Skeletal trauma analysis : case studies in context 9781118384190, 1118384199, 9781118384206, 1118384202

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Skeletal trauma analysis

Skeletal trauma analysis Case studies in context EDITED BY

Nicholas V. Passalacqua Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory, Joint Base Pearl Harbor – Hickam, HI, USA

Christopher W. Rainwater New York City Office of Chief Medical Examiner and New York University, New York, NY, USA

This edition first published 2015 © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for ISBN: 9781118384220

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Cover image: Image courtesy of Elaine Rainwater. Typeset in 10.5/14pt MeridienLTStd by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India Disclaimer: Any view or opinions in this volume are those of the respective contributors and do not necessarily represent the views and opinions of the United States Department of Defense or the City of New York. 1

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Contents

List of contributors, vii 1 Introduction, 1

Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater 2 Atypical gunshot and blunt force injuries: wounds along the

biomechanical continuum, 7 Brian F. Spatola 3 Over-interpretation of bone injuries and implications for cause

and manner of death, 27 João Pinheiro, Eugénia Cunha, and Steven Symes 4 Skeletal injuries in cases of child abuse: two case studies from

the Harris County Institute of Forensic Sciences, 42 Jason M. Wiersema and Jennifer C. Love 5 Blunt force trauma patterns in the human skull and thorax:

a case study from northern California, 56 Eric J. Bartelink 6 Patterns of skeletal trauma inflicted during the Spanish Civil War, 74

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, Ciarán Brewster, Marina Martínez de Pinillos González, and José Miguel Carretero Díaz 7 Shot and beaten to death? Suspected projectile and blunt force

trauma in a case involving an extended period of postmortem water immersion, 90 Hugo F.V. Cardoso, Katerina S. Puentes, and Luís F.N. Coelho 8 Man’s best friend: a case study of ballistics trauma and animal

scavenging, 108 Gina Hart

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9 Skeletal evidence of violent sexual assault in remains with

excessive evidence of scavenging, 118 Hugh E. Berryman and Tiffany B. Saul 10 Neurocranial fractures, 130

Jennifer C. Love 11 Blunt force trauma associated with a fall from heights, 147

MariaTeresa A. Tersigni-Tarrant 12 Low-velocity impact trauma: an illustrative selection of cases

from the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory, 156 Paul Emanovsky 13 Blast trauma, 167

Angi M. Christensen and Victoria A. Smith 14 Case studies in skeletal blast trauma, 177

Nikki A. Willits, Joseph T. Hefner, and MariaTeresa A. Tersigni-Tarrant 15 Burned human remains in a double homicide: a forensic case

in Cyprus, 189 Popi Th. Chrysostomou 16 The utility of spatial analysis in the recognition of normal and

abnormal patterns in burned human remains, 204 Christina L. Fojas, Luis L. Cabo, Nicholas V. Passalacqua, Christopher W. Rainwater, Katerina S. Puentes, and Steven A. Symes 17 Three modes of dismemberment: disarticulation around the

joints, transection of bone via chopping, and transection of bone via sawing, 222 Christopher W. Rainwater 18 Kreischer Mansion homicide, 246

Lauren Regucci and Bradley Adams 19 Postmortem trauma and the “CSI Effect:” is television making

smarter criminals?, 266 Elizabeth A. Murray and Anthony E. Dwyer Index, 289

List of contributors

Bradley Adams New York City Office of Chief Medical Examiner, New York, NY 10016, USA Eric J. Bartelink Department of Anthropology, California State University – Chico, Chico, CA 95929-0400, USA Hugh E. Berryman Forensic Institute for Research and Education, MTSU, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA Ciarán Brewster Department of Archaeology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Luis L. Cabo Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst, Erie, PA 16546, USA Hugo F.V. Cardoso Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada Angi M. Christensen Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, Quantico, VA 22135, USA Popi Th. Chrysostomou Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory, CONUS Annex, 106 Peacekeeper Drive, Suite 2N3, Building 301, Offutt AFB, NE 68113 and School of Science & Engineering, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, Tees Valley, TS1 3BA, UK Luís F.N. Coelho National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences – North Branch, 4050-167 Porto, Portugal

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Eugénia Cunha Department of Life Sciences/Forensic Sciences Centre, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal José Miguel Carretero Díaz Laboratorio de Evolución Humana, Burgos, Spain Anthony E. Dwyer Butler County Sheriff’s Office, Hamilton, OH 45011, USA Paul Emanovsky Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory, Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, HI 96853-5530, USA Christina L. Fojas Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA Marina Martínez de Pinillos González National Research Centre on Human Evolution, 09002 Burgos, Spain Gina Hart New York City Office of Chief Medical Examiner, New York, NY 10016, USA Joseph T. Hefner Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823 Jennifer C. Love Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, Washington, DC 20024, USA Elizabeth A. Murray Mount St. Joseph University, Cincinnati, OH 45233, USA Nicholas V. Passalacqua Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory, Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, HI 96853-5530, USA João Pinheiro National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Coimbra, Portugal Katerina S. Puentes National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences – North Branch, 4050-167 Porto, Portugal

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Christopher W. Rainwater New York City Office of Chief Medical Examiner and New York University, New York, NY 10016, USA and Department of Anthropology, Center for the Study of Human Origins, New York University, New York, NY, 10003 Lauren Regucci Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, Quantico, VA 22135, USA Tiffany B. Saul Forensic Institute for Research and Education, MTSU, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA Victoria A. Smith Oak Ridge Associated Universities Brian F. Spatola Anatomical Division, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA Steven A. Symes Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst, Erie, PA 16546, USA MariaTeresa A. Tersigni-Tarrant Center for Anatomical Science and Education, Department of Surgery, Department of Pathology, St. Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA Jason M. Wiersema Harris County Institute of Forensic Sciences Houston, TX 77054, USA Nikki A. Willits Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory, Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, HI 96853-5530, USA

CHAPTER 1

Introduction Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater

The focus of this volume is human skeletal trauma in a forensic context, specifically for the forensic anthropologist or forensic pathologist. Forensically, skeletal trauma is extremely important as it may be the only direct evidence of violence indicating the decedent’s cause of death after the decomposition of soft tissues. Therefore, an accurate understanding and interpretation of skeletal trauma is key to forensic investigations. Forensic anthropologists are increasingly being asked to consult on skeletal trauma cases and the majority of courtroom testimonies provided by forensic anthropologists concern interpretations of skeletal trauma (Murray and Anderson, 2007). The scope and necessity of forensic anthropology has evolved beyond developing a biological profile in order to determine the identity of the unknown remains (Dirkmaat and Cabo, 2012). Forensic anthropologists now routinely reconstruct the death event through detailed skeletal trauma analysis, archaeological recovery, and taphonomic analyses – none of which were envisioned in a routine forensic anthropology consultation in the 1970s (Stewart, 1979). A better understanding of skeletal trauma has developed over the last few decades through a number of different research avenues; however, the root of modern skeletal trauma interpretation goes back to forensic anthropologists working alongside forensic pathologists at the Medical Examiner’s Office in Memphis, Tennessee (Passalacqua and Fenton, 2013). These original case study interpretations of known incidents set the precedent for how bones break and how to interpret skeletal trauma. More recently, forensic science and peer-reviewed research has begun to trend toward experimental research with a strong statistical basis and large sample sizes. While this approach to skeletal trauma research informs the field (e.g., Baumer et al., 2010), it is often first-hand experience that is most instructive, as well as the basis for subsequent

Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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large-scale skeletal trauma research projects. As peer-reviewed journals are no longer the best outlets for these types of publications, we felt an edited volume would be a worthy addition to the investigation of skeletal trauma analysis in the field of forensic anthropology. Additionally, many forensic anthropology programs do not receive enough case work to sufficiently train students in skeletal trauma interpretation and it is our hope that is volume will help in developing trauma analysis skills beyond an introductory level. Skeletal trauma can be considered as any in vivo damage that affects bone or hard tissues (e.g., cartilage, dentition) and the importance of skeletal trauma analysis is the fact that these hard tissues offer a permanent record of a traumatic event regardless of the mechanism, and thus skeletal trauma can be broken down into several categories. Antemortem trauma deals with any skeletal injury that occurred prior to death and exhibits some evidence of healing or callus formation. While the proper interpretation of antemortem trauma is paramount for documenting a history of repeated injuries that may be seen in child or elder abuse cases, antemortem trauma can also be particularly useful in identification efforts. Blunt force trauma occurs when a bone fails (fractures) following an inability to resist extrinsic force. Perimortem blunt force trauma interpretation can reveal the direction of force as well as a minimum number, and possibly sequence, of injures. Sharp force trauma involves an impact with an object with a cutting surface where the bone is incised. This involves knife cut wounds, hacking or chopping events, and dismemberment with both knives and saws. High-speed projectile or ballistic trauma results from a fast-moving object where anisotropic bone will respond as a brittle material. Like blunt force trauma, the direction of force and number or sequence of impacts may be interpreted. Thermal alterations or burned bone relate to a rapid dehydration of bone as the heat from the fire destroys the organic material of the bone. As a general postmortem process, it is important to distinguish thermal damage from perimortem trauma. As soft tissue is rapidly degraded, the forensic anthropologist is often consulted on these types of cases. These categories of trauma are not discrete and often operate on a continuum which may result in multiple forms of trauma being present simultaneously.

Skeletal trauma analysis: case studies in context The goal of this volume is to present a number of real forensic anthropology case studies by practicing forensic anthropologists. The chapters

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that follow deal with a number of issues ranging from how forensic anthropologists approach trauma analysis, to how perpetrators perceive forensic science and attempt to alter the evidence based on their perceptions. Forensic anthropology is a perpetually developing field whose existence within a medicolegal context requires constant re-evaluation of methods. Spatola opens this volume in Chapter 2 with a challenge to move away from typological approaches of trauma-type classification, and towards the use of descriptive anatomical language and a more focused look at the wound production’s biomechanical continuum. He successfully illustrates how weapon-centric classification can bias or result in over-reaching interpretations of the cause of death. This is especially noticeable in ambiguous cases and can lead to problematic outcomes. His chapter is complimented by that of Pinheiro and colleagues (Chapter 3) who note that the entire process from death to discovery must be known in order to achieve accurate trauma interpretations. They emphasize two types of case knowledge: that contextual details specific to the case must be known, and that the analysts must have an understanding of biological and taphonomic processes. The authors show that a lack of knowledge in either of these areas can have a profound effect on the final case interpretation. Importantly, they demonstrate that the fullest and most accurate understanding of the cause of death is best achieved through a medicolegal death investigation that incorporates multidisciplinary discourse between forensic pathologists, forensic anthropologists, and law enforcement. Collaboration and a thorough knowledge of biomechanical processes is also discussed in Chapter 4 by Wiersema and Love, who demonstrate that forensic anthropologists play a key role in the interpretation of repetition and the sequence of skeletal injuries – trauma that is not often apparent with only a soft tissue examination. They highlight the importance of this refined skillset to the investigation of child abuse. The sequence of skeletal injuries is also emphasized by Bartelink’s case study in Chapter 5 involving the documentation of blunt force trauma to the skull and antemortem injuries to the knee. Anthropological findings regarding the antemortem injuries allowed investigators to make progress towards establishing the identification of the decedent. In this case, perimortem trauma analysis was useful as it contradicted the statements made by the suspects and played an important role in developing a plea-bargain for the accused. Passalacqua and colleagues (Chapter 6) contribute an example focusing on the importance of patterns of trauma on individuals recovered

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from a Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) mass grave. They provide a unique perspective of what repetitive, state-sanctioned institutionalized violence looks like and how alternative interpretations are worth investigating for individuals whose trauma pattern deviates from the norm. Cardoso and colleagues (Chapter 7) demonstrate that the physical environment in which the remains are deposited can have significant impacts on the duration of the perimortem interval of bone. Their case study demonstrates that human remains submerged in water allowed the bone to remain in a plastic state and thereby complicated an interpretation of peri- and postmortem lesions. Cardoso and colleagues show that contextual information is key to understanding trauma related to the death event versus damage that occurred postmortem. Context of the deceased is important in the case study provided by Hart in Chapter 8, who demonstrates the utility of forensic anthropology in distinguishing between ballistic and carnivore trauma by reconstructing skull fragments resulting from a gunshot wound. This analysis contributed to the ruling on manner of death and emphasizes the importance of having anthropologists on staff in the medical examiner’s office. Berryman and Saul (Chapter 9) present a known case with skeletal evidence of sexual abuse. Through close examination of scavenged remains, they found details useful for the identification of the deceased, the cause of death, and evidence of severe traumatic sexual assault via osseous trauma. Several chapters in this volume examine blunt force trauma interpretation. Love (Chapter 10) emphasizes the importance of understanding forces associated with skull fracture patterns. She presents two cases of blunt force trauma in adult crania, and discusses adult cranial fracture pattern interpretation in terms of impact surface, impact energy, typical location of fracture initiation, and amount of fracture propagation. Blunt force perimortem trauma discussed by Tersigni-Tarrant (Chapter 11) focuses on the axial skeleton as a result of a fall from a height. It also presents a discussion of ante-, peri-, and postmortem modification to the skeleton, all of which were important for the identification of the individual and interpretation of the death event and subsequent taphonomic processes. Emanovsky (Chapter 12) presents another interesting look at blunt force trauma though his examples of deceleration trauma from low-velocity airplane crashes. The goal of his chapter is to provide

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terminology for discussing and reporting on perimortem trauma characteristics using examples from historic aircraft crashes with long postmortem intervals and numerous taphonomic modifications. The next few chapters are contributed by professionals who have had experience working with specific instances of unique, or destructive forms of trauma. As noted by Christensen and Smith in Chapter 13, blast trauma is a non-typical type of trauma observed in traditional laboratories; however, increasing involvement of forensic anthropologists in areas of conflict requires a deeper understanding of this type of trauma. Christensen and Smith’s chapter provides a useful discussion of the literature, the processes behind the creation of blast trauma, and distinguishing characteristics of blast trauma compared with other trauma. They illustrate their discussion with non-human exemplars, demonstrating the nature of blast injuries in a forensic setting with a focus on blast-related rib fractures. Another discussion of blast trauma is provided by Willits and colleagues in Chapter 14. Their analysis of two individuals killed during the Korean War shows evidence of blast trauma via skeletal trauma patterns and the presence of embedded shrapnel. Furthermore, the authors argue that based on the skeletal evidence, each of the individuals was subject to multiple blast events and each were at different distances from the blast epicenter. Thermal modification to the body is discussed by Chrysostomou (Chapter 15), who presents a case dealing with the reconstruction of highly fragmented, thermally altered remains in order to establish identity, and examine patterns of burning and thermally induced fractures. Importantly, this was the first case in the Republic of Cyprus’ legal system where an anthropologist testified in court leading to a successful conviction. This has led to growing acknowledgement of the importance of forensic anthropological methods in analysis and the use of forensic anthropologists in cases involving skeletal material. The importance of forensic anthropology in medicolegal investigations requires continued testing and development of methods for the analysis of human remains. Fojas and colleagues (Chapter 16) have contributed a newly developed, systematic approach using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in the interpretation of burn patterns to bodies. Their approach provides a quantitative classification system to the overall burn pattern of bodies. Rainwater (Chapter 17) proposes three typological methods of dismemberment using both weapon type and dismemberment pattern,

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which allows for a more in-depth discussion and presentation of modes of dismemberment. He presents unique exemplars for each dismemberment mode. The case presented by Regucci and Adams in Chapter 18 shows that even when the perpetrator goes to extreme measures to get rid of a body, forensic anthropological knowledge can still find significant evidence relating to the death event and identity of the individual. The skeletal remains of the victim in this case were reduced to a highly fragmentary and burnt state. Forensic anthropological understanding of the processes and results of cremation and fragmentation encouraged multiple scene recoveries, resulting in the successful recovery of large amounts of cremated skeletal remains. Finally, Murray and Dwyer (Chapter 19) close the volume with an interesting look at the future criminal and how the popularization of “forensics” in pop culture has created the “CSI Effect.” They present a case with multiple forms of trauma resulting from perpetrators’ (mis)understanding of forensic science, and their attempts to alter evidence and destroy remains in order to prevent being caught. The combination of case studies included within this volume attempts to present a variety of approaches to the analysis of skeletal trauma. The authors and contributors hope that the perspective gained from these chapters and the new directions of methodological approaches will provide professionals with an increased understanding and ability to interpret damage to the skeleton no matter what the origin. Only through increased exposure to skeletal trauma can analysts gain the experience required to properly interpret trauma to the skeleton.

References Baumer, T.G., Passalacqua, N.V., Powell, B.J., Newberry, W.N., Fenton, T.W., and Haut, R.C. (2010) Age-dependent fracture characteristics of rigid and compliant surface impacts on the infant skull – a porcine model. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 55 (4), 993–997. Dirkmaat, D.C. and Cabo, L.L. (2012) Forensic anthropology: embracing the new paradigm, in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.C. Dirkmaat), Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 3–40. Murray, E.A. and Anderson, B.E. (2007) Forensic anthropology in the courtroom: trends in testimony. Presented at the 59th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, San Antonio, TX. Stewart, T.D. (1979) Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.

CHAPTER 2

Atypical gunshot and blunt force injuries: wounds along the biomechanical continuum Brian F. Spatola

Introduction The purpose of trauma analysis in forensic anthropology is to determine the mechanism and timing of bone trauma and to address other related medicolegal problems (Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology, 2011). By applying principles of biomechanics bone trauma can often be classified as arising from sharp force, blunt force, or gunshot trauma and in so doing serve an important role in guiding medicolegal death investigations (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Smith et al., 2003; Symes et al., 2012). However, over-reliance on weapon-centric classification, with its occasional misclassification or over-reaching interpretation, can introduce legal concerns affecting the pathologist’s ruling of cause and manner of death. Physical and contextual evidence of trauma is therefore examined judiciously before an opinion is rendered. Some injuries may not be easily classified due to the involvement of novel mechanisms of force. Additionally, deviation in magnitude and scale of extrinsic factors typically associated with a particular mechanism can lead to misclassification. Such cases may be better approached by emphasizing the continuous nature of biomechanical factors that influence wound production (Kroman, 2007, 2010). The use of descriptive anatomical and biomechanical terminology is often more useful for conveying the appearance, location, and characteristics of confounding or equivocal injuries. Atypical wounds such as these attest to the problematic nature of weapon centric classification. Cranial vault injuries hold a particular interest in the forensic sciences due to their frequent role in unexplained death (Moritz, 1954; Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Spitz, 1993; DiMaio and DiMaio, 2001; Saukko and Knight, 2004). Anthropologists have given considerable attention to cranial trauma (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Galloway, 1999; Fenton et al., 2003; Smith et al., 2003; Hart, 2005). This chapter presents four documented medicolegal (n = 3) and historical (n = 1) cases of atypical cranial vault injuries from the collections of the National Museum of Health and Medicine (NMHM) that emphasize the importance of balancing the typological approach to trauma analysis required to support medicolegal investigation with the variation in wound production associated with a biomechanical continuum as described by Kroman (2007, 2010). Autopsy reports, police reports, and historic museum records were available for the cases presented. These cases illustrate potential issues that may arise from over-reliance on weapon-centric classification in skeletal trauma analysis.

Background The traditional categories of skeletal trauma used by anthropologists were first developed by forensic pathologists in order to classify wounds according to the common types of mechanical force that produce them (Courville, 1954; Spitz, 1993; DiMaio and DiMaio, 2001). Each of the three main classifications (sharp force, blunt force, and gunshot trauma) relate to classes of objects or weapons where each possess a limited range of physical and dynamic impact factors. Sharp and gunshot trauma each represent well-defined classes (sharpened beveled edges with low-velocity impact and relatively blunt projectiles with high-velocity impact, respectively), while blunt force involves a relatively broader class of objects (various shaped striking surfaces with low- to moderate-velocity impact) under a single classification, it lacks the specificity of the other two. In the absence of the signature characteristics of sharp and gunshot trauma, blunt injury characteristics can be conceived as the “default” mechanism. One example of the difficulty of using a typological system based on weapon-centric parameters is exemplified by arrow injuries. Arrows are ballistic objects with a variety of points ranging from sharpened blades to blunt rounded tips that can cause injuries with a combination of sharp and blunt trauma (Otis, 1870). Describing arrow injuries and other combinations of less common mechanism of force can lead to confusing terms such as sharp blunt force or blunt sharp force. In another example, blunt

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injuries from captive bolt guns used to stun livestock can produce circular punched-out lesions similar to gunshot wounds with internal beveling (Perdekamp et al., 2010). [Captive bolt guns involve retractable conical shaped 10–12 mm bolts with up to 45 m/s velocity (100 mph), roughly 1/6 that of the slowest handgun ammunition.] The limitations of traditional classification are clearly evident by these examples. Case studies exemplifying similar situations will be detailed below. The early use of the classification system (Gonzales, 1937) predated the bulk of the modern biomechanical research of the mid twentieth century that sought to explain the mechanical basis of fracture production and the tolerance of the human skull to impacts (Gurdjian et al.,1950a, b; Evans, 1957; for a summary of early and modern studies, see Yoganandan and Pintar, 2004). In time, anthropologists and pathologists increasingly recognized that biomechanical and engineering principles explained the signature characteristics of bone trauma across the three primary mechanisms commonly observed in forensic work (Moritz, 1954; Reilly and Burnstein, 1974; Dixon, 1982; Harkess et al., 1984; Smith et al., 1987; Spitz, 1993; Berryman and Symes, 1998; DiMaio and DiMaio, 2001; Saukko and Knight, 2004; Kimmerle and Baraybar, 2008; Symes et al., 2012). While a typological and weapon-centered approach to trauma analysis is often necessary to provide useful information to medicolegal authorities, descriptions of trauma are sufficient when a classification is not forthcoming (Berryman et al., 2013). However, knowledge of variation in wound patterns with regard to significant deviations of kinetic factors, such as velocity and surface area, from those that are typically encountered in a given classification should be understood. Forensic anthropology texts and articles on trauma analysis often include a requisite overview of bone biomechanics discussing the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, further accompanied by a presentation of typical characteristics common to each mechanism (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Galloway, 1999; Symes et al., 2012). However, introductory texts that emphasize the signature characteristics of each mechanism (Byers, 2002) greatly oversimplify trauma analysis. Additionally, many fracture characteristics are not unique to a single mechanism. Blunt fracture characteristics, for example, are a frequent finding in sharp trauma and in low-velocity gunshot exit wounds (Smith et al., 1993; Symes et al., 2012). Radiating and concentric fractures are found in both gunshot and blunt force injuries, and methods exist to differentiate between the two (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Hart, 2005). The discussion of differences of commonly occurring features within a

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classification has necessarily outweighed the discussions of similarities in order to further the goal of classification. This is the situation regarding characteristics of entrance or impact sites of injuries. Identification of impact sites is typically determined from the appearance of depressed fractures, their margins, and associated fracture patterns, or in some cases tool marks. Impact sites can be either penetrating or non-penetrating. Non-penetrating injuries typically take the form of depressed and linear fractures (Saukko and Knight, 2004). Penetrating injuries are those that cross both the skull and dura directly impacting the brain. Examples include sharp force injuries, gunshot injuries, and less frequently depressed fractures, particularly those involved in impalements or when blunt objects are delivered with a higher than usual amount of kinetic energy. The margin characteristics of the entrances of penetrating gunshot and sharp force injuries are specific and well-established (DiMaio, 1985; Symes et al., 2012), while those belonging to penetrating and depressed fractures from blunt injuries are more varied with characteristics that can overlap with the former. Typically, the margins of blunt impacts are created by circular or curvilinear fractures with inwardly depressed fragments circumscribing the site at various distances. Blunt objects that sufficiently lacerate the scalp may come into contact with bone and obliquely impact the margin of a depressed fracture leaving crushed or “terraced” fractures (Saukko and Knight, 2004). The margins may also be sharp (not crushed or depressed) with internal beveling of bone (Perdekamp et al., 2010). A review of gunshot and blunt force trauma will help inform the discussion on problematic aspects of impacts and penetrating wounds associated with the case studies that follow. The approach advocated here is that gunshot wounds can be conceived of as a subcategory of blunt force trauma with an emphasis on increased velocity and reduced surface area of impact.

Gunshot trauma Typical gunshot injuries are high-velocity penetrating or perforating wounds caused by projectiles. They are fast-loading injuries that typically produce a brittle fracture response with little to no deformation. The entrance wound is a depressed fracture (Gurdjian and Webster, 1958), although it is not often described as such. The typical entrance wound is a round-to-oval punched-out defect with sharp edges on the outer

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table and internal beveling (DiMaio, 1985). In some circumstances the entrance edges can also involve chipping, fracturing, and depressed margins to a substantially lesser degree than blunt force depending on several factors, including angle of impact and bone structure or shape. Bone beveling is characterized by the circumscribed radius of exposed diploe at the gunshot injury site visible only on the side opposite the direction of force and typically viewed on the internal cranium. Exits have similar characteristics as entrances, but with beveling of the outer table. Often the exit is a larger defect than the entrance, but this is not always the case. External beveling of entrances can be seen in tangential bullet strikes resulting in “keyhole” defects and more extensive “gutter” wounds. Some rare entrance wounds may show external beveling similar to exit wounds (Coe, 1982; Peterson, 1991). Radiating and concentric fractures are also common features of gunshot wounds. Projectiles from guns may produce temporary cavitation pressures inside the skull depending on bullet design and velocity (Ragsdale, 1984). These forces may cause concentric fractures around entrance and exit sites. Triangular or irregularly shaped pieces of bone, formed by concentric fractures surrounding impact sites subsequent to the formation of radiating linear fractures, can be lifted or “heaved” away from the skull by forces associated with cavity formation (Smith et al., 1987; Berryman and Symes, 1998). The gunshot wound is arguably a special category of localized blunt injury whereby projectiles with a small cross-sectional surface area impact at high velocity. Velocity is the lynchpin of gunshot injuries as it is the greater magnitude of velocity that makes an object with relatively little mass and surface area capable of severe wounds (Moritz, 1954; DiMaio, 1985). The surface area of the impacting projectile and resulting depressed fracture varies for reasons that include the caliber and shape of the projectile, the amount of projectile deformation on impact, angle of impact, and degree of bullet yawing. The velocity of projectiles and associated wound severity also varies with type of weapon and ammunition.

Blunt force trauma Blunt force trauma is the classification for injuries involving low-velocity mechanical forces from broad and blunt surfaces. Examples include, but are not limited, to punches, kicks, blows with objects, falls, transportation accidents, shrapnel, blast pressure waves, and crushing injuries. Blunt

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injuries are caused by objects with a wide variety of physical and dynamic characteristics, including fists, poles, steering wheels and concrete floors. These are slow-loading injuries that typically exhibit a ductile response in bone prior to fracturing, creating the irreversible deformation of bone material (plastic deformation). Blunt force fractures are classified as linear or depressed (Itabashi et al., 2007). Characteristic linear fractures can be single or multilinear and can be further described variously as radiating, curvilinear, and stellate. Depressed fractures may be further described as comminuted, mosaic (spider-web), pond, and/or terraced (Saukko and Knight, 2004). Features of many types and descriptions can often be present in the same injury. Fractures and fracture patterns are also influenced by surface area of the object. Broad impacts impart linear and comminuted fractures, while narrow impacts result in depressed and potentially penetrating fractures (Galloway, 1999). Blunt injuries are less likely to result in penetrating injuries than injury caused by stabbing or gunshot (Gonzales et al. 1954).

Biomechanical continuum As Kroman (2007, 2010) has pointed out, wound production occurs on a biomechanical continuum with regard to several factors including force, surface area, and acceleration/deceleration. (Deceleration in engineering is understood simply as negative acceleration.) Under the laws of physics, combinations of the primary intrinsic and extrinsic factors contribute variously to the three typological classifications of mechanical injury based primarily on weapon or object type, usual mode of delivery, and associated loading rate. For example, sharp force trauma typically involves the small surface areas of blades, saws, and similar weapons delivered at low velocity with slow rate of loading, and gunshots involve small cross-sectional surface area of high velocity, rapidly loaded projectiles from small arms. Blunt force is the most inclusive category as it involves broad, small, and angular surface areas of a variety of objects impacting within a range of low to moderate velocity. Classification, however, may be confounded when one or more factors are significantly different than expected under the usual scheme. For example, decelerated projectiles can cause shallow depressed and comminuted fractures (Otis, 1870). Blunt and dull-edged objects like gunshot injuries can also cause penetrating injuries with sharp uncrushed entrance margins and beveling, especially when they present

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with reduced cross-sectional surface area at increasing velocity (see Case 4 below). It is important to understand that the response of bone to force is influenced by continuous and typically undetermined variables, such as force and surface area. Classification, although often scientifically justifiable and useful, is still in many ways just a convenient typological method for communicating underlying observations of complicated biomechanical processes. Intrinsically, bone is a viscoelastic material. As a result, the magnitude and rate of loading of force make important contributions to the overall patterning of bone trauma. These factors determine how much and how rapidly stress (i.e., force per unit area) is applied to bone, and subsequently the rate at which it is fractured or deformed. Very-low-magnitude, slow-loading stress will not significantly deform bone beyond its ability to rebound without permanent damage. When the magnitude of stress exceeds the elastic limits, slow rates of loading to bone will elicit a permanent ductile failure response. Bullet impacts occur at very high rates of loading causing the cranium to rapidly fail with a brittle response and little to no deformation. These responses make up a critical component of the evidence used to classify fracture patterns (Berryman and Symes, 1998). In some circumstances, interpreting features of penetrating and depressed injuries of the cranium can be challenging due to the gradation of characteristics across classifications especially those found in the margins of entrances and impact sites in gunshot wounds and some blunt impacts. Internal and external marginal features, like beveling and sharp, non-crushed edges are often paired features in traumatized diploic bone. These features are seen in both textbook gunshot wounds and localized penetrating blunt impacts (i.e., impalement). Recognition of the graduating and “transitional” nature of these features with regard to velocity and surface area of impact can be critical to avoid misclassification and error in analysis. The biomechanical continuum perspective helps to deemphasize the need to determine the type of weapon involved in injury. The model is a theoretical reminder to anthropologists that classifications are convenient typologies applied to the spectrum of physical and dynamic factors affecting wound production. The continuum concept is useful for understanding the case studies provided as they represent the types of wounds that occur within hypothetical “transition zones” between typical classifications, such as that between blunt and gunshot injury, or even sharp and blunt injury.

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Case 1: depressed fracture of inner table from historic gunshot contusion Background A 20-year-old, male, Civil War soldier from the Company C, 35th Wisconsin was shot in Tupelo, Mississippi on 18 July 1864 by a musket ball. The projectile reportedly struck the skull obliquely, and inflicted a scalp wound between the sagittal suture and left parietal eminence. He died 10 days later. The following description is taken from the Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion (Otis, 1870). At the autopsy the pericranium was found to be contused and detached at the seat of injury; but no alteration was visible in the outer table of the skull. Directly beneath the scalp wound the inner table was fractured and depressed … the dura mater was wounded and there was a large abscess in the left cerebral hemisphere.

Description The specimen consists of an approximately 10 × 9 cm section of left parietal bone removed at autopsy (Figures 2.1 and 2.2). Thickness of the section ranges from 5 to 8 mm. The outer table of bone shows no visible

Figure 2.1 Case 1. Historic gunshot wound from an obliquely angled shot by a

musket ball. The outer table shows no signs of injury.

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Figure 2.2 Case 1. The inner table shows a depressed fracture.

signs of fracturing even when aided by stereomicroscopy. The inner table shows two parallel linear fractures that measure 3.5 and 1.5 cm in maximum length. The fractures are 2 cm apart with two secondary fractures between them contributing to three triangular comminuted fragments of depressed bone.

Case 2: depressed fracture from .32 caliber, short, Smith & Wesson projectile Background The deceased was a 37-year-old female (5 ft 3 in., 160 lb; 1.60 m, 72.6 kg) shot in a bedroom by her boyfriend. The autopsy revealed that the decedent suffered multiple gunshot wounds (n = 3) with injuries to the heart, chest, neck and head. The perpetrator used a Clerke 1st model five-shot revolver that fired .32 caliber, short, Smith & Wesson ammunition. The description of the wound from the autopsy report is: This was a bullet entrance wound situated in the right frontal region of the scalp just posterior to the hairline at a height of 5′ 2′′ above the right heel and at a distance of 1/2′′ from the midline in front. It was round and measured 3/16′′

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Figure 2.3 Case 2. Outer table of non-penetrating close-contact gunshot injury from

a .32 caliber projectile with a circular depressed fracture and a single radiating fracture. The projectile is said to have struck with the base first. in diameter and was surrounded by a zone of powder stippling and measuring about 1 1/2′′ in diameter. [Standard units of measurement are retained in quoted reports.] The bullet entered the body … in the right frontal region of the skull, striking the bone base first. After penetrating the skin the bullet flattened out against the skull resembling a daisy head. The bullet did not penetrate the skull, but instead caused a slightly depressed fracture of the outer and inner tables. A small subdural hemorrhage was present over the right cerebral hemisphere.

Description The specimen is a rectangular section of frontal bone taken at autopsy that measures approximately 6.5 × 6.0 cm in maximum dimensions with thickness varying from 6 to 9 mm (Figures 2.3 and 2.4). External injury is a slightly depressed, circular fracture 1.5 cm in diameter. The depression is more easily felt with a fingertip than can be appreciated visually. A single linear fracture extends from within the circular depressed fracture. The periosteum is intact on the majority of the ectocranial surface with the exception of the circular region of impact within the depressed fracture. Stereomicroscopic evaluation facilitates discrimination between the margins of torn periosteum and fractures. This is particularly important

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Figure 2.4 Case 2. Inner table with a depressed plate of bone with faint stellate

fractures and marginal buckling.

since the specimen has trapped dirt in the periosteum, which makes it easily mistaken as a fracture as they are nearly superimposed. On the inner table, a depressed and circumferentially comminuted and larger (4 × 3 cm) fracture is seen with a central plate of bone (2.5 × 2.5 cm) containing faint stellate fractures, corresponding with the impact site. Peripheral to the plateau, the series of comminuted fragments (3–10 mm) are buckled with respect to the central plate. A wide shearing fracture parallel to the endocranial surface can be seen in the cross-section. The production of faint stellate linear fractures from the center of the plate precedes the marginal fragmentation as indicated by the fracture sequence.

Case 3: penetrating depressed fracture from detached umbrella tip Background A 12-year-old child was struck in the head with an umbrella. The case file states that the end of the umbrella had become detached while it was being swung by another child.

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Description The specimen is a relatively thin (3–4 mm) section of diploic bone from the left anterior cranial vault measuring approximately 5.8 × 2.3 cm (Figures 2.5 and 2.6). Portions of the cross-section consist of a single table of cortical bone, such as that found in the antero-lateral vault. There is a circular penetrating injury 9 mm in diameter with sharp margins giving the appearance of a “textbook” gunshot wound. A 3 mm portion of the margin comprising approximately a quarter of the circumference of the defect is missing. Adjacent to this area are very small fragments of depressed bone. The inner table of the defect shows circumscribed beveling from 2 to 5 mm from the margin of the wound.

Figure 2.5 Case 3. Outer table with a 9-mm circular umbrella injury resembling a

gunshot wound. Surface abrasions are the result of aggressive cleaning on the part of technicians.

Figure 2.6 Case 3. Inner table with internal beveling.

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Case 4: depressed fracture from perforating blunt impact from edged metal foreign object Background A 35-year-old white male, construction worker was struck in the top of the head by a flat angular metal object (construction debris) falling from an unknown height during construction of a skyscraper. The decedent was not wearing a hardhat according to the file. The metal foreign body was 1.6 mm thick, 25.4 cm long and 5.7 cm wide with a 1.3 mm edge projecting at a right angle and an additional 0.25 mm angled lip making it shaped like a letter “J” in cross section. The object penetrated the left parietal region 4 cm posterior to the coronal suture impacting with the narrow 1.6 mm cross-section edge then entering the skull and stopping in the petrous region. The object perforated the skull in the left temporal region with a 6–7 cm portion projecting above the external auditory meatus. A piece of fabric, possibly from a hat, is trapped between the object and the skull along with strands of hair. Cause of death was listed as: 1.) fracture of skull, massive, left temperoparietal and base, due to falling metal foreign body and 2.) massive laceration of brain (transaction of left cerebral hemisphere) with impaction of foreign body in base of skull (destruction of left auditory apparatus).

Description The specimen is an autopsied skullcap with a metal foreign body in situ with associated embedded fabric and hair (Figures 2.7 and 2.8). The medial half of the entrance shows well-defined, sharp margins, corresponding to the cross-section characteristics of the metal object. The lateral half of the entrance is comminuted with a single radiating fracture. The inner table shows extensive internal beveling up to 1.5 cm from site of injury. A 1.6-mm contact-point abrasion, produced by the lateral edge of the object, is present on the inner table of the left temporal bone adjacent to the region of perforation.

Discussion The cases above illustrate uncommon fracture patterns. All injuries observed are types of depressed fractures with varied involvement of each of the three layers of diploic bone. Two primary observations are noteworthy. First, two uncharacteristic gunshot wounds showed

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Figure 2.7 Case 4. Endocranial view of penetrating injury by metal foreign object

showing internal beveling and plastic deformation of inner table fragments surrounding the defect.

blunt-force-type injuries and lack of penetration for reasons related to decreased kinetic energy transferred to the skull on impact. A historic case demonstrated fracturing solely of the inner table. A modern gunshot wound from a .32 caliber projectile displayed a shallow depressed fracture. Second, penetrating objects with velocity lower than that produced by firearms demonstrate sharp entrance margins and internal beveling – characteristics commonly associated with gunshot wounds. This was true for the umbrella tip with its circular shape and cross-sectional area approximating that of a typical bullet. An angular foreign body – with a predominantly flat and edged striking surface, with a relatively small surface area – demonstrated a defect with sharp, uncrushed margins and internal beveling leaving an impact signature that closely approximated the cross-section of the object. Case 1 demonstrates a historic gunshot wound with internal fracture only. Stereomicroscopy was unable to detect any indication of fracture on the outer table. The protective layer of elastic tissue provided by the scalp and deflection associated with the tangential trajectory of the projectile mitigated the force just enough to result in tensile failure of only the inner table. Historic context of the injury is important as Civil War projectiles were of larger caliber, unjacketed, and fired at much lower velocity than many modern arms. Gunshot wounds with blunt characteristics were not uncommon during the Civil War (Otis, 1870; LaGarde, 1916). Three

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Figure 2.8 Case 4. Ectocranial view of penetrating injury showing sharp uncrushed

margins from a patterned injury consistent with cross-sectional characteristics of the object.

comminuted inner table fragments are centrally depressed between two primary parallel linear fractures. Two of the fragments are only partially separated from the inner table and the other maintains its former relationship with the sagittal suture without displacement. Depressed fractures present in a variety of ways to local force depending on anatomical considerations related to the structure of diploic bone (Moritz, 1954). In non-penetrating fractures it is not unusual for only one table of bone to fracture. This occurs more frequently with the inner table (Spitz, 1993), primarily due to the concentration of tensile forces – to which bone is most susceptible to fracture – concentrating opposite the side of impact. The wound from the .32 caliber projectile in Case 2 failed to penetrate the skull leaving a well-circumscribed depressed fracture with a single radiating fracture externally and a significantly larger diameter depressed plate of bone circumscribed by comminuted bone internally. The .32 short Smith & Wesson projectile is an 85-grain, lead, unjacketed,

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round nose bullet with a muzzle velocity of around 680 ft/s (207 m/s) (DiMaio, 1985), sufficient to produce typical features of a gunshot wound, especially at close range as reported for this case. The Clerke 1st five-round revolver was an inexpensive nickel-plated handgun sold in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It is one of a variety of very cheaply made and unreliable handguns of poor construction from that era known as “Saturday Night Specials.” For unknown reasons, the bullet impacted the head base first and deformed without penetrating the skull. Possibly, the decelerating and unstable behavior of the projectile may have been related to the quality of the weapon. Radiographs of the specimen show densities associated with embedded lead from the projectile within the edges of torn pericranium surrounding the impact site. The contact wound in Case 2 displays typical plastic deformation of a blunt force injury and is inconsistent with the textbook description of a gunshot wound. Plastic deformation and blunt-force-type features may be associated with gunshot wounds; however, such characteristics are more commonly seen in exit wounds and incomplete exits when loss of velocity on impact is significant enough to decelerate the projectile within the skull (Smith et al., 1993). The transitional threshold from a plastic response to brittle one is not well understood, particularly in terms of velocity. Forensic scientists have yet to determine the threshold of velocity required to produce typical gunshot characteristics. However, 200 ft/s (70 m/s) has been reported as the minimum velocity to penetrate bone as determined from experiments conducted without skin (Beyer, 1962). [Beyer reports that an additional velocity of 125–170 ft/s (38.1–51.8 m/s) is required for a 150-grain projectile to penetrate skin.] In trauma analysis, the evidence of slow or fast loading often supports a classification that is consistent with observed fracture patterns. Such is not the case with the examples provided here. A thorough investigation of trauma will always include a radiological examination to avoid overlooking special circumstances such as these. When gunshot trauma is suspected in an “apparent” blunt trauma case the specimen can be further subjected to gunshot residue tests (Berryman et al., 2010; Taborelli et al., 2012). Case 3 involves an impact to a child’s skull from the tip of an umbrella that became detached while being swung by another child. The injury simulates a gunshot wound in that it is a 9-mm circular, punched-out, depressed fracture. Half of the margin circumference displays sharp edges and the other half of the defect is somewhat larger with very small fragments of depressed bone attached. Internal beveling is also observed. The fragments present at the extremities of the margin suggest the possibility

Atypical gunshot and blunt force injuries

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of a blunt force component to the injury, but overall the defect resembles a textbook gunshot wound. At autopsy the absence of a projectile within the skull supported the investigation report. If a similar wound was found in fragmented material, it could easily be mistaken for a gunshot wound. X-rays taken of the specimen do not show any radiodensities indicative of dense metal commonly associated with a bullet. The injury in Case 4, involving the penetrating metal foreign object, could not be confused with a gunshot wound. However, it demonstrates that characteristics typical of gunshot wounds, such as beveling and sharp entry margins, occur at lower velocities. Penetration experiments on crania by Evans (1973) using 0.5-in. (1.3 cm) flat and ring-shaped impactors consistently produced “cone shaped shearing of diploe,” which are often seen in blunt injuries with depressed plugs of bone such as in hammer blows or similar objects. In Case 4, shearing and penetration of the cranium from an impact with the thin edge of a high-velocity object also produced internal beveling and an impact signature consistent with the surface area of the object. The outer margins of the entrance are predominantly sharp (not depressed or crushed) and well delineated with some comminution and a radiating fracture. Velocity was sufficient to perforate the skull with total loss of velocity upon impact with the cranial base. The object impacted at a significantly lower velocity than a typical bullet but with a much greater mass of ∼0.25 kg or ∼0.55 lb, estimated by averaging the weight of several skullcaps and subtracting from the total weight of the specimen. The specimen is curated with the object, fabric and hair in situ. [The actual height from which the object fell is unknown; however, the total height of the building from which it fell is roughly 415 m. A range of theoretically velocities can be calculated for the falling object without factoring for air resistance. From 415 m, the maximum velocity is 90 m/s (296 ft/s) with an energy of 1017 J. From a height of 207 m, the velocity would be 64 m/s (207 ft/s) at 507 J and at 50 m velocity would be 31 m/s (102 ft/s) at 123 J.]. In addition to velocity, surface area also plays a considerable role in the production of a localized injury as the magnitude of stress increases as surface area decreases (Evans, 1973).

Conclusion Effects of “transitional” wound features in the form of overlapping characteristics may be observed when physical (i.e., size and shape) and dynamic (i.e., velocity) characteristics combine under rare or special circumstances. Blunt force injuries from gunshots involving decelerated

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or reduced velocity projectiles occur in rare cases and can present as a non-penetrating or shallow penetrating entrance wound. Blunt circular objects with reduced surface area may penetrate bone and simulate a gunshot wound. The cases presented highlight the problematic nature of applying rigid typology/classification in light of the biomechanical continuum underlying wound production. All cases with evidence that are equivocal with regard to classification or problems with interpretation need to be carefully described as such (Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology, 2011).

Acknowledgments Thanks to Hugh Berryman for helpful suggestions and also to Matthew Breitbart for specimen photography. NMHM is a headquarters element of the US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command.

Disclaimer The opinions and assertions contained herein are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Museum of Health and Medicine or the US Department of Defense (DoD), any of the military services or other DoD components, or any other government agencies, and does not constitute an endorsement by the DoD of any of the opinions expressed, or any information, products, or services contained therein.

References Berryman, H.E. and Symes, S.A. (1998) Recognizing gunshot and blunt cranial trauma through fracture interpretation, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd edn (ed. K.J. Reichs), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 333–352. Berryman, H.E., Kutyla, A.K., and Davis, J.R. II, (2010) Detection of gunshot residue in an experimental setting – an unexpected finding. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 55 (2), 488–491. Berryman, H.E., Shirley, N.R., and Lanfear, A.K. (2013) Low velocity trauma, in Forensic Anthropology: An Introduction (eds M.A. Tersigni-Tarrant and N.R. Shirley), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 271–290.

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Beyer, J.C. (1962) Wound Ballistics in World War II: Supplemented by Experiences in the Korean War. Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Byers, S.N. (2002) Introduction to Forensic Anthropology. Allyn & Bacon. Boston, MA. Coe, J.I. (1982) External beveling of handgun wounds. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 3 (3), 215–219. Courville, C.B. (1954) Forensic aspects of trauma to the central nervous system and its membranes, in Legal Medicine, 2nd edn (ed. R.B.H. Gradwohl), Mosby, St. Louis, MO, p. 363. DiMaio, V.J.M. (1985) Gunshot Wounds: Practical Aspects of Firearms, Ballistics and Forensic Techniques. Elsevier, New York. DiMaio, V.J. and DiMaio, D. (2001) Forensic Pathology, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Dixon, D.S. (1982) Keyhole lesions in gunshot wounds of the skull and direction of fire. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 27 (3), 555–566. Evans, F.G. (1957) Stress and Strain in Bones: Their Relation to Fractures and Osteogenesis. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Evans, F.G. (1973) Mechanical Properties of Bone. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Fenton, T.W., deJong, J.L., and Haut, R.C. (2003) Punched with a fist: the etiology of a depressed cranial fracture. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 48 (2), 277–281. Galloway, A. (ed.) (1999) Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Gonzales, T.A., Vance, M., and Helpern, M. (1937) Legal Medicine and Toxicology, 1st edn. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York. Gonzales, T.A., Vance, M., Helpern, M., and Umberger, C.J. (1954) Legal Medicine: Pathology and Toxicology, 2nd edn. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York. Gurdjian, E.S. and Webster, J.E. (1958) Head Injuries: Mechanisms, Diagnosis and Management. Little Brown & Co., Boston, MA. Gurdjian, E.S., Webster, J.E., and Lissner, H.R. (1950a) The mechanism of skull fracture. Journal of Neurosurgery, 7 (2), 106–114. Gurdjian, E.S., Webster, J.E., and Lissner, H.R. (1950b) The mechanism of skull fracture. Radiology, 54 (3), 313–339. Harkess, J.W., Ramsey, W.C., and Ahmadi, B. (1984) Principles of fractures and dislocations, in Fractures in Adults, vol. 1 (eds D.A. Rockwood and D.P. Green), Lippincott, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 1–18. Hart, G. (2005) Fracture pattern interpretation in the skull: differentiating blunt force from ballistics trauma using concentric fractures. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 50 (6), 1276–1281. Itabashi, H., Andrews, J.M., Tomiyasu, U., Erlich, S.S., and Sathyavagiswaran, L. (2007) Forensic Neuropathology. Elsevier, New York. Kimmerle, E.H. and Baraybar, J.P. (2008) Skeletal Trauma: Identification of Injuries Resulting from Human Rights Abuse and Armed Conflict. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Kroman, A. (2007) Fracture biomechanics of the human skeleton. PhD Dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk _graddiss/218.

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Kroman, A. (2010) Rethinking bone trauma: a new biomechanical continuum based approach, presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Chicago, IL. LaGarde, L.A. (1916) Gunshot Injuries: How they are inflicted; their Complications and Treatment, 2nd edn. William Wood & Co., New York. Moritz, A.R. (1954) The Pathology of Trauma, 2nd edn. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. Otis, G.A. (1870) The Medical and Surgical History of the War of The Rebellion (1861–65). Part 1. Vol. II. Surgical History. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Perdekamp, M.G., Kneubuehl, B.P., Ishikawa, T., Najdem, H., Kromeier, J., Pollak, S., and Thierauf, A. (2010) Secondary fractures in head wounds inflicted by captive bolt guns: autopsy findings and experimental simulation. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 124, 605–612. Peterson, B.L. (1991) External beveling of gunshot entrance wounds. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 36 (5), 1592–1595. Ragsdale, B.D. (1984) Gunshot wounds: a historical perspective. Military Medicine, 149, 301–315. Reilly, D.T. and Burnstein, A. (1974) The mechanical properties of cortical bone. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 56A (5), 1001–1022. Saukko, P. and Knight, B. (2004) Knight’s Forensic Pathology, 3rd edn. Arnold for Oxford University Press, London. Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (2011) Trauma Analysis. http//swganth.startlogic.com/Trauma%20Rev0.pdf. Smith O.C., Berryman, H.E., and Lahren, C.H. (1987) Cranial fracture patterns and estimate of direction from low velocity gunshot wounds. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 32 (5), 1416–1421. Smith, O.C., Berryman, H.E., Symes, S.A., Francisco, J.T., and Hnilica, V. (1993) Atypical gunshot exit defects to the cranial vault. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 38 (2), 339–343. Smith, O.C, Pope, E., and Symes, S.A. (2003) Look until you see: identification of trauma in skeletal material, in Hard Evidence: Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.W. Steadman), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp. 138–154. Spitz, W. (1993) Spitz and Fisher’s Medicolegal Investigation of Death, 3rd edn. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Symes, S.A, L’Abbé, E.N., Chapman, E.N., Wolff, I., and Dirkmaat, D.C. (2012) Interpreting traumatic injury to bone in medicolegal investigations, in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.C. Dirkmaat), Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 340–389. Taborelli, A., Gibelle, D., Rizzi, A., Andreola, S., Brandone, A., and Cattaneo, C. (2012) Gunshot residues on dry bone after decomposition – a pilot study. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 57 (5), 1281–1284. Yoganandan, N. and Pintar, F.A. (2004) Biomechanics of temperoparietal skull fracture. Clinical Biomechanics, 19, 225–239.

CHAPTER 3

Over-interpretation of bone injuries and implications for cause and manner of death João Pinheiro, Eugénia Cunha, and Steven Symes

Introduction Forensic anthropologists commonly deal with dry bones when performing identifications and assisting in ascertaining the cause and manner of death. The discipline of forensic anthropology emerged from the field of physical anthropology, where the determination of cause and manner of death are rarely an issue, and are often considered beyond the scope of the profession. However, the intellectual foundation of forensic anthropology has recently shifted to include the association of evidence and skeletal remains as important contributors to decisions on cause and manner of death (Dirkmaat et al., 2008; Symes et al., 2012). The recovery process clearly demonstrates the success of both the forensic anthropologist and their expertise in bone trauma analysis. In other words, the answers to the key questions of a crime do not solely rely on bones, but on bones within a context (e.g., how and where was the body and evidentiary material were discovered). Taphonomic or contextual indicators of the crime are crucial for establishing the manner of death. With the development of forensic taphonomy and the analysis of bone trauma, there is a trend to consider forensic anthropology as an independent discipline and not as a sub-field of physical anthropology. The legal implications, the type of cases, and the modus pensandi are different, implying that cause and manner of death have to be considered by the combined forces of forensic anthropologists and forensic pathologists

Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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possessing knowledge on both decomposition and the effects of lesions, from soft tissues to bones. Without it, inaccurate interpretations of evidence may be presented when dealing exclusively with skeletal remains (Cunha and Pinheiro, 2007; Pinheiro and Cunha, 2006). Without the knowledge of context, the postmortem interval, and the scene, which unfortunately is common in many forensic anthropology cases, many conclusions are vague. In other words, what seems to be apparent can ultimately become elusive, deceptive, and hard to defend. Recognition, examination, and interpretation of skeletal trauma in human remains is a key element in multidisciplinary death investigations (Pinheiro, 2006; Martrille et al., 2007; Symes et al., 2012). The combination of soft and osseous tissues is a functional unity, an essential tool in this context, which must be utilized whenever traumatic injuries are assessed. Without a proper knowledge of what happened with the soft tissues and how they reacted or behaved after an external aggression, an accurate interpretation of the traumatic osseous lesions may not be achieved. Yet, bones by themselves may indicate what happened at the time of death and are, in many instances, the only remaining tissues for analysis. We argue that sufficient good training in soft tissue analysis for anthropologists is crucial in modern forensic anthropology. However, a valid alternative is close collaboration with a senior forensic pathologist, which is the methodology we recommend (Pinheiro and Cunha, 2006) and one that we have applied in the two cases presented in this chapter. While bones are more resilient than soft tissue and present more information than expected by some pathologists, they also have interpretive limitations. Forensic anthropologists should be continually aware of the other anatomical structures (organs, muscles, vessels, and nerves) that matter for the accurate interpretation (Pinheiro and Cunha, 2006). That is, there is more to the human body than a simple skeleton or bone section. The purpose of this chapter is to emphasize the possible repercussions and pitfalls in interpreting traumatic bone injuries without considering soft tissue or scene context. Two cases are presented in reverse order: instead of following the classical approach, which starts with the recovery of the remains and concludes with the analysis of the bones (macerated and cleaned), we present two cases from the skeletal analysis, to the soft tissue, autopsy, and eventually the scene context, with the intention of highlighting the dangers in creating assumptions or interpretations from dry bones without accounting for either soft tissues and/or scene context.

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Here we present a “first-sight” hypothesis used to explain the observed injuries on cranial remains without flesh or context. Further we have developed a detailed skeletal analytical technique – a kind of a “second examination” – which leads to a more accurate interpretation. The results of this second examination will afterwards be compared with autopsy and scene information, and, finally checked with the police investigation.

The cases First forensic anthropology examination Each adult male skull is from European descent. From the front (Figure 3.1), the injury pattern is strikingly similar with radiating fractures each crossing the middle of the frontal bone. Cranium A also displays a radiating fracture that travels from the left frontal and crosses to the right parietal, and to the back of the skull. The right part of the skull is fragmented with two missing fragments on the lower right parietal and in the right pterygopalatine fossa beneath the zygomatic arch (Figure 3.2).

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.1 Frontal view of skulls (a) A and (b) B from cases 1 and 2, respectively,

after maceration. Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 3.2 Right lateral view of skulls (a) A and (b) B after processing and

reconstruction. Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.3 Left lateral view of skulls (a) A and (b) B once the fragments were glued.

Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

The left side of each skull (Figure 3.3) displays continuous fracture lines from the vault, delineating less fragmented bones, once again with a small missing fragment of bone in the anterior aspect of the temporal bone, identical in both crania (Figure 3.3). Some left facial bones are missing on cranium A suggesting, on first impression, a possible exit defect with an entrance in the occipital or, more likely in the right pterygopalatine fossa (Figure 3.1a). Cranium B exhibits similar fractures that radiate from the left frontal, over the left orbit, to the occipital via the right frontal and parietal bones (Figure 3.1b). As in skull A, the right portion is fractured, but the radiating fractures are larger than those in skull B (Figure 3.2). Small

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areas of missing bone are observed on the right temporal and on the right zygomatic arch, similar to skull A. A priori, these features point to possible blunt force trauma as no exit or entrance defects/wounds are observed despite noticeable radiating and concentric fractures, which are a common feature to blunt force trauma and gunshot wounds (see Smith et al., 1987, 2003).

The implications of over-interpreting bone injuries When viewed more carefully from the left norma lateralis (Figure 3.3), the bone fragments of skull A do not fit as neatly as the fragments associated with skull B. Where cranium B resembles broken glass that has been glued together afterwards, cranium A seems an imperfect reconstruction. The latter aspect is associated with plastic deformation, typical of blunt force trauma (Symes et al., 2012). Conversely, in gunshot trauma, bone acts like glass (Smith et al., 1987; Martrille et al., 2007); that is, the load/energy is so rapid that bone has no time to bend and deform (Smith et al., 1987; Symes et al., 2012). That is why it is easier to reconstruct a skull affected by gunshot trauma than by blunt force trauma. An understanding of biomechanics is paramount in order to formulate a critical insight into the mechanics of fracture creation and propagation (Kroman and Symes, 2013). Some of the key extrinsic factors include the type of load, force, and stress applied to the bone. Furthermore, the intrinsic features of bone itself are also relevant to trauma interpretation. As bone is anisotropic, the reaction will be different in a single bone from a different angle. Furthermore, bone is also viscoelastic, meaning that the material will behave either as an elastic or as a resistant material, depending on the rate of strain applied. As noted by Kroman and Symes (2013), the viscoelastic properties of bone play an important role in trauma interpretation (i.e., on fracture patterns associated with blunt and ballistic trauma). For example, higher rates of loading make bone act like a brittle material (e.g., glass) skipping the stage of plastic deformation. In addition, the bases of both skulls (Figure 3.4) show areas of missing bone. This is observed on skull B from the occipital to the palatine vault, while in skull A only a small part on the right aspect is absent. Second observations raise doubts regarding our first impressions, and suggest the possibility of misleading injuries such that skull B experienced gunshot trauma and not blunt force trauma, or vice versa. Pellet impressions found on the inner aspect of the skull B vault (Figure 3.4b) reinforce this hypothesis.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 3.4 Inferior views of skulls (a) A and (b) B with severe basal bone

destruction. Note the impression of pellets on the inner aspect of skull B. Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.5 Fractures displayed by mandibles (a) A and (b) B. Note a butterfly

(tension/compression) fracture on the mandible corpus of case B. Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

In skull A, according to the numerous fragments and fracture lines starting from the right temporal, the most likely area of blunt impact is in the vicinity of the zygomatic arch, (Figure 3.2a). Other impacts in the left facial and zygomatic/temporal region, where additional fracture lines are visible are also possible (Figure 3.1a and Figure 3.3a). Moreover, both mandibles present fractures (Figure 3.5): skull A displays a linear fracture on the left horizontal ramus at the level of molar 1,

The implications of over-interpreting bone injuries

33

whereas mandible B presents with a V-shaped fracture that involves the middle/right body. A more detailed analysis of mandible B reveals a typical butterfly pattern with compression on the antero-inferior aspect and tension on the postero-superior aspect. The fracture characteristics introduce a new perplexity in the interpretation: was the victim beaten (producing blunt force trauma) before being shot?

Scene context At this point of the investigation, knowledge regarding the history of both cases was necessary as bone trauma interpretation should not rely exclusively on a skeletal analysis (Cunha and Pinheiro, 2007).

Case A Skull A belongs to a body that was recovered during winter in the Azores Islands (Portugal) (Figure 3.6) and presented slight putrefaction: detachment of epidermis pieces, a large green spot in the anterior trunk as well as marble aspect and larvae in skin holes and around the natural orifices. The body was dressed with the feet still in boots (Figure 3.6). Extensive destruction of the anterior soft tissues of the neck and structures of the skull was noted, with open cranial fractures nearly disarticulated and immersed in dark, wet soft tissues, without the eyes or the brain (Figure 3.7). Furthermore, rodent bite marks were observed on the face and left hand as well as exposed fourth and fifth metacarpals.

Figure 3.6 Scene of cranium A recovered in a wet environment in the Azores

Islands. Inset: the block of concrete fixed on the top of an iron stick used in blunt force trauma. Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

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Figure 3.7 The body of cranium A at the autopsy table and a close-up of the head.

Note asymmetric states of preservation: whereas the postcranial body is still fresh (apart some putrefaction of the trunk), the skull is already remarkably putrefied. Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

The environment was wet with crowded vegetation and mild temperatures, which is typical of the Azores Islands during winter. The different chromatic alterations of bone fragments of skull A (Figure 3.2a) are a taphonomic artifact. There were no other bones recovered in the vicinity of the body. Locals found the body and immediately suspected that it could be a person that had been missing in the region for 7 days. The family confirmed this suspicion after the external examination at the Azores Office of the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences (INMLCF). By then, the police had started the investigation on a “family” homicide. The local forensic pathologist conducted a complete autopsy of the postcranial body, but felt uncomfortable with the analysis of fragmented skull bones and thus sent these skeletal elements to a forensic anthropology consultant (E.C., the second author) at the Center Branch of the INMLCF for further analysis. The autopsy of the postcranial remains was inconclusive, showing no signs of traumatic injuries and no organic morbidity that could explain the death. When the skull was received by the anthropologist, several other non-human bones were also found within the box (Figure 3.8). The assembled bones resulted in the peculiar skeleton of a “monster” with a human head and the body of a non-human mammal (Figure 3.8), which provided for interesting interpretations when presented (Pinheiro et al., 2008), especially with the presence of a baculum. The mixture of bones was explained by incorrect labeling of the plastic bags in which they were contained. In order to decrease air shipping costs, the Island Legal Office occasionally combines different forensic samples to send everything together in a single package to the Center Branch of the INMLCF in Coimbra. The animal bones were discovered in another

The implications of over-interpreting bone injuries

35

Figure 3.8 Remains of cranium A and the supposed postcranial skeleton. Inset: the

baculum. Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

part of São Miguel Island in the same week and packed together with the skull bones of cranium A.

Case B Skull B forms part of a fresh autopsy case found under suspicious conditions, namely submerged in a septic tank near a highway in Leiria (Central Portugal). Police contacted one of the authors (J.P.) stating the presence of head trauma with multiple fractures (Figure 3.9a). It was suggested that the trauma was related to a traffic accident that propelled the body into the near-by lake. However, according to the facial injuries seen during the recovery, homicide was not excluded. Later, after the analysis of several photographs, a radiographic examination was suggested. Examination of the radiograph (Figure 3.9b) reveals a completely different traumatic diagnosis and cause of death. The injuries to the face are the result of ballistic trauma, as verified with the cloud of pellets inside the cranium, which immediately excludes a traffic accident as the cause of death.

Autopsy and police investigation Case A The traumatic injuries to the skull accelerated decomposition of the head and likely contributed to further disarticulation of the cranial bones (Pinheiro, 2006). As previously stated, the body decomposed on the

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(a)

(b)

Figure 3.9 (a) Aspect of the face of skull B at recovery and (b) radiograph showing a

cloud of pellets. Courtesy of the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

ground, in the open air, and was protected by clothing from the neck down. Taking into account that the postcranial body was mainly fresh, the postmortem interval might be estimated as less than 15 days. The joint forensic anthropology/forensic pathology examination ascertained blunt force trauma to the head, which was eventually confirmed by the police investigation. It was paramount to this analysis to take into account all the bone fragments that need to be analyzed by the team. The blows described above in the skeletal analysis – in the vicinity of the zygomatic arch, and right temporal and left facial and zygomatic/temporal region – are compatible with the holes found in the skin of the head, although putrefaction induced some interpretation problems. Tears of the collar of the jacket were also compatible with blows on the right part of the neck and head. The body was found 7 days after the victim went missing. The perpetrator later confessed to using a block of concrete fixed on the top of an iron rod (Figure 3.6) to beat the victim, his friend, over the head. The victim had allegedly refused to loan him a small amount of money (approximately US$10). The murderer initially strangled the victim and left him lying in the grass, assuming he was dead. However, as the friend regained consciousness, the aggressor found the weapon on the ground nearby and confessed to beating him until “the head was totally

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37

destroyed and not recognizable.” All participants, including the nephew of the aggressor, who witnessed the crime, were drunk and had smoked marijuana near the time of the incident.

Case B The primary author (J.P.) performed the autopsy for Case B. An entrance gunshot wound was found in the middle of the face (Figure 3.9). The wad and one of the petals of the shot colander were found intermingled with the liquid mass the brain was reduced to. The aspect of the entrance and the presence of the wad indicates a close shot, suggesting the possibility of suicide (Saukko and Knight, 2004; DiMaio and Dana, 2007). To better document the case, the skull bones were collected, macerated, and reconstructed. To confirm this suspicion, the police drained the septic tank and found a double-barreled shotgun with the barrels positioned down and dug into the sand. The trigger guard emerged out of the lake as the water level lowered. Only one of the shotgun shells was expended, while the other was intact (Figure 3.10). Pellets, in accordance with the single shotgun shell, were observed at autopsy. Moreover, a small piece of rope was found on (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3.10 (a) The gun, (b) the lake, and (c) the ammunition. Courtesy of the

Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.

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the trigger that the victim used to pull the trigger and discharge the shell as illustrated by the compacted primer on one of the shells (Figure 3.10). All these features contributed to a manner of death ruling this incident as a suicide. The entrance wound was in the vicinity of the mouth, and the pathway was median, front to back and up towards the occipital (Figure 3.4b), also consistent with a suicide. Butterfly fractures, such as the one seen with the mandible from skull B (Figure 3.5b), do not necessarily indicate blunt force trauma, as might be expected by its characteristics. The Turkish pathologist Koluysian first described these fractures (Warren, 2007), which are secondary to higher-velocity projectiles and frequently under-reported. These fractures, more frequent with shotguns, are independent of the locality of the entrance of the gunshot trauma and are usually not associated with any other facial fractures. A tension–compression mechanism is involved, with the ascending ramus of the mandible pulling apart due to the expansion and disarticulation of the temporal bones (and thus the spreading of the temporal mandibular joint). The effects of the expanding gases and shock waves lead to the failure in tension of the posterior aspect of the mandibular body and compression on the anterior aspect of the chin (Pinheiro et al., 2008; Warren, 2007). Mandible fractures associated with high-velocity weapon deaths were initially reported in the context of potential human rights violations (Warren, 2007) and lead to the suspicion of torture before executions. The knowledge of physiopathology and biomechanics of fractures contributes to a more accurate interpretation, and in this case, prevents over-interpretation of trauma.

Discussion and conclusions Assessment of the possible cause, mechanism, and manner of death are key tasks of forensic pathologists. While forensic anthropologists may either recommend or contribute to cause and manner of death based on skeletal trauma interpretation, the final decision lies with the pathologist (Smith et al., 2003; Cunha and Pinheiro, 2007; Pinheiro, 2006). Forensic pathologists can gather important information from the soft tissue alterations of both blunt and ballistic trauma interpretations. In certain situations, such as those described in this chapter, the circumstances surrounding the incident and the context of the scene were essential to

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traumatic injury interpretations. Furthermore, the forensic anthropology analyses of the dry bones add a decisive contribution to the determination of cause and manner of death, especially in Case A, where both aims were not achieved by the local forensic doctor, who correctly asked for a multidisciplinary study. Police collaboration was also paramount. With Case B, this approach provided a reasonable explanation for the mandible fracture and confirmed the features observed at the autopsy (i.e., the entrance wound and the trajectory of the shot). All of which are re-confirmed by an accurate tracking of ballistic trauma though the reconstructed skull. This chapter highlights two of the most common types of trauma, gunshot trauma and blunt force trauma, which necessitate a detailed and cautious/careful analysis by the forensic experts. Misleading bone injuries can result from the interpretation of bone trauma based solely on the dry bone lesions. It is essential to go step-by-step through the investigation, and gain knowledge of the scene, context, autopsy reports, and the police investigation, while always examining for total body trauma recognition and interpretation. This procedure avoids potential errors as demonstrated in the two cases presented, where blunt force trauma was the first diagnostic for Case A and gunshot trauma for Case B. In the end, their cause of death interpretations changed. Extra information, such as the Koluysian fracture theories in Case B, excluded conflicting bone fracture interpretations (victim had been beaten before being shot) through the use of physics and biomechanics of bone failure. A multidisciplinary approach in forensics is always the key for these examinations and provides the best results in forensic anthropology investigations (Dirkmaat et al., 2008; Symes et al., 2012): “In what concerns cause and manner of death, anthropologists should only offer opinions when they are strongly supported with factual evidence” (Symes et al., 2012). Problems with over-interpretation are not exclusive to forensic anthropology, but has been a blemish of forensic sciences for decades, especially in forensic pathology. Over time, these problems have been recognized and discussed by some authors, such as Bernard Knight (1996) who stated: What is really required is as full of an interpretation as possible, without venturing into the undesirable field of unwarranted speculation or Sherlock Holmes style of over interpretation, which was the bane of forensic pathology in former years and is still practiced too much even today, to the detriment of the good reputation of the specialty.

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If this over-interpretation had been identified by forensic pathologists for years, who usually have the whole body, with bones, muscles, vessels, and nerves to dissect and study, what can be expected from the mere analysis of bare bones? The answer can be found in the cases presented here and in many reflections of forensic anthropology specialties, as one of the authors (Symes et al., 2012) wrote: “In skeletal trauma analysis the mistake of inferring too much from too little is one of the greatest problems in an anthropologist’s routine analysis of bone injuries.”

Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank to Ericka N. L’Abbé, Leandi Liebenberg, Anastasia Holobinko, and Gabriele C. Krüger for the English editing, comments, and suggestions. We also thank the Homicide Brigade Chief, Renato Furtado of the Polícia Judiciária and the Pathologist and Forensic Doctor Dr. Vitor Carneiro, both from Ponta Delgada, S. Miguel, Azores Archipelago, and police crime investigator Filipe Ferreira, of the Homicide Brigade of the Polícia Judiciária of Leiria, Portugal. A special thanks to the forensic anthropologist Andersen Lyrio from Brazil, who cleaned and prepared the bones during his doctoral period in Portugal.

References Cunha, E. and Pinheiro, J. (2007) Forensic anthropology in Portugal: from current practice to future challenges, in Forensic Anthropology. Case Studies from Europe (eds M. Brickley and R. Ferllini), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 38–57. DiMaio, V.J.M. and Dana, S.E. (2007) Handbook of Forensic Pathology, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Dirkmaat, D., Cabo, L., Ousley, S., and Symes, S.A. (2008) New perspectives in forensic anthropology. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Suppl. 47, 33–52. Knight, B. (1996) Forensic Pathology, 2nd edn. Arnold, London. Kroman, A. and Symes, S.A. (2013) Investigation of skeletal trauma, in Research Methods in Human Skeletal Biology (eds E. A. DiGangi and M. K. Moore), Elsevier, New York, pp. 219–239. Martrille, L., Cattaneo, C., Symes, S.A., and Baccino, E. (2007) Bones in aid of forensic pathology: trauma isn’t only skin deep, presented at the 60th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Washington, DC. Pinheiro, J. (2006) Introduction to forensic medicine and pathology, in Forensic Anthropology and Medicine. Complementary Sciences from Recovery to Cause of Death (eds A. Schmitt, E. Cunha, and J. Pinheiro), Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 13–39.

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Pinheiro, J. and Cunha, E. (2006) Forensic investigation of corpses in various states of decomposition, in Forensic Anthropology and Medicine. Complementary Sciences from Recovery to Cause of Death (eds A. Schmitt, E. Cunha, and J. Pinheiro), Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 159–197. Pinheiro, J., Lyrio, A., Cunha, A., and Symes, S.A. (2008) Cranial bone trauma: misleading injuries, presented at the 60th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Washington, DC. Saukko, P. and Knight, B. (2004) Knight’s Forensic Pathology, 3rd edn. Arnold, London. Smith, O.C., Berryman, H.E., and Lahren, C. (1987) Cranial fracture patterns and estimate of direction from low velocity gunshot wounds. Journal of Forensic Science, 32, 1416–1421. Smith, O.C., Pope, E.J., and Symes, S.A. (2003) Look until you see: Identification of trauma in skeletal material, in Hard Evidence. Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology. (ed. S.W. Steadman), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Symes, S.A., L’Abbé, E.N., Chapman, N., Wolf, I., and Dirkmaat, D.C. (2012) Interpreting traumatic injury to bone in medico-legal investigations, in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. D. Dirkmaat), Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 340–389. Warren, W.W. (2007) Interpreting gunshot wounds in the Balkans: evidence of genocide, in Forensic Anthropology. Case Studies from Europe (eds M. Brickley and R. Ferllini), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 151–164.

CHAPTER 4

Skeletal injuries in cases of child abuse: two case studies from the Harris County Institute of Forensic Sciences Jason M. Wiersema and Jennifer C. Love

Introduction Thorough documentation of injuries is imperative to the successful investigation, interpretation, and adjudication of suspicious fatalities. Postmortem collaboration between pathologists and anthropologists ensures that the appropriate level of documentation extends to both soft tissues and the skeleton. This is particularly true in the investigation of suspicious pediatric fatalities. Child abuse investigation is one of the most contentious components of the forensic autopsy and the formalized collaborative approach to pediatric autopsy at the Harris County Institute of Forensic Sciences (HCIFS) has proven valuable in the adjudication of these cases. The most significant contributions of the anthropologist in this collaborative context are the detailed interpretation of skeletal injury mechanism, the detection and interpretation of subtle, typically radiographically and often grossly occult skeletal injuries, and the temporal interpretation of healing and/or chronic skeletal injury. This strategy greatly expands the traditional role of the forensic anthropologist, while remaining within the scope of his/her expertise. This chapter presents two recent forensic cases involving child abuse-related inflicted skeletal injury analyzed by the Anthropology Division at the HCIFS in Houston, Texas. The HCIFS is a large medical examiner’s office that performs approximately 4000 cases annually. The HCIFS investigates an average of 250 pediatric (17 years and under) deaths annually, of which an average of 60 are toddlers (aged 1–4 years) Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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and 110 are infants (aged less than 1 year). On average, 55 pediatric homicides are investigated annually. The presented cases are two examples of the pediatric homicide cases investigated by HCIFS. The specific anthropological contribution in both of these cases pertains to the detailed interpretation of the chronicity and sequence of injury as well as the mechanism of injury. The first case involves repetitive blunt force injury to a 6-year-old male child; the second case involves chronic blunt force injury to 4-year-old female.

Case 1 Case history In July 2010, paramedics responded to a residence in which a 6-year-old child had gone unresponsive. Paramedics arrived to find the child pulseless and apneic on a mattress with a family member performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). The child died shortly after arrival at the hospital. Hospital staff documented contusions and abrasions on various parts of the body, but the most significant soft tissue injuries were located on the chest and abdomen. These injuries are detailed below. Approximately 2 weeks prior to the child’s death, the decedent’s mother, who maintained legal custody of the decedent, had reportedly left the child in the custody of his biological father in the interest of allowing the decedent and his father to get better acquainted. There was little if any contact during this 2-week period between the decedent’s mother and father. During this period the decedent resided at his father’s residence with the father, his girlfriend, and her young daughter. According to the father’s girlfriend, during the 2 weeks preceding the child’s death, the father repeatedly disciplined the decedent by forcing him to kneel and endure repeated punching to the bilateral chest in the interest of forcing him to “man up.” On the night of his death, the decedent was unable to sleep and was beaten in the chest from approximately 7 p.m. to 3 a.m. The girlfriend stated she told the father to stop, but he refused and he admitted to hitting the child more than 100 times during the night. At some point during the assault, the decedent asked to go to the bathroom. The decedent soiled himself on the way to the bathroom and the father forced him to take a shower, and continued the beating in the bathroom. At approximately 3 a.m. the father summoned his girlfriend and stated the decedent had gone unresponsive after a period of what the

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father referred to as seizures. The girlfriend called Emergency Medical Services (EMS) and the child was transported to the emergency room. Upon arrival to the hospital, significant external injury was noted to the decedent’s chest, abdomen, arms, legs, and feet, and he was pronounced dead shortly after arrival. The decedent’s father admitted to hospital personnel that he hit the back of the decedent’s head as well as his chest and back to revive him, and then put him in the shower.

Findings During the autopsy the decedent was described as a well-nourished boy whose appearance was consistent with the reported age and who displayed multiple externally visible blunt trauma injuries of the head, torso, and extremities. The pathologist described a diffuse confluent reddish contusion extending from the clavicular region superiorly to the middle of the abdomen inferiorly, and from the left side of the chest, across the anterior chest, and onto the right chest, shoulder, and arm. The center of the contusion was marked with an area of ill-defined abrasions. Multiple dime-sized (around 18-mm) contusions, scabbed lesions, and linear contusions were located on the abdomen. Multiple abrasions and contusions of lesser significance were present on the posterior shoulders, back, and buttocks. Internally, significant diffuse hemorrhage and contusions were present in the superior muscles of the anterior chest and shoulders, and extended onto the posterior shoulders and flanks. Recent hemorrhage was present in a large area of the lower back and resolving hemorrhage was noted in the deepest muscles of the peritoneal wall, predominantly on the left flank. Diffuse necrosis of the pectoralis minor muscle was present along with a large area of granulation tissue and necrotic muscle tissue, and was continuous with a pocket of hematoma located beneath the body of the left scapula. Bloody pleural effusions were present, measuring 550 ml in the left cavity and 50 ml in the right cavity. Contusions were also present on the heart, lungs, diaphragm, liver, and colon. Lacerations were present on the liver and transected the right adrenal gland. Multiple rib fractures were noted during the autopsy. The pathologist described fractures of right ribs 2–9 and left ribs 3–5. The pathologist also described a mass of granulation tissue and resolving hematoma measuring 3.5 × 2 in. (8.9 × 5 cm) surrounding the fractures of left ribs 3–5. The rib fractures and the surrounding granulation tissue were evident on postmortem radiographs taken at the HCIFS (Figure 4.1).

Skeletal injuries in cases of child abuse

(a)

45

(b)

Figure 4.1 (a) Radiographs of left ribs (1–6) after being removed from the decedent.

(b) The granulation tissue and hematoma is radiopaque in comparison with the non-traumatized soft tissue.

Following the autopsy, the decedent underwent a complete Pediatric Skeletal Examination (PSE) – a process that involves reflection of the soft tissue (including the periosteum) overlying the long bones, ribs, clavicles, and scapula, and in situ inspection of the underlying bone surfaces in search of skeletal trauma (Love and Sanchez, 2009). As part of the PSE, bones with grossly evident fractures are retained for anthropological analysis. The retained specimens are chemically processed to remove the soft tissue. This process involves the submersion of a specimen in a container holding a 50/50 water/restaurant-grade degreaser mixture and placement of the container in an incubator that maintains an even and constant elevated temperature. The process required approximately 24 h to remove the soft tissue from this particular specimen. The right and left ribs from this decedent were retained, processed, and analyzed. A total of 10 acute and seven remote rib fractures were observed on the retained ribs (Figure 4.2). The morphology and distribution of the fractures were consistent with having resulted from the combined effects of repeated blunt impacts to both sides of the chest, and anterior to posterior compression of focal elements of the rib cage. Remote fractures were located on the right and left ribs. Serial remote fractures were present on the antero-lateral bodies of right ribs 2–4. These fractures were each surrounded by subperiosteal new bone formation (SPNBF) and had slightly rounded fracture margins. Fractures in a similar stage of healing are located on the antero-lateral left ribs. These include a complete transverse fracture of the lateral body of left rib

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Figure 4.2 Inventory photo showing remote and acute fractures.

2, an incomplete oblique fracture on the internal surface of the lateral body of left rib 3, and an incomplete butterfly fracture on the internal surface of the antero-lateral body of left rib 5. Each of these fractures failed in tension on the internal surface, consistent with the ribs having been subjected to direct impacts to the left and right chest. Additional remote fractures, characterized by the presence of exuberant disorganized soft callus formation loosely surrounding open or visible fracture lines were located on the anterior bodies of left ribs two and three and the antero-lateral body of left rib 4. These particular fractures are described in detail in the following paragraphs. A large area of disorganized fracture callus measuring 30 mm antero-posteriorly by 21 mm supero-inferiorly is located on the anterior segment of left rib 2 (Figure 4.3). At least two complete transverse fractures are located within the callus and the sternal end of the rib extends from the anterior boundary of the callus anteriorly, at an approximate 45∘ angle from the long axis of the rib. The callus is abnormally large and very disorganized with no indication of transition to lamellar bone – likely an indication of repetitive injury. SPNBF extends posteriorly from the callus to encase the majority of the remaining rib body. A second abnormally large and similarly disorganized callus was located on the anterior body of left rib 3 (Figure 4.4). The callus was

Skeletal injuries in cases of child abuse

(a)

(b)

47

(c)

Figure 4.3 (a), (b) and (c) Disorganized fracture callus located on the anterior body

of left rib 2.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4.4 Fracture located on the anterior body of left rib 3. (a) The disorganized

fracture callus located on the external surface of the anterior body of left rib 3. The callus was not attached to the underlying bone surface. (b) The external surface of left rib 3 at the site of the callus (with the soft callus removed). (c) The eburnated appearance of the fracture margins.

associated with a complete transverse fracture of the rib and the ossified portion of the soft callus was not attached to the rib body. The underlying fracture margins had an eburnated appearance. The same pattern of injury is noted at approximately the same location on left rib 4. The acute fractures included: (1) serial complete transverse fractures of the antero-lateral bodies of right ribs 5–8; (2) an incomplete oblique fracture on the internal surface of antero-lateral body of right rib 4; (3) serial incomplete transverse fractures on the internal surfaces of the postero-lateral bodies of right ribs 5 and 6; (4) a longitudinal fracture located on the superior surface of the central body of right rib 9; (5) an incomplete butterfly fracture on the internal surface of the lateral segment of left rib 5; and (6) an incomplete fracture on the external surface of the anterior body of left rib 7. The acute fracture margins are characterized by sharp fracture margins and a lack of fracture callus. The characteristics of the acute fractures were indicative of both anterior to posterior compression of the chest resulting in failure of the ribs in compression on the internal surface (Figure 4.5), direct blunt force

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Figure 4.5 Fracture of the anterior body of right rib 2, internal surface shown.

Fracture margins are chipped on the internal surface indicating and failure under compression.

Figure 4.6 Incomplete fracture of the posterior body of right rib 6 (superior view).

The rib failed in tension on its internal surface, indicating a direct blunt force impact at the site of the fracture. Note the SPNBF on the internal surface of the rib. The edges of the SPNBF spiculae along the fracture line are sharp and the healing response is likely associated with a previous injury.

impacts to the chest resulting in the failure of the ribs in tension on the internal surface (Figure 4.6), and failure of the anterior body of one rib in compression on the external surface (Figure 4.7). Some of the acute fractures also exhibited characteristics consistent with having resulted from a failure of the bone under an axial load

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Figure 4.7 External surface of left rib 6. The rib failed in compression on the

external surface as indicated by the presence of chipping along the fracture line.

Figure 4.8 Longitudinal fracture located on the superior surface of the body of

right rib 9.

applied to the ribs. These fractures exhibited either longitudinal fractures independent of transverse fracture or longitudinal fractures extending from transverse fractures (Figure 4.8). The array of fractures on the decedent’s ribs was conservatively attributed to a minimum of three separate traumatic events. Events are distinguished from impacts in that a single event is indicated by the degree of healing and may have incorporated numerous impacts. The first traumatic episode is exemplified by the large healing fracture calluses of left ribs 2–4, and the second traumatic episode by the fractures

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with early indications of a healing response, including rounded margins and SPNBF. The third traumatic episode is exemplified by the acute fractures displaying no indications of a healing response. Estimating age of injury is difficult in cases involving repetitive injury as was the case with this particular decedent. Rate of healing varies based on age, the individual’s health status, the extent of the injury, and the occurrence of re-injury. The lack of gross signs of a healing response associated with the acute fractures is consistent with the final traumatic episode having occurred at or near the time of death. SPNBF, of the degree noted on several of the decedent’s ribs, can begin to develop as early as 4 days post-injury and peaks between 10 and 14 days after injury. Under normal conditions soft callus formation is generally present after approximately 10 days post-injury and peaks between 14 and 21 days (Kleinman, 1997). However, the exuberant characteristic of the soft calluses on this particular case is unusual, and is likely the result of repetitive injury at the fracture sites and the consequent presence of significant active fibrous and granulation tissue surrounding the fractures. The anthropologist’s contribution to this case was a definitive illustration of extent of skeletal injuries, and a clear demonstration of the multiplicity of the biomechanical forces and the number of traumatic events that resulted in the fractures. The cause and manner of death were certified as multiple blunt trauma and homicide, respectively, and the decedent’s father pled guilty in exchange for a 50-year prison term.

Case 2 Case history A 4-year-old female was found unresponsive at home. EMS responded to the home, initiated CPR and transferred the child to the hospital. Fourteen minutes after arrival, the child was pronounced dead. The family reported that the decedent was in good health, but had fallen in the bathroom and struck her chin on the toilet the morning of her death. Approximately 3 months prior to death, the decedent was examined by her pediatrician for left shoulder pain. The pediatrician ordered a radiologic exam of the shoulder. The shoulder was radiographed in two views and no evidence of trauma was observed. No other significant medical history was reported by the family or documented in the pediatric medical records.

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Findings During the autopsy, the decedent was described as a thin female in the fifth percentile of weight and length for age. Extensive soft tissue injuries were documented. Of the head, 21 contusions and four lacerations were identified on the scalp, face, and within the mouth. Subarachnoid hemorrhage was present on the right frontal lobe, left parietal pole, and cerebellum, and the left cerebellum was contused. On the torso, there were greater than 20 contusions. The small intestines and mesentery were also contused. The extremities were marked with confluent, near-circumferential contusions with extensive hemorrhage and avulsion of the underlying soft tissue. Abrasions were noted on the right forearm, left arm, left wrist, and both hands. A subungual hematoma was present under the right third finger and the left fourth fingernail was partially avulsed. Abrasions were present on the right knee and left greater toe. The lungs were marked with extensive fat emboli, and blood, lung, and spleen cultures were positive for Staphylococcus aureus. The skeletal injuries were also extensive. A full PSE was performed, and the right and left scapulae and left humerus were retained for further analysis (Figure 4.9). The bones were chemically processed to remove all soft tissue and were examined grossly and with a stereomicroscope.

Figure 4.9 Image showing the bones retained during the autopsy after processing.

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Figure 4.10 Proximal region of left humerus.

Figure 4.11 A superior view of the proximal left humerus. Of the physeal surface,

note the exposed trabeculae appear thickened in some areas and the irregular bone formation at the arrow. Also, notice the layered callus of the shaft with the space occupied by a hematoma prior to processing.

The left proximal humerus was fractured (Figure 4.10). The proximal physeal surface was displaced and the exposed trabeculae had begun to thicken, a healing response (Figure 4.11). The proximal shaft was encased in a layered fracture callus (Figure 4.11). The outer layer of the callus was disorganized woven bone with small islands of organized lamellar bone. The inner layer of the callus was obscured by the outer layer, but visible areas appeared to be initial organizing lamellar bone. Hemorrhage was observed between the two layers of callus during processing. The right and left scapulae were fractured. Torus fractures were present on the inferior surface of the right and left acromion processes (Figure 4.12). The fracture margins were sharp, indicating acute trauma. A small area of SPNBF was present adjacent to the fracture on the right acromion process. The right and left glenoid fossae were fractured as well; focal areas of exposed trabeculae were present on the superior

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(b)

Figure 4.12 Torus fractures of the left (a) and right (b) acromion processes.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.13 Fractures of the right (b) and left (a) glenoid fossa.

posterior region of the articulating surfaces (Figure 4.13). The exposed trabeculae of the left glenoid fossa were thickened and slight lipping was present along the outer margin of the fractured area. The exposed trabeculae of the right glenoid fossa fracture were minimally thickened and the fracture margins were slightly rounded. Areas of SPNBF were present on the right and left infraspinous fossae. On the right scapula, the SPNBF spanned the blade below the scapular spine and covers approximately the middle one-third of the lateral border. On the left scapula, a focal area of SPNBF was present in approximate center of the blade. The fracture patterns of the left humerus and the right and left glenoid fossae were consistent with tractional or torsional forces applied to the upper arms. The fractures of the right and left acromion processes also may have resulted from tractional or torsional forces applied to the upper arms or from direct impacts to the superolateral region of the shoulders in

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a superior to inferior, lateral to medial direction. The SPNBF on the scapular blades resulted from traumatic disruption of the periosteal that may have been caused by either tractional/torsional forces or direct impacts to the shoulders. Given the constellation of injures, a conservative estimate of minimum number of traumatic episodes was three, and was evident in the two layers of fracture callus encasing the left humerus and the fractures with minimal to no healing of the right and left scapulae. The sequence of injuries was an initial injury to the left humerus resulting in the inner, more organized, layer of fracture callus; a second injury to the humerus resulting in the outer, more disorganized, layer of fracture callus; and a third injury resulting in the fractures of the acromion processes. The glenoid fossa fractures may have occurred with the first, second or third traumatic event. The rate of healing is dependent on the age and health status of the individual, and the extent of the injury. Repetitive injury, as was evident in the two layers of fracture callus on the left humerus, retards the healing process. The woven bone with islands of lamellar bone observed in the outer layer of callus on the left humerus was consistent with the healing stage of late soft to early hard callus formation (Love et al., 2011). Initial hard callus formation has been documented radiologically in children as early as 2 weeks post-injury (Kleinman, 1997). Based on this reference, the injury causing the outer most layer of the humeral fracture callus most likely occurred greater than 2 weeks prior to death. The more organized appearance of the underlying humeral callus suggests the earlier injury may have occurred within 2 weeks prior to the second injury. The fracture margins of the acromion processes are sharp and a small area of associated SPNBF is observed only on the right scapulae. SPNBF has been observed as early as 4 days post-injury. The bilateral acromion fractures along with the insult to the scapular blade most likely occurred within 1 week prior to death. Although the bones were marked by evidence of repetitive injury, the bone quality and morphology were as expected for the reported age of the decedent. The exposed trabeculae were dense and the distal metaphysis of the left humerus was neither flared nor hyperporotic. Ultimately, the cause of death was classified as complications of multiple blunt force injuries and the manner of death was classified as homicide. None of the blunt force injuries in and of themselves were fatal. The fat emboli in the lungs, S. aureus infection, and the extensive subcutaneous hemorrhage most likely contributed to the death. Interesting,

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the fat emboli did not involve marrow cells, indicating the fat was not released from the broken bones. In 2012, the mother of the decedent was tried for the death. The prosecuting attorney focused her questioning of the forensic anthropologist on the location and types of fractures, minimum number of traumatic events, and age of the injury. The prosecutor used this information to reconstruct the final months of the decedent’s life. The mother was found guilty for injury to a child by omission and felony murder, and was sentenced to life in prison (Rogers, 2012).

Conclusions These cases highlight the value of the forensic anthropologist in a child abuse investigation. The fractured bones were not directly tied to the cause of death in either case, but provided support for the manner of death classification. The evidence of repetitive injury was strongly indicative of non-accidental injury. The anthropological analysis also provided information about the decedent’s recent history – information that was not recorded in the soft tissue.

References Love, J.C. and Sanchez, L.A. (2009) Recognition of skeletal fractures in infants: an autopsy technique. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 54 (6), 1443–1446. Love, J.C., Derrick, S.M., and Wiersema, J.M. (2011) Skeletal Atlas of Child Abuse. Springer, New York. Kleinman, P.K. (1998) The upper extremity diagnostic imaging of child abuse, in Diagnostic Imaging of Child Abuse, 2nd edn (ed. P.K. Kleinman), Mosby, St. Louis, MO, pp. 72–109. Rogers, B. (2012) Mother gets life in prison for beating death of 4-year-old daughter. Houston Chronicle, September 17. http://www.chron.com/news/houstontexas/article/Mother-gets-life-in-prison-for-beating-death-of-3871628.php.

CHAPTER 5

Blunt force trauma patterns in the human skull and thorax: a case study from northern California Eric J. Bartelink

Introduction Over the past two decades, skeletal trauma has emerged as a key area of research in forensic anthropology (Galloway, 1999; Dirkmaat et al., 2008; Komar and Buikstra, 2008; Passalacqua and Fenton, 2012). Although today forensic anthropologists routinely examine skeletal trauma, little emphasis had been placed on the development of standards until the formation of the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology in 2008. The National Academy of Sciences publication Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward (Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community, 2009) also documented several shortcomings of forensic science, including the need to develop best practices and standards for all aspects of forensic casework. These developments have encouraged anthropologists to delve further into experimental research in biomechanics, which has provided a more scientific basis for skeletal trauma interpretation (Fenton et al., 2003; Kroman, 2007; Baumer et al., 2009, 2010; Kroman et al., 2011). Forensic anthropologists are often sought out by medical examiners and law enforcement to consult on cases of violent or suspicious deaths. In these cases, the goals of the analysis typically include diagnosis of possible skeletal injuries, distinguishing antemortem and perimortem trauma from postmortem damage, determining a minimum number and sequence of injuries, and pertinent information on the type of implement that may have resulted in the trauma (Galloway, 1999; Kroman et al., 2011). Although documentation and assessment of skeletal trauma

Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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is often straightforward, interpretation of the biomechanical forces involved remains a significant area of ambiguity (Marks et al., 1999). As a viscoelastic material, bone can respond in a number of different ways depending on the rate of loading (Curry, 1970; Turner and Burr, 1993). Young’s modulus defines the relationship between stress and strain in the elastic region of a material, and demonstrates why stiffer materials have a higher modulus of elasticity (Keaveny and Hayes, 1993; Nordin and Frankel, 2001). In the case of blunt force trauma, fracture occurs under slow-loading conditions when the bone passes through the elastic phase and enters the plastic phase; this results in permanent alteration to the bone, known as plastic deformation (Keaveny and Hayes, 1993). Both extrinsic and intrinsic factors are important considerations for trauma interpretation. Extrinsic factors include the focus of the force, the impact interface surface area, the acceleration or deceleration rate, as well as direction of the force, and magnitude, duration, and rate of loading (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Kroman, 2007). Intrinsic factors relate to a bone’s capacity to absorb energy under load, and may be influenced by sex, age, nutrition, and health, as well as a bone’s shape, size, and density (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Galloway, 1999). An area of ambiguity in trauma interpretation is the use of the term “perimortem.” As traditionally used in a medicolegal context (e.g., among pathologists), perimortem means at or around the time of death. In forensic anthropology, use of this term is often problematic, as bone that retains significant moisture content after the death event will exhibit similar biomechanical properties as living skeletal tissue (Harkness et al., 1984; Ubelaker and Adams, 1995; Wheatley, 2008; Wieberg and Wescott, 2008). However, differentiating perimortem from postmortem events is not always possible. The Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (2011) guidelines provide recommendations for interpreting perimortem trauma, with the understanding that “perimortem” more accurately reflects the interval of time when bone still exhibits the biomechanical properties of wet bone. Forensic casework conducted through the Human Identification Laboratory at California State University – Chico commonly involves the postmortem assessment of skeletonized remains from rural outdoor scenes, often recovered months or years following death. A smaller proportion of the casework involves analysis of decomposed remains from more recent deaths, which are examined following autopsy by a medical examiner. This chapter presents a case study from northern California that involved the assessment of both antemortem and perimortem blunt force trauma

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in decomposed human remains. This case study demonstrates the value of detailed assessments of skeletal trauma patterns, including evaluation of potential mechanisms of injury, impact sequences, and biomechanical forces. The skeletal findings in this case contradicted a witness statement regarding the nature of the trauma, and provided essential details regarding the circumstances surrounding death.

Case background In May 2006, law enforcement responded to a call reporting the discovery of human remains within a grove of trees behind a rural residence in northern California. The decomposed body, clothed in jeans and a T-shirt, had been partially exposed from a shallow grave by scavengers. Following the recovery by law enforcement, the remains were transferred to a medical examiner’s office in a nearby county for autopsy. The author was invited to attend the autopsy and to provide a preliminary assessment of the biological profile, note evidence of skeletal trauma, and assist with the removal of bulk soft tissue. The left radius was removed and submitted for DNA testing. After autopsy, the remains were transferred to the Human Identification Laboratory at California State University – Chico for analysis. The inventory revealed a nearly complete skeleton, missing only a portion of the right side of the skull and several hand phalanges (Figure 5.1). No evidence of carnivore scavenging was noted on the skeleton.

Biological profile The biological profile assessment suggested the decedent was a 20- to 35-year-old White male with a stature of 5 ft, 8 ± 3.1 in. (173 ± 8 cm). Sex was estimated based primarily on morphological features of the pelvis and skull (Phenice, 1969; Walker, 2005; Bass, 2005; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). Adult skeletal age indicators suggested an age interval of approximately 20–35 years (I¸scan et al., 1984; Lovejoy et al., 1985; Brooks and Suchey, 1990; Katz and Suchey, 1990; Osborne et al., 2004). Ancestry assessment based on both metric and morphoscopic assessment of the skull classified the decedent’s skull as a White male (Gill and Rhine, 1990;

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Figure 5.1 Case skeleton laid out in

anatomical position. Note: left radius was sampled for DNA testing and is not pictured.

Sauer and Wankmiller, 2009; Jantz and Ousley, 2005). Stature was estimated at 5 ft, 8 ± 3.1 in. (173 ± 8 cm) (95% prediction interval) based on a formula for twentieth century White males.

Antemortem trauma Antemortem trauma was observed on two skeletal elements and was carefully documented for potential evidentiary value in personal identification. Both fractures show evidence of displacement but are well-healed, indicating that they occurred several months or years prior to death (Sauer, 1998).

Right tibia On the right tibia, there is a well-healed depressed tibial plateau fracture on the posterior one-third of the lateral condyle (Figure 5.2). Tibial

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(a)

(b)

Figure 5.2 (a) Superior view and (b) posterior view of right tibial plateau. Note the

healed, depressed fracture on the posterior lateral condyle (see arrows).

plateau fractures may occur due to axial compression and/or medial or lateral forces directed toward the knee (Galloway, 1999). As the lateral condyle is smaller, more elevated, and weaker compared with the medial condyle, it is more susceptible to fracture, especially due to compression and shearing forces between the distal femur and tibial plateau (Watson and Schatzker, 1992). Classified as a Type III fracture based on the Schatzker system (Schatzker and McBroom, 1979; Schatzker, 1988), these injuries are more common among older individuals who have a history of osteoporosis, but may also occur in sports injuries (Watson and Schatzker, 1992). Although well-healed, the stepped appearance of the depressed fracture indicates some inferior displacement of the posterior aspect of the lateral condyle. Treatment for tibial plateau fractures varies depending on the location, severity, and age of the patient, and can be treated surgically or immobilized in a cast to allow healing (Watson and Schatzker, 1992). In this case, the depressed fracture does not appear to have been treated through surgical intervention.

Right hand On the right hand, there is evidence of a well-healed fracture of the fifth metacarpal (Figure 5.3), classically referred to as a “Boxer’s fracture” (Jupiter et al., 1992; Galloway, 1999). The diaphysis shows evidence of angulation at the midshaft. Fractures of the fifth metacarpal most commonly occur transversely at the neck (Galloway, 1999) and often result from a direct impact on the metacarpal head with the hand in a clenched position, such as making a fist (Jupiter et al., 1992).

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Figure 5.3 Left and right fifth metacarpal. Note the angulated “Boxer’s fracture”

(lower image) compared with the unaffected contralateral side (upper image).

Perimortem trauma All skeletal elements were carefully examined for evidence of perimortem trauma and taphonomic alterations. Perimortem trauma was observed on the cranial vault, facial skeleton, and thorax. These fractures show evidence of displacement, as well as a wet bone response, consistent with perimortem trauma (Sauer, 1998; Galloway, 1999).

Skull There is evidence of at least two blunt impacts on the right temporal bone (Figure 5.4). Linear fractures radiate away from the first impact area, with small fracture lines propagating in an anterior, posterior, and inferior direction. These fracture lines extend for approximately 6 cm (anterior–posterior) and only affect the external table. A second, much larger fracture bisects the first fracture series indicating that it occurred after the first impact. This fracture line propagates postero-superiorly for approximately 5 cm and terminates at the squamosal suture. A smaller fracture deviates from this fracture line (inferior to the squamosal suture) and travels postero-superiorly for approximately 7 cm along the right parietal toward the sagittal suture. The large fracture line associated with the second impact area also propagates inferiorly, traversing the cranial

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(a)

(b)

Figure 5.4 (a) Right lateral view of cranium showing linear fractures radiating away

from impact sites on temporal bone. (b) Close-up of impact sites. Note the two sets of radiating fractures. The larger linear fracture (large arrow) is most likely associated with a second impact as it propagates through the smaller fracture lines (small arrows).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 5.5 (a) Basilar (inferior) view of cranium showing reinserted cranial base

fragment (see arrows). (b) Posterior view of cranium showing the displaced cranial base fragment (i.e., ring fracture). (c) Diagram showing fractures and fragmentation of the basilar (inferior) portion of the skull. Note the extent of plastic deformation, which prevented proper alignment of the cranial base with the skull.

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(b)

Figure 5.6 (a) Left lateral view of cranium showing linear fracture radiating from

the cranial base through the external acoustic meatus (see arrow). (b) This fracture propagates through the left temporal bone and terminates at the squamosal suture.

base (Figure 5.5). This fracture travels along the margin of the external acoustic meatus, and terminates at the squamosal suture of the left temporal (Figure 5.6). The second impact completely displaced the cranial base from the rest of the vault, with fracture lines passing through the sphenoid and basilar suture region anteriorly and the foramen magnum posteriorly (i.e., a ring fracture). The cranial base shows evidence of an externally beveled fracture margin and plastic deformation (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Kroman et al., 2011). The separated cranial base portion could not be reconstructed due to the extent of plastic deformation. In addition to the cranial vault fractures, there is evidence of significant fragmentation of the right side of the face (Figure 5.7). Fracture lines on the right side of the skull were observed along the frontal process of the zygomatic bone, the alveolar process of the maxilla, the orbital surface of the sphenoid, the nasal conchae, the nasal, the lacrimal, the vomer, the ethmoid, and the mandibular body (Figure 5.8). Although several tiny facial bone fragments were examined, the majority could not be reconstructed. The posterior one-third of the mandibular body and ramus were not recovered by law enforcement. The right maxillary first and second premolars and the right mandibular first molar were also fractured at the cervical–enamel junction. The crown of the right second premolar was reconstructed (Figure 5.8); however, the crowns associated with the other fractured teeth were not recovered. The extent of

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(a)

(b)

Figure 5.7 (a), and (b) Anterior view of cranium showing trauma to the right side of

the face.

Figure 5.8 Right lateral view

showing fragmentation of facial skeleton.

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fragmentation of the right side of the face appears to have occurred in conjunction with the cranial vault trauma.

Thorax The thorax shows evidence of perimortem fractures of right ribs 6–9. Right ribs 6 and 7 show evidence of incomplete buckle fractures on their superior surfaces, approximately 7 cm from the sternal end (Figures 5.9 and 5.10). Right rib 8 shows evidence of a spiral fracture, approximately 12 cm from the sternal end (Figure 5.11). Right rib 9 shows evidence

Figure 5.9 Superior view of buckle fracture to right rib 6 (see arrow).

Figure 5.10 Superior view of buckle fracture to right rib 7 (see arrow).

Figure 5.11 Anterior view of buckle fractures and spiral fractures in right ribs 7–9

(see arrows).

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of an incomplete fracture along the anterior and inferior surface, 10 cm from the sternal end, with evidence of a buckling fracture on the posterior surface (Figure 5.11). When articulated, the fractures on all four of these ribs may have occurred from a single traumatic impact distributed over a broad area of the right thorax.

Trauma interpretation Craniofacial trauma Blunt force trauma to the head is commonly fatal, especially when accompanied by skull fracture (Jones, 1997; Galloway, 1999; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). Severe blows to the head caused by blunt objects, such as baseball bats, tire irons, or hammers, often result in cerebral lacerations, contusions, and hemorrhage (DiMaio and DiMaio, 2001; Fenton et al., 2003; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). Owing to the high degree of lethality associated with blunt force injuries to the head, the skull has received significant attention in both the forensic and medical literature (Galloway, 1999). Early studies by Gurdjian and colleagues (Gurdjian and Lissner, 1945; Gurdjian et al., 1947, 1949, 1950a, 1950b) investigated the biomechanics of skull fracture. This research was often conducted on dry skulls that were covered in a thick layer of “stress-coat” and impact devices were used to generate skull fractures. Gurdjian et al.’s (1947, 1950a) research suggested that blunt impacts produced inbending of the vault, with fracture initiation occurring away from the impact site at areas of outbending. Under this model, cranial vault fractures radiate from the area of outbending toward the impact site (Willinger et al., 1999; Raul et al., 2006; Coats and Margulies, 2007). This paradigm remained largely unquestioned until the 1990s, when it was re-evaluated in light of more current research (Smith et al., 1991). Recent biomechanical experiments conducted on partially fleshed cadaver heads of adult individuals also failed to support the model (Kroman, 2007; Kroman et al., 2011). Instead, fracture initiation occurred at the impact site, with radiating fractures propagating away from the epicenter. More recent research has examined skull fractures in infant porcine skulls to simulate fracture properties in human infants (Baumer et al., 2009, 2010). In these experiments, fracture initiation occurred away from the impact site, with fractures radiating toward the impact site as found by Gurdjian and colleagues. This may indicate that infant cranial bone responds differently under load than adult cranial

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bone; however, additional research is needed to further validate these patterns, especially as they are based on animal models (Passalacqua and Fenton, 2012). In this case study, the right temporal bone shows evidence of at least two lateral blunt force impacts. These fractures could be sequenced based on two separate fracture series, with the larger linear fracture bisecting the smaller pre-existing fracture series (Madea and Staak, 1988; Rhine and Curran, 1990; Spitz and Fisher, 1993). As the temporal bone is thinner than the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones, the human skull is more compliant in a lateral direction compared with an anterior–posterior direction, making it more susceptible to fracture (Galloway, 1999; Yoganandan and Pintar, 2004; Youman, 1996). Fractures were absent in the thicker, more buttressed areas of the skull in this case, as expected based on existing literature (Moritz, 1954; Rogers, 1982; Berryman and Symes, 1988; Berryman and Haun, 1996; Hart, 2005). Concentric fractures, which may occur with both blunt force and projectile trauma, were not observed (Galloway, 1999). The larger second fracture series resulted in the inferior displacement of the cranial base, with an externally beveled fracture margin and plastic deformation (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Kroman et al., 2011). Cranial base fractures of this nature are typically classified as ring fractures and may partially or completely encircle the foramen magnum, propagating through the sella turcica or through the petrous portions of the temporals (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Ta’ala et al., 2006). These fractures have been reproduced experimentally with lateral impacts to the skull (Spitz and Fisher, 1993; Schuknecht and Graetz, 2005; Kroman, 2007; Kroman et al., 2011), although fractures to the cranial base may also result from a blow to the anterior skull, compression of the spine (Galloway, 1999), or the mandible being forcefully driven against the base of the skull (Rogers, 1982; Berryman and Symes, 1998; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). One important characteristic of ring fractures is that the cranial base is often disassociated with the site of impact (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Ta’ala et al., 2006). The degree of plastic deformation and presence of rough fracture margins in this case study are consistent with slow-load blunt force trauma (Kulin et al., 2008). Fractures to the right side of the face in this case are complex and more difficult to interpret. The majority of the trauma to the facial skeleton is likely associated with the lateral impacts to the right side of the vault; however, some of the smaller facial fractures may have

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occurred indirectly from increased intracranial pressure associated with the impacts to the cranial vault (Jones, 1997).

Thoracic trauma In addition to the craniofacial trauma, the decedent also exhibited multiple rib fractures on the right thorax (ribs 6–9). These fractures are all located toward the sternal end and may have occurred due to a single impact to the right thorax. Rib fractures can result from falls, accidents, and direct blows to the thorax, with ribs 6–8 being the most commonly affected (Galloway, 1999). The effects of biomechanical forces to the human thorax are complex and poorly understood, and experimental research has primarily focused on the behavior of individual ribs under load (Daegling et al., 2008). As the thorax includes the rib cage, sternum, and vertebral column, it is more difficult to isolate specific biomechanical properties that influence fracture initiation (Kroman, 2007; Love and Symes, 2004). Daegling et al. (2008) impacted several individual ribs tested under the same conditions and were able to produce a range of fractures (e.g., transverse, spiral, butterfly, and buckle). In some cases, the external rib surface failed first (under tension), while in others, spiral fractures occurred due to a combination of compression and torsion (Daegling et al., 2008). Love and Symes (2004) hypothesized that thin-walled ribs buckle due to compressive instability and produce a pattern different than that typically found in long bone fractures. More research is clearly needed to better understand the influence of different biomechanical forces on the human thorax. In this case study, incomplete, buckle, and spiral fractures were all observed among four sequential ribs, consistent with one or more impacts to the right thorax.

Case resolution The decedent was identified as a 26-year-old White male, with a reported stature of 5 ft, 10 in. (∼168 cm). This was consistent with the biological profile, which suggested a 20- to 35-year-old White male, with a stature of 5 ft, 8 ± 3.1 in. (173 ± 8 cm). The decedent had recently moved to the area and was reported missing when he failed to contact family members in late December of the previous year. The decedent was identified through dental records and DNA testing. Additional information revealed the decedent has previously sustained fractures to the right hand and right knee – the latter caused by a prior high school football

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injury. Although death occurred 4 months prior to discovery of the body, toxicological analyses of preserved soft tissues and bodily fluids suggested the decedent was under the influence of alcohol and methamphetamine around the time of death. During the investigation, law enforcement discovered that the decedent and the suspect had attended a party where they consumed methamphetamine and alcohol. Later that evening, a friend of the suspect informed him that the decedent may be an undercover police officer. Based on this information, the suspect lured the decedent to a relative’s property under the ruse of obtaining additional illicit drugs. The suspect later confided in a friend that he had shot and killed the decedent with a high-caliber hunting rifle after a physical altercation on his relative’s property. The suspect was confronted with these witness statements, which were inconsistent with the physical evidence on the remains. This led to speculation that the decedent may have instead been beaten with the blunt end of a rifle, which could explain the blunt force injuries to the right side of the skull and to the thorax. No murder weapon was identified, although the trauma analysis suggested an implement that likely had a large focus based on the absence of patterned injuries. To avoid a trial primarily based on circumstantial evidence, the suspect accepted a plea bargain of voluntary manslaughter. Despite having killed someone he believed to be an undercover police officer, he only received a 3-year prison sentence and probation. However, he received an additional 10-year sentence for attempting to smuggle illicit drugs into the Department of Corrections during a transfer for a county facility.

Conclusions This case study highlights the importance of detailed trauma assessments in the investigation of violent and suspicious deaths. Antemortem trauma observed in this case matched information in a missing persons record and played a role in the early stages of the investigation. Although there are several unresolved questions in this case, the skeleton provided a record of at least two blunt force impacts to the right side of the skull and at least one impact to the right thorax. This information played an important role in the plea bargain and contradicted statements the suspect made to a witness regarding the circumstances surrounding the death of the decedent. As the role of the forensic anthropologist in trauma analysis continues to evolve, it is important to acknowledge the challenges and limitations of our current understanding of fracture biomechanics.

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Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge Dr. Susan Comfort of Shasta County Sheriff’s Office and Karen Cebra for their assistance with this case. Additionally, he thanks Dr. Nicholas Passalacqua and Christopher Rainwater for the invitation to contribute a chapter to this volume.

References Bass, W.M. (2005) Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual, 5th edn. Special Publication No. 2. Missouri Archaeological Society, Columbia, MO. Baumer, T., Powell, B., Fenton, T., and Haut, R. (2009) Age dependent mechanical properties of the infant porcine skull and a correlation to the human. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 131, 111006. Baumer, T., Passalacqua, N.V., Powell, B., Newberry, W., Smith, W., Fenton, T., and Haut, R. (2010) Age-dependent fracture characteristics of rigid and compliant surface impacts on the infant skull – a porcine model. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 55, 993–997. Berryman, H.E. and Haun, S.J. (1996) Applying forensic techniques to interpret cranial fracture patterns in an archaeological specimen. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 6, 2–9. Berryman, H.E. and Symes, S.A. (1998) Recognizing gunshot and blunt cranial trauma through fracture interpretation, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd edn (ed. K.J. Reichs), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 333–352. Brooks, S.T. and Suchey, J.M. (1990) Skeletal age determination based on the os pubis: a comparison of the Acsádi–Nemeskéri and Suchey–Brooks methods. Human Evolution, 5, 227–238. Buikstra, J.E. and Ubelaker, D.H. (eds) (1994) Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research, Fayetteville, AR. Coats, B. and Margulies, S.S. (2007) Parametric study of head impacts in the infant. Stapp Car Crash Journal, 51, 1–15. Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community (2009) Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. The National Academies Press, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Curry, J.D. (1970) The mechanical properties of bone. Clinical Orthopedics and Research, 73, 210–231. Daegling, D.J., Warren, M.W., Hotzman, J.L., and Self, C.J. (2008) Structural analysis of human rib fracture and implications for forensic interpretation. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 53, 1301–1307. DiMaio, D. and DiMaio, V. (2001) Forensic Pathology, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Dirkmaat, D.C., Cabo, L.L., Ousley, S.D., and Symes, S.A. (2008) New perspectives in forensic anthropology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 51, 33–52. Fenton, T.W., deJong, J.L., and Haut, R.C. (2003) Punched with a fist: the etiology of a fatal depressed cranial fracture. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 48, 1–5.

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Galloway, A. (ed.) (1999) Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Gill, G.W. and Rhine, S. (1990) Skeletal Attribution of Race: Methods for Forensic Anthropology. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM. Gurdjian, E. and Lissner, H. (1945) Deformation of the skull in head injury: a study with the “stresscoat” technique. Surgery, Gynecology, and Obstetrics, 81, 679–687. Gurdjian, E., Lissner, H., and Webster, J. (1947) The mechanism of production of linear skull fractures. Surgery, Gynecology, and Obstetrics, 85, 195–210. Gurdjian, E., Webster, J., and Lissner, H. (1949) Studies on skull fracture with particular reference to engineering factors. American Journal of Surgery, 78, 736–742. Gurdjian, E., Webster, J., and Lissner, H. (1950a) The mechanism of skull fracture. Journal of Neurosurgery, 7, 106–114. Gurdjian, E., Webster, J., and Lissner, H. (1950b) The mechanism of skull fracture. Radiology, 54, 313–338. Harkness, J.W., Ramsey, W.C., and Ahmadi, B. (1984) Principles of fractures and dislocations, in Fractures in Adults, vol. 1 (eds D.A. Rockwood and D.P. Green), Lippincott, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 1–18. Hart, G. (2005) Fracture pattern interpretation in the skull: differentiating blunt force from ballistics trauma using concentric fractures. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 50, 1276–1281. I¸scan, M.Y., Loth, S.R., and Wright, R.K. (1984) Metamorphosis at the sternal rib end: a new method to estimate age at death in white males. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 65, 147–156. Jantz, R.L. and Ousley, S.D. (2005) FORDISC 3: Computerized Forensic Discriminant Functions. Version 3.0., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Jones, N. (1997) Craniofacial Trauma: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Jupiter, J.B., Axelrod, T.S., and Belsky, M.R. (1992) Fractures and dislocations of the hand, in Skeletal Trauma: Fractures, Dislocations, Ligamentous Injuries, 2nd edn (eds B.D. Browner, J.B. Jupiter, A.M. Levine, and P.G. Trafton), Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 1225–1342. Katz, D. and Suchey, J.M. (1986) Age determination of the male os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 69, 427–435. Keaveny, T. and Hayes, W. (1993) Mechanical properties of cortical and trabecular bone, in Bone (ed. B. Hall), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 285–344. Komar, D.A. and Buikstra, J.E. (2008) Forensic Anthropology: Contemporary Theory and Practice. Oxford University Press, New York. Kroman, A.M. (2007) Fracture biomechanics of the human skeleton. Dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Kroman, A., Kress, T., and Porta, D. (2011) Fracture propagation in the human cranium: a re-testing of popular theories. Clinical Anatomy, 24, 309–318. Kulin, R.M., Jiang, F., and Vecchio, K.S. (2008) Aging and loading rate effects on the mechanical behavior of equine bone. Journal of Minerals, Metals and Materials, 6, 39–44.

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Love, J.C. and Symes, S.A. (2004) Understanding rib fracture patterns: incomplete and buckle fractures. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 49, 1153–1158. Lovejoy, C., Meindl, R., Pryzbeck, T., and Mensforth, R. (1985) Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68, 15–28. Madea, B. and Staak, M. (1988) Determination of the sequence of gunshot wounds to the skull. Journal of Forensic Science Society, 28, 321–328. Marks, M.K., Hudson, J.W., and Elkins, S.K. (1999) Craniofacial fractures: collaboration spells success, in Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma (ed. A. Galloway), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 258–286. Moritz, A.R. (1954) The Pathology of Trauma, 2nd edn. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. Nordin, M. and Frankel, V. (eds) (2001) Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. Osborne, D.L., Simmons, T.L., and Nawrocki, S.P. (2004) Reconsidering the auricular surface as an indicator of age at death. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 49, 905–911. Passalacqua, N.V. and Fenton, T.W. (2012) Developments in forensic anthropology: blunt force trauma, in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.C. Dirkmaat), Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 400–412. Phenice, T.W. (1969) A newly developed visual method of sexing the os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 30, 297–302. Raul, J.S., Baumgartner, D., Willinger, R., and Ludes, B. (2006) Finite element modelling of human head injuries caused by a fall. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 120, 212–218. Rhine, J.S. and Curran, B.K. (1990) Multiple gunshot wounds of the head: an anthropological view. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 35, 1236–1245. Rogers, L.F. (1982) Radiology of Skeletal Trauma. Churchill Livingstone, New York. Sauer, N. (1998) The timing of injuries and manner of death: distinguishing among antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem trauma, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd edn (ed. K.J. Reichs), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 321–332. Sauer, N.J. and Wankmiller, J.C. (2009) The assessment of ancestry and the concept of race, in Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology (eds S. Blau and D.H. Ubelaker), Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 187–200. Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (2011) Trauma Analysis. http//swganth.startlogic.com/Trauma%20Rev0.pdf. Schatzker, J. (1988) Fractures of the tibial plateau, in Rationale of Operative Fracture Care (eds J. Schatzker and M. Tile), Springer, Berlin, pp. 279–295. Schatzker, J. and McBroom, R. (1979) Tibial plateau fractures: the Toronto experience, 1968–1975. Clinical Orthopaedics, 138, 94–104. Schuknecht, B. and Graetz, K. (2005) Radiologic assessment of maxillofacial, mandibular, and skull base trauma. European Radiology, 15, 560–568. Shkrum, M.J. and Ramsay, D.A. (2007) Forensic Pathology of Trauma: Common Problems for the Pathologist. Human Press, Totowa, NJ.

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Smith, O.C., Berryman, H.E., Symes, S.A., and Moore, S.J. (1991) Bone fracture I: the physics of fractures, presented to the 43rd Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Anaheim, CA. Spitz, W.U. (1993) Spitz and Fisher’s Medicolegal Investigation of Death, 3rd edn. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Ta’ala, S.C., Berg, G.E., and Haden, K. (2006) Blunt force cranial trauma in the Cambodian killing fields. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 51, 996–1001. Turner, C. and Burr, D. (1993) Basic biomechanical measurements of bone. Bone, 14, 595–608. Ubelaker, D.H. and Adams, B.J. (1995) Differentiation of perimortem and postmortem trauma using taphonomic indicators. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 40, 509–512. Walker, P.L. (2005) Greater sciatic notch morphology: sex, age, and population differences. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 127, 385–391. Watson, J.T. and Schatzker, J. (1992) Tibial plateau fractures, in Skeletal Trauma: Fractures, Dislocations, Ligamentous Injuries, 2nd edn (eds B.D. Browner, J.B. Jupiter, A.M. Levine, and P.G. Trafton), Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 2143–2186. Wieberg, D.J. and Wescott, D.A.M. (2008) Estimating the timing of long bone fractures: correlation between the postmortem interval, bone moisture content, and blunt force trauma characteristics. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 53, 1028–1034. Wheatley, B.P. (2008) Perimortem or postmortem bone fracture? An experimental study of fracture patterns in deer femora. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 53, 69–72. Willinger, R., Kang, H.S., and Diaw, B. (1999) Three-dimensional human head finite-element model validation against two experimental impacts. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 27, 403–410. Yoganandan, N. and Pintar, F.A. (2004) Biomechanics of temporo-parietal skull fracture. Clinical Biomechanics, 19, 225–239. Youman, J. (1996) Neurological Surgery. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.

CHAPTER 6

Patterns of skeletal trauma inflicted during the Spanish Civil War Nicholas V. Passalacqua, Ciarán Brewster, Marina Martínez de Pinillos González, and José Miguel Carretero Díaz

Introduction In this chapter, we will discuss patterns of trauma to a group of individuals executed during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and highlight three individuals as exemplars. The goal of the chapter is to highlight patterns of trauma on male individuals as a result of state-sponsored violence. These patterns of skeletal trauma may be used to suggest circumstances that preceded execution, as well as the cause and manner of death of individuals lacking contextual information. Furthermore, unique patterns of trauma on a single individual may be significant in terms of identifying those remains or in prosecuting those responsible based on possible witness accounts (Ríos et al., 2010).

The Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War began in 1936 as a result of a military coup led by General Francisco Franco and other right-wing officers. The civil war lasted until 1939 when the Nationalists (led by Franco) assumed control of Spain, resulting in the Franco dictatorship that ended with his death in 1975. State-sanctioned violence did not end with the Spanish Civil War, but continued into the 1950s (González-Rubial, 2007). Estimates suggest as many as 150, 000 individuals were killed by the regime, while many others were subjected to forced labor or imprisoned for life (Juliá, 1999).

Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Unlike some Central and South American countries, such as Chile, Guatemala, and Argentina, where individuals have been prosecuted as war criminals for similar atrocities as those committed during the Spanish Civil War, it was mandated in 1977 that all persons involved in crimes committed during Franco’s rule were to be exonerated, in order to alleviate mounting social tensions (Reig Tapia, 1999; González-Rubial, 2007). This amnesty law granted immunity from prosecution to those who had committed crimes during the Spanish Civil War and the subsequent dictatorship. Due to the lack of legal recourse, recovery efforts have focused primarily on individuation and identification rather than evidence collection (in general, see Haglund, 2002). Most killings were committed by Nationalists near their victims’ homes in small numbers (one to ten victims) (González-Rubial, 2007). Before exhumation, historical records and witness statements were employed in order to locate the mass graves and develop a list of possible missing persons that could be located in the grave (Etxeberria, 2012; also in general, see Schmitt, 2002). After recovery, many of the individuals exhumed from these mass graves were identified through DNA analysis, after using witness statements, historical records, and biological profiles to narrow the list of potential matches (Ríos et al., 2010). Over the last few decades, next of kin have been increasingly attempting to reclaim the bodies of those who were killed and buried in mass graves after the 1936 military coup. Previously, when a family member wanted to recover the remains of a relative, it was done in an unorganized, clandestine way. This typically involved the unsystematic digging and retrieval of bones, which were often commingled, making it difficult to ascertain if the remains belonged to the individuals in question. The first systematic investigation designed to recover remains of individuals that were shot during the Spanish Civil War took place in Priaranza Del Bierzo (León) in 2000. This operation was a turning point in the exhumation and identification processes of human remains in Spain, as different specialists in the fields of forensic anthropology, archeology, and paleopathology worked together under an archaeological methodology, never before used for this type of excavation. These efforts brought about the development of several associations, including Foro por la Memoria and Asociación para la Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica, which aimed to create and assist in legislative, administrative, and judicial measures required to proceed in the recovery and identification of those missing from the Spanish Civil War.

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Materials The present sample of individuals (n = 40) was recovered from the Monte Costaján mass graves excavated in 2003 and 2004 near the village of Aranda de Duero, in the south of the province of Burgos, in the autonomous community of Castilla and León, Spain (Figure 6.1; Martínez de Pinillos González, 2011). In early September 2003, José María Rojas and Restituto Velasco decided to search for as many mass graves as possible near Aranda de Duero. With the help of two residents, they discovered the remains of a young man shot and buried in the area, which facilitated in their gaining permission to start the process of excavating and studying the numerous mass graves around the village. The circumstances that led to the discovery of the first remains made the local authorities aware of the importance of cooperating in the recovery and preservation of the memory of those who were killed and buried in the area. As a result, a registry was opened in which the families of people who had disappeared could apply for the exhumation of their missing relatives’ remains in order to transfer them to a cemetery. Later in 2003, a research team from the Laboratory of Human Evolution at the University of Burgos, under the direction of one of the current authors (J.M.C.D.) began excavations of the first mass grave in Aranda de Duero. Given the significance and the public awareness of the situation, an agreement was signed the following year between the local government of Aranda de Duero, the University of Burgos, and a construction company, with the aim of locating additional mass graves in the area. This research focused

Figure 6.1 Location of Aranda de Duero, Burgos, Spain. Source: Martínez de

Pinillos González (2011).

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on one of these mass graves, Monte Costaján, from which a total of 84 individuals were recovered; however, only a subsample of these individuals was available for trauma analysis. All individuals that were analyzed were male, ranging from approximately 15 to 56 years of age. The execution of these individuals occurred in 1936, during the initial stages of the Spanish Civil War. These remains have since been reburied and identification efforts using DNA are ongoing.

Examples of trauma from Monte Costaján Case 1 • • • •

Total number of gunshot wounds: 2 Minimum number of ballistic impacts to skull: 2 Minimum number of ballistic impacts to postcranium: 0 Presence of blunt trauma: No This individual was recovered from mass grave C in section VII, which archaeological interpretation indicates as corresponding to the seventh round of shooting (Figure 6.2). The individual was found in a south–north orientation and covered by the feet of another individual. The limbs were flexed and the hands appeared to have been tied prior to burial. Next to the remains were some pieces of brown cloth with black lines (Figure 6.3a), a vest buckle (Figure 6.3b), and a few clothing-related bracket fragments (Figure 6.3c).

Trauma analysis The individual exhibits two gunshot wounds to the cranium, resulting in four ballistic defects (Figures 6.4 and 6.5). The first defect (A) is a small rectangular intrusion with no internal bevel and minor external

Figure 6.2 Diagram of mass grave C separated into the different rounds of shootings

(modified from Cristóbal Villanueva, 2003). Black circle indicates location of Case 1.

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(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6.3 Materials recovered with Case 1: brown cloth (a), belt buckle (b), and

bracket fragments (c).

bevel on the posterior-inferior portion. The entrance suggests the bullet impacted tangentially into the skull and that the direction was from superior to inferior and from anterior to posterior. The second defect (B) is an externally beveled circular defect and part of it presents a discontinuous section, which suggests that previous fractures had interrupted this region of bone before defect B occurred. The third defect (C) appears to be located in the right portion of the occipital, next to the right occipital condyle; however, portions of the bone in this region are absent, obscuring the full nature of the defect. The fourth defect (D) is irregular, and shows both external (medio-posterior portion) and internal bevels (anterior portion). The irregularity, as well as the size of this defect, suggest it is an exit defect, with the bevel suggesting a direction of right to left, inferior to superior, and anterior to posterior. The fracture patterns resulting from the ballistic impacts suggest that defects B and D came from A and C, respectively. Based on intersecting fractures, it appears that defect A occurred first, with associated fractures reaching the opposite side of the skull before the bullet exited at B. Defect C occurred thereafter causing further fractures, explaining the irregular appearance of defect D. Additionally, based on the direction of the bevel of the defects, it would appear most likely that A and B are associated, while C and D are associated. It is unlikely that defect D was caused by defect A as the angle is extreme and the direction suggested by the

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Figure 6.4 Available views of the cranium of Case 1.

bevel indicates otherwise, allowing us to think that defect D was probably caused by a shot under the right side of the chin. There is no damage to the mandible that may assist in determining a possible trajectory for the projectile. However, of note is the presence of an inverted molar on the left inferior portion of the mandibular body (Figure 6.6).

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Figure 6.5 Diagram of trauma to the cranium of Case 1.

Case 2 • • • •

Total number of gunshot wounds: 1 Minimum number of ballistic impacts to skull: 1 Minimum number of ballistic impacts to postcranium: 0 Presence of blunt trauma: No As in the previous case, this individual was recovered from mass grave C in section VI, which corresponds to the sixth round of shooting (Figure 6.7). The individual was found in a supine position on top of

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Figure 6.6 Inferior view of the mandible of Case 1, exhibiting inverted molar.

Figure 6.7 Diagram of mass grave C separated into the different rounds of shootings;

modified from Cristobal Villanueva (2003). Black circle indicates location of Case 2.

another individual and had an east–west orientation. The limbs were spread out except for the right arm, which was flexed with the hand on the lumbar vertebrae. Next to the remains were some different types of buttons (Figure 6.8a), a small piece of a bullet (Figure 6.8b), and a few clothing-related bracket fragments (Figure 6.8c).

Trauma analysis Case 2 consists of an individual that exhibits a single gunshot wound to the cranium (Figures 6.9 and 6.10). The entrance defect (A) is located on the right temporal and sphenoid bones. The path of the projectile from the entrance wound on the right of the cranium is somewhat tangential with a direction from right to left, inferior to superior, and posterior to anterior. Three large fractures radiate from the entrance wound.

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(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6.8 Materials recovered with Case 2: buttons (a), piece of a bullet (b), and

bracket fragments (c).

Figure 6.9 Available views of the cranium of Case 2.

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Figure 6.10 Diagram of trauma to the cranium of Case 2.

One fracture radiates posteriorly through the temporal, terminating in the occipital; another fracture radiates superiorly to the left passing through both parietal bones, the left sphenoid, and continues into the facial bones; the other large entrance fracture radiates anteriorly into the facial bones. The corresponding exit defect (B) is located on the left portion of the frontal bone. The left exit wound exhibits outward

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bevel and small radiating fractures, one of which terminates into a larger radiating fracture in the parietal originating from the entrance wound. Postmortem damage is also present to the facial bones and along some of the larger radiating fracture margins.

Case 3 • • • •

Total number of gunshot wounds: 2 Minimum number of ballistic impacts to skull: 2 Minimum number of ballistic impacts to postcranium: 1 Presence of blunt trauma: No The individual was recovered from mass grave B in section I, which corresponds to the first round of shooting (Figure 6.11). The individual was found in a prone position, with east–west orientation, and overlying two other individuals. The limbs were spread out except for the right arm, which was flexed with the hand under the right shoulder. Next to the remains were shoe soles (Figure 6.12a), different types of buttons (Figure 6.12b), and a belt buckle and some clothing-related bracket fragments (Figure 6.12c).

Trauma analysis • Skull. There is evidence of two gunshot wounds – one to the cranium and another to the mandible. There is an entrance defect on the left side of the cranium, located on the inferior left portion of the frontal bone (Figure 6.13). The internal surface of this defect is beveled. There are radiating (but no concentric fractures) fractures associated with this defect. The exit wound that is associated with this entrance wound is located on the right temporal, superior-anterior to the mastoid process. The defect is externally beveled on the posterior and inferior surfaces, giving an indication of the angle of the shot. The gunshot wounds to

Figure 6.11 Diagram of mass grave B separated into the different rounds of

shootings (modified from Cristobal Villanueva, 2003). Black circle indicates location of Case 3.

Patterns of skeletal trauma inflicted during the Spanish Civil War (a)

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(b)

(c)

Figure 6.12 Materials recovered with Case 3: soles (a), buttons (b), belt buckle and

bracket fragments (c).

the cranium suggest a direction from left to right, anterior to posterior, and superior to inferior. The defect on the mandible is located at the right gonial angle. The defect does not have beveling on the external surface and is chipped on the internal surface, indicating an anterior to posterior direction. There are fractures radiating from the point of impact. • Vertebrae. The first four cervical vertebrae all exhibit fracturing at approximately the same location, the right transverse process. Additionally C2 (the axis) has a fracture to the right portion of the spinous process. The fractures to the vertebrae are likely associated with the mandibular fractures (see Figure 6.14 for direction of shot). The fractures to the mandible and vertebrae suggest a direction of right to left, superior to inferior, and anterior to posterior. The sequence of the gunshot wound could not be determined as there are no intersecting radiating fractures between the two impacts.

Patterns of skeletal trauma Most individuals (n = 31/40) exhibited gunshot trauma to the skull. Of these, most entrance defects were located on the left or posterior aspects

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Figure 6.13 Available views of the cranium of Case 3.

of the cranium. Only eight entrance defects occurred in the mandible, frontal, or facial bones. Seven individuals were shot a minimum two times, although we found no evidence of more than two gunshot wounds to any individuals. Gunshot trauma to the postcranium was only found in 11 individuals. Most postcranial gunshot trauma occurred in the pelvis (five of 11 individuals), although trauma was also found in the elements

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Figure 6.14 Diagram of trauma to the cranium of Case 3.

of the spine, ribs, humerii, and tibiae. Blunt force trauma was found on 12 individuals in this sample. In all cases the blunt force trauma occurred on either the cranium or ribs. Ríos et al. (2014) examined traumatic injuries in 363 individuals recovered from Spanish Civil War mass graves. The pattern of cranial trauma was similar to that observed in our own study, but the pattern for the

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postcranial skeleton was different. In the Monte Costaján sample, most postcranial injuries were found in the pelvis. In contrast, Ríos et al. (2014) found most postcranial trauma had occurred within the thorax (vertebrae, ribs, clavicles, scapulae, and sternum). The reason for this difference is currently unclear, but could be due to differences in preservation/recovery of the remains or method of execution. Note that green staining was present on many of the individuals in this sample (Figure 6.15). These stains are typically found on bone that has been in contact with materials made from copper or a copper alloy. The presence of copper staining on bone in mass grave scenarios is common as a result of the remains being in prolonged contact with material evidence, bullet fragments, or other copper-based materials.

Conclusions The Spanish Civil War may be directly responsible for the deaths of as many as 150, 000 individuals throughout Spain. While the process of recovering and identifying these individuals is ongoing, it was not until recently that organizations and institutions began to formalize these efforts. From the remains in the present sample from Monte Costaján, it is clear that most individuals were shot in the back of the head;

Figure 6.15 Example of green staining on a scapula as a result of prolonged exposure

to copper or a copper alloy. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)

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however, additional gunshot or blunt force trauma to the remains is not uncommon. This pattern of trauma is consistent with general witness statements regarding executions and with other attempts to examine traumatic patterns in Spanish Civil War remains (Ríos et al. 2014). Similar patterns of trauma found in other contexts suggest similar modes of execution and body disposal, and while lacking statistical validation here, other research by Congram et al. (2014) suggests that this pattern of trauma may be related to extrajudicial killings rather than court authorized executions.

References Congram, D., Passalacqua, N.V., and Ríos, L. (2014) Intersite analysis of victims of extra- and judicial execution in Civil War Spain: location and direction of perimortem gunshot trauma. The Annals of Anthropological Practice, 38 (1), 81–88. Cristóbal Villanueva, E. (2003) Estudio de las seis fosas comunes de la Guerra Civil (1936–1939) del término de Costaján “La Rastrilla” de Aranda de Duero, Burgos, in Memória Arqueológica, Laboratorio de Evolución Humana, Área de Paleontología, Universidad de Burgos. Etxeberria, G. (2012) Exhumaciones contemporaneas en Espana: las fosas comunes de la guerra civil. Boletin Galego de Medicina Legal y Forense, 18 (Enero), 17. González-Rubial, A. (2007) Making things public: archaeologies of the Spanish Civil War. Public Archaeology, 6 (4), 203–226. Haglund, W.D. (2002) Recent mass graves: an introduction, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 243–262. Juliá, S. (1999) Víctimas de la Guerra Civil. Temas de Hoy, Madrid. Martínez de Pinillos González, M. (2011) Técnicas forenses aplicadas al estudio de los restos biológicos exhumados de la fosa común del monte Costaján (Aranda de Duero, Burgos): acercamiento a un intento de identificatión. Thesis, Universidad de Burgos. Reig Tapia, A. (1999). Memoria de la Guerra Civil. Los Mitos de la Tribu. Alianza, Madrid. Ríos, L., Ignacio, J., Ovejero, C., and Puente Prieto, J. (2010) Identification process in mass graves from the Spanish Civil War I. Forensic Science International, 199, 27–36. Ríos, L., Garcia-Rubio, A., Martinez, B., Herrasti, L., and Etxeberria, F. (2014) Patterns of peri-mortem trauma in skeletons recovered from mass graves from the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), in The Routledge Handbook of the Bioarchaeology of Human Conflict (eds C. Knüsel and M.J. Smith), Routledge, London, pp. 621–640. Schmitt, S. (2002) Mass graves and the collection of forensic evidence: genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 292–297.

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Shot and beaten to death? Suspected projectile and blunt force trauma in a case involving an extended period of postmortem water immersion Hugo F.V. Cardoso, Katerina S. Puentes, and Luís F.N. Coelho

Introduction One of the key aspects of skeletal trauma analysis in a forensic context is determining when the traumatic event occurred relative to the moment of death, thereby identifying perimortem lesions that can be related to the cause and circumstances of death (Saur, 1998; Moraitis and Spiliopoulou, 2006; Symes et al., 2012). While the forensic pathologist defines the term perimortem as the process of death, from the onset of injury and/or disease to the cessation of somatic life, in forensic anthropology, the peri- and postmortem periods reflect the progress in tissue decomposition and changes in compositional characteristics of bone, and how those changes influence the response of bone tissue to external mechanical stress (Symes et al., 2012). Thus, the distinction between peri- and postmortem trauma depends not on whether the lesions can be said to have occurred at the time or about the time of death, but instead relies on the differences between bone that has an intact organic matrix (“green or fresh bone”) and bone that has lost at least part of that organic matrix to decomposition (“dry bone”) (Loe, 2009). Due to varying circumstances in decomposition rates, the time necessary for bone to become dry and lose “fresh bone” characteristics can extend for an indefinite period of time (Symes et al., 2012). As a consequence,

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determining whether a specific lesion was produced when the bone was “fresh” may not necessarily answer the question of whether that lesion occurred at or around the time of death. Potentially, this can result in a misunderstanding between the forensic anthropologist and the forensic pathologist. The distinction between fresh and dry bone fractures is usually based on the analysis of a variety of morphological features of the bone (Ubelaker and Adams, 1995; Galloway et al., 1999; Moraitis and Spiliopoulou, 2006; Wieberg and Wescott, 2008), which are strongly dictated by its condition prior to the fracture being produced. After death, the loss of moisture and organic material in bone affects its ability to resist stress, and so, fresh or “wet” and dry (decomposed) bone show different fracture morphologies (Symes et al., 2012). When subjected to a mechanical force, fresh bone, which is significantly more pliable and has more tensile strength than dried bone (Saur, 1998), will usually pass through an elastic and plastic phase prior to failure (Symes et al., 2012), and will tend to fail along a spiral or helical path and leave a fracture surface that is smooth and at an acute or obtuse angle to the bone’s cortical surface (Outram, 1998). Dried or unfresh bone may resist stress to a higher level, but failure occurs immediately at the end of the elastic phase or the beginning of the plastic phase (Symes et al., 2012). Thus, dry bone tends to fracture in straight lines, with the fracture surface at right angles to the bone’s cortical surface and rougher as a result of micro-cracks (Outram, 1998) and is more likely to shatter into small regular fragments (Saur, 1998). As taphonomic factors can have such a significant impact on bone decomposition (Ubelaker, 2006; Jaggers and Rogers, 2009), the rate at which bone loses organic and moisture content and becomes dry depends to a great extent on the postmortem environment (Saur, 1998). This means that the length of time required for bone to change its response to mechanical forces after death varies greatly depending upon the conditions to which bones are subjected (Moraitis and Spiliopoulou, 2006; Karr and Outram, 2012). This is perhaps most significant when decomposition occurs in aqueous environments. While it is generally assumed that decomposition in an aquatic environment occurs at a rate roughly half of that of decomposition occurring in sub-areal or surface terrestrial environments (Rodriguez, 2006), the current literature actually shows very scarce and conflicting results on how environmental water and humidity actually affects bone decomposition (Jaggers and Rogers, 2009). Decomposition has been described as accelerating or retarding depending on a number of independent factors, including

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water’s chemical characteristics (Gill-King, 2006), as well as human bodily factors, such as body weight and presence of trauma (Ayers, 2010). The lack of information about the effects of an aqueous decomposition environment on the loss or preservation of moisture and organic material in bone is key to the understanding of how bone can react to mechanical forces in the postmortem period when exposed to these environments. In practice, forensic anthropologists rely on thoughtful observation and consideration of taphonomic processes involved in order to accurately interpret skeletal trauma (Ubelaker and Adams, 1995; Moraitis and Spiliopoulou, 2006). Without a proper knowledge of the postmortem environment where the remains were found and its potential effects, interpretations about the timing of skeletal trauma can be extremely challenging. Exactly how the issues associated with distinguishing a fresh from a dry fracture convert into difficulties in determining whether a specific skeletal injury is the cause or contributing cause of death is often not known. This chapter describes a case of a violent death involving human remains in an advanced state of decomposition, where it appeared as if the victim had been shot and beaten to death. The aquatic decomposition environment and the circumstances in which the remains were initially found combined to create a situation where lesions produced in the postmortem period could have been mistaken for trauma leading or contributing to the cause of death, thus illustrating how these difficulties are translated into a real forensic case.

Case description In February 2011, a farmer working on his property in a rural area of northern Portugal, contacted the police regarding human remains he had found while clearing a pond used to collect rainwater for use at the farm. The farmer claimed to have discovered a human cranium while clearing the pond of vegetation overgrowth. Police authorities visited the site to investigate the claim and found a set of remains in an advanced state of decomposition, partly immersed and covered by vegetation. The remains were still clothed, and only the cranium and the bones of the left forearm were visible above the pond’s surface. The cranium and mandible were disarticulated, and the teeth had also fallen from their alveoli. Although partially buried in mud and covered with vegetation, the body appeared to be lying on its right side. The police officers on site proceeded to recover

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the remains with the aid of volunteers from the local fire brigade, as forensic recovery experts were not called to the scene. Once the remains were retrieved, the investigating officers immediately noted several cranial lesions suggestive of blunt force trauma. The remains were sent to the Forensic Pathology Department at the North Branch of the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences in Porto, Portugal, for examination. Although the remains were admitted to determine identification and investigate the cause and circumstances of death, no information or photos were provided by the police about the scene where the remains were found or the recovery process prior to the postmortem examination. During the postmortem examination, extensive saponification of soft tissues was observed. Only the cranium and the left forearm and hand were completely skeletonized. The remains were still fully clothed in heavy winter garments (Figure 7.1). Prior to maceration, whole-body radiographs were taken, which showed evidence of multiple pellets in the thorax, cranium, and upper limbs (Figure 7.2). After maceration, a complete inventory of the remains revealed an almost complete skeleton (Figure 7.3). Police investigation resulted in a potential identification, and the remains were promptly identified genetically. A subsequent detailed analysis of the skeletal trauma was performed by a forensic anthropologist and a forensic pathologist.

Figure 7.1 First examination of the remains, illustrating the state of decomposition

of the body.

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Figure 7.2 One of the radiographs taken, illustrating multiple lead pellets identified

in the torso region.

Figure 7.3 Overview of the remains after defleshing and maceration, laid out in

approximate anatomical position (composite photo).

Trauma analysis During the examination of the remains, the following skeletal lesions were identified: • Two cranial defects in the left parietal. • Three circular lesions in the facial skeleton. • Fracture of the body and acromion of the left scapula.

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• Fracture of the base of the superior articular facet/transverse process of the first thoracic vertebra. • Four circular lesions in the sternum. • Two circular lesions in the third right rib. • Fractures of the second, third, fourth, and sixth left ribs. • Comminuted defect in the fifth left metacarpal. The parietal defects refer to two depressed fractures shaped approximately as a triangle (Figure 7.4). The most anterior defect (C1) is slightly larger and shows several associated concentric fractures around the margins of the lesion. A vertical fracture line extends from this lesion to the spheno-temporal suture at the base of the cranium and traverses the external auditory canal on the left side. The other defect (C2) is located 35 mm posterior to the anterior defect and shows only two concentric fractures around the edges of the injury. Plastic deformation of bone can be seen around these injuries. A vertical fracture line also extends from this second lesion towards the base of the cranium, but it is horizontally deflected after 27 mm in length and terminates in the vertical fracture line of the first defect (Figure 7.5). This fracture line is more regular, stepped, and at right angles to the bone’s cortical surface when compared with

Figure 7.4 Detail of the two parietal depressed fractures shaped approximately as a

triangle. C1 is the most anterior and C2 the most posterior.

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Figure 7.5 Cranial lateral view, illustrating the position of the cranial fractures C1

and C2 and the deflected horizontal fracture line (see text for more details).

the other fractures. The color of the cortical bone in the margins of all fractures is similar to that of the bone surface. The remaining cranial injuries refer to two small circular lesions and a circular depressed fracture. One of the circular holes is 3.2 mm in diameter and is located in the right anterior maxilla just right of the infra-orbital foramen (Figure 7.6). The other circular hole is larger and more irregular, approximately 8.1 mm in diameter, and is located in the posterior right maxilla by the right spheno-maxillary suture. There are no concentric or radiating fractures associated with these injuries. The circular depressed fracture is located in the right frontal bone, approximately halfway between the frontal eminence and the midline. This lesion is 4.6 mm in diameter and shows metallic residue along its margins (Figure 7.7). There are also no concentric or radiating fractures leaving this injury. The two lesions of the left scapula include a complete fracture of the acromion process and an incomplete fracture of the body that extends from the superior third of the medial border to the supraspinous fossa. These fractures show an irregular outline, but their margins are lightly colored when compared with the bone surface. The first thoracic vertebra shows two incomplete fractures of the left and right pedicles/superior

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Figure 7.6 Anterior cranial view, illustrating the facial circular lesion located in the

right anterior maxilla, just right of the infra-orbital foramen. The inset provides a close-up detail of the lesion.

Figure 7.7 Circular depressed fracture located in the right frontal bone,

approximately halfway between the frontal eminence and the midline. Note metallic residue around the margins of the lesion.

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Figure 7.8 Anterior view of the sternum illustrating the two circular lesions located

on the left margin of the sternum body by the third rib notch (S1) and towards the midline and between the notches for the fourth and fifth ribs (S2). The insets provide a close-up detail of the lesions.

articular facets. In an inferior view, these fractures develop into an incomplete triangle with a posterior base and an anterior apex. In the body of the sternum, two anterior and two posterior circular lesions were identified. The anterior lesions are approximately 2.5 mm in diameter and 44 mm apart on top of one another (Figure 7.8). The superior hole (S1) is located on the left margin of the sternum body by

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Figure 7.9 Posterior view of the sternum illustrating the two circular lesions located

on the left margin of the sternum body by the third rib notch (S3) and towards the midline and between the notches for the fourth and fifth ribs (S4), opposite of S1 and S2, respectively (see Figure 7.8). The insets provide a close-up detail of the lesions.

the third rib notch; the inferior hole (S2) is located more towards the midline, and between the notches for the fourth and fifth ribs (Figure 7.8). There are no concentric or radiating fractures associated. The posterior lesions are opposite to the anterior ones described above and are also circular, albeit more irregular and larger (Figure 7.9). The superior defect is 6.6 mm (S3) and the inferior defect is 3.6 mm (S4) in diameter, and

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Figure 7.10 Ventral view of the third right rib, illustrating the circular lesion located

at the sternal end.

in both lesions a smaller circular defect can be seen inside each of the holes, particularly in the inferior defect (Figure 7.9). There are also no concentric or radiating fractures associated with these lesions. Additional circular lesions were detected in the sternal end of the third right rib. The ventral defect is 3.5 mm in diameter (Figure 7.10) and is opposite of the visceral defect, which is more irregular and 4.3 mm in diameter (Figure 7.11). There are three radiating fractures extending from the visceral injury, with displacement of a fragment of cortical bone. The remaining lesions identified in the rib cage refer to oblique or transverse complete fractures of the posterior third of the shaft in ribs 2–6, on the left side (Figure 7.12). All fractures are located in the area immediately anterior to the tubercle, except in the second rib, which is more anteriorly located. The second rib is also the only one showing a transverse fracture, whereas all others showed an oblique fracture. From a superior view, the oblique fractures develop into an incomplete triangle, with a posterior (dorsal) base and an anterior (visceral) apex. In the fifth rib, this incomplete triangle turns into a triangular fragment of bone that broke away, as is typical of butterfly fractures. The last injury was detected on the left fifth metacarpus and it refers to a comminuted fracture on the dorso-lateral aspect of the distal epiphysis,

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Figure 7.11 Visceral view of the third right rib, illustrating the circular lesion located

at the sternal end, opposite to the lesion illustrated in Figure 7.10. Note radiating fractures.

Figure 7.12 Superior (cranial) view of left ribs 1–7, illustrating transverse (second

rib) or oblique (third to sixth ribs) complete fractures of the posterior third of the shaft.

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Figure 7.13 Dorsal view of the left fifth metacarpus, illustrating the comminuted

fracture on the dorso-lateral side of the distal epiphysis. Notice the displacement of bone fragments and the radiating fractures.

immediately behind the head (Figure 7.13). There are five radiating factures extending to the superior and inferior side, displacing bone fragments. The superior fractures extend halfway across the diaphysis and the inferior fractures stop at the articular eminences. There is a sixth fracture affecting the volar surface, which is not radiating from the comminuted defect.

Discussion and conclusions The lesions described above seem consistent with blunt force trauma to the head and thorax, and with gunshot trauma to the head, thorax, and hand, but the police account of the death scene and circumstances of the recovery after the postmortem examination confirmed early suspicions about the perimortem nature of some of these injuries. The morphology of the two left parietal fractures is consistent with blunt force trauma inflicted to fresh bone, by an instrument of possible triangular cross-section, acting with significant force on a reduced surface. The fractures in the first thoracic vertebra, and in the posterior arch of the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth left ribs also show features

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which are also consistent with blunt force injury inflicted to fresh bone. These fractures, in particular, suggested an impact on the back towards the front, by interpreting the shape and location of the oblique/butterfly fractures produced (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Galloway et al., 1999). The small round defects located in the facial skeleton are compatible with entrance and exit satellite wounds caused by multiple metallic pellets to fresh bone. These wounds are consistent with a distant range shotgun shot, of relative low impact velocity and a trajectory from front to back (DiMaio, 1999). The third cranial lesion suggests that one of the projectiles had a more tangential trajectory relative to the bone surface and ricocheted. In the sternum, the anterior lesions are consistent with entrance wounds and the posterior with exit wounds involving lead pellets with the same trajectory. In the sternum, the outward beveling of the exit lesions is noteworthy, particularly in the inferior defect. The lesion in the third right rib is similar to that of the sternum and is also consistent with similar ballistic trauma. In the distal epiphysis of the fifth metacarpal, the entrance and exit wounds are not recognizable, but the lesion suggests that this is punched out plug (entrance/exit defect) associated with radiating fractures (Smith et al., 2003). Although features of the ballistic lesions offer little doubt to their etiology, the injuries consistent with blunt force trauma were not as straightforward. Some of these injuries were consistent with a postmortem timing of production, namely the fractures observed on the left scapula, which showed irregular but clean breaks with clearer colored cortical bone, compared with that of the bone surface (Saur, 1998). Other findings also raised the suspicion that the blunt force injuries to the head might also have been produced after the bone started losing its qualities of fresh or living tissue. Although these lesions showed features consistent with blunt force trauma to fresh bone, such as plastic deformation, depressed factures with adhering flakes or similarly colored cortical bone and surface (Saur, 1998; Galloway et al., 1999) one of the radiating fractures shows an unusual horizontal deflection and is more regular, stepped, and displays a cleaner break. Perhaps the blunt force injuries that offered less doubt were those of the thoracic vertebra and ribs. These lesions showed similarly colored cortical bone and surface, and typical tension and compression fractures of fresh bone as seen in butterfly fractures (Smith et al., 2003). Eventually, the lesions indicative of blunt force trauma to the skeleton were excluded from being associated with the time and cause of death as circumstances of the death scene corroborated initial suspicions

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Figure 7.14 Detail of the sickle used by the farmer for clearing vegetation

overgrowth at the death scene.

about the postmortem nature of these injuries. In fact, as in most cases, information from the death scene proved vital to the interpretation of the findings. According to the police investigators, the farmer was beating down the vegetation with a shovel and a sickle, while he was clearing the pond where the human remains were eventually found. The farmer specifically stated that he used the shovel and sickle to turn and pull the cranium towards him for observation. He also stated that he was certain not only that he had walked over the remains several times, but also that he struck the cranium in several occasions with the shovel and sickle, before the pond was cleared and the remains were visible. The size and shape of the sickle (Figure 7.14), in particular, are compatible with the blunt force injuries detected in the cranium. Consequently, after thoughtful consideration of the postmortem findings and of the police information, all blunt force injuries were considered to originate from the postmortem period. The lesions are considered consistent with the blows from the shovel and sickle, and with the weight-bearing stress caused by the farmer while stepping on the remains. Once the remains were removed from the death scene, the police officers initiated a search in the pond, having found a broken shotgun with a 12-gauge red color cartridge brand “TILT 2000” already triggered inside,

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which was later confirmed as the murder weapon. After the victim’s identification, police investigation narrowed down the murder suspects to a young relative, who was a known criminal and a suspected drug abuser. Under police interrogation, the suspect confessed the murder and stated that he had killed the victim with a shotgun. The suspect denied any other type of physical aggression towards the deceased or the use of any other weapons, including blunt force instruments. In this case, the careful consideration of the skeletal findings and the honest testimony of the individual who found the remains were essential to establish the cause and circumstances of death, and eliminating blunt force trauma as cause or contributing cause of death. Although these blunt force injuries occurred almost certainly in the postmortem period, they show features typical of fractures being produced in fresh bone. Considering that the victim remained submerged in the pond for a period of approximately 2 years, the constant presence of fresh water in the pond probably created specific conditions that allowed for bone tissue to preserve the physical and chemical properties of fresh bone for a considerable period of time. There is still scarce research being carried out to explore the influence of water immersion on the decomposition and preservation of bone tissue. Although available evidence suggests water in which bodies are totally or partially submerged may accelerate or retard decomposition (Gill-King, 2006), perhaps of major importance is the ability of water in certain circumstances to slow down certain chemical reactions and microbial activity which are vital to the preservation of collagen and bone mineral (Gill-King, 2006; Turner-Walker, 2008). This chapter illustrates the difficulty faced by the forensic anthropologists in distinguishing perimortem from postmortem lesion on the basis of fresh versus dry bone-type injuries. In this case, several lesions showed typical features of being produced while the bone was still in a fresh state, but where considered postmortem and unrelated to the cause and circumstances of death due to early inconsistencies in the pattern of skeletal trauma and later to police information about the conditions of the death scene. Consideration of the particularities of the postmortem environment and its effects on bone preservation are vital for the interpretation of trauma, even in skeletonized human remains with a significant postmortem interval. In particular, this case cautions against interpretations of skeletal lesions based on the plastic response of bone when the depositional environment favors the preservation of fresh bone characteristics.

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Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the editors of this volume for their generous invitation to contribute. All images courtesy of the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Portugal.

References Ayers, L.E. (2010) Differential decomposition in terrestrial, freshwater, and saltwater environments: a pilot study. Thesis, Texas State University-San Marcos. https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/10877/4078. Berryman, H.E. and Symes, S.A. (1998) Recognizing gunshot and blunt cranial trauma through fracture interpretation, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd edn (ed. K.J. Reichs), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 333–352. DiMaio, V.J.M. (1999) Gunshot Wounds: Practical Aspects of Firearms, Ballistics and Forensic Techniques. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Galloway, A., Symes, S.A., Haglund, W.D., and France, D.L. (1999) The role of forensic anthropology in trauma analysis, in Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma (ed. A. Galloway), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 5–31. Gill-King, H. (2006) Chemical and ultrastructural aspects of decomposition, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 93–108. Jaggers, K.A. and Rogers, T.L. (2009) The effects of soil environment on post-mortem interval: a macroscopic analysis. Journal of Forensic Science, 54 (6), 1217–1222. Karr, L.P. and Outram, A.K. (2012) Tracking changes in bone fracture morphology over time: environment, taphonomy, and the archaeological record. Journal of Archaeological Science, 39, 555–559. Loe, L. (2009) Peri-mortem trauma, in Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology (eds S. Blau and D. Ubelaker), Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 263–283. Moraitis, K. and Spiliopoulou, C. (2006) Identification and differential diagnosis of perimortem blunt force trauma in tubular long bones. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology, 2 (4), 221–229. Outram, A.K. (1998) The identification and palaeoeconomic context of prehistoric bone marrow and grease exploitation. Doctoral Thesis, Durham University. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1432/. Rodriguez, W.C. III (2006) Decomposition of buried and submerged bodies, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 459–467. Sauer, N.J. (1998) The timing of injuries and manner of death: distinguishing among antemortem, perimortem and postmortem trauma, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd edn (ed. K.J. Reichs), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 321–332.

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Smith, O.E., Pope, E.E., and Symes, S.A. (2003) Look until you see: identification of trauma in skeletal material, in Hard Evidence: Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.W. Steadman), Pearson Education, Old Tappan, NJ, pp. 138–154. Symes, S.A., L’Abbé, E.N., Chapman, E.N., Wolff, I., and Dirkmaat, D.C. (2012) Interpreting traumatic injury to bone in medicolegal investigations, in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.C. Dirkmaat), Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 340–389. Turner-Walker, G. (2008) The chemical and microbial degradation of bones and teeth, in Advances in Human Paleopathology (eds R. Pinhasi and S. Mays), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, pp. 3–29. Ubelaker, D.H. (2006) Taphonomic applications in forensic anthropology, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 77–90. Ubelaker, D.H. and Adams, B.J. (1995) Differentiation of perimortem and postmortem trauma using taphonomic indicators. Journal of Forensic Science, 40 (3), 509–512. Wieberg, D.A.M. and Wescott, D.J. (2008) Estimating the timing of long bone fractures: correlation between the post-mortem interval, bone moisture content, and blunt force trauma fracture characteristics. Journal of Forensic Science, 53 (5),1028–1034.

CHAPTER 8

Man’s best friend: a case study of ballistics trauma and animal scavenging Gina Hart

Introduction Traditionally, forensic anthropologists have been consulted on an as-needed basis at medical examiner/coroner’s offices for the typical biological profile analysis on unidentified skeletonized or nearly skeletonized remains. As the position of an in-house forensic anthropologist has become more prevalent in medical examiner/coroner’s offices across the Unites States, the role that anthropologists play has evolved to include analysis of remains in various states of decomposition, and to aid with orthopedic device identification and removal, radiographic comparisons, mass fatality planning and response, investigating claims of child abuse, and various other types of trauma analysis. As a result, forensic anthropologists are now furthering their expertise in trauma analysis and becoming a more valuable presence in the forensic community. Additionally, the in-house anthropologist has better access to police and investigative reports, allowing them to gain a multidimensional understanding of the events surrounding an individual’s life and death. This particular case study (conducted at the Regional Medical Examiner’s Office, Newark, NJ) involves both perimortem (ballistics trauma) and postmortem (canine activity) damage on fresh remains in an enclosed environment.

Bone biomechanics A basic review of bone biomechanics, particularly the relationship of stress to strain, is important to understand the timing and traumatic Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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mechanisms in this case, because it allows for an improved understanding of the prediction of fracture production. Stress can be defined as a force applied to an object, while strain is the change or distortion that is occurring to that object (Carter, 1985).The factors that will influence a bone’s reaction to stress and strain include its elasticity, ductility, and stiffness. Elasticity allows the bone to return to its original shape after a load has been removed, stiffness allows the bone to resist deformation from an applied force, and ductility allows the bone to undergo a large amount of deformation before fracturing. Bone, which is a composite material made up of a rigid mineral component (calcium hydroxyapatite) and a ductile organic component (collagen), is both strong and flexible at the same time. It is similar to mild steel in response to a load, but stronger than steel in response to bending (Evans, 1973). The ingredients of bone coupled with Poisson’s ratio are the most important biomechanical principles in terms of understanding the mechanism of trauma. Poisson’s ratio (ν = lateral strain/longitudinal strain) states that as deformation occurs in one direction, there will be complementary changes in other directions (Rogers, 1992). Thus, as an impact occurs, compressive forces are pushing on one side of the bone, while tensile forces are tearing the bone apart on the opposite side. Bone fails first on the tension side and the fracture travels to the compression side. This allows for an understanding of where the bone fails first, as well as an understanding of the beveling direction that occurs in concentric fractures. The timing of injury needs to be assessed when perimortem and postmortem forces are acting on bone. The three phases of injury include antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem trauma. Antemortem, which does not come into play in this particular case study, occurs before death and is typically evidenced by the presence of bony reaction and healing. Perimortem injury occurs at or around the time of death to fresh bone. Postmortem is after death. The definition of anthropological perimortem injury has been contested because it is not as narrow as the pathological definition. Rather, it includes any period where there is no osteogenic reaction to trauma, but where the fracturing still occurred while the bone was alive or fresh. Postmortem bone reacts differently to load rates because it is dry, contains less of its organic component, and is therefore more brittle. It will typically fracture without deformation and there is sometimes a color change noted to the fractures as well (Sauer, 1998). Ballistics trauma is easily differentiated from other mechanisms of trauma, particularly when it is occurring in the skull. When the projectile enters the skull, it typically creates a rounded internally beveled

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entrance wound. If enough kinetic energy remains, the projectile will exit the skull, usually creating a rounded externally beveled exit wound (DiMaio, 1985). When this impact site is missing due to recovery or taphonomic issues, concentric fracture patterns may be studied to determine the mechanism of trauma. Concentric fractures form and terminate perpendicular to radiating fractures, which can give the wound a spider-web appearance. Ballistic trauma typically results in concentric fractures that heave the bone outward. These heaving fractures begin first on the inner table of the cranium, which gives the concentric fractures an externally beveled appearance. In ballistics, the entrance and exit wounds to the skull are both externally beveled, allowing for the mechanism of trauma to be determined when the impact site is missing (Hart, 2005). Lastly, postmortem animal modification of bone also comes into play in this case study. Haglund (1997) describes damage to soft tissue by canid incisors as producing V-shaped marks in the soft tissue. In terms of injury to bone, four stages have been noted, including punctures, pits, scoring, and furrows. Punctures can be defined as perforations to the bone, pits are indentations, scoring occurs when teeth slip over compact bone, which produces scratch-type marks, and furrows are channels extending deep into the bone (Binford, 1981). There have been several studies conducted on canid scavenging to human remains in open environments (Haglund, 1997; Haglund et al., 1988; Willey and Snyder, 1989; Berryman, 2002), but relatively little information exists about canid activity in an enclosed space.

Case study This particular case involves a 39-year-old Hispanic male who was discovered dead in his residence. The family stated that the subject had no history of depression or suicidal ideation. Interviews with co-workers and friends revealed that the subject had gone drinking with friends to several bars after work 1 week prior to the discovery of the body. The subject had met an older woman while out and made arrangements to see the woman the following Friday. That Friday he told his friend/co-worker that the woman had come to his house, drove him to work, and then continued to her place of employment. The subject and his friend went to happy-hour after work that Friday, and planned to meet the woman and two of her co-workers to celebrate her birthday. The subject’s friend

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left the bar and later that night received a call from the subject, who was very intoxicated and seemed to be in good spirits. Police located contact information for the older woman through the subject’s mobile phone history. They made contact with her and she initially stated that she knew no one in the area where the subject lived, but during a later interview at police headquarters she admitted to meeting the subject. She stated they kissed the day that she met him, but denied any further romantic relationship with him, although they exchanged mobile numbers that night. During the following week, the woman and the subject remained in touch via phone conversations and text messages. She admitted to picking the subject up at his residence the following Friday and dropping him off at work. She confirmed that she later met him out after work that day to celebrate her birthday. That evening his friend left and she went to another bar with the subject and her friends. The subject, who had been very polite previously, became intoxicated and then was rude, offensive, and tried to engage the subject and her friends in inappropriate conversations. The woman and her friends left the club at 11 p.m. She agreed to drive the subject home because he was intoxicated. He became verbally abusive to her on the drive home; she then refused to drive him any further and pulled over to let him out of the car. She stated that he called her afterwards and left her a message stating that he found his way home and they had no further contact, but mobile phone records confirmed a telephone call between the two that lasted almost an hour. It is not known what transpired during that call. The subject’s friend from work attempted to contact him numerous times over the weekend. He again attempted to contact the subject the following Monday when he was absent from work. After work, the friend went to the subject’s residence with the subject’s mother to check on him. The front door was locked but they looked through a window and could see the subject’s two dogs, a Pitbull and a Mastiff, roaming freely around the apartment. They went into the backyard of the apartment through a neighbor’s place and were able to see the subject’s body through a back window. They called the police, who forced entry into the apartment. Crime scene was notified and contacted the medical examiner’s office. A medicolegal death investigator responded to the scene. The subject was found in his bedroom, fully dressed and laying supine on his mattress (Figure 8.1). Extensive trauma was noted to the subject’s head and portions of the skull were found scattered around the residence, and it was believed that the dogs may have eaten some of the

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Figure 8.1 Scene photo: the gun can be seen next to the subject’s right leg. Blood

spatter is on the wall above the bed.

subject’s skull postmortem. A .357 revolver was found near the subject’s right knee. One spent shell casing was recovered in the revolver and a deformed projectile was found near the back door of the bedroom. Several live .357 rounds were on the bed near the subject. Blood spatter was present on the walls and ceiling near the body. A check of the subject revealed no firearms license or weapon registered to him. All entrances to the residence were locked and secured. There was no evidence of foul play. No suicide note was found in the residence. The pathologist performed the autopsy the following day. Detectives at the scene had initially believed that the top of the subject’s head had been destroyed by ballistics trauma, but it was suspected that postmortem damage may have been inflicted by the dogs that were locked in the residence with the subject for up to 2 days. The autopsy did not produce any definitive results as there was extensive damage to the head, including loss of the scalp, bones of the skull, and the brain. There was evidence of some bite marks to the remaining scalp (Figure 8.2). As a result of all the factors surrounding the death, the entrance, wound path, and exit could not be determined at the time of autopsy. The pathologist removed the remaining calvarium and asked the anthropologist to reconstruct the skull with the fragments that had been discovered at the scene.

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Figure 8.2 Bite marks visible on the scalp.

Figure 8.3 Reconstructed calvarium with missing parietal regions.

All retained cranial elements were macerated using a solution of water and hydrogen peroxide. Cyanoacrylate adhesive was used to reconstruct the calvarium. Several portions of the skull had not been recovered at the scene and it is believed that these portions were consumed by the subject’s dogs. Missing portions included the right anterior temporal bone and sphenoid at the squamosal suture, and the majority of right parietal and a portion of the left posterior parietal (Figure 8.3). Several of the recovered bones show evidence of carnivore activity in the presence of punctures, pits, and scoring. These marks occur on the left superior parietal, left parietal and frontal bone near the temporalis attachment, and the right parietal near the coronal suture (Figure 8.4).

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Figure 8.4 Carnivore scoring is visible here to the frontal bone and left temporalis

region.

Figure 8.5 Right side of skull with two generations of concentric fractures.

Evidence of ballistics trauma can be seen on the right side of the skull (Figure 8.5) with the presence of at least two generations of externally beveled concentric fractures, which are indicative of ballistics trauma due to known information on biomechanical principles. The probable impact site is missing due to the canine activity and lack of recovered bone, and it appears to have included the anterior portion of right temporal bone and a portion of the sphenoid at the squamosal suture. It could not be determined if this was an entrance or exit. There is evidence of a second impact site to the left superior-posterior parietal near the sagittal suture, with an externally beveled circular

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Figure 8.6 Injury to left parietal showing external beveling.

Figure 8.7 Injury to left parietal with piece with potential lead wipe.

wound (Figure 8.6). The direction of the beveling in this particular impact site indicates that this was an exit wound. Additionally, a small plug of bone was recovered and it articulates with this exit wound. The plug has an area of possible lead wipe on the interior surface (Figure 8.7). Concentric fractures surrounding the exit wound are also externally beveled, which further indicates that this was a result of ballistics trauma. Fracture sequencing of the linear fractures show that the fractures on the left side of the head terminate at linear fractures on the right side of the head. This indicates that the injury to the right temporal

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region occurred first, showing that the projectile traveled from the right temporal through the left temporal. No additional evidence of any other ballistics trauma was noted on the recovered calvarium fragments. Sequencing of fracture patterning as well as impact and concentric fracture beveling directions indicated that that mechanism of trauma was ballistics trauma. The presence of bite marks to the remaining scalp as well as the bone itself indicate that the remaining portions of the skull were missing because of canine activity on the body after death. Autopsy findings from the soft tissue, the anthropological analysis as well as the police investigation indicated that there was no foul play suspected and the subject died from a gunshot wound to the head. Even though no note was found and no ideation was expressed by the subject, the manner was determined to be suicide due to the circumstances. The unique role of the in-house anthropologist in a medical examiner/ coroner’s office provides a valuable opportunity for the anthropologist to use more tools than are available in the academic setting. Fleshed cases provide information that skeletonized remains cannot and police reports give more depth in cases where anthropologists rarely hear any details surrounding the death. This particular case would probably not have traditionally involved anthropological involvement, but it allowed the pathologist more information on the injuries present. This role will continue to be evolved as in-house anthropologists are more of an everyday appearance in larger metropolitan medical examiner’s offices.

References Binford, L. (1981) Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York. Berryman, H. (2002) Disarticulation pattern and tooth mark artifacts associated with pig scavenging of human remains: a case study, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 487–495. Carter, D. (1985) Biomechanics of bone, in The Biomechanics of Trauma (eds A. Nanham and J. Melvin), Appleton-Century-Crofts, Norwalk, CT, pp. 135–165. DiMaio, V. (1985) An introduction to the classification of gunshot wounds, in Gunshot Wounds: Practical Aspects of Firearms, Ballistics, and Forensic Techniques, Elsevier, New York, pp. 65–122. Evans, F. (1973) Mechanical Properties of Bone. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Haglund, W.D. (1997) Dogs and coyotes: postmortem involvement with human remains, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 367–381.

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Haglund, W.D., Reay, D.T., and Swindler, D.R. (1988) Tooth mark artifacts and survival of bones in animal scavenged human skeletons. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 33 (4), 985–997. Hart, G.O. (2005) Fracture pattern interpretation in the skull: differentiating blunt force from ballistics trauma using concentric fractures. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 50 (6), 1276–1281. Rogers, L. (1992) Radiology of Skeletal Trauma, 2nd edn. Churchill Livingstone, New York. Sauer, N. (1998) The timing of injuries and manner of death: distinguishing among antemortem perimortem and postmortem trauma, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd edn (ed. K.J. Reichs). Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 321–332. Willey, P. and Snyder, L.M. (1989) Canid modification of human remains: implications for time-since death estimations. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 34 (4), 894–901.

CHAPTER 9

Skeletal evidence of violent sexual assault in remains with excessive evidence of scavenging Hugh E. Berryman and Tiffany B. Saul

Introduction Although much has been published on physical abuse, such as reoccurring trauma with children – particularly healed fractures of the skull, ribs, and long bones (Hobbs, 1984; Walker et al., 1997) – a review of the literature produced no unequivocal skeletal evidence of violent sexual assault. Current forensic procedures for demonstrating sexual assault rely heavily upon soft tissue and bodily fluid evidence (Crane, 2006; Sommers et al., 2006). Living individuals are able to provide details of assaults and information about the assailant, and medical personnel are trained to observe and record soft tissue injuries to the skin and genital area. However, in decomposed remains, it is this lack of soft tissue and fluids that makes establishing evidence of violent sexual assault highly unlikely. While a few researchers point to skeletal injuries typically found in association with sexual assault, such as dislocated hip joints or long bone fractures, the majority of the available literature focuses upon evidence of abuse with no specific indicators of sexual abuse or assault upon the skeleton (Kemp et al., 2008). The forensic case described in this chapter represents the first published example where the victim’s bones clearly demonstrate a violent sexual assault.

Case history This case began on 20 August 1996 with a call to the first author (H.E.B.) from a special agent with the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation (TBI) Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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requesting assistance with a skeletal crime scene in a rural community. The remains were thought to be those of a 34-year-old white female who had disappeared in May 1994 from her family home only 11 miles (17.7 km) away. The victim’s family reported that she had a physical disability and the mental capacity of a child. The case was initiated when the wife of a known felon informed law enforcement of the location of the body and that it was her husband who had murdered the victim. Conflicting stories then emerged between the two suspects. The husband alleged his wife had beaten the victim to death with a metal rod she had taken from the car trunk, while the wife asserted it was the husband who had killed the victim by beating her with a tire iron. Both husband and wife were known to be acquainted with the victim and had included her as a friend in numerous activities. The husband indicated that he had a past sexual relationship with the victim and that his wife had become angry upon learning this. At the time these declarations were made, both parties were incarcerated and the validity of their statements was dubious. The tire iron/metal rod was the single incongruent material element in these two stories and therefore was a key point in the reconstruction of the actual series of events leading to the victim’s death.

Analysis Three questions needed to be answered: 1 Were the remains of the missing individual located where the wife had indicated? 2 Was blunt trauma evident on the skeleton? 3 If blunt trauma was indicated, could it be attributed to a tire iron or a metal rod? This last piece of evidence would likely substantiate either the wife’s or husband’s statement and, in so doing, incriminate one over the other.

Were the remains of the victim located where the wife had indicated? An investigation of the site by the TBI revealed human skeletal remains, just as the wife had indicated. A thorough recovery effort by TBI investigators and forensic anthropologists ensued. Extensive scavenger activity had disarticulated and dispersed the skeletonized remains among logs and high vegetation located at the site of an abandoned sawmill,

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approximately 228 ft (69.5 m) from a rural road. Fragments of clothing were found within a 60-ft (18.3-m) radius north of the scatter of bones. The incomplete skeleton of a single individual was recovered. The bones were dry with no odor or oil and a small amount of dried soft tissue was present. The cranial vault was relatively complete with bones of the upper mid-face and left face missing as a result of postmortem scavenger activity and perimortem trauma. The condition of the remains, along with botanical evidence at the scene, was consistent with a time of death prior to the summer of 1995 – a time compatible with the date the victim was reported missing. The biological profile, as interpreted from osseous morphology, indicated that the remains were those of a white female, 24–34 years of age – all consistent with the missing individual. The family reported that the missing individual had physical disabilities. Numerous anomalies were observed, including a biconcave left mandibular fossa and a bifurcated left mandibular head, a missing left transverse foramen on cervical vertebra 5 with asymmetry throughout the cervical spine and scoliosis in the thoracic area, an L-shaped sacrum with extreme anterior curvature at the level of S3, and innominate bones that appeared malformed with the sciatic notches extremely wide and with excessively long rami. Finally, the forensic odontologist’s comparison of the dental records with the dentition of the questioned remains provided a positive identification.

Was blunt trauma evident on the skeleton? Although considerable evidence of scavenger damage made interpretation of many of the fractures problematic, patterns emerged that were strongly suggestive of perimortem trauma. For example, the sternum exhibits a complete, transverse fracture to the sternal body between costal scars 4 and 5, and the inferior half of the sternal blade is missing. This fracture is beveled internally, indicating an anterior to posterior force directed inferior to the fracture. Likewise, rib fractures display a pattern consistent with an anterior–posterior force being applied to the chest. The victim may have experienced one or more blows to the chest; however, the fact that some of these fractures may have been produced by scavenger activity makes the trauma interpretation for the chest speculative. Fracture patterns on the cranial vault (Figure 9.1) provide unequivocal evidence of blunt trauma in the form of impacts to the occipital and frontal bones. The occipital bone exhibits numerous fractures to the base (most between the superior nuchal line and the foramen magnum)

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Anterior View 0.0

53”

0.291”

Left Lateral

= Missing Bone

Figure 9.1 Illustration of fractures to the face and left occipital with impact site on

the left side of the frontal bone. Dimensions: in.

and a large area of the bone, including the posterior margin of the foramen magnum, is missing. Five fractures radiate from this area: the first extends to the right to terminate where the right squamosal suture meets the right lambdoidal suture, the second extends left to terminate on the left side of the occipital bone, the third is directed superior and right to terminate in the lambdoidal suture 1.10 in. (27.94 mm) to the right of lambda, the fourth is directed anterior and to the left to terminate at the petrous portion of the left temporal bone, and the fifth is directed anterior and to the right just posterior to the right occipital condyle to terminate at the right temporal bone anterior to the mastoid process. Two concentric fractures are in association. These radiating fractures,

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when projected into the area of missing bone, indicate an impact site approximately 1 in. (25.4 mm) posterior to the foramen magnum. At least one other impact is indicated by two small concentric fractures located in the midline inferior to the external occipital protuberance. One concentric fracture terminates into the left radiating fracture, but the right end of the fracture terminates in the previous concentric fracture. Both concentric fractures are beveled internally. The basilar portion of the occipital has a fracture that extends from the midline of the foramen magnum anteriorly and slightly to the left. The frontal bone exhibits a well-defined impact site located above the left eye orbit (Figure 9.2). The angular defect with depressed, crushed bone is clearly distinguishable from scavenger activity and its angular outline reflects the shape of the striking surface of the tool that made it. This will be further discussed in the third question below. Additional fractures likely produced by blunt trauma are evident in other areas of the cranium. The mid-portion of the face is missing. The portion of bone superior to the right eye orbit is fractured and missing with a fracture that continues posteriorly across the right temporal line and terminates on the anterior and inferior right parietal. The roof of the left eye orbit is fractured sagittally with the medial portion missing. The left and right maxillae have been fractured away from the face (LeFort Type 1). The left zygomatic bone is missing and the zygomatic process of the left temporal bone exhibits an externally beveled fracture, suggesting that it could have occurred secondary to a blow to the face. The body of

Figure 9.2 Anterior view of frontal bone with blunt force impact site located left of

midline. Scale is in inches.

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the sphenoid is missing with the fracture in this area continuing through the greater wing, and the fracture to the right side traverses the pterygoid process. The mandible has a complete fracture of the right horizontal ramus in the area of the third molar (tooth 32) and there was a fracture to the cusps of the right mandibular first molar (tooth 30) (Figure 9.3). Dental fractures like this are not uncommon with blunt trauma that forcibly drives the teeth together. Fractures to the skull, jaws, and teeth are consistent with multiple blows to the face, forehead, and low on the posterior cranium. Fractures to the ribs may be the result of blunt trauma directed anterior to posterior to the chest; however, evidence of scavenger activity in this area makes interpretation problematic.

Was a tire iron or metal rod indicated? Since the wife accused the husband of murdering the victim with a tire iron and the husband accused the wife of murdering the victim with a metal rod, any indication of the tool used in the beating would tend to validate one statement over the other. As only two types of tools were indicated, it was essential to compare the impact sites on the bones with the relative class characteristics of the suspect striking surfaces of each tool. In this regard, the frontal bone presents an impact site defined by a depressed fracture located just left of the midline and approximately 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) above the superior border of the left eye orbit. The defect is wedge-shaped with the apex directed superiorly. The apex exhibits crushing and measures 0.05 in. (12.7 mm) in width with the widest part of the defect measuring 0.29 in. (7.37 mm) The left side of

Figure 9.3 Photograph of the dental fracture and missing lingual cusps of the right

mandibular first molar (tooth 30).

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the fracture terminates just above the left eye orbit and the right side of the fracture continues inferiorly in the direction of the right eye orbit; however, the bone in this area is missing. The inner table at the impact site, although still attached, is shattered and displaced internally, and both tables exhibit plastic deformation commonly associated with blunt force trauma. The wedge-shaped depression in the frontal bone more closely reflects the wedge-shaped appearance of a tire iron than the cylinder shape of a rod.

An additional finding The sacrum shows no evidence of scavenger activity, but it does exhibit an elongated puncture to the anterior surface on the right side just below and slightly medial to the first sacral foramen (Figure 9.4). This well-defined, “punched-in” area measures 0.17 in. wide × 0.58 in. (4.32 mm × 14.73 mm) long. The depth of penetration extends through the cortex, resulting in the floor of the first sacral foramen being elevated 0.39 in. (9.91 mm) from the anterior sacral surface. The long axis of the

Figure 9.4 Photograph of the sacrum shows an elongated puncture to the anterior

surface on the right side just inferior and slightly medial to the first sacral foramen.

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defect is angled slightly downward from the midline to the right side. The long axis of the defect presents bone fragments above and below that are displaced internally (i.e., into the sacrum). The defect was produced by a stabbing action from an object with a short, narrow edge. The dimensions (0.17 in × 0.58 in. (4.32 mm × 14.73 mm)) are consistent with the wedge-shaped end of a tire iron. Two fragments of bone (one on the lateral inferior margin of the defect and the other on the medial superior margin of the defect) are elevated, which may represent a slight twisting action of the object responsible for the defect. The bones of the pelvis were rearticulated to examine the orientation of the tool that produced the defect. The orientation of the stab is anterior to posterior, inferior to superior, and medial to lateral. A paper probe inserted into the defect clearly demonstrates that the instrument used to produce the wound was thrust into the pelvis from an anterior to posterior and inferior (below the pubic symphysis) to superior direction while in the midline (Figures 9.5 and 9.6). This provides evidence that a tool consistent with a tire iron was inserted vaginally to produce the penetrating trauma to the sacrum.

Figure 9.5 Photograph of the articulated pelvic elements with a paper probe

inserted into the sacral defect to demonstrate the angle of insertion.

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Lateral View

Projected angle of insertion of tool

Figure 9.6 Anterior and lateral illustrations of the pelvis showing the projected

angle of insertion of the tool that was used to produced the sacral defect.

The district attorney was called by the first author to report the findings and confirm the identification. The first author discussed the evidence for blunt trauma and noted that the impact site in the frontal bone was more consistent with having been produced by an object with a wedge-shaped morphology, like a tire iron, than a rounded surface like a metal rod. Then he indicated that there was one other finding involving a stab-type defect to the sacrum. He hesitated, then to prepare the district attorney he said, “This may be hard to believe, but it looks like she was … ” The district attorney completed the statement by interrupting with, “Raped with a tire iron.” The district attorney then revealed that the wife had stated that her husband had raped the victim with a tire iron, but this information had not been communicated to the first author prior to the examination.

Discussion Suspicious osseous fractures and defects should be scrutinized with skepticism, especially when the remains present excessive evidence of scavenger activity. Error must always be on the side of caution, which is in keeping with our judicial maxim of innocent until proven guilty. The presumption of innocence must not be wrongfully skewed by faulty interpretation of questionable evidence. The Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH) Trauma Analysis document (Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology, 2011) cautions against “Over-reaching, narrowly restricted, and/or unsupportable

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results.” The document then recommends, “When uncertain, simply describe alterations.” The case presented here provides an excellent example of remains that exhibit both intense scavenging and trauma, specifically with the interpretation of the numerous fractures involving the ribs and sternum. Care was taken to examine each of these fractures to determine directionality. Overall, they display a pattern consistent with anterior to posterior force that could have been produced by one or more blows to the chest. With a statement from a witness that she had observed her husband beat the woman to death and with osseous evidence of tool impressions on the bone, an interpretation of multiple blows to the chest would have been held as believable, if not viewed as incontrovertible. However, if examination of each of the rib fractures had revealed variation in direction, they would have been compatible with the random directions of force involved with scavenger feeding behavior. Instead, they collectively display a pattern of anterior to posterior force, consistent with blunt force trauma to the chest. In interpreting these fractures, other sources of an anterior to posterior force must be considered. One in particular involves the propensity of carnivores to roll in carrion. Such rolling from a large dog or coyote could possibly produce fractures to the ribs and sternum that reflect an anterior to posterior directed force. Scavengers can be responsible for fractures without leaving signature features, such as crushing, gnaw marks, or canine puncture and drag marks. This small degree of doubt produced by evidence of excessive scavenger activity in this case removes any confidence that can couple blunt trauma with the fractures to the bones of the chest. Remains with evidence of excessive scavenging activity require more rigorous interpretative criteria when differentiating trauma from taphonomic features. Tool impact signatures provide one of the better means of differentiating trauma from scavenger activity. Impacts leaving well-defined, wedge-shaped impressions in the bone – such as that seen on the frontal bone in this case – provide clear evidence of blunt force trauma. Another feature that distinguishes this from scavenger activity is that the impact left a plastically deformed and internally displaced inner table. In such cases, direction of force can provide one of the most valuable clues for interpreting bone alterations. This can be seen on the concentric fractures located on the occipital bone. Concentric fractures are often associated with both gunshot wounds and blunt trauma with the concave side of the fracture directed toward the bullet entrance or blunt impact sites. With gunshots, the concentric fracture will tend to be beveled externally (produced as internal pressure lifts plates of

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bone formed by radiating fractures externally), while with blunt trauma the concentric fracture will tend to be beveled internally (produced as plates of bone formed by radiating fractures are displaced internally by the impact). In this case, the two concentric fractures on the occipital bone were internally beveled, indicating an external to internal force. When feeding, scavengers tend to pull soft and hard tissue away from its source, which would generally result in externally beveled fractures. Of specific interest in this case study is the trauma on the internal surface of the sacrum that was produced by the impact of a tool that penetrated the cortical bone. It is the well-defined, linear character of the defect that differentiates it from the irregular crushing that characterizes scavenger modification. Additionally, the location of the defect is such that a scavenger could not have made it without leaving associated damage, and the sacrum shows no other modification. The defect is consistent with a tool that impacted and penetrated the cortical bone, and the angle of the impact indicates a subpubic alignment when the bones of the pelvis are reapproximated. In the forensic report generated for this case by the first author, the tire iron – as opposed to a metal rod – was associated with the defect in the sacrum. The SWGANTH Trauma Analysis document (Section 5.0) notes that the individualization of a tool is unacceptable and recommends a simple description of the affected surface. It must be stressed that individualizing a tool from the bony impact impression should not be attempted in the absence of a suspect tool. Instead of an open universe of all possible tools, only two specific, suspect tools (with distinctly different shapes) were candidates for having produced the defects identified in this case. In a closed universe, the investigator may compare the relative class characteristics (i.e., striking surfaces of a suspect tool) to the boney defect and determine its potential for producing the defect.

Conclusions Cases with excessive evidence of scavenger activity, such as this, demand caution when identifying and interpreting trauma. Suspect fractures should be examined for evidence of directionality; fixed and free ends of each bone with a suspect fracture should be determined. Consideration should also be made as to whether the overall patterns of fracture location and direction reflect anatomic approximation (i.e., the fractures occurred before decomposition disarticulated the remains). The absence of characteristic scavenger evidence, – such as canine puncture

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and drag marks and signs of gnawing and crushing, does not signify trauma. Other scavenger activity, such as rolling in carrion or stripping muscle from bone, can also produce fractures. The SWGANTH Trauma Analysis document (Section 5.0) cautions against drawing conclusions that cannot be supported by the evidence. A simple description of the fractures may suffice until a more specific question of mechanism can be addressed in a judicial setting. In similar fashion, the SWGANTH Trauma Analysis document (Section 5.0) also cautions against the individualization of a tool, recommending instead a simple description of the affected surface. With the forensic case presented here, the anthropologist was asked to determine if either a tire tool or a metal rod could have produced the trauma. Tools have many striking surfaces. For example, a carpenter’s hammer has the round, flat striking surface, the claw, the side of the hammer, the cylinder form of the hammer handle and the butt of the hammer handle. Any of these surfaces could impact a victim. One should never identify the tool or weapon that produced an osseous defect in the absence of a suspect tool or weapon. However, depending upon the morphology of the defect, the anthropologist may determine whether a suspect tool or weapon was capable of having produced it, but probably never to the exclusion of all others. The case presented in this study may represent the only osseous evidence of violent sexual assault published to date. The jury found the husband guilty of facilitating first-degree murder and was sentenced to 25 years confinement in the Department of Correction – the maximum sentence for a class A felony.

References Crane, P.A. (2006) Predictors of injury associated with rape. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 2 (2), 75–83, 89. Hobbs, C.J. (1984) Skull fracture and the diagnosis of abuse. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 59, 246–252. Kemp, A.M., Dunstan, F., Harrison, S., Morris, S., Mann, M., Rolfe, K., Data, S., Thomas, D.P., Sibert, J.R., and Maguire, S. (2008) Patterns of skeletal fractures in child abuse: systematic review. British Medical Journal, 337, a1518. Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (2011) Trauma Analysis. http://swganth.startlogic.com/Trauma%20Rev0.pdf. Sommers, M.S., Zink, T., Baker, R.B., Fargo, J.D., Porter, J., Weybright, D., and Schafer, J.C. (2006) Effects of age and ethnicity on physical injury from rape. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing, 35 (2), 199–207. Walker, P.L., Cook, D.C., and Lambert, P.M. (1997) Skeletal evidence for child abuse: a physical anthropological perspective. Journal of Forensic Science, 42 (2), 196–207.

C H A P T E R 10

Neurocranial fractures Jennifer C. Love

Introduction Accurate interpretation of a skull fracture pattern is an important component of a medicolegal investigation. This chapter presents two cases with complex skull fracture patterns. In the first case, interpretation of the fracture pattern is straightforward; in the second case, the interpretation proves difficult, showcasing the need for additional research in the area. The case studies are followed by a review of various research approaches to skull fracture pattern interpretation, highlighting the strengths and limitations of each.

Case 1 Background A 27-year-old female was found lying on her bedroom floor. The scene was described as an orderly apartment with conventional furnishing. A claw hammer was found on the bathroom counter. The hammer appeared to be marked with blood and strands of hair. Within the bedroom, bloodstains were found on the bedding and mattress, and on the floor between the bed and decedent.

Findings The decedent was found to have multiple full-thickness scalp lacerations, many of which were patterned, some of which were confluent. The underlying bone was highly fragmented. The fragmented calotte was submitted to anthropology for analysis. The specimen was chemically processed to remove all soft tissue and reconstructed prior to examination. Several impact sites and a comminuted area were observed on the specimen. Many of the impact sites presented as depressed islands of bone Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Figure 10.1 The right parietal bone and right squamosal suture showing several

impact sites. The sites consist of depressed fractured bone encircled by concentric fractures.

defined by concentric fractures (Figure 10.1). An impact site on the left parietal bone near the bregma presented as a linear fracture with imbedded hair on ectocranial surface and a stellate fracture on the endocranial surface (Figure 10.2a and b). The fracture pattern was interpreted as a minimum of seven individual strikes to the head with an object of relatively small surface area. No additional skeletal injuries were observed on the decedent. The pathologist classified the cause of death as blunt head trauma and the manner of death as homicide.

Case 2 Background A 50-year-old male was found lying in the street immediately in front of his home by his wife. Emergency services responded to the scene and

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(a)

(b)

Figure 10.2 (a) Ectocranial surface of an impact site marked by a linear fracture. The

arrow is pointing to hair embedded in the fracture. (b) Endocranial surface of the same impact site. Note that the impact site presents as a stellate fracture (arrow).

the male was transported to the hospital. Despite resuscitation efforts, the individual was pronounced dead soon after reaching the hospital. On the morning of the incident, the male was released from the hospital following an 8-day admission. He was admitted to the hospital for altered mental status and shortness of breath. During the hospital admission, a computed tomography (CT) scan of his head was performed and was negative for significant findings. The decedent had a documented medical history of congestive heart failure, diabetes mellitus, remote myocardial infarction, and pacemaker implant. He returned to baseline with no definitive diagnosis and was released. Per the individual’s wife, the male and his wife were returning home from the hospital. The male walked to the mailbox in front of the home while the wife unloaded the car. The male often used a cane to steady his gait, but did not use it at this time. Less than a minute after the male walked to the mailbox, the wife found him supine in the street with the mail in his hand. The wife stated that the male was grunting and had visible blood around his head. The home was located on a cul-de-sac. The wife reported that no cars passed the house during or immediately before the incident. She also reported that the male’s head was not near the curb.

Findings During the autopsy the decedent was found to have complex and extensive skull fractures that suggested a minimum of two impacts. One impact site (A) was located along the right lambdoidal suture, 22 mm right of lambda (Figure 10.3). Endocranially, the impact site was marked by a

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Figure 10.3 The posterior region of the skull. The single arrow points to the diastatic

fracture. The double arrows point to the intermittent radiating fracture of the ectocranial surface.

stellate fracture (Figure 10.4). Radiating fractures extended: posteriorly, terminating in the occipital; antero-medially, terminating in the left parietal; anteriorly, terminating in the anterior region of the right parietal; and infero-laterally, coursing through the lambdoidal suture. Ectocranially, the impact site was marked by the anteriorly radiating fracture and the diastatic fracture of the right lambdoidal suture (Figure 10.5). The anterior radiating fracture extended a short distance into the right parietal, terminated, and then continued. The fracture bifurcated immediately before terminating in the anterior region of the right parietal. The intermittent course of the radiating fracture through the ectocranial surface most likely was the result of additional forces associated with the second impact (described below). The fracture pattern was consistent with a posterior to anterior impact with an object of relatively broad surface area. A second impact site (B) was located on the right parietal bone (Figure 10.5). Ectocranially, the impact site is marked by a vertically

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Figure 10.4 The endocranial surface of the calotte shown in Figure 10.3. The

arrowhead is pointing to the approximate location of lambda. The arrow is pointing to the diastatic fracture.

Figure 10.5 The external view of the right parietal bone after the calotte was

removed from the decedent. The double arrows are pointing to the radiating fracture shown in Figure 10.1.

oriented linear fracture that intersects superiorly with the anteriorly radiating fracture and inferiorly with the diastatic fracture associated with the impact site (A) described above. Endocranially, the impact site is marked with a linear, vertically oriented fracture that does not intersect with either the radiating fracture or diastatic fracture. This fracture pattern is consistent with a right to left impact, with an objection having a relatively broad surface area.

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Figure 10.6 The endocranial surface of the cranial base. Arrow heads mark the

fracture.

Additionally, the neurocranial base was fractured (Figure 10.6). A radiating fracture extended through the right petrous portion and the posterior clinoid process of the sella turcica. Another radiating fracture extended anteriorly from the petrous portion fracture through the right greater wing of the sphenoid bone. Most likely these fractures are associated with the right to left impact (B) described above. No additional skeletal trauma was noted on the decedent. Extensive natural disease consistent with his medical history was found. The extent of the fracture pattern raised concern as to whether or not it was consistent with a fall from a standing height as the investigative information seemed to suggest. Ultimately, the pathologist classified the cause of death as blunt force head trauma and the manner of death as accident. The classification was based on the totality of the case: no additional trauma observed on the body, the absence of conflicting stories, and the extensive natural disease consistent with the medical history. The fracture pattern suggestive of two impact sites cannot be explained with certainty; possible explanations include a pre-existing fracture that was missed during the recent hospitalization, more than one fall during the terminal event, and a single impact presenting as two impact sites.

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Understanding neurocranial fracture patterns Interpreting skull fracture patterns is dependent on an understanding of bone’s response to blunt force trauma. Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect how bone fractures. Intrinsic factors include bone geometry, stress risers (system of buttresses), and bone density. Extrinsic factors include area of the impacting object, load velocity, and load weight (Galloway, 1999; Smith et al., 2003). The complexity of the skull’s structure influences the fracture pattern. The skull is commonly divided into two components: the splanchnocranium and the neurocranium. The splanchnocranium is the facial skeleton; the fine bone structure is susceptible to fracture under relatively low-level impacts. The neurocranium is the closed structure surrounding the brain, and is a mix of thick robust areas (e.g., occiput) and thin areas (e.g., temporal squama). Furthermore, the bone structure of the neurocranium varies; the thick areas are comprised of an inner and outer bone table separated by diploë, while the thin areas are comprised of a single table of bone. Finally, the individual bones of the skull are separated by sutures and the degree of suture closure may influences the fracture propagation (Hamel et al., 2013). This chapter focuses on fracture patterns of the neurocranium observed in adults. Fracture patterns of the splanchnocranium and fracture patterns of the neurocranial in pediatric decedents are outside the focus of this chapter. Skull fractures are typically classified into five categories: linear (Figure 10.7), diastatic (Figure 10.3), depressed (Figure 10.8 and 10.9), comminuted (Figure 10.10) or stellate (Figure 10.11) (Galloway, 1999). A linear fracture is a simple fracture that has only two end points. A linear fracture may take a straight or a curved course. In the latter, the fracture is often termed curvilinear. A diastatic fracture is a fracture that courses through a suture. A stellate fracture is three or more fractures radiating from a single point. A depressed fracture is a fracture in which the outer table of bone is crushed inward. These fractures may be more extensive on the endocranial surface than the endocranial surface (Figure 10.8 and 10.9). A comminuted fracture is a collection of fractures that often results in fragmentation of the bone. Numerous studies have focused on skull fractures. The research is primarily experimental, computer modeling, or case study in design. The experimental and computer modeling research is critical in understanding the forces required to cause a skull fracture, but often researchers

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Figure 10.7 Example of a linear fracture of the right parietal.

Figure 10.8 The ectocranial surface of the posterior region of the skull. The two

foramina are the right and left parietal foramina. The arrow is pointing to a healed depressed skull fracture.

fail to adequately describe the resulting fracture pattern. Case study researchers often describe the fracture type, but the studies are limited in addressing forces associated with the injury. Below are summaries of several studies with experimental, computer modeling, and case study design. These studies are chosen to present the strengths and weaknesses of each design, and are not to serve as an exhaustive literature review.

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Figure 10.9 The endocranial surface of the skull shown in Figure 10.5. The arrow is

pointing to the same depressed skull fracture. Note the more extensive trauma. The double arrow is pointing to a second depressed fracture. Both of these injuries were not seen until the skull was opened.

Figure 10.10 Example of a comminuted fracture of the left parietal bone.

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Figure 10.11 Example of a stellate fracture of the occipital. Note the radiating

fractures extending from the point of intersection (arrow).

Experimental studies Gurdjian and his colleagues can be considered the first pioneers in skull fracture analysis (Gurdjian and Lissner, 1945; Gurdjian et al., 1950). Gurdjian and his team created the “stresscoat” technique for studying skull fracture propagation. Using dry human skulls coated with stresscoat (a brittle lacquer), the researcher dropped the skulls onto a hard surface. The stresscoat cracked along the areas of greatest tensile deformation. On the endocranial surface, the cracks always occurred at the impact site, regardless of the location of the impact site on the skull. These cracks formed a circle, oval, or star-shaped pattern. Based on the location of the cracks of the endocranial surface, the authors theorized that during an impact in-bending of the bone occurred at the point of impact. In contrast, the cracks on ectocranial surface often occurred a significant distance away from the impact site and were even shown to form a contre-coup pattern on the skull opposite the impact site. Based on the location of these cracks, the authors theorized that an impact creates out-bending at a point away from the impact site. Furthermore, the authors hypothesized that cracks initiate at the point

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of out-bending, and propagate toward and away from the point of impact. With low-level forces, the crack propagates toward the point of impact but may not reach it. The authors also studied fracture patterns on intact, embalmed skulls with both internal and external soft tissues in place (Gurdjian et al., 1950). Replicating the first study, they dropped cadaver heads onto a hard surface. Interestingly, they reported no direct correlation between the amount of energy absorbed by the heads and the extent of bony damage, but they did find that fractures occurred with as little as 45 N⋅m. Expanding on Gurdjian’s work, Yonganandan et al. (1995) designed a study to better understand the forces needed to fracture a skull. The authors measured the biomechanical force-deflection response, stiffness, and energy-absorbing characteristics of the skull using 12 intact embalmed cadaver heads. With a custom-designed fixation device, the specimens were placed in a specific orientation on a load cell. The load cell measured the generalized force history along three axes. Each specimen was loaded with either a dynamic or quasistatic load once until failure. The load was applied through an electrohydraulic piston with a curved impact surface. The quasistatic force was loaded at a rate of 2.54 mm/s. Failure was identified as the point at which increased load resulted in decreased force recorded by the load cell. Dynamic force was applied through the piston at a rate of 7.1–8.0 m/s. The piston excursion was set at a predetermined limit. The specimens were oriented in the fixation device so that the piston struck the vertex, parietal, temporal, occipital, or frontal. The results showed that failure forces and displacements ranged from 4.5 to 11.9 kN and 7.8 to 16.6 mm for the quasistatic test and from 8.8 to 14.1 kN and 3.4 to 9.8 mm for the dynamic tests. After the study, each skull was radiographed and scanned with a CT. Then the skulls were defleshed and the fractures examined. The authors list the type of fractures observed on each skull, and the loading rate, force, deflection stiffness, and energy, but fail to list the point of impact. The authors describe the fractures as linear, depressed, circular, multiple depressed, and multiple fractures. Of note, three of the four skulls reported to have linear fractures were loaded with the quasistatic force. Also, three of the four skulls reported to have multiple fractures were loaded with the dynamic force. Although not conclusive, the results suggest a relationship between fracture complexity and load rate. Of interest, the authors emphasize that the greatest fracture width was not necessarily located at the impact site. In one skull, in particular, a linear fracture radiating from a vertex impact was widest at a point along the fontal sinus.

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In addition to measuring the amount of force required to cause a skull fracture, Allsop et al. (1991) investigated the effect of impact surface area on fracture characteristics. The authors impacted 31 unembalmed cadaver heads in the temporo-parietal area with two types of flat rigid impactors. One impactor was a circular plate that measured 2.54 cm in diameter. The other impactor was a rectangular plate that measured 5 × 10 cm in width and length. Fracture forces for the small circular plate ranged between 2.5 and 10.0 kN with an average of 5.2 kN. Fracture forces for the rectangular plate ranged between 5.8 and 17.0 kN with an average of 12.4 kN. The results of the study demonstrated a relationship between the impact area and the force necessary to create a fracture. Again expending on Gurdjian’s work, Kroman et al. (2011) tested the theory that skull fractures initiate from a point away from the impact site and propagate toward it. Using high-speed video and load cell output, the researchers captured the propagation of fractures and maximum load force as crania were struck with an impactor. They placed five unembalmed, previously frozen cadaver heads in a drop tower structure and struck each with a mass weighing 8.58 kg on the anterior parietal region. The drop distance of the mass was between 1.96 and 2.82 m. The drop tower was designed so that the floor supporting the specimen broke away with minimal force increase. This design enabled the contra-lateral side of the skull to be unaffected by an opposite reactive force. However, one of the specimens was placed on a rigid surface in order to investigate the bone’s response to an opposing reactive force. All soft tissue was removed from the head, except for a patch of skin and muscle at the impact site. Exposing nearly all the cranium allowed the progressing fractures to be recorded on film, while the small amount of soft tissue maintained the influence of the soft tissue. The resulting fractures varied for each specimen and are described in Table 10.1. Evaluation of the high-speed video showed that all fractures radiated out from the point of impact and no out-bending was observed. This finding is directly contrary to Gurdjian’s work.

Computer modeling Computer modeling such as finite element (FE) analysis and multibody modeling software are sound alternatives to experimental analysis (O’Riordian et al., 2003; Zong et al., 2006). A multibody modeling system is used to create human figures with kinematic joints, allowing rotational and translational movement, and force elements, to vary the ease of joint

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Table 10.1 Fracture descriptions and maximum load force observed. Specimen

Demographic (sex/age)

Fracture description

Maximum load force [lb (kg)]

1 2

Female, 89 years Female, 61 years

1213 (550) 1410 (640)

3

Male, 61 years

4 5∗

Male, 71 years Not stated

Stellate fractures forming T-pattern. Fractures radiate into squamosal suture and additional fractures involving the outer cortex forming concentric pattern. Stellate fractures involving the outer cortex of the bone. No fractures. Fracture patterns on the impact and opposing surfaces. Impact surface: radiating fractures from point of impact surrounded by a concentric fracture. Opposing surface: stellate fracture pattern. Right and left fronto-zygomatic diastatic fractures.

∗ Specimen

1400 (635) 1400 (635) 1025 (465)

was supported by a rigid platform during impact.

movement. The figures can be developed with body segments of differing size and shape. The software allows the figures to be placed in a virtual environment, and then be subjected to various linear and angular velocities. The resulting forces acting on the segments and joints of the body are predicted based on inputted velocities and environmental conditions. In FE analysis, a computed mesh is placed over the structure of an object. The mesh is programmed with the material and structural properties of the object based on other biomechanical studies. Using these data, the program predicts how the structure will respond to various load conditions (http://www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/97ClassProj/ num/widas/history.html). In skull biomechanical studies, multibody modeling software and FE analysis are used to predict stress levels within a head subjected to an impact. The injury likelihood is then assessed by comparing the predicted impact forces to published injury criteria data primarily based on experimental studies. Unfortunately, these modeling programs currently have several weaknesses. First, the critical stress value (i.e., the level above which the skull is fractured) is unknown. Furthermore, limited experimental validation of the models has been done (Zong et al., 2006).

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Demonstrating the strength of computer modeling, Raul et al. (2006) generated a FE model and compared it with the injuries observed in a deceased fall victim. The decedent fell twice within a short amount of time. First, the decedent fell backwards from a standing height striking the right temporo-parietal region on a wood floor. He was immediately unresponsive and the emergency medical service was called. While being transported, he fell off the transport stretcher onto the same surface from a height of 20–30 cm. The decedent was then transported to the hospital where a CT scan of his head was preformed. After a 1-month survival interval, the individual died and an autopsy was performed. During the autopsy, a curvilinear skull fracture was identified in the postero-superior region of the right parietal bone. The authors applied a validated FE model previously developed at the University Louis Pasteur of Strasbourg to the case. The authors modeled the first and second impact separately. Based on the FE model, the calculated global strain energy of the skull reached a value of 27.5 N⋅m during the first impact. Global strain energy of 2.2 N⋅m of a skull is an indicator of a skull fracture (Raul et al., 1999). Thus, the calculated global strain energy was above the fracture threshold and, in fact, a fracture was found on the decedent. The calculated global energy strain of the second impact was 0.6 N⋅m – far below the reported value indicative of a skull fracture. No fracture was observed during the autopsy that was associated with the second impact site. Showcasing the limitations of computer modeling, O’Riordain et al. (2003) created and validated a multibody dynamic simulation of real-life head injury accidents resulting from falls. The authors began by studying four cases of well-documented accidental falls resulting in focal head injury. Each fall was described as simple and was observed by at least one eyewitness. In all cases the medical examination of the patient was done within 6 h of the injury and included a head CT. Each accident site was examined in order to collect specifics regarding the environment, height of the fall, and type of surface onto which the person fell. In each case, the impact occurred against a rigid planar surface such as concrete or cement. The injuries of the four fall victims are as follows: • A 76-year-old female standing on a doorstep (13 cm) lost her balance and fell directly backwards. She struck her occiput against a concrete wall and received small brain contusions without a skull fracture. • An 11-year-old male fell directly backward in a heat-related fainting episode. He impacted his occiput on concrete pavement. He was diagnosed with a brain contusion and subarachnoid hemorrhage without a skull fracture.

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• A 37-year-old male fell backwards and twisted left while balancing on a gate (138 cm) and pulling a rope which failed. He impacted his left lateral head on the tarmac. He was diagnosed with a left temporo-parietal linear skull fracture and an extradural hematoma. • A 24-year-old female was standing on a chair (44 cm), twisted sharply to the right in response to a noise and fell forwards and to the right. She struck her right lateral head on the ceramic tiled floor. She was diagnosed with a right frontal linear skull fracture, right frontal extradural hematoma, and left posterior temporal basal contusion. For the study, each accident environment was virtually recreated. Appropriate sized figures (similar in weight and height) to the fall victims were used for each simulation. Initial velocities of the whole body and each joint were estimated in order to simulate the fall. These velocities were then varied to account for uncertainty in the eyewitness history of the initial conditions. In the models, almost all the predicted forces for head contact were extremely high and graded as causing life-threatening injuries. In reality, this was not the case. Altering the head contact force-penetration characteristics of the multibody stimulation significantly changed the output results, bringing them more in line with the expected forces. This study underscores the sensitivity of the model to underlying uncertainties. Further exemplifying the uncertainties associated with computer modeling, Hamel et al. (2013) used FE modeling to identify the parameters that influence the mechanism of skull fractures. They concluded that two fall parameters (impact velocity and impact surface) and two biological parameters (cortical thickness and cortical rigidity) had the greatest influence on the mechanism of skull fractures. Although impact velocity and impact surface are easily calculated or identified, cortical thickness and rigidity is highly variable. Bone becomes more rigid with age and variation of cortical thickness is a normal human variant (Love and Symes, 2004). Thus, two parameters important to the mechanism of skull fractures are very difficult to model.

Case studies Several case studies have attempted to correlate cranial fractures with the reported traumatic environment. Kremer and Sauvageau (2009) evaluated the relationship between mechanism of injury and three criteria: hat brim line rule (HBL), side lateralization, and number of scalp lacerations. Also, they evaluated the predictability of the mechanism of

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injury through combining these criteria. The authors conducted a 6-year retrospective study of autopsy cases with skull fractures. They found that fractures resulting from falls tended to be within or below the HBL, on the right side, and have three or less scalp lacerations. Fractures resulting from homicidal blows tended to be above the HBL, on the left side, and have more than three scalp lacerations. When combining two criteria in favor of a fall, the predictive value of the mechanism was 65.9%. When combining two criteria in favor of a homicidal blow, the predictive value was 100%. The predictive value increased to 83.3% when three criteria in favor of a fall were combined. Preuß et al. (2004) conducted a retrospective study of decedents with a history of a fall down stairs. A total of 116 autopsy cases met the study criterion. The authors found that more than twice the number males than females were victims of such falls (males n = 81, females n = 35). Also, fatal falls down stairs were more common in older individuals (50–60 years old). Seventy-five of the cases had skull fractures and the majority of these were basilar skull fractures, followed by occipital and parietal fractures. Although the data provided by both of these studies are valuable, each fails to describe the fracture pattern in detail, instead simply documenting the location of the fracture.

Conclusions Although much research has focused on skull fractures, little has been done on skull fracture pattern interpretation. Research has shown how fractures propagate within a skull, the level of force required to fracture a skull, and the typical location of a fracture given a specific event (i.e., fall versus assault). However, very little research has focused on reconstructing the forces associated with a fracture pattern. This sort of pattern recognition is being attempted in children (see Baumer et al., 2009, 2010a, b), but not in adults. In the medicolegal setting, critical information regarding the final event often is unknown and must be reconstructed from patterns observed on the body. With adequate research, skull fracture pattern interpretation may be a means to reconstruct the events surrounding death.

References Allsop, D.L., Perl, T.R., and Warner, C.Y. (1991) Force/deflection and fracture characteristics of the temporo-parietal region of the human head, in Proceedings of the 35th Stapp Car Crash Conference, San Diego, CA, pp. 269–278.

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Baumer, T., Powell, B., Fenton, T., and Haut, R. (2009) Age dependent mechanical properties of the infant porcine skull and a correlation to the human. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 131, 111006. Baumer, T., Passalacqua, N.V., Powell, B., Newberry, W., Smith, W., Fenton, T., and Haut, R. (2010a) Age-dependent fracture characteristics of rigid and compliant surface impacts on the infant skull – a porcine model. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 55, 993–997. Baumer, T., Nashelsky, M., Hurst, C.V., Passalacqua, N.V., Fenton, T., and Haut, R. (2010b) Characteristics and prediction of cranial crush injuries in children. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 55 (6), 1416–1421. Galloway, A. (1999) Fracture patterns and skeletal morphology: introduction and the skull, in Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma (ed. A. Galloway), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 63–80. Gurdjian, E. and Lissner, H. (1945) Deformation of the skull in head injury: a study with the “stresscoat” technique. Surgery, Gynecology, and Obstetrics, 81, 679–687. Gurdjian, E., Lissner, H., and Webster, J. (1947) The mechanism of production of linear skull fractures. Surgery, Gynecology, and Obstetrics, 85, 195–210. Gurdjian, E., Webster, J., and Lissner, H. (1950) The mechanism of skull fracture. Radiology, 54, 313–338. Hamel, A., Llari, M., Piercecchi-Marti, M.D., Adalian, P., Leonetti, G., and Thollon, L. (2013) Effect of fall conditions and biological variability on the mechanism of skull fractures caused falls. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 127 (1), 111–118. Kremer, C. and Sauvageau, A. (2009) Discrimination of falls and blows in blunt head trauma: assessment of predictability through combined criteria. Journal of Forensic Science, 54 (4), 923–926. Kroman, A., Kress, T., and Porta, D. (2011) Fracture propagation in the human cranium: a re-testing of popular theories. Clinical Anatomy, 24, 309–318. Love, J.C. and Symes, S.A. (2004) Understanding rib fracture patterns: incomplete and buckle fractures. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 49, 1153–1158. O’Riordain, K., Thomas, P.M., Phillips, J.P., and Gilchrist, M.D. (2003) Reconstruction of real world head injury accidents resulting from falls using multibody dynamics. Clinical Biomechanics, 18, 590–600. Preuß, J., Padosch, S.A., Dettmeyer, R., Driever, F., Lignitz, E., and Made B. (2004) Injuries in fatal cases of falls down stairs. Forensic Science International, 141, 121–126 Raul, J.S., Baumgartner, D., Willinger, R., and Ludes, B. (2006) Finite element modelling of human head injuries caused by a fall. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 120, 212–218. Smith, O.C., Pope, E.J., and Symes, S.A. (2003) Look until you see: identification of trauma in skeletal material, in Hard Evidence: Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology, 1st edn (ed. W. Steadman), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp. 138–154 Yonganandan, N., Pintar, F.A., Sances, A., Walsh, P.R., Ewing, C.L., Thomas, D.J., and Snyder, R.G. (1995) Biomechanics of skull fracture. Journal of Neurotrauma, 12 (4), 659–668. Zong, Z., Lee, H.P., and Lu, C. (2006) A Three-dimensional human head finite element model and power flow in a human head subject to impact loading. Journal of Biomechanics, 39, 284–292.

C H A P T E R 11

Blunt force trauma associated with a fall from heights MariaTeresa A. Tersigni-Tarrant

Introduction In the spring of 2009, human skeletal remains were discovered near Lookout Mountain on the Georgia–Tennessee border. A hiker stumbled upon the remains at the base of Lookout Mountain, approximately 150 ft (46 m) directly below the highest rock outcropping in a local tourist park, Rock City. The remains were located on a rocky bluff and were scattered on the surface of the ground over a range of approximately 150 ft (46 m) down the side of the bluff. The innominates, femora, left tibia, left fibula, left patella, and mandible were discovered on a rock outcrop below the bluff (Figure 11.1), while the rest of the skeleton was scattered down slope, with the skull resting at the bottom of the steep hill. Due to the steep grade of the recovery scene and rough terrain over which the remains were scattered, a baseline mapping technique was used to catalogue the remains (Figure 11.2). The remains were flagged, photographed in situ, and mapped. Measurements were taken from the baseline to each element or concentration of skeletal elements. Additionally, Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates of each skeletal element or concentration of elements were catalogued. After the search for osseous remains was exhausted and all non-human osseous remains were removed, a systematic inventory and collection of the skeletal elements and other evidence was performed. The remains were then loaded into two large backpacks, which were carried up belay ropes by two local rescue squad climbers to prevent damage to any of the remains. The remains were transported to the Georgia Bureau of Investigation’s Medical Examiner Annex for analysis. The medical examiner requested that the remains be analyzed for information pertaining to biological profile as well as a trauma assessment. Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Figure 11.1 Innominates and lower-limb bones encased in blue jean pants on a

rocky outcrop below the bluff (arrow).

Figure 11.2 Baseline mapping technique used due to the steep terrain.

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The remains recovered represented a fairly complete human skeleton, in good-to-fair condition. Weathering was noted on the bones of the skull, upper appendicular skeleton, and axial skeleton. These elements were white in appearance and had minimal dried/mummified adherent tissue as well as small amounts of cracking or exfoliation. The innominates, femora, left tibia, left fibula, and left patella, were encased in putrefied tissue that was beginning to mummify within a pair of blue jean pants. This lower-limb tissue had beetles and a few fly larvae associated with it, although the tissue surrounding the left femur, patella, tibia, and fibula was nearly mummified on the external surface, with the putrefied tissue remaining below this mummified tissue in areas of deep muscle mass (i.e., quadriceps and hamstring areas). In accordance with best practices, the biological profile assessment was completed using the pertinent skeletal elements. The sex estimation was based upon the morphological traits of the skull and innominates. The age estimation was based upon the morphological traits of the innominates. The ancestry was assessed using both metric and non-metric traits, and stature was estimated using regression equations. These analysis resulted in the following biological profile: White male, aged between 28 and 39 years with a stature of 5 ft 7 in. to 6 ft 2 in. (1.52–1.88 m) (Phenice, 1969; Lovejoy et al., 1985; Brooks and Suchey, 1990; Gill and Rhine, 1990; Jantz and Ousley, 2005).

Trauma analysis A complete trauma analysis was conducted, including distinguishing between antemortem trauma and perimortem trauma as well as an assessment of postmortem alteration to the remains.

Antemortem trauma Well-healed defects were located on the skull and the right clavicle. The skull exhibited evidence of prior cranial surgery to the right half of the frontal bone, where an approximately 65 × 46 mm rectangular defect was identified (Figure 11.3). The well-healed defect was situated with its medial border approximately 18 mm from the mid-sagittal section (midline) of the skull and its lateral border approximately 23 mm from the squamosal suture. An open-semicircular defect on anterio-lateral border of this rectangle was noted, measuring approximately 14 × 9 mm, with

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Figure 11.3 Well-healed skull fracture identified on the right side of the skull.

Figure 11.4 Healed clavicle fracture displaying evidence of remodeling over a large

surface area.

a small bone-bridge measuring approximately 2 mm width × 5 mm long located approximately 4 mm from posterior portion of the defect. Also present was a well-healed fracture to the right clavicle approximately 50 mm from the acromial end (Figure 11.4). The remodeled area measured approximately 36 mm in length and showed evidence of a complete or near complete fracture as remodeling was identified on the anterior, medial, posterior, and lateral surfaces of the bone.

Perimortem trauma The perimortem trauma was fairly extensive, yet concentrated within the axial skeleton and the innominates. This focal damage to the axial skeleton is indicative of a fall from heights (Spitz, 1993;Galloway, 1999). The following is a description of the perimortem trauma found in the skeletal remains.

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Figure 11.5 Perimortem depressed skull fracture on the occipital bone.

Skull The only perimortem trauma to the skull is a small depression fracture measuring approximately 8 × 11 mm on the right portion of the occipital above the superior nuchal line (Figure 11.5). This depression is consistent with the posterior surface of the cranium hitting a blunt object. Vertebral column The vertebral column exhibited the most extensive perimortem trauma, with several lumbar vertebrae exhibiting hallmark compression fractures (Galloway, 1999) (Figure 11.6). The following is a list of the perimortem trauma noted on the vertebral column. The seventh cervical vertebra (C7) and first thoracic vertebra exhibit perimortem fractures that removed the spinous processes. Thoracic vertebrae 2 and 11 (T2 and T11) each exhibited perimortem loss of the right transverse process. The third thoracic vertebra (T3) displayed perimortem loss of the tip of spinous process as well as perimortem loss of the anterio-superior quarter of the outer cortex of the vertebral body. The first lumbar vertebra (L1) displayed perimortem fracturing of the following regions: across left lamina between spinous process and superior articular process (spanning superior to inferior of lamina and anterior to posterior of lamina), a complete fracture of left pedicle at

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Figure 11.6 Superior view of lumbar vertebrae 1–5 displaying extensive perimortem

damage.

junction of body, and a transverse fracture to the body, separating body into superior and inferior halves. The inferior surface of the body of L1 showed a midline fracture of the vertebral body (which spans from superior to inferior surfaces), as well as a coronal fracture across the vertebral body from right lateral border to left lateral border. The first lumbar vertebra also had a perimortem fracture, which removed a portion of the left superior lamina of the body. The second lumbar vertebra (L2) displayed perimortem trauma that removed a portion of the left transverse process. The third lumbar vertebra (L3) had a perimortem fracture across the spinous process. Additionally, the left transverse process and portions of both the anterior-superior and anterior-inferior laminae of this vertebral body (concentrated on the left side) were removed by perimortem traumatic events (Figure 11.7). The fourth lumbar vertebra (L4) was missing the superior half of the body, which was removed at the pedicle/body junction on both the right and left sides (see Figure 11.7). The inferior half of the body exhibited a fracture from anterior to posterior. This fracture matched the fracture

Figure 11.7 Superior view of lumbar vertebrae 3 and 4.

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across the left lamina of L4 between the spinous process and superior articular process. The right transverse process of L4 was also damaged during the perimortem events. The fifth lumbar vertebra (L5) displayed perimortem fractures to the left and right transverse processes. Fractures were also noted at the junction of the pedicle and body on right side of L5, spanning from the lateral surface of the vertebral body to the midline, and from superior surface of vertebral body to the midline.

Sternum and ribs Perimortem trauma was identified on the sternal body below the second costal pit. Multiple fractures to both the posterior one-third of the ribs (near the head and neck of the rib) and anterior one-third of the ribs (near the sternal end) were identified. Five right ribs exhibit fractures to the posterior one-third including the first right first rib, on which a greenstick fracture as identified on the posterior portion of the rib. Four of the right ribs exhibit fracturing to the sternal end of ribs. Three left ribs exhibit fractures anterior to the neck region of the rib, while seven left ribs exhibit fractures to the sternal one-third of the ribs. Pelvis The right innominate displayed perimortem damage to the medial portion of the right retroauricular area of the iliac blade; however, postmortem damage was also associated with this area. The inferior portion of the sacrum exhibited fracturing and displayed postmortem damage as well. The sacrum also exhibits a perimortem fracture diagonally across the first left anterior sacral foramina passing across the auricular surface of the sacrum to the posterior portion of the sacrum. A second fracture was noted on the body of the sacrum diagonally across the second left sacral foramina passing across the auricular surface of the sacrum to the posterior surface of the sacrum. Additionally, the left auricular surface had evidence of perimortem fractures. Lower limbs The left tibia shows perimortem damage at the distal fibular articular surface, while the left fibula shows perimortem trauma to the distal portion of the bone. The head of the right talus was present, although the rest of the talus was missing. The fracture to the talus exhibits characteristics of shearing as the head of the talus was removed from the body of the talus. The head of the talus remained tightly associated within the ligamentous attachments of distal tibia and fibula.

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Figure 11.8 Characteristics postmortem carnivore damage noted on the distal

humerus.

Postmortem trauma Postmortem trauma present was demonstrative of hallmark carnivore activity on the skeletal remains. This included pitting and puncturing on the axial skeleton, as well as pitting puncturing, and fracturing on the ends of the long bones (Figure 11.8). Carnivore damage was noted on the following skeletal elements: medial right clavicle, right scapula, left scapula, right humerus, left humerus, left radius, right femur, right fibula, and right tibia.

Summary These skeletal remains of a nearly complete individual were found on Lookout Mountain, Georgia in an advanced state of decomposition. The remains were representative of a white male, aged between 28 and 39 years of age with a stature of 5 ft 7 in. to 6 ft 2 in. (1.52–1.88 m). The skeleton exhibited evidence of prior surgery on the skull and a previous fracture of the right clavicle. There was extensive perimortem trauma to the remains that are consistent with a fall from a height. There was also a great deal of postmortem skeletal damage due to the activity of carnivores in the area.

Case outcome The remains were eventually positively identified through comparison of antemortem and postmortem radiographs of the skull as well as dental radiographs. The antemortem fractures had been caused by a car accident that occurred approximately 13 years earlier, which resulted in closed-head injury and a fractured clavicle. Surgery to relieve swelling on the brain was conducted shortly after this incident, thus

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the antemortem healed trauma. A suicide note found at the interim residence of the individual indicated that this individual had planned to visit this particular park to commit suicide. This individual had been missing for approximately 9 months prior to discovery of the remains.

References Brooks, S. and Suchey, J.M. (1990) Skeletal age determination based on the os pubis: a comparison of the Acsádi–Nemeskéri and Suchey–Brooks methods. Human Evolution, 5, 227–238. Galloway, A. (1999) The circumstances of blunt force trauma: falls, in Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma (ed. A. Galloway), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 249–255. Gill, G.W. and Rhine, S. (eds) (1990) Skeletal Attribution of Race: Methods for Forensic Anthropology. Anthropological Papers No. 4. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM. Jantz, R. and Ousley, S. (2005) Fordisc 3.0: Statistical Program. The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Lovejoy, C.O., Meindl, R.S., Prysbeck, T.R., and Mensforth, R.P. (1985) Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68, 15–28. Phenice, T. (1969) A newly developed visual method of sexing in the os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 30, 297–301. Spitz, W.U. (1993) Blunt force injury, in Spitz and Fisher’s The Medicolegal Investigation of Death: Guidelines for the Application of Pathology to Crime Scene Investigation, 3rd edn (ed. W.U. Spitz), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 199–251.

C H A P T E R 12

Low-velocity impact trauma: an illustrative selection of cases from the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory Paul Emanovsky

Introduction As a forensic anthropologist working at the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL), I am afforded the opportunity to observe a wide variety of skeletal trauma. In this chapter I will focus on trauma sustained during so-called “low-velocity” aircraft crashes (i.e., “impact” or “deceleration” trauma). Impact trauma is in essence just blunt force trauma, and as such, the case selections and illustrations should be applicable to a broad range of practitioners, not just those working in similar circumstances. In 1944, a B-24D “Liberator” aircraft left March Air Force Base, Riverside, California, on a flight training mission to Redding, California. Unfortunately, something went wrong and the aircraft was observed spinning and, subsequently, impacting the ground at a steep angle; a significant explosion and fire ball were noted. No parachutes were sighted, and all 10 men aboard were killed and identified just after the incident. Additional recovery efforts were initiated by the JPAC in 2006 when more remains and materials from those identified in 1944 were found at the crash site. Compared with today’s high speed jets, a B-24D is a slow-moving aircraft, with a maximum speed of approximately 300 m.p.h. (483 km/h).

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Figure 12.1 Silver dollar (left and middle), nickel (left), and quarter (right)

recovered from a B-24 aircraft crash site arrows point out the impression left from the nickel on the silver dollar.

When a slow-moving aircraft fails to maintain flight and crashes, the resultant impact event often produces a variety of traumatic loading that severely exceeds biological tissue safety factors. While this may be common sense, the forces involved in these impact events are perhaps not intuitively understood. Figure 12.1 displays coins that were recovered from the above B-24D aircraft crash. The coins were most likely in someone’s pocket at the time of the crash. Notice the bending in each of the coins as well as the fact that the silver dollar has an impression of the nickel imprinted on its surface, both were bent and pressed together, and the quarter folded in on itself. The point of this example is to introduce everyday items that one can relate to in order to get a sense of the torsion and bending involved in such an incident. This chapter attempts to illustrate perimortem blunt force trauma and to provide the reader an atlas of trauma on an array of elements subjected to loading from a variety of directions. My aim is not to provide data on the pattern of injuries, or degree of fragmentation or other endeavors that might be of interest for making “differential diagnoses” of the etiology of the trauma for a given case, but rather to provide examples from a selection of casework that might not be typically available to a forensic anthropologist in a more traditional setting. Making a conclusion as to the etiology of trauma is context-dependent. Context, in conjunction with the observed injury patterns, is critical for making the call as to the origination of the trauma (e.g., high-velocity versus low-velocity aircraft crash, vehicular accident versus fall from height, etc.). Further, some experience is required to discern perimortem blunt force trauma from postmortem damage when the time since death

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and time to recovery is so far removed and longer-term taphonomic processes have occurred. Here, I will review some of the fracture characteristics commonly used for making these determinations, many of which derive from the archeological literature (Lyman 1994), but are perhaps not as well described or codified in the forensic anthropological literature. (Or at least I will point out the characteristics I have found to be most useful/frequently occurring.)

Case 1 This case involves the loss of a C-46 transport airplane on 27 March 1944; the C-46 “Commando” had a maximum speed of approximately 270 m.p.h (435 km/h). This aircraft departed from Kunming, China, heading to its home base of Sookerating, India. The aircraft was believed to have run out of fuel. In 2002, a recovery team excavated the crash site in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (Tibet) of the People’s Republic of China.

Individuals 1 and 2 As can be seen in Figures 12.2 and 12.3, blunt force trauma is evident on all regions of the body present for analysis. Individual 1 exhibits perimortem fractures of the cranium and mandible, the right clavicle, the left humerus, the right ulna, both os coxae, the right femur, the left tibia, and the left calcaneus. Let us examine the trauma of Individual 2 in more detail: the cranium is comminuted, displaying numerous linear fractures. The corpus of the mandible is fractured obliquely through the body with the fracture beginning near the level of the second molar and continuing anteriorly. The left humerus displays a transverse oblique fracture on the distal third of the shaft (Figure 12.4). Careful examination reveals that this fracture is an incomplete butterfly fracture in which the secondary fracture did not completely separate the “wedge” from the shaft. The surface morphology of the fracture is relatively smooth, with hackle marks (fine ridges on the fracture surface parallel to the direction of the propagation of the fracture). That is, it is not stepped or irregular and jagged, which is more indicative of postmortem fractures of tubular bones. The left radius displays a transverse oblique fracture of the shaft near the proximal end (Figure 12.4). The rest of the distal shaft is missing. The fracture surface morphology is relatively clean and smooth. The proximal

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Figure 12.2 (a) Overview skeletal layout of Case 1, Individual 1. (b) Perimortem

spiral fracture of the right femoral shaft (posterior view). (c) Homunculus depicting perimortem fractures (solid lines) and illustrating the approximate anatomical locations of the trauma examples. (d) Perimortem fractures of the left humerus (posterior view). This photograph also illustrates the differential preservation between the proximal and distal portions of the shaft.

Figure 12.3 Overview skeletal layout and homunculus of Case 1, Individual 2.

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Figure 12.4 Perimortem trauma of the left arm and forearm, with a diagram

showing approximate anatomical location of the skeletal trauma. (a) Posterior view of humeral shaft illustrating incomplete butterfly fracture (incomplete fracture illustrated by arrows). (b) Fracture margin of proximal portion of distal humeral shaft. (c) Proximal left radius and ulna with perimortem diaphyseal fractures. (d) Overview of scapula. (e) Anterior view, close-up of axial border fracture. (f) Posterior view of axial border fracture.

left ulna shaft displays a transverse oblique fracture that is sawtoothed (i.e., zig-zagging orientation of smooth fracture margins) in appearance. The right ulna displays a classic tension–compression “butterfly” fracture of the distal shaft; the wedge of bone separated from the shaft as a result of this fracture is not present. The right and left scapulae both display perimortem fractures – the clearest examples on the axial borders. The right scapula axial border is transversely fractured displaying a sawtoothed fracture margin (Figure 12.4). The left scapular axial border is also transversely fractured. There is further evidence of perimortem trauma on the flat blade portions of the scapula. The appearance of these fracture margins is similar to the “peeling” phenomenon described by White (1992). The bones of the pelvis present for analysis display perimortem fractures. There is a vertical fracture of the right upper ala of the sacrum. The right os coxa is fractured and the ischium is separated from the ilium via a horizontal fracture through the approximate midline of the acetabulum (a posterior column fracture). Additionally, there is a smaller, incomplete anterior wall fracture of the superior acetabulum and a small, jagged, linear fracture runs from the iliac crest into the iliac blade. The differentiation between peri- and postmortem was based on the similarity of staining on the fracture margins with the adjacent bone surface, as well as the fracture characteristics themselves. The direction

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of injury could be discerned in simple models, but in these cases it is moot whether a force affecting the left fibula was applied from the lateral side or the medial side (or anterior and posterior).

Case 2 In March 1967, an F-105D “Thunderchief” was struck by enemy ground fire while on an armed-reconnaissance mission over Laos. A wingman observed the aircraft begin to burn and then crash. No parachute was observed, although a weak emergency beeper signal was heard for a short time following the crash. A “Thunderchief” has a maximum speed of around 1390 m.p.h (2237 km/h). Why is this case study included in a chapter concerned with relatively low-speed impact events? The answer is that the pattern of trauma is consistent with someone “who experienced perimortem trauma consistent with a low[er]-speed aircraft crash or low-altitude ejection.” This determination is the synthesis of information incorporating data from historical accounts, in which witness interviews describe the pilot “bailing” out at a low altitude, as well as the forensic anthropological analysis. An important note is

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Figure 12.5 Case 2, Individual 1: (a) skeletal layout overview, (b) close up of spiral

and helical fractures of anterior right femur (inset is posterior view), (c) close up of helical fracture of tibial shaft, and (d) double butterfly fractures of right fibula.

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that the forensic anthropological analysis was carried out “in the blind” as to what type of incident was being analyzed (i.e., it was known to be a Vietnam War era incident, but the type of incident – ground loss, helicopter crash, aircraft crash, slow mover/fast mover, etc. – was not known). An overview photograph and details of some trauma are presented in Figure 12.5. The Forensic Anthropology Report noted: The skull displays numerous linear and diastatic fractures. The fractures are often propagated along areas of least resistance, for instance the fracture traversing the frontal bone near the browline can be characterized as a Lefort 3 fracture (Berryman and Symes, 1998). The mandible displays a symphyseal fracture and several maxillary and mandibular teeth have had their enamel fractured. Plastic deformation of the cranium, which is a result of a slow-loading force, did not occur as evidenced by the fact that the elements can be reconstructed and retain their original shape. This suggests that the head was impacted with a significant force over a relatively short period of time. The left femur displays a helical fracture near the lesser trochanter and a possible transverse fracture at the neck. The left tibia exhibits a spiral fracture on the distal shaft. The left fibula is fractured in the same area, along the distal shaft and displays a transverse fracture just above the articular surface and a butterfly fracture just superior to that. The right femur displays comminuted helical fractures on the shaft, just below the lesser trochanter. The fractures terminate at a more transverse fracture of the shaft and when the comminuted spiral fractures are looked at as a whole, it becomes clear that they form a butterfly fracture and that the direction of force that lead to bone failure was directed from the medial side. The proximal right tibia displays spiral and sawtooth fractures that travel to approximately midshaft where they terminate into a helical fracture. The medial malleolus appears to have been sheared off. The proximal right fibula is missing but a perimortem transverse fracture of the shaft is apparent, just below that is a small butterfly fracture and below that on the distal portion of the shaft are two additional butterfly fractures. The direction of the fractures indicates that the forces were from the lateral side. Butterfly fractures are also found on the midshaft of the left humerus and on the distal shaft of the right ulna. The right clavicle is fractured near the midshaft. The right ilium displays a transverse fracture across the iliac blade superior to the acetabulum. The left ilium also displays a transverse fracture near the auricular surface.

Based on the above, the conclusion in the report was that “the severity and distribution of the trauma is indicative of a low-velocity impact event.” This was contrasted with not being consistent with high-velocity aircraft crashes where the body and bones become severely comminuted, and are usually associated with massive destruction (Galloway 1999).

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In re-examining the report with hindsight, I am pleased that I chose the wording “low-velocity impact event” as it is accurate and yet not overly precise. One aspect of the trauma that is intriguing is the lack of plastic deformation of the skull, indicating that in this case the traumatic force must have been fast loading. This is atypical for blunt force trauma to the cranium (Berryman and Symes, 1998) and may stand as a diagnostic feature of low-velocity impact events versus other forms of blunt force trauma, when such patterns of whole-body traumatic injuries are observed. This musing will need to be validated experientially or through actualistic studies.

Case 3 In July 1944, a B-24H “Liberator” aircraft was shot down and crashed while on a bombing raid against enemy targets in Germany. Seven of the crew bailed out prior to the crash and two individuals remained aboard. The JPAC excavated the crash site in 2012 and recovered the remains of these two individuals (Individual 1 and Individual 2, as well as remains that could not be definitively associated to either, designated “Group” remains) (Figure 12.6a–c, respectively). Again, the remains displayed green bone biomechanical reactions to force, such as spiral and butterfly fractures. Perhaps the most interesting element in this assemblage, not already highlighted by the above case studies, is the perimortem fractures of the pubic bone (Figure 12.7). The reconstructed ischio-pubic ramus displays a sawtoothed, linear transverse fracture superiorly and a rougher transverse fracture inferiorly; the

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Figure 12.6 Case 3, Individual 1 (a), Individual 2 (b), and “Group” (c) remains.

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Figure 12.7 Close-up of pubic bone of

Individual 2 illustrating sawtoothed ramus fracture.

lateral margin of the extant ischio-pubic ramus is also fractured. The irregular shape of this bone as well as the high trabecular content and thin cortices contribute to irregular fractures that do not conform to the regularly used descriptions, which are based mostly on long bone fracture characteristics.

Conclusions/takeaways Here, I have given a glimpse into my approach to trauma interpretation. To summarize, I think it first the duty of the forensic anthropologist to be able to discern between anthropologically perimortem and postmortem insults. To this end, fracture descriptions are paramount as it is the combination of fresh bone reactions to force and taphonomic processes that make these recognizable. In general, prior to describing the trauma, I will introduce the section with a determination of the nature of the fracture(s) (i.e., perimortem versus postmortem). Typically, I use a blanket statement based on general knowledge such as, “All of the trauma described below is consistent with being perimortem based on the similarity of staining on the fracture margins with the adjacent bone surfaces, as well as displaying green (fresh) bone biomechanical reactions to force such as spiral and butterfly fractures.” What is generally not explicit is how does one identify a green bone reaction to force? Numerous empirical studies

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have shown the anthropological and medical worlds where bones are likely to break based on biomechanical models, buttresses, and struts. The wealth of medical literature classifies such fractures, clinically. However, in my opinion, what is necessary is to describe the fracture, and to classify it, in terms of perimortem or postmortem. Not its clinical classification. The clinical approach to trauma analysis is more common historically, particularly in archaeological/paleopathological reports. This approach is no longer appropriate as clinical classifications are generally uninformative based on the context of this work. Classifying a fracture as peri- or postmortem can be relatively easy, such as when there is a clear difference in color between the fracture margin and the surrounding matrices (Ubelaker and Adams, 1995). However, post-depositional processes can break bones and still stain margins. One must rely more heavily on the fracture morphology itself. The morphology of the fracture margins is also typically distinctive between peri- and postmortem fractures. From the above case studies, we can see the fracture characteristics I find most useful for this purpose for blunt force, impact trauma. A word cloud generated for the three cases without the non-essential clauses show the most used descriptive criteria (Figure 12.8). Note that one of the commonly appearing descriptions is that of “sawtoothed.” I would like to make a distinction clear here. Sawtoothed fracture margins refer to the fracture margin (the combination of the fracture shape and the fracture surface); this is contrasted with a stepped, or irregular, or jagged fracture surfaces. Correctly, stepped and

Figure 12.8 Word cloud illustrating the most commonly used words and phrases

when describing perimortem impact trauma.

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irregular fracture margins are associated with postmortem fractures. In my experience confusion arises with the term “jagged.” I contend that most perimortem fractures that are sawtoothed in appearance also have smooth fracture margins. Figure 12.4(a and b) illustrates this nicely. This chapter attempted to illustrate perimortem low-velocity impact trauma from a selection of casework that might not be typically available to forensic anthropologists working in more traditional settings. It is my hope that having now seen bony responses to a myriad of torsional, bending, and loading events that occur during low-velocity aircraft crashes, the reader is more prepared to identify such trauma.

Disclaimer The views herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government.

References Berryman, H.E. and Symes, S.A. (1998) Recognizing gunshot and blunt cranial trauma through fracture pattern interpretation, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains (ed. K.J. Reichs), Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 333–352. Galloway, A. (ed.) (1999) Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Lyman, R.L. (1994) Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Ubelaker, D.H. and Adams, B.J. (1995) Differentiation of perimortem and postmortem trauma using taphonomic indicators. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 40, 509–512. White, T.D. (1992) Prehistoric Cannibalism at Mancos 5MTUMR-2346. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp. 140–143.

C H A P T E R 13

Blast trauma Angi M. Christensen and Victoria A. Smith

Introduction Forensic anthropologists have become increasingly involved in criminal, humanitarian, and conflict-related investigations involving human skeletal remains associated with blast events and explosive weapons. In many of these cases the emphasis is primarily on identification of victims and prosecution of crimes with little attention to the study and analysis of resulting trauma. Anthropologists working in conflict areas are more likely to encounter blast trauma than those working in traditional laboratories, but the overall likelihood of encountering skeletal cases associated with potential blast trauma is increasing. While this volume highlights case examples of trauma from known causes, there are few documented reports on the analysis of blast trauma. The approach for this chapter will therefore involve a combination of literature review, case examples, and summaries of studies involving experimental blast events.

Blast traumas There is an abundance of literature on blast trauma, particularly in medical and orthopedic journals (e.g., Fulton, 1942; Teare, 1976; Hadden et al., 1978; Bowen and Bellamy, 1988; Katz et al., 1989; Hull and Cooper, 1996; Leibovici et al., 1996; Yu-Yuan et al., 1998; Wightman and Gladish, 2001; Covey, 2002; Arnold et al., 2004; Peleg et al., 2004; Kalebi and Olumbe, 2006; Weil et al., 2007; Moraitis et al., 2009), but the focus of these studies is generally mortality and treatment of injuries for the living rather than the analysis of skeletal traumas of the deceased. Within the anthropological literature, studies of skeletal trauma emphasize blunt, sharp, and high-velocity projectile trauma, with little mention of skeletal trauma resulting from blasts. Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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An explosion (or blast) involves the rapid change of a small amount of solid or liquid material into a large volume of gas. When an explosive device is initiated, the blast wave (or the positive phase of the blast wave) originates from the detonation wave, which travels through the explosive material at speeds often as high as 6–8 km/s (Leibovici et al., 1966). As this shock wave meets the atmosphere, air is displaced at a high rate of speed as this blast wave moves through the atmosphere. After the blast wave has moved beyond a given point, a local vacuum exists which air in the atmosphere rushes back in to fill. This is the negative phase of the blast wave. It is not as powerful as the positive phase, but it lasts relatively longer. Injury and death typically occur because of the positive phase of the blast wave or via direct physical contact with items projected by blast forces. Blast traumas fall into several categories (Fulton, 1942; Bowen and Bellamy, 1988; Wightman and Gladish, 2001). Primary blast injuries (or primary barotraumas) result from barometric changes and affect hollow organs, such as eardrums, lungs, and bowels (Katz et al., 1989; Leibovichi et al., 1996). Primary barotraumas include ruptured eardrums, blast lung, and intestinal perforation. Secondary blast injuries include any penetrating trauma resulting from fragments or shrapnel. Ball-bearings or other metal objects are often incorporated into explosive devices to increase the damage caused by penetrating trauma (Crabtree, 2006). Such objects effectively become high-velocity projectiles similar to bullets and can cause similar injuries. Tertiary blast injuries result from large objects falling onto an individual or from an individual being thrown into objects. Tertiary blast injuries are associated with blunt and penetrating trauma as well as crush injuries. Other miscellaneous injuries, sometimes referred to quaternary blast traumas, are associated with burns and smoke/dust inhalation. Although explosions may result from a number of accidental or intentional causes, in recent years many blast traumas have been the result of terrorist events. In recent wars and terror events, most injuries of the skeletal system have been caused by exploding ordnance (Covey, 2002). Explosive weapons are designed to be destructive through the sudden pressure change caused by the blast or by spreading shrapnel that acts as small projectiles, both of which may result in skeletal fractures and dismemberment. Terrorism is defined in Code of Federal Regulations as “the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives” (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85). Worldwide, terrorist attacks involving explosive

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devices targeting civilians and producing injuries not typically treated in general population medical centers have become increasingly prevalent. The cumulative effect of terrorist bombings against US targets, such as the Oklahoma City bombing, the bombings of the embassies in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi, and the numerous insurgency attacks in Iraq and Afghanistan, has served to shift counterterrorism focus from wide-scale weapons of mass destruction to conventional explosive attacks. Terrorist explosive devices are utilized to produce maximum damage, drawing wide-scale attention while having minimal costs associated (Kalebi et al., 2006). According to the National Counterterrorism Center, in 2008, 11 800 terrorist attacks were committed resulting in over 54 000 deaths, injuries, and kidnappings (National Counterterrorism Center, 2009). Bombings alone accounted for more than one-third of terrorist attacks, with explosives, vehicle bombs, and improvised explosive devices resulting in a majority of injuries (National Counterterrorism Center, 2009). Although the number of deaths resulting from terrorist attacks decreased in 2010 to 13 200, armed attacks continued to be the most prevalent, with bombings (including suicide bombings) causing almost 70% of all terrorist attack deaths (National Counterterrorism Center, 2011). When studying blast trauma, consideration must be given to the type and size of the explosive charge, the proximity to the blast site, and the physical make-up of the area surrounding the event. To correctly interpret the skeletal fracture patterns resulting from blasts, it is important to understand the mechanisms of skeletal blast trauma and to document known blast trauma patterns. Various factors can affect the morphology of blast wounds including type and amount of explosive, type and amount of shrapnel, location of the explosion, the presence of structures or intermediate targets, location of the victim relative to the blast, and the physiology of the victim (Kimmerle and Baraybar, 2008) as well as the size and shape of fragments (Yu-Yuan et al., 1998). Blast trauma, when carefully examined and interpreted, can be distinguished from other mechanisms of skeletal trauma including blunt and high-velocity projectile trauma.

Experimental studies on skeletal blast trauma In an effort to identify typical blast trauma skeletal fractures and determine whether blast trauma could be differentiated from other types of trauma in a laboratory setting, semi-controlled blast experiments

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utilizing euthanized pigs (Sus scrofa) were conducted (Christensen et al., 2011; Christensen and Smith, 2013). In these studies, 11 test specimens were exposed to blast events of varying explosive type, charge size, and distance. Two test specimens were placed on boats that were detonated as part of an underwater post-blast training course, along with three types of explosives: pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN)-based detonating cord, PETN-based detasheet, and research department explosive (RDX, a.k.a. cyclonite)-based C4. Nine specimens were suspended from constructed wooden stands and exposed to C4 charges. Three of these nine blasts involved specimens that were in direct contact with spherical C4 charges ranging from 500 to 1500 g (Figure 13.1a). Three blasts involved charge sizes of 4000 g while varying the distance of the test specimen from the charge from 1, 2 to 5 ft (0.3, 0.5 to 15 m) away from the specimen (Figure 13.1b). The final blast involved the inclusion of shrapnel associated with a simulated suicide bomb event (Figure 13.1c). One test specimen was designated as the “bomber” and was fitted with a body armor cover vest containing 4000 g C4 and 250 0.5-in. (12.7-mm) ball-bearings. The remaining two specimens were “victims” positioned at a distance of 1 and 2 ft (0.33 and 0.6 m) from the “bomber.” The severity of skeletal trauma was found to increase with charge size and proximity to the blast event. Collectively, fractures caused by the blast wave exhibited trauma associated with mixed forces, including compression, shearing, and bending (Figure 13.2). These patterns were more random in appearance than those typically associated with high-velocity projectile or blunt force injury events. Extensive comminuted fractures with numerous small, displaced bone splinters and fragments were observed in long bones, scapulae, and os coxae. Fractures consistent with hyperextension were observed in the dorsal spines, laminae, articular facets, and transverse processes of the vertebrae. Delamination and plastic deformation were also observed. Fractures running parallel to the collagen fiber arrangement tended to be linear, while those fractures that ran obliquely or vertically were irregular or jagged. Traumatic amputation of the limbs and cranium was observed in numerous specimens. Limb amputations were at the joint in one case, but otherwise were through long bones, which fits well with models previously presented (Hull and Cooper, 1996), which likely results from a combination of shock wave-induced diaphyseal fracture followed by avulsion through the fracture site by dynamic forces acting on the limb.

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Figure 13.1 Specimen positioning for experimental blast events: (a) direct contact

blasts, (b) varying distance blasts, and (c) “suicide bomber” blast. Source: Christensen et al. (2011).

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(e)

(f)

(b)

(c)

Figure 13.2 Examples of fractures in experimental blast tests. Source: Christensen

et al. (2011).

Specimens exposed to the blast that included shrapnel displayed even greater fracture severity, with extreme bone fragmentation and extensive splintering, especially of the long bones. Skeletal injuries were concentrated in areas nearer the blast, but there were no identifiable points of impact from the ball-bearings, with fracture patterns being more random in appearance than those typically associated with gunshot or blunt force injury events. Ball-bearing injuries have been reported to be remarkably similar to gunshot traumas (Kimmerle and Baraybar, 2008); however, fragmentation of the specimens subjected to the blast event involving ball-bearings was so severe that no discernible point of impact could be located. All specimens sustained butterfly fractures of the ribs, prompting further investigation into this particular pattern. Although rib fractures are associated with the majority of traumatic thoracic events, and can be important indicators of soft tissue and organ injury, there has been a relatively small amount of research on rib fractures. In other blunt trauma events, ribs typically sustain simple transverse or buckle fractures from compression forces (Love and Symes, 2004), whereas butterfly fractures are typically associated with bending of long bones in blunt force trauma events (Galloway, 1999). Of particular interest was the finding that in these blast-produced butterfly fractures, the fracture initiated on the visceral surface of the ribs – opposite to the pattern typically observed in blunt trauma (Figure 13.3a). A thorough overview of rib fracture

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(a)

(b)

Figure 13.3 Rib fractures from (a) blast tests and (b) bending tests. Source:

Christensen and Smith (2012).

mechanics is beyond the scope of this chapter, but good summaries may be found in Love and Symes (2004) and Daegling et al. (2008). Bending tests carried out on 46 pig ribs (Christensen and Smith, 2013) showed that rib butterfly fractures with the tensile indicator on the visceral surface of the rib curve appear characteristic of extension of the rib curve (Figure 13.3b). It is therefore suggested that ventrally

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applied blast forces are acting to extend the rib curve and that this is the mechanism of butterfly fractures observed. It is unclear whether this extension results from preferential separation of the rib at the sternal end compared with the vertebral end, positioning the visceral rib surface toward the blast wave, or from expansion of the internal viscera, resulting in a uniform force applied to the ribs internally. Nonetheless, the butterfly fracture pattern observed may be used to interpret possible trauma mechanism in forensic contexts where the cause of trauma is unknown. The presence of butterfly fragments with fracture initiation on the visceral rib surface may allow forensic anthropologists and pathologists to conclude that rib fractures may have resulted from a blast versus some other cause. In addition, as this pattern resulted from forces directed ventrally (or toward the front of the ribcage), this pattern may be useful in post-blast investigations for interpreting body position relative to the blast event or explosive device.

Differentiating blast trauma from other types of trauma Diagnosis of blast injuries is possible, but it requires thorough analysis of the individual skeletal injuries and careful interpretation of the injury distribution over the entire skeleton. It is also important to consider the various factors affecting trauma including the bone type, injury location, and all available contextual and investigative information. If blast injury is suspected, consideration should be given to bone type, injury location, and all available contextual and investigative information including the amount of explosives utilized, the presence of potential projectiles, and the placement of the explosives in relation to the victim. High-velocity projectile trauma from gunshot wounds can often be distinguished from shrapnel trauma based on differences in size, shape, number, association, and distribution of wounds, with shrapnel wounds being more variable and irregular in size and shape and also more numerous (Kimmerle and Baraybar, 2008). The lower impact force of shrapnel compared with ballistic projectiles also generally means that shrapnel fragments will seldom exit the victim and are often recovered. Blast and high-velocity projectile injuries tend to differ on body region affected, distribution, and severity (Peleg et al., 2004), and blast traumas involve a higher energy mechanism, leading to increased injury severity and more fractures compared with gunshot wounds (Weil et al., 2007).

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While relevant and useful findings are reported here which may assist practitioners in identifying blast trauma in forensic contexts, much more research is needed in this area, especially considering the increasing frequency with which anthropologists and other forensic and investigative professionals are likely to encounter skeletal trauma resulting from explosive events.

Disclaimer The views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors and do not reflect the views of the FBI.

References Arnold, J.L., Halpern, P., Tsai, M., and Smithline, H. (2004) Mass casualty terrorist bombings: a comparison of outcomes by bombing type. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 43 (2), 263–273. Bowen, T.E. and Bellamy, R.F. (1988) Emergency War Surgery: Second United States Revision of Emergency War Surgery NATO Handbook. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Christensen, A.M., Smith, V.A., Ramos, V., Shegogue, C., and Whitworth, M. (2011) Primary and secondary skeletal blast trauma. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 57 (1), 6–11. Christensen, A.M. and Smith, V.A. (2013) Rib butterfly fractures as a possible indicator of blast trauma. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 58 (S1), S15–S19. Covey, D.C. (2002) Blast and fragment injuries of the musculoskeletal system. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery American Volume, 84, 1221–1234. Crabtree, J. (2006) Terrorist homicide bombings: a primer for preparation. Journal of Burn Care and Research, 27 (5), 576–588. Daegling, D.J., Warren, M.W., Hotzman, J.L., and Self, C.J. (2008) Structural analysis of human rib fracture and implications for forensic interpretation. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 53 (6), 1301–1307. Fulton, J.F. (1942) Blast and concussion in the present war. New England Journal of Medicine, 226, 1–8. Kalebi, A.Y. and Olumbe, A.K.O. (2006) Forensic findings from the Nairobi, U.S. embassy terrorist bombing. East African Medical Journal, 83 (7), 380–388. Galloway, A. (1999) The biomechanics of fracture production, in Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma (ed. A. Galloway), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 35–62. Hadden, W.A., Rutherford, W.H., and Merrett, J.D. (1978) The injuries of terrorist bombing: a study of 1532 consecutive patients. British Journal of Surgery, 65 (8), 525–531. Hull, J.B. and Cooper, G.J. (1996) Pattern and mechanism of traumatic amputation by explosive blast. Journal of Trauma, 40 (3), S198–S205.

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Katz, E., Ofek, B., Adler, J., Abramowitz, H.B., and Graus, M.M. (1989) Primary blast injury after a bomb explosion in a civilian bus. Annals of Surgery, 209 (4), 484–488. Kimmerle, E.H. and Baraybar, J.P. (2008) Skeletal Trauma: Identification of Injuries Resulting from Human Rights Abuse and Armed Conflict. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Leibovici, D., Gofrit, O.N., Stein, M., Shapira, S.C., Noga, Y., Heruti, R.J., and Shemer, J. (1996) Blast injuries: bus versus open-air bombings – a comparative study of injuries in survivors of open-air versus confined-space explosions. Journal of Trauma, 41 (6), 1030–1035. Love, J.C. and Symes, S.A. (2004) Understanding rib fracture patterns: incomplete and buckle fractures. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 49 (6), 1153–1158. Moraitis, K., Eliopoulos, C., and Spiliopoulou, C. (2009) Fracture characteristics of perimortem trauma in skeletal material. Internet Journal of Biological Anthropology, 3 (2), https://ispub.com/IJBA/3/2/11380. National Counterterrorism Center (2011) 2010 Report on Terrorism. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, Washington, DC. National Counterterrorism Center (2009) 2008 Report on Terrorism. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, Washington, DC. Peleg, K., Aharonson-Daniel, L., Stein, M., Michaelson, M., Kluger, Y., Simon, D., Noji, E.K., and Israeli Trauma Group (ITG) (2004) Gunshot and explosion injuries: characteristics, outcomes, and implications for care of terror-related injuries in Israel. Annals of Surgery, 239 (3), 311–318. Teare, R.D. (1976) Ballbearing-bomb injuries. British Medical Journal, i, 310–311. Weil, YA., Petrov, K., Liebergall, M., Mintz, Y., and Mosheiff, R. (2007) Long bone fractures caused by penetrating injuries in terrorist attacks. Journal of Trauma, 62 (4), 909–11. Wightman, J.M. and Gladish, S.L. (2001) Explosions and blast injuries. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 37 (6), 664–678. Yu-Yuan, M., Tian-Shun, F., Rong-Xiang, F., and Ming, L. (1998) An analysis of the wounding factors of four different shapes of fragments. Journal of Trauma, 28 (1 Suppl.), S230–S235.

C H A P T E R 14

Case studies in skeletal blast trauma Nikki A. Willits, Joseph T. Hefner, and MariaTeresa A. Tersigni-Tarrant

Introduction Although most forensic anthropologists working in a traditional laboratory setting are unlikely to encounter blast trauma, those working in conflict areas or on remains from past conflicts have the opportunity to analyze and identify this type of injury. At the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory (CIL), anthropologists identify American soldiers who died in past conflicts. These anthropologists are often confronted with skeletal injuries related to combat, including blast trauma. While fracture patterns and wound types provide clues to the mechanism of an injury, identifying the cause can be difficult and should be approached with caution. In this chapter, we present two cases of blast trauma from the Korean War. Both individuals represent casualties disinterred from the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (NMCP) and reanalyzed by CIL personnel in 2013. The pattern and type of skeletal injury observed in both cases indicates blast trauma; however, not all injuries can be definitively attributed to a specific cause. Below, we discuss the background for each case, the findings of the skeletal analyses, and how the injury patterns support blast trauma in both cases.

Case background From June 1950 to July 1953, the United States joined with United Nations’ (UN) forces to aid the Republic of Korea (South Korea) against

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Figure 14.1 US Marines at Chosin Reservoir during the Korean War. Photo courtesy

of US Marine Corps.

the invading Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) (Figure 14.1). Over 1 million people died during the war, including over 33 000 US soldiers. Approximately 7900 of these casualties remain unaccounted for (Defense Prisoner of War Missing Personnel Office, 2013). At the CIL, historians and scientists use historic and biological data to identify these individuals (Figure 14.2). From August to November of 1954, an armistice agreement between North and South Korea included the exchange of war dead. Unknown individuals were sent to the Central Identification Unit (CIU) in Kokura, Japan where those that could be identified were returned to their families; the 848 sets of remains that could not be identified were interred as Korean War Unknowns at the NMCP in Honolulu, Hawaii (Military History Section Headquarters, US Army Forces Far East, 1954). Recent efforts to identify these “Unknowns” resulted in the exhumation of two sets of remains deemed to have a high likelihood of identification using anthropological analysis, mitochondrial DNA comparison, and historic association. Case 1 was originally recovered in 1950 near Yongsan, South Korea and buried in a cemetery in that country (Rose et al., 2013). The remains were disinterred and then reburied in another cemetery in South Korea before being sent to the CIU for analysis in 1951. By 1955, a biological profile had been developed, to include injuries to the

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Figure 14.2 Anthropologists working on Korean remains at the CIL, Schofield

Barracks, Hawaii; Annex 1, for processing large commingled burials. Photo courtesy of US Army.

ribs and left foot; however, the remains were determined to be unidentifiable and transferred to the NMCP for burial as a Korean War Unknown. Case 2 is a North Korea loss turned over during Operation Glory – an exchange of war dead between the UN, Chinese Communist Forces, and North Korea at Munsan-Ni, South Korea in 1954 (Dolski et al., 2013). The remains of Case 2 were sent to the CIU for analysis. Although a biological profile was developed and wounds were noted to the cranium and right leg, the individual was deemed unidentifiable in 1955 and transferred to the NMCP for burial as a Korean War Unknown. During the most recent anthropological analyses, the circumstances of each individual’s loss were not provided to the examining anthropologist. Each set of remains arrived at the CIL wrapped in a green blanket inside a metal casket. The remains were removed from the blankets and cleaned of adherent dirt, white embalming powder, and fabric using dry and wet brush techniques.

Case reports Case 1 Anthropological analysis of the nearly complete skeletal remains designated Case 1 determined the remains are from a male of European

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(a)

(b)

Figure 14.3 Case 1 (a) and Case 2 (b) skeletal layouts. Scales in dm.

ancestry aged between 17 and 20 years old at the time of death (Figure 14.3a). Two or more distinct episodes of perimortem trauma are noted on this individual, each consistent with ballistic (projectile) defects (Figure 14.4). Right rib 6 and left ribs 4 and 8 present defects consistent with high-energy ballistic trauma (e.g., shrapnel damage, gunshot wound). The defects are roughly circular and, on the right rib, consistent with a projectile entering the rib cage from the right side. In contrast, the defects on left ribs 4 and 8 are consistent with exit injuries based on external beveling and fracture propagation. Due to the location and nature of these injuries, a definitive conclusion regarding their

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Figure 14.4 Case 1. Gray shading on homunculus represents areas of skeletal

trauma. Insets depict (clockwise from top left) right rib 6, left ribs 4 and 7, left first metatarsal, left calcaneus, and articulated right talus, calcaneus, and cuboid.

relationship is not possible; however, parsimoniously they appear to be related to a single event. The right and left foot each present a suite of injuries most likely related to a single ballistic event. The first metatarsal, medial cuneiform, navicular, talus, and calcaneus of the left foot present evidence of a “projectile-like” injury situated along the medial plantar margin in a

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linear fashion. Similarly, the calcaneus, talus, and cuboid on the right foot present evidence of a blast injury traveling from right to left. These traumata are all consistent with a blast injury originating on the right side and slightly below the foot, projecting upward. Radiographs of the foot bones show embedded metal fragments. Scanning electron microscopy and elemental analysis of the embedded metals indicate they are predominately iron. This finding is consistent with shrapnel.

Case 2 The nearly complete remains designated Case 2 are determined to be a male of European ancestry aged 23–30 years old at the time of death (Figure 14.3b). Multiple perimortem injuries are identified on this individual attributed to high- and low-velocity projectile trauma (Figure 14.5). On the cranium, two projectile wounds are observed: an oblong defect on the supero-dorsal aspect of the right parietal with radiating fractures, and a more circular defect located along the sagittal suture, just superior to lambda, also with radiating fractures. Both injuries display endocranial beveling consistent with entry wounds (posterior–anterior trajectory). Additional trauma to the skull includes three small ectocranial injuries with bone loss on the left parietal and one on the right parietal consistent with focal blunt trauma, likely the result of low-velocity shrapnel. These injuries display concentric fractures on the ectocranial surface, with hairline radiating and concentric patterned fractures on the endocranial surface. The left mandibular condyle is fractured and the crown of tooth 18 along with the bone surrounding the lingual aspect of the tooth is missing, as is a portion of the crown of tooth 19. Multiple projectile injuries are noted on the postcranial elements. These include a projectile wound with anterior beveling consistent with a posterior entry on the left acromion process of the scapula, which separated the superior portion of the acromion process from the body. Projectile damage to the distal end of the left humerus and proximal ulna is also observed, with the medial condyle of the humerus missing and bone loss on the postero-medial portion of the olecranon process of the ulna. Left ribs 2–4 also display projectile damage, with an incomplete fracture near the sternal end of the second rib and loss of the sternal ends of ribs 3 and 4. Cervical vertebrae 2 and 3 are also damaged as a result of a projectile traveling through the centra; no direct damage was observed to the neural arches or articulating vertebrae.

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Figure 14.5 Case 2. Gray shading on homunculus represents skeletal trauma. Insets

depict (clockwise from top left): projectile trauma to posterior cranium, acromion process of left scapula, left ribs 2–4, left humerus and ulna, right first metatarsal, right calcaneus, right tibia and fibula, and cervical vertebrae 1–5.

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A cluster of projectile injuries consistent with blast trauma are identified on the lower extremities and feet. These include a comminuted fracture of the right tibia with incomplete fracturing of the cortical bone on the anterior shaft. An indentation just inferior to the fracture area displays cortical bone loss and radiating fractures consistent with a projectile impact. The right fibula is fractured and does not refit, and the fibular head and lateral malleolus are missing. On the right foot, projectile damage was noted on the calcaneus, lateral cuneiform, and the first, second, and third metatarsals. Cortical bone loss and blunt impacts with radiating fractures were observed on these elements. A radiograph of the calcaneus shows an embedded metal fragment. None of the other elements with projectile damage display radiopaque fragments.

Discussion In the previous chapter, Christensen and Smith identify four categories of trauma associated with blast events that can result in skeletal injury. Primary injuries result from the initial blast wave, and may result in skeletal fractures and amputations. Secondary injuries from shrapnel or fragments result in projectile trauma and embedded objects. Tertiary injuries result in blunt force and crushing injuries due to falling objects or impact with surrounding objects. Finally, quaternary injuries include all other injuries or resulting medical issues, to include thermal changes, cracks, and fractures (Centers for Disease Control, 2003; Kimmerle and Baraybar, 2008). The degree of injury and trauma patterning is dependent upon several factors, including proximity to the epicenter of the blast event. Individuals close to the epicenter are likely to suffer thermal, blast, and ballistic trauma, with the likelihood of injury decreasing with increased distance (Bellamy and Zajtchuk, 1990). While the probability of thermal and blast-related trauma dissipates quickly due to more limited radii, the likelihood of ballistic injury remains high, even at a greater distance from the epicenter. However, due to their irregular shape, shrapnel is susceptible to increased drag farther from the epicenter, which can result in both high- and low-velocity injuries (Covey, 2002). Representing losses from South and North Korea, respectively, Case 1 and Case 2 exhibit multiple injuries consistent with a blast event, especially notable in the lower extremities of both individuals. The injury pattern to the feet, specifically the circular defect on the shaft of the first

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(a)

(b)

Figure 14.6 Case 1. Radiograph (a) and photograph (b) of the left foot illustrating

perimortem injuries/trauma. Scale in mm.

metatarsal, is similar between both cases (see Figures 14.4 and 14.5), with radiographic analyses demonstrating the embedded shrapnel is roughly comparable in size (Figures 14.6 and 14.7). Given the similarity of the injuries to the first metatarsals, these individuals likely experienced a similar blast incident. Additionally, the dispersal pattern and anatomical orientation of the injuries observed suggest multiple blast events for both individuals. The injuries to the ribs and feet of Case 1 represent at least two distinct blast episodes based on the upward trajectory of the trauma to the feet and the right to left entrance and exit wounds and the trajectory of that projectile trauma to the ribs. The more diffuse injuries to Case 2 also

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(a)

(b)

Figure 14.7 Case 2. Radiograph of the right calcaneus (a) showing an imbedded

projectile and a detail photograph of the same element (b) displaying projectile trauma. Scale in mm.

represent at least two blast events. If the posterior projectile entries on the cranium and left scapula are grouped and the injuries to the lower extremities with an upward trajectory, including fractures and embedded shrapnel, are grouped as another, at least two blast events can be identified. The injuries to the vertebrae, ribs, and left arm are more

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ambiguous and may be related to either event or they could represent additional trauma-inducing events. Regarding the proximity of each individual to their blast epicenters, the degree of trauma and dispersal patterns indicate varied distances. The tight dispersion of shrapnel on the foot of Case 1, as well as the through-and-through projectile injuries suggest the individual was well within the ballistic radius of the blast event, but not at the epicenter, as more damage, to include amputations, would be expected (Covey, 2002; Kimmerle and Baraybar, 2008). In contrast, the high-velocity damage to the skull and concentration of damage to the right lower extremity of Case 2 suggest closer proximity to the blast epicenters. Little background information regarding the circumstances of injury is available for either case. However, a witness statement by a fellow Marine in a forward observer team noted that the individual designated Case 2 was hit by mortar fire while kneeling in a foxhole (Holland, 2013). The witness noted that after being hit, he was lying outstretched and partly outside of the foxhole. Due to the continued mortar bombardment, the witness was unable to determine the extent of his teammate’s wounds. This report is consistent with the blast injuries observed on Case 2 and supports a multiple blast scenario.

Conclusions As part of the identification process at the CIL, anthropologists describe injuries observed on the skeleton in order to associate them with a reported cause of death. As blast injuries are a common occurrence during conflicts, anthropologists must be able to identify these injuries and distinguish them from other types of trauma. However, identifying the cause of every injury is not always possible. In the cases described above, evidence of blast trauma in the form of embedded shrapnel and distinct fracture and projectile patterning support a specific cause. The other injuries noted are less clear and are best described under the broader terms of projectile or ballistic trauma.

Disclaimer The views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, US Department of Defense, or the US Government.

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Acknowledgments This research was supported in part by an appointment to the Postgraduate Research Participation Program at the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) administered by the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education through an interagency agreement between the US Department of Energy and JPAC. Special thanks to Dr. Michael Dolski for providing information and resources for this chapter. Thank you also to the historians, anthropologists, and odontologists of the disinterment project, especially Dr. Debra Zinni, Dr. James Rose, Ms. Alexandra Wink, Dr. Calvin Shiroma, and Lt. Colin Eliot, whose efforts to identify “Unknowns” led to the disinterment of the individuals discussed in this chapter.

References Bellamy R.F. and Zajtchuk, R. (eds) (1990) Conventional warfare: ballistic, blast and burn injuries, in Textbook of Military Medicine, vol. 1, part 5, Office of the Surgeon General, US Department of the Army, and Borden Institute, Washington, DC Centers for Disease Control (2013) Explosion and Blast Injuries: A Primer for Clinicians. www.cdc.gov/masstrauma/preparedness/primer.pdf. Covey, D.C. (2002) Blast and fragment injuries of the musculoskeletal system. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 84A (7), 1221–1234. Defense Prisoner of War Missing Personnel Office (2013) Summary Statistics, Unaccounted for from Past Conflicts. http://www.dtic.mil/dpmo/summary_statistics/. Dolski, M.R., Wink, A.E., and Eliot, C.A. (2013) Association of Unknown X-14914 Operation Glory with One Unresolved Korean War Casualty. Memorandum for the Record, February 27, 2013, JPAC-CIL, Honolulu, HI. Holland, T.D. (2013) Identification of CIL 2013**removed for privacy**. Memorandum for the Record, November 1, 2013, JPAC-CIL, Honolulu, HI. Kimmerle, E.H. and Baraybar, J.P. (2008) Skeletal Trauma. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Military History Section Headquarters, US Army Forces Far East (1954) Graves Registration Service in the Korean conflict, in History of the Korean War, vol. III, part 16. Rose, J.F., Shiroma, C.Y., and Wink, A.E. (2013) Association of Unknown X-243 Tanggok with One Unresolved Korean War Casualty. Memorandum for the Record, February 27, 2013, JPAC-CIL, Honolulu, HI.

C H A P T E R 15

Burned human remains in a double homicide: a forensic case in Cyprus Popi Th. Chrysostomou

Introduction Worldwide, in forensic homicide settings, fire is typically considered an intentional act in order to conceal or destroy evidence (Nelson and Winston, 2006; Symes et al., 2008; Ubelaker, 2009). It is noteworthy, however, that all documented burned homicide victims in Cyprus occurring within the period 2003–2012 had a close personal relationship with the offenders who conducted, or organized, the crimes (spouse/boyfriend or close relative). Thus, additional psychological drives may be implicated during such acts of burning. Despite the circumstances under which intentional immolation of a human body is inflicted, there is one indisputable fact: evidence is altered. Hard tissues can be damaged on a macroscopic, microscopic, chemical, or molecular level (Ubelaker, 2009), depending on numerous variables, such as the type, duration, and intensity of the fire, the physical, biological, and pathological condition of the body itself, and other situational, taphonomic, and recovery factors (Dirkmaat et al., 2012; Schmidt and Symes, 2008). Forensic anthropologists are often tasked to use scientific techniques to examine thermally damaged evidence and produce legal statements that detail their results. Even though there are general standards and protocols in place (Schultz et al., 2008; Dirkmaat et al., 2012; Van Deest et al., 2012), typically the analytical techniques will depend on two main factors: the condition of the remains and the legal question(s) under investigation. Forensic anthropologists working in medicolegal settings

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are thus expected to utilize a multidisciplinary approach that allows an integrated and thorough understanding of the studies on burned remains (Thompson, 2009). Forensic expertise is often sought for recovery operations, determination of the human origin of fragmented material, reconstruction of the biological and physical characteristics of an individual essential for identification purposes, and the reporting of perimortem trauma. During analysis, critical thinking is of importance as sometimes a scientific question not mandated by the investigating authorities may be pursued and subsequently become a valuable element to the case.

Case study overview On 3 August 2006, the intense odor emanating from an apartment in Nicosia, Cyprus, led neighbors to notify the police authorities. When the responding officers entered the apartment, they found a middle-aged man lying lifeless on the bedroom floor, clothed only in underwear. According to the forensic pathologist called at the scene, the decedent had received 38 stab wounds. A few days after the discovery of the victim, the police authorities arrested a suspected perpetrator. The police were aware of the suspect from previous domestic violence incidents against his wife. The investigating officers also knew that he had threatened death to the victim, stemming from past contact with the suspect’s wife. During the course of the murder investigation, the authorities realized that the suspect’s wife was missing. As a result of her disappearance, they linked these investigations together. The suspect initially claimed that his wife was alive and well, and that she had run away to the northern Turkish-occupied portion of Cyprus (where the Republic of Cyprus has no effective control). A Missing Persons Report for the 30-year-old wife was quickly issued and released by the police authorities. Traces of blood found at the crime scene (both in the apartment and on the staircase leading to the parking area) and within the suspect’s automobile matched the genetic data of a female individual. Additional DNA testing confirmed that the blood evidence belonged to the suspect’s wife. Furthermore, the suspect’s DNA was linked to multiple samples recovered from the crime scene. The evidence incriminating the suspect towards a double, rather than a single, homicide was overwhelming.

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In the weeks following his arrest, the suspect confessed that on 31 July 2006 he confronted his wife when she announced that she was leaving him. He further stated that she then left their house and met with the male victim. The suspect waited until the early hours of the next day, broke into the victim’s apartment, and found him and his wife in bed. He further confessed that, at that point, he grabbed a kitchen knife and stabbed both of them to death. The following night he returned to the scene to retrieve the body of his wife. He placed her body into his car and drove to a family-owned orchard located in a village in the Troodos mountains. Once there, he burned her body in a metal barrel using small amounts of petrol for accelerant. On 16 August 2006, the investigation officers accompanied the suspect to the orchard where he pointed to a barrel that was 89 cm tall and 57 cm in diameter. The contents of the metal barrel were emptied onto the ground, revealing burnt bone-like material. The investigation then immediately ceased and was postponed until the following day with the assistance of two state forensic pathologists. Burned biological samples were submitted for genetic testing; however, they did not yield informative DNA results. Therefore, the authorities requested a state anthropologist be added to the case to provide answers to the following: (1) whether the osseous remains found within the contents of the metal barrel were human in origin, and (2) if so, whether any cut marks were discernible on the remains.

Initial anthropological analysis The remains from the metal barrel consisted of approximately 290 fragments of bone and four tooth fragments. Although changes consistent with fire- and heat-induced damage were evident on almost all elements, re-association and reconstruction of skeletal fragments was still possible (Figure 15.1). This further aided in the final classification of the material; the majority of the fragments had discernible features that enabled their categorization by type of element. The morphology, size, overall surface structure, and developmental maturity led to the conclusion that a minimum number of one human skeleton was represented within this assemblage. A thorough examination of all available fragments revealed no evidence of cut marks or sharp force trauma. Research on the effects of fire on tool marks in bone demonstrates that such trauma can be preserved despite alterations caused by thermal damage (Emanovsky et al., 2002;

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Figure 15.1 Occipital bone fragments after conservation: ten fragments were recon-

structed during the initial stages of analysis.

Herrmann and Bennett, 1999). It must be noted, though, that the elements were only examined by a forensic anthropologist subsequent to prior handling during recovery and transport. Both questions posed by the investigation team were answered and the suspect was charged with double homicide; however, in legal terms, there was only one (identified) body. The sex and age determinations related to the burned remains matched the biological profile of the missing woman (i.e., the suspect’s wife), but even with this information a positive identification was not possible.

Pattern analysis and injury mechanism The human body reacts in generally predictable manners when in contact with fire, unless external factors interfere with this process. That is, under thermal conditions the muscles contract; the major flexor muscles

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overpower the extensor muscles producing the “boxer’s” or “pugilistic” pose, which in turn exhibits specific burning patterns across the various skeletal regions (Bohnert et al., 1998; Symes et al., 2008). In forensic settings, an unexplainable deviation from this expected model may warrant additional investigation (Symes et al., 2008), therefore pattern analysis during the anthropological evaluation is extremely important. Analysis of the burning pattern for the remains under investigation was conducted in two stages: the first involved the quantification of the surface regions represented in the assemblage, and the second involved the structural changes of those elements in terms of color and fracture pattern. Surface analysis is in principle similar to the preparation of an inventory homunculus diagrammatical representation. The major difference in the case of surface analysis, however, is the proportionate quantification of the elements present. A second advantage to quantification is that the preparation of such documentation requires the analyst to study each fragment in extreme detail in order to identify its topographical origin within each element group. Sectional details, foramina, and other anatomical landmarks are scrutinized, which may reveal duplication of topographies (thus increasing the minimum number of individuals) or additional characteristics not noted previously. All fragments were numbered according to element provenience and their external surfaces were quantified. The majority of the fragments, representing almost 40% of the total assemblage, originated from the skull (n = 117). The fragment size across all elements ranged from 0.74 to 11.22 cm (prior to reconstruction) with an average mean of 3.19 cm. A breakdown of the number of elements and their mean maximum length size is presented in Table 15.1. In the clinical literature, average indices of surface area per body part are often used to describe burning incidences, the most well-known being the “rule of nines” (Douglas, 2008; Wraa, 2003). In skeletal anatomy, however, there appears to be a lack of documentation with regard to such surface indices. As an alternative, the fragments under study were compared to an exemplar female skeleton and relative percentages were recorded in relation to the proportions of the element present using standard mathematical equations. The comparisons were made based on distinct features, where possible, or on educated estimates (e.g., based on shape, curvature, and sectional width in instances of small long bone shaft fragments). The unidentified fragments that could potentially originate from a specific anatomical region were also

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Table 15.1 Fragment distribution and topographical representation across elements. Fragment no. (%∗)

Mean size† (cm)

Surface area‡ (estimated %)

Radii

11 (3.8)

3.71

91–94

Clavicles

4 (1.4)

4.69

69–81

Skull

117 (39.9)

3.11

65

Ulnae

8 (2.7)

4.38

47–64

Humeri

6 (2.0)

5.53

58–65

Patellae Hand bones

1 (0.3) 22 (7.5)

3.97 2.69

45 38–39

Vertebrae Fibulae

13 (4.4) 5 (1.7)

3.54 2.86

27–29 17–24

Femora Ribs

12 (4.1) 10 (3.4)

4.69 3.03

15–33 10–11

Scapulae Tibiae Teeth Unidentified

6 (2.0) 1 (0.3) 4 (1.4) 73 (24.9)

3.20 3.43 1.37 2.80

10–12 5 – –

Element

Element topography represented Right head, left and right shaft fragments Sternal/medial ends, left and right shaft fragments Calvarium, splanchnocranium, mandible Left and right proximal/distal ends, shaft fragments Left and right distal ends, shaft fragments Left (almost complete) Carpals, metacarpals, proximal/middle phalanges C1–C7, T1 Left proximal end, shaft fragments Left distal end, shaft fragments Anterior (sternal) rib shafts, upper rib end Spine, body fragments Left distal end Four root fragments Mostly long bone fragments

∗

Percentage of total number of fragments represented in the assemblage. size of maximum fragment length. ‡ Estimated percentage of surface area present in comparison with an exemplar female skeleton. † Mean

accounted for, which resulted in an estimated interval for each of those elements. Surface analysis has several disadvantages that were acknowledged during the study. The percentages were estimated using a single skeleton and any possible distortion in size (shrinkage) on the burned bones was not accounted for. The overall conclusions drawn from this methodological approach were, however, accurate and provided more adequate (quantifiable) information than a homunculus. In sum, the surface analysis demonstrated that the regions represented in the assemblage were limited to the skull, pectoral girdles, upper extremities, upper vertebral spine, anterior rib cage, and lower

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extremities (note that all sided fragments representing the lower extremities originated from the left). A summary of the data collected per element is presented in the last two columns of Table 15.1. The second part of the analysis focused on the injury mechanism(s). In recent years there have been several publications regarding bone response to thermal alteration (for an overview, see Thompson, 2009; Ubelaker, 2009; Symes et al., 2008; Davidson et al., 2011; Bennett Devlin and Herrmann, 2013; Van Deest et al., 2012). The present case focused on two thermal modifications: color change and fracture formation. The thermal alterations observed classified the cremation as incomplete, based on the Mayne Correia (1997) classification system, or as Crow-Glassman Scale Level 4 (Glassman and Crow, 1996). Carbonized soft tissue was present on a few elements (e.g., proximal fibula, distal humerus, cervical spines). Several bone fragments were charred and exhibited a fairly uniform black color. Regions including more calcined bone with variations of gray, blue, and white color included the cranium (i.e., frontal bone fragments and midsections of the vault), the anterior neck region (i.e., bodies and articular areas of C2–C7), the lateral half of the clavicle and scapular body(ies), the rib cage (anterior shaft fragments), the left elbow (humerus and ulna), one fibular shaft fragment, and several unidentified long bone fragments. The next stage was related to fracture analysis. Fractures can be caused by direct or indirect forces, or by internal microstructural changes; the mechanism of trauma determines the type of fracture pattern. In burned remains, distraction, avulsion, and stress fractures caused by external forces are perhaps the most typical fracture patterns, although these can also be seen in unburned bone (for unburned bone examples, see Schultz, 1990). Depression and impaction fractures are rarer, but can occur in burned bone. Compression fractures, on the other hand, are not expected to occur by thermal mechanisms. A comprehensive classification of fracture directionality is described by Symes et al. (2008): longitudinal, transverse, step, patina, splintering/delamination, curved transverse, and burn line fractures. The first five are not solely related to thermal trauma. Unique and most characteristic to heat-induced damage are the curved transverse (thumbnail) fractures, which appear to be related to the microstructural changes of the bone during or after periosteal exposure (for more detailed discussions see Symes et al., 2008; Gonçalves et al., 2011). The majority of the fractures observed in the assemblage are explained by thermally related damage mechanisms (Table 15.2). The skull was

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Table 15.2 Chromatography and fracture patterns per element as a result of thermal

damage. Element

Color∗

Description of fractures†

Frontal; superior cranial vault Facial; lateral/ posterior vault Cervical vertebrae

White/blue

Patina, delamination, linear and polyangular fractures (microstructural/stress fractures) Delamination, linear, curved, and irregular fractures (microstructural/stress fractures) C1: Jefferson fracture (hyperextension); C2–C7: linear fractures (avulsion) Linear fracture (avulsion)

Black; brown/red White; black (spine)

Thoracic vertebra (T1) Ribs

Black

Clavicles

White (lateral); black White; black (spine)

Scapulae

White (5); black (3)

Humeri

White (lateral end); black

Ulnae

Black; white (lateral ends)

Radii

Black

Hand bones

Black

Femora

Black

Patella Tibiae Fibulae

Black Black Black; white (one fragment)

∗

Transverse, oblique, incomplete longitudinal fractures (stress/distraction, microstructural fractures) Transverse fractures (distraction) Linear, polyangular fractures (stress/distraction, microstructural fractures); transverse fracture (avulsion on spine, medial to acromion) Transverse, oblique fractures (segmental); incomplete T-shaped condylar fracture (distraction) Longitudinal, oblique, step fractures (microstructural, avulsion/distraction fracture on proximal end) Transverse, oblique fractures (segmental, distraction fracture on head) Metacarpal/phalanges: transverse (adjacent to heads/bases), oblique (shafts) fractures; carpal: oblique fracture on capitate (no fracture on three carpals) (distraction fractures) T-shaped intercondylar, longitudinal, step, oblique fractures (distraction/microstructural fractures) Oblique fracture (avulsion) Oblique fracture (avulsion) Transverse, longitudinal fractures on shaft fragments (distraction/segmental fractures)

Variations of color not fully captured; only the most predominant color(s) listed. characteristic fractures described.

† Most

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hyperextended (i.e., assumed a normal pugilistic posture) causing more thermal damage to the midvault and less damage to the occipital bone; stress fractures are evident across the calvarium. The skull hyperextension also caused a Jefferson fracture (complete fracturing of the anterior and posterior arches of the atlas). Distortion fractures observed on clavicular and scapular fragments are consistent with insertion areas of muscles responsible for elevating/rotating the pectoral girdle and the arm (e.g., trapezius, deltoid, and pectoralis major muscles). The elbow exhibits fractures correlated with the insertion points of the flexor/pronator muscles (e.g., brachialis muscle causing avulsion of the ulnar tuberosity/coronoid process and fracturing of the distal humeral shaft, pronator teres muscle causing oblique segmental fracture on the radial shaft). Most fracture damage on the hand bones is observed on the metacarpals and less so on the phalanges, consistent with the insertion of flexor/adductor muscles. The knee joint also exhibits fractures consistent with flexion (Figure 15.2). The patellar tendon has caused an avulsion fracture to the apex, and the flexor muscles of the knee produced distraction fractures on the distal femur and proximal fibula. Additional fractures of variable directionality were the result of microstructural alterations to the bone matrix due to dehydration, decomposition, inversion, and fusion (Herrmann and Bennett, 1999; Thompson, 2005; Fernández Castillo et al., 2013).

(a)

(b)

Figure 15.2 (a) Diagrammatic representation of a supracondylar femoral fracture,

where contraction of the medial and lateral heads of the gastrocnemius muscle are causing complete fracturing and displacement of the distal end (distraction fracture). (b) Photograph of the recovered left distal femur exhibiting a T-shaped supracondylar fracture.

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Exceptions to the above “normal” burning fractures were a few semicircular defects, observed on elements such as the cranium and the humerus that ranged from 1.12 to 1.59 cm in diameter (Figure 15.3). Their ragged cross-sectional topography and marked color differences between the surrounding cortex and fracture surface, as well as the lack of any associated radiating fractures indicated that these defects were probably related to situational direct fracturing caused during or after the burning of the remains. The shape, color and margin texture indicators suggested their occurrence after the initial charring began and the leading hypothesis was that they were caused by a rod used for stirring/moving the elements in the barrel.

Figure 15.3 Distal end of the left humerus prior to reconstruction exhibiting an in-

complete T-shaped condylar fracture, and transverse and longitudinal shaft fractures (thermal injuries). The arrows point to direct fractures that occurred subsequent to the longitudinal fracturing (situational injuries).

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Taking the next step: in search for the torso There was enough evidence to suggest that a large portion of the body was not represented in the assemblage, not because it was consumed by the fire, but because it was either not recovered from the scene or removed from the metal barrel prior to the police investigation. A request to re-visit the scene with a team of anthropologists and archaeologists trained in the recovery of skeletal material was eagerly welcomed by the investigation officers. All barrels with recently disturbed contents were carefully excavated, as well as the surrounding areas (Figure 15.4). Due to the thermal modification of the remains, their fracturing into very small pieces, and alteration of color, it was very hard for non-experts to identify and collect the bone fragments. This was more easily achieved by the trained forensic team. In total, approximately 677 additional fragments were collected. The vast majority (around 600)

Figure 15.4 Photograph of the area where the remains were found. The top row

barrels were fully excavated and additional remains were collected from the surrounding areas. Arrows and circle in the inset photograph indicate the presence of burned remains. Note the size of the barrels in comparison with the anthropologist seen at the top center of the photograph.

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represented fragments less than 3 cm in length, whereas the largest fragment was 6.8 cm. In addition to the biological material collected, two metal keys were recovered. These subsequently proved to be important evidence during the course of the trial. One of the two keys belonged to the apartment where the first (male) victim was found murdered, and thus strengthened the association of the burned remains within the barrel to the first homicide. The excavated biological material was accessioned into the laboratory and reanalyzed as a single group with the first assemblage. The overall anthropological conclusions were slightly changed. Some additional elements were added to the recovered remains (e.g., manubrium, feet bones) and new topographical areas of certain elements were introduced (e.g., proximal humeri, vertebral, and rib segments). The suspect, during his initial statements, gave two additional pieces of information: (1) that he cleaned his car using some paper tissues that he threw away in a particular area and (2) that he subsequently went to a rubbish dump where he threw away two bags containing various “junk.” He also stated that he could not talk about everything he did – he had “deleted that information from his memory in the same manner someone presses ‘delete’ in a computer.” Five paper tissues were recovered by police from an area pointed out by the suspect. Subsequent testing showed all five samples yielded DNA that matched the genetic material of the suspect’s wife. This led to the question: was the information about the garbage area irrelevant to the case? Most likely no; however, relevance could only be speculated by the police. The garbage dump, which was located at the edge of a steep cliff, was searched by police officers weeks after the suspect had purportedly thrown away the bags. These were never found. Most importantly, no evidence from the female victim’s lower torso was ever recovered. The possibility that the bags contained parts of the female victim’s body cannot be excluded. The torso is more resilient to thermal destruction than the rest of the body (Bohnert et al., 1998) and in sharp force trauma homicides injuries are often inflicted in this area where the vital organs are found. These two factors may have led the perpetrator to remove the lower torso from the fire and dispose of it elsewhere. During the trial the suspect retracted his confession statements regarding the murder of his wife and claimed that she was still alive. The suspect’s father claimed that he was the one who lit a fire in the

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barrel with the intent to burn some cables for the extraction of copper. He said that this process of burning lasted for approximately 30 minutes and then the fire self-extinguished.

Discussion Thermal damage is undoubtedly more destructive to the structure of bone than most other forms of trauma. These heat-induced changes, however, provide a wealth of information as to the history of the trauma. Studies attempting to decode thermal inferences have flourished especially during the past decade (Davidson et al., 2011). Nonetheless, additional research is warranted to fully understand thermal changes to bone (Thompson, 2005; Ubelaker, 2009). Two slightly different methodological approaches were applied during the analysis of this case and are discussed in the present paper. One relates to the exploitation of surface analysis, which resembles the preparation of a homunculus, albeit in a more quantitative manner. Bone surface indices have not received much interest in the realms of anthropological studies, although a few quantitative studies of bone surface area have been conducted on specific elements or regions (e.g. Lazenby and Smashnuk, 1999; To, 2008). The second methodological approach was related to a more in-depth record of the trauma mechanisms, in addition to fracture directionality. A combined analysis of the burning color and injury mechanism recognized a normal burning pattern in pugilistic posture, in contradiction to previous research stating that a pugilistic pose will not be attained if a body is burned after it has passed through rigor mortis (Fairgrieve, 2008). Moreover, the study provided additional information on the history of events with regards to the female victim’s torso. This case represents the first example in the Republic of Cyprus’ legal system, where an anthropologist was called as an expert witness to testify in a homicide case. To the best of our knowledge, it is also the first time in Cyprus where a perpetrator was convicted for manslaughter in the absence of an identified body (i.e., lack of identifying means for the female remains). Since then, there has been a general acknowledgment that forensic archaeological and anthropological methods are valuable tools in forensic cases, and anthropologists have been routinely involved in a majority of police cases in Cyprus involving skeletal material.

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Acknowledgments The production of this chapter has been supported by an appointment to the Research Participation Program for the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command – Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL), administered by the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE) through an interagency agreement between the US Department of Energy and the JPAC-CIL. The author would like to thank Y. Charalambous, P. Iordanous (Criminal Investigation Department, Cyprus Police), Dr. S. Sofokleous (Department of the Medical Examiner), and E. Papagapiou-Christou (Law Office) for entrusting her with this case; Th. Eleftheriou, Chr. Kounnou, and A. Anthousi for assisting in the excavation of the remains; and Dr. M. Cariolou (Institute of Neurology and Genetics) for providing access to laboratory settings for the analysis of the remains. Thanks also to Dr. Tim Thompson (Teesside University) and Dr. Derek Benedix (JPAC-CIL) who gave advice and comments on the draft versions of this paper, and to the editors of this book for inviting the author to present this work.

References Bennett Devlin, J. and Herrmann, N.P. (2013) Taphonomy of fire, in Forensic Anthropology: An Introduction (eds M.A. Tersigni-Tarrant and N.R. Shirley), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 307–323. Bohnert, M., Rost, T., and Pollak, S. (1998) The degree of destruction of human bodies in relation to the duration of the fire. Forensic Science International, 95, 11–21. Davidson, K., Davies, C., and Randolph-Quinney, P. (2011) Skeletal trauma, in Forensic Anthropology 2000 to 2010 (eds S. Black and E. Ferguson), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 183–235. Dirkmaat, D.C., Olson, G.O., Klales, A.R., and Getz S. (2012) The role of forensic anthropology in the recovery and interpretation of the fatal-fire victim, in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.C. Dirkmaat), Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 113–135. Douglas, Ch. (2008) Burns, in Accident & Emergency: Theory into Practice, 2nd edn (eds B. Dolan and L. Holt), Baillière Tindall, Edinburgh, pp. 185–201. Emanovsky, P., Hefner, J.T., and Dirkmaat, D.C. (2002) Can sharp force trauma to bone be recognized after fire modification? An experiment using Odocoileus virginianus (white-tailed deer) ribs [abstract], Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, February 11–16, Atlanta, pp. 214–215. Fairgrieve, S.I. (2008) Forensic Cremation: Recovery and Analysis. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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Fernández Castillo, R., Ubelaker, D.H., Acosta J.A.L. de la Rosa, R.J.E., and Garcia, I.G. (2013) Effect of temperature on bone tissue: histological changes. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 58, 578–582. Glassman, D.M. and Crow, R.M. (1996) Standardization model for describing the extent of burn injury to human remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 41, 152–154. Gonçalves, D., Thompson, T.J.U., and Cunha, E. (2011) Implications of heat-induced changes in bone on the interpretation of funerary behaviour and practice. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 1308–1313. Herrmann, N.P. and Bennett, J.L. (1999) The differentiation of traumatic and heat-related fractures in burned bone. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 44, 461–469. Lazenby, R. and Smashnuk, A. (1999) Osteometric variation in the Inuit second metacarpal: a test of Allen’s Rule. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 9, 182–188. Mayne Correia, P.M. (1997) Fire modification of bone: a review of the literature, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W.D. Haglund and M.H. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 275–293. Nelson, C.L. and Winston, D.C. (2006) Detection of medical examiner cases from review of cremation requests. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 27, 103–105. Schmidt, C.W. and Symes, S.A. (eds) (2008) The Analysis of Burned Human Remains. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Schultz, J.J., Warren, M.W., and Krigbaum, J.S. (2008) Analysis of human cremains: gross and chemical methods, in The Analysis of Burned Human Remains (eds C.W. Schmidt and S.A. Symes), Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 75–94. Schultz, R.J. (1990) The Language of Fractures, 2nd edn, Williams & Wilkins, London. Symes, S.A., Rainwater, C.W., Chapman, E.N., Gipson, D.R., and Piper, A.L. (2008) Patterned thermal destruction of human remains in a forensic setting, in The Analysis of Burned Human Remains (eds C.W. Schmidt and S.A. Symes), Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 15–54. Thompson, T.J.U. (2005) Heat-induced dimensional changes in bone and their consequences for forensic anthropology. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 50, 1008–1015. Thompson, T. (2009) Burned human remains, in Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology (eds S. Blau and D.H. Ubelaker), Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 295–303. To, D. (2008) Three-dimensional modeling of joint surface area: its relationship with skeletal sex and age at death. PhD Dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ. Ubelaker, D.H. (2009) The forensic evaluation of burned skeletal remains: a synthesis. Forensic Science International, 183, 1–5. Van Deest, T.L., Warren, M.W., and Bolhofner, K.L. (2012) Advances in the anthropological analysis of cremated remains, in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.C. Dirkmaat), Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 418–431. Wraa, Ch. (2003) Burns, in Sheehy’s Emergency Nursing: Principles and Practice, 5th edn (ed. L. Newberry), Mosby, St. Louis, MO, pp. 349–362.

C H A P T E R 16

The utility of spatial analysis in the recognition of normal and abnormal patterns in burned human remains Christina L. Fojas, Luis L. Cabo, Nicholas V. Passalacqua, Christopher W. Rainwater, Katerina S. Puentes, and Steven A. Symes

Introduction Given the use of fire by perpetrators to conceal evidence and victims of violent acts, thermal trauma is a common challenge faced by forensic pathologists and forensic anthropologists. Despite being subject to severe burning, human bodies are nearly impossible to obliterate, as diagnostic features may persist to facilitate identification (Bass, 1984; Eckert et al., 1988; Spitz, 1993; DiMaio and DiMaio, 2001; Saukko and Knight, 2004; Brickley, 2007; Ubelaker, 2009). Among a variety of settings, burned bodies are also found in structural fires, vehicular fires, and mass disaster contexts (of accidental, suicidal, or homicidal nature) (Ubelaker et al., 1995; Dirkmaat and Adovasio, 1997; Sledzik and Rodriguez, 2002; Fanton et al., 2006; Fairgrieve, 2007; Tümer et al., 2012). When presented with a set of burned human remains, the identification of the decedent is of utmost importance to the forensic pathologist. Depending on the amount of thermal destruction, identification is typically carried out using fingerprint, dental, X-ray, and DNA comparisons (Van Vark, 1975; Eckert et al., 1988; Murray and Rose, 1993; Mayne Correia, 1997; Bassed, 2003; Thompson, 2004; Schultz et al., 2008). Forensic anthropologists assist in the analysis and interpretation of thermally altered human remains. Recognizing the typical pattern of heat alteration in burned bodies is essential in a medicolegal context and can be aided by the forensic anthropologist’s contribution. Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Knowledge of industrial cremation procedures, case experience, and experimental research have enhanced the field’s capability to deduce patterns encountered in burned bodies. Apart from the difficulty of replicating forensic conditions in laboratory simulations, the majority of thermal trauma research in forensic anthropology has centered on non-human bone, isolated body areas, and defleshed burned bone, likely due in part to the archaeological roots of burned bone research and the difficulty in obtaining fresh human remains for thermal research (Gejvall, 1963; Herrmann, 1977; Richards, 1977; Shipman et al., 1984; Christensen, 2002; Pope and Smith, 2004). Early anthropological studies relied largely on post facto examinations of archaeological cremains or experimental studies centered on distinguishing fleshed and defleshed burning patterns. Krogman proposed studying the patterning of surface patina as a way of inferring whether bone was fresh when burned (Stewart, 1979). Baby (1954) and Binford (1963) later substantiated this claim and noted that some cremated dry bone characteristics such as warping were absent in fresh bone. However, others questioned these conclusions, finding warping present in fresh bone (Buikstra and Swegle, 1989). While these studies have limited application to forensic settings, they illustrate the focus and tradition of the discipline. To a great extent, the lack of agreement of the results of previous research is a product of inconsistencies in terminology and experimental methods as well as the type of skeletal materials used. These problems have been previously discussed by Mayne Correia (1997), and were reiterated by Schmidt and Symes (2008 and references therein). Bohnert et al. (1998) observed funerary cremations of 15 human bodies in wooden coffins and documented sequential changes to the body. After 10–20 min, the coffin structures had burned to allow visibility of the body. Within 40 min, the body attained a pugilistic posture, the calvarium was devoid of soft tissue, the thoracic and abdominal cavities were observable, and the internal organs shrunk in size. After 1 h, the extremities were destroyed with only the torso remaining, and the body was reduced to ashes in 2–3 h, although anatomically recognizable bony elements remained. The cremations Bohnert et al. (1998) witnessed took place at temperatures of 670–810 ∘ C (1238–1490 ∘ F); however, other studies report varied (often higher) crematorium temperatures and offer differing opinions on the time it takes for human bodies to be consumed by fire (Spitz, 1993; DiMaio and DiMaio, 2001). While the temperatures attained in cremation ovens may arguably be similar to those measured in house or car fires, the duration of such fires is dissimilar due to

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fire-extinguishing efforts. In addition, conditions in a cremation oven are held close to constant for the duration of its operation, with the entire body surface being thermally altered in the cremation chamber; house and car fires demonstrate peaks during different phases of the fire, and parts of the body in contact with the surface (if the body is supine, the posterior torso) receive minimal thermal damage (Richards, 1977; Spitz, 1993; Bohnert et al., 1998). Although significant scholarly efforts have augmented thermal trauma research, additional empirical studies are required in order to come to a full appreciation of how bodies burn naturally and the expected burn patterns of a human body subject to the conditions of a fire.

Classifying the severity of fire modification In a concerted move to standardize the terminology of thermal injuries to the human body, two systems for classifying the degree of fire modification were put forward. The system of Eckert et al. (1988), which was later revisited by Mayne Correia (1997), categorizes the degree of thermal modification according to the amount of tissue remaining on the body. The four categories include: • Charring with internal organs still intact. • Partial cremation where soft tissue remains. • Incomplete cremation where bone pieces remain. • Complete cremation where only ashes persist. Crow and Glassman (1996) provide a model for simplifying case reports and descriptions for forensic pathologists, medicolegal investigators, forensic anthropologists, forensic odontologists, firefighters, and others tasked with detailing the extent of burn injuries to the human body. The Crow–Glassman Scale (CGS) consists of five categories ordered by increasing destruction to the body: • CGS Level 1 victims are visually identifiable with possible skin blistering and hair singeing, typical of deaths due to smoke inhalation. • CGS Level 2 bodies may be visually identifiable, but exhibit more severe charring to the hands, feet, genitalia, and/or ears than CGS Level 1 burn victims. • CGS Level 3 bodies are not visually recognizable and are characterized by increased charring and destruction to the soft tissue, with portions of the head and/or extremities destroyed.

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• CGS Level 4 bodies present further burn destruction with the head and extremities extremely fragmentary or absent. • CGS Level 5 bodies consist of ashes with partial soft and hard tissue remaining, of which, are friable and incomplete. These systems are ideal for personnel to implement as a means to circumvent lengthy, subjective descriptions of burned human remains. A body or isolated region can and does display more than one of the aforementioned levels of burning, granting the forensic anthropologist opportunities to detect complete burn patterns that may be predictable depending on the circumstances of death.

Recognizing process signatures From nearly 25 years of case experience, Symes and colleagues (Symes et al., 1996, 2008, 2012; Symes and Dirkmaat, 2005; Schmidt and Symes, 2005) have identified three major process “signatures” recognizable in normal burned bone destruction: • Body positioning and tissue shielding. • Bone color change. • Fracture biomechanics. The recognition and analysis of these signatures require examination of the body at a series of levels, from individual bone fragments to the entire body. Given the relative homogeneity of the human body’s anatomy and physiology, if external factors such as temperature, duration of exposure, and atmosphere are held constant, then bodies will burn in a predictable fashion. Of the three components proposed by Symes et al. (2008), the current study highlights the influence of body positioning and tissue shielding on normal burn patterns. Body positioning and tissue shielding refer to the characteristic body and limb positions incurred by the heating and shrinking of muscle fibers. As the body is subjected to the conditions of a fire, all of the muscles become affected and contract due to dehydration and protein denaturation (Saukko and Knight, 2004; Prahlow, 2010). The flexor muscles and ligaments are stronger than the extensor muscles resulting in the postmortem flexion of the limbs, referred to as the pugilistic posture, pugilistic attitude, or boxer’s stance, in reference to the defensive pose a boxer takes during a fight (Saukko and Knight, 2004; Prahlow, 2010). The pugilistic posture forces the body to bend at the hip, knee, shoulder, and elbow joints, thereby protecting some anatomical regions, on the one

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Figure 16.1 Body in pugilistic posture with shoulders, elbows, hips, and knees bent.

hand, and making other areas more vulnerable to thermal trauma, on the other (Figure 16.1). In conjunction with the change in body positioning, soft tissue serves a protective purpose, with thicker adjacent soft tissue protecting bone and shielding specific regions of the body (Figure 16.2). For example, the anterior elbow experiences increased safeguards from a fire as a result of elbow flexion and increased tissue depth, whereas the posterior elbow has a greater likelihood of thermal destruction due to the resultant thin layer of tissue depth and exposure due to flexion. The anterior tibia is another region commonly affected early during a fire, as the limited soft tissue overlying the bone makes it susceptible to thermal alteration. Such analyses emphasize the value of meticulous documentation and recording of victim position and orientation at the fire scene and upon examination in the morgue, and when possible, the involvement of forensic anthropologists who are skeletal biologists skilled at recognizing human remains in a variety of circumstances (Porta et al., 2013). It is essential to consider that bones are not disassociated material and that bones burn as part of a fleshed body. Having a solid understanding of soft and hard tissue dynamics allows for the illumination of a complex pattern of burning. While an invaluable resource, Symes’ model had not been empirically tested. The present study employs Geographic Information System (GIS) technology for the analysis and interpretation of heat alteration to human remains in order to move beyond a generic reference to the pugilistic posture and toward the quantification of predictable burn patterns derived from their formation. Such patterns are key in detecting suspicious body alterations which will appear as deviations from the normal patterns and may be associated with perimortem trauma and criminal activity. This research contributes to a Daubert-compliant

Normal and abnormal patterns in burned human remains

Dorsal View

209

Dorsal View

Palmar View

Palmar View

DIRECTION OF BURN First to Burn

Last to Burn

(a)

DIRECTION OF BURN Site of Early Fracture

First to Burn

Last to Burn

(b)

Figure 16.2 Skeleton in (a) anterior and (b) posterior pugilistic posture illustrating

areas of the body subjected to burning early and late in a fire episode. Source: Figures 2.7 and 2.8 in Symes et al. (2008, pp. 32–33). (See insert for color representation of this figure.)

baseline for the recognition of trauma produced prior to, or as a result of, a fire episode and benefits from the known mechanisms and context of each of the cases.

Methods The majority of the study data were collected and processed at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner (OCME) of New York City. Appropriate OCME case numbers were amassed based on cause of death, as well as performing keyword searches such as “burn victim” and “fatal fire” within the OCME database. There were 74 burned body cases at the OCME relevant for the purposes of this study, comprising accidents, homicides, suicides, and undetermined manners of death at both indoor and outdoor crime scenes. The sample excludes deaths with little or no heat alteration to the body. Three burned body cases from the Portuguese National Institute of Legal Medicine – North Branch were also included, for a total sample of 77. Tables 16.1, 16.2 and 16.3 describe the sample size according to manner of death, sex, and location of fire episode.

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to manner of death. Manner of death

n

%

Accident Homicide Suicide Undetermined Natural

45 20 7 5 0

58.4 26.0 9.1 6.5 0.0

Table 16.2 Study sample (n = 77) by sex. Sex

n

%

Female Male Unknown

22 54 1

28.6 70.1 1.3

Table 16.3 Study sample (n = 77) according

to location of bodies. Location

n

Indoor Outdoor Car

52 9 16

The burn patterns were documented using photographs taken at the crime scene and on arrival at the morgue prior to autopsy. Photographs were viewed and burns were charted on paper using homunculus diagrams akin to those utilized by forensic pathologists to illustrate autopsy findings. All cases were charted blindly without prior knowledge of the individual’s circumstances of death. Two diagrams were produced for each body in anterior and posterior orientations. The different body areas subjected to thermal trauma were numerically coded into five levels of heat alteration (Table 16.4). Charred soft tissue is extensively burned muscle tissue that is blackened in appearance. If charred soft tissue is accompanied by visible burned bone, the bone can be unaffected, charred (bone that is black in color, signifying carbonized skeletal material in

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Table 16.4 Degree of heat alteration coded into five levels. Description of heat alteration No/minimal burning Charred soft tissue Charred soft tissue with unaffected or charred bone visible Charred soft tissue with calcined bone visible Fragmentary or absent soft and hard tissue

Level 1 2 3 4 5

direct contact with fire), and/or calcined (bone that has been considerably exposed to fire and is white in appearance, having lost all of its organic components). After charting each case on paper, the anterior and posterior diagrams were scanned as an image file. The scanned images were used to create polygon vector shapefiles to allow for quantitative analysis in a GIS workspace; these shapefiles were obtained by tracing the outlines of the body and burn patterns specific to each case. Two polygons representing the anterior and posterior orientations of the body were created as a master body outline shapefile. These outlines could be used for all cases as the outlines of the polygons were identical. The value of each polygon shape representing a portion of the body exposed to burning was set to correspond to one of the appropriate five levels of heat alteration (Table 16.4). Burn pattern and body outline shapefiles were merged and converted to raster data. Once all of the merged shapefiles were converted to raster data for each of the 77 cases, they were systematically “added” together using an analyst extension in order to obtain composite anterior and posterior figures that represented the entire sample. Separate composite figures were also created for each manner of death to discern whether there are inconsistencies in burn patterns depending on the circumstances of death. As a fire progresses, it is expected that both the area affected and degree of alteration of the more exposed areas will gradually increase. Once the entire body surface is affected, only the severity of heat alteration can increase. If a clear relationship between the area and severity of heat alteration exists, it would provide an objective baseline to rank data points according to their heat exposure times and intensity, despite the fact that the sample is comprised of victims in which these factors are unknown. In this way, the extent of the area affected would allow

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for victims to be ordered by increasing severity, generating a sequence of new, affected areas as exposure to fire increased. To test this hypothesis, individuals were ranked based on degree of burning. In the ranking system employed, individuals displaying Level 5 alterations (fragmentary or absent bone) would always rank higher than individuals showing only Level 4 or lower alterations. Individuals with Level 4 alterations would rank above individuals lacking this level and so on. Linear regression was employed to test the correlation between the area affected and severity of the burns. Both factors were expected to be independent in individuals whose entire body surface area has already been altered and were excluded from this particular analysis.

Results The final product renders composite anterior and posterior images of the total sample and illustrates the areas of the body that are more severely altered by heat, with the areas in white being more susceptible to higher levels of burning (Figure 16.3). These are regions vulnerable as a result of the body being in a pugilistic posture or covered by thin layers of soft tissue, thus displaying higher degrees of alteration earlier than areas protected by thicker layers of soft tissue seen in black. Figure 16.4 displays the rank against the area burned. As expected, the less severely burned individuals below the horizontal dotted line demonstrate a clear pattern of increased alteration as the area affected increases. When this lower third of the distribution of the degree of alteration is considered, the extent of the area affected explains 98% of the variance of the severity of heat alteration with p < 0.001.

Discussion The very strong correlation between area affected and degree of heat alteration indicates that the individuals comprising the lower third of the distribution provide an accurate representation of the progression of the normal burn pattern as exposure time increases (Figure 16.5). Although the sample sizes of males and females are unbalanced, and do not allow for reliable testing, both males and females appear to fall very close to the same line, without marked differences due to their different body

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Figure 16.3 Composite figures of anterior and posterior regions of body subjected to

high and low severity of burns.

compositions. Similarly, no sex differences were found with regard to either the area or the severity of alteration in the pooled sex sample. After approximately 80% of the body has been affected, the levels of alteration are higher and highly variable. This suggests that when more than 80% of the body surface has been affected, signifying considerable exposure intensity and time, it is normal to see any of the five categories of burning described in this study.

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Degree of alteration (rank order)

80

60

Sex Female Male

40

20

0 0.25

0.50 0.75 Area affected (proportion)

1.00

Figure 16.4 Plotted cases according to rank order by proportion of body thermally

Degree of alteration (rank order)

altered.

20

Sex Female Male 10

0 0.25

0.50 0.75 Area affected (proportion)

1.00

Figure 16.5 Twenty six cases that represent the progression of burning as exposure

time increases.

The shadowed area in Figure 16.4 represents degrees of alteration not explained by the extent of body surface altered. Individuals falling in this area are expected to represent unusual cases, such as instances where the heat source was localized, accelerants were present, or perimortem trauma prevented the body to adopt pugilistic posture, all of which would result in atypical exposure of areas more sensitive to heat alteration.

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In this sample, individuals falling in this area were characterized by visible burned bone with less than 80% of the body surface affected. Examination of the contextual information for these outliers revealed atypical circumstances, of which three will be highlighted.

Case 1 The individual was burned more extensively along the entire right side of the body axis, with charred soft tissue and charred bone visible. The right arm was in a pugilistic posture with the dorsal hand phalanges exposed and charred (Figure 16.6). The left side was red in color and not significantly burned, with only degloving to the left hand and no burned bone exposed (Figure 16.7). Upon review of the report and reference to the scene photographs, body positioning played a crucial role in the degree of heat alteration the body underwent as the body was found prone, shielding the left forearm from significant thermal injuries and attainment of the pugilistic posture (Figure 16.8).

(a)

(b)

Figure 16.6 Extensive burning to right body surface of Case 1 (a), including dorsal

hand with charred bone exposed (b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 16.7 Left body surface of Case 1, with comparatively less burning than right

side (a), and degloving of left hand (b).

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Figure 16.8 Scene photograph of Case 1, whose body was found prone, protecting

the left body surface from significant thermal damage.

Case 2 In this individual, the upper body was protected by several layers of clothing (a down jacket, knitted sweater, and T-shirt) which were still present on the decedent, thereby sparing the torso and upper arms from severe burning (Figure 16.9). The lower limbs were charred with muscle and fat exposed, and burned bone was observed on the dorsal surface of the proximal phalanges of both hands and feet (Figure 16.10). This case was ruled a homicide.

Case 3 The decedent was found outdoors in a dumpster with multiple blunt force injuries to the skull. The right leg was charred extensively, exposing muscles, the patella, and tibia (Figure 16.11). The right arm was burned and bent at the elbow with the wrist flexed. However, the left leg was not significantly charred, no burned bone was exposed (Figure 16.12), and the arm was not in a pugilistic posture. Upon reference to the case report, the medicolegal death investigator noted smelling accelerant at the scene and the death was ruled a homicide.

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Figure 16.9 Case 2, whose upper body was spared from thermal damage by several

layers of clothing.

Figure 16.10 Extensive charring to the lower limbs of Case 2.

Conclusions A general rule of thumb would be to more carefully examine any individual with less than 80% of the total body surface burned and charred or calcined bone exposed. For each of the three atypical cases emphasized, less than half of the surface area was burned with burned bone visible. The concurrence of these two characteristics would be

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Figure 16.11 Extensive charring and charred bone exposed on right leg of Case 3.

Figure 16.12 Case 3 left lower limb nearly unaffected by fire. Case report made

reference to smelling accelerant at scene and case was ruled a homicide.

indicative of unusual or suspicious circumstances, and a closer examination of both the scene and the body is recommended. There are a number explanations for abnormal patterns. It is possible that the pugilistic posture is not attained because of pre-existing trauma or body positioning. Another possibility is that normal tissue shielding is compromised as a result of pre-existing trauma or the use of accelerants, or that tissue shielding is enhanced by overlying clothing or body position.

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This research confirms that of Symes and colleagues (Figure 16.2) with regard to normal burn patterns being most accurately predicted from body positioning and tissue thickness (Figure 16.3). These results demonstrate that patterns of heat alteration can be identified and successfully employed to identify suspicious cases. It strongly indicates that systematic case documentation, analysis, and comparison represent the most promising research line to improve our understanding of heat-related trauma to the human body. Step-by-step explanations of the mapping and analysis process used to produce the patterns in this study have been provided, allowing for their replication and refinement by other researchers and investigators. As forensic anthropologists, we must assist with the reconstruction of fatal fire events, particularly when our observations deviate from the normal, expected patterns and red flags are raised.

Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the editors for including this chapter in their volume. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Bradley Adams for permission to access OCME casework, and Jennifer Vollner and Dr. Andrew Breckenridge for GIS advice. This research was funded by a National Institute of Justice Grant (Recovery and Interpretation of Burned Human Remains 2008-DN-BX-K131) awarded to the Department of Applied Forensic Sciences at Mercyhurst University.

Disclaimer Any opinions or views in this chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views and opinions of the City of New York.

References Baby, R. (1954) Hopewell cremation practices. Ohio Historical Society Papers in Archaeology, 1, 1–7. Bass, W.M. (1984) Is it possible to consume a body completely in a fire?, in Human Identification: Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology (eds T.A. Rathbun and J.E.Buikstra), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 159–167. Bassed, R. (2003) Identification of severely incinerated human remains: the need for a cooperative approach between forensic specialities. A case report. Medicine, Science, and the Law, 43 (4), 356–361.

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Binford, L.R. (1963) An analysis of cremations from three Michigan sites. Wisconsin Archaeologist, 44 (2), 98–110. Bohnert, M., Rost, T., and Pollak, S. (1998) The degree of destruction of human bodies in relation to the duration of the fire. Forensic Science International, 95 (1), 11–21. Brickley, M.B. (2007) A case of disposal of a body through burning and recent advances in the study of burned human remains, in Forensic Anthropology: Case Studies from Europe (eds M.B. Brickley and R. Ferllini), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 69–85. Buikstra, J.E. and Swegle, M. (1989) Bone modification due to burning: experimental evidence, in Bone Modification (eds R. Bonnichsen and M.H. Sorg), Center for the Study of the First Americans, University of Maine, Orono, ME, pp. 247–258. Christensen, A.M. (2002) Experiments in the combustibility of the human body. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 47 (3), 466–470. DiMaio, D. and DiMaio, V.J. (2001) Forensic Pathology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Dirkmaat, D.C. and Adovasio, J.M. (1997) The role of archaeology in the recovery and interpretation of human remains from an outdoor forensic setting, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 39–64. Eckert, W.G., James, S., and Katchis, S. (1988) Investigation of cremations and severely burned bodies. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 9 (3), 188–200. Fairgrieve, S.I. (2007) Forensic Cremation: Recovery and Analysis. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Fanton, L., Jdeed, K., Tilhet-Coartet, S., and Malicier, D. (2006) Criminal burning. Forensic Science International, 158, 87–93. Gejvall, N. (1963) Cremations, in Science in Archaeology (ed. D. Brothwell), Thames & Hudson, London, pp. 275–283. Herrmann, B. (1977) On historical investigations of cremated human remains. Journal of Human Evolution, 6 101–105. Mayne Correia, P. (1997) Fire modification of bone: a review of the literature, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 275–293. Murray, K.A. and Rose, J.C. (1993) The analysis of cremains: a case study involving the inappropriate disposal of mortuary remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 38 (1), 98–103. Pope, E.J. and Smith, O.B.C. (2004) Identification of traumatic injury in burned cranial bone: an experimental approach. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 49 (3), 431–440. Porta, D., Poppa, P., Regazzola, V., Gibelli, D., Schillaci, D.R., Amadasi, A., Magli, F., and Cattaneo, C. (2013) The importance of an anthropological scene of crime investigation in the case of burnt remains in vehicles. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 34 (2), e1–e2. Prahlow, J. (2010) Burns and fire-related deaths, in Forensic Pathology for Police, Death Investigators, Attorneys, and Forensic Scientists, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 481–500. Richards, N.F. (1977) Fire investigation – destruction of corpses. Medicine, Science, and the Law, 17 (2), 79–82. Saukko, P. and Knight, B. (2004) Knight’s Forensic Pathology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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Schmidt, C.W. and Symes, S.A. (2005) Beyond recognition: the analysis of burned human remains, presented at the 74th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropology, Milwaukee, WI. Schultz, J.J., Warren, M.W., and Krigbaum, J.S. (2008) Analysis of human cremains: gross and chemical methods, in The Analysis of Burned Human Remains (eds C.W. Schmidt, and S.A. Symes), Academic Press, London, pp. 75–94. Shipman, P., Foster, G., and Schoeninger, M. (1984) Burnt bones and teeth: an experimental study of color, morphology, crystal structure and shrinkage. Journal of Archaeological Science, 11 (4), 307–325. Sledzik, P.S. and Rodriguez, W.C. (2002) Damnum fatale: the taphonomic fate of human remains in mass disasters, in Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 321–330. Spitz, W.U. (1993) Thermal injuries, in Medicolegal Investigation of Death (ed. W.U. Spitz), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 413–443. Stewart, T.D. (1979) Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Symes, S.A. and Dirkmaat, D.C. (2005) Perimortem bone fracture distinguished from postmortem fire trauma, presented at the 57th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, New Orleans, LA. Symes, S.A., Smith, O.B.C., and Berryman, H.E. (1996) Bones: bullets, burns, bludgeons, blunders, and why [Workshop]. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 2, 10–11. Symes, S.A., Rainwater, C.W., Chapman, E.M., Gipson, D.R., and Piper, A.L. (2008) Patterned thermal destruction of human remains in a forensic setting, in The Analysis of Burned Human Remains (eds C. Schmidt and S. Symes), Academic Press, New York, pp. 15–54. Symes, S.A., Dirkmaat, D.C., Ousley, S.D., Chapman, E.M., and Cabo, L.L. (2012) Recovery and Interpretation of Burned Human Remains: Final Technical Report. National Institute of Justice Award Number 2008-DN-BX-K131. US Department of Justice, Washington, DC. Thompson, T.J.U. (2004) Recent advances in the study of burned bone and their implications for forensic anthropology. Forensic Science International, 146S, 203–205. ˘ Tümer, A.R., Akçan, R., Karacaoglu, E., Balseven-Odaba¸sı, A., Keten, A., Kan˘ buroglu, Ç., Ünal, M., and Dinç, A.H. (2012) Postmortem burning of the corpses following homicide. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 19 (4), 223–228. Ubelaker, D.H. (2009) The forensic evaluation of burned skeletal remains: a synthesis. Forensic Science International, 183 (1–3), 1–5. Ubelaker, D.H., Owsley, D.W., Houck, M.M., Craig, E.A., Grant, W.E., Woltanski, T.J., Fram, R., Sandness, K.L., and Peerwani, N. (1995) The role of forensic anthropology in the recovery and analysis of Branch Davidian Compound victims: recovery procedures and characteristics of the victims. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 40 (3), 335–340. Van Vark, G.N. (1975) The investigation of human cremated skeletal material by multivariate statistical methods II. Measures. OSSA, 2, 47–68.

C H A P T E R 17

Three modes of dismemberment: disarticulation around the joints, transection of bone via chopping, and transection of bone via sawing Christopher W. Rainwater

Introduction Forensic anthropologists are often asked to consult on sharp force trauma given that sharp force trauma often impacts bone or cartilage (Banasr et al., 2003). In fact, sharp force trauma cases may make up a significant portion of a forensic anthropologist’s casework, especially in a medical examiner’s office (Crowder et al., 2013). From the anthropologist’s viewpoint, Symes et al. (2002) define sharp force trauma “as a narrowly focused, dynamic, slow-loaded, compressive force with a sharp object that produces damage to hard tissue in the form of an incision (broad or narrow).” Sharp force trauma analyses may attempt to characterize the defect left in the tissue, the tool that was used to make the defect, and/or how the tool was used. These analyses focus on the residual characteristics (toolmarks) left in the floors and walls of kerfs, or the grooves left behind following an incision. Although the toolmark examiner may have success in matching toolmarks to a specific tool, the general purview of the anthropological toolmark examination lies with class characteristics. Class characteristics are those that allow for the reconstruction of the intended, manufactured properties of a tool. For instruments such as knives this may simply refer to a blade being serrated or not, what side of the blade has the edge bevel, or if the blade is single or double-edged. Saws are much more variable than knives and have a host of class characteristics that may relate to the size, set, shape, or power of the saw. Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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This chapter focuses specifically on sharp force trauma as it pertains to dismemberment or human mutilation. The forensic science literature has a number of ways to classify these types of cases. Often, these classifications infer some sort of intent or state of mind. For instance, human mutilation has been broken down into three types: defensive (getting rid of the body), aggressive (rage induced), and offensive (lust or psychosis) (Hakkanen-Nyholm et al., 2009). In addition, dismemberment patterns have further been classified as localized or generalized. Localized dismemberments refer to the removal and separate disposal of the head, hands, or both, suggesting the desire to preclude the identification of the victim (Reichs, 1998). Generalized dismemberments refer to those with more extensive postmortem mutilation involving multiple anatomical sites that vary with regard to the positioning of the cuts (Reichs, 1998). It is generally agreed that dismemberment may be the product of making a body more easily transportable, attempting to hinder the identification of the remains, or as a symbolic disregard for the decedent (Symes, 1992; Symes et al., 2002). However, classification schemata that utilize intent or motive are not an objective categorization as it pertains to the physical examination of the remains. A review of New York City dismemberment cases from 1990 to 2006 suggests even a “localized” versus “generalized” classification is not so straightforward. The location of dismemberment occurring in order of frequency was documented as follows: head, torso, thigh, arm, leg, hand, forearm, and foot (Fridie, 2007). There are, however, other categorizations within sharp force trauma that more objectively reference to the physical evidence observed in the postmortem examination. Kimmerle and Baraybar (2008) offer a broad categorization of sharp objects based on their size and weight. “Short-light” objects are those, such as knives, that may be operated by one hand, whose primary function is to cut or saw (Kimmerle and Baraybar, 2008). “Long-heavy” weapons are those, such as machetes and axes, that are primarily used in a chopping motion and will usually exhibit bone fragmentation around the edge of the defect (Kimmerle and Baraybar, 2008). With reference to dismemberments, Reichs (1998) offers useful gross characteristics of cut marks in bone as they are performed “using an axe, a knife, a saw or a combination of tools.” Further, Reichs (1998) also defines two patterns of dismemberment: limb bisection, where the limbs are cut through, and joint disarticulation, where the body is separated at the joints. Here, a categorization of dismemberment is offered that brings in both the type of weapon, as well as the pattern, through three modes

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of dismemberment, or the manner in which the tools were used to accomplish the dismemberment. The three modes of dismemberment are: disarticulation around the joints, transection of bone via chopping, and transection of bone via sawing. It should be noted that these modes are not mutually exclusive and more than one may be observed on a single case. A review of New York City dismemberment cases from 1990 to 2006 shows that 16% of cases showed only disarticulation, 59% showed some form of transection, and 25% showed both (Fridie, 2007).

Modes of dismemberment Disarticulation around the joints The disarticulation mode of dismemberment is distinguished from the other two modes in that the bone is not transected. Instead, tools with an edge-bevel are used to break down the body into smaller parts through incisions around the joints. This often leads to relatively superficial V-shaped (in cross-section) defects around the epiphyses. Although tools other than knives may be used to accomplish the dismemberment, the tools being used will regularly fall into the “short-light” category as defined by Kimmerle and Baraybar (2008). It is often colloquially suggested and even mentioned in the literature (Reichs, 1998) that individuals who utilize this mode of dismemberment often have some sort of training in butchery or anatomy. While the personal history of all of the perpetrators is often not fully known, New York City case experience would suggest that this is seldom the case.

Transection via chopping Transection of the bone via chopping is a method of dismemberment in which a series of hacking or chopping motions are made, typically with tools that would fall under the “long-heavy” categorization as defined by Kimmerle and Baraybar (2008). The corresponding marks on the bone leave both V-shaped kerfs as well as spalls of bone fragmented under the force of the impact. This mode of dismemberment can be distinguished from the other two modes due to the striations arranged perpendicular to the kerf floor. There will also typically be a number of a chopmarks close to, and overlapping, each other. Although it is possible to have a transection via chopping mostly the result of sharp force trauma, it is more common for the transection to be completed as a result of blunt force trauma when the uncut portion of bone is no longer able to withstand the weight of the free end of the bone.

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Transection via sawing The final mode of dismemberment is transection through the use of a saw. In these cases a saw, whether it is hand-powered or mechanically powered, is used to cut through the bone. A saw is simply a blade with teeth and works through chiseling actions that create a broad incision in the outer cortical bone, and then compresses and removes bone in front of the teeth in the direction the blade is moving (Symes et al., 2012). It is also not unusual to see knife cuts around the transected bone as knives are more efficient at cutting away soft tissue, while saws are more efficient at cutting through harder material like bone (Reichs, 1998). Saws can be broken down into their major components of size, set, shape, and power. See Symes (1992, 1998) for a complete discussion, but size can refer to the number of teeth per inch or tooth set width; set can either be alternating, raker, or wavy; shape can refer to either a rip saw (teeth meant to chisel) as opposed to a cross-cut saw (teeth meant to cut) or a straight blade as opposed to one the is curved (i.e., circular saw); and power can either be a hand-powered or a mechanically powered saw. Direction of blade progress (plane of advancement from the initial to the terminal cut) and direction of cutting stroke can also be ascertained (Symes, 1992; Symes et al., 1998).

Case 1: Disarticulation around the joints Background The New York Police Department (NYPD) received a call informing them of a possible homicide. The informant described a new friend he had recently met who had a problematic roommate. During a recent phone conversation, the informant asked if his friend was still having problems with his roommate. The friend told the informant that he did not because he had killed him and cut him up into small pieces. He then asked for help disposing of the body. The NYPD then contacted the Office of Chief Medical Examiner (OCME) and members of the Forensic Anthropology Unit (FAU) and Medicolegal Investigations responded to assist. Upon entering the scene, human skeletal remains and numerous containers filled with soft tissue were observed in the refrigerator in the apartment (Figure 17.1), and tools were noted in the adjacent bathroom. The postmortem examination took place in two phases. First, the medical examiner performed the autopsy and identified 92.5 lb (42 kg) of

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(b)

Figure 17.1 Two photos of the (a) freezer and (b) refrigerator showing the human

remains and bottles as they were found.

soft tissue that was cut small enough to be put in the pour spouts of 10 1-gallon (4.6-l) bottles of bleach, one bottle of muriatic acid, one bottle of drain cleaner, and one small plastic bag (e.g., Figure 17.2). The FAU then took custody of the case for a full skeletal examination. The inventory of remains revealed a nearly complete skeleton with only some finger and toe elements missing (Figure 17.3). There was a probable victim in this case who was quickly identified via partial fingerprints recovered from the bottles as well as radiographic

Three modes of dismemberment (a)

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(b)

(c)

Figure 17.2 Three photos showing (a) one of the bleach containers with (b) its

contents after being cut open from the base and (c) its contents laid out.

comparisons of antemortem surgeries of the knee and shoulder. The anthropological profile was consistent with the decedent and a skeletal trauma analysis was performed.

Skeletal trauma For the purposes of this chapter only the dismemberment trauma will be described in detail, but there was antemortem trauma observed on several ribs, the left scapula, and the right patella, and extensive perimortem blunt force trauma to the cranium. Numerous cut marks were observed on most of the joints in the body (Figure 17.3). The cut marks are consistent with dismemberment via disarticulation around the joints, with cuts on all of the joints between the long bones, the vertebral bodies, the bones of the feet, and some of the bones of the hands. There are cut marks on the hyoid bone, indicating that it was manually separated from the soft tissues of the throat.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 17.3 General overview of the skeletal elements (a; sternum not pictured)

and schematic representation of the skeleton with approximate location of cut marks represented by light shading (b). The dark shaded elements are missing.

There are numerous cut marks on the ribs as well as on all of the vertebrae and some cut marks observed on the cranium are also consistent with defleshing. Most of the cut marks observed are V-shaped, indicative of a knife or other beveled instrument (Reichs,1998); however, the defects, in general, are shallow with minimal bone contact (e.g., Figure 17.4), precluding further evaluation of blade type Some of the pedal phalanges and all of the costal cartilages were completely transected. Microscopic evaluation of some of these cartilages shows patterned striations which indicate that these areas were impacted with a serrated blade or blade portion (Figure 17.5).

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Figure 17.4 The left femur with black arrows highlighting the superficial cuts

around the head and neck.

Figure 17.5 Microscopic view of a transected costal cartilage with patterned

striations suggesting an impact with a serrated blade or blade portion.

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Additional information Upon questioning, the suspect revealed that he and the decedent had gotten into a fight and the decedent was knocked unconscious. He stated that he moved the decedent into the bath tub and tried to use the chemicals to dissolve the body but was unsuccessful. Following that failed attempt, he cut the body into small pieces using only hand tools, so as not to disturb the neighbors (Figure 17.6). The emptied bottles were then used to store the tissue.

(a)

(b)

Figure 17.6 Two photos showing (a) the bathroom with tools on the back of the

toilet and (b) the tools laid out.

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Case 2: Transection via chopping Background In December 2007, members of the FAU and Medicolegal Investigations responded to a park in the Bronx to examine suspected human remains recovered in a suitcase by NYPD-SCUBA in the Harlem River after passers-by alerted the NYPD to a man dumping several items in the river. The suitcase contained a male pelvis and partial upper legs that were fresh with no signs of decomposition (Figure 17.7). The following day, additional remains were recovered in a laundry bag in the Harlem River and were later identified as the mother of the first individual that was recovered. The laundry bag contained a head and two parts of a left leg: the thigh and knee, and the lower leg and foot. There was also minimal decomposition. At autopsy, bone samples from each case were removed for an anthropological analysis of trauma.

Skeletal trauma Individual 1 The remains exhibit dismemberment trauma consistent with transection via chopping with some additional evidence of a blade being used in a reciprocating motion. Throughout the analysis all cut marks

Figure 17.7 The first set of remains recovered.

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exhibit a V-shaped kerf that is characteristic of knives or other beveled instruments, not saws (Reichs, 1998), and it is possible two different tools may have been used. The transecting defects of the left femur occur approximately at the midshaft. The medial surface exhibits numerous superficial cuts. There are a few instances in which a series of these cuts are patterned, occurring as each consecutive tooth of a serrated blade impacts the bone (Smith et al., 2003), particularly those situated distally (Figure 17.8). The deepest cut mark on the medial surface exhibits kerf flare (Symes et al., 2007) –an indication of the numerous repetitious impacts of the blade cutting in a reciprocating motion (Figure 17.8). The postero-lateral and antero-lateral surfaces have defects with unpatterned striations perpendicular to the kerf floor indicative of cutting in a chopping motion (Tucker et al., 2001). The right femur exhibits sharp force trauma localized to two areas; approximately at midshaft and at the distal end (Figure 17.9). Approximately at midshaft, the right femur exhibits relatively superficial cut marks on the lateral, antero-lateral, and antero-medial aspects. Each is represented by a series of grouped cut marks and each exhibits characteristics of cutting in a reciprocating motion. Cuts on the antero-medial aspect are also patterned and grouped, indicating a serrated blade.

Figure 17.8 Microscopic view of the medial left femur exhibiting grouped, patterned

striations. The black oval denotes kerf flare.

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Figure 17.9 Anterior view of the right femur with the boxes

denoting areas of trauma and the oval showing the approximate location of Figure 17.10.

The distal end of the right femur is mostly characterized by chopping trauma. In general, the distal aspect of the femur is extensively fragmented, but there are at least four distinct chopmarks that generally proceed in an anterior to posterior and slightly lateral to medial direction. Each of these exhibit unpatterned striations perpendicular to the kerf floor, characteristic of a chopmark (Figure 17.10). There are also four chopmarks on the right patella with unpatterned striations. Although it is difficult to associate these chopmarks with those present on the right femur as the position of the patella on the femur will change as the knee flexes and extends, it is possible that some defects may have occurred as a result of the same impact.

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Figure 17.10 Microscopic view of unpatterned striations characteristic of chopmarks

on the cortical surface of the right femur.

Additional trauma included a minimum of five cut marks with unpatterned striations perpendicular to the kerf floor to the fifth lumbar vertebrae, a minimum of five cut marks with unpatterned striations perpendicular to the kerf floor to the right ilium, and possible evidence of the use of two tools and both chopping and cutting in a reciprocating motion on the left ilium. Although it is difficult to reconstruct the pelvic girdle given the material removed at autopsy, it is possible that some of the defects, particularly the chopmarks, from the right and left ilia and fifth lumbar vertebra may have occurred as a result of the same impact.

Individual 2 Like the previous individual, the remains exhibit dismemberment trauma consistent with transection via chopping with additional evidence of a blade being used in a reciprocating motion and the possibility of two different tools having been used. The majority of the traumatic defects to the left femur are located on the posterior surface although the medial and anterior surfaces also exhibit cut marks. There is one chopmark on the anterior surface and two chopmarks on the medial surface. All three exhibit unpatterened striations perpendicular to the kerf floor indicative of chopmarks (Tucker et al., 2001) and rusted material in the kerf walls. Not including the

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Figure 17.11 Oblique, microscopic view of a posterior kerf wall containing rusted

material (highlighted by black arrows) and exhibiting unpatterned striations parallel to the kerf floor.

transecting defect, the posterior aspect exhibits at least four chopmarks with unpatterned striations perpendicular to the kerf floor and remnant rusted material in the kerf walls (Figure 17.11). There is also evidence on the posterior surface of a blade being used in a reciprocating manner in which the kerf wall striations run parallel to the kerf floor (Reichs, 1998) (Figure 17.12a). Also, near this defect there are a number of grouped striations that appear patterned and may indicate a serrated blade (Smith et al., 2003) although this is not definitive evidence (Figure 17.12b). Chopmarks are present on the anterior and posterior surfaces around the transecting defect, but are relatively superficial. The majority of the face of the transecting defect exhibits blunt force trauma morphology and the direction of force appears to be posterior to anterior. The left tibia and fibula exhibit numerous chopmarks with characteristics described previously. The tibia has chopmarks on the anterior, medial, posterior, and lateral surfaces and is extensively fragmented making it difficult to determine which defect ultimately contributed to the transection though force from the posterior and lateral sides appears the most likely. The left fibula also exhibits characteristic chopmarks, but only on the lateral and posterior surfaces. The right occipital also exhibits three tangential chopmarks near asterion. The resultant striations are predominately irregular and suggestive of the natural defects in a straight blade

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(a)

(b)

Figure 17.12 Oblique, microscopic views of the posterior femur showing (a) a kerf

wall with parallel striations and (b) grouped, patterned striations possibly suggestive of a serrated blade (black arrows).

rather than the parallel, equidistant striations seen in serrated blades. Two small pieces of rust are also noted at the lateral margin of the chops to the occipital.

Case summary Extensive dismemberment trauma is noted throughout both cases. The majority of the dismemberment trauma occurred as a result of hacking or chopping with a non-serrated blade, but there is also evidence of using a blade in a reciprocating manner likely with a serrated blade. The characteristics of these tools are consistent between both cases and, although at least two blades were possibly used, an anthropological toolmark analysis should not distinguish tools beyond class characteristics. A toolmark examiner, however, may have had success individualizing the marks to a specific tool.

Additional information In July 2008, the torso, neck, and limb elements of an unknown female with apparent dismemberment trauma were reportedly found in a suitcase near Riverside Park in Manhattan (Figure 17.13). The following elements were removed at autopsy for an anthropological trauma and toolmark analysis: cervical vertebrae 4–7; the right clavicle, scapula, humerus, and a portion of the olecranon process of the right ulna; a portion of the proximal left humerus; the right femur, patella, and portions of the right proximal tibial epiphysis; and a portion of the proximal left femur shaft.

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Figure 17.13 Map showing the approximate location of the two different recoveries.

Subsequent to autopsy, the fragmentary, proximal portion of the left femur of the second individual described above was found to conjoin exactly with the fragmentary, distal portion of the left femur of this case (Figure 17.14). Given that the femur of case recovered in December 2007 had previously been positively identified, this association provided the means to positively identify the remains recovered in July 2008. The Harlem and Hudson Rivers are actually part of an estuary system in which currents change direction daily, which may explain the seemingly short distance between the recoveries approximately 7 months apart.

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Figure 17.14 The fragmentary, proximal portion of the left femur of the case

recovered in July 2008 conjoined exactly with the fragmentary, distal portion of the left femur recovered in December 2007.

Figure 17.15 Oblique view of the left humerus showing unpatterned striations

perpendicular to the kerf floor.

The trauma observed on the submitted elements was consistent with the features described above. Figure 17.15 is a defect on the left humerus that exhibits a V-shaped kerf with unpatterned striations perpendicular to the kerf floor, which confirms a chopping defect and is included to show the taphonomic differences to the striations that will occur in seven months of aquatic travel. Figure 17.16 shows the location of elements associated with each recovery and the approximate location of dismemberment trauma.

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Figure 17.16 Representation of the skeletal elements from each recovery and the

approximate areas of dismemberment trauma.

Case 3: Transection via sawing Background In March 2008, the FAU was notified of human remains found in a suitcase in a pond on Staten Island. The NYPD was brought to the pond by an informant and it was believed the remains were those of a woman from New Jersey who had been missing since the previous summer. The FAU worked with an OCME Medicolegal Investigator and the NYPD to recover most of the vertebral column (several superior cervical vertebrae

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were absent), ribs, sternum, pelvis, both proximal femora, left clavicle, both scapulae, and the left proximal humerus. After the pathologist’s examination, the remains were transferred to the FAU for a complete anthropological examination.

Skeletal trauma The remains exhibit dismemberment trauma consistent with transection via sawing with saw cuts evident on a mid-cervical vertebra, the left clavicle, left humerus, both scapulae, and both femora. The right scapula exhibits transecting saw marks to the lateral aspect of the acromion process and the posterior aspect of the glenoid fossa. Although the cuts to the different portions of the scapula are in a slightly different plane, it is likely they resulted from the same cutting action since the blade would have had opportunity to move in the space between the glenoid fossa and acromion process. Based on the way the striations are oriented and stepped, the direction of blade progress proceeds superior to inferior and lateral to medial. The striations on the acromion process kerf wall are straight (not curved) and exhibit evidence of reciprocating motion (not continuous) in which faint striations are angled slightly offset of more well-defined striations (Figure 17.17).

Figure 17.17 Kerf wall of the right acromion process. Inset: major (white arrows)

and minor (black arrows) striations indicative of a reciprocating cutting motion.

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The left femur exhibits a transecting saw mark just below the lesser trochanter. There is a small breakaway spur on the antero-medial aspect indicating a direction of blade progress of postero-lateral to antero-medial. In addition, the cut changed planes inferiorly prior to complete transection, though the direction of progress remained the same. This change in plane resulted in some diagnostic class characteristics related to the blade of the saw. A kerf floor measuring 0.059 in. (1.5 mm) wide indicates the width of the blade including the set of the teeth (Figure 17.18). The kerf floors are also flat-bottomed suggestive of a rip saw whose teeth are chiseled out of the blade as opposed to a cross-cut saw whose teeth are cut and filed out of the blade and often exhibit a W shape (Symes et al., 2002). Additionally, a characteristic similar to tooth imprint (Symes 1992) is observed near the kerf floor. A series of peaks and valleys reflects the distance between the teeth of a blade. In this case, the measurement between peaks or valleys is 0.063 in. (1.6 mm), which reflects a blade of 16 teeth per inch (Figure 17.19). Given that this estimate is only reflected in one instance, it was suggested it would be useful to consider a blade with 14–18 teeth per inch. The left humerus exhibits at least six saw marks, many of which are false starts. The majority of the saw marks occur in the trabecular bone of the humeral head, which does not typically record toolmark characteristics as well as cortical bone. Given that these are observed in trabecular bone, they may not accurately reflect minimum blade dimensions. The range of minimum kerf widths however, are measured at 0.047–0.063 in. (1.2–1.6 mm). Additionally, the kerf floors are also

Figure 17.18 Minimum kerf width measured in a false start of the left femur.

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Figure 17.19 Measurement indicating teeth per inch of the saw used on the

left femur.

flat-bottomed suggestive of a rip saw as opposed to a cross-cut saw (Symes et al., 2002). The cuts occur in numerous anatomical planes that may be the result of movement of the blade around the bone or the mobility of the humerus in the shoulder joint. Other saw cuts include: one oriented horizontally along the superior border of the vertebral body angled slightly to the left, removing the left superior articular facet of a mid-cervical vertebra; a series of superficial cut marks representing the teeth of a saw blade on the superior and anterior surface of the clavicle at approximately the lateral third of the shaft; one transecting saw mark of the lateral acromion process of the left scapula and a superficial false start on the posterior and superior aspect of the acromion process; and one transecting saw mark on the right femur approximately at the level of the gluteal line with a breakaway notch suggesting a direction of blade progress from lateral to medial.

Case summary For this analysis, many of the distinct class characteristics related to tool dimensions observed in this analysis are not exhibited in multiple instances. Ultimately, this precludes a comparison of characteristics between the elements. Therefore, the interpretation of the toolmarks cannot confidently assess whether the same tool was used in cutting all of the bones. The minimum kerf widths, however, of the left humerus and left femur were within the same range 0.047–0.063 in. (1.2–1.6 mm) and exhibited flat-bottomed kerf floors indicative of rip saws. Additionally, although only observed in one instance, the left femur offers singular and compelling evidence of teeth per inch (16, with a probable range of 14–18). Throughout all the analyzed elements, the kerf wall

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striations are generally organized; however, a lack of characteristics including exit chipping, entrance shaving, or representation of material waste led to an indeterminate analysis of saw power. Also, among all the cut elements, all striations examined were flat, indicating a straight (rather than curved) blade and suggested a reciprocating saw motion.

Additional information In May 2008, police from New Jersey transferred a “Buck Bros. 14 in./16 pt Mitre Back Saw” (Figure 17.20) to the FAU. The saw is suspected to be associated with the case described above. The saw was subsequently transferred to Forensic Biology at the OCME where it was tested for blood and DNA with negative results. Although it was never confirmed that the blade had been used, Table 17.1 shows similarities between the saw’s properties and the toolmark characteristics observed in the skeletal remains. In general, the majority of the characteristics of the saw are consistent with those observed in the skeletal elements. The minimum kerf width exhibits the only noted inconsistency, but it is larger than the set width of the saw and may still be consistent. It is important to note that this is a comparison of class characteristics and

Figure 17.20 A “Buck Bros. 14 in./16 pt Mitre Back Saw.” Table 17.1 Comparison of the toolmark characteristics with the saw.

Distance between teeth Teeth per inch Minimum kerf width/ saw set width Cutting motion Blade shape Saw set

Class characteristics

Saw properties

0.063 in. (1.6 mm) ∼16 (14–18) 0.047–0.063 in. (1.2–1.6 mm) Reciprocating Straight Rip

0.063 in. (1.6 mm) 16 0.037 in. (0.95 mm) Reciprocating Straight Rip

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no comparison of class characteristics could definitively state that this was the saw used to the exclusion of all others (although a comparison of class characteristics can exclude a tool).

Conclusions The three cases presented above are utilized to introduce a categorization of dismemberment based on the physical examination of the remains in reference to both the type of weapon used as well as the pattern of body segmentation. It is hoped that the three modes of dismemberment (disarticulation around the joints, transection of bone via chopping, and transection of bone via sawing) will provide practitioners with an appropriate categorization of the type of dismemberment case without invoking intent or state of mind and without relying on specific tool use to make the categorization.

Disclaimer Any opinions or views in this chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views and opinions of the City of New York.

References Banasr, A., de la Grandmaison, G.L., and Durigon, M. (2003) Frequency of bone/cartilage lesions in stab and incised wounds fatalities. Forensic Science International, 131 (2–3), 131–133. Crowder, C., Rainwater, C.W., and Fridie, J.S. (2013) Microscopic analysis of sharp force trauma in bone and cartilage: a validation study. Journal of Forensic Science, 58 (5), 1119–1126. Fridie, J.S. (2007) A Retrospective on Dismemberment in New York City, 1990–2006. Department of Anthropology, New York University, New York. Hakkanen-Nyholm, H., Weizmann-Henelius, G., Salenius, S., Lindberg, N., and Repo-Tiihonen, E. (2009) Homicides with mutilation of the victim’s body. Journal of Forensic Science, 54 (4), 933–937. Kimmerle, E.H. and Baraybar, J.P. (2008) Skeletal Trauma: Identification of Injuries Resulting from Human Rights Abuse and Armed Conflict. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Reichs, K.J. (1998) Postmortem dismemberment: recovery, analysis, and interpretation, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains (ed. K.J. Reichs), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 353–388. Smith, O.C., Pope, E.J., and Symes, S.A. (2003) Look until you see: identification of trauma in skeletal material, in Hard Evidence: Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.W. Steadman), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp. 138–154.

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Symes, S.A. (1992) Morphology of saw marks in human bone: identification of class characteristics. Dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Symes, S.A., L’Abbé, E.N., Chapman, E.N., Wolff, I., and Dirkmaat, D.C. (2012) Interpreting traumatic injury to bone in medicolegal investigations, in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. D.C. Dirkmaat), Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 340–389. Symes, S.A., Berryman, H.E., and Smith, O.C. (1998) Saw marks in bone: introduction and examination of residual kerf contour, in Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains (ed. K.J. Reichs), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 393–395. Symes, S.A., Williams, J.A., Murray, E.A., Hoffman, J.M., Holland, T.D, Saul, J.M., Saul, F. P., and Pope, E.J. (2002) Taphonomic context of sharp-force trauma in suspected cases of human mutilation and dismemberment, in Advances in Forensic Taphonomy (eds W. Haglund and M. Sorg), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 403–434. Symes, S.A., Rainwater, C.W., Myster, S.M.T., Chapman, E.N., and Wolff, I. (2007) Knife and saw mark analysis on bone, presented at the 41st Annual Meeting of the National Association of Medical Examiners, Savannah, GA. Tucker, B.K., Hutchinson, D.L., Gilliland, M.F., Charles, T.M., Daniel, H.J., and Wolfe, L.D. (2001) Microscopic characteristics of hacking trauma. Journal of Forensic Science, 46 (2), 234–240.

C H A P T E R 18

Kreischer Mansion homicide Lauren Regucci and Bradley Adams

Introduction The following case example highlights the results of an investigation that started in 2004 and concluded with sentencing in 2009. The case started as a racketeering investigation targeting loan sharking and extortion, but grew to include assaults, arsons, drugs, firearms, carjacking, and ultimately resulted in information about a homicide that occurred in 2005. The homicide of one individual involved stabbing, strangulation, and drowning. In an effort to dispose of the body so that it would never be found, it was subsequently dismembered, burned in a furnace, and dumped into a septic tank. As a result of diligent investigative work and expertise in forensic anthropology, the remains of this homicide victim were discovered from two distinct contexts. Analysis of the burned bone fragments corroborated the story of the murder, body dismemberment, burning, and disposal. This led to the conviction of those responsible for the homicide, including a 20-year sentence for the person who ordered it and a life sentence for the person who carried it out.

Case background/investigation This case began in 2004 when agents from the FBI Organized Crime Squad C-10, responsible for investigating the Bonanno La Cosa Nostra Family, were looking into a defendant from the international “Pizza Connection” organized crime case that was prosecuted in the 1980s. This defendant had been deported, but the agents had received information that he had illegally re-entered the United States. In the course of their investigation, the agents were alerted to Bonanno Soldier Gino Galestro

Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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who was running a crew of organized crime associates in Staten Island, New York. This crew included an individual, Michael Maggio, who was Galestro’s right-hand man. When this aspect of the investigation was initiated in January 2005, Galestro was still out on bail before serving his sentence on a loan-sharking charge. He reported to a federal correctional institution in July 2005. At that point Maggio took over the day-to-day management of the crew while continuing to report weekly to Galestro during visits to him in prison. The case agents had a Confidential Informant, Volkan Mergen, who was familiar with Maggio and his crew, and who agreed to become a Cooperating Witness. Mergen agreed to wear a recording device when meeting and communicating with the crew. The case initially focused on the crew’s activities of loan sharking, extortions, and assaults. Mergen made 275 consensual recordings over the course of a 1-year period. On the evening of 26 January 2006, FBI case agents sent Mergen out with Maggio and Joseph “Joe Black” Young, an associate of the crew. While Mergen and Young were separated from Maggio, Young confessed to a homicide he committed the previous year for Maggio and Galestro. The confession resulted because Young was angry and complaining to Mergen about not having been paid $10 000 that he had been promised for the hit. Later that night, at approximately 3.00 a.m., Mergen, Maggio, and Young firebombed a house in Staten Island. As a result of the arson, the proactive FBI investigation was immediately shut down, and the agents arrested Young and Maggio (Mergen was also charged for his involvement). In the course of listening to the recording, it became apparent that although the case investigation started with loan sharking, it had unexpectedly evolved into a homicide investigation. This is a portion of the recording transcript: Young: Mergen: Young: Mergen: Young: Mergen: Young: Mergen: … Mergen: Young:

Bro, between you and me, and this cannot go beyond that. Okay. But between you and me, I did something serious. Mm-hmm. Serious. Mm-hmm. Last year. All right. So it was just a hit, it wasn’t … Yeah.

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Mergen: Young: Mergen: Young: … Young: Mergen: Young: Mergen: Young: Mergen: Young: Mergen: Young:

… like you got rid of the body, right? I did. I did all of that. Chopped it up and got rid of it? Yes. I am sick. I am disgustingly good. Mm-hmm. When I was done … Mm-hmm. Powder was all that was left. All right. You know, like … Mm-hmm. … like dust.

After their arrests, the FBI case agents brought both Young and Maggio in to proffer, but unfortunately for Young, Maggio decided to cooperate with the authorities. Maggio provided details about the murder that happened in March 2005 at the Kreischer Mansion in Staten Island, which involved Joe Young.

Homicide details Joseph Young had been a caretaker at the historic Kreischer Mansion in Staten Island, New York, in 2005 (Figure 18.1). Maggio recounted that Robert McKelvey was an associate in Galestro’s mafia crew. McKelvey had committed crimes with them and at the behest of Galestro (including, ironically, firebombing someone’s house), but he liked to talk about these crimes and Galestro was worried that McKelvey would expose Galestro to law enforcement scrutiny. Based on these fears, Galestro told Maggio that he wanted McKelvey gone. Maggio initially thought that Galestro meant chased out of the crew, but Galestro clarified “No, gone.” Maggio then devised a story to lure McKelvey to the mansion. He suggested that McKelvey should meet with Young about setting up a website for his new business, as Young did web design in his spare time. McKelvey, in fact, brought a day planner with notes to the fabricated meeting with Young. However, when Maggio and McKelvey walked into the mansion, Young was waiting in the foyer. Young jumped out and

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Figure 18.1 Kreischer Mansion, Staten Island, New York. Scene of the homicide

and body disposal.

stabbed McKelvey. McKelvey managed to get away initially and ran back out through the front door, but Young tackled him and started choking him. Young then dragged him to an ornamental pool in the front yard and drowned him. The murder of Robert McKelvey involved sharp force (stabbed), blunt force (strangulation), and drowning. After the murder, Maggio and Young called two other associates to help get rid of the body which Young had moved to a shed on the property (Figure 18.2). The group met at the house and then left for a few hours, first to go to a restaurant to establish an alibi and then to meet with Galestro. Galestro directed Maggio that he wanted the body “completely disposed of.” The group then made a trip to a hardware store to get the materials they needed to dispose of the body (Figure 18.3). Upon returning to the mansion, the group brought the body into the kitchen, put it on a roll-up mattress, and dismembered it. They covered the body with black plastic bags and took turns holding the body still and cutting it. They then brought the body parts, in the plastic bags, downstairs to the basement where there was a furnace. They burned not only the body, but all of McKelvey’s personal effects, the saws used in the dismemberment, the mattress, and everything else tied to the murder. Maggio said it took about 2 days to burn everything. McKelvey’s family reported him missing and the New York City Police Department issued a missing person flyer (Figure 18.4).

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Figure 18.2 View of the mansion showing the ornamental pool where McKelvey

was reportedly drowned in the foreground and a shed in the background where the body was temporarily stored.

(a)

(b)

Figure 18.3 (a) and (b) Receipts from the hardware store showing the purchase of

saws (“PVC FRAME” and “HACK SAW”), gloves, bags, and other miscellaneous items.

Search and recovery efforts – I The initial search of the Kreischer Mansion occurred by the FBI New York Evidence Response Team (ERT) on 5 April 2006. There were three areas of concentration, so the ERT responding to the scene split into three groups to cover each area: (1) the shed where the body had been left, potentially bleeding; (2) the kitchen where the body had been dismembered; and (3) the basement where the furnace was located.

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Figure 18.4 Missing person flyer for Robert McKelvey.

As everything had been placed in the furnace, the team expected to still find a “treasure trove” of evidence within. However, the old furnace had been replaced about 4 months prior to the FBI search. The whereabouts of the furnace were tracked down, but it was learned that it had been taken to a scrap metal yard and destroyed. The shed where the body had been left was searched using chemicals to locate any blood, but this search was met with negative results. The kitchen was thoroughly searched since this is where the body was dismembered. There was a drain on the kitchen floor into which the blood ran, so the ERT searched different areas including the floor tiles, the tile grout, the drain, the sink trap, anywhere that blood could have been located. As the mansion had previously been used as a restaurant, there was concern about false positives with the use of presumptive blood tests. Unfortunately, there was no strong, positive sample within the kitchen. The third team went to the basement to examine the area around the furnace, but again, the presumptive blood tests did not produce a compelling result. Later it was learned that one of the associates helping to cut up the body was a “CSI” and “Forensic Files” fan, and actually did a “walk through” with Young to find all the places where there could have been blood. They cleaned areas with chemicals ranging from bleach to muriatic acid and, additionally, hired a maid service. As part of this search, the FBI ERT also decided to examine the stairs from the kitchen to the basement to see if any blood evidence might be present from transporting the body parts to the furnace. One

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spot tested positive with a presumptive blood test, meaning the sample might have been blood, so that stair tread was removed and submitted to the FBI Laboratory for DNA analysis. That was the only potential DNA evidence removed from the mansion that day. Laboratory results showed, via mitochondrial DNA analysis, that the spot contained DNA that was consistent with a biological son of McKelvey’s mother, who had provided her DNA for comparison. McKelvey’s mother only had one son. The DNA results corroborated Maggio’s statements and the homicide investigation continued. In the meantime, the FBI arrested the other two individuals who were there that night to assist in the body disposal, and eventually both of them cooperated with the investigation. They revealed that Young used a metal pole to stoke the furnace, pushing the body parts closer to the flame to assist in the burning. One of the witnesses relayed that Young brought the pole to a dock near a restaurant and threw it into a river. The FBI Underwater Search Evidence Response Team (USERT) recovered a pole from that location in July 2008 that met the description given by the witnesses. The witnesses also described that after the body burned and everything cooled down, Young opened the furnace, scooped out the ashes with a shovel, dumped them into a pail, opened a manhole cover in the front yard, and dumped the ashes inside. That manhole led to a septic tank for the mansion.

Search and recovery efforts – II From an ERT standpoint, there were several issues to consider. It was not known initially how the contents of a septic tank would be searched and if someone would have to go inside it. Support was requested from the FBI Hazardous Materials team and an Operational Medicine representative was also requested to be present on the scene. In order to remove the contents, a septic tank company on Staten Island was contacted, and they agreed to provide a truck for removing and transporting the contents. It was necessary to ensure that the truck tank was cleaned prior to being used for this operation so the argument could not be made that evidence discovered in the truck holding tank originated elsewhere, and the company agreed to do this. Coincidentally, the company that assisted the FBI was the same company that had actually installed the septic tanks, so they were able to provide detailed information about the system. There were four tanks in the system, with three being run-off

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tanks. The septic company allowed the FBI team to use their facility to establish the forensic sifting operation to evaluate the contents. It was at this stage of the operation that support from forensic anthropologists was requested. Forensic anthropologists from the FBI Laboratory and the New York City Office of Chief Medical Examiner (NYC OCME) were present during the removal of the septic tank contents and during the evaluation (i.e., archaeological screening). On 23 July 2008, the septic tank was excavated so that the contents could be removed. This required excavation with heavy machinery to expose the tank, followed by use of a vacuum truck to remove the contents into the holding tank on the truck (Figures 18.5, 18.6 and 18.7). Fortunately, it became apparent that only one of the four septic tanks needed to be searched as the location of the manhole where the remains had been dumped was known, and any cremated remains and associated evidence would have settled on the floor of the septic tank. It was extremely unlikely that this type of evidence would have migrated to the other tanks via the small run-off pipes located toward the top of the tank. Of note was the discovery, on the floor of the septic tank, of a metal book spine with associated binder rings consistent with the day planner that McKelvey brought with him the day of his murder. Once the contents of the septic tank were completely removed, everything was transported back to the septic company’s facility for evaluation.

Figure 18.5 Location of the septic tanks in front of the mansion.

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Figure 18.6 Exposed septic tanks. The tank of interest is fully exposed.

Figure 18.7 Removing the contents of the septic tank with a vacuum hose.

The tanker truck was positioned so the back end of it could be opened over screening stations that were set up on sawhorses over dry wells at the facility. Since it was expected that very small bone fragments may be present, everything was screened through 1/8 in. (0.32 cm) wire mesh (Figure 18.8). The team wore Tyvek suits and evaluated the sludge as the tank contents were released slowly out of the truck. Forensic anthropologists from the NYC OCME and from the FBI Laboratory were present at all

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Figure 18.8 Screening the contents of the septic tank.

times working alongside the FBI ERT members. In order to get the entire contents out of the truck, a person from the septic company physically got inside the tank and pushed out all the contents that had settled on the floor of the truck tank. As the primary items of interest (e.g., cremated human remains and metal tools) were heavy and settled to the bottom, it was the final contents on the floor of the tanker truck that proved to be the most critical to this search effort.

Initial findings/interpretation In total, there were 152 small, burned bone fragments recovered from the septic tank (Figure 18.9). The total weight of these fragments was 45.3 g. According to Warren and Maples (1997), cremated remains (cremains) from commercial cremation represent approximately 3.5% of the total body weight in adults. In their study, the mean cremains weight for adult males was reported as 2893 g and for adult females it was 1840 g. A comparable study by Bass and Jantz (2004) found the mean weight of commercial cremains to be 3380 g for adult males and 2350 g for adult females. The small amount of burned bone (only 45.3 g) indicated that only a portion of the total remains were present within the septic tank. The bone fragments from the septic tank ranged in size from approximately 2 to 25 mm (0.08 to 1.0 in.). All of the bone fragments showed

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Figure 18.9 Overview of burned, fragmentary bones. Only 45.3 g were recovered

from the septic tank.

evidence of extensive thermal alteration, and most were calcined and devoid of organic components. Color of the bones was generally white or bluish-grey, although some were also red-orange and black. The condition and color of the bones suggested that they were subjected to extensive thermal exposure (i.e., high temperatures and/or an extended exposure to heat) (Shipman et al., 1984). Furthermore, there was evidence of warping and transverse cracking on the bone fragments, which is often associated with remains that are burned while soft tissue is still present (Ubelaker, 1999). Based on the small size and poor preservation of the remains, the majority of the bone fragments were not identifiable to a specific skeletal element. One notable exception was the presence of a fragment of distal phalanx of the hand (Figure 18.10). In general, there were numerous

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Figure 18.10 Distal hand phalanx (anterior/palmar view). Image on the right is the

fragment recovered from the septic tank. Image on the left is an unburned comparative specimen intended for illustrative purposes.

long bone fragments, numerous rib fragments, possible vertebrae fragments, a possible cranial fragment, and a possible fragment of ossified thyroid cartilage. The state of preservation was consistent among all the burned bone fragments. The gross morphology of all fragments was consistent with human origin. Due to the fragmentary condition of the bone, it was not possible to provide an estimate of age at death for this individual based on gross analysis. The distal phalanx, possible ossified thyroid cartilage, and overall morphological appearance of the bone fragments were consistent with an adult.

Search and recovery efforts – III As the trial approached, there was still a concern about the small quantity of human remains recovered. Based on the forensic anthropological analysis, it seemed clear that more bones must be located somewhere.

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This was based primarily on the small quantity recovered but also on the lack of representation of some body parts (e.g., skull). Through a measure of good fortune, the forensic anthropologist alerted the FBI case agent and one of the prosecutors to this analysis the day before they were scheduled to interview the actual person who removed the old furnace (the scrap metal collector). This person stated that when he removed the furnace, it was heavy so he dumped all the ashes out over the fence in the backyard of the mansion (Figure 18.11). Realizing that “ashes” in this case could mean more bone fragments, the case agent arranged for yet another search of the mansion property. On 3 October 2008, 11 days before the start of Young’s murder trial, members of OCME’s Forensic Anthropology Unit met with FBI personnel at the Kreischer Mansion to perform a search for the furnace contents. A search of the grounds behind the mansion located an area of burned bricks and ash-like material within some weeds near the fence. Closer inspection revealed numerous artifacts and potential bone fragments. The entire ash pile was archaeologically screened, and revealed that the majority of the remains had actually not been removed and dumped in the septic tank, but had rather been left in the furnace.

Figure 18.11 Back of mansion. Contents of the furnace were reportedly dumped

over the fence.

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Findings/interpretations Numerous burned artifacts were recovered from the ash pile behind the house. Some of the items included keys, portions of a cell phone, a kitchen knife blade, a buckle, metal insoles from shoes, a pocket knife, and portions of saw blades from at least two different saws. The knife blade and portions of saw blades are pictured in Figure 18.12. A large number of burned, fragmentary human bone and teeth fragments were also recovered from the ash pile (Figure 18.13). The total weight of the remains was approximately 765 g. As stated previously, Warren and Maples (1997) found that cremains from commercial cremation represent approximately 3.5% of the total body weight in adults. The combined weight of recovered human remains from both the septic tank and ash pile amounts to approximately 810 g. As Robert McKelvey was listed as 170 lb (77 kg) on the missing person report (Figure 18.4), this would equate to 5.95 lb (2699 g) of cremains. The total amount of cremains recovered was still below the expected value from a commercial cremation, but represented a large percentage of the body.

Figure 18.12 Knife and saw blades recovered from the ash pile.

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Figure 18.13 Overview of burned, fragmentary bones and teeth recovered from the

ash pile. Scale in cm.

The bone fragments ranged in size from approximately 2 to 62 mm (0.08 to 2.4 in.). Identical to the bones recovered from the septic tank, all of the “ash pile” bone fragments showed evidence of thermal alteration, most were calcined and devoid of organic components, and they exhibited the same color distribution (generally white or bluish-grey), and evidence of warping and transverse cracking associated with the burning of fleshed remains. There were identifiable skeletal elements representing all major portions of the body (e.g., head, vertebrae, ribs, limbs, hands, and feet). There was no duplication of elements that would indicate commingling (i.e., no evidence that more than one individual was present). Although fragmentation precluded a precise estimate of age at death, all of the remains were consistent with an adult individual. Fragmentation also precluded a definitive assessment of sex, but robust features, such as prominent brow ridges and blunt upper edges of the eye orbits, suggested the individual was male (Bass, 2005). There were nine bone fragments that showed tool mark evidence consistent with postmortem body dismemberment with a saw (Table 18.1 and Figure 18.14). Eight of these fragments were recovered from the ash pile behind the house and one fragment was recovered from the septic tank. Identifiable bone fragments included a portion of the proximal right radius and a cervical vertebra. The other bone fragments with saw marks were all long bone fragments, but they could not be identified to specific

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Table 18.1 List of recovered elements with saw marks. Element

Description

1/2

Long bone fragments

3

Long bone fragment Long bone fragment

Two long bone fragments that conjoin (2.2 × 1.4 cm combined). Saw cut marks are present on two sides. There is also a false start kerf on fragment 2 that measures 1.5–1.6 mm. Possible radius or ulna fragment measuring 2.3 × 1.3 cm. Saw marks present on one side. Long bone fragment measuring 1 × 1 cm. There are saw marks present on one side. There is also a false start kerf that measures 1.6 mm. Long bone fragment measuring 1.8 × 1.6 cm. Saw marks are present on two sides of the fragment. There are also false start kerfs between the cut margins that measure between 1.4 and 1.6 mm. Approximately 4 cm portion of the proximal right radius. There are saw marks present in the area of the radial tuberosity. The inferior half of the centrum is present. Although no distinct saw marks are noted, the exposed trabecular bone is very smooth and regular. This is not consistent with fire damage and strongly suggests that the bone was intentionally cut. Possible humerus fragment measuring 2.3 × 1.6 cm. Saw marks are present on two sides of the fragment. Long bone fragment measuring 2 × 0.9 cm. This fragment was recovered from the septic tank. Saw marks are present on one side.

4

5

Long bone fragment

6

Proximal right radius Cervical vertebra

7

8 9

Long bone fragment Long bone fragment

skeletal element. The cut to the cervical vertebra would be consistent with removal of the head, while the cut on the radius is consistent with removal of the forearm near the elbow. It was not possible to determine the specific dismemberment site from the other bone fragments. Interestingly, when the FBI interviewed one of the witnesses who assisted with the dismemberment he was asked where they started. He recounted that they started by cutting off the right forearm because there was a tattoo there and they thought, “If we can’t get through all of it, at least we’ll get rid of anything that could identify him.” This statement corresponds with the saw marks observed on the right radius. Table 18.1 provides descriptive information about each fragment that exhibits saw mark evidence. Analysis of tool marks is best achieved by observation of the kerf. A kerf is defined as the walls and floor of a cut. Features retained in the kerf in bone can help reveal information regarding the saw used in

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Figure 18.14 Bone fragments with saw mark evidence. Fragments 1–8 were

recovered behind the residence and fragment 9 was recovered from the septic tank.

dismemberment. All of the nine fragments contain kerf walls exhibiting regular striations caused by a saw (Figure 18.15). Three of the bone fragments contain false start kerfs. These are incomplete cuts in bone in which the walls and floor of the kerf are retained (Figure 18.16). The minimum width of a false start kerf can be an indication of the blade set width. All of the false start kerfs are between 1.4 and 1.6 mm (0.055 and 0.063 in.) in size. It should be noted that bone has a tendency to shrink from burning and this may affect the false start measurements. Based on the straight striations on the kerf walls and the flat kerf floors, the saw blade was flat (i.e., not circular). In addition, the square-shaped kerf floors are consistent with a rip saw as opposed to a cross-cut saw (Symes, 1992). A comparison was performed with the burned saw blades recovered from the ash pile and exemplars of the saws which were purchased at the hardware store. One of the purchased saws was an 18-in. PVC/ABS saw (Figure 18.17). This is a raker-set rip saw with 10 teeth per inch. A side-by-side comparison with the saw exemplar and one of the blade fragments recovered from the ash pile shows an exact match (Figure 18.18). Measurements of the set width on the PVC/ABS exemplar were 1.6 mm,

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(b)

Figure 18.15 (a) and (b) Two of the bone fragments showing linear striations (saw

marks) resulting from body dismemberment.

Figure 18.16 False start kerf measuring 1.6 mm (0.06 in.) on a fragment of burned

bone.

which corresponds exactly with false start kerf widths observed on the remains (Figure 18.16).

Trial and conviction With the evidence presented above, trial proceeded against Joseph Young. Galestro pled guilty to conspiracy to commit murder in aid of racketeering in August 2008. Galestro was sentenced in September 2009

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Figure 18.17 Exemplar of the PVC/ABS saw purchased from the hardware store.

Figure 18.18 Side-by-side comparison of the PVC saw exemplar with a blade

fragment recovered from the ash pile.

and received 20 years for his part in the murder. Young was found guilty of murder in aid of racketeering and was sentenced to a mandatory life term in March 2009. On the stand, Joseph Young admitted that he listed his occupation on his MySpace page as “Death.”

Disclaimer Any opinions or views in this chapter are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views and opinions of the FBI or the City of New York.

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References Bass, W.M. (2005) Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual, 5th edn. Special Publication No. 2. Missouri Archaeological Society, Columbia, MO. Bass, W.M. and Jantz, R.L. (2004) Cremation weights in east Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Science, 49, 901–904. Shipman, P., Foster, G., and Schoeninger, M. (1984) Burnt bones and teeth: an experimental study of color, morphology, crystal structure and shrinkage. Journal of Archaeological Science, 11, 307–325. Symes, S.A. (1992) Morphology of saw marks in human bone: identification of class characteristics. Dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Ubelaker, D.H. (1999) Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation, 3rd edn. Aldine Manuals on Archeology. Taraxacum, Washington, DC. Warren, M.W. and Maples, W.R. (1997) The anthropometry of contemporary commercial cremation. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 42, 417–423.

C H A P T E R 19

Postmortem trauma and the “CSI Effect:” is television making smarter criminals? Elizabeth A. Murray and Anthony E. Dwyer

Introduction Approximately 1 week before Christmas in 2003, in an apartment in Hamilton, Ohio, a man who was smoking crack cocaine witnessed a drug dealer shoot and kill one of his customers. Allegedly, the shooter and his companion threatened to likewise kill the witness, for fear he might go to the police or otherwise expose the homicide. Though by no means a hero, this witness – a man who could not even spell the words “pantry” or “couch” when drawing a diagram during his police interview – used his knowledge of forensic science to save his own life, help mutilate and dispose of the victim’s body, and then ultimately assist in leading police to the killer. This scenario begs the question: to what extent is the current media focus on forensic science helping create smarter criminals?

The “CSI Effect” The popularity of television series that focus on forensic investigation and courtroom processes soared following the debut of the drama CSI: Crime Scene Investigation in the year 2000. In fact, among the general public, the abbreviation “CSI” has seemingly become synonymous with the word “forensic,” despite the fact that forensic science and the legal system extend far beyond the crime scene. Although the several iterations of CSI are but a few of the many television shows that present fictional or

Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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factual accounts of forensic science in action (48 Hours Mystery, American Justice, Bones, Cold Case, Law & Order, NCIS, Numb3rs, Without a Trace, etc.), to some extent all such media portrayals have been lumped together into a phenomenon that has been called the “CSI Effect.” The phrase “CSI Effect” has been used to summarize the net influence that these types of Hollywood forensic depictions may have on the minds of those who view them. For example, much has been discussed and written about a possible “CSI Effect” with regard to courtroom trials. This includes investigating how jurors evaluate evidence in a case, or the lack thereof, in light of the ways forensic science practices and technologies have been presented to them in the media. A variety of research studies have attempted to analyze a potential “CSI Effect” in the courtroom. Research subjects have ranged from college students presented with legal scenarios (Podlas, 2006), to members of jury pools (Shelton et al., 2007), and judges’ perceptions of a “CSI Effect” on jurors and attorneys (Hughes and Magers, 2007). These studies have sometimes attempted to directly correlate television-viewing habits with subjects’ opinions (Hayes-Smith and Levett, 2011; Podlas, 2006; Shelton et al., 2007). A brief review of the literature reveals authors who conclude there is no significant “CSI Effect” with regard to jury verdicts (Podlas, 2006; Shelton, 2008) and others who believe juries are impacted by their forensic science television viewing, but to what extent or direction has not yet been empirically established (Tyler, 2006). Some researchers who support a “CSI Effect” conclude it favors the defense (Maricopa County Attorney’s Office, 2005), while others find it promotes convictions (Godsey and Alou, 2011). One thing is certain, however: there are many individuals getting an “education” in forensic science from television. As cited by Smith et al. (2011), in 2005, the BBC News ranked CSI: Miami the world’s most popular television program. Shelton et al. (2007) reported Nielsen viewing ratings in the United States during a single week in 2006 that revealed “five of the top 10 television programs that week were about scientific evidence in criminal cases. Together, they amassed more than 100 million viewers.” In a subsequent publication, Shelton (2008) concludes, “Many laypeople know – or think they know – more about science and technology from what they have learned through the media than from what they learn in school.” While the existence and impact of a “CSI Effect” in the courtroom continues to be studied and debated, a literature search at the time of this writing reveals little published information about a potential

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“CSI Effect” on criminal activity. A few television programs have pointed to this possibility, such as the BBC’s Horizon episode “How to Commit the Perfect Murder” (first aired in 2007). CNN’s Ted Rowlands (2006) has also alluded to this likelihood, as has Joe Milicia (2006) of the Associated Press. It stands to reason that jurors cannot be the only persons whose lives intersect with the legal system that are influenced by the forensic science and technology they see on television. However, there is currently no scientific attempt to address the question as to whether there has been a “CSI Effect” on perpetrators of crime.

Criminal behavior and forensic anthropology Empirical studies have long been conducted into some aspects of criminal behavior, such as examinations of psychopathology, motive, victim selection, and recidivism. While researchers have studied the complexities that drive individuals to commit crime, it is patently obvious why criminals often attempt to cover their tracks after breaking the law. Hiding or destroying evidence of an offense is nothing new, and there has always been an “arms race” of sorts between criminal activity and criminal investigation. The novel means that people have developed to steal from, do bodily harm to, and evade one another have driven countless advancements in forensic science, both in methodology and technology. When considered, many aspects of forensic anthropology casework fundamentally result from the means perpetrators of homicide use to distance themselves from their victims. Unlike a drive-by shooting, a killing during a nightclub brawl, or a massacre at a shopping complex – where the victims and perpetrators may be immediately identified, since the deaths are witnessed by others – many forensic anthropology cases involve what could be called clandestine deaths. Whether premeditated or not, these “discreet” crimes are often covered up to prevent or delay victim identification and, thereby, preclude or thwart perpetrator identification. The most basic effort to obscure a homicide and/or impede victim identification is to place the body in a remote location such that it may never be discovered, or is significantly decomposed when found. More ambitious perpetrators sometimes bury their victims to prevent the remains from being discovered. Records in the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System (NamUs) demonstrate a large number of missing persons in the United States who apparently do not match the

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biological or genetic profiles of the nation’s unidentified dead. Although there are undoubtedly numerous reasons for this phenomenon, it may attest to the many sets of human remains that have not been, and may never be recovered. A study of NamUs unidentified persons cases (Anderson et al., 2011) revealed that of the approximately 7500 unknown decedents in the database in mid-2011, as many as 75% of those remains were partially or fully skeletonized when found. In addition to decomposing or skeletonized remains found in remote locations or buried in clandestine graves, forensic anthropology cases also include those where there have been even more conspicuous and brutal attempts to prevent identification. Investigators typically encounter cases in which dismemberment, intentional burning, and other forms of bodily mutilation have been employed by perpetrators of homicide. Some of these cases have been presented by forensic anthropologists and others (Murray et al., 1998; Craig, 2002; Symes et al., 2006; Craig and Rolf, 2007; Fulginiti et al., 2008; Gunther and Symes, 2008; Brogdon and Sorg, 2009); of course, some of these cases do predate the current media emphasis on forensic science. It is logical to assume that the caseloads of most forensic anthropologists are decidedly more skewed with regard to the examination of unidentified remains and intentionally mutilated bodies when compared with the typical work of other medicolegal death investigators. Thus, if there is a “CSI Effect” with regard to attempts to preclude identification of homicide victims, anthropologists may be among the forensic professionals to perceive and document it through longitudinal case studies. However, to more fully assess the actions and intentions of the perpetrators involved, detailed information must be gathered by law enforcement and compared with the forensic anthropologist’s physical findings. This chapter illustrates how the combination of crime scene examination, autopsy results, and police interviews can reveal a possible “CSI Effect” on criminal activity intended to obfuscate victim and perpetrator identity.

The case Body discovery and autopsy On New Year’s Eve in 2003, two hunters discovered a charred human torso lying prone in the mud (Figure 19.1) in Preble County, Ohio. The location was a tractor pull-off area, near a cornfield on State Route

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Figure 19.1 Scene image depicting the burned torso of the victim; burned skull

fragments can be seen adjacent to the truncated neck (in the left foreground).

Figure 19.2 Aerial view of the scene where the body was discovered; the pavement

change marks the border between Butler and Preble Counties in Ohio.

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177 (Figure 19.2) between the rural communities of Darrtown and Somerville, Ohio. The 91-lb (41.3-kg) remains were transported to the Butler County, Ohio morgue where an autopsy was performed on 2 January 2004. Participants included Coroner Richard Burkhardt, MD (since deceased), pathologist James Swinehart, MD, death investigator Andy Willis, and chapter authors Major (now Chief Deputy) Anthony Dwyer of the Butler County Sheriff’s Office, and forensic anthropologist Elizabeth Murray, PhD. The head was absent from the torso and the cervical spine was severed; there was clear evidence of unburned sharp trauma to the neck. It appeared that the victim had been decapitated with a single blow from a large-bladed implement, such as a machete or axe (Figure 19.3). The proximal portions of all four extremities were attached to the torso, but were also truncated (Figure 19.4). The soft tissues and bones of both forearms were cleanly cut between the victim’s elbows and wrists, again in a manner that suggested a single blow with a large blade; no saw marks were observed. As had been seen in the neck, this sharp trauma to the victim’s forearms also had obviously occurred after the body was burned (Figure 19.5). Both femora were missing their distal portions, and evidence of scavenger activity and thermal damage complicated the trauma assessment in the lower limbs (Figure 19.6). Only one small area of sharp trauma could be discerned at the end of one femur and both truncated

Figure 19.3 Victim’s truncated neck, showing severing of vertebra, spinal cord,

vessels, “cooked” neck musculature, and charred skin.

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Figure 19.4 Anterior surface of the victim’s charred body. Note the signs of

dismemberment and remnants of charred clothing between the torso and left upper limb.

Figure 19.5 Dismemberment of the left forearm clearly occurred after the victim’s

body had been burned.

femoral ends showed evidence of burning on the bone. In summary, the head and forearms had been burned before being severed, but the thighs had evidence of a complicated sequence that apparently included burning, sharp trauma, animal activity, and additional thermal damage; seemingly, in that order of occurrence.

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Figure 19.6 Right femur showing evidence of the burning and animal scavenging

that complicated trauma analysis.

There was a strong smell of accelerant associated with the remains and fourth-degree burns on the majority of body surfaces. Thermal injuries ranged from more superficial charring of skin to deeper damage to underlying bones and internal organs. The anterior surface of the body exhibited more significant charring than the posterior surface, and the peripheral aspects of the anterior torso were more affected than the central regions of the lower chest and upper abdominal area (Figure 19.4). This appeared to be due to the pattern in which the anterior surface of the body was in contact with the ground when the burning took place. Some ribs were exposed and partially calcined at their lateral aspects, the lateral portions of the anterior pelvis were charred, and parts of the liver, intestines, and other viscera were burned away. The muscle remaining on the lower extremities was either “cooked”, charred, or had been scavenged at the scene (Figure 19.7). Although burned, aspects of the external genitalia indicated the decedent was male. A few patches of relatively unburned and heavily pigmented skin were observed on the more preserved areas of the lower chest and upper abdomen. Patches of tightly curled dark hair, interspersed with a few random gray hairs, were seen on some of the dark skin remaining on the low chest. Initial indicators suggested the victim was most likely a middle-aged black male. At autopsy, forensic pathologist Dr. James Swinehart found a circular lesion in the right lateral thorax and was able to document a lethal right-to-left side gunshot wound trajectory through the victim’s chest.

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Figure 19.7 Scene image demonstrating the lower limb scavenging that occurred

after the victim’s body was burned. The right thigh suffered more significant animal activity than the left.

Figure 19.8 Radiograph depicting the bullet lodged in the victim’s chest, deep to the

left scapula.

After being observed on x-ray (Figure 19.8), a well-preserved bullet was recovered from the soft tissue deep to the left scapula. The deep viscera of the body were unburned, and despite some relatively warm local temperatures for late December, there was no evidence of decomposition in

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the remains. The only clear evidence of postmortem scavenging was on the truncated lower limbs, as previously mentioned. A quantity of associated debris was also recovered from the scene in the area immediately adjacent to the charred torso. This material was examined at the morgue by forensic anthropologist Dr. Elizabeth Murray and representatives of the Butler County Sheriff’s Office. Artifacts included clothing and shoe fragments, a large-sized charred pocketknife, and pieces of a blue plastic tarp with associated metal grommets. Also recovered near the superior end of the torso were numerous burned skull fragments including, among others, pieces of the occipital bone and most of the right mandibular body. From posterior to anterior, this mandibular fragment showed healed alveolar sockets as evidence of antemortem molar loss, one fragmented and charred molar, but perimortem or postmortem tooth loss in the premolar and canine alveolar regions. These open alveolar sockets exhibited evidence of burning. Many of the burned skull fragments showed evidence of sharp trauma on their edges, including striations on cut surfaces and, in one case, a kerf floor. There was also an unburned, yet fractured, petrous temporal bone fragment, despite the fact that the petrous portion of the cranium is the most durable element in the human skeleton. Even though the limbs were dismembered, a burned fragment of a partial phalanx that appeared to be from a finger was recovered from the debris associated with the remains. There were also several burned long bone fragments that had apparently come from the femora. One reasonably large unburned, but heavily damaged, fragment consisting mostly of trabecular bone was among the debris. Its size, morphology, and features suggested it was most likely a portion of distal femur or proximal tibia left by the carnivore scavenging. Curiously, law enforcement officers also recovered a single, approximately 5 × 4 cm piece of parietal bone approximately 10 ft (3 m) from the burn site on a trajectory leading toward the road (Figure 19.9). This piece showed no evidence of burning, no signs of animal activity, and no clear evidence of sharp trauma, but had small fragments of soft tissue adherent. In summary, this assemblage appeared to include the following trauma, potentially in this order: gunshot, burning with the use of an accelerant, sharp trauma, non-human animal activity, and subsequent continued or additional thermal damage. With regard to tool marks, there was evidence for a relatively small knife blade based on damage seen in the skull. A second tool that had been employed was large and

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Figure 19.9 Unburned fragment of parietal bone discovered between the road and

the burn site, approximately 10 ft (3 m) from the location where the body was incinerated.

sharp enough to decapitate the victim, sever the forearms in one motion, and potentially cut through the femora. Despite the dismemberment and decapitation, a burned partial finger phalanx and burned skull fragments were recovered. However, one skull fragment was deposited 10 ft (3 m) away from the rest of the remains and was not subjected to the fire. Relevant portions of the skeleton were removed at autopsy, processed to remove soft tissue, and examined by forensic anthropologist Dr. Elizabeth Murray. These included the pubic bones, fourth sternal rib ends, and humeri (being the only intact long bones present, as the medial aspects of both clavicles were burned away). A biological profile was generated, suggesting the individual was a black male with an approximate age between 30 and 50 years, and a stature in the range of 66.5–70.5 in. (1.69–1.79 m).

Police investigation Based on the biological profile, the investigation immediately focused on a missing person the authors will refer to by the pseudonym Jeremy Wilson (later positively identified as the victim by DNA analysis). Wilson’s former landlord and drug dealer, Cardale Goens, became the primary suspect along with his associates, Gary Benson and Tony Ruffin. In order to advance the investigation of Wilson’s death, the Butler

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County drug unit was employed to purchase drugs from Cardale Goens, leading to Goens’ arrest in late February of 2004 and the issuance of a search warrant for his property. Also rounded up for questioning were Gary Benson and Tony Ruffin. The search warrant for Cardale Goens’ property was executed very early in the morning of 24 February 2004, and once placed in the interview room, Goens quickly fell asleep. This allowed authorities time to conduct ancillary interviews of the other suspects and move forward with evidence collection, potentially related to Wilson’s death, prior to Goens’ statement. Gary Benson and Tony Ruffin gave conflicting initial interviews that attempted to lead investigators away from them, but ultimately, as their stories changed, they were also charged and began to cooperate. The interview of prime suspect Cardale Goens began later in the day on 24 February and lasted until 25 February 2004, during which time he ultimately confessed and was charged with Jeremy Wilson’s murder. Subsequent to the arrest of all three suspects, numerous audiotaped statements were taken from them between 24 February and 9 March 2004. Although a jumble of truth and fiction, the sum of these interviews documents Wilson’s death, and the efforts to dispose of his body and conceal the homicide. The statements provide remarkable insight into the forensic science knowledge possessed by at least one of these individuals (i.e. evidence for a “CSI Effect”). What follows is an attempt to summarize the major events that unfolded during the evening of Jeremy Wilson’s death and the subsequent measures of those involved to distance themselves from the crime.

The killing and subsequent 2 days On an evening in mid-December of 2003, several individuals visited the second-story apartment in a two-family building in Hamilton, Ohio, that was home to drug dealer Cardale Goens. These persons were purchasing and using crack cocaine, smoking marijuana, and drinking alcohol. Tony Ruffin served as protection for Goens’ drug business and also often stayed in the apartment. Gary Benson lived with his girlfriend on the first floor of the same residence. All of these individuals used and sold drugs, most especially crack cocaine. At several points during that evening Gary Benson went upstairs to spend time and use drugs in Goens’ apartment. Jeremy Wilson, who was known to Cardale Goens, Tony Ruffin, and Gary Benson, also visited Goens’ apartment that evening. A verbal

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altercation ensued in the kitchen between Goens and Wilson, whom Goens had evicted from the downstairs apartment a month or so prior subsequent to a rent issue. According to Benson, shortly thereafter, when Wilson dozed off in a chair, Goens shot a handgun at close range to Wilson’s head, but intentionally missed, sending the bullet into a nearby window frame. Goens then decided to duct-tape Wilson’s wrists together and his ankles together, and forced him to lay on the kitchen floor for several hours while the rest of the party, including additional visitors who came and went, continued to do drugs and drink in the kitchen. According to witnesses, Goens kicked Wilson on several occasions and used a Pitbull to torment him while Wilson lay bound on the floor. Some time later, while Jeremy Wilson was negotiating to be set free, Goens shot again, this time putting the bullet into the floorboards of the kitchen. The next shot followed quickly and hit Wilson in the head, whereupon Wilson apparently sat up and mumbled that he had been hit. As he attempted to plead for his life, Goens cursed at Wilson, shot him a second time, and Wilson collapsed. Goens took off the duct tape. Statements indicate that the men began arguing about calling an ambulance to get Wilson to the hospital, since it appeared he was still alive. According to Ruffin: Goens, he is just standing there, freaked … he had the look he always have when he get high, crazy-ass look, you know, devilish look … and Mr. Benson, he started talking to Cardale … you all right man, you all right, this is your first kill, you’ll probably have nightmares … that’s when Mr. Benson proceed talking to Mr. Goens about that forensic shit, you know, throwing ice all on the floor, getting the blood up.

According to Benson’s version, however, Cardale Goens and Tony Ruffin realized that Benson was more of a witness than an accomplice, and decided he would also need to be killed. Goens statement sets forth, “Tony said … ‘You trust Gary Benson to keep this quiet?’ I said, no I don’t.” So, first, they turned off all the lights in the apartment and peeked out the windows to see if anybody seemed to have taken notice of the gunshots. In Benson’s version, Goens and Ruffin essentially held him hostage at gunpoint for several hours through the night while they decided what to do next. Goens’ several cell phones continued to ring through the night and individuals regularly knocked on his apartment door to purchase drugs, but the calls and knocks went unanswered. Benson reminded them that his girlfriend was in the downstairs apartment waiting for him, and knew he had gone upstairs to hang out with Goens

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and Ruffin. This posed additional problems for the proposed cover-up of Wilson’s murder and any plan to do away with Benson, as well. After a couple more hours of discussion, Ruffin decided that he would be willing to take the rap for the killing, but purport that it was a case of self-defense. He told Goens that they could wipe the prints off the gun, put it into Jeremy Wilson’s dead hand, and Ruffin would let Goens pull the trigger and shoot him in a non-lethal manner. Gary Benson spoke up and said, “That’s not going to work … the forensics is going to tell the time span he been laying there and the fresh blood that you have is not going to dictate – you know what I’m saying – you have a dead man.” Goens’ statement corroborates that Benson told them that the dried blood on Wilson’s face would not be consistent with a fresh wound on Ruffin in a story of self-defense. Benson indicated in his police interview that he used that idea to gain the trust of Cardale Goens and Tony Ruffin, and believed that idea won him “freedom, as well as a lot of time.” The three men stayed up until dawn, smoked more crack cocaine, and ate breakfast in the kitchen while Jeremy Wilson’s body still lay on the floor. They would not release Benson, and Goens dictated that all must tiptoe through the house and not flush the toilet after using it, so Benson’s girlfriend in the downstairs apartment would think they had all gone out. After further discussion, however, Goens and Ruffin realized that she had undoubtedly heard the shots the night prior, so even if they could trust Benson, they would have to kill his girlfriend. Goens decided they should stage a robbery, murder, and arson in the house. He instructed Ruffin to go downstairs, kick in the back door, shoot Benson’s girlfriend, and then they would set the place on fire. Gary Benson again spoke up and said, “It ain’t going to make no sense, because if he set the fire downstairs, how we going to get out, and we still got a dead body.” In an effort to save his girlfriend’s life, Benson also told Goens and Ruffin that she hadn’t been alone in their apartment, at least not when he had come upstairs the night before, so whoever was with her would have likewise heard the shots. Benson stated during his interview that he was gaining the pair’s “trust” and “confidence;” as if he was “helping them” and they recognized that he was “making sense.” Ruffin’s interview made numerous references to Benson’s knowledge of “that forensic shit.” In fact, according to both Ruffin and Goens, Benson was the one that spearheaded the effort to get rid of the body. By later that day they had made a pact, but it stipulated that Cardale Goens and Tony Ruffin would kill Gary Benson’s entire family if he blew their cover. In addition, none of the three would speak of the events of

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that night to anyone. Gary Benson’s girlfriend was still an issue, however, and by this time Benson had been upstairs for nearly 24 hours. So, Goens sent Ruffin downstairs to tell Benson’s girlfriend to get her crack pipe and come upstairs. They instructed Benson to act drunk when she arrived, and Goens promised he would give Benson’s girlfriend some crack cocaine and “we’ll go Christmas shopping and buy you some outfits, some money for the kids, the whole shebang” if she would not be upset with Benson for staying out with them so long. Furthermore, that she would let Benson help Goens and Ruffin with a “hustle” that evening. Although none of these men had yet slept and it was now the afternoon after the killing, Ruffin was instructed to go to Lowe’s and use a gift card to purchase the items they would need. According to Goens, Benson said they would need to cut Wilson up with something like a saw, but then ultimately settled on an axe. So, in addition to an axe, the shopping list included a tarp, a 5-gallon (3.8-l) construction bucket, rope, duct tape, packages of latex gloves, and three pair of heavy-duty cleaning gloves. At that point, Goens allegedly decided to gain some extra leverage against Gary Benson. While Tony Ruffin pointed another gun at Benson to ensure his compliance, Goens used a cloth to wipe down the handgun used in the shooting, and forced Benson to grip the gun and put his finger on the trigger. After that, Goens put the gun with Benson’s prints on it into a plastic zipper-style baggie and said, “If you say anything, it’s going to be you who did it; your prints on it.” The plan for disposal of the body involved borrowing two different vehicles that afternoon, so as not to use their own: a minivan from a family member of Goens and another car from a girlfriend of Ruffin. Cardale Goens had a set of walkie-talkies the three would use during the body dump, rather than using their cellular telephones that they knew could be geographically located by Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. First, the trio drove to scout out a remote site at which to dump the body. They deliberately picked a location just over the county line so that the disposal site was in a different jurisdiction (Preble County, Ohio) than the killing (Butler County, Ohio). Benson apparently decided that they should also burn the body. So, on the way back to the apartment to pick up Wilson’s body, Benson went into a Walmart store and purchased a gas can and 2 quarts (1.9 l) of oil, which would be added to the gasoline to keep the fire burning longer. He also bought ski caps to use during the body disposal, along with new underwear, socks, shoes, pants, and shirts for the men to change into after cleaning up.

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That evening the men donned gloves and bundled Wilson’s body into the tarp. The duct tape was used to secure the tarp so “no blood and no feces, nothing else” could “leak out of there”, and the rope was used to make a harness in order to drag the body, which was now in rigor mortis, downstairs. As they were hauling the body out to the minivan, one of Gary Benson’s cousins came to the back gate near the driveway. Goens wanted to shoot him, but Benson convinced Goens that it was so dark his cousin could not have possibly seen anything, and they sent the cousin away and continued to put Wilson’s bundled body in the minivan. Ruffin drove the van with Benson in the passenger’s seat, while Goens drove the borrowed car; the two vehicles communicated using the walkie-talkies. At the body dumpsite, which was described as pitch black and muddy, with snow and ice on the ground, the trio opened the tarp at the end where Wilson’s head was located. Using Goens’ pocketknife and then the wide end of the newly purchased axe, they broke up Wilson’s head, specifically to remove his teeth. From Goens’ statement, “Gary was trying to take the head off and whatever to get his teeth or something; he said, ‘without them they can’t figure him out or whatever’ … got to get the head, got to get the dental, man.” The pieces containing teeth were picked out from among the bludgeoned cranial fragments and dropped into the 5-gallon (3.8-l) white construction-type bucket purchased that day. The gasoline/oil mixture was poured onto Wilson’s body and it was set on fire. The statements do not agree on who carried the bucket as the men ran toward the road, but Benson admitted to tripping on the way to the vehicle. After putting the bucket into the minivan, the two vehicles attempted to drive away. The van got stuck in the mud, however, and they had to use the car to push it out onto the road. As they drove toward an all-night carwash, the men removed their gloves and at least one of them placed his in the white bucket. Benson sprayed down the entire minivan, including the undercarriage and inside, because they had brought in so much mud. Still communicating via walkie-talkies, they moved the bucket to the car and returned the minivan to its owner. Next, Ruffin and Benson got into the car driven by Goens, and the men went to a different carwash to clean that vehicle, before returning to Goens’ apartment. There, they stowed the construction bucket of dental and skull fragments, put on the new clothing and placed everything they had worn that night into a plastic bag. Only then

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did Goens allow Benson to return to his own first-floor apartment, where he had not been for 2 days.

The evidence cover-up continues A couple of days later, Goens and Ruffin decided to revisit the site to make sure the body had burned. The weather was poor that night, and on their way to the scene, on the same road where Wilson’s body lay, they got into an auto accident while driving the car borrowed from Ruffin’s girlfriend. Although the police came and investigated, no one was cited, and Goens and Ruffin were not detained. As the police had seen the car, however, the pair quickly returned it to the woman to whom it belonged, promising to fix the damage later. The next day, Goens and Ruffin used Goens’ car to return to the burn site. Goens got out to look at the body, returned to the car, and said, “Man, there’s still a whole body there.” At that point, they decided they would need to make yet a third visit to Wilson’s body. The interviews give conflicting accounts regarding who actually dismembered the remains on this subsequent undertaking. It appears that, although it was Benson’s idea to return and “get the hands, the feet, and the head,” Goens and Ruffin were the ones to do so on their third visit to the body, using a second axe, since the first one wielded to knock out Wilson’s teeth had been put in a dumpster. Benson reported that, other than giving Goens and Ruffin advice, he had not had anything else to do with the matter since the night of the fire. That was until perhaps a week after Wilson’s death, when Goens drove his own car and found Benson. Goens got out of his vehicle, got into the passenger’s seat, and instructed Benson to drive the car until they reached a series of alleyways near a local elementary school. At that point, Benson reported that Goens told him to stop the car. Then Goens went into the trunk, brought out a white bucket that Benson said looked exactly like the one that had been taken from the body dump site earlier, and Goens tossed the bucket alongside a bunch of trash in the alley. Benson was instructed to drive a bit farther, stop again, and this time Goens pulled three white trash bags out of the trunk and put them with some garbage already set out in the alleyway. Benson surmised these trash bags contained the limbs that had been cut from Wilson’s body by Goens and Ruffin on their third visit to the scene. Ultimately, over the next several weeks, Goens and Ruffin had both cars and the minivan that had been used in the disposal of the remains

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cleaned and detailed. They also later drove all three vehicles to Cincinnati, Ohio, to have new tires put on them, in case tire tracks had been left at the scene. Goens subsequently had his car sanded down to the bare metal and repainted a new color, just in case anybody had seen it during the third trip to the burn site or during any part of the follow-up disposal of body parts in the alley. Back at Goens’ apartment where the shooting had taken place, the men attempted to address any evidence of the original crime scene. Initially, they had poured 2 gallons (7.6 l) of acid on the kitchen floor where Wilson’s blood had soaked in, but in conjunction with the large amount of ice and water used on the night of the killing, this caused a cave-in of the ceiling in Benson’s apartment below. (The acid had been routinely kept in Goens’ apartment to dump on any cocaine present, should a drug bust occur.) In the backyard Ruffin broke up the gun Goens used in the killing with a sledgehammer. Over the next few weeks the men removed the stray bullet from the window frame and had the wood replaced. They tore up the floorboards and removed the other stray bullet from the floor joist. In both cases, they carved up and burned the surrounding wood with a blowtorch, reportedly to “remove any striations.” Goens ultimately replaced the kitchen floor and took up the carpeting on the stairs down which they had dragged Wilson’s body. Although other parts of the apartment were not specifically involved in the shooting, Goens had the entire apartment cleaned and much of it repainted, so as not to draw attention to redoing only the flooring and the window frame. Also during the weeks that followed the killing, Goens had second thoughts about leaving Wilson’s body parts in the alleyway near the school. He and Ruffin went out to recover them. Their revised plan was to put the body parts in buckets, pour cement over them, keep them in “different parts of the city” and wait until they “got brick hard” and then take them “out of town somewhere” to finally dump them. However, when they went to recover Wilson’s severed limbs, they saw a hole in one of the bags. It appeared to them as though “a possum” had gotten into the bag as Wilson’s hand was missing, but Goens “figured it was safe” if an animal had it. They took the three bags from the alley, put them all in one large contractor bag, which they dumped off a bridge in nearby Ross, Ohio. Later, Benson decided to visit the alley on his own and to his surprise noticed that although the trash bags were gone, the white bucket that

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had contained fragments of Wilson’s skull and teeth, was still sitting in the same spot where Goens had put it. Goens and Ruffin had evidently forgotten to retrieve it. Benson realized that bucket was his “ace in the hole,” as if he ever felt Goens was going to turn on him, Benson could take police to the bucket. In his statement, Benson said, “I knew my prints, I knew nothing from me going to be in that bucket.” As the Butler County Sheriff’s Office closed in on the suspects, on 24 February 2004, when the three men were arrested for drug trafficking, and while Goens slept in the interview room, Benson leveraged his position by telling officers he could give them solid evidence with regard to Jeremy Wilson’s disappearance. Benson led police to the alley where they recovered the overturned white bucket containing minimal bone fragments and soft tissues, commingled with concrete mix, as well as a pair of discarded gloves (Figure 19.10). On the same day, co-authors Murray and Dwyer recovered Jeremy Wilson’s burned, desiccated, and scavenged hand (Figure 19.11) from an animal burrow at the base of a tree near the alley. The left portion of the unburned mandibular body (Figure 19.12) was also recovered in the area. Wilson’s other missing body parts have never been found.

Figure 19.10 Bucket containing two bloody gloves, soft tissue, bone fragments, and

concrete mix.

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Figure 19.11 Victim’s left hand recovered at a second scene, over 2 months after his

death.

Figure 19.12 Left portion of the victim’s mandible, also discovered at the second

scene, showing evidence of both burning and fragmentation.

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Conclusions Statements from police interviews of Cardale Goens, Tony Ruffin, and Gary Benson corroborated the proposed sequence of traumatic events observed within the recovered remains of Jeremy Wilson. The fatal wound in Wilson’s torso apparently came from the second gunshot he sustained, while some of the fragmentation of his skull may have resulted from the first bullet that allegedly struck him. The single, unburned parietal fragment recovered 10 ft (3 m) from the charred torso was likely dropped during the first night at the body disposal site, when Benson tripped while carrying the white bucket of skull and dental fragments the men had extracted prior to the arson. However, the burned skull fragments found at the scene, with evidence of both blunt and sharp trauma, either reflected pieces left behind during the attempt to remove Wilson’s teeth before setting his body afire, or resulted from the decapitation that took place during the perpetrators’ third visit to the site. That post-burning decapitation and dismemberment left obvious evidence on Wilson’s torso and extremities; the burned phalanx at the scene also suggested the limbs had been removed after the arson. Scavengers may have stirred up embers at the scene and caused the additional thermal damage observed on the truncated ends of the femora. The remains recovered at the second disposal site, in and near the alley, further attested to the extreme and chaotic measures the trio employed in their effort to evade detection. For the bad guys, the moral of the story is familiar: “Crime doesn’t pay.” The moral for investigators, however – particularly given the specific references to “forensics” in the perpetrators’ interviews in this case – may be that some criminals appear to know a good deal about forensic science techniques and law enforcement investigation methods. Although perpetrators have always attempted to cover up their crimes in both simple and complicated ways, perhaps the increasing sophistication with which they continue to do so points to a learning curve. These are not people who are receiving any official training, so they must be learning at least some of what they know about forensics from watching television. If that is the case, this suggested “CSI Effect” will accelerate the “arms race” between criminal activities and forensic science technologies to a faster pace than seen in the past.

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A second lesson from this case may be that although forensic anthropologists are often asked to draw conclusions about trauma observed in human remains, they are not often privy to the fullest explanations of the perpetrator actions that caused that trauma. Only through studies of cases such as this can forensic science begin to ascertain the extent of attempts to cover-up criminal activity. It is recommended that anthropologists who interpret trauma collaborate with law enforcement to review any witness statements that may substantiate or refute the accuracy of their trauma assessments. Much in the same way that anthropologists use positive identifications to reinforce and enhance our understanding of biological profiles, forensic science will also benefit from comparisons of traumatic lesions to witness statements.

References Anderson, B.E., Murray, E.A., Myster, S.M.T. and Love, J.C. (2011) Involvement of forensic anthropologists in the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System (NamUs). Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 17, 336. Brogdon, B.G. and Sorg, M.H. (2009) Fingering a murderer: a successful anthropological and radiological collaboration. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 15, 336. Craig, E. (2002) Intentional postmortem burning of homicide victims in Kentucky; 1995–2000. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 8, 114–115. Craig, E. and Rolf, C. (2007) Putting it all together: recovery, assembly, and analysis of multiple body parts. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 13, 348–349. Fulginiti, L.C., Hartnett, K., Di Modica, F., and Karluk, D. (2008) Sealed for your protection, part I: the effects of an unknown corrosive agent on human bone. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 14, 327–328. Godsey, M.A. and Alou, M. (2011) She blinded me with science: wrongful convictions and the “reverse CSI-effect.” Texas Wesleyan Law Review, 17 (4), 481–498. Gunther, W.M. and Symes, S.A. (2008) Suitcase man: the investigation, forensic analysis, and prosecution of a homicide with postmortem dismemberment. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 14, 22. Hayes-Smith, R.M. and Levett, L.M. (2011) Jury’s still out: how television and crime show viewing influences jurors’ evaluations of evidence. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 7 (1), 29–46. Hughes, T. and Magers, M. (2007) The perceived impact of crime scene investigation shows on the administration of justice. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 14 (3), 259–276.

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Maricopa County Attorney’s Office (2005) CSI: Maricopa County. The CSI Effect and Its Real-Life Impact on Justice. Maricopa County Attorney’s Office, Maricopa County, AZ. Milicia, J. (2006) Is ‘the CSI effect’ affecting how crimes are committed? The San Diego Union-Tribune, February 2, http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060202/ news_1c02csi.html. Murray, E.A., Burkhardt, R.P., Symes, S.A., Wright, F.D., and Swinehart, J.W. (1998) Bony trauma inflicted on a human skull in an attempt to preclude identification. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 4, 209–210. Podlas, K. (2006) “The CSI effect:” exposing the media myth. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media, and Entertainment Law Journal, 16, 429–465. Rowlands, T. (2006) CSI effect cuts both ways. http://articles.cnn.com/2006-02-15/ justice/btsc.rowlands_1_csi-effect-crime-lab-crime-show?_s=PM:LAW. Shelton, D.E. (2008) The ‘CSI effect’: does it really exist? National Institute of Justice Journal, 259, https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/221501.pdf. Shelton, D.E., Kim, Y.S., and Barak, G. (2007) A study of juror expectations and demands concerning scientific evidence: does the “CSI effect” exist? Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment and Technical Law, 9 (2), 331–368. Smith, S.M., Stinson, V., and Patry, M.W. (2011) Fact or fiction? The myth and reality of the CSI effect. Court Review, 47 (1–2), 4–7. Symes, S.A., Kroman, A.M., Myster, S.M.T., Rainwater, C.W., and Matia, J.J. (2006) Anthropological saw mark analysis on bone: what is the potential of dismemberment interpretation? Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 12, 301. Tyler, T.R. (2006) Viewing CSI and the threshold of guilt: managing truth and justice in reality and fiction. The Yale Law Journal, 115, 1050–1085.

Index

Note: Page numbers in italics denote illustrations, when outside text ranges. A acromion processes torus fractures, 52–4 transection via sawing, 240 aircraft impacts, low-velocity impact trauma, 156–66 antemortem trauma, 2, 109–10, 149–50 aqueous environments, contextual-details importance, 90–2 B ballistic trauma, 2, 179–87 see also gunshot trauma biomechanical continuum, classification limitations, 12–13 biomechanics, bone, 108–10 blast trauma, 5, 167–75 ballistic trauma, 179–87 butterfly fractures, 172 case studies, 177–87 categories, 168 differentiating from other trauma types, 174–5 experimental studies, 169–74 rib fractures, 172–4 blunt force trauma, 2, 4–5, 9–10, 11–12, 56–69 see also low-velocity impact trauma bone response, 57 child abuse, 42–55 classification, 12 contextual-details importance, 31–40, 90–105, 157 craniofacial trauma interpretation, 66–8 depressed fracture, 19, 20, 21 face fragmentation, 63–5, 120–4 rib fractures, 44–50, 65–6 skull fractures, 61–5, 149–50, 151

tire iron vs. metal rod, 119, 123–6, 128 water immersion, postmortem, 90–105 bone biomechanics, 108–10 bone response, blunt force trauma, 57 physical characteristics, 13 plastic deformation, 57, 67 ‘Boxer’s fracture’ (metacarpal fracture), 60–1 broad impacts, blunt force trauma, 12 burned human remains, 189–201 burned bone, 2, 5, 6, 191–8 classifying the severity of fire modification, 206–7 Crow–Glassman Scale (CGS), 206–7 ‘CSI Effect’ case, 269–76 Kreischer Mansion homicide, 246–64 pattern analysis and injury mechanism, 192–8, 204–19 process signatures, 207–9 pugilistic posture, 192–3, 201, 205, 207–9, 214–16, 218 spatial analysis, 204–19 butterfly fractures blast trauma, 172 low-velocity impact trauma, 158, 160, 161, 162, 164 rib fractures, 172–4 C CGS see Crow–Glassman Scale child abuse blunt force trauma, 42–55 fat emboli in lungs, 51, 54–5 glenoid fossa fractures, 52–4 humerus fracture, 51–4 rib fractures, 44–50 scapula fracture, 51–4

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Index

child abuse (continued) subperiosteal new bone formation (SPNBF), 45–6, 48, 50, 52–4 torus fractures, acromion processes, 52–4 chopping see transection via chopping classification limitations, 8–9, 12–13 biomechanical continuum, 12–13 gradation, 13 clavicle fracture, 149–50, 158, 162 comminuted fractures, 12, 15, 17, 19, 20–1, 95, 102, 136, 138 metacarpal, 100–2 computer modeling finite element (FE) analysis, 141–4 multibody modeling software, 141–4 skull fracture analysis, 141–4 contextual-details importance, 3, 4, 33 aqueous environments, 90–2 blunt force trauma, 31–40, 90–105, 157 gunshot trauma, 31–40, 90–105 cranial vault injuries, 8, 61–3, 120–1 craniofacial trauma interpretation, 66–8 criminal behavior and forensic anthropology, 268–9 Crow–Glassman Scale (CGS), 206–7 ‘CSI Effect’, 266–9, 277, 286 D depressed fractures, 14–24, 96, 97, 151 blunt force trauma, 12, 19–24, 20, 21, 136, 137, 138 gunshot trauma, 14–17, 19–24 tibial plateau fracture, 59–60 umbrella tip, 17–18, 19–24 diastatic fractures, 133, 134, 136 disarticulation around the joints, 224, 225–30 dismemberment, 222–44 classification, 222–4 disarticulation around the joints, 224, 225–30 modes of dismemberment, 224–5 transection via chopping, 224, 231–9 transection via sawing, 225, 239–43 dry bone fractures, vs. fresh bone fractures, 38–9, 90–105, 109–10 E experimental studies, skull fracture analysis, 139–40, 142 F face fragmentation, 63–5, 120–4 fat emboli in lungs, child abuse, 51, 54–5

femur transection via chopping, 231–8 transection via sawing, 241–3 femur fracture, 161, 162, 197 finite element (FE) analysis, 141–4 fracture analysis, 195–8 fresh bone fractures, vs. dry bone fractures, 38–9, 90–105, 109–10 G glenoid fossa fractures, child abuse, 52–4 green staining (copper), gunshot trauma, 88 gunshot trauma, 8–11 see also ballistic trauma contextual-details importance, 31–40, 90–105 depressed fractures, 14–17, 19–24 green staining (copper), 88 musket ball, U.S. Civil War, 14–15 Smith & Wesson projectile, 15–17 Spanish Civil War, 77–89 water immersion, postmortem, 90–105 H hat brim line rule (HBL), mechanism of injury relationship, 144–5 high-speed projectile trauma, 2 see also gunshot trauma humerus fracture, 158–9, 162, 198 child abuse, 51–4 I injury mechanism and pattern analysis, 192–8 innominate fractures, 153, 160, 163–4 interpretive limitations, 27–9, 286 over-interpretation of bone injuries, 27–8 weapon-centric classification, 7–8 K Kreischer Mansion homicide, 246–64 case background, 246–8 findings/interpretation, 255–7, 259–63 homicide details, 248–50 search and recovery, 250–5, 257–8 L legal implications, over-interpretation of bone injuries, 27–8 linear fractures, blunt force trauma, 12, 136, 137 lower limb fractures, 153 see also femur fracture

Index low-velocity impact trauma, 156–66 see also blunt force trauma M metacarpal fracture ‘Boxer’s fracture’, 60–1 comminuted, 100–2 metal rod vs. tire iron, blunt force trauma, 119, 123–6, 128 multibody modeling software, 141–4 N narrow impacts, blunt force trauma, 12 neurocranial fractures see skull fractures number of scalp lacerations, mechanism of injury relationship, 144–5 P pattern analysis and injury mechanism, burned human remains, 192–8, 204–19 pelvis fractures, 153, 160, 163–4 perimortem trauma, 3, 61–6, 150–3 ambiguity, 28, 57 vs. postmortem trauma, 90–105, 109–10, 157–8, 164–6 plastic deformation, 57, 67 postmortem trauma, 154, 269–76 vs. perimortem trauma, 90–105, 109–10, 157–8, 164–6 postmortem water immersion blunt force trauma, 90–105 gunshot trauma, 90–105 primary blast injuries, 168 pugilistic posture, burned human remains, 192–3, 201, 205, 207–9, 214–16, 218 Q quaternary blast injuries, 168 R rib fractures, 100–1, 153 blast trauma, 172–4 blunt force trauma, 44–50, 65–6 butterfly fractures, 172–4 child abuse, 44–50 interpretation, 68 S sacral defect, 124–6, 128 sawing see transection via sawing sawtoothed fracture, 160, 162, 163–4, 165–6

291

scapula green staining (copper), 88 transection via sawing, 240 scapula fracture, 96, 103, 160 child abuse, 51–4 scavenging activity, 58, 110, 154 burned human remains, 271, 273–4, 275, 284, 285 sexual assault case, 119–20, 122–3, 126–9 secondary blast injuries, 168 sequence of skeletal injuries, 3 sexual assault case, 118–29 sharp force trauma, 2, 10 see also dismemberment side lateralization, mechanism of injury relationship, 144–5 skull fracture analysis, 139–41 computer modeling, 141–4 experimental studies, 139–40, 142 skull fractures, 95–7, 111–16 blunt force trauma, 61–5, 149–50, 151 classification, 136 cranial vault injuries, 8, 61–3, 120–1 face fragmentation, 63–5 fracture patterns, 130–9 linear fractures, 136, 137 neurocranial fractures, 130–45 skull structure, 136 spatial analysis, burned human remains, 204–19 SPNBF see subperiosteal new bone formation stellate fractures, 12, 17, 131, 132–3, 132, 134, 136, 139 sternum fractures, 120, 153 sternum lesions, 98–9 strain, bone biomechanics, 109 stress, bone biomechanics, 109 stresscoat technique, 139–40 subperiosteal new bone formation (SPNBF), child abuse, 45–6, 48, 50, 52–4 T taphonomic factors, 3, 4–5, 27, 30, 34, 91–2 terrorist attacks, 168–9 tertiary blast injuries, 168 thermal alterations, 2, 5 see also burned human remains thoracic trauma interpretation, 68 see also rib fractures tibial plateau fracture, 59–60 tire iron vs. metal rod, blunt force trauma, 119, 123–6, 128

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torus fractures, acromion processes, child abuse, 52–4 transection via chopping, 224, 231–9 femur, 231–8 transection via sawing, 225, 239–43 femur, 241–3 scapula, 240 U umbrella tip, depressed fracture, 17–18, 19–24

V vertebral column fractures, 151–3 W water immersion, postmortem blunt force trauma, 90–105 gunshot trauma, 90–105 weapon-centric classification, 7–8

Figure 6.15 Example of green staining on a scapula as a result of prolonged

exposure to copper or a copper alloy.

Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, First Edition. Edited by Nicholas V. Passalacqua and Christopher W. Rainwater. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Dorsal View

Dorsal View

Palmar View

Palmar View

DIRECTION OF BURN First to Burn

Last to Burn

(a)

DIRECTION OF BURN Site of Early Fracture

First to Burn

Last to Burn

(b)

Figure 16.2 Skeleton in (a) anterior and (b) posterior pugilistic posture illustrating

areas of the body subjected to burning early and late in a fire episode. Source: Figures 2.7 and 2.8 in Symes et al. (2008, pp. 32–33).