behaviors (Beck & Katcher, 1996, p. 42). For adults looking to use the animal as a surrogate child then, as well as for families with young children, this makes the dog an attractive option for cohabitation. In response to a new-found enjoyment of domestic animals, the birth of the pet-keeping era also ushered in the age of the dog fancy (and later, to a lesser extent, the cat fancy), which continues today in the prestigious dog and cat shows that remain popular across the globe. These events, since their inception, have given cat and dog owners an opportunity to showcase their animals. In turn, this has elevated the status of the animal, highlighting their worth as pets, while also providing a handsome revenue source for respected breeders and trainers. In the Victorian Era, as much as in the present day, the fancy or show has provided an opportunity for animal owners to enforce breed standards among domestic animals. It was from these strict breed rules that a differentiation between classes of domestic and pure-bred animals also arose. These divisions were commonly reflective of human social class, more so than for any particular superiority of breed. A similar sentiment was seen among cat fanciers, although participation in these events was hindered due to conflicting opinions as to whether or not a cat should be considered worthy of domestic animal status (Amato, 2015, p. 29). The mirror to the fancy was the underground practice

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of dog stealing which was rampant during the same period. Taking advantage of the blossoming attachment between humans and their companion animals, thieves targeted the dogs of affluent members of society (men and women). Dogs, which were considered easy to lead away from the home by luring them with offcuts of meat, would be kidnaped and ransomed back to their bereft owners (Howell, 2000, p. 37). In most instances, criminal gangs would orchestrate these crimes, sometimes taking the same animal on a variety of occasions. Although prize-winning dogs would have been a popular target for these types of criminal enterprise, there is evidence to suggest that lapdogs were not immune, though comparing the financial value of a toy breed with a champion show dog would have been at the chagrin of serious animal fanciers. Original examples of the animal fancy related to only a small number of breeds, which evidence suggests, had little resemblance to the breeds which exist today (Ritvo, 1987, p. 107). Using the example of the Bulldog, Harriet Ritvo’s study on the dog fancy describes how the breed was genetically modified by fanciers so that it would better suit a human lifestyle (pp. 108 113). The reasoning behind selective breeding was that the animal, in its previous form, had been ugly to look at. Added to this was the fact that the breed, which had initially been developed for the sport of bull baiting, was not built for life as a lapdog or domestic companion. As the practice of bull bating was also falling out of favor during the period, bulldogs were selectively bred for traits that were not only esthetically pleasing but also for a temperament that suited domestic life. The result of this was numerous health complications within the breed, which continue into the current day. A similar pattern of selective breeding has been true of various toy breeds and, to a lesser degree, gun and hunting

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dogs, which are no longer required to fulfill the work which they were initially acquired for. As the use of animals in manual labor roles changed, the genetics of the animal were altered by breeders in order to better suit the lifestyle of the human. Little consideration has been given to the long-term health and wellbeing of animal breeds which find themselves in this situation (DeMello, 2012, pp. 91 92). Similarly, body modifications such as tail and ear docking have been employed to make the specific breeds more esthetically pleasing to the human audience (Swaby, 2000, p. 307). While many of these modification standards are being phased out in modern breeding circles, the practice of tail and ear docking does still exist. This is generally more common among larger dogs, which are used in hunting or as protection animals. In the case of dogs particularly, there are also small breeds which have been so modified that they are no longer able to survive without human assistance (DeMello, 2012, p. 89). John Bradshaw has noticed a similar, although more recent development, in the evolution of the domestic cat. Rather than genetic modification however, in this instance, cats who have been adopted into the domestic setting because they possess qualities which endear them to humans (temperament, health) are prevented from breeding through sterilization (Bradshaw, 2014, pp. 8 9). As a result, it is feral and stray animals which are left to reproduce unhindered. How this will go on to negatively impact the evolution of the domestic cat remains to be seen. What cannot be doubted is that feral cats present an enormous danger to wildlife across the globe. In Scotland, interbreeding between feral cats and the native Scottish wildcat have seen the wildcat species, which is already on the verge of extinction, irrevocably altered (Gater, 2017). In Australia and New Zealand, the feral cat population has an ongoing negative impact on wild bird numbers and breeding patterns.

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Overbreeding of specific animals (both in dog and cat species) is another issue of concern. As specific breeds become more desirable, animal mills will breed animals to death in order to meet consumer demands. Due to the living conditions which many of the breeding animals endure, their offspring are plagued with health issues which can take generations to correct. For owners of a genetically inferior animal, the heartbreak of an early death can be an incredibly profound loss. This is not to suggest however that animals, upon adoption, are guaranteed a safe or happy life. For any number of reasons, pets can be and are frequently abandoned by their human owners. Statistics from the United States estimate approximately 1.5 million abandoned cats and dogs are euthanized each year.3 Outside of showcasing different and desirable breeds of the domestic animal, the animal fancy saw the introduction of pet-centered products into the consumer market. These were items geared directly toward pet owners and promoted the idea of a “better life” for the pet. They were often as simple as anti-flea shampoo or a flea collar, yet the emotional response they elicited from pet owners ensured expansion into more niche products. As the industry grew and consumers became more adept at keeping animals, items such as pet-specific foods and pet furniture were also introduced (Amato, 2015, pp. 41 44). The price associated with such purchases varied from species to species and was also influenced by the demographic which appeared to represent the average owner. For example, tropical fish supplies were marketed specifically toward men because to keep tropical fish was an expensive hobby and the male working class was the

3 Retrieved from https://www.aspca.org/animal-homelessness/shelterintake-and-surrender. Accessed on January 20, 2019.

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demographic most able to afford them (Grier, 2006, pp. 54 57). Similar marketing trends continue in the modern day, although they are far less selective about the gender of the audience, and in some instances will market directly to the animal. As Jessica Greenbaum’s (2004) discussion of Yappy Hour explores, in the days pre-dating social media, animals were a conduit through which communities of pet enthusiasts were formed. These bonds, which were constructed through the acquisition of animal-centered consumer products, were indicative of the power which animals were increasingly beginning to hold in relation to the economy. The idea of creating the community within the market place was mutually beneficial to human and dog (pp. 127 129), but, as we will see in later chapters, our increasing engagement with online communities is changing this space as we move into the future. What is undisputable however is that, as disposable income has increased and society has become focused on consumerism, the range of available pet-themed products has increased exponentially, so much so that, in some instances, animals themselves risk being seen as an accessory for humans. In the first decade of the millennium, celebrity and socialite figures Britney Spears and Paris Hilton were frequently in the media in relation to their obsession with chihuahuas. This breed specifically has been the focus of concern from animal welfare groups and Human and Animal Studies (HAS) scholars alike for the detrimental impact selective breeding has had. Chihuahuas represent one of the few toy breeds which are now completely dependent upon their human caretakers for survival (DeMello, 2015, p. 90), while overbreeding to meet consumer demand has seen an abundance of animals destroyed when they could not be homed. So too, misunderstanding of breed demands is an unexpected shock for those unfamiliar with the chihuahua. Its diminutive stature and

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light weight make the dog easy to transport and, as many owners of the breed will attest, creates an exceptionally close bond between animal and caregiver. This is built around the animal’s innate survival instinct. The downside to this is that individual animals can become possessive and aggressive if they feel that they are competing for the attention of the human. Both Spears and Hilton were highly criticized for the number of small dogs which they owned, but Hilton in particular for the high mortality rate among her “collection” of dogs.4 Controversial cartoon series South Park parodied Hilton in the episode “Stupid Spoiled Whore Video Playset” (season 8, episode 12), which showed several of her dogs killing themselves because they could no longer handle her mistreatment, neglect, or abuse.5 What Hilton’s behavior echoes is the mentality that the purpose of the animal is solely to enrich the human life. Despite the negative attention her behavior drew, she was never formally charged for animal neglect, a fact which highlights the disparity in how humans view their relationship to the animal world. Comparatively, Spears seems to confirm the idea that humans will utilize small animals (in this instance dogs) to address a longing for a child. After her marriage to Kevin Federline and subsequent birth of her two children, she moved away from pet keeping and is rarely spotted in public with animals today. In an interesting parallel to her public criticism over the care she was providing to the animals, Spears was frequently maligned in the press for the similarly

4

Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/2005/ 07/18/author-beware-putting-on-the-dog-paris-hilton-style/1d03439b-cd b4-44ce-bea1-82a51db617e8/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.b0810efa8fb7. Accessed on December 10, 2018. 5 South Park (2004), “Stupid Spoiled Whore Video Playset,” Season 8.

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careless treatment of her children, particularly when they were infants.6 The disinterest in animals after the birth of her children also echoes the imbalance in the human animal relationship. Although the use of pets as accessories and the detrimental genetic modification of specific breeds indicates a human need to assert dominance over animals, there are also numerous examples in which we look to our pets as guardians. The use of Labrador and Alsatian breeds as seeing eye dogs, along with numerous examples of mixed breeds being employed in the hospice or aged care setting, indicate that the companion animals play an essential role in assisting the elderly, infirm, and disabled in maintaining social contact (Beck & Katcher, 1996, p. 130). For members of Generation Y, the trend toward cohabitation with animals over other humans has been pronounced. While social historians offer a variety of answers for why animals are being selected over humans for companionship, studies into this area are still in their infancy and more work will need to be undertaken before adequate conclusions might be drawn. Initial ideas have linked the trend toward animal over human cohabitation to the frantic lifestyles which younger generations lead. Declines in marriage rates and child bearing have also been suggested as significant factors. Finally, the fiscal burden of raising a child plays a role not only in how early the individual might reproduce but also in so far as how many children a couple might reasonably accommodate on top of the other financial burdens of daily life. The burden to adequately support a child financially is

6

Vineyard, Jennifer. Britney Spears and parenting: A timeline of tumult. Retrieved from http://www.mtv.com/news/1570950/britney-spears-andparenting-a-timeline-of-tumult/. Accessed on October 1, 2007.

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driving many to delay pregnancy. As studies into reproduction in older women have also highlighted, this is not without significant risk and, when coupled with other lifestyle factors such as diet and lack of adequate exercise, many women are finding it difficult to fall pregnant later in life.

1.2. ONLINE SOCIETY AND THE CHANGING STATUS OF PETS The transition into a lifestyle which is spent largely in the online world is another primary factor in the relationships between humans and animals, particularly among younger generations and in the single-person setting. We need only turn to social media to see the increasing number of domestic pets that manage to maintain their very own Instagram or Facebook pages, some with millions of followers who have made celebrities out of the animals that star in them. While this will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 7, what the presence of animals online suggests is a greater focus on relating to animals than to other humans. A lack of relationship building and interpersonal skills is unsurprisingly also evident among members of Generation Y and Generation Z, rendering it difficult for close relationship bonds to form. Added to this stress is the pressure of work and a full social calendar which does not allow as much time for comingling. Time is a critical factor in the construction of solid and lasting interpersonal bonds and, while online trends continue to make it easier for humans to communicate quickly and often across large distances, they cannot substitute for face-to-face interactions. The loss of tone and diction that is synonymous with communication in the online world is just one area in which relationships are becoming inhibited despite the increased perception of connectivity. Where tone has been lost in

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person-to-person communication, one area where the vocal and touch relationship continues to form a primary function is that between the human and the animal. Gail F. Melson has done extensive work with children to determine how they bond and communicate with animals in the domestic setting. This relationship, which is one of interpretation and seeing rather than direct verbal communication, is an indicator of how adult behaviors develop (2009, pp. 60 62). Overall, her studies suggest that children that grow up with domestic animals in the home are better able to express emotion and have a more developed sense of connection, making their approach to the development of human relationships more confident. In cases where adolescence or emotional development is stunted by a lack of real-world interaction though, it is not surprising that we return to animals in adulthood in an attempt to substitute for missing relationship bonds. Melson also estimates that around 66% of dog owners and up to 95% of bird owners speak to their animals (2009, p. 45). This exchange, which she terms “petese,” is based on tone and inflection rather than on what words are being spoken. This style of communication, built upon non-verbal cues, was apparent in both children and adults. In the case of children, conversing with animals provides a platform to discuss problems without judgment and to mentally work through the issue until they were able to reach the conclusion. In addition to words, touch was a core component to this process, as it was through reciprocal exchanges that animal and child were able to comfort and seek comfort. The animal, as a passive listener, allowed time for the child to confidently decide which course of action to take in resolving problems, thus giving them skills to apply this decision making in life. Melson also concluded that children felt more comfortable in confiding secrets and fears to their companion animals than

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to parents and siblings (2009, p. 61). Later research has shown a similar response in adult pet owners, particularly those who are single, socially isolated, and the elderly (Harker, Collis, & McNicholas, 2000, pp. 193 196). Animals have long been thought to respond to owners based on the tone of their speech. Cats will adjust the pitch of their meow specifically based on the person who feeds them. In the case where this is a woman, the tone will mimic the cry of a child, thus appealing to an innate maternal instinct. Touch will also be used in these exchanges and imitates how a mother will calm her child. In the enacting of these gestures, she will nurse an animal, stroking the fur. In response to the human touch, the animal will purr, which is taken as a sign of affection. Although the reason for cats purring is still largely unknown, it provokes a calming response in the human caregiver and thus is interpreted as a positive reaction. Berger suggests that in the current era, the domestic setting acts as a return to the primitive bonds once shared between humans and animals (2009, p. 14). Although this new imagining of an ancient relationship only distantly resembles that of our respective ancestors, how we mourn is also indicative of this prior relationship. The drawback of building close and loving bonds with animals, almost to the exclusion of other humans, is that the life span of the typical cat or dog is generally between 10 and 15 years. Comparatively, the life span of adults in Western society is between 70 and 85 years. This is a large disparity, one that ensures that the human will outlive their pet, and almost guaranteeing a future encounter with the grief of losing the animal (Lavorgna & Hutton, 2018, p. 1). Results from Australian and American surveys into petrelated grief reveal that humans carry grief related to their domestic animal with them for very long periods of time (Planchon, Templer, Stokes, & Keller, 2002, p. 94). Often

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this is a death not expressed publicly. In some instances, this will be comparable or even more pronounced than grief which is held for deceased human family members. In Chapter 3, I look at the impact of loss in the human/animal relationship, introducing how the death of companion animals has been marked and mourned throughout generations and cultures since the dawn of the pet-keeping era. Before moving onto this discussion however, it is important to the overall interest of the book to consider the close relationship which the practice of tattooing has also had with the way we categorize, narrativize, and memorialize our relationships to animals. Among human traditions, tattooing is one of the most overt ways in which the skin can be used as a site of communication, its decoration forming both a kind of cultural language while also telling the story of the individual life (Barron, 2017, p. 91). With this in mind, the following chapter will take a brief look at the history of tattooing, as cultural tradition and fashionable practice. In considering the images which humans choose to wear and in relation to what this can tell us about personal narratives and ideas of ownership, this chapter will establish the groundwork for my later discussion on the skin relationship between taxidermy and the memorial tattoo. Further, it gives rise to a discussion on image as a communication tool and the aesthetics of tattoo design.

1.3. CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have identified a time line in which the birth of the pet-keeping era is related to the introduction of animal-focused consumer products. These products have been integral to how animals have been imagined and integrated within the family home. In outlining these developments and how they speak to the marketing of pet-related

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items in the present, I have established a link between pet keeping in the past and pet keeping in the current era. Finally, I have considered some of the social factors which have contributed to the changing nature of the human and animal relationship. Specifically, I have suggested that an increase in online activity has resulted in a lack of interpersonal communication. This has been detrimental to the way that people understand each other and thus, we are increasingly turning to animals to fulfill our emotional needs.

Image 3. Partially Concealed Tattoo on Female Thigh

Source: Shutterstock.

CHAPTER 2 TATTOOING AS ARTWORK, LANGUAGE, AND NARRATIVE Before beginning an investigation into the presence and purpose of tattooing in current mourning rituals, it is necessary to assess the place of the tattoo, as practice and image, in history. The purpose of the tattoo as an indicator of belonging, a form of memorialization and, to a lesser degree, identification is important to establishing how tattooing as a visual art form continues to be reimagined in the present. This chapter will discuss the function of tattooing not purely as an art form or means of body modification but also as a symbol of communication, personal narrative, and protest. What the historical assessment of the place, purpose, and significance of tattoo design will also indicate is the link these have to human ideas of the animal soul, and to the use of the animal body as an expression of human emotions. Our skin proclaims our identity and individuality as we wish them to be known (Jablonski, 2013, p. 141) and evidence suggests that various forms of skin modification and scarification have been practiced throughout the world since at least the Paleolithic era (Mifflin, 2013, p. 5). That the meaning and purpose of these rituals was communicated and understood differently between cultures is important, though less so than the fact that tattooing has maintained a social 39

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and personal relevance, despite being associated with pain and discomfort. In the modern, global landscape, people from all walks of life continue to choose to wear tattooed images and, while there remains an abundance of ethnically specific motivations behind the modification of skin, increasingly the medium is being implemented as a means of communication. On a surface level, a tattoo might appear to be a form of rebellion, an indication of youthful spontaneity or the latest fashion trend; however, when we take the time to look at the content of a tattooed image, we are often confronted with a deeply personal insight into the individual wearing it. Tattoos frequently express elements of selfnarrative that we are hesitant to speak but in reading these images there is a wealth of knowledge to be gained about how we view the world and our place in it. Tattooing has a long and varied history throughout numerous cultures of antiquity, notably the Egyptians, Vikings, and Celts, who employed this type of body adornment as an indicator of social status as well as for cosmetic enhancement. In tribal or traditional cultures in the Oceanic region, to wear the design of your heritage was to be at one with your ancestral line (Ellis, 2008, pp. 83 84). It was a source of pride, a status symbol which affirmed not only the ascension of child into adult but also into a contributing member of the community. My consideration of the metamorphosis of the tattoo from these beginnings into the current day takes the more recent accounts of Captain Cook and his voyages through the Tahitian Islands as its starting point. The engagement of Cook’s crew with the native inhabitants of the Tahitian Islands and their subsequent fascination with the specific style of body art on display among these peoples has been identified as one of the primary links to the resurgence of the tattooing renaissance which took place throughout Britain during the Victorian Era (DeMello, 2000, p. 45).

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Instead of being limited to service men and sailors, during this period, the art form was adopted by all strata of society, including aristocrats and royalty. Among the wealthy, men and women were equally enthralled with the decorative art, using it to display their status (through tattooing a crest or family coat of arms), as well as for vanity purposes (society women often sought out decorative floral images), and in some cases as a proof of ownership and identity (the tattooing of names onto the skin). In contrast to the current day, however, among our Victorian forebears, tattoos were rarely displayed in casual society, especially among women. Although they were a common adornment throughout aristocratic circles, depending on design and placement, tattooed images had the potential to be a taboo talking point during social gatherings (Parry, 1933, pp. 103 104). Throughout the United Kingdom and America, ongoing social unrest related to tattooing has seen the practice fall in and out of favor. Notably, its presence among criminals and its nefarious employment in Nazi internment camps during World War II have bought associated stigmas to the practice. Although an underground movement of enthusiasts existed throughout the fifties and sixties, catering to a niche audience of like-minded tattoo devotees, the turbulent period of the 1970s witnessed a dramatic shift in cultural attitudes. Social debates concerning the use of tattooing as a form of selfexpression and the differing uses of the practice between men and women will therefore be central to my discussion. The chapter concludes with a brief look at some of the highly successful reality television serials which have bought tattooing firmly into the social mainstream. What these series highlight is the two-fold role of narrative in the tattoo process. In the initial stages of tattoo formation, it is narrative that is key to the construction of the design of the image and, in some

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instances, the style of tattoo and the choice of artist will also compliment this narrative.

2.1. THE TATTOOING PROCESS In discussing tattooing, it is pertinent to address the common misconception that a tattooed image will “last forever.” Where historically tattoos were thought to fade and eventually disappear due to the use of inferior inks and tattooing techniques, over the last few decades, both process and tool have been enhanced. Still, this does not mean that a tattoo will never alter once it has been inked into the skin. Aging of the skin, exposure to sunlight, placement of the tattoo, and the skill of the tattoo artist all impact the longevity of the final design. I look at these individually in the forthcoming sections.

2.1.1. Age of the Skin The clarity of the tattoo relies on the quality of the canvas onto which it is being applied. As such, the ability of the skin to hold ink plays a part in how the tattoo will heal and age over time. For younger skin, which contains a higher level of keratin and generally more elasticity, images can be applied relatively easily. On the other end of the spectrum, older skin can be more difficult to tattoo because of the damage that has been done from a lifetime of living in it. Stretched or sagging skin (such as one might see after dramatic weight loss) will be detrimental to tattooing. Similarly, skin that has suffered from prolonged sun exposure will not hold ink as well as younger skin is known to. It is part of the role of the tattoo artist to discern areas of the body which will be more

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receptive to tattooing. If a client has requested an image be placed on a section of skin which is damaged, a reputable artist will highlight these issues and usually suggest an alternative site.

2.1.2. Exposure to Elements Long-term exposure to sunlight will fade an image and/or cause it to lose clarity. So too, exposing the newly tattooed area to chemicals will be detrimental to the tattoo. Most tattoo artists will stress the importance of not going swimming until the tattoo has healed. The chlorinated water of a swimming pool can react negatively to tattooed skin, bleaching or removing the color. Use of paw-paw ointments runs the risk of having a similar impact. While it is necessary to keep the tattoo moist as it heals (to prevent the ink drying up during the scabbing process), there are specific types of antibacterial creams which are recommended for this purpose.

2.1.3. Placement The hands, an area of the body which is not only used excessively but exposed to all the elements of life, will often need to be touched up. Depending on the style of the design, discerning artists will also attempt to sway customers away from having this part of the body tattooed. The healing process is complicated by the frequent washing of hands, which can remove pigment and saturation in an image before it has had time to adequately heal. Use of some hand creams and lotions will have a similar impact. Due to the size of most hand and finger tattoos, fine line work can also disappear over time. During the healing process, tattoos will “scab”

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over. It is recommended that clients leave these sections of skin to come off of their own accord, as scratching or picking at the freshly inked pigment can cause the removal of color and line work. 2.1.4. Tattoo Artists How the ink is applied is another aspect which will impact the longevity of the tattooed image. A constant complaint on reality television shows that involve the covering of bad tattoos is around the scarring that has been left within an image where the previous tattoo artist has been too heavy-handed. Causing undue trauma to a site by applying too much ink or applying it too deeply complicates the healing process. Scar tissue creates a stippled effect throughout the tattoo. This can not only be detrimental to the clarity of the image but detracts from the overall effect, particularly in tattoos which feature a great amount of detail. Applying ink into the skin too quickly and without full saturation of the area will also result in uneven texture. In a color tattoo, this might mean that sections of vibrant color appear patchy once the tattoo has healed, while for black and white pieces, bold black will appear gray in sections. Over time, these portions of the image will fade at a different rate to those which achieved complete saturation, giving the tattoo a mottled appearance. In portraiture, both that of people and animals, this will impact the ability of the piece to maintain a realistic quality over time.

2.1.5. Design As discussed earlier, the placement of a tattoo is an important element to consider when making the decision to have it

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done. Similarly, the design of an image plays a central role in how the tattoo will age and last throughout the lifetime of the individual. In the case of realistic tattoos, such as portrait and commemorative designs, it is essential to select images in which prominent facial features are not obscured by shadow and from which the tattoo artist is able to discern a clear notion of how the subject looked. In the case of animal tattoos, particularly those which take the companion animal as their subject, this can be difficult. When we consider fur for instance, there is the challenge of capturing minuscule elements of the animal face (quirks which make a pet identifiable) and highlighting these within the texture of the fur. What the examination of animal tattoos reveals is a myriad of different techniques which are used to not only capture the animal likeness faithfully, but which also denote the status of the animal within the life of the human who wears the image.

2.2. TOTEMISM Claude Levi-Strauss wrote extensively about the misunderstanding around the use of animal totems in his landmark work Totemism (Levi-Strauss, 1963). Animal tattoos inspired only a segment of his discussion, yet his explanation of how and why tribal groups looked to specific animals as totems and, separately, as spirit guides are helpful when turning our attention toward tattooing in the current era and its relationship to companion animals. The study provides insight and context into how we might categorize the different genres of animal tattoo and their current cultural meaning. The use of an animal image within a tribal context served one of two purposes, which could be concluded based around its representation within the group. In the first instance, the animal was a symbol of familial hierarchy and ancestry

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within the wider community. Animal totems were assigned to family groups relative to geographical areas and were used to determine which tribes could intermingle and marry. This in turn reflected the matrilineal hierarchy of the larger indigenous communities. In the current day, it is less common to see animal tattoos employed in this context, although designs which equate animal-specific traits with individual humans are not uncommon. In more recent designs, these have gone on to include morphological components, in which the human figure comingles with the animal body. In the second instance and particularly in the case of Native American people, there was also the use of the animal totem to represent an individual’s affinity with a specific species (Levi-Strauss, 1963, p. 89). In this instance, the characteristics of the creature might be drawn upon to promote similar traits within the human. The animal, which could also not be eaten, would be read as a spirit guide or protector, and was afforded an elevated status. In some instances, the human may have been in combat with the animal. In these cases, the remembrance of that event called for a reverence of the breed, a respect of its power, or in certain circumstances, a reminder of its sacrifice. Elements of the latter are seen in commemorative tattoos which represent service animals, notably those that have completed a tour of duty with the armed forces. In the domestic setting, the more common reimagining of these ideas can be seen also in morphological designs. Dissimilar to those which focus on the shapeshifting of the human into a wild animal, in the second instance, it is the merging of the human with the domestic pet. Designs by Angelique Houtkamp, a Dutch tattoo artist working out of Amsterdam, capture this concept. The use of female faces on animal bodies promotes the idea of human and animal being inseparable and is visually representative of many themes

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which are evident in text-based tattoo designs. These will be discussed further in Chapter 6. In other instances, the animals which feature within a tattoo has been selected specifically because of a shared relationship which has existed between them and the wearer of the tattoo. In these instances, the design of the tattoo and the image of the animal have each been carefully mediated in order to express a very personal narrative about who this animal was. It is not the intent of the wearer to invoke qualities of the animal in the case of these designs, instead they function as a living reminder of the memory of that animal and the influence which it had in the life of that person. It is in these designs, more so than designs which feature wild animals, that we see clear elements of personification. So too, in this genre, there is a clear link to preexisting forms of memento mori. In designs, as well as their sentiment, the memorial tattoo calls upon grief images and ideas from previous eras to convey its message of mourning.

2.3. FIRST RENAISSANCE AND STIGMA While tattooing is representative of one of the oldest human traditions, it experienced a renewed popularity after Captain Cook and his crew returned from the South Pacific sporting the art of Tahitian tattoo practices. These designs not only caught the attention of British society but were responsible for ushering in the first tattoo renaissance (DeMello, 2000, pp. 48 49). Although Great Britain had once possessed its own cultural form of tattooing, these new examples of body art were a reflection of those prevalent in other cultures of the Oceanic region. Maori tribes of New Zealand, for example, have also enjoyed a long tradition. The Moko or face

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tattoo, which is used on both women and men, is one of the most striking images of Maori heritage. Within its tribal context, it has been used to denote beauty and to strike fear into the hearts of an enemy. Additionally, the place and purpose of the Maori tattoo highlights that, in the traditional sense, these symbols were used to recall ancestors, ensuring that there was a sense of continuity between generations an understanding of how past, present, and future are interconnected (Ellis, 2008, p. 78). What the design of a specific tattoo highlights is a sense of immortality for those who have passed on. When gazing upon the image, tribal members are reminded of family lines and shared relationships, while for the individual who wears it, the ink allows for a sense of place or belonging, a connection to their ancestral heritage. Once it has been applied, the Moko and its symbolism cannot be taken away, nor does any prolonged period of distance diminish the clear message of belonging which the visual symbol announces. Differing from more modern approaches to tattooing, this form of the art, similar to many culturally significant rites of passage, had to be earned by the individual. Rather than approaching a tattoo artist in the sort of consumerist transaction that would take place today, for the Maori, a design was decided upon by a group of elders. Patterns were determined based upon specific traits of the individual, to their heritage and family line. One could not demand their tattoo, it was a privilege bestowed. While we can link this tradition back to other tribal rites of passage (such as the journey from boy to man, child to warrior), in the case of the tattoo what it highlights is that the person earns the right to remember and to be remembered. In being tattooed with their specific design, they take on the mantel of representing those who have passed before them and enter into a continuing narrative which will become prominent in the lives of their own

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offspring. With this physical marking comes a responsibility to the family line and thus it is imbued with a narrative of comfort and belonging to something which is bigger than the self. Similarly, in Oceanic cultures such as those found in the Fijian and Samoan Islands and Micro Polynesia, tattooing has traditionally been used to signify rites of passage among men and women (Thompson, 2015, p. 21). In Samoa, tattooing is used to mark the transition from child into adult, with both men and women undergoing the procedure. Different to the application of the Moko, in Samoan tradition, ink is administered to the thighs and buttocks. The tattoo, unlike modern forms which utilize an electric applicator, is delivered by hand and can take many months to complete. The drawnout process is itself a rite of passage for the individual and the periods of healing which occur between tattooing sessions form a central part of the personal narrative that is associated with the visual symbol of the tattoo. What this represents is a spiritual and physical journey. It is a test of emotional fortitude and physical endurance. The end result of the piece thus becomes central to establishing the individual identity. Comparatively, in Eastern and Oriental culture, tattooed marks remain symbols of criminality and fear. In Japan, its association with organized crime has meant that tattooing remains an illegal practice. To wear a tattoo aligns the individual with undesirable qualities, bringing disgrace to family and society. This is despite traditional oriental designs forming a significant subsection of tattoo art. Although not exclusively concerned with the use of animal forms, the koi fish remains one of the most recognizable styles of Japanese tattooing. Representing prosperity in wealth and academia, in the West, the koi is often worn as a fashionable design, as opposed to being indicative of a personal affinity with fish. Tigers have been another animal to feature prominently in

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Japanese design. These too recall the sentiment expressed by Levi-Strauss, in that they are symbolic of the animal trait rather than a love of the animal as an individual entity. In Russia too, the tattoo shares a long history with criminality. Interestingly, in this example though, it represents an enduring form of pictographic language. The Russian criminal tattoo is one which speaks to anyone that knows how to read it. Symbols can be employed as standalone indicators of criminal or gang affiliation or, read as part of a larger pictograph, will reveal the criminal history and activities of the individual. It is uncommon for a standalone image to be selected because the wearer likes the style. Instead, the tattoo is received relative to the actions of the person. Quite often, these designs are constructed around the use of animal forms, which are employed to denote deviance and sexual preference. It is interesting to note that in this instance, the animal form echoes something of the animal nature of the human (Baldaev, Vasiliev, & Pluster-Sarno, 2009). While this is a unique form of pictographic language and, though not as common in the modern day, historically, tattooing has been used across a variety of criminal groups. In previous eras, the use of the image was significant because illiteracy was endemic among people of low socioeconomic status. In this respect, the Australian convict population provides a detailed example of how tattooed images were used as an autobiographical tool of communication as well as being a site of mourning for lost loved ones and a symbol of regret for prior transgression. Simon Barnard’s studies on tattooing among the convict population of colonial Australia reveal that around 37% of men and 15% of women arrived in Van Diemen’s Land (modern-day Tasmania) wearing some form of tattooed image (Barnard, 2016, p. i). In many cases, these tattoos were symbolic of lost spouses and children, who had remained in

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the United Kingdom. Depending on the length of the sentence, in many instances, convicts held little hope of ever being reconciled with loved ones left behind, their exile to the colonies akin to a death sentence. As a form of punishment, geographical distance was the main deterrent, as not only did deportation mean isolation from loved ones but a literal journey to the other side of the world. To be cut off from family and peer groups is detrimental to the understanding of self and the construction of identity. For this reason, the tattoo was a valuable tool for allowing convicts to retain their sense of who they were, where they had come from, and the importance of the familial community of which they were still a part. The harsh conditions awaiting convicts once they had landed in Australia were responsible for a significant amount of convict deaths. This was assuming that they survived the journey. Overcrowded and poorly ventilated, convict ships were a breeding ground for disease, while the length of the transcontinental voyage itself was plagued by food shortages and the perils of the weather. Barnard’s study is one of the first examples in Australian history of tattooing being a major part of society. It is also one of the few examples of the tattoo being an overt symbol of mourning, loss, and longing in Australia and outside of an Indigenous context. Apart from birds, animals rarely feature in the examples which Barnard uses in his study. The bird in this instance has a dual significance. In one respect, it is used to recall Biblical narratives of peace and hope, while in other designs it signifies a desire to fly away from the present. Whether this was a literal desire or a metaphorical reference to escape from the penal colony or even a longing to die is difficult to discern. What is more certain is that in the case of convicts, the loss of personal freedom and autonomy made them comparable to animals in that their comfort and longevity was reliant upon the benevolence of the officers who policed them.

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Albert Parry also discusses the use of tattooing for identification purposes (Parry, 1933, pp. 111 119), highlighting the link between the tattooed image and death in his discussion of the relationship between early tattoo design and traditional grave markers. This is echoed in Barnard’s examples of convict design, which recall British and American traditions (2016, pp. 22 25). In discussing this link between the two commemorative forms, Parry states that the presence of grave symbolism and headstone imagery in early tattoo design spoke to the diseased mind of people wishing to be tattooed. Throughout the study, he also suggests that the practice of tattooing is innately linked to an unsound mind and a longing for sexual or criminal deviance, a common trait between both sexes. In his estimation, either of these inclinations were clear indicators of premature death. In light of grief studies today, we would view this much differently, but Parry was not alone in his belief that tattooing spoke to a form of social deviance. Cesare Lombroso (1991) was similarly convinced that it was an indicator of criminality, as was Richard S. Post (1969) over half a decade later. A shift in the motivations behind tattooing would not become prevalent (outside of anthropological considerations) until the practice began to see a resurgence in popular culture, still these early attempts to research why people modify their skin with the tattooed image retain value when we consider them in relation to the formation of individual and social narrative. What makes Post’s study so intriguing is that his research participants were drawn from a Veterans Hospital in Kentucky in the late 1950s. Rather than consider the role which the trauma of military service had played on their mental state, which he diagnosed as schizophrenic, Post identifies the presence of tattoos as being indicative of an ingrained medical disorder (1969, pp. 523 524). While post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was not identified until 1980, it seems

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surprising that no attention was given to the influence of trauma in the diagnosis of the “illness” experienced by these patients. Similarly, little attention seems to have been afforded to the mentality of military life as it pertains to ideas of unit cohesion and the formation of peer groups. Looking back on the experience of veterans in times of conflict, we can now conclude that the prevalence of tattooing is emblematic of the innate need humans have to express membership with a social group, along with a desire to mark rites of passage and moments of significance. In this respect, the practice of being tattooed shares a closer relationship with the tribal motivation than with a desire for deviance. Wearing the narrative of group membership on the skin, in this context, becomes an expression of a grief which surviving veterans may not have been able to articulate, let alone display publicly. Viewed from this perspective, the tattooed markings act as a form of non-verbal communication. They can be read and understood by other surviving service members and create a sense of community, a shared narrative which is underpinned by the emotional turmoil of active service. That tattooing continues to be popular among military groups and service professionals seems further proof that it satisfies this need for narrative and membership among people that experience similar life traumas.

2.4. SECOND RENAISSANCE AND FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES The tattooed image can be read as a beacon for like-minded individuals. In seeing a stranger with a tattoo that they identify with, people who might have otherwise remained strangers establish new connections to those around them (Thompson, 2015, p. 56). This is of significant interest when

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the tattoo is a symbol of mourning. Deborah Davidson and her interviews with participants for The Tattoo Project have revealed similar sentiments. In being tattooed, the story of the image will attract other individuals who have been through a similar event (in this case the loss of a loved one), which creates new avenues for peer bonding and the development of interpersonal relationships (Davidson, 2016, p. 79). It is among other like-minded people that grief can be experienced, and that loss can begin to be accepted by the griefstricken. Although, in some cases, the grief rituals have already been conducted and the mourning process may be well-advanced, bonding in shared grief presents an outlet through which new relationships can be formed and existing ones strengthened. It is through tattoo-inspired discussions that concepts of death and the relationships we have with loved ones that have passed on are shared. Although the examples in Davidson’s work deal almost exclusively with human loss and memorialization, there is an evident parallel with how animal-inspired memorial tattoos function among people who have shared a close bond with a companion animal. Perhaps one of the central reasons why the appearance of the animal within the tattoo has been overlooked in academic studies is because of the confused status of the human and animal relationship generally. As the previous chapter discussed, the place of animals in human life is constantly in flux. How and why we categorize and personify certain animals is a behavior which is highly individualized, and thus, it can be difficult to appreciate the depth of feeling which leads to a commemorative tattoo that narrates an animal loss. Regarding ownership, the tattoo of the animal image can be read as a claiming of the individual animal in a family unit. In memorializing the narrative of the animal life through the permanent wearing of the animal likeness, we claim that animal as one of our kin. This idea, which has been read as a

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human expression of superiority over animal agency (Tait, 2013, p. 72), bares something in common with the female body and the relationship it shares with tattooing. One of the most recognizable historical figures of the tattooed woman is Olive Oatman. Her striking blue facial tattoo, given to her while a captive of the Mohave Indians, has acted as the inspiration behind many of the wild stories which tattooed female entertainers would use when explaining how they acquired their own extensive artwork (Mifflin, 2013, p. 15). While this adoption of Oatman’s misfortune might be seen as disrespectful to her very real suffering, it also speaks to an admiration of her endurance and her unwillingness to be defined by the visual reminder of her captivity. For this reason, she has remained a figure of historical and cultural interest, particularly among feminist scholars. In recent years, the character of Eva in the AMC series Hell on Wheels (2011 2016) recalled the story of Oatman, acting as something of a homage to her legacy and renewing interest in her story. Although in the series Eva works as a prostitute (a stark contrast to her university educated historical counterpart), her facial tattooing is the result of kidnaping by Indians. After her rescue, Eva like Oatman, maintains a presence in society, never seeking to hide her marks or deny their origins, despite the fact that the memory is painful to her. Oatman’s refusal to hide from the spotlight, and during later life, in which she bucked social tradition and went on to have a successful career (Mifflin, 2013, pp. 16 17), represents the same kind of desire that many women articulate as their reason for being tattooed in the present. This is a desire born of rebellion and the need to reclaim ownership over their female form. At first glance, this might seem to have little in common with mourning, but upon closer consideration, this attitude

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speaks directly to the mourning of the entire female gender, over their loss of agency in a patriarchal society. A selection of women interviewed by Albert Parry in the 1930s confirms that the act of being tattooed has long represented a personal need to demonstrate individuality or to mark significant events (1933, pp. 6 10). While this may be in response to individual desires to distance oneself from those around them, it also aligns with diminished interest in celebrating rites of passage and femininity in Western society. Throughout the fifties and sixties, a subculture of heavily tattooed women also drew the attention of society. In many of these instances however, the tattoos were not a product of choice as much as they were a result of being married to a tattoo artist. While many women expressed enjoyment at having their body adorned with inked images, the fact that it was a decision encouraged by their spouse, and often a tool through which he could market his trade, aligns the practice with a loss of female agency. In some regards, this echoes the similar imbalance which is the topic of discussion in presentday animal studies. Women, in a way that is not too far removed from animal species, have inherited a long history of oppression and subjugation. The female body has long been a site of social and gender protestation, with women seldom feeling as though they have complete autonomy over their own appearance.1

1 A prime example of this idea can be seen in Virginia Woolfe’s 1933 novel Flush: A Biography. Written from the perspective of Elizabeth Barrett-Browning’s lapdog, it is based on the true events and details the Victorian Era crime of dog kidnaping. As a feminist text however, the text can further be interpreted as a comment on the parallels between Victorian Era companion animals and the status of the Victorian Era woman. It provides an interesting insight into a long history of women’s rights and the idea of autonomy and ownership.

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In relation to self-identification and narrative, the heavily tattooed female form can represent a reclamation of self. The exhibitionism of the act may seem at odds with this claim, yet as a challenge of gender ideas and social acceptability, the tattooed body is also the ultimate symbol of rebellion against expectation (Botz-Bornstein, 2013, p. 237). In interviewing numerous heavily tattooed women (collectors and artists) of differing ages around their motivations for being tattooed, Beverly Yuen Thompson demonstrates the power of image in identity construction (2015, pp. 46 49). Another overwhelming theme is the idea that in becoming heavily tattooed, the female renders herself as a public object (Mifflin, 2013, p. 74). As soon as her tattoos are visible, she transforms into an object for public judgment and the subject of unsolicited touch from the curious and casual observer. In a way that is not dissimilar to tattooing today, the use of the tattoo, particularly as it is described by women in the 1970s, was thought to be one which represented rebellion against oppression. It represented an avenue through which women were able to demonstrate their individuality and personhood. It is unsurprising that similar themes are present among female tattoo artists and tattoo collectors that were part of the scene during the 1970s renaissance. Since its public rebirth in the late 1980s early 1990s women in the West have continued to suffer from similar stigmas as their historical counterparts. Receptions to the tattooed female body are slowly changing, although there remains a pervasive attitude that it is unattractive for a female to intentionally mark her skin. Even the most recent studies on the subject reveal that visible tattoos invite criticism from all avenues of society. Significantly different from the male form, the tattooed female body is a piece of community property. When it challenges the status quo of what is considered attractive and beautiful it becomes a site for criticism.

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2.5. REALITY TELEVISION Although it is hard to pinpoint the precise moment in which tattooing began to cross over into mainstream entertainment and everyday culture, in the early years of the new millennium, reality television shows about the tattooing trend began to play a predominant role in the pop-culture landscape. It was via this channel that both the intricacies of the tattooing process and the idea of the tattoo as an art form were introduced to an international audience, quickly becoming popular among a wide demographic of television viewers. These included a subsection of “tattoo curious” adults, particularly women. For those individuals who always wanted a tattoo but lacked the nerve, living vicariously through the experience of the reality television narrative demystified ideas of what it meant to modify the skin. In response to the new “acceptability” around being tattooed which reality television has created, there has been an explosion in popularity of the art form among younger generations, who are embracing the processes. It is through ink that they are telling their own stories. Miami Ink (2005 2008) was the series responsible for introducing the first breed of tattooist celebrities, Chris Nunez and Kat von D, to a worldwide audience. Although tattoos and tattooed celebrities have been a common fixture in the tabloid media and celebrity landscape, until this point it had been rare to see individuals who were famous and recognizable because they were tattoo artists. In weaving their personal stories in with their career choice, what Miami Ink accomplished was a comprehensive look into what had previously been a largely mysterious or underground subculture. In removing much of the fear and misconception about how tattoos are done and the types of people that give and receive them, this and subsequent television series played a pivotal

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role in making visible tattoos a more accepted fixture within society. On the back of their initial success, both Nunez and Von D would go on to appear on other tattoo-themed shows which also enjoyed worldwide popularity. The common element was in the format, which was geared around individual tattoo designs and the stories which motivated the decision by their guests to be tattooed. Von D, after a fallout with Nunez and the breakup of her marriage to fellow tattoo celebrity Oliver Peck, was given a spin-off series, LA Ink (2007 2011). Her personal struggles were well-documented on both series and went on to become central to her own narrative as it related to her motivation for becoming a tattoo artist. Spin-off shows such as Bondi Ink set in Australia (2015 ) and London Ink (2007 2009) have also focused on the circumstances which motivate people to be tattooed. These have enjoyed less success than their American counterparts, although Bondi Ink was influential in the career of tattooist Megan Massacre. A native of New York, Massacre served as the guest artist in the Bondi tattoo shop. She has gone on to define her career through a love of tattooing memorial animal designs and is also an outspoken animal rights activist. Much like von D, Massacre is heavily tattooed and openly challenges social standards around female beauty. In more recent years, Peck and Nunez have appeared together on Ink Master (2012 ), which has changed the style of delivery to focus on artistry and skill as opposed to the personal stories behind specific tattoo designs. Still, the series has been incredibly popular with viewers, who use the artistic elements to inform their decision about style and construction in personal designs. An off-shoot from Ink Master, Tattoo Nightmares (2012 2015) focuses on cover-up tattoos. Putting an interesting spin on the tattoo narrative, this series examines the stories behind regrettable tattoos before they are covered up. The process of the redesign and the

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overlaying of the new image on top of the old one is a metaphorical act, allowing for the personal narrative to be rewritten by the individual being tattooed. In a sense, the new image erases the negativity of a past moment or behavior, allowing them to recreate their sense of self. This shares many similarities with tribal tattooing practices, in which the act of being tattooed is not only cathartic but suggests the shedding of elements of the old identity so as to embrace the new. The newer, written on body, is always a truer reflection of the self. Employing a similar format, Bad Ink (2013 ) is based in Las Vegas and looks exclusively at cover-up tattoo designs. In contrast to Tattoo Nightmares, the cast for the series is exclusively male and the Las Vegas setting brings a different clientele. There is less of a focus on personal or sentimental narratives (although these do sometimes occur within individual episodes) and more of an interest in stories of illconceived ventures into being tattooed. The result here is not only bad tattoos with humorous back stories but cover-up tattoos which are similarly humorous in the design. The overarching narrative of this series, unlike those previously discussed, lies in the story of Dirk Vermin (the tattoo artist) and Rob Ruckus (his non-tattooing sidekick). It is their story of life in Las Vegas, coupled with their attempts to recruit participants for the show that brings the narrative tension to the series. In this instance, audiences are afforded a more direct focus on the personal lives of Vermin and Ruckus, whereas their clients are secondary. Best Ink (2012 2014), which ran on the Oxygen Network for three seasons, featured LA Ink alumni Hannah Aitchison as one of the judges and was designed specifically to rival Paramount’s more successful Ink Master. The series was competition based, with a heavy focus on competing tattoo artists demonstrating their skill in a wide variety of styles

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with the goal of winning a cash prize at the end of the season. While Ink Master employs a similar format, Best Ink was more heavily focused on the monetary incentive motivating the artists. A distinct lack of attention on the client and their motivations for being tattooed is undoubtedly one of the reasons the show was unable to compete against its more successful predecessor. In focusing on fiscal motivations, audiences of the series were confronted with the idea of the tattoo as a consumable item and themselves as consumers. To highlight the link between bodily adornment and consumerism so blatantly was confrontational. The idea of the tattoo as a consumer item is not a new one. It has featured in the analysis and scholarship which has approached the subject from a fan studies, anthropological, and sociological perspective. The consensus of much of the work predating 2010 is that tattooing is representative of a current “trend” and is specifically linked to the consumer product society in which we live. In response to this, more recent discussions on tattooing have addressed the consumerist element, linking the influence of consumerism to the development of individual identity (Patterson & Schroder, 2010, p. 259). What this approach reveals is how media influences contribute to the individual’s decision to be tattooed. In a similar way as the marketing techniques of the pet-keeping industry dictate consumer trends among pet owners, in the tattooing world, the influence of celebrity figures and reality television has played a vital role in increasing the popularity of tattooing as a form of self-narrative (Adams, 2009, p. 105; Woodstock, 2014, p. 87). When we consider the role of social media, celebrity culture, and, to a lesser degree, reality television, on how social identities and trends are formed, there is certainly significant support for this theory. Many, if not most, of the tattoo-themed television shows discussed here promote the idea of being tattooed, highlighting the

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significance of being an individual and expressing that individuality through the medium of the tattoo. When this message is translated into real life, what is immediately apparent is the very significant cost associated with the commitment. This element is one that is rarely touched upon in the television serial format. Tattooing, as with any form of adornment, can be expensive. In many Western countries, such as Australia, the prevalence of tattooing has been directly linked to the affluence of the individual, suggesting that it is only those with above-average income that can afford to indulge into this particular avenue of self-narrativization (Fraser, 2015, p. 10). However, to relegate the prevalence of body modification to that of a passing fad or consumer craze, particularly in consideration of its long and varied history, represents a failure to understand what its modern implementation can and does tell us about how we live and communicate. In relation to personal narrative creation, there remains an enormous amount of scholarship which is yet to be investigated, specifically as the practice of tattooing relates to visual text and language. Similarly, the modification of skin as a response to mourning has been largely ignored in modern scholarship. While it is important to assess the consumer need which being tattooed fulfills, in the case of the memorial tattoo, we must also consider more closely what the act of being tattooed says. Not just in relation to how we grieve for humans, but for the animals that live in our homes and share our lives. It is the analysis of these mourning behaviors that will reveal a great deal about how we consider death socially and within peer and family groups. Even though humans have been using the animal image as a form of bodily adornment for generations, the sentiment expressed within these images was rarely relative to a specific animal. Certainly, it was seldom used to mourn the loss of a companion animal, such as a dog or cat. It is only in the

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recent rebirth of the medium that artistry and sentiment have taken a distinct turn toward capturing these bonds on the human canvas. Sadly, the prevalence of this genre of tattooing remains largely underinvestigated in either tattoo-focused scholarship or among the Human and Animal Studies (HAS) field. With this in mind, I turn my attention in subsequent chapters directly toward how companion animals are being represented in current forms of tattooing in the current day. These examples are not always concerned with the death of the animal, nor should they be seen purely as an elegy of human longing. Instead, what they reveal is how we narrativize the relationships which we increasingly share with animals and the ways in which we express love and, eventually sadness, at that animal’s passing. That many of the artistic concepts which appear in animal-centered mourning tattoos recall the death ideas of bygone eras is also unsurprising. As I will demonstrate, we have long employed the animal body in mourning tradition. This practice, like tattooing, saw a resurgence during the Victorian Period, when a fascination with animals, domestic and wild, resulted in elaborate use of the animal body in decorative and commemorative expression.

2.6. CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have provided a brief history of tattooing, from anthropological, sociological, feminist, and popular culture perspectives. By looking at how the animal image has been used in tribal tattooing, I have outlined ways in which the animal form has previously been used to denote the importance of the human and animal relationship. The birth of reality television and the marriage between this format and tattoo practice has been instrumental in how social attitudes

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toward tattooing, and its social acceptability, have changed dramatically in the last two decades. Whereas the tattoo studio and lifestyle of the tattoo artist had previously been hidden from society, and subject to a variety of negative stereotypes, the intrusion of the television camera into this world removed much of the associated stigma. As a result, tattooing has risen to the forefront of the social identity, as a form of artistic expression and as a statement of identity.

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Image 4. Woman Nursing a Kitten

Source: Shutterstock.

CHAPTER 3 MEMORIALIZING ANIMALS Meaning and Mourning Chapter 1 began with a view from John Berger, taken from his essay Why Look at Animals? I return here to the same work, to highlight Berger’s belief that, in addition to a crossspecies relationship built on necessity and love, the lives of human and animals run in parallel to each other (2009, p. 6). While our species might live within intimate proximity of each other, it is in death, Berger suggests, that these parallel lines eventually touch. Chapter 1 considered how humans have lived with, and loved, their companion animals. The discussion focused on the transition of the animal from an ambivalent outdoor dwelling possession into a fully domesticated and humanized indoor companion. In addition, it considered the role of the consumer item in how animal identities have been constructed and continue to develop in parallel to human ideas about the human animal relationship. In Chapter 2, my focus shifted from an explicit discussion of animals toward an assessment of the role of the tattoo in tribal and contemporary cultures. Within this discussion, I introduced elements of the human animal relationship as it has been expressed through the practice of tattooing, albeit in a historical or tribal setting. In this chapter, we return to a present-day view of the human animal relationship, shifting 67

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focus from how we dwell with companion species toward a consideration of how these animals are mourned and memorialized, after their deaths, by their human owners. These grief rituals will be examined with the purpose of establishing a link between historical grief rituals and behaviors, previously enacted almost exclusively between humans, and the echo of these as it is found in the human animal relationships of the present. Nowhere is this more evident than in the skin and touch interactions exchanged between species. My discussion will then develop in Chapter 4, which looks explicitly at taxidermy as a form of memorialization. Like tattooing, taxidermy deals specifically with skin, in that it is through the skin and our interaction and relationship with it that we begin to construct narratives around specific animals. In relation to death and mourning rituals, this plays a prominent role with the skin becoming the living canvas on which memorialization is enacted. It is a public space and communicative space, employed in the expression of the most private of emotions. Death has become a taboo discussion topic in current Western society. Where once it was not uncommon for death to be an intimate and familiar fixture within the home environment, in the current day it has largely been banished from the consciousness of the living (Benjamin, 2009, p. 151). This is particularly true when we consider the grieving process as it relates to the intimate relationship between companion animals and their human guardians. Unlike human-to-human connections, the human-to-animal bond is still regarded throughout much of Western society with a casual skepticism. For those who have never cohabited with a pet, it is difficult to understand the emotional attachment, while for people who have suffered through the loss of a loved one will often feel conflict when imagining an animal in the same way as they would a parent, spouse, or child. The relationship

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between human and companion animal though, especially in the single-person home, is one of profound, if often misunderstood, significance to the human (Boyraz & Bricker, 2011, p. 383). The animal, while providing company and companionship, is also a spectator to the most intimate moments of the human life, its constancy in the domestic setting offering something of comfort and security. The death of the animal then, which frequently occurs in relatively sudden circumstances, creates an enormous gap in the private landscape, with the subsequent isolation that takes place becoming at times debilitating for the human owner (p. 393). As they cannot discuss these emotions in public, for fear of scrutiny over the validity of such feelings, increasingly there is a trend toward memorializing the animal and the narrative of the shared relationship through death mementos. These types of mourning accessory, becoming more prevalent among grieving pet owners, highlight the disparity in how humans narrate animal death and also provides an insight into our longing to mourn for these creatures even in spite of social attitudes. A large part of how humans legitimize animal death relates to their direct interaction with or experience of losing a companion animal. In the case of nameless animals, such as those euthanized in a shelter or killed on the side of the road, there is an absence of narrative. These creatures, in contrast to those in the domestic setting, have no name and no personality, at least not that we would recognize. Theirs is an anonymous death in which there is no one to tell their story, nor to mourn them. Cloaked in anonymity or isolation, death passes unnoticed and without the intimate comfort of human touch. The result of this division is that millions of animals die every year under the cloak of social invisibility. Their lives, unlike that of the pet, are unrecorded and obscure. In contrast, when we say goodbye to our pets, the pinnacle of

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over interaction takes place upon the skin. It is through touch that we experience the animal’s transition from life to death, and touch which makes the moment real. Veterinary practices, for instance, will recommend that pet owners accompany with their animals as they are euthanized. This is not purely for the benefit of the animal, which is comforted by the familiar scent and touch of their human owner as the procedure is undertaken but provides the opportunity for the owner to accept the moment, allowing the grieving process to commence. The touching of fur (or feathers) brings a tactile experience to the moment of death. Unlike the human setting, we touch the animal as it falls asleep, and can see, smell, and feel its final moments. When the heart stops beating or air ceases to be taken in, it is an obvious, visceral experience one that is seldom encountered in the modern day in the human-to-human death narrative. Unlike our human relationships, from the moment we adopt a companion into the home, we do so with the full knowledge that it will die and that we, as the caretaker, will be intimately linked to the experience of that death (DeMello, 2016, p. 23). This is a death experience constantly in flux; it changes in reflection of the social changes that have impacted the family and individual lifestyle. Looking back only one or two generations, we witness dramatic changes related to how grief is expressed in relation to pets. As a starting point, the interment of the companion animal has undergone a dramatic change, and one which can be linked directly to the changing lifestyle of the family unit, particularly as it relates to geographical movement. In decades past, families lived in the same home or geographical locale for much of their lives, affording them not only the comfort of familiar surroundings but often the stability of a family home (Beck & Katcher, 1996, p. 21). Throughout childhood, this setting provided a place in which mourning

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and commemoration of pets could be dealt with privately. An example of this would be the backyard burial of the family dog or cat. As families become more transient, moving from home to home or even across huge geographical distances for work however, there is no longer the long-term availability of a burial site. It is unreasonable to assume that pets can be disinterred from their grave sites so that they too can be relocated to a new home (although this has happened, it is not common). Perhaps for this reason, pet cremation and the implementation of the pet cemetery have come to the fore. As Jane Desmond has highlighted (2016), animal cemeteries are a growing American industry. As we look at pets as family members more so than we ever have before (p. 126), the safekeeping of their remains becomes an important part of how we care for and commemorate them. Differing from cremation, the pet cemetery remains a static and immovable place in which we can safely inter our animals. In design and layout, as well as in the sentiments expressed on memorial stones, the pet cemetery recalls many of the traditions found in the human cemetery, maintaining the sense of tangibility that allows the human to reconnect with the memory narrative of the life they have shared with their pet. Longestablished pet cemeteries, such as Hartford Cemetery in Rochdale, New York, provide historical proof of animal burial customs (Wallis Marguilies, 2016, pp. 39 41). Though the animal cemetery may have been acceptable when family members were unlikely to move away from a specific location, in the modern era though, it represents similar challenges to the backyard burial. Cremation, however, allows for the remains of the animal to be transported. Today, there are an increasing number of pet cremation services, which offer a range of different cremation methods, to suit the needs and budget of almost any pet owner. Daisy Pushers Mobile Pet Cremations and Aftercare,

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located in California, is a mobile service, offering traditional fire cremations as well as a water variant.1 Water cremation is described as the eco-friendly alternative to the fire method and involves the use of chemicals, which mimic the natural decomposition process. The procedure takes around 24 hours to complete and, according to the website, preserves an additional 25 30% of the animal (Daisy Pushers Mobile Pet Cremations, 2018). Pet owners opt to receive a memorial paw print along with the ashes of the animal, which can be used in place of a memorial plaque or kept as a memento. In instances where ashes will be scattered in a commemorative, the plaque will also become a tangible reminder, which can be held, touched, and looked upon to recall the animal. The company also specializes in the preservation of nose prints. When the animal is collected for cremation, a print is taken of the nose (which is akin to a fingerprint) and preserved in black plastic. The back of the print is lined with felt, giving it an artistic appearance. It is also designed as a death memento, which can be kept and, due to its small size, carried by grieving owners. Although the nose is not an area of the animal or human body with which we might commonly equate loving or intimate touch exchange, it represents here, the idea of individuality. As no two nose impressions will ever be exactly alike, the death token harkens back to the specific narrative of the pet. In this instance, it is the conduit through which love is recalled. In some instances, cremated animals are buried with their human owners upon their death. While this is only recently starting to become an acceptable and increasingly common

1

Daisy Pushers Mobile Pet Mobile Pet Creation and Aftercare. Retrieved from https://www.daisypusherscremation.com/. Accessed on February 24, 2019.

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practice, as Image 5 demonstrates, in cases where cremated remains are buried with a human owner, they form an important part of the burial and are intimately interwoven with human grief rituals. In the case of this specific image, the ashes are a centerpiece within the coffin, representing one of the greatest joys in the life of the deceased, which was adopting stray and unwanted animals into the home. Over the course of her life, she had kept and cared for numerous cats and dogs. That the deceased was interred holding the ashes of these, her last pets, is a representation of a lifetime of love and care. Further, it speaks to her private hope and belief regarding reconciliation with these animals in the afterlife.2 Stigma around public forms of morning related to companion animals extends well beyond the cemetery and is particularly evident when companion animals are mourned in the media or when the death of a beloved pet is made public through a highly-visible shrine or memorial site. Much of this unrest is linked to the fact that the animal tribute verges on sentimentality and grief which is seen by many as perverse or embarrassing. This is not a feeling which is reserved for those with no affinity to domestic pets either. As Becky Tipper’s work (2016) has discussed, public obituaries for animals, along with animal condolence cards, challenge social responses to animal death. Similarly to Tipper, Rachael Poliquin has discussed the contentious issue of the pet obituary, highlighting the negative reactions of the public in relation to seeing a memorial in printed form. What these reactions highlight is not only the social unease around death

2

The deceased here is Mavis Marie Parsons, maternal grandmother to the author. Mavis was very specific in her wishes to be buried with the cremated remains of her domestic pets and had often stated nothing made her so happy as the time she had spent with her animals throughout her life.

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Image 5. Cremated Remains of Companion Animals

Source: Racheal Harris. Notes: Cremated remains of Bess (a Collie mix) and Sidney (a mixed-breed tabby). They are interred here for burial with their elderly owner. The inclusion of the Rosary is indicative not only of her faith but of her belief that she would be reunited, in Heaven, not only with Bess and Sidney, but all of the domestic pets she had cared for and loved throughout her life.

generally but that there is a feeling that the human animal relationship is one that is intensely private. To openly mourn for an animal is to admit a kind of weakness. In our grief, we are forced to admit that in the loss of the cat or the dog we have lost an intrinsic part of ourselves. Unlike interpersonal relationships between humans, even romantic relationships

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(Davis, 2011, p. 229), many pet owners have confessed that it is their pet to whom they feel the closest bond (Fawcett, 2016, pp. 172 173). This is because it is our pets that are often by our sides, even in intimate moments which we would not necessarily share with other humans. Precisely because the animal is not human, we allow its entry into the most private sphere of our individual and personal routine. To then mourn publicly when that animal has died opens us up to public scrutiny around not only how we relate to our companion animals but also how we live our lives behind closed doors. David Redmalam (2016) draws on the intimacy of this bond and the tension in mourning it in his discussion of animal-themed condolence cards. Until quite recently, it was uncommon to locate animal-specific cards in the consumer market. Specialty stores throughout Australia are increasingly beginning to include a range of sympathy cards however, which recognize the passing of domestic animals and the impact the loss has on the life of owners. Sold alongside traditional forms of sympathy cards, what these suggest is the growing awareness around the profound role which the companion animal plays in home life, and that its death, like the death of any family member, can be incredibly painful. Unlike the traditional sympathy cards, those which are designed for animals often lack a verse within the card. A random selection of cards, about from across Melbourne in December 2018, revealed six different designs. Of these, four of the six had no inner verse, although four of them had a sentiment on the exterior of the card. While not overtly religious, these verses suggested a similar sentiment to traditional mourning cards for humans. Of the two cards with no verse inside and no sentiment on the exterior, both were designed to be given to dog owners. The front of the first card showed a wiry coated Jack Russell, nestled within a blue blanket. It is

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not immediately identifiable as a sympathy card and, had it not been included with another variation which did clearly express animal grief, would have been easy to look past. The other card featured a dog, sitting at a bus stop on its own. The scene is illustrated from front on, with the face of the dog in profile, its long muzzle is downcast. Although the card is designed as a pet sympathy card, the fact that the dog has taken on the human persona almost gives it the feeling that it has been designed on behalf of an animal that has lost its owner. A possible reason for this approach may be related to the relative discomfort which people still feel about memorializing animals in public. Anne Fawcett has highlighted some other complex emotions which complicate the anxiety that many people feel mourning an animal in the same way which they might mourn the loss of a human (2016, pp. 172 175). Her interviews with a selection of people, some of whom had experienced the stillbirth of children or the loss of a spouse after a long-term illness, reveal the nagging feeling of disrespect when we compare the human animal bond to that which exists between people. These feelings echo the public backlash that frequently accompanies written tributes to companion animals, which have appeared in local newspapers to commemorate animals that have been well known with the community (Tipper, 2016, p. 96). In these examples also, people feel that an animal life, no matter how extraordinary or beneficial to the human quality of life, should be deserving of the same kind of press coverage which would usually be saved from human memorialization. In a similar expression of the discomfort which exists around the interment of animals in the human cemetery, there is a fear that to openly mourn an animal will appear to lessen the mourning which is conveyed when a human member of the community is lost. What this discomfort illustrates is the enduring tension which

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exists in the human and animal relationship. Specifically, the idea is that the human animal bond is inferior to that which is expressed in the intimate human-to-human relationship. Therefore, to express emotion in the wake of the animal’s death is a failing on the part of the human. It suggests an emotional weakness or inferiority in emotional development. In addition, to express grief over a lost animal will somehow detract from grief previously expressed over the loss of a beloved human. Perhaps it is in response to this nagging discomfort and fear of social anxiety around openly grieving the death of companion animals that humans are increasingly turning toward death tokens and other forms of memento mori to remember their deceased pets. Unlike the public declaration of mourning which is represented in a printed obituary or sympathy card, the death token can be easily concealed. Still, the tangibility allows for the bereaved to find comfort in a connection with something related to, or which was a physical part of, their deceased pet. Such items are often easily concealed or, when displayed as forms of jewelry, are not immediately identifiable as grief-centered pieces. Death jewelry, in particular, is becoming increasingly popular with mourning pet owners. While such items are not readily available in stores, the online market presents an abundance of personalized trinkets, with something to suit the needs of any bereaved pet owner. Etsy is an online marketplace specifically designed for artisans to sell their pieces to an international audience.3 Anyone can open an Etsy store and products vary greatly, from oneoff, handcrafted pieces, to mass-produced items. Unlike eBay and other online market places, Etsy places an emphasis on

3

Retrieved from https://www.etsy.com/au/. Accessed on January 2, 2019.

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the artistic elements of the store. A major selling point for the Etsy retailer is the idea of the bespoke piece. This can be something which is not available in the generic retail shop or something which has been handcrafted specifically to order. In the case of custom designs, concepts ranged from standard paw and nose print replicas through to items woven from animal fur. A search for “pet mourning jewelry” returned a range of mementos, many of which harken back to pieces from the Victorian Era’s culture of mourning. Hair is the most common similarity between different designs. In the case of the mementos listed in the forthcoming sections, as well as in those of the current era, what is evident is that it is the hair which is the conduit between the living and the dead. It is the gesture of touching the hair or of holding onto it (even encased in a locket or glass vial) that creates the cord of communion between the bereaved and the memory of who is being mourned (Aries, 1986, p. 462). Traditionally, such practices have been related almost exclusively to human relationships, though increasingly they encompass pet-specific mourning. As such, the death memento is an incredibly strong symbol of the affection and place which we afford to our companion animals. The results of the search are detailed in the following sections. They have been separated into subsections so as to highlight the different varieties of memento that are available.

3.1. NECKLACES Many designs integrate animal fur and whiskers. These are encased in lockets or blown glass pendants, which are worn as necklaces. Several items of customer feedback from one seller page praised the contact which the store owner had with customers, specifically in sourcing the individual fur or

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whisker clippings which were to be used in the creation of the piece. Providing updates to the bereaved customer throughout the design and construction processes created a feeling of calm and, after the item was received, many commented that they felt relief at being able to hold, carry, and retain some element of the deceased animal. A collection of stainless-steel urns is also available in many of the online stores. Differing from a full-sized urn, these too are designed to be worn on a necklace. The urn can be worn symbolically (empty) to represent the commemoration of an animal which has perhaps been deceased for some time or can be filled. The contents of the urns (due to their size) is limited again to fur, whisker clippings, nail clippings or a small amount of ash from a cremated pet. The inclusion of a metallic paw-shaped pendant identifies the necklace as a pet memento. This is included with the price of the urn and chain. Customer feedback suggests that purchasers are not only pleased with the fashionable design but soothed by the idea of wearing part of their deceased pet with them. Floating lockets, which use plaited animal and human hair as a central motif, were featured in numerous designs, though most commonly within circular frames. The plaiting of the hair is reminiscent of Victorian Era mourning jewelry, in which hair was used to form bracelets and rings which would be worn by the bereaved. Unlike these examples however, by encasing the hair in glass, it can be preserved for a far longer period of time. Owing to many animals having short fur, which cannot be woven, the inclusion of human hair gives the design its form. Symbolically, it also reaffirms the human and animal bond by becoming the tangible symbol of lives and memory narratives which have been interwoven in the human experience. Some dog tag style designs listed animal birth and death dates, while other styles used a stack pendant design, in

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which several dog tags of varying sizes were stacked on top of each other. Each pendant carried a different symbol for the animal. While larger pendants (near the base of the stack) could be engraved with a name of death date, smaller ones carried love heart and paw print symbols. In more elaborate instances, the main pendant featured a brief poem which was stacked behind the animal-specific details. The traditional ID style bracelet also featured in this category, although again, elements such as paw print charms, and angel wings had been added to differentiate the piece as being related to the animal as opposed to human-centered bereavement.

3.2. BRACELETS Bracelets were another popular item and are offered in an array of designs. Many of these examples focus heavily on the use of a photograph as the centerpiece of the design, which is then accentuated through the use of charms. Resembling a traditional charm bracelet, the objects in this instance are specific to animal lifestyles, including bones, a water dish, a fish, or a collar. In lieu of a photograph, an embossed image of the animal or a recreation of the nose or paw print could be implemented as the centerpiece. Bracelets featuring elements composed with the ashes of the animal or its birthstone also featured among several sellers. The birthstone is interesting in that it highlights the contentious issue of the animal birth date, but it is also a distinctly human way of memorializing the animal. In traditional understandings, the birthstone (like the star sign) generally denotes specific character traits of a person. Many, if not all of these, would be irrelevant to the animal personality. That we are choosing to implement them into the memorialization of the domestic

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pet, however, suggests that we have endeared our pets with specific human qualities. Gemstone beads were another common bracelet design. In the instance of these styles, breedspecific silhouettes, embossed into a silver charm, were added to the bracelet, along with angel wings, to memorialize the deceased animal. Unlike the necklace, the bracelet is easier for the wearer to look upon and touch while it is being worn, yet the design of the bracelet gives it a different significance. As it does not actually contain a piece of the animal (such as the hair or the ashes), when touching or wearing, it lacks the same symbiotic tether to the animal that the necklace possesses. Image 6. Taxidermy Mouse Encased in Necklace

Source: Lauren Kane.

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3.3. BROOCHES Brooches are not as popular as a modern-day fashion accessory as they have been in previous generations. As such, they are often advertising on the Etsy platform as kitsch or custom-designed pieces which stand out from more common forms of memento. During the Victorian Era, the brooch was a popular adornment, with designs that were used purely for fashion purposes as well as variants which were constructed specifically as mourning pieces. Overall, among the Etsy retailers, there were relatively few stores which advertised brooches, though the ones that did, focused almost exclusively on embroidered designs, which could be customized to match the face of a specific animal. Felt was also a popular material in brooch composition. In these examples, faces were constructed and stuffed to create the three-dimensional effect. Traditional photographic styles of brooch were also featured from sellers. In these instances, general likenesses of dogs and cats were composed out of brass and metallic materials. These encompassed cameo designs, as well as Steam Punk themed pieces.

3.4. OTHER MEMENTOS Stuffed toys, designed to look like individual animals, can also be bought online, along with plaster engravings of animal portraits. Urns and containers which store cremated animal remains are also advertised through a variety of online websites and on social media platforms. Much like their human counterparts, the animal urn can be styled in various forms and include inlaid photographs of the animal. This will form a keepsake, which can be carried from place to place (in the event of an owner moving to a new house or

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town) and creates the idea that the animal, while it has changed form, has not really left. Animal coffins too are available for purchase and, much like their human options, will vary in shape and size. Overly elaborate sarcophagus style designs (such as were used for birds in the Victorian Era) are not

Image 7. Preserved Animal Fur, Cut in the Shape of a Love Heart

Source: Lauren Kane. Notes: A section of fur which has been removed and treated. To be returned to grieving pet owner as a keepsake.

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common in the current marketplace. Instead, coffins trend toward the simplistic traditional coffin design, with little exterior embellishment. At the more expensive end of the spectrum are a variety of different styles of taxidermy. Among the more eccentric designs were items which had been woven from animal fur. One seller in particular creates custom pieces (coin purses, beanies, and fingerless gloves) which have been woven out of fur of living or deceased companion animals. While the feedback from customers was overwhelmingly positive, it was difficult to determine what practical use such items had.

3.5. CONCLUSION Over the animal lifetime, every pet owner builds a narrative for their pet. Within this narrative, we construct personality, human attributes, nicknames, likes, and dislikes. This is the personality we imagine our pet to have and this is the personality with which we fall in love. When our animals die, it is these human attributes that we mourn alongside the physical presence of the animal. How we choose to capture that image in death mementos or memorial sites such as the pet cemetery reflects the relationship which exists in the narrative between human and animal. This chapter has considered various ways in which companion animals are mourned by their human family after they die. It has looked at traditional burials in backyard settings and pet cemeteries, as well as cremation and other forms of partial preservation. In doing so, I have illustrated the numerous ways in which these mourning practices are reminiscent of the human death rituals that were integral to society and the human-to-human death experience of previous generations. In the case of each of these death mementos, what is apparent is that while each is worn on or

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close to the body, none of them allow for an interaction with the body or skin of the animal. Fur and ashes are encased in glass or steel, which removes the element of direct touch from the memory narrative. In the next chapter, I consider taxidermy and its place in the death and memorialization of animals.

Image 8. Taxidermy Panda

Source: Shutterstock.

CHAPTER 4 TAXIDERMY Echoes and Imitations of Life Since the end of the Victorian Era, the relationship between humans and taxidermy has been a contentious one. Although this friction may be less evident in the sterile environment of the museum setting, it remains true of taxidermy in all its forms. The end of the Victorian Period saw a dramatic shift in the way that people thought about death, and with it, how they interpreted relationships with the dead. The advent of World War I and World War II would go on to reshape not only public death rituals but the pageantry which had previously defined mourning in the private setting. In response to this shifting social identity, the status of animals, and human attitudes toward them in life and death, also underwent transformation during this period. The repercussions of this can still be felt in the current day. In relation to our Victorian ancestors, contemporary attitudes around death and dying seem to have moved to the other end of the spectrum. Rather than an accepted, anticipated, or even glorified moment (Jalland, 2000, pp. 17 25), death has become the event which most people dread. It is hidden and rarely spoken about in the public forum. Although modern death movements are working hard to dismiss some of the enduring

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stigma that exists around current ideas of death and dying,1 there remains some way to go before we see death return as a topic of open and frank discussion. It seems unlikely however that the pageantry of the previous era will ever be readopted in the current social identity, at least in relation to human death rituals. Perhaps we can attribute the unease of present-day audiences toward taxidermy mounts to the innate knowledge that for any animal to be mounted, it must be dead. Therefore, the taxidermy creature prompts us once again to consider how humans justify and rationalize the treatment of the animal body. Just as we seek to mediate the lives of animals, wild and domestic, the human preoccupation with dominance and control is never more evident than when we gaze upon the frozen animal form. Taxidermy confronts us with questions around how decisions about animal lives are made. In its overt use of the animal body as a site of mourning, taxidermy challenges the narrative relationships which we have constructed, particularly for animals in the domestic setting. Although we love and miss our companion animals, if our roles were reversed, it is hard to imagine that we would be comforted in the idea of being preserved for display. While it would be easy to adopt the attitude that all forms of taxidermy are morally wrong precisely because of the power imbalance which they represent, it is also worth considering what our innate need, longing for, and fascination with the preserved animal body says about our emotional bonds with the animal world. Although humans assert a physical

1

Death positive movements such as the Death Café have recently become popular across the globe. The goal of these organizations is to create an open forum in which common fears and phobias around death and dying can be discussed in a frank and honest way. Retrieved from https://deathcafe.com/. Accessed on 10 January, 2019.

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ownership or dominance over the animal form, the pull of the animal that drives us to this action is also representative of the dominance which they have over us. Nowhere is this illustrated more profoundly than in the human response to the death of a companion animal. This chapter looks at the relationship between taxidermy and companion animal mourning by assessing the ways which taxidermy has been used in previous eras as a common means of preservation, allowing for companion animals to retain a presence within the home. In some instances, this included fashioning the taxidermy mount so as to be worn on the body or carried as an accessory. This will be compared to the trends which are becoming evident in the renewed interest being expressed in taxidermy as a decorative art form and means of pet preservation. What this resurrected fascination with taxidermy also highlights is the importance of skin and touch in the human and animal relationship, specifically as it applies to mourning and grief rituals. It is pertinent to highlight that the object of this chapter is not to make a value judgment against pet owners who choose to have their animals preserved either in part or in whole through the process of taxidermy. Rather, it seeks to question how and why humans use the process to enact their rituals of mourning. My interest is not concerned with the justification of some mourning rituals above others but with why these grief practices have seen a return to popularity and prominence. The increasing presence of bespoke forms of taxidermy as an expression of mourning and as artistic output necessitates examination. So too, the appearance of “crap taxidermy” invites consideration specifically for what it, along with other forms of skin preservation, might tell us about the human relationship to companion animal death rituals in the current era (Desmond, 2016, p. 32). In contrast to the mounting of big game, the use of taxidermy on

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companion animals represents human owners expressing a form of love and longing for that animal. This is not unrelated to the similar sense of longing which Rachael Poliquin describes in her discussion on taxidermy (2016, p. 39), though, unlike her study, my interest is primarily with domestic mounts. The tangible focal point for these emotions is the animal’s skin. In pet taxidermy, there is none of the anonymity which is present with game hunters and their kills, nor with the animal specimens on display in the natural history museum environment. Death, in the domestic sphere, is frequently the result of the animal being euthanized humanely after illness, and as such creates a different effect in the finished product. In contrast to the examples of game mounts and natural history specimens, the resurgence of taxidermy in domestic settings is an avenue of scholarship which has yet to receive focused attention. In its earliest guise, taxidermy was used to preserve the partial remains of exotic animal specimens. These were not the whole animal mounts that audiences would recognize today, nor were the results of the taxidermist necessarily intended for the long term. As improvements were made to the preservation process (the invention of arsenic soap for example changed the landscape of taxidermy forever), partial preservations were jettisoned in favor of complete mounts (Lemaitre, 2016, p. 22). The object hereafter was to demonstrate skill and artistry by making the animal seem as lifelike as possible to freeze the animal form in service of a human audience. There is evidence to suggest that the skill became widely practiced throughout the Victorian Period, with many neighborhood taxidermy enthusiasts plying their trade to supplement income (Youdelman, 2017, p. 38). Surviving copies of House Keeper Manuals from the period feature sections which are devoted to the practice (Darke, 2017, pp. 4 8), while the fact that it was often recommended as a

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hobby for children suggests that pocket pets, which experienced short lives, may have been employed here after death. In later decades, experimentation with the animal body would extend to the use of the animal to create hybridized forms. In some instances, the animal body was interwoven with an item of furniture, giving it a practical purpose (Amato, 2015, p. 191), where in other cases, parts of numerous animals were sewn together to create the illusion of magical species such as the Jackalope. Echoes of this practice are seen in modern-day artistic renderings which take repurposed taxidermy as their material. Unlike their Victorian antecedents however, these do not claim to be genuine representations of an animal which was once living. The images below demonstrate examples of some of the various forms of hybridization that the animal body encounters. Currently, taxidermy continues to occupy a place among both professional and amateur practitioners. An assessment of services being advertised online in Australia and New Zealand reveals that there is far more opportunity to engage with the practice in New Zealand.2 Many of the sites are marketed almost exclusively toward hunters and show multiple images of mounted deer and, in some instances, more exotic animals. In the event where a taxidermist is advertising their services almost exclusively for customers looking to mount hunting trophies, it was interesting the note that pet urns and coffins were still frequently for sale in the online store. This suggests that although taxidermy as a form of memorialization for companion animals might be yet to fully take hold in the Oceanic pet-keeping market, the tide may be turning.

2

Number of New Zealand taxidermists versus the ones from Australia.

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Image 9. Jackalope

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: The Jackalope, a fictional hybrid, which commonly fuses the horns of a small deer onto the body of a rabbit (the fangs here have been added for esthetic impact). The Jackalope was sold by taxidermists to unsuspecting buyers, with the promise that the mount accurately captured a real species of animal. In the current era, it is a novelty item.

By way of contrast, in America and the United Kingdom, there were more opportunities for grieving pet owners to engage the services of taxidermists or pet morticians. These roles differ from the traditional taxidermist in that the pet

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Image 10. Bespoke Taxidermy Wolf with Wings

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: An artistic morphological example. In this instance, the wolf has the wings of a bird along with a jewel-encrusted necklace. This example is dissimilar to the Jackalope in that it is representative of a newer trend in taxidermy, particularly the repurposing of existing mounts into artistic and esthetically curious artworks. The goal of repurposed pieces is to work with the skins of inferior mounts, giving the animal a third life.

mortician focuses exclusively on domestic animal mounts. These sites featured extensive images of completed work, along with a comments page, on which customers were able to review their experience and leave feedback about how the preserved animal had been reincorporated into the home. In the overwhelming majority of cases, feedback was positive (although it is important to account for the fact that negative reviews can be removed from the online platform). Many of the owners who used the services of a pet mortician described relief at having the animal back in the home with them and surprise at how lifelike the mount seemed.

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An enduring theme among customer testimonials on taxidermy pages, and again in the limited research that exists on pet taxidermy, was the allusion to how the relationship between the owner and the animal has changed. Although the shell of the cat or dog remains, there is no discussion of interpreting the animal as it had been in life. While some owners will discuss making remarks to the animal (such as greeting it upon entering the room in which the mount is housed), there is no suggestion of ongoing dialog beyond this. On some level this would suggest that the owner accepts that the mount is a representation of the animal and not the animal itself. Although it could never speak, in death, the physical and non-verbal responses (such as excitement at a human arriving home) are inevitably absent. As such, the experience of enacting a dialog is hollow. Instead, in death, comfort is drawn from stroking the fur on occasion, or by looking upon the figure of the animal and remembering the narrative of a past time together. We might infer that having the animal preserved as though it is sleeping assists in discouraging the urge to interact with it. The subconscious response which the “sleeping” animal provokes will be discussed in detail in the forthcoming text. In a return to the partial preservation techniques which were common to taxidermy before the process of preservation had been refined, modern taxidermy specialists and pet morticians will also offer to preserve “keepsakes” of the animal. These include nose and paw prints (captured in porcelain, rubber, or cement) and fur clippings which can be used in the types of commemorative keepsakes discussed in the previous chapter. Beyond these examples though is the partial preservation of pieces of the animal, specific areas of the body which are significant because of their role in the communicative narrative which takes place in the human– animal dialog. Such examples include the paws (common to

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dogs and cats) of the animal and the ears (more common to dog preservations, presumably because cat ears are quite small). Preservation of the ear presents an interesting example of how companion animals are being memorialized in the taxidermy space. Dissimilar to the other forms of memento discussed in the previous chapter, in the ear (as in the paw), there is an actual piece of the animal. It can be held, carried, or worn and allows for direct contact between the human and animal skin. While the appearance of the ear echoes something of early practices in which bird specimens were preserved only through their wings, it presents an interesting avenue of death studies which is still emerging. In holding, stroking, or touching the ear, the owner recreates a narrative bond which was shared with the deceased animal. Although the animal has not been preserved in its entirety, it is the tactile feel of the fur which encourages the memory. When we think of how affection is communicated to a companion animal (notably a dog) in life, the ear or ears are a site of magnified significance. The image of scratching behind the ears is one which any dog owner can relate to and, in many instances, the soft and droopy ears of the dog are one of the sites at which touch is most frequently shared between species. In this regard, it is the part of the body which communicates the narrative, becoming a tangible reminder of the relationship which once existed, but does no longer. Another example is the preservation of the paws, which recalls a kind of death jewelry, though it is difficult to imagine them being worn. Unlike the ear, which is usually preserved “as is,” paws can be adorned with decorative ribbon and lace. In the case of the taxidermy paw (which resembles to some extent the “lucky rabbit foot”), the owner is able to effectively hold onto the hand of their departed pet. Having no financial value, the preservation in this instance is imbued

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with significance purely because it is a body object (Gibson, 2008, p. 165), which is used expressly as a tangible representation of the key elements which formed the narrative of the human animal relationship. In the Victorian Era, mourners felt the intense urge to keep the memory of loved ones alive for as long as possible (Jalland, 2000, p. 288), which often involved narrative construction around tangible mementos. For humans grieving the loss of an animal, touching or holding the paw might not be a practice which many pet owners would partake in during the life of the animal, but in death, the touch of the pads to the palm of the hand, the holding of the paw (when it is small) within the hand, resemble the same comforting gesture which takes place between humans. A similar sentiment is seen in the graphic design of numerous styles of memorial tattoo, which will be discussed in Chapter 6. Paws and paw prints are popular icons in the memorialization of animals because, similar to the human fingerprint, they suggest an individuality. Among cat owners, the paws and feet of living animals have become an object of fetishization, appearing frequently in social media feeds and described as one of the most intriguing or cute parts of the feline anatomy.3 An accompaniment to the paw preservation, in some instances, is the preservation of the animal skull. This is not done in traditional taxidermy form, but rather in the treatment of the bone. In some examples featured on the Precious Creatures Instagram page (@preciouscreatures), skulls and paws are presented artistically to showcase the animal

3 An Instagram search of the hashtag #catbeans returned almost 10,000 images, which were explicitly focused on the underside or pad of the paw. The #catfeet hashtag returned 30,000 images, although these were more varied showing the feet from multiple angles.

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remains as a work of art.4 What such examples suggest is the idea that for some owners, the body of the animal can bring comfort and enjoyment through its repurpose into something which is distinctly artistic. On a subconscious level, the bones of the animal affirm that it has died, which assists in moving through grief into an acceptance of the animal death.

4.1. NEW DIRECTIONS IN TAXIDERMY Precious Creatures represents the new turn in memorial pet taxidermy as a source of art form as well as mourning. Operating out of California, Lauren Kane is the owner of Precious Creatures and describes herself as a pet mortician as opposed to a traditional taxidermist. Her business and its accompanying website deal exclusively in preservation services and all mounts are done in the traditional, rather than freeze dry, style of taxidermy. As the website highlights, it is only the skin, fur, and nails of the original animal which will be preserved in the traditional process. Comparatively, freeze drying (which has become a popular alternative in recent years) preserves the animal in its entirety, including internal organs and fatty tissue. While this is often credited as being more humane and giving the animal a more realistic appearance, it does present an opportunity for decomposition and insect infestation if the mount is not cared for. Inclusion of detailed material about grief and mourning as part of the natural response to death establishes the site as firmly about the aftercare of animals which are mourned because of their status as companions. In the case of other

4 Precious Creatures Taxidermy. Retrieved from http://www.preciouscreaturetaxidermy.com/. Accessed on 20 November, 2018.

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taxidermy sites, particularly those which focus more exclusively on game mounts, human emotional responses to animal death are absent from the website material. In these cases, the animal is the object and the process of its preservation becomes a traditional form of consumer exchange. The taxidermist takes the body and turns it into something new, and the customer pays for the service. At no point is the animal personalized, nor is there an insinuation or suggestion that it was a living entity, with a personality and a narrative. In many of the examples found on Kane’s website, animals are preserved in sleeping poses. The closed eyes, along with the inclusion of a small toy or ball just outside of the animal bed, recalls several elements of traditional post-mortem photography. In the case of small children specifically, photographs were often posed to give the appearance that the child was sleeping, while the inclusion of a favorite toy was symbolic of the life cut short (Linkman, 2011, p. 39). Posing the animals in this way is a response to the requests that have come from bereaved pet owners. What they highlight is not only the changing status of the pet within the home but also the increasing urge for it to be equated with a small child. This echoes the sentiment expressed in Chapter 1, where I discussed not only the adoption of the term “childhood” into the common vernacular but also the increasing frequency with which animals are being adopted in place of couples having children. Many of the dogs and cats are also frequently posed in wreaths of flowers. The use of the flower in the historic post-mortem image was decorative as well as functional. Flowers have long been used to mask the smell of death. While such odors have disappeared from the body in relation to modern embalming processes (and taxidermy), the use of flowers continues and adds an important visual significance to the scene (Linkman, 2011, p. 36). Linda Monahan links the creation of flower garlands, which have been used to memorialize animals killed on the

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roadside, back to the Victorian Era practice of memento mori (2016, p. 156). Unlike the death of companion animals, Monahan is focused on the ways that roadkill animals are frequently not seen and not mourned by humans. In her work, she is concerned with ritualizing the death of these creatures, and in doing so, making them visible. She also highlights the practice of photographing dead animals, so that they might be remembered in memorial shrines. Grier has similarly discussed the occurrence of dog photographs throughout America (2006, pp. 108 110). These examples recalled traditional cabinet cards which captured deceased human relatives, and there is evidence to suggest that deceased dogs, as much as living ones, were photographed in an effort to preserve their memory. Photographs from the Thanatos archive seem to support this assumption. Within the collection, numerous examples of animal burial exist. These include simple backyard funeral, in which the animal is photographed immediately prior to burial (usually beside the grave), through to elaborate examples in which dogs have been interred and photographed in elaborate coffins. These will feature ornate design work luxuriant fabric interiors which resemble the human coffin (Thanatos Archive, 2015, pp. 183 189).

4.2. ANTHROPOMORPHISM It is difficult to discuss the history of taxidermy, particularly during the Victorian Era, without mentioning the work of Walter Potter. Potter is well-remembered for his anthropomorphic designs, all of which feature small animals, and which draw inspiration from children’s stories and nursery rhymes (Morris, 2013, pp. 2 3). Among his most recognizable outputs were The Death and Burial of Cock Robin and The Kittens’ Wedding. In each example, Potter uses

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small animals (birds and cats) to painstakingly recreate the traditional Victorian scene. In the case of Cock Robin, audiences witness an animal funeral, based on a popular children’s nursery rhyme of the same name. Potter’s diorama captures the interment of Cock Robin as his fellow birds attend his graveside. Comparatively, kitten wedding uses a range of tabby kittens to recreate a traditional wedding scene. Although discussion of Potter’s influence and ability has varied, his work remains some of the most recognizable. As Conor Creaney writes, the interest in Potter’s work did not suffer a considerable downturn until the twentieth century, when animal rights and the use of the animal form in taxidermy-themed artwork fell afoul of a suddenly discerning public (2010, p. 7). One of the most interesting aspects of Creaney’s study is his focus on the idea of the animal forever suspended within the narrative display which Potter has designed. There is a deeply unsettling quality to his discussion of these animals and their constant stasis (p. 12), a tragedy to their preserved forms because they have no future but are stuck forever enacting a scene which is distinctly human. Potter’s work draws heavily on the idea of anthropocentrism. His various dioramas almost exclusively feature small woodland creatures, kittens, and pocket pets in human scenarios. These animals were sourced not due to any personal affection which Potter had for their form, but because they were on hand and could be obtained easily and with minimal cost (Morris, 2013, pp. 23 25). Differing from the taxidermy which preceded his efforts, Potter’s work is concerned with being esthetically pleasing to children and the general public. At no point does it suggest any value toward the anatomical study of the animal itself. Simply because of his species selection, in Potter’s work, the animal is a

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Image 11. Wedding Cake Topper Featuring Taxidermy Mice

Source: Lauren Kane Precious Creatures. Notes: Prior to her career as a pet mortician, Lauren Kane worked as a taxidermist doing props for television and film and making custom pieces such as this image. According to her website, variations on this variety of cake topper were a popular request for weddings. Much like Potter’s work, The Kitten Wedding, the mice in this example recall a romantic, sentimental feeling. What commissioned designs such as this demonstrate is the returning interest in taxidermy representations of anthropologically altered animals. The entwining of the two tails into a love heart links them together eternally in love as well as in death.

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nameless and seemingly identical repetition of its breed. Nowhere do we see evidence of distinct personalities or ideas of the animal as an individual. In contrast, modern forms of memorial taxidermy tend to move away from these types of representation, although they are alive and well in the hobby movement. Instead, as a site of memorial, the anthropomorphic design asserts itself in some examples of fine art, but more commonly in hobbyists, casual enthusiasts, or for special order. In more recent years, there has been a resurgence in interest around taxidermy as a hobby, particularly in urban settings. Numerous taxidermy workshops are offered throughout a range of cities in the United States and Europe, although less availability is evident in Australia and New Zealand. In many examples, these courses approach the art from Potter’s perspective, giving students an opportunity to create their own anthropocentric pieces using mice and other small rodent animals. While such workshops present a unique opportunity for those with a curiosity or fascination with the art form to gain hands-on experience while acquiring basic skills, it would be unrealistic to suggest that completion of a short course has a direct link with the preservation of pets in the domestic setting. These courses are not designed to give the casual enthusiast the level of skill required to mount the family cat or dog. Additionally, performing that kind of post-mortem work on a beloved pet would be a difficult task for any individual emotionally invested in a relationship with the subject being mounted. In much the same way as Potter’s work, what the use of the rodent animal in the workshop setting highlights is anonymity, and its power in establishing a human attitude toward the manipulation of the animal skin. It is because the animals used in workshops are not traditionally understood as pets, but rather as vermin, that participants

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are able to distance themselves from the idea of the animal as something which was once a living thing. Rather than a memorial piece, it becomes an artwork. For those with a casual interest in basic forms of taxidermy, home manuals and online courses are also available. Robert Marbury’s 2014 book Taxidermy Art includes a detailed “Do it Yourself” guide as an appendix (pp. 173 223). While the larger work is concerned with the so-called Rogue Taxidermy movement (in which taxidermy skins are re-appropriated into modern forms of art), the book draws on the fact that many of these artists are self-taught, encouraging the casual reader to consider their own future as a taxidermy artist. Companion animal taxidermy specimens differ from those of the museum or gallery setting in that the life (or second life) of the taxidermy pet is one which is more difficult to chart. As people are often hesitant to discuss animal grief in a public forum, no studies have been undertaken around what becomes of the preserved remains of the domestic animal, once the grief process has run its course. While it would be fair to say that, for some, grief is always present, it does subside in time. When the death of a long-term beloved pet has been accepted and processed, or when the owner has begun to move on, perhaps through the purchase or adoption of another animal, what becomes of the taxidermy shell of their previous friend? As we see the resurgence in popularity for taxidermy as a form of memorialization it would be worthwhile to attempt some form of future study into this area. As of this writing, the only source of information which we might consider within this direction of thought is that which highlights the inept and tragic ways which animals have previously been preserved. Websites, social media pages, and books which showcase “crap taxidermy” have become popular in the recent past,

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largely due to social media and the opportunity it presents for image sharing. In these cases, audiences see taxidermy which has either been done poorly or is no longer cared for. The results of this mistreatment are animals that not only look inauthentic but whose skin appears to be decaying around the frames which they have haphazardly been mounted upon. “Crap taxidermy” is invariably delivered in a comical fashion, but from the narrative perspective, it should prompt audiences to consider how and when the second life of the animal needs to come to an end. The interactions which we have with these deformed creatures are repellent in the sense that we no longer wish to interact by touching them. Their moldering skin is offensive to the human gaze and becomes a site of ridicule and disrespect for the animal. Perhaps we, as the audience, find the mangled remains of these animals humorous for a similar reason as that which makes taxidermy workshops attractive. In all but exceptional cases, the animal is anonymous to us. Where the rodent body is refashioned from something dirty and disgusting into something artistic, in the case of “crap taxidermy,” the body is located far outside of its time and intended purpose. It represents the return of the animal body to the status of object, because it has no identity, it cannot be mourned. It is easy to see the photograph of a deformed taxidermy mount and to be amused at the disfigurement on display, but to allow the animal body to persist in this state speaks to a disrespect and highlights the disparity of the animal in the human animal relationship. Ultimately, every example of taxidermy is also the remains of a dead animal. It is important that pet owners account for this when considering taxidermy as a memorial for their animals. If we recognize that the mount has the potential in its second life to outlive the

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human, it is essential that we put a plan in place to ensure for its care beyond the term of our own lives. With increasing frequency, abandoned and deformed examples of the taxidermy mount are being repurposed for inclusion in fine art, in a sense giving the animal a third life. In his discussion on the repurposing of the animal skin in modern art, Giovanni Aloi also highlights that art itself is intrinsically indebted to animals. This debt is not only related to the long history of animals which have been killed in the name of art (Aloi, 2010, p. 6), but also because in the overwhelming majority of cases, products which are used in the composition of art, in all forms, have been drawn from animal products (Aloi, 2018, p. 38). Unlike the controversy that surrounded the cat purse discussed in the previous chapter, there is less aversion to the repurpose of preexisting mounts. What these works frequently represent is the ambivalence with which humans view the animal body once it has ceased to be of use. While the direction of some taxidermy artists is to highlight this issue by incorporating elements of death and decay into their works (Marbury, 2014, pp. 59 64), others challenge this concept by amplifying the beauty of the mount by juxtaposing it with precious metals and gold (Poliquin, 2012, pp. 194 196). These natural elements are of inherent value to humans and thus, when viewed alongside the animal body, force a consideration of why one form of nature should be considered precious while another is discarded. In Considering Animals (2011), Steve Baker also engages with the role of taxidermy and the animal body in the art world. Baker approaches a range of artists and their practice, with a focus on the Australian and New Zealand art scene, revealing the uneasy relationship that exists in the art world between artists and their use of the animal form. This does not always include the use of physical animal

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products, such as repurposed taxidermy, but can relate to the graphic and multi-media use of the image and point of view of different species of animals. What the larger collection also reveals is the contention among artists, those who distance themselves from their personal beliefs on animal rights and those that approach the human animal relationship from a jovial perspective. For artists who are also devoted members of animal rights groups, this approach undermines the goal of the movement, which has long fought to bring attention to the unethical treatment of animals (Watt, 2011, pp. 133 134).

4.3. CONCLUSION Taxidermy is a silent form of memorial. The animal does not move and does not speak, it exists as an echo of the creature once loved. Often located in the privacy of a home or tucked away out of site, it rarely invites conversation, existing almost exclusively as a tangible representation of a private human narrative. Comparatively, the memorial tattoo is a public representation of this private grief. The next chapter looks at memorial tattooing and the relationship it shares with taxidermy. What it will demonstrate is the important role which skin plays in both forms of memorialization. As we will see, the relationship between the taxidermy mount and the memorial tattoo as sites of mourning is one which is indicative of the evolution of grief practices since the Victorian Age and reflects not just the changing social status of the companion animal but also the shifting ideas which society holds about death. The place and purpose of skin within the grief process remain the same.

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Where taxidermy mounts and memorial objects invite death into the home, the memorial tattoo invites death onto and into the body. Rather than something which we look upon, it becomes something that we wear on and within ourselves. Death becomes interwoven with the living narrative of our lives.

Image 12. Women with Taxidermy Creatures

Source: Shutterstock.

CHAPTER 5 A UNION OF FORMS Debates about the agency and ownership, or the perception of ownership, over the animal body have influenced a great deal of existing scholarship on taxidermy (Aloi, 2018; Desmond, 2016; Poliquin, 2012; Watt, 2011), which explores how the animal skin is interpreted and used across a range of environments. The authors question how it is that humans understand their relationship to animals, as it pertains to dominance and the need to express dominance over the animal form. Even in cases where this emotion is portrayed as love and longing, it assumes on behalf of the human, an entitlement over the animal body. What these tensions also highlight is a human discomfort, which is a consequence of witnessing the animal form manipulated into the static object. The fascination which bygone eras expressed with taxidermy, such as that evident among the Victorians, has been explained by historians as a comment on the shifting social anxieties of the era, a desire for dominance over the natural world, or a reflection on cultural attitudes pertaining to gender. Certainly, all of these factors play a role. Discussion on taxidermy and its rebirth in the present era, however, has been somewhat more confused. Nowhere is this more pronounced than in the domestic realm. Previous chapters in this study have highlighted that the relationships between humans and their companion animals 109

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are largely based on narratives. These narratives are the product of human imagination, a framework from which significance is given to the interspecies bond around which the animal personality forms. In taking on human traits, the animal becomes less of an object and more of an equal. Central to the construction of the narrative frame is the surface of its composition. “Surfaces are intrinsically sensuous and simultaneously dialectic. They are sites upon which complex negotiations are played out” (Aloi, 2018, p. 139). In this instance, skin gives the narrative its tangibility. Through touch, humans and animals speak in life, but more profoundly in death. Taxidermy is an encounter between the human and animal (Swinney, 2011, p. 225), which when conducted in the anonymity of the museum or gallery setting is relatively impersonal. Although the site of an animal up close can be a fascinating and, at times, an awe-inspiring experience, the anonymity of it, the distinct lack of character, makes it easy to relegate to object status. When the taxidermy subject is a beloved pet though, taxidermy is the ultimate “body object” (Lutz, 2011, p. 135). The weight of the animal, the feel of the pelt, and its preservation of lifelike form come together as the ultimate death memento. When we see, touch, and encounter the domestic mount, we relive the memory narrative, the shared life, endlessly. The taxidermy pet is imbued with symbolism and with power, the central point of which is in the skin. But does this relationship command the same reverence when we see the animal on our own skin, in tattooed form? The taxidermy animal is a death relic specifically because it possesses a tangible form (Poliquin, 2016, p. 23), but, as I will argue throughout this chapter, the same can increasingly be said of the human skin when it carries the image of the animal. Giovanni Aloi, writing in 2010, highlights the vast difference of interpretation between the human skin and the skin

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of animals, suggesting that where the human skin is perceived as being a part of the body, that which holds everything together, we visualize the animal skin as something distinguishable from the animal. This belief is what allows us to separate the animal in this case the domestic pet from the human and from other animals. This concept of skin and personhood assists in discerning which animal can be worn, or eaten, and which should be loved. Taxidermy takes the skin, which is posthumously tied to the animal, and allows us to visualize how the animal used to be (p. 14). In a similar sense, and one that has until now been largely overlooked, the human skin is increasingly providing a different form to the animal body, which disrupts the narrative of the animal, and the animal human bond, as it has previously been understood. While we cannot say that a tattoo is the sibling of the taxidermy mount, we might look upon it as a cousin. In both instances, skin becomes the art form; skin is treated and modified, manipulated until it is imbued with meaning. The image, as with the domestic animal mount, speaks to ownership of a narrative. Unlike the anonymous animal one would encounter in a natural history museum or art gallery exhibition, in these instances, this story creation reflects beliefs about a real, specific, and intimate human animal relationship.

5.1. NARRATIVES OF OWNERSHIP: THE HUMAN AND ANIMAL BODY The primary purpose of this book is the examination of skinto-skin communication and the body as a site of mourning. Thus, it is important to consider how this site is mediated and the role of ownership in the construction of the death narrative. Although the relationships which exist between the

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human and the domestic animal are often richly articulated, they are ultimately works of incredibly vivid fiction. This is not to suggest that domestic animals do not feel some form of affection for their owner, only that how they interpret their role in the domestic setting would be far different to the human perception of the same. As we narrate our life with our pets then, we are asserting dominance and ownership over their agency. In deciding what they eat, when and where they might venture outside of the home, and where they are allowed to dwell within it, humans are frequently mediating the lived experience of the animal. Although this is not done from a place of cruelty, it is none-the-less indicative of the imbalance in the relationship. It is to detract from these negative traits that we construct intimate bonds between ourselves and the animal. In life, we justify these as an exchange for ensuring the safety of a beloved pet and attempt to atone for them by providing our pets with consumable items. In death however, the lack of animal agency presents a more troubling aspect to the human animal relationship. One of the most contentious elements of the taxidermy form is the question of dominance and ownership which it highlights. Specifically, the authoritative role which the human commands in repurposing the skin of the animal is at odds with many modern ideas about animal rights. Although an individual might have loved an animal during its life, in the advent of that animals’ death, we continue to rationalize ownership over the animal body. It is in light of this that we are able to commemorate the animal in a way that serves our concept of the relationship we shared. We continue to mythologize the animal form because we have convinced ourselves that we were of the superior intellect and thus, retain some claim to ownership over the animal body. Its preservation is a site for our grief to manifest and, in holding on to it, it is ourselves we seek to comfort. Even when that grief has

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passed, we seem unable and unwilling to let the animal pass on, so hold onto it in the hope that it may continue to serve a purpose even if this is at odds with the emotional response we felt to the animal during its life. Ultimately, humans are conditioned to place themselves in a place of elevated, rather than shared, prominence with all animals, even those we claim to love as much or more than other humans. Much as in life, the animal is silent in this exchange. Examples of Victorian taxidermy support this idea specifically in their implementation of the animal form, when it was incorporated into an item of furniture. Such creations are symbolic of human dominance over the animal. In taking an animal, such as an elephant, and posing it into a hall stand (or the elephant foot, which was a popular umbrella stand), humans make the animal subservient to their needs. This enforces the narrative of human supremacy. In the case of the wild animal, we see the lack of a name, an identity, or a personality which makes the creature easier to kill and to cast into the narrative of the domesticated world (Amato, 2015, pp. 203 206). The focus of the animal as furniture was usually limited to wild animals, which had been hunted for sport and were trophies or proof of human dominance over the natural world. The Tsavo Lions are an interesting example of the conflicting emotions which arise when we narrativize the life and death of wild animals. In 1989, the pair of lions wrought havoc upon a Kenyan village, killing numerous men over a nine-month period. They were eventually shot dead by British soldier John Henry Patterson. The murder of the beasts was a celebratory event and the story of the lions and their terror has been captured in novel and film. In this case, the lions were not sympathetic creatures because they were man-eaters. The narrative of the lions challenged what was acceptable to the human understanding of hierarchy.

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Although it was unusual for lions to hunt in the manner demonstrated in the Tsavo case (Poliquin, 2016, pp. 99 101), it was the fact that they had dethroned humans from the top of the food chain which dictated their demise. Rather than being preserved in taxidermy form as a significant variation on normal lion species and behavior, the hides were kept by Patterson, who used them as floor mats and decorative pieces until they were purchased by the Field Museum in Chicago in 1924. After the acquisition, the remains of the skin were mounted onto smaller versions of the man-eating creatures, an act which attempted to free them from their association with a decorative item. These remain on display in the current day and are interesting not only for what they tell us about animal death and the afterlives of the animal skin but also for the unique appearance of the lions. It is the skin of the lions which holds their power and, even looking upon their significantly altered form, it is the skin which continues to convey terror in its challenge of the human-to-animal hierarchy. In addition to what it reveals around ideas of ownership and the animal body during the colonial period, what this example highlights is the powerful role of narrative in defining how the animal should be interpreted in relation to its personality. The second life of the Tsavo lions, in which they served as floor mats within the Patterson home, was not a fate outside of the ordinary, and domestic pets too were not immune to being interpreted as utility items. These animals, which were named and even loved, often met a similar fate to their wild cousins. As other examples from the period demonstrate, it was not uncommon to have a cat or dog incorporated into a side table or stand, so that it might continue to be enjoyed after it had died. In other examples, the animal body was cast into an accessory item, to be worn or carried. Even in death, animals that were loved were not allowed to rest. In some

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part, this would have been relative to the popular belief that animals had no soul and, thus, did not experience an afterlife (Massaro, 2016, pp. 31 32). Within the human-to-animal relationship narrative however, it demonstrates an inability to let go, or to divorce the animal story from the human one, once that animal has ceased to live. In the current trends which taxidermy exhibits, it would be uncommon for the pet to be cast into or combined with a utility item. To do so would be an affront to the love and joy shared between the animal and human. This should not suggest that Victorian’s loved their pets less than we love ours only that they understood them in a different way. Similarly, it would have been highly unusual, if not unheard of, for a member of the Victorian society to contemplate having the image of the domestic pet inked into the skin. Where we understand it as being quite commonplace, the lack of inherent meaning expressed in such a personal symbol would have been lost upon them in the same way that an elephant foot umbrella stand is lost upon us.

5.2. TAXIDERMY: MOUNTING THE FLESH OF THE ANIMAL Taxidermy involves the complete removal and repositioning of the animal skin, placing it in direct opposition to tattooing, which uses the skin as the canvas for image creation. Still, in both examples, the skin undergoes a transformative procedure. Although dissimilar to the taxidermy process, when being tattooed, the skin is alive and thus, its reaction to the modification causes pain to the human owner. Although the metamorphosis of the animal body from corpse into mount is a more involved and visceral experience, the animal feels no discomfort. The outcome of both methods is an artistic

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rendering of the animal as it had been, or was seen, by its human caregiver. The process of removing the skin from the body of the animal is confrontational, involving the literal stripping back of the hide from tendon, muscle, and bone. Remaining flesh and fatty tissues must be stripped away in their entirety, using a scalpel, until nothing remains. After completion of this phase, the hide is prepared for mounting. By discarding the internal organs, the internal presence of the animal is lost.1 That we still identify the animal solely through the surface of the skin speaks to the power of that surface within the relationship. Preshaped frames are the most common way of mounting the hide, and these can be shaped and carved back for a more realistic appearance. The skin is pulled and stretched into place, before being stitched together. The object of any competent taxidermist is to remove any trace of this stitching, giving the animal a lifelike appearance. The natural eye is replaced with a glass variant, while the claws of the animal can be preserved and replaced back into the paw. Other soft tissue, such as the tongue or the pad of the foot will be reproduced from non-porous materials. To touch a taxidermy animal is different from interacting with the skin as it had

1 The exception here would be freeze-dry taxidermy, which preserves the animal in its entirety. Unlike traditional forms of mounting, this process is advertised as creating a more realistic effect overall, as the shape and natural qualities of the animal are retained. Comparatively, the use of the preshaped mold which is the most commonly used frame among modern taxidermists removes many of the natural traits which make the domestic pet unique and distinct to their owner. Unlike mounting game animals or animals for display, in the case of the domestic pet, the object is to capture an essence of individuality. Prestructured skeletons can have a mannequin effect if not employed correctly. The drawback of the freeze-dry process however is that humidity and other natural elements may still cause insect infestation and natural decomposition in the mount.

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been in life. To gaze upon the taxidermy mount, any evidence of imperfection has been removed and, without the intimate knowledge of the procedure, most audiences will never understand the depth of artistry involved in skin preservation.

Image 13. Partially Preserved Chihuahua

Source: Lauren Kane. Note: Taxidermy mount of a small dog, partway through the process.

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Melissa Milgrom’s discussion of her own foray into taxidermy art is demonstrative of the parallels between the processes of animal preservation and the art of tattooing in so far as it relates to issues of the skin (2010, p. 231). In highlighting the need to locate an animal whose skin was not too fine, nor to blubbery, one which was not too delicate but not endangered, one which would not provoke negative reception, Milgrom is describing how she ultimately settled on using a squirrel for her first mount. What her discussion recalls, when viewed in relation to tattooing, is the same themes which are present during the decision-making process and the consultation period for the tattoo. Oddly, even when some find themselves in the tattoo artists chair, the parallels are lost. It is not enough to decide to get a tattoo. That decision only constitutes the first part of a long process. After this conclusion has been reached, a longer journey of refining a design, deciding on an area of the body, and locating a competent artist begins. Like the skilled taxidermist, in their rendering of the animal in its most realistic form, the tattooist too is responsible for an act of mimesis. In this instance, the animal will inherit a second life on the skin of their human caretaker. Thus, it is imperative that their form is recreated in a way that allows the human to retain their sense of connection to the animal. Without it, the tattoo and the narrative memory of the human animal relationship will decay. 5.3. TAXIDERMY AND TATTOO: COMPLEMENTARY FORMS OF ARTISTRY How do we begin to establish parallels between taxidermy and tattooing as artistic forms of practice? Stephen L. Eliason’s (2012) study into the motivations behind becoming a taxidermist provides an excellent starting point, as they draw on several elements which these two forms have in

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common as they pertain to the physical doing of the art and the personality type which the work attracts. From a practical perspective, Eliason’s study reveals that one of the primary commonalities between the tattoo artist and the taxidermy practitioner is that initiation into the field generally occurs as part of a mentor/apprentice partnership. This environment itself is rich in narrative creation, as the mentor provides the apprentice with skills which have been refined throughout the lived experience of the trade. This verbal and physical sharing of knowledge and skills is steeped in the narrative history of the mentor identity. As the apprentice moves out into their own career, that narrative becomes entwined with their own approach to the work. Subconsciously, we might also conclude that it provides a more complex understanding of the importance of narrative when recreating the animal as a memorial. Similar to tattooing, taxidermy has also long been understood as a heavily dominated male field. This is not an entirely accurate assumption, as evidence from the Victorian period suggests that it was common among both men and women (Youdelman, 2017, p. 38), with genders marketing their work toward a specific demographic. For men, this may have been the mounting of large game, thus attracting the hunting enthusiast; while for women, specializing in pocket pets attracted a domestic customer base. Women do seem to have disappeared to a large degree from the art form once it fell from favor in the early decades of the twentieth century. This trend is beginning to change though, as women become more prominent among members of the taxidermy community (Ireland, 2013, p. 17). In a trend that echoes the appearance of women in tattooing circles in the 1970s, it is interesting to note here that female taxidermy practitioners are often billed as artists. Rather than operating out of the family home or garage, and rather than mounting game kills,

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females are more prone to the specific practice of pet preservation and the use of taxidermy (new and repurposed) as a form of visual art. In both cases though, their rise to prominence is directly related to artistry. In more recent decades, and particularly with the return to popularity which taxidermy is experiencing among pet owners, we see more of a bond between the taxidermy artist or pet mortician and the client. This mirrors the experience of consulting with the tattoo artist. There is a process, during which decisions must be made about the style of the mount/tattoo and how the animal will be preserved/ portrayed. Unlike tattooing, in the case of taxidermy, once these decisions have been agreed upon, the transference of the rest of the remains must also be considered. Several of the taxidermy specialists which focus on companion animals offer a detailed and supportive consultative process. In examples such as the Precious Creatures site, owners will often see the body of their beloved pet while in the process of transformation. This can be confrontational and thus, human parties are informed and must grant permission prior to images being made public. In demonstrating how the animal undergoes the taxidermy journey however, pet morticians are able to demystify much of the secrecy and horror which have shrouded the art and influenced public attitudes toward it. As tattooing also experiences a resurgence in popularity, we see a stronger bond between clients and specific artists. In the instance of the individual commissioning multiple works, it is not uncommon to return to a single artist. The benefits of establishing this kind of working relationship are many. From an esthetic perspective, work maintains a clear consistency, while from the fiscal standpoint, it is often acceptable to negotiate on the price of a complete design or on an hourly rate if you are a long-term customer.

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Image 14. Completed Chihuahua Mount

Source: Lauren Kane.

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5.4. DIALOGS ON ANIMAL GRIEF CONSULTING WITH A TATTOO ARTIST The process of acquiring a memorial tattoo allows for a range of opportunities in which the bereaved can engage with members of the community to share the narrative of their lives with the companion animal which is being commemorated. In the first instance, decisions might be reached within the home, where the individual discusses their choice to be tattooed and the motivations behind it. In this setting however, responses will be influenced by the fact that other members of the home, or individuals that also knew and interacted with the animal, will be emotionally attached to that animal and its death. In most cases, they will also have an emotional bond with the owner. These factors, coupled with their own ideas about tattooing, grief, and death, will therefore influence their reaction. One of the most influential interactions will take place between the person being tattooed and the artist that will complete the tattoo (Davidson, 2016, pp. 84 85). The process of getting a memorial tattoo assists in the grief ritual on several levels, and in many instances, makes the public process of grieving the pet more socially acceptable. The process of being tattooed will generally begin with a consultation, in which the client discusses their tattoo concept with an artist of their choosing. Artists can be approached by prospective clients based on various factors. In some instances, they are selected because of the tattoo parlor in which they work, while in other cases a client may have seen a previous work or may have identified the artists as being particularly skilled in a specific style or genre of tattooing. Contrary to the way that tattooing has often been discussed (as a frivolous or momentary decision), there is quite often a great amount of research that goes into the

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decision-making process (Davidson, 2015, pp. 179 180). This is particularly true of larger (and more expensive) designs and for those which will reflect a topic of deep personal significance. Depending on the size and level of intricate detail, a tattoo artist will commonly offer to draw up the design for the client. This allows for the opportunity to make alterations to the design and gives a cohesive idea as to how the image will appear. Once the design is agreed upon, a price is quoted, and the appointment to have the tattoo done is booked. This will usually require at least a partial down payment. On the day of the tattoo, the design is transferred onto a stencil, which is placed over the skin. While the primary purpose of the stencil is a guide for the artist, placement prior to the commencement allows for the customer to form an idea of how the image will look when it is transferred onto the skin. Depending on where the placement is going to be, a stencil may be placed multiple times to ensure that there is minimal distortion of the image when the body moves. As the tattoo is placed on a moving canvas, underlying muscles and natural flexing of the body must be accounted for when placing a design. Failure to do so will render even the most artistically competent drawing ineffective. Sometimes the artist will also add elements to the stencil once it has been placed by drawing directly onto the skin. Although in rare cases, an artist may “free hand” a design, which involves tattooing without the use of a stencil to guide them; in memorial tattooing this would be uncommon. This type of method necessitates a deep level of trust between artist and client (once the ink has been tattooed, it is very difficult to remove). In the case of portrait tattoos specifically, it would be exceptionally difficult to tattoo a realistic image without the use of the stencil as a guide.

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Once the stencil has been placed, both artist and customer are content with the placement and any additional elements have been added in, the tattooing process commences. A black outline is applied first, after which shading and/or gray stippling will be added. This is often the most time-consuming part of the tattoo. Once these elements are completed, color is added to the design (if it has been requested). Depending on the size and complexity of the design and the pain threshold of the canvas, it is not uncommon to complete an outline in one sitting and the color component in another. The body is usually given around two weeks between sessions, during which time the outline begins to heal and bruising and swelling around the area will begin to decrease. The physical process of being tattooed creates the opportunity for dialog between the tattoo artist and customer. In many instances, tattoo artists use the time to get to know their client. Inviting discussion, by asking about their life and a deeper insight into why a specific tattoo design has been chosen, takes attention away from the physical discomfort experienced during the application. It can also be cathartic for the person undergoing the tattoo to tell their story. For the individual being tattooed, sharing the memory of the animal as its image is being placed into their skin is an important part of the experience and is central to the ritualization of the animal death. Not only does it make the memory of the animal real but entwines it with the physical memory of having the tattoo done. In some cases, a discussion with the artist might be the first opportunity which the person has had to openly discuss their grief. As it is uncommon that a long-term friendship will form between artist and client, being able to speak openly about the emotional components which motivate a particular tattoo design is

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again beneficial to the grief process and should be viewed as a cathartic exercise. Depending on where one is located within the grief process, the experience of being tattooed, which can be painful, becomes an outlet for grief which cannot comfortably be expressed or articulated to other humans. More than this, the healing process takes many weeks, which parallels the symbolic stages of grief. We care for ourselves for our bodies during this period, and in doing so find an outlet for that emotional discomfort. We connect this with the image and to the animal. In caring for the tattoo, we are caring still for the animal as it heals upon our skin. The narrative of the animal and its transition into an afterlife can then become interwoven with that experience.

5.5. CONCLUSION Giovanni Aloi has written extensively on the use of animals generally and taxidermy specifically in the visual arts. In Speculative Taxidermy (2018), he discusses the representation of the animal form in the cabinets of curiosity or Wunderkammer that were popular during the Renaissance. One of the most compelling reasons for this representation is the idea that anything worth knowing about the animal could be communicated purely through its skin (p. 95). With the birth of more advanced examples of taxidermy, these two-dimensional forms of marvel soon fell out of fashion. I suggest however that when we consider the practice of tattooing, specifically among individuals with extensive work on large portions of the body, we see the echo of the Wunderkammer, reborn in the collective narrative that these assembled images communicate. In much the same way as they were a feature and a focal point of the historic

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cabinet of curiosity, which played an important role in developing how animals are interpreted in wild and domestic environments, the animal featured in the context of the tattooed image again lives on as a kind of flat representation of its living self. From the relationship we have shared with it, through skin, we narrativize its memory on our own and, in doing so, begin to know and understand the animal in new ways. Unlike taxidermy, the tattoo allows the animal to die. As discussed in Chapter 1 however, the death of the animal is not easily mourned, and the tattoo becomes a post-mortem form of communication between the animal and owner. The body of the animal decays and, in some instances, there is a belief that the spirit too, moves on. In the tattoo, the image of the animal, and thus its essence, is transposed into the image and onto or into the skin of the human. Tattoos serve as an unchangeable reminder of our true self (Roberts, 2012, p. 154). It is this which makes them so attractive to consumers in the current marketplace, who feel that life is so highly changeable that it is difficult to create a permanent or static sense of identity. The same underlying discontent is also linked to the renewed interest in taxidermy, particularly its use in the preservation of the companion animal. Becoming the static and unchangeable reminder of a relationship which was symbolic of uncompromising and unconditional love, both taxidermy and the memorial tattoo give unchangeable significance to these relationships in which the human is truly able to express themselves, without fear or judgment. In this chapter, I have discussed some of the ways in which taxidermy and tattooing intersect. Primary to my discussion has been an examination of ownership over the animal body, specifically the ways humans rationalize its preservation within the context of their own grief narratives. This focus then turned

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toward the commonalities in the relationships shared between the taxidermist and client, and the tattoo enthusiast and tattoo artist. Finally, elements of the tattooing process were discussed in relation to how they may influence the grief process. In taking this approach, I frame the content of the next chapter, which considers the subject matter of memorial tattoos and how their visual imagery can be read as a narrative of mourning.

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Image 15. Preserved Paws (Matching)

Source: Lauren Kane, Precious Creatures. Notes: Three examples of paw preservations, showcasing different decorative styles. While this example and the one in the next image are suggestive of a more artistic style, the ginger paw is more utilitarian and has a strong resemblance to a lucky rabbit’s foot.

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Image 16. Single Paw with Lace Adornment

Source: Lauren Kane, Precious Creatures.

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Image 17. Cat Paw

Source: Lauren Kane, Precious Creatures.

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Image 18. Victorian Era Paw Preservation

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: A preserved paw from the Victorian Era. Note that it has a more utilitarian purpose, possibly as a paper weight. In this example, the paw can be looked upon and touched, but could not be held. It is unlikely, due to the base that it is mounted on, that it would have been carried.

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Image 19. Two-headed Rabbit

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: Natural animal deformities, along with artistically constructed versions, were also a popular piece for Victorian taxidermists. What examples such as the Siamese rabbit highlight are the human fixation with the natural world. That interest is amplified when things go wrong.

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Image 20. Ear Preservation

Source: Lauren Kane, Precious Creatures. Notes: The taxidermy ear presents an alternative to the full-body mount. The ear of the dog is a site of prominence in the human animal relationship. Most owners of a pet dog would attest to the fact that affection for the animal is commonly shown through scratching or petting the ears. In death, the ear can be carried as a reminder of this bond. Its small size makes it easy for a grieving owner to conceal and, once their grief has eased, the ear can be stored or buried with relative ease.

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Image 21. Mouse Purse

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: A rat which has been repurposed into a coin purse and mounted onto a display stand. Taxidermy accessories such as this were not uncommon in the Victorian Era. With home taxidermy touted as a good hobby and source for additional income, there were no shortage of skilled taxidermists that could take the body of a deceased domestic pet and turn into something with purpose.

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Image 22. Preserved Cat

Source: Lauren Kane, Precious Creatures. Notes: In this image and the next, the animals are posed as if sleeping, another trait common to traditional death photographs. In the case of the cat, the inclusion of the toy suggests one of the cat’s pass times was playing with mice.

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Image 23. Preserved Dog

Source: Lauren Kane, Precious Creatures. Notes: In this photograph, the dog has been posed on its bed. The inclusion of the bed which the animal has clearly used, as opposed to a brand new one, retains the authenticity of the mount. Associated smells from the fabric would also created the illusion (for the owner) that the animal was sleeping.

Image 24. Tattoo Machine and Animal Skulls

Source: Shutterstock.

CHAPTER 6 IN THE SKIN Memorial Tattoos Tattoos describe the body as a cultural text, rooted in a social context (Thompson, 2015, p. 36); they represent practices of the self, specifically as it relates to rituals of performance and presentation (p. 37). In this book, I have focused on this idea as it relates to the individual communication of grief that arises in response to the death of a companion animal. This is a relationship which has been constructed through touch and, thus, the skin becomes the canvas on which the memory and significance of the companion animal is communicated. Unlike taxidermy, tattooing does not suggest ownership over the animal body. The skin of the animal is not removed, and the body not discarded so that the pelt might be stuffed and mounted. Instead, in tattooing, we take the image of the animal, as we have seen, remembered, and memorialized it, upon our own skin. In being tattooed, the human skin is changed through the addition of ink the creation of the image on flesh. The tattoo itself is a scar; it cannot be removed. As we age, mature, and continue on in human lives after the deaths of these animals, their image too changes with us. In doing so, the tattooed image takes on a significance which a taxidermy mount never could. Rather than an item which can be discarded or hidden away when it has 139

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fallen out of vogue, the tattoo must be worn forever. As it grows and changes with us, the story of the animal it represents is also altered altered in appearance as much as in our memory. The body will continue to speak through the visual symbol of the tattoo, long after the shock and grief of death have passed. The tattoo itself, in the specificity of its image, becomes the conduit of communication. Within the landscape of contemporary society, it acts as an indication of membership with a specific group (pet owners, tattoo enthusiasts) but gives insight into ideas around death and dying more broadly. The content, the image within the tattoo, also speaks on another level; it talks to the memory of the individual to an emotion, to the expression of a longing or need. The tattoo is the latest iteration of a longing which has previously been highlighted through photography (Barthes, 1980) and taxidermy (Aloi, 2018; Poliquin, 2012) and there is a clear relationship between these three artistic forms. In this chapter, I look exclusively at the types of memorial tattoo which are being employed in the commemoration of companion animals. The first section outlines methods for data collection and offers an explanation as to why Instagram has been chosen specifically as the social media platform to frame my discussion. The second part of the chapter will assess the content of the tattooed image and what it communicates about grief and the bond between humans and their pets.

6.1. GRIEF AND SOCIAL MEDIA SHARING SITES To gage how tattoos are designed esthetically and where on the body they are frequently worn, I have used social media as a means of investigating some of the different style of petthemed memorial tattoos. Instagram has been selected as the primary platform because of its focus as a picture-sharing

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forum, one which relies heavily on images with limited space afforded to members to post. While Pinterest has also been used, unlike Instagram, it does not allow for the exchange of dialog between users and thus limits what we can learn from how mourning is expressed between online communities. The Pinterest platform does allow for users to “re-pin” images which they “like,” which triggers a notification for the image owner, but there is a less profound focus on building online communities. Also, unlike Instagram, there is no private chat function on the Pinterest platform, which negates the opportunity for communicative bonds to develop between individual users. What both sites do have in common is a reliance on hashtags, which are used to categorize images. These are added to the post at the discretion of the account holder. The use of hashtags is important for two reasons. In the first instance, it is used to locate relevant images, but it also provides a valuable insight into how specific images are communicated between social media users. The selection of certain hashtags over others, or over similarly worded examples, is indicative of how the owner of an image wishes to mediate and share their posts. When the image is symbolic of the grief narrative, what this also reveals is how specific ideas around grief and the grief process are constructed. As with the use of emojis in text language, hashtags are becoming an increasingly central part of modern-day communication. On social media sites in particular, they play a primary role in how posts are displayed and located by other users. In the case of Instagram, where users will commonly not know each other in the real world, the use of the hashtag assists in identifying people with a common interest and is important for the creation of the online identity. As we will see in the next chapter, the use of hashtags within the subculture of the social media influencer is essential for the generation of revenue and

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becomes a key part of animal brand creation when social media accounts are implemented as a source of revenue.

6.2. DATA COLLECTION To locate images, I searched the following specific hashtags (#pettattoo, #petmemorial, #petmemorialtattoo, #memorialpettattoo, and #pettattoo) on Instagram. An additional search on the same terms was also conducted on Pinterest, though as the discussion below will detail, this was difficult to analyze for data. Table 1 provides details on the number of posts listed with each hashtag. Due to the volume of posts for the #pettattoo hashtag and #petmemorial hashtag, these have been excluded from the data analysis. Additionally, in the case of both hashtags, there was a wide variety of data which did not relate to memorial tattoos. The #pettattoo hashtag was a combination of living and deceased animals, while #petmemorial hashtag was littered with advertising for memorial items, along with different forms of memento mori.

Table 1. Tattoo Hashtags Instagram Tag #pettattoo #petmemorialtattoo #memorialpettattoo #petmemorial #pettattoos #pettattooportrait Source: Racheal Harris.

Number of Posts 35,200 410 10 29,000 3,168 68

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As a sample, my analysis was conducted primarily from the #petmemorial hashtag, as this is the most specific to the interests of this book. As Instagram is a global platform, examples were drawn from all over the world. Results were returned from a combination of accounts. In some instances, the account belongs to the client who commissioned the tattoo and is the grieving owner of the pet, while in other examples the post belongs to the tattoo artist, tattoo studio, or to a tattoo fan page. Due to the various motivations for posting a photograph of a memorial tattoo, I have chosen to rely more on hashtags than on ownership of the account. As this investigation is focused on what the tattoo conveys, it is the artistic content that is of value to this study as opposed to the individuals posting the images.1 Pinterest provides a far more detailed search function, in which users can select subcategories of “boards” based on the type of image they are searching. For instance, a search of “memorial pet tattoo” will return a range of results. From this landing page, I was able to refine the image by clicking on preference buttons such as “dog,” “cat,” “foot,” and “arm.” The benefit of this is that it assists the user in focusing on specific images and body parts. The drawback however is that search criteria and combinations of search words are virtually limitless. When gathering data, my search was restricted to images of dogs and cats. I did not refine the search function to exclude certain parts of the body. Pinterest, while it was not a helpful platform on which to locate narrative data for this project, is useful to any individual considering having a memorial tattoo designed. The

1 Discussion on the uses of social media as a tool for expression of grief can be found in Deborah Davidson’s book The Tattoo Project (2016), the penultimate chapter of which focuses on online communities and narrative sharing.

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platform features not only a range of flash suggestions but also a wide array of completed tattoos, which are valuable for establishing design elements that are effective and those which are perhaps not pleasing to the eye. It is also an excellent source for locating the work of specific tattoo artists. While Instagram can also be used for this function, the re-pin feature and the ability to create your own themed pin board on Pinterest allows users to store images thematically. In contrast, Instagram will allow users to save images in a “favorites” list, though this cannot be sorted thematically and cannot be shared or promoted among other users. Overall, Pinterest was a valuable tool through which I was able to determine trends between flash images found on the site and those which had been tattooed onto the body and then shared through Instagram. The flash designs featured throughout this chapter are indicative of some popular flash designs. These appeared, in varying forms, on both the Pinterest and Instagram platforms. Of the 410 results returned from the #petmemorialtattoo hashtag on Instagram, these were filtered to include only those which discussed the loss of a cat or dog (as opposed to other forms of companion animals such as rats, birds, and rabbits). From there, images which featured wording and/or symbols but did not classify the animal breed in the comments were also eliminated. In instances where captions provided a detailed discussion of the animal, how and when it died and how long it had been with the owner, data were analyzed in relation to the narrative of the animal death. In most cases, in the event that this level of detail was provided, the post was made on behalf of the person being tattooed rather than through a personal account. This is important because it skewers the narrative through the interpretation of a third party, one that in all likelihood did not know the animal or witness the lived reality of the relationship it shared

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with the human. Often, it was the tattoo artist conveying the story behind the design. This removed some level of emotion from the post and also allowed for some explanation around how and why the particular design was arrived at. Recalling narrative heavy encounters between the client and tattooist on reality television, we see a similar thing in real life. In order for the tattooist (who we must consider an artist) to be successful in their craft, they must engage with the client on a personal level in order to understand what the client is trying to symbolize within their tattoo design. In the case of a pet memorial tattoo, as with the human memorial tattoo, an intrinsic part of the consultative process involves establishing a feel for the relationship which the grieving owner had with their animal. Additional layers of knowledge must then be added to this, such as the personality of the animal, specific eccentricities in its behaviors, rituals which it and the owner might have shared, and finally, symbolic design elements that can be added to the tattoo (as background adornments for instance) which will complement the authenticity of the animal persona and be esthetically pleasing. It is important to note here that in cases where an artist or third party are posting an image detailing a memorial tattoo, responses from other users to the post are overwhelmingly directed to the artist as opposed to the individual that has experienced the loss of the animal. As such, sentiments are constructed differently and will more often focus on the style and composition or the work, and competency of the tattoo artist, rather than on the emotional narrative of the bereaved. 6.3. TATTOO DESIGNS Of the 410 results used in the assessment, dog or cat portraits featured exclusively in less than 100 of the examples. These were far more common in #animaltattoo posts, in which it

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was often difficult to discern if the animal was alive or dead. Dissimilar to any of the hashtag combinations which employed the use of the term “memorial,” there was a wider sense of the comedic in tattoo which featured the #animaltattoo hashtag. These images, rather than depicting items of significance to the life of the animal, illustrated the animal in various poses (sometimes cartoonish) or anthropomorphized so as to reflect an innate character trait. The Figure 1shows the breakdown between dog and cat images used in the study of pet memorial tattoos. Table 2 lists some of the specific elements featured within the tattoo designs, which are discussed in more detail in the forthcoming text. Figure 1. Dog to Cat Ratio DOG

55

CAT

48

Source: Racheal Harris.

Table 2. Recurrent Tattoo Themes Tattoo Designs

Recurring Elements

Paws Infinite Rainbow motif Paws in hand Love heart and Name

87 5 18 2 15

Words Piece of me went with you… Always by my side Other Source: Racheal Harris.

3 3 14

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What these data reveal is that when looking at tattoos which memorialize a deceased pet, we are often confronted with an autobiographical account of the animal. Names, paw prints, birth dates, and death dates are all prominent features. The relationship these details share with the animal itself is a point of conflict. If, as I have suggested, the relationship between human and pet is one that is largely built on fictitious foundations, birth dates are one area that highlights the contention within that relationship. With the exception of fully papered litters, many domestic pets never have their date of birth recorded. Is the date of birth that we recognize for the animal then the date on which they were born or merely the date on which they were adopted into the life of their owner? Does the designation of the date suggest that the animal does not exist for us until it becomes part of the family unit? What of rescue animals? How many dates of birth do they encounter within their own lives, when we consider that their actual birth might be indeterminable and that their human birth or rebirth will alter between the time they are rescued by a shelter and rehomed within a family? When then does the animal begin to have agency? When it is born to its mother? When it is homed, rescued, rehabilitated, and then adopted into a new family? With these factors in mind, an animal may undergo many lives, having births and “rebirths” depending on the longevity of the relationship it shares with a single human or human family. Comparatively, it will only ever have one death. For this reason, singular dates of death were more common than the combined use of the birth and death date. Paw prints were among the most popular designs, seen both on their own and with colorful backgrounds, dates, and wording, appearing in eighty-seven of the designs selected from Instagram. On Pinterest, they appeared with more frequency. In most examples, the print was designed to look

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similar to a fingerprint, with ridges and peaks that suggest an individual identity. In smaller, flash style designs however, prints were usually a solid black. Both of these examples incorporated the use of color. The flash design, because of its simplicity, makes it an excellent candidate for personalization. In these instances, names, dates, and colored backgrounds were a frequent feature. Notably, the image of the paw print creates the illusion of the animal body being taken into or worn upon our own. It is not uncommon for humans to wear animal skin or hide, but in this instance, the image is indicative of an individual animal. In it, there is evidence of a morphological desire. We want to imbue our memory with the animal and so we take a part of it into our own body. It is also interesting to consider the popularity of the paw print design alongside the popularity of the animal foot as a photographic subject.2 Many clients will opt to incorporate color into their design in some fashion. This can be done purely to add a vibrancy to the design or to soften the impact of bold blacks and block lettering. In several of the paw print tattoos that returned under the #petmemorialtattoo hashtag, variations on colored clouds were also present. Within the context of animal death narratives, there is a possibility that the use of color in this scenario is relative to the concept of the Rainbow Bridge. In examples which did feature variants on this theme, there was little available data to suggest whether or not the element was chosen by the tattoo artist or the client. Similarly, no

2 The Rainbow Bridge is widely recognized among pet lovers as a place where they will be reunited with their deceased companion animals. While religious narratives of Heaven and Hell are complicated by the debate around whether an animal has a soul, the Rainbow Bridge presents a secular alternative for the reunion narrative. Several versions of the poem can be located online.

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reference was made in the accompanying caption which related to the color or cloud motifs being linked specifically to Rainbow Bridge concepts (DeMello, 2016, p. xxi). Use of the infinity symbol, incorporating the name of the animal, appeared multiple times across numerous pinboards on Pinterest, though the concept was not as prevalent in the Instagram search, returning fewer results. Read in the memorial context, it suggests the idea of the spirit as a never-ending entity and the idea that the animal human bond has no end. Although the animal has passed on from this life, its essence will forever circle through different lives, in which it is able to enter the story of other human owners. Read another way, the symbol can be taken to mean that the owner expresses the desire to be reunited with the animal after their own death and that the continuance of each soul will be eternal. As with the basic paw print designs, infinity symbols also frequently adopted the use of colored elements and love hearts. Wording is prominent across all forms of tattooing, but in memorial tattoos, it frequently provided a deeper insight into personal elements of the relationship which was shared between the tattooed subject and the subject of the image. In the case of the animal tattoo, where wording accompanied rainbow color usage, the combination of the two elements would infer afterlife and reconciliation ideas. Other common phrases such as “a piece of me went with you” and “no longer by my side, forever in my heart” also appeared in multiple different designs, representing cat and dog species. What these phrases highlight is the strong belief that the animal is unfailingly loyal to its owner, walking by their side regardless of trials and tribulations which the human may encounter. When memorializing these animals after death, we can conclude that pet owners experience the death of a long-term, beloved animal as though a piece of them has also died. This

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Image 25. Anthropomorphic Cat Stencil

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: In these types of tattoo, the animal is frequently dressed in human attire which recalls the opulence of a bygone era. The top hat, neck-tie, and suit, coupled with the ornate frame around the image, demonstrate a clear Victorian influence.

bears many similar traits to the emotional responses because of the death of a long-term human partner, friend, or spouse. Portrait styles also featured prominently in tattoo designs and these were divided into two categories. The first was stylized portraits, in which individual animals are represented in

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highly stylized, abstract, or artistic forms, while the second considered realistic portraits, which had been based upon photographs of a specific animal. In many cases, the tattoo artist will use the flip book feature of Instagram to show the tattoo in comparison to the photograph. So as to show the transition from photograph into design, and into tattoo, they

Image 26. Completed Dog Tattoo

Source: Racheal Harris. Note: In this example, the dog is intentionally posed in human costuming, a decision made to reflect his regal personality.

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will also include the stencil design of the image. This technique has the benefit of showcasing not only their artistic skill in realistic tattoo styles but is also beneficial to viewers that may be considering being tattooed. Seeing a stencil and then the completed image is helpful to instill faith in an artist’s abilities into the mind of a future customer, particularly those who may never have seen the stenciled image and have concerns about how it will translate into a completed piece. Realism can be defined as creating a feeling in which the viewer gets a sense of the animal as it was in life. This is commonly achieved through the eyes. It is this aspect of memorialization in which the tattoo is superior to the taxidermy mount. It is the eyes which express so much of the animal’s emotion and personality. Due to the inability to preserve the delicate tissues which make up the eye, in taxidermy practice, the original must be substituted with glass. When done well, the glass eye can bring the animal a life-like quality; however, it does not capture any of the depth of the natural eye. By comparison, the tattoo, especially when done in color, allows for the eye to be captured in a vivid range of detail. In this sense, the tattoo gives a realistic appearance to the animal, one which is absent in the taxidermy mount.

6.4. RESULTS What we can conclude from looking at how companion animals have, and continue to be, memorialized through tattooing is that humans romanticize the death of animals in a way that echoes their romanticizing of the life they share with them in the domestic setting. Memorial tattoos, in the majority of cases, take the symbols of the animal life and pose them into images that have meaning to the owner. The use of

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collars, which are woven into the shape of a heart, paw prints, and name tags are universal symbols with which any pet owner can identify. In the tattoo, they speak of a bond which is similar to that present in many interspecies settings, but at the same time, give a fleeting insight into intimacies which those outside the relationship might never know. In this sense, they have much in common with memorial tattoos that commemorate family members, spouses, and children. The paw design, in its placement and style, recalls a type of brand and suggests that the animal has left a print upon the skin of the human. When we approach this with a focus on the role of touch in the animal human relationship, it is indicative of one of the few ways the animal-to-human touch can be expressed through visual narrative. Whereas the pet owner would commonly stroke the animal with their hand, animals do not have the same dexterity in their feet and, thus, return affection is shown by rubbing against the human. Both cats and dogs will express this affectionate behavior, although it is perhaps better recognized in the action of the cat rubbing itself against the legs of a human as it anticipates being fed. Obviously, it is impossible to capture this gesture within the tattooed image and thus the paw print becomes a stand-in for the feeling and the paw itself is reinterpreted as the human hand. It is laid upon the skin of the owner as a symbol of love, affection, and comfort. Placement of the paw print, in the overwhelming majority of examples, was on a part of the body which was highly visible to the person wearing the image. Wrists, feet, and the front of the shoulder were the most common examples. For the human, this means that the paw print will be almost constantly visible in day-to-day life. For them, it allows for frequent opportunities to recall the memory of their pet as they make their way through the day. The high visibility of the image also attracts or invites conversation from third parties,

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Image 27. Flash Tattoo Design (Love Heart and Paw Print)

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: Simple flash design

This design was among memorial tattoos, the paw

print within the heart can be used to commemorate either the cat or dog. The design can also be easily personalized through the inclusion of wording, a name, and/or the date of death.

inviting the opportunity to share pet-centered stories with other pet enthusiasts. By talking about the animal and reliving or recounting the bond that was shared, the human is able to not only grieve for their loss but also reaffirm the memory of the animal. Much like Swinney suggests of the taxidermy mount, this visibility allows us to interact with the memory of the animal endlessly (p. 225) because it is carried upon the body, and the narrative is always present and can be relived and added to the ongoing.

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Image 28. Flash Tattoo Design (Paw Print with Heart Toes)

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: Basic flash design: Another common feature in memorial designs. Color can be added to the background, along with specific wording, dates, and names, to make the image personal to the bereaved.

In relation to designs that speak of the death narrative specifically, the opaque illusions to resurrection, reunion, and the Rainbow Bridge are a reflection of the shaky status of religion in the ever-increasingly secular world. Although the

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concept of the bridge is reminiscent of a spiritual journey and the green pastures, clouds and rainbows share many traits with ideas of Heaven, and the removal of any form of deity speaks of the tenuous relationship which modern society has with religion. Despite an urge to turn away from religious communities and doctrines however, in the death of our pets, we express an innate yearning for the afterlife. In a very recent Instagram post, a tattoo parlor from New York posted an in-progress memorial tattoo in which the head of a toy breed dog (a Jack Russell or Chihuahua) had been superimposed onto a religious icon. The body of the animal had morphed into a traditionally human stance. Shown from the waist up, the dog was standing on hind legs while its front paws gripped a dog treat and a bouquet of what appeared to be vegetables. A shroud was placed over the head and the traditional stain glass inspired halo which one would expect to see in a church window had been placed behind the head. This example was the most-overtly religious in the designs, suggesting that the dog was akin to a saint in the life of the owner. What we can take from it more broadly, and when viewed in relation to the changing intimacy in the companion animal human relationship, is that dogs and cats are taking on the persona of the metaphorical and spiritual guardian figure. Less overtly religious iconography, such as the “his paw in mine” and the “a piece of me went with you/forever in my heart” sentiments, also call on these ideas. Animal portraits provide a curious representation of the animal relationship and are frequently the style in which the anthropomorphizing of the animal is most evident. A surprising element of the research was that it revealed a lack of portraiture among memorial styles. One reason for this is that the visibility of the tattoo will invite questioning and judgment from the audience which observes it. As I have outlined in previous chapters, the tattooed body (particularly when it

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belongs to the female) becomes an item of public discussion. For the bereaved pet owner, we can conclude that the trend away from the overtly commemorative piece speaks of an unwillingness to make their grief a topic of scrutiny from other humans. Employing simplistic flash designs of symbols which are not immediately identifiable allows for the wearer to undertake their own grieving process without risking the stigma of publicly grieving over the animal. While the #pettattoo hashtag employed various comical, colorful, and anthropomorphic styles, among memorial tattoos, realism was the focal point. Even in this realism however, specific traits were clear. Pets (particularly dog breeds) were often displayed as though they were looking up at their owner. From the perspective of the third party, reading the tattoo on the skin, this effect created a sense of eye contact between the viewer and animal. Depending on the placement of the image and depth of clarity within the eyes, this produced a powerful message: that the animal was looking out from the body in the protection of the human. There was an even balance between portraits which used color in the face of the animal and those which were done in greyscale, although the colored variants trended toward designs that focused less on realism, embracing a stylized or cartoonish representation. Perhaps this is relative to the difficulty which is associated with capturing the coloring of fur in full realistic hues. In the case of a tabby cat for instance, coat color and pattern will vary wildly depending on which breeds have influenced the genetics of the cat, yet it is the coat which makes the animal identifiable to its owner. Incorrectly rendering the coat in the tattoo detracts from the emotional recognition that exists in the color pattern of the fur. For the bereaved, failure to capture such an intimate and identifiable detail competently would create a disjointed memory narrative, influencing how the cat is remembered over time and

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changing the relationship between human and animal and the human with their own body. After all, a memorial tattoo which does not look like the subject it memorializes will cause conflict in reconciling grief as one moves through the death and grieving process. Instagram, as with other forms of social media, provides a safe space in which people might openly grieve their pets among an audience of strangers. In making a post of their memorial tattoo, the individual can draw viewers of that post through not only their followers but also their use of hashtags. In cases where the individual might not feel comfortable discussing their grief with their immediate friendship circle or close family members, the social media platform allows like-minded people to observe the posting of the image and to either offer a “like” (which is expressed as a love heart) or to leave a comment. In this sense, there is the opportunity for support during the grief process but with both parties having the ability to remain anonymous to each other (Davidson, 2016, pp. 186 187). While the poster might respond to or “like” comments which are left on their post, there is not the obligation of having to maintain a conversation. Overall, comments on this genre of post are positive, recalling stories of the personal loss experienced by the person “liking” the photograph and offering support to the poster. The affirmation of their personal grief is important for justifying the grief narrative that relates to the animal. Sharing of memorial images is beneficial not only to the bereaved but also to other users of the platform, specifically those who might have just lost a companion animal of their own or be contemplating a tattoo to memorialize an animal which has died. While specific tattoo artists might not be comfortable or competent in every style, in assessing the design work and themes which are already present in tattoo memorials, those who are considering their own design have

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a starting point in which to base their ideas. In the long term, this is beneficial for locating the right artists for their work and in helping to define the salient elements which they want represented within the tattoo. Finally, the social media platform as a medium of delivery presents a unique opportunity for the tattoo artist to adverImage 29. Cat Tattoo Design

Source: Shutterstock. Notes: Flash art featuring a cat. The flower wreath recalls elements of staging in the post-mortem photograph; while the collar gives the image humanizes the personality of the animal.

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tise their artistry and to build their client base. In many instances, it is the tattoo artist that will post a photo of a memorial tattoo rather than the person that commissioned the tattoo. In one sense then, the tattoo artist becomes a middle man or gatekeeper, who can moderate the feedback left on the post and in addition they are able to openly express their desire to tattoo similarly themed designs. In de-stigmatizing the tattoo process, potential clients gain the confidence to take control of their emotions and shape the loss of their companion animals into new forms of expression. These, as with death rituals and memorials of bygone eras, are important to establishing how we narrate and mourn for lost loved ones.

6.5. CONCLUSION This chapter has looked at a range of key elements which feature frequently in memorial pet tattoo designs. In doing so, it has highlighted how humans construct a narrative around the death of their companion animals. While the narrative elements of the animal life (its personality and things that it enjoyed) will often be present in tattoo composition, what is also evident is the way that humans have contextualized animal death in relation to the afterlife. As with other forms of memorialization, in many instances, the tattoo speaks of the human desire to be reconciled with the animal in some type of afterlife. In other instances, it offers an autobiographical account of the animal which, when incorporated into the body of the human through the tattoo, becomes part of their own self-narrative. The next chapter, while keeping with the use of social media, approaches the human and animal relationship from the perspective of the digital identities which are being created

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around companion animals. While the construction of these narratives takes place during the lifetime of the animal, what will become of their posthumous legacy is a developing area of study with much to reveal about human sentimentality and our inability to let our pets rest in peace.

Image 30. Man and Dog Listening to a Transistor Radio

Source: Shutterstock.

CHAPTER 7 ANIMALS ONLINE A New Frontier in Animal Studies? As previous chapters in this book have discussed, skin and touch play an integral role in memory formation, relationship construction, and as a site of mourning for companion animals. Of specific interest to my discussion has been the active role that touch plays in narrative construction and its place in contemporary grief rituals. How skin is utilized as a site of mourning and how it becomes a surface of self-narrative have both been of importance in establishing how we negotiate our lives with, and interpret the behavior of, our companion animals. An additional underlying concern has also been the impact which life in an increasingly digital society will have on this touch relationship and the long-term effect of this on how we conceptualize death. In an age of increasing digital communication, we move toward a time when technology will extend our touch and consciousness beyond the skin (Jablonski, 2013, p. 173). In response, we are always seeking new ways of extending the reach of digital influence, so that it is evermore a part of the most intimate corners of our daily life. How we live in the real world plays a prominent role in the construction of the digital identity, acting as the basis for the projected self-image that is intrinsic to the online persona (Klemm, 2018, p. 169). When we look at social media 163

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platforms such as Facebook and Instagram, what becomes apparent is that the image sharing that takes place here is almost exclusively a highly modified and filtered version of reality. The cropping, air-brushing, and filter functions which are now in-built on every mobile phone device, as well as within the posting function of platforms like Instagram, assist in curating how and what we want our digital persona to be projected. Initially this practice was directed at the self, although increasingly we see that it is expanding to include the lives and personas of our companion animals. In this chapter, I consider how the digital footprint of the domestic pet is undergoing a radical shift across social media. Where once the pet was an extension of the human person, it is now being curated as its own online entity. Cats and dogs from all walks of life are the subject of their own social media accounts. Of course, I do not suggest that they have any conceptual awareness of this; instead my interest lies in how we, their human caretakers, are choosing to represent them in the online world particularly, how we have shifted from talking about them in our own social media posts and status updates to talking as them. This practice has become, for a select group of human pet owners, a highlyprofitable business venture. What it demonstrates is the latest trend in humans using the animal body to earn a living. From a non-utilitarian perspective, this practice echoes the early days of the dog fancy and, more recently, the sinister practice of puppy and kitten mills. Although these examples, unlike those conducted in the digital space, were built on the physical and emotional exploitation of the animal body, this most recent incarnation is a subtle, yet not less relevant example in a long history of exploitative behaviors exhibited by humans toward animals in the domestic space. It is unsurprising, though, that animals online command such an emotional response and such enormous followings. Considering the

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relationship between online and real-world human behaviors, what the presence and popularity of animals online indicates is that the trend toward forming close bonds with animals is so pervasive that it is exhibiting in the social behaviors of humans across all aspects of life. Where relationships with people require constant care, reflection, and maintenance; relationships with animals are somewhat easier. In the animal there is the security of unconditional love, without the commitment of the constant consideration of another’s feelings. Academic studies on why younger generations continue to turn to animals for companionship has suggested that it is the solution to a feeling that personal relationships are unfulfilling (Beck & Katcher, 1996, p. 168), although this research does not suggest that the love of the animal trumps the love which the human feels for other humans. Although several studies have been done around pet ownership and interpersonal relationships (Podberscek et al., 2000), these predate the rise of high-speed internet connections and many (if not all) of the social media and dating platforms that dominate the social lives of Generation Y and Millennials. Studies into peer bonding among Generation Y indicate that the online communications on which so many relationships rely reduce the amount of connection and the feeling of loyalty between peers. For instance, it is much easier to cancel plans when you are doing so online as opposed to through a voice call or in person. Romantic relationships too are suffering the same fate, as new online trends such as “ghosting,” “orbiting,” and “benching” illustrate.1 The

1 Petter, O. Millennial dating trends 2018: All the terms to know, from ghosting to orbiting. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/lifestyle/love-sex/dating-trends-2019-terms-definitions-ghosting-orbiting-birdboxing-millenial-a8767456.html. Accessed on February 7, 2019

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principal of “ghosting” for instance revolves around the idea that one party will disappear without explanation. Psychologically, this has a profound impact on the other party.2 While these terms have entered the cultural vernacular in response primarily to intimate relationships, they speak to a larger sense of isolation which is the byproduct of lives being lived increasingly online. While social media may offer the opportunity to amass endless numbers of “followers,” these relationships are often anonymous and have little value in an emotional or real-world context. In response, humans turn to companion animals, reading into them the behaviors which are absent in humans that might share our space. These relationships are now being reflected into that same online space which has proven to be so unfulfilling. Although the practice of animals and social media is in its infancy, in the future, it is here that mourning for companion animals will provide a new opportunity to assess the human practice of animal-related grieving. What an early assessment of online behaviors indicates is that this variation of the grief narrative employs many aspects of once antiquated grief rituals. As it is becoming increasingly necessary to question the purpose behind interactions which take place between humans and animals as well as animals and animals in the digital world, I examine the online dialog exchanged across some of the most-popular animal Instagram accounts. In assessing the animals and the people (and animals) that follow them, my aim is to look at how the personality of individual animals and its accompanying narrative are being

2 Vilhauer, J. This is why ghosting hurts so much. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/living-forward/201511/is-why-ghosting-hurts-so-much. Accessed on November 27, 2015.

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constructed. While the animals that act as the owners of these accounts remain very much alive in the present, their life expectancy will be dramatically shorter than that of the human user. As such, in the not too distant future, it will be the posthumous image of the animal that is used in the digital realm. How this will impact audience responses to these quasi-celebrity animal figures remains to be seen.

7.1. ANIMALS AS SOCIAL MEDIA INFLUENCERS So-called “influencers” have been part of the online landscape since the advent of social media. Once the forum through which socialite figures were able to transition into celebrities, in more recent years, attention has turned from a specific focus on human influencers toward animals. This is hardly unsurprising when we consider the enduring popularity which the animal body has taken in meme, YouTube, and Reddit culture. As the name suggests, the role of the influencer in the online environment is to create an idea of the kind of animal life to which pet owners who follow the account should aspire to with their own companion animals. In cases where the animal has amassed a large group of followers, the account will also recommend products and dictate consumer trends. By attracting new followers and promoting products, the influencer draws revenue and, in some instances, attains a kind of quasi-celebrity status. In some cases, this can lead to more mainstream fame,3 while

3

Grumpy Cat is one example of the animal influencer crossing over into mainstream fame. Coming to prominence through the Grumpy Cat meme, the animal has parlayed the interest which a human audience has shown her into numerous television appearances, books, and an assortment of calendars and stationary.

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in others, the person will remain prominent only within their niche community.4 In July 2018, Forbes magazine ran an article which highlighted how profitable the animal image had become in the social media sphere. It cited several examples of pet owners who accrued an income almost entirely through the marketing and social media following of their animals (Rabimov, 2018). What this highlighted was the increasingly prominent command which animals hold in the marketplace and the reasonably recent opportunity which animal owners were exploiting to try and earn money from the relationships they share with their pets. The financial benefits associated with online celebrity status have led to an abundance of animalcentered profiles appearing across all social media channels. In addition, websites and books which promise to make your pet an internet celebrity can also be purchased in a variety of formats. Despite the hints and tips which these guides suggest, however, the “it factor” that leads to a high-profile online persona remains unquantifiable. To assess the type of animal profile which attracts the greatest response from human social media users, I have examined profiles from some of the most-prominent animal influencers. Table 3 details the Instagram accounts which have been selected for the study, and it was data from these accounts which I refer to when discussing the findings later. Later in the chapter, I will also consider some of the ways these animals correspond with each other and with their fans in an attempt to enhance their social profile. In keeping with the interests of the larger study, I have limited my gaze to cats and dogs. While these are the most

4 Despite having more followers than Grumpy Cat, JiffPom is relatively unknown outside of the influencing/Instagram world.

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Table 3. Instagram Influencers Influencer

Instagram Handle

Followers

Followers

(December; (January; in million) JiffPom

in million)

Total

Marketing

Account Posts

@jiffpom

8.9

612

Nala Cat

@nala_cat

3.8

3.9

5,811

Doug

@itsdougthepug

3.6

3.7

2,518

Marutaro

@marutaro

2.5

8,792

Store

Grumpy

@realgrumpycat

2.4

1,362

Store

Tuna

@tunameltsmyheart

2.0

2,474

Store

Marnie

@marniethedog

2.0

1,142

Website

Lil Bub

@iamlilbub

1.9

2

2,426

Store

White Coffee

@white_coffee_cat

1.7

1.8

2,774

Store*

Smoothie

@smoothiethecat

1.6

1.7

1,676

Venus

@venustwofacedcat

1.6

1.7

Manny

@manny_the_frenchie

1.1

Waffles

@waffles_the_cat

0.685

Mens Wear

@mensweardog

Percy

@therealpercythepersian

Store

1,819 4,216

Website

0.723

1,970

Store

0.36

0.363

788

0.057

0.058

4,867

Website

Source: Racheal Harris. Note: * White Coffee Cat’s store is accessed through the webstore for Nala the Cat.

frequently seen animals on Instagram, I do not suggest that they are the only species who have entered the influencing sphere. Animals selected come from a variety of geographical locations, though are predominantly from the United States. While this may appear to indicate that animal social media accounts are more popular among American users, as parts of my study assess the kinds and types of feedback left on influencer accounts, it is instead indicative of the decision to remove non-English speaking accounts. This decision was made to minimize the chance of photograph captions being misconstrued.

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It is also pertinent to note that all the animals I have selected here are still alive at the time of writing. While there are cases where popular animal influencers have died (Solon, 2018), these animals did not command the same number of followers as recent influencers have seen. This might be the result of the increased popularity of social media platforms, or the increased use of social media by younger generations. With every smartphone having a connection to the internet, social media availability has never been more prevalent.

7.2. NARRATIVE CREATION It is difficult to chart the narrative creation that takes place in the lead up to animal-led social media profiles being established. While some of the more enduring animal celebrities (such as Grumpy Cat) achieved their initial success through meme culture, more recent entries into the social influencer sphere seem to have established their fame purely from attracting followers and participating in product endorsement. What this suggests is that followers are not only drawn to animals that have a personality, but also enjoy those who do not have a discernable personality simply because they provide a conduit for narrative creation. Popular accounts like Doug the Pug, for example, are entertaining, but Doug has a distinct personality. When viewing his profile, the narrative of his life and what he likes, and dislikes, is evident. For audience members who are looking to Doug as a means of relating with the memory of a specific dog or dog breed which has been of significance in their life, the narrative is complicated by Doug’s distinct personality. Comparatively, the JiffPom account provides very little in the way of description about JiffPom, his interests or her personality. Thus, it is much easier for the account follower to imagine a

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relationship with JiffPom (in which he is the celebrity figure) or to use him as a token or representation for an animal they have known in life. Of the social media accounts which included a biography, some of the repetitive elements included highlighting that the animal was a rescue. This was more common among cats than dogs, perhaps owing to the fact that cats are more commonly surrendered and can be harder to rehome than their canine counterparts. Of the accounts included here, eight were focused on cats, while the remaining seven were devoted to dogs. Percy the Persian (@therealpercythepersian) is a relatively new influencer but is a good example of how narrative is used to construct the animal persona. Percy’s posts commonly take the format of daily diary entries, in which he muses on life with his new family. As his biographical information states, Percy was adopted in 2014 but was born in 2008. The first six years of his life remain something of a mystery, his new adoptive family having created a completely new narrative for him to coincide with his online persona. Similar to Percy and his story of abandonment and adoption, the biography for Waffles the Cat highlights the fact the animal was unwanted as a kitten. Since being adopted however, it is suggested (through the combination of social media fame and the jovial content) that Waffles has achieved a better life. Nala the Cat is another example of the abandonment narrative, while Coffee (Nala’s friend) is billed as a cancer survivor. These narratives not only humanize the animal on some degree but also speak to a sense of sadness on its part. It is not until the animal is adopted into a loving and caring home that it is able to achieve “happiness.” This is a narrative which many, if not all, pet enthusiasts can identify with. Subconsciously, it also addresses the rather modern desire to want to provide a good home for the animals whom we

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adopt. A key part of success in this area is providing them with consumer items. Waffles the Cat (@waffles_the_cat), another of the more recent influencers to achieve fame, follows many of the larger Instagram accounts. In this regard, Waffles is a good example of how attracting new followers through interacting with more well-known accounts can in turn lead to increased media presence. In this sense, the Waffles account is representative of the very core of how social media works. In some instances, Waffles will leave comments on the posts of larger accounts (which are also being followed by the Waffles account) and these are frequently responded to with a “like” or return comment. Other followers and commenters on these larger accounts can see the interaction between Waffles and the account holder and can then link back to Waffles profile and become a follower. There are two primary modes of communication which take place on the Instagram profile. These involve comments from humans, which speak directly to the animal, and those from other animals, which also address the animal directly. The second instance has many parallels to how humans communicate on different channels of social media. This is unsurprising when we consider the fact that it is humans that are operating, following, liking, and commenting on these accounts, whereas the animals themselves are ignorant of how their image is being used. In the case of Waffles, other animals respond to Waffles completely through the use of emoji. It is difficult to estimate why the animal would communicate through the use of a pictographic text. We might conclude that part of the online fantasy at the core of the animal interaction plays to the primal bonds which humans and animals have shared. Lacking the common language of speech or the written word, online followers turn to the simplistic graphics of emoji images to convey their messages.

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These are, in some ways, the distant relatives to the painted symbols once found on cave walls. They are simple enough for the animal mind to understand and therefore become a comment means of interspecies correspondence. Ultimately, this pantomime conversation is conducted under the guise that the animal will have some kind of interaction with the online platform and that relationships can be built with it through digital interaction. While there were some examples of animals being connected to each other (either because they lived in the same home or because their human companions were associated), in most cases, the relationships which the animals share as followers of each other did not extend beyond liking and commenting on each other’s posts. The notable exception here was Nala the Cat (@nalathecat) and White Coffee (@white_coffee_cat). In this case, White Coffee’s account links directly to Nala’s online boutique and it is only through accessing this site that fans are able to purchase White Coffee’s merchandise. This suggests not a partnership between the animals but merely indicates that the human that is mediating their image has employed several accounts as revenue streams. At the time of this writing, Nala remains the more famous of the pair, although her continued dialog with White Coffee through the use of social media does suggest that it is the goal of the pet owner to build celebrity status for White Coffee. The online marketplace was another common theme among accounts. Eight of the animals examined in the study advertised their own store and/or personal website. These additional platforms not only allow followers to purchase bespoke products featuring the likeness of the animal (or a catchphrase or slogan with which it is synonymous) but also extend the reach of the online relationship beyond the Instagram platform. The impact of this is an increased sense

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of intimacy between the follower and the animal. In being able to contact, post, or view the animal across multiple online channels, audiences are encouraged to feel a sense of intimacy with that animal, much like connections between humans on social media, and the animal begins to take on the role of the friend. Social media data not only presents a new perspective of our enduring fascination with animals but also of the way we have adopted them as avatars. The imitative quality which the social media profile encourages is, in itself, worthy of further study. What social media profiles that focus on the anthropomorphic pet present is a new direction in the metamorphosis of the human and animal relationship. Where prior research has considered the enduring bonds which humans are increasingly forming with animals in the domestic setting, rarely has it extended its interest into the online domain. Once our narrative involved speaking to a companion animal in “petese” or spoiling it with luxury goods, now, we begin to speak for the animal, assuming an intimate knowledge of its feelings about the world and its understanding of the role it, as an individual, plays within the home environment. To some extent, the changing role of the animal, from something which aides in the promotion of consumer products to someone which sells them directly in the online market space, is also worthy of further thought.

7.3. INTERACTION Outside of communication directly with the animal, social media platforms act as message boards for users, as well as a tool for image sharing. When data and interactions are exchanged between humans, positive relations can form,

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and new communities are constructed online. We see this frequently in fan communities, in which many of the members have never met in real life (due to geographical distance, gaps in age, or because they have few other interests in common) but yet strong bonds are constructed around a shared loved of a specific popular culture text. In some instances, fannish behaviors directed toward a text which is seen as childish or uncool among real-life peer groups can cause anxiety and, thus, the online setting provides a place where individuals can discuss their shared interest in relative anonymity. As illustrated in the previous chapter, it is through social media that we are often able to mourn openly without fearing the judgment of people close to us. Often the supportive behavior which is offered between strangers can be beneficial to the grief process and allows for a more open exchange of dialog. How grief practices will be expressed through the online pet profile will be a fascinating area of research in coming years, as these animal influencers succumb to the constraints of their mortality. Taking individual posts about companion animal death as an indicator, we can expect to see a profound outpouring of grief from not only those who felt that they “knew” the animal but also from casual followers or those who encounter the post through the use of the hashtags which it employs. In the case of one-off posts from human accounts, which discuss the death of a companion animal, the narrative of the impact of the animal life on the human owner is a pervasive theme. In some instances, the rituals of the animal death (particularly when euthanasia has been pre-arranged) will heavily narrativize the process in which the human prepares to farewell their companion. This is often a highlyromanticized discussion of the last day of the animal. In the lead up to its inevitable death (of which the animal has no

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knowledge), the human will revisit places of significance to their relationship with the pet. Although these encounters are described as being for the benefit of the dog or cat (because it was something which they loved), they are in fact a means of the human reaffirming their narrative with the animal one final time. Revisiting sites of significance embeds the joy of past encounters into the memory, while also initiating the first stage of the grief process (in which the human is aware that this is the last time that they will have these experiences with the animal). The book, Letters to my Dog, also touches upon this theme. In several of the letters, which are written by celebrities to their dog, the discussion of animals which are now deceased plays a prominent role. In these examples, fond memories of final days share many of the same traits with those now on display in social media posting. Another prevalent theme throughout both written and social media tributes is the human inclination to conclude a post or entry with “love Mommy/love Dad.” This is a further indication of the idea that companion animals are increasingly being narrativized as substitute children.

7.4. ELWOOD To conduct additional research for this study, I established an Instagram account for my pet cat, Elwood. Elwood is Burman (a cross between long-haired Persian and Burmese cat breeds) and is six years old. He was adopted at 12 months (though this is not included in his bio) from a family who could no longer care for him and since coming to live with me has been an only pet. He is very timid and dislikes the presence of other animals, especially other cats. Owing to his disinclination to be around people or animals

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in life, it was interesting to consider the variety of followers he might attract in the digital realm. My decision to create a social media profile was also driven by the request from several of my own, human followers. Before the creation of his own account, Elwood had appeared in the bulk of posts featured on my personal Instagram account. Whether this “pet-spam” was of little interest to the humans I associate with online or, whether Elwood provided more entertainment than my own account, is a factor which I have never been able to establish. In every case where one of my human friends is following and interacting with Elwood in the digital realm, they do not maintain contact with him in the real world. None of Elwood’s human followers were aware of my intent when setting up his account. I decided to withhold this information so as to not influence how they chose to interact with his social media profile. Comments from human accounts that belong to people that are not known to us in the real world will attempt to engage with Elwood directly. One follower, in particular, addresses him in the first person and poses questions to Elwood directly. Among his animal followers, the discussion is usually related to appearance (how handsome Elwood is) or is a request for a “return follow” (where an account will follow you in anticipation of being followed back). In many instances, it is establishing reciprocal follows that builds popularity and assists hopeful Instagram influencers to build their profile. Within less than a month, Elwood (@redandelwood) had more followers than my personal page. The vast majority of these were other animals. To promote his page, I used the following hashtags for most of his posts: #cats, #catsofinstagram, #prayforelwood, #mycatisajerk, and #caturday. The #cats and #catsofinstagram hashtags were chosen because they have a large following on the platform and because

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they establish Elwood as a cat. The #caturday hashtag is synonymous with cat owners and speaks to the idea of the lazy Saturday morning spent at home with your cat. It is used here to promote the idea of a close relationship between Elwood and myself, in which we often spend the weekend working together. Many of his posts will reference the research which is being undertaken for this book. In making this allusion, I was curious to see if any followers would question the content of the work. They did not. In contrast, #mycatisajerk and #prayforelwood were used as a reflection of Elwood’s “personality.” I have long seen Elwood as the aloof member of our partnership. As a cat that is talkative but not overly affectionate, I have imbued on him the mantle of resentful male cat that tolerates his owner. This is the trait which is expressed in the majority of his Instagram posts, in which he laments his life and the fact that he is an “indoors man.” It is suggested that his one true longing is to chase birds around the neighborhood. Instead, he is confined to the house and, thus, entertains himself through a series of sarcastic musings about the daily struggles of domestic life as a companion animal. In my construction of these captions, I drew heavily on the personality narrative which I had constructed around Elwood. Although I am unable to speak of how Elwood interprets our relationship from his perspective, my goal was to keep his social media presence as an authentic representation of the exchange which we have within the home. The images which I post of Elwood are focused on him specifically, and, while they often reference his attitude toward me, I have endeavored to remain absent from the profile so as not to draw attention away from the personality of Elwood. One of the most surprising elements of Elwood’s newfound social media persona involved the number of marketing messages which he received from other animals, inquiring

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about his interest in the purchase of various pet supplies. Invariably these messages were sent by other animals and were addressed to Elwood directly. Conversation was always conducted in the first person. Although all of the products were available to purchase, the account holder commonly volunteered to provide a discount on the purchase price. This offer was made with the stipulation that Elwood would pose on their site using a specific set of hashtags. Alternatively, he could post on his own profile, so long as he was wearing or using the purchased item in the photograph and linking back to the online store through the use of tagging in the photograph. As I have stated, Elwood remains very much alive. In this respect, it is my goal to maintain his social media presence

Image 31. Elwood Seeing His Tattooed Likeness

Source: Racheal Harris. Note: Elwood is confronted with his own tattooed portrait.

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Image 32. Elwood Responding to Tattoo

Source: Racheal Harris. Notes: Prior to establishing his social media account, I had taken initial steps toward having Elwood tattooed. Wanting to preserve his memory while he was in his prime, I had this tattoo done in February 2018. After his death, I intend to add his name and perhaps a memorial date. I am interested to see how adding to the image will influence my own grief process. Elwood, for his part, finds the image off-putting.

with the hope of completing additional research into how he is mourned (by me and his online “fur-riends” after his death). When Elwood does die, his digital paw print will be a complex site of memorial. As the account owner, it will provide the opportunity for me to mourn among the community

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Image 33. Tattoo and Portrait

Source: Racheal Harris. Notes: Elwood’s portrait tattoo and the photograph on which the image is based. As discussed in the previous chapter, the skill of the tattoo artist in capturing the eyes brings realism to the image.

of followers which Elwood has attracted. The downside to this will be making decisions around whether or not his account should be kept posthumously. As he is not a human, the same kinds of digital account ownership that exist on posthumous human accounts do not apply. There is no one whom he can designate to curate the content of his digital legacy upon his death. As the person who has constructed the narrative of a close personal bond with Elwood, it remains to be seen whether or not keeping his memory alive through social media will be beneficial to my own grief process.

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7.5. AFTERMATH Future research into human and animal studies should expand to include ongoing data gathering on these sites. As animals age and, inevitably die, it would be worthwhile to monitor how the page is sustained along with the variations in the number of human followers. Similarly, how the death of the animal is depicted will provide an interesting insight into the relationship between human and animal when the animal is a source of revenue for their owner. While I am not suggesting that owners will mourn less or more for an animal which has been afforded a certain level of online celebrity status, there does exist the opportunity for the relationship which the animal shared with its human caretaker to be exploited. In the case of high-earning social media accounts in particular, the fact remains that it is the animal which followers are wanting to see, yet it is a human who mediates the viewing content. Emotionally, it is them who benefits from the endorphin boost of being an online celebrity. When the animal has departed and the online fame plateaus or fades, what will the long-term emotional impact be on the human, and how will this impact their own grief process?

7.6. CONCLUSION In every case, social media profiles which purport to belong to animals are in fact owned, operated, and negotiated by humans. It is human thought processes and desires which drive the types of image sharing and the personality construction of which the animal is a focal point. While this may be

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an artistic and creative way for the human and animal to bond during the life of the pet, when it inevitably dies, how that narrative relationship will continue is less certain. What I have sought to introduce in this chapter is a new avenue through which we might approach a developing aspect of the human and animal relationship. In this scenario, the animal commands a more prominent power status than it has ever enjoyed before. In cases where social media networking sites are also revenue creators for the animal owner, the death of the “star” will leave not only an emotional void but also a financial one. While this field of study is still in its infancy, what I hope to accomplish in this chapter is the beginning of a new academic dialog, in which sociologists and Human and Animal Studies (HAS) scholars can come together in an interdisciplinary discussion which will uncover how we see animals in the online world, how we construct their personality, and the subsequent power which that personality holds.

Image 34. Woman and Dog Looking Out over the Water

Source: Shutterstock.

CONCLUSION In this book I have examined how we, as humans, interact with the animals that share our daily lives. It is these animals which become intrinsic to the conception of our own autobiography, as we develop with them the deepest intimacy, and whom bear witness to our inner lives. We mythologize our pets as much as we love them and, in their absence, seek to recreate the love and companionship which they provided. This is a tactile love, built on touch and the relationship which we share in the skin. After the advent of death, it is skin that carries the remembrance of this relationship narrative and it is through skin that we call upon these animals to fulfill our longing for kinship. Our inability to let them go speaks to the depth of reliance we have upon them and their often-unconditional expressions of love and companionship. As I stated in my introduction, when I set out to explore this topic, my approach had been to compare the anthropomorphic designs of Walter Potter to the elements that are present in modern forms of companion animal tattooing. What became apparent to me, however, was that memorial tattoos tell a far different story to those which capture an animal in the fullness of its life. Where these may have the jovial and antiquated qualities which mimic what we see in the work of Potter, memorial tattoos tell a far more somber and intimate tale. It is here that we see the true depth of feeling that humans develop for companion animals and the power which the animal has over their human keeper. 185

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I have discussed the ways in which we narrate the relationships we share with animals in the domestic space. By examining how we define which animals are suitable to be kept as pets, while others are consigned as food, I have outlined a framework for how we choose which animals to love. I have considered the various ways in which human personality traits are formed on behalf of animals and how bestowing specific personal characteristics onto companion animals represents an attempt to account for qualities that are absent in human interpersonal relationships. Reading the anthropomorphizing of animals in relation to the experience of touch and the importance of skin in the building of these relationships, I have provided a historical reading for how the image of the animal has been preserved. Taking taxidermy as a starting point, I have gone onto illustrate how this relates to the practice of tattooing. How these trends may one day be read through the platform of social media has also featured within this discussion. In tribal as in contemporary settings, it is the picture of the animal that becomes a motif for part of the human story. This is particularly true after the animal has died. The ways in which we have, and continue to, mourn animals in the domestic setting also reveals a great deal about how human attitudes toward death have shifted across the last 200 years. As we have witnessed a decline in human-tohuman death rituals, the way in which we ritualize the death of our animals has adapted to fill this space. There is a pageantry to their commemoration which is increasingly absent in the human realm. In the use of death jewelry and death trinkets, I have outlined how we are now reading human death narratives onto our companion animals and have suggested that the human desire to behave in this fashion is a mimicry of bygone eras. It speaks of an innate human need to encounter and interact with death. In The Storyteller, Walter

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Benjamin considers the importance of narrative to how cultures identify and understand death, concluding that it is through the series of images which mark the individual life that they will ultimately come to know themselves. These images, the locus of our autobiography, contain all the memories and moments that form the concept of who we are (2009, pp. 150 151). Taxidermy and tattoo have been highlighted as a focal point for the expansion of this concept specifically because of the strong links which species share with the skin of each other and its associated role in narrative formation. While tattooing is the art of capturing image on flesh, taxidermy is flesh shaped into narrative image. In both instances, it is an imagined life which we read upon the subject. In the examples discussed herein, this narrative is then integrated into out own. The connections we forge have been used as a means of bridging historical taxidermy traditions to more modern forms of memorialization which are evident in the practice of tattooing. As I have highlighted, the relationship between a taxidermist and their client is not dissimilar from that of the tattoo artist and the customer. In both instances, the animal image undergoes a transformation from life into death, subject into object. In both cases too, this object is a work of art and one which continues to haunt the narrative space of the human life. Haunting is not a new element to remembering. Roland Barthes has stated in relation to still photography that the photographed image plays an important role in how human memory is formed (Barthes, 1980, p. 96). In capturing a subject in a moment which is “without future” the photograph encapsulates the deceased in objectified form. While I have argued that we cannot strictly think of a tattoo in the same way as a photograph because of the changing nature of the skin canvas, what I have established is a link in the metamorphosis between image, memory, and narrative creation.

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Where once we held, carried, or wore an image or death memento upon the body as a tangible link to the intangible, we now wear it within us. The tattoo is tied intimately and inexorably to our personal narrative and to that of the animal. While it hints at a form of second life, it is undeniably subsumed by our own. Memory images fade (Gibson, 2008, p. 93), yet the narrative of the tattooed image becomes a conduit for reimagining. It is in loving someone or something that we come to fully understand that existence is relative to a moment. When one is no longer thought of, remembered, or acknowledged, they truly cease to be. Without that tether to the living world, the past falls into obscurity. Gibson has suggested that there is a human inclination to shy away from looking at the dead (pp. 88 90), that we avoid them in order to distance ourselves from having to confront emotions that are tied to feelings of loss and grief. The tattoo and the taxidermy mount do not allow for such avoidance. They are an adornment to our lives, a dead thing which lives alongside or within the living world. The tattoo is an ever-present part of the body. The taxidermy mount has the capacity to outlive us. Unlike either of these examples, the digital world will last forever. Here the animal lives in perpetuity and its online followers can continue to interact with its digital legacy posthumously. How they will choose to conduct this relationship is an area in which studies continue to develop. In the consideration of the taxidermy form or the tattooed animal, it is easy to assume that we know something of the animal mind. However, it is more accurate to say that humans never really look at animals, instead we see them as we choose to see them (Baker, 2011, p. 20). When we consider the increasing popularity of animals online and their use as avatars by their human owners, there is a troubling and unavoidable truth to this statement. As we move toward a

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time when social interactions are more frequently experienced in the online world, the narrative relationships we build with pets becomes more troubling. Although this is a field of future study which remains very much in its infancy, what I have also highlighted here is the significant need to pursue research into the continued anthropomorphizing of animals in the digital space. One of the most troubling aspects of this practice is the increasing frequency with which humans are using the animal image to hide behind. Relationship building which takes place between animals in the online setting is ultimately fraudulent. As these animals age and die, how they live posthumously will provide further insight in how we employ animals in our relationship with death and our interactions with each other. The death of a companion animal is an extinction of sorts. Breeds go on, genes can be replicated from frozen sperm, other animals can be adopted anew, and perhaps one day, pet cloning will be a normal part of the pet keeping experience, but the essence of the animal, that which made it loved by its human caregiver, is gone. It is my hope that future explorations of human and animal relationships will focus more directly on how animals are mourned and memorialized by their owners and the role of this enduring narrative of love in the human experience. How the loss of our animals influences our own human attitudes toward death, dying, and ideas about reunion remains an avenue in which far more scholarship must be carried out. This book represents a stepping stone within that process.

Image 35. Sleeping Child and Collie-mix Dog

Source: Shutterstock.

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INDEX Advertising, 20 21 Agency, 109 Age of the skin, 42 43 Aitchison, Hannah, 60 61 America. See United States Animal(s) fancy, 27 flesh, mounting, 115 118 grief dialogues, 122 125 persona, 21 22, 171 172 portraits, 156 158 preservation, 8 9, 12 13 rights, 100 servitude, 19 20 as social media influencers, 167 170 as status symbol, 22 23 themed condolence cards, 75 76 totems, 45 47 as utility item, 8 9, 22 23

See also individual entries Animal and Human Studies (HAS), 7 8, 30 31, 62 63, 183 Animal Death, 7 8 Animals online, 163 167 animals, as social media influencers, 167 170 narrative creation, 170 174 interaction, 174 176 Elwood, 176 181 aftermath, 182 Anonymity, 102 103 Anthropocentrism, 100 102 Anthropomorphic traits, 5 6 Anthropomorphism, 99 106, 145 146, 156 157 Antibacterial creams, 43 Antiquity, 40 42 Arsenic soap, 90 91 Art gallery exhibition, 111 Artistry, complementary forms of, 118 121

201

202

Australia anthropomorphism in, 102 103 sympathy cards, 75 76 tattooing in, 50 51, 61 62 taxidermy in, 91, 105 106 Bad Ink, 60 Benching, 165 166 Benjamin, Walter, 3 4, 186 187 Best Ink, 60 61 Body adornment, 40 42 Body modifications, 27 28, 32 See also Tattooing Body paint, adornment of skin with, 4 Bondi Ink, 58 59 Bracelets, 80 81 Breathless Zoo: Taxidermy and the Cultures of Longing, The, 7 8 Breeding, 27 28, 29, 32 interbreeding, 28 over-breeding, 29, 30 31 Brooches, 82 Cabinets of Curiosity, 6 7, 125 126 Campbell, Joseph, 3 4 Captain Cook, 40 42, 47 48 Catbeans, 96 Cemeteries, 70 71, 73 75

Index

Childhood, 24 25, 70 71, 98 Cohabitation, 19 20, 25 26, 32 33 Commemoration, 70 72, 76 77, 112 113, 139 140 Companion animals, 5 7, 10, 12 15, 21 23, 26 27, 32, 34 36, 67 71, 73 78, 84 85, 88 90, 95, 98 99, 103, 106 107, 109 110, 120, 122, 139 140, 144 145, 148, 152 153, 158 159, 160 161, 163 166, 174, 175 176, 178, 189 Companionship, 19 20, 32 33, 68 69, 165, 185 Considering Animals, 105 106 Consumerism, 29 30 Crap taxidermy, 89 90, 103 104 Cremation, 70 72 Criminality, 10 Daisy Pushers Mobile Pet Cremations and Aftercare, 71 72 Death, 3 4, 6 10, 12 14, 61 62, 68 70 culture, 8 9

Index

jewelry, 77, 95 96 memento, 77 78 rituals, 4 5, 87 88, 89 90 Death and Burial of Cock Robin, The, 99 100 Death Café, 88 Decomposition, 97 Digital communication, 163 165 Discomfort, 75 77, 109 emotional, 125 Displaying Death and Animating Life: Human-Animal Relations in Art, Science, and Everyday Life, 7 8 Domestic animals, 19 20, 22 23, 24 25, 26 27, 29 30, 34, 35 36 Domestication, 25 26 Dominance, 112 113 Doug the Pug, 170 171 Dying, 13 14 Ears, preservation of, 8 9 eBay, 77 78 Elwood, 176 181 Embalming, 98 Emotional attachment, 68 69 Emotional discomfort, 125 Emotional fortitude, 49 Emotional weakness, 76 77

203

Endearment, 24 25 Equality, 6 Etsy, 77 78, 82 Facebook, image sharing in, 163 165 Face tattoo, 47 48 Fascination, 4 6, 9 10, 12 13, 16 Favoritism, 24 25 Female faces on animal bodies, use of, 46 47 Feminist perspectives of tattooing, 53 57 Field Museum, Chicago, 114 Fijian Islands, 49 First tattoo renaissance, 47 53 Floating Lockets, 79 Flower garlands, 98 99 Flush: A Biography, 56 Forbes, animal image in, 168 Freeze dry taxidermy, 116 Freud, Sigmund, 3 4 Fur, 6, 20 21, 35, 44 45, 69 70, 77 79, 84 85, 94 95, 97, 157 158 Generation Y (Gen-Y), 32 34, 165 166 Generation Z (Gen-Z), 33 34 Genetic modification, 28 Ghosting, 165 166 Grave symbolism, 52

204

Grief/grieving, 3 5, 8 9, 11 14, 16, 35 36, 47, 52 55, 69 71, 73 77, 89 90, 96 98, 103, 122 123, 125, 139 140, 153 155, 163 166, 175 176 in social media sharing sites, 140 142, 157 158 Grumpy Cat, 167, 170 171 Hartford Cemetery, 70 71 Hashtags, tattoo, 141 146, 148 149, 157 Haunting, 187 188 Headstone imagery, 52 Hell on Wheels, 55 56 Hilton, Paris, 30 31 House Keeper Manuals, 90 91 Houtkamp, Angelique, 46 47 Humans and Animals, 7 8 Hybridization, 91 Identification purposes, tattooing for, 52 Identity creation, 3 4 Individuality, 72 Infatuation, 4 5 Inferiority, 76 77 Infinity symbol, 149 Ink Master, 59 61 Insect infestation, 97, 116

Index

Instagram, 166 167, 168 169 grief in, 139 141, 143, 158 image sharing, 163 165 influencers, 169 modes of communication, 172 173 narrative creation, 173 174 tattoo designs, 147 148, 149 tattoo hashtags, 142 143, 144 145 Interaction, 174 176 Interbreeding, 28 Interpersonal relationships, 53 55, 73 75, 165 Intonation, 6 Japanese tattooing, 49 50 JiffPom, 168, 170 171 Jung, Carl, 3 4 Kane, Lauren, 97, 98 Kittens’ Wedding, The, 99 100 L.A. Ink, 58 59, 60 61 Letters to my Dog, 175 176 London Ink, 58 59 Loss of tone and diction, 33 34 Love, 3 4, 6 7, 19 20, 21 23, 185, 186 Loving partnership, 6

Index

Maori tribes, New Zealand, 47 49 Marbury, Robert, 103 Massacre, Megan, 58 59 Memorialization, 10, 11, 12 13, 39, 47, 53 55, 58 59, 61 62, 67, 95, 98 99, 103, 186 187 bracelets, 80 81 brooches, 82 necklaces, 78 80 stuffed toys, 82 84 Memorial narrative, 5 6 Memorial tattoos, 139 140, 185 data collection for, 142 145 designs, 145 152 grief and social media sharing sites, 140 142 recurrent themes, 146 results, 152 160 See also Tattooing Miami Ink, 58 59 Micro Polynesia, 49 Millennials, 165 Moko. See Face tattoo Mourning, 3 5, 7 8, 9 10, 12 14, 47, 53 55, 67 81, 82 85, 87 89, 97 98, 106 107, 186 187 jewelry, 12 13 rituals, 39, 67 68, 89 90

205

Mourning Animals: Rituals and Practices of Mourning, 7 8 Nala the Cat, 171 172, 173 Narrative creation, 170 174 Natural decomposition, 116 Necklaces, 78 80 New Zealand anthropomorphism in, 102 103 taxidermy in, 91, 105 106 Non-utilitarian perspective, 163 165 Nunez, Chris, 58 59 O2 “Be more Dog” campaign, 20 21 Oatman, Olive, 55 56 Orbiting, 165 166 Organized crime, tattooing and, 49 50 Over-breeding, 29, 30 31 Owner animal relationship, 94 Ownership, 109, 165 narratives of, 111 115 Oxygen Network, 60 61 Pageantry, 87 88 Paleolithic era, 39 40

206

Parsons, Mavis Marie, 73 Partial preservation techniques, 94 95 Patterson, John Henry, 113 114 Paw(s) preservation of, 8 9, 95 96 prints, 147 148, 153 155 Paw-paw ointments, 43 Percy the Persian, 171 172 Personality, 21 22, 97 98, 152 traits, 25 26, 186 Personhood, 110 111 Personification, 22, 47 Pet-centered products, 29 30 Pet interment, 12 13 Pet keeping era, 19 23, 24 36 Pet mourning jewelry, 77 78 Pet-spam, 176 177 Photographing dead animals, 98 99 Physical endurance, 49 Pinterest grief in, 140 141 tattoo designs, 147 148, 149 tattoo hashtags, 142 144 Portrait styles, of memorial tattoos, 150 152

Index

Potter, Walter, 5 6, 99 100, 185 Precious Creatures, 96 97, 120 Preservation, 87 91, 94 95, 97 98, 102 103, 112 113 partial, 94 95 of the ear, 95 of the paws, 8 9, 95 96 skin, 116 117 Rainbow Bridge, 148 149, 155 156 Reality television, tattooing in, 58 63 Reddit, 167 168 Repurposed taxidermy, 105 106 Rogue Taxidermy movement, 103 Romantic relationships, 165 166 Ruckus, Rob, 60 Russia, tattooing in, 50 Samoan Islands, 49 Scarification, 39 40 Second tattoo renaissance, 53 57 Sentimentality, 73 75 Skin, 3 4, 6 7, 8 9, 16, 35 36, 105, 109, 111, 114, 115 116, 163 165, 185 adornment of, with body paint, 4 age of, 42 43

Index

contact, 4 5 human versus animal, 110 111 memorial tattoos, 139 161 modification, 39 40, 58, 61 62 See also Tattooing preservation, 89 90, 116 117 sagging, 42 43 stretched, 42 43 tattooing. See Tattooing Social deviance, tattooing for, 52 Social identity, 87 88 Social media influencers, animals as, 167 170 Social media sharing sites grief in, 140 142, 157 158 memorial tattoos, 141 146, 148 149, 157 Spears, Britney, 30 32 Speculative Taxidermy, 125 126 Sterilization, 28 Stigma, 47 53, 73 75, 87 88 Storyteller, The, 186 187 Stuffed toys, 82 84 Stupid Spoiled Whore Video Playset, 31 Sympathy cards, 75 76 Tahitian Islands, 40 42 Tattoo artists, 44

207

consulting animal grief dialogues with, 122 125 Tattooing, 5 6, 7 8, 9 10, 11 14, 16, 35 36, 39 57, 58 64, 67 68, 118 121, 126 127, 186 188 first renaissance and stigma, 47 53 memorial tattoos, 139 161, 185 preservation, 9 10 process, 42 45 age of the skin, 42 43 design, 44 45, 145 152 exposure to elements, 43 placement, 43 44 tattoo artists, 44 reality television, 58 63 second renaissance and feminist perspectives, 53 57 totemism, 45 47 See also Skin Tattoo Nightmares, 59 60 Tattoo Project, 10 Tattoo Project, The, 53 55, 143 Taxidermy, 5 10, 12 13, 16, 67 68, 82 85, 87 91, 94 107, 109 111, 112 113, 114, 115, 139 140, 153 155, 186 187, 188 189

Index

208

animal flesh, mounting, 115 118 anthropomorphism, 99 106 artistry, complementary forms of, 118 121 crap, 89 90, 103 104 freeze dry, 116 new directions in, 97 99 repurposed, 105 106 Taxidermy Art, 103 Totem animals, 11 12 Totemism, 45 47 Touch, 5 6, 163 165 Trauma of military service, tattooing and, 52 53 Tsavo Lions, 113 115 Union of forms, 109 111 animal flesh, mounting, 115 118 animal grief dialogues, 122 125 artistry, complementary forms of, 118 121 ownership, narratives of, 111 115 United Kingdom animal social media, 168 169

anthropomorphism in, 102 103 tattooing in, 50 51 taxidermy in, 92 93 Verbal communication, 34 Vermin, Dirk, 60 Victorian Era, 5 6, 8 9, 11, 12 13, 24 27, 40 42, 56, 62 63, 77 78, 79, 82 84, 87 88, 95 96, 98 100 Voice, 6 Voluntariness, 6 von D, Kat, 58 59 Waffles the Cat, 171 173 White Coffee, 173 Why Look at Animals?, 67 68 Woolfe, Virginia, 56 Wording, in memorial tattoos, 149 150 Wunderkammer, 6 7, 125 126 Yappy Hour, 29 30 YouTube, 167 168

Treated Animal Skeleton

Source: Lauren Kane. Note: Assembled bones of a small dog.

209