Site Interaction and Political Geography in the Upper Usumacinta Region during the Late Classic: A GIS Approach 9781407353470, 9781841711959

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Site Interaction and Political Geography in the Upper Usumacinta Region during the Late Classic: A GIS Approach Armando Anaya Hernandez

BAR International Series 994 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 994 Site Interaction and Political Geography in the Upper Usumacinta Region during the Late Classic © Armando Anaya Hernández and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711959 paperback ISBN 9781407353470 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711959 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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ABSTRACT T he r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e p o l i t ica l o r gan i sa t ion o ft h e Maya l ow land s d u r ing t h e C la s s ic p e r iod h a s b een t h e s ub jec t o f c on t inuou s t e s t ing a nd d eba t ing o fe xp lana to ry m ode ls . T he se h ave r a nged f r om t h e s t rong c en t ra l ised s t a te o ft h e O ld Emp i r e t ot h e e pheme ra l p ee r p o l i ty / f ragmen ted s t a te s m ode l s . E xcep t f o r P u le s ton ( 1 974 ) w ho a r gued o n b eha lf o f a pp roa ch ing ar eg iona l s t udy f r om t h e p e r iphe ry , e ve ryone e l se h a s f o cu sed h i s o rh e r s t ud ie s f r om t h e c en t re s . H ence m o s t a r chaeo log is t s h ave r ead i ly a dop ted m ode l s d e r ived f r om C en t ra l P la ce T heo ry a nd N ea re s t N e ighbou r A na ly s i s . H ow ev e r i no rde r t o a pp ly t h e se m ode l s a r chaeo log i s t s h ad t od raw t h e l i ne b e tween p r ima ry c en t re s a nd s ub s id ia ry c en t r e s . B ef o r et h e a dven t o ft h e " ep ig raph ic r e vo lu t ion" , s i te h i e ra rchy w a s d e te rm ined b y q uan t i ta t ive m e thods , i . e . n umbe r o f m onumen t s p r e sen t , n umbe r o f c ou r tya rd s , v o lume t r ic a na ly s is , e t c . W i th t h e d i scove ry o f t h e n a tu re o f t h e e mb lem g l yph t h e p u r su i t o f as i te h i e ra r chy c on t inued , b u t f o l low ing ad i f f e ren t p a th . B a sed o n t h e i r p r e sence o ra b sence t h e e mb lem g l yph s w he re u sed t od i f f e r en t ia te p r ima ry c en t r e s f r om s ub s id ia ry c en t re s . B u t w ha t a bou t h i e ra r chy b e tween t h o s e s i t e st h a td id h ave a n emb lem g l yph . I nt h i sc on tex tf i r s tB a r the l ( 1968 )a nd l a te r Ma r cu s( 1973 ) a r gued f o rt h e e x is tence o ff o u rr e g iona l c ap i ta l s i nt h e Maya w o r ld . Ma thew s ( 1991) a f te r am o r ed e ta i led a na ly s i s o fe mb lem g l yph s c onc luded t h a t t h e se d eno ted t h e e x is tence o f c omp le te ly a u tonomou s p o l i t ie s . H ence t h ed eba te c on t inued b e tween t h o se w ho f a vou r ed as t rong c en t ra l ised s t a te , a nd t h o s e w ho f a vou red as cheme o fb a s ica l ly s ma l l a u tonomou s s t a te s . R ecen t ly G rube a nd Ma r t in ( 1995 , 1 998 ) h ave c ome u p w i th a" m idd le g round" m ode l . T h rough t h e i r a na ly s i s o f a s e r ie s o fg l yph s t h a t e xp re s s p o l i t ica l s ubo rd ina t ion t h ey h ave p ropo sed t h e e x is tence o ft wo h egemon ic p owe r s , T ika l a nd C a lakmu l . I nt h i ss cheme v i r tua l ly t h er e s to ft h e Maya w o r ld r e vo lved i n as ucce s s ion o fp o l i t ica l a l iance s . G rube a nd M a r t in 's d i scove ry s e em s t oh av er e so lved t h ec on t rad ic t ion s t h a tt h e t wo p r ev iou s m ode ls w e re u nab le t or e so lve . A l ipha t ( 1996 ) i nh i s d oc to ra l d i s se r ta t ion r e ached t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e p hy s ica l l a nd scape o ft h e U ppe r U sumac in ta p l ayed ap i vo ta l r o le i ns hap ing t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . H e a l so a dvanced t h e i d ea t h a t a cce s s t o , a nd c on t ro l o f t h e p r inc ipa l c ommun ica t ion r ou te s w a s ap r io r i ty t ot h e k i ng s o ft h e r e g ion . If o l lowed t h i s l i ne o fr e sea rch i nt h e p r e sen t t h e s i s ,a r gu ing t h a ti tw a sp rec i se ly t h i sd e te rm inan tf a c to ri nr eg iona l s up rema cy . I nt h i sw o rk Ia pp ly ac on junc t ive a pp roa ch d raw ing f r om t wo l i ne s o fr e sea rch t oo f f e r ar e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion o ft h e U ppe r U suma c in ta r e g ion : G eog raph ic I n fo rma t ion S y s tem s ( G IS ) a nd t h e h i e rog lyph ic i n sc r ip t ion s . I nt h e f i r s t i n s tance Ib egun b y c r ea t ing aD ig i ta l T e r ra in Mode l f o r t h e r e g ion i no rde r t om ode l m ovemen t a c ro s s t h e l a nd s cape . T h is e nab led m e t or e con s t ruc t t e r r i to r ia l s i ze a nd c ommun ica t ion r ou t e s b e tween p o l i t ie s b a sed o n c o s t s u r f a c ea na ly s is . L a te r , Iu sed a na pp roa ch s im i la rt ot h a tu sed b y T ob le r a nd W inebu rg ( 1977 ) w ho a pp l ied t h e G rav i ty Mode l a s ap r ed ic t ive m ode l f o rt h e l o ca t ion o f as e r ie s o fs i te s i np r e -H i t t i te A na to l ia . T he G rav i ty Mode l w o rk s o n t h e p r em i se t h a t i n te rac t ion b e tween c en t re s w i l l b e m o re i n ten se i ft h e se a r e l o ca ted c l o se r t o ge the r , a nd w i l l d ec rea se a s d i s tan ce i n c rea se s . T he i n sc r ip t ion s c on ta ined i nt h e s t udy c on ta in m en t ion o f v a r iou s p r e sen t ly u na l loca ted s i te s . O f t h e se S ak T z ' i ' , H ix W i tz , Man , a nd t h e " Kno t -S i te" a r e m en t ioned b ym o re t h an o ne o ft h er e g iona l c en t re s . Iu s ed t h e se r e f e rence s a nd q uan t if i ed t h e d eg ree o fs i te i n te rac t ion i no rde ra s am ea su re o fd i s tance t h a tw ou ld h e lp m e l o ca t e t h e u n iden t if ied s i tes . T he G rav i ty Mode l i d en t if ied t h e mo s t l i ke ly a r ea s f o r t h e l o ca t ion o fS ak T z ' i ' , H ix W i tz a nd t h e" Kno t -S i te" , t h ed i s tance s o b ta ined f o r Man s e tt h i s s i te o u t s ide t h e s t udy r e g ion . T h e D emp s te r -Shaf e r l o g ic , w h ich w a s u s ed i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o fi s ap robab i l i ty m ode l , w a s a l so a pp l ied t ot h e d a ta s e t . T he r e su l t s o f D emps te r -Sha f e r s uppo r t t h o se o b ta ined w i th t h e G rav i ty Mode l . W i th t h e se r e su l t s a nd t h e s i te i n t e r a c t ion i n fo rma t ion a va i lab le f o rt h e r e g ion Ip roceeded t oc r ea te as e r ie s o fm ap s t h a t o f f e r ar e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e p o l i t ica l o rgan isa t ion o ft h e r e g ion . I n s t ead o fp r e sen t ing t h e se m ap s b a sed o n f i xed t i me p e r iod s , t h e c r i t ica l p o in t s i n t h e h i s to ry o f t h e r e g ion w e re i d en t if ied t oo b ta in t h o se m ap s . T he se r e su l t s o f f e r am o re d ynam ic v i ew o n h ow t h e p o l i t ica l c on te s tan t s o ft h e U ppe r U suma c in ta s h if ted t h e i r a l l iance s f r om o ne t oa no the r o ft h e h egemon ic p owe r s , a nd h ow t h e se c hanges w e re r ef lec ted i nt h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o ft h er e g ion .

ACKNO WLEDG MENTS Many p eop le a nd i n s t i tu t ion s w e re d i rec t ly i n vo lved i nt h e r e sea r ch a nd s ub sequen t w r i t ing o ft h is w o rk , f am i ly , f r iend s , a nd c o l league s w e re ac on s tan t s ou rce o f i n sp ira t ion a nd k now ledge . F i r s t o fa l m y s i nce re a pp rec ia t ion t om y d ea r f r iend a nd m en to r P e te r Ma thew s ; i nP e te r Ih ave f ound n o t o n ly a n i n exhau s t ib le s ou r ce o f k now ledge ; Ih ave a l so f o und r e fuge i n m y m any t i me s o f d e spa i r . J ane a nd D ave K e l ley h ave a l so b een c r i t ica l i nt h e d eve lopmen t o f m y a cadem ic a nd p e r sona l l i f e , b o th h ave o pened t h e i rh ome a nd t h e i rh ea r t s t om e m ak ing t h e l o ng ing f o rh om e m uch m o r e b ea rab le . S co t t R aymond w en t w e l l b eyond h i s d u t ie s a st h e H ead o ft h e A r chaeo logy D epa r tmen t a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry a nd h a sa lway s b een t h e re f o rm e , t oh im m yd eepe s tg r a t i tude . I f Iw e re a sked t os i ng le o u tw h ich w e re t h e t u rn ing p o in t s i nm yp rof e s s iona lc a ree r Iw ou ld r e f e rt ot wo p e r son s . O ne I h ave a l ready m en t ioned P e te r Ma thew s . T he o t he r i sN ige l Wa te r s f r om t h e G eog raphy D epa r tmen t a tC a lga ry . N ige l i n t roduced m e t oa n e xc i t ing d imen s ion o fs pa t ia l a na ly s i s . H e p a t ien t ly w a lked m e t h rough t h e o t he rw ise c umber some p a ths o fs pa t ia l a na ly t ica l m e thod s a nd G IS t h a th ad a lway s e l uded m e . S t an ley G uen te r h a s a l so m ade ad e c i s ive i mpa c t i nt h e d eve lopmen t o f t h i s w o rk . L ike ay app ing p uppy h e w ou ld s t o rm i n to m y o ff ice s ha r ing w i th m e h i s n ew a nd e xc i t ing d i scove r ie s i nt h e d ec iphe rmen t o f aMaya i n scr ip t ion . T h i s l e d t ol o ng d i scu s s ion s e s s ion s , w h ich g radua l ly g ave s hape t om y C hap te r F ive . T hank s a r e a l so d ue t oD r . D uane Ma rb le , w ho k i nd ly p rov ided m e w i th a ne xhau s t ive b i b l iog raphy o nm ovemen to ve rn a tu ra l t e r ra in , a nd h i s o wn p ape ro nt h e s ame t o p ic . T he se p roved t ob e i n va luab le f o r t h ec on s t ruc t ion o fm y w o rk ing m ode l . I n Mex ico t wo p e r son s a l so r e p re sen t l a ndma rk momen t s i n m y p ro f e s s iona l l i f e , R obe r to G a rc ia Mo l l a nd Ma r io A l ipha tF e rnändez . R obe r to d r ew m e i n to t h e Maya a r ea t r u s t ing m e w i th h i sp ro jec ta tB onampak . Ma r io h onou red m e w i th h i s f r iend sh ip d u r ing t h e g ood t ime s a nd e spec ia l ly d u r ing t h e b ad t i me s . I tw a s t h en w hen h e i n v i ted m e t o p a r t ic ipa te i nt h e P royec to A rqueo l6g ico E l C ayo , a nd t h a t i n t u rn o pened t h e d oo r s t o m y p o s tg radua t e s t ud ie s a t C a lga ry . My r e cogn i t ion t o m y Mex ican c o l league s , A le jand ro T ova l in , as upe rb p e r son a nd a r cha eo log i s t , w ho u n se lf i sh ly h a s s ha red m uch o fh i s d a ta f r om B onampak w i th m e a nd h a s p r ov ided h i s g ene rou s h o sp i ta l i ty d u r ing m y v i s i t s t oh i s c amp . B y t h e s ame t o k en A rno ldo G onzä lez , D an ie l J uä rez a nd A k i ra K aneko h ave a lway s g i ven m e p roof o ft h e i rg ene ro s i ty . O n t h e i n s t i tu t iona l l e ve l m y g r a t i tude g oe s f i r s t ly t o Mex ican C ounc i l o fS c ience a nd T echno logy CONACYT , w h ich s uppo r ted m e t h rough m y s t ud ie s a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry . I n C anada Ia l so r e ce ived t h e g ene rou s s u ppo r t o f t h e A r chaeo logy D epa r tmen t , t h e McMahon S tad ium S oc ie ty a nd t h e D ean o fG radua te S tud ie s O ff ice . F ina l ly i nA u s t ra l ia Ih ave r e ce ived t h e o ve rwhe lm ing s uppo r t o fL a T robe U n ive r s i ty t h rough t h e g ene rou s i n te rven t ion o fP ro f e s so r T im Mu r ray . W i thou tt h ese i n s t i tu t ion s Ic ou ld n o th ave a ccomp l ished t h i s w o rk . Il e ave m yf am i ly f o rt h e l a s tb ecau se t h ey f a l l i n ac omp le te ly d i f f e ren t c a tego ry . T he l e ve l o ft h e ir s uppo r ti so fc ou r se i mmea su rab le . My l o ve ly w if eY an i ra h a sb een t h e d r iv ing f o rce b eh ind m e t h roughou t t h e se y ea r s . S he h a s s u f f e red i n s i lence t h e r i go r s t h a t t h e l i f e o f ap o s tg radua te s t uden t i mpo se s . T o m y c h i ld ren A xe l , I x che l , R au l , a nd M ax m y l o ve a nd m y a po log ie s f o r n o tb e ing t h e re a l l o ft h e t ime . T o m y p a ren t s m ye nd le s s l o ve a nd a dm ira t ion ; t h roughou t m y l i f e t h ey h ave a lway s e ncou raged a nd s uppo r ted m e i nc ha s ing m y d ream s . It h ank m y b ro the r s A do lfo a nd Ma r io a nd m y s i s te r L e t ic ia w ho t h rough t h e i r e xamp le h ave s hown m e t h e v a lue o ff am i ly b ond s ; t h ey h ave a lway s b een s uppo r t ive a nd h ave m ade m ye x i s tence m o re c hee r f u l w i th t h e i rj oyou s v i ew o fl i f e .

1

DED ICAT ION

T o t h et h ree w omen o fm y l i f e : m ym o the r , m yd augh te r , a nd m yw if e , w i thou ty ou Iw ou ld b e l o s t .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS DED ICAT ION TABLE OF CONTENTS L IST OF TABLES L IST OF F IGURES L IST OF GRAPHS

ONE I . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

v i

S PACE THE F INAL F RONT IER

I n t roduc t ion S pa t ia lA na ly s is a nd A rchaeo logy C en t ra l P lace T heo ry N ea re s tN e ighbou rA na ly s is T he G rav i ty Mode l

TWO

i i i i v

1 3 4 6 6

S ETTLEMENT PATTERNS I N THE MAYA LO WLANDS

1 . I n t roduc t ion 2 . S pa t ia l Mode l s 3 . T he E p ig raph ic A pp roa ch

7 8 1

THREE LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGY AND COMMUN ICAT ION ROUTES 1 . I n t roduc t ion 2 . D e sc r ip t ion o ft h eP hy s ica lE nv i ronmen t 3 . T rave r s ing t h eR eg ion , t h eH i s to r ic A ccoun t s

FOUR

1 7 1 7 2 0

GEOGRAPH IC I NFORMAT ION SYSTEMS AND ARCHAEOLOGY

PART ITHE CONCEPTS 1 .I n t roduc t ion 2 .D ig i ta lT er ra in Mode ls 3 . Mov ing O ve rN a tu ra l T e r ra in 4 .A r chaeo log ica l A pp l ica t ion s 5 .I s o t rop ic a nd A n i so t rop ic F r ic t ion s 6 . P red ic t ive Mode l l ing

2 8 2 8 3 0 3 3 5 3 6

PART I METHODOLOGY 1 .D ig i ta lT er ra in Mode l a nd C o s tS u r f a ce s 2 . Mode l l ing T e r r i to r ia l E x ten t 3 .T he G rav i ty Mode l 4 .P red ic t ive Mode l l ing a nd D emp s te r -Sha f e rT heo ry

F IVE

3 6 3 8 4 1 5 0

S ITE I NTERACT ION AND P OL IT ICAL GEOGRAPHY

PART I :THE S OC IO -H ISTOR ICAL LANDSCAPE 1 .I n t roduc t ion 2 . A nc ien tR oad s a nd P o l i t ie s

5 6 5 6

PART I : A RECONSTRUCT ION OF THE P OL IT ICAL H ISTORY OF THE REG ION 1 .T he E a r ly P e r iod : 8 . 19 .0 .0 .0 t o9 . 5 .2 .10 .6 ( AD 4 16 -537 ) 5 9 2 . T he E a r ly P a lenque Wa r s : 9 . 8 .5 .13 .8 t o9 . 9 .11 .12 .3 ( AD 5 99 -624 ) 6 2 3 . T he S ak T z ' i ' Y ea r s : 9 . 10 .8 .3 .5 t o9 . 11 .16 .11 .6 ( AD 6 4 1-669 ) 6 5 4 . T he C a lakmu l A l l iance Wave r s : 9 . 11 .16 .11 .6 t o9 . 14 .10 .5 .0 ( AD669 -772 ) 6 9 5 . T he Y axch i lan E xpan s ion : 9 . 15 .19 .2 .2 t o9 . 16 .8 .3 .18 ( AD 7 50 -759 ) 7 5 6 . T he R ec la im ing o ft h e We s te rn F ron t ie r : 9 . 16 .12 .2 .6 t o9 . 17 .1 .5 .9 ( AD 7 63 -772 ) 7 7 7 . T he F ina l Y ea r s : 9 . 18 .6 .4 .19 t o1 0 .1 .14 .9 .17 ( AD 7 96 -864 ) 8 0 CHAPTER S IX : CONCLUS IONS 1 .S i te I n te rac t ion a nd S e t t lemen tP a t te rn 2 . S pa t ia l Mode ls i nA rchaeo logy

8 2 8 4

A PPEND IX 1 : CARTOGRAPH IC MODELS

8 6

A PPEND IX 2 : SUM MARY S TAT IST ICS

9 1

A PPEND IX 3 :S ITE I NTERACT ION

9 3

B IBL IOGRAPHY

10

L IST OF TABLES TABLE 4 1 TABLE 4 -2 TABLE 4 3 TABLE 4 -4 TABLE 4 5 TABLE 4 -6 TABLE 4 -7 TABLE 4 -8 TABLE 4 -9 TABLE 4 10

P red ic ted t r eadm i l l a nd r e la t ive r a t io s o fe ne rgy c o s t s T e r ra in c oeff ic ien t s Mean e ne rgy e xpend i tu re f o rs l ow w a lk ing w i th a l t h ree e x te rna l l o ad s C a lo r ic r e qu i remen t so fo ve r land b ea r e r s E s t ima ted t r an spo r tc o s t sf o rp r eh i span ic Me soame r ica C a lo r ic c o s t sp e rk i lome t r e o fw a lk ing P r ima ry c en t re s a nd t h e i rs ub s id ia ry s i te s T er r i to r ia l e x ten to fp r ima ry c en t re s N ume r ica l v a lue sf o rs i te i n te ra c t ion L i s to fs i te s i n c luded i nt h ei n i t ia ld a ta m a t r ix

3 2 3 2 3 2 3 4 3 4 3 5 3 9 4 1 4 2 4 3

L IST OF F IGURES F i gu re I 1 F i gu re 1 2 F i gu re 2 1 F i gu re 2 2 F i gu re 2 3 F i gu re 2 4 F i gu re 2 5 F i gu re 3 1

C h r is ta l le r 's p a t te rn s o fh i e ra r ch ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fc en t ra l p l a ce s P o in td i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn sf o rN ea re s tN e ighbou rA na ly s is R eg iona l c ap i ta l s o ft h e Maya w o r ld , C opan S t e la A /Se iba l S t e la 1 0 C omponen t s o ft h ee mb lem g l yph I den t if ica t ion o fa u tonomou sp o l i t ie s b a sed o n p r e sence o fe mb lem g l yph T i t le st h a t i mp ly p o l i t ica l s ubo rd ina t ion E xp re s s ion s t h a t i mp ly p o l i t ica l s ubo rd ina t ion Map o ft h e We s te rn Maya L ow land s i n d ica t ing t h e U ppe rU sumac in ta

5 6 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 5 1 6 1 8

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu r e

3 -2 3 3 3 -4 3 5 4 1 4 -2 4 -3 4 -4 4 5 4 -6

A rchaeo log ica l s i te s i n c luded i nt h er e g ion o fs t udy A lon so D av i la 's e n trada t ot h er e g ion , 1 530 Maud s lay 's a nd C ha rnay 's r ou te s , 1 882 Ma le r 's e n t r ie s i n to t h eU ppe rU sumac in ta DEM o ft h eU ppe rU sumac in ta r e g ion I n i t ia l t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t se s t ima ted w i th ALLOCATE S econd s t age : a loca t ion o ft e r r i to ry p e rs i te P r ima ry c en t re s t e r r i to r ia l e x ten tr e -ad ju s ted G rav i ty Mode l r e su l t sf o rS ak T z ' i ' G rav i ty Mode lr e su l t s f o rH ix W i tz

F igu r e F igu r e F igu r e F igu r e

4 -7 4 -8 4 -9 4 10

G rav i ty Mode l r e su l t s f o rt h e " Kno tS i te" 4 6 G rav i ty Mode lr e su l t s f o r Man 4 7 G rav i ty Mode lr e su l t sf o r( a ) Y axch i lan a nd ( b ) P i ed ra sN eg ra s 4 8 P ropo sed o p t ima l t e rr i to r ia le x ten t s f o rt h eU ppe rU suma c in ta p o l i t ie s : ( a ) I n i t ia l e x ten tw i th s e conda ry s i t e so ve r la id , ( b )T e r r i to r ia l e x ten t A f te rr e c la s s if ica t ion 4 9 B e l ief r e su l t sf o rt h es i te h ypo the s i s 5 2 P lau s ib i l i ty o ft h es i te h ypo the s is 5 3 B e l ief i n te rva l 5 4 B e l ief ( a ) a nd P l au s ib i l i ty ( b )r e su l t s f o rt h e n on s i te h ypo the s is 5 4 D emp s te r— Sha f e r &G rav i ty Mode l r e su l t s 5 P o ten t ia l c ommun ica t ion r ou te s i nt h e U ppe rU suma c in ta r e g ion 5 9 R oya l v i s i t s t oY axch i lan 6 0 T ab B a lam Io fY axch i lan a ppea r ing a sc ap t ive a tP i ed ra s N eg ra s 6 1 S ugge s ted t e r r i to r ia le x ten t s o ft h e U ppe rU sumac in ta k i ngdom sa t AD 4 16 -537 6 2 I t zam B a lam o fY axch i lan o ve r see s a c ce s s ion o fC han Muwan I o fB onampak 6 3 R u le r 1o fP ied ra sN eg ra ss t and so ve rh i s P a lenque a nd

F ugue 4 11 F igu r e4 12 F igu r e4 13 F igu r e4 14 F igu r e4 15 F igu r e5 1 F igu r e5 -2 F igu r e5 -3 F igu r e5 -4 F igu r e5 5 F igu r e5 -6

1 8 2 2 2 4 2 5 3 7 3 8 4 0 4 1 4 4 4 5

6 4

F igu re 5 12

S ak T z ' i ‚c ap t ive s S ugge s ted t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t so ft h e U ppe rU sumac in ta k i ngdom s a t AD 5 99 -624 A ccoun to ft h e S ak T z ' i ' w a r so nt h eD enve ra nd B ru s se ls P ane ls L acanha , B onampak , a nd Y axch i lan l o rds p ay ing h omage t o P i ed ra sN eg ra sR u le r 2a nd h i s h e i r P ropo sed e scape r ou te o fT ika l 's k i ng N u -Bak -Chak , p a s s ing t h rough S ak T z ' i 's t e r r i to ry a t AD 6 59 S ugge s ted t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t so ft h eU ppe rU sumac in ta k i ngdom s a t AD 6 4 1-669 T he c ap tu re o fA h -N ik f r om Man b y I t zam B a lam o fY axch i lan

F igu re 5 13 F igu re 5 14 F igu re 5 15

T on ina 's i n te rven t ion i nt h eU ppe rU suma c in ta S ak T z ' i ' c ap t ive d i sp layed a tT on ina S ak T z ' i 's c on t ro lo ve rL acanha a nd B onampak

7 1 7 2 7 3

F igu re 5 16 F igu re 5 17

S ugg e s t ed t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t s f o rt h eU ppe rU sumac in ta k i ngdom s a t AD 6 69 -722 Y axun B a lam i sp r e sen ted w i th f o u rc ap t ive s

7 4 7 6

F igu re 5 18 F igu re 5 19

S ugge s ted t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t sa t AD 7 50 -759 C ap tu r eo fS ak T z ' i ' l o rd s b yC he lT eo fY axch i lan ( a )

7 6

F igu re 5 -20 F igu re 5 -2 1

a nd C han Muwan I o fB onampak ( b ) P omona c ap t ive sa tP i ed ra sN eg ra s S ugge s ted t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t sa t AD 7 63 -772

7 8 7 9 8 0

F igu re 5 -22

T he R anda l l S t e la , S ak T z ' i 's l a te s tk nown m onumen t

8 1

F igu r e5 7 F igu r e 5 8 F igu r e 5 9 F igu r e5 10 F igu r e5 11

6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0

L IST OF GRAPHS G raph 4 1

E ne rgy e xpend i tu r e v a lue sf o rw a lk ing i nd i f f e ren tt y pe so ft e r ra in

3

G raph 4 -2

L inea rr e g re s s ion b e tween e xpec ted e ne rgy e xpend i tu r e v a lue s

3

ONE

S PACE , THE F INAL FRONTIER

A l though e very a r chaeo log ica l s t udy , p as t a nd p r e sen t , h a s s ome s pa t ia l c omponen t , n ever the le s s t h e a r chaeo log ica l d i scove ry a nd c onques to fs pace h a s o n ly r e cen t ly b egun o n as e r ious s ca le . I n troduc t ion A r cha eo logy , s i nce i tl e f t b eh ind i t s i n i t ia l e ndeavou r s o f c on s t ruc t ing a c u l tu re h i s to ry t oc oncen t ra te i nt h e mo re c ha l leng ing p rob lem o fe xp la in ing c u l tu ra l p roce s se s , h a s b een i n ac ons tan t p u r su i t o ff i nd ing t h e r i gh t f o rmu la t o h and le i t s d a ta u nde r t h e r i go rou s r u le s o f t h e s c ien t if i c m e thod . T o a ch ieve t h is g oa l a r chaeo log i s t s h ave t u rned t o o t he r m o re m a tu re d i sc ip l ine s b o r row ing t h e i r a na ly t ica l m e thod s a nd c u s tom i s ing t h em t o t h e i r o wn n eeds . I nt h is i n ce s san t s ea r ch o ft h e H o ly G ra i l w e h ave v en tu r ed i n to t h e p e r i l s o f t h e u ncha r ted f i e ld s ( f o r mo s t o f u s ) o f t h e " ha rd" s c ience s i n a n a t temp t t o g r ab a s much a s w e c an a nd r e cyc le i tt o o u r o wn a dvan tage . F requen t ly , h oweve r , l i ke t h e Maya h e ro t w in s t h a t d e scended t o X iba lb c i , t h e g od s o f t h i s e p is temo log ica l u nde rwo r ld t e a se a nd t o rmen t u s . We t h ink w e h ave t h e k ey t ob r eak t h e c ode t h a t w i l l m ake o u r d a ta s peak t h e i r t r u th , o n ly t o f i nd t h a t w e d ece ived o u r se lve s , t h a t t h i s w a sn ' tq u i te t h e r i gh tf o rmu la .

L each c on t inued d ec ry ing t h e a bu se i nt h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h e se m ode ls f o r i s sue s t h a t a r e o u t o f t h e r e a ch o f a r chaeo logy . H e m ade s pec ia l e mpha s is o n t h e l im i ted c ha rac te r o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . N ex t h e c au t ioned a r chaeo log is t s t h a tw hen t h ey s t a r t m ov ing f r om q ue s t ion s r e ga rd ing t h e f o rm@ n a tu re o ft h e i rd a ta t oq ue s t ion s s uch a s h ow a nd w hy t h i s c ame t ob e , t h ey w e r e m ov ing f r om t h e r e a lm o f t h e v e r if iab le t ot h a t o f s p ecu la t ion ( Leach 1 973 : 7 64 ) . O the r c u l tu ra l a n th ropo log i s t s e choed L each 's c r i t ique a nd p o in ted t h e i r g un s a t s ome o f t h e m o re a mb i t iou s m ode l s t h a t w e re f l y ing a r ound . S ee f o r e xamp le t h e r a the r v i c iou s c r i t ique t h a t A l len a nd R icha rd son m ade t o L ongac re 's , H i l l 's , Wha l lon 's , B inf o rd 's , a nd D ee tz ' a t temp t s t or e con s t ruc t p r eh i s to r ic k i n sh ip s y s tem s f r om t h e i r a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( A l len a nd R icha rd son 1 971 :415 3 ) . A re w e t o a s sume t h en t h a t a r chaeo logy i sd oomed t o n eve r g e t as t ronge r g r ip i n i n te rp r e t ing i t s d a ta? A re m ode l s i n he ren t ly f l awed a nd t h e i r a pp l ica t ion t o s o lve t h e f i r ing i s sue s o f a r chaeo logy b ound t o f a i lu r e? T o a n swe r t h e se b u rn ing q ue s t ion s Ir e cu r t o y e t a no the r d ef in i t ion o f m ode l . T h is o ne I g o t f r om C la rence Woud sma , f a cu l ty m embe r o ft h e G eog raphy D epa r tmen t a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry . D r . Woud sma c ompa red m ode l s t o s au sage s : " eve rybody l i ke s t h em u n t i l t h ey k now w ha t t h ey 're m ade o f ' . T h i s c o l loqu ia l a nd a ppa ren t ly s imp le c ha ra c te r i sa t ion o f w ha t am ode l i s

D u r ing t h e e a r ly 1 970 's , a t t h e p eak o f t h e m omen tum t h a t t h e N ew A rchaeo logy h ad c r ea ted , s ome a r chaeo log i s t s b e l ieved t h a t t h ey f i na l ly s aw t h e l i gh t a t t h e e nd o ft h e t unne l , a nd t h ough t t h a t a r chaeo logy h ad c ome o fa ge i n t h e s c ien t if i c m e thod . I n 1 971 , av e ry i mpo r tan t e ven t t o ok p l a ce : t h e c r ème o f o u r d i sc ip l ine g a the r ed t o ge the r t oh o ld t h e s em ina r T he E xp lana t ion o f C u l tura l C hange : Mod e l s i nP r eh i s to ry . T he t i t le o ft h e s em ina r w a s i mp re s s ive e nough t ow a r ran t t h e b e l ief t h a t s ome th ing b i g w a s t a k ing p l a ce . O ne a f te r a no the r , a r chaeo log i s t s o f t h i s n ew p a rad igm p r e sen ted t h e f r u i t s o f t h e i r a r duous r e sea rch , w h ich i ne f f ec t a dd re s sed t h e i s sue o fe xp la in ing c u l tu ra l c hange . I nv i ted t om ake t h e c l o s ing c ommen ta r ie s w a s as c ho la r o fe no rmou s s t a tu r e , t h e p r e s t ig iou s E dmund L each . I n a n e xe rc i se o f g ood w i l l a nd c onf idence t owa rds t h e i r n ew ly a cqu i red a na ly t ica l t o o ls t h e o rgan i se r s d ec ided t o i n v i te t h i s r e nowned s c ho la r o f ar e la ted d i sc ip l ine . Id on ' t t h ink t h a t w ha t t h e p a r t ic ipan t s o f t h i s s em ina r h ea rd w a s p r ec ise ly w ha t t h ey e xpec ted ( o r w an t ed ) . L each a dd re s sed t h e a ud ience s ay ing t h a t d u r ing t h e p a s t f ew d ay s h eh ad s e en t h ep r e sen ta t ion o fo ne m ode lo fc u l tu ra l c hange a f t e r a no the r . H i s c ha rac te r i sa t ion o f t h e se m ode ls i so ne o f m y f a vou r i te s b e cau se i tc ap tu re s t h e m a in f l aw o f w ha t a n e xp lana to ry m ode l c an b ecome . L ea ch t o ld h i s a pp r ehen s ive a ud ience t h a t t h e i r m ode ls r em inded h im o ft h e a e rop lane m ode l s t h a to ne c an b uy i n at o y s t o r e . T he re a r e t wo k i nd s : t h o se t h a t l o ok l i ke t h e r e a l t h ing b u tw on ' tf l y , a nd t h o se t h a td o n o tl o ok l i ke t h e r e a l t h ing b u tc an f l y( Leach 1 973 :76 1-771) .

r e vea ls ag r ea t t r u th . Wha t w e k now o rd on ' t k now o f a m ode l i sg o ing t og r ea t ly a f f ec tt h e r e su l t s o fo u ra na ly s is . I fw e p u t o u r d a ta i n ac ompu te r , p r e s s s ome b u t ton s t o s t a r t r unn ing i tb u t w e d on ' t k now w ha t 's t a k ing p l ace i n s ide t h e b l a ck b ox , w e w i l l b e i l e qu ipped t o f u l ly i n te rp re tt h er e su l t s . I n t h i s d ay a nd a ge o f c ompu te r t e chno logy G eog raph ic I n fo rma t ion S y s tem s ( G IS ) a r e r a p id ly g a in ing a ccep tance i na r chaeo logy a s ap owe r f u l a na ly t ica l t o o l . G IS i sb e ing h a i led i n v i r tua l ly e ve ry d i sc ip l ine a s t h e a n swe r t o p rob lem s o fd a ta m anagemen ta nd m an ipu la t ion . T o s ome i th a s b ecome t h e p anacea ; o t he r s t a k e i tw i th m o re r e se rva t ion s . Wha teve r t h e c a se t h e f a c t r ema in s t h a t i t ' s o u tt h e re a nd w e h ave t op ay a ten t ion t oi t . F o r t h e p rob lem t h a t c once rn s m e i n t h i s w o rk the r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta d u r ing t h e L a te C la s s ic I b e l ieve t h a t G IS r e p re sen t s a n a s se t i nt h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f t h e a va i lab le d a ta . T h rough t h e a pp l ica t ion o fG IS t om yr e sea r ch d a ta , Ib e l ieve t h a t Ih ave g a ined f u r the r i n s igh t i n t h e w ay t h e se i si n te r re la ted , e spec ia l ly w hen t h e s h ee r b u lk o f i t p r even t s m e f r om " eyeba l l ing" t h rough i t t o g a the r r e levan ti n fo rma t ion . I 'm n o tc once rned w i th t h e f a c t

1

Woud sma 's s au sage a na logy . I nt h is s en se t h is w o rk h a s b een o rgan ised i nt h e f o l low ing s e c t ion s .

t h a t w i th t h e a dop t ion o f G IS a s a n a na ly t ica l t oo l Ia m f o l low ing s u i t w i th t h e t r ad i t ion i n a r chaeo logy o f b o r row ing f r om a no the r d i sc ip l ine . T he s pa t ia l n a tu r e o f o u r d a ta a l low s i t . H oweve r Ia m a l so a wa re o f t h e t emp ta t ion s t h a t G IS m ay o f f e r a nd h ave t r ied t o u s e e x t reme c au t ion i no rde r t oa vo id p u t t ing t h e c a r t i nf r on t

C hap te r O ne d ea ls w i th t h e t h eo re t ica l u nde rp inn ing s o f s pa t ia l m ode l l ing . H e re a f t e r as ho r t h i s to ry o f t h e r o le t h a t g eog raphy h a s p l ayed i nt h e t h eo re t ica l d eve lopmen t o f a r cha eo logy Ir e v iew t h e t h ree mo s t f r equen t ly u s ed s pa t ia l m ode ls i n a r chaeo logy : C en t ra l P l ace T heo ry , N ea re s tN e ighbou rA na ly s i sa nd t h e G rav i ty Mode l .

o ft h eh o r se ,s ot os peak . T he r e sea r ch p rob lem a dvanced a bove i sf r amed w i th in t h e c on tex t o f L andscape A rchaeo logy . I n t h is s e n se I f o l low a nd b u i ld o n A l ipha t 's 1 994 d oc to ra l d i s se r ta t ion .

I n C hap te r Two Ir e v iew t h e d eve lopmen t o f s e t t lem en t p a t te rn s t ud ie s f o r t h e Maya l ow lands . Ip r e sen t s ome e xamp le s o f h ow t h e a bove l i s ted s pa t ia l m ode ls h ave b een a pp l ied i nt h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f s i te d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c onc lude b y p r e sen t ing t h e c on t r ibu t ion s t ha t t h e e p ig raph ic i n te rp re ta t ion s h ave g i ven t o t h is a r ea o f a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s .

I nh i s r e su l t s A l ipha t c onc luded t h a t t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e p hy s ica l s e t t ing o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta V a l ley g r ea t ly i n f luenced t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e m o re i mpo r tan t a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , a nd t h a t t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e se s i t e s o beyed w ha t H ammond ( 1975 ) d ef ined a s t h e s t ra teg ic f a c to r s , w h ich i nt h i s c a se a r e r e la t ed t ot h e i rp rox im i ty t o t h e c r i t ica l p o in t s a l ong t h e m a in c ommun ica t ion r ou t e s . T o r e ach t h e se c onc lu s ion s A l ipha t t h o rough ly d e sc r ibed t h e n a tu ra l l a nd scape . T h i s d e sc r ip t ion w a s b a sed f o r t h e m o s tp a r to nh i so wn e mp i r ica l o b se rva t ion s i nt h ef i e ld .

C hap te r T h ree c on ta in s t h e i n t roduc t ion t ot h e p hy s ica l r e g ion . T he b a s ic c oncep t s o f L and scape A rchaeo logy a r e d e f ined i no r de r t os how h ow t h e p hy s ica l s e t t ing i s c once ived f o r s pa t ia l a na ly s i s . T he r o le o f t h e c ommun ica t ion r ou t e s i n r e la t ion t o t h is p hy s ica l l a nd scape i s e mpha s i sed i n t h is c hap t e r . T o b e t t e r i l u s t ra te t h is r o le Ip r e sen t t h e a ccoun t s o f t h e e a r l ie s t d ocumen ted e n t radas i n to t h e r eg ion b y t h e S pan i sh

A l ipha t h oweve r h ad t o l im i t h im se lf t o a dd re s s ing t h e n a tu r eo fh i sd a ta w i thou tb e ing a b le t or a i se w ha ti f ?t y pe q ue s t ion s . I n t h i s w o rk t h i s i so ne o ft h e v enue s t h a t w i l l b e f o l lowed . I no rde r t op ropo se ar e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o f t h e r e g ion I n eed t o e l uc ida te w h ich w e re t h e r e levan t c en t re s a nd w he re a nd h ow t h ey w e re p l a ced i nt h ep hy s ica l a nd s oc io -cu l tu ra l l a nd scape .

c onqu i s tado r s , a nd t h o se o f t h e l a te n i ne t een th c en tu ry t r ave l le r /a r chaeo log is t s A lf r ed P . Maud s lay , D e s i r e C ha rnay , a nd T eobe r t Ma le r . C hap te r F ou r i sw he re Im ake e xp l ic i t t h e c on ten t s o fm y w o rk ing m ode l s ( o r t ok eep p u sh ing t h e s a u sage a na logy , t h e i n g red ien t s ) . Ih ave d i v ided t h is c hap te r i n to t wo p a r t s . P a r t Ic on ta in s a n i n t roduc t ion t ot h ef u ndamen ta l s o fG IS a nd i t s a pp l ica t ion i na r chaeo logy . I nt h is s e c t ion Ig o i n to s om e d e ta i l c once rn ing t h e c r i te r ia u sed i n c on s t ruc t ing aD ig i ta lT e r ra in Mode l ( DTM ) . T he c r i te r ia e s tab l i shed i n t h e d ef in i t ion o f t h e a l go r i thm s u sed f o r m ode l l ing m ovemen t o ve r n a tu ra l t e r ra in , a nd c onc lude w i th t h e c ha ra c te r i sa t ion o f p r ed ic t ive m ode l l ing f o r s i t e l o ca t ion p u rpo se s i n a r chaeo logy . P a r t I c on ta in s a d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e m e thodo logy u sed i n t h e s pa t ia l a na ly s i s . T he p a rame te r s u sed i nt h e c ons t ruc t ion o ft h e DTM o ft h e s t udy a r ea a r e d ef ined , a sw e l l a st h e c r i te r ia u sed i nc r ea t ing t h e c o s t su r f a ce s t h a t w e re u s ed i n m ode l l ing m ovemen t a c ros s t h e t e r ra in a nd t h e d ef in i t ion o fp o l i ty e x ten s ion . I nt h i s s e c t ion Ia l so d ef ine t h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h e G rav i ty Mode l a nd p re sen t t h e r e su l t s i nt e rm s o ft h e p o ten t ia l l o ca t ion o ft h e t e r r i to r ie s o f t h e u nknown p o l i t ie s . F i na l ly , Ii n t roduce D emp s t e r S ha f e rT heo ry a s as i te p r ed ic t ion mode l a nd c ompa r e t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined w i th t h o se p rov ided b y t h e G rav i ty Mode l .

T he h i e rog lyph ic c o rpu s o f t h e r e g ion d e sc r ibe s a n i n ten se i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e s i te s l o ca ted i nt h e U ppe r U suma c in ta r e g ion . We k now t h e l o ca t ion o f m o s t o f t h e se s i te s , b u t t h e re a r e af ew t h a t a r e f r equen t ly m en t ioned a nd w ho se l o ca t ion i s s t i l l u nknown . O n v a r iou s o cca s ion s P e te r Ma thew s h ad m en t ioned t o m e t h e p l au s ib i l i ty t h a to ne o ft h o se s i te s , S ak T z ' i ' w ou ld b e f o und i n t h e v i c in i ty o f L aguna S an ta C la ra , o n t h e Mex ican s i de o ft h e U sumac in ta R ive r . L ikew ise f o rH ix W i tz a no the r o f t h o se u n iden t if ied s i te s - h e s ugge s ted t h a t i t m ay b e l o ca t ed b e tween P i ed ra s N eg ra s a nd Y axch i lan , o n t h e G ua tema lan s i de o f t h e U suma c in ta . K now ing o ft h e k een r e pu ta t ion t h a t P e te r h a s i nc l o s ing i no n u nknown s i te s ( e .g . S i te Q ) Ip a id a t ten t ion t ow ha t h e s a id a nd d ec ided t o p u r sue t h e m a t te r f u r the r . I fI c ou ld d e te rm ine t h e w he reabou t s o f t h e se s i te s ( k ey p a r t ic ipan t s i nt h e p o l i t ica l s c ena r io o ft h e r e g ion ) , t h en I w ou ld b e i n ab e t t e rp o s i t ion t ou nde r s tand t h e m echan ic s b eh ind t h e s t ra teg ic f a c to r s p ropo sed b y A l ipha t . T h i s i n t u rn w ou ld h e lp m e t om ode l t h e w ax ing a nd w an ing o f t h e d i f f e ren t r e g iona l p o l i t ie s a nd t h e p o s s ib le e x t ra r e g iona l i n f luence s t h a t s haped t h e p o l i t ica l m ap o f t h e U ppe rU suma c in ta r e g ion . T h rough t h e j o in t a pp l ica t ion o f G IS a nd t h e e p ig raph ic

I nC hap te rF i ve Ir e tu rn t ot h e s oc io -cu l tu ra l d imen s ion o f t h e l a nd scape a nd s e t t h e r e su l t s o f t h e a bove -de sc r ibed m ode l s i nt h e f r amewo rk o ft h e e p ig raph ic d a ta a va i lab le . Movemen t a c ro s s n a tu ra l t e r ra in i so nce a ga in d ea l t w i th , b u t t h is t i me f r om t h e p e r spec t ive o f t h e c on t ro l o f t h e

e v idence Ib e l ieve t h a t I 'm i n ap o s i t ion t oa t temp t s u ch a n e ndeavou r . H oweve ri no rde rt ol e nd c r ed ib i l i ty t ot h e r e su l t s o b ta ined , I m u s t t a ke v e ry s e r iou s ly D r .

2

m a in c ommun ica t ion r ou te s i n t h e c on tex t o f s i te i n t e rac t ion . A r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o ft h e r e g ion t h rough t ime i so f f e red , b u tt h is t ime i n s tead o f p re sen t ing map s a t r egu la r t i me i n te rva ls t h e se a r e p r e sen ted o n t h e b a s is o f t h e c r uc ia l h i s to r ic e ven t s t h a t t o ok p l ace . Ad i scu s s ion o ft h e e x t ra reg iona l i n f luence s i si n c luded a s w e l l a s as t ruc tu ra l c ha rac te r i sa t ion o fs i t e d i s t r ibu t ion . C hap te rS i xc on ta in s t h e c onc lud ing r ema rk s . Two i s sue s a r e a dd re s sed , t h e f i r s td ea l s w i th t h e o b se rved p a t te rn s i n s i t e l o ca t ion a nd l e ve ls o fi n te rac t ion . H e re Ia t temp t t o c ha rac te r i se t h e n a tu re o f t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rns o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta r e g ion a nd i d en t if y t h e f o rce s b eh ind t h i s d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s e cond s e t o f c onc lu s ion s d ea l s w i th t h e p e r t inence o f t h e s pa t ia l mode l s u sed f o r s i t e p r ed ic t ion p u rpo se s , a nd i n mo re g ene ra l t e rm s w i th t h e u s eo fG IS a s ah eu r i s t ic t o o l i nm ode l l ing t h e p a s t . T he re a r e t h ree a ppend ice s i n c luded t h a t h ave v e ry s p ec if ic i n fo rma t ion t h a t , a l though r e levan t , a r e t o o l e ng thy t oi n c lude i nt h e b ody o ft h et e x t : A ppend ix 1 c on ta in s t h e c a r tog raph ic m ode l o f t h e m a jor i ty o ft h e i mage p roduc t ion /ana ly s i s p roce s s . M ino r e d i t ing d e ta i l s o r r e pe t i t ive s t age s w e re l e f t o u t f o r t h e s a ke o fs pa ce . A ppend ix 2 c on ta in s t h e s umma ry s t a t is t ic s f o r t h e p r epa ra t ion o f t h e G rav i ty Mode l . T he c omp le te d a ta m a t r ix w a st o o b ig s o Id i d n o ti n c lude i t .

A na ly s i s i n H uman G eography , C ho r ley a nd H agge t t 's 1 967 Mod e l s i nG eography , a nd C h i sho lm 's 1 968 R ura l S e t t lemen t a nd L and U se , t h a t t h e o t he rw ise i mp l ied i n f luence o fg eog raphy t oa r chaeo logy i sf o rma l ised . T h i s p a rad igma t ic s h if t c an b e w i tne s sed i nV i ta -F inz i 's a nd H igg 's 1 970 s i t e c a t chmen t a na lys i s o f Moun t C a rme l , H odde r a nd O r ton 's 1 976 S pa t ia l Mod e l s i n A r chaeo logy , a nd C la rke 's o wn 1 977 S pa t ia l A r chaeo logy . N o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy , h oweve r , w a s n o t a s d eep ly i nf luenced b y g eog raphy a s E u ropean a r chaeo logy w a s . P h i l l ip 's e ta l . ( 1951) w o rk i nt h e l owe r M i s s i s s ipp i V a l ley , a nd W i l ley 's V i ru V a l ley ( 1953 ) p ro jec t s pa rked t h e i n te re s t i nt h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r te f ac t s a nd s i te s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape . H oweve r , t h e a cadem ic t r ad i t ion o fN o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy —w i th ag r ea te r i nf luence o f a n th ropo logy i n i t s f unc t iona l i s t p ha se - t i pped t h e se s t ud ie s m o r e t owa rd s t h e s oc ia l r a the r t h an t h e s pa t ia l a s pec t s ( C la rke 1 977 :2 -4 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly g eog raphy i so nce m o re m a rk ing t h e p a ce o f t h eo re t ica l d eve lopmen t i n a r chaeo logy i n t h e f o rm o f L and scape A rchaeo logy , w h ich s t em s f r om L and scape T heo ry ( s ee f o r e xamp le G r een 1 990 , C rum ley a nd Ma rqua rd t 1 990 , a nd A l ipha t 1 994 ) . W i th in t h i s c on tex t t h e a pp l ica t ion o f G eog raph ic I n f o rma t ion S y s tem s ( G IS ) h a s b een h a i led a s t h e n ew p a rad igm ( A l len , G reen a nd Z ub row 1 990 ; G af f ney a nd S t anc ic 1 991) . C u r ren t ly t h e w o rk s o f g eog raphe r s s u ch a s Ma rb le ( 1990 ,1996 ) , D ecke r ( S t ine a nd D ecke r 1990 ) , H a r r i s ( Ha r r i s a nd L ock 1 990 ) , L an te r ( S t ine a nd L an te r 1 990 ) — j u s t t om en t ion b u t af ew - a r e h av ing a c ompa rab le i n f luence a s C ho r ley 's H agge t t 's a nd C h i sho lm 's d i d t h ree d ecade s a go . H ow m uch c an t h e a pp l ica t ion o fG IS a s s is tu si nt h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta? C an t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta v a l ley d u r ing t h e L a t e C la s s ic Maya b e a i ded t h rough t h e a pp l ica t ion o fG IS? B ef o re g o ing i n to t h e s pec if ics l e t u s r e v iew s om e o f t h e m o s t p opu la r ly a c cep ted g eog raph ic m ode l s i na r chaeo logy .

A ppend ix 3i s at a b le c on ta in ing a l o ft h e s i te i n te ra c t ion i n f o rma t ion t h a t Ih ad k now ledge o fa nd w a s i n c luded i n t h e G rav i ty Mode l . I t i s o rgan i sed c h rono log ica l ly , c on ta in ing s i x f i e ld s : L ong C oun t p o s i t ion , J u l ian d a te , S i t e , E ven t , O the r s i te m en t ioned a nd Monum en t c on ta in ing t h e i n sc r ip t ion . S pa t ia lA na ly s i sa nd A rchaeo logy

C la rk e w a s v e ry e mpha t ic w hen h e d ec la r ed a na ly s i s o f t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s o f a r te f ac t d i s t r ibu t ion c ou ld n o l o nge r b e d one b y i n tu i t ive s u ch a s " eyeba l l ing" o r s imp le i n spec t ion

L ik e g eog raphe r s , a r chaeo log is t s t h ink s pa t ia l ly . We m ake s e n se o u t o f o u r d a ta b y r e f e r r ing i tt o i t s s pa t ia l d imen s ion . A rchaeo logy — and p a r t icu la r ly E u ropean a r chaeo logy - h a s b een c l o se ly l i nked t o g eog raphy t h roughou ti t s t h eo re t ica l d eve lopmen t . I ti sp e rhap s t h en , n o s u rp r i se t h a t m any a r chaeo log i s t s h ave f ound i n t h e R oya l G eog raph ic S oc ie ty a nd t h e N a t iona l G eog raph ic S oc ie ty a n i mpo r tan t f o rum t o p r e sen t , d i scu s s a nd p r omo t e t h e i r f i nd ing s . C la rke i nh i s s em ina l 1 977 w o rk S pa t ia l A r chaeo logy , g i ve s ad e ta i led a c coun t o f t h e i n f luence t h a t g eog raphy h a s h ad i n E u ropean a r chaeo logy . F rom t h e f o rma l m app ing m e thod s o f a t r ibu t e s a nd a r tef ac t s d eve loped b y t h e A u s t ro -Ge rman s c hoo l o f" a n thropo -geog raphe r s" i nt h e 1 880 1900 's , t o F ox 's ( 1 922 ) m e thod o f c omb in ing a r chaeo log ica l a nd e nv i ronmen ta l m ap s t h rough t i me ( C la rke 1 977 :2 -5 ) . H oweve r i t i s w i th t h e C amb r idge S choo l o f N ew G eog raphy , a nd i np a r t icu la r H agge t t 's 1 965 L oca t iona l

t h a t t h e a nd s i te m e thod s ( C la rke

1 977 :5 ) . T he r e cogn i t ion o ft h e n on s tocha s t ic n a tu re o f t h i s s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion h a s f o r l o ng n ow b een t h e g u id ing p r inc ip le o f s pa t ia l a r chaeo logy , t h e s t udy o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s a nd L and scape A r chaeo logy ( e .g . W i l ley 1 953 ; H odde r a nd O r ton 1 976 ; C la rke 1 977 ; A shmo re 1 977 ; A l ipha t 1 994 ; G r een 1 990 ; C rum ley a nd Ma rqua rd t 1 990 ) . T h i s n on randomne s s i se xpec ted d ue t ot h e e qua l ly n on r a ndomne s s o f h uman b ehav iou r w h ich a cco rd ing t o H odde r i sc on s t rued a nd d e te rm ined ( Hodde r 1 977 : 2 24 ) . H ence a r chaeo log i s t s w i l l a t temp t t o d e r ive f r om t h e a na ly s is o f t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e i r d a ta t h e e xp lana to ry m ode l s t h a t a ccoun t f o r t h e h uman b ehav iou r w h ich p roduced t h a t p a t te rn ing . H oweve r , d ue t o t h e

3

s oc ia l m ode ls b ecome m o r e a pprop r ia te s i nce i n d iv idua l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s p r eva i l l a rge ly o ve re conom ic f a c to r s .

i n he ren t l im i ta t ion s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( e .g . i n comp le tene s s o f t h e d a ta d ue t o d i f f e ren t ia l p r e se rva t ion , o r s amp l ing s t ra teg ie s ) t h e e xp lana to ry p rocedu re s a r e n o t a s s t ra igh t f o rwa rd a sw e w i shed . T o c i rcumven t t h e se l im i ta t ion s a r chaeo logy h a s t u rned t o o t he r d i sc ip l ine s t oh e lp i nd e s ign ing i t s o wn e xp lana to ry mode l s . C la rke ( 1977 ) i d en t if ied f ou r g ene ra l t h eo r ie s t h a t a cco rd ing t o h im u nde r l ie t h o se a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly se s t h a tg o b eyond t h ed e sc r ip t ive l e ve l , t h e se

b )T he s em i -m ic ro l e ve l , s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s a r ea na ly sed w i th in s i te s ( b e tween s t ruc tu re s o f t h e s ame s i t e ) . T h i s l e ve l c omp r ise s t h e c ommuna l s pace , w he re s o c ia l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s m ay o u twe igh e conom ic f a c to r s , a nd t h e refo re s oc ia l a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l m ode ls a r e m o s t a pp rop r ia te .

a r e : a n th ropo log ica l s pa t ia l t h eo ry , e conom ic s pa t ia l t h eo ry , s oc ia l p hy s ic s t h eo ry , a nd s t a t is t ica l m echan ic s t h eo ry ( C la rke 1 977 :18 -20 ) .

c ) T he m ac ro leve l , y i e ld s a mo re r eg iona l p e r spe c t ive , r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween s i te s a r e a na ly sed a t t h i s l e ve l , w he re e conom ic f a c to r s d om ina te mo s ts oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s , t h u s t h e a dequa te mode ls f o r t h is l e ve l a r e d e r ived f r om g eog raphy a nd e conomy ( C la rke 1 977 :111 4 ) .

A n th ropo log ica l s pa t ia l t h eo ry h a s b een t r ad i t iona l ly u s ed i n a r chaeo logy a s a m ean s o f e xp la in ing h uman b ehav iou r . I ti sb a sed o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t h uman b ehav iou r c an b e g auged b y d ef in ing t h e s pa t ia l

I ti st h e m ac ro leve l t h a t i so f r e levance f o r t h e s t udy o f t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s , f o r w h ich t h e m os t b o r rowed g eog raph ic -econom ic m ode l s a r e t ho se f o r C en t ra l P l ace T heo ry , N ea re s t N e ighbou r A na ly s is , a nd t h e G rav i ty Mode l . Iw i l l d e sc r ibe b r ief ly e ach o ft h e se i nt u rn :

p a t te rn ing o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s b y q uan t i ta t ive m e thod s , i no rde r t o o f f e r t e s tab le h ypo the se s r e ga rd ing s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion d e r ived f r om e t hnog raph ic a na logy ( e .g . L ongac re 1 966 ; H i l l 1 966 ) . E conom ic s pa t ia l t h eo ry i sb a sed o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a s ar e su l t o f e mp i r ica l k now ledge p eop le w i l l t e nd t o

C en tra lP lace T heory

a dop t c ho ice s a nd s o lu t ion s w h ich m in im i se c o s t s a nd m ax im i se p rof i t s ( e .g . Ma rcu s 1 983 ; B a l l a nd T a schek 1 991 ;I noma ta a nd A oyama 1 996 ) .

Mo s t s e t t lemen t p a t te rn m ode ls i na r chaeo logy h ave b een d e r ived f r om g eog raph ic m ode ls o r ig ina l ly d eve loped f o r m a rke t e conom ie s , s uch a s V on T hünen 's ( 1 826 ) a nd Webe r 's ( 1909 ) l o ca t iona l mode l s , a nd C h r i s ta l le r 's ( 1933 ) , a nd L ö sch 's ( 194 1) C en t ra l P l ace T heo ry . V on T hünen 's r e cogn i se s t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tw een t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a c t iv i t ie s a nd l a nd u se a r ound a c en t re b a sed o n t h e " l aw o f d im in i sh ing r e tu rn s w i th d i s tance" . T hu s t h e e f f ec t o f t h is l aw w i l l p roduce a s e r ie s o f c oncen t r ic c i r c le s o fl a nd u s e a nd a c t iv i ty p a t te rn s a r ound t h e i s o la ted c en t re s w h ich r ef lec t ab ehav iou ra l t e ndency t o m ax im i se t h e r e tu rn s f o r t h e l e a s t e f fo r t ( C la rke 1 977 :2 1) . I n a r chaeo logy V on T hünen 's mode l i st h e b a s i s o f V i ta F i nz i a nd H igg 's ( 1970 ) S i te C a t chmen t S tud ie s . T he s ho r t com ing s o f t h is mode l , h oweve r , l i e i n t h e b a s ic a s sump t ion s o ft h e u n ifo rm i ty o ft h e t e r ra in a nd t h e i s o la ted n a tu re o ft h e c en t res .

E xpec ted ly t h e s oc ia l p hy s ic s a pp roa ch d raw s i t s a na log ie sf r om t h e l aw s o fp hy s ic s( s uch a st h e G a sL aw s , N ew ton ian L aw s , e t c . ) . T he c en t ra l t e ne t o f s o c ia l p hy s ic s t h eo ry i st h a t a l though i n d iv idua l h uman a c t ion s a r e u np red ic tab le , t h e j o in t a c t ion s o f al a rge n umbe r o f i n d iv idua l s ( a c ommun i ty ) m ay f o rm p r ed ic tab le e mp i r ica l r egu la r i t ie s . I n t h i s a pp roach t h e r e sea r che r d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly t r y t oe xp la in w hy as p ec if i c s pa t ia l p a t te rn i sf o rmed , b u t m e re ly o b se rve s i ti na n a t temp t t o f i nd a n e mp i r ica l r egu la r i ty i n t h e f o rma t ion p roce s s , w h ich w i l l e nab le h im t o r e con s t ruc t o r s imu la te i t s o ccu r rence . A n e xamp le o f t h e u se o f as o c ia l p hy s ic s a pp roach i na r chaeo logy c an b e s e en i nt h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h e g r av i ty m ode l f o r p red ic t ing i n te ra c t ion b e tween s i t e s a nd p opu la t ion s ( e .g . T ob le r a nd W inebu rg 1 971 ; C la rk e 1 972 ; H odde r 1 974 ) .

Webe r c omp lemen ted t h is mode l b y c ons ide r ing t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e c en t re i nt e rm s o f i t s e x te rna l c onnec t ion s a nd t h e movemen to fr e sou rce s f r om o ne p l ace t oa no the r . I nt h i s c on tex t Webe r 's m a in p ropos i t ion i sb a sed o n t h a t s i te l o ca t ion w h ich m in im i se s u nnece s sa ry movemen t . I n o t he r w o rd s s i te l o ca t ion w i th r e spec t t or e sou r ce s w a s c once ived i n t e rm s o f m in imum -ene rgy l e a s t -co s t . Webe r 's m ode l a pp l ied w i th t h e a pp rop r ia te p r ecau t ion s , h a s e v iden t ly ag r ea t p o ten t ia l t o a dd r e s s i s sue s s u ch a s s pec ia l i sa t ion a nd /o ro rgan i sa t ion o fc r a f tp roduc t ion b o th a t t h e w i th in s i te l e ve l , a nd a t t h e r e g iona l l e ve l w hen l o ca t ion o f t h e s ou r ce s o f r aw ma te r ia l s i s t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion ( C la rke 1 977 :22 -23 ) .

S ta t i s t ica l m echan ica l t h eo ry r e p re sen t s al i nk b e tw een t h e s oc ia l p hy s ic s a pp roach w i th t h e l o g ic o f s t a t i s t ica l i n f e rence a nd t h e L ike l ihood L aw . T h rough t h i s a pp roach t h e s y s tem c an b e s u cce s sf u l ly d e sc r ibed a s a w ho le , w i thou t h av ing t ok now o rd e sc r ibe i nd e ta i l e a ch a nd e ve ry p a r tt h a tc omp r i se s i t . T he r e levance o ft h e se u nde r ly ing t h eo r ie s i na r cha eo logy d epend s o n t h e l e ve l o f s pa t ia l i n teg ra t ion t h a t i sb e ing a dd re s sed . C la rke i d en t if ied t h ree b a s ic l e ve l s : a ) T he m ic ro leve l , w h ich a na ly se s t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s w i th in t h e s t ruc tu r e s , w he re p r oxem ic a nd

C h r i s ta l le r s u cce s sf u l ly i n teg ra ted t h e t wo p r ev iou s m ode l s , t a k ing i n to a ccoun t t h e r e la t ion sh ips b e tween t h e

4

a r e i n dependen t b u t n o t e xc lu s ive f r om e ach o t he r , c o inc id ing o n o cca s ion s . T he se c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , h oweve r , p o se s ome c oncep tua l p rob lem s f o r t h e r a nk s ize r u le o f Maya c en t re s . I n t h is s e n se t h e m a in p o in t o f d epa r tu re f r om C h r is ta l le r 's m ode l r e s ide s i nh i s n o t ion t h a t c en t re s w h ich a r e f u nc t iona l ly e qu iva len t , n eed n o tb e o ft h e s ame s i ze , n o r m u s t l a rge r c en t ra l p l a ce s r e p l ica te a l o f t h e

a r ea s e rved b y s i te s , s i te f u nc t ion , a nd t h e n e two rk s c r ea t ed b e tween s i te s . H e f i r s t c on s ide red a l t h e s i te s c l u s t e red i na n u nd if f e ren t ia ted l a nd scape , a nd a r ranged t h em i n ah i e ra rch ica l s t ruc tu re b a sed o n t h e t y pe o f r e sou rce s a nd s e rv ice s t h a t t h ey p rov ided e a ch o t he r . I n t h i s c on tex t i n o rde r t o d ef ine t h e o p t ima l l e a s t -co s t o r gan i sa t iona l s t ruc tu re w i th in t h e s i te n e two rk , C h r is ta l le r a na lysed t h e d emand o fg ood s , r e sou rce s , a nd s e rv ice s i n r e la t ion t o d i s tance f r om d i s t r ibu t ion s i t e s ( C la rk e 1 977 :23 ) .

f u nc t ion s o fs ma l le ro ne s ( Ba l l a nd T a schek 1 99 1 : 1 57 ) .

C en t ra l p l aces p rov ide a g r ea te r v a r ie ty o f g oods a nd s e rv ices t h an t h e s ma l le rs i te s . I nt h i ss e n se c en t ra l p l a ce s a r e s t ruc tu red i n ah i e ra r chy c omp r i s ing d i sc re te g roup s o f c en t re s , i n w h ich c en t re s o f e a ch h i ghe r o r de r g r oup p e r fo rm a l o ft h e f u nc t ion s o ft h e m ino rc en t re sp l u s as e t o f e s sen t ia l f unc t ion s t h a t d i f f e r en t ia te s t h em f r om t h e l owe r o rde r c en t re s ( Hodde r a nd O r ton 1 976 :60 -6 1) . C h r is ta l le r p roposed t h ree b a s ic p a t te rn s o f h i e ra rch ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fc en t ra l p l ace s ( F igu r e 1 1) : •

T he K = 3 s y s tem , w he re s e cond l e ve l c en t re s a r e a r ranged a cco rd ing t o t h e m a rke t p r inc ip le a nd a r e b e s ts i tua ted f o ra c ce s s t o 3l a rge rc en t r e s .

•

T he K = 4 s y s tem , b a sed o n t h e t r an spo r t p r inc ip le

c a ) K =3 MARKET PR INCIPLE

w he re d ue t o t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e c ommun ica t ion l i ne s t h a t l i nk p r ima ry c en t re s , s e conda ry c en t re s a r e p l a ced a tm idpo in t s b e tween t h em . •

T he K = 7 s y s tem , b a sed o n t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive p r inc ip le i n w h ich s e conda ry c en t re s a r e w ho l ly e ncap su la ted w i th in t h e a r ea o ft h e l a rge rc en t re s . ( b) K = 4

C h r is ta l le r s howed t h a t t h e s i te s i n as pec if i c n e two rk w ou ld t e nd t oa dop t ah exagona l t e r r i to r ia l t e s se l la t ion o f s p a ce ( C la rke 1 977 :24 ) . I n s uppo r t o f t h i s d i scove ry , H agge t t ( 1 965 ) s howed b o th t h eo re t ica l ly a nd t h rough e mp ir ica ld a ta , t h a tt oo p t ima l ly " pa ck t o ge the r " an umbe r o fs e rv ice c en t re s a nd t h e i r s e rv ice a r ea s , t h e h exagon i s t h e g eome t r ic s hape t h a t a l low s t h e g r ea te s t a moun t o f p a ck ing i n to a n a r ea . A t t h e s ame t i me t h e h exagon m in im i se s movemen t t o o r f r om t h e b ounda ry , a nd b ounda ry l e ng th ( Hagge t t 1 965 :49 , c i t ed i nH odde r a nd O r ton 1 976 :56 ) .

TRANSPORT PR INC IPLE

L ö sch ( 1 941) d epa r t ed f r om C h r i s ta l le r 's c en t ra l p l ace h i e ra r ch ica l m ode l . H ee l abo ra ted am o r e f l ex ib le m ode l , f i nd ing t h a t f i r s t o f a l t h e re i s at e ndency t owa rd s a c oncen t ra t ion o fs i te s i n to s e c to r s s e pa ra ted b y l e s s d en se s e c to r s . S econd , t h a t t h e re i s at e ndency t owa rd s a n i n c r ea se i ns i ze o fs i te s , p ropo r t iona l t od i s tance f r om t h e c en t ra l s i te . A nd t h i rd , t h e re i s at e ndency t owa rds t h e l o ca t ion o f s ma l le r s e t t lemen t s h a lfway b e tween l a rge r o ne s ( C la rke 1 977 :24 ) .

( C )

K =7 AD MIN ISTRAT IVE PRINC IPLE

F igure 1 1 C en tra l P lace p a t terns o fh i e ra r ch ica l

d i s t r ibu t ion ( F rom I noma ta a nd A oyama 1 996 )

L ö sch 's m ode l a ss t a ted a ppea r s t ob e m uch m o re f l ex ib le a nd i ti n vo lve s as y s tem i n w h ich n e i the r s i ze o r s o c ia l f u nc t ion o f t h e c en t ra l p l ace n eeds t o b e d i rec t ly o r h i e ra rch ica l ly r e la ted . I n t h is m ode l s i ze , s o c ia l r o le , p r e s t ige , p owe ra nd e ven e conom ic r o le s o fc en t ra l p l ace s

5

N eare s tN e ighbour Ana ly s i s I nt u rn t h e e xpec ted a ve rage d i s tance i so b ta ined t h rough t h e f o l low ing f o rmu la : rE=1 /2(I N / A) Whe re : N =n umbe ro fp o in t s A =a r ea o ft h e m ap

N ea r e s t N e ighbou r A na ly s is d i f f e r s f r om C en t ra l P l ace T heo ry i n t h e s en se t h a t i t i s a imed t owa rd s t h e c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip s o f s i te s t o e a ch o t he r r a the r t h an d ef in ing t h e i r p u ta t ive r eg ion s o f c on t ro l ( Hammond 1 974 :322 ) . T he se t y pe s o fs t ud ie s f a l l w i th in t h e r e a lm o fP o in t P a t te rn A na ly s i s . T he r a ndomne s s o f s pa t ia l p a t te rn s c on s t i tu te s t h e u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion o f

I n t h e se a na ly se s a n R = 1 . 0 , w i l l i n d ica te a r a ndom p a t te rn , w h i le t h e h i ghe s t p o s s ib le d i spe r s ion v a lue i sR =

t h i s t y pe o fa na ly s is . T h i s r a ndomne s s c an t h en b e u sed a s an o rm a ga in s t w h ich ap a r t icu la r s pa t ia l p a t te rn m ay

2 . 15 , a nd f r a c t iona l v a lue s c on s ide rab ly b e low 1 . 0 w i l l i n d ica t e a n a gg rega ted p a t te rn . Ad i spe r sed p a t te rn c an r ef lec t t wo p o s s ib le p henomena : as p a t ia l ly u n if o rm r e sou rce b a se , o r t h e i n te rna l c ompe t i t ion b e tween

b e c on t ra s ted . T he t h ree t y pe s o f d i s t r ibu t ion m o re c ommon ly u s ed a s" ya rds t ick s" a r e ( 1 ) r e gu la ro ru n ifo rm d i s t r ibu t ion ; ( 2 ) r a ndom d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd : ( 3 ) c l u s te red d i s t r ibu t ion . F igu re 1 2 s how s t h e g rada t ion b e tween

f u nc t iona l ly s im i la r c en t ra l p l ace s . O n t h e o t he r h and a n a gg rega ted p a t te rn c an r ef lec t e i the r as t rong ly l o ca l i sed r e sou r ce b a se , o re x t ra reg iona l i nf luence s t h a t d e te rm ine l o ca t ion o fc en t re s b a sed o n s t ra teg ic c r i t e r ia ( Adam s a nd J one s 1 981 :314 -315 ) .

t h e se d i s t r ibu t ion s . W i th r ega rd t o s i te d i s t r ibu t ion , t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f an on random r e gu la r i ty o f s pac ing , c an r e ad i ly b ee xp la ined i nt e rm s o fc ompe t i t ion b e tween s i te s ( Hodde ra nd O r ton 1 976 :30 -31) .

T he G rav i ty Mode l

I n c reas ing d i spe rs ion

. .• 2 . 149

•

2 . 000

• •• ••• • . • • •

•

. ••

1 . 333

. „ • • • . •

•

I n c reas ing a ggrega t ion

•

0 . 667

R=2 .0

•

1 . 667

1 . 000

O r ig ina l ly d e r ived f r om N ew ton 's g r av i ty l aw , t h e g r av i ty m ode l h a s b een a pp l ied i na r chaeo logy t og auge t h e l e ve l o f i n t e ra c t ion b e tween c en t re s . H odde r a nd O r ton h oweve r , c au t ion t h a ta l though h i ghe rl e ve l s o fi n te ra c t ion a r e m o re l i k e ly b e tween n ea re s t c en t r e s t h an w i th a ny o t he r s im i la r c en t re s l o ca ted f u r the r a way , a t ten t ion s hou ld b e s e t o n s i ze a nd i mpo r tance o ft h e s i te s . L a rge r c en t re s t e nd t o a t t ra c t i n te rac t ion f r om l a rge r a r ea s ( Hodde r a nd O r ton 1 976 :188 ) , t a k ing t h i s i n to a ccoun t o ne s hou ld e xpec t t h e i n te ra c t ion t o i n c rea se p ropo r t iona l ly t o t h e s i ze o f t h e c en t r e , a nd t od ec rea se w i th d i s tance . T he a moun t o f i n te ra c t ion b e tween t wo

R= 2 . 149

R=1 .67

R=1 .33

•

•

p l ace s ( ma r r iage , a l l iance s , r oya l v i s i t s , w a rf a re , e t c . [I z j Di so b ta ined b y t h e e qua t ion (Wa te r s 1 995 :179 ) :

R=1 .0

•

L i =k(p i ) ( P i ) I( d i j ) 2) Whe r e : k= i s ac on s tan td epend ing o n t h e p henomena

R=0 .67

P ia nd 0 . 333

P . ;= t h e p opu la t ion o f ia nd j

d i j 2= t h es qua re d i s tance b e tween ia nd j

R=0 .33

A d e r iva t ion o f t h i s e qua t ion a imed t owa rd s t h e c a lcu la t ion o ft h e b r eak ing p o in t ( b ounda ry ) b e tween t h e s e rv ice a r ea s o ft wo a d jacen tc en t re s o fd i f f e r en ts i ze , w a s d eve loped b y R e i l ly ( 1931 , c i ted i n H odde r a nd O r ton 1 976 :188 ) , w he r e D x j i st h e d i s tance f r om b r eak ing p o in t ( x ) t oc en t re : D x j =d i j /1+. 4 13i / P j

R=0

0 1 0 p o in t sw i th s ame l o ca t ion F igu r e 1 2 N ea re s tn e ighbou rd i s t r ibu t ion t y pe s ( F rom

W i th t h is e qua t ion t h e a r ea o f m ax imum i nf luence o f a c en t re c an b e p r ed ic t ed a c co rd ing t os i z e a nd l o ca t ion o fa n e ighbou r ing m a jo r c en t re , t h u s i n t h i s w ay c omp lemen t ing t h e n ea re s t n e ighbou ra na ly s i s .

A dam sa nd J one s 1 981) T he e s t ima t ion o f n ea re s t n e ighbou r d i s tance ( R ) i s o b ta ined t h rough t h e f o l low ing f o rmu la : R=r A / rE Whe r e :

A l l o ft h e a bove d e sc r ibed m ode l s h ave b een a nd a r e s t i l l b e ing a pp l ied i nl ow land Maya a r chaeo logy w i th d i f f e ren t l e ve l s o f s u cce s s a nd w i l l b e d i scu s sed i nt h e f o l low ing c hap t e r .

rA = a ve rage d i s tance b e tween a p o in t a nd t h e p o in t c l o se s tt oi t rE =e xpec ted a ve rage r a ndom d i s tance

6

TWO

SETTLE MENT PATTERNS I N THE MAYA LO WLANDS

I n troduc t ion I n h i s p r e sen ta t ion o f S pa t ia l A rcha eo logy C la rke d ep lo r ed t h e s t a te i nw h ich s e t t lem en t s t ud ie s w e re a tt h a t t ime . H e a r gued t h a t t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty s t i l l t e nded t ob e s t a t ic a nd d i s jo in t t y po log ie s w i thou t a ny a t temp t t og i ve a n a ccoun t o f t h e w o rk ing p r inc ip le s t h a t g ave f o rm t o t h o se p a t te rns ( C la rke 1 977 :7 ) . I n L ow land Maya a r chaeo logy t h e s t udy o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s d i d n o t b ecome a r e sea r ch p rob lem u n t i l t h e e xp lo ra t ion s a t U axac tun b y O .G . R icke t son J r . , i n 1 926 -1931 , w hen h e e x tended h i s s u rvey 1 m i le b eyond t h e c en t re i n a c r uc ifo rm p a t te rn ( R icke t son 1 937 ) . P r io r t ot h i s i tw a s t h e m a in c en t re s , w h ich r e ce ived t h e f u l l e f f o r t s o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , b u t w i thou t a ny c on sc ien t iou s a t temp t t o l i nk t h em t o ge the r . I ti sn o t m y i n ten t ion t o g i ve a n e x ten s ive a ccoun t o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s t ud ie s i n t h e Maya L ow land s , e xce l len t r e v iew s c an b e f ound i n H ammond 1 972 , A shmo re a nd W i l ley 1 981 , a nd W i l ley 1 981 . My d ea l ing w i th t h is t o p ic w i l l b e l im i ted t ot h ep r e sen ta t ion o fw ha tI t h ink h ave b een t h e s ub s tan t ia l c on t r ibu t ion s t ot h e s t udy o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s a s ab a ckg round t o m y o wn a pp roa ch . T he m o s t i n f luen t ia l f i gu re f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s t ud ie s i nN o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy w a s w i thou t a ny d oub t J u l ian H . S t ewa rd . I tw a s h e w ho f i r s t s ugge s ted t h a t i n o rde r t o o b ta in i n s igh t i n to t h e b ehav iou ra l p a t te rn s o fs oc ie t ie s as y s tema t ic a pp roach t o s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s w a s n ece s sa ry ( S tewa rd 1 937 ) . S t ewa rd m a in ta ined t h a t t h rough t h e s t udy o f s e t t lemen t p a t t e rn s r e sea rch w ou ld a dvance s i nt h e s t udy o fc u l tu ra l a dap ta t ion s t o t h e e nv ironmen t (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 993 :176 177 ; A shmo re 1 981 :10 ) . I n 1 954 G o rdon R . W i l ley , w hom a f te r h i s s ucce s sf u l i n ve s t iga t ion s o f t h e V iru V a l ley i n P e ru (W i l ley 1 953 ) , i n t roduced t h e s y s tema t ic s t udy o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s t o t h e Maya L ow land s . W i l ley 's s e t t lemen t s t udy f o cu sed o n i s sue s r e ga rd ing s i te l o ca t ion , p opu la t ion s i ze , s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion , a nd u rban p roce s se s , t h roughou t at i m e s equence s t a r t ing a tt h e M idd le P rec la s s ic t ot h eT e rm ina l L a t e C la s s ic . A s ar e su l t , s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s t ud ie s w e r e d i rec t ed t owa rd s t wo b road c l a s se s o f p rob lem s : 1 )t h e e co log ica l i s sue s , w h ich i n vo lved t h e i n te ra c t ion o f i n d iv idua ls w i th t h e i r n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t , a nd 2 ) t h e s o c ia l -po l i t ica l i s sue s i n vo lv ing t h e i n te rac t ion b e tween i n d iv idua l s ( A shmo re 1 981 :4 11 , 3 8 ) .

g roup ing s i nw h ich t h e se r u in s o ccu r red a nd w ha t t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip w a s t o t h e l a rge r c e remon ia l c en t r e s . B u l la rd 's s u rvey y i e lded at h ree t ie r s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re : C lu s te r s , Z one s , a nd D i s t r ic t s , w i th t h e D i s t r ic t s b e ing a gg rega te s o f Z one s , w h ich i n t u rn w e r e a gg rega te s o f C lu s te r s ( Bu l la rd 1 960 :355 , 3 67 ) . S ande r s ( 1962 , 1 963 ) p ropo sed a s im i la r s c heme f o r t h e C hon ta lpa r e g ion i n T aba sco . T owa rd s t h e l a t te r p a r t o f t h e 6 0 's a nd b eg inn ing o f t h e 7 0 's s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s t ud ie s b egan t o s h if t f r om s i te t y po log ie s t o s i te f u nc t ion , d e r iv ing i n i s sue s i n vo lv ing t h e s e t t lemen t i mp l ica t ion s f o r s oc ia l o r gan isa t ion a nd p opu la t ion d ens i ty ( Hav i land 1 968 , 1 969 , 1 970 ; K u r ja ck 1 974 ) . A shmo re ( 1981) o b se rved t h a t t h e se i s sue s w e re d i rec t ly r e la ted t o t h e w o rk ing a s sump t ion s t h a t s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s c an y i e ld i n fo rma t ion o n h uman b ehav iou r , a nd t h e n umbe r a nd /o r d en s i ty o f t h e p opu la t ion o ccupy ing t h e l a nd scape . T he f i r s ta s sump t ion h a s a l ready b een i n i t ia l ly d ea l t w i th i n C hap te r O ne , i n w h ich I a r gued t h a t t h e l e ve l o f a na ly s i s ( i nd iv idua l s t ruc tu re s , c ommun i ty l a you t , a nd i n te r -commun i ty p a t te rn ing ) d e te rm ined t h e m e thodo log ica l a pp roach . H ence t h e c r uc ia l a s pec t i n r e con s t ruc t ing h uman b ehav iou rl i e s i nt h e s pec if ic f unc t iona l i n terp re ta t ion t h a t i sg i ven t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l f e a tu re . Ap rob lem t h a t m o s t o ft h e se i n te rp re ta t ion s e ncoun te r i s t h e l a ck o f as t r ic t o ne to -one c o r re spondence b e tween f o rm s a nd f u nc t ion s . N eve r the le s s , A shmo re n o ted t h e i mpo r tance t h a t t h e se f u nc t iona l i n terp r e ta t ions h ave f o r t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f h uman b ehav iou r , a nd a r gued i n f a vou r o fe s tab l i sh ing f o rma l t y po log ie s f o rt h em . S pa t ia l u n i t t y po log ie s , h oweve r , m u s t i n c lude b o th a n i n ven to ry o f t h e e l emen t s t h a t c ompo se t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn , a nd t h e f r amewo rk o n w h ich t o a r t icu la te t h e se d i f f e ren t e l emen t s ( A shmo re 1 981 :39 -41 ,4 3 ) . T he r e con s t ruc t ion o f p opu la t ion f i gu re s i s l a rge ly d e t e rm ined b y t h e se f o rma l t y po log ie s ( e .g . h ou se s , s l eep ing s pa ce s , k i t chen s , e t c . ) . D irec t ly r e la ted t ot h i s i s t h e g ene ra l ised a s sump t ion t h a t t h e r e i s a d i rec t c or re la t ion b e tween p opu la t ion s i ze a nd t h e o b se rvab le q uan t i t ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l s t ruc tu re s . I ng ene ra l t e rm s t h e h ou se i sc on s ide red a st h e c oun t ing u n i t , w h ich i nt u rn i st r an sfo rmed t o an ume r ica l r a t io ( e .g . 5 . 3 i n d iv idua l s p e r h ou se ) ( A shmo re 1 981 :40 ) . T he m a in f l aw i n t h is r e con s t ruc t ion , h oweve r , l i e s i nt h e u nce r ta in ty o fp rov ing t h e c on tempo ra ry o ccupa t ion o f h ou se m ounds f r om s u r f ace o b se rva t ion s . D e sp i te t h i s d i f f icu l ty , p opu la t ion f i gu re s a nd d en s i t ie s f o r v a r iou s Maya c en t re s h ave b een e s t ima ted . I n t h e p roce s s i th a s b ecome c l ea r t h a t i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o e s tab l i sh a u n ifo rm o ccupa t iona l p a t te rn f o r a l o f t h e Maya l ow land s d ue t o t h e r e g iona l v a r ia t ion s , w h ich i n p a r t a r e c on s t rued b y t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e l a nd scape . T he se r e g iona l v a r ia t ion s w i l l b e d ea l t w i th i n t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion . A l l i n a l l , n owaday s i ti sg ene ra l ly

W i l l iam R . B u l la rd i n 1 958 c a r r ied o u t a n e x ten s ive s u rvey o fm o re t h an 2 50 s qua r e k i lome t re s t h roughou tt h e n o r thea s te rn P e ten . H is s pec if ic o b jec t ive s w e re a imed t owa rd s t h e d e f in i t ion o f t h e t y pe s o fr u in s t h a t o ccu r r ed i n t h i s r e g ion a nd h ow t h ey w e re d i s t r ibu ted o ve r t h e c oun t ry s ide . B u l la rd a l so w an ted t od ef ine t h e t y pe s o f

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w e l l a s i n t h e e xchange o f g ood s a nd s e rv ice s ( Mo r ley , B ra ine rd , a nd S ha re r 1 984 :210 ) .

a ccep ted t h a t t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion d u r ing t h e L a te C la s s ic P e r iod i nt h e Maya l ow lands r e ached as even -d ig i t f i gu re ( W i l ley 1 987 :113 ) .

T he re i s , h oweve r , ag r ea t d ea l o f v a r ia t ion w i th r e spec t t o a c tua l s i ze o f t h e v a r iou s c en t re s . T he se c an r a nge f r om t h o se r e la t ive ly s ma l l c en t re s l i ke Y axha a nd S ak

T ika l , f o r e xamp le , r e p re sen t s t h e b i gge s t c en t re o f t h e s ou the rn l ow lands . T he s u rvey s c onduc ted a t t h i s s i te h ave e s tab l ished t h a t i t s c o re a r ea e x tend s o ve r 4s q . k m . A 6 km r a d iu s w a s t r a ced f r om i t s c o re b a sed o n t h e p r e sence o f a r chaeo log ica l m ound s , c omp r is ing a t o ta l a r ea o f 1 20 s qua re k i lome t re s . H av i land ( 1985 )e s t ima ted ap opu la t ion o f a r ound 7 2 ,000 d u r ing t h e L a t e C la s s ic . T h is m ean s t h a t t h e p opu la t ion d en s i ty f o r T ika l w a s i n

N ab , t ot h e g i gan t ic c en t re s o fT ika l a nd C a lakmu l , t h u s g i v ing r i se t o ac on t inu ing d eba te o n t h e c r i te r ia u sed t o e s tab l i sh a h i e ra r ch ica l s cheme b e tween m a jo r c en t re s . T he h i e ra rch ica l s t ruc tu re b e tween s i te s c an b e r ef lec ted i ni t sg eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion . I ti se xpec ted t h a t t h e m a in c en t re w i l l b e s u r rounded b y o t he r m ino r p opu la t ion l o c i , w h ich i n t u rn w i l l b e s u r rounded b y r e s iden t ia l u n i t s

t h e o r de ro f6 00 p e r son s p e rs qua re k i lome t re . F o rY axha a nd S ak N ab , w h ich a r e t wo o t he rP e ten c en t re s , P u le s ton a nd R ice o f f e r a n e s t ima te o f 2 00 a nd 5 00 p e r son s p e r

s c a t te red a r ound t h em , a l o ft h e se u sua l ly w i th in a5t o6 k m r a d iu s f r om t h e m a jo r c en t re . A cco rd ing ly , t h e d i s tance t h a t l i e s b e tween o ne m a jo r c en t re a nd t h e o t he r s hou ld b e o f a r ound 3 0 t o 2 0 km . T h roughou t t h i s

s qua re k i lome t re s r e spec t ive ly . I n t h e n o r the rn l ow land s R .E .W . A dam s ( 1981) e s t ima ted ap opu la t ion d en s i ty o f 5 00 p e r son s p e r s qua re k i lome t re , a nd f o r t h e a r ea

e x t en s ion o f l a nd , as e r ie s o f m ino r c en t r e s a r e l o ca ted t h u s g i v ing f o rm t ot h e s e t t lemen t n e two rk (W i l ley 1 987 : 1 28 130 ) .

s u r round ing B ecan , R io B ec , a nd X puh i l , K u r ja ck a nd G a rza ( 1981) e s t ima te f o r t h e a r ea s u r round ing D z ib i lcha l tun ap opu la t ion d en s i ty o fu p t o2 000 p e r son s p e rs qua re k i lome t re .

T he a na ly s i s o fs e t t lemen t p a t te rn s i nt h e Maya L ow lands

I tb ecome s a ppa ren t t h en , t h a t a l o f t h e se p opu la t ion

i ss t ruc tu red a r ound t h e c oncep t o f s i te h i e ra rchy . T he c r i te r ia t oc on s ide r ac en t re o ff i r s t , s e cond o rt h i rd o rde r v a ry a c co rd ing t ot h e e mpha s is s e t o n d i f f e ren t m a te r ia l -

f i gu r e s w e re e s t ima ted t a k ing a s p o in t o f d epa r tu re t h e m a in c en t re s , f r om w h ich i tf o l low s t h a t t h e c en t re s a r e s e en a s t h e n uc le i o f p opu la t ion a gg rega t ion . C on sequen t ly t h e s t udy o fs e t t lemen tp a t te rn s h a s f o cu sed o n e xp la in ing t h e s pa t ia l s t ruc tu r ing o f t h e v a r iou s

c u l tu re a spec t s , o r c omb ina t ion s o f t h e se . I n g ene ra l t e rm s , b a sed o n t h e n a tu re o ft h e d a ta u sed t h ese c r i te r ia m ay b ed i v ided i nt wo a pp roache s : •

c a tego r ie s o f s i te s f r om t h e c o re t o t h e p e r iphe ry . P u le s ton ( 1974 ) h oweve r , a dvanced t h e i d ea o fs u rvey ing

T ha t , w h ich h a s f o cu sed o n s pa t ia l m ode ls t og auge t h e e x ten s ion o f t h e p o l i t ica l -econom ica l s phe re o f i n f luence o f t h e p r ima ry c en t re s i n r e la t ion t o t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion o ve r t h e l a nd scape ( Hammond 1 974 , 1 991 ; A dam s a nd J one s 1 981 ; A dam s a nd Sm i th , 1 981 ; S ande r s 1 981 ; F re ide l 1 981 ; Ma rcu s 1 983 ; B a l l a nd T a schek 1 991 ; I noma ta a nd A oyama 1 996 ) .

t h e a r ea s b e tween t h e m a jo r c en t re s . I n t h i s c on tex t t h e e xp l ic i t d ef in i t ion o f c en t re w a s d eemed n ece s sa ry i n o rde r t oe l abo ra te t h e t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk o n w h ich t o m oun t t h e e xp lana to ry m ode l s t h a t w ou ld a ccoun t f o r t h e s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te so ve rt h e l a nd scape .

•

N owaday s t h e d eba te b e tween c e remon ia l v e r su s u r ban f u nc t ion f o r Maya c en t re s h a s d i ed d own . T he c on sen su s p o in t s t owa rd s c on s ide r ing Maya c en t re s m o re l i ke t r ue c i t ie s , b ecau se n o t o n ly w e re t h ey t h e f o c i o f av a r ie ty o f p o l i t ica l , r i tua l , c omme rc ia l a nd i n te l lec tua l a c t iv i ty , b u t t h ey w e r e a l so a c tua l r e s iden t ia l l o c i ( A shmo re 1 981 :16 ,

T he e p ig raph ic a pp roach , b a sed m a in ly o n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion s g i ven t o t h e p re sence /absence o f e mb lem g l yph s c on ta ined i n t h e m onumen t s o f t h e v a r iou s c en t re s ( Ba r the l 1 968 ; Ma r cu s 1 976 ; A dam s 1 986 ; Ma thew s 1 991 , 1 995 ; Ma r t in a nd G rube 1 995 ) .

I n t h e f o rme r m ode l s t h e c r i te r ia t o e s tab l ish s i te h i e ra rchy v a r ie s c on s ide rab ly . T he r a nk s ize r u le o f c en t r e s h a s b een e s sen t ia l ly d e te rm ined f o l low ing t wo d i f f e r en t p a rame te r s : t h e q uan t if ica t ion o f a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s a nd /o r v o lume t r ic a na ly s i s ( Tu rne r , T u rne r , a nd A dam s 1 981 ; A dam s a nd J one s 1 981 ; I noma ta a nd A oyama 1 996 ) , a nd t h e c omp lex i ty o f r oad n e two rk s ( Ku r ja ck a nd G a rza 1 981) . Iw i l l b r ie f ly r e v iew t h e se a pp roache s .

5) . W i l ley h a s d ef ined t h e c en t re s a s t h e a gg rega te s o r n uc lea ted a r rangemen t s o f " s pec ia l p u rpo se s t ruc tu re s" s u ch a s p y ram id s , g r ea t p l a t fo rm s , p l aza s , p a lace s , a nd o t he r a dm in is t ra t ive b u i ld ing s t h a t w e re t h e a x i s o f p o l i t ica l re l ig iou s l i f e o f t h e Maya . T he se c en t re s w e re b y n o m ean s d evo id o f r e s iden t ia l u n i t s , b u t r a the r w e re s u r rounded a nd i n te r sec ted b y t h em , f o r w h ich t h ey c o r r e sponded m o re o rl e s s t o ac i ty (W i l ley 1 987 :113 ) . F unc t iona l ly s peak ing t h en , t h e Maya c en t re s w e re t h e f r amewo rk o n w h ich t h e v a r iou s s oc ia l i n te r re la t ion sh ip n e two rk s w e re w oven . T he se n e two rk s w e re b a sed n o t o n ly o n k i n sh ip t i e s , b u t a l so o n n e two rk s t h a t s u rpa s sed k i n sh ip r e la t ion s , s uch a se conom ic a nd r e l ig iou s s y s tem s .

S pa t ia l Mode l s C en t ra l P lace T heo ry i sp e rhap s t h e m o s t w ide ly u sed a pp roa ch i nt h e s t udy o fs e t t lemen tp a t te rn s . I n mo s tc a ses h oweve r , C en t ra l P lace T heo ry t r ea t s c en t re s a s h av ing e qua l p o l i t ica l s t a tu s , d e sp i te a cknow ledg ing t h e e x i s tence o f ar a nk -o rde r b e tween t h em ( Hammond 1 974 :318 ) .

T hey a trac ted i n d iv idua ls f r om a l w a lk s o f l i f e t o a c t ive ly p a r t ic ipa te i n t h e v a r iou s r i tua l c e remon ie s a s

8

t h e l o ca t ion o fu nknown c en t re s o r t h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e o b se rved s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s . I noma ta a nd A oyama e mpha s i se t h a ti no rde r t ob e am o re e f f ec t ive e xp lana to ry

C lo se ly r e la ted t o C en t ra l P lace s i s ac ommon ly u s ed m e thod t od e term ine t h e i nf luence a r ea o fc en t re s t h rough t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f T h ie s sen p o lygon s ( e .g . H odde r a nd H a s sa l 1 971 ; H ammond 1 987 ; Ma thew s 1 988 , 1 991) . T h ies sen p o lygon s a r e c r ea ted b y d raw ing p e rpend icu la r l i ne s h a lf w ay b e tween m a jo r c en t re s , t h e p o lygon s t h u s c r ea ted c an b e s e en a s d ef in ing t h e a r ea s w h ich c ou ld m o s t e f f ic ien t ly b e s e rved b y t h e c en t re s . T h is m e thod i s u s e fu l t o t h e e x ten t t h a t i tp rov ide s a n i n i t ia l t e r r i to r ia l d e l im i ta t ion . H oweve r a s m en t ioned a bove , i t s m o s t c r i t ica l l i m i ta t ion l i e s i nt h e f a c t t h a t t h e se p o lygon s g i ve e qua l w e igh t t o c en t re s o f d i f f e ren t s i ze . H ence l a rge r c en t re s w i l l n o t a ppea r w i th al a rge r s e rv ice a r ea ( Hodde r

m ode l C en t ra l P la ce T heo ry s hou ld b e l im i ted t o a r e g iona l leve l a na ly s is f o cu s ing o n t h e p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic i n te ra c t ion s b e tween t h e c en t re s a nd t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion s , i n s tead o fa n i n te r reg iona l a na ly s is . I n oma ta a nd A oyama a na ly se u nde r t h e l i gh t o f C h r i s ta l le r 's C en t ra l P lace T heo ry m ode l t h e a r chaeo log ica l s e t t lemen t d a ta d a t ing f r om t h e L a te C la s s ic p e r iod , f r om t h e L a E n t rada r e g ion l o ca ted i n n o r thwe s te rn H ondu ra s . T hey e s tab l i sh t h e h i e ra rchy o f c en t ra l p l a ce s o n t h e b a s is o ft h e s i ze o ft h e c en t re s u s ing a s ay a rd s t ick t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l v o lume o f t h e c en t re s ' m a in g r oup . C h r i s ta l le r 's m ode l , h oweve r , i ss t rong ly b a sed o n t h e t h eo re t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s r ega rd ing t h e c i rcu la t ion o f p eop le a nd g ood s , f o r w h ich a cco rd ing t o t h e a u tho r s r e ly ing s o le ly o n t h e s e t t lemen t d a ta a va i lab le d oe s n o t w a r ran t t h e t h o roughne s s o f t h e r e su l t s . T he re f o re , t h ey s uppo r t t h is d a ta w i th t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f o b s id ian a s a n e xchange g ood ( I noma ta a nd A oyama 1 996 :293 ) . T he s e t t lemen t a nd o b s id ian d i s t r ibu t ion d a ta f r om t h e L a E n t rada r eg ion s ugge s ted t o t h em t h a t C h r i s ta l le r 's m a rke t a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive p r inc ip le s ( F igu r e 1-2 ) w e re t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t d e te rm inan t s o f t h e s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing a nd s how as t rong t e ndency t om in im i se t h ec o s to ft r ave l a nd t r an spo r t .

a nd O r ton 1 976 :59 -60 ) . B a l l a nd T a schek ( 1991) , a dd re s sed t h i s p rob lem b y a pp ly ing L ö sch 's m o re f l ex ib le C en t ra l P l ace m ode l t o t h e i r U ppe r B e l ize V a l ley d a ta w i th in t h e c on tex t o f t h e s egmen ta ry s ta te s oc ie t ie s o r ig ina l ly p ropo sed b y F ox ( 1 977 ) . I nb r ief t h e s egmen ta ry s ta te c an b e d e sc r ibed a s b e ing e s sen t ia l ly d ecen t ra l ised , w he re t h e m onopo ly o n w ea l th a nd p owe r b y ac en t ra l f i gu re i s l i m i ted , a nd d i spe r sed a c ross s ub s id ia ry c en t re s , w h ich d up l ica te a ta r e duced s ca le t h e f u nc t ion s o f t h e c en t r e ( Ba l l a nd T a schek 1 991 :159 -160 ) . I n a c co rdance w i th F ox 's t y po logy , c en t re s w e re c on s ide red i n ar a nk -o rde rs c heme a s e i the r r ega l r i tua l c en t re s o r r e ga l r i tua l c i t ie s . T he b a s ic d i f f e rence b e tween t h e se t wo i se s tab l i shed b y t h e n a tu re o f t h e d emog raph ic s . T he l a t te r i su nde r s tood i n t e rm s o f t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f al a rge , d en se , a nd s o c io e conom ica l ly d ive r se r e s iden t p opu la t ion , w h ich c on s t i tu t e s t h e h a l lma rk o f t h e c i ty a nd r e p re sen t s t h e f u ndamen ta l d i f f e rence b e tween b o th t y pe s ( Ba l l a nd T a schek 1 991 :156 -157 )

H oweve r , ap rob lem t h a t b ecome s a ppa ren t i n I noma ta a nd A oyama 's a pp roach i st h e s ca le a t w h ich t h ey a r e w o rk ing . F rom t h e s amp le o f3 7 s i te s e xcava ted o n ly t h e c en t re s o fE lA b ra a nd L o s H igo s f a l l i nt h e h i ghe s tt i e ro f t h e i rr a nk ing s y s tem . T he se c en t re s , h oweve r , w ou ld o n ly r a nk a s t e r t ia ry o r s e conda ry s i te s i n a n o ve ra l l c en t re h i e ra r chy . F rom t h e se a u tho r s a ccoun t s i ts e em s t h a t t h e L a E n t rada r e g ion w ou ld h ave b een p a r t o f t h e g r ea te r

P e rhap s t h e mos t c i ted l im i ta t ion t o t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o f C en t ra l P lace T heo ry t o a r chaeo logy l i e s i n t h e v e ry n a tu r e o f i t s c oncep t ion . C en t ra l P la ce T heo ry w a s o r ig ina l ly p ropo sed t o a dd re s s e conom ic i s sue s w i th in a m a rke t -economy . Sm i th ( 1974 , c i ted i n I noma ta a nd A oyama 1 996 :292 ) o b se rved t h a t t h i s t h eo ry c ou ld o n ly p r ed ic t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e ta i l -ma rke t c en t re s a nd n o t w ho le sa le m a rke t s o r a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re s . T hu s b y n a tu re , h i nde r ing i t s a pp l icab i l i ty i n p r ed ic t ing o r e xp la in ing s i te d i s t r ibu t ion w i thou t a n a dequa te k now ledge o f m a rk e t f unc t ion . I n oma ta a nd A oyama d i sca rd t h is l im i ta t ion a r gu ing t h a t t h e e s sence o fC en t ra l P l a ce T heo ry ( a cco rd ing t o C h r i s ta l le r 's m ode l ) c an b e u t i l ised i nt h e c on tex t o ft h e s pa t ia lp a t te rn ing t h a tr ef lec t s t h e e conomy o f c o s t o f t r ave l a nd t r an spo r t . T hu s a dd re s s ing c en t ra l p l ace s a s " l oca t iona l d ec i s ion s f o r n ode s o fh uman a c t iv i t ie s [ wh ich ] a r e m ade i ng ene ra l t o m in im i se e ne rgy e xpended i n m ovemen t" ( I noma ta a nd A oyama 1 996 :292 ) .

C opan r e g ion ( I noma ta a nd A oyama 1 996 :300 -30 1) . L e t u s r e ca l l t h a t t h e se a u tho r s s t re s s t h a t t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o f C en t ra l P l a ce T heo ry s hou ld b e c on f ined t ot h e r e g iona l l e ve l . T he ref o re t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f c en t ra l p l ace s i nt h e L a E n t rada r e g ion s hou ld b e a dd re s sed c on s ide r ing t h e g r ea te r C opan r e g iona l s e t t lemen t s y s tem a s aw ho le , a nd f r om t h e re i d en t if y t h e s ub reg ion s ( " zone s" i nB u l la rd 's c l a s s if ica t ion ) a nd h ow t h ey a r e l i nked t oi t . H ammond ( 1974 ) p o in ted o u t t h a t a tf i r s t g l ance a n on u n if o rm d i s t r ibu t ion o fm a jo r c en t re s w a s a ppa r en t i nt h e Maya L ow lands . T he d i s tance s b e tween m a jo r c en t re s r a nged f r om 3 0 k m a r ound t h e Maya Moun ta in s , t o a pp rox ima te ly 2 0 km i n s ou the rn P e ten a nd s ou the rn C ampeche , t o 1 0 k m o r l e s s i nn o r thea s te rn P e ten , w he re ac l ea r c or e a r ea w a s a ppa ren t . H e p ropo sed h oweve r , t h a t t h i s l a ck o f u n ifo rm i ty w a s n on random a nd t h a t i t m u s t r e f lec t t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e c e remon ia l c en t re s , t h e i r r u le r s a nd t h e i r s ub jec t p opu la t ion s ( Hammond 1 974 :320 -321) . H ammond m ake s u s e o f

T he a pp l ica t ion o f C en t ra l P l ace T heo ry i na r chaeo logy , a c co rd ing t o t h e se a u tho r s , s hou ld b e a imed t owa rd s t h e i d en t if ica t ion a nd a s ses smen t o f t h e f a c to r s i n vo lved i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fc en t re s r a the r t h an o n t h e p r ed ic t ion o f

N ea re s t N e ighbou r A na ly s is t o b e t te r a s se s s t h e se d a ta . A s a l r eady m en t ioned i n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te r , N ea re s t

9

N e ighbou r A na ly s is i s b e t te r s u i ted t o d ea l w i th t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween c en t re s . H ammond 's r e su l t s y i e lded ar e gu la r p a t te rn o fc en t re d i s t r ibu t ion , w i th t h ree

Y uca tan ( Adam s a nd J one s 1 981 :308 ) . B y p l o t t ing t h e c en t r e s o n ad oub le loga r i thm ic s ca le g r aph , t h ree t y pe s o f s i t e d i s t r ibu t ion w h ich r ef lec t t h e s t a t e o f r eg iona l

a ppa ren ts ub -a rea s : 1 . T he s ou th P e ten -uppe r P a s ion R ive r a r ea c omp r i s ing

d eve lopmen to ft h ep o l i t ica l g eog raphy c an r e su l t : 1 . Ad ownwa rd s lop ing s t ra igh t l i ne , w h ich m ean s t h a t t h e re i s ac on t inuou s p rog re s s ion o fc en t re s i ze . 2 . Ac oncave c u rve , w h ich m a rk s ap r ima te d i s t r ibu t ion s ugge s t ing t h e e x i s tence o f as i ng le m a jo rc en t re a nd an umbe ro fs ma l le rs i te s . 3 . Ac onvex c u rve , s i gna l l ing ap lu ra l d i s t r ibu t ion t h a t s ugge s t s ad i s t r ibu t ion w i th s eve ra l l a rge p l ace s o f e qua l s i ze a nd ap auc i ty o fs ma l le rp l a ce s .

2 5 c en t re s w i th am ean n ea re s t n e ighbou rd i s tance o f 2 .

3 .

1 8 .4 k m . A n o r th F e ten a nd s ou th C ampeche a r ea c omp r i s ing16 c en t re s w i th am ean n ea re s t n e ighbou r d i s tance o f 1 5 .1 k m . A n o r thea s te rn F e ten

a nd

a d jacen t B e l ize

a r ea

c omp r i s ing 1 5 s i te s w i th a m ean n ea re s t n e ighbou r d i s tance o f 1 0 .4 km .

T he f i r s t t y pe o fd i s t r ibu t ion i st y p ica l o fl a rge r eg ion s o r

T he se r e su l t s c l ea r ly s howed t h a t t h e re i s at r end t owa rd s s ho r te r n ea re s t n e ighbou r d i s tance s i n t h e c o re a r ea

o f t h o se t h a t h ave h ad l o ng p e r iods t o e vo lve . O n t h e o t he r h and t h e s e cond o r p r ima te d i s t r ibu t ion r e p re sen t s t h e o ppo s i te o f t h e f i r s t , t h a t i s as y s tem i n w h ich f ew s imp le f o rce s h ave o pe ra ted , a nd i st y p ica l o fs ma l le r o r y ounge r r eg ion s . T he t h i rd o r p l u ra l d i s t r ibu t ion i s t y p ica l o f a r a nk s ize d i s t r ibu t ion w i th e ven l o nge r

( Hammond 1 974 :322 -326 ) . A ga in a s i nt h e c a se o fC en t ra l P la ce T heo ry , o ne o ft h e m a jo r l i m i ta t ion s o f H ammond 's N ea re s t N e ighbou r A na ly s i s i st h e a b sence o fd i f f e ren t ia l w e igh t ing b e tween c en t re s . A dam s a nd J one s ( 1981) , a wa re o f t h i s f l aw ,

p e r iod s o f e vo lu t ion . T h i s t y pe o f d i s t r ibu t ion i sb e s t c ha ra c te r ised b y t h e c oncep t o f " c lo su re" w h ich i st h e e x ten t t o w h ich s oc ia l t r an sac t ion s t a ke p l a ce w i th in a s y s tem r a the r t h an b e tween s y s tem s ( Adam s a nd J one s 1 981 :310 -311) .

p ropo se t h a t a l ong w i th t h e s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o f t h e c en t re s , ar a nk -s ize r u le b a sed o n c ou r tya rd c oun t ing a nd v o lume t r ic a s se s smen t s hou ld b e u sed i n o rde r t o o b jec t ive ly a s s ign h i e ra r ch ie s . V o lume t r ic a s se s smen t w a s d eemed b y T u rne r , T u rne r a nd A dam s ( 1 981) a st h e o n ly o b jec t ive q uan t i ta t ive m ean s o f e s tab l i sh ing s i t e h i e ra rchy t oa l l c en t r e s , w h ich w ou ld b e i n dependen t o f s t y le , c a rved monumen t s a nd e xcava ted d a ta . T he m e thod c on s i s t s i n c omb ined m ea su rem en t o f t h e q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive d im en s ion s o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l c omponen t s o f ac en t re . I ti si ne s sence a t h ree d imen s iona l g eome t r ic mode l . I n t h i s m ode l t h e t wo -d imen s iona l f a ce t i sr e p re sen ted b y t h e q uan t i ta t ive a spec t s o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s ( open s pace a r ea s , t o ta l m a s s , a cce s s o r c i rcu la t ion e l emen t s , n umbe r o f f u nc t iona l ly s im i la r f a c i l i t ie s ) . T he d ep th o r t h i rd d imens ion d e sc r ibe s t h e q ua l i ta t ive a nd /o rc u l tu ra l a s pec t s ( s pa ce r e la t ion sh ip s , m a te r ia l s u sed , o rnamen ta t ion , a e s the t ic e mbe l l ishmen t ,e t c . ) .

A dam s a nd J one s ' r e su l t s s ugges ted a d eve lopmen ta l s e quence f o r t h e f ou r r e g ion s . T he T ika l a nd C a lakmu l r e g ion s s howed a m o re o r l e ss s t anda rd l o g -no rma l d i s t r ibu t ion c ha rac te r i s t ic a r a nk -s ize r u le e xh ib i t ing a s i ze c on t inuum , w h i le t h e C henes a nd R io B ec r eg ion s s how as t rong p lu ra l d i s t r ibu t ion . A dam s a nd J one s f i nd t h a t t h e se p a t te rn s i n d ica te t h a t t h e f o rme r r eg ion s w e r e e conom ica l ly ma tu r e a nd T ika l a nd C a lakmu l w e re t h e u nd i spu ted d om inan t c en t re s w i th a b a lance b e tw een e x te rna l a nd i n te rna l g row th . O n t h e o t he r h and t h e C hene s a nd R io B ec r e g ion s a l so h ad a n e a r ly d eve lopmen t , w h ich w a s t r unca ted w i th t h e c o l lap se o f t h e s ou the rn c en t re s o n ly t o d eve lop f u r the r a f te rwa rd s ( Adam s a nd J one s 1 981 :30 1 , 3 19 -320 ) . I n a l c a se s t h e a u tho r s v i ew at e ndency t owa rd s d i spe r s ion w h ich i sa k in t ot h e f e uda l mode l o f Maya s oc ie ty p ropo sed b y A dam s a nd Sm i th ( 1981) , a nd w h ich w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n m o r e d e ta i l .

T he se f a ce t s a r e r e duced t o an ume r ica l e qu iva len t t h a t c an b e w e igh ted a nd a dded t o ge the r . T he s um o ft h e se , r e su l t s i n at h ree d im en s iona l v o lume v a lue , a nd i nt u rn t h e c ube r oo t o f t h i s v a lue w i l l g i ve t h e n ume r ica l v a lue o f t h e r a t ing o f as pec if ic c en t re ( Tu rne r , T u rne r , a nd A dam s 1 981 :72 -75 ) .

T he i n teg ra t ion a nd a r t icu la t ion o f t h e a bove s pa t ia l m ode l s t ot h e s e t t lemen t s y s tem h a s b een a pp roached b y m ean s o f t h e p ropo sa l b a sed m o re o r l e s s o n af e uda l m ode l o f s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion ( Adam s a nd Sm i th 1 981 ; S ande r s 1 981 ; F re ide l 1 981) . A n i n te re s t ing a spec t a bou t t h e se m ode l s i st h e i r s t rong r e l iance o n t h e e t hnog raph ic a na logy o u t s ide t h e Maya a r ea , f r om s u ch r emo te l o ca t ion s s uch a sE u rope , J apan , a nd E a s t A f r ica .

Af o u r t i red s cheme w a s o b ta ined w h ich a c co rd ing t ot h e a u tho r s , s hou ld r e f lec t t h e p o l i t ica l , e conom ic , a nd d emog raph ic h i e ra rch ie s b e tween c en t re s ( Adam s a nd J one s 1 981 :302 -307 ) . B a sed o n a r ch i tec tu ra l a nd c e ram ic s t y le s , a nd s pa t ia l c on t igu i ty , a s w e l l a s o n s amp le s i ze a nd r e l iab i l i ty o ft h e d a ta A dam s a nd J one s p r opo se f o u r r e g ion s . T he T ika l r e g ion o f n o r thea s te rn F e ten ; t h e C a lakmu l r e g ion l o ca ted o n t h e b ounda ry o fn o r th P e ten a nd C ampeche ; t h e R io B ec r e g ion o f C ampeche a nd Q u in tana R oo ; a nd t h e C hene s r e g ion i nC ampeche a nd

A dam s a nd Sm i th 's f e uda l mode l i sc ha ra c te r ised d i f fu s ion o fp o l i t ica l p owe r f r om t h e c en t r e d own w e l l d ef ined h i e ra r ch ica l s t ruc tu re w i th in t h e e l i te , t u rn w i l l f i nd i t s c oun te rpa r t i nt h e s i te h i e ra r chy .

1 0

b y t h e w i th a t h a t i n I nt h i s

r oya l r e s idence s . T he se i nt u rn w ou ld b e s u r rounded b y t h e i r c ou r t ie r s , a nd w ou ld c on s t i tu te t h e c o r e o f p o l i t ica l p owe r f r om w he re c en t ra l c on t ro l w ou ld b e w ie lded w i th t h e s uppo r t o f t h e s e conda ry n ob i l i ty r e s id ing i n t h e s ub s id ia ry s i te s s c a t te red a c ro s s t h e p e r iphe ry o f t h e p o l i ty (W i l ley 1 987 :129 -30 ) .

l a t t e r h i e ra rch ica l s t ruc tu re a t e ndency t o d up l ica te t h e f u nc t ion s o ft h e p r ima ry c en t re s b y t h e m ino r c en t r e s a ta l owe r l e ve l c an b e o b se rved i nt h e a r ch i tec tu re a c co rd ing t ot h ea u tho r s ( Adam s a nd Sm i th 1 981 :343 -346 ) . S ande r s ( 1 981) p ropo sed t h a t t h e s t ruc tu re o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s w a s d e te rm ined b y t h e c omp lex i n te r re la t ion sh ip t h a t i sg i ven b e tween a g r icu l tu ra l t e chno logy , t h e n a tu ra l

T he o n ly e xamp le Ik now o ft h e u se o ft h e G rav i ty Mode l i nt h e Maya l ow land s i st h a to fD unham ( 1 990 ) . D unham a pp l ie s R e i l ly 's d e r iva t ion o ft h e o r ig ina l G rav i ty Mode l e qua t ion ( s ee C hap te r 1 ) t o t h e p rob lem o f m a rg ina l d eve lopmen t o f c en t re s a l ong t h e b ounda r ie s o f p r e e x is t ing p r ima ry c en t re s . Among h i s p r inc ipa l o b jec t ive s , D unham 's m a in t h ru s t i sc en t red o n t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e i mp l ica t ion s t h a tt h e p roce s s o fm a rg ina l d eve lopmen t h ad f o r t h e C la s s ic Maya c o l lap se w i th in t h e c on tex t o f s egmen ta ry s t a te s . A pp ly ing R e i l ley 's e qua t ion D unham r e con s t ruc t s t h e b ounda ry b e tween t h e p o l i t ie s o fN im L i P un i t a nd L uban tuun i n s ou the rn B e l ize i n o rde r t o a dd re s s t h e d eve lopmen t o fX naheb , as ma l l L a te C la s s ic s i t e l o ca ted b e tween t h e se t wo p o l i t ie s . H is r e su l t s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e d eve lopmen t o f c en t re s a l ong t h e b ounda r ie s o f p r e -ex i s t ing c en t re s i s al a te e ven t t h a t t a ke s p l a ce a f te r s e conda ry c en t re s h ave f i r s t d eve loped o n t h e p e r iphe ry . T h i s p roce s s i l u s t ra te s t h e w eak p o l i t ica l i n teg ra t ion t h a t t h e s egmen ta ry s y s tem h a s w h ich e ven tua l ly l e ad s t o i t s o wn d em i se ( Dunham 1 990 :148 1 52 , 6 41 -643 ) .

e nv ironmen t , a nd t h e s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion . I n t h i s m ode l t h e i n c rea se a nd d i spe r s ion o f t h e f a rm ing p opu la t ion s s i nce t h e P rec la s s ic r e su l ted i na n i n c rea se o f t h e d emog raph ic d en s i ty , w h ich a l ong w i th t h e d eve lopmen t o f mo r e i n ten s ive a g r icu l tu ra l t e chn ique s a low ed t h e e me rgence o fd en se ly p opu la ted c en t re s s u ch a sT ika l . S ande r s , a l though e mpha s i s ing t h e r e levance o f t h e e co log ica l f a c to r s i n s u ch d eve lopmen t s , a l so r e cogn i se s t h a t t h e c ho ice o f ap opu la t ion i sb a sed m a in ly o n m o t iva t ions o fp o l i t ica l c on t ro l . I n t h i s m anne r Maya s o c ie ty i s b es t d e sc r ibed a s h av ing a n e m inen t ly h i e ra r ch ica l s t ruc tu re , i nw h ich i n d iv idua l s o ccup ied w e l l d ef ined t i e r s o n t h e s oc ia l p y ram id . A k in t o t h i s h i e ra r ch ica l s t ruc tu re w a s t h e s e t t lemen t h i e ra r ch ie s w ho se m a in o b jec t ive w a s t h e a dm in i s t ra t ion a nd m anagemen t o f 1 981 :354 -359 ) .

t h e

a g r icu l tu ra l

r e sou rce s

( Sande r s

F r e ide l 's ( 1 981) p i lg r image f a i r m ode l v i ew s t h e p roce s s l e ad ing t ot h e eme rgence o fc en t re s a s as oc ia l i n ven t ion . T h i s m ode l i sb a sed o n t wo o pe ra t ive p r inc ip le s : ( 1 ) t h e c on t ro l led f l ow o f t h e i n d iv idua l s t ot h e c en t re s t h rough r e l ig iou s m o t iva t ion s ( p i lg r image ) , a nd ( 2 ) a s am ode o f i n t eg ra t ing g roups o f i n d iv idua l s b y p rov id ing am ed ium t o e x change g oods a nd s e rv ice s ( f a i r s ) . T he se f a i r s i n vo lved p e r iod ic m a rk e t s t h a t w ou ld a r t icu la t e t h e l o ca l e conom ie s i n to aw ide r n e two rk . A s ar e su l t ad i s t inc t ive f o rm o f g ove rnmen t w ou ld e me rge , w h ich a cco rd ing t o F re ide l , g ave a n a ppea rance o f e qua l i ty i n a n on e ga l i ta r ian s oc ie ty . I nt h i s mode l t h e s e conda ry n ob i l i ty o r f e uda l l o rds t ha t w e re s e t t led i nt h e p e r iphe ry w ou ld a dm in i s te r m o re e ff ic ien t ly t h e m a rg ina l d oma in s o f t h e p o l i ty i ft h ey w e re v i ewed b y t h e i r s ub jec t s a sb e long ing t ot h e l o ca l c o mmun i t ie s , r a the rt h an a sb e ing i mpo sed b y t h e c en t ra l p owe r . T h i s mode l d i f f e r s f r om t h e t wo p r ev iou s o ne s i n t h a t i tg i ve s ag r ea te r i mpo r tance t o h and -c ra f t p roduc t ion a nd i t s r e d i s t r ibu t ion , a l though i ti s s t r e s sed t h a t t h e f o rme r w a s p robab ly c onf ined t o t h e h ou seho ld l e ve l ( F re ide l 1 981 :371-382 ) .

T he E p igraph ic A pproach T h i s i s a r e la t ive ly m o re r e cen t a pp roach , w h ich t h roughou t t h e d eve lopmen t o f s e t t lemen t s t ud ie s h a s a cqu i red m o re r e l iab i l i ty . I t s b a s ic a s sump t ion i s t h a t o n ly c en t re s w i th i n sc r ibed m onumen t s a r e c on s ide red f o r r a nk o rde r ing , a nd w i th in t h e se t h e a b sence o rp re sence o f e mb lem g l yph s a nd t h e i r f r equency c on s t i tu te t h e c r i te r ia t oa s s ign r a nk t o ac en t re . A l though B e r l in ( 1958 ) i st h e f i r s t o ne t o i d en t if y t h e e mb lem g l yph s a s as o r t o f t o ponym , B a r the l ( 1 968 ) p i onee red t h e i d ea t o u se t h is g l yph ic e l emen t a s ac r i te r ion o fs i te h i e ra rchy . B a sed o n t h e o ccu r rence o f t h e se g l yph s B a r the l p ropo sed t wo k i nd s o fr e la t ion sh ip s : as imp le a nd ac omp lex o ne . I nt h e f o rme r t h e e mb lem g l yph o f as i t e Aw ou ld o ccu r i nt h e i n sc r ip t ion s o f as i t e B . T he l a t te r w ou ld i n vo lve mo re t h an t wo s i te s , i n w h ich a t t h e v e ry l e a s t t h e e mb lem g l yph s o fs i t e s Aa nd B o ccu r i nt h e i n sc r ip t ion s o fs i te C ( Ba r the l 1 968 :185 ) . F u r the rmo r e , o n t h e b a s is o f h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o f S t e la A o fC opan , B a r the l p ropo sed t h e e x i s tence o ff ou rr e g iona l c ap i ta ls . E ach o ft h e se c ap i ta ls w a s l o ca ted i n o ne o f t h e f o u r d i rec t ion s o f t h e Maya c o smo s ( F igu re 2 1) : C opan , T ika l , P a lenque , a nd as i te a t

T he a r chaeo log ica l d a ta p rov ide s c e r ta in s uppo r t t ot h e se m ode l s , t h e r e i s ac l ea r g rada t ion i n t e rm s o f s i ze a nd c omp lex i ty i n t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s s t emm ing f r om t h e p r ima ry c en t re s t ot h e s e conda ry a nd t e r t ia ry c en t re s . T h i s a l one , t o ac e r ta in e x ten t , c an b e s e en a s ar e f lec t ion o ft h e p a ra l le l isms t h a t e x is ted b e tw een Maya s o c ie ty a nd t h e o t he r f e uda l s oc ie t ie s o ft h e w o r ld . B o th A dam s a nd Sm i th , a nd S ande r s s e e i n t h e Maya c en t re s ap o l i t ica l f u nc t ion , i nw h ich t h e p r ima ry c en t re s w ou ld h ou se t h e

t h a t t ime u n iden t if ied , w h ich w a s l a te r i d en t if ied a s C a la l cmu l ( Ba r the l 1 968 : 1 85 193 ) .

1

S e iba l

C opan

T ika l

t a m e= u i e g e f i N t , 1 ; ) i t e e z e e

C a lakmu l

P a lenque

Mo tu l d e S an J o se

F igu r e 2 1 R eg iona l c ap i ta ls o ft h e Maya Wo r ld ( a ) C opan S t e la A ; ( b ) S e iba l S t e la 1 0 ( F rom G rube a nd Ma r t in 1 998 ) I n as im i la r m anne r Ma rcu s ( 1973 ,1976 ) p ropo sed a h i e ra r ch ica l s y s tem i n w h ich t h e m ino r c en t re s w ou ld i n c lude i nt h e i r i n sc r ip t ion s t h e e mb lem g l yph o ft h e m o re i mpo r tan t c en t re s . T hu s af ou r t ie r h i e ra rchy r e su l ted f r om t h e se c r i te r ia ( i n Mo r ley , B ra ine rd a nd S ha r e r 1 983 :213 ) : 1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

P r ima ry o r f i r s t o rde r c en t re s , w h ich h ave t h e i r o wn e mb lem g l yph a l though t h e e mb lem g l yph s f r om o t he r p r ima ry c en t re s m ay o ccu r i nt h e i r i n sc r ip t ion s . E xamp les o f t h e se a r e T ika l , Y axch i lan , C opan , a nd P a lenque . S econda ry o r s e cond o rde r c en t re s a r e t h o se w h ich h ave t h e i r o wn e mb lem g l yph a nd w h ich w i l l i n c lude t h e e mb lem g l yph s o f o t he r p r ima ry s i t e s i n t h e i r i n sc r ip t ion s b u t n o t t h e c onve r se . E xamp le s o ft h e se a r e f o r t h e T ika l r e g ion A gua t eca , Machaqu i la , a nd N a ran jo ; f o r Y axch i lan , P i ed ra s N eg ra s ; Q u i r igua f o r t h eC opan r eg ion , a nd P omona , f o rP a lenque . T e r t ia ry o r t h i rd o rde r c en t re s , w e re t h o se t h a t d i d n o t p o s ses s t h e i r o wn e mb lem g l yph b u t h ave i n sc r ibed m onumen t s i nw h ich t h e e mb lem g l yph o fa p r ima ry o r s e conda ry c en t re o ccu r . E xamp le s o f t h e se a c co rd ing t o Ma rcu s a r e I x lu , X imba l , a nd U axac tun f o r t h e T ika l r e g ion , B onampak a nd E l

C ayo f o r Y axch i lan , P u s i lha f o r C opan , a nd E l R e t iro , J onu ta , M i raf io re s a nd E l T o r tugue ro f o r P a lenque . O n t h e l owe s t t i e r a r e i n c luded a l t h o se s i te s w h ich d o n o t e xh ib i t a ny e mb lem g l yph a t a l i n t h e i r i n sc r ip t ion s ( Ma r cu s 1 973 :10 ) .

N o te t h a t Ma rcu s o m i t s f r om t h e l i s t t h e i mpo r tan t c en t r e o f C a lakmu l a nd c on s ide r s Y axch i lan a s h i e ra rch ica l ly s upe r io r t o P i ed ra s N eg ra s . H oweve r , s h e w ou ld l a te r m od if y t h i s o r ig ina l s cheme ( Ma r cu s 1 9 76 ) . A s B a r the l b efo re h e r , Ma rcu s s e e s S t e la A o f C opan f o r t h e L a t e C la s s ic a nd S t e la 1 0 o fS e iba l f o r t h eT e rm ina l C la s s ic a s e v idence o f t h e e x is tence o f f ou r r e g iona l c ap i ta ls w ho se g r ea te r h i e ra rchy a r gue s i n f a vou r o f t h e p r e sence o f p o l i t ica l h egemon ie s i n t h e Maya L ow lands ( Ma r cu s 1 976 : ) . F o l low ing t h is l i ne R .E .W . A dam s ( 1986 ) a l so p ropo ses t h e e x i s tence o f e i gh t r e g iona l c ap i ta ls i n t h e Maya L ow lands d u r ing t h e L a te C la s s ic . T he p hone t ic d ec iphe rmen t o f t h e e mb lem g l yph ( Loun sbu ry 1 973 ; Ma thew s a nd J u s t e son 1 9 84 ; Ma thew s 1 985 ; Ma thew s1991) s howed t h a t t h i s , a sp a r t o ft h e t i le s i n c luded i nt h e n ame p h ra se o f r u le r s a nd r o ya l n ob le s ,

1 2

d eno t e s

a n

e qua l p o l i t ica l r a nk b e tween

i n d iv idua l s

( F igu re 2 -2 ) .

AHAW " l ord ,r u ler" „.. . .. . ... ... . . ..

A .« . ». . .

. .. \

1

K 'UHUL " D iv ine"

N ame o f P o l i ty

F igu r e2 -2 C omponen t so ft h ee mb lem g l yph ( F rom Ma thew s 1 991)

t o c en t re s a nd d yna s t ie s o f e qua l p o l i t ica l s t a tu s , t h en t h e re w e re a s m any i n dependen t p o l i t ie s i n t h e Maya L ow land s a st h e re w e r e e mb lem g l yphs . T he r e su l t w a s a t o ta l o f a r ound 6 0 o r 7 0 a u tonomou s p o l i t ie s d u r ing t h e L a te C la s s ic ( F igu re2 -3 ) ( Ma thew s 1 991 :29 ) .

I n t h i s c on tex t Ma thew s ( 1 991) f ound u n l ike ly t h e e x is t ence o f r eg iona l p o l i t ica l c ap i ta l s . T he a dvance s i n t h e e p ig raph ic k now ledge o ft h e t i m e , w h ich r e vea led t h e n a tu r e o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tw een c en t re s , d i d n o t s uppo r tt h en t h e i d ea o ft h e e x i s tence o fr e g iona l c ap i ta l s . Ma thew s a r gued t h a t i ft h e e mb lem g l yph s w e re r e f e r r ing T HE MAYA A REA S ugge s ted p o l i t i ca l o rgan iza t ion a t 9 . 18 .0 .0 .0 •P r imary c en te r .D ependen cy — S o cbe — app rox ima te b ounda ry b etween p ar i t i e s o

s o

t o ot.

F igu re 2 3 I d en t if ica t ion o fa u tonomou s p o l i t ie s ( f rom Ma thew s 1 988 )

1 3

G rube a nd Ma r t in 1 998 ) . T he ir f i nd ing s , r e vea led d a ta t h a t w a s i n d i rec t c onf l ic t w i th t h e ' p ee r p o l i ty ' w eak s t a te ' p a rad igm , b u t a t t h e s ame t ime f e l l s ho r t o f c o r robo ra t ing t h e e x i s tence o f r eg iona l s t a te s . I n t h e i r a na ly s is o ft h e C la s s ic Maya L ow land i n sc r ip t ion s , G rube a nd Ma r t in f o und t h a t t h e re w a s e nough e v idence t o s ugge s t s ome f o rm s o f s ubo rd ina t ion b e tween c en t r e s . F o r e xamp le , j u s t a s t h e s ubo rd ina te r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween k i ng s a nd t h e i r v a s sa ls ( s aha l ) m ay b e i n f e r r ed b y t h e p o s se s s ive f o rm u saha l " t he s a ha l o f ' ( F igu re 2 4 ) , t h e p o l i t ica l s ubo rd ina t ion o fo ne k i ng t oa no the r c an b e a t t e s ted b y as im i la rp o s se s s ive f o rm y ahaw , " t he l o rd

T he c ons tan t m en t ion o f w a r f a re i n t h e i n sc r ip t ion s b e tw een c en t re s t h roughou t t h e C la s s ic P e r iod i sa to dd s w i th t h e i d ea o f a ny s o r t o f r e g iona l i n teg ra t ion . A s G rube a nd Ma r t in n o ted , n o u n i ta ry r e g iona l s t a te s c ou ld h ave t o le ra ted s uch a f r equen t i n te rna l w a r r ing a nd s t i l l e x i s ta ss u ch ( G rube a nd Ma r t in 1 998 : 1 1 -12 ) . Ma thew s ' f r agmen ted ' p o l i t ica l m ap o f m any a u tonomou s p o l i t ie s i sa k in t o t h e ' p ee r p o l i ty ' m ode l p ropo sed b y R enf rew ( Renf rew 1 982 ; R enf rew a nd C he r ry 1 986 ) . I n t h i s s cheme , a l though ac en t r e m ay b e a b le t o g a in p rom inence o ve r o t he r n e ighbou r ing a u tonomou sc en t re s , t h is p rom inence i ss ho r t l ived a nd n o r e a l e mp i re o r r eg iona l s t a te e ve r o ccu r s . H ou s ton h a s d ef ined t h i s f o rm o f p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion a s t h e ' weak s t a te ' i n o ppo s i t ion t o t h e ' l a rge s t rong s t a te ' i d ea t h a t p r eva i led w i th t h e p ropo sed e x is tence o f t h e r e g iona l c ap i ta ls . I n s ho r t , t h e Maya ' weak s t a te s ' a r e c ha rac te r i sed b y af r iab le s t ruc tu re w i th al im i ted c on t ro l

o f ' ( Ma r t in a nd G rube 1 995 :42 ) .

I n t h e s ame l i ne o fr e a son ing t h e p re sence o f ad i f f e r en t t e rm t h a t i n t roduce s an ew c ha rac te r ( a lway s al o rd o r r u le r f r om ad i f f e ren t p o l i ty ) r e info rce s t h i s n o t ion . T h i s t e rm i su kah i a l so r e ad a s u kabh i ( F igu re 2 -5 ) , w h ich o ccu r s i n v a r iou s r oya l i n augu ra t ion s a nd h a s b een t r an s la ted a s " unde r t h e s upe rv is ion o f ' o r " unde r t h e a eg i s o f ' s ugge s t s t h e d i rec t i n te rven t ion o f ad om inan t k i ng i nt h e a c ce s s ion o fa no the r . Mo re i mp l ic i tr e f e rence s o fd i rec t s upe rv i s ion a r e t h e t e rm s y ichna la nd i l ah . T he f o rme r h a s b een g l o s sed a s " t oge the r w i th" o r " i n t h e s i gh t o f ' , a nd h a s b een i d en t if ied i n t h ree r e f e rence s t o f o re ign s upe rv is ion o f a cce s s ion c e remon ie s , w h i le t h e l a t te r , t r an s la t ed a s " wa s s e en" a ppea r s o n a s i ng le e xamp le ( G rube a nd Ma r t in 1 998 : 1 -16 ) .

o ve r i t s p eop le a nd t e r r i to ry . P o l i t ica l p owe r i sc en t red a r ound t h e f i gu re o f ' c ha r isma t ic ' k i ng s , ab u reauc ra t ic a dm in i s t ra t ive s t ruc tu re i s w eak ly d eve loped , a nd t h e p ow e r o f t h e k i ng w i l l b e d ependen t o n h i s a b i l i ty t o a t t ra c t a nd m a in ta in t h e s uppo r t o f t h e p rov inc ia l b a ron s ( Hou s ton 1 992 , c i ted i n G rube a nd Ma r t in 1 998 : 1 1 14 1 5 ) . H oweve r , m o re r e cen t i n te rp re ta t ion s b y N iko la i G rube a nd S imon Ma r t in p o in t a ga in t owa rd s t h e e x i s tence o f h egemon ic p o l i t ica l p owe r s ( S imon a nd G rube 1 995 ;

1 4

y ahaw

l o ca l r u le r

s ubo rd inate

p ossessed

h i ghe r r a nk ing r u le r

h i gher r ank ing r u le r

t i t le F i gu re 2 -4 T i t les t h a t i mp ly p o l i t ica l s ubo rd ina t ion ( F rom G rube a nd Ma r t in 1 998 )

1 5

a cce s s ion o fl o ca l r u ler

uk ab h i

h igher r ank ing r u ler

F igu re 2 5 E xp re ss ions t h a t i mp ly p o l i t ica l s ubo rd ina t ion ( F rom G rube a nd Ma r t in 1 998 ) F rom t h is a na ly s is Ma r t in a nd G rube w e re a b le t oi d en t if y

b e tween n e ighbou r ing k i ngdom s , b u t as ub s tan t ia l n umbe r

t h a t s ome k i ngdom s w e re c ons is ten t ly m o re d om inan t

o f t h e se c r o s sed h a lf t h e Maya L ow lands ( Ma r t in a nd G rube 1 995 : 4 4 ) . P o l i t ica l i n f luence a nd p owe r w a s o bv iou s ly n o t s ha red e qua l ly b e tween s t a te s ; r a the r

t h an o t he r s , m an ipu la t ing o r a tt h e v e ry l e a s t i n te rven ing i n t h e i n te rna l a f fa i r s o f t h e s ma l le r o ne s . T he f ew e xp l ic i t i n te r -s ta te w a r fa re r e co rds a l so s e em t o b e c ons is ten t

w i th t h e

Ma r t in a nd G rube h ave f ound t h a t t h e re i s e nough e v idence t o p r opo se t h e e x is tence o f t wo h egemon ic

i d ea t h a t w a r r a re ly t ook p l ace

s upe rpowe r s : T ika l a nd C a lakmu l .

b e tween c en t res t h a t u sua l ly h ad p o l i t ica l t i e s ; w h i le a tt h e s ame t i me p o l i t ica l a l ies s e em t os ha re t h e s ame e nem ie s . Many o ft h e se p o l i t ica l s ubo rd ina te r e la t ionsh ips o ccur red

1 6

THREE

LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGY AND CO M MUNICAT ION ROUTES

p u rpo se s o ft h is s t udy Ih ave e x tended A l ipha t 's o r ig ina l a r ea t ot h e n o r thwe s t b eyond B oca d e l C er ro i no rde r t o i n c lude P omona . T he L a can ja V a l ley w a s a l so i n c luded ; t h u s t h e t o ta l a r ea c ove red i nt h i s t h e s is c omp r ise s s ome 9 254 s q . k m . Ir e f e r t o t h e s t udy a r ea a s t h e U ppe r U suma c in ta R eg ion ( F igu re 3 1) , t h is d ef in i t ion i sb a sed

I n troduc t ion G eog raphy h a s o nce a ga in s upp l ied a r chaeo logy w i th t h e t h eo r e t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l t o o ls t o a s s i s t i ti n t h e

m o re o n t h e l e ve ls o fs i te i n t e rac t ion p r e sen t i nt h e s t udy a r ea , t h an i ni t s a c tua l p hy s ica l d e f in i t ion a s i nA l ipha t 's t h e s i s . I nt h i s s en se t h e s t udy a r ea r ep re sen t s w ha tT ay lo r ( 1975 ) d e s igna te s a s af unc t iona l r eg ion , w h ich i s c ha rac te r i sed b y s t eady f l ow s o fs pa t ia l i n te rac t ion a nd i s

a na ly s i s o ft h e s pa t ia l n a tu re o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T h is t i me t h rough t h e c oncep tua l t e ne t s o f l a nd scape t h eory t h a t h ave p rov ided t h e f o unda t ion s o f l a nd scape a r cha eo logy . F rom t h e se , C rum ley a nd Ma rqua rd t ( 1 990 ) h ave i d en t if ied t wo t y pe s o f s t ruc tu re t h a t d e te rm ine l a ndscape : t h e s oc ia l -h i s tor ica l s t ruc ture s a nd t h e p hys ica l s t ruc ture s . T he f o rme r i n c lude s t h e p o l i t ica l , l e ga l a nd e conom ic s t ruc tu r e s , a s w e l l a s t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t s n ece ssa ry t oi mp lemen t t h e se . T he l a t te r a r e t h o se s t ruc tu re s t h a t a r e r e la t ive ly o u t o fd i rec t h uman c on t ro l ( a l though i mbued w i th s oc ie ta l m ean ing ) , s uch a s c l ima te , t o pog raphy a nd g eo logy ( C rum ley a nd Ma rqua rd t 1 990 :74 ) .

d ef ined b y ad i s tance d ecay e f f ec t( Tay lo r 1 975 :5 ) . T he n a tu re o f t h e s i t e i n te rac t ion w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n m o re d e ta i l i nC hap te r 6 ,f o r t h e t i me b e ing i ts uf f ice s t o m en t ion t h a t t h e n a tu re a nd l e ve l s o f t h i s i n te rac t ion a r e w e l l a c coun ted f o r i n t h e h i e rog lyph ic c o rpu s o f t h e r e g ion . F igu re 3 -2 s how s am ap o f t h e r e g ion w i th t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e m a in s i te s . A l though t h i s s i te m ap i n c lude s b o th p r ima ry c en t re s a sw e l l a s s e conda ry o ne s ; i ti sb y n o m ean s e xhau s t ive s i nce o n ly t h o se s i te s t h a t h ave m onumen ta l a r ch i tec tu re w e re c on s ide red . S ome o f t h e se w e re v i s i ted a nd r e co rded b y Maud s lay , C ha rnay a nd Ma le r i nt h e l a t te r p a r t o f t h e 1 9t h c en tu ry a nd m o re s i t e s a r e s t i l l t ob e d i scove red . T he d en se c oncen t ra t ion o f s i te s t owa rd s B oca d e l C er ro i sp robab ly m o re t h e e f f ec t o ft h e r e cen t s u rvey s c a r r ied o n b y t h e C om is iön F ede ra l d e E lec t r ic idad ( CFE ) , Mex ico 's s t a te o wned e l ec t r ic p owe r c ompany . T he C FE w a s c onduc t ing a s e r ie s o f e nv i ronmen ta l a nd c u l tu ra l r e sou r ce s i mpac t s t ud ie s f o r a p ro jec ted c on s t ruc t ion o f ad am a t B oca d e l C e r ro .

A rcha eo logy 's c once rn w i th h uman b ehav iou r g oe s h and i nh and w i th t h e s pa t ia l a na ly s i s o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ve r t h e n a tu ra l a nd s oc ia l l a ndscape o f t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu r e a nd t h e p eop le t h a t c r ea ted i t . H ence , l a nd scape a r cha eo logy i sc once rned w i th t h e s t udy o f t h e h uman i mp r in t o n t h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronm en t , w he re t h e c u l tu ra l l a ndscape r e f lec t s t h e i n terp lay b e tween t e chno logy , e nv i ronmen t , s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd t h ev a lue s o ft h e s oc ie ty t h a tg ave i tf o rm ( G reen 1 990 :5 ;T rombo ld 1 991 :1) . I tw a s w i th in t h e c on tex t o f l a nd scape a r chaeo logy t h a t A l ipha t ( 1 994 ) p ropo sed t h a t t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e m a jo r k nown c en t re s o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta r e g ion w a s s t rong ly c o r re la ted t o t h e n a tu ra l l a nd scape e l emen t s , g i v ing p r io r i ty t o t h e s t ra teg ic f a c to r s , i n t h i s c a se , c hanne l s o fc ommun ica t ion s . T he r ou te s y s tem s u s ed b y ap a r t icu la r c u l tu re s hou ld t h en r e f lec t s ome th ing o f i t s i n te rna l c ompo s i t ion , v a lue s y s tem ( i n t e rm s o fc ho ice s o f c onnec t ion ) , a nd mode o f a dap ta t ion t o t h e c u l tu ra l a nd n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . R ou te s c an e i the r b e f o rma l r ou te s : t h o se t h a t s how e v idence o f p l ann ing a nd p u rpo sef u l c on s t ruc t ion , o r i n fo rma l r ou t e s : t h o se t h a t h ave m in ima l o r n o l a bou r d i rec ted t o t h e i r c r ea t ion o r m a in tenance . T he l a t te r m o s t ly c on s i s t o fp a th s , t r a i l s a nd t r ade r ou t e s ( T rombo ld 1 991 :3 ) .

A rchaeo log i s tG . D e lgado p roduced am ap t h a tc omp r i sed t h e se s i te s a nd o t he r m ino r s i te s t h a t w e r e n o t i n c luded i n m y s t udy ( De lgado n da ) . Iw i l l b r ie f ly s umma r i se s ome o f t h e m a in f e a tu r e s o ft h e p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t a na ly sed b y Meave ( 1 990 ) A l ipha t ( 1994 ) a nd G iovann in i e t a l ( 1 998 ) , w h ich I c on s ide r o f p r ime i mpo r tance f o r t h e p r e sen t s t udy . Ir e f e r t h e i n te re s ted r e ade r t ot h e se w o rk s f o r am o re d e ta i led a ccoun t . I nt h is s umma ry d e sc r ip t ion t h e r e ade r w i l l n o t ice t h a t Ia m n o t i n c lud ing ad i scu s s ion o f t h e v ege ta t ion d e sp i te i t s o bv iou s i mpo r tance . T h i s d i sm i s sa l h oweve r i sd ue t o t h e l a ck o f m o re e x ten s ive p a leo -env i ronmen ta l s t ud ie s i nt h e r e g ion . T opog raphy : T he r e g ion u nde r s t udy i sc ha rac te r i sed b y h i l ly t e r ra in c ove red w i th d en se t r op ica l f o re s t o n t h e G ua tema lan s i de , a nd w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e R e se rva B io sf e ra E co lög ica Mon te s A zu le s , t h e re a r ej u s t af ew r ema in ing p a t che s o f t r op ica l f o re s t l e f t o n t h e Mex ican s i de . T he U suma c in ta b a s in i sb ounded t o t h e n o r th a nd s ou th b y m oun ta in r a nge s . T he n o r the rn r a nge l o ca ted o n t h e G ua tema lan s i de o f t h e r i ve r i sk nown a s t h e S i e r ra d e

I nt h i s c hap te r Iw i l l d ea l f i r s tw i th t h e p hy s ica l s t ruc tu r e s o ft h e l a nd scape a nd t h e e f f ec t s t h a t t h i s l a nd scape h a s o n m ovemen t . I w i l l l e ave t h e d i scu s s ion o f t h e s oc ioh i s to r ica l s t ruc tu re s f o rC hap t e rF ive . D e scr ip t ion o ft he P hy s ica lE nv ironmen t

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T he p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta r e g ion h a s b een s t ud ied a nd t h o rough ly d e sc r ibed b y A l ipha t ( 1 994 ) . A l ipha t 's s t udy a r ea e x tend s f r om t h e o r ig in o f t h e U sumac in ta l o ca t ed a tt h e j unc t ion o f t h e P a s ion a nd S a l ina s R ive r s , t o B o ca d e l C e r ro . F o r t h e

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S a l ina s C h ixoy . O f t h e se f i ve o n ly t h e S an P ed ro Ma r t i r i sp a r to f as epa ra te n e two rk t h a tc onnec t s t h e r e g ion w i th t h e P e ten . A l l o f t h e se r i ve r s a r e n av igab le f o r mo s t o f t h e i r c ou r se t h u s f o rm ing p a r t o f v e ry i mpo r tan t c ommun ica t ion r ou te s . O ft h e f i ve r i ve r s t h e U sumac in ta i sb y f a r t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t f o r t h e r e g ion . I tv i r tua l ly c on s t i tu te s t h e s p ina l c o rd o f t h e w ho le r e g ion , a nd s o m o re d e ta i l w i l l b e g i ven t o i ti n t h e d i scu s s ion t h a t f o l low s .

t h e s ou th o f t h e U sumac in ta R ive r i st h e S i e r ra d e l a C o jo l i ta . I tr i ses u p t o7 00 m a s l , r u nn ing p a ra l le l t ot h e U sumac in ta b a s in f o r a pp rox ima te ly 7 0 k m , a nd s e pa ra t ing t h e U suma c in ta b a s in f r om t h e L acan ja b a s in t ot h e s ou th . H oweve r , as e r ie s o fn a tu ra l p a s se s f o rmed b y t h e f a u l t ing o f t h e r a nge s t ruc tu re c onnec t s b o th v a l ley s . I nb e tween t h e se t wo m oun ta in r a nge s t r a c t s o f r e la t ive ly f l a t l a nds a r e l o ca ted r unn ing p a ra l le l t o t h e U suma c in ta . T he se l a nd s a r e c ha rac te r i sed b y t h e p r e sence o f m a r she s , s wamp s s t ream s , r i ve r s , l a ke s a nd

C on t ra ry t oc ommon b e l ief t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta R ive r d oe s n o t f o rm a r i ve r v a l ley p rope r s i nce o w ing t o i t s s t ruc tu ra l c ha rac te r i s t ic , i t l a ck s af l oodp la in . T h i s p ecu l ia r i ty i sd ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e c ou r se o f t h is r i ve r d oe s n o tf o l low av a l ley c r ea t ed b y t h e n a tu ra l f o ld s o ft h e e a r th 's s u r f ace ( s ync l ine ) , b u t r a the r i tr un s a l ong t h e f a u l ted a x is o fa n u p r i s ing f o ld ( a n t ic l ine ) h eav i ly e r od ing i t sc o r e . A l ipha t b e t te rd e sc r ibe s t h i s c ha rac te r i s t ic : " The r i ve r i si n e f f ec t , t r apped i n t h e c o re o f t h is s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu r e a nd w i l l c au se d eep e r o s ion i n ar e c t i l inea r p a t t e rn , r a the r t h an i n a s i deway s p a t te rn w h ich c ha ra c te r ize s o t he r m a jo r s i zed r i ve r s i nt h e f o rma t ion o f s i nuou s o r m eande r ing r i ve r v a l ley s" ( A l ipha t 1 994 :32 ) . T he L acan ja R ive r f o l low s an o r thwe s t t o s ou thea s t c ou r se d i rec t ion r unn ing f o r a pp rox ima t e ly 7 5 k m u n t i l i t r e a che s t h eL a can tun R ive rt h a tf l ow s f r om t h e s ou th . T he L a can tun i nt u rn s f o l low s an o r thea s te r ly d i rec t ion u p t o t h e p o in t w he r e i tj o in s t h e S a l ina s /Ch ixoy R ive r s g i v ing o r ig in t ot h eU sumac in ta ( Meave 1 990 :23 ) .

r o l l ing h i l l s( A l ipha t 1 994 :21-22 ) . T he L a can ja v a l ley i sb ounded t ot h e e a s tb yt h e S i e r ra d e l aC o jo l i ta , a nd t o t h e w e s t b y t h e E a s te rn H igh land s . T he f l oo r l e ve l o f t h e L acan ja V a l ley l i e s a ta n e l eva t ion o fa pp rox ima te ly 3 50 m a s l . I tc on ta in s as e r ie s o fk a r s t ic h i l l s t h a t c an r each u p t o 5 0 m o f e l eva t ion f r om t h e v a l ley f l oo r . T he L acan ja R ive r i n te r sec t s t h i s v a l ley f o rm ing t wo p l a in s s l igh t ly s l an ted t owa rds t h er i ve r . T he w e s te rn s i de i s a pp rox ima te ly 1 8 km w ide , w h i le t h e e a s te rn s i de m ea su re s a r ound 1 0 k m i nw id th . I ti si nt h i s l a t t e r z one t h a t t h e i mpo r tan t C la s s ic Maya c en t re o f B onampak i s l o ca ted , a bou t 3 . 5 k m f r om t h e L a can ja R ive r( Meave 1 990 :22 ) . C l ima t e : A l though e xhau s t ive r e co rds o f t h e w ea the r f l uc tua t ion s h ave n o t b een k ep t d ue m a in ly t ot h e l a ck o fo b se rva t ion s t a t ion s i n g ene ra l , h i gh t empe ra tu re s a nd h i gh p r ec ip i ta t ion c ha rac te r ize s t h e c l ima te o ft h e U sumac in ta

T he U sumac in ta R ive r c r o s se s t wo v e ry i mpo r tan t p hy s iog raph ic r e g ion s w i th in t h e s t udy a r ea . T he se r e g ion s c on t ro l t h e n a tu re o ft h e r i ve r 's c ou r se . U p s t ream f r om Y axch i lan t h e r i ve r l e ave s t h e U sumac in ta a n t ic l ine a nd c on sequen t ly i t s c ou r se b ecome s m o re s l ugg ish a nd l e s s b roken , a so pposed t oi t sc ou r se d own s t ream . I nt h i s s e c t ion , b eg inn ing f r om t h e Y axch i lan o xbow , t h e r i ve r i s c ha ra c te r i sed b y t h e f r equen t p r e sence o f g o rge s w i th s t eep e s ca rpmen t s . T he re a r e f i ve m a jo r s egmen t s a l ong t h e r i ve r , w h ich r un t h rough s t eep c anyons . A s ide f r om t h e e s ca rpmen t s t h e re a r e a l so as e r ie s o f r a p id s , f i ve i n t o ta l . T he se r a p ids a r e d ue t ot h e t r an scur ren t f a u l t s t h a t h ave c u t t h e a x i s o f t h e U suma c in ta a n t ic l ine ( A l ipha t 1 994 : 5 3 , 5 6 , 6 5 ) .

b a s in . T he m ean a nnua l t empe ra tu re s u rpa s se st h e 2 4° C , w i th a na ve rage h i gh o f3 0° C ( A l ipha t 1 990 :44 ) . F o rt h e B onampak a r ea , h oweve r , Meave r epo r t s s l igh t ly l owe r m ean t empe ra tu re s o f 2 4 .6 ° C , w i th a n a ve rage h i gh o f 2 7 .2 ° C d u r ing t h e m on th o f May ( Meave 1 990 :19 ) . T he a nnua l m ean p rec ip i ta t ion i s 2 , 200 mm i n t h e U ppe r U suma c in ta a nd 2 , 609 mm f o r t h e L a ca ja V a l ley . A n i mpo r tan t f a c to r t o k eep i n m ind i n t e rm s o f r i ve r a nd l a nd t r an spo r ta t ion i st h a t p r ec ip i ta t ion i ss e a sona l . T he r a in ie s t p e r iod o ccu r s d u r ing t h e m on th s o f May t h rough S ep tembe r w i th a m on th ly a ve rage o f 4 00 mm . A l ipha t n o tes t h a td u r ing t h er a iny s ea son t h e r e i s ad r ie rp e r iod i n t h e m on th s o f J u ly a nd A ugu s t , k nown a s t h e c an i cu la . O n t h e o t he r e x t reme F eb rua ry a nd Ma r ch a r e t h e d r ie s t m on th s w i th a r a inf a l l o f u nde r 4 0 mm o n a ve rage ( A l ipha t 1 994 :45 ) . I n t h e B onampak a r ea t h e a nnua l m ean p r ec ip i ta t ion r e po r ted b y Meave i s2 , 609 mm , w i th t h e r a iny s e a son b eg inn ing i nt h e m on th o f May ( 1 36 mm ) r e a ch ing i t s p eak i nA ugu s t ( 468 .8 mm ) , a nd c onc lud ing i nJ a nua ry ( 1 11 mm ) . T he d r ie s t m on th i s Ma rch w i th a n a ve rage p r ec ip i ta t ion o f3 4 .5 mm ( Meave 1 990 :19 ) .

D u r ing t h e r a iny s ea son t h e l e ve l s o f t h e r i ve r s a nd s t ream s r i se c on s ide rab ly . T he f a c t t h a t t h e U sumac in ta d oe s n o t h ave a f l ood p l a in m ake s t h e se c hange s e ven m o re r a d ica l . S ep tembe r , O c tobe r a nd N ovembe r a r e t h e m on th s w hen t h e U sumac in ta r i se s t h e m o s t ; w h i le d u r ing t h e m on th o f May t h e r i ve r i sa t i t s l owe s t l e ve l r i ve r ( A l ipha t 1 994 :54 -55 ) . Iw i l l i l u s t ra te i nt h e s e cond p a r t o ft h i s c hap te r , h ow t h e se c hange s i nt h e r i ve r 's l e ve l c an h ave a n i mpo r tan te f f ec t i nt h e t r ave l p o s s ib i l i t ie s .

D ra inage S y s tem : F i ve m a jo r r i ve r s a nd t h e ir t r ibu ta r ie s f o rm t h e h yd ro log ica l n e two rk o f t h e r e g ion : t h e U sumac in ta , t h e S an P ed ro Ma r t f r , t h e L acanha , t h e L acan tun a nd t h e

S o i ls : I np onde r ing t h e s t ra teg ic v s . t h e t a c t ica l f a c to r s f o r t h e l o ca t ion o fh uman s e t t lemen t s , s o i ls ( i n t e rm s o fq ua l i ty

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T rave l le r s t o t h e r eg ion n owaday s f i nd t h e ir j ou rney f a c i l i ta ted f o r t h e m o s t p a r t b y t h e m ode rn m ean s o f t r an spo r ta t ion ( a spha l t o r d i r t r oads , a i r s t r ip s , o u tboa rd m o to r b oa t s ) . T he i r v i s i t t o t h e v a r iou s a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s o f t h e r e g ion s i sf o r t h e mo s t p a r t u neven t f u l , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h e o cca s iona l b and i t a t ta ck s . T h is e a se o f t r ave l w a s n o t t h e c a se j u s t ac oup le o fd ecade s a go , w hen t h e o p t ion s w he re l i m i ted t o m u le a nd a f ew a i r s t r ip s , a nd e ven e a r l ie r g o ing i n to t h e r e g ion m ean t w a lk ing a nd c anoe ing f o r t h e mo s t p a r t . T o f u r the r i l u s t ra te t h e l i m i ta t ion s t h a t t h e p hy s ica l s t ruc tu re s o ft h e l a nd scape p o se s t ot r ave l l e t u s t u rn n ow t os ome e a r l ie r a c coun t s w hen t r ave l w a s s t i l l made m o s t ly b y f o o t a nd c anoe .

a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p o ten t ia l ) a lway s l o om l a rge a s a d e te rm inan t v a r iab le . H oweve r , t h e U sumac in ta b a s in , l a ck ing a f l ood p l a in p rope r , d oe s n o t r e p re sen t g r ea t a g r icu l tu ra l p o ten t ia l . D e sp i te t h i s , t wo o f t h e m a jo r c en t re s o ft h e r eg ion ( P ied ra s N eg ra s a nd Y axch i lan ) , a nd a tl e a s t f i ve i mpo r tan t s e conda ry c en t re s ( E l P o rven i r , E l C ayo , E l C h i le , E l C h icozapo te , a nd E l A na i te I ) , a r e l o ca ted a l ong i t s b ank s . A l ipha t s ugge s t s t h a t a n e xam ina t ion o ft h es o i l s f ound i nt h e v i c in i ty o ft h e se s i t e s i s d eemed n ece s sa ry i n t e rm s o f t h e i r a g r icu l tu ra l p o ten t ia l . H is a na ly s i s s how s t h a t n one o f t h e se s i t e s i s l o ca t ed n ea r a n e xcep t iona l s o i l t y pe i n t e rm s o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t iv i ty . A l ipha t i d en t if ied e i gh td i s t inc t s o i l s e r ie s i nh i s s t udy ; o ft h ese t h e m o s t a bundan ta r e t h e L a candon S e r ie s t h a t r ep re sen t s o ve r at h i rd o ft h e w ho le a r ea . T hese s e r ie s a r e c ha rac te r ised b y s ha l low b u tf e r t i le a nd w e l l -d ra ined s o i l s . T h is m ean s t h a t a l though n o t

T raver s ing t he R eg ion , t he H i s tor ic A ccoun t s

p r ime a g r icu l tu ra l s o i ls t h ey a r e s t i l l v e ry g ood s o i l s w i th o n ly m ino r l im i ta t ions ( A l ipha t 1 994 :122 , 1 30 , 1 3 5 ) . Meave b r ief ly d e sc r ibed t h e s o i ls o ft h eL acan ja V a l ley i n t h e v i c in i ty o f B onampak . H i s d e sc r ip t ion c ha ra c t e r i se s t h e se s o i ls a s s im i la r t o t ho se o f t h e L acandon S e r ie s ( ma in ly r e ndz ina , w h ich a r e s ha l low b u tw e l l d ra ined w i th m ode ra te f e r t i l i ty ) . H oweve r t h i s i d en t if ica t ion i sb a sed

A l though w ha t T rombo ld h a s d ef ined a s f o rma l c ommun ica t ion r ou te s h ave n o t b een i n d i spu tab ly i d en t if ied , c ommun ica t ion r ou tes t h roughou t t h e s t udy a r ea a r e b y n o m ean s h aphaza rd . T he k now ledge o ft h e n a tu ra l i n land p a s se s a nd t h e l o ca t ion o fr i ve r r ap id s a nd p o r tage s w a s a nd s t i l l i se s sen t ia l f o r t h e s u cce s s o f a ny i n cu r s ion i n to t h e r e g ion . T o t h is r e spec t w e h ave a w ea l th o f i n f o rma t ion i n t h e a ccoun t s o f t h e s i x t een th c en tu ry S pan i sh c onqu i s tado r s a nd t h e l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry -ea r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry s c ien t i s t s -adven tu re r s .

m o re o n d educ t ion r a the r t h an o n e mp i r ica l o b se rva t ion s ( Meave 1 990 :24 ) . G iovann in i e t a l . ( 1998 ) h ave c onduc ted a mo re t h o rough s t udy o f t h e s o i l s a r ound B onampak a nd a l ong t h e L acan ja V a l ley , a nd h ave f o und t h a t t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t s o i ls p r e sen t i n t h e r e g ion a r e R endz ina , F e r r ic L uv iso ls , E u t r ic N i to so l s , a nd L i tho so l s . A s i n t h e c a se o f t h e Uppe r U sumac in ta t h e h i ghe r

T h e t r ave l le r s ' a c coun t s s pec ify t h a t t h ey u sed t h e o l d m on t er ia t r a i l s c l ea red b y t h e m en s e ek ing p r ec iou s w ood s , c h ic le , a nd r ubbe r i n t h e L a candon f o re s t . N eve r the le s s a s w e r e ad t h e ir a ccoun t s i t b ecome s o bv iou s t h a t d ue t ot h e a b rup tnes s o f t h e t e r ra in a nd t h e n ume rou s n a tu ra l o b s tac le s t h e se t r a i l s f o l low ed c l o se t o , o rb e t te r y e t w e re t h e s ame r ou te s o fp r e -H ispan ic t i me s . T h i s a s sump t ion i sr e info rced b y C ha rnay 's a nd Ma le r 's m en t ion o f t h e m any a r chaeo log ica l r u in s l y ing n ex t t o t h e se t r a i l s .

p e rcen tage o fs o i l s f o r t h e L acan ja V a l ley a r e r e p re sen ted b y t h e R endz ina . H oweve r , t h e se s t ud ie s a l so r e vea led t h a t a r ound t h e s i te s o f B onampak , L acanha , a nd L a C a sa cada L acanha t h e re i s a h i gh r e p re sen ta t ion o f L uv i so l s , w h ich a r e b y f a r p r ime s o i l s f o r a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion . A l ipha t c onc lude s t h a t t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i t es i nt h e U ppe r U sumac in ta v a l ley i sh i gh ly c o r r e la ted w i th t h e r i ve r i t se lf r a the r t h an w i th t h e p rox im i ty t oa ny s i gn if ican t a va i lab i l i ty o f o p t imum a g r icu l tu ra l s o i l . T h i s s e em s t ob e a l so t r ue f o r t h e i n land c ommun ica t ion r o u t e s

C ö r te s ' p un i t ive e xcu r s ion t o Hondu ra s l e d h im t o t h e o u t sk i r t s o f t h e r e g ion a s h e a rduou s ly p a s sed t h rough T aba sco a nd C ampeche i n 1 525 . I tw a s t h en , w hen C ö r te s f i r s t h ea rd m en t ion o ft h e C h iapa s l ow land s a nd a s ma l l b u t b e l l ico se t r ibe t h a t i n hab i ted a n i s land i n ab i g l a ke l o ca ted i n ar e g ion k nown a s L acam -T un , t h e L a candone s . P ed ro d e A lva rado , t h en G ove rno r o f G ua tema la , l e a rned a bou t h i s f o rme r c ap ta in 's d i ff icu l t j ou rney . A lva rado a l so k new a bou t t h e e x is tence o f t h e L a candone s , s o h e o rgan i sed a n e xped i t ion w i th t h e d oub le i n ten t ion t oj o in C ö r te s ' f o rce s a nd t oc onque r t h e L a candone s . A lva rado w a s u nab le t o r e ach C o r ti s , a l though d e V o s ( 1 988 ) , i nh i s magn if icen tt r ea t ise o n t h e c onque s t o ft h e L a candon f o re s tr e f e r st o ac oup le o fl e ga l d ocumen t s a nd a l e t te r w r i t ten b y A lva rado h im se lf a te s t ing t o t h e e xped i t ion . I n h i s l e t te r A lva rado m en t ion s h ow d e sp i te a l h i s e f fo r t s i tw a s i mpo s s ib le f o r h im t oj o in C ö r t e s ' f o rce s d ue t ot h e i mpa s sab le m a r she s a nd r i ve r s t h a tl a y i nb e tween ( d e V o s 1 988 :46 -48 ) .

a s t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s i te s L a P a sad i ta a nd A na i te I b o th o f w h ich a r e f ound o n t h e e dge s o f s wampy a nd p oo r ly d ra ined a r ea s ( A l ipha t 1 994 :136 ) . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e t wo m a jo rc en t re s i nt h eL a canha V a l ley ( Bonampak a nd L acanha ) s e em s t o b e m o re c o r re la ted t o t h e v i c in i ty o f p r ime a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd . G iovann in i e ta l . s t udy s how s t h a t B onampak i sn o t o n ly l o ca ted i n ar eg ion t h a t i s mo re t h an s u i tab le f o r m a ize a g r icu l tu re , b u t a l so t h a t t h e p ocke t s o f f e r t i le d eep s o i ls l o ca ted c l o se t ot h e s i te , p rov ide s t h e p o ten t ia l f o r l a rge s c a le c a cao p roduc t ion . S uch ap o s s ib i l i ty i ss uppo r ted b y t h e m u ra l p a in t ing s o f B onampak w he re b und le s o f f i ve b y e i gh t t h ou sand c acao ( 5p i k akaw ) a r e o f f e r ed i n t r ibu te ( M i l le r 1 997 ; G ovann in i e ta l . 1 998 ) .

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F ive y ea r s l a te r i n 1 530 , t h e f i r s t m i l i ta ry i n cu r s ion i n to t h e L a candon f o re s t t o ok p l a ce u nde r t h e c ommand o f A lon so D äv i la . D äv i la w a s o ne o f t h e c ap ta in s o f t h e a d e lan tado F ranc isco d e Mon te jo c onque ro r o fY uca tan . A n e yew i tne s s r e la t ed t h e d e ta i l s o ft h is e n t ry ; A lon so d e L u jän t oG onza lo F e rnändez d e O v iedo yV a ld6 s , a nd a r e c ommen ted u pon e x ten s ive ly b y d e V o s . Mon te jo d u r ing h i s c ampa ign t oc onque r Y uca tan w an ted t oe s tab l i sh h i s o pe ra t iona l b a se i nt h e p rov ince o fA ca lan i nC ampeche , w h ich d u r ing t h a t t ime h ad a r e pu ta t ion o f b e ing p ro spe rou s a nd d en se ly p opu la t ed . Mon te jo h e ld a m ee t ing w i th J uan E n r iquez d e G uzmän , t h en G ove rno r o f t h e p rov ince o f C h iapa s . G uzmän a g reed t o a i d Mon te jo i n h i s b i d f o r A ca lan a nd s ugge s ted t a k ing a r ou te t h rough C h iapa s , t o w h ich h e w ou ld p rov ide h im w i th a rm s , p rov is ion s , a nd m o re i mpo r tan t ly I n d ian g u ide s . D ue t o i lne s s , D äv i la i n s tead o f Mon te jo l e d a s ma l l f o r ce o f e i gh ty m en t h rough t h e L acandon F o re s t . T h i s s ma l l a rmy o f c onqu i s tado r s d epa r t ed f r om C iudad R ea l ( S an C r is toba l d e l a s C a sa s ) a ccompan ied b y t h e I n d ian g u ide s w ho l e d t h em f o r t h e f i r s t t h i r ty " l eague s" , a f t e r w h ich t h ey r e tu rned w i th t h e e xcu se t h a t t h ey n o l o nge r k new t h e r eg ion o r s poke t h e l o ca l l a nguage ( d e V o s 1 9 88 :48 -50 ) . D äv i la c on t inued h i s a dvance t o t h e j ung le a nd a f te r w a lk ing f o r ac on s ide rab le ( t hough u n spec if ied ) d i s tance t h ey r e a ched t h e b ank s o f ab i g l a ke w i th as ma l l r o cky i s land n ea r t h e s ho re ; t h ey c a l led t h i s l a ke L aguna d e L a candon . O n t h e i s land D äv i la 's f o rce s f ound av i l lage o fa bou t s i x ty w e l l -con s t ruc ted h ou se s . A cco rd ing t ot h i s d e sc r ip t ion a nd t h o se f r om l a te r e n t r ie s , t h e l a ke , i s land a nd t h e v i l lage m a tch t h e d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e L acam -T un c ap i ta l t h a t C o r t6 s h ad h ea rd m en t ioned o n r ou te t o H ondu ra s . B lom i n 1 950 i d en t if ied t h i s l a ke w i th t h e

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p r e sen t d ay L aguna M i rama r . F u r the r m o re , B lom n o ted t h e r ema in s o fp l a tfo rm s a nd a nc ien t b u i ld ing s o n o ne o f t h e i s land c l o se t ot h e s ho re ( d e V o s 1 988 :49 -50 ) . D äv i la 's f o rce s a t tacked t h e i n hab i tan t s o f t h e i s land i n s e a rch f o rg o ld . T hey f ound n one ; b u tt h ey d i d m anage t o c ap tu re s om e I nd ian s w ho s e rved a s g u ide s f o r t h em t o c r o s s t h e r e g ion o n r ou te t o A ca lan . I ti si n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e se p r i sone r s a cco rd ing t o L u jän 's a ccoun t c l a imed t ok now t h e r ou te t oA ca lan . T h is s t a temen t i s i mpo r tan ts i nce i ts ugge s t s t h a tc on tac tb e tween t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta r e g ion a nd t h e c oa s ta l p l a in c on t inued e ven a f te r t h e C la s s ic Maya c o l lap se . I ta l so s ugge s t s t h a t t h e c ommun ica t ion r ou te s u sed d u r ing t h e t i me o f E u ropean c on ta c t m ay h ave b een t h e s ame a s i np r eh ispan ic t ime s . D äv i la 's m a r ch c on t inued a nd a f te r w a lk ing t h rough a pp rox ima te ly t h i r ty " l eague s" o f m a r she s a nd a b rup t t e r ra in t h ey r e ached al a rge f a s t -f low ing r i ve r , w h ich h ad t ob e t h e U sumac in ta ( F igu re 3 3 ) . T hey r e a ched as ma l l s e t t lemen t o n t h e b ank s ( t he l e f t b ank ) o ft h e r i ve r , w he re t h ey w e re w e l l r e ce ived b y " f r iend ly" n a t ive s w ho p rov ided t h em w i th c anoe s a nd o f f e red t o g u ide t h em d own s t ream . As ho r t t ime l a te r t h ey r e ached t r eache rou s w a t e r s t h a t v i r tua l ly h o r r if ied t h em ( t he A na i te r a p id s? ) . Ia m i n c l ined t o t h ink t h a t t h e n a t ive s e xpec ted t h e S pan ia rd s t o p e r ish a t t h e r a p id s s i nce a cco rd ing t o L u jän 's a ccoun t t h ey s u rv ived t h em m i racu lou s ly . A f te r t h ree m o re l e ague s o f t r eache rou s w a t e r s ( t he S an J o sec i to r a p id s? ) , t h ey r e ached amo re p ea cef u l s t re tch o f t h e r i ve r f i na l ly a r r iv ing t ot h e C hon ta l t own o fT anoche , p r e sen t ly k nown a s T eno s ique . F rom t h i s p o in t D äv i la a nd h i s a rmy c on t inued t h e i r j ou rney h ead ing e a s t , c r o s sed t h e S an P ed ro Ma r t i r R ive r a f te r w h ich t h ey r e a ched t h e i r f i na l d e s t ina t ion , t h e p rov ince o f A ca lan ( d eV o s 1 988 :50 -51) .

SAN ) a

TON INA

OCOS IN C IO

F igu re 3 3 A lon so D äv i la 's e n t rada t ot h eU ppe rU sumac in ta r e g ion i n1 530 ( a f t e rd eV o s 1 988 T he j ou rney p roved t o b e v e ry a r duou s , f i r s t c r o s s ing t h rough m a r shy l ow land s a nd l a te r t h rough d en se f o re s t . H oweve r , C ha rnay 's a ccoun t s ugge s t s t h e e x is tence o f a " r oad" ( v e ry l i ke ly a bandoned b y t h a t t i me ) , w hen h e w ro te t h a t t h ey m oved t o t h e s ou thea s t t owa rd s t h e m oun ta in r ang e ( S ie r ra L a candon ) o n t h e P e ten r oad ( Cha rnay 1 887 ,4 24 ) . F igu re 3 -4 s how s t h ep o s s ib le r ou te

C ha rnay 's 1 887 , Maud s lay 's 1 889 a nd Ma le r 's 1 90 1 a nd 1 903 a ccoun t s o f t h e i r o wn j ou rney s a dd mo re p r ec iou s i n fo rma t ion t owa rd s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e c o mmun ica t ion r ou te s i nt h e s t udy r e g ion . T he f a c t t h a t t h e t h ree e xp lo re r s u sed d i f f e ren t r ou te s i s e x t reme ly u sefu l t o i l u s t ra te t h e f e a s ib i l i ty o f a l te rna t ive p r e H ispan ic r ou te s , a nd h ow t h e c ompe t ing p o l i t ie s o f t h e L a te C la s s ic i n t h e s t udy r e g ion m ay h ave c on t ro l led t h em . T h i s i si np e r f ec t a cco rdance w i th A l ipha t 's ( 1994 ) p ropo s i t ion t h a t a cce s s t ot h e se r ou te s w a s ad e t e rm inan t f a c to ri ne xp la in ing s i te l o ca t ion . C ha rnay 's j ou rney s t a r ted f r om Mon tec r i s to ( Em i l iano Z apa ta ) . I n t h i s r e g ion t h e t e r ra in i sc ha rac te r i sed b y a m eande r ing s l ugg i sh U sumac in ta R ive r a nd a c oa s ta l p l a in t o pog raphy , i tt o ok i n C ha rnay 's t ime s t o t r ave l f r om Mon tec r i s to t oT eno s ique f ou ro rf i ve d ay sb y w a te r , t r ave l l ing u p s t ream , a nd s ome t wen ty f ou r h ou r s b y l a nd . C ha rnay s en t h i s l u ggage o n c anoe w h i le h e d i d t h e t r ip b y l a nd . O n Ma rch 1 5 , 1 882 C ha rnay a nd h i s t e am s e t o u t f r om T eno s ique t or e ach t h e r u in s l o ca ted s ome f i f ty m i le s d i s tan t o n t h e l e f t b ank ( down s t ream ) o f t h e U sumac in ta ( Yaxch i lan ) . I n o rde r t or e ach Y axch i lan , a p a th o f a bou t f i ve " l eague s" (15 m i le s ) h ad t ob e c l ea red o n t h e o ppo s i te s i de o f t h e r i ve r , a nd f r om t h a t p o in t a c an, h ad t ob e s e cu red t of e r ry a c ro s s t ot h e o t he r s i de ( Ch, n ay 1 887 :42 1-422 ,4 24 ) .

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t h a t C ha rnay t o ok e n r ou te t o Y axch i lan a f t e r d epa r t ing f r om T eno s ique . T h is r ou te w a s [ r e ]con s t ruc ted b y c ompa r ing s ome o ft h e n a tu ra l f ea tu re s d e sc r ibed b y h im w i th t h e m ode rn m ap s . When w e c ompa re t h i s r ou te w i th Ma le r 's l a te r e n t ry , i tb ecome s a ppa ren t t h a t C ha rnay 's r ou te t o ok ac on s ide rab le r oundabou t . T h i s c ou ld b e d ue t ot wo r e a son s , e i the r C ha rnay w a s " t aken" b y h i s m en w ho w an ted t o" m i lk t h e c ow" a s l o ng a s t h ey c ou ld o r t h i s p u rpo se f u l d e tou r w a s m ade t o a vo id t h e r a p id s . Wha teve r t h e c a se , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t C ha rnay 's m en m ay h ave t r ave l led a tl e a s t i np a r ta l ong t h e a nc ien tr oad t ot h e P e ten . C ha rnay c on t inue s d e sc r ib ing t h e d i f f icu l t ie s o f h i s j ou rney a nd h i s a c coun t p rov ide s u s w i th av e ry g r aph ic d e sc r ip t ion o fm ov ing o ve r t h is k ind o ft e r ra in ( Cha rnay 1 887 :427 ) : W e c ro s s t h eA r royo Y a lch i lan o n t h e G ua tema la b ord er , n o tf ar f rom L ocen , a nd l e av ing t h e P e t en r oad , w e s t eer t ot h e s ou th -eas t -sou th , o n t h e p a th c l ear ed b y o ur m en ,

a nd e ncamp o n t h e b ank o ft h e r unn ing s t r eam i nw h ich w e l e ave o ur d us t t rave l led l i mb s . T he n ex td ay w e c l imb t h e r ange o fh i l l s w h ich d i v id e u s f rom t h e U pper U sumac in ta , a nd w h ich a r e a lmo s t i mpa s sab le f or l o ad ed a n ima l s . T he s harp s t one sd e s t roy t h e l e a ther o fo ur b oo t s , a nd c u t t h e m u l es 'f ee tt op i ece s , w h i le w e a r e i n d anger o fb e ing l o s t d own t h e r av ine s a nd p r ec ip ices .

l e ague i n l e ng th , w her e t h e r i ver f l ow s b e tween h i gh r ocky a nd w ood ed b ank s , a nd i ns ome p lace s t h e s t r eam n ar rowed t o aw id th o ffo r ty f e e t . Maud s lay p a s se s t h rough t h e s ma l le r r a p id s t h a t a r e l o ca ted u p r ive r f r om Y axch i lan , a nd a l though d i f f icu l t t o s o r t , t h ey m anage t o p a s s t h em u neven t fu l ly d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r i ve r w a s a t al ow l e ve l a tt h i s t ime o f t h e y ea r . S ho r t ly a f te r p a s s ing t h e se r ap id s Maud s lay a nd h i s c r ew c amp f o r t h e n i gh t a ta n u n iden t if ied p l ace . T he f o l low ing d ay Maud s lay v i s i t s a" car iba l" ( aL acandon h am le t ) w h ich m u s t h ave b een l o ca ted i nt h e v i c in i ty o f P a so Y a lch i lan , j u s t u p r ive r s i nce i ti st h i s p l ace w he re Maud s lay 's m en w e re s en t ac oup le o fd ay s l a te r t op i ck u p s ome p rov i s ion s w hen t h ey w e re s po t ted b y C ha rnay 's m en . A f t e r t h i s s t op Maud s lay a nd h i s c r ew c on t inued t h e i r t r ip d own s t ream a nd c amped f o r t h e n i gh t a t t h e r i gh t h and b ank o f t h e r i ve r . T he f o l low ing d ay ( Ma rch 1 8 ") t h ey r e ached Y axch i lan a f te r as ho r t o ne -hou r p add le ( Maud s lay 1 974 :40 -42 )

A f te r c r o s s ing t h i s m oun ta in r ang e C ha rnay a nd h i s m en c amp f o rt h e n igh t , t h es i x th n i gh ta f t e rl e av ing T eno s ique a cco rd ing t oC ha rnay 's c oun t ( no te , h oweve r , t h a tt h e re i s ad i sc r epancy i nt h e t a l ly ing o ft i me w hen c ompa red w i th Maud s lay 's d a te s ) . T he f o l low ing d ay t h ey a s cend a no the r s t eep moun ta in r a nge a f te rw h ich t h ey e ncamp o n t h e b ank s o f t h e C ho ta l R ive r , a t r ibu ta ry o f t h e U sumac in ta . O n t h e e i gh th d ay C ha rnay a r r ive s d u r ing t h e e ven ing a t t h e Y a lch i lan P a s s , l o ca t ed o n t h e r i gh t b ank o f t h e U suma c in ta . T he f o l low ing d ay , d ue t ot h e l a ck o f ac anoe t oc r o s s t h e r i ve r , C ha rnay d ec ide s t ow a i t i nP a so Y a lch i lan u n t i l o ne b ecome s a va i lab le f r om t h e l o ca l L acandon I nd ian s . I ti sp r ec i se ly o n t h i sd ay ( t he 9 `h a cco rd ing t o h i s t a l ly ) t h a t h i s c r ew s po t s t h e m en f r om Maud s lay 's e xped i t ion w h ich h ad b een s e n t f r om Y axch i lan t o p i ck u p s ome p rov i s ion s f r om a n ea r b y L a candon h am le t . C ha rnay s en t am e s sage a nd s ome p rov i s ion s t o Maud s lay w i th t h er e que s t t ob o r row al a rge c anoe s o h e c an r e ach Y axch i lan . T he c anoe i ss e n t t h e f o l low ing d ay ( t he 2 1' o f Ma rch a c co rd ing t o Maud s lay 's e n t ry ) , a nd a f te r a t h ree -hou r j ou rney d own s t ream , C ha rnay f i na l ly r e a che s Y axch i lan ( Cha rnay 1 878 :424 4 32 ) . Maud s lay b egan h i s j ou rney t o Y axch i lan f r om C oban , c ap i ta l o f t h e G ua tema lan D epa r tmen t o f A l ta V e rapa z l o ca ted o n t h e h i gh land s , h ence t a k ing ad i f f e r en t r ou te f r om C ha rnay 's ( F igu re 3 -4 ) . H i sj ou rney i n to t h e r e g ion b eg in s o n Ma rch 1 4 , 1 882 ( a d ay p r io r t o C ha rnay 's ) , w hen h ee mba rk s o n ac anoe a t ap o in tk nown t h en a st h e P a so R ea l . G a rc ia Mo l l a nd J uä rez C o s s io t h ink t h a tP aso R ea l i s ap l ace l o ca ted i nt h e c l o se v i c in i ty o fp r e sen td ay S ayax che ( f oo tno te n o . 2 ,G a rc ia Mo l l a nd J uä rez C o s s io 1 990 :31) . A pp rox ima te ly t h ree d ay s l a te r Mauds lay a r r ived t o t h e p o in t w he re t h e S a l ina s /Ch ixoy a nd L a can tun R ive r s c onve rge t o f o rm t h e U suma c in ta . Maud s lay i mmed ia te ly c ommen t s o n t h e c hange s i nt h e t o pog raphy t h a t c ha rac te r ize s t h i s r i ve r i n i t s u ppe r p o r t ion ( A .P . Maud s lay 1 889 :40 ) : T he b ank s o f t h e r i ver h er e b eg in t o l o se t h e ir m ono tonou s a ppearance , a nd f or t h e f i r s t t i me s i nce l e av ing t h e P aso R ea l , w e c augh t s i gh t o fs ome h i l l s i n t h e d i s tance . A t m id -day w e e n t er ed a g orge a bou t a

2 3

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F igu re 3 4 C ha rnay 's a nd Maud s lay 's r ou te s 1 882 Ma le r 's ( 1901 ,1903 ) a ccoun t s o f h i s j ou rney i n to t h e U sumac in ta V a l ley a r e p e rhap s t h e m o s t i n fo rma t ive o f t h e t h ree . T h i s i sn o t o n ly d ue t oh i s g r aph ic d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e r ou te s , b u t a l so b ecau se h i s a r chaeo log ica l g oa l s d i f f e red s omewha t f r om C ha rnay 's a nd Maud s lay 's . I n t h i s s en se h i s e ndeavou r s w e re n o t l im i ted t or e ach ing a s i ng le m a jo r Maya c i ty t o r e co rd i t s m onumen t s a nd a r ch i tec tu re l i ke t h e f o rme r , b u tt or e co rd a se xhau s t ive ly a s p o s s ib le a l o f t h e i n sc r ibed m onumen t s f r om t h e v a r iou s s i te s i nt h e r eg ion . I n t h e p roce s s h e a l so h a s p rov ided u s w i th t h e b a s ic l o ca t ion a nd i n i t ia l s u rvey s o f m any o ft h ev e ry i mpo r tan ts i te s i nt h er e g ion .

l o ca ted n ea r t h e C hacamax R ive r ( wh ich s hou ld n o t b e c on fu sed w i th t h e i mpo r tan t s i te o fL a R e fo rma - Mo ra le s l o ca ted n ea r B a lancan ) . T he t r ip t ook h im t wo d ay s a nd f r om t h i s p o in t ar oad k nown a s C am ino L o s T zenda l e s s t re tched t h rough t h e v a s t w i lde rne s s u n t i l i tr e ached a r emo te s e t t lemen tl o ca ted a l ong t h e b ank s o ft h eL acan tun R ive r . Ma le rm en t ion s t h a tt h e R omano l umbe r f i rm b u i l t t h i s r oad . H e a l so m en t ion s t h a tt h e c ond i t ion o ft h er o ad w a s s o d ep lo rab le t h a t n o t e ven t ho se w ho b u i l t i tu sed i t i nv a r iou s o fi t si n i t ia l p o r t ion sp ref e r r ing t ot a ke t h em o r e s i nuou s m oun ta in t r a i l s ( Ma le r 1 90 1 :9 ,22 ) . I t w ou ld m ake s e n se , h oweve r , t h a t a tl e a s t i np a r t t h is r oad w a s l a id f o l low ing t h e a nc ien t r ou te t h a t D äv i la a nd h i s e xped i t ion f o l lowed .

A f t e r as ho r t s t ay i n t h e s e t t lemen t o f P omona ( whe re a ppa ren t ly h e i su nawa re o f t h e e x i s tence o f t h e r u in s ) , Ma le r d epa r t s t owa rds as e t t lemen tk nown a sL aR efo rma

Ac oup le o fk i lome t re s a way f r om t h e m ode rn s e t t lemen t f o l low ing t h e C am ino L o s T zenda le s a nd t h en t u rn ing

2 4

C h in ik iha R ive rr e a ch ing a tt h i s p o in tt h e c am ino v i e jo d e T eno s ique , a n o l d r oad , w h ich " pa s se s s t ra igh t t hrough t he r u ined c i ty" . B lom e xp lo red t h e r u in s a nd t h en t o ok t h e r oad t oT eno s ique f o r n ea r ly t wo k i lome te r s u n t i l t h ey r e a ched B oca d e l C e r ro ( Ma le r 1 90 1 :9 -10 e mpha s i s

t owa rd s t h e f oo th i l l s , Ma le r e xp lo red a r u ined c i ty o f c on s ide rab le s i ze w h ich h e c a l led L a s R u inas d e l a R ef orma . O nce a ga in f o l low ing L o s T zenda le s Ma le r s e t s f o r th t owa rds C h in ik iha ( F igu re 3 5 ) . A f te r t wo l e ague s ( a pp rox ima te ly t wo -hou r w a lk a cco rd ing t o Ma le r ) t h ey t u rned l e f t , t h i s t ime f o l low ing a n a bandoned mon ter ia p a th . A no the r l e f t tu rn l e d t h em t o t h e

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F igure 3 5 Ma ler 's e n tr ie si n to t he Upper U sumac in ta r eg ion I n 1 895 Ma le r t a ke s t h e s ame w ay a s Mauds lay t og e t t o Y axch i lan ( F igu re 3 -4 ) . D e scend ing f r om E l P aso R ea l o n c anoe a sf a r a s Y axch i lan , a nd f r om t h a t p o in t d ue t o t h e p e r i l s o f f e red b y t h e r a p id s t a ke s t h e f o re s t t r a i l s a l t h e w ay t oT eno s ique . O n h i s w ay d own Ma le r c amp s a t E l C ayo , t h en amon ter ia , w he r eh el e a rn so ft h ee x i s tence o f s eve ra l i mpo r tan t r u in s i n c lud ing P i ed ra s N eg ra s a nd d e te rm ine st op repa re al a t e re xped i t ion .

Ma le r 's e xp lo ra t ion s o f t h e U suma c in ta V a l ley b eg in o n t h e 1 2f i o f A ugu s t o f 1 895 t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e r a iny s e a son , w hen h e d epa r t s f r om T eno s ique a ppa ren t ly f o l low ing t h e s ame i n i t ia l t r a i l t h a t C ha rnay d i d t h i r teen y ea r s b ef o re ( F igu re 3 4 ) . F o r t wo " l eague s" h e a nd h i s c r ew w a lked t h rough s avannah s u p u n t i l t h e s ma l l P o leva R ive r t h a t d e sp i te i t s s i ze c ou ld r e p re sen t as e r iou s o b s tac le t h rough t h e r a iny s e a son . A f te r c r o s s ing t h e r i ve r , t h e t r a i l r a n mo s t ly o ve r l ow moun ta in r a nge s c ove red b y d en se v ege ta t ion t h a t m ade movemen t

2 5

T rave l l ing o n c anoe u p s t ream a l ong t h e U sumac in ta i sn o t a n e a sy t a sk . T he d i s tance i nr e la t ion t ot i me a nd e f f o r t t h a t c an b e a dvanced i s d e te rm ined b y t h e s ea son i n w h ich t h e t r ip i sd one . D u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son t h e w ide r p o r t ion s o f t h e r i ve r o f f e r c e r ta in e a se d ue t o t h e b ack

d i ff icu l t . T he f i r s td ay t h ey c amped a t am on ter ia s t a t ion , L os C a l le jones . T he f o l low ing d ay t h ej ou rney c on t inued t h rough ar ou te t h a t t o ok Ma le rt h rough h i l ls p a s s ing n ex t t o as i nkho le a nd s t opp ing a ta no the ra bandoned m on ter ia s t a t ion k nown a s T r e s C hampa s . T he l o ca t ion o f t h i s

e dd ie s o f t h e c u r ren t t h a t a i d t h e H oweve r t h is i s l im i ted t o v e ry f ew C ayo ) , a nd t h e re a r e m o re c ons t h an u p s t ream d u r ing t h i s s e a son . F o r

p l ace m u s t b e s omewhe re a r ound t h e Mex ico -Gua tema la b o rde r , s i nce Ma le r m en t ion s t h a t t h ree l e ague s b eyond t h i s p l ace a n i n te rna t iona l b ounda ry m a rke r w a s f ound . O n A ugu s t 1 4t h M a le r a nd h i s c r ew a r r ived a t P i ed ra s N eg ra s . I ti si mpo r tan t t on o te t h a t Ma le r m en t ion s t h a t t h e r o ad t h a t g oe s f r om T eno s ique t o E l C ayo r un s b y P i ed ra s N eg ra s ( Ma le r 1 90 1 :41-42 ) . A t t h i s p o in t It h ink

m en t ion s t h e t r ibu la t ion s t h a t t h ey h ad t oe ndu re w h i le t r ave l l ing i nc anoe f r om A na i te t oY axch i lan i nt h e m id s t o ft h e r a iny s ea son . T he se d i f f icu l t ie s w e r e m a in ly d ue t o t h e f a c tt h a tt h e p o le s t h a tb oa tmen u sua l ly u s ed t op rope l t h e c anoe s c ou ld n o t r e ach t h e b o t tom a nd s o t h ey w e re f o r ced t o r e ach t h e b r anche s o f t h e n ea rby t r ee s t o p u l l t h em se lve s a l ong ( Ma le r 1 903 :109 ) .

t h a t i ti ss a f e t o a s sume t h a t t h e se i mpo r tan t m on ter ia t r a i ls w e re l a id f o l low ing i nl a rge p a r t t h e a nc ien t r oad s . A f te r e xp lo r ing P i ed ra s N eg ra s f o r f i f teen d ay s Ma le r r e tu rn st oT enos ique f o l low ing t h es ame r oad .

S ome o f t h e m ino r r a p id s a r e a l so " bu f f e r ed" b y t h e h i ghe r w a te r l e ve l ; h oweve r , t h e d own s ide t ot h is i st h a t m any t r eache rou s s ha rp r o ck s a r e a l so c oncea led t o t h e i n expe r ienced b oa tman . O n t h e o t he rh and d u r ing t h ed r y s e a son , w hen t h e r i ve r l e ve l i s l ow , e v en t h e s ma l le r r a p id s r e p re sen t ac on s ide rab le t h rea t . I n t h is c a se t h e o n ly v i ab le o p t ion i sp o r tag ing ; t h i s i n vo lves c a r ry ing c anoe s a nd l o ads o ve r land . B u t s i nce b o th v e s se l s a nd l o ad s m ay b e q u i te h eavy , a nd i nf a c t a r e q u i te d i f f icu l tt o t r an spo r t o ve r land , a n o p t ima l p l ace t o d i semba rk t h a t o f f e r s l e s s w a lk ing d i s tance s m u s t b e c ho sen . A l l i na l i t s e em s t h a t t h e d ry s e a son i sb es t f o r r i v e r t r ave l b o th d own s t ream a nd u p s t ream a s l o ng a s o ne k now s t h e l o ca t ion o ft h er a p id s a nd p o r tage s .

Ma le r u nde r take s y e t a no the r e n t ry t o c on t inue h i s e xp lo ra t ion s o ft h e s i te s a l ong t h e U sumac in ta . D epa r t ing f r om T eno s ique o n May 1 6f i,1 897 , h e t a ke s t h e s ame r o ad a si nh i s f i r s t e n t ry w i th t h e i n ten t ion o fr e a ch ing E l C ayo a nd f r om t h e re , t o c on t inue t oY axch i lan . Ma le r r e ache s E l C ayo f ou r d ay s l a te r o n May 2 0 `1.T he i s land o f E l C ayo i s s u r rounded b y w a te r ; h oweve r , i ts t i l l o f f e red ap l ea san t b each . T h i s i n d ica te s t h a t t h e l e ve l o f t h e U sumac in ta w a s o n t h e r i se s i gna l l ing t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e r a iny s ea son . A f te re xp lo r ing t h e r u in s a tE l C ayo , Ma le r d ec ide s t ov i s i t t h e r u in s i nt h e v i c in i ty s o w i th t h e i n ten t ion o f r e a ch ing B ud s i lha , h e a nd h i s m en f o l low a p a th r unn ing d own s t ream f r om E l C ayo a l ong t h e l e f t b ank o ft h e U suma c in ta ( F igu re 3 4 ) . T he i n i t ia l p o r t ion o ft h i sp a th r an t h rough l e ve l l a nd a vo id ing t h eh i gh c l if f s . A s h e c on t inued , h oweve r , t h e t r a i l b ecame m o re d i ff i cu l t t o f o l low a s i t p ene t ra ted i n to m oun ta inou s t e r ra in .

Wha teve r e a se o f t r an spo r ta t ion t h e U suma c in ta R ive r m ay o f e r , t h e r a p id s d own s t ream f r om Y axch i lan r ep re sen t t h e m o s t f o rm idab le o bs tac le t h a t t h e t r ave le r e ncoun te r s t h roughou t h i s j ou rney i nt h is r e g ion . Ma le r w a s v e ry m uch a wa re o f t h e se d i f f icu l t ie s a s h e w ro te ( Ma le r 1 903 :96 ) :

Ma le r 's i n ten t ion w a s t or e a ch t h e m on t er ia c amp o fL a Ma r b u t a s t h e n i gh t e nc roached t h ey h ad t o c amp t h a t n i gh t i nt h e f o re s t . T he f o l low ing m o rn ing t h ey c r o s sed t h e B ud s i lha R ive r t h a t d ue t o t h e r a in s w a s d eep a nd p r e sen t ed s ome d i f f icu l t ie s . B y n oon Ma le r a nd h i s m en h ad r e a ched t h e m on t er ia o fL a Ma r . A f te rr e s t ing f o rt h e r e s t o f t h e d ay Ma le r e xp lo red t h e r u in s o f B ud s i lha o n t h e n ex t d ay . T o g e t t o t h em t h ey h ad t oc r o s s s eve ra l b rook s a nd a ga in t h e B uds i lha R ive r t h a t a tt h i s t ime o f t h e y ea rw a s d eep a nd d i ff icu l tt oc r o s s . Ma le re s t ima ted t h a t t h e r u in s o f B ud s i lha w e re l o ca t ed a t ad i s tance o f a bou t 6k mf r om t h e i rc amp a nd a bou t at wo -hou rj ou rney a t t h e m o s t f r om w he re t h e U sumac in ta ( Ma le r 1 903 :83 -92 ) .

B ud s i lha r e ache s

c anoe u p s t r eam . s e c t ions ( e .g . E l p ro s t o t r ave l l ing e xamp le , Ma le r

F rom T eno s ique t oA na i tg t h e U suma t s in t la i sn av igab le o n ly h er e a nd t h er e , o w ing t o d angerou s r ap id s a nd r ocky n ar row s , a nd i ti st h us n ecessary f or t h e t r ave l ler t o a d vance s ome t i me s w i th p ack a n ima l s a nd s ome t ime s w i th c ayucos . T h i s r e nd er s t h e j ourney m os t d i f f i cu l t , b ecau se w hen o ne a r r ive s a t ap lace w i th p ack a n ima l s h e h as n o c ayuco s t h er e , a nd w hen h e c omes w i th

t h e

c ayuco s h e h a s n o m u l es ; t h us m yp rogr e s sf rom E l C ayo t oY axch i lan w as e x t r eme ly d if i cu l t .

U pon h i s r e tu rn t o t h e i r c amp Ma le r h ea rd n ew s o f a r u ined c i ty l y ing a ta bou t o ne a nd ah a lf k i lome t re s a way f o l low ing an ea rby b rook u p s t ream . H e r e ached ag roup o fr u in s w h ich h e c a l led r u in s o fL a Ma r . A f te r e xp lo r ing t h em , Ma le r a nd h i s m en r e tu rned t o E l C ayo , b u t t h i s t i me i n s tead o ff o l low ing t h e r ou t e a l ong t h e U sumac in ta t h ey c u t a c ro s s t h rough m oun ta in a nd v a l ley ( Ma le r 1 903 :93 -96 ) .

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L a te r o n Ma le r g i ve s am o re g raph ic d e s c r ip t ion o f t h e p e r i l s t h a t t h e r a p id s p o se d u r ing t h e d ry s ea son i n D ecembe r 1 899 ( Ma le r 1 903 :111112 ) :

T he v o yage t o Y axch i lan w as f raugh t w i th v e ry g r ea t

s u ch r o u te s m u s th ave h ad f o r t h e k i ng s o ft h e Maya c i t ie s o ft h e U ppe r U sumac in ta r e g ion . T he q ue s t ion s t h a t s t i l l r ema in a r e w hy w e re t h e se c ommun ica t ion r ou te s i mpo r tan t? Wha t e f f ec t d i d t h ey h ave o n t h e r e g iona l p owe rb a lance? T he se a nd o t he ri s sue s w i l l b e a dd re s sed i nC hap te r S ix , b u t i no rde r t o d o s o i ti sn ece s sa ry t o c on s t ruc t aw o rk ing m ode l o n w h ich t o f r ame t h e se q ue s t ion s . T he f o l low ing c hap te rd ea l s p r ec ise ly w i th t h i s p rob lem .

d if icu l t ie s . T he d angerous R auda l e s o f Ana i td h ad r e cen t ly c l a imed s e vera l h uman l i ves . B e s ide s t h i s , s e v er a l c argoes h ad b een s unk , t h e o ar smen , h owever , h av ing b een a b le t os ave t h e ir l i ve s . . . . .T he s i gh t o f t h e s t upendous w a l l s o f r o ck , w h ich w e h ad j u s t p as sed , t h e d i n o f t h e w a ter , f or ced b e tween r ock s a nd r u sh ing a l ong a t t h e m os t f r igh t f u l s peed , c au sed m y m en u t t er ly t o l o se t h e ir h ead s , t h ough t h ey h ad a lway s c ons id er ed t h emse lve s e xce l len t v oga s . T hey w er e t e r r ib ly f r igh t ened a nd o n ly t h e u tmos t e xer t ion o f m yp ar th ad b rough tt h e t r emb l ing f e l low st h u sf ar . A f t e r r e ad ing t h is d e sc r ip t ion t h e re i sn o d oub t t h a t t h e D äv i la e xped i t ion m en t ioned a bove m u s t h ave p a s sed t h rough Y axch i lan c r o s sed t h e d ange rou s A na i te r a p id s a nd a sL u jän p u t s i t ,m i racu lou s ly p a s sed t h e r a p id s a nd c on t inued d owns t ream t oT eno s ique Ma le r o n h i s w ay t oY axch i lan t r ave l led b y c anoe o n t h e U suma c in ta a s f a r a s t h e m on ter ia o f E l C h i le , l o ca ted s ome 8k m u p s t ream w he re h e e xp lo red t h e n ea rby r u in s l o ca t ed o n t h e h igh l e f t b ank ( F igu re 3 4 ) . F rom t h a t p o in t , d ue t o t h e r a p id s , Ma le r a nd h i s p a r ty h ad t o d i semba rk a nd t r ave l b y l a nd t o a no the r m on t er ia af ew k i lom e t r e s u p s t ream k nown a s A na i te w h ich w a s a tt h e p o in t w he r e t h e d ange rou s r a p id s b eg in . F o l low ing a s ma l l t r i bu ta ry s t ream ( c a l led t h e A na i t e ) f o r t h ree k i lom e t r e s i n land f r om t h e m on ter ia A na i t e , Ma le rv i s i ted as ma l l g r oup o f r u in s w h ich h e c on s ide red o f l i t t le i n t e r e s t . H e n amed t h e se r u in s A na i te I . F rom E l C h i le Ma le ra l so v i s i ted ab i gi n land l a k et h en c a l led L aL aguna A na i t e , w h ich i sc u r ren t ly k nown a sL aguna S an ta C lara . T o r e a ch t h i s p l ace Ma le r t ook a " r oad" f r om E l C h i le t h a t l e d f i r s t t h rough at r an sve r se r a v ine t h a t s oon p a s sed t h rough av a l ley . H oweve r , Ma le r n o te s t h a t b y t h e e nd o f t h e r a iny s e a son t h i s v a l ley w ou ld b e c ove red b y t wo m e te r s o fw a te r , t h u s m ak ing i ti mpa s sab le a nd m ak ing i t n ece s sa ry t o f o l low t h e r ocky p a th s a l ong t h e moun ta in s l ope o n t h e r i gh t h and i n o rde r t oe n te r t h e r oad o nce a ga in . P a s s ing t h is v a l ley t h e r oad b ranche s o f f , t h e l e f t p a th l e ad s t o E l C h icozapo te , w h i le t h e r i gh t b r anch , w h ich f o l lowed a s ou thwe s te rn d i rec t ion , l e ads t o t h e w e s t e rn e nd o f t h e L aguna S an ta C lara a nd r un s r i gh t t h rough a g roup o f r u in s w h ich Ma le r e xp lo r ed a nd n amed A na i te I ( Ma le r 1 903 :96 -98 ) . F rom A na i te t o Y axch i lan Ma le r t r ave l led b y c anoe o n t h e U suma c in ta . H oweve r , t r ave l w a s e x t r eme ly d i ff icu l t d ue t o t h e r a p ids a s m en t ioned a bove . T he r i ve r w a s s wo l len a nd t h ey v i r tua l ly h ad t op u l l t h em se lve s a l ong w i th t r ee b r anches : i tt o ok h im a nd h i s m en ad ay a nd a h a lf t oa dvance t h e m o re o r l e ss 1 3 k m s e pa ra t ing b o th p o in t s ( Ma le r 1 903 :109 ) . T he p r eced ing a ccoun t s l e ave n o d oub t a s t o t h e d i f f icu l t ie s t h a tt h e p hy s ica l e nv ironmen tp o sed f o rh uman t r ave l . W i th s uch l i m i ta t ion s i ti sn o td i ff icu l t t oi mag ine t h e t r emendou s i mpo r tance t h a t a cce s s a nd c on t ro l o f

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FOUR

GEOGRAPHIC I NFOR MAT ION S YSTE MS AND ARCHAEOLOGY

PART I :THE CONCEPTS I n troduc t ion W i th t h e a dven t o f t h e P C a s a n a f fo rdab le , f a s t , a nd g ene ra l ly u se r -f r iend ly c ompu ta t iona l t o o l , i th a s b ecome p o ss ib le t op roce s s i n am a t te ro fm inu te s , o re ven s e cond s , e no rmou s a moun t s o f d a ta t h a t o the rw i se w ou ld h ave

P red ic t ive mode l l ing i n G IS d i f f e r s f r om s imp le m a thema t ica l m ode ls i n t h e s ense t h a t i ti n te rpo la te s t h e f i e ld d a ta i n to m apped v a r iab le s , t h u s p rov id ing u s w i th mo re t h an ah a rd f i gu re , i ta l so g ive s u s t h e s pa t ia l l o ca t ion o f t h e r e levan t v a r iab le s . P red ic t ive mode l l ing i s mo re f r equen t ly u sed i n C u l tu ra l R esou rce Managemen t w hen d ea l ing w i th s i te p r ed ic t ion ,f o re xamp le w hen o ne w an t st o a s se s s t h e n umbe r o f s i te s t h a t wou ld b e a f f ec ted b y t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f ad am i n ar i ve rv a l ley . T he t h ird c a tego ry i so n ly r e cen t ly b eg inn ing t ob ee xp lo red i na r chaeo log ica l p rob lem s , e . g . K oh le r 's a nd C a r r 's ( 1996 ) o b jec t , o r ien ted mode l . I t s mo s t p rom is ing f e a ture i st h a ti t e nab le s t h e u se r t o i n te rac t w i th t h e s pa t ia l mode l b y a low ing h im t oc hange t h ev a r iab le s i no rde rt ot r ack d own a l te rna t ive b ehav ioura l p a t ter n s . F o r e xamp le t h rough d ynam ic mode l l ing w e c ou ld a s se ss w ha t t h e e f f ec t s o f p opu la t ion g row th w e re w i th in t h e u rban a r ea o f T ika l . Wha tw e re t h ep a t terns o fd efo res ta t ion t h rough t ime d ue t o t h e m a s s ive p r oduc t ion o f l ime n eeded f o r t h e s t ucco d eco ra t ion o f t h e b u i ld ing s ' f a çade s? Wha t w a s t h e r e cove ry r a te o ft h e i mmed ia te f o re s t d u r ing t h e h i a tu s? I n o t he rw o rd s , t h rough t h e a pp l ica t ion o fG IS i na r chaeo logy w e a r e a b le t oa dd re s s n o t o n ly q ue s t ions l i k e "Whe re i s ?" o r" How m any?" b u ta l so q ue s t ions s uch a s "Wha ti f ?"

p r e sen ted a g a rgan tuan a nd i mp ra c t ica l e ndeavou r . T he c omp lex i ty o f t h e d a taba se s t h a t a r chaeo log is t s w o rk w i th , w h ich i n c lude a r chaeo log ica l a nd e nv i ronmen ta ld a ta ,m ade i t v i r tua l ly i mpo ss ib le t o i n teg ra te t h e se w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f as pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d imen s ion . T he b e s t o ne c ou ld h ave h oped f o r w a s t h e v i sua l a na ly s i s o f s i te d i s t r ibu t ion a c ro ss t h e l a nd scape ( Gaf f ney a nd S t ane ie 1 991) . W i th in t h is t e chno log ica l i n nova t ion t h e d eve lopmen to fG eog raph ic I n fo rma t ion S y s tem s ( G IS ) i sa r e la t ive ly r e cen t p henomenon , a nd a r chaeo logy h a s o n ly j u s t b egun t o t a p i t s p o ten t ia l f o r d a ta m anagemen t a nd s pa t ia l a na ly s is ( L imp 1 987 ; K vame 1 989 , 1 990 ;A l len e ta l 1 990 ; G af f ney a nd S t ane ie 1 99 1) .

I n t h i s t h e s i s Iw i l l a pp ly G IS f i r s t ly t om ode l movemen t o ve r n a tu ra l t e r ra in i no rde r t oe s t ima te c o s t o f movemen t ( i n t ime /d i s tance ) . T h is i n t u rn w i l l b e a pp l ied f o r t h e e s t ima t ion o f t h e t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t o f p o l i t ie s , a nd t h e i d en t if ica t ion c ommun ica t ion r ou te s i n r e la t ion t o t h e i n te rac t ion b e tween c en t re s i n t h e r e g ion ( Cen t ra l P lace t h eo ry a nd N ea re s t N e ighbou r Ana ly s is ) . S econd ly G IS w i l l b e a pp l ied i n t h e c r ea t ion o f mode l s o f s i te l o ca t ion t h rough t wo i n dependen t a pp roache s . T he f i r s t w i l l b e t h rough t h e u s e o f af o rmu la d e r ived f r om t h e G rav i ty Mode l , i n t roduced i nC hap te r 1 ,t h a t w i l l t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e r e a l d i s tance s d e r ived f r om t h e c o s t s u r f ace a na ly s is r a the r t h an E uc l idean d i s tance s . T he s e cond a pp roach w i l l b e t h rough t h e a pp l ica t ion o f ap red ic t ive a r chaeo log ica l l o ca t ion mode l ,w h ich i si n tended t oh i gh l igh tt h ea r ea s t h a t a r e s e ns i t ive t ot h e p r e sence o f ma jo r a r cha eo log ica l s i te s . I n b o th c a se s t h e i n ten t ion i s t o p r ed ic t t h e p o s s ib le w he reabou t s o f as e r ie s o f i mpo r tan t s i t e s f r equen t ly m en t ioned i n t h e i n sc r ip t ions o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta m onumen t s ( Sak T z ' i , H ix W i tz , Man , t h e " Kno t -S i te ) , b u t o f y e t u nknown o r u nce r ta in l o ca t ion . F i na l ly , w i th t h e r e su l t s o ft h e se m ode ls Ii n tend t op re sen t ar e cons t ruc t ion o ft h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o ft h e r eg ion t h roughou tt h eL a te C la s s ic p e r iod .

AG IS i si ne s sence as pa t ia l ly r e f e renced d a taba se w h ich a low u st os t o re h uge a moun t so fd a ta a nd e a s i ly r e t r ieve i t , m an ipu la te i tm a thema t ica l ly a nd v i sua l ise i t s s pa t ia l a nd , t o c e r ta in e x ten t , t empo ra l d i s t r ibu t ion ( G reen 1 991 :3 ; Ma rb le 1 991 :9 ; S avage 1 99 1 :22 ) . H ence t h e c o re o f t h e a na ly t ic p owe ro fG IS l i e s i ni t sa b i l i ty t om an ipu la te d i g i ta l m aps . I nt h is c on tex t m aps a r en o l o nge rc oncep tua l ised a s e s sen t ia l ly p i c to r ia l r e nde r ing s o f t h e r e a l w o r ld b u t a s n umbe r s . T h is i s ama jo r c oncep tua l l e ap s i nce a c co rd ing t o B e r ry ( 1995 ) , t h roughou t o u r 8 , 000 -yea r h i s to ry o f m ak ing m ap s t h e se h ave b een p r ima r i ly d escr ip t ive , l im i t ing t h e i r a pp l ica t ion t o s how ing t h e e xac t l o ca t ion o f t h ing s . I n c rea s ing ly , h oweve r , m ap s h ave b ecome p r escr ip t ive , c on ta in ing t h e d a ta n ece ssa ry t o i mp lemen t m anagemen t a c t ion s . I n t h is p roce s s a r chaeo log is t s a r e e nab led t o d i s t i l f r om t h e i r d a ta ( a l l f a c t s e . g . e cof a c t s , a r tefac t a nd /o r s i te t y po logy ) i n fo rma t ion ( u sefu l f a c t s ) , ( Be r ry 1 995 :4 -5 , 1 ) . B e r ry h a s i d en t if ied t h ree b road c a tego r ie s i n w h ich a l s pa t ia l mode l l ing t h a t i sd one i n G IS f a l l : d a ta m in ing , p r ed ic t ive mode l l ing , a nd d ynam ic s imu la t ion ( Be r ry 1 995 :1-2 ) . T he f i r s t t wo a r e t h e mo re c ommon f o rm s a pp l ied i n a r chaeo logy . D a ta m in ing i st h e r e t r ieva l o f s pec if ic d a ta i t em s o r t h e c omb ina t ion o f i t em s i nr e la t ion t ot h e ir s pa t ia l / tempo ra l l o ca t ion ( e .g . a l s i te s g r ea te r t h an 2 0 s qua re m e t re s , l o ca ted i ns em ia r id v a l ley s a ta n a l t i tude o f 1 200 1500 m a s l , a nd d a t ing f r om 3 000 t o1 500 BC ) .

D ig i ta lT erra in Mode ls When m ak ing u s e o f G IS t o m an ipu la te t h e ir d a ta a r chaeo log is t s s hou ld b e a wa re o f w ha t " occu l t" p roce sse s a r e t a k ing p l a ce i n s ide t h e CPU b l ack b ox . T he a bove

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s e c t ion i sm ean tt oe l uc ida te s ome o ft h ec on s ide ra t ion st h a t a r e t a k en ( o r s hou ld b e t a ken ) i n to a c coun t w hen s o f twa re e ng inee r s a r e b u i ld ing t h e a l go r i thm s f o r t h e s o f twa re p ackage s t h a t w i l l e nab le u s t o m ode l o u r d a ta . A no the r i mpor tan tt h ing t ob ea ri nm ind i st h a tt h e se a l gor i thm sw i l l v a ry f r om o ne p ackage t o a no the r , a l though t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined a r ec ompa rab le a nd r e l iab le p r ov id ing t h a tw et a ke t h e p r ope r p r epa ra to ry m ea su re s w i th o u r d a ta . I n t h i s s en se b e f o re c hoo s ing ap ackage a nd as pec if ic a l go r i thm w e mu s tc ons ider a tl e a s tt h ree f a c to r s : ( 1 ) Wha t a r e t h e c ha rac te r is t ics o fo u r r aw d a ta , e . g . s c a le a nd t y pe s o f maps a va i lab le , a va i lab i l i ty o fD ig i ta l T e r ra in Mode l s( DTM)? ( 2 ) Wha t s o r t o f i s sue s a r e w e a dd r e ss ing i nr e la t ion t ot h e s ca le n e eded , e . g . a r tefac t d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in t h e s i te , l o ca t ion o f o p t ima l o b se rva t ion p o in t s f o r d ef ens ive p urpo se s ,m ig ra t ion r ou te s a t ar e g iona l s c a le , e t c? ( 3 ) Wha t a r e t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s o f t h e h a rdwa r e r e ad i ly a va i lab le , e . g . p roce s s ing s peed , a moun t o f RAM a nd h a rd d i sk s p ace , e t c .?

DEM 's r e p re sen t r e l ief c hange s , o n ac on t inuou s s u r face f o rmed b y c o lumn s a nd r ow s o f p i xe ls . E ach p i xe l o f t h e DEM h o ld s av a lue r e p re sen t ing t h e xa nd y h o r izon ta l c oo rd ina te s a s w e l l a s t h e ze l eva t ion a tt h a t l o ca t ion . I n t h is s en se t h ey a r e mo re c ompu ta t iona l ly d emand ing t h an T IN 's , w h ich o n ly r e qu ire t h es t o rage o ft h e xyzv a lue s f o r t h ec r i t ica l p o in t s . Ac ommon m e thod o fc r ea t ing aDEM i s b y d i g i t is ing c on tour l i ne s f r om a t o pog raph ic m ap o n a v ec to r p l a tfo rm a nd t h en c onve r t ing t h a t v ec to r t o r a s te r f o rma t . O nce i n r a s te r f o rma t as u r f ace i n terpo la t ion p roce s s i se s tab l ished , w h ich w i l l e s t ima te e l eva t ion v a lue s a t l o ca t ions w he re t h e re i s ag ap o f i n fo rma t ion ( e .g . b e tween c on tou r l i ne s ) . I nt h i s p roce s s t h e p i xe l r e so lu t ion c ho sen ( wh ich r e p resen t t h e r e a l -wo r ld g r ound r e so lu t ion ) a nd t h e i n terpo la t ion a l go r i thm u s ed w i l l d e te rm ine t h e a moun t o f e r ro r b u i l t i n a nd h ence t h e a ccuracy o f t h e mode l . D e te rm in ing p i xe l r e so lu t ion c an b e q u i te at r i cky p roce s s t h a t i s p rob lem spec if ic d epend ing o n t h e s c a le t h a t i s n eeded . F o r e xamp le , i f w e n eed t o a s se ss mound d i s t r ibu t ions o n t h e l a nd scape i nr e la t ion t oh i gh a nd l ow g r ound a nd t h e c on tou r i n te rva l o fo u r b a se m ap i sa te ve ry m e t re , u s ing a p i xe l r e so lu t ion o f 1 0 b y 1 0 m e t re s w i l l o bv iou s ly b e i n adequa te . L ikew ise i n ar e g iona l s t udy i n vo lv ing ac ons ide rab le a r ea ( e .g . 1 00 x 1 00 k m ) u s ing a p i xe l r e so lu t ion o f 1 0b y 1 0 mo re ven 5 0 x5 0mw ou ld n o t o n ly b et o od emand ing i nt e rm so fc ompu ta t iona ln eeds ,b u t a l so s uch r e so lu t ion d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly g ua ran tee s mo re a ccu racy . T he l a t te ri sb ecau se as ma l le rp i xe l s i ze m ean s a b i gge rg ap b e tween c on tou rl i ne s t h a th a s t ob e i n te rpo la ted t h u s l e nd ing i t se lf t o p o s s ib le d i s to r t ions e spec ia l ly i n t e r ra in w h ich p r e sen t s b o th b r oken ( p acked c on tou r l i ne s ) a nd e ven t o pog raphy ( s pa r se c on tou r l i ne s ) ( e .g . t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta r e g ion ) .

Mode l l ing m ovemen t o ve r n a tu ra l t e r ra in i mp l ie s n o t o n ly t h ee s t ima t ion o ft h ec o s t s ( i n t ime ,c a lo r ic i n pu t ,o rm oney ) r e la ted t ot h e a c t o f mov ing b u t a l so c on t ro l l ing t h e n a tu re a nd q ua l i ty o f o u r b a se d i g i ta l m ap s . T h rough t h e u s e o f c ompu t e r -a ided mapp ing w e a r e n ow a b le t o p roduce d ig i ta l s u r f ace s t h a t i n c lude t h e v a lue s f o r t h e xya nd z c oo rd ina te s a nd a l low u s t oi n te ra c t ive ly m an ipu la te t h e se s u r f ace s . T he se mode ls , k nown a sD ig i ta l T e r ra in Mode l s ( DTM ) , a r e , a s men t ioned a bove , d i g i ta l r e p re sen ta t ions o f t h e g r ound s u r face . T he se a r e k nown a s T r iangu la ted I r regu la r N e two rk ( T IN ) f o r v ec to r s y s tem s , a nd D ig i ta l E leva t ion Mode ls ( DEM ) f o r r a s te r s y s tem s ( f o r a c omp r ehen s ive d i scu ss ion o n v ec to r a nd r a s te r s y s tem s s e e G af f ney a nd S t ane ie 1 991 , B e r ry 1 9 95 , B u r rough 1 994 ) .

S chne ide r a nd R obb ins ( 1 998 ) p r e sen t a n o b jec t ive m e thod f o r d e te rm in ing p i xe l r e so lu t ion . T h is m e thod i sb a sed o n t h e p r em ise t h a t t h e q uan t i ty o f i n fo rma t ion c on ta ined i na DEM i n c rea se s a s t h e c e l l s i ze d ec rea se s u n t i l ac e r ta in p o in tw hen n o s i gn if ican ti n c rea se o fi n fo rma t ion o ccu r s b y d ec rea s ing p i xe l s i ze . T he r e ade r i sa dv ised t or e f e r t ot h is s ou rce f o r amo re d e ta i led t e chn ica l e xp lana t ion ( S chen ide r a nd R obb ins 1 998 : 116 19 ) .

T IN 's a r e mode ls t h a t i n terpo la t e at o pog raph ic s u r face c onne c t ing i regu la r ly s paced e l eva t ion p o in t s b y l i ne s a nd p l ane s f o rm ing an e two rk o ft r iang le s . I nt h is n e two rk , t h e v e r t ice s o f t h e t r iang le s r e p re sen t t h e e l eva t ion s t h e l i ne s r e p re sen td eg ree o fs l ope ; a nd t h ep o lygon s u r f a ce r e p re sen t t h e a s pec t ( a z imu th ) o fs l ope . T IN 's h ave t h e a dvan tage o f b e ing l e s s d emand ing i n t e rm s o f c ompu ta t iona l r e qu ir emen t s a nd a r e t h e b e s t s u i ted t o r e p re sen t b r oken l a nd scape s . O n t h eo t he rh and , i t sm a in l im i ta t ion i st h a tt h e a c cu ra cy o f t h e s u r face r e p re sen ta t ion w i l l d epend o n t h e s amp le s i ze a nd l o ca t ion o f t h e e l eva t ion p o in t s i nr e la t ion t o a c tua l c hange s i n t h e r e l ie f ( Be r ry 1 995 : 9 5 -98 , S chne ide r a nd R obb ins 1 998 :1 -3 -5 ) . F o r e xamp le , i n terpo la t ing f r om i regu la r ly s p aced p o in t s l i ke t h o se o b ta ined f r om d i rec tf i e ld s u rvey w i l l p r oduce b e t te rr e su l t s t h an i n te rpo la t ing f r om r e gu la r ly s p a ced s amp le p o in t s l i ke t h o se o b ta ined f r om t o pog raph ic c on tou rm ap s .

C lo se ly r e la ted t o t h e p r ev iou s c on s ide ra t ions a r e t h e i n te rpo la t ion m e thod a pp l ied .T he m o s tc ommon ly u sed a r e t h e s o -ca l led g l oba l i n te rpo la t ion m e thods . T he se m e thod s a pp ly a p o lynom ia l f unc t ion t o t h e r a s te r ised c on tou r s , t r ea t ing t h e w ho le s u r f ace i ne xac t ly t h e s ame m anne r , a nd p roduc ing s moo th s u r f a ce s t h a t m ay n o t n ece ssa r i ly r e f lec t t h ee x is t ing a b rup tb r eak s o n t h et e r ra in . O ne c an t h ink o ft h e i n te rpo la t ion p roce s s a s aw indow t h a t i sp a ssed a c ro ss t h e e n t ire s u r face o ft h e r a s te r i mage . A s t h e w indow move s a bou t t h e a r ea i ts umma r ise s t h e d a ta

2 9

s l ope , s ur face c ond i t ion s , v ege ta t ion ) , a nd d i s tance t ob e t r ave r sed . A l l o ft h e se h oweve r a r e p hy s ica l c ha rac te r i s t ics t h a t c an m o r e o rl e s s b e c on t ro l led . O the r more s ub t le y e t i mpo r tan t f a c to r s a r e c u l tu ra l ly r e la ted , o ra sG o renf lo a nd G a le p u ti t :

f ound ( e leva t ion v a lue s ) f i t t ing a p o lynom ia l f unc t ion t o t h is d a ta a nd a s s ign ing t h e c en t re o f t h e w indow w i th t h is v a lue b ef o re mov ing o n . T he f i na l r e su l tw i l l d epend o nt h e s i ze o f t h e w indow , w h ich d e te rm ine s t h e n umbe r o f s amp le s t a ken . A l a rge w indow w i l l p roduce s moo the r s u r f ace s w h i le a s ma l le r w indow w i l l p roduce a r oughe r o ne ( S chne ide r a nd R obb ins 1 998 : 1110 ; B e r ry 1 995 :33 ) . O f t h e g l oba l i n terpo la t ion m e thod s p e rhap s t h e m o s t c ommon ly u sed a r e t h e i n ve r se d i s tance , K r ig ing , a nd m in imum c u rva tu re a l go r i thm s . I nve r se d i s tance u s e s a n ea re s t n e ighbou r a pp roach . I te s t ima te s t h e v a lue o f t h e u n samp led l o ca t ion f r om t h e a ve rage o f t h e v a lue s f ound i ni t s v i c in i ty . T he v a lue s a r e w e igh ted s o a st or e duce t h e i nf luence o fv a lue s l o ca ted f u r the ra way . K r ig ing i s am o re c omp lex m e thod t h a t i sb a sed o n t h e p r em ise t h a t v a r iance b e tween s amp le p o in t s i sn o t u n ifo rm , w i th c hange b e ing d ependen t o n t h e d i s tance b e tween t h e se p o in t s . I n t h is s e n se i tt a ke s i n to a c coun t t h e t r end p r e sen t i nt h e s amp led d a ta . I n t h is m e thod v a lue s t h a t o ccu r a l ong t h e t r end d i rec t ion w i th in t h e i n te rpo la t ion w indow a r e g i ven a g r ea te r w e igh t t h an t h o se w h ich a r e n o t . T he m in imum c u rva tu re m e thod i sb a sed o n a n i n i t ia l e s t ima t ion o f t h e u nknown v a lue s b y u s ing t h e v a lue s o f t h e s amp led d a ta . I n i t ia l ly i tp roduce s ar ough s ur face w h ich u nde rgoe s a s moo th ing p roce s s b y m ean s o f as e r ie s o f i t e ra t ion s t h a t m an ipu la te t h e v a lue s o ft h e s amp led d a ta ( Ber ry 1 995 :33 3 5 ) .

. t he s pa t ia lc on tex to fm any h uman a c t iv i t ie sc anno tf u l ly b e d escr ibed i n t e rms o f t h e p hys ica l , E uc l idean d i s tance m easur es a s soc ia t ed w i th a bso lu te s pace . S tud ie s i n a n umber o fd if er en tc on tex t ss ugges tt h a t " r ea l" s pace i sa s m uch a p roduc t o f e conom ic , s oc ia l , c u l tura l , a nd p sycho log ica l c ons idera t ions a s i t i s o f p hy s ica l c ompos i t ion . ( Go renf lo a nd G a le 1 990 :242 ) F o r o ne t h ing w e n eed t oc on s ide r t h a t t h e h uman s t r id ing g a i t i sf a r f r om b e ing u n iform f r om o ne c u l tu ra l g r oup t o a no the r . A s D ev ine ( 1985 ) h a s s hown , t h e re i s a c on s ide rab le v a r iab i l i ty i n h uman l o como t ion . D ev ine r e v iewed t h e h uman l o como t ion i n forma t ion a va i lab le f o r 1 60 s oc ie t ie s a nd p ropo sed t h a t i no rde r t ob e a b le t od ea l w i th l o como t ion o n aw o r ld w ide b a s is , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o a b s t rac t s i ng le t r a i t s s uch a sg a i t , e ndu rance , s peed , b u rden c a r ry ing c l imb ing , a nd w a lk ing i n s i ng le f i le ( Dev ine 1 985 :552 ) . F o r e xamp le , n on indu s t r ia l i sed s oc ie t ie s h ave a h i ghe r t h re sho ld o f e ndu rance . T h is c ha rac te r i s t ic i s r o o ted i n s o c io -econom ic f a c to r s ( t he n eed o f r u nn ing i n w a r f a re , h un t ing ,c ommun ica t ions )a nd /o ri d eo log ica lf a c to r s( r i tua l , f o lk lo re , m ag ic ) , a nd i t i s a t te s ted i n v a r ious a c coun t s d e sc r ib ing d a i ly t r ave l o f b e tween 4 0 a nd 6 4 km f o r m en a nd w omen c a r ry ing l o ads o fu p t oa lmo s t3 0k go ve rr o ugh t e r ra in ( Dev ine 1 985 :555 -58 ) .

K e l l ie e ta l . ( 1 996 ) b r ief ly d i scu ss t h e se t h ree a l go r i thm s i n t h e ir a pp l ica t ion t o d ig i ta l t e r ra in mode l l ing f o r a r chaeo log ica l m app ing . T he ir m a in i n ten t w a s t op roduce t h e m o s t s u i tab le DTM f o r t h e mapp ing o f C iv i l Wa r m i l i ta ry c on s t ruc t ion s a tF o r t S ta r , K en tucky . O ft h e t h ree a l go r i thm s K e l l ie e ta l . f ound t h e i n ve r se d i s tance ( c a l led i n ve r se p owe r i n t h e a u tho r s , p ape r ) s e emed t o r e nde r a mo re a c cu ra te d ep ic t ion o f t h e a c tua l t e r ra in . T he a u tho r s a r gue , h oweve r , t h a t d e sp i te t h e u sefu lne s s o f t h e DTM i n i n terp re t ing t h e s i te i td oe s n o t s ub s t i tu te f o r t h e s t anda rd t o pog raph ic a nd p l an ime t r ic m e thods o fm app ing ( Ke l l ie e t a l . 1 996 :1-5 )

E ven w hen w ea r ea wa re o ft h ed i f f e rence s t h a t mov ing o ve rt h e n a tu ra l l a nd scape m ay i mp ly a mong d i f fe ren t s o c ie t ie s w eh ave t ob ea ri nm ind t h a tp hy s io log ica l ly ,t h e re a r el im i t s t oh uman b i peda l i sm . Va r iou s t e s t s i n d ica te t h a t t h el owe rl i m i tf o rw a lk ing a s0 . 7 m / s1 , a nd t h e u ppe rl i m i t f o rw a lk ing s pe ed i sa pp rox ima te ly 8 . 5 k m /h 1 ( a pp rox ima te ly 2 . 4m / s1 )s i nce a tg rea te rs p eeds t h e e f f ic iency o fw a lk ing b ecome s l owe r( Pando lf e ta l . 1 977 :579 ) . B u tw ha ti st h eo p t ima l w a lk ing s peed? Ma rb le ( 1 996 ) i d en t if ie s , a so ne o ft h e ma in i s sue s t op hy s io log ica l r e sea rche r s w a st h er e cogn i t ion o fa n e nergy e f f ic ien t b ehav iour , a s af u ndamen ta l f e a tu re o fh uman mo to r b ehav iou rt h u s :

Mov ing O ver N a tura lT erra in Wa lk ing , a s Ma rb le ( 1996 ) p o in t s o u t , a l though f r equen t ly s e en a s as imp le a c t iv i ty r e p re sen t s i n f a c t a n i mpo r tan t a s pec t o f t h e r e la t ionsh ip t h a t d eve lop s b e tween h umans a nd t h e p hy s ica l e nv ironmen t i n w h ich t h ey l i ve . " Ou r a b i l i ty t om ove o u r se lve s a nd o u rg oods f r om p l ace t op l ace u nde r v a r iou s e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ion s i s af undamen ta l f a c to rc ond i t ion ing t h e h uman u se a nd s t ruc tu r ing o fs pace" ( Ma rb le 1 996 :1) . I n t h e a c t o f w a lk ing v a r iou s f a c to r s s hou ld b e t a ken i n to a c coun t s uch a s : c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e i n d iv id 1:a ge , b ody w e igh t , h ea l th , t h e l o ad t ob e c a r r ied a nd f l u . , ti sc a r r ied , c ha rac te r i s t ics o ft h e t e r ra in ( s uch a s

I n af r ee ly c ho sen r a te o fa c t iv i ty , ar a te i sc ho sen t h a t r e pr esen t sm in ima le nergy e xpend i tur ep er u n i tt a sk . I nt h e c ase o fn a tura l w a lk ing , t h e u n i t t a sk t r aver s ing o ne m e tr e o fg round . As p eed i sa dop ted s uch t h a t e ach m e tr e i s c over ed a s e f i c ien t ly , f rom t h e e nergy s t andpo in t , a s p os s ib le . ( Ro se a nd G amb le 1 994 :59 , c i ted i n Ma rb le 1 996 :4 )

3 0

e xpe r imen t w i th 6 5 s ub jec t s i n w h ich s eve ra l d i s tance s w i th in S tockho lm a nd b e tween v a r ious c i t ie s w e re e s t ima ted . T he se e xpe r imen t s s howed t h a t a t l e a s t t h ree f a c to r s i nf luenced t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s ub jec t ive d i s tance a nd e mo t iona l i n vo lvemen t : ( 1 ) t h e i mpo r tance a t tr ibu ted t ot h e c i t ie s , ( 2 ) t h e i n te re s t i nt h e c i t ie s , a nd ( 3 ) t h e d eg ree o f k now ledge a bou t t h e c i t ie s ( Bra tf isch 1 969 : 2 44 -45 ) .

I nt h is c on tex t a l l t h ing s b e ing e qua l , ap e r son w a lk ing i na s e lf se lec ted m anne r w ou ld t e nd t o a dop t a n o p t ima l w a lk ing s p eed o f a pp rox ima te ly 8 0 m e t re s /m inu te o r 4 . 8 k m /hou r( Ma rb le 1 996 :4 ) . P sycho log ica l f a c to r s a l so h ave t ob e t a ken i n to a c coun t . O n t h eo ne h and , t h e m ea su re o fd i s tance w i l l b eg auged i n t e rm s o ft h e p e rcep t ion o ft ime t h a tw e a s sume i si n vo lved i n mov ing a c ro ss t h e l a ndscape , a nd o n t h e o the r h and , t h e e mo t iona l i n vo lvemen t t h a t a n i n d iv idua l o r g roup o f i n d iv idua ls m ay h ave i nt h a tp a r t icu la ra c t . D is tance c an b e p e r ce ived i n d i f f e ren t m anne r s a c co rd ing t o t h e f a c to r s i n vo lved . I t c an b e a t t h e s ame t ime s ub jec t ive a nd o b jec t ive , d epend ing o n t h e f a c to r s t h a t a r e i mp l ica ted i n o u r c ogn i t ion o f d i s tance . P a l i j ( 1 984 ) f o r e xamp le f ound

F rom a n a r chaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive i t i s i mpo ss ib le t o d i rec t ly a s se ss a s pec t s s u ch a s e ndu rance , p ercep t ion o f t r ave l t i me , o r e mo t iona l i n vo lvemen t i n e s t ima t ing d i s tance . H oweve r t h e re i sm uch c i r cum s tan t ia l e v idence t h a t c an b e f ound i nt h e h i s to r ic a nd e t hnog raph ic s ource s t h a t c ou ld b e e a s i ly a pp l ied t oo u r c a se ( Thomp son 1 930 ; R edf ie ld a nd V i l la R o ja s1934 ; V og t 1 964 ; L a sC a sa s 1 967 ; L anda 1 978 ) . A long w i th t h e se w r i t ten s ou rce s , as e r ie s o f l a bo ra to ry a nd f i e ld e xpe r imen t s h ave b een c onduc ted t o o b ta in a r e l iab le e s t ima te o f t h e e ne rgy e xpend i tu re i n vo lved i n t h e a c t o f w a lk ing u nde r d i f f e ren t c ond i t ions

t h a t i n t h e c ogn i t ive s y s tem , s pa t ia l i n fo rma t ion c an t a ke t h e f o rm o f am en ta l t h ree -d imen s iona l v i sua l isa t ion o ft h e a c tua l e nv i ronmen t e ven i nt h o se c a se s w he re t h e re w a s n o v i sua l a c ce ss ( Pa l i j 1 984 :126 ) . I n t h is r e ga rd , o f p r ime i mpor tance a r e t hose f a c to r s s u ch a s n umbe r o f t u rn s , n umbe r o f s t ops , n umbe r o f n ode s , a nd b a r r ie r s t ot r ave l . T he se f a c to r s h ave af unc t iona l r e la t ionsh ip w i th t h e a c tua l p hy s ica l d i s tance , i n c lud ing t h ee f f ec t so fd e lay i nt h ea c to f m ov ing o ve rt h e l a nd scape .

( Sou le a nd G o ldman 1 972 ;P ando lf e ta l . 1 977 ; D uggan a nd H a i sman 1 992 ) . I ti si mpo r tan t t o c l a r if y , h oweve r , t h a t t h e se e xpe r imen t s w e re c onduc ted u s ing a t o ta l o f 3 2 w e s te rn m a le s ub jec t s , m a in ly m i l i ta ry p e r sona l w e igh ing a n a ve rage o f 7 1 .8 k g , w i th a ve rage h e igh t o f 1 . 70 m , a nd a ve rage a ge o f 2 3 .6 y ea r s o l d . N eve r the le ss t h e e xpe r imen t s s howed t h a t b ody w e igh t w a s a n i mpo r tan t f a c to r i nd e te rm in ing t h e m e tabo l ic c o s t , f o r w h ich i tw a s i n c luded a s av a r iab le i nt h e d i f f e ren t f o rmu lae t oa c coun t f o rv a r ia t ion s .

I n t h i s s e nse , MacEach ren ( 1 980 ) h a s a r gued t h a t t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a n i n d iv idua l 's c ogn i t ion o f d i s tance i s b a sed s o le ly u pon t h e o b jec t ive d i s tance b e tween l o ca t ion s i sd oub t f u l . I n s tead h e p ropo se s t h a t t r ave l t ime s hou ld b e r e cogn i sed a s t h e f a c to r d e te rm in ing c ogn i t ion o fd i s tance ( Ma cEa ch ren 1 980 :30 ) . G o ren f lo a nd G a le 's ( 1 990 ) mode l f o r d e term in ing p a t tern s o f s e t t lemen t i n te rac t ion i n t h e s ou ther nB a s in o f Mex ico l e nd s uppo r tt ot h is a r gumen t .

A f o rmu la t o c a lcu la te t h e e ne rgy c os t o f w a lk ing o n 6 t y pe s o ft e r ra in a td i f f e ren t s peed s ( 0 .66 , 1 . 1 a nd 1 . 55 m / s ) c a r ry ing t h ree d i f f e ren t l o ad s ( 8 , 2 0 , a nd 3 0 k g ) h a s b een p ropo sed b y S ou le a nd G o ldman ( 1972 ) .

Emo t iona l i n vo lvemen t a l so p l ay s a n i mpo r tan t r o le i no u r p e rcep t ion o f d i s tance . B ra t sf i sch ( 1 969 ) c onduc ted a n

r g v v +L ) [2 .3

+0 . 32 (V -2 .5) 1 .65

Whe re : M =m e tabo l ic r a te , k ca l /hr

1 =m od if y ing c oef f ic ien tf o rt e r ra in o t he rt h an t r eadm i l l ; f o rt r eadm i l l n= 1 . 0 T he t y pe s o f t e r ra in t e s ted w e re b l ack top r o ad , d i r t r oad , l i gh t b r u sh , s wamp , a nd l o o se s and . T he m ea su red v a lue s o f w a lk ing a tt h e d i f f e ren t s peeds w i th t h e t h ree d i f f e ren t w e igh t s w e re c ompa red w i th p r ed ic ted e ne rgy c o s t s f r om t r eadm i l l w a lk ing u nde r t h e s ame c ond i t ion s ( Tab le 4 1) , a nd t h e m ean o ft h e r e la t ive r a t io s w a s t a ken a s t h e t e r ra in c oef f ic ien t s f o r e a ch c a se ( Tab le 4 -2 ) . T he se c oef f ic ien t s i n d ica te t h e r e la t ive e ne rgy c o s t o f w a lk ing a c ro ss t h e

H oweve ri nt h e ir emp ir ica l t e s t sS ou le a nd G o ldman d i dn o t w o rk w i th d i f f e ren t s l ope g rad ien t s a nd s o t h ey s imp l if ied t h e i r f o rmu la t o : 16 5

G (0 .2 +0 . 07 ( V -2 . 5 ) ) )

M =m e tabo l ic r a te ,W m t =k i log ram so fb ody +c l o th ing + l o ad w e igh t V =v e loc i ty , m / s

1 7=t e r ra in f a c to r , d ef ined a s 1f o rt r eadm i l l W =b ody w e igh t i nk g L =e x ter na l l o ad i nk g V =w a lk ing s p eed , k m /h r G =s l ope ( g rade ) , T o

M =n (m t ) [ 2 .7 +3 . 2 ( V -0 . 7 )

+

]

Wher e :

3 1

d i f fe ren t t y pe s o ft e r ra in w i th l o ad so f 1 0t o4 0k g ;h oweve r l o ad , d i d n o t s e em t oh ave a n i n dependen te f f ec t f o ra ny o f 1 . 1 m / s

0 . 66 m / s P red ic ted

8k g 2 03 W

2 0k g 2 57 W

t h et e r ra in ( Sou le a nd G o ldman 1 972 :706 -708 )

3 0 k g 2 84 W

8k g 2 53 W

1 . 55 m / s 3 0k g 3 54 W

2 0k g 3 20 W

8k g 3 77 W

2 0 k g 4 33 W

1 . 0 . 8 2 . 7 6 . 9 3 . 8 5 B lack top 1 . 11 1 . 10 1 . 18 . 9 6 1 . 14 D ir tr oad 1 . 25 1 . 19 1 . 23 1 . 37 1 . 35 L igh tb r . 1 . 40 1 . 62 1 . 75 1 . 57 1 . 58 1 . 94 H eavy b r . 1 . 64 1 . 68 2 . 28 1 . 99 1 . 86 2 . 08 S wamp 2 . 03 2 . 11 2 . 45 1 . 84 2 . 08 2 . 04 S and T ab le 4 1 . P red ic ted t r eadm i l l a nd r e la t ive r a t io so fe ne rgy c o s t s o fs i xt e r ra in s w i th l o ad s S ou rce: S ou le a nd G o ldman ( 1 972 ) T e r ra in B lack top s u r face

T i 1 . 0

D ir tr o ad

1 . 1

L igh tb r u sh

1 . 2

H eavy b ru sh

1 . 5

S wampy b og

1 . 8

L oo se s and

2 . 1

3 0 k g 5 30 W . 9 2 . 9 8 1 . 07

T ab le 4 -2 .T e r ra in c oef f ic ien t s S ou rce : S ou le a nd G o ldman ( 1972 ) 3 2 , 4 0 a nd 5 0 k g , t os t and ing s t i l l c a r ry ing l o ad s o f0 , 1 0 , 3 0 a nd 5 0 k g . T he r e v ised p r ed ic t ive f o rmu la f o r e ne rgy e xpend i tu re w a s ( Pando lf e ta l . 1 977 :577 ) :

I n al a te r p ape r P ando lf , G ivon i , a nd G o ldman ( 1 977 ) r e v ised t h e o r ig ina l f o rmu la . T h is r e v is ion t o ok i n to a c coun t s i tua t ions t h a t r a nge f r om w a lk ing a t v e ry l ow s peed s ( 1 .0 , 0 . 8 , 0 . 6 , 0 . 4 , a nd 0 . 2 m / s -' c a r ry ing l o ad s o f

M =1 . 5 W +2 . 0 (W + L ) (L /W ) 2 +7 1 ( W +L ) (1 .5V 2 +0 . 35VG ) Whe re : M =m e tabo l ic r a te , w a t t s W =s ub jec tw e igh t , k g L =l o ad c a r r ied , k g

T h is r e v ised f o rmu la w a s i n tended t oe x tend t h e r a nge o f a pp l ica t ion s a low ing a n a d ju s tmen t f o r l o ad s a s af unc t ion o f b ody w e igh t , t h u s p e rm i t t ing e a s ie r c a lcu la t ion s o f e ne rgy e xpend i tu re . T he o b se rva t ion s o b ta ined b y t h e se a u tho r s c onf i rmed t h a t t h e d i f f e rence b e tween l o ads h ad a v e ry s ma l l s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t l e ve l , b u t t h e d i f f e rence s o b ta ined b e tween s peed s w e re s t a t is t ica l ly r e levan t o b ta in ing t h e v a lue s e xp re s sed i nT ab le 4 3 ( c ompa re w i th T ab le 4 -2 ) ( Pando lf e ta l . 1 977 : 5 77 -78 ) .

V =s peed o fw a lk ing m / s1 G =g r ade , % i l =t e r ra in f a c to r

S peed m / s1 E ne rgy e xpend i tu re , W*kg 1

0 . 2

0 . 4

0 . 6

0 . 8

1 . 0

2 . 15

2 . 57

2 . 93

3 . 38

3 . 97

± 0 .06

± 0 .06

± 0 .07

± 0 .08

± 0 .13

V a lue s a r em ean s ±S E ;kg =b ody w e igh t +e x ter na l l o ad T ab le 4 -3 . Mean e ne rgy e xpend i tu re f o rs l ow w a lk ing w i th a l t h r ee e x te rna l l o ads S ou rce : P ando lf e ta l . ( 1 977 )

3 2

F rom t h e v a lue s e xp re s sed i n T ab le 4 -3 w e c an o b se rve h ow t h e e ne rgy e xpend i tu re o f w a lk ing a ts l owe r s peed s

R E FG O LDMAN a n d I MPE TRO ( 1 9 6 2 )

( " • ;C 2

, e 7 4 !

(; • 7 r ( S gr i e u0 = 1\ c r e 7 j)

r

_

F i gu r e5 22 T he R anda l l S t e la , S ak T z i ' i 's l a te s tk nown m onumen t( D raw ing b yI a n ( i ranam )

8 1

S IX

CONCLUS IONS

S i te I n terac t ion a nd S e t t lemen tP a t tern I n t h e s e cond p a r t o f t h e p r eced ing c hap te r Io f f e red a r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta r e g ion a s d ef ined i n C hap te r T h ree . T h is r e con s t ruc t ion w a s b a sed o n ac on junc t ive a pp roa ch t a k ing a dvan tage o f t h e h i s to r ic i n fo rma t ion c on ta ined i n t h e i n sc r ibed monumen t s o ft h e r e g ion , a nd t h e p o ten t ia l t h a t G IS o f f e r s t o s pa t ia l mode l l ing a nd a na ly s is , w i th in t h e c on tex t o f L andscape A rchaeo logy . T h rough t h i s

f i nd e v iden ce o f am i l i ta ry o u tpo s t o r o t he r d ef en s ive w o rk s . H ow eve r , t h e s u rvey s o ft h e a r ea a round t h i s s i te c a r r ied o u t d u r ing t h e 1 992 a nd 1 993 f i e ld s ea son s o ft h e P royec to A rqueo lög ico E l C ayo , d i d n o t y i e ld a ny i n d ica t ion o f d ef en s ive w o rk s o r a ny p o ten t ia l m i l i ta ry c on s t ruc t ion s ( Ma thew s a nd A l ipha t 1 993 ) . G ran ted , o n ly t h e Mex ican s i de o ft h e s i te w a s s u rveyed a nd t h e re i sc l ea r e v idence o fc on s t ruc t ions o fc on s ide rab le s i ze o n t h e G ua tema lan s i de . H owever i ti so n ly t h e Mex ican s i de o fE l C ayo w he re w e f i nd e l eva t ion s c l o se e nough t o t h es i te t h a tw ou ld o f f e rs h e l te rf o rd e f en s ive p u rpo se s . A f ew h und red m e te r s u p s t ream f r om E l C ayo t h e U sumac in ta R ive r n a r row s c on s ide rab ly a nd i s s u r rounded b y s t eep c l if f s . T h i s l o ca t ion w ou ld b e a pp rop r ia te f o r d ef en s ive p urpo se s , b u t o n ly i n t h o se c a se s w he r e t h e r i ve r w a s u sed a s t h e m a in m ean s o f t r an spo r ta t ion , a nd n ow w e k now t h a t t h e re w e re a l te rna t ive i n land r ou te s . I fn o t m i l i ta ry , t h en w ha t w a s t h e r e levance o fE l C ayo f o r t h e i n te rna l c ompo s i t ion o f P ied ra s N eg ra s o r S ak T z ' i '? It h ink t h a t t h e a n swe r t o t h is q ue s t ion l i e s i nt h e p hy s ica l a nd s o c ia l d imens ion s o f E l C ayo 's l o ca t ion .

a pp roa ch I h ave d emon s t ra ted h ow e ven t s o ccu r r ing o u t s ide t h e r e g ion d o i nf a c ta l te rt h e i n te rna l c ompo s i t ion o ft h ep o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion w i th in ar e g ion . A f te r t h e i n i t ia l a pp l ica t ion o f t h e G rav i ty Mode l m y s pa t ia l a na ly s is c en t red mo re o n t r y ing t o d ef ine t h e s t ruc tu r e o f t h e s e t t lemen t p a t t e rn i n r e la t ion t o o t he r c en t re s , r a the r t h an t h e i n te rna l c ompo s i t ion w i th in c en t re s . I n t h i s s en se t h e a pp roa ch I u se h a s g r ea te r a ff in i ty w i th N ea re s t N e ighbou r A na ly s i s t h an w i th C en t ra l P l a ce T heo ry . H oweve r t h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h e D emp s t e r -Sha f e r l o g ic t o t h e s pa t ia l d a ta y i e lded i n fo rma t ion t h a t s e emed m o re a k in t o C en t ra l P l a ce

E l C ayo , a s m en t ioned i n C hap te r T h r ee o f f e r s ag ood l a nd ing b ea ch v i r tua l ly a l y ea r round . T h is i so f p r ime i mpo r tance f o r w a te rc ra f t t r an spo r ta t ion . I ti s a l so t h e p o in tw he re s e ve ra l o ft h e i n land r ou te sc onve rge . H a s s ig h a s n o ted t h a t r oad s p l ay a v e ry i mpo r tan t r o le i n c o l lap s ing s oc ia l s pace . T ha t t h e se w i l l e f f ec t ive ly d r aw d i s tan t p l ace s c l o se r o rs oc ia l ly r emove t h o se p l ace s t h a t a r e n o tc onnec t ed ( Ha s s ig 1 991 :18 ) . I nt h ec on tex to fs i t e i n te rac t ion E l C ayo s e em s t oh ave f unc t ioned a s as oc ia l c a ta ly s t , ap l a ce w he re i n d iv idua ls f r om d i f f e ren t p l a ce s c onve rged a nd i n te ra c ted . Wh i le P ied ra s N eg ra s w a s t h e c en t re o fp o l i t ica l p owe ra nd c e remon ia l a c t iv i ty , E l C ayo m ay h ave f u nc t ioned a s s ome s o r t o f i n te r -po l i ty p o r t o f e n t ry .

T heo ry i n t h e s ense t h a t i t h i gh l igh ted t h e a r ea s o f s t ra teg ic s i te l o ca t ion f r om t h ep e r spec t ive o fC h r i s ta l le r 's K = 4T ran spo r t P r inc ip le ( F igu re 1 1 , s e e a l so C hap te r O ne ) . T he se r e su l t s a l so s ugge s ted t o m e t h a t t h e m o r e t r ad i t iona l a pp l ica t ion s o f t h e f e uda l m ode l d o n o t p rope r ly r e f lec t t h e i n te rna l s t ruc tu re o f ac en t r e a nd i t s s ub s id ia ry s i te s . B y t h i s Im ean t h a t e nv i s ion ing t h e s e conda ry , t e r t ia ry , q ua te rna ry a nd s o o n c en t re s a s " s ca led -down" v e r s ion s o f t h e p r ima ry c en t re , w he re t h e l o ca l n ob i l i ty h e ld c ou r t , p r even t s u s f r om u nde r s tand ing t h e c omp lex i ty o ft h e i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e se s i te s a nd t h e i r c en t ra l p l ace , a s w e l l a s b e tween t h e c en t ra l p l ace s t h em se lve s . T he i n terp re ta t ion o f t h e e p ig raph ic e v idence i nl i gh t o f t h e a bove -men t ioned r e su l t s s ugge s t s a n o rgan ic t y pe o f i n te rna l p o l i ty c ompo s i t ion . I n t h i s o rgan ic c ompo s i t ion s ome s ub s id ia ry s i te s w i l l h ave c omp le te ly u n ique f u nc t ions d i f f e ren t f r om t h o se c onduc ted a t t h e m a in c en t re s . A l ipha t c onc luded t h a t s i t e s l i ke E l C ayo , E l C h i le , E l C h icozapo te , L a P a sad i ta a nd T excoco p l ayed a p rom inen t r o le i n c on t ro l l ing a cce s s t o c ommun ica t ion r ou te s . I n ac on tex t o fe ndem ic w a r f a re t h e l a ck o ff o rma l r o ad s a s d ef ined b y T rombo ld ( s ee C hap te r F ive ) m ean t t h a t m i l i ta ry o u tpo s t s n eeded t ob e d i s t r ibu ted a c ro ss t h e h i n te r land a tt h e se s t ra teg ic p o in t s . E l C ayo f o r e xamp le , w a s as e conda ry c en t re t h a t i s l o ca ted a tt h e c r o s s road s o f a lmo s t a l " r oad s" t h a t g o t o P i ed ra s N eg ra s . Ia r gued i n C hap te r F ive t h a t t h is s i t e w a s i n ten se ly c on tes ted b y P i ed ra s N eg ra s a nd S ak T z ' i ' , h ence i tr e p re sen t s al o ca t ion w he re o ne w ou ld e xpec t t o

8 2

Y axch i lan 's L in t e l s 1 , 4 9 , 3 7 a nd 3 5 , a nd P i ed ra sN eg ra s L in te l s 2a nd 3b ea r w i tne s s o ft h e e no rmou s i mpo r tance t h a t w a s g i ven t o f o re ign r e la t ions . I t i s u n l ike ly , h oweve r , t h a t c on ta c t b e tween f o re ign e m i s sa r ie s a nd t h e l o ca l k i ng w a s u nmed ia ted . C e r ta in ly s ome s o r to ff o rma l p ro toco l t o ok p l a ce b ef o re t h e k i ng a nd h i s r oya l v i s i to r s m e t . I nt h i s c on t ex tE lC ayo , w h ich i st h e m o s t i mpo r tan t s i te d own s t ream f r om Y axch i lan b efo r e P i ed ra s N eg ra s , m ay h ave f u nc t ioned a s t h e p l ace w he r e t h ese r i te s o f p a s sage f r om o ne p o l i ty t o a no the r t o ok p l a ce . I n t h i s r e spec t t h e o ccu r rence o f t h e " canoe" g l yph i n P ied ra s N eg ra s L in t e l 3a nd t h e c anoe r e la ted t i t l e t h a t o ne o ft h e y oung L acanha a haw s d ep ic ted i nL in te l 2u s e s me r i t s a c l ose r l o ok . T h i s g l yph a l so a ppea r s i nS cu lp tu re S tone 5 o fB onampak i nt h e c on tex t o fa n o ff ic ia l v i s i t b y Y axun B a lam , s o i tm ay w e l l b e t h a t t h is g lyph i ss ome f o rm o f a l lego ry s im i la r t ot h e o ch b i " he e n te r ed t h e r oad" s i gn f o rd ea th .

E l C ayo , a ga in d ue t o i t s l o ca t ion , m ay h ave h ad m o re m undane f u nc t ions p u rpo se s l i ke p o r to fc a l l o rp rov inc ia l m a rke t o r a s " cus tom s" c heckpo in t f o r w a te rc ra f t s a nd i n land " c a ravans" p a s s ing t h rough i t . T he i d ea o f E l C ayo f u nc t ion ing a s a m a rk e tp la ce m ay a ppea r t o c on t rad ic t t h e b a s ic t e ne t o f C en t ra l P lace T heo ry , b u t i f v i ewed f r om t h e o rgan ic p e r spec t ive i tb ecome s a ppa ren t t h a t E l C ayo h a s ab e t te r v an tag e p o in t t h an P i ed ra s N eg ra s d i d i nt e rm s o fa cce s s ib i l i ty . T hu s i nt h i s s e n se , i t c a r r ied o u t av i ta l f u nc t ion f o r t h e p o l i ty a s aw ho le . I n t h e s ame t e no r L a Ma r a ppea r ed t o h ave h ad a m o re m i l i ta ry f u nc t ion a s a t te s ted b y i t si n te rven t ion i nt h e S ak T z ' i ' a nd P omona c ampa ign s . T he i n i t ia l r e su l t s o b ta ined f r om t h e N ea re s t N e ighbou r A na ly s i s i n d ica ted ad i spe r s ion p a t te rn . F o r t h e s ake o f c ompa r i son , a s e cond a na ly s i s w a s p e r f o rmed w h ich i n c luded t h e t h ree n ew ly l o ca t ed c en t re s . T he R c oeff ic ien t w i th t h e se n ew p o l i t ie s i n c rea sed c on s ide rab ly t o 2 . 09 i n d ica t ing h i gh l e ve l o f c ompe t i t ion b e tween c en t r e s . L acanha h oweve r r e p re sen t s a n a noma lou s c a se . T he a ve rag e d i s tance b e tween t h e o t he r r eg iona l c en t re s i so f 3 2 .25 k m . L acanha i sl o ca t ed a ts ca r ce ly 5 k m f r om B onampak , t h us i n c rea s ing t h e s t r e s s d ue t oc ompe t i t ion f o r t h e r e sou rce b a se . Ma thew s h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s p rox im i ty m ay b e d ue t o ac ommon o r ig in r a the r t h an t o i n dependen t s e t t lemen t o f t h e s i t e s . B onampak w a s p robab ly a n o f f sp r ing o f L acanha e s tab l i sh ing i t s c ap i ta l a tt h e v i c in i ty o ft h e l a t te r( o rv i ce -ve r sa ) ( Ma thew s 1 999 , p e r sona lc o mmun ica t ion ) .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e se c ap i ta l s a c ro s s t h e r e g iona l l a nd scape s ugge s t s af r ag i le p owe r b a lance pa r t icu la r ly b e tween Y axch i lan a nd P i ed ra s N eg ra s - t h a t w a s r e pea ted ly u p se t b y t h e e ven t s t a k ing p l ace o u t s ide t h e r e g ion . V iewed f r om t h is g l oba l p e r spec t ive t h e c onf l ic t s o r ig ina ted b e tween t h e t wo s upe rpowe r s , T ika l a nd C a lakmu l , h ad a r i pp le e f f ec t i n t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta r e g ion w he re t h e d i f f e ren t a c to r s s e em t o h ave b een a lway s a l e r tt o" ca t ch t h et i de" t ot h e i ra dvan tage . T he r e su l t s p r e sen ted h e re d o n o t n ece s sa r i ly i n va l ida te Ma thew s ' 1 988 r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o ft h e r e g ion ; h oweve r , t h ey d o h i gh l igh t o ne o ft h e m a in c on s t ra in t s o ft h e T h ie s sen P o lygon m e thod t h a t h e u s ed , i t s i n he ren t ly s t a t ic n a tu re . Ma thew s i s t h e f i r s t t o r e cogn i se t h e s ho r t com ing s o f t h is m e thod w hen d ea l ing w i th t h e d ynam ic p roce s se s i n vo lved i nt h e d ef in i t ion o f p o l i ty b ounda r ie s t h rough t i me . I n t h e se t e rm s m y f i r s t m ap o f t h e t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t o f t h e d i f f e ren t p o l i t ie s i d en t if ied f o r t h e r e g ion ( F igu re 4 13 ) i s a s s t a t ic a s Ma thew s 1 988 T h ie s sen P o lygon s . T he se , h oweve r , a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly o f d ub iou s v a lue ; a s t h e se m ap s a r e p rov id ing u s w i th t h e i n i t ia l f r amewo rk o n w h ich t o m oun tt h e m o re d ynam ic p roce s se s . W i th t h e u s e o ft h e T h ie s sen p o lygon s Ma thew s h a s b een a b le t o d e sc r ibe t h rough f i xed p e r iod s o f t ime , t h e c hange s t h a t t o ok p l ace i nt h e p o l i t ica l g eog raphy o ft h e Maya l ow land s . H i s i ss t i l l t h e m o s t c i ted s ou rce i nt h i s r e spec t . O n m y p a r t , b y d e te rm in ing w ha t w ou ld b e t h e s t a te o fn a tu ra l e n t ropy i nt e rm s o fp o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion , Ih ave b een e nab led t om ode l t h e e f f ec t s o fc hange s i nt h e a r rangemen t o fp o l i t ica l a l iance s . I no t he r w o rds Ih ave s h if ted m y r e sea rch f o cu s f r om q ue s t ion s o f w ha t? a nd h ow? t ow ha ti f ?

I ti sv e ry l i ke ly t h a t t h is w a s t h e c a se , t h e e v idence f r om t h e i n sc r ip t ion s s uppo r t s t h e i d ea o f ac ommon o r ig in , w i th r u le r s f r om B onampak u s ing b o th t h eB onampak a nd L acanha emb lem g l yph s a mong s t t h e i r t i t le s . N eve r the le ss e ven w i th t h is c ommon o r ig in t h e p rob lem s t i l l p e r s i s t s . F rom t h e i n sc r ip t ion s w e k now t h a tt owa rd s t h e L a te C la s s ic L acanha i s c omp le te ly a b so rbed b y B onampak . Howeve r t h e f a c t t h a tL acanha e x i s ted a sa n i n dependen t p o l i ty t h rough e x tended p e r iod s o f t ime b e f o r e t h is m e rge r ema in s a n i s sue t h a t s t i l l a wa i t s r e so lu t ion . T he o n ly e xp lana t ion Ic an o f f e r f o r t h is a noma ly i st h a t L a canha 's p e rmanence w a s d ue t oe x t ra r eg iona l f a c to r s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t L acanha 's l o ya l t ie s w e re s p l i t t h rough t i me s b e tween i t s s i s te rp o l i ty B onampak , a nd s ome o t he r s t i l l u n iden t if ied c en t re . I nt h i sr e spec t i ti sr e vea l ing t h a t Y axch i lan w h ich t h roughou t i t s h i s to ry s e em s t o h ave b een i nc l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th B onampak m ake s w a r a t l e a s t t w ice t oL a canha , t a k ing i ne ach c a se ah i gh r a nk ing n ob le a sc ap t ive . A lso o f i n te r e s t i st h e f a c t t h a t i ns u ch o cca s ion s ad i f f e ren t p o l i ty ( i . e . B ukTun ) a s soc ia ted i n d i r ec t ly w i th L acanha w a s a l so a t tacked ( s ee Ma thew s 1 9 88 : 163 ) . B u t u n t i l w e c an o b ta in m o re i n fo rma t ion f r om a s y s tema t ic e xp lo ra t ion o f L acanha a nd i t s s u r round ing s , a l o f t h is w i l l h ave t o r ema in a t a s p ecu la t ive l e ve l .

8 3

T he m ap s I h ave d e r ived p r e sen t t h e p l au s ib le r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p o l i t ica l o rgan isa t ion o f t h e r e g ion t h rough t i me . T he se , a sa l ready m en t ioned , a r e s t rong ly b a sed o n t h e e p ig raph ic a c coun t s a nd t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e n a tu ra l l a nd scape . T he d ef in i t ion o ft h e b ounda r ie s b e tw een t h e d i f f e ren t p o l i t ie s i s o f c ou r se s ub jec t t o r e a s se s smen t . Id o n o t s ha re H ammond 's a s se r t ion ( 1991) , w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t b ounda ry m a in t enance a nd t e r r i to r ia l i n teg r i ty w e re u n impo r tan t i s sue s t ot h e Maya r u le r ( Hammond 1 99 1 :276 -277 ) . O n t h e c on t ra ry I b e l ieve t h a t i ft h e p a t te rn s o f s i te i n te rac t ion a nd t h e s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion o fs i t e sa r e t e l l ing u sa ny th ing a ta l , i ti s t h a t t h e t e r r i to r ia l i n teg r i ty o ft h e p o l i ty a nd i t s b ounda ry m a in tenance w e re ap r io r i ty f o rt h e Maya k i ng s . T he c en t ra l t e ne t o ft h i s w o rk , i st h a t d ue t ot h e r e s t ra in t s i mpo sed b y t h e p hy s ica l l a nd scape , t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e r ou te s o fc ommun ica t ion c on s t i tu ted t h e d om inan t f a c to r f o r s i t e l o ca t ion . F rom h e r e i tf o l low s t h a t s i t e i n te rac t ion a nd i n te rna l c ompo s i t ion c ou ld b e m ea su red i nt e rm s o f a c ce s s t ot h e se " r oad s" . L ikew ise t h e l e ve l o fi n teg ra t ion t oo ne o r t h e o t he r h egemon ic p owe r s d epended o n t h e l e ve l o f c ommun ica t ion t h a t as i t e h ad w i th o ne o r t h e

p a rame te r s o ft h e Maya w ay o fl i f e . T h i s i d ea l w ay o fl i f e w a s c e r ta in ly i mpo sed u pon t h e w ho le o ft h e p opu la t ion w he the r i tr e sponded t ot h e i r s oc ia l r e a l i t ie s o r n o t . T he i mpo s i t ion w a s f a c i l i ta ted b y m ean s o f ar i tua l c omp lex t h a t t r anspo sed t h e se v a lue s t o mo re f am i l ia r c oncep t s , m uch i nt h e s ame w ay a s t h e Amer ican w ay o f l i f e h a s b een i mpo sed o n m o s t o f t h e w o r ld t h rough t h e m a s s m ed ia .

o t he r o f t h e se s upe rpowe r s . T h is r e a l isa t ion h e lp s u s e xp la in w hy P i ed ra s N eg ra s a nd Y axch i lan a cqu i re p r eponde rance i nt h er e g ion . T h roughou t t h e h i s to ry o f t h e r eg ion t h e se t wo s i te s a r e t h e o n ly t wo k i ngdom s t h a t m ake e xp l ic i tm en t ion o ft h e i r r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e t wo s upe rpowe r s . T he i r g eog raph ic l o ca t ion a l ong t h e U suma c in ta a nd c l o se t o t h e e a s te rn P e ten r o ad , s e em s t oh ave d e te rm ined t h i s r e la t ion sh ip . I t i sf o r t h i s r e a son t h a t t h e P i ed ra s N eg ra s a nd Y axch i lan

I n t h i s c on tex t t h e s ucce s s o f T ika l a nd C a la l cmu l i n d raw ing t o t h e ir p o l i t ica l s phe re s ma l le r c en t res m ake s p e r f ec t s e n se . T he s pa t ia l a nd s oc ia l p r ox im i ty t h a t t h e se l e s se r c en t re s c ou ld a ch ieve w i th r e spec t t o t h e t wo c ap i ta ls o f t h e Maya w o r ld , a gg rand i sed t h e ir o wn r e g iona l s t a tu s b y e mpha s is ing t h e i r w or th ine s s o f p a r tak ing w i th t h eb i g o ne s i nt h is i d ea l .

k i ng s e mpha s ise t h e i r i n te rac t ion ( whe the r m a r r iage a l iance s o r m i l i ta ry t a ke -ove r s ) w i th t h e p o l i t ie s l o ca ted t owa rd s t h e e a s t . H ix W i tz , f o r e xamp le , w a s l o ca ted b e tween t h e se c en t re s a nd t h e r oad t o t h e P e ten , w h i le Man ( La F lo r ida ) i s l o ca t ed o n t h e S an P ed ro Ma r t i r R ive r w h ich i n t u rn c on s t i tu te s t h e c onnec t ion t o C a lakr nu l .

S pa t ia l Mode l si nA rchaeo logy : a n E va lua t ion

F rom t h i s p e r spec t ive T ika l a nd C a lak rnu l r e p re sen t t h e a x is a r ound w h ich t h e C la s s ic Maya g eopo l i t ica l g l obe r o ta ted . B u t w hy w e re t h e se s upe r s ta te s s o i mpo r tan t i n t h e Maya w o r ld? Whe r e i s t h e e s sence o f t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e i r c l o se a l l ie s a nd o t he r s ubo rd ina te

T he a pp l ica t ion o f G IS m ode l l ing p roved t o b e i n t h i s c a se a n a s se t f o r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f o the rw i se u npe r ce ived p a t te rn s o f s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia l i n te rac t ion . I t w a s n o t h oweve r a s t ra igh t fo rwa rd p r oces s . Much t h ough t h ad t ob e g i ven t ot h e d ef in i t ion o ft h e i s sue s a nd t h e r e levan t v a r iab les t h a t c ou ld b e p rope r ly h and led b y t h e se t o o ls . F rom t h e s t a r t Ih ave e mpha s ised t h e e no rmou s a dvan tage s t h a t t h e e x is tence o f t h e h i s to r ic a ccoun t s c on ta ined i nt h e Maya monumen t s r e p re sen t . I t r i ed t ob e v e ry s p ec if ic i nd e sc r ib ing t h e d i f f e ren t s t age s c on s ide r ed i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h is e xp lana t ion mode l . T he se d e ta i led a c coun t i sm a in ly d ue t o ap e rce ived n eed t od e sc r ibe a st h o rough ly a sp o s s ib le t h e k i nd o fp rob lem s t h a t t h e a r chaeo log i s t w o rk ing w i th t h e se t y pe o f mode l s m ay e ncoun te r , a nd n o ta s" cook b ook" p r e sen ta t ion .

s t a te s? I st h i s d i sp ropo r t iona te r e levance d ue m e re ly t o m i l i ta ry s t r eng th o ri ss ome th ing e l se i n vo lved? O n r e v iew ing t h e i mpo r tance o f r oad s f o r t h e p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion o f t h e U ppe r U sumac in ta i nt h e l i gh t o f t h e n e two rk s o f a l iance s o ne c anno t h e lp b u t n o t ice t h e e x is tence o f a n u nde r ly ing s t ruc tu re t h a t g i ve s c ohe s ivene s s t o t h e se f o rm s o f p o l i t ica l o rgan isa t ion . W i thou t t r y ing t o u nde r sco re t h e i mpo r tance t h a t t h e e conom ic f a c to r s h ad i n t h e s t ruc tu r ing o f t h e p o l i t ica l o r gan isa t ion , i ts e em s t om e t h a t i tw e re t h e se t h a t w e re i n f luenced b y f a c to r s p e r ta in ing t ot h e i d eo log ica l r e a lm r a the r t h an t h e o t he r w ay a r ound . I n s uppo r t o f t h i s a r gumen t Ir e f e r t o a n i s sue r a ised b y S ha re r ( 1991) r e ga rd ing t h e d ef in i t ion o f w ha t w a s t ob e u nde r s tood a s t h e C la s s ic Maya c u l tu re . S ha re r d ec r ied t h e m anne r i n w h ich o u r c oncep t ion o f t h e C la s s ic Maya c u l tu re w a s s h aped t a k ing i n to a ccoun t o n ly a s e c to r o f t h e s oc ie ty , t h e e l i te , a nd w i th in t h i s , o n ly t h e c u l tu ra l m an if e s ta t ion s c ha rac te r is t ic o ft h e C en t ra l l ow land s . S ha re rs t re s se s t h e n ece s s i ty t o r e cogn ise t h e g r ea t d i ve r s i ty p r e sen t i n t h e Maya l ow land s a s aw ho le i no rde r t oe l abo ra te a m o re a c cu ra te d ef in i t ion o f Maya c u l tu re ( Sha re r 1 991 :180 1 98 ) .

Y e t a no the r a dvan tage t h a t G IS b a sed m ode l o f f e r s f o r a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch l i e s i ni t sa gg rega t ing n a tu re . T he o r ig ina l d a ta s e t c an b e i n c rea sed , o r e d i t ed a s n ew r e levan t i n fo rma t ion i so b ta ined , w i thou t h av ing t o r e e l abo ra te t h e w ho le d a taba se . E spec ia l ly i mpo r tan t i st h e f a c t t h a t G IS h a s t h e a b i l i ty t o i n teg ra t e d i spa ra te d a ta f r om d i f f e ren t s ou r ce s i n to aw o rkab le f o rma t . T h is i so f p a r t icu la rr e levance i np rob lem s r e la ted t os i t e l o ca t ion o r s i te p r ed ic t ion a s r emo te sen s ing i mage ry i sb ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly a va i lab le .

A l though If u l ly a g ree w i th S ha re r o n t h e i s sue , Ib e l ieve t h a t o u r " s te reo typed" n o t ion o f C la s s ic Maya C u l tu re ( s ee f o r e xamp le B e r l in 1 977 ) s t i l l r e p re sen t s av a luab le c oncep t . T he r e levance o ft h i s d ef in i t ion l i e s i nt h e s en se t h a t i td oe s n o t r e p r e sen t am en ta l c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log is t , b u t r a the r am en ta l c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e a c tua l C la s s ic Maya e l i te . T h is c oncep t ion , t h ough , i t m ay n o t h ave r e p re sen ted t h e r ea l s t a te o ft h ing s , m ay b e s e en i nt h e f o rm o fa n a e s the t ic i d ea l . T h is i d ea l f o rmed a m en ta l t emp la te o r m ou ld , o n w h ich t h e Maya p a t te rned t h e i r b ehav iou r . A s a n a e s the t ic i d ea l i td ef ined t h e

8 4

I n t h e c on tex t o f t h is r e sea r ch t h e c l a s s if ica t ion o f t h e s a te l l i te a nd r a da r i mage ry a va i lab le f o r t h e s t udy r eg ion p rom i se s i n te re s t ing r e su l t s a nd w i l l s u re ly e nough h e lp m e r e a s se s s m ovemen t o ve r n a tu ra l t e r ra in . I n i t ia l p robe s w e re d one w i th a S ARC R ada r i mage f o r t h e a r ea . NASA t h rough i t s J e t P ropu l s ion L ab ( J PL ) k i nd ly p rov ided t h is i mage . T he se i n i t ia l e f fo r t s a r e c en t r ing i n t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e t e x tu re p a t te rn s a r ound t h e k nown s i te l o ca t ion s i n o rde r t o c ompa r e t h em t o t h e p o ten t ia l a r ea s d ef ined b y t h e G rav i ty Mode l a nd D emp s te r -Shaf e r . T he p r e l im ina ry r e su l t s a l though e ncou rag ing a r e s t i l l t o o t e nuou s t op re sen t i nt h is w o rk .

T h is h oweve r h igh l igh t s t h e a dvan tage o f b e ing a b le t o a gg rega te n ew d a ta i nt h e w o rk ing m ode l i no r de rt of i ne t u ne i t . T he p o ten t ia l u se s o ft h e se a pp l ica t ion s a r e e ven m o re e v iden ti ng eoa rchaeo log ica lp r ob lem s . F o r e xamp le , t h rough t h e c omb ined u s e o f G IS t h e h i e rog lyph ic i n sc r ip t ion s , t h e p e t rog raph ic c ompo s i t ion o f t h e monumen t s a nd r emo te ly s e n sed d a ta , am ode l t o r e cons t ruc t t h e q ua r ry ing p a t te rn s o f l i me s tone m ay b e p ropo sed . G ood q ua l i ty l ime s tone m u s t h ave b een o f t r emendou s i mpo r tance t o t h e Maya k i ng s t h a t s ough t p e rpe tua t ing t h e i r h i s to r ie s i n t h e i n sc r ibed m onumen t s a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l w o rk s . I n t h i s s en se , t h rough t h e a pp l ica t ion o f a mode l t h a t t a ke s a c coun t o ft h e l o ca t ion o f q ua r r ie s , a cces s a nd c on t ro l o fs u ch l o ca t ion s a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk s o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l s c ou ld o f f e r m o re i n s igh t o ft h e i n te rna l c ompo s i t ion o ft h e p o l i t ie s a s w e l l a so nt h e t r ade n e two rk s . W i l l t h is m ode l w o rk? I b e l ieve s o . H oweve r av e ry i mpo r tan tp a r t i ss t i l l p end ing : t h e g r ound " p roof ing" . S o f a r i tm ay a ppea r t h a t Ih ave " l e t m y f i ng e r s d o t h e w a lk ing " . T h is i s n o t t h e c a se , w ha t Ih ave d one i s c omp i led t h e a va i lab le d a ta f r om d ozen s o f s pec ia l i s t s t h a t h ave d one t h e a c tua l s u rvey o f t h e a r ea ( i nc lud ing m y se lf ) , a nd d i s t i l led f r om t h e se d a ta t h e i n f o rma t ion r e levan tt om yr e sea rch p rob lem . T he a pp l ica t ion o f a c on junc t ive a pp roa ch i n t h e e l abo ra t ion o ft h i s s pa t ia l m ode l h a s h e lped m e r e cogn i se s ome p a t te rns i n s i te i n te rac t ion t h a t o t he rw i se w ou ld h ave b een d i ff icu l t t op e rce ive . H oweve r , Ia m a wa re t h a t t h is m ode l i sj u s t ah eu r i s t ic t o o l a nd a s s u ch i th a s i n he r en t l im i ta t ion s t h a t w i l l b ecome a ppa r en t w hen c on t ra s t ing i tt ot h e r e a l w o r ld . I nt h i s s e n se l o ya l t ot h e t r ad i t ion i n Mex ican a r chaeo logy o fg i v ing p r eva lence t o f i e ldwo rk , Ia m s t i l l af i rm b e l ieve r i nt h e m ax im o f t h e g r ea t P ed ro A rm i l la s : L a a rqueo log i a s eh ace c am inando " A r cha eo logy i sd one b y w a lk ing" .

8 5

AN ISOTROPIC FRICT ION

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APPEND IX 2 :S U M MARY S TAT IST ICS FOR THE GRAV ITY MODEL

L inea rR eg re s s ion o ft h eD a ta S PSS

L i s tw ise D e le t ion o fM i s s ing D a ta

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0 . 009599

PN /EC

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0 .00624 1

YAX /B PK

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6 55

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0 .009539

YAX /LAC

2

1

1 25

2 5

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0 .007973

YAX /LaP

1

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0 .006304

B PK /LAC

8

3

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2 51 .6709

0 . 10592

B PK /LaM

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B PK /Nvo J

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0 .006304

LAC /NvoJ

1

1

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1 0

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YAX /LAXT

1

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S AK /PN

4

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S AK /K -S

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0 . 007973

MAN /PN

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MAN NAX

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I XW /PN

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I XW /YAX

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K -S /B PK

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0 . 005878

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0 . 005147

K -S /Nvo J

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K -SIECH

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S R /YAX

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BUK /YAX

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APPEND IX 3MAJOR H ISTOR ICAL EVENTS OF THE UPPER U SU MAC INTA REG ION

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