Shaping Culture: Making Pots and Constructing Households. An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Pottery Production, Trade and Use in the Andes 9781407352244, 9781841711515
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English Pages [232] Year 2000
Front Cover
Copyright
Opening Image
Preface
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1 Social Reproduction and Archaeology
Chapter 2 The Andean Setting
Chapter 3 Households in Andean Society
Chapter 4 The Production of Pottery (making culture material)
Chapter 5 Pottery Trade and Exchange within the Andean Economy
Chapter 6 Pottery Use: Producing Food and Reproducing the Household
Chapter 7 Conclusions and Implications
Appendix 1 Pottery Forms and Functions
Appendix 2 Pottery Forms Made in Communities Discussed in the Text
Appendix 3 Pottery Forming: Araypallpa
Appendix 4 Firing Arangements Used by Communities Discussed in the Text
Appendix 5 House plans and inventories of their pottery
Glossary Quechua and Spanish Terms
Bibliography
Recommend Papers
- Author / Uploaded
- Bill Sillar
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Shaping Culture Making Pots and Constructing Households An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Pottery Production, Trade and Use in the Andes
Bill Sillar
BAR International Series 883
2000
Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 883
Shaping Culture © Bill Sillar and the Publisher 2000 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711515 paperback ISBN 9781407352244 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711515 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2000. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.
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P ref ace
T h et h ing sw e m ak ea nd t h ew ay i n wh i ch w eu se t h em s hape so u re xpe r i en ce o ft h ew o r ld . Wh en Ic ook d i nne rf o rm yp a r tn e r , m ake j ew e l le ry t o s el i nt h em a rke t , o rw r i te ab ook f o rt h ep ub l i sh e rt od i s t r ibu te , my u se o fm a te r ia lc u l tu re h e lp s t o s t ruc tu r e m yp ar t i c ipa t ion i ns oc i e ty . O fc ou r se , my r e la t ion sh ip w i th my p a r tn e r , my c u s tom e r s , o r my r eade r s m ay e x i s t p r io r t ot h e se p a r t i cu l a r a c t s , b u t i ti si nt h e a c t o f p rodu c ing , e xch ang ing a nd c on sum ing m a te r ia l st ha t w e a r e a b l et oe xp r e s s a ny p re -ex i s t ing r e la t ion sh ip s a nd t h rough wh i ch w em ay t r an sf o rm t hose r e la t ion sh ip s . W i thou t s uch m a te r i a lp ra c t ice w e c an h ave n o s oc ia lr e la t ion s , n o f am i ly , n o f r i end s , n o e mp loym en t , n o l o v e r s . I ti sl a rge ly t h rough a c t so fp rodu c ing , d i s t r ibu t ing a nd u s ing t h ing st h a t w e c an e xp re s s s uch r e la t ion sh ip sa nd s t ruc tu re o u rw o r ld . B yd ec id ing who w i l lu nde r tak e ap a r t icu la rt a sk ( s uch a sm ak ing , t r ad ing , o ru s ing ac ook ing p o t ) w h e r et h ey w i l ld o i t , wh en a nd w i th w ha tk i nd o fc oope ra t ion f r om o th e r s ,w es hape t h es oc i e ty i n wh ich w el i v e .
Many e t hnog raph i ca nd a r chaeo log ica lw o rk ss e to u tt h e i rt h eo re t ica lf r am ewo rk a nd t h en s ugge s tt h a tt h e f i e ldwo rk a r ea a nd t h ed a ta wh i ch t hey c hoo se t oa na ly se w a ss p ec if i ca l ly c hosen t oa dd re s st h i st op i c ,t h i s h a s n o t b een my e xpe r i en ce . Iwo rked o n t h e C u s i cha ca A r chaeo log i ca l p ro jec t n e a r C uzco b ef o re s t a r t ing m yf i r s t d eg r ee , a nd Iu sed t o m ake m y own p o t te ry w h en Iw a sa ts e conda ry s choo l . T o av e ry l a rge e x ten t i tw a st h e s e i n te re s t sa nd e xpe r i en ce st ha t s haped m yc ho i ce o ff i e ldwo rk , a nd t h et h eo re t ica l a pp roa ch o u t l in ed a bov e i st h e mos t c oh e ren t f r am ewo rk t h a t Ih av e f o und w i th in wh i ch t oo rgan i se a nd e xp la in m yr e sea r ch . My i n i t i a l i n te re s t w a s i n e xp la in ing t h e e x change m ech an i sm s t h a t a f ec t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fA ndean p o t te ry . My f o cu sc hanged d ue t o ac omb ina t ion o ff i e ldwo rk e xpe r i en ce sa nd a na w a ren e s so fc h ang ing t h eo re t i ca li n te re s t si nt h ed i sc ip l in e . L iv ing i nf am i ly h ou seho ld si nt h eA nde s made m ea wa re o ft h en eed t o u nde r s tand h ow t h e c u l tu ra l ly d ef in ed u s e o f ap o t a f f ec t s t h e d e s i r e f o r i t s a cqu i s i t ion , a nd w h i l e w o rk ing w i th h ou s eho ld s a to th e r a c t iv i t i e s a nd p ar t i c ipa t ing i nf am i ly a nd c ommun i ty f e s t iva l s Ib ecam e i n te re s ted i nu nde r s tand ing t h e h ope s a nd c on ce rn s o ft h e p eop l e Iw a s l i v ing w i th . A t t h e s ame t im e , a r cha eo log i ca l t h eo ry h a s mov ed b eyond a s imp le d e s i re t o e xp la in d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s a nd p a s t e conom i e s t o i n c lud e ac on s ide ra t ion o fi n d iv idua l a gen cy w i th in w ide r s oc ia l s t ru c tu re s . T h i s c o in c ided w i th m y own r e ad ing o f Ande an e t hnog raph i e s a nd a na pp rec ia t ion o fh ow i n te r re la ted e conom i c , s oc i a l , a nd r i tua la spec t so fA ndean s oc ie ty a r e . Many a c t s wh i ch w em igh t s e ea ss ub s i s ten ce a c t iv i t ie s( s u ch a s b u i ld ing a h ou se , c l e an ing a c ana l , o r g o ing o n at r ad ing t r ip ) h av e am a jo r e f ec t o n p eop l e ' s s oc ia l r e la t ion sa nd a r ea l so r i ch i nc u l tu ra lm ean ing a nd r i tua ls i gn if i can ce . Wh i l e Ib e l ieve t h a tt h eb a s i ct h eore t ica lf r am ewo rk Iu s ec ou ld b ea pp l i ed a nywh e re a nd s hou ld b ec en t ra l t o a ny a r cha eo log i s t ' su nde r s tand ing o fm a te r ia lc u l tu r e ,t h i s s t udy i se xp l i c i t ly as t udy o fA ndean s oc i e ty , a nd i ti so n ly w i th in t h ec u l tu ra lc on tex to ft h eA nde st oday t h a tt h ep o t te ry p rodu c t ion ,t r ade a nd u se Iam g o ing t od e sc r ib e c an b e u nde r s tood . I nt h i sr e spec t Ia mn o t of e r ing am e thodo logy t ha t c an b e t a ken who l e s a l e a nd u sed t oi n te rp re ta na s semb lage o fa r chaeo log i ca lc e r am i c s . T h i sb ook i sa ne xp lo ra t ion o f h ow p o t te ry i se mb edded w i th in w ide r a c t iv i t ie s a nd c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing s o f p re sen t -day A ndean s oc ie ty , a nd h ow t h e r hy thm o fe xchange p ra c t i ce s w i th d if e ren t m a te r ia l s a nd w i th in d if e ren t s oc ia l g roup s s e t s u p af r am ewo rk t h rough w h i ch p eop l e e xpe r i en ce a nd i n te rp r e t t h e w o r ld a r ound t h em . I ti s my h ope t h a tb yp o in t ing o u t s om eo ft h e s ei n te rconn ec t ion sw i th in m yf i e ldwo rk o th e rr e sea rch e r sw i l lb e b e t te ra b le t oi n ve s t iga te s im i la rt ype so fi n te r conn ec t ion sw i th in t h es p ec if i c so ft h e i r own d a ta .
T h e o rg an i sa t ion o ft h i sb ook i sc en t red o nt h ree c hap te r s i nw h i ch Id i scu s st h ep roduc t ion ( Chap te r 4 ) , t r ade ( Chap te r 5 ) , a nd u se ( Chap te r 6 ) o f p o t te ry i n t h e A nde s . C hap te r 1e xp la in s t h e t h eo re t i ca l o r ien ta t ion o ft h e s t udy a nd s i tua te s i ti nr e la t ion t o w ide r a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch . C hap te r 2d i s cu s se s t h e h i s to r ica l a nd e t hnog raph i c c on tex t o ft h e Ande an r e se a r ch a r ea a nd b r ie f ly d e s c r ibe s e a ch o ft h e
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu re
c ommun i t i e s Ih av e wo rked i n . C hap te r 3d i scu s se s t h e d ev e lopm en t o f f am i ly g roup s a nd h ou se s t ruc tu re s i n r e la t ion t o c ommun i ty o rgan i sa t ion , r e g iona l e xchange p ra c t i ce s a nd t h e w ide r Andean e conomy . A n u nde r s tand ing o fh ou s eho ld o rgan i sa t ion i sc en t ra l t o t h i s s t udy b ecau se h ou seho ld s a r e r e spon s ib l e f o r t h e p roduc t ion , t r ad e a nd u se o ft h e p o t te ry . T hu s t h e f i r s t t h ree c hap te r s p rov ide t h e t h eo re t ica l a nd e t hnog raph i c c on tex t t h a t a low m e t o s i tua te t h e p o t te ry s t udy m o r e f u l ly b o th w i th in a r chaeo log i ca lc on ce rn sa nd w i th in t h ew ide rc on ce rn so f Andean r e sea rch . T h i s b ook i ss ub s tan t ia l ly t h e s am e a st h e P h .D . t h e s i s Iw ro te a tt h e D epar tm en t o fA rchaeo logy a nd s ubm i t ted t o t h e U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge i n 1 994 . T h e c on ten t a nd s t ruc tu re o ft h e o r ig ina l t h e s i s h a s b een r e ta in ed , a l though Ih ave t a ken t h eo ppor tun i ty t oc o r rec t af ew m ino re r ro r sa nd c l a r if y an umb e ro f p o in t s . T h eo n ly c hap te rt ha th a sb een s ub s t an t i aly r e -w r i t ten i st h ec on c lu s ion ( Chap te r7 ) . My m a in a im i nr e -w r i t ing t h i s c hap te r h a s b een t os umma r i se s om e o ft h e m a jo r c on c lu s ion so ft h eb ook a nd h i gh l igh t t h e i rr e lev an ce t oa r chaeo logy , w i th p a r t i cu la rr ef e ren ce t o Andean p reh i s to ry .
1
A cknow ledgemen t s
Many i n d iv idua l s a nd i n s t i tu t ion s c on t r ibu ted t ot h e r e sea rch a nd t h e w r i t ing o ft h i s b ook , i ti s ap l ea su re t ob ea b l et ot h ank t h em . B y f a r m y l a rge s t d eb t g oe s t ot h e c ommun i t ie s i nP e ru a nd B o l iv ia w ho p e rm i t ted m e t o c om e a nd l i v e a mong s tt h em , who f e dm e , t a ugh t m e , a nd a n sw e red t hou sand so fq u e s t ion st h a t b e t rayed m y i g no r an ce . H av ing w o rked i nm any d i f f e ren t c ommun i t i e s a nd t a lked t o m any p o t te r s a nd o th e r i n f o rman t s i nt h e i r h ou se s a nd t h e i r f i e ld s , a tf e s t iva l s a nd f a i r s , o rw h i l et r ave l l ing i ti mpo s s ib l et ot h ank t h em a l , b u t h e re I w ou ld l i k e t os i ng l e o u t af ew p eop le t o whom m yd eb t i sg r ea te s t . I nR aqch i : G om e rz indo Am a ru , J uan Ama ru , H ono ra ta R od r igu ez , a nd E och ino S ankka . I n S eq 'ue ra cay : B a la t in e Q u i l la , a nd Em i l lano C o lqu e . I n A raypalpa : Max i a nd An ton ia . I n C h a ramo ray : Max imo H u am an i , L o ren so C uzco , P ab lo H u r tado , R obe r to , A n ton io , a nd B en jam in . I n Ma cha ca : P a sca l S o lua s e , I r en e Q u i spe , C am i l l io Qu i spe , a nd E s tevan . I n S u rum i R an cho : S a car in e s R o ja s . I n Huay cu l i : Me rmo j in e s Hno josa , Ange l ica O r tuga , S a ca r in e s P av iagua , J u l i an S u r i ta , J ub ina l Hno josa , P o rc ino P a r tuc ino , E s tev an A lv a re s , F lo re t ino F l o re s , S imon , a nd Max imo . I n P a ra cay : P ed ro Ma ldonado , E rnan G a rc ia , H ugo , a nd E loy . F rom T ica t i ca : L u c iano L opez . I nT o to ran i :F e l ix P ad i l la . I nP umpu r i : J u an C abece s ,O c tav io C abece s ,P au l ino C ab ece s , A nd re s R am e r° , P l a c ido R am e ro , J uan C abece s , a nd A ga ta . I nL yn cha : J u l i ana , W i lm a , P an cho , T oma s , E va ,A g r ip ina ,a nd P ed ro . B u t mos to fa lt o my f r i end sa nd c ompad r e si nR aqch i : Max imo a nd D am iana . Ih av e a l so b enef i ted f r om t h e g en e ros i ty , s uppor t a nd k now ledge o fm any p eop le whom Im e t a nd d i s cu s sed Andean a r ch aeo logy a nd e t hnog raphy w i th d ur ing my f i e ldwo rk p a r t icu la r ly W i l ly P an to ja , Ma rcos M i ch e l , S on ia A l con in i , J ohn J anu sek , C laud ia R iv e ra , A lan K o la ta , E v an F r ank e , L ynn S i kk ink , A ndy O r ta , I ng r id Mel ief , Wo lf gang S chü l e r , S i lv ia S arw e , Em i ly D ean , Am e l ia P e rez , P e rcy P az , a nd B r i an B aue r . If i r s t w en t t o S ou th Am e r ica i n 1 982 t o w o rk o n t h e C u s i cha ca A rcha eo log ica l P ro jec t d i r ec ted b y A nn K en da l l , a nd o ve r t h e y ea r s Ih av e f r equen t ly r e tu rn ed t ow o rk , a nd d i scu s s i d ea s w i th A nn : t h e i n t roduc t ion t o t h e A nde s t h a t A nn a nd o th e r p ro jec t m emb e r s h av e g i v en m e h a s b een e no rmou s ly i nf lu en t ia lo n my l i f e . D u r ing my B .Sc . a nd M .Sc . a tt h e I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , L ondon , R i ch a rd R eece a nd Wa rw i ck B ray b o th p rov ided s uppo r ta nd c ha l leng ing a pp roa ch e st ot h e i rs ub jec t s ;t h ey r ema in f r i end sa nd i nf luen ce s . I n C amb r idge S ande r v an d e r L eeuw s upe rv i sed t h e r e sea rch a nd w r i t ing u p o fm y t h e s i s , S ande r p rov ided a cad em i c g u idan ce a nd mo ra ls uppo r t wh en i tw a sn eeded . I an H odd e r , T odd Wh i te law a nd t h e M .Ph i l . c l a s s o f 1 989 -90 a low ed m e t oj o in t h em i n as em in a r s e r ie s t h a t o pen ed m y e ye s t o n ew a nd e x c i t ing a r ea s o fa r cha eo log i ca ld eba te t ha t Iw a sp rev iou s ly i g no ran t o f . I n 1 989 Ia t tended ac ou r se o n Andean S oc io logy t augh tb yS a r ah R adc l if f ea tt h ec en t re o fL a t in Am e r i can S tud i e s ,C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty ,a nd i n 1 990 Ij o in ed ac ou r s e o nQ u echua l a nguage a nd c u l tu re t augh tb yR o sa l een H ow a rd - Ma lve rde a tK ing s C o l l ege L ondon ( f o r w h ich t h e A . J .P re s s l and F und , C amb r idge U n iv e r s i ty , p rov ided f und ing ) . B o th o f t h es ec ou r se sw e re i n va luab l et om e . T h i sr e sea rch w ou ld n o th av eb een p os s ib l ew i thou tf i n an c ia ls uppo r tf r om t h ef o l low ing : F i tzw il i am T ru s t R e sea r ch F und , C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty [ 1 990 , 1 99 1 ] ; T h e An thony W i lk in F und , C amb r idge Un iv e r s i ty [ 1 99 1 ] ; C row th e r -Beynon F und , Mu s eum o f A rchaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy , C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty [ 1 990 , 1 99 1 ] ; T h e Mu seum o f Mank ind , B r i t i sh Mu seum , L ondon [ l9 9 1 ] . S om e o ft h eP e ruv i an m a te r ia l r e po r t ed i nt h i s t h e s i s c om e s f r om f i e ld -wo rk Ic onduc ted i n1 987 a s ap a r t o fm yM .Sc . r e sea rch , Iam g l ad t o b e a b l e t o r e -a cknow l edge T h e G o rdon C h i lde F und , I n s t i tu te o fA rcha eo logy , L ondon [ 1 987 ] , a nd t h e Dun sh ea th Aw a rd , Un iv e r s i ty o fL ondon [ 1 987 ] wh ich s uppo r ted t h a tr e sea rch . Ir e ce ived p e rm i s s ion t o c a r ry o u t my r e sea rch , e s sen t ia l l e t te r s o fi n t roduc t ion a nd s uppor t f r om t h e f o l low ing i n s t i tu t ion sa nd i n d iv idua l s : I n s t i tu to Na c ion a ld e C u l tu ra ,L ima ( F e rn ando S i lva S an t i s teb an a nd 1 1
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e
C a r los O relana Q u in tan i l la ) ; I n s t i tu to N a c iona l d e C u l tu ra , C uz co ( Dan i lo P al a rde l Moscoso , F e rm in D iaz Angu lo ) ; Mu seo N a c iona l d e E tnog r a f ia yF o lk lo re , L aP az ( Hugo D an ie lR u iz a nd D iego P a ch eco B a lanza ) ; I n s t i tu to N a c iona ld e A rqu eo log ia d eB o l iv ia , L aP az ( O swa ld R ive ra ) ; Mu seo d eA rqueo log ia , U n ive r s idad Mayo rd e S an S imön , C ochab amba ( Dav id P e re i ra ,R amön S anze ten ea ) . V a r iou s p eop l e h e lped m e t o r e con s ide r t h e i s sue s a nd f i e ldwo rk d i scu s sed h e r e a nd s om e h ave k i nd ly o f f e red m e i n s igh t sf r om t h e i r own e xp e r i en ce s . Among s tt h e s e Iw ou ld l i ke t om en t ion A nd rew C ane s sa , Me l an i e Wr igh t , S imon L uk i c , O l iv ia H a r r i s , D en i se A rno ld , J uan d eD ios Y ap i ta , P enny D r an s a r t , K a ren Moh r C häv ez , H en ry S toba r t , S a r ah T a r low , C h r i s t in e H a s to rf , D iu ra T hoden v an V e lz en , D ean A rno ld , J ohn C arm an . Na th an S ch iange r , S a ra L un t , G i l lH ey ,a nd J e remy Me red i th . S ande r v an d e r L eeuw , H en ry S tob a r t , I a nH odde r , a nd S a rah T a r low w e r e a l k i nd e nough t o r ead a nd c omm en ted u pon n ea r ly c omp le te v e r s ion s o ft h i s b ook a nd t h ey h e lped t o m ake i ti n to am o re r eadab l e a nd a mo re r i go rou s s t udy t h an i tw ou ld o th e rw i se h av e b een . T odd Wh i te law a nd C h r i s t in e Ha s to rf e x am ined t h eo r ig ina lt h e s i s , a nd t h ey b o th of e red v a luab l e c omm en t sa nd s ugge s t ion so nh ow t oi mp rov e t h i s wo rk . Iw a sa b l et or ev i se t h eo r ig ina lt h e se sf o rt h i sp ubl i ca t ion w h i l ea tt h eI n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon , o n aS pec ia lR e sea rch F e l low sh ip , f unded b yt h eL ev e rhu lm e T ru s t . R ev i s ing m y o r ig ina l t h e s i s w a s ar a th e r p a inf u l a nd p ro t ra c ted p roce s s ; Iw a s g i ven e s sen t ia l e n cou ragem en t a nd mo t iva t ion b yP e te rU cko , O l iv ia F o rge ,J an e Hube r ta nd G i l lH ey . F i na l ly Iw ou ld l i k et ot h ank my mo th e r ,A d r i enn e , Mandy , V iv ,a nd O l iv ia f o rt h e i rl o v ea nd s uppor t .
i v
Con ten t s P r ef ace A cknow ledgemen t s C on ten t s L i s to fF igu re s L i s to fT ab le s
v i i v i i i
C hap te r 1 : S oc ia lR ep rodu c t ion a nd A r chaeo logy
1
T h eC on cep to fS oc ia lR ep roduc t ion E thnoa rcha eo l o gy P o t te ry S tud i e si nA rcha eo logy P o t sa r ef o rP eop l e
C hap te r2 : T h e Andean S e t t ing T h eE nv i ronm en ta lS e t t ing AH i s to r i ca lP e r spec t iv eo nt h eC h ang ing Andean E conomy B r ief D e sc r ip t ion o fC ommun i t i e sC on s ide red i nt h i sS tudy
C hap te r3 : H ou seho ld si nA ndean S oc ie ty T h e Hou seho ld a st h eC en t ra lF ocu sf o r aP o t te ry S tudy G en es i so ft h eH ou seho ld : ma t r imony i nt h e Ande s I n s ide t h eH ou s e T he B u i ld ing S en t im en ta nd Mean ing :t h eh ou se a ss ymbo l E x t ra -Hou s eho ld R e la t ion s Andean P ea s an tH ou s eho ld si n aWo r ld E conomy Andean H ou seho ld st h rough T im e AS ea sona lV i ew o ft h eH ou seho ld E conomy S oc ia lR ep rodu c t ion o ft h eH ou seho ld a nd t h eR o l eo fP o t te ry
C hap te r4 :T h eP roduc t ion o fP o t te ry ( mak ing c u l tu re m a t e r ia l ) T h eT echno logy o fA nd ean P o t te ry P roduc t ion P repa r ing t h eP a s te : t e chn ique sa sc u l tu ra lc oncep t s P o t te ry F o rm ing F i r ing sa nd F u e l D i scu s s ion :t e chn ique sa ss oc ia lp rac t i ce T h eO rg an i sa t ion o fA ndean P o t te ry P rodu c t ion L ea rn ing t oP o t :r e p rodu c ing t e chn ica lk now ledge T h e S easona l i ty o fP o t te ry P roduc t ion P roduc t ion a sC ommun i ty S pec ia l isa t ion Hou seho ld P rodu c t ion w i th in C ommun i ty S pec i a l i sa t ion T h eC en t r a l i ty o ft h eH ou seho ld i n Andean P o t te ry P roduc t ion
C hap te r5 : P o t te ry T rad ea nd E xchange w i th in t h e Andean E conomy P o t te ry B a r te ri n aP a r t ia l ly - Mon e t a r i sed E conomy AD e sc r ip t iv eT ypo logy o fA ndean P o t te ry T rade D i scu s s ion P o t te ry T rade a nd t h e' Hou seho ld E conomy '
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C hap te r6 :P o t te ry U se :P rodu c ing F ood a nd R ep rodu c ing t h eH ou seho ld P o t te ry u se i nt h e Ande s :t h es t ruc tu r ing o ft im ea nd s pa ce P roduc ing a nd C on sum ing F ood : s t ruc tu r ing s oc ia lr e la t ion s AC on s ide ra t ion o fF ood a nd D r ink a tT odo sS an to s P o t te ry U se a nd t h eH ou seho ld
C hap te r7 : C on c lu s ion a nd I mp l ica t ion s
1 03 1 04 13 1 20 1 23
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A ppend ice s : 1 :P o t te ry f o rm sa nd f unc t ion s
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2 :P o t te ry f o rm sm ade i ne ach c ommun i ty
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3 :P o t te ry f o rm ing :( A raypa l lpa , S eq 'u e racay , Machaca , C ha ramo ray ,P umpu r i )
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4 :F i r ing a r rangem en t s
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5 :H ou se p l an sa nd i n ven to r ie so ft h e i rp o t te ry
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G lo ssa ry o f Quechua a nd S pan i sh T e rm s
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B ib l iog raphy
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L i s to fF igu re s F ron t i sp iece
P a in t ing s how ing af am i ly h av ing b reakf a s ti nS arhua , A yacucho .
2 . 1 2 . 2 2 . 3
Map : Map : Map :
S ou th -Cen t ra lA nde s C uzco Nor the rn P o tos ia nd C ochabamba
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3 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 3
P la te : P la te : D iag r am
P umpu r i : m in ia tu re h ou se b u i l to u to fp ebb les O ropesa : e x chang ing c h' u f r iu f o rm in ia tu re s S ea sona ls h if ti np roduc t ive a c t iv i t ie sa nd e xchange
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4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7 4 . 8 4 . 9 4 . 10 4 . 11 4 . 12 4 . 13 4 . 14 4 . 15
P la te : P l a te : D raw ing : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te :
C ha r amo ray :b l ind m an u s ing a n Andean r ocke rm i l l P umpu r i : m an t h re sh ing b a r ley u s ing ap o le T he c ons t ruc t ion o f ar ange o fp o tf o rm si nP umpu r i Ma cha ca :y oung b oy m ak ing aman ia R aqch i : m o ld es o fd i f f e ren ts i z e s R aqch i : m an m ak ing ar ak i L yncha : i tn e ran tp ot te r sm ak ing w irq i s A raypalpa :w oman m ak ing ar ak i T o tor an i :p r epa r ing ap ot te ry f i r ing u s ing l a ma d ung R aqch i : l a rge f i r ing o fr ak i s L yn cha : i tn e ran tp o t te r sl oad ing w i rq i sa nd p ' u h 'u si n to af i r ing Ma chaca :y oung b oy r epos i t ion sp o t st oh e lp t hem d ry L yncha : i d en t if i ca t ion m a rk o nt h eh and le o f am anka P a racay : p o t te r sw o rk ing t oge the rt ol o ad ak i ln w i th w i rq i s R aqch i : h ou seho ld p a t io s how ing f i r ing a r ea
5 5 5 7 5 9 6 0 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 2 6 4 6 5 6 5 7 1 7 3 7 4 8 1
5 . 1 5 . 2 5 . 3 5 . 4 5 . 5 5 . 6 5 . 7 5 . 8 5 . 9 5 . 10
D raw ing : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : Map
L eve l st ow h ich R aqch iv esse l ss hou ld b ef i l led f o rp roduce e x change L yn cha : w om an f i l l ing w i rq iw i th ma ize c ob s C aca P a ta : f a th e ra nd s on sm ak ing ar ange o fp o t sf o r own u se O rope sa : l i n e so fj a r sf o rs a le o re xchange a tt h ea nnua lf a i r A ran i : p o t te ry f o rs a l ea nd e xchange a tt h ea nnua lf a i r L yn cha : s a ck so fm a iz ea cqu i red i ne xchange f o rp o t s T o to ran i :f i l l ing p o t sw i th p roduce f o re xch ange C uzco -d a i ly p o t te ry m a rke t R aqch i : s ma l lf i r ing w i th ap redom in an ce o fo rnam en ta lf o rm s Nor the rn P o tos is how ing d es t ina t ion so ft h eP umpu r ip o t te r s
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6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3 6 . 4 6 . 5 6 . 6 6 . 7 6 . 8 6 . 9 6 . 10 6 . 11 6 . 12 6 . 13
P la te : D iag r am : P la te : P la te : P la te : D iag ram : P la te : P la te : D iag r am : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te :
R aqch i : l a rge j a r s( u rpu sa nd r a id s )b e ing u sed f o rs t o rage C on s t ruc t ion a nd u se o f aq 'uncha -c ook ing h ea r th R aqch i : q 'un cha ( c ook ing h ear th ) R aqch i : c ook ing w i th aq 'uncha P umpu r i : q' u ncha i nt h eh ou seho ld p a t io d u r ing t h ed ry -sea son C h icha p repa ra t ion i nP umpu r i P umpu r i :p r epa r ing c h icha R aqch i : w oman c a r ry ing at um in P repa ra t ion a nd u se o f aw a t iya -e a r th o ven R aqch i : c h i ld ren h e lp t ob ake p o ta toe si n aw a t iya R aqch i :f e a s td u r ing wo rk -par ty f o rb u i ld ing c on s t ruc t ion L yn cha : s e rv ing c h icha f r om as ma l lp ' u hu d u r ing m ink 'a L yn cha : a qha m ink ' a -work -pa r ty t op repa re c h icha
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V I I
6 . 14 6 . 15 6 . 16 6 . 17 6 . 18 6 . 19 6 . 20 6 . 2 1 6 . 22 6 . 23
P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : P la te : D iag r am : P la te : P la te :
S eq 'ue ra cay : p o t te rm ake s al i ba t ion ( t ' inka )p r io rt ow o rk P umpu r i : d r ink ing c h icha f r om t u ruwa su sd u r ing T odo sS an to s P umpu r i : d r ink ing c h icha f r om t u ruwa su sd u r ing h ou se roof ing L yn cha : m in ia tu r ep o t st i ed t ot h er af t e r sa sa no f f e r ing R aqch i : r i tua lb und le o fi la su sed f o rk ' in tuqw i P umpu r i : f ood a nd d r ink a r ranged o n at umba f o rT od o sS an to s P umpu r i : i nt h ec em e te ry ,d i sman t l ing t h et umba s T h ec on s t ruc t ion o f at umba a nd i t s of e r ing s R aqch i : p r epa r ing ak ' in tuqw i of e r ing R aqch i : h ou seho ld w i th y oung c h i ld ren p repa r ing t h e i rk ' in tuqw i
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L i s to fT ab le s 3 . 1 3 . 2
C hange si nc h i ld ren ' sa c t iv i t i e sa cco rd ing t oa ge ( Pumpu r i ) S ea sona lc hange si np roduc t ion a c t iv i t i e s( R aqch i ,P umpu r i&L yn cha )
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4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7
C lay p repa ra t ion a c t iv i t i e s C ompa r i son o fc l ay p repa ra t ion a nd c h 'uhu m ak ing i nP umpu r i P o t te ry f o rm ing a nd f i n i sh ing t e chn ique s P o t te ry f i r ing t e chn iqu e s D i s tan ce ,b yp a th o rr oad ,t oc l ay a nd t emp e rs ou rce s S easona l i ty o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion P o t te ry f o rm s made a nd e xpo r ted f r om e a ch c ommun i ty
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5 . 1 5 . 2 5 . 3 4 . 4
F o rm so fp o t te ry t r ade a nd h ow c ommon ly t h ey a r eu sed A nnua lf a i r sa t tended b yp o t te r sf r om H uay cul ia nd R aqch i P o t te ry t r ade : who n o rma l ly t r ade sw ha tp o t sf o r wh ich p roduce L im i ted s u rvey o fi t i n e ran tp o t te r s 't r ip sf r om P umpu r ii n1 99 1
8 7 9 0 9 5 9 8
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P roce s so ff ood p rov i s ion ( adap ted f r om G oody 1 982 , 3 7 -8 ) Ar ep re sen ta t iv es ch edu le o fd a i ly m e a l si np umpu r i
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C hap te r 1
S oc ia lR ep roduc t ion a nd A r chaeo logy
I n t roduc t ion
ma te r ia l i s t v e r su s i d ea l i s t p h i lo soph ie s . E ve ry a c t iv i ty i nvo lv e st h eu se o fp reconc e iv ed i d e a so fs o c ia lr e la t ion s( f o r i n s tanc e g ende r r e la t ion s o r k i n t i e s ) , b u t i ti so n ly i nt h e p rac t ica l p e rf o rmance o fp a r t icu la r a c t iv i t ie s ( e .g . c ook ing o r ma r r iage c e remon ie s )t h a t s u ch a b s t ra c tc oncep t sb ecome r e a l i sed .
Ib eg in t h i s b ook w i th ad i scu s s ion o ft h e c oncep t o f' s o c ia l r ep roduc t ion ' i n r e la t ion t o ' ma te r ia l p ra c t ice ' , t h i s i s i n tended t o h igh l igh t t h e i mpo r tan t r o le t h a t o b je c t s a nd a c t ion s h av e i n s hap ing a nd t r an sf o rm ing s o c ie ty . I n t h e l a t te rp a r to ft h ec hap te r Id e sc r ibe h ow t h e se c onc ep t sr e la te t ot h e f i e ld s o fe t hnoa rchaeo logy a nd p o t te ry a na ly s i s . ( I n C hap te r s 2a nd 3Is ha l l d e sc r ib e h ow my a pp roach r e la te s t o And ean s t ud ie s . ) T he p u rpo s eo ft h i sc hap te ri st os i tua t e my e t hnog raph ic w o rk a nd e xp la in t h e m e thodo logy t h a t I h ave a dop ted . Iu s e t h e c oncep t o fs o c ia l r e p roduc t ion t o e xp lo re h ow A ndean p eop le c on t inua l ly r e c rea te t h e i r s oc ie ty t h rough t h e w ay t h ey s t ruc tu re c oope ra t ion i n d if e ren t a c t iv i t ie s , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se i n vo lved i n t h e p roduc t ion ,t r ad ing a nd u se o fp o t te ry .
S oc ia lr e p rodu c t ion i si n sepa rab le f r om t h e ma te r ia lp rac t ice t h rough w h ich i tt a ke sp l ac e . I ti si na c t ss u ch a sc o l le c t ing t a xe s , r a i s ing a n a rmy , a nd m a rk ing i t s b o rde r s t h a t t h e s t a te c an b es e en a nd e xpe r ienced , a nd i ti so n ly t h rough t h e c on t inua l e nac tmen t o f s u ch f u nc t ion s t h a t t he s t a te i s r ep rodu ced . S im i la r ly , i ti si nf e ed ing c h i ld ren , c e leb ra t ing b i r thday s , a nd a t tend ing f u ne ra l st h a tt h ea b s t rac tc onc ep to f ' f am i ly ' i sa c tua l ly e xpe r ienced , a nd t h rough t he se a c t s t h e p a r t icu la r r e la t ion sh ip w i th am o the r , s i s te r o r a un t c an b e e xp re s sed . I n s ay ing t h i s , Id o n o t w an t t ou nde re s t ima te t he p o ten t ia l p ow e r a nd i nf luence o f i d eo log ica l c on s t ru c t ion s . T o s ay t h a t t h e s t a te o r t h e f am i ly e x i s t s t h rough t h e ma te r ia l a c t si tc a r r ie so u ti sn o tt os ugge s tt ha t i d eo logy i si na ny w ay s e cond a ry . I ti sp re c i se ly b ecau se o f t h e i d eo logy o ft h e s t a te t h a t p eop le a r ep repa red t o( o r a r e f o rc ed t o ) p ay t a xe sa nd f i gh t i nw a r s . W i thou tt h e i d ea l o f t he f am i ly , p a ren t s w ou ld n o t f e ed t h e i r c h i ld ren o r a t tend Aun t May 's f une ra l . A ga in w e n eed t o a cknow ledge t h e i n te rdependenc e ( o r mu tua l ly s u s ta in ing ) n a tu re o f t h e c h icken a nd t h e e gg a nd n o t a t temp t t o f i nd c au s a l i ty i n e i the r o ne a l one . T he ma te r ia l g i v e s m ean ing t ot h e i d ea l , j u s t a st h e i d ea l c ou ld n o tb ee xp re s sed w i thou tt h e ma te r ia l p rac t ic e .
T he C oncep to fS oc ia l R ep roduc t ion " T o u nd er s tand s oc ia lc hang e , w ha tw en eed t od oa s s oc ia la n thropo log i s t s i st od e scr ibe a l lo fs oc ie ty i n s uch t e rm s t h a t w e s ee h ow i tp er s i s t s , m a in ta in s i t se lf a nd c hang e st h rough t i me ." ( Ba r th 1 967 ,6 6 1) S oc ia l r e p roduc t ion i s t h e p ro ce s s b y w h ich p eop le c on t inua l ly r e c rea t e a nd r e f o rm t h e s oc ie t ie s t h ey l i v e i n , r ep roduc ing i n s t i tu t ion s a nd o rg an i sa t iona l l e v e l s s u ch a s t he h ou seho ld , t h e c ommun i ty a nd t h e s t a te , f r om g ene ra t ion t og ene ra t ion . T h i s n ece s s ar i ly i n co rpo ra te s t h e p as s ing o n o f c u l tu ra l k now ledge ( e .g . s o c ia l , r e l ig iou s , t e chno log ica l ) . T he mechan i sm o f t h i s p ro ce s s i s t h e b io log ica lr e p roduc t ion o ft h ep eop le a nd t h eo r gan isa t ion o f t he i r m a te r ia l p rac t ic e , b u t i ti st h rough t h e s o c ia l r e la t ion s e mp loyed , a nd c r ea ted , d u r ing s u ch a c t iv i t ie st h a tt h es o c ia l i n s t i tu t ion s a nd c u l tu ra l k now ledge a r e r e p rodu ced . B y ' ma te r ia l p rac t ice ' Im e an a ny a spec t o fp eop le s ' p hy s ica l a c t ion s , f r om w a lk ing i n to ar oom , o rp repa r ing s ome f o od , t ob u i ld ing ah ou se o rw ag ing aw a r , a l l o fw h ich c an p l ay a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n e xp re s s ing a nd c hang ing p eop le s ' s oc ia lr e la t ion s .
I n C hap te r 3 Is ha l l d e sc r ib e h ow t h e b u i ld ing o f a t r ad i t iona l h ou se i nt h e A nde s n e c e s s i ta te s t he h e lp o fk in a nd n e ighbou r s t ob u i ld t h e w a l l s a nd t or oof t he s t ruc tu re . T h i s c oope ra t ive l a bou r a nd t h e a c company ing r i tua l s c onf i rm p re -ex i s t ing k in t i e s( f o ri n s tanc eb e tween ab ro the r a nd as i s te r ) , b u t i ta l so c r ea te s n ew r e la t ion sh ip s ( t he n ew h ou seho ld b e come s a s e pa ra te s o c ia l u n i t , a nd n ew c ompad re s may s pon so r t h e h ou se r oof ing ) , a nd i t t r an sf o rms o t he r s ( t he n ew h ou s ew if ei ss omewha t l i b e ra ted f r om t h e s ubo rd ina te r o le s h e h ad w h i l s t l i v ing i n h e r mo the r in law ' s h ou seho ld ) . S im i la r ly , i nC hap te r 6Is ha l l d e sc r ibe h ow t h e r e la t ionsh ip s b e tw een p eop le a r e a l so e xp re s sed a nd s t ruc tu red b y d e c i s ion s a s t o who p repa re s , who s e rve s a nd w ho r e ce iv e s f o od a nd d r ink . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e p e r son s e rv ing a nd t he p e r son r e ce iv ing t h e f o od i s l a rge ly p r e -d e te rm ined b y c u l tu ra l c onc ep t s ( f o r e xamp le ah u sband ' s s ubo rd ina te s t a tu s w hen i n h i s f a the r in law ' s h ou se ) , b u t t h e s e s omewha t a b s t rac t c onc ep t s a r e o n ly r e a l i sed t h rough t h e p e rf o rmance o f p a r t icu la r a c t iv i t ie s ( e .g . t h e s o n in law t ak ing o n t h e s ubo rd ina t e r o le o f f o od s e rv e r ) . I nd eed , t he se i d ea l i sed r e la t ion sh ip s( e x i s t ing a sa b s t ra c t c u l tu ra l c oncep t s ) b ecome e f ec t ive ly o b so le te i fs omeone r e f u se st op a r t ic ipa te i nt h e i r
S oc ia lr e p roduc t ion i np rac t ice :t h e ma te r ia la nd t h ei d ea l Wh i le a ny c oope ra t iv e a c t iv i ty i sd ependen t o n p r e -ex i s t ing s oc ia l r e la t ion s , i ti sa l so d u r ing t h ec oope ra t ion i ns u ch a n a c t iv i ty t h a t t h e s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip s a r e c r ea ted . T h i s i sa n a spe c t o f t h e c l a s s ic ' c h icken a nd e gg ' a rg umen t o f 1
B i l lS i l la r -S hap ing C u l tu re d e s igna ted r o le . T h i s i sn o ti n f requen t , a nd i n d iv idua l sw i l l ' a c t iva te ' d if e ren tr e la t ion sh ip st h roughou tt h e i r l i f e ; a so ne r e la t ion sh ip s ou r s a nd i s a bandoned t h rough l a ck o f u se a no the r m ay b ecome mo re i mpo r tan t , p e rhap s b e ing c onf i rmed b y f o rm ing a ' f i c t ive k i n ' t i e b e tween o t he rw i se u n re la ted i n d iv idua l s .
T he se c y c le s o fp roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion o fp eop le a nd g ood s p owe r s o c ia l r ep roduc t ion . I ti st h en eed t os o c ia l i se c h i ld ren ( o r , f r om t he c h i ld ' sp e r spe c t ive ,t h e i rn eed t ol e a rn h ow t o l i ve i n , a nd m an ipu la te , t h e w o r ld a round t h em ) w h ich a ccoun t s f o r t h et r an sm i s s ion o fb o th t e chn iqu e s a nd i d e a sf r om g ene ra t ion t og ene ra t ion . S im i la r ly i ti st h en e ed t o r e p lac e ( o r r e pa i r ) c on ta ine r s , c l o th ing , h ou se s a nd t emp le s wh ich a ccoun t s f o r t h e c on t inua l n e ed t o ( r e )p roduce ma te r ia l g ood s . T he r ep la cemen t o f c e r ta in p eop le a nd o f p a r t icu la r t y pe s o f g ood s h ave d if e ren t t empo ra l r hy thm s w h ich a r e r e spon s ib le f o r much o ft h e s t ruc tu r ing o fp eop le ' s s o c ia l l i v e s . T he d a i ly ' c hang ing o f t h e g ua rd ' , t h e e l ec t ion o f an ew g ove rnmen t e ve ry f o u r y ea r s , o rg ene ra t iona l r e p lac emen t o ft h e mona rch , a nd t h e d a i ly n eed t op repa re am ea l ,t h ey ea r ly n e ed t op l an t ac r op , a nd t h eg ene ra t iona ln eed t ob u i ld an ew h ou se , a l lc omb ine t op rov ide ac omp lex a nd o n ly s l igh t ly p red ic tab le r hy thm t o t h e p roce s s o fs o c ia l r e p rodu c t ion . Ar hy thm i sa l so s e t u p b y w ha t i s e xchanged w i th w hom a nd w hen . S ome e xchange st ake p l ac ei mmed ia te ly , s ome a r en o tr e pa id f o ra mon th , a nd s ome may t a ke ag ene ra t ion t ob er e c ip roca ted . T he p a r t icu la r f o rm a nd f r equency o f t h e se t r ans a c t ion s i n f o rm s t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t h e e xchange p a r tne r s ( Mau s s 1 990 [ 1 950 ] ) . I ti st h i s c on s tan t u s e o fp ar t icu la r s o c ia l r e la t ion s , t h e r epea ted g iv ing a nd r e c e iv ing , a nd t h e r ep ea ted p a r t ic ipa t ion i n d if e ren t t y pe s o f c oope ra t iv e l a bou r , wh ich c r ea te s a nd ma in ta in s p eop le s ' s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip s . W i thou t b o th t h e ma in tenance o f t h e i d eo log ica l s i gn if icanc e o f ar e la t ion sh ip a nd t h e c y cl ica l r ep e t i t ion o f t h e ma te r ia l p rac t ic e t h rough w h ich t h e se r e la t ion sh ip s a r e e xpe r ienced t h ey w i l l c e a se t oe x i s t . F o r i n s t anc et he d w ind l ing i mpo r t anc eo fg odp aren t si n much o f B r i t i sh s oc ie ty i se xp re s sed i nt h e d em i s eo ft h ec h r i s ten ing r i tua l a nd t hu st h er o le o fc h r i s ten ing r ob e sa nd t h eg if to fa c h r i s ten ing c up e t c .
T o s t udy s o c ia l r ep roduc t ion i ti sn ece s sa ry t od e sc r ib eb o th t h e s t ruc tu re o f s oc ia l r e la t ion s a nd t h e mechan i sm s b y w h ich t h ey a r e r e p roduced . S uch s o c ia l r e la t ion sm ay e x i s t a t m any l e ve l s , s uch a s w i th in t h e h ou seho ld , t h e c ommun i ty o r t h e s t a te , a nd m any o t he r s o r t s o f r e la t ion sh ip s m ay c r o s scu t t he se l e ve l s , s u ch a s r e l ig iou s af i l ia t ion s ,k in sh ip r e ckon ing , g ende rg roup sa nd e conom ic s t ruc tu re s . N one o ft he se s oc ia l g roup s e x is t i n i s o la t ion , a nd i t i s b o th t he p a r t icu la r s o f e ach g roup a nd t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t h em t ha t g iv e t h em t h e i r i d en t i ty . A g roup g a in s i t s i d en t i ty f r om i t s m embe r s a nd t h e a c t iv i t ie s i n w h ich t h ey a r e i nvo lved , a nd e a ch p e r son d raw s t h e i r s e lf iden t i ty f r om t he p eop le t h ey i n te rac t w i th a nd t h e a c t iv i t ie s t h ey p ar t ic ipa te i n . A f o o tba l l t e am g a in s i t s i d en t i ty b yp l ay ing f oo tba l l , b u t i ti sa l so d ue t oi t sp l ay ing t h eg ame t h a tt h et e am c a r r ie so np rac t i s ing a nd r e se le c t sa n ew t e am e ach s e a son . T he a c t iv i ty o fp l ay ing f o o tba l lb o th g i ve s t h e t e am i d en t i ty , a nd i s t h e f o cu s o f t h e t e am 's r ep rodu c t ion . T o e xp la in s o c ia l r ep roduc t ion i ti sn ec e s sa ry t o d e sc r ib e t wo i n t e rdependen t a spe c t s : 1 )t h e ma t e r ia lp rac t ic et h rough w h ich p eop le c on t inua l ly r e -c rea te b o th t h e i r ma te r ia lw o r ld a nd t h e i r s o c ia l r e la t ion s ; 2 ) t h e i d eo log ica l u nde r s tand ing w h ich m o t iva te s p eop le 's d e s i re t o p a r t ic ipa t e i n t h e se p a r t icu la r ma te r ia lp rac t ice s . I n t h i s b ook Is ugge s t t ha t i fw e w i sh t o u nde r s tand t h e o rgan i s a t ion o fp roduc t ion , e xchange a nd c on sump t ion i n t h e A nde s i ti sn ece s sa ry t o f o cu s o n t h e h ou seho ld . T h i s mu s t i n c lud e ac on s ide ra t ion o fh ow p eop le ' s s en t imen t f o r t h e h ou s eho ld a s ac u l tu ra l i d ea l i sg ene ra ted , a s i ti st h i s i d ea l w h ich mo t iva te s i nd iv idua l s f r om t h e n ex t g ene ra t ion t or e p roduc en ew h ou seho ld s .
We ine r ( 1980 ) h a s d eve loped a' r ep roduc t iv e mod e l ' w h ich a c coun t s f o r h ow k in sh ip r e la t ion s a nd c o smo log ie s a r e r e p roduced , a rgu ing t ha tt ime i si t se lf ap a r to ft h e mo to rf o r t h i s r e p roduc t ion . B ye mpha s i s ing t h e l i f e -cy c le o fh uman s a nd t h e l i f e t ra jec to r ie s o fm a te r ia l o b je c t s , We ine r a vo id s t h e t ime le s sne s s o f mo re m e chan i s t ic a n th ropo log ica l mode l s . I nd iv idua l i n te rac t ion s , t r an sac t ion s a nd s t ra teg ie s a r e p l ay ed o u t w i th in , a nd a ga in s t , t h e r e s t ra in t s o ft h e se t empo ra l r hy thm s ( i b id . , 8 3 ) . I nh e r a na ly s i s o fT rob r iand e xchange s y s tem s s he s e e s d ea th a st h er e gu la to ry f o rc e , a s i ti s d ea th w h ich n e ce s s i ta te s t h e r ep lac emen t o f w ea l th t h rough t he e xchange o f g ood s , a nd t h e l o ng te rm r e gene ra t ion a nd r e -nego t ia t ion o f s o c ia l r e la t ion s ( i b id . 7 1 ) .
T he c yc l ica ln a tu re o f ma te r ia la nd c u l tu ra ll i f e P eop le a r e b o rn a nd s o c ia l i sed , t h ey p a r t ic ipa te i n t h e c u l tu re f o r many y ea r s , b u t t h en t h ey d i e . S im i la r ly , m a te r ia l g ood s a r e manuf ac tu red , d i s t r ibu ted , u sed a nd r e u sed , b u t e ven tualy t hey b reak , w ea r o u t o r b ecome o b so le te , a nd a r ed i spo sed o f . I ti st h ep roce s s o fd ea th a nd d ecay o fp eop le a nd ma te r ia l o b je c t s w h ich n e ce s s i ta te st h e s o c ial i sa t ion o fy oung p eop le t of i l l t h er o le o ft h ed ec ea sed a nd t h e p roduc t ion o fn ew a r tef ac t sw i th w h ich t oc on t inue p rodu c ing f o od , t r an spo r t ing ma te r ia l s , a nd c e leb ra t ing s o c ia l r e la t ion s . T h i s i st he p roc e s s t h rough w h ich s o c ie ty i t se lf i sr e p roduced i nt h e r e la t ion s o fp rodu c t ion , e xchange a nd c on sump t ion t ha t a r e s e t u p , i ti s a l so t h e p roc e s s t h rough w h ich c hange s i n ma te r ia lp rac t ic e , s o c ia lr e la t ion s a nd c u l tu ra li d ea l st a ke sp lac e .
F ou r o ft he t h eme s t h a t r un t h rough t h i s b ook d emon s t ra te h ow t h e se c y c l ica l p roce s se s a r e c en t ra l t o t h e o v e ra l l p roce s so fs oc ia lr ep roduc t ion . 1 )T he h ou seho ld i su sed a s t h e ma in s o c ia l u n i t f o r t h i s s t udy , a nd t h e c on t inua l c r ea t ion o f n ew h ou seho ld s i s d e sc r ibed . T h i s i s c on s id e red f r om f o u r d i s t inc t b u t i n sepa rab le a spec t s : t h e ma te r ia l s t ru c tu re i t s e lf t h e p eop le w ho l i ve a nd c oope ra te i n s ide i t ,t h e i d eo logy t ha t i n f o rm s t h e c r ea t ion o f t h e s t ruc tu r e a nd t h e c oop e ra t ion o f t h e
2
C hap te r1 :S oc ia lR ep roduc t ion , Ma ter ia lP rac t i ce c md A rchaeo logy g roup , a nd t h e s oc io -e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s t h a tt h eh ou seho ld a r ee ngaged i n .
c omb ined w i th t h ec u l tu r a lk now ledge o fh ow i tc an b eu sed , w h ich i n f o rms u s o ft h ep o s s ib le a c t ion sw e c an p e rf o rm i n t h ew o r ld . A sT r ingham ( 1 991) p o in t so u t ,i fa r chaeo log i s t s w an t t o c on s ide r g end e r r e la t ion s i nt h e p a s t w e c an ' tj u s t a dd w omen t oo u r mod e l s o ft h e p a s t , w e n eed t os e e h ow ma te r ia l c u l t u re w a s a c t ive ly man ipu la t ed w i th in p eop le ' s c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e i r s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd g ende rd i f f e rence s . F o r i n s tanc e , Moo res ( 1 986 ) s t udy s how s h ow Ma rakw e t p eop le u se t h ep o s i t ion ing o f ma te r ia l ss u ch a sa sh a nd d ung i nt h e i r c oncep t ion o fd i s t inc t g ende rr e la t ion s , w h i le a tt h e s ame t ime t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se m a te r ia l s i s ap roduc t o f t ho se r e la t ion s . S im i la r ly , B ay ly ( 1986 ) s how s h ow ar ange o f mean ing s a t tached t o c l o th i n I nd ia h a s b een u s ed t o s t ruc tu re c omp lex s oc ia l r e la t ion s , a nd h ow t h e t e chn ique s o fp roduc t ion ,t h e me thod so fd i s tr ibu t ion a nd t he p a r t icu la r u se o fc l o th h a s b een c on sc iou s ly man ipu la ted a nd c hanged o ve rt ime f o rd if e ren ts o c ia la nd p o l i t ica le nd s .
2 ) T he s o c ia l i sa t ion o fc h i ld ren i sd e sc r ib ed , p a r t icu la r ly a s t h i s r e la te s t ot h e i r l e a rn ing a nd p a r t ic ipa t ing i nd if e ren t a c t iv i t ie sa st h ey g row o l de r . T he i mpo r tanc eo fm in ia tu re s i n A ndean r i tua l i s a l so c on s ide r ed i n r e la t ion t o t h i s p roce s s . C h i ld ren a nd t h e i rs o c ia l i sa t ion a r el i t t le s t ud ied i n a r chaeo logy , b u t t hey a r e v i ta l t oa ny c on s id e ra t ion o fh ow c u l t u re s a r e p e rpe tua ted a nd h ow t e chn iqu e s , b e l ief s , a nd p r inc ip le s o fs o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion a r er e p roduc ed w i th in e ach g ene ra t ion . L i l lehamme r ( 1989 ) l o ok s a t p ro spec t s f o r r e cove r ing c h i ld ren a nd t he i r s o c ia l p o s i t ion t h rough a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l ( ma in ly c onc en t ra t ing o n t h e r e cove ry o ft o y sa nd s k e le ta l ma te r ia l ) . S he a l so s t re s se st he i mpo r tanc e o f ah i s to r ica l p e r spec t iv e a s t h e p o s i t ion o f c h i ld ren i n s o c ie ty a nd t h e n a tu re o f' c h i ldhood ' h a s b een u nde r s tood a nd s t ruc tu red d if e ren t ly i n d if e ren t p e r iod s ( s ee a l so S ch i ldk rou t 1 978 ) .
I n ap ape r w h ich h a s g r ea t ly i nf luenc ed my o wn t h ink ing , P e te rG o se ( 1990 )u se sa na na ly s i so fA nde an h ou se r oof ing t o d emon s t ra te h ow p eop le 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i n p hy s ica l a c t iv i t ie s a r e c en t ra l t o t h e s uppo sed ly mo re c e reb ra l a nd ' r ef ined ' a c t iv i t ie s o fc on s t ruc t ing i d eo log ie s ( c £ B ou rd ieu 1 977 ) . Ande an e t hnog raph ie s h av e f r equ en t ly s t re s sed t h e i mpo r tanc e o f ma te r ia l p rac t ice a nd r e la t ive ly mundane ' s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s ' i nt h e c on s t ru c t ion o fs oc ia lr e la t ion s a nd i d eo log ica lc onc ep t s . C ana lc l ean ing i su nde r s tood b o th t o s t ruc tu re ac ommun i ty ' s i n te rna l s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd i t s r i tua l p o s i t ion i nt h e l a nd scape ( I sbe l l 1 974 ; U r ton 1 981) . T he r oof ing o f ah ou s eb o th e xp re s se sk i n sh ip r e la t ion sa nd c r ea te s an ew s o c ia l , e conom ic , a nd r i tua l u n i t i n s oc ie ty ( Ca r te r a nd Maman i 1 989 ; D .Y . A rno ld 1 992 ) . T he t e chn ique s u sed i n w eav ing , a nd t h e c l o th p roduced , s e rv e b o th t o r eg i s te r i d eo log ica l c oncep t s a nd t o r ep roduce g ende r r e la t ion s ( Ce re c eda 1 987 ; S i lv e rman -P rou s t 1 988 ; C r ickmay 1 993 ) . Ag r icu l tu ra lw o rk a l so r e p rodu ce sg end e r r e la t ion s a nd s t ruc tu re s i n te r -hou seho ld c oope ra t ion a tt h e s ame t ime a s i ti su sed t o e xp re s s a nd i n te rp re t p eop le 's r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e l a nd a nd i t s d e i t ie s ( Ha r r i s 1 980 ; 1 982b ; S a l lnow 1 989a ) . S im i la r ly ,t h ep a s tu r ing a nd c a re o f l ama s s t ruc tu re s p eop le ' s s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd t h e i r c o smo logy ( F lo re s -Ochoa 1 979 ;D .Y .A rno ld 1 988 )
3 )S ea sona l i ty , a sb o th a n e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in ta nd a s a c u l tu ra l c on s t ruc t , i s d e sc r ibed a nd a na ly sed . I p a r t icu la r ly f o cu s o n h ow s e a sona l i ty mu s t b e s e en b o th i n t e rm s o fi d eo logy a nd m a te r ia lp rac t ic e . T he i mpo r tanc e o f s e a sona l v a r ia t ion i n s o c ia l l i f e w a s e s tab l i shed b y F raze r ( 1 974 [ 1 890 ] ) ; Mau s s( 1979a [ 1 904 -5 ] )a nd E v an s -P r i tcha rd ( 1 940 ) , b u t , a l though a r chaeo logy h a s l o ng r e cogn i sed t he i mpo r t anc e o f s e a sona l c h ange i n a c t iv i t ie s a nd l o ca t ion s ( e .g . C la rk 1 938 ; B inf o rd 1 973 ) , i ti su sua l ly a na ly s ed a s a c on s t ra in to n a g r icu l tu re a nd m ig ra t ion p a t te rn sr a the rt han c on s ide r ing i t a s ac u l tu ra l c on s t ruc t . I n t h i s s t udy I d es c r ibe h ow s e asona l i ty p rov ide s ar hy thm a nd s t ruc tu re f o r c hang e s i na c t iv i t ie s a nd t he e xp re s s ion o fs o c ia l r e la t ion s d u r ing t h ey ea r . 4 ) T h e p o t tery c yc le i st h e ma in t h eme o f t h e b ook . I d e s c r ibe t h e p roce s s t h rough w h ich p o t te ry i s made , d i s t r ibu ted a nd u sed ,a nd Is ha l ls how h ow t h i si ss t ruc tu red b ya n A ndean c onc ep tua l i sa t ion o ft h e w o r ld a nd t h e s oc ia l r e la t ion s t h a t e x i s t . U l t ima te ly Ih ope t od emon s t ra te h ow t h i s p o t t e ry c yc le p rov ide s o ne o f t h e a r ea s o f m a te r ia l p rac t ice t h rough wh ich i d eo log ie s a nd s o c ia l r e la t ion s a r e c on s t ruc ted a nd r ep roduced .
T he se a c t iv i t ie s d o n o t h appen r andom ly . A l though t h e se a r e n ec e s sa ry ' s ub s i s tence ' a c t iv i t ie s , t h ey t a ke p l ace a t s pec if ic t ime s t h a t ma rk t h e c ons t ruc t ion a nd ma in tenance o fp a r t icu la r s o c ia l r e la t ion s . T he m a te r ia l a c t o fr oof ing a h ou se i s made n e ce s sa ry b yt h e s o c ia l a c t o fc r ea t ing an ew h ou seho ld g roup . T he c l ean ing o ft h e c ana l r ebu i ld s t h e c ommun i ty 's s o c ia l r e la t ion s a tt h e s t a r t o ft h er a iny s e a son a nd r e af f i rm s c ommun i ty membe r s ' a c ce s s t ow a te r r i gh t s . N ew c l o th ing ( s uch a s ap oncho , as k i r t , as haw l , o r ah a t )i s made t o ma rk a n e ngag emen t , aw edd ing , o r ab ap t i sm s o t ha t i t s f i r s t a nd s ub sequen t u se s s e rv e t or e af f i rm f am i l ia l r e la t ion s . T he b u i ld ing o f an ew w a l l t o d i v ide u p a n a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld f r equen t ly ma rk s t h e d ea th o f t h e f i e ld o wne r a nd t h e r e a l lo ca t ion o ft h e l a nd a mong s t t ho se w ho i nhe r i ted i t . T hu s t h e n ec e s sa ry o r f u nc t iona l a c t iv i ty b e come s af o cu s f o r c r ea t ing a nd d ev e lop ing i mpo r tan t s oc ia l r e la t ion s . T he ma te r ia l c u l tu re b ecome s amnemon ic t h rough w h ich s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd p a s t e ven t s a r e r e ca l led . P eop le r e ad t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e h ou se , t h e l a you t o f t h e
T he r o le o f ma te r ia lc u l tu re i ns oc ia l r ep roduc t ion P eop le ' s m a te r ia l p rac t ice s b ecome ap a r t o ft h e i r c u l tu re 's ' w ay s o f d o ing ' , t hu s a c t iv i t ie s m a in ta in a nd r e inf o rce c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing s a s w e l l a s p rov id ing a c on tex t w i th in w h ich t o c ha l lenge a nd c hange a s pe c t s o f t ha t c u l tu re . W i th in b o th a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy t h e r e h a s b een a n i n c r ea s ing r e cogn i t ion t ha t ma te r ia l c u l tu r e i sn o tj u s t a p a s s iv er ef lec t ion o fh uman b ehav iou r , b u tt h a t o b je c t sp l ay ar o le i n s hap ing t h e c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing a nd s o c ia l r e la t ion sw i th in w h ich t h ey a r ei n co rpo ra ted ( e .g .A ppadu ra i ( e d . ) 1 986 ;H odde r 1 986 ;M i l le r 1 987 ) . My d e c i s ion t oc ook d i nne r i sp a r t ly i n f o rmed b y t h e f a c tt ha t Ih ave ac ook ing p o t ; i ti st h i s p re sence o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re a l l a r ound u s , 3
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e l a nd scape , t h e c l o th ing t h ey o wn a nd c on s t ruc t ion o f aw a l l a s ap a r t o f t h e i r a nd t h e i r a nce s to r s ' h i s to ry ( c f . U r ton 1 988 ) .
a r t ic le o n t e chn ique s o ft h e b ody h e d e sc r ibe s h ow h e w a s d r awn t ot h i s t h eme p re c i se ly d ue t oc hange s i ns w imm ing t e chn ique s w h ich h e o b se rved d u r ing h i s l i f e t ime . T he c onc ep t o f t h e ' h ab i tu s ' s hou ld n o t b e s e en p u re ly a s a m e chan i sm f o r t h e c ons tan t r e pe t i t ion o f p rev iou s a c t ion , t h e u n th ink ing r e p l ica t ion o f w ha t w en t b ef o re . T he p o ten t ia l f o rc hange mus tb ec en t ra lt oa ny u nde r s tand ing o f h ow s o c ia lr e p roduc t ion w o rk s( Ba r th 1 967 ) .
I ti sn o t s imp ly t h a t a n th ropo log i s t s f i nd i te a s ie rt oe xp la in A nd ean c o smo log ie s , o rs oc ia lr e la t ion s , u s ing t he me tapho r o f t h e se ' s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s ' . O n t h e c on t ra ry , i ti s b ecau se t h e r i t ua l u nde r s tand ing , t h e k in sh ip s y s tem s , a nd t h e c ommun i ty s t ruc tu re s c an o n ly b e c once ived o ft h rough t h em a te r ia lp ra c t ice w h ich c r ea ted t h em . C u l tu ra l mean ing i s e xp re s sed i n t h e c ho ice a nd u t i l i sa t ion o f p a r t icu la r m a te r ia l s , f o r p a r t icu la r a c t iv i t ie s , b y p a r t icu la r p eop le , i n p a r t icu la r p l a ce s , a tp a r t icu la r t ime s . T he t e chn ique s u sed a r e c u l tu ra l c ho ic e s t ha t a r e made p re c i se ly b ecau s e t hey r e p roduce p ar t icu la r , v a lued , s o c ia l r e la t ion s . O b jec t s a nd a c t iv i t ie sa r ea l so o fv a lue i nt h e i ro wn r i te a nd t h ed a i ly u s e o fo b je c t s i sc on s t an t ly i n f o rmed b yt h e i rp o ten t ia l me an ing a nd c u l tu ra l s i gn if i canc e . T hu s e ven w hen t he S pan i sh c o lon ia l a u tho r i t ie s t hwa r ted a n e a r ly u p r i s ing a ga in s t t h e C a tho l ic C hu r ch , t h e T ak i O nqoy , t h e i nd igenou sp eop le o f t h e A nde s d i d n o t a bandon t h e i r f a i th . " The i r p ac t w i th t h e i r A pu o r S e i for [ l oca l d e i ty ] w a s r enewed a s i ta lw ay s h ad b een w i th e v e ry i mpo r tan t d a i ly a c t : w hen c l e an ing t h e i r r iga t ion c ana l s , a tp lan t ing , o rw hen r oof ing t h eh ou se s o f n ew c oup le " . ( M i l lone s 1 992 ,2 10 ) .
E v e ry ma te r ia l a c t ion t ha t ap e r son u nde r take s i s a n o ppo r tun i ty f r om w h ich b o th t h e a c to r a nd a ny o b se rve r s m ay l e a rn ; f r om t h i s k now ledge t h ey m ay c hoo se t oe i the r r e pea t o r mod if y t h e i r b ehav iou r i n t h e f u tu re . H oweve r , e v e ry a c t ion i s f r amed b y t h e c on tex t o f t h e p r ev iou s ma te r ia l p ra c t ice s ( a c t iv i t ie s , i n ten t ion s , ma te r ia l p roduc t s , a nd s o c ia l c ond i t ion s ) w h ich h av e l e du pt oi t ,a nd p eop le 's i n d iv idua la genc ie sa r ef r amed w i th in t h ec u l tu ra ls t ruc tu re s w h ich s u r round a nd i n f o rm t h em ( G idden s 1 979 ; 1 984 ) . T he re c an b e n o c omp le te b r eak f r om t h e p a s t p r e c i se ly b e cau se t h e v e ry k now ledge t h a t w e u t i l ise t oe na c t c h ange i si t s e lf i n f o rmed b y o u r p rev iou s e xpe r ience a nd c u l tu ra l k now ledge . We a r ep a r t ly c ond i t ioned b yt h e ma te r ia l s , t h e t e chn ique sa nd t h eu nde r s tand ing t h a tw ei nhe r i t ,b u tw ea r e a lw ay sa b le t oc omb ine t h e se e l emen t si nn ove lw ay sa nd s o e xpand b o th t h e ma te r ia la nd t h ec onc ep tua lh o r izon so fo u r u n iv e r s e . T he re c an b e n o s t a r t ing l i ne f o r a ny s o c ie ty , n o b i g b ang , a nd n o s i ng le p o in t o fc u l tu ra l o r ig in , o n ly t h e c on t inua l t r an sf o rma t ion o ft h ep a s tb yt h ep re sen tt oc r ea t e t h ef u tu re . C u l tu re sa r eh i s to r ica l ly a nd s o c ia l ly c on s t i tu ted , a s s u ch t h ey i n co rpo ra te t h e b a s i s f o r b o th c on t inu i ty a nd c hange .
I n t h i s b ook I d e sc r ibe h ow r i tua l me an ing i s g iven t o v a r iou s o b jec t s ( e .g . c ook ing p o t s a nd m in ia tu re s ) , b u t t h e m ean ing o ft h e se o b je c t s i sl a rge ly d rawn f r om t he i rr o le i n r e la t iv e ly f r equ en ta nd n e ce s sa ry s ub s i s tenc ea c t iv i t ie s . T he r i tua l u se o f t h e se o b jec t s a dd s t o t h e mean ing o f t h e q uo t id ian t oo l s ,r e inf o rc ing t h e s i gn if i canc ea nd me an ing o f t h e s ub s is tenc e a c t iv i t ie s t h em se lve s . T he s i gn if ic anc e o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re i sn o t s ome th ing t h a t o n ly h a s mean ing a t momen t s o fh e igh tened r i tua l . R a the r , a st h e e xamp le s o f c ana l c l ean ing , h ouse r oof ing , a nd a g r icu l tu ra l w o rk d emon s t ra te , t h e mundane ' s ub s i s tenc e a c t iv i t ie s ' t ha t a r e t h e d a i ly p re -oc cupa t ion o f mo s t p eop le a r e f u l ly i mbued w i th m ean ing . A sa ne xamp le o ft h i si nC hap te r4 , Iu se t he p repa ra t ion o f t h e c l ay p a s te f o r p o t te ry mak ing t o d emon s t ra te h ow t h i s i nhe ren t mean ingf u lne s so f 'mundane ' ma te r ia l p rac t ice w i l l a f ec t t h e c ho ice o ft e chn ique s a ta ny g i v en i n s tance , a nd t he reby a f e c tt h ed i re c t ion o fc hange o f t e chn ica lt r ad i t ion s . T h i s i sn o tt op r iv i lege me an ing a bove ma te r ia l p rac t ice , r a the r i t i s t o s ugge s t t ha t t h ey a r e i n sepa rab le .
L ik e mo s t e t hno a rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s t h i s b ook i s n ec e s sa r i ly a l o ok a t o ne momen t i n t ime , b u t i ti sn o t a h i s to r ic . Wha t Is ha l l d e sc r ib e i nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r s e x i s t si n amomen ti nt ime t h a tw a ss pec if i ca nd u n iqu eb o th i n t e rm s o f t h e h i s to ry o f t h e r e sea rch q ue s t ion s Ia m a dd re s s ing , a nd i n r e spec t o f t h e Andean c u l tu re I a m d e sc r ib ing . T h i s c hap te r a nd t h e o ne t h a t f olow s s e rve t o s i tua te t h e s t udy w i th in t h e h i s to ry o f t h e d i sc ip l ine s o f a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy . Ia l so o f e r ah i s to r ica lv i ew o f h ow A ndean h ou seho ld s a nd e xchange s y s tem s h ave c on s tan t ly b een a dap t ing , a nd h ow t h e t e chn ique s f o r p o t te ry mak ing , t h es i ze a nd f o rm o fv e s se l sa nd t h ec on tex t o f t h e i r u se a r e a lway s o pen t o c hange a s t h e s o c ia l , e conom ic , a nd r i t ua l s t ra teg ie s o f Andean p eop le c hang e . E a ch h ou seho ld c hoo se s t o b e i n vo lv ed i n p a r t icu la r a c t iv i t ie s a s ad i rec tr e su l t o ft h e i ra s se s smen to fw ha ti st h e mo s t a pp rop r ia te s o c io -econom ic s t ra tegy w i th in t h e i r p a r t icu la rs i tua t ion .
Ac on s ide ra t ion o fc hange T he t e rm ' r ep roduc t ion ' i s n o t s e en a s t he r e pe t i t ive r e p l ica t ion o f w ha t w en t b ef o re , i t a l so i n co rpo ra te s p roc e s se so ft r an sf o rma t ion . T h i sv i ewpo in t make sc hange s , i nb o th s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd t h e ma te r ia l w o r ld , ap a r to ft he p ro ce s so fs o c ia lr e p roduc t ion .
W i thou t ac on s ide ra t ion o f t h e i n te r re la t ion sh ip b e tw e en p eop le 's mo t iva t ion a nd t h e i r ma te r ia l p rac t ice , s o c ia l r e p roduc t ion a ppea r s t o c onf ine p eop le t o t h e u n th ink ing r e pe t i t ion o fc u l tu ra l r u le s , l i k ec og s i n ac omp lex m ach ine . T h i s i s c l ea r ly s e en i n B ou rd ieu 's ( 1977 ) mov e f r om a d e sc r ip t ion o fp eop le a sb e ing sw ho f o l low c u l tu ra lr u le st oa mo re f l ex ib le c on s ide ra t ion o f h ow t h ey c on s c iou s ly m an ipu la te s uch r u le s t o f o l low p e r sona l s t ra teg ie s . T he r e p rodu c t ion o f e ncu l tu red , b u t i nd iv idua l ly mo t iva ted , a c t ion i st h e p roc e s s b y w h ich t he c omp lex s t ru c tu re o f s o c ie ty i s r e p rodu ced ( G idden s 1 984 ) . A l though t h e
B ou rd ieu ( 1977 ) u se s t he t e rm ` h ab i tu s ' t o d e sc r ibe h ow p eop le i n co rpo ra te c u l tu ra l n o rm s a nd i d e a s i n to t h e s ub con sc iou s h ab i t s o f c on s tan t ly r e pea ted a c t iv i t ie s . N one the le s s , t h eh ab i tu s s hou ld n o tb e s e en a ss ome k ind o f c u l tu ra l s t ra igh t ja cke t , p eop le a r e a b le t o c hange t h e i r m a te r ia l p rac t ic e s . I n Mau s s ' s ( 1979b [ 1 935 ] ) o r ig ina l 4
C hap te r1 :S oc ia lR ep rod u c t ion , Ma te r ia lP rac t ice a n c lA r chaeo logy e xpe r ience a nd k now ledge o ft h e c omp lex n a tu r e o fs o c ie ty ( i nc lud ing s uch a mo rphou s i n s t i tu t ion s a s ' t he s t a t e ' o r' t he c hu r ch ' ) i sw ha t s hape s a n i n d iv idua l 's u nde r s t and ing o ft h e w o r ld a nd h ow t o a c t i n i t , s o c ie ty i t se lf i sn o t at h ink ing o r gan i sm , i th a sn o mo t iva t ion , n od i re c t ion ,n ol i f e . S o c ia l s y s tems d o n o t e x i s t i n o rde r t o ma in ta in a nd r e -c rea t e t h em se lve s ; t h e r ep roduc t ion o f s o c ia l s y s tem s i s a c on s equenc e o f i n d iv idua l s w ho , o f t en w o rk ing i n c oope ra t ion a nd w i th ad eg re e o fc omp rom i se , a r ep u r su ing w ha t t h ey s e e a s d e s i rab le g oa l s . S o c ie t ie s d on ' t ' d o ' a ny th ing ; i nd iv idua l s c hoo se a nd d i rec t a c t ion , a nd i n d iv idua l a im s a nd i n ten t ion s c au se s o c ia l r ep roduc t ion . T o u nde r s tand t h i s w e mu s t c on s ide r w ha t mo t iva te s p eop le 's a c t ions .
A r chaeo log ica li mp l ica t ion s T h i s c oncep t ion o f s o c ia l r e p roduc t ion i s p a r t icu lar ly s u i tab le f o r u nde r s tand ing p a s t s o c ie t ie s t h rough t h e i r a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s p re c i se ly b e cau se i t i s t h rough p eop le 's ma te r ia l p rac t ic e ( wh ich c r ea te st h e r ema in s ) , t ha t t h e c u l tu re ( i n t e rms o f s o c ia l r e la t ion s , t e chn ique s a nd i d eo logy ) i sr e p roduced . T he r e pea ted a c t ion s i n vo lved i n t h e p roduc t ion , e xchange , u se a nd d i spo sa l o f a r tef ac t s r e su l t i n s im i la r i t ie s i n a r tef ac t p a t te rn ing o v e r ac e r ta in a r ea . A s t h i s a r tef ac t p a t te rn ing r e la te s t o s im i la r i t ie s i n ma te r ia l p rac t ice w e a r e j u s t if i ed i n s ugge s t ing t h a t i t r e f lec t s ad eg ree o fc u l tu ra l u n i ty . D if f e renc e s i na r tef ac t p a t te rn ing , e i the r o ve r t ime o r t h rough s p ac e , r e f lec t d i f f e rence s i n ma te r ia l p ra c t ice s t h a t a r e l a rge ly d ue t o d if e rence s i n b ehav iou r , s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing . T h i si se xac t ly w ha ti se xp re s sed b yC h i lde ' s ( 1956 , 1 6 ) a r chaeo log ica l c onc ep to fc u l tu re s( d ef ined b ya n a s semb lage o fr egu la r ly o ccu r r ing a r te f ac t s a nd f e a tu re s ) a s r ep re sen ta t iv eo f ap a r t icu la rg roup o fp eop le .
T h i s i sn o t t os ay t h a th uman b e ing s a r ee n t ire ly i nc on t ro l o ft h e i r a c t ions a nd t h e i r s o c ia l r e la t ion s . T hey a r e b o rn i n to p re -ex i s t ing s t ruc tu re sa nd e v e ry a c t iv i ty t h ey u nde r take s e rv e s t of u r the r e mbed t h em i ns uch s t ruc tu re s . I ti sa l so t h rough c oope ra t ion i n v a r iou s a c t iv i t ie s , a nd i n t h e i r r e su l t s ,t ha t as en se o fc ommun i ty a nd s ha red g roup i d en t i ty i sr e p roduced . S o c ie ty i sc r ea ted f r om ac omp lex i n te rac t ion o f a c t iv i t ie s u nde r taken b y d if e ren t p eop le a t d if e ren t t i me s . T h i s p a t te rn may n o t b e a ny o ne i nd iv idua l 's i d e a l , a nd d if e ren t membe r s o ft h ec ommun i ty w i l l v a lue a nd t r y t o m a in ta in d if e ren t a spe c t s o f i t . B a r th ( 1 967 ) s e e s s o c ie ty ' s s oc ia l f o rm a s e p iphenomena l , g ene ra ted b y t h e a gg rega t ion o f many i nd iv idua l s ' a c t ion s b a sed o n t h e e nd s w h i ch t hey a r e p u r su ing w i th in t h e r e s t ra in t s o f t h e t e chn ica l , e co log ica l , a nd s o c ia l s e t t ing . I tf o l low st h a tt h e s o c ia l f o rm c an ' t b e e xp la ined b ya t t r ibu t ing ap u rpo se t oi t ( c ap i ta l i sm c an ' t b e e xp la ined a sh av ing a n a im ) . R a the r , i n d iv idua l a c to r s may h av e p u rpo se ( s u ch a s t o e x change t h e i r p roduce f o r o t he r g ood s , a nd , a s Adam Sm i th a r gued , p u r su ing t h e max imum b enef i t f o r t hem se lv e s ) a nd t h e c omb ina t ion o f t he s e mu l t ip le a im s e xp la in s t h e o ve ra l l s o c ia l a nd e conom ic f o rm . S o c ia l c hange i sb e s tu nde r s tood a tt h e l e ve l o fi nd iv idua l c ho ice s a nd s ma l l s c a le p roc e s se s w h ich i n t he i r t u rn a f e c t t h e e p iphenomena o f s o c ie ty s ome t ime sa st he u n in tended c on sequence o ft h e i ra c t ion s .
S eve ra l a u tho r s h ave c r i t ic i sed t h e i d ea t h a t a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t g roup s r e p re sen t p a s t s o c ia l g roup s : " t he re i st he n o t ion a mong t r ad i t iona l i s t s t h a t a r cha eo log ica l ' c u l tu re s ' c an s omehow r e p re sen t r e a l e n t i t ie s r a the r t h an m e re ly t he c l a s s if ica to ry t e rm s d ev i sed f o r t h e c onv en ienc e o f t he s cho la r " ( R enf rew a nd B ahn 1 99 1 , 4 07 ) . T he re a r e many f a c to r s t ha t d e te rm ine t h e g eog raph ica lr ange w i th in w h ich s im i la r a r tef ac t t y pe s a r e f o und ( e .g . a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma te r ia l s , t e chno log ica l k now ledge , d i s t r ibu t ion s y s tem s , t h e v a r ie ty o ff u nc t iona l r o le s g i v en t ot h e a r tef ac t s , e t c . ) . T he re a r e a l so s i gn if i can t p rob lem s b e cau s e w e c anno t a s se s s t h e e x ten t t o w h ich a r chaeo log ic a l c a tego r i sa t ion o f a r tef ac t s r e la te s t oh ow t h e s e w e re u sed a nd u nd e r s tood b y p eop le i nt h ep a s t . I ti su ndoub t ed ly t r u et h a t s o c ia l g roup s i d en t if ied o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r cha eo log ica l r ema in s d i d n o t n e ce s sa r i ly c onc e ive o f t h em se lve s a s a u n if i ed o r h a rmon iou s g roup s , a nd a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re s w il r a re ly b e c o te rm inu s w i th p a s t l a nguage g roup s o r p o l i t ica l e n t i t ie s( She rman 1 989 ) . S o c ia lp roce s se s may l e ad e i the r t o a d e l ibe ra te h omogen i s ing o r a d e l ibe ra te e xagge ra t ion o fa r tef ac t s t y le s a ts o c ia l b ounda r ie s ( Hodde r 1 979b ) . B u t , t h e v e ry f a c t t h a t t h e p eop le o c cupy ing a c e r ta in g eog raph ica l a r ea s ha red m any e l emen t s o f t he i r ma te r ia lp rac t ice mean st h ey mu s th av es ha red s ome a spe c t s o f t h e s o c ia l f o rms a nd c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing t ha t w en t w i th t h em . T o s ugge s tt ha t t h er e cogn i t ion o fa n a r ea w i th s im i la r p o t te ry , h ou se s t ruc tu re s , f i e ld l a you t s , a nd f a una l r ema in s , i s m e re ly a p roduc t o f t h e a r chaeo log i s t s ' c l a s s if ica t ion w ou ld b et ot a k ea n e x t reme r e la t iv i s tp o s i t ion s ugge s t ing t h a t w e c an s ay n o th ing a bou t t h e p a s t , o n ly a bou t t h e w ay w e c l a s s if y m a t e r ia l s i n t h e p re sen t . A r chaeo log ica l r ema in s a r et h ep roduc t o fs o c ia l ly i nvo lved i nd iv idua l s , t h e f o rm a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se r ema in s i sa d i re c t r e su l t o ft h e p eop le s d ec i s ion s t op e rf o rm p ar t icu lar a c t iv i t ie si nt h ep a s t .
A n a pp rec ia t ion o f t h e p re s ence o f b o th c on t inu i ty a nd t r an sf o rma t ion w i th in s oc ia l r e p roduc t ion mean s t h a t w e c an ' tl o ok f o r s imp le c au se a nd e f ec te xp lana t ion sf o rl a rge s c a le p roce s se s o f c hange s u ch a s t h e a dop t ion o f a p icu l tu re , o r t h e e me rgenc e o ft h e I nka Emp i re . T he se l a rg e sca le c hange s mu s t b e u nde r s tood a s t h e c omp lex i n te rac t ion o f many d if e ren tp eop le 's ma te r ia lp rac t ic e sa nd mo t iva t ions , i nt he c on tex to ft h e i rp e rcep t ion o ft h e i rs o c ia l a nd e nv i ronmen ta l u n ive r se . We n eed t o c on s ide r h ow p eop le 's a c t iv i t ie s i n te rac tw i th in t h eg roup ,a nd h ow p eop le mod if y t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s o ve r t ime i nr e la t ion t o c hange s i n t h e i r c i rcums tance s a nd c hange s i nt h e i r o wn a im s . R a re ly c an w e i d en t if y as i ng le c au se t oe xp la in ap a r t icu la re v en t . P e rhap s Ic ou ld d i sm i s s t h e c o l lap se o ft h e I nka Emp i r e a s b e ing t h e r e su l t o ft h e S pan i sh i n va s ion , o re ven a sd u et o t h e c ap tu re o f A tahua l lpa , b u t s u ch ' e xp lana t ion s ' a r e d e s igned t o d i scou rage i nqu i s i t ive c h i ld ren . E ven as i ng le e v en t , s uch a s t h e d ea th o f A tahua l lpa , r equ i re s at h ick d e s c r ip t ion o fE u ropean a nd A ndean s o c ia l , i d eo log ica l ,a nd t e chno log ica l d if e rence s a nd s im i la r i t ie s f o r i t t o b e u nde r s tood .
I n t h i s s en s e Ia m i n te re s ted i nw r i t ing c u l tu ra l h i s to r ie s , b o th b ecau se my i n te rp r e ta t ion sw i l l b ec en t red o nw ha tt h e a r tef ac t s c an t e a ch u s a bou t t h e s o c ie ty t h ey h e lped t o r ep roduce , a nd b ecau se I b e l iev e t h a t w e c an i n te rp re t 5
B i l lS i l ia r —S hap ing C u l tu r e c hange s i n a r te f ac t s a s b e ing p a r t o ft he p roc e s s t h rough w h ich s o c ia lh i s to ry w a sa c tua l ly e xpe r ienc ed . T h i si sn o ta d e s i re t o r e tu rn t o t h e p reoccupa t ion w i th i n va s ion a nd w a rf a re w h ich c ha rac te r i sed t h ec u l tu ra l -h i s to r ic a l s c hoo l o f t h e 1 950 's , b u t ar e cogn i t ion t ha tt h ec hang ing d a i ly l i ve so f p eop le s ' ma te r ia l p rac t ic e w a s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e ma te r ia l r e co rd w h ich w er e cov e r . I ti sa l so r e la ted t o my c ommen t s t h a t a d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion i s b e t te r t han a s impl i s t ic e xp lana t ion . T oe mpha s i se h i s to r ica lp ro ce s si st oh igh l igh t t h ei mpo r tance o fd e sc r ib ing t h ea n teceden t so fa ne ven ta nd a n a t temp t t ou nde r s tand t h e mo t iva t ion a nd i n ten t ion s o f t h e p a r t ic ipan t s ( Co l l ingwood 1 986 [ 1 946 ] , 2 82 -302 ) . T he e x t reme so f' New A rchaeo logy 's ' ,w hen i tw a ss ugge s ted t h a t l aw l ike g ene ra l i sa t ion s c ou ld b eu sed a sa n e xp lana t ion f o r c u l tu ra l p roc e s s e s( S ch if f e r 1 976 ) , w e re o n ly p o s s ib le d ue t o ad en ia l o f t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e s pec if ic c u l tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica l c ond i t ion s . Wh i le t h e re i s an eed f o r s ome u n if o rm i ta r ian a s sump t ion s f o r a ny a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion , t h e se mu s t l a rge ly b e a t t h e l e ve l o f t h e p hy s ica l p ro ce s se s b yw h ich ma te r ia l s a r e mod if ied . T he re i sa l so an eed f o r g ene ra l i sa t ion s c once rn ing t h e n a tu re o f s o c ia l i n te rac t ion a nd c u l tu ra l p roce s s , b u t t h e se w i l l b e l a rge ly a tt h e l e v e l o fs o c ia l t h eo ry , s uch a st h e c oncep t o f s o c ia lr ep roduc t ion d e sc r ibed a bove . T he p a r t icu la r so fh ow s u ch p roc e s se s w e re e nac ted a t a ny o ne t ime w i l l b e d ependen t o n t h e c u l tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica l c ond i t ion s a tt ha t t ime .
E thnoa rchaeo logy
o f a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s . T he se s t ud ie s o f t en w o rked w i th in a h uman e co logy f r amewo rk , w i th a n e mpha s i s o n h un te r -ga the re r s o c ie t ie s ( Lee 1 963 ; 1 968 ; Wh i te 1 967 ; G ou ld 1 97 1 ; 1 968 ) , l a rge ly f o l low ing A sche r ' s s ugge s t ion t h a t a na log ie s s hou ld b e s ough t " i n c u l tu re s w h ich m an ipu la te s im i la r e nv i ronmen t s i n s im i la r w ay s " ( A s che r 1 96 1 ,3 19 ) . I n t h e 1 960 ' s a nd 1 970 's a n ew m e thodo logy f o r a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion w a s p ropo sed , w h ich w ou ld r e ly o n t h e g ene ra t ion o f mode l s t h a t e xp l ic i t ly r e la ted ma t e r ia l c u l tu re p a t te rn ing t o h uman b ehav iou r . E thnog raph ic f i e ldwo rk w a su sed a st h ep l ace t oi n ve s t iga te t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en t h e f o rma t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f ma te r ia l r ema in s a nd t h e h uman b ehav iou r wh ich c aused t h em . Wha teve rt he o r ig in o ft h et e rm e t hnoa rchaeo logy , 1i t h a s f o r m any p eop le b ecome l i nked w i th t h i s s e a rch f o r ' l aw l ike g ene ra l i sa t ion s ' a nd t h e g ene ra t ing o f ' m idd le r ange t h eo ry ( e .g . K le ind ien s t a nd Wa t son 1 956 ; S ch if f e r 1 972 ; 1 976 ;Y elen 1 977 ;B inf o rd ( e d . ) 1 977 ;B inf o rd 1 978 ; 1 980 ; G ou ld 1 978a ; 1 978b ; 1 980 ; K rame r ( ed . ) 1 979 ) . I n s p i t e o ft h e f a c tt ha t B inf o rd ( 1962 ) h ad p rev iou s ly r e je c ted C h r i s tophe rH awke s '( 1954 )' l adde ro fi n f e rence 'b yi n s i s t ing t h a t a l l a spec t s o ft h e p a s t a r e e qua l ly a cce s s ib le , m any o f t h e se s t ud ie s a s sumed t ha t h uman b ehav iou r mu s t b e p r ima r i ly e xp la ined a tt h ee co log ica lo rf u nc t iona l l e v e l . B y c a l l ing c u l tu re " man 's e x t ra soma t ic me an s o f a dap ta t ion " ( B inf o rd 1 965 ) a r chaeo log i s t s e mpha s i sed c u l tu re a s s ome th ing w h ich w a s a dap ted t o p ar t icu la r e nv i ronmen t s r a the r t h an f o cu s ing o n h ow s o c ie t ie s c hanged a st h er e su l t o fh uman i n ten t ion s .
E thnoa rchaeo logy s hou ld b e : t h e s t udy o f h ow ma te r ia l c u l tu re i sp rodu ced , u sed a nd d epo s i ted b y c on tempo ra ry s o c ie t ie s i n r e la t ion t o t h e w ide r s o c ia l , i d eo log ica l , e conom ic , e nv i ronmen ta l a nd /o r t e chn ica l a spe c t s o f t h e s o c ie ty c once rned , a nd w i th s pec if ic r e f e renc e t o t h e p rob lems o fi n te rp re t ing a r chaeo log ic a l ma te r ia l .
" One mu s t l o ok f i r s t a t t h e e co -u t i l i ta r ian r e la t ion sh ip st ha to ccur i nt h es i tua t ion o ne o b ser ve s a nd s e e t o w ha t e x ten t v a r ia t ion i n t h e o b ser ved b eha v iou r c an b e a ccoun ted f or b y t h e se i mmed ia te c i r cum s tance s . I fo ne h a s e xhau s t ed t h i s l e ve l o f e xp lana t ion w i thou t s a t i sf ac tory r e su l t s , t h en o ne i s e n t i t led t o g o o n t o t h e n ex t h igher l e ve l o f e xp lana t ion , n ame ly t h e i d ea t iona l r ea lm o fs ha red t r ad i t ion s ." ( Gou ld i nG ou ld a nd Wa t son 1 982 ,3 67 ) .
A rchaeo logy p a r t ly c ame i n to e x i s tenc e t h rough t h e u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy t oi n te rp re t a nd u nde r s tand t h e p a s t , a se xemp l if ied b yL ubbock 's ( 1865 )b ook P r e -h i s to r i c t i me s a s i lu s t ra ted b y a nc ien t r ema in s a nd t h e m anner s a nd c u s tom s o fm od e rn s a vag e s . A t t he s t a r t o ft h i s c en tu ry , d i rec t h i s to r ica l a na log ie s w e re c ommon ly t h e b a s i s f o r a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion ,p a r t icu la r ly i nN o r th Ame r ica . U nde r B oa s , t h e N o r th Ame r ic an ' h i s to r ica l s c hoo l ' i n te rp re ted p a s tr ema in sb ya s sum ing t ha tt h e re w a s ad i re c t c onne c t ion b e tw e en t h e c u l tu re s t hey r e cogn i sed f r om a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s a nd t h e i nd ig enou s g roup s w h ich w e re c u r ren t ly ,o ri nt h er e cen tp a s t , l i v ing i nt h es ame a r ea . I nE u rope , w r i te r sl i ke C h i lde ( 1956 ) a nd C la rk ( 1965 )a l so e mpha s i sed t h e n eed f o r a na logy i n a r chaeo log ica l r e a son ing , b u t t h ey t e nded t o r e so r t t o t h e u se o f mo re g ene ra l , c r o s s -cu l tu ra l , a na log ie s w he re t h e re w a s n o a s sump t ion o f a d i rec t h i s to r ica l l i nk b e tw een t h e a r chaeo log ica lc u l tu re a nd t h ep re sen td ay g roup u sed i nt h e a na logy . B o th t h e se a pp roache s w e re h eav i ly c r i t ic i sed , l a rge ly d ue t o t h e s ub je c t ive n a tu re o f t h e d e c i s ion a s t o w ha ta na logy i tw a s a pp rop r ia te t ou se . F rom t h ee a r ly 6 0 's t h e re w a s ac on s c iou s e f f o r t t od o f i e ldwo rk i np re sen t d ay c ommun i t ie sw i th t h es t a ted a im o fi mp rov ing t h er e so lu t ion
I ti sa lmo s t a lway sp o s s ib le t od emon s t ra te t ha tp as th uman b ehav iou r w a s i n s ome s en se ' w e l l a dap ted ' , p eop le r a re ly u nd e r take a c t iv i t ie s t h a t c au se i mmed ia te s e lf inf l ic ted h a rm , b u t t h i s d oe sn o t n ec e s s a r i ly p rov ide t he b e s t w ay o f u nd e r s tand ing w hy s u ch ap rac t ic ew a su nde r taken . Ma rv in H a r r i s ( 1 965 ) managed t o s how t ha t i n I nd ia t h e H indu c onc ep to ft h es a c red c ow w a s al o ng t e rm a dap t ive s t ra tegy , b u t t h i s k i nd o f' e xp lana t ion ' d im in i she s t h e e xpe r ience o f p a r t ic ipa t ing i n a c u l tu re t o n o th ing mo re t h an a p reo ccupa t ion w i th e a t ing a nd p roc rea t ion . A s d i scu s sed a bov e , c u l tu re s b u i ld t h e i r i d eo log ica l u nde r s tand ing f r om w i th in t h e e xpe r ience o ft he i r ma te r ia l p rac t ice ; t hu s t h e i r i d eo logy w i l lr a re ly b ei nd i re c tc on t rad ic t ion t of unc t iona l ly b enef i c ia l a c t ion s , b u tt h ei d eo log yr ema in s an ec e s sa ry p a r t o fa ny ' e xp lana t ion ' o ft h e ma te r ia lp rac t ice . I ti si r on ic t h a t e v en t hough f o od i so ne o ft h e mo s t c u l tu ra l ly s pec if ic a nd i d eo log ica l ly l a den o f c u l tu ra l ma te r ia ls ( Doug la s 1 966 , 1 97 1) , i ti ss t i l l p o s s ib le f o r s ome a r chaeo log i s t s t o a rgu e I
6
S t i le s 1 977 , 8 9g ive sF ewke s 1 900 ,5 79 a st h ee a r l ie s tu se o ft h e wo rd
C hap t er 1 :S oc ia lR ep roduc t ion , Ma te r ia lP rac t ice a nd A r chaeo logy t h a t i t mu s t b e a pp roached f r om a n e co log ica l d e te rm in i s t v i ewpo in t ,
f o r l aw l ike g ene ra l i sa t ion s e xp re s sed a b e l ief t h a t h uman c u l tu re c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y s ynch ron ic n on -chang ing r u le s .
" W e c anno t a pp roach d i e ta ry r ema in s i ng ene ra l o r d eg r ee o fb one r educ t ion i np a r t icu la rb y l o ok ing a t f a c to r s l i k e e t hn i c i ty o r t a s te w i thou t r i sk ing e mba r ra s smen t l a te r o n w hen a m or ep a r s imon iou s e co -u t i l i ta r ian e xp lana t ion f or t h e s ame m a ter ia l i s o f e r ed " (Gou ld i nG ou ld a nd Wa t son 1 982 ,3 70 ) .
T he q ue s t ion i sn o tw he the rw en eed s t ud ie so fh ow m a te r ia l r ema in s a re a l te red b y s pe c if ic t e chn ica l a c t s , s u ch a st h e b u tche ry o f ac a r ibou , o rs t ud ie s o fh ow ma te r ia l c u l tu re i s r e la ted t ot he w ide r s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd i d eo logy o ft h e s o c ie ty i n q ue s t ion . We n e ed b o th t y pe s o fs t udy . S ome a s pec t s o fa nc ien tt e chno logy o rf o rma t ion p ro ce s se sm ay b e b e t te r s e rved b ye xpe r imen ta l a r chaeo logy ( e .g . C o le s 1 973 ; F ranken a nd K a lsbeek 1 975 ; S ch if f e r 1 987 ) , b u t i mpo r tan t a dvance s h ave a l so b e en made b y c omb in ing e t hnog raph ic o b se rva t ion s a nd d e ta i led c ompa r i son o f t h e m a te r ia l r ema ins w i th b o th e xpe r imen ta l a nd a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s ( e .g . H i l lman 1 981 ; R y e 1 98 1) . When t h er e a son f o r t h e e t hno -a rchaeo log ica l s t udy i st ou nde r s tand h ow t h e b u tche r ing o f a c a r ibou r e la te s t o a spec t s o f s o c ia l o rgan isa t ion ( B inf o rd 1 978 ; 1 981) t h en i ti si n su ff i c ien t s imp ly t od e sc r ibe t h ea c t o fb u tche ry i t se lf . T he m e thod o f k i l l ing a nd b u tche r ing a n a n ima l i sd ependen t o n m any d if e ren t f a c to r s s uch a sh ow h un t ing p a r t ie s a r e o r gan i sed , h ow t he se r e la t e t od ome s t ic o rgan i sa t ion , t h e w ay c a r ibou m ea t i s c ommon ly p repa red , w ho e a t s i t , t h e i d eo log ica l s i gn if ic anc e o f t h e a n ima l , t h e h i s to r ica l i mpo r tanc e o f h un t ing t o t he g roup , a nd r e c en t p ro ce s s o fs o c ia l c hange e t c . On ly i n -dep th w o rk w h ich r e la te st h eh un t ing t o mu ch w id e r a spec t so ft h es o c ie ty c an h ope t ou nd e r s tand w hy t h e a n ima lw a sb u tche red i na ny s pe c if i cw ay .
S ome a u tho r s ( e .g . F lanne ry 1 973 ; R enf rew 1 983 ) h av e c r i t ic i s ed t h e' l aw a nd o rde r ' a pp roa ch t oi n te rp re ta t ion b o th f o ri t ss imp l i s t ic a pp roach t oh uman s o c ia lb ehav iou ra nd i t s s imp l i s t ic c ha rac te r i sa t ion o f s c ien t if ic me thodo logy . P e rhap s e v en mo re c r i t ica l ly , o t he r a u tho r sh ave c ha l lenged t h e u n if o rm i ta r ian p r inc ip le s w h ich u nde rp inned t h e o r ig ina l j u s t if i ca t ion f o r e t hnoa rchaeo logy ( e .g . M i l le r 1 985 , 4 ;H odde r 1 986 , 1 03 -5 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 987 , 5 2 ; s e e a l so D av id 1 992 ) . T he p hy s ica l p roce s se s t h a t a c coun t f o r t h e d e cay o f C1 4 ,o r e v en t he p hy s ica l a nd b i o log ica l p roce s s e sw h ich a ccoun tf o rs o i lf o rma t ion ,c an b ee xp la ined u s ing u n if o rm i ta r ian p r inc ip le s . B u t , c u l tu ra l p ro ce s se sa r e n e c e s s a r i ly s o d ependen t o n t h e s pe c if ic s o f t h e c u l tu ra l s e t t ing a nd s o c ia l u nde r s t and ing o f t h e g roup t h a t n o ' m idd l e r a nge t h eo ry c an e xp la in t h em w i thou t f i r s t i n co rpo ra t ing i n te rp re ta t ion s c once rn ing t he s o c ia l a nd i d eo log ica l n a tu re o ft h eg roup b e ing s t ud ied . T h i sh a s l e d s ome a u tho r st os ugge s tt ha tp e rhap se t hno a rchaeo logy i t se lf i si n he ren t ly f l aw ed a nd t ha ti ts hou ld b ea b andoned . " S hou ld e t hnoa r chaeo log y n o t d i sappea r , t o b e r e p laced b y o r i n tegra ted w i th t h e a n th ropo logy o f m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e a nd s oc ia l c hang e? . . e t hnoa r chaeo log y may i nd eed b ecome a ' p e r iod p i e ce ; a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e n on -con t ex tua l , c r o s s c u l tu ra l t r end s i nt h e a r chaeo log i ca l s c ience o ft h e s i x t ie sa nd s even t ie s ." ( Hodde r 1 986 , 1 04 )
E thnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s a l l t o o r a re ly c on s id e r t h e c u l tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex t t ha t i n f o rm s t h e m a te r ia l p rac t ice b e ing d e sc r ibed . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly s u rp r i s ing a s a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e d if e rence b e twe en c u l tu ra l g roup s a nd o ft he p roce s so fh i s to r ica lc hange mu s tb ec en t ra lt ot h e d i sc ip l ine o fa r chaeo logy . C hap te r 2o ft h i s s t udy p r ov ide s a ni n t roduc t ion t ol o nge r te rm c hange si n Ande an e c onom ic o rgan i sa t ion , a nd a b r ief d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e d i f f e ren t c ommun i t ie s Ih av e w o rked i na nd C hap te r 3c on s id e r st he s o c ia l , e conom ic a nd r i tua l r o le o f h ou seho ld s w i th in A nde an p ea s an t c ommun i t ie s . T he s e i n t roduc to ry c hap te r s a r e d e s igned t oh e lp s i tua te t h e s t udy o fp o t te ry p rodu c t ion , t r ade a nd u se w i th in ap roce s s o fc u l tu ra l c h ange a nd t h e d ynam ic so fp re s en t -day s o c ie ty i nt h eA nde s .
C e r ta in ly t h e re i s an eed t ot r ea t ma te r ia l c u l tu re a s mo re t h an j u s t ab y -p roduc t o f h uman b ehav iou r , a nd t h e l a s t d e cad e h a s s e en a n i n c rea s ing a n th ropo log ica l i n te re s t i n t h e r o le o f m a te r ia l c u l tu re i n s hap ing c u l tu ra l u nd e r s tand ing a nd s o c ia l r e la t ion s ( e .g . M i l le r 1 985 ; L emonn ie r 1 986 ; Moo re 1 986 ) . H ow eve r i ti si n s t ruc t iv et o n o t e t h a t t h e se a u tho r s e i the r c ome f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l b a ckg round t h em se lve s (M i l le r a nd Moo re )o rd raw h eav i ly o n a r cha eo log ica l l i t e ra tu re ( Lemonn ie r ) . A t l a s tt h e se t wo s ub -d i sc ip l ine s o f t h e s o c ia l s c ience s a r e f o cu s ing o n t h e i mpo r t an t r o le o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re a nd ma te r ia l p ra c t ic e i n s hap ing w ide rc u l tu ra lf o rms .
E thno archaeo logy i sb a s ica l ly j u s t if i ed b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t s e rve st oe xpand t h ea r chaeo log i s t 's a wa rene s so fa l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion s f o r d a ta , s ugge s t s n ew d a ta t ha t c ou ld u s e f u l ly b e c o l lec ted , a nd may a l so p rov id e n ew a pp roa che s t o a na ly s i s wh ich i mp rov ea r chaeo log ica lm e thod . " E thnoar chaeo logy ' sp r ima ry s e r v i ce m i s s ion i ss t i l l t h e r a i s ing o f t h e a na log i ca l c on sc iou sne s s o f a rchaeo log i s t s , m any o fw hom p ref er t h e i r c u l tu r e d ead s en s i t i z ing t h em t o d imen s ion s o fv a r iab i l i ty a nd t h e r i chne s s o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een h uman s a nd t h e i r a r t if ac t s , i n c lud ing t h e i r o wn b od i e s ." ( Dav id 1 992 , 3 52 )
T he c u l tu ra la nd h i s to r ica lc on tex to f e t hnoa rchaeo log ica ls t ud ie s Mu ch o ft h e e t hnoa rchaeo logy d one i nt h e l a te s i x t ie s a nd s e v en t ie s w a s f l aw ed b y t he s pu r iou s ly ' s c ien t if i c ' b a s i s o f t h e s t ud ie s . I t w a s p re c i se ly b ecau se v i r tua l ly n o i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e c u l tu re u nde r s t udy , o r i t s h i s to r ica l b a ckg round , w a sp re sen ted t ha t i tw a sp o s s ib le t oa r gue t h a t t h e m a te r ia l p a t te rn ing c ou ld b e e xp la ined o n t h e b a s i s o f u n iv e r sa l t e chn ica l a nd e nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s . T he q ue s t
E thnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s c an s e rve mo re t h an o ne p u rpo se i n a s s i s t ing a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion . A t t h e l e ve l o fi n te rp re t ing i n d iv idua l o b je c t s o rf e a tu re s o n as i te , e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s ( d rawn f r om w ha tev e r s o u rc e ) m ay 7
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e v e r s ion o fo ne o ft h e t r ad i t iona l b e te s n o i re s o ft h e e t hno log i s t ; ' g o ing n a t ive ' a nd l o s ing a na ly t ica l p er spec t i ve -s o t ha t o ne i st emp ted t o i mpo se t h e e t hnog raph i ca l ly f am i l ia r l i f eway o n t h e a r chaeo log i ca l r ema in s w i thou t f u r the r s cru t iny ." (Wa t son 1 979 ,2 86 -7 )
i n sp i re ap a r t icu la ri n te rp re ta t ion o fh ow t h e se f e a tu re sw e re f o rmed o ru sed . T he j ud ic iou s a na ly s i s o fw ea rp a t te rn s , o r a s soc ia ted ma te r ia l s , may h e lp t o s t reng then s uch a n i n te rp re ta t ion a nd , w hen c omb ined w i th e xpe r imen ta lw o rk , t h i s c an l e ad t ot h ei d en t if ica t ion o fs pe c if ic p a t te rn s c au sed i n s pe c if i c c ond i t ion s ( e .g . . d if e ren t ia t ing t h e c u t t ing a nd a b ra s ion ma rk s l e f to n b one b y s t one t o o l s , m e ta l b l ade s o r a n ima l t e e th ) . A t a no the r l e ve l , mo re a n th ropo log ica l ly b a sed e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s , w h ich d e scr ibe h ow p a r t icu la r a c t iv i t ie s a r e e mbedded i n t h e w ide r s o c io -econom ic a nd i d eo log ica l f r amewo rk o f t h e s oc ie ty , h igh l igh t t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een v a r iou s a spec t s o f ma te r ia l p rac t ice a nd s o c ia l f o rm s . T he se mo re a n th ropo log ica l ly o r ien ta ted s t ud ie s s e rv e t os ugge s t p o ten t ia l i n te r conne c t ion s b e tween t h e u se o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd s pec if ic s o c io -econom ic s t ra teg ie s a nd i d eo log ica l f r amewo rk s . A t a n e ven mo re a b s t rac t l e ve l , t h e n eed f o r mo re w ide rang ing ( c ro s s c u l tu ra l ) g ene ra l i sa t ion s c once rn ing t h e n a tu re o f s oc ia l i n t e rac t ion a nd c u l tu ra l p ro ce s se s , p a r t icu la r ly a s t h e se r e la te t o m a te r ia l r ema in s , r equ i re s t h e d ev e lopmen t o f s o c ia l t h eo r ie s . T he se t h ree l e ve l s a r e n o t i nf a c t s e pa ra te e i the r i nt h e p rac t ice o ft h e e t hnog raph ic f i e ldwo rk , o r i n t h ep rac t ic e o fa r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion : w he re t h ey a r e ma in ly s e pa ra ted i sa tt h el e ve lo fh ow t h ey a r ep r e sen ted i n a cadem ic d i scou r se . I nf a c t ; E thnoa rchaeo logy h a s b een a s mu ch a n a r ena f o r d eba t ing a rchaeo log ica l m e thod a nd t h eo ry a st h es ou rce o fs pec if ic a na log ie so rt e chn ique s .
C u r iou s ly t h i s h a s a l so b een a p rob lem w i th in A ndean a n th ropo log y a nd e t hnoh i s to r ica l s t ud ie s w he re a n a lmo s t r oman t ic s e a rch f o r i n d igenou s u nde r s tand ing o c ca s iona l ly u nde rva lue s t h e e f e c t s o f a lmo s t 5 00 y ea r s o f E u ropean c on tac t ( Cah i l l 1 990 ) . Ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e c u l tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex t mu s t mean a n a pp re c ia t ion o f d i ve r se p ro ce s se s o fs o c ia l a nd e conom ic c hange t h a t h ave a f f e c ted t he Andean r e g ion b o th i np reh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ica l t ime s . B u t , Ib e l iev e t h a t a t temp t ing t o i d en t if y w i th ( c hang ing ) Ande an u nde r s tand ing s o ft h e w o r ld i sc r i t ica l ly i mpo r tan t i f w e a r e t o m ake s en se o f d i ve r se u se s o f A nde an l a nd scape st h a t s hou ld n o tb ei n te rp re ted a si ft hey w e re t h e s ame a sR oman I t a ly o rV ic to r ian B r i ta in . T h i sb ook i sb a s ica l ly a n e t hnog raphy i nw h ich Ie mpha s i se t h e r o le o f c u l t u ra l p e rcep t ion i n m a te r ia l p rac t ice , a nd ma te r ia l p rac t ice ' s r o le i nr ep roduc ing c u l tu ra l p e rcep t ion s . I td e l ibe ra te ly l o ca te s ma te r ia lp rac t ice sw i th in t h er e a l i ty o f l i f ei nl a te Tw en t ie th C en tu ry P e ru a nd B ol iv ia ,a nd i ts e ek s t os how h ow o b je c t sa nd a c t ion sa r ee mbedded w i th in w ide r s o c ia l , i d eo log ica l , e conom ic , e nv i ronmen ta l a nd t e chn ica l a spe c t s o fA ndean s o c ie ty t o day . T h i s i sn o t am anua l o f ' h ow t od oa r chaeo logy ' b u t i ts ugge s t st h a t ma te r ia l c u l tu re i si nvo lved i n mo re v a r ied a spec t s o f s o c ia l o rgan is a t ion t h an a r chaeo log i s t s a r e c u r ren t ly a dd re s s ing . E a ch r e sea rche r w i l l h ave t od ec ide h ow t oa pp ly t h e c oncep t s I o u t l ine w i th in t h ep o s s ib i l i t ie so ft h e i ro wn d a ta . Ih ope t h a t t h e p rac t ic a l d e ta i l s o fh ow p o t s a r em ad e , t r aded a nd u sed i n t h e A nde s , a s w e l l a s t h e d e sc r ip t ion o f h ow t h e se a c t iv i t ie s a r e e mbedded i nt h e w ide r c u l tu ra l c on tex t a r ea s r e levan t t o a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion a s t h e mo re t heo re t ica l p o in t s c once rn ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en ma te r ia lp rac t ic ea nd s o c ia lr ep roduc t ion .
D i sc ip l ina ry p rob lem s E thnoa rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch i s p reca r iou s ly s im i la r t o a t i gh t rope w a lk . O n o ne s i de t he re i sa no b l iga t ion t or e spec t a nd r e po r tt h ep r e sen t d ay c u l tu re i ni t so wn t e rm sa nd w i th r e levanc e t oa n th ropo log ica l i n te re s t s s uch a st h e e f e c t s o f t h e g l oba l isa t ion o f t h e c ap i ta l i s t w o r ld e conomy , o r t h e ' p ro le ta r ian i sa t ion ' o f a' p easan t ' w o rk f o rce . B u t a tt h e s ame t ime , w e a r eb yd ef in i t ion l ook ing f o r s ome r e levanc e w i th in o u r w o rk ( a nd t h e ref o re t he g roup w e a r e s t udy ing ) t oa r chaeo logy -w ha ti st h e re i nt he p re sen td ay c u l tu re t ha t i sr e levan t f o rt h ea na ly s i s o ft h ep a s t? T os ome p eop le t h is p re sen t s a mo ra l d i lemma t ha t u l t ima te ly make s e t hnoa rchaeo logy u nac cep tab le b ecau se i ts ugge s t s t h a t t h e g roup u nde r s t udy mu s t b e i n s ome w ay ' p r im i t ive ' i fi ti s g o ing t o b e r e levan t t ou nde r s tand ing t h e p a s t . T h i s i sa d ange rou s ly e t hno cen t r ic v i ewpo in t , a sa ny c a tego r i sa t ion o f t h e p re sen t d ay g roup o r t h e r ecen t p a s t a s i n s ome s en se ' p r im i t iv e ' i su sua l ly a d ef ence a ga ins t t h e i n -d ep th w o rk t h a t i sn ece s sa ry i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e se c u l tu re s o n t h e i r o wn t e rm s . Ia m w ho l ly c onv inced t ha t i na r ea s l i ke t h e A nde s t h e c r i t ica l u se o f l o ca l a na log ie s ( i . e . ' d i rec t h i s to r ica l a na logy ' e i the r f r om t he e t hnog raph ic p re sen t o r t h eh i s to r ica l r e co rd ) i se s sen t ia l i fa r chaeo log i s t s a r et ot r y t oa vo id t h e b i a s o fu nc r i t ica l ly i mpo s ing w e s te rn a t t i tude s o n t h e A ndean p a s t . T h i s i sn o t t o s ugge s t t ha t w e s hou ld u nc r i t ica l ly i mpo s et h eA ndean p re sen to ni t sp a s t . S uch a n a pp roach w ou ld b et od eny t h ec u l tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica ln a tu re o ft h ep re sen t .
P o t te ry S tud ie si nA rchaeo logy A t l e a s t s i nc e T hom sen 's t h re e -age s y s tem , a r chaeo log i s t s h ave d iv ided u p t h e i r a r te f ac t s w i th r e f e rence t o t h e ma te r ia l s f r om w h ich t h ey w e re m ad e . E ven d u r ing e xcava t ion w e p u t s t one , b one , p o t te ry a nd me ta l i n to s e pa ra te t r ay s t og o o ff o r c l ean ing a nd c a ta logu ing , a nd t he se d if e ren tm a te r ia l sf r equen t ly g ot od if e ren ts pe c ia l i s t s f o r a na ly s i s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion . Onc et h i sd i v i s ion h a sb e en made t h ea r te f a c t s f r om a ny o ne c on tex tw i l lp robab ly n eve r b er eun i ted a ga in ,n o te ven i nt h ew r i t ing o ft h es i te r epo r t . Un t i l t h e 1 9 50 ' s t h e a r tef ac t s o f e a ch ma te r ia l w e re f r equen t ly s ubd iv ided o n s t y l i s t ic g round s , a nd t h i s c l a s s if ica t ion w a s ma in ly u sed f o r c on s truc t ing c h rono log ica l s e quence s a nd d e l im i t ing c u l tu ra l a r ea s . D eba te f o cu sed o n w he the r t h e p o t te ry c l a s s if ica t ion s o f a r chaeo log i s t s w e re p u re ly a c onven ien t c on s t ruc t f o r a r chaeo log ic a l c once rn w i th c h rono logy a nd s pa t ia l
" I n t en se c on tac t w i th a p ar t icu la r c on tempora ry l i f eway c an r e su l t i n a p o ten t ia l ly d ang e rou s i d en t i f ica t ion w i th t h a t l i f eway -a n a r chaeo log ica l 8
C hap ter 1 :S oc ia lR eproduc t ion , Ma te r ia lP ra c t i ce a nd A r chaeo logy d i s t r ibu t ion o f c u l tu re s ( Fo rd 1 953 ; 1 954a ; 1 9 54b ) o r , a s S pau ld ing ( 1953 ; 1 954 ) a rgued , t h a t u s ing s t a t i s t ica l t e chn ique s f o r a na ly s ing c l a s s if i ca t ion c ou ld b e u sed t o d i scov e r t y pe s t ha tr ef le c ted p a s tb ehav iou r . T he b e l ief t ha t a r cha eo log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion s w e re ad i rec tr ef le c t ion o ft h e make r 's o wn ' f o lk c a tego r ie s ' w a s mo s t c l ea r ly i t e ra ted i n t h e c onc ep t o f men ta l t emp la te s a s " t he i d ea . .f r om w h ich t h ec r af t sman make st h eo b jec t . T he f o rm o ft h ea r tef ac ti sa c l o se a pp rox ima t ion o ft h i s t emp la te , a nd v a r ia t ion s i n a g roup o fs im i la r o b jec t sr ef le c tv a r ia t ion si nt h ei d ea sw h ich p rodu ce t h em " ( De e tz 1 967 ,4 5 -6 ) . I ns p i t eo fs u ch d eba te s , e v en w i th in much o f t h e e a r ly N ew A rchaeo logy p o t te ry c on t inued t ob eu sed m a in ly a s ad a t ing d ev ic ea nd c u l tu ra l ma rke r a nd t h e c e ram ic s t h emse lve s o n ly p l ayed al im i ted r o le i ns o c io -econom ic i n te rp re ta t ion s .
i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e f a b r ic o f t h e v e s se l , a na ly s i s o f t h e mo rpho log ica l d if e renc e s b e twe en v e s se l s , a nd t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f d if e ren t f o rm s o f s u r f ac e t r ea tmen t a nd d eco ra t ion , w i th e ach o f t h e se i d e a l ly b e ing i d en t if i ed s e pa ra te ly ( R ice 1 976 ) b u t t h ey c a n t h en b e i n te rp re ted w i th in t h e i r c h rono log ica l a nd s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing t oa dd re s s an umbe ro fd i f f e ren tt h eme s . F ou ro ft h em a jo rt h eme st h a t h av e e me rged w i th in t h es t udy o fa r cha eo log ica l p o t te ry a r e r e levan tt ot h i ss t udy :
1 )T echno logy T he r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e t e chn ique s b yw h ich p o t te ry w a s made h a sb e en ama jo r f o cu so f mo s tc e ram ic a na ly s i ss i nce t h e m id 1 960 ' s , w i th a n i n c rea s ing e mpha s i s o n t h e f a b r ic f r om w h ich t h e p o t te ry w a s mad e , a nd t h e s i gn s o f m anuf ac tu re l e f to nt h eb ody o ft h ev e s s e ld u r ing p roduc t ion ( e .g . F ranken a nd K a l sb eek 1 975 ; R y e 1 976 ; 1 981 ; B i shop e t a t . 1 982 ; S t epona i t i s 1 984 ; S hepa rd 1 985 [ 1 956 ] ; B ron i t sky 1 986 ) .
I ns p i te o ft h ef r equen t ly c i ted c ommen tb yF o s t e r( 1 965 ,4 9 ; 1 962 ; 1 967 ) t ha t p o t te r s a r e i nhe ren t ly c on se rva t iv e , i ti s e v iden t t h a t i n f a c t p o t te r s h av e c on s tan t ly b e en c hang ing t h e c on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique s , f o rm s a nd d e co ra t ion o ft h e i r w a re s . B u tt h e re i sl i t t le a g reemen to v e rw hy t h e se c hange s h av e t a ken p l ace a nd w ha t t h ey r e p re sen t . S ome a u tho r s ( e .g . D unne l l 1 978 ; S acke t 1 986 ) h av e s ugge s ted t ha t v a r ia t ion s ,w h ich c anno tb ea ccoun ted f o ri nt e rm so fu t i l i ty , c an b e l umped t oge the r u nde r t h e t e rm ' s t y le ' , w h ich c an t hen b e u sed t o c on s t ruc t c h rono log ie s o r d e l im i t c u l tu ra l a r ea s . W i th in t h i s a pp roach , s t y le i st hough t t ob e me re ly a n a c c iden t o f t he p roduc t ion p roce s s . B u t , b o th Wob s t ( 1977 ) a nd W ie s sne r ( 1 983 ; 1 984 ; 1 988 ) h av e s ugge s ted t ha t s t y l i s t ic a t t r ibu te s a r e a c t ive ly c r ea ted a nd man ipu la ted t o b e e mb lema t ic o fp a r t icu la r s o c ia l g roup s . W i th in t h i s a pp roa ch H odde r ( 199 1) h a s e mpha s i sed t h e n eed t o c on s id e r h ow s t y le o fi n d iv idua l o b je c t s a nd t h e s i tua t ion s w i th in w h ich t hey w e re u sed w a s c on sc iou s ly m an ipu la ted f o r p a r t icu la r s oc ia l o r p o l i t ica l p u rpo se s . A l though H odde r 's a pp roach r e l ie s o n at h ick d e s c r ip t ion o fc u l tu ra l v a lue s a nd h i s to r ica l s i tua t ion s , w h ich i sa lmo s t i mpo s s ib le t o r e con s t ruc t f r om a r chaeo log ica l i n f o rma t ion , i t d oe s h igh l igh t t h e a c t ive a nd me an ingf u l r o le t h a t ma te r ia l c u l tu re c an p e rf o rm . I , ech tman ( 1 977 ; 1 984 ) h a s a l so e mpha s i sed h ow s t y le c an b e a na ly s ed a s t h e p roduc t o f t e chno log ica l c ho ice s , l o ca ted w i th in p a r t icu la r c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing s , a r tef ac t s t y le s a r e n o t d ef ined b y s u rf ace d eco ra t ion r a the rt h et e chn ique sb yw h ich t h eo b je c ti smade a r e i n t h em se lve s s t y l i s t ic c ho ice s . T h i s a pp roach i sa l so e xp re ss ed i n t he F rench t r ad i t ion o f s t udy ing t h e s o c ia l s i gn if icanc e o f v a r ia t ions i n t e chno log ica l p rac t ic e s ( e .g . Mau s s 1 979b [ 1 935 ] ; L e ro i G ou rhan 1 964 , 1 965 ; L emonn ie r 1 992 , 1 993 ) .
T he p roduc t ion o f a ny a r tef ac t c an b e d e sc r ibed a s a s equence o f s t ep s t h a t r equ i re s t h e a cqu is i t ion o f r aw ma te r ia l s a nd t o o l s , t h e o pe ra t ion o fp a r t icu la r t e chn ique s , a nd t h e s k i l l o r s o c ia l k now ledg e o f t h e p e rf o rme r ( s ) ( C re s sw e l l 1 972 ; 1 990 ; v an d e r L e euw 1 984 ; E dmonds 1 990 ; S ch lange r 1 994 , S i l la ra nd T i te 2 000 ) . Mak ing ap o t , f o r i n s tanc e , m ay r equ i re t h e s e lec t ion o fc l ay a nd t empe r , t h e p roc e s s ing o f t h e se t o p roduc e ap o t te ry p a s te , t h e f o rm ing o f t h e b a s e , t h e b ody a nd t h e n eck o f av e s se l , a dd ing h and le s , l e t t ing i td ry a nd t h en p o l i sh ing i t ,p a in t ing i t , a nd f i na l ly f i r ing i t . T h i s s e quenc e o f s t ep s h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s aC ha fne O pj ra to i re2 ( as e quence o ft e chn ica l o pe ra t ion s )w h ich t h ek now ledgeab le p o t te rd oe sn o ts imp ly o pe ra t iona l i se l i ke am ach ine , b u tc on sc iou s ly i n te rac t sw i th b y mod if y ing h i s /he r p e rf o rmanc e i n o r de r t o d ea l w i th c hang ing f a c to r s s uch a s t h e r equ i remen t s o f ad if e ren t p roduc t o r t o a dap t t o p rob lem s i n t h e ma te r ia l s s / he i s u s ing . T he C ha ine O pgra to i r e i sb o th as e r ie s o ft e chn ica l a c t s , t ha t r e qu i re s t h e man ipu la t ion o f t oo l s a nd r aw ma te r ia l s , a nd as o c ia l a c t , t h a tr e qu i re sc u l tu ra lk now ledge a bou ta pp rop r ia te w ay so fw o rk ing t h em a te r ia l s . T he w ay i n w h ich t he C ha ine O pj ra to i re i su nde r s tood d epend s v e ry much o n t h e r e sea rche r 's v i ew o fw ha t i st h e e nd r e su l t : i si tt h ep o t , t h e f o od t h a t w i l l b e c ooked i n s ide i t , o r t h e p eop le w ho w i l l b e f e d? B e cau se a r chaeo log i s t s h av eu sed t h i sc oncep tt of o cu so nt h ep a r t icu la r ma te r ia li n
Mo re r e cen t ly a r tef ac t c l a s s if ica t ion h a s f o cu sed o n t e chno log ica lc ons ide ra t ions . Many a r t ef ac t s( s u ch a ss t one , m e ta l , p o t te ry , c l o th o r w o rked b one ) a r e c l a s s if ied a cco rd ing t ot he i rm e thod o f manuf ac tu re t h rough a na ly s ing t h e a t t r ibu te s l ef t b y t h e p roduc t ion p ro ce s s . S uch t y po log ie s t os ome e x ten t r ef lec t c hange s i nt h e p u rpo se o f c l a s s if ica t ion , mov ing a w ay f r om p u r e ly c h rono log ica l o r c u l tu ra l c once rn s a nd r e f lec t ing ag r ea te r i n te re s t i ns o c io e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion . I n p a r t icu la r , e no rmou s e f o r t i s n ow p u t i n to i d en t if y ing o b je c t s made f r om t h e s ame r aw ma te r ia l s a nd w he re p o s s ib le l o ca t ing t h e i r s ou rce . C u r ren t ly p o t te ry c l a s s if ica t ion c ommon ly i n c lude s t he
T h et e rm c ha ine o pd ra to i r ew a so r ig in a l ly c o ined b yL e ro i -Gou rhan ( 1964 ; 1 965 ) , b u t t h i s a pp roa ch t ot e chno logy h ad l i t t le i mp ac to no the r r e sea r ch e r s u n t i l t h e e a r ly 1 970 ' sw hen o t he rF rench r e sea r ch e r s , b o th a r chaeo log i s t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t sd eve lop ed t h i sw o rk . F o ri n s t an ce ,C re s swe l l( 1972 )d r ew o n t h ew o rk o fL e ro i -Gou rhan a nd c omb in ed t h i sw i th t h es t ruc tu ra la nd s ymbo l i c i n t e r e s t s o fL ev i -S t raus s , a nd t h e s oc ia l a nd e c onom i c a na ly s i s o f Ma rx t o p ropo se an ew a pp roach t ot e chno logy a ss o c ia l ly a nd i d eo log ica l ly e mbedded i n c u l tu ra l p rac t ic e . A s im i la r a pp roach w a s d ev e lop ed b y S ch if f e r ( 1975 , S ch if f e ra nd S k ibo 1 997 )w ho h a sp ropo sed at h eo r e t i ca lf r amewo rk i nw h ich v a r iab i l i ty a nd c hange i np roduc t ion t e chno logy i se xp la ined i nt e rm s o ft h e c on st ra in ts i mpo sed b y t h e p e r f o rmanc e c ha ra c t e r i s t i c s r e qu i red f o r e ach a c t iv i ty w i th in t h eo ve ra l l l i f ec yc le , o r' b eh av iou ra lc ha in ' ,o fa na r tef ac t( i . e . p rocu r emen t o fr aw m a t e r ia l s , m anuf i tchue ,d i s t r ibu t ion , u se , r e -u se ,d i s ca rd ) . H e r e Iw ou ld l a ce t oa cknow ledg eh ow much Ih ave b en ef i t ed f r om d i scu s s ion s a bou tt e chno logy w i th N a than S ch iange r .
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9
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e w h ich t h ey s p e c ia l i se ( po t te ry , s t one ,m e ta l , b one , e t c . ) , t hey h av e t e nded t ol o ok u pon ap a r t icu la r o b jec t ( aj a r , ah and a xe , as wo rd , ac omb ) a s t h e f i na l p roduc t o f i t s c ha ine o pj ra to i re . A s t h e w o rk ing o f e ach o f t he se ma te r ia l s r e qu i re s d if e ren t t e chn ique s , i t h a s p roved u sef u l f o r a na ly s t s t o d ev e lop d if e ren t a r ea s o f e xpe r t i se ( s uch a s c e ram ic s , l i t h ic s , me ta lu rgy , f a una l r ema in s , e t c . ) t hu s r e e mpha s i s ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l b i a s f o r d ea l ing w i th s i ng le m a te r ia l t y pe s . W i th s ome n o tab le e xcep t ion s ( e .g . C ro s s 1 983 ; E dmond s a nd T homa s 1 987 ) , f ew a na ly s t s s t re s s t h e l a te r u se , i nn ew a nd d i ve rgen t t e chn ica l a nd s o c ia l a c t s , t o w h ich t h eo b je c t st h ey s t udy w e re p u t( s ee b e low ) .
r e sou rce s . F o ri n s tance , af ew p o t te r sm ay w o rk f u l l t ime t o m ake a l lt h ep o t te ry n eeded i nt h er eg ion ,o re ach h ou seho ld m ay t a ke af ew d ay s e ach y ea r t o make t h e p o t s t h ey n eed f o r t h e i r o wn u se . I t i s t h i s o rgan i sa t ion o f p eop le t o p e rf o rm d if e ren t t a sk s i n r e la t ion t o t h e p roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c on sump t ion o f d if e ren t g ood s t h a t i s c en t ra l t o h uman s o c ia l o rgan isa t ion . T he re a r e s e v e ra l s c a le s a tw h ich t h e o rgan i sa t ion o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion h a s b e en s t ud ied i na r chaeo logy . F i r s t , o ne f o cu s h a s b een h ow t h e p roduc t ion o fp o t te ry i s o r gan i sed w i th in ap a r t icu la r h ou seho ld o rw o rk shop . T h i s i su sua l ly l o oked a ti n t e rm s o ft h e s pa t ia l o rgan is a t ion o f t h e w o rk , l a rge ly i n r e la t ion t o l o ca t ion o f p e rmanen t f a c i l i t ie s s uch a s k i ln s ( e .g . P eaco ck 1 982 ; N icho l son a nd P a t te r son 1 985 ; A nn i s 1 988 ; P . J . A rno ld 1 99 1) . S ev e r a l a u tho r s h ave d i scu s sed t h e s c a le o fp roduc t ion , i nt e rm s o f h ow t h e s chedu l ing o fa c t iv i t ie s a nd t h e d iv i s ion o fl a bou r m ay b eu sed t oo rde rp roduc t ion w i th in d if e ren tr e g ime so f p roduc t ion s uch a sh ou seho ld , w o rk shop o rf a c to ry s c a le so f p roduc t ion ( v an d e rL e euw 1 977 ; R ice 1 981 ; P ea co ck 1 982 ; C o s t in 1 99 1) .
T he re i s f r equen t ly a c ro s s -f e r t i l i sa t ion b e tween d i f f e ren t s phe re s o ft e chno logy , w he re e i the r s pec if i c t e chn ica l a c t s , o r mo re g ene ra l a spe c t s o f as o c ie ty ' s c o smo logy i n f o rm s upe rf ic ia l ly s e pa ra te d oma in s s uch a sa g r icu l tu re , w eav ing , p o t t e ry m ak ing , a rch i tec tu re , g ende r r e la t ion s , k in sh ip r e ckon ing a nd r i tua l u nde r s tand ing ( e .g . L ech tman 1 984 ; Mah ia s 1 993 , 1 74 177 ; W in s low 1 994 ) . F o r i n s tance , i n C ame roon a l though w omen make c o i l b u i l t p o t s f o r d a i ly u se , men u se c a rv ing t e chn ique s , a s soc ia ted w i th ma le w oodca rv ing a nd b ra s s c a s t ing , t o m ake r i tua l v e sse l s ( Ba r ley 1 994 , 6 1) . T hu s , wh i le a d i s t inc t ion i s made b e tw een t wo t y pe s o fp o t te ry mak ing , t h i s i sa ch ieved b y d r aw ing o n t e chn ique s a s soc ia ted w i th o the r c r af t s . T h roughou tA f r ica t he t r an sf o rma t ive n a tu re o ft h ec r af t so f b l a ck sm i th s a nd p o t te r s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th s o rce ry a nd h ea l ing ( Ba r ley 1 994 , 6 3 -4 ) , s ot ha tt h ep eop le w ho p e rf o rm t h e se t e chn ica la c t sa r et h em se lve se mbedded i n ap roce s so f c a tego r i s ing t h a t a s soc ia te s t hem w i th d if e ren t b u t c oncep tua l ly l i nked s k i l l s . As im i la rp ro ce s s may h ave b e en i no pe ra t ion i nB ronze Age S y r ia w hen t wo d i s t inc tp o t te ry t e chno log ie s w e re u t i l i sed a l ong t h eU ppe rE uph ra te s ,n o r th o fB a l i s iM e skene . O ne c omb ined b o th t h row ing a nd c o i l ing t e chn ique s t o m ake v e s se l s f o r d ome s t ic f unc t ion s , a nd a s e cond a pp roach w a s t ot h row t h e w ho le v e s se l o n awhee l ( wh ich w a s t u rned i nt he o ppo s i te d i re c t ion ) a nd t h e se p o t s w e re s o le ly u sed f o r f une ra ry p u rpo s e s ( Van d e r L eeuw 1 993 , 2 86 ) . P re sumab ly i n t h i s c a se w e a r e s e e ing a t e chn ica l d i s t inc t ion w h ich w a s man ipu la ted t o h igh l igh t d i s t inc t ive s o c ia l m ean ing s i n p a r t icu la r c on tex t s . T he se t wo v e s se l t y pe s w e re p robab ly made b y d i f f e ren t p eop le , a nd w e c ou ld s ugge s t t ha t t h e se p eop le w e re p a r t ly c a tego r ised a cco rd ing t o t he t e chn ique s t h ey u sed a nd t h e i n tended c on tex to ft h e i rw a re s .
S econd , ama jo rt h eme i na r cha eo logy h a sb e en t h es t udy o f h ow p o t te ry p rodu c t ion w a s o rgan i sed w i th in a ny o ne c u l tu ra l a r ea ; e . g . w he the r s ome p o t te ry p roduc t ion i s o r gan i sed w i th in e ve ry c ommun i ty , o ri faf ew c ommun i t ie s s p e c ial i se i nt h e p roduc t ion o fp o t te ry f o r t r ade ( e .g . S w an 1 9 84 ; B l i tze r 1 990 ; S t a rk 1 99 1) . S uch a r tef ac t p roduc t ion a l so d epend s o n l o ca l i sed t e chn ica l k now ledge , a nd s e ve ra l a u tho r s ( e .g . L emmon ie r 1 986 ; v an d e r L eeuw 1 993 ) c ommen t o n r eg iona l d if e renc e s i n t e chn ique s , a nd h ow t h e se c on s t ruc tg eog raph ica la nd s oc ia ld if e rence s . T h i rd , t h et empo ra lo rgan isa t ion o fp rodu c t ion , i . e . w he the r t h e p roduc t ion i sa n o cca s iona l s e asona l a c t iv i ty o r ay e a r r o und o ne , h a s b een c on s ide red . T h i s h a s b e en a dd re s sed b o th i nt e rm so fh ow much t h ep o t te r sd epended o nt h ec r af t a s t h e i r ma in s ou rc e o f i n come , a nd i n t e rm s o f t h e e nv i ronmen ta l l im i ta t ion s o f p roduc t ion d u r ing c e r ta in t i me s o f t h e y ea r ( e .g . P eacock 1 982 ; T obe r t 1 984 ; D .E . A rno ld 1 985 ) . T he d i v i s ion o f l a bou r a nd t h e t empo ra l o rgan i sa t ion o f w o rk a r e c en t ra l t ot h e s t ruc t u r ing o fa ny s o c ie ty . Il o ok a t t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f p o t te ry p roduc t ion i n t e rm s o f t h e a l lo ca t ion o fd if e ren t j ob s b y a ge a nd g ende r , a nd t h i s i s c on s ide red w i th in t h e c on tex t o fo t he r h ou seho ld a c t iv i t ie s s u ch a sa g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t ion . Ia mp a r t icu la r ly i n te re s ted i nh ow p o t te ry p roduc t ion i so r gan i sed s e a sona l ly i nr e la t ion t oo t he ra c t iv i t ie s a nd o t he rc omm i tmen t s o ft h ep o t te r , a nd Id i scu s s t h i s a s as e r ie s o fc u l tu ra l c ho ic e s t h a tt a ke s p l ac e w i th in t h e e nv i ronmen t a l p o ten t ia l a nd t h e s o c ia l o r gan isa t ion o f t h e a r ea . Is t re s s t h e i n te rd ep endenc e b e tween v a r iou s a c t iv i t ie s ( p a r t icu la r ly t h e u se o f a n ima l d ung a s af u e l f o rp o t te ry f i r ing ) a s a n i mpo r tan t a spe c t o f t h es o c ia la nd e conom ic c on tex tt ha tt h ep o t te r sa r ew o rk ing w i th in . Ia l so d i scu s sh ow s ome c ommun i t ie sh ave p a r t ia l ly s p e c ia l i sed i n p o t te ry p roduc t ion , a nd h ow t h i s s t ruc tu r e s t h e i rr e la t ionsh ip sw i th in t he w ide rs o c ia ll a nd scape t h rough t h ee xchange t r ansac t ion si nw h ich t h ey a r ei nvo lved .
I n C hap te r 4 Id i scus s t he t e chno logy o f Andean p o t te ry p roduc t ion t os how h ow t h e c ho ice o fr aw ma te r ia l s , t oo l s a nd t e chn ique s f o r p o t te ry mak ing a r e e mbedded i nw ide r a spe c t s o f A ndean p e rcep t ion a nd h ow t h e se t e chn ique s ( s uch a sp a s te p repa ra t ion a nd t h ec ho ic eo ff u e l )d epend o n o t he r a spe c t s o f A ndean t e chno logy a nd c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing p a r t icu la r ly i n r e la t ion t o a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s .
2 )T he o rgan i sa t ion o fp roduc t ion B e cau se e v e ryone r equ i re sf ood , c l o th ing ,h ou s ing e t c . ,t he re i s an eed t oo r gan i se p roduc t ive a c t iv i t ie si ns uch aw ay t ha t e a ch p e r son c an g a in a c ce s s t o n ece s sa ry t o o ls a nd 1 0
C hap te r1 :S oc ia lR ep rod u c t ion , Ma t er ia lP ra c t ice a nd A r chaeo logy T he s e a ppa ren t ly s e pa ra te s phe re s o fe xchange m ay w e l l b e c onne c ted , a nd R enf rew ( 1 986 ) , u s ing mode l s w h ich u l t ima te ly d e r ive f r om t h e a n th ropo log ica l w o rk o f Ma l inow sk i ( 1 922 ) , d e sc r ibe s p r e s t ige g ood s e x change a s t h e ' f l y -whe e l ' ( d r ive ) f o r e xchang ing s ub s i s tence g ood s . T hu s i tb ecame e v iden t t h a t a r tef a c t d i s t r ibu t ion , b y i t se lf , c ou ld n o t t e l l u s a bou tt h et y pe o fe xchange t h a t t o ok p l ace i nt h e p a s t . T he f o cu s h a s t h e ref o re s h if ted t oi n c lude a n a na ly s i so fa r tef ac tp rodu c t ion a nd c on tex to fu se ,i no rde rt o u nde r s tand t h e c on tex t o fe xchange p rac t ice s ( e .g . H odde r a nd L ane 1 982 ; McB ryde 1 984 ; T o r renc e 1 986 ; P e r ls 1 992 ; E dmond s 1 993 ) , w i th a n i n c rea s ing f o cu s o n t he s o c ia lr o le o ft h eg ood s ( e .g . R enf rew 1 986 ; S o rensen 1 989 ; B rad ley a nd E dmond s 1 993 ) .
3 )T rade a nd e xchange T rade a nd e xchange h av e b e en o f ma jo r i n t e re s t i n a r chaeo logy s i nce t h e l a te 1 960 's ( e .g . R enf rew 1 969 ; 1 975 ; P eaco ck 1 969a ; 1 969b ; H odde r 1 974 ) w hen t h ey w e re d i scu s sed a s p a r t o f aw id e r mov e a way f r om i n te rp re t ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re a sr e p re sen ta t iv e o ft h e mov emen t o fp eop le . T he l a s t t h re e d e cade s h av e s e en a l a rge n umbe ro fs t ud ie sd evo ted t ot h ea na ly s i so fp r eh i s to r ic t r ad e a nd e xchange ( e .g . S ab lof f a nd L ambe rg -K a r lov sky ( e d s ) 1 975 ; E a r le a nd E r ic son ( e d s ) 1 977 ; H owa rd a nd Mo r r i s ( e d s ) 1 98 1 ; E r ic son a nd E a r le ( e d s ) 1 982 ; R enf rew a nd S he rman ( e d s ) 1 982 ; S ca r re a nd H ea ly ( e d s ) 1 993 ) . Mo s t o f t h e se s t ud ie s h ave t e nded t o f o cu s o n t wo a r chaeo log ica l ly r e cove rab le a spe c t s o f t r ade . F i r s t , t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f ag roup o f ma te r ia lc u l tu re w h ich o r ig ina te s f r om a s i ng le s ou rce , e i the r t h rough s t y l is t ic a na ly s i s o r , p r e f e rab ly , t h rough c ha rac te r i sa t ion o f t h e c on s t i tuen t i ng red ien t s , i fp o s s ib le i d en t if y ing t h e l o ca t ion f r om w h ich t h e r aw ma te r ia l s o r ig ina ted ( e .g . P eaco ck ( e d . ) 1 977 ; H ughe s( e d . ) 1 981 ;F ree s tone e ta l . ( e d s ) 1 982 ) . S econd ,t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn o ft h e s i te s o n w h ich t h e se a r t e f a c t s a r e r e cove red , w h ich a r e c ommon ly i n te rp re ted i n r e la t ion t o t r an spo r ta t ion r ou te s , me thod s o fe x change , o r i n te r -g roup s o c ia l r e la t ion s ( e .g . H odde r 1 974 ; H odde r a nd O r ton 1 976 ; S i d ry s 1 977 ;R enf rew 1 977 ;H odde r( e d . ) 1 978 ) .
Id e sc r ibe a w ide v a r ie ty o f me thod s o f e xchange u sed i n p o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd e mpha s i se t h a t t h e m e thod o f e x change c ho sen r e la te s b o th t ot h e p ar t icu la r r e la t ionsh ip b e tw een t h ep o t te ra nd t h ec on sume r ,a sw e l la st h es pec if ic s o f t h e o b jec t e xchanged a nd i t s i n tended u sed . Ia l so c on s ide r h ow t h e e xch ange o f p o t te ry r e la te s t o t he e xchange o f l a bou r a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p roduce a nd h ow d if e ren t e x change p rac t ice s s e t -up a nd r e p roduce d if e ren t s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd s o c ia l o b l iga t ion s . T he se f i nd ing s l a rge ly s uppo r t t h e t r end , i d en t if ied a bov e , o fi n te rp re t ing e xchange me thod sb yc omb in ing e v idenc ef r om t h ec on tex t s o fp roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion /depo s i t ion .
I n t h eo re t ica l p ape r s , a r chaeo log i s t s h igh l igh ted a d eba te w i th in e conom ic a n th ropo logy b e tw een t h e F o rma l i s t s ( emphas i s ing t h e p o ten t ia l o fs t udy ing e conom ic b ehav iou r i n r e la t ion t o p eop le 's a t temp t s t o m in im i se c o s t s a nd o p t im i se b enef i t s ) , a nd t h e S ub s t an t iv i s t s( empha s i s ing h ow t h e e conomy i se mbedded i nw id e r s o c ia lr e la t ion s , a nd t h e i n te r re la t ion sh ip o f s o c ia l , p o l i t ica l , e conom ic , a nd r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s ) . H ow ev e r , i np rac t ice a r cha eo log i s t sh av et e nded t oc omb ine b o th a pp roache si n as omewha te c le c t ic m anne r . T he r he to r ic o f f o rma l i s t e conom ic s w a s u sed a s a j u s t if ica t ion f o r a' c ro s s c u l tu ra l ' a pp roach t o i n t e rp re t ing d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s i n t e rm s o f r eg re s s ion a na ly s i s a nd g rav i ty mode l s w h ich a s sume amax im i sa t ion o f ef i c iency . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e s ub s tan t iv i s t u nde r s tand ing t h a t d i f f e ren t f o rm s o f t r ad e a r e r e la ted t o t h e s o c io -po l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion i n w h ich t hey a r e e mbedded ( Po lany i 1 957 ) , w a sa l so c r uc ia l , a sa r chaeo log is t st r ied t ou se t h e i ra na ly s i s o f e xchange a s a me thod o f i n te rp re t ing p a s t s o c ia l r e la t ions . T h i si ss e en mo s tc l ea r ly i ne a r ly u nc r i t ica lu se o f e vo lu t iona ry mode l so fe conom ic d ev e lopmen t s , f o ri n s t ance l i nk ing r e c ip ro c i ty w i th b and s a nd t r ibe s , o r r e d i s t r ibu t ion w i th r anked c h ief dom s ( d raw ing h eav i ly o n S ah l in s 1 974 ) . A r chaeo log i s t sc ompa red t h e i rd a ta w i th i d ea l i sed mode l so f p a r t icu la r e x change me thod s a nd , b y s ugge s t ing ' b e s t f i t s ' , t h ey i n te rp re ted t h e s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion i n w h ich t h e se me thod s o f e xchange w e re e mbedd ed ( e .g . R enf r ew 1 975 ; P i re s -Fe r re i ra a nd F lanne ry 1 976 ;H odd e r 1 974 ) .
4 )C on sump t ion I nb road t e rm s , c on sump t ion o f ma te r ia l si st h es ou rce o fa l l a r chaeo logy . B u t , w h i le a r chaeo log i s t s d i scu s c r a f t s pe c ia l i sa t ion , w e g i ve l i t t le c on s id e ra t ion t ot h e i n c rea s ing s pe c ia l i sa t ion i n t h e u s e a nd s o c ia l f u nc t ion o ft h e o b je c t s w i thou tw h ich t h ep roduc t ion w ou ld b e mean ing le s s3.Un t i l r e c en t ly t h e re h a s b een s u rp r i s ing ly l i t t le d i scu s s ion a bou t w ha tc r ea te st h ed emand f o rg ood s( bu ts e e : C ampbe l l 1 987 ; A ppadu ra i 1 988 ; M i l le r 1 988 ) . W i thou t d emand t he re w ou ld h ave b een n o e xchange a nd n o p roduc t ion , s o t o u nde r s t and ' d emand ' w e n e ed t o u nde r s tand w hy t he c on sume r w an ted t h e p roduc t . D oug la s a nd I s he rwood ( 1979 ) d e sc r ibe h ow p eop le u se c on sump t ion t o ma in ta in r e la t ion sw i th t h e i rk in ,f r iend sa nd n e ighbou r si no rde rt ha t t h ey c an c on t inue t h e i rs o c ia lr e la t ion sh ip sw i th t h em . T h i s e xp la in s t h e p roc e s s t h rough w h ich v a r iou s s o c ia l g roup s d eve lop ad i s t inc t iv ec h a rac te r e xp re s s ing t h i st h rough t he i r c ho ic eo fc l o th ing ,f o od ,h ou s ing ,t r an spo r t ,o rw ha tev e r . " S een u nd er t h i s a spec t , c on sump t ion d ec i s ion s b ecome t h ev i ta ls ou r ce o ft h ec u l tu r eo ft h em omen t . P eop l e w ho a r e r ea red i n ap a r t icu la rc u l tu r e s ee i t c hange i nt h e i r l i f e t ime : n ew w ord s , n ew i d ea s , n ew w ay s . I te vo l ve s a nd t h ey p lay ap a r ti nt h ec hang e . C on sump t ion i st h e v e r y a r ena i nw h i ch c u l tu r e i s f ough t o ve r a nd l i cked i n to s hape . T he h ou sew if e w i th h er s hopp ing b a sk e t a r r ive s h ome : s ome t h ing s i n i ts he r e ser ve sf o r h e r h ou seho ld , s ome f or t h e f a the r , s ome f o rt h ec h i ld ren ; o t her s a r ed e s t inedf or
H oweve r , many o ft h e se s ame a u tho r sb ec ame c r i t i ca lo ft h e a pp l ica t ion o ft he se mode l s . I tw a s r e cogn i sed t h a t s e ve ra l f o rm s o ft r ade /exchange may l e av ev e ry s im i la rd i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s ( Hodde r a nd O r ton 1 976 ) . I ti sa l so l i ke ly t h a t p a r t icu la r o b jec t s w e re t r aded i n d i s t inc t ive w ay s , a st h ey w e re w i th in d if e ren t ' r eg ime s o fv a lue ' ( Appadu ra i 1 986 ) .
3 F o r a n e a r ly e xcep t ion s e eD ee tz ' s( 1977 ) d i scu s s ion o fh ow t h eo r ig in a nd d eve lopmen t o f d i nne r s e t s i n t h e 1 8 th c en tu ry f i t ted i n to a c hang ing wo r l c tv iew .
1
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e U se : D oug la s a nd I s he rwood ( 1 979 , 5 7 )d ef ine c on sump t ion a s " a u se o f ma te r ia l p o s se s s ion s t h a t i s b eyond c omme rc e " .
t h e s pec ia l d e lec ta t ion o fg ue s t s . W hom s he i n v i te s i n to h e r h ou se , w ha tp a r t s o ft h e h ou se s he m ak e s a va i lab le t o o u t s id er s , h ow o f t en , w ha t s he of er s t h em f or m u s i c ,f ood , d r ink a nd c on ve r sa t ion , t h e se c ho ice s e xp r e s s a nd g ene ra te c u l tu re i ni t s g enera l s en se ." ( Doug la sa nd I s he rwood 1 979 ,5 7 )
E a t ing : T he c on sum ing o f f o od , w i th i t s c onno ta t ion s o f n u r tu re .
I ti sl a rge ly t h ev a lua t ion o fh ow o b je c t sa r eu s ed b yw hom , w hen , a nd f o rw ha t( t he d if e rence b e tw een c hampagne a ta w edd ing , a nd b e e r i n ap ub ) t h a t d e f ine s t h e c u l tu ra l v a lue o ft h eo b je c t . I ti sn o tj u s tt h ef a c tt ha tg ood sa r ec on sumed t h a t i si mpo r tan t ; i ti st h ew ay t h a t s o c ie ty s t ruc tu re s aw ide d i v e r s i ty o f d if e ren t f o rms o f c on sump t ion . Who i s p e rm i t ted t oc on sume p a r t icu la rg ood s , i nw ha tw ay sa r et h e g ood s ' c on sumed ' , a nd w i th w hom s hou ld t h ey s ha re t h ea c t o f c on sump t ion? H e re I d i sag ree w i th C re s swe l l w ho s ugge s t st ha t : " The t e chn ique so fc on sump t ion ,w he the ri ti s aq ue s t ion o f h ou s ing , o f e a t ing h ab i t s , o r o f c l o th ing c u s toms , a r e t e chn ique s t ha t r ef le c t s oc ia l r e la t ion s . I nt h e f i na l a na ly s i s t h ey c an n e i the r c r ea te n o r d i re c t ly t r an sf o rm e x i s t ing s t ruc tu re s a nd r e la t ion s " ( C re s sw e l l 1 990 ,4 3 ) . O n t h e c on t ra ry , Is ugge s t t h a t t h e d e l ibe ra te m an ipu la t ion o f c on sump t ion b ehav iou r i s an ec e s sa ry p a r t o f c hang ing s o c ia l r e la t ion s . T he k now ledge t h a t g oe s i n to p roduc t ion a nd e xchange i sm a tched b y as im i la rc u l tu ra lk now ledge o f a pp rop r ia te m e thod s o fc on sump t ion ( Appadu ra i 1 988 , 4 1) . T he s i gn if icanc eo f ' th ing s ' i ss e en n o ts o mu ch i ni nd iv idua l o b jec t s b u t i nt h e i r m an ipu la t ion w i th in ac on tex t . I ti si n t h e e f ec t ivene s s o ft h e c omp le te p e rf o rmanc e o f af e s t iva l , r a the r t h an t h e p r e sence o r a b sence o fi nd iv idua l o b jec t s , t h a t t he f u l l p o ten t ia l i sr ea l i sed , a l low ing o b se rvan t a nd c r i t ica l p a r t ic ipan t s t o i n te rp re t a nd c ommen t o n t h e i n ten t ion so ft h eh o s t sa nd t h eq ua l i ty o ft h es e rv ice t h ey a r e p rov id ing . G ood s d o n o t l a s t f o reve r ; t h ey b r eak , w ea r o u t , o r b ecome i n app rop r ia te d ue t o t h e c on sume r ' s c hang ing c i rcums tance s . S o ah ou seho ld ' s ma te r ia l c on ten t s r equ i re ma in tenance o r r e p lac emen t o ve r t ime , a l low ing b o th i n d iv idua l o b je c t s a nd t h e make -up o ft h e a s semb lage t ob e r e -wo rked o rr e -nego t ia ted a tr e gu la r i n te rva l sa st h e make u pa nd a sp i ra t ion so ft h eh ou s eho ld c hange . E ach c on sume r ( o r g roup o fc on sume r s ) e f e c t iv e ly a pp rop r ia te s n ew g ood s b y a dd ing t h em t ot h e c o l lage o ft h e i r o wn h ome . I ti st h e p roc e s s o f c on sump t ion , a nd d ecay o f m a te r ia l o b je c t s ( whe the r f ood s tuf f s , h ou se s t ru c tu re s o rp o t s ) t h a t p e rm i t s t h e p roduc t ion o fn ew f o rms t h rough wh ich s o c ie ty i t se lf i s r e p roduced b o th i n t h e r e la t ion s o f p roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion e s t ab l i shed , a nd i nt h ep o ten t ia lt or e -nego t ia te a nd c hange t h e f o rm a nd r ange o f o b je c t s t h rough w h ich p eop le 's s o c ia l s t ra teg ie s a r e e nac ted . T h i s i s t h e ' r ep roduc t ive 'a s pe c to fc on sump t ion . C on sump t ion c an m e an : A cqu is i t ion : w hen a n o b jec t i sr emoved f r om t h e ma rke t o r e xchange s y s tem . T h i s i n c lude s t h ea c to f' s e lec t ion ' a cco rd ing t o t h e c on sume r 's c u l tu ra l i d ea ls a nd a sp i ra t ion s .
1 2
D eg rada t ion , d e s t ruc t ion a nd d ecay : t h i s i so f t en w ha t i s m e an t b y c on sump t ion i n a r chaeo logy w hen i ti s e qua ted w i th t h e w ea r ing -ou t o f a n o b je c t a nd i t s d i spo sa l /depo s i t io n . T hu s c on sump t ion h a s t wo c on t ra s t ing b u t i n te rdependen t a s pec t s . I ti sg row th a nd d e cay , e a t ing a nd b e ing e a ten , p roduc ing a nd c on sum ing . I nf a c t , i ti sc u r iou s ly d if i cu l tt o s e pa ra te a c t s o fc on sump t ion f r om a c t s o fp roduc t ion , a nd e xchange . F requen t ly c on sump t ion i sc ha ra c te r i sed b y t h e u s e o f t h e p roduc t o f o ne t e chn ica l o pe ra t ion i n t h e p roduc t ion o fa no the r , d if e ren t , p rodu c t . Ap i ck i su sed t o e xcava te p o t t ing c l ay ,t h ep o ti su s ed a s ac on ta ine ri nw h ich t od y ew oo l ,t h e woo l i su sed t o mak e as a ck ,a nd t h es a ck i s u sed t ot r an spo r t f e r t i l i se rt ot h e f i e ld s . C on sump t ion c ou ld b ec ha rac te r ised a st h er emova lo f ap roduc tf r om t h ec ha ine o pe ra to i r e i n w h ich i tw a s made , t oi t s n ew p o s i t ion a s a t o o l i n f u r the r c ha ine s o pe ra to i re s . I ti s t h i s c y c le o f p roduc t ion a nd u se t h a tk eep st h ec ha in sg o ing . Whe the ra p a r t icu la r a c t i s s e en a s o ne o f p roduc t ion o r a s o ne o f c on sump t ion d epend s o n t h e p a r t icu la r ma te r ia l y ou a r e o b se rv ing , a nd y ou r v i ewpo in t o fw ha t i st h e' f i na l ' f o rm o f t h a t ma te r ia l . T he p rob lem i st ha tt h ev e ry w ay t h a tw eh av es t ruc tu red t h e d i s c ip l ine o f a r chaeo logy , w i th s pe c ial i s t s i n p a r t icu la r ma te r ia l s a nd t e chno log ie s , mean s t h a t w i thou t ac onc e r ted e f o r t t o r e -f o cu s , p roduc t ion w i l l r ema in t h e d om inan t c onc e rn . I ti so ve rh a lf ac en tu ry s i nc e S t ew a rd a nd S e tz le r ( 1 938 ) c a l led o n a r chaeo log is t s t o c l a s s if y a r tef ac t s i n c a tego r ie s s u ch a s h o r t icu l tu re , h un t ing a nd d r e s s , r a the r t h an s t one , b one a nd w ood . S uch a n a pp roach w ou ld s i t u nea s i ly w i th many a na ly s t sw ho s e es u ch c a tego r i sa t ion sa s af u r the r l e ve l o fi n te rp re ta t ion b eyond p u re ly t e chn ica l o r m a te r ia l c onc e rn s . S uch t a sk -o r ien ta ted d e sc r ip t ion s a l so o ve r look h ow many a r tef ac t sh av e mu l t ip le f unc t ion s( e .g . a n eed le m ay b eu sed b o th t os ew as a ck a nd t oc u t -of fe xce s s c l ay w hen f o rm ing a p o t , o r ac l ub may b e u s ed b o th i n w a rf a re a nd t ob reak u p c l od s o fe a r th d u r ing a g r icu l tu ra l w o rk ) . Y e t , u s ing s u ch b road f u nc t iona l c a tego r i sa t ion s w ou ld f o rc e u s t oc on s ide r t h e s o c ia l r o le o ft h e o b je c t s w e e xcava te a nd r e la te t h em mo re c r i t ica l ly t o t h e c on tex t o f t h e i r u se a nd d epo s i t ion r a the rt h an t r ea t ing t h em p u re ly a s t h ep roduc t s o ft e chn ic a l p roce s se s . U n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly f ew s i te r e po r t s o r i n te rp r e t iv e a r t ic le s mad e a ny a t temp t t o d i s cu s s t h e r ange o fp o t te ry f o rm s o n as i te i nr e la t ion t o h ow t h ey w e r e u sed o r h ow t h a t u se may h ave s t ruc tu red s o c ia l r e la t ion s . H ow eve r , mo re r e c en t ly a n umb e r o f a u tho r sh av e a t temp ted t oi d en t if yp o t te ry u se l a rge ly b a sed o n v e s se l f o rm , s i ze a nd w e a r p a t te rn s ( e .g . B raun 1 983 ; H end r ick son a nd McDona ld 1 983 ;D .E .A rno ld 1 985 ; Sm i th 1 985 ; 1 988 ;H a l ly 1 986 ;R ic e 1 987 ; S k ibo e ta l . 1 989 ; S k ibo 1 992 ; O r ton e ta l . 1 993 ) a nd i n c rea s ing ly t h e p o ten t ia l o f a na ly s ing o rgan ic r e s idue s t o i d en t if y p a s t c on ten t s i s
C hap t er 1 :S oc ia lR ep rodu c t ion , Ma ter ia lP rac t i ce a nd A r chaeo log y b ecom ing p o s s ib le ( e .g . D uma 1 972 ; H a s to r f a nd D eN i ro 1 9 85 : C ha r te r se ta l . 1 993 ) . I nC hap te r 6 ,p o t te ry u se i sd e sc r ib ed t h rough ad i s cu s s ion o ft h ea c t iv i t ie st h eh ou seho ld i si n vo lved i n ,p a r t icu la r ly t h e p r epa ra t ion a nd s e rv ing o ff o od a nd d r ink i nr e la t ion t ot h e h ou seho ld 's o rgan i sa t ion o f s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd t h e s t ru c tu r ing o fa c t iv i t ie s i nt ime a nd s pace . T h i s e mpha s i s o np o t te ry 's r o le a s at o o lt o make t h ef o od a nd d r ink s how s h ow p o t te r c on sump t ion c an o n ly b e i n te rp re ted b y mov ing b eyond t h e p o t s t o c on s ide r t h e i r r o le i n s t ruc tu r ing a nd r e p roduc ing w ide rs o c ia lr e la t ion s .
P o t sa r ef o rP eop le A s a r chaeo log i s t s w e h ave f r equen t ly " f o cu sed s o much o n a na ly s ing c e ram ic s t ha t w e h ave f a i led t op ay a t ten t ion t o t h er e la t ion sh ip o ft h e c e ram ic st ot h er e s to fc u l tu re " ( D .E . A rno ld 1 993 , 8 ) . Ma t son ' s ( 1965 ) ' c e ram ic e co logy ' w a s a imed a t r ed i rec t ing a r cha eo log ica l c e ram ic s t ud ie s a way f r om t h e s pec if ic s o f p o t s a nd p o t she rd s a nd b ack t o t h e p e op le w ho made t hem . I t i s u nf o r tuna t e , t h en , t h a t s ome t ime s t he a dvoca te s o ft h i s a pp roach s e em t o s e e t h e e nv i ronmen t mo re a s ac on s t ra in to n s o c ie ty , r a the rt h an a s t h ee nab l ing s phe re w i th in w h ich p eop le a c t . I nt h i ss t udy I a pp roa ch p o t te ry a so ne a spe c t o fh ow ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd m a te r ia l p rac t ic e i n te rp lay i n A ndean p eop le s ' a c t ive r e p roduc t ion o ft h e i rc u l tu re . I i n tend t o f i l l a p a r t icu la r g ap i n t h e a va i lab le e t hnoa rchaeo log ica ll i t e ra tu re b yl o ok ing a tt h er o le ma te r ia l c u l t u re p l ay s i nt h e e xp re s s ion o fs o c ia lr e la t ion s . Id i scu s s h ow t h e v e ry p roc e s s o f mak ing , t r ad ing a nd u s ing p o t te ry h e lp s t oe ngende r a n o rde r ing o fs o c ia lr e la t ion s . T h i sw i l l l e ad t o ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o fh ow t h e m any i nf luenc e s t h a ta f ec tt h e c r ea t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o t te ry i n t e r re la te i n t h e p roduc t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s . I n p a r t icu la r , Iu se ar eg iona l s t udy t o c on s ide r h ow p o t te ry p roduc t ion ,t r ade a nd u se a r ee mbedded i nA ndean c u l tu re .
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e
1 4
C hap te r2
T he A ndean S e t t ing i mp l ic i tb e l ief i ne nv i ronmen ta ld e te rm in i sm a nd p re f e rence f o r d emog raph ic e xp lana t ion s make t h e a na ly s i s l i t t le mo re t h an a n i mpo s i t ion o f mode l sd r awn f r om e co log ica ls t ud ie s , w i th l i t t le c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s t h a t w e re i n vo lved ( e .g . Mo se ley 1 975 ; 1 983 ; P au l sen 1 976 ; C ohen 1 977 , 2 23 -278 ; F e ldman 1 983 ) . N one the le s s , t h e c u l tu ra l e co logy f r amewo rk h a sp rov ed b enef i c ia lt oA ndean s t ud ie s , p a r t ly b e cau se i th e lped e l uc ida te a spe c t s o f i n d igenou s c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing t h a ta r ei n deed s t rong ly l i nked t ot h e p e r cep t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ee nv i ronmen t .
T he E nv i ronmen ta l S e t t ing A ny u nd e r s tand ing o fA ndean c u l tu re mu s t i n co rpo ra te a n a pp rec ia t ion o ft h e e nv i ronmen t w i th in w h ich i th a s b e en f o rmed ( To s i 1 960 ; G ade 1 975 ) . T he d rama t ic e l eva t ion o f t h e A nde an moun ta in s , r i s ing t o a l t i tude s e xc eed ing 6 000 m e t re s ,h a sb een c en t ra lt ot h ep a r t icu la rc u l tu ra l f o rm st h a t h av e e me rged i nt h e a r ea . T he f r ozen h e igh t s o ft h e And e s f o rm a s t rong c on t ra s t w i th t he d e se r t o ft h e P ac if i c c oa s t w i th i t sf e r t i le r i ve r v a l ley s a nd a bund an t ma r ine r e sou rc e s . T he s l op e s d ropp ing d own t o t h e w a rm a nd h um id Amazon ian r a in f o re s t t o t h e e a s t a r e t h e s ou rc e o f i mpo r tan t r e sou rc e s o ff r u i t a nd t imbe r f r om t h e m on ta i ia a nd t h em a s s ive s l ow mov ing r i ve r so ft h es e lva p rope r( f ig . 2 . 1) . Y e t , b o th r e sou rce s a nd p eop le a ppea r t oh av e b e en c r o s s ing b e tw een t he se t h ree z one s s i nce t h e e a r l ie s t e v idence o f s e t t led l i f e o n t h e c on t inen t ( Kea t inge ( e d . ) 1 988 ) . W i th in t h e Andean moun ta in s t h emse lv e s , w a lk ing r e la t iv e ly s ho r t d i s tance s c an me an p a s s ing t h rough v a s t ly d if e ren t e nv i ronmen t s , a s c hange s i n a l t i tude , h um id i ty , s un c a tchmen t a nd d eg ree o fs l ope c an h av ev e ry n o t iceab le e f e c t so nt h el o ca l f l o ra a nd f auna . T he se d if e rence si nt h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t a r e f u r the r a f e c ted b y h uman mod if i ca t ion s , s uch a s i r r iga t ion s y s tem s , t e r rac ing , p a s tu r ing o f a n ima l s , s e t t lemen t s a nd m in ing a c t iv i t ie s . T oday t h e w a rme r v a l ley s a r e c ha rac te r i sed b y c omme rc ia l a nd i n du s t r ia l t own s a nd a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s g row ing m a ize a nd r a i s ing s ome s heep a nd c a t t le ,w he rea st h eh ighe r s l ope s a nd t h e f l a t t a b le land s , p una , a r e c ha rac te r i sed b y p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s w i th mo re d i spe r sed h ou seho ld s a nd a g r ea te r t e ndency t of o rm e x tended f am i ly g roup s s h a r ing a c ommuna l p a t io . H ow eve r , s ome o f t h e mo s t d en se ly p opu la ted a r ea s o ft he Andean h igh land sa r et h ep una l a nd s ( a t a l t i tude s o fa round 4 000 me te r s ) s uch a s t ho s e a r ound L ake T i t i caca w he re l ama h e rd ing a nd p o ta to c u l t iva t ion a r et h em a in a g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i t ie s .
T he s t reng th o f t he b e s t o f t h e A nde an ' e co logy b a sed ' s t ud ie s w a s t ha t t he i r a na ly s i s f o cu sed o n t h e r e f lex ive r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t h e ma te r ia l e nv i ronmen t a nd c u l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing . F o r i n s t ance Mu r ra ' s ( 1 972 ) d i scu s s ion o f t h e c onc ep t o f v e r t ica l i ty ( s e e b e low ) e l uc ida ted b o th a s o c io -econom ic o rgan isa t ion t h a tp e rm i t ted as i ng le g roup t o e xp lo i t ar ange o fe nv i ronmen t s , a sw e l l a s ac u l tu ra l i d ea l t h a t i n f o rmed t h e a ims a nd a sp i ra t ion s o ft h e e t hn ic g roup . A ndean c u l tu ra lp r inc ip le s ( i deo logy , c o smo logy , s o c ia l a nd e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion e t c . ) h av e d ev e loped a l ong s ide t h e i r m a te r ia l p rac t ice s , a nd many s t ud ie s h av e p o in ted t o t h e v i ta l i mpo r tance o ft he o rgan i sa t ion o fs ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s t ot h e s o c io -econom ic a nd i d eo log ica l n a tu re o ft h e g roup . T he se s t ud ie sa l so h igh l igh ted t h ei mpo r tance o ft h ed i v e r se m echan isms t ha t c an b eu sed t or e -d i s t r ibu te p roduc t s f r om d if e ren t e co log ica l z one s , p e rm i t t ing t ho se l i v ing i n t h e h ighe r r e ache s o f p una t o ma in ta in a c ce s s t o l ow land p roduc t s , a nd v i ce -ve r sa . I nde ed , much o ft h e r ew r i t ing o f A ndean p reh i s to ry a nd h i s to ry t h a t h a s t a ken p l ace d u r ing t h e l a s t t h re e d ecade s h a s a dd re s sed h ow t h e e conom ic a nd s o c ia l s t ruc tu re o f t he A nde an r eg ion a r e f u ndamen ta l ly c once rned w i th t he o rgan i sa t ion o f e xchange , p a r t icu la r ly b e tw een d i f f e ren t e co log ica l l e v e l s . I n t h e n ex t s e c t ion I s ha l lu s e ab r ief h i s to ry o fe x change t od e sc r ibe s ome o ft h e c hange s t ha t A ndean s o c ie ty h a s g one t h rough i n t h e l a s t 6 00 y ea r s . T h i s s i tua te s h i s to r ica l p ro ce s s w i th in t h e c on tex to fc hang ing ma te r ia lp rac t ic e st h a ta r ec r uc ia lt ot h e u nde r s t and ing o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion a nd t r ade t h a t w i l l b e d e sc r ibed i n s ub sequen t c hap te r s . N eve r the le s s i ti so n ly o ne w ay o fw r i t ing ah i s to ry o ft h eA nde s ,a nd Is ha l lb r ie f ly d i scu s s amo re e xpe r ien t ia lA nde an p e r spe c t iv eo nh i s to ry .
C u l tu r ea nd e co logy A n u nde r s tand ing o ft he i n te r re la t ion sh ip b e tween A ndean e co logy a nd c u l tu re h a s b een c en t ra l t o many o ft h e mo s t s i gn if i can t e t hnog raph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l w o rk s o f t h e l a s t t h i r ty y ea r s ( e .g . Mu r ra 1 972 ; 1 975 ; L ehmann ( e d . ) 1 982 ; I s b e l l 1 985 ; Ma suda e ta l . 1 985 ) . T he se s t ud ie sa r o se f r om t h e w ide sp read i nf luence o f t h e c u l tu ra l -eco logy p a rad igm i nb o th t he a n th ropo log ica la nd t h ea r chaeo log ica l d i sc ip l ine s . S ome o ft he se s t ud ie s c ou ld b e c r i t ic i sed f o r b e ing m o re e co log ica l t han c u l tu ra l , o ve rempha s i s ing t h e e nv i ronmen ta l i nf luenc e o nt he h um an g roup a tt h ee xpen s e o f a c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e s oc ia l d ynam ic b eh ind t h e t e chno log ica l c ho ice s , o r t h e i d eo log ica l f r amewo rk t h a t i n f o rmed e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion s . I n af ew c a se s t h e 1 5
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e
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C hap ter 2 :T he A nd ean S e t t ing Z u r l iga i n 1 562 , t h e re a ppe a r s t ob e ad i s t inc t ion b e tw e en p oo r p eop le w ho p a r t ic ipa te i n l im i ted e xchange b e tw e en h ou seho ld u n i t s o f t h e s ame e t hn ic g roup ( A s sadou r ian 1 987 , 6 7 ) , a nd t ho se w ho b r ing t h ek u raka p roduc ef r om t h e o u t ly ing a r ch ipe lago s f o r h im t o r ed is t r ibu te i n s ome m anne r . O r t iz d e Z u i l iga r e co rd s e xchange o fp o ta to e sa nd c h 'a rk i ( d r ied p re s e rved mea t ) f o r c o t ton a s w e l l a s t h e e xchange o f u chu ( ho t p eppe r s ) f o r w oo l , s ugge s t ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f e xchange u s ing s ma l l -sca le b a r te r . T he se d e sc r ip t ion s l e nd c r edence t o t h e i d ea o f c on t ro l led p rodu c t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fs ome r e sou rce sb yl o ca l e l i te s a tt h es ame t ime a st h e s ma l l sca le e xchange o fs ome g ood s b y mo s t h ou seho ld s . A rchaeo log ica l ly t h e e v iden t l a ck o f l a rge sca le c en t ra l is ed s t o rage s t ruc tu re s i n many a r ea s ( away f r om t h e c oa s t ) d u r ing t h i s p e r iod a rgue s a ga in s t t h e c omp le te c on t ro l o f r e -d i s t r ibu t ion b y t h e k u raka ( s e e P a r son s a nd H a s t ing s 1 988 , 2 10 ) . I n Mu r ra 's o r ig ina lw o rk ( 1972 ) h e o n ly d i scu s sed d i rec t c o lon i sa t ion b y t h e c en t ra l c ommun i ty , b u t mo re r e c en t ly a n umbe r o f i n d i re c t m e chan i sms f o rc on t ro lh ave b een r e cogn ised ( k in -a nd n on k in -ba sed e xchange , l o ng d i s tance e xchange , e l i te a l l iance s ) a l l o f w h ich u se t h e v e r t ica l i ty p r inc ip le w i thou t b e ing r e l ian t o n c o lon i sa t ion ( Ma suda e ta l . 1 985 ) . T he p rob lem w i th mo s to ft h i sw o rk i st h a ti tr e l ie so nc o lon ia ld ocumen t s t o c on s t ruc t ap i c tu re o ft h e p reI nka w o r ld , f o r i n s tanc e , r e c en t a s se s smen t o fa r chaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t t h eL upaqa ' k ingdom 's ' c on t ro l o ve r l ow land v a l ley s , o ne o f t h em a jo r e xamp le su sed b y Mu r ra , w a s i nf a c t al a te rI nka a nd e a r ly c o lon ia ld ev e lopmen t( S tan i sh e ta l . 1 993 ) .
AH i s to r ica lP e r spec t ive o nt he C hang ing Andean E conomy C e r ta in s o c io -e conom ic a nd s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s h av e c ha rac te r i sed t h e h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t o f p re sen t d ay t r ad ing n e two rk s i n t h e Ande s p a r t icu la r ly t h e i n te rd epend enc e b e tw een t h e p eop le o ft h e ma jo r e co log ica l z one s , t h e o r gan i sa t ion o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s , a nd t h e c hang ing s y s tem s o fl a nd t e nu re . T he i mpo s i t ion o ft a xe s , c hang ing e x change r a te s , a nd t h e p o l i t ica l man ipu la t ion o f v a lue s b y l o ca l s o c io -po l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s , t h e s t a te a nd i n te rna t iona le c onom ic sh ave b een e qua l ly s i gn if ican t .
I mmed ia te ly P re -I nka U ndoub t ed ly t h e mo s ti nf luen t ia l w o rk o nA ndean e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion h a s b e en J ohn Mu r ra ' s d e sc r ip t ion o f " t he v e r t ica l c on t ro l o f am ax imum o f e co log ica l l e ve l s i n t h e e conomy o fA ndean s o c ie t ie s " ( 1972 ; 1 975 , 5 9 115 ) . B a sed o n c en su se st a ken s ho r t ly a f te rt h e S pan i sh i n va s ion , Mu r ra i lu s t ra te s h ow t h e o rgan i sa t ion o fe t hn ic g roup s t h a t h ad b een i n co rpo ra t ed i n to t h e I nka e mp i re , h ad p rev iou s ly r e l ied o nt h eu s e o f ad i v e r se r ange o fe nv i ronmen t s . T he se e t hn ic g roup s c on t ro l led l a rge a r ea s o fl a nd e ncompa s s ing m any d i f f e ren t e co log ica l z one s a td if e ren t a l t i tude s . T h i s c on t ro l a low ed t h e e t hn ic g roup t o a ch ieve ' z ona l c omp lemen t a r i ty ' ( a cc e s s t o t he d i f f e ren t e nv i ronmen ta l z one s a td i f f e ren t a l t i tude s ) t ha t p rov ided ac omp lemen ta ry r ange o f c r op s a nd a n ima l p roduc t s f o r t h e i r d i e t . I n p a r t icu la r , Mu r ra c i te s e xamp le s o f e t hn ic g roup s w i th a c ce s st oo u t ly ing a r ea s , ' a rch ipe lago s ' , t ha tw e re w o rked b y t empo ra ry r e s iden t s w ho ma in ta ined t h e i r r i gh t s t ol a nd i n t h eh e a r t land o ft h e i re t hn ic g roup . Mu r ra s t re s se st ha tt h i s s hou ld n o t b e s e en a s m ig ra t ion , t r an shumanc e o r c omme rc ia l a c t iv i ty , r a the r t h e o u t l ie r s a r e s em i -pe rmanen t c o lon i s t s w o rk ing c o ca , c o t ton a nd c h i l l i p l an ta t ion s o r m in ing s a l t f o r t h e b enef i t o ft h e i r o wn e t hn ic g roup . T he c on t ro l o fd if e ren t e co log ica l t i e r s i sb a sed o n ad om inan t p o l i t ica la u tho r i ty i nt h ee t hn ic g roup ( t he l o ca ll o rd ,k u raka —s e e t h e G lo s sa ry f o r b r ief e xp lana t ion o f Q ue chua a nd S pan i sh t e rm s ) , a nd i n Mu r ra 's mode l t h i s a u tho r i ty i s c en t ra l t o t h e m a in tenanc e o f mu l t ip le l e v e l e xp lo i ta t ion , w h ich d epend s a s much o n t h e c on t ro l o fp eop le a si td oe s o n t h ec on t ro l o fl a nd . O ne o ft h er e a son s Mu r ra ' ss t udy i s a t t rac t iv e i sb e cau se i to f e r s a n u nde r s tand ing o fA ndean p o l i t ica l , e conom ic a nd s o c ia l s t ru c tu re t ha t i si n teg ra ted w i th in i n d igenou s p e rc ep t ion s . T h i s mode l s e e s i nd igenou s p roduc t ion a nd e xchange a s d eep ly e mbedded w i th in t h e s o c ia la nd p o l i t ica ls t ruc tu re o f Andean s o c ie ty .
Ma r ia R o s two row sk id eD iez C an se co ( e .g . 1 977 , 1 978 )a l so u se se t hnoh i s to r ic d o cumen t s , ma in ly f r om t h el a rge ,c oa s ta l v a l ley s o fP e ru , t o s t re s s t h e i mpo r tance o ft r ade b e tw e en i n dependen t p o l i t ie s b a sed u pon t h e i r d i f f e ren t ia l c r af t s p ec ia l isa t ion . F o r i n s t ance , t h e C h incha s o ft h e c oa s t a r e r e co rded a s h av ing 6 000 me rchan t s t r ad ing b y b oa t a l ong w ha t i sn ow t h e E cuado r ian c oa s t , a nd u s ing l ama s t o f a c i l i ta te t r ade w i th t h e e t hn ic p o l i t ie s o f t h e a l t ip lano ( Ro s two row sk i 1 977 ) . T he t r ade o fm u /h i , as pondy lu ss h e l l a cqu i red f r om t h e E cuado r ian c oa s t a nd t r aded u p i n to t h e h igh land s o fP e ru a nd B o l iv ia t ob e u sed a s a n o f e r ing i n m any r i tua l s , w a s p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t ( Ro s two row sk i 1 988 ) . P r io r t ot h e I nka c onque s t , w e a r e l e f t w i th ap i c tu re o fa c omp lex o fe t hn ic g roup s o fv a ry ing s i ze s . T hey p robab ly u s ed r e c ip roca l l a bou rt i e sf o rw o rk ing t he i rf i e ld s , as y s tem t h a t c ou ld h ave b e en e x tended , b y t h e mo re p owe rf u l k u raka s , t ol a rge r s c a le p ro je c t s s uch a s c on s t ruc t ing c ana l s y s tem s o r t h e d ef enc e s t h a t c ha rac te r i se many o ccupa t ion s i te s o f t h is p e r iod . F rom Mu r ra 's w o rk i ta ppea r s t h a t many o f t h e se g roup s p opu la ted a nd c on tro l le d i s o la ted ' a rch ipe lago s ' o fl a nd o f f e r ing d i f f e ren tr e sou rce s f r om t h e i r h ome land s . T he me thod o fe xchange b e twe en t h e se o u t l ie r s a nd t h e i r h ome land i s n o t c l ea r b u t s e em s t o h av e i n co rpo ra ted av a r ie ty o fd i s tr ibu t ive me chan i sm s , s ome r e d i s t r ibu t ion b y t h e Ku raka , a l ong w i th mo re l i m i ted e xchange b e twe en i n d iv idua l h ou seho ld s . S pe c ia l i s t ' t r ad e r s ' a r e ma in ly r e co rded o n t h ec oa s t , b u tt h ey c ame u p i n to t h e h igh land s o n s ome t r ad ing t r ip s s ugge s t ing k now ledge o ft he s e t r ad ing /ex ch a nge p rac t ice s b yh igh land p eop le .
Mu r ra u s ed e t hnoh i s to r ic d ocumen t s , a nd a s ub s tan t iv i s t a pp roa ch t o e conom ic s d raw ing o n t h e w o rk o f P o lany i ( 1957 ) , t oe mpha s ise t h e i mpo r tance o fr ed is t r ibu t ion a nd r e c ip roca l e xchange i nh i sd i scu s s ion o fA ndean e conom ic s . H owev e r , i tr ema in s u nc lea r w he the r p roduc e w ou ld g o t o t h e k u raka f o r h im t or e -d i s t r ibu te t of a vou red i n d iv idua l s , o r i ft h e c o lon i s t s t h em se lve s w ou ld r e tu rn t ot h e i r e t hn ic h ome land p e r iod ica l ly t oe xchange w i th t h e i r o wn k in . I n A s sadou r ian 's ( 1 987 ) r e -ana ly s i s o f t h e ' V i s i ta d e l a p rov in c ia d e L eön d e Huänuco ' made b y L i igo O r t iz d e 1 7
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e
T he I nka A cco rd ing t oI nka my th t h e i r e xpan s ion f r om t h eh ea r t land o fC uzco , a nd t h e i r c hange f r om al o ca l i sed e t hn ic g roup i n to t h e c on t ro l le r s o f al a rge ' emp i re ' , s t a r ted w i th t h e i r v i c to ry i n a b a t t le w i th t h e C hanca e t hn ic g roup . R o s two row sk i ' s ( 1 976 ) a na ly s i s o f e a r ly c o lon ia l s ou rce s s ugge s t s t ha t t h e I nka m anaged t o u n i te t h e i nd igenou s g roup s i n t h e a r ea s u r round ing C uzco , b y man ipu la t ing a cc ep ted f o rm s o fr e c ip ro c i ty . I mmed ia te ly a f te r d e f ea t ing t h eC hanca , t h ev i c to r iou sI nka P achacu tec 's f i r s tc once rn i s s a id t o h ave b een t h e a do rnmen t a nd r ebu i ld ing o f t h e t emp le o ft h eS un ( wh ich c an b es e en a st he d i scha rg ing o fa r e c ip ro ca l o b l iga t ion t ot h e d e i t ie s , a nd t he a nc es to r s , w ho h ad b rough t t h em s ucc e s s ) . H e t h en d i v ide s u p t h e l a nd g a ined i nb a t t le b e tw een h i so wn s ub je c t sa nd t h el o ca ll o rd s o fo t he r e t hn ic g roup s t h a t h ad u n i ted t of i gh t t h e C hanca . T h i s w a s f o l lowed b y al a rge f e a s t f o r t he s e l o rd s , a nd i ti s o n ly d u r ing t h i s f e a s tt h a th er e que s t st he i rh e lp i nb u i ld ing l a rge s t o rage s t ruc tu re s i n t h e e nv i ron s o f C uzco . R o s two row sk i ( i b id . ) s how sh ow e ve ry r eque s tt ha tt h eI nka m ake sf o rh e lp mu s tb ep r ec eded b y al a rge f e a s t( w i th f o od , d r ink a nd mu s ic a sw e l la sg if t so fc l o th )a nd a cknow ledged b y as im i la r l a rge f e a s t a f t e rw a rd s . T h i s my tho -h i s to ry e xp re s se s a spe c t s o f I nka i d ea l s u s ing a ccep ted f o rm s o f d i p loma t ic n ego t ia t ion a nd e conom ic s t ra teg ie s . T he se c u l tu ra l n o rm s w e re a l so e xp re s sed i n t h e ma jo r f e a s t s o r gan ised w i th in t h e r e l ig iou s c a lenda r o ft h e I nka , a sw e l l a s t h e s t a te 's o b l iga t ion t o s upp ly f o od , d r ink a nd t o o l s d u r ing s t a te c on s t ruc t ion p ro je c t s . W i th t h e g row th o f t h e I nka s t a te many e t hn ic g roup s , w h ich h ad p rev iou s ly b e en p o l i t ica l ly ( i fn o t e conom ic a l ly ) i n dependen t , b ecame i n co rpo ra ted i n to t he e me rg ing s t a te e conomy . F requen t ly ar e s iden t l o rd ( kuraka ) w a s a l low ed t o r ema in a s t h e l o ca l l e ade r , a s l o ng a s h e s ub juga ted h im se lf t o t h e I nka . T h i s k u raka w a s e xpec ted t or a i se a w o rk f o rc e ( m i ta ) f r om t h e h ou s eho ld s o fh i s e t hn ic g roup , a sw e l l a st os upp ly y oung w omen t o wo rk ( a s w eave r s a nd p r epa re r s o ff o od a nd d r ink ) i nt h ea q l 1 c rwa s i( ' hou se o ft h e c ho sen ' w omen ) . A l l t h i s mu s th ave c r ea ted s t ra in s w i th in t h e s uppo sed ly r e c ip ro ca l r e la t ion s w i th t he e t hn ic g roup , b u t mo s t k uraka a ppea r t oh av e m a in ta ined many o ft h e i r l o ca l r i gh t s t o l a bou r , a nd t h e m i ta r ema ined u nde r t h e d i re c ta u tho r i ty o ft h e i ro wn k u raka ( Mu r ra 1 975 ,2 9 ) . T he d ef ea t o ft h e C hanca a nd t h e c on sequenc e s d e sc r ibed a bove may , o rm ay n o t , h ave b een h i s to r ica l e ven t s . S ome a u tho r s s ugge s t t h a t I nka my th s s hou ld b e a na ly sed a s e xp re s s ion s o f I nka s o c ia l a nd r i tua l s t ruc tu re s ( e .g . Z u idema 1 986 ) o r t h a t t h e s e le c t ive r eco rd ing o f I nka my tho -h is to r ie s r e su l t s f r om p a r t icu la r f a c t ion s o f t h e i n d igenou s e l i te c l a im ing p r iv i lege s , s uch a s l a nd r i te s , d u r ing t h e e a r ly c o lon ia l p e r iod ( e .g . U r ton 1 990 ) . A rchaeo log ica l e v idenc ea l so s how st h ed raw ing t o ge the ro f v a r iou s s t y le s o f p o t te ry a nd a r ch i tec tu re f r om d i s t inc t ive z one s o f t h e C uzco r eg ion ( po s s ib ly r ep re sen t ing e t hn ic g roup s ) a nd d ev e lop ing ap a r t icu la rs u i te o f ma te r ia lc u l tu re t h a tu n i te s ' t he b e s t ' o fl o ca l s t y le sa nd b ecome se mb lema t ic o ft h eI nka s t a te ( Baue r 1 992 ,K enda l l 1 996 ) .
T he I nka e x tended t h e t r ad i t ion o f u s ing c o lon i s t s ( m i tmaquna )t ow o rk t h e' a rch ipe lago s 't os end w o rk -g roup s a nd o ccupy e ven mo re d i s tan t l a nd s . T h i s e xpan s ion , p lu s t h e o b l iga t ion o fl a bou r s e rv ic e ( m i ta ) , f a c i l i ta ted t h e h ika ' s mov emen t o f l a rge n umbe r s o f p eop le f o r t h e i r a rmy , c on s truc t ion p ro je c t s , a g r icu l tu ra l d u t ie s , a nd a r t i san w o rk . T h i s a spec t o ft h e s t a te e xchange s y s tem a ppe a r s t oh ave b een s e en i nt e rm s o fw o rk t ime r a the rt han ma te r ia l s , a nd t h e d emand f o r c on t r ibu t ion s f o r t h e m i ta w a s m ade o ft h e d ome s t ic u n i t a s aw ho le r a the r t h an s pec if ic i n d iv idua l s ( Mu r ra 1 975 , 3 1 -32 ) . T h i s h e lp s t o e xp la in t h e s t a te ' s i n te re s t i n c onf i rm ing m a r r iage s a nd t h e c on s t ru c t ion o f h ou se s , a st h i s s i gna l led t h ec r ea t ion o f an ew ' t axab le ' u n i t . H oweve rt h eI nka b ecame i n c rea s ing ly r e l ian tu pon as e cond g roup o f p eop le , t h e y anakuna , w ho d i d n o t h av e t o b e ' r eque s ted ' t o w o rk o r r e pa id i n f e a s t ing . T he y ana w e re ma in ly p eop le w ho h ad b e en d ef ea ted b yt h e I nka a nd w e re s ub se rv ien t t o t h em , o b ey ing t h e i r o rde r s d i re c t ly . T h i s f o rm o fb ond m ay h av e e x i s ted p r io r t ot h e I nka c onque s t ( po s s ib ly w i th t h e c oa s ta l C h imu ) b u t i t b e came o f s i gn if ican ti mpo r tance u nde rI nka r u le ( Ro s two row sk i 1 988 , 2 24 -226 ) . T he s i gn if i cance o f o u t ly ing ' a rch ipe lago s ' w o rked b y p eop le l o y a l t o t h e e t hn ic g roup w a s a l so e x tended a s at o o l o fs t a te c on t ro l a nd m i tmaquna w e re s en t t o r e se t t le p o ten t ia l ly r e be l l iou s a r ea s o r t o i n c rea se p roduc t ion f o rt h es t a t e( e .g .t ho se s en tt oC o chabamba ) . T he I nka Emp i re r e l ied o ni d ea l so fr e c ip roc i ty ,w h ich c ou ld b e e x tended o v e rv a s t a r ea s , p a r t ly t h rough t h eu se o fl a rge s c a le s t o rage . T he se s t o r e sw e re u sed t og i ve f e a s t sa nd g if t s t ha t o i led t h e g e a r s o fs t a te w o rk p ro jec t s . T he se p ro jec t s w e re c ouched i n t e nn s o f r e c ip roca l d u t ie s ; t h e s t o re s p rov ided t h ef o od ,d r ink ,t o o l sa nd ma te r ia ls f o rp eop le w ho , i n r e tu rn , p e rf o rmed t a sk s f o r t h e I nka ( Mo r r i s 1 978 ; L a L one 1 982 ; Mo r r i sa nd T homp son 1 985 ;D 'A l t roy a nd E a r le 1 985 ) . S t a te s t o re so n ly e xp la in o ne p a r to ft h eI nka p e r iod e conomy . A t t h e h ou s eho ld l e ve l , w hen p eop le w e re n o t w o rk ing f o rt h es t a te ,t h ey w o rked t h e i ro wn p e r sona l l a nd s a nd n eeded t op roduc e , o ro t he rw ise a cqu i re , s uf i c ien t f o od a nd ma te r ia l s t o s u s ta in t h emse lve s . Wh i le m emb e r s o f e ach h ou seho ld w e re c a l led u pon a td if e ren tt ime st of i l lt he s t a te 's r eque s t f o r w o rke r s , t h eh ou seho ld a l so w o rked t h e i r o wn f i e ld s , p robab ly h av ing t o p a r t ic ipa te i n s ma l l s c a le e xchange s t o a cqu i re f o od s a nd ma te r ia l s t h ey c ou ld n o t d i rec t ly p roduc e t h ems e lv e s . H ou seho ld s ( wh ich c ou ld c on s i s t o fn u c lea rf am i l ie so re x tended f am i l ie sl i v ing r ound ac ommuna l p a t io ) s e em t o h ave b e en s em i -au tonomou s u n i t s t ha tw e re e s s en t ia l t ot h e o pe ra t ion o ft h e s t a te ( Rowe 1 982 ; H a s to rf 1 990 ) . Wh i le t h e re i sn o e v idence f o r l a rge s c a le ma rke t t r ad ing w i th in t h e h ea r t o ft h e e mp i re , s ome t r ad ing c on t inued o ni t sp e r iphe ry ( La L one 1 982 ) .
C o lon ia la nd R epub l ican p e r iod s I n t h e C o lon ia l p e r iod t h e S pan i sh v i ce roya l ty o ve r saw t he e s tab l i shmen to fn ew t own sa nd v i l lage st h a tb ecame c en t re s o fg ove rnmen t a dm in i s t ra t ion , C a tho l ic i sm a nd c omme rce . T he se o rgan i sa t ion o ft h e se n ew s e t t lemen t s a nd S pan i sh l aw s o f ma r r iage a nd i n he r i tance s e rved t o e mpha s i se t h e n uc lea r f am i ly a st h ep r inc ip le s o c io -e conom ic u n i t a nd l e d t ot he d e c l ine o fe x t ended f am i l ie ss ha r ing c ommuna lp a t io s 1 8
C hap te r2 :T he A nd ean S e t t ing ( I sb e l l 1 996 ) . F rom 1 545 , t h e m in ing o fs i lve r i n P o to s i f a c i l i ta ted t h em in t ing o fc o in st h a t f e di n to a n i n c rea s ing ly mone ta r i sed e conomy , a nd b o th t h e l a rge r t own s a nd t h e n ew ly f o und ed c en t ra l i sed v i l lage s ( Reducc iöne s ) b ecame l o ca t ion s f o r p e r iod ic ma rke t s . S unday m a rke t s d eve loped p a r t ly a r ound t h e o b l iga t ion f o r I nd ian s t o g o t o Ma s s ( Va lcä r ce l 1 946 , 4 77 ) , a nd a s a n a pp rop r ia te t ime t og a the r t r ibu t e p aymen t s , a sw e l l a s am ean s o fo b ta in ing f o od a nd f u e l f o r u rban r e s iden t s . I n B o l iv ia t h et r ibu te f r om I nd ian c ommun i t ie s w a s a n i mpo r tan t p ar t o f s t a te , a nd l a te r d epa r tmen t ,r e v enue u n t i lt he C haco Wa r i n1 932 , a l though i n P e ru t h e I nd ian t r ibu te t o t h e s t a te a u tho r i t ie s w a s a bo l i shed i n1 850 .
manu f a c tu red g ood s ( e .g . c o t ton c l o th , k e ro sene , p o t s a nd p an s ,e t c . )( Bue ch le r 1 983 ) . Many p ea san t s a l so j ou rney ed a sp o r te r s a nd l a bou re r s f o r s ho r t te rm c on t rac t s w hen w o rk s c hedu l ing p e rm i t ted i t ,o r o ve rc rowd ing o n t h e l i m i ted l a nd o f ' f r ee ' c ommun i t ie s n e ce s s i ta ted i t . A l a rge n umbe r o f m ig ran t s l ef t t h e i r h ac iend a s a nd ' f r ee ' c ommun i t ie s , d ue t ol a nd p re s su re a nd t h e c ond i t ion s o nt h ee s ta te s . S ome b e came w age l a bou re r s o n c oa s ta l p l an ta t ion s a nd l a te r i ni ndu s t r ie s , w h i le o t he r s b e c ame m a rke t e r s i nc i t ie sl i ke L ima , C uzco ,L aP az , P o to s i a nd C o chabamba , o f ten u s ing t h e i r k in t i e s w i th e a r l ie r m ig ran t s f r om t he i r c ommun i t ie s t o s t a r t i n s ome f o rm o f t r ad ing . T he n ine teen th a nd t w en t ie th c en tu r ie s h ave s e en r ap id p opu la t ion g row th , i n c re a s ing u rb an isa t ion a nd i mp rov emen ts i nc ommun ica t ion s , a l lo fw h ich a r el i nked t o i n c rea s ing c omme rc ia la c t iv i t ie sa nd t h er i se o fp rof e s s iona l ma rke tt r ade r s .
T he i n s id iou s e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e r epa r t im ien to s y s tem , w he re l o ca l of i c ia l s d i s t r ibu ted me rch and i se t ot h e I nd ian c ommun i t ie s a nd t h en d emanded p aymen t f o r t h e g ood s f o rc ed u pon t h em , h e lped t o d raw A ndean h ou seho ld s i n to t h eS pan i sh t r ade s y s tem . I nd igenou sc ommun i t ie sb egan t o p a r t ic ipa t e i n t h e money e conomy , e i the r s e l l ing p a r t o f t h e i r p roduc e , o r h i r ing o u t t h e i r o wn l a bou r ( A lb e r t i a nd May e r 1 974 , 1 9 ) . Af t e r 1 680 , a nnua lt r ad ef a i r s( e spec ia l ly f o r c a t t le a nd l i ve s tock ) w e re e s tab l i shed ( 1 3 rowman 1 979 ) a nd s hop s o pe ra ted i nc i t ie s ( Bue ch le r 1 983 ) . T he ma rke t s y s tem w a s a l so f o s te red b y t h e b r e ak ing u p o f e t hn ic g roup s ,p a r t icu la r ly t h e i rc on t ro lo ve r' v e r t ica la r ch ipe lago s ' , a nd t h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft he r ed i s t r ibu t ive r o le o ft h e k u raka a nd t h e I nka s t a te . S ome p ar t s o fi n d igenou s s o c ie ty s e em t o h av e b een v e ry s u cce s sf u l p a r t ic ipan t s i n t h e n ew ly d ev e loped ma rke t s . I nd ian s f r om s ome h igh p una c ommun i t ie s b e came e n t rep reneu r ia l l ama c a ravan t r ade r s , c on t ro l l ing a h igh p ropo r t ion o f t h e t r ade b y t h e l a te s i x t een th a nd i n to t h e s even teen th c en tu r ie s ( A s sadou r ia n 1 987 ) .
Ag ra r ian R ef o rm st ot h ep re sen t T he 1 952 B o l iv ian s o c ia l r evo lu t ion , s uppo r ted b y t h e m ine r sa nd t h ec ampe s ino s ,w a sf o l lowed b yt h ed ec la ra t ion o f a g ra r ian r e f o rm i n 1 953 . I n P e ru s im i lar a g ra r ian r e f o rm s w e re i n i t ia ted i n 1 964 u nde r P re s iden t B e laünde ' s g ov e rnmen t , b u t t h e se w e re g r ea t ly e x tended w i th l a rg e s c a le e xp rop r ia t ion o f h ac iend a l a nd s u nde r t he m i l i ta ry g ove rnmen t ( 1 968 -75 ) h eaded b y G ene ra l V e la s co A lva rado . O ne o ft h e ma jo ra im so fb o th t h eP e ruv i an a nd t he B o l iv ian Ag r a r ian r e f o rm s w a s t o b reak u p t h e l a rge e s ta te s a nd e xpand p e a san t p roduc t ion i n t h e h ope t ha t t h i s w ou ld c on t r ibu t e mo re t o t h e n a t iona l e conomy ( P la t t 1 982a ; 1 982b ; D e e re 1 990 ) . H owev e r i n b o th c oun t r ie s t h e r e la t iv e ly s ma l l a moun t o fl a nd a va i lab le f o r e ach p ea san t f am i ly m ean t t h a t , a l though t h e re w a s a n i mp rovemen t i n many c ampe s ino s d i e t s ,t h e re w a sn os i gn if i can t i n c rea se i n a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion f o r e x te rna l t r ade . T he Ag ra r ian R ef o rm s r e su l ted i n many p ea san t s g a in ing r i gh t s t ot h e i r o wn l a nd , w h ich t hey c an n ow b equea th t o t h e i r f am i l ie s w i thou t l a ndowne r s i n te r f e r ing ( i n b o th c oun t r ie s i tw a s i lega l t o s e l l l a nd t o n on -commun i ty membe r s , h ow eve r r e cen t r e f o rm s i n P e ru u nde r F u j imo r i h ave a t temp ted t o f a c i l i ta te t h e b uy ing a nd s e l l ing o f c ommun i ty l a nd h o ld ing s ) . I ns ome a r ea sc ommun i ty s t ruc tu re h a sr ema ined s t rong w i th t h e c ommun i ty o r gan i s ing r e l ig iou s f e s t iv a l s a nd s ome a spec t s o f a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty , s uch a s c ana l c l ean ing o rt h e p lough ing o fa r ea s o fc ommuna l l a nd t h a t h av eb e en l e f tf a l low f o rs ev e ra ly e a r s .
I n t h e l a t te r p a r t o f t h e C o lon ia l p e r iod , a nd p a r t icu lar ly f r om t h e s t a r t o ft h e R epub l ic an p e r iod , h ac ienda s b ec ame a n i n c re a s ing ly i mpo r tan t e conom ic f o rc e , w i th p ea san t f am i l ie s s ub je c t t o s t r ic t l a bou r a nd s e rv ic e o b l iga t ion s t o H i span i c l a ndowne r s . W i th in mo s t h ac ienda s e ach p ea san t h ou seho ld h ad t op rov ide a ny th ing f r om t h re et ot w e lv ed ay s o fl a bou rp e rw eek , w o rk ing o nt h e l a nd a sw e l l a so n o t he r d u t ie s l i k e r oad r e pa i r , c ook ing , a nd s ome t ime s ma rke t ing a nd s e l l ing f o r t h e l a nd lo rd ( Bue ch l e r 1 983 ; D ee re 1 990 ) . Mo s t h a c ienda s w e re d ed ica ted t ol a rge -s ca le p roduc t ion o f c r op s( whea t , b a r ley , s uga r c ane )a nd a n ima l s ( s heep , c a t t le a nd a l paca s )a nd t h ey w e re a l so i n vo lved i nl a rg e sca le t r ade s upp ly ing t own s a nd t h ee xpo r tm a rke t sw i t ht h e i rp roduc e , f o r t h i s r e a son t h ey w e re ama jo r f o rce i ne ncou rag ing t h e c on s t ru c t ion o fn ew r oad s a nd r a i lway s y s tems t of a c i l i ta te t h e mov emen to ft h e i rg ood s . T he p o s s ib i l i t ie sf o rh ac ienda p ea san t st op a r t ic ipa te i n ma rke t ing a c t iv i t ie sf o r t h e i r o wn b enef i t w a s c on s ide rab ly r e s t r ic ted , b u t s ome s ma l l sca le t r ad ing w a s d one . Women c on t ro l led mo s t o ft h e s a le s a t w eek ly m a rke t s , a pa r t f r om l i v e s tock , b a r te r ing s ma l l a moun t s o f s t ap le s , a nd s ome mea t , e gg s a nd c hee se i n e xchange f o r c ond imen t s , p o t s , s a l t , d y e s , c oca , a nd o t he r h ou seho ld n e ce s s i t ie s . A t t h e l a rge r a nnua l f a i r s p ea san t s w e re a b le t ot r ad e s ome s heep , p i g s , mu le s a nd l ama s f o r a g r icu l tu ra l i mp lemen t s , a nd p roduce f r om o t he r r eg ion s s uch a s c of e e , r i c e , f r u i t , n ood le s , s uga r , a nd s ome
A l though many a u tho r sr e f e r t o Mu r ra 's ' v e r t ica l i ty mod e l ' i n t h e i r a na ly s i s o f p re sen t -day p ea s an t e conomy i n t h e Ande st h e re i so ne v e ry e v iden td if e rence :w he rea s Mu r ra ' s mod e l e mpha s i se s c en t ra l i sed c on t ro l o fr ed i s t r ibu t ion , t h e p re sen t s y s tem r e l ie s o n t h e c i rcu la t ion o f g ood s b y i nd iv idua lh ou seho ld sb u tw i th n oc en t ra l ised r ed i s t r ibu t ion . We c an n o l o nge r r e f e r t o' v e r t ica l c on t ro l ' a s ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h ee xchange o fp roduc eb e tw een e co log ica l l e ve l s , d u et o t h e d i s t inc t l a ck o f' c on t ro l ' ( B radby 1 982 , 1 02 ) . I n s ome a r ea s ' t r ad i t iona l ' t i e s b e tw een a r ea s a nd w i th in e t hn ic 1 9
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e g roup s s e cu re t h e c i rcu la t ion o f g ood s w i th in t h e r eg ion , g i v ing p ref e ren t ia l a c ce s s t o a y l lu m embe r s ( e .g . H a r r i s 1 982 ) . B u t , i n m any p a r t s o ft h e A nde s , t h e e xchange o f g ood st a ke sp l ace i n ma rke tp l ace sa nd f a i r sb e twe en p eop le w ho h ave n ob ond b eyond t h a tc r ea t ed d u r ing t h ee xchange . T he b r eak -up o f mo s t l a rge e t hn ic g r oup s , a nd t h e i r s y s tem o fv e r t ica lc on t ro l ,h a sp l ac ed ag r e a te re mpha s i so n s ma l le r s c a le c ommun i t ie s a nd h ou seho ld u n i t s . S uch ' v e r t ica l ' r e la t ion s a s r ema in a r e e xp re s sed t h rough t h e b a r te r o f c ommod i t ie s , s e a sona l l a bou r e x change a nd ma rke t r e la t ion s . C u s t red ( 1 974 , 2 88 ) n o te s t h e c ond i t ion s t ha t h e b e l ieve s c on t inue t os uppo r t i n te r -zona l b a r t e r a nd e xchange : 1 )t h e n eed f o r ma ize , mea t , w oo l , p o ta to e s , a nd c oca f o r t he c on t inua t ion o ft h e A ndean c ampe s ino w ay o fl i f e ; 2 ) t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o ft h e se p roduc t s i nd if e ren t p roduc t ion z one s d i s t r ibu ted v e r t ica l ly i nt h e A nde s a nd d e te rm ined b yt h e i r h e igh t a bove s e a l e ve l ; 3 ) t h e e x i s tence o f a n e x treme ly s t ra t if ied s o c ie ty ; a nd 4 )t h e f r ag i l i ty o ft h en a t iona l ma rke t s y s tem i nt h e p rov inc e s . T he ' t r ad i t iona l ' e xchange s y s tem i no pe ra t ion t oday i s ap roduc t o ft h eA ndean e nv i ronmen t , t h e p re sen t -day e conom ic s i tua t ion , a nd Andean c u l tu ra l v a lue s ( c onc e rn ing n ec e s sa ry g ood s a nd h ow t o a cqu i re t h em ) . A c e r ta in a moun t o f e x change o f g ood s b e tween h ou seho ld s w a s af e a tu re o ft h e A ndean e conomy p r io r t o t h e S pan i sh c onque s t , b u t w i th t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f t he r ed i s t r ibu t ive r o le o ft h e I nka , a nd t h e k u raka s , t h i s a spec t o f e xchange h a s b een s ub s tan t ia l ly i n c rea sed , n o t l e a s t b ecau se i tf i t ted i n to t h e mod e s o f e xchange w h ich t h e S pan i sh b rough tw i th t h em f r om E u rope .
v e ry e s senc e o f t h a t h i s to ry , t ime i s n o t a b s t rac t b u t i s u n if ied w i th t h e e a r th a nd o n ly e xpe r ien ced w i th in as en se o fp l ace a nd t h ea c t iv i t ie st h a t t a ke p lac ew i th in i t . T h i s i s s e en mo s t c l e a r ly w i th in A ndean s pa t ia l ( and c o rpo ra l ) r e p re sen ta t ion s o f t ime . When t a lk ing a bou t h i s to ry i n Q ue chua o rA yma ra t h ep a s ti sd e sc r ibed a sb e ing i nf r on to f y ou a nd c an b es e en ,w he re a st h ef u tu re i sb eh ind b ecau se i t c an ' t b e a n t ic ipa ted ( M i ra c le a nd Y ap i ta 1 981 ; S t oba r t 1 995 ) . T he m a te r ia lw o r ld t h a tw e s e e i st h ep rodu c to ft h e p a s t , a nd t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e h ou se , t h e l a you t o f t h e l a nd scape , o rt h er e pea t ed m end ing o f ac ommuna lw a l l c an a l b e r e ad a s ap a r t o fp eop le 's h i s to ry ( U r ton 1 988 ) . O u r a b i l i ty t oa c t i nt h e l a nd scape , a nd i n te rp re t o u rp o s i t ion i n i t , n ec e s s a r i ly e voke s m emo r ie s o ft he p a s t . B u t f o r t h i s r e a son t h ep re se rva t ion o fm emo ry i sn o tm e re ly ar e co rd o f t ime s p a s t , i ti sa l so at o o l w i th w h ich t oa c t i nt h ep re sen t ( How a rd - Ma lve rde 1 990 ;R appapo r t 1 990 ) T he mo s t c ommon u s e o fp a cha a s at e rm f o r t ime i si n d e sc r ib ing e po ch s , k ay p a cha i sn ow , i n t h i s t ime , a nd i l awpa p a cha m ean sf o rme ro ra nc ien tt ime a si nt h et ime o f t h e p eop le w ho a r e b u r ied i n t h e p reI nka b u r ia l t ow e r s ( c hu l lpa s ) . B u t i n b o th c a se s t he se a r e d e sc r ibed w i th r e f e rence t o p l ace s a nd l a ndma rk s v i s ib le t o day a nd t h e a c t iv i t ie st ha tt a ke / took p l ac ea tt h em . T he c hange b e tween e r a s i sc on s id e red t o b e ac a ta c ly sm ic e ven t , ap a chaku t i ( wo r ld r eve r sa l ) ,a nd i ti sc on s i s ten tw i th t h i st ha tt h ep eop le o f p rev iou s e r a s , t h e c hu l lpa p eop le ( o r m achu s ) , a r e c ommon ly c on s ide red t ol i v eu nde r t he w o r ld , o ri n s id et h e e a r th . A nde an c o smo logy i su nde r s tood s pa t ia l ly a nd t h e s p i r i tua l p ow e r s t h a t a n ima te t he w o r ld l i ve i n t h re e i n te rconne c ted l e v e l s ; u khu p acha ( i nne r o r u nde r w o r ld ) k ay p acha ( t h i sw o r ld )a nd j anan p acha ( u ppe rw o r ld ) . T he p owe ro ft h e moun ta in s ,t h ed ead a nd w i ld s p i r i t sa r el a rge ly a s so c ia ted w i th t h e i n ne r w o r ld , whe re a s t h e p ow e r o ft h e C h r i s t ian s a in t s ,t h es un a nd t h e moon a r el a rge ly a s so c ia ted w i th t h e u ppe r w o r ld o ft h e s ky . T h rough p l ac e s i n t h e w o r ld s u ch a s moun ta in s , s p r ing s ,r ock sa nd f i e ld st h el owe r w o r ld c ommun ica te s w i th t h i s w o r ld , a nd t h rough f o rce s s uch a s r a in , l i gh tn ing a nd r a inbow s t h e u ppe r w o r ld c an c ommun ica te w i th t h i s o ne ( A l len 1 988 ; f o r a n a c coun t o f p acha i nA yma ra s e eB ouy s se -Ca ssagne a nd H a r r i s 1 987 )
An Andean P e r spec t ive o nH is to ry T he p re ced ing s ynop s i s o f A nd ean e conom ic h i s to ry p rov ide s o n ly o ne f a ce t o ft h e h i s to r ica l p roce s s t ha t c ou ld b e s t ud ied ; f o r i n s tanc e , i tw ou ld b e p o s s ib le t o w r i te h i s to r ie so fc on f l ic t ( S te rn 1 987 ) , a r t i s t ic e xp re s s ion ( S tone M i l le r 1 995 ) , c hang ing g ende r r e la t ion s ( S i lve rb la t t 1 987 ) , r e l ig iou s b e l ieß ( MacCo rmack 1 991) , o r l a nguage ( Mannhe im 1 991) . I nde ed a ny h i s to ry o ft h e Ande s w ou ld i d ea l ly i n co rpo ra te s ome a spe c t s o fe a ch o ft he se t o p ic s a s t h ey a r e a l l i n te r re la ted w i th in t h e c hang ing e xpe r ience o f p eop le 's l i ve s . T o d e sc r ibe A ndean h i s to ry i n t e rm s o f c hang ing e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion s i sa n a pp rop r ia te w ay t o i n t roduc e as t udy o fp re sen t -day c r af tp roduc t ion a nd t r ade . H ow ev e r ,t h i sp re sen ta t ion u ndoub ted ly r ef le c t st h ec once rn s o f w e s te rn a cadem ia a nd d oe s n o t n e ce s sa r i ly r ef lec t a n i n d igenou s p e r spec t iv e . F o r i n s t anc e w he re Id e sc r ibe t he m in t ing o f c o in s i nd igenou s memo ry may s t re s s t h e l o ng j ou rney o ft h e i r f o ref a the r s f r om t h e i rh ome c ommun i t ie st o w o rk a nd o f t en d i e d e ep u nde rg round i nt h es i lve rm ine s o f P o to s i .
S ka r ( 198 1) d e sc r ibe s t h e c onc ep t o fp a cha b y d i scu s s ing h ow , e ach d ay p eop le l e f t t h e v i l lage i nt h e P inco s V a l ley ( Dep t . A pu r imac ) t ow o rk ; t h e men u sed t og o d own h i l l t o w o rk i nt h eh a c iend aa nd t h ew omen w en tu ph i l lt op a s tu re t h ea n ima l s . S im i la r ly t h ea g r icu l tu ra lc a lend a rn e ce s s i ta te s amovemen tu pa nd d own t h es t e ep s l ope st op l an t ,t e nd a nd h a rve s t d if e ren t c r op s d u r ing d i f f e ren t s e a son s o ft h ey e a r , s ot ha t t ime i se xpe r ienced a s as pa t ia l r hy thm . B o th t ime a nd s pac e a r e o n ly r e a l ly e xpe r ienced t h rough r e f e rence t o e ach o t he r4. T he a nnua l c y c le l i nk s t oge the r l a nd scape s o f o t he rw i se d i sc re te p l ace s w he re p eop le g o t o w o rk , t r ade , a nd v ene ra te s a in t s e t c . ( Sa l lnow 1 987 ; A l len 1 988 ) . T h i s a nnua l c y c le i sa l so t h e p roce s s t h rough w h ich A ndean c o smo log ie s a r e r e p rodu ced a sd if e ren ta s pe c t s a r er e ca l led
T he Q ue chua c oncep to fp a cha i n co rpo ra te sb o th t h ei d ea o f s pace , o rt h e e a r th , i n c lud ing f i e ld s , moun ta in s a nd h ou se s , a nd at empo ra l m ean ing a st ime o re r a . S ot ha tI nka p acha i st he t ime o ft h eI nka , b u tt h i s i si n s epa rab le f r om t h e l a nd w i th in w h ich I nka a c t iv i t ie s t o ok p l ac e . T he l a nd sc ape n o t o n ly p rov ide s amnemon ic f o r h i s to r ica l p roc e s se s , i ti st h e
4 T h i• si st h e e xp e r ien ce o fm o s t p eop le b ef o re t h ey h av e t h e p o ten t ia l t o a b s t rac t t ime t h rough t h e u s e o f m ea su r ing d ev ice s s uch a s c l o ck s ( c f T homp son 1 967 ; B ou rd ieu 1 977 ; S hank sa nd T i l ley 1 987 , C h _5 ; G e l l 1 992 ; W or ld A rchaeo log y 1 993 )
2 0
C hap te r2 :T he A nd ean S e t t ing n umb e r s o f p eop le , s ome f o rced b y I nka , S pan i sh a nd mode rn s t a te p o l ic ie s , b u t many u nde r taken ' v o lun t ar i ly ' i n r e spon s e t o s o c io -e conom ic f a c to r s . T he d eve lopmen t o f c ap i ta l i s te conom ic s ,p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s , s t a te s choo l ing a nd l i t e ra cy h a sf u r the re nhanced t h i si n teg ra t ion .
a nd d if e ren t d e i t ie s a r e c ommun ica ted w i th , b o th t h rough t h e C a tho l ic c a lenda r o fs a in t s ' d ay s a nd a l so t h rough t h e c on tac t w i th d if e ren t p l ac e s d ue t o t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion i n d if e ren t a c t iv i t ie s ( e .g . m in ing , o r s ow ing c r op s ) . T ime i s a l so e xpe r ienc ed t h rough m ea l se a ten d u r ing t h ed ay a nd a t s pec ia l f e s t iva l s t h a t p unc tua te t h e y ea r , a nd t h i s f o od a nd d r ink i s ap a r t o f t h e t e chno logy o f c ommun ic a t ion w i th b o th p eop le a nd s upe rna tu ra lf o rce s .
P e rhap s d ue t o t h e a n th ropo log ica l f o cu s o n s i ng le c ommun i t ie s , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l f o cu s o n p e r iod s o f r e g iona l i n teg ra t ion , t h e re h a s b een a c u r iou s d i sc ip l ina ry s p l i t i n t he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e h i s to r ica l p roc e s s i n t h e A nde s . A rchaeo log i s t s h av e t r ad i t iona l ly d i v ided u p A nd ean p reh i s to ry i n to p e r iod s o fr eg iona lu n i ty ( ho r izon s ) a nd p e r iod s o f d i ve r se l o ca l d eve lopmen t s ( i n te rmed ia te p e r iod s ) . W i th in t h i s f r amewo rk , c hange s i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re , s e t t lemen t o rg an i sa t ion a nd e conom ic i n teg ra t ion a r e n o rma l ly a t t r ibu ted t oc u l tu ra l c hange ( by a v a r ie ty o fc au se ss u ch a sc onqu e s t ,r e l ig iou s mov emen t s ,t h e r i se o f e l i te s , c hange s i n s ub s i s tence p a t te rn s a nd t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f p roduc t ion , e t c . ) o r s ome t ime s n a tu ra l f a c to r s ( s uch a st h e r avage s o f' E l N if to ' o rt e c ton ic u p l if t , e t c . ) . P r io r t ot h e S pan i sh c onque s t , c hange i sr e cogn i sed , a nd v a r iou s i n d igenou s p roce s se s a r eu sed t oa ccoun tf o r i t . Y e t w i th in a n th ropo log ica l a nd e t hnoh i s to r ica l s t ud ie s , c hang e i sf r equ en t ly s e en t o b e c au sed f r om ' o u t s ide ' t h e i nd igenou s g roup u nde r s t udy , a nd i s u sua l ly d ue t o H i span ic a nd c ap i ta l is t i nf luence s t ow h ich t h e i n d igenou s c ommun i ty r e ac t s i na n a t temp tt ol im i tt h e e f e c t s o ft he se c hange s . ' I b i s c an b e s e en i nb ook s l i ke B i l l ie J e an I s be l l ' s T o D ef end O u r se lve s ( 1985 ) o r D en i se Y . A rno ld 's t h e s i s w he r e s h e d e sc r ibe s " how i n te rna l f o rc e s f o r l o nge r t e rm s t ab i l i ty a r t icu la te w i th e x te rna l f o rce s o f c hange " ( 1988 , 6 2 ) .
I nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r s Is ha l lu se t h er hy thm so fa c t iv i t ie s t h a t c ha rac te r i s ed a i ly l i f ea nd t h ea nnua l c y c le o fc hang ing s e a son s t o e xp lo re h ow A nde an s oc ie ty i sr e p roduc ed . I f a r chaeo log i s t s t r y t o e l u c ida te h ow t h e se r hy thm s w ou ld h ave c ha rac te r i sed l i f e i nt h e p a s t t h en t h ey w i l l b e a b le t o w r i te h i s to r ie s t ha t , w h i le s t i l l i n co rpo ra t ing c hange s i n e xchange m echan i sm s o r s ub s i s tenc e s t ra teg ie s , a r e mo re f u l ly c onne c ted t ot h ec hang ing e xpe r ience o fp eop le s ' l i ve s . I n f a c t , t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , w h ich i s t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f p a s t m a te r ia l a c t ion s i n t h e l a nd s cape , i s p e rhap s c l o se r t ot h i s A nde an c onc ep tua l i sa t ion o ft h ep a s t t h an w ha th a sb een r e co rd ed i nh i s to r ica ld ocumen t s .
P rob lem sa nd P ro spec t so f aW ide R eg iona lS tudy A ndean a n th ropo log i s t s , i n c ommon w i th mo s t e t hnog raphe r s , h av eu sua l ly w o rked i n as i ng le c ommun i ty , o rw i th in as i ng le s ma l l s ca le e t hn ic g roup . T h i sf o cu sh a s f a c i l i ta ted t h e i n -dep th a na ly s i s o fl o ca l u nde r s tand ing a nd t h e d e ta i led k now ledge o fs o c io -econom ic s y s tem s , a nd h a s p e rhap s b e en mo s t b enef ic ia l i n s t ud ie s o fk in sh ip , g ende r r e la t ion s , a nd r i tua l . B u t t h i s a pp roach h a s s ome t ime s o b s cu red t h e a r ea s o fi n teg ra t ion t h a t a r e a ch iev ed t h rough t h e e xchange o fg ood sa nd l a bou r a c ro s s e t hn ic b ounda r ie s , a sw e l l a sh ow an umb e r o fs h ared ' c u l tu ra l p r inc ip le s ' a r e r e in te rp re ted o r e xp re s sed d if e ren t ly t h roughou t t h e A ndean r e g ion . I ti so n ly b yl o ok ing a ts e ve ra lc ommun i t ie s t h a t i ti sp o s s ib le t o s e e w h ich e l emen t s a r e u n ique t o p a r t icu la r c ommun i t ie s a nd wh ich a r e s ha red e l emen t s o f ma te r ia lp ra c t ic ea nd c u l tu ra lp e rcep t ion t ha tr e oc cu ra c ro s s t h e a r ea . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpo r t an t w hen s t udy ing t h e p roduc t ion a nd u se o f i t em s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re , s u ch a s p o t te ry , t h a t a r e t r aded o ve r aw ide r eg ion w i th e ach h ou seho ld d epend ing o nt h e a cqu i s i t ion o f ar ange o ff o rm s f r om av a r ie ty o fs ou rce s .
W i th in a n th ropo logy t h i s f o cu s h a s b een c ha l lenged b y w o rk st h a t t a k e aw ide rp e r spec t ive , s u ch a sP la t t ' s ( 1982a ) d i scu s s ion o f t h e i n te r re la t ion sh ip b e tw een t h e a y l lu s o f No r the rn P o to s i a nd t h e B o l iv ian S t a te . S im i la r ly , many w o rk s( e .g . S t e rn ( e d . ) 1 987 )h av el o oked a tt h e movemen t s o f r e s i s tance a nd r e be l l ion w i th in i n d igenou s g roup s , a nd R a snake ( 1988 ) d e sc r ibe s t h e c hange s i n p o l i t ica l o rgan is a t ion t h a t s aw a y l lu membe r s e xecu te t h e i r o wn k u raka . I n a l l o ft h e se s t ud ie s t h e re i sa n a s sump t ion t ha t c hange i s a n o ngo ing c omp lex p roc e s s , a nd t ha t t h e d ynam ic s o fi n t e r ac t ion b e tw een h ou seho ld s , e t hn ic g roup s , a nd t h e s t a te mu s t b e u nde r s tood i f c hange i s t o b e e xp la ined . T h i s m o re i n c lu s iv e f o rm o fa n th ropo logy i sm i r ro red b y a move w i th in A nde an a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie st ow a rd s amo re d e ta i led l o ca l u nde r s tand ing . Wh i le mu ch e a r ly a r chaeo logy i nt h eA nde sc oncen t ra ted o n i s sue ss uch a st h e s t udy o ft h ec h rono logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fr eg iona l c e ram ic s t y le s , o r h ow l o ca l p reh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s w e re a f ec ted b y t h e o ve ra rch ing p re sence o f e xpan s ive g roup s d u r ing e ach H o r izon . R e cen t ly s eve ra l a u tho r s h ave e mpha s i sed t he n eed t o r e -o r ien ta te o u r t h ink ing a bou t t h e h i s to r ica l p roce s s a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta b y f o cu s ing o n t h e ' h ou seho ld v i ewpo in t ' -h ow e ach h ou seho ld w ou ld h ave e xpe r ienced t h e p ro ce s se s o fc hange , a nd h ow t h e i r a c t ion s w e re i n f a c t t h e c au se o f s ome c hange ( e .g . C o s t in e ta l . 1 989 ; S t an i sh 1 992 ; B e rmam i 1 994 ; D 'A l t roy a nd H a s to rf ( ed s . ) n . d . ) . B e rmann ( 1994 , 1 0 ) c a l l s t h e r eg iona l v i ew
T he a r e a o ft h e S ou th a nd C en t ra l A nde s c ov e red b y t h i s s t udy h a s b een i n teg r a ted b y an umbe r o f f a c to r s . T he s im i la r r ange o f e nv i ronmen t s o ve r t h i s z one f a c i l i ta ted t h e i r i n teg ra t ion b yt h e I nka s . T h i s w a s f u r the r d ev e loped u nde r t h e S pan i sh V ic e roya l ty t h a t i n t roduced C h r i s t ian i ty t ot h er e g ion . E ven a f t e rt h e Wa ro fI ndependenc et h en ew n a t ion s t a te s o fP e ru a nd B o l iv ia h ave h ad c l o s e ly r e la ted h i s to r ie sa nd h av eg one t h rough s im i la rp roce s se so fc hange w i th t h e d eve lopmen t o f h ac i end a s b e ing c ha l lenged b y s im i la r a g ra r ian r e f o rm s , w h ich i n t h e i r t u rn h av e b een m od if ied t h rough s u b sequen t l i b e ra l e conom i c p o l ic ie s . E conom ica l ly t h e r e g ion h a s a lway s d epended o n t h e e xchange o fg ood s o v e r s ub s tan t ia l d i s tance s a nd b o th t h e t empo ra ry a nd p e rmanen t c ro s s reg iona l m ig ra t ion o fv a s t 2 1
B i l lS i l lar —S hap ing C u l tu r e ' c ap i ta lc en t r ic ' ,a sh es ugge s t s( f o l low ing Mo se ley 1 992 , 1 5 ) t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s h av e e f ec t iv e ly a dop ted t h e r he to r ic o f t h e I nka i n e xp la in ing a l l i n nova t ion a nd c hange a s e mana t ing f r om a s i ng le a nc ien t c i ty . I n c on t ra s t h e h igh l igh t s t h e n eed f o r a' l oca l p e r spec t iv e ' t h a t e mpha s i se s h ow p a r t icu la r h ou seho ld s e xpe r ienc ed a nd p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e ' s t ruc tu re s o fe ve ryday l i f e ' . T he re i s an eed t oe xp la in t h e p re senc e o f ' f o re ign ' ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd c hang ing s o c io -econom ic o r ien ta t ion s n o rma l ly a s soc ia ted w i th e xpand ing e t hn ic g roup s f r om al o ca l p e r spe c t iv e t h a t d oe s n o t s imp ly a s sume t h ey a r e t h e p roduc t o f c on f l ic t o r p o l i t ica l c on t ro l . " Va l id i n te rp re ta t ion s o fr eg iona l a r tef ac t d i s t r ibu t ion s( s uch a sT iw anaku s ty le p o t te ry )a r ed ependen t o n u nde r s tand ing p re -ex i s t ing l o ca l t r ad i t ion s a nd p a t te rn s , a nd t hen e xam in ing t h e i n t roduc t ion o fi mpo r ted ma te r ia l s i nt h is c on tex t "( Be rmann 1 994 , 1 2 ) . Ih ave f ound t h eh ou seho ld ac onven ien t f o cu sf o r my s t udy a s i ti sf r om t h i s p e r spe c t ive t ha t p o t te ry p roduc t ion , t r ade a nd u se c an b e mo s t e a s i ly e xp la ined . B u t Ih ave d e l ibe ra te ly a vo id t h eb i a so fw o rk ing w i th in as i ng le v i l lage w hen t he re i ss o much v a r ia t ion i nc ommun i ty o rgan isa t ion a nd h ou seho ld o r ien ta t ion w i th in t h e A nde an a r ea . I d e l ibe ra te ly w an ted t oc ove r a n e x ten s iv er e g ion i no rde rt o e xam ine t h er ange o fv a r ia t ion i nt h ep roduc t ion , t r ade a nd u se o fp o t te ry i nt h e a r ea . Iu se t h i sr e g iona l p e r spe c t iv et o o f e r s ome c ommen t o n d i f f e rence s i n h ow h ou seho ld s a r t icu la te w i th t h e w ide r s oc ie ty . P a r t icu la r ly i n my d i scu s s ion o fp o t te ry t r ad e ( Chap te r 5 ) , Is e ek t oe mpha s i se t h a t i ti st h e h ou seho lde r s ' u nd e r s tand ing o ft h e i r p o s i t ion w i th in t h e i r c ommun i ty a nd i n r e la t ion t o t h e r eg iona l e conomy t h a t s hape s t h e i r p e rc ep t ion o f wha t i s a n a pp ropr ia te e conom ic s t ra tegy . T h i s i sn a tu ra l ly i n f o rmed b y c u l tu ra l p e rc ep t ion s o f a pp rop r ia te w ay s t o a c t , a nd I h igh l igh t h ow e ach c ommun i ty d eve lop s i t s o wn r ange o f a c t iv i t ie s t ha t a r e r e l ian t o n p a r t icu la r e ncu l tu red f o rm s o f e xchange b e tween h ou seho ld s . H ow ev e r , i nd igenou s h ou seho ld s h av e h e lped t o s hape c u l tu ra l c hange , a nd I h igh l igh t h ow r i sk s p read ing c an b e u nde r s tood a s o ne o f t h e s t ra teg ie s w h ich h ou seho ld s u se t o t ry -ou t ' n ew t e chn ique so rf o rm so fp roduc t ion w h i le m in im i s ing t h er i sk t ot h e s e cu r i ty o ft h eh ou seho ld . F rom t h i sp e r spec t ive i ti s p o s s ib le t o m ake c ompa r i son s b e twe en t h e d if e ren t e conom ic s t ra teg ie s p reva len t i n d if e ren t c ommun i t ie s b y c on s ide r ing t h e i n te r re la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e h ou seho ld s , t h e c ommun i ty a nd t h e w ide r r eg ion i n w h ich t h ey a r e s i tua ted . Id o n o t w i sh t ou nde re s t ima te t h e d ange r s a nd r e s tr ic t ion s o fs uch aw ide rang ing s t udy . T he re h a s b een an ece s sa ry l o s s o ft he d e ta i led c on tex tua l i n f o rma t ion t h a t c ou ld h ave b e en g a ined f r om mo re l o ng te rm s t udy i no ne c ommun i ty . H oweve r ,t h roughou tt h es t udy Iu s et h ep o t te ry p rodu ce r so f R aqch i , P e ru , a nd t h e i tne ran t p o t t e r s o fP umpu r i , B o l iv ia , a s my ma in f o cu s , a s Ih ave s pen t mo s t t ime i n t h e se c ommun i t ie s . T he o t he r p o t te ry -mak ing a nd n on -po t m ak ing c ommun i t ie s Iv i s i ted o f e r aw ide r p e r spe c t ive t o t h i s a nd a l low m e t op o in t t o s ome o ft h e s im i la r i t ie s a nd d if e rence s t h roughou t t h e r eg ion . I n a dd i t ion , t h i s s t udy w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le w i thou t t h e d e ta i led i n f o rma t ion p rov ided b y an umb e r o fe t hnog raph ic r epo r t s f r om t he r eg ion , t ha t h ave h e lped b o th t o i n f o rm my 2 2
q ue s t ion s a nd t op rov ide ad eepe r b ackg round f o r many o f t h ei s sue sr a ised h e re . P e rhap s t h e g rea te s t d if icu l t ie s w i th aw ide r eg iona l s c ope a r e t ho se i n he ren t i n o f e r ing a s yn the s i s o f i n f o rma t ion f r om p o ten t ia l ly v e ry d if e ren t c ommun i t ie s . Ih ave s ough t t o make s ome g ene ra l is a t ion s o n h ow p o t te ry i sp roduced , t r aded a nd u sed i nt h e r eg ion , a nd a l so o n t he i mpo r tance a nd mean ing o f p o t te ry i n A ndean c u l tu re . I ndeed t h e c u l tu ra l u n i ty o ft h er eg ion i sp a r t ly e xp re s sed i nt h es ha red a spec t s o fc e ram ic t e chno logy , r e g iona l e xchange p a t te rn s , a nd t h ew ay si nw h ich p o t te ry i su s ed w i th in d ay to -day a nd f e s t iv a l a c t iv i t ie s t h a t h e lp t o m a in ta in v a lued c u l tu ra l p rac t ice s . Ia l so b e l iev et h a tt h e s eg ene ral i sa t ion s w i l l b ea u sef u l d epa r tu re f o r a r cha eo log i ca l i n te rp re ta t ion , a s m any o ft h em r a i se q ue s t ion s a bou t h ow w e s hou ld i n te rp re t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fp reh i s to r ic c e ram ic s . H ow eve r , a l l e xamp le s u sed i nt h et e x ta r er e f e renc ed t ot h ep a r t icu la rc ommun i t ie s i nw h ich Io b se rved t h em , s ot h a t i fmy g ene ra l i sa t ion s a r e c r i t ic i sed i n t h e f u tu re t h en t h e b a s ic i n f o rma t ion f r om w h ich Id rew t h em s hou ld b eo pen t or e in te rp re ta t ion .
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B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e
B r ief D e sc r ip t ion o fC ommun i t ie sC on s ide red i nt h i s S tudy T he r e s t o ft h i s c hap te r p rov ide s ab r ief i n t rodu c t ion t ot h e r eg ion s a nd e a ch o f t h e c ommun i t ie s Ih av e w o rked i n , d e sc r ib ing t h e g eog raph ica l l o ca t ion a nd a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s a sw e l l a st h ep o t te ry p roduc t ion . D raw ing so ft h e c ommon p o t f o rm sp roduced b ye ach o ft h ec ommun i t ie sa r e g i ven i n A ppend ix 2 , a nd a d e s c r ip t ion o ft h e f o rm s a nd f unc t ion so fa l lv e s se lt y pe si sa va i lab le i nA ppend ix 1 .
R aqch i ) . R e cen t ly aw ide r a nge o fm o re o rna te f o rm s f o r t h e u rban a nd t o u r i s t m a rke t h av e b e come a s i gn if ican t a dd i t ion t o t h e mo re f u nc t iona l d ome s t ic f o rm s t h a t w e re p rev iou s ly t h e ma in p roduc t s o ft h e v i l lage . ( Mo s t o ft h e c ook ing v e s se l s u sed i nR aqch i c ome f r om t h e P uc a ra a r ea , a s i ti sc ommon ly b e l iev ed b y R aqch i p o t te r s t ha tt h e i r c l ay i sn o t s u i tab le f o r mak ing c ook ing p o t s . ) P o t te ry f i r ing s t a ke p l ac ei nt h ep a t io o ft h ep o t t e r ' sh ou se .
D epa r tmen to fC uzco ,P e ru
T he p o t te r s s e l l mo s t o ft h e i r d ome s t ic p o t te ry f o rm s ( l a rge j a r s ,j ug s a nd b ow l s ) t h emse lve s , t a k ing t h e i r p roduce t oa n umbe r o fa nnua l f a i r s f r om ( s e e T ab le 5 . 2 ) . T he T ou r i s t f o rm sa r e mo re c ommon ly s o ld t op eop le i nP i sac a nd C uzco w ho p a in t t h em b ef o re s e l l ing d i r e c t t o t ou r i s t s , o t he r ma rke tp eop le , o rs hop s .
C uzco w a s t h e h ea r t o ft h e I nka Emp i re a nd t h e c i ty h a s r ema ined t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t c en t re w i th in t h e D epa r tmen t o f C uz co t o day , b u t , w i th t h e c on s t ru c t ion o f r o ad s a nd r a i lw ay s , o t he r c en t re s s uch a s S i cuan i , Q u i l labamba a nd U rubamba h av e a l so g rown i n i mpo r tanc e ( f ig . 2 . 2 ) . L a rge ly a s ar e su l t o fc o lon ia l a nd mo re r e c en tp o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p o l ic ie s , many o ft h e e t hn ic g roup s w h ich w e re a m a jo r a spe c t o ft h e s o c ia l , p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic s t ruc tu re o f t h e a r ea i n t h e e a r ly c o lon ia l p e r iod h av e b ecome a t om i sed i n to s ma l l c ommun i t ie s w h ich a r e i n teg ra ted b y t he t r ade w h ich t a ke sp l ac eb e tween t h em .
R aqch i : P rov . C anch i s ,D ep t . C uzco , P e ru ( A l t i tude 3 480 m ) V is i ted : 2 8 th O c tobe r -1 5 th Novembe r 1 985 , i s t -1l t h O c tobe r 1 987 , 1l t h -1 9 th J une 1 990 , 6 th 15 th A ugu s t 1 99 1 , 2 2nd S ep tembe r -1 0 th O c tobe r 1 991 , 2 3rd D ecembe r 1 99 1 -3 rd J anua ry 1 992 ( L i t to 1 976 , 2 2 -31 ; C hävez 1 987 ; 1 992 ; S i l la r 1 988 ) .
R aqch i i st h ec en t ra l o ft h ree p o t te ry -mak ing v i l lage s( Q 'eya t ot h e s ou th a nd Machaqma rca t ot h en o r th ) o n t h e C uzco P uno r oad . T he v i l lage s a r e g rouped a r ound t h e e x t inc t v o lcano K insa ch ia ta ( ' th re e p eak s ' ) w h ich r i se s b eh ind R aqch i . R aqch ih a sa lmo s t 1 00 h ou seho ld sg rouped i nt h ree z one s a r ound a s ma l l p l aza w he re t h e c hu rch , s c hoo l a nd t h er u in s o f al a rge I nka t emp le a r el o ca ted . T he se v i l lage s a r et h el a rge s tp o t te ry p roduce r si nt h ed ep a r tmen to fC uzco .
S eq 'ue racay : P rov . C a lc a ,D ep tC uz co , P e ru ( A l t i tude 3 500 m ) V is i ted : 2 5 th -3 0 th Augu s t 1 987 ( s ee L i t to 1 976 , 2 1-22 ; S i l la r 1 988 ) .
S eq 'ue racay i s ad i spe r sed v i l lage o f a pp rox ima te ly 5 0 h ou seho ld s , l y ing a bove C h i ta P ampa j u s t o ft h e C uzco t o P i sac r oad . S eq 'ue racay r e s iden t sg row s ome ma ize o nt h e i r i r r iga ted l a nd . O the r c r op s i n c lude o n ion s , b ean s , w hea t , a nd l e t tuce , a s w e l l a s p o ta to e s a nd a l i m i ted a moun t o f q u inoa , w h ich a r e g rown o nt h eu ppe rs l ope s( s ome o ft h e se c r op s a r e t a ken a nd s o ld c omme rc ia l ly i n C uzco ) . Many h ou seho ld s h ave s ma l l f l o ck s o fs h eep , a nd af ew h ave o ne o rt wo c a t t le , a nd /o rd onkey s . T he p o t te r s o fS eq 'ue racay p roduc e t h ick w a l led v e s s e l s b y c o i l ing t e chn ique s , e ach p o t te rm ak ing b e tw een o ne a nd f i ve f i r ing s ay ea r( s ee A pp end ix 3 ) . I n1 987 e i gh tf am i l ie sw e re i nvo lved i np o t te ry p rodu c t ion ,b e twe en J u ly a nd S ep tembe r . T hey made a w ide r ange o ff o rm s f o r t h emse lve s a nd t h e v i l lage , b u tm a in ly t o a s t ing p an s( t o s tad ora s ) a nd l a rge j a r s ( r a id s ) t os e l l o u t s ide t h e v i l lag e , u sua l ly a tw eek ly m a rke t s i nt h es u r round ing a r ea .
A l though many f am i l ie sg a in ar e la t ive ly s ub s tan t ia li n come f r om p o t te ry p roduc t ion , p o t te ry -mak ing i sc on s ide red t ob e l a rge ly a d ry s e a son a c t iv i ty ( f rom J une ' t i l O c tobe r ) , a l l f am i l ie s h av ing a c ce s s t o s ome l a nd t o w o rk d u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son . T he R ive r V i lcano ta f l ow s i nf r on to fR aqch i . T he c ommun i ty p o s se s o n ly a s ma l l p e r cen tag e o f v a l ley l a nd , much o fw h ich i sn o t i r r iga ted , o n ly al i m i ted a moun t o fl a nd a tt h ev a l ley b o t tom p e rm i t s s ma l l v a r ie t ie so fm a ize t o b e g rown . H ow eve r , t h e ma in c r op s a r e b ean s , b a r ley , p ea s , t a rw i , a nd p o ta toe s , a l l o f w h ich a r e g rown o n t h e s l ope so fK in sach la ta . S heep a nd af ew c a t t le a r ea l so k ep t .
C ha ramo ray : P rov . C humb iv i lca s , D ep t . C uzco ,P e ru ( A l t i tude 2 970 m ) V is i ted :6 th -1 3 th S ep tembe r 1 987 ( S i l la r 1 988 ) .
T he t wo v i l lage s o fC ha ramo ray a nd U rubamba a r e s i tua ted o n o ppo s i te b ank s o ft h e R iv e r S an to T oma s . C ha ramo ray c on s i s t s o fa bou t 6 0 h ou seho ld s , a nd U rubamba h a s a bou t 4 0 . T he w a rm v a l ley l o ca t ion m ake s t h i s a r ea i d ea l f o r g row ing g ood q ua l i ty m a ize , b ean s , a nd w hea t . S ome f r u i t , i n c lud ing p r ick ly p ea r s ( t una ) , a r e a l so g rown , a nd c och inea l i sc o l lec ted a nd s o ld i n A requ ipa . S heep a r e p a s tu red o n t h es l ope s a nd t h e r ea r e as ub s tan t ia ln umbe ro f h o r se s a nd c a t t le , a l though t h e l a t te r h av e a ppa ren t ly b een
L a rge r j a r s a nd j ug s a r e c o i l b u i l t , b u t s ome o f t h e l e s s c omp lex f o rms s u ch a sb ow l sa r ep re s s mou ld ed ( s e eC hävez 1 987 ; 1 992 f o r ag ood d e sc r ip t ion o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion i n 2 4
C hap ter 2 : T he A nd ean S e t t ing r educed i n r e cen t y ea r s d ue t o c a t t le r u s t l ing . P o t te ry mak ing i st h em a jo ra c t iv i ty i nt he v i l lage sb e tween J u ly a nd O c tobe r ;p o t te ry i sa l so made i nY anque ( 3km a way ) .
C o rd i l le ra V i lcano ta . A t j u s t u nde r f ou r t hou sand m e te r s a bove s e a l e ve l , t h is i s ah a r sh a l t ip lano e nv i ronmen t , t h e ma in a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t s a re p o ta toe s , q u inoa , b a r ley , a nd b ean s ; w i th s heep , l ama s , a nd a l paca s b e ing p a s tu red a bove t h e v i l lage . I n 1 987 t he re w e re e l even h ou seho ld s ( a l l w i th in o ne s ma l l a rea o ft he c ommun i ty ) e ngaged i np o t te ry p roduc t ion , f r om J u ly t oS ep temb e r .
P o t te ry i sm ade u s ing c o i l ing t e chn ique s a nd t h e v e s se l sa r e p a in ted w i th al e ad g l aze ( s ee A ppend ix 3 ) . U n t i l r e cen t ly many p o t te r s g av e t h e i r p o t te ry t wo f i r ing s , t h e f i r s t u s ing d r ied l e ave s , i c hhu g ra s s a nd c ac tu s f r ond s , a nd t he s e cond u s ing h o r se a nd c ow d ung . K i ln s , c on s t ruc ted o u t o f mud b r ick s , w e re b e ing i n t roduced t o C ha ramo ray i n t h e l a te
T he c l ay i s m ined c o l lec t ive ly w i th in t he c ommun i ty t e r r i to ry ( 2 km f r om t he p o t te r s ' r e s idence s ) , t h e p o t te r s a cqu i r ing a bou t f ou r s a cks e ach a tt h e s t a r t o ft he p o t te ry mak ing s e a son . T he t a lc ( ch 'a l la ) u sed a s t empe r i sm ined n ea r e a ch p o t te r 's h ou se ; i ti sc ru shed i n as t one l ined p i t , a nd t h en s i eved . P o t te ry i s made u s ing ac o i l ing t e chn ique t o p roduce a r ange o f f o rm s p a r t icu la r ly c ook ing p o t s ( manka s ) , s ma l l j ug s ( cha tu s ) a nd b ow l s ( Append ix 3 ) . F i r ing s , c on s i s t ing o fb e tween 5 0 a nd 2 00 p o t s , a r e u sua l ly made o nce aw eek j u s t p r io rt ot h ep a r t icu la rw eek ly ma rke t f r equen ted b y t ha t p o t te r . A l im i ted a moun t o f Machaca p o t te ry i sa l so s o ld a t a nnua l f a i r s . T he t e chn ique s a nd f o rm s o ft h e p o t te ry a r e v e ry s im i la r t o t ho se u sed a round P uca ra , t h e f o ref a the r s o ft he t he se p o t te r s a re s a id t oh ave c ome f r om t h e D epar tmen t o fP uno e a r ly i nt he 2 0t h c en tu ry ( Pe rcy P az F lo re s , p e r s . c o rn . )
1 980 's b y ad eve lopmen t p ro jec t s ( s ee C hap te r 4 a nd A ppend ix 4 ) . Mo s tp o t te ry i st r aded a tw eek ly ma rke t s a nd s ome a ta nnua l f a i r s . T he c ook ing p o t s f r om t h i s a r ea h ave a n e xce l len t r e pu ta t ion t h roughou t t he r eg ion a nd a r e r ef e r red t oa sr um im anka ( s tone p o t s ) a st hey a r et hough tt o b es os t rong .
A raypa l lpa : P rov .P a ru ro ,D ep t .C uz co ,P eru ( A l t i tude 3 250 m ) V is i ted :2 4 th -2 8 th S ep tembe r 1 987 ( S i l la r 1 988 ) .
A raypa l lpa w a s o ne o f T o ledo 's r educc iöne s . I t i s a n uc lea ted v i l lage p l anned o n ag r id p a t te rn a round ac en t ra l p laza , w i th a pp rox ima te ly 6 0 h ou seho ld s . A raypa l lpa i s s i tua ted o n t h e s t eep h i l l s l ope a bove t he r i ve r Apu r imac . Ma ize c u l t iva t ion i sl im i ted , b u t i r r iga t ion d oe s p e rm i t t he p roduc t ion o ft wo c r op s i ns ome f i e ld s . T he ma in c rop s a r e p o ta toe s ,b ean s , a nd w hea t . S heep a nd af ew c a t t le a r ek ep t . P o t te ry m ak ing ( wh ich i so n ly d one b y w omen ) t a ke s p l ace b e tween May a nd O c tobe r .
D epa r tmen to fC ochabamba , B o l iv ia T he C ochabamba v a l ley w a s a n i mpo r tan t ma ize -p roduc ing r eg ion d u r ing t he I nka p e r iod w hen t he re w a s l a rge -sca le I nka r e se t t lemen t o fw o rke r s , m i tmaq z ina , f r om many a r ea s o ft h ee mp i re . T he a r ea r ema ins ah igh ly p roduc t ive o ne f o r a g r icu l tu re a nd c a t t le , w i th l ow e r l y ing l a nd s , s uch a s C hapa re , b e ing a ma jo r c oca -p roduc ing r eg ion . C ochabamba i s B o l iv ia 's t h i rd l a rge s t c i ty a nd a ma jo r ma rke t ing c en t re f o r s u r round ing c ommun i t ie s , b u t t h e w ho le r eg ion i s f a i r ly w e l l s e rved w i th r oad s , a nd l a rge i n te rmed ia te ma rke t c en t re s s uch a sP l ina ta a nd Q u i l laco l la ( f ig . 2 . 3 ) . Sma l le r c en t re s wh ich h ave w eek ly ma rke t s , s uch a sC l iza a nd T a ra ta , a r ea l so i mpo r tan t .
T he c l ay p a s te u sed i n A raypa l lpa i sv e ry c oa r se a nd n o t p ar t icu la r ly p l a s t ic , i t i s k ep t v e ry d amp a nd i s e a s i ly mou lded b u t i sp rone t o c rack ing b o th a s af o rm i sb e ing made a nd a s i td r ie s . T h is p a s te i s mo s t s u i tab le f o r l a rge r t h ick w a l led f o rms a nd t he c ommun i ty i sb e s tk nown f o rt he p roduc t ion o fl a rge j a r s ( ra id s ) . P o t te ry i sc o i l b u i l t w i th v e ry l i m i ted t o o l s a nd f i red i n a n o pen f i r ing u s ing c ow d ung a nd i c hhu g ra s s ( Append ice s 3 a nd 4 ) . Mo s t h ou seho ld s w i l l h ave a tl e a s t o ne f i r ing , b u tw h i le s ome a r e l a rge ly m ak ing p o t te ry f o r t he i r o wn u se , o t he r s may h ave f ou r o r mo re f i r ing s d u r ing t h is p e r iod t o m ake v e s se ls t o s e l l o r e xchange o u t s ide t he v i l lage , p a r t icu la r ly a tw eek ly ma rke t s i n P a ru ro . P rev iou s ly mo re p o t te ry w a s s o ld a t a nnua l f a i r sa nd t oc u s tome rs c om ing d i rec t ly t oA raypa l lpa
Huaycu l i : P rov . E s teban A rce , D ep t . C ochabamba , B o l iv ia ( A l t i tude 2 850 m )
( Baue r 1 992 ) 6.
V is i ted : 9 th -2 0 th J u ly 1 990 , 2 0 th -2 5 th Novembe r 1 99 1 ( L i t to 1 976 , 6 6 -73 ) .
Ma chaca :
H uay cu l i i sa tt he c en t re o fn ine v i l lage s w i th in ar ad iu s o f s ome 5 10 km w h ich a r e a l l i nvo lved i np o t te ry p roduc t ion ( Pu jyun i , C a r re i lo , K a l lumayu , T una s Ma w , S inchez , C a s t ro R ancho , Mendez Mama ta , P acho P a s to , a nd V i laque ) . Mo s t H uay cu l i p o t te r s o wn s ome l a nd , o n w h ich t hey p l an t ma ize , whea t a nd b ean s a nd p a s tu re s ome s heep a nd c a t t le . T he c ommun i ty w a s p as t o f ah ac ienda u n t i l 1 952 a nd n ow c omp r i se s s ome 1 50 h ou seho ld s . G o in s ( 1967 , 1 39 ) , w ho w o rked i n H uay cu l i i n 1 952 , d e sc r ib ed p o t te ry a s t h e ma in a c t iv i ty a nd a g r icu l tu re a s o f o n ly s e conda ry i mpo r tance , a nd t h i s i sp robab ly e ven mo re t r ue t oday .
P rov . Q u i sp icanch i ,D ep t . Cuz co , P e ru ( A l t itude 3 950 m ) V is i ted :9 t h -1 5 th A ugu s t 1 987 ( S i l la r 1 988 ) .
Machaca i s ad i spe r sed c ommun i ty o fs ome 2 00 h ou seho ld s s ca t te red o ve r t h e s t eep n o r thea s t f a c ing s l ope s o f t he
5 T h i s d ev e lopmen t p r o jec t , d i rec ted b y Ma r co V i l la san te L le rena f r om t h e u n ive r s i ty o fC uz co a nd t h e I n s t i tu to d e i n ve s t igac ion UNSAAC -NUFF IC , w a s w o rk ing i n t h e a r ea w hen I w a s t h e re . Ia m v e ry g r a tef u l f o r t h e i r g ene ro s i ty i nl e t t ing m ea c company t h em a nd e xp la in ing t h e i rw o rk .
6 Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank B r ian B aue rw ho w a st h ef i r s tp e r son t ot e l l m ea bou t p o t te ry m ak ing i nt h i sc ommun i ty .
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G lo s sa ry
Q uechua a nd S pan i sh T e rm s Q ue chua i ss poken b y o ve r 1 0m i l l ion p eop le , b u t t h e re i sn o s i ng le t r ad i t ion a st oh ow i ts hou ld b e p r e sen ted a s aw r i t ten l a nguage . Q ue chua h a s b e en w r i t ten u s ing an umb e r o fd if e ren t s y s tem s a nd f o r an umb e r o fd if e ren t g roup s ( e .g . e a r ly 1 7 th c en tu ry a u tho r s , r e l ig iou s g roup s s e ek ing t op r ea ch C h r i s t ian i ty , a n th ropo log i s t s , l i ngu i s t s , a nd n a t iona l i n s t i tu t ion s . S ome c onven t ion s s uch a st ho se f a vou red a mong s t m any B o l iv ian s ou rc e s ( e .g . L a ra 1 99 1) u se t h e ' j ,' i ,a nd ' o , w he rea s c onven t ion s f a vou red b y m any P e ruv ian s ou rce s ( e .g . C u i shuamän 1 976 ; H o rnb e rge r 1 983 ) u se t h e ' h , ' e , a nd ' u . T he se d if e rence s a r e p a r t icu la r ly u nf o r tuna te a s t h ey m ak e c ompa r i son s b e tween d if e ren t a u tho r s a nd d if e ren t r e g ion s mo re c omp lex , a nd o b scu re t h e c on t inu i t ie s a nd d if e renc e s o fm ean ing t h a t e x i s t o v e r aw ide r e g ion . A l l o ft h e c ommun i t ie s I h av ew o rked i ns peak b road ly t h es ame v a r ie ty o fQ ue chua ( wh ich T o re ro ( 1 974 )r e f e r st oa sC h inchay Me r idona l Q IC ) . T h i ss t a te o fa f a i r so bv iou s ly c omp l ica te s my p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e l a nguage p rec i se ly b ecau se Ih ave w o rked o ve rs u ch al a rge a r ea a nd make u se o f an umbe r o fd if e ren t s ou rce s . H ow eve r , Ih ave f o l lowed af ew s imp le r u le s . I f Ia m q uo t ing f r om a s o u rce Ih ave r e ta ined t h es p e l l ing u sed b yt h ea u tho r . F o ra l l o t he rt e rm s Ih ave f o l lowed t h eo r thog raphy u s ed b yR o sa leen H ow a rd - Ma lve rde ( 1990b ) w ho f i r s t t a ugh t m e Q ue chua . F o r m any S pan i sh t e rm s u sed i ne t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re Ih ave r e ta ined t h e S pan i sh s p e l l ing ( e .g . c a rgo r a the r t h an k a rgu a nd f aena r a the r t h an p hayna ) b u t f o r af ew t e rm s ( s uch a s t u ruwa su o rd i spachu )w h ich h ave s pe c if ic m ean ing sw i th in Q ue chua u sage Ih av eu sed Q ue chua s pe l l ing c onven t ion s . F o r p l ac en ame s Ih ave f o l lowed t h ec ommon s pe l l ing u sed o nm ap s ;t hu sC o lcap i rhua r a the rt h an Q u lqap i rwa . ( Ay . ) =A yma ra ,( Sp . ) =S pan i sh ,( Qu . ) =Q ue chua ,( >Sp . ) =d e r ived f r om t h eS pan i sh a h i jado ( Sp . )g od son A la c i ta s( Sp . )f e s t iva l o fa bundanc ei nw h ich m in ia tu re sa r eu sed a so f e r ing s ,c e leb ra ted i nL aP az o nt h e2 4 th o fJ anua ry a l ca lde ( Sp . ) mayo r a la -( Qu . )h a rve s t( po ta toe s )o re xcava te ( c lay ) a lma ( Sp . )s ou l ,u sua l ly r e f e r r ing t ot h es p i r i to f ad ead p e r son a ndabe te ( Sp? ) ad r ink ing v e s se l made i nH uay cu l i ,( u pt o1 5s ma l li n te rconne c ted c up s ) a nge l i tu s( Sp . )l i t t le a nge l s ,u sua l ly r e f e r st ot h es ou l so fd ead c h i ld ren a n imu ( Qu . )s ou lo fd ead p e r son ,a l so r e f e r st ot h es p i r i to fm a ize o r ap o t( >Sp . t ä n imo ' ) a pach i ta ( Qu . ) ac a i rn o rs h r ine ,o f t en o nt h et o po fm oun ta in p a s s e s ,a tw h ich o f e r ing sc an b e made ( apach i( Qu . )t os end a m e s sage )( c f . c a l va r io ,d i spachu ) a po rca r( Sp . )w eed a nd mound u ps o i lr ound p o ta toe s( c f . l ampa ra , q u tupa ,j a l lma ) A pu ( Qu . )h ono r if ic t i t le f o rs upe r io r ,' L o rd ' ,p a r t icu la r ly r e f e r r ing t ot h e moun ta in d e i t ie s( c f . W aman i ) a qha ( Qu . )c h icha ,c o rn b ee r a q l la -( Qu . ) c hoo se , s e lec t ,s o r to u t( e .g . p o ta toe sa f t e rh a rve s t ) a q l law a s i( Qu . ) h ou se ( wa s i )o ft h ec ho sen ( aq ua )w omen w ho s e rved t h eI nka Emp i re . a qo ( Qu . ) s and ( i nc a se o fR aqch it h i si sv o lcan ic a s h ) a n ( Qu . C uzco ) i n i t ia t ion , f i r s tu se o fa no b jec t ,e . g . f e s t iva lf o r an ew h ou se o rw hen s e a son ing an ew p o t a r roba ( Sp . ) mea su remen to fw e igh t ,2 5 l i b ra s ,a pp rox ima te ly 1 .5 k g a r yba l lu s( G reek )n ame ,o r ig ina l ly g i v en b yH i ram B ingham ,t od e sc r ib et h en a r row mou thed ,t a l ln e cked ,j a r sm ade d u r ing t h eI nka p e r iod —t h ee qu iva len to f am ode rn t um in , u rpu o rp 'unu . a ya ( Qu . )d ead p e r son ,c o rp s e ,a yama r ca t h eI nka mon th o fc e leb ra t ion sf o rt h ed ead r ough ly c o inc ided w i th o u rN ov embe r a y l lu ( Qu . ) 1 .g roup o fp eop le ( p a r t icu la r ly t ho se l i nked t h rough k i n sh ip ,b u ta l so e t hn ic g roup s )w i th al e ad e r sh ip t h a tc an r ep re sen ta nd make s ome d e c i s ion sf o rt h em ;2 .t h ea r ea o fl a nd t h eg roup o c cup ie s a yn i( Qu . )r e c ip roca ll a bou ro b l iga t ion a y s a ( Qu . C uzco ) s ma l lj ug w i th ah and le a y sa - ( Qu . )p u l l , d rag , l i f tu p ,o rc a r ry . a y sa ch i( Qu . )s t re tch ( Howa rd -Ma lve rd e 1 990 ) a y sapa ( Qu .R aqch i )s e cond w e ed ing a nd mound ing u po fs o i lr ound p o ta toe s( c f .j a l lma ,q u tupa , a pu r ca r , l ampa ra ) a yuda ( Sp . )h e lp ( c f .y anapay ) a zu ca re ro ( Sp . )s uga rb ow l b a rbe cho ( Sp . )p lough u pf a l low l a nd f o rf i r s tt ime ( c f .c hakma ,j ay t ta ) b ay e ta ( Sp . )c oa r se w oven c l o th a l lo ft h es ame c o lou r c a lam ina ( Sp . )c o r ruga ted i r on u sed f o rr oof ing c a lva r io ( Sp . )s t a t ion so ft h ec r o s s ,o r ah i l l s ide s h r ine a tw h ich o f e r ing sa r em ade ( c f . a pache ta ) c ampe s ino ( Sp . )p ea san t ,f a rme rw ho w o rk ss ma l l -ho ld ing o fl a nd c än ta ro ( Sp . ) j ug o rj a r 1 99
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e c apac h ucha /qapaq j u cha ( Qu . )h uman s a c r if ice m ade b yt h eI nka ( a l so r e f e re c lt oa sc apacocha ) c a rge ro ( Sp . ) l a rge j a r( l a rge rt h an n o rma lw i rq i ) made i nP a racay c a rgo ( Sp . )r e spon s ib i l i ty o fo rgan i s ing ac ommun i ty f e s t iva l ,t h eh o lde ro ft h e of ic ei sr e f e r red t oa sk a rguyuq ( Qu . ) c a sa ( Sp . )h ou s e c ena ( Sp . )e ven ing m ea l c hacha ( Ay . )m an c hacha -wa rm i( Ay . ) man -woman ( c f q ha r i -wa rm i) c hac ra ( Sp . )f i e ld , s ma l l -ho ld ing c ha ine o pi ra to i re ( F rench )l i nked s e quence o fa ny t e chn ica l o pe ra t ion c hak i taq l la ( Qu . )f o o tp l ough c hakma ( Qu . C uzco )p l ough f a l low l a nd ( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) . ( c f . ja yea , b a rbecho ) c haw ia ( Qu . P o to s i )s h e rd o fp o t te ry t ha th a sb een g round i n to ac r e sen tm oon s hape a nd i su sed i np o t te ry f o rm ing c hawana ( Qu . C o chabamba )p o t te ry f o rme rm ade o u to ff i red c l ay i na ne l onga ted b ow ls hape c haw ir ia ( Qu . R aqch i ) v o lcan ic s t one sg round t o ar ounded t r iangu la rs hap ea nd u sed t of o rm p o t te ry v e s se l s( Chävez 1 987 ) c h icha ( Sp . )b e e rn o rma l ly made f r om ma ize o rb a r ley ( Qu . a qha ) c h iche r ia ( Sp . )c omme rc ia le s tab l i shmen tt ha ts e l l sc h icha c h i l lam i ( Qu . /Ay . ) l a rge w ide mou thed b ow l /ba s in w i th t wo h and le s( Sp . L avado ra ) c h impu ( Qu . ) m ea su remen t ma rk o n s a ck ,b o t t le o rp o t . ( Raqch i : at h in c o i lo fc l ay a pp l ied b e low t h en eck o f at um in o r m ak 'a ( c f .c hump i ) c h ipa ( Qu . C uzco ) b und le , e . g . o fp o t te ry ,p acked i nd r ied g ra s s( i chhu )a nd t i ed i nr ope so rc ow h ide n e t t ing ( c f q ' ip i ) c hu l lpa ( Qu . )b u r ia lt owe r so fp r e -H i span ic p e r iod . c hu l lpajen te p re -Ch r i s t ian p eop le ( a l so c a l led t h em achukuna o rs uq 'a m a chu) ,c hu l lpapacha o ri l awpa p acha b e ing t h et ime w hen t h ey l i ved c hu l lu ch i( Qu . P t unpu r i )s oak i nw a te r( e .g . c h 'u f fu )( La ra 1 99 1) c humba ( Sp .? ) l a rge j a r( e .g . ar ak i ) c hump i( Qu . )w ov en b e l to rc umme rbund ( How a rd - Ma lve rde 1 990 ) . R aqch i : t h in c o i lo fc l ay a pp l ied b e low t h en e ck o fa t um in o rm ak 'a ( Chävez 1 987 )( c f c h impu ) c hunka ( Qu . )t e n c huq l lu ( Qu . )f r e sh m a ize s t i l lo nt h ec ob c huwa ( Qu . P o to s i /Co chabamba )b ow lf o re a t ing ,n o rma l ly t ho se made f r om w ood b u tc an r e f e rt oc e ram ic b ow l s c o lono ( Sp . )c ampe s ino o b l iged t og i ve s e rv ice t oh ac ienda f o rr i gh to fa cc e s st o as ma l l -ho ld ing c ompad re /comad re ( Sp . )t e rms o fa dd re s sb e tw een p a ren t sa nd r i tua lg od -pa ren t sp a r t icu la r ly t ho se f r om b ap t i sm , f i r s t h a i rcu t t ing , a nd w edd ing c omune ro ( Sp . )c ommun i ty membe r c ondenado ( Sp . ) ac ondemned p e r son , s ome t ime sd e sc r ib ed a ss omeone w ho i nl i f ec omm i t ted i n ce s t ,a nd i sd amned t o w ande rt h ew o r ld a s ar o t t ing c o rp se c ruzapayuquy ( Qu . R aqch i )b r ing t h ec r o s sf o rt h er oof— h ou se r oof ing r i tua l c u rande ro ( Sp . )h ea le r( c fy a t i r i ) c h 'ak i - ( Qu . )d ry o u t c h 'aku ( Qu . )v e r yp u re w h i te c l ay u sed t od eco ra te p o t te ry ,a l so e a ten w i th p o ta toe s c h 'a l la ( Qu . P o to s i /Co chabamba )t o make ar i tua ll i ba t ion ( c f . t ' i nka ) . c l ea l la ( Qu . C uzco )t a lc u sed t ot empe rp o t te ry c h 'a rk i( Qu . ) f r eeze -d r ied mea t( j e rked mea t ) c h 'u l lp i( Qu . ) ah i gh ly p r ized t y pe o fy e l low m a ize t h a ts h r ive ls u pw hen i td r ie so u t ,n o rma l ly u sed f o rt o a s t ing ( a l so c a l led c h 'u sp i l lu ) c l fu r iu ( Qu . )f r eeze -d r ied p o ta to e s made b ye xpo su re o nt h ep ampa f o rs e v e ra ln igh t sd u r ing t h ed ry s e a son c h 'uya ( Qu . C uzco )c l ea r ,c l ean ,p u re ( Ho rnb e rge r 1 983 ) c hha la ( Qu . )b a r te r c hhapu -( Qu . )m ix s ome th ing d ry w i th l i qu id ,e . g .p i tu a nd w a te ro rc l ay a nd w a te r c hhay ru ( Qu . P o to s i ,C o chabamba ) as oup made f r om g round c h 'uF zu d i spachu ( Qu . ) r i tua lo f e r ing n o rma l ly b u rn tb u ts ome t ime sb u r ied ( >Sp .d e spacho -ad e spa tch o rm e s sage ) e r qe / i rq i( Qu . )t o dd le r ,y oung c h i ld ( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) f a ena ( Sp . ) f o rm o fc o rvie l a bou ro rp ub l ic w o rk o b l iga t ion t ot he c ommun i ty f a nega ( Sp . )m ea su re o fg ra in ,a pp rox ima te ly t h re eb u she l s ,e qu iva len tt oa bou t5 0 l i t re s f a nge ro ( Qu . ) v e ry l a rge w i rq i made i nP a racay ( >Sp .f anega? ) f l o re ro ( Sp . )f l ow e rv a se f u en te ( Sp . )l a rge b ow lu sed a s as e rv ing d i sh h aba ( Sp . )b road b ean s h ac ienda ( Sp . ) L a rg ep rope r ty o fl a nd o wned b y ah acendad ow ho r e l ied o nl a bou ro fi nd ian si nr e tu rn f o rw h ich t h ey w e re g i ven a cc e s st os ma l l -ho ld ing s i c hhu ( Qu . ) at h in t a l lg ra s s . When g reen i tc an b eu sed a s af e ed f o ra n ima l s ,a nd w hen d ry i ti su sed t op ack p o t te ry , a nd a s af u e lf o rf i r ing p o t te ry i la ( Qu . )s a c red o b je c tt h a ti ss e en a s ap rogen i to ro ff e r t i l i ty ,o f t en m in ia tu re a n ima ls c u lp tu re so rr e p re sen ta t ion so ft h e h ou seho ld t ha ta r eu sed i nr i tua l s i m i l la ( Ay . /Qu . P o to s i /Cochabamba )y oung u nma r r ied g i r l ,u sua l ly 7 20 y ea r so l d 2 00
G lo s sa ry o fQ uechua a nd S pan i sh T e rm s i r u( Qu . R aqch i )t h icke rt o ughe rg ra s st h an i c hhu t h a ti su sed f o rf i r ing p o t te ry a nd t om ake b r oom s i s k ina ( Qu . ) r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h eh ou se s p i r i t( >Sp .e squ ina -c o rne r ) j aka f ia ( Ay . )p l acen ta , a f t e r -b i r th ,u sed a s ar i tua ld e sc r ip t ion o fd ung f e r t i l i se ri nQ aqachaka ( D . Y . A rno ld 1 988 ,4 98 ) j a l lma ( Qu . R aqch i )w eed a nd mound u ps o i la r ound p o ta toe s( c f a y sapa ,q u tupa , a por ca r , l ampa ra ) j a l lp 'a ( Qu . )c u l t iva ted g round , e a r th . R aqch i :j a l lp 'a a l so mean s aw o rk re s t( c fs amay ) j amp i( Qu . )m ed ic ine ,r emedy ,o f e r ing t ot h ee a r th ,r e pa i r ap o te t c j anan p a cha ( Qu . )u ppe rw o r ld o ft h eQ ue chua c o smo sw he re t h es un ,t h e moon a nd t h eC h r i s t ian s a in t sr e s ide j a nch ' i( Qu . )s e d imen tl e f tf r om mak ing c h icha ( af t e rr emov ing u p i ) , f e dt oa n ima l s j ank 'a ( Qu . )t o a s ted ma ize o rw hea t( c f k ' ana l la , t o s tad ora ,j i uk ' i ) . j ank 'a s a ra -m any t y pe so fc o lou red ma ize t ha ta r e c ommon ly u sed f o rt o a s t ing j a ta r ich i( Qu . ) r a i se ,e r ec t( ac i ty , ab u i ld ing )o rf o rm ap o t( Raqch i ,P umpu r i ) j a t im ( Qu . )b i g , l a rge , s e n io r . R aqch i :j a tun p ad r ei st h es en io rg od -f a the ra t aw edd ing j ay ea ( Qu . )p l ough u pf a l low l a nd f o rf i r s tt i me ( c f b a rbechu , c hakma ) j ayw a -( Qu . )o f e rf o od o rd r ink ,p a r t icu la r ly w hen m ak ing ar i tua l o f e r ing j i uk ' i ( Ay . /Qu . ) ap an f o r mak ing t o s tad o( t oa s ted m a ize ,w hea t ,a nd b ean s )( c f k ' ana l la ,j ank 'a , t o s tad ora ) j u cha ( Qu . )s i n , m i sdeed j undu ( Qu . P o to s i )d eep m e ta lc ook ing p o tm ade f r om a no i ld rum , a l so c a l led t u r i l la ( >Sp . h ond o -d e ep ) j u sk 'a -( Qu . R aqch i )s ow ,p l ac ing s e ed i nt h eh o le i n d iv idua l ly ,u n l ike b roadca s t ing ( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) j u sk 'u ( Qu . )h o le ( e .g .p unc tu red i n ap o t ) k a -( Qu . )e x i s t ,b e ,h ave i d en t i ty , k amay ( Qu . )o r de r , c r ea te ,c a l l i n to b e ing k ach i( Qu . )s a l t k ama t ia ( Qu . R aqch i )s qua tw ide -mou thed j a rw i th t wo h and le su sed t os e rv ec h icha ( s im i la rt o aw i ch ' ii nP umpu r i ) k ancha ( Qu . )c o r ra l ,e nc lo sed s pace ,p l aza . C uzco :t o a s ted g ra in ( c f .jank 'a ) k anka ( Qu . )r oa s tm ea t( e .g .m ea tp repa red i n aw a t iya ) k apu l i( Qu . )w i ld c he r ry P runu sS e ro t ina . G ade ( 1 975 , 1 6 1) s ugge s t st h et r ee w a si n t roduced f r om Mex ico a f te rt he S pan i sh C onque s t k ay p a cha ( Qu . )t h i sw o r ld ,w he re h uman b e ing sl i ve a nd w o rk ,b e twe en t h ei n ne rw o r ld ( ukhu p acha )a nd t he u ppe rw o r ld ( j anan p acha ) k ha l lpa ( Qu . ) c h ip o rk nock ap o t( q 'a sa R aq ch i ) k ha shka r( Qu . P umpu r i )s t one t h a ti ss ma shed t oc r ea te as ha rp e dge w i th w h ich t os c rape l a rge p o t sp r io rt ob u rn ish ing ( kha shkay -t og naw ( La ra 1 99 1) ) k ukaw i( Qu . )f o od e a ten a way f r om t h eh ou s e( e .g .w hen p a s tu r ing s heep ) k u lcha ( Qu . R aqch i )s heep d ung f r om t h ec o r ra l st h a th a sb een t r amp led b yt h ea n ima l sa nc c an b es haped i n to c l od so r c hunk sc a l led k ' u rpa s ( Chav ez 1 987 ) k unka ( Qu . ) n e ck o rt h roa to f ap e r son ,a n ima lo rp o t k u raka ( Qu . ) p o l i t ica ll e ade ro fa ne t hn ic g r oup ,p a r t icu la r ly i nI nka a nd c o lon ia lp e r iod s k u s ta l( Qu . )w oven s a ck u sed t ot r an spo r to rs t o re p roduce ( Sp . c o s ta l ) k u ta -( Qu . )g r ind ( f ood , s p ice s ,c l ay ) k u ta t ia ( Qu . P umpu r i ) f l a to rc oncave s t one t h a th a s ah a lf moon s haped k u ta i la u f ia r o cked u pon i tt og r ind g ra in o rc l ay ( c f . m a ran ) k ' ana l la ( Qu . )s he rd o fp o t te ry , o rp an f o rm ak ing t o a s ted ma ize ,w hea t ,a nd b ean s( c f .jank 'a ,j i uk ' i , t o s tadora ) k ' in tuqw i( Qu . R aqch i )o f e r ing o fc o ca l e ave s( e .g .t h a t made b yR aqch io nt h en igh to fS an L u i s( c f .A l len 1 988 ) k ' i ra ( Qu . C uzco )l e an b ack ,h o r izon ta l( Ho rnb e rge r 1 983 ) ; k ' i ra ( Qu . R aqch i )p a r to fc h icha l e f ti nt h ep o t ( ?>Sp . q ueda r ema in )( c f .j anch ' i ) l ampa ra ( Sp . R aqch i )s e cond w eed ing , mound ing e a r th r ound c r op ( c f . q u tupay ,j a l lmay ) l a q 'a ( Qu . )t a s te le s s ,w i thou ts a l t l a q ra ( Qu . )c r ack ( i n ap o t )( p 'ak i ska R aqch i ) l a rqa ( Qu . P o to s i )c ana l , i r r iga t ion d i tch l a vado ra ( Sp . )l a rge b a s in l awa ( Qu . P o to s i )s oup made o u to fg round m a ize l i b ra ( Sp . )m ea su remen to fw e igh te qu iva len tt o 1l b . ,a pp rox ima te ly 0 . 5kg l i b r i l l io ( Sp . )l a rge b ow l l i k ' ich i r i( Qu . )s upe rna tu ra lb e ing w h ich s t ea l st h eb ody f a tf r om i t sv i c t im s( a l so c a l led p i sh ta co o rF r ak 'aq ) l ame ro ( Sp . )p e r son w ho h e rd sl ama s l an t 'a ( Qu . )f i rewood ,b ru sh -wood a nd d ead w ood l aqwa ( Qu . )h o tc h i l l is auce ( laqwa - l i ck w i th t h et ongue ( Howa rd Ma lv e rde 1 990 ) ) l i j l la ( Qu . )l a rge w eav ing w o rn b yw omen a nd u s ed a sc a r ry ing c l o th l i nk ' i ( Qu . ) p repa red c l ay o r mud , i . e . v e ry m a l leab le a nd p l a s t ic l i ph t 'a ( Qu . ) a l ka l ine ( no rma l ly made f r om a s h )c hewed w i th c oca I l unk 'u ( Qu . R aqch i )b u rn i sh t h es u rf ace o f ap o t ,a l so t ol i ck ap l a te ,o rw hen s heep l i ck sh e rn ew -bo rn l amb l unk 'una ( Qu . R aqch i /Pumpu r i )q ua r tz r i ve rp ebb le u sed t ob u rn i sh p o t s m ace t a /mace te ro ( Sp . )f l owe rp o t ,p a r t icu la r ly f o rp l an t ing i n 2 0 1
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e m ak i( Qu . ) h and m a l lk i( Qu . )y oung s ap l ing t r ee , a l so n ame f o rI nka a nce s to r mumm ie s . ma l lk iyaquy ( Raqch i )c ome b ea r ing t h es a p l ing h ou se r oof ing r i tua l( c f . c ru zapayuquy ) m anka ( Qu . )c ook ing p o t m aq t 'a ( Qu . )a do le sc en t ma le m a ran ( Qu . C uzco )s l igh t ly c oncave s t one o nw h ich at u nawa i su sed t og r ind g ra in o rc l ay w i th ar o ck ing mo t ion ( c f . k u tah 'a ) m e r ienda ( Sp . ) l u nch m ikhu -( Qu . )e a t . P umpu r i :m ikhu r i f ia l e t ' se a t ,r e f e r r ing t os oup i nt h e mo rn ing m ink 'a ( Qu . )c o l lec t ive w o rk t h a ti sr e pa id i nf o od a nd d r ink b u tt h ew o rk n eed n o tb er e c ip ro ca ted b yt h eh o s t m i sa ( Qu . )a n o f e r ing ( c f . d i spacho )( >Sp . m i sa m a s s ,m e sa t a b le ) m i shka ( Qu . L yncha )e a r ly s ow ing o fm a ize ( La ra 1 99 1) m i sk ' i( Qu . )s wee tt a s t ing e . g .s umaq m i sk ' i -i tt a s te sd e l ic iou s ly s w ee t m i s te r io s( Qu . P o to s i , C ochabamba )s we e t sw i th v a r iou si mage so nt h em -s uch a ss un , moon , S an t iago ,h ou se e t c .u sed a s o f e r ing si nd i spacho s m i ta ( Qu . ) c ompu l so ry l a bou rs e rv ic eg i ven t ot h eI nka s t a te a nd s e rved i nS pan i sh h ac ienda sa nd m ine s m i tmaq /m i tmaquna ( Qu . ) I nka i n s t i tu t ion o fs end ing c o lon i s t st os e t t le a nd w o rk a na r ea o fl a nd ,w h i le r e ta in ing l a nd r i gh t si nt h e i rh ome c ommun i ty m iyuqu i( Qu . )s ma l l c on t r ibu t ion p a id t owa rd sb uy ing a l coho lo rf o od f o rf aena w o rke r s mo lde ( Sp . )( mu l t iQ u . )f l a to rs l igh t ly c oncave p o t te ry p l a te t h a tc an t u rn f r e e ly o n i t sb a se a nd i su sed a s as uppo r tw hen f o rm ing v e s se l s m on ta r la ( Sp . ) s ub t rop ica l f o re s t si nt h el ow land moun ta in st ot h en o r th -ea s to ft h eA nde s ,a bove t h el owe rl y ing s e /va mu chha -( Qu . P o to s i , C o chabamba )s t r ip t h eg ra in f r om t h ed r ied c o rn c ob s muk 'u ( Qu . )p a s te u sed a s ab a se f o rp repa ra t ion o fc h icha ,c ompo sed o fg round -up w i t lapu a nd w a te r mu l lu ( Qu . ) s pondy lu ss he l ls f r om t h eE cuado r ian c oa s t ,u sed i nr i tua l of e r ing s m u l ta ( Sp . )f i ne ( e .g . p a id f o rn o ta t tend ing f aena ) mu ruch i( Qu . P o to s i )y e l low ma ize ,t h e ma in v a r ie ty f o rm ak ing m ur i m u t ' i( Qu . )b o i led m a ize k e rne l s , ama jo rs t ap le t h roughou tt h eA nd e s n i n r i( Qu . ) e a ro fp e r son o ra n ima l ;h and le o fp o t f i a tu -( Qu . )k nead d ough ( Howa rd - Ma lve rde 1 990 ) . P i at u na ( Qu . L yncha )s qua tw ide mou thed v e s se l i nw h ich d ough i s k neaded f i aw i( Qu . )e ye o fp e r son ,a n ima l ,p o ta to ( Pumpu r i ,a l so r e f e r red t oc a lc i te i nc l ay ) f i awpa ( Qu . )o l d ,a nc ien t . i fa wpa p acha f o rme ro ra nc ien tt ime o b ra je ( Sp . )a r t i san c en t re ss e tu pb yt h eS pan i sh e . g . f o rp roduc ing w eav ing s o ca ( Qu . ) o xa l i st ube ro sa ( Gade 1 975 , 1 72 ) ,A ndean d ome s t ica te , as wee tt ube r o l la ( Sp . )c ook ing p o t( c f . manka ) p acha ( Qu . )w o r ld , e a r th ,t ime ,e r a , ap l ace i ns pace o rt ime . p a chaku t i ( Qu . ) w o r ld r e ve r sa l ,c a tac ly sm ic e ven tw hen e ve ry th ing c hange s P achamama ( Qu . ) mo the r -ea r th ,s ome t ime se qua ted w i th t h ev i rg in Ma ry p achaq ( Qu . )o ne h und red p ad r ino ( Sp ./ Qu . )g odpa ren t , e . g . f r om w edd ing o rb ap t i sm p a l tay ( Qu . C uzco )a dd i t iona ll o ad ,e x t ra b u rden ( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) . C hävez ( 1 992 ,7 3 )d e sc r ibe s as pec if i cu s eo ft h i st e rm w hen a dd ing af ew p o t st os omeon e l se ' sf i r ing p an teön ( Sp . )c eme te ry . T he t e rm i sa l so u sed i nP umpu r it or e f e rt ot h ef i r ing a r ea p e lado ( Sp . ) ma ize ( a l so w hea to rb a r ley )b o i led i na sh o rl i me s ot h a tt he o u te rs k in b r eak su pa nd av e ry t h ick s oup i sm ade ( Qu . P o to s ic h 'u ta H owa rd - Ma lve rde 1 990 ) p h i r i( Qu . )s t eamed d ump l ing s( Howa rd -Ma lve rde 1 990 ) . p h i r im anka ( Qu . L yncha ) ad oub le c ook ing p o tw i th h o le s p unc tu red t h rough t h eu ppe ro ne p huku -( Qu . )b l ow . p hukuna ame ta lt ube u sed t ok eep t h et a q l la b u rn ing i nt h eh ea r th p i nk i l lu ( Qu . )f l u te p l ayed d u r ing t h er a iny s e a son p i nku ( Qu . R aqch i )w ooden ,o r me ta l ,h oop u sed t os t ab i l i se t h en e ck o ft he v e s s e lw h i le d ry ing ( Chävez 1 987 ) p i rw a( Qu . )g rana ry , s t o re p i tu ( Qu . )f l ou r made o u to ft o a s ted g ra in ( ma ize ,w hea t ,b a r ley )( c f c hhapu ) p l a to ( Sp . )p l a te o rb ow l ,a l so u sed t or e f e rt o ar i tua lo f e r ing ( c fd i spacho ) p ok toy ( Qu . C uzco )a moun th e ld i nt wo c upped h and s( Va lenc ia E sp ino s 1 982 ) p u chu ( Qu . )l ef t -ove r s( o ff ood ) p uka ( Qu . )r ed p uk l la -( Qu . ) p l ay . p uk l lana t o ye . g .m in ia tu re s p una ( Qu . ) h igh land p l a teau a r ea p u f iu -( Qu . )s l eep p u ru i la ( Qu . R aqch i )l a rge b ow l
2 02
G lo s sar yo fQ uechua a nd S pan i sh T erm s p ' ampa -( Qu . )b u ry . p 'ampana ( Qu . R aqch i ) av e ry l a rge r ak it h a ti so f t en p a r t ly s unk i n to t h eg round ( Chav ez 1 987 ) s ome t ime sc a l led al i awpa r ak i p ' u f iu ( Qu . )j a rw i th r e s t r ic ted n e ck , u sed t of e rmen tc h icha a nd t oc a r ry l i qu id s( e qu iva len tt ot um in a nd u r pu i nC uzco ) q a rpa -( Qu . )i r r iga te l a nd q e ro ( Qu . )w ooden t umb le ru sed a s ar i tua ld r ink ing c up f o rc h icha q ha r i( Qu . )m an ,h u sband . q ha r i -wa rm i m an -woman ,h u sband a nd w if e( c f . c hacha -warm i ) q huna ( Qu . P umpu r i )f l a ts t one u sed w i th aq huna u t ia to g r ind c l ay b yr ubb ing ( no tr o ck ing ) q hunuku ( Q u . P o to s i , C o chabamba )w a rm y ou r se lf ( La ra 1 99 1) ; b r eakf a s t q hu ra -( Qu . L yncha )w eed q u inoa ( Qu . /Eng l i sh ) ah i gh p ro te in A ndean g r a in q u in ta l( Sp . )m ea su remen to fw e igh tc omp r i s ing o ff o u ra r roba ,a pp rox ima te ly 4 6k g q u ipu ( Qu . )k no t ted c o lou red s t r ing su sed a s ar e co rd -ke ep ing d ev ic eb yt h eI nka q u tupay (Qu . R aqch i )s e cond w eed ing a nd mound ing e a r th r ound ma ize ( c f . l ampa ra ,j a l lmay , a po rca r ) q uw i( Qu . ) g u inea p i g q ' a lach i( Qu . C uzco )s t r ip , d enude ( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) . q ' a lach i -( R aqch i ) s t r ip t h el e ave so fm a ize c ob s q ' ay ru ( Qu . P umpu r i )s t o rage p i t q ' ip i( Qu . )b und le ( e .g . o fp o t te ry )( c f . c h ipa ) q ' uncha ( Qu . )h ea r th o nw h ich c ook ing i sd one ( Sp .f ogön ) ,c ommon ly made o fa dobe b u tp o t te ry f o rm sa r ea l so made q ' u run ta ( Qu . )c en t ra lc o re o f ama ize c ob q 'u sn i( Qu . )s moke . c hacra q' u sn ich i r( Raqch i )o f e r ing made o n 1 s t . o fA ugu s t q ' uwa ( Qu . )p ungen tl a b ia te h e rb u sed i nm any o f e r ing s r ak i( Qu . C uzco )l a rge w ide mou thed j a ru s ed t ob r ew c h icha a nd f o rs t o rage ( e qu iva len to f aw i rq ii nP o to s ia nd C ochabamba ) . r ak i -m ean st os e pa ra te o u t r ancho ( Sp . )h am le t ,o f t en ag roup ( w i th in al a rge rc ommun i ty )w ho s ha re c l o se k in sh ip r aqay ( Qu . C uzco )u n roof ed h ou se . r aqay r aqa y ah ou se t ha ti si nr u in so ra bandoned r e duc c iön ( Sp . )c ompac tv i l lage s e t t lemen tc r ea ted b yo rde ro ft h eS pan i sh C o lon ia la u tho r i t ie s r e pa r t im ien to ( Sp . )l a te C o lon ia ls y s tem o fd i s t r ibu t ing g ood st oi n d ian si no rde rt od emand o f t en e xo rb i tan tp aymen ti n g ood so r money a t al a te rd a te r um i( Qu . )s t one ,r o ck ,p ebb le n i t 'u -( Qu . )s hea rh a i ro rw oo l , s cy the g ra in . r u t 'uch ikuy /u maru t 'uw i r i tua lf i r s th a i rcu t t ing s a l amanka ( Sp .? )f o rm o fj ug made i nR aqch it h a tc an b ef i l led f r om u nde rnea th s amay ( Qu . ) r e s tb r eak d u r ing w o rk ; f o od e a ten d u r ing r e s tb reak ( c f .j a l lp iay ,k ukaw i ) s am i( Qu . )a n ima t ing e s sence ( A l len 1 988 )( c f . a n imu ,k amay ) ( i nN o r the rn P o to s it h er ed c l ay p a in ted o n to p o t sp r io rt o f i r ing i sc a l led s am i ) s a ra ( Qu . )m a ize s a ru -( Qu . )t r amp le o rc r u sh ,e . g . w hen p r epa r ing c h 'u i lu ( Pumpu r i )a nd w hen k nead ing c l ay w i th t h ef e e t( Raqch i ) s e lva ( Sp . ) j ung le , l ow land r a in f o re s t s e q 'o -( Qu . )s t rang le ( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) . s eq ' o sqa - ( Qu . R aqch i )p roc e s so fb i nd ing t h eb ody a nd n e ck o f av e s se lu s ing s t r ip so fc owh ide ( Chave z 1 987 ) s i k i( Qu . )b ack s ide ,b o t tom ,u nde rnea th ,a l so r e f e r st ot h eb a se o f ap o t s im i( Qu . ) mou th o fp e r son ,a n ima lo rp o t ,a l so l a nguage o rw o rd s i ngan i( Sp .? P o to s i ) f r u i t( pa r t icu la r ly g rape )b randy ,a guard ien te s i rv inakuy ( Qu . C uzco )p e r iod o fs e rv ice p r io rt om a r r iage w hen t h ey oung c oup le l i ve i nt h e i rp a ren t sh ou se s uq 'a -( Qu . C uzco )w h ip ( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) . R aqch i :m a l lk is uq 'ay t or i tua l ly w h ip t h et r ee so nt h e 1 s t . o fA ugu s t . C uzco : s uq 'a m achu e v i ls p i r i t s s u t 'uch i( Qu . R aqch i )t h eb o t tom p o r t ion o fc h icha f e dt ot h ep i g s( c f .j anch ' i ) t a q l la ( Qu . )s he ep o rl ama d ung t a qu ( Qu . )h aema t i te r ich c l ay u sed t od e co ra te p o t sa nd t o ma rk a n ima ls ( c f .s am i ) t a r ipa -( Qu . C uzco )j udgemen t( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) . w a s it a r ipay ( Raqch i )a no f e r ing made f o rt h ef i e ld sa nd t h eh ou se a t c a rn iva l t a rka / ta ra ( Qu . )s ome th ing t ha ti sw e l lb a lanced ( e .g . al o ad o n ad onkey ) ,o ri nh a rmony ( e .g . mu s ic ) ( S toba r t 1 993 (b ) ) t a rkayu ru ( Qu . P o to s i )d oub le s ided d r ink ing v e s se lu sed a tw edd ing s ( c f . t ' i nk i ) t a rpu -( Qu . )s ow ac r op ( c f . m i shka ) t a rw i( Qu . ) L up inu s mu tab i l i sn a t ive d ome s t ica te ( Go in s 1 975 , 1 68 )r equ i re ss oak ing i n mov ing w a te rf o rt wo d ay st o r emove t ox in sb ef o re i tc an b ee a ten t e q s i ( Qu . ) f o unda t ion so f ah ou se ( Ho rnb e rge r 1 983 ) ; l owe rp o r t ion o f al a rge p o t te ry v e s se l( Chav ez 1 9 87 ) t i nku -( Qu . )t om ee tu p ,c ome t o ge the r ,o rc onf ron te a ch o t he r . At i nku i s ar i tua lb a t t le . t i nkuch i rt oc au s et oc ome t o ge the r t i n t i rpana ( Qu . P umpu r i )t os c a t te r / f la t ten o u te . g .c h 'u i ' lu ( >Sp . t e nd er t os p read o u t ) T b o( Sp . )u nc le ,n ame g i ven t ot h ec on t ro l l ing s p i r i to ft h em ine si nB o l iv ia t i qh t i( Qu . P umpu r i )t h em idd le p o r t ion t h a ts e t t le so u ti nt h ew i rq iw hen mak ing c h icha ,t h i si sb o i led t om ake at h ick mo la s se s
2 03
B i l lS i l la r —S hap ing C u l tu r e T odo sS an to s( Sp . )t h ef e a s to fA l l S a in t sc e leb ra ted o nt h e i s to fN ov embe r( a tt h es t a r to ft h er a iny s e a son )w hen t h ed ead a r er e ca l led i nv a r iou sr i tua l s t o s tado ra ( Sp . )p an f o rt o a s t ing ma ize ,w hea t ,a nd b ean s( c f . k ' ana l lajank 'a ) t r ampa v a so ( Sp . )t r ick mug , made i nH uay cu l i t r uqhe ( Sp . ) s t o rage s t ruc tu re ( i nT ipa ja ra c i rcu la rs t ruc tu re o ns t i l t s ) t umba ( Sp . ) t omb . I nP umpu r it umba r e f e r st oa na l ta r made d u r ing T od o sS an to se i the ro ve rt h eg r av eo ri nt h eh ou s eo f t h ed ecea sed t um in ( Qu . C uzco )j a r sw i th ar e s t r ic ted n eck , u sed t oc a r ry c h icha o rc o l le c tw a te r ,( e qu iva len to f as ma l lp 'u f iu ) t u na ( Sp . ) O pun t ia f i cu s ind ica p r ick ly p ea r , ( Gade 1 975 , 1 92 ) ;c o ch inea lg row so nt h is p l an t t u nawa ( Qu . C uzco ) l a rge s t one , l i ke ah a lf moon i ns hape ,u sed t og r ind b yr o ck ing o nt op o f am a ran t u pu - ( Qu . ) m ea su re ( Ho rnbe rge r 1 983 ) t u ruwa su ( Qu . )w ooden b ow lw i th t wo b u l l sc a rved i nt h ec en t re ,u s ed f o rt h er i tua ld r ink ing o fc h icha . ( Sp . t o ro v a so b u l l c up ) t u tam ikhuy ( Qu . )e ven ing mea l( t u ta n igh t , m ikhu -e a t ) r an ta ( Qu . )b r ead . t ' an ta wawa : b read b aby made f o rT od o sS an to s t ' aqa -( Qu . )s c a t te r ,b roadca s ts e ed ( e .g . o fw hea to rb a r ley ) t ' aqu ( Qu . )c a rob t r e e( Sp . a lga r robo )u sed f o rf i r ing k i ln si nP a ra cay t ' i ka ( Qu . )f l ow e r t ' impu -( Qu . )b o i l . P umpur i : t ' impura f r o th t h a td ev e lop so nt h et o po ft h et i qh t ia st h e mo la s se si sb o i led f o rm ak ing c h icha t ' i nka ( Qu . C uzco ) l i ba t ion ( c f . c l ea l la ) t ' i nk i( Qu . ) j o ined ,i nd iv is ib le , u n ion o ft wo t h ing s( Ho rnbe rge r 1 9 83 ) . T ' ink iS eq 'ue racay : ad oub le s i ded v e s se lu sed f o r r i tua ld r ink ing ( c f . t a rkayu ru ) t ' u la / t 'u l la ( Qu . P o to s i ) L ep idoph i lum O uad rangu la re ( La ra 1 99 1 ) ab ru shwood u sed a sf u e l i nN o r the rn P o to s i t ' u ru ( Qu . )m ud o rc l ay . t ' u ru l ink i i -v e ry p l iab le /p la s t ic mud o rc l ay r ax s i( Ay . )f o unda t ion so f ah ou se ( A rno ld 1 992 ,2 56 )( c f . t e q s i ) u chu ( Qu . ) h o tc h i l l ip eppe r s u khu p acha ( Qu . ) i n ne r wo r ld o ft he Q ue chua c o smo s( c a l led m ankapacha i nA yma ra )t he u nde rwo r ld w he re t h ed ead ,t h e d ev i l sa nd t h e moun ta in l o rd sr e s ide u p i( Qu . ) u ppe r ,a lmo s tc l ea r , f r ac t ion o fc h icha t h a ts e t t le so u ti nt h ew i rq io rr ak i u qha r i l cu san ( Qu . P umpu r i ) l i t e ra l ly Ir i se u p( La ra 1 991) ,c o l loqu ia l ly r e f e r st ob r eakf a s t u rpu ( Qu . C uzco ) l a rge j a rw i th r e s t r ic ted n eck u sed t of e rmen tc h icha o rf o rs t o rage ( c f .p 'u l iu ) u shpha ( Qu . )a she s . u shpha k ancha ( Raqch i )a sh s t o re V i raqo cha ( Qu . )t h ec r ea to rd e i ty o ft h eI nka s V i r jü la ( Qu . )l o ca l i sed u nde r s tand ing o ft h ev i rg in Ma ry s e en a s am an if e s ta t ion o fP achamama ,t ow hom r i tua l l i ba t ion s a nd o f e r ing sa r e made v oca l( Sp . )c ommun i ty of i c ia lr e spon s ib le f o rc a l l i ng c ommun i ty m e e t ing s w ak 'a ( Qu . )r i tua l ly i mpo r tan tl o ca t ion o ro b je c t w ak i( Qu . R aqch i )s ha re c rop ing s y s tem w he re t h eo wne r' r en t s 'o u t af i e ld i ne xchange f o rh a lf t h ey i e ld Waman i( Qu . )m oun ta in d e i ty ( c f .A pu ) w anu ( Qu . )f e r t i l i se rn o rma l ly t h ed ung o fa n ima l sa nd b i rd s ,b u tn ow a l so u sed t od e sc r ibe c hem ica lf e r t i l i se r w a f iu ( Qu . )d ea th w aqcha ( Qu . )p oo r ,o rphan ,p e r son l a ck ing f am i ly o r an e two rk o fc ompad re s w a ranqa ( Qu . )t h ou sand w a rm i( Qu . )w oman ,w if e( c f .q ha r i -wa rm i ) w a s i( Qu . )h ous e . w a s iyuq h ous eho lde r . w a s ichaku yh ou se r oof ing w a t iya ( Qu . )e a r th o ven f o rb ak ing t ube r sa nd mea t( a l so c a l led p a cha m anka -C uzco ) w awa ( Qu . ) b aby ,y oung c h i ld w ayk 'u -( Qu . )c ook e . g .p apa w ayk 'u a r eb o i led p o ta toe s w ich ' i ( Qu . C uzco )s ha l low ,w ide -mou thed c on ta ine rw i th ac apa c i ty o f 1t o 5l i t re sa nd n o rma l ly w i th as i ng le h and le . w ich ' i( Qu . C ochabamba ,P o to s i ) at wo h and led j a rw i th ac apac i ty o ff r om 5 t o2 0 l i t re s w i i iapu ( Qu . )s p rou ted ( ma l ted ) ma ize o rb a r ley u sed t o make c h icha w i rq i ( Qu .P o to s i ,C ochabamba ) l a rge w ide -mou thed j a ru sed t ob r ew c h icha a nd f o rs t o rage ( c f . r ak i ) y ana ( Qu . )b l ack y ana /yanakuna ( Qu . ) g roup o fp eop le ( of t en t ho se w ho h ad b een d e f ea ted b yt h eI nka ) who w e re d i re c t ly a n swe rab le t ot h e I nka a nd s o mo re e a s i ly c on t ro l led t h an t ho se w ho h ad t ob er e que s ted t h rough g ene rou sf e a s t ing e t c y anapa -( Qu . )h e lp ,a s s i s tance . y anapay / vo lun tad /ayuda f r ee ly g i v en h e lp t h a ti sn o tr e co rded f o rr e paymen t( c f . a yn i ) y apa /yap i ta ( Qu . )a dd o n ,a ugmen t , g i ve ab onu s( al i t t le e x t ra g i v en a tt h ee nd o fe xchange t r an sa c t ion s ) y a r i ta ( Qu . P o to s i )a zo re l la y a re ta ( La ra 1 99 1) ,t h ick l i chen l ike p l an tu sed a s af u e l y a t i r i( Qu . )o ne w ho k now s /ha sl e a rn t ,r e f e r st o ah ea le ro rs omeone k now ledgab le a bou tr i tua l s( c f . c u rand e ro ) y e so ( Sp . )p l a s te r ,g yp sum ( Qu . C uzco p acha s ) y u raq ( Qu . )w h i te y u ru ( Qu . P o to s i )j ug w i th as i ng le h and le , 1 10 l i t re sc apa c i ty 2 04
B ib l iog raphy
A be rc romb ie T . 1 986 . T he p o l i t ic so fs acr i fke : a nA yma ra c o smo logy i na c t ion . P hD d i s se r ta t ion , U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago , I l ino i s . A lbe r t i G . a nd E . Maye r 1 974 . R ec ip roc idad And ina : a ye r yh oy . I nG . A lbe r t i a nd E . Maye r( ed s ) R ec iproc idad e i n tercamb io e nl o sA nd e sP eruano s . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s : 1 3 -36 . A lb6 X . 1 974 . S an ta V e ra C ruz T a t i ta .A l lpanch i s 7 :1 63 -216 . A ldende rf e rM .S . ( ed . ) 1 993 . D ome s t ic a rch i tec tu re , e t hn ic i ty , a nd c omp lemen ta r i ty i nt h eS ou th -Cen t ra lA nd e s . I owa : U n ive r s i ty o fI owa P re s s . A ldende rf e rM .S . a nd C . S t an i sh 1 993 . Dome s t ic a r ch i tec tu re ,h ou seho ld a r chaeo logy , a nd t he p a s ti nt h eS ou th -Cen t ra l Ande s . I nM .S .A ldende rf e r( ed . ) D ome s t ic a r ch i tec ture , e thn ic i ty , a nd c omp lemen ta r i ly i nt h eS ou th -Cen tra l A nd e s . I owa : U n ive r s i ty o fI owa P re s s : 1 12 . A l len C .J . 1 982 . B ody a nd s ou l i nQ uechua t hough t . J ourna lo fL a t in Amer ican L ore 8 (2 ) : 1 79 -196 . A l len C .J . 1 984 . P a t te rned t ime : t h e my th ic h i s to ry o f aP e ruv ian c ommun i ty J ourna lo fL a t in Ame r ican L ore 1 0 (2 ) : 1 511 73 . A l len C .J . 1 988 . T he h o ld l i f eh a s : c oca a nd c u l tu ra li d en t i ty i na nA nd ean c ommun i ty . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s . A l len C .J . 1 991 . When p ebb le s move moun ta ins : i c on ic i ty a nd s ymbo l ism i nQ uechua i nvoca t ion . P ape rp re sen ted a tt he s ympo s ium ' T ex tua l i ty i n Ame r ind ian c u l tu re s : p roduc t ion ,r ecep t ion , s t ra teg ie s ' , I n s t i tu te o fL a t in Ame r ican S tud ie s , L ondon , May 1 99 1 . A nde r sM . , V . C hang , L .T okuda , S . Qu i roz ,I .S h imada 1 994 P roducc ion C e ram ica d e l H o r izon te Med io T emp rano e n Maym i ,V a l le d eP i sco , P e ru . I n I . Shünada ( e d . ) T ecno log ia y o rgan i zac ion d el ap roducc ion d ec e ram ica p reh i span ica e nl o sA nd e s L ima , P on t if ic ia U n ive r s idad C a to l ica d e l P e ru : 2 49 -267 . A nn i sM .B . 1 988 . Mode so fp roduc t ion a nd t he u se o fs pace i np o t te r s ' w o rk shop s i nS a rd in ia : ac hang ing p i c tu re . N ew s le t ter o ft h eD epar tmen to fP o t tery T echno logy 6 .U n ive r s i ty o fL e iden : 4 7 -78 . Min is M .B . a nd H . G ee r tman 1 987 . P roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fc ook ing w a re i nS a rd in ia . N ew s le t ter o ft h eD epar tmen t o fP o t ter yT echno logy 5 U n ive r s i ty o fL e iden : 1 54 196 . A ppadu ra iA . ( ed . ) 1 986 . T he S oc ia lL if eo fT h ing s : c ommod i t ie si nc u l tu ra lp er spec t ive . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive rs i ty P re s s . A ppadu ra iA . 1 986 . I n t roduc t ion : c ommod i t ie sa nd t h ep o l i t ic so fv a lue . I nA . A ppadu ra i( ed . ) T he s oc ia ll i f eo ft h ing s : c ommod i t ie si nc u l tu ra lp er spec t ive . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s : 3 -63 . A rno ld D .E . 1 972 Mo ld -made p o t te r s ' ma rk sf r om t h ed epa r tmen to fA pu r imac , P e rü . E thno s Na t iona l Mu seum o f E thnog raphy o fS t ockho lm 1 ( 4 ) : 8 1-7 . A rno ld D .E . 1 985 . C eram ic t h eory a nd c u l tu ra lp roce s s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . A rno ld D .E . 1 989 P a t te rn so fl e a rn ing ,r e s idence a nd d e scen ta mong p o t te r s i nT icu l , Yuca tan , Mex ico . I nS .S he rman ( ed . ) A rchaeo log ica lA pproache st oC u l tura lI d en t i ty U nw in H yman : 1 74 184 . A rno ld D .E . 1 993 . E co logy a nd c eram ic p roduc t ion i na nA nd ean c ommun i ty . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . A rno ld D .Y . 1 988 . Ma tr i l inea lp rac t ice i n ap a tr i l inea ls e t t ing : r i tua la nd m e taphor so fk i n sh ip i na nA nd ean a y l lu . P h .D . d i sse r ta t ion , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , L ondon . A rno ld D .Y . 1 992 . L ac a sa d ea dobe s yp iedra sd e lI nka :g ene ro , memo r ia yc o smo se n Q aqachaka . I nD .Y . A rno ld ,D . J ündnez a nd J . de D .Y ap i ta Hac ia u no rd en A nd ino d el a sc o sa s . L aP az : H isboU ILCA : 3 1108 A rno ld P . J . I I 1 99 1 . D ome s t ic c eram ic p roduc t ion a nd s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion : aMex ican c a se s t ud yi ne t hnoa r chaeo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . A r r iaga P . J . 1 968 . T he e x t irpa t ion o fi do la try i nP eru ( e d . a nd t r an s . , L .C la rk K ea t ing ) . L ex ing ton : U n ive r s i ty P re s so f K en tucky . A s sadou r ian C .S . 1 987 . I n te rcamb io se n l o st e r r i to r io si t n ico se n t re 1 530 y 1 567 s egün l a sv i s i ta sd eH uänuco yC hucu i to . I n0 . H a r r is ,B .L a r son a nd E .T ande te r( e d s )L ap ar t ic ipac ion i nd igena e nl o sm er cados S u rand ino s : e s tra teg ia sy r eproducc iön s oc ia ls i g lo s XV I aXX . L aP az : CERES : 6 5 -110 B abb F .E . 1 989 . B e tw een f i e ld a nd c ook ing p o t : t h ep o l i t ica le conomy o f ma rk e twomen i nP eru . Au s t in : U n ive r s i ty o f T exa sP re s s . B a i ley G .N . , M .R . D e i th a nd N .J . S hack le ton 1 983 O xygen i s o tope a na ly s is a nd s e a sona l i ty d e te rm ina t ion s : l i m i t sa nd p o ten t ia lo f an ew t e chn ique Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 8 : 3 90 -8 . B anke sG . 1 985 . T he manuf ac tu re a nd c i rcu la t ion o fp add le a nd a nv i lp o t te ry o nt he n o r th c oa s to fP e ru . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 7 : 2 69 -277 . B a r -Jo sef 0 . a nd A . B e lf e r -Cohen 1 989 T he o r ig in so fs eden t ism a nd f a rm ing c ommun i t ie si nt he L evan t J ou rna lo f Wor ld P reh i s tory 3 (4 ) 4 47 -498 . B a r ley N . 1 994 . Sma sh ing p o t s :f ea t so fc lay f rom Af r i ca . L ondon : B r i t ish Mu seum P re s s . B a r re t tJ .1 989 . F ood ,g ende ra nd me ta l : q ue s t ion so fs o c ia lr ep roduc t ion . I nM .L . S t ig S o ren sen a nd R .T homa s( ed s ) T he B ronze Age -I ron A ge t r an s i t ion i nE urope . O xf o rd : B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l s e r ie s4 83 : 3 04 -320 B a r th F . 1 967 . On t he s t udy o fs oc ia lc hange . Ame r i can A n thropo log i s t 6 9 : 6 6 1-669 .
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Ar ef inemen to ft he c oncep to fh ou seho ld : f am i l ie s , c o re s idence , a nd d ome s t ic f unc t ions . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t6 9 : 4 93 -504 . B ene r ia L .a nd G . S en 1 981 . A ccumu la t ion ,r ep roduc t ion , a nd w omen 's r o le i ne conom ic d eve lopmen t : B o se rup r ev is i ted . S ign s7 ( 2 ) : 2 79 -298 . B e rmann M . 1 994 . L ukurma ta : h ou seho ld a rchaeo logy i np reh i span ic B o l iv ia . P r ince ton : P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re s s . B e r ry W . 1 98 1 . A na g r icu l tu ra lj ourney i nP e ru ( 1979 ) . I nT he g if to fg ood l and :f u r ther e s say sc u l tu ra la nd a gr icu l tu ra l . S an F ranc isco : No r th P o in tP re s s : 3 -47 . B e r ton io P .L . [ 1 6 12 ] 1 984 . V ocabu lar io d el al e ngua A ymara . C o chabamba : CERES . B inf o rd L .R . ( e d . ) 1 977 . F or t h eory b u i ld ing i na rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . B inf o rd L .R . 1 962 . A rchaeo logy a sa n th ropo logy . 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N ew Y o rk : P lenum P re s s . B l i tze rH . 1 990 . K opone ika : s t o rage ja rp roduc t ion a nd t r ade i nt h et r ad i t iona lA egean . H e sper ia 5 9 (4 ) : 6 75 -7 11 . B o l ton R . 1 974 . T awanku : v incu lo si n te rma r i ta le s . I nG . A lbe r t ia nd E . Maye r( eds ) R ec iproc idad ei n tercamb io e nl o s A nd e sP eruano s . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s : 1 53 170 . B o l ton R . a nd E . Maye r( ed s ) 1 977 . And ean k i n sh ip a nd mar r iag e . S pe c ia lp ub l ica t ion o ft he Ame r ican An th ropo log ica l A s soc ia t ion No . 7 . B ou rd ieu P . 1 977 . O u t l ine o f at heory o fpr ac t ice . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . B ou rd ieu , P . 1 979 T he K aby l ie h ou se . I n , B ou rd ieu ,P .A lger ia 1 960 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s :133 -53 . B ou rque B .J . ,K . Mo r r i sa nd A . S p ie s s 1 978 D e te rm in ing t he s e a son o fd ea th o f mamma lt e e th f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s : a n ew s e c t ion ing t e chn ique S c ience 1 99 : 5 30 -31 B ouy s se -Ca ssagne T .a nd 0 . H a r r is 1 987 . P acha : e nt o rno a lp ensam ien to A yma ra . I nT .B ouy s se -Ca s sagne , 0 . H a r r i s , T . P la t ta nd V . C e receda ( ed s ) T re sr e f lex ione ss obre e lp en sam ien to A nd ino . L aP az : H isbo l : 1 -60 . B radby B . 1 982 . ' R e s i s tance t oc ap i ta l ism ' i nt he P e ruv ian Ande s . I n D . L ehmann ( ed . ) E co logy a nd e xchange i nt he A nd e s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 9 7 -122 . B rad ley R . a nd M . E dmond s 1 993 . I n terpre t ing t h ea xe t r ad e . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . B raun D .P . 1 99 1 . Why d eco ra te ap o t? M idwe s te rn h ou seho ld p o t te ry ,2 00 B .C . -A .D .600 . J ou rna lo fA n thropo log ica l A r chaeo logy 1 0 : 3 60 -397 . B r inkhu izen D .C .a nd A .T . C la son ( ed s ) 1 986 F i sh a nd A rchaeo logy . S tud ie s i nO s teome tr y , T aphonomy , S ea sona l i ty a nd F i sh ing . O xf o rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s , I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s4 1 : 4 78 -84 . B ron i t sky G . 1 986 . T he u se o f ma te r ia l ss c ience t e chn ique si nt h es t udy o fp o t te ry c ons t ruc t ion a nd u se . I nM . B . S ch if f e r ( ed . ) Ad vance s i na rchaeo log ica lm e thod a nd t h eor y 9 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 2 09 -276 . B ron i t sky G . a nd R .H ame r 1 986 . E xpe r imen t si nc e ram ic t e chno logy : t h ee f e c t so fv a r iou st empe r ing ma te r ia ls o n i mpac t a nd t he rma l -shock r e s is tance . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 1( 1) : 8 9 10 1 . B rowman D .L . 1 974a . P a s to ra ln omad ism i nt he Ande s . C ur ren tA n thropo logy 1 5 (2 ) : 1 88 -196 . B rowman D .L . 1 974b . T rade p a t te rns i nt he C en t ra lH igh land so fP e ru i nt h ef i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . W or ld A rchaeo logy 6 (2 ) : 3 22 -329 . B ru sh S .B . 1 977 . K in sh ip a nd l a nd u se i n an o r the rn s i e r ra c ommun i ty . I nR . B o l ton a nd E . Maye r( e d s )A nd ean k in sh ip a nd m a r r iage . S pec ia lp ub l ica t ion o ft he Ame r ican An th ropo log ica lA s soc ia t ion No .7 : 1 36 152 . B ryan tD .D . a nd M .J . B rody 1 986 . Mode rn a nd p reh is to r ic Maya p o t te ry manuf ac tu re . C eram ica d eC u l tura Maya e ta l . 1 4 : 7 3 -86 . B uech le rH .C . 1 980 . T he ma sked m ed ia :A yma ra f i e s ta sa nd s oc ia li n terac t ion i nt he B o l iv ian h igh land s . T he H ague : Mou ton P ub l ishe r s . B uech le rH .C .a nd J -M . B uech le r 1 992 . Manuf ac tu r ing a ga in s tt h eo dd s :s ma l l sca le p roducer s i na nA nd ean c i ty . B ou lde r : We s tv iew P re s s . B uech le rJ -M . 1 983 . T rade a nd ma rke ti nB o l iv ia b ef o re 1 953 : a ne t hno log i s ti nt he g a rden o fe t hnoh i s to ry . E thnoh i s to ty 3 0 (2 ) : 1 07 -119 . B u reha rd RE . 1 974 . C oca yt r ueque d ea l imen to s . I n G . A lbe r t i a nd E . Maye r( ed s ) R ec iproc idad ei n tercamb io e nl o s A nd e sP e ruano s . L ima : I ns t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s : 2 09 -251 . 2 06
B ib l iog raphy B u rge rR .L . 1 989 . An o ve rv iew o fP e ruv ian a r chaeo logy ( 1976 -1986 ) . Annua lR e v iew o fA n thropo logy 1 8 : 3 7 -69 . C ah i l l D . 1 990 . H is to ry a nd a n th ropo logy i nt h es t udy o fA ndean s oc ie t ie s . B u l le t in o fL a t in Ame r ican R e sear ch 9 ( 1) : 1 23 1 32 . C ampbe l lC . 1 987 . T he R oman t ic e t h ic a nd t h es p ir i to fm od ern c on sumer i sm . O xf o rd : B lackwe l l . C ä rdena s Ma r t in M .O . 1 994 P la to sd eA lf a re ro sd ee n t ie r ro sd e l f o rma t ivo t a rd io e n l ac o s ta c en t ra l d e l P e ru . I n I . Sh imada ( e d . ) T ecno log ia yo rgan i zac ion d el ap roducc ion d ec eram ica p reh i span ica e nl o sA nd e s L ima , P on t if ic ia U n ive r s idad C a to l ica d e lP e ru : 1 73 -200 . C a rm ichae lP .H . 1 994 C e ram ica N a sca : P roduc c ion yc on tex to s oc ia l I n I . Sh imada ( e d . ) T ecno log ia yo rgan i zac ion d el a p roducc ion d ec eram ica p reh i span ica e nl o sA nd e s L ima , P on t if ic ia U n ive r s idad C a to l ica d e lP e ru : 2 29 -247 . C a r s ten J .a nd S .H ugh -Jone s ( 1995 ) . I n t roduc t ion . I nJ .C a r s ten a nd S . Hugh -Jone s( ed s )A bou tt h eh ou se : L iT i -S t rau s s a nd b eyond . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C a r te rW .E . 1 977 . T r ia l ma r r iage i nt he Ande s . I nR .B o l ton a nd E . Maye r( ed s )A nd ean k i n sh ip a nd m ar r iage . S pec ia l p ub l ica t ion o ft he Ame r ican An th ropo log ica lA s so c ia t ion No . 7 : 1 77 -216 . C a r te rW .E . a nd Maman iP .M . 1 989 .I rpa C h ico : i nd iv iduo yc omun idad e nl ac u l tu ra A yma ra . L aP az : L ibe r ia E d i to r ia l ' J uven tud ' . C e rec eda V . 1 987 . Ap rox imac ione s au na e s te t ica A nd ina : d el ab e l leza a lt i nku . I nT .B ouy s se -Ca s sagne , 0 . H a r r i s , T . P la t ta nd V . C e receda ( ed s ) T re sr ef l ex ione ss obr ee lp en sam ien to A nd ino . L aP az : H isbo l : 1 33 -231 . C ha r te r sS . ,R .P . E ve r shed ,L . J . G oad , A . L eyden ,P .W . B l inkho rn ,a nd V . D enham 1 993 Q uan t if ica t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f l i p id i na rchaeo log ica lc e ram ic s : i mp l ica t ion sf o rs amp l ing p o t she rd sf o ro rgan ic r e s idue a na ly s i sa nd t he c l a s s if ica t ion o fv e s se lu se A r chaeome t iy 3 5 (2 ) : 2 11-221 . C hävez K .L . Moh r 1 987 . T rad i t iona lp o t te ry o fR aqch ' i , C uzco , P e ru : ap re l im ina ry s t udy o fi t sp roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c on sump t ion . Rawpa P acha 2 2 -23 ( 1984 -5 ) : 1 6 1-2 10 . C hävez K .L . Moh r 1 992 . T he o rgan isa t ion o fp roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft r ad i t iona lp o t te ry i nS ou th H igh land P e ru . I n G .J . B ey I Ia nd C .A . P oo l( ed s )C eram i cp roduc t ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion : a n i n tegra ted a pproach . B ou lde r : We s tv iew P re s s : 4 9 -92 . C hayanov A .V . [ 1923-5 ] 1 966 . T he t heory o fpe a san te conomy . H omewood : T he Ame r ican E conom ic A s soc ia t ion . C h i lde V .G . [ 1956 ] 1 981 . Man make sh im se lf L ondon : Moon rake rP re s sa nd P i tman P ub l ish ing L td . C h i lde V .G . 1 956 . P iec ing t oge ther t he p a s t : t h ei n terpre ta t ion o fa rchaeo log ica ld a ta . L ondon : R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l . C la rk J .G .D . 1 938 . R e indee rh un te r s ' s umme rc amp si nB r i ta in? P roceed ing so ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 :2 29 C la rk J .G .D . 1 965 . T ra f i ci ns t one a xe a nd a dze b l ade s . E conom ic H i s tory R ev iew 2 nd S e r ie s 1 8 : 1 28 . C la rk J .G .D . 1 986 . S ymbo l so fe xce l lence :p rec iou sm a ter ia l sa se xpre s s ion so fs t a tu s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C obo B .[ 1 653 ] 1 988 . H i s tory o ft h eI nca e mp i re : a na ccoun to ft h e i nd ian s 'c u s tom sa nd t h e i ro r ig in t oge ther w i th a t r ea t i se o nI nca l egend s , h i s tory a nd s oc ia li n s t i tu t ion s . T rans la ted a nd e d i ted b yR o land H am i l ton . Au s t in : U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP re s s . C obo B .[ 1 653 ] 1 990 . I nca r e l ig ion a nd c u s tom s . T ran s la ted a nd e d i ted b yR o land H am i l ton . Au s t in : U n ive r s i ty o fT exa s P re ss . C ohen M .N . 1 977 . T he f ood c r i s i si np reh i s to ty :o verpopu la t ion a nd t he o r ig in so fa g r icu l tu re . N ew H aven a nd L ondon : Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C o le sJ .1 973 . A rchaeo logy b ye xper imen t L ondon : H u tch in son a nd C o . C o l l ingwood R .G . [ 1946 ] 1 986 . T he i d ea o fh i s tory . O xf o rd : O xf o rd Un ive r s i ty P re s s . C o l ton H .S . 1 951 . H op ip o t te ry f i r ing t empe ra tu re s . P la teau 2 4 (2 ) : 7 3 -76 . C ondo r i Maman iG . 1 982 . G regor io C ond or i Maman i :A u tob iog ra f ia . R eco rded a nd t r ans la ted b yR .V a lde r rama F e rnandez a nd C . E sca lan te Gu t ie r rez . C uzco : C en t ro d ee s tud io sr u ra le sA nd ino s' Ba r to lm6 d el a sc a sa s ' . C on rad G .W . a nd A .A . D ema re s t 1 984 R e l ig ion a nd Emp i re : t h ed ynam ic so fA z tec a nd I nca e xpan s ion C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive rs i ty P re s s . C o s t in C .L . 1 991 . C raf ts pec ia l iza t ion : i s sue si nd ef in ing , d ocumen t ing , a nd e xp la in ing t he o rgan iza t ion o fp roduc t ion . I n M . S ch if f e r( ed . )A r chaeo log ica lm e thod a nd t h eory 3 :1 56 . C o s t in C .L . a nd T .K . E a r le 1 989 . S ta tu sd i s t inc t ion a nd l e g i t ima t ion o fp owe ra sr ef lec ted i nc hang ing p a t te rn so f c onsump t ion i nl a te p reh i span ic P e ru . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 4 (4 ) : 6 9 1-714 . C o s t in C .L . , T .K . E a r le , B . Owen a nd G . R u s se l l 1 989 . T he i mpac to ft he I nca c onque s to n l o ca lt e chno logy i nt h eU ppe r Man ta ro V a l ley , P e ru . I nS .E . V an d e rL eeuw a nd R . T o r rence ( ed s ) Wha t ' sn ew? L ondon : U nw in H yman : 1 07 1 39 . C re s swe l lR . 1 972 . L e st r o i ss ou rce sd ' une t e chno log ie n ouve l le . I nJ .T homa sa nd L .B e rno t L angue se tt e chn ique s , n a tu re e ts ocWM I :A pproche e thno log ique , a pproche n a tu ra l i s te . P a r i s : K l inck s ieck : 2 1-27 . C re s sw e l lR . 1 976 . ' Avan t -p ropo s ' T echn ique se tC u l tu re 1 :5 -6 C re s sw e l lR . 1 990 . ' AN ew T echno logy 'r ev i s i ted . A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C ambr idg e 9 ( 1) : 3 9 -54 . C r ickmay L . 1 993 . I na nd o u ta nd r ound a bou t : g ende ra nd me tapho r i n 1 7 th c en tu ry A yma ra a nd Q ue chua t e rms f o rw oven l im i t s . 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Maye r( e d s )A nd ean k in sh ip a nd ma rr iage . S pec ia l p ub l ica t ion o ft h e Ame r ican A n th ropo log ica lA s soc ia t ion No . 7 : 17 136 . C u t le rH .C . a nd M . C a rdena s 1 981 . C h icha , u na c e rveza s udame r icana . I nH .L e ch tman a nd A . M . S o ld i ( e d s ) R unakunap k aw sayn inkupaq r ura sqankunaqa : l at e cno log ia e ne l mundo A nd ino . Mex ico : 2 47 -259 . D 'A l t roy T .N . 1 992 . P rov inc ia lp ower i nt he I nka e mp ire . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i th son ian I ns t i tu te P re s s . D 'A l t roy T .N . a nd C .A . H a s to rf n .d . I n t roduc t ion I nT .N . D 'A l t roy a nd C .A . H a s to rf ( ed s ) Emp i re a nd d ome s t ic e conomy . Wa sh ing ton : S m i th son ian I n s t i tu te P re s s . ( i np re s s ) D 'A l t roy T .N . a nd R .L . B i shop 1 990 . T he p rov inc ia lo rgan isa t ion o fI nka c e ram ic p roduc t ion . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 5 ( 1) : 1 20 137 . D 'A l t roy T .N . a nd T .K . E a r le 1 985 . 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D av id N . ,J .S t e rne ra nd K . G avua 1 988 . Why p o t sa re d eco ra ted . C ur ren tA n th ropo logy 2 9 (3) : 3 65 -389 . D eBoe rW .R . 1 984 . T he l a s tp o t te ry s how : s y s tem sa nd s ense i nc e ram ic s t ud ie s . I nS .E . v an d e r L eeuw a nd A .C . P r i tcha rd ( ed s ) T he m any d imen s ion so fpo t tery : c eram ics i na rchaeo logy a nd a n thropo logy . C ingv la 7 . Ams te rdam : A lbe r t E gge sV an G if f en I n s t i tuu tv oo rp rae - e n p ro toh is to r ie : 2 5 -54 . D eBoe rW .R . 1 99 1 . T he d eco ra t ive b u rden : d e s ign , med ium , a nd c hange . I nW .A . L ongac re ( ed .) C eram ic e thnoa rchaeo log y . T u scon : U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s : 1 44 -16 1 . D eBoe rW .R . a nd D .W . L a th rap 1 979 . T he mak ing a nd b reak ing o fS h ip ibo -Con ibo c e ram ic s . I nC . K rame r( ed . ) E thnoa r chaeo logy : i mp l ica t ion so fe thnog raphy f or a rchaeo logy : 1 02 138 . D eBoe rW .R . a nd J .A . Moo re 1 982 . T he mea su remen ta nd mean ing o fs t y l i s t ic d i ve r s i ty . S Tawpa P acha 2 0 : 1 47 -162 . D ee re C .D . 1 990 . H ou seho ld a nd c la s sr e la t ion s :p ea san t sa nd l and lord si nN or thern P eru . Un ive r s i ty o fC a l if o rn ia P re s s . D ee tz J .1 967 . I nv i ta t ion t oa rchaeo logy . G a rden C i ty N ew Y o rk : N a tu ra lH i s to ry P re s s . D ee tz J .1 977 . I ns ma l lt h ing sf orgo t ten . N ew Yo rk : Ancho rB ook s . D onnan C .B . 1 971 . A nc ien tP e ruv ian p o t te r s ' ma rk sa nd t he i ri n te rp re ta t ion t h rough e thnog raph ic a na logy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6 (4 ) :4 39 -446 . D oug las M . 1 966 ( 1989 ) P ur i ty a nd Danger : a na na ly s i so ft h ec oncep t so fpo l lu t ion a nd t aboo L ondon : ARK , R ou t ledge . D oug la sM . 1 97 1 . D ec iphe r ing amea l . I nC . G ee r tz ( ed .) My th , s ymbo la nd c u l tu r e . N ew Yo rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 6 1-81 . D oug la sM . a nd B .I s he rwood 1 979 . T he w or ld o fg ood s : t oward sa na n th ropo logy o fc on sump t ion . L ondon : P engu in . D ove rR .V .H . ,K .E . S e ibo ld a nd J .H . Mcdowe l l( ed s ) 1 992 A nd ean c o smo log ie st h rough t ime :p er s i s tence a nd e mergence . B loom ing ton : I nd iana Un ive r s i ty P re s s . D tuna G . 1 972 . P ho spha te c on ten to fa nc ien tp o t sa si nd ica t ion o fu se . C u r ren tA n thropo logy 1 3 : 1 27 -129 . Dunne l lR .C . 1 978 . S t y le a nd f unc t ion : af undamen ta l d i cho tomy Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 3 (2 ) : 1 93 -202 . E a r le T . 1 981 . C ommen to nR ice ' Evo lu t ion o fs pec ia l ized p o t te ry p roduc t ion : at r ia l mode l ' . C urren tA n thropo logy 2 2 (3 ) : 2 30 -231 . E a r le T . a nd J .E r ic son ( e d s ) 1 977 . E xchange s y s tem si np reh i s tory . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . E dgewor th M . 1 990 . A na logy a sp rac t ica lr ea son :t he p e rcep t ion o fo b jec t si ne xcava t ion p rac t ice . A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C ambr idge 9 (2 ) : 2 43 -251 . E dho lm F . ,0 . H a r r is a nd K . Young 1 977 . C oncep tua l is ing w omen . C r i t ique o fA n thropo logy 3( 9 -10 ) : 1 0 1130 . E dmond sM . 1 990 . D e sc r ip t ion , u nde r s tand ing a nd t he ' c ha ine o pe ra to i re ' A rchaeo log ica lR ev iewf rom C ambr idge 9 ( 1) : 5 5 -70 . E dmond sM . 1 993 . T owa rd s ac on tex tf o rp roduc t ion a nd e xchange : t he p o l i shed a xe i ne a r l ie r Neo l i th ic B r i ta in . I nC . S ca r re a nd F .H ea ly T rad ea nd e xchange i np reh i s tor ic E urope . O xf o rd : O xbow Monog raph 3 3 : 6 9 -86 . E dmond sM . a nd J .T homa s 1 987 . T he a rche r s , a n e ve ryday s t o ry o fc oun t ry f o lk . I nM . E dmond sa nd A . B rown ( ed s ) L i th ic a na ly s i sa nd l a ter B r i t i sh p reh i s tory . Oxf o rd : B .A .R . B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 62 : 1 87 -198 E nge ls F .[ 1884 ] 1 972 . T he o r ig in o ft h ef am i ly ,p r iva te p roper ty , a nd t h es t a te . N ew Yo rk : P a thf inde rP re s s . E nv i ronmen ta lA r chaeo lo gy Vo lume 3 .1 998 T he J ou rna l o fH uman P a laeoeco logy p ub l ished b y Oxbow b ook s , O xf o rd . S pec ia li s sue o n S ea sona l i ty 2 08
B ib l iog raphy E r ic son J .a nd T .E a r le ( ed s ) 1 982 . C on tex t sf or p reh i s tor i ce xchange . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . E van s -P r i tcha rd E . 1 940 . T he Nuer . O xf o rd : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . F e ldman R .A . 1 983 . F rom ma r i t ime c h ief dom t oa g r icu l tu ra l s t a te i nf o rma t ive c oa s ta lP e ru . I nR .L even tha la nd A . K o la ta ( e d s ) C iv i l i sa t ion i nt h ea nc ien t Ame r ica s : e s say si nh onou ro fG ordon R W i l ley . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s : 2 89 -310 . F ewke sJ .W . 1 900 . T u seyan m igra t ion t r ad i t ion s . B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy 1 9 th Annua l R epo r t . F igue roa A . 1 982 . P roduc t ion a nd ma rke te xchange i np ea san te conom ie s : t he c a se o ft he S ou the rn H igh land si nP e ru . I n D . L ehmann ( ed . ) E co logy a nd e xchang ei nt h eA nd e s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 23 -156 . F ine B . 1 995 F rom P o l i t ica lE conomy t oC onsump t ion . I nD . M i l le r( ed . )A cknow ledg ing C on sump t ion : ar ev iew o fn ew s t ud ie s L ondon : R ou t ledge : 1 27 -163 . F io ravan t i -Mo l in i A . 1 982 . Mu l t i leve l led Andean s oc ie ty a nd m a rke te xchange : t he c a se o fY ucay ( Pe ru ) . I n D . L ehmann ( e d . ) E co logy a nd e xchange i nt h eA nd e s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s : 2 11-230 . F lanne ry K .V . 1 972 . A rchaeo logy w i th ac ap i ta l S . I n C . R edman ( ed . ) R e search a nd t h eory i nc u r ren ta rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk : W i ley : 4 7 -53 . F lo re sO choa J .A . 1 976 . E nqa , e nqaychu , i lay yk huya r um i : a spec to s mäg ico re l ig io so se n t re p a s to re s . J ou rna lo fL a t in Amer ican L ore 2 : 1 : 15 -134 . F lo re s -Ochoa J .A . 1 979 . P a s tora l i s t so ft h eA nd e s ( t rans la ted b yR .B o l ton ) . P h i lade lph ia : I n s t i tu te f o rt h eS tudy o fH uman I s sue s . F o rd J .A . 1 953 Measu remen t so fs ome p reh i s to r ic d e s ign d eve lopmen t si nt he s ou thea s te rn s t a te s A n thropo log ica lP aper s o ft h e Amer ican Mu seum o fNa tura lH i s to ry 4 4 (3 ) . F o rd J .A . 1 954a . On t he c oncep to ft y pe s . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 5 6 : 4 2 -57 . F o rd J .A . 1 954b . C ommen to nA .C . S pau ld ing ' S ta t is t ica lt e chn ique sf o rt he d i scove ry o fa r t if ac tt y pe s . ' Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 1 9 : 3 90 -391 . F o s te rG .M . 1 962 . T rad i t iona lc u l ture sa nd t h e i mpac to ft e chno log ica lc hange . N ew Yo rk : H a rpe ra nd R ow . F o s te rG .M . 1 965 a . T he s o c io logy o fp o t te ry : q ue s t ion sa nd a n sw e r sa r is ing f r om Mex ican w o rk . I n F .R . Ma t son ( e d . ) C eram ic sa nd man . C h icago : A ld ine : 4 3 -61 . F o s te rG .M . 1 965 b . P ea san ts oc ie ty a nd t he i mage o fL im i ted G ood Amer ican An thropo log i s t6 7 : 2 93 -315 . F o s te rG .M . 1 967 . T z in t zun t zan : Mex ican p ea san t si n ac hang ing w or ld B o s ton : L i t t le ,B rown a nd C o . F ranke E .R . 1 992 . C h i j iJ aw ira : ac a se f or a t tached s pec ia l i sa t ion a tT iwanaku . M .A . T he s i s , U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago , I l ino i s . F ranken H .J a nd J . Ka lsbeek 1 975 . T he p o t ter so f am ed ieva lv i l lage i nt h eJ ordan V a l ley . Ams te rdam : N o r th -Ho l land C e ram ic S tud ie si nA rchaeo logy No .3 . F ranken s te in S .a nd M . R ow lands 1 978 . T he i n te rna l s t ruc tu re a nd r eg iona lc on tex to fE a r ly I r on Age s oc ie ty . B u l le t in o f t he I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy 1 5 : 7 3 -112 . F raze rJ .[ 1 890 ] 1 974 . T he g o ld en b ough . L ondon : Mac M i l lan . F ree s tone I . ,C .J ohns a nd T .P o t te r( ed s ) 1 982 . C u rren tr e sea r ch i nc eram ic s : t h in s ec t ion s t ud ie s . L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona l P ape r No .32 . G ade D . 1 975 . P lan t s , man a nd t h el and i nt h e V i lcano ta V a l ley o fP eru . T he H ague : D rW . J unk B .V . G ade D . a nd M . E scoba r 1 982 . V i l lage s e t t lemen ta nd t he c o lon ia ll e gacy i nS ou the rn P e ru . G eograph ica lR ev iew 7 2 : 9 30 9 49 . G a rc i la so d el aV ega [ 1612 ] 1 989 . R oya lc ommen tar ie so ft h eI nca sa nd g enera lh i s tory o fP eru t r an s la ted b yH . V . L ive rmo re . Au s t in : Un ive r s i ty o fT exa sP re s s . G e l lA . 1 992 . T he a n thropo logy o ft ime : c u l tura lc on s t ruc t ion so ft empora l map sa nd i mage s . Oxf o rd : B e rg . G e ro J .M . 1 992 . F ea s t sa nd f ema le s : g ende ri d eo logy a nd p o l i t ica l mea ls i nt he Ande s . N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 2 5 ( 1) : 1 5 -30 . G iba ja d eV a lenc ia A . 1 984 S ecuenc ia C u l tu ra ld e0 1 1an tay tambo . I nA . K enda l l ( ed . ) C u r ren tA rchaeo log ica lP ro jec t s i n t h eC en tra l And e s : s ome a pproache sa nd r e su l t s O xf o rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s2 10 : 2 25 -246 G iddens A . 1 979 . C en tra lp rob lem s i ns oc ia lt h eory . L ondon : Macm i l lan G idden sA . 1 984 . T he c on s t i tu t ion o fs oc ie ty . C amb r idge : P o l i ty P re s s . G if f o rd D . a nd P . Hogga r th 1 976 . C a rn iva la nd c oca l eaf :s ome t r ad i t ion so ft h e Quechua a y l lu . E d inbu rgh : S co t t ish A cadem ic P re s s . G i rau l tL . 1 987 . Ka l lawaya : c urand ero s i t neran te sd el o sA nd e s . L aP az : UN ICEF / Qu ipu s . G la s s ie ,H . 1 975 F o lk h ou s ing i nm idd le V i rg in ia : As t ruc tu ra la na ly s i so fh i s tor ic a r t if ac t s . K noxv i l le : U n ive r s i ty o f T enne s see P re s s . G o in sJ . F . 1 967 . 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B i l lS i l lar - S hap ing C u l tu r e G onza lez J . L . 1 989 . E lh uanca y l ac ru z : c rea t iv idady a u tonom ia e nl ar e l ig ion p opu la r . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io s A yma ra s . G oody J .( e d . ) 1 958 . T he d eve lopmen tc yc le i nd ome s t ic g roup s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . G oody J .1 982 . C ook ing , c u i s ine a nd c la s s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . G o se P . 1 986 S ac r if ic ea nd t h ec ommod i ty f o rm i nt he Ande s . Man 2 1 : 2 96 -310 . G o se P . 1 990 . H ou se r e tha tch ing i na n Andean a nnua l c yc le : p rac t ice , mean ing a nd c on t rad ic t ion . Amer ican E thno log i s t 1 7 ( 1) : 3 9 -66 G ou ld R .A . 1 968 . L iv ing a r chaeo logy : t he Nga ta ja ra o fw e s te rn A u s t ra l ia . S ou thwe s tern J ourna lo fA n thropo logy 2 4 : 1 011 22 . G ou ld R .A . 1 97 1 . T he a r chaeo log is ta se t hnog raphe r : ac a se f r om t he w e s te rn d e se r to fA u s t ra l ia . W or ld A rchaeo logy 3 : 1 43 -177 . G ou ld R .A . 1 978a . B eyond a na logy i ne t hnoa rchaeo logy . I nR .A . G ou ld ( e d . )E xp lora t ion s i ne thnoa rchaeo logy . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s : 2 49 -293 . G ou ld R .A . 1 978b . F rom T a sman ia t oT uc son : n ew d i rec t ion si ne t hnoa rchaeo logy . I nR . Gou ld ( ed . )E xp lora t ion s i n e t hnoarchaeo logy . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s : 1 10 . G ou ld RA . 1 980 . L iv ing a r chaeo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . G ou ld RA . a nd P . J . Wa t son 1 982 . Ad ia logue o nt he mean ing a nd u se o fa na logy i ne t hnoa rchaeo log ica lr e a son ing .J ourna l o fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo log y 1 :3 55 -381 . G ran tA . 1 991 E conom ic o rs ymbo l ic? An ima ls a nd r i tua lb ehav iou r I nP .G a rwood , D . J enn ing s , R . S kea te sa nd J .T oms ( e d s ) S acred a nd P rof ane :p roceed ing so f ac onf erence o na rchaeo logy , r i tua la nd r e l ig ion O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty , C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy Monog raph 3 2 . G r if i th D .C . 1 985 . Women ,r em i t tance s , a nd r ep roduc t ion . Amer ican E thno log i s t 1 2 : 6 76 -690 . G uaman P oma d eA ya la , F .[ 1 584 -1615 ] 1 988 . E lP r im ier Nueva C orön ica yB uen G ob ierno . Mex ico : S ig lo V ien t iuno e d i to re s . H ags t r tun M .B . 1 988 . C e ram ic p roduc t ion i nt he c en t ra l Ande s , P e ru : a na r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic c ompa r i son . I n C . C . K o lb a nd L .M . L ackey ( ed s ) Ap o tf or a l lr ea son s : c eram ic e co logy r ev i s i ted . ( Spec ia lp ub l ica t ion o f C eram ica d eC u l tu ra Maya e ta l ) : 1 27 -145 . H ag s t rwn M .B . 1 989 . T echno log ica lc on t inu i ty a nd c hange : c eram ic e thnoa rchaeo logy i nt he P eru v ian A nd e s . P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion U n ive r s i ty o fC a l if o rn ia ,L o s Ange le s . H ag s t rwn M .B . n .d . . H ou seho ld a u tonomy i np easan tc r af ts pec ia l i sa t ion . I nT .N . D 'A l t roy a nd C .A . H a s to rf ( ed s ) Emp ire a nd d ome s t ic e conomy . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu te P re s s . ( i np re s s ) H a l ly D .J . 1 986 . T he i d en t if ica t ion o fv e s se lf unc t ion : ac a se s t udy f r om n o r thwe s tG eo rg ia . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 1(2 ) : 2 67 2 95 H a rd in M .A . 1 977 . I nd iv idua ls t y le i nS an J o se p o t te ry p a in t ing : t h er o le o fd e l ibe ra te c ho ice . I nJ .H i l l a nd J . Gunn ( ed s ) T he i nd iv idua li np reh i s tory . New Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 1 09 136 . H a rd in M .A . 1 984 . Mode l so fd eco ra t ion . I nS .E . v an d e rL eeuw a nd A .C . P r i tcha rd ( ed s ) T he many d imen s ion so fpo t te ry : c eram ic si na r chaeo logy a nd a n thropo logy . C ingv la 7 . Ams te rdam : A lbe r tE gge sV an G if f en I n s t i tuu tv oo rp rae e np ro toh is to r ie : 5 73 -607 . H a rd in M .A . 1 991 . S ou rce so fc e ram ic v a r iab i l i ty a tZ un ip ueb lo . I nW . A . L ongac re ( ed . ) C eram ic e t hnoa rchaeo logy . T u scon : U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s 4 0 -70 . H a r r is M . 1 965 . T he my th o ft he s ac red c ow . I nA . L eed sa nd A . P .V ayda ( ed s ) Man , c u l ture a nd a n ima l s . L ondon : A .A .A .S . H a r r is 0 . 1 978 . C omp lemen ta r i ty a nd c on f l ic t : a n A ndean v i ew o fw omen a nd men . I nJ .L aF on ta ine ( ed . )S ex a nd a ge a s p r inc ip le so fs oc ia ld i ff eren t ia t ion . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s : 2 1-40 . H a r r is 0 . 1 980 . T he p owe ro fs i gn s : g ende r ,c u l tu re a nd t he w i ld i nt he B o l iv ian A nde s . I n C . MacCo rmack a nd M . S t ra the rn ( ed s )N a tu re , c u l ture a nd g end er . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 7 0 -94 . H a r r is 0 . 1 981 . H ou seho ld sa sn a tu ra lu n i t s . I nK . Y oung , C . Wo lkow i tz a nd R . McCu l lagh ( ed s ) O f Mar r iage a nd t h e Ma rke t : w omen ' ss ubord ina t ion i ni n terna t iona lp er spec t ive . L ondon : C .S .E . B ook s : 4 7 -68 . H a r r is 0 . 1 982a . L abou ra nd p roduce i na ne t hn ic e conomy , No r the rn P o to s i , B o l iv ia . I nD . L ehmann ( ed . ) E co logy a nd E xchange i nt h eA nd e s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s : 7 0 -96 . H a r r is 0 . 1 982b . T he d ead a nd t he d ev i ls a mong t he B o l iv ian L aym i . I nM . B loch a nd J .P a r ry ( ed s )D ea th a nd t h e R egenera t ion o fL if e . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s : 4 5 -73 H a r r is 0 . 1 986 . F rom a symme t ry t ot r iang le : s ymbo l ic t r ansf o rma t ion s i nn o r the rn P o to s i . I nJ . Mu r ra ,N . Wach te l a nd J . R eve l( ed s ) A n thropo log ica lh i s tory o fA nd ean p o l i t ie s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s : 2 60 -279 . H a r r is 0 . 1 989 . T he e a r th a nd t he s t a te :t he s ou rce sa nd mean ing so f money i nN o r the rn P o to s i , B o l iv ia . I nJ .P a r ry a nd M . B loch ( ed s ) Money a nd t he mora l i ty o fe xchange . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 2 32 -268 . H a r r is 0 . ,B . L a r son a nd E .T ande te r 1 987 . I n t roduc t ion . I n0 . H a r r i s , B .L a r son a nd E .T ande te r( ed s )L ap a r t ic ipac ion i nd igena e nl o sm e rcado sS urand ino s : e s tra teg ia s yr eproducc iön s oc ia ls i g lo s XV I aXX . L aP az : CERES : 1 7 -50 . H a r r ison I L 1 989 . S ign s , s ong s , a nd m emory i nt he A nd e s : t r an s la t ing Q uechua l anguage a nd c u l ture . Au s t in : U n ive r s i ty o f T exa sP re s s . H a s to rf C .A . 1 990 . T he e f e c to ft he I nka s t a te o n S au sa a g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t ion a nd c r op c onsump t ion . Amer i can A n t iqu i ty 5 5 (2 ) :2 62 -290 . 2 10
B ib l iog raphy H a s to rf C .A . 1 99 1 . G ende r ,s pace a nd f ood i np reh is to ry . I nJ .M . G e ro a nd M . W . C onkey ( ed s ) E ngend er ing a rchaeo logy . O xf o rd : B a s i l B lackwe l l : 1 32 -159 . H a s to rf C .A . 1 992 . Agr icu l ture a nd t h eo n se to fpo l i t ica li n equa l i ty b ef ore t h eI nka . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s H a s to rf C .A . a nd M .J . D eN i ro 1 985 . R econs t ruc t ion o fP reh i s to r ic p l an tp roduc t ion a nd c ook ing p rac t ice sb yn ew i s o top ic m e thod s Na tu re 3 15 : 4 89 -91 . H a s to rf C .A . a nd S .J ohanne s sen 1 993 . P re -H i span ic p o l i t ica l c hange a nd t he r o le o f ma ize i nt he C en t ra l Ande so fP e ru . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 9 5 (1) : 15 -138 . H awke sC . 1 954 . A rchaeo log ica lt heo ry a nd me thod : s ome s ugge s t ion sf r om t he O ld Wo r ld . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 5 6 : 1 55 168 . H aya sh ida F .1 994 P roducc ion C e ram ica e ne lI mpe r io I n ca : u na v i s ion g loba l yn uevo sd a to s I n I . Sh imada ( ed . ) T ecno log ia yo rgan i zac ion d el ap roducc ion d ec eram ica p reh i span ica e nl o sA nd e s L ima , P on t if ic ia U n ive r s idad C a to l ica d e lP e ru :4 43-475 . H aya sh ida F .1 999 S ty le ,T echno logy a nd S ta te P roduc t ion : I nka p o t te ry manuf ac tu re i nt he L e che V a l ley L a t in Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 1 0 (4 ) : 3 37 -352 . H ayden B .a nd A . C annon 1 982 . T he c o rpo ra te g roup a sa na r chaeo log ica l u n i t . J ou rna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 1 :1 32 158 . H ayden B .a nd A . C annon 1 984 . I n te rac t ion i nf e rence s i na r chaeo logy a nd l e a rn ing f r amewo rk so ft he Maya . J ourna lo f A n th ropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 3 :3 25 -367 . H en r ick son E .F . a nd M .M . McDona ld 1 983 . C e ram ic f o rm a nd f unc t ion : a n e t hnog raph ic s ea rch a nd a na r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 8 5 : 6 30 -643 . H e rb ich I .1 987 . L ea rn ing p a t te rns ,p o t te ri n te rac t ion a nd c e ram ic s t y le a mong t he L uo o fK enya . T he A f r ican A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew 5 :1 93 -204 . H ickman J .M . a nd W .T . S tua r t 1 977 . D e scen t ,a l l iance a nd mo ie ty i nC hucu i to , P e ru : a ne xp lana to ry s ke tch o fA yma ra s o c ia lo rgan isa t ion . I nR . B o l ton a nd E . Maye r( ed s )A nd ean k i n sh ip a nd ma r r iage . S pec ia lp ub l ica t ion o ft he Ame r ican An th ropo log ica lA s soc ia t ion No . 7 :4 3 -59 . H i l lman G .C . 1 981 . R econ s truc t ing c rop h u sband ry p rac t ice sf r om c ha r red r ema in so fc rop s I nR .J . Me rce r( ed . ) F a rm ing P rac t ice i nB r i t i sh P reh i s to ry E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 23 -162 . Hodde rI .( e d . ) 1 978 . T he s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion o fc u l ture . L ondon : D uckwo r th . Hodde rI .1 974 . R eg re s s ion a na ly s i so fs ome t r ade a nd ma rke t ing p a t te rns . W or ld A r chaeo logy 6 (2 ) : 1 72 -189 . H odde rI .1 979 . P o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion : s e rv ice a nd t r iba la rea s . I nM . M i l le t( ed .) P o t tery a nd t h ea rchaeo log i s t . O cca s iona l P ub l ica t ion No .4 . L ondon I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy : 7 -23 . Hodde rI .1 979b . S oc ia la nd E conom ic S t re s sa nd Ma te r ia lC u l tu re P a t te rn ing Amer i can A n t iqu i ty 4 4 : 4 46 -54 . H odde rI .1 982 . T owa rd s ac on tex tua l a pp roach t op reh i s to r ic e xchange . I n J .E . E r ic son a nd T .K . E a r le ( ed s ) C on tex t sf or p reh i s tor ic e xchange . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 1 99 -211 . H odde rI .1 986 . R ead ing t h ep a s t : c u r ren ta pproache st oi n te rpre ta t ion i na rchaeo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . H odde rI .1 990 . T he d ome s t ica t ion o fE u rope : s t ruc tu re a nd c on t ing ency i nN eo l i th ic s oc ie t ie s . Oxf o rd : B lackwe l l . H odde rI .1 99 1 . T he d eco ra t ion o fc on ta ine r s : a ne t hnog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l s t udy . I nW . A . L ongac re ( ed . ) C eram ic e t hnoa r chaeo log y . T u scon : U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s : 7 1-94 . H odde rI .a nd C . O r ton 1 976 . S pa t ia la na ly s i si na rchaeo log y . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . H odde rI .a nd P .L ane 1 982 . Ac on tex tua le xam ina t ion o fN eo l i th ic a xe d i s t r ibu t ion i nB r i ta in . I n J .E . E r ic son a nd T .K . E a r le ( e d s ) C on tex t sf or p reh i s tor ic e xchange . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 2 13 -235 . H o lgu in D .G . 1 989 [ 1608 ] . V ocabu lar io d el al engua g enera ld et odo e lP eru l amad L engua Q qu ichua od e lI nca . L ima : U n ive r s idad N ac iona l Mayo rd eS an Ma rco s . Ho rnb e rge r Ea nd N . H o rnbe rge r 1 983 . D icc iona r io t r i l ingüe Q uechua d eC uzco . L aP az : Q oya R aym i . H owa rd F La nd E . Mo r r i s( ed s ) 1 981 . P roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion : ac eram ic v i ewpo in t . Oxf o rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s , I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 20 . H owa rd -Ma lve rde R . 1 990 . Q uechua d el aN or te d eP o to s i( Bo l iv ia ) P re l im inary W ord L i s t -c omp i led A u tumn 1 990 . U npub l i shed manu sc r ip t . H owa rd - Ma lve rde R . 1 990 . T he s peak ing o fh i s to ry : ` w i l lapaaku shaykr o r Quechua w ay so ft e l l ing t he p a s t . R e sea rch P ape r sN o .21 , I n s t i tu te o fL a t in Ame r ican S tud ie s , U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon . Hughe sM .J . ( e d . ) 1 981 . S c ien t if i cs t ud ie s i na nc ien tc eram ic s . L ondon : B r i t ish Mu seum O cca s iona l P ape r No .19 . Hugh -Jone sC . 1 978 . F ood f o rt hough t :p a t te r n so fp roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion i nt he P i rä -Pa ranä s oc ie ty . I nJ .L a F on ta ine ( ed . )S ex a nd a ge a sp r inc ip le so fs oc ia ld if eren t ia t ion ASA 1 7 , L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s : 4 1-66 . H ugh Jone sS .1 992 . Y e s te rday 's l uxu r ie s ,t omo r row 's n ece s s i t ie s : b u s ine s sa nd b a r te r i nn o r thwe s t Amazon ia . I nC . H umph rey a nd S .H ugh -Jone s( ed s )B ar ter , e xchange a nd v a lue : a na n thropo log ica la pproach . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 4 2 -74 . Humph rey C . a nd S .H ugh -Jone s 1 992 . I n t roduc t ion : b a r te r , e xchange a nd v a lue . I nC . Humph rey a nd S .H ugh -Jone s( e d s ) B ar te r , e xchange a nd v a lue : a na n thropo log ica la pproach . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 20 . H un tP . 1 990 . I n ca v o lcan ic s t one p rovenance i nt he C uzco p rov ince , P e ru P aper sf rom t he I n s t i tu te o fA rc h aeo lo g y U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon . 1 :2 4 -36 . 2 11
B i l lS i l la r -S hap ing C u l tur e H y s lop J .1 993 . F ac to r s i n f luenc ing t he t r an sm is s ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fI nka c u l tu ra l ma te r ia lt h rough T awan t insuyu . I n D .S . R ice ( ed . )L a t in Amer ican h or i zon s . Wa sh ing ton : Dumbar ton O ak sR e sea rch L ib ra ry , H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty : 3 37 3 56 . I s be l l B .J . [ 1978 ] 1 985 . T od ef end o ur se lve s : e co logy a nd r i tua li na n And ean v i l lag e . P ro spec tH e igh t s , I l ino is : Wave land P re s s . I s be l l B .J . 1 974 . P a ran te sco And ino yr ec ip roc idad . Kukaq : l o sq ue n o sa man . I nG . A lbe r t i a nd E . Maye r( ed s ) R ec iproc idad ei n tercamb io e nl o sA nd e sP eruano . L ima : I ns t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s : 10 -152 . I s be l l B .J . 1 977 . " Tho se w ho l o ve me " : a na na ly s i so f Andean k in sh ip a nd r e c ip ro c i ty w i th in ar i tua l c on tex t . I nR .B o l ton a nd E . Maye r( e d s )A nd ean k in sh ip a nd ma r r iage . S pec ia lp ub l ica t ion o ft h e Ame r ican An th ropo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion No . 7 :8 1105 . I s be l l B .J . 1 993 . F rom u n r ipe t op e t r if ied . P ape rp re sen ted a tt he I n te rna t iona l C onf e renc eo n K insh ip a nd G ende r i nt he Ande s ,6 th -1 l t hS ep temb e r 1 993 , S t . And rew s , S co t land . I s be l lB .J . a nd F .A .R . F e rnandez 1 977 . T he o n togene s is o f me tapho r : r i dd le g ame sa mong Q uechua s peake r ss een a s c ogn i t ive d i scove ry p rocedu re s . J ourna lo fL a t in Amer ican L ore 3 ( 1) : 1 9 -49 . I s be l l W .H . a nd G .F . McEwan ( ed s ) 1 991 . Huar ia dm in i s tra t ive s t ruc ture :p reh i s tor ic m onumen ta la rch i tec ture a nd s t a te g overnmen t . Wa sh ing ton D . C . : Dumba r ton O ak sR e sea rch L ib ra ry a nd C o l le c t ion s . I s be l l W .H . 1 996 H ou seho ld a nd A yn ii nt he Andean P a s t i n :J ourna lo ft h eS tewa rd A n thropo log ica lS oc ie ty 2 4 ( 1-2 ) : 2 49 2 96 . J ame son R . 1 986 . P u r i ty a nd p owe ra tt he V ic to r ian d inne rp a r ty . I nI .H odde r( e d . ) A rchaeo logy a sl ong term h i s tory . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 5 5 -65 . J anu sek J .W . 1 999 C raf ta nd L oca lP owe r : e mbedded s pec ia l iza t ion i nT iwanaku c i t ie s L a t in Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 1 0 (2 ) : 1 07 -131 . J a rman M .R . 1 972 . At e r r i to r ia l mode l f o ra rchaeo logy : ab ehav iou ra la nd g eog raph ica la pp roach . I nD .L . C la rk ( e d . ) Mod e l si na rchaeo logy . L ondon : Me thuen : 7 05 -733 . J ohn son M .H . 1 989 . C oncep t ion so fa gency i na rchaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 8 : 1 89 -211 . J ohnson M .H . 1 993 Hou s ing C u l tu re : T rad i t iona lA rch i tec tu re i na nE ng l i sh L and scape Wa sh ing ton D .C . : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu te P re s s . J ohn s son M . 1 986 . F ood a nd c u l tu re among B o l iv ian A yma ra :s ymbo l ic e xpre s s ion so fs oc ia lr e la t ion s . U ppsa la : S tud ie s i n C u l tu ra l An th ropo logy N o .7 . K ea t ing R .W . ( ed . ) 1 988 . P eru v ian p reh i s tory . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . K enda l lA . 1 991 . T he C u s ichaca A rchaeo log ica lP ro jec t ,C uzco , P e ru : af i na lr epo r t . B u l le t in o ft he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , L ondon 2 8 : 1 98 . K enda l lA . 1 996 An a rchaeo log ica lp e r spec t ive f o rL a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod d eve lopmen ti nt he C uzco R eg ion i n :J ourna l o ft he S teward A n thropo log ica lS oc ie ty 2 4 ( 1-2 ) : 1 21-156 . K en t S .( ed . ) 1 990 . Dome s t ic a r ch i tec ture a nd t he u se o fs pace . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . K en t , S .1 984 A na ly z ing a c t iv i ty a rea s : An e thnoa rchaeo log ica ls t ud yo ft h e u se o fs pace . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . K le ind iens tM . a nd P . Wa t son 1 956 . A c t ion a rchaeo logy : t he a rchaeo log ica li nven to ry o f al i v ing c ommun i ty . A n thropo lo gy T omor row 5 ( 1) : 7 5 -78 . Ko la ta A .L . 1 983 C han C han a nd C uzco : On t he n a tu re o ft he a nc ien t Andean c i ty . I n : R .M . L even tha la nd A .L . K o la ta ( ed s ) C iv i l i za t ion i nt h eA nc ien t Amer ica s :E s say s i n Honor o fG ordon R . W i l ley A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s : 3 45 -372 K o la ta A .L . 1 993 . Unde r s tand ing T iwanaku : c onque s t , c o lon isa t ion , a nd c l ien tage i nt h eS ou th C en t ra l Ande s . I nD .S . R ice ( ed . )L a t in Amer ican h or i zon s . Wa sh ing ton : Dumba r ton O ak sR e sea rch L ib ra ry ,H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty : 1 93 -224 . K rame rC . ( ed . ) 1 979 . E thnoa rchaeo logy : i mp l ica t ion so fe thnog raphy f or a rchaeo lo gy . N ew Y o rk : C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P re s s . K rzanow ska R . a nd A . K rzanow sk i 1 989 . C e räm ica d e lA l to C h icama . I nR .R av ine sa nd F .V i l l ige r( ed s ) L ac eräm ica t r ad ic iona ld e lP erü . L ima : E d i to r ia l l o sP ino s E . I .R .L : 1 05 -112 . L aF on ta ine J . S . 1 978 . I n t roduc t ion . I nJ .L aF on ta ine ( ed . )S ex a nd a ge a sp r inc ip le so fs oc ia ld if f eren t ia t ion . ASA 1 7 , L ondon :A cadem ic P re s s : 1 20 . L aL one D .E . 1 982 . T he I nca a s an onma rke te conomy : s upp ly o n c ommand v e r su ss upp ly a nd d emand . I nE .E r ic son a nd T .K . E a r le ( ed s )C on tex t sf or p reh i s tor ic e xchange . N ew Yo rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 2 9 1-316 L ackey L .M . 1 988 . P o t sa nd p e so s : p o t te r s 'r e spon se st o ac hang ing ma rke t . R e sea r ch i nE conom ic A n thropo logy 1 0 : 2 57 2 66 . L a ra J .1 991 ( 3 rd e d . ) . D icc iona r io : Qhe shwa -C a s te l lano . L aP az : L o s Am igo sd e lL ib ro . L a tou rB . 1 993 . E thnog raphy o f a' h igh tech ' c a se :a bou tA ram is . I nP .L emonn ie r( e d . ) T echno log ica lc ho ice s : t r an sf orma t ion si n ma ter ia lc u l ture ss i nce t h eN eo l i th ic . L ondon : R ou t ledge : 3 72 -398 . L au sen tL . 1 983 . P eque i la p rop idad ,p od er ye conom ia d em ercado . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s . L ech tman H . 1 977 . S ty le i nT echno logy : s ome e a r ly t hough t s . I nH . L ech tman a nd T .S . Me r r i l l( eds ) Ma ter ia lC u l tu re : S ty le , O rgan i za t ion , a nd D ynam ic so fT echno logy We s tP ub l ish ing C o . S t . p au l , M inn . 3 -20 .
2 12
B ib l iog raphy L ech tman H . 1 979 . I s sue si n Andean me ta l lu rgy . I nE .P .B enson ( e d . ) P r e -Co lumb ian m e ta l lurgy o fS ou th Amer ica . Wa sh ing ton : D umba r ton O ak sR e sea rch L ib ra ry , H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty : 1 40 . L ech tman H . 1 984 . A ndean v a lue s y s tems a nd t h ed eve lopmen to fp reh i s to r ic me ta l lu rgy . T echno logy a nd C u l ture 2 5 : 1 3 6 . L e c ,oq P .1 987 . C a ravane sd e l ama s , s e i e t6 change sd an su ne c ommunau ti d eP o to s i , e nB o l iv ie . B u l le t in d el ' In s t i tu t F ranva i s dE tud e s And ine s 1 6( 3 -4 ) : 1 38 . L ee R .B . 1 963 . T he p opu la t ion e co logy o f man i nt he e a r ly U ppe rP l e i s to cene o fS ou the rn A f r ica . P roceed ing so ft h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 2 9 : 2 35 -57 . L ee R .B . 1 968 . Wha th un te r sd of o r al i v ing ,o r ,h ow t o make o u to n s c a rce r e sou rce s . I nR . B . L ee a nd I .D eVo re ( ed s ) Man t h eh un ter . C h icago : A ld ine : 3 0 -48 . L ehmann D . ( e d . ) 1 982 . E co logy a nd e xchange i nt h eA nd e s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . L ehmann D . 1 982 . I n t roduc t ion : A ndean s oc ie t ie sa nd t he t heo ry o fp ea san te conomy . I n D . L ehmann ( ed . ) E co logy a nd e xchang ei nt h eA nd e s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 26 . L emonn ie rP .1 986 . T he s t udy o f ma te r ia lc u l tu re t oday : t owa rds a na n th ropo logy o ft e chn ica l s y s tem s J ourna lo f A n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 5 :1 47 186 . L emonn ie rP .1 992 . E lemen t sf or a nA n thropo logy o fT echno logy . A nn A rbo r , M ich igan : An th ropo log ica l p ape r s , Mu seum o fA n th ropo logy 8 8 . L emonn ie rP .1 993 . I n t roduc t ion . I nP .L emonn ie r( ed . ) T echno log ica lc ho ice s : t r an sf orma t ion si n ma ter ia lc u l ture ss i nce t h eN eo l i th i c . L ondon : R ou t ledge : 1 35 . L eone M .P . 1 984 . I n te rp re t ing i d eo logy i nh i s to r ica l a r chaeo logy : u s ing t h er u le so fp e r spec t ive i nt he W i l l iam P aca G a rden i nA nnapo l i s , Ma ry land . I nD . M i l le ra nd C . T i l ley ( ed s ) I d eo log y ,p ower a nd p reh i s to ry . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 2 5 -35 . L e ro i -Gou rhan A . 1 964 . L eg e s te e tl ap aro le I :t e chn ique se tl angag e . P a r i s : A . M iche l . L e ro i -Gou rhan A . 1 965 . L eg e s te e tl ap aro le I : l a mbno i re e ll e sr y thme s . P a r i s : A . M iche l . L ev i -S t rau s sC . 1 971 . T he f am i ly . I nH . S hap i ro ( ed . ) Man , c u l tu re a nd s oc ie ty Oxf o rd : Oxf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 3 33 -357 . L i l lehamme rG . 1 989 . Ac h i ld i sb o rn :t he c h i ld 's w o r ld i na n a rchaeo log ica lp e r spec t ive . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 2 2 (2 ) : 8 9 -105 . L indah lA . 1 986 . 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L un tS .W . 1 988 . T he manuf ac tu re o ft he I nca a ryba l lu s . I nN .J . S aunde r sa nd 0 . d e Mon tmo l l in ( e d s ) R ecen ts t ud ie s i n p r e -Co lumb ian a rchaeo logy . Oxf o rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s4 2 1 :4 89 -511 . L yne M .A .B . a nd R .S .J ef e r ie s 1 979 . T he A l ice H o l t /F arnham R oman P o t tery I ndu s t ry . L ondon : C .B .A . R e sea rch R epo r t 3 0 . MacCo rmack S .1 991 . R e l ig ion i nt he A nd e s : v i s ion a nd i mag ina t ion i ne a r ly c o lon ia lP eru . P r ince ton : P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re s s . MacDona ld ,A .C . ,M . M . Wo lf f ,F . Zwaga ,R .S . Y aba rA cu r io , J .Q u i spe , Pa nd M V e la sco Z u f i iga 1 984 . L a sc a rac te r i s t ica s yl a sp räc t ica sd el o sp a r te ro se mp i r ico se nl aR eg iön X I d eS a lud . R e su l tado sp re l im ina re sI .I n B o le t in Cu sco :X I R eg iön d eS a lu s , C u sco , A pur imac , Mad re d eD io s : O rgano d e lE qu ipo d eA tenc iön P r imar ia ( GTZ ) 2 (20 ) : 3 -32 . Mah ia sM -C . 1 993 . P o t te ry t e chn ique si nI nd ia : t e chn ica lv a r ian t sa nd s o c ia lc ho ice . I nP .L emonn ie r( e d . ) T echno log ica l c ho ice s : t r an sf orma t ion s i n ma ter ia lc u l ture ss i nce t he N eo l i th i c . L ondon : R ou t ledge : 1 57 -180 . Ma leng reau J .1 974 . C omune ro s y' emp re sa r io s 'e n e li n te rcamb io . I nG . A lbe r t i a nd E . Maye r( e d s ) R ec iproc idad e i n tercamb io e nl o sA nd e sP eruano s . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s : 1 71-208 . Ma l inow sk iB . 1 922 . A rgonau t so ft h ew e s tern P ac if ic . L ondon : R ou t ledge . Mannhe im B . 1 99 1 . T he l anguage o ft h eI nka s i nce t h eE u ropean i n va s ion . Au s t in : U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP re s s . Ma suda S . ,I .S h imada ,a nd C . Mo r r is . 1 985 . A nd ean e co logy a nd c i v i l i sa t ion : a ni n terd i sc ip l inary p er spec t ive o nA nd ean e co log ica lc omp lemen ta r i ty . Wenne r -G ren F ounda t ion f o rA n th ropo log ica lR e sea rch , S ympo s ium No . 9 1 . U n ive r s i ty o fT okyo P re s s . Ma t son F .R . ( e d . ) 1 965 . C eram ic sa nd m an . N ew Yo rk : V ik ing f und p ub l ica t ion si nA n th ropo logy No .41 . Mau s sM . 1 979a [ 1904 -5 ] . S ea sona lv ar ia t ion so ft he E sk imo : as t ud yi ns oc ia l morpho logy , t r ans la ted b yJ .J .F ox . L ondon : R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l . Mau s sM . 1 979b . S oc io logy a nd p sycho logy -e s say sb y Ma rce l Mau s s [ i nc lud ing t he e s say ' b ody t e chn ique s ' f i r s tp ub l ished i nF ranc ei n1 935 ] t r an s la ted b yB . B rew s te r . L ondon : R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l Mau s sM . 1 990 [ 1950 ] . T he g if t : t h ef orm a nd r ea son f or e xchange i na r cha ic s oc ie t ie s ( t ran s la ted b yW . D . H a l la nd f o rwa rd b yM . D oug la s ) . L ondon : R ou t ledge . 2 13
B i l lS i l lar - S hap ing C u l tu r e Maye rE . 1 974 . L a sr eg la sd e lj uego e n l ar e c ip roc idad And ina . I nG . A lbe r t ia nd E . Maye r( e d s ) R ec iproc idad e i n ter camb io e nl o sA nd e sP eruano s . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s : 3 7 -65 . Maye rE . 1 977 . B eyond t he n uc lea rf am i ly . I nR . B o l ton a nd E . Maye r( ed s )A nd ean k i n sh ip a nd mar r iage . S pe c ia l p ub l ica t ion o ft he Ame r ican A n th ropo log ica lA s soc ia t ion No . 7 :6 0 -80 . Maye rE . 1 982 A T r ibu te t ot he H ou seho ld . Dome s t ic E conomy a nd t h eE ncom ienda i nC o lon ia lP eru I n s t i tue o fL a t in Ame r ican S tud ie s : Un ive r s t iy o fT exa sa t Au s t in . Maye rE .a nd Z ama l loa C . 1 974 . R ec ip ro c idad e nl a sr e lac ione sd ep roducc iön . I nG . A lbe r t ia nd E . Maye r( ed s ) R ec iproc idad ei n tercamb io e nl o sA nd e sP eruano s . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s : 6 6 -85 . McB ryde I .1 984 . Kuhn g reens tone q ua r r ie s : t he s oc ia lc on tex t so fp roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion f o rt he M t . W i l l iam s i te . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 6 (2 ) : 2 67 -285 . Medden sF . n .d . ( f or thcom ing ) . Moun ta in s ,m in ia tu re s , a nce s to r sa nd f e r t i l i ty : t he m ean ing o f aL a te H o r izon of e r ing i na M idd le H o r izon s t ruc tu re i nP e ru . B u l le t in o ft he I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , L ondon . Me i l la s soux C . 1 981 . Ma id en s , m ea la nd m oney ( o r ig ina l ly p ub l i shed i nF rench i n 1 975 ) . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Me l la r sP .A . a nd M . R . W i lk inson 1 980 F i sh o to l i th sa se v idence o fs ea sona l i ty i np reh is to r ic s he l lm idden s : t he e v idence f r om O ronsay ( I nne rH eb r ide s ) P roceed ing so ft he P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 6 : 1 9 -44 . M i l le rD . 1 985 . A r tef ac t sa sc a tegor ie s : as t ud yo fc eram ic v a r iab i l i ty i nc en tra lI nd ia . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . M i l le rD . 1 987 . Ma ter ia lc u l tu re a nd m a s sc on sump t ion . Oxf o rd : B a s i l B lackwe l l . M i l le rD . 1 988 . App rop r ia t ing t h es t a te o nt he c ounc i le s ta te . Man 2 3(2 ) : 3 53 -37 1 . M i l lone sL . 1 992 . T he t ime o ft h eI nca :t h eC o lon ia lI nd ian s 'q ue s t . An t iqu i ty 6 6 : 2 04 -16 . M in tz S . 1 985 . S wee tne s sa nd p ow er . N ew Y o rk : V ik ing P engu in . M i rac le A .W . a nd J .d eD .M . Y ap i ta 1 981 . T ime a nd s pace i nA yma ra . I nM .J . H a rdman ( e d . ) T he A yma ra l anguage i ni t s s oc ia la nd c u l tu ra lc on tex t : ac o l lec t ion o fe s say so na spec t so fA yma ra l anguag ea nd c u l tu re . G a in sv i l le : Un ive r s i ty o fF lo r ida p re s s :3 3 -56 . M ishk in B . 1 946 . T he c on tempo ra ry Q uechua . I nJ .H . S tewa rd ( ed . ) Handbook o fS ou th Ame r ican I nd ian s , V o lume 2 :T he And ean C iv i l i sa t ion s . Sm i th son ian I ns t i tu t ion , B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy B u l le t in 1 43 : 4 11-470 . M i tche l l W .P . 1 991 . S ome a re mo re e qua lt han o the r s : l abou rs upp ly , r ec ip roc i ty , a nd r ed is t r ibu t ion i nt he Ande s . R e search i nE conom ic A n thropo logy 1 3 : 1 91-219 . Mo l ina ,C r i s toba ld e 1 947 [ 1572 ]R i to s yf äbu la sd el o sI nca s B ueno sA i re s , E d i to r ia lF u tu ro . Mo l le son T . 1 994 T he e l oquen tb one so fA bu Hu rey ra S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 7 1(2 ) : 6 0 -65 . Monk sG .M . 1 981 S ea sona l i ty s t ud ie s I n :M .B . S ch if f e r( ed . ) Ad vance s i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory 4 ,1 77 -240 A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Moo re H .L . 1 986 . S pace , t e x ta nd g end er . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Moo re H .L . 1 988 . F em in i sm a nd a n thropo logy . C amb r idge : P o l i ty P re s s . Mo r r is C . 1 978 . T he a rchaeo log ica ls t udy o f Andean e xchange s y s tems . I nC . R edman e ta l . ( e d s )S oc ia la rchaeo log y : b eyond s ub s i s tence a nd d a t ing . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 3 15 -327 . Mo r r i sC . a nd D .E . T homp son 1 985 . Huänuco P ampa : An I nca c i ty a nd i t sh in ter land L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son . Mo se ley M . E . 1 975 . T he ma r i t ime f ounda t ion so fA n d ean c i v i l i sa t ion . Men lo P a rk : C umm ing s . Mo se ley M . E . 1 983 . T he g ood o l dd ay sw e re b e t te r : a g ra r ian c o l lapse a nd t e c ton ic s Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 8 5 : 7 73 -799 . Mo se ley M . E . 1 992 . T he I nca sa nd t h e i ra nce s tor s : t h ea rchaeo logy o fP eru . L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son . Mue l le J .C . 1 978 . L ac h icha e ne ld i s t i to d eS an S eba s t ian . I nR . R av ine s( ed . ) T ecno log ia A nd ina . L ima : I n s t i tu to d e E s tud io s And ino s :2 41-251 . Mu r ra J .V . 1 972 . E l' c on t ro lv e r t ica l ' d eu nm ax im° d ep i so se co log ic ,o se n l ae conom ia d el a ss oc iedade s And ina s . I nJ .V . Mu r ra ( ed .) V i s ta d el aP rov inc ia d eL eon d e Huanuco e n 1 562 , T omo I . H uanuco : U n ive r s idad N ac iona l H e rm i l io V a ld izan : 4 29 -476 . Mu r ra J .V . 1 975 . F ormac ione se conöm ica s yp o l i t ica sd e l mundo A nd ino L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s . Mu r ra J .V . 1 978 . L o so l le ro sd e l I nka : h ac ia u na h i s to r ia ya rqueo log ia d e lQ o l lasuyu . I nH i s tor ia p rob lema yp rome sa h omena je aJ orge B a sad re . U n ive r s idad C a to l ica d e lP e ru : 4 15 -423 . Mu r ra J .V . 1 980 . T he e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion o ft h eI nca s t a te . S upp lemen t 1t oR e sea rch i nE conom ic A n th ropo logy . G reenw ich , CT : J AT P re s s . N a sh J .1 979 . W ee a tt h em ine sa nd t h em ine se a tu s : d epend ency a nd e xp lo i ta t ion i nB o l iv ian t i nm ine s . N ew Y o rk : C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P re s s . N e t t ing R M . , RR . W i lk ,a nd E .J . A rnou ld 1 984 I n t roduc t ion I n : R .M . N e t t ing , R .R . W i lk ,a nd E .J . A rnou ld ( ed s ) Hou seho ld s ; c ompara t ive a nd h i s tor ica ls t ud ie so ft h ed ome s t ic g roup B e rke ley :U n iv e r s i ty o fC a l if o rn ia P re s s : x i i x xxv i i . N icho lson P .a nd H . P a t te r son 1 985 . P o t te ry -mak ing i n Uppe rE gyp t : a ne t hnoa rchaeo log ica ls t udy . W or ld A rchaeo log y 1 7 (2 ) : 2 22 -239 . N ick l in K . 1 981 . C e ram ic p y rome t ry : t wo I b ibo e xamp le s . I nH . H owa rd a nd E . Mo r r i s( e d s )P roduc t ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion : a c eram ic v iewpo in t . Oxf o rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sI n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 20 : 1 69 -186 . Nü f iez d e lP rado D . 1 972 . 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B ib l iog raphy O r love B .S . 1 974 . R e c ip roc idad , d e s igua ldad yd om inac iön . I n G . A lbe r t i a nd E . Maye r( eds ) R ec ip roc idad ei n tercamb io e nl o sA nd e sP eruano s . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s : 2 90 -321 . O r ton C . , P .T ye r sa nd A . V ince 1 993 . P o t tery i na rchaeo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . P apou sek D .A . 1 981 . T he p ea san tp o t ter so fL o sP ueb lo s . A s sen : V an Go rcum . P a rdo L .A . 1 938 . H ac ia u na n ueva c l a s if icac iön d el ac e räm ica C uzque r ia d e l a n t iguo I mpe r io d el o sI n ca s . R ev i s ta d e l I n s t i tu to A rqueo l6g ico d e lC u sco A r lo i i :4 i5 :3 -22 . P a rdo L .A . 1 939 . C la s if i cac iön d el ac e räm ica C uzque r la ( e poca I nca ica ) . R ev i s ta d e lI n s t i tu to A rqueo l6g ico d e lC u sco Mo i v : 6 :3 30 . P a rke rP ea r son , M . a nd C .R icha rd s( e d s ) 1 994 A r ch i tec ture a nd O rd er : a pp roache st os oc ia ls pace . L ondon : R ou t ledge . P a r son sJ .R . a nd C .M . H a s t ing s 1 988 . T he l a te i n te rmed ia te p e r iod . I n R . W . K ea t inge ( ed . ) P eruv ian p reh i s tor y . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 90 -231 . P au lsen A .C . 1 976 . E nv i ronmen ta nd e mp i re : c l ima t ic f a c to r si np reh is to r ic A ndean c u l tu re c hange . W or ld A r chaeo logy 8 ( 2 ) : 1 2 1132 . P eacock D .P .S . ( e d . ) 1 977 . P o t tery a nd e ar ly c ommerce : c ha rac ter i sa t ion a nd t r ad ei nR oman a nd l a ter c eram ic s . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s . P eacock D .P .S . 1 968 A p e t ro log ica l S tudy o fC e r ta in I r on A ge P o t te ry f r om We s te rn E ng land P roceed ing so ft h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 4 :4 14 -427 . P eacock D .P .S . 1 969a . N eo l i th ic p o t te ry p roduc t ion i nC o rnwa l l . A n t iqu i ty 4 3 : 1 45 -9 . P eacock D .P .S . 1 969b . Ac on t r ibu t ion t ot he s t udy o fG la s tonbu ry w a re f r om s ou thwe s te rn B r i ta in . A n t iquar ie sJ ourna l 4 9 : 4 1-61 P eacock D .P .S . 1 982 . P o t tery i nt he R oman w or ld : a ne thnoa rchaeo log ica la pproach . L ondon : L ongman . P e r ls C . 1 992 . S y s tem so fe xchange a nd o rgan i sa t ion o fp roduc t ion i n Neo l i th ic G reece . J ourna lo f Med i ter ranean A r chaeo logy 5 ( 2 ) : 15 -164 . P igeo tN . 1 990 . T echn ica la nd s oc ia la c to r s : f l in tknapp ing s pec ia l i s t sa nd a pp ren t ice sa t Magda len ian E t io l le s . A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C ambr idg e 9 ( 1) : 1 26 -141 . P i re s -Fe r re i ra J .W . a nd K .V . F lanne ry 1 976 . E thnog raph ic mode l sf o rf o rma t ive e xchange . I nK .V . F l anne ry ( ed . ) T he e a r ly Me soame r ican v i l lage . N ew Y o rk :A cadem ic P re s s : 2 86 -291 . P la t tT . 1 982a . E s tad oB o l iv iano y a y l lu And ino : t i er ra yt r ibu to e ne l Nor te d eP o to s i . L ima : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io s P e ruano s . P la t tT . 1 982b . T he r o le o ft he Andean a y l lu i nt h er ep roduc t ion o ft he p e t ty c ommod i ty r eg ime i n No r the rn P o to s i ( Bo l iv ia ) . I nD . L ehmann ( e d . ) E co logy a nd e xchange i nt h eA nd e s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s : 2 7 -69 . P la t tT . 1 986 . M i r ro r sa nd ma ize : t he c oncep to fy anan t in a mong t he Macha o fB o l iv ia . I nJ . Mu r ra ,N . Wach te la nd J . R eve l( ed s ) A n thropo log ica lh i s tory o fA n d ean p o l i t ie s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive rs i ty P re s s : 2 28 -259 . P la t tT . 1 987 . E n t re c h taxwa ymux sa : p a ra u na h i s to r ia d e lp ensam ien to p o l i t ico A yma ra . I n T . B ouy s se -Ca s sagne , 0 . H a r r is ,T .P la t ta nd V . 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Q u i l ic i -Pecaud J -F . 1 993 D om inan tR ep re sen ta t ions a nd T echn ica lC ho ice s : am e thod o fa na ly s is w i th e xamp le sf r om a e ronau t ic s I nP .L emonn ie r( e d . ) T echno log ica lC ho ice s : t r an sf orma t ion si n ma ter ia lc u l tu re ss i nce t h eN eo l i th ic . L ondon ,R ou t ledge : 3 99 -412 . R a imond iA . 1 873 . E ld epar tamen to d e Ancach s . L ima . R anda l lR . 1 982 . Q oy l lu rR if i ,a nI nca f i e s ta o ft h eP le ide s : r ef lec t ion so nt ime a nd s pace i nt he A ndean w o r ld . B o le t in d e l I n s t i tu to F rance ' sd eE s tud io sA nd ino s ( L ima ) 1 ( 1-2 ) : 3 7 -81 . R anda l lR . 1 987 . C ommun ica t ion w i th t he o the rw o r ld : t he t a le o fI s icha P uy tu . J ou rna lo fL a t in Amer ican L ore 1 3 (2 ) : 1 55 -181 . R appapo r t ,J .1 990 . T he P o l i t ic so f Memory : n a t ive h i s tor i ca li n terpre ta t ion i nt h eC o lomb ian And e s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . R a snake , RN . 1 988 . D om ina t ion a nd c u l tu ra lr e s i s tance : a u thor i ty a nd p ow er a mong a n And ean p eop le . D u rham : Duke U n ive r s i ty P re s s . R a th je W . 1 972 . P ra i se t h eg od sa nd p a s st he m e ta te s . I nM . L eone ( ed . )C on tempora ry a rchaeo logy . C a rbonda le : S ou the rn I l ino i sU n ive r s i ty P re s s : 3 65 -392 . R aun D .P . 1 983 . P o t sa st oo ls . I nJ .A . Moo re a nd A . S .K eene ( ed s ) A rchaeo log ica lh ammer sa nd t h eor ie s . N ew Yo rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 1 28 -152 . R av ine sR . 1 978 . C e räm ica a c tua ld eC cacca s i r i ,H uancave l ica . I nR .R av ine s( e d . ) T ecno log ia A nd ina . L ima : I ns t i tu to d e E s tud io sP e ruano s : 4 47 -466 . R av ine sR . 1 989 . P ro ce so a l f a re ro e n Mo l lepampa ,C a jama rca , 1 985 . I nR .R av ine sa nd F .V i l l ige r( e d s ) L ac eräm ica t r ad ic iona ld e lP erü . L ima : E d i to r ia l l o sP ino s E . I .R .L . : 9 9 104 2 15
B i l lS i l lar -S hap ing C u l tu re R av ine sR . a nd F .V i l l ige r( ed s ) 1 989 . L ac eräm ica t r ad ic iona ld e lP erü . L ima : E d i to r ia l l o sP ino s E . I .R .L . R av ine sR . a nd F .V i l l ige r 1 989 . I n t roducc iön . I nR . R av ine sa nd F .V i l l ige r( e d s ) L ac eräm ica t r ad ic iona ld e lP erü . L ima : E d i to r ia l l o sP ino s E . I .R .L . :9 16 R e ina RE . a nd H i l lM . 1 978 . T he t r ad i t iona lp o t te ry o fG ua tema la . Au s t in : U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP re s s . R e inha rd J .1 992 S ac red p eak so ft h e Ande s . Na t iona lG eograph ic 1 8 1(3) : 8 4 -111 R e inha rd J .1 996 P e ru 's I c e Ma iden s : F rozen i nt ime , 5 00 -yea r -o ld mumm ie sp rom ise f r e sh u nde r s tand ing o ft he I nca Emp i re . Na t iona lG eog raph ic 1 89 (6 ) : 6 2 -81 . R enf rew A .C . 1 969 . T rade a nd c u l tu ra lp roce s si nE u ropean p reh is to ry . C ur ren tA n thropo logy 1 0 : 1 5 1169 . R enf rew A .C . 1 975 . T rade a sa c t ion a t ad i s tance . I nJ .S ab lof fa nd C . C . L ambe rg -Ka r lov sky ( e d s ) A nc ien tc i v i l i sa t ion a nd t r ad e . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s : 1 59 . R enf rew A .C . 1 977 . A l te rna t ive mode l sf o re xchange a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion . I nT .E a r le a nd J .E r ic son ( e d s )E xchange s y s tem si np reh i s tory . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 7 1-90 . R enf rew A .C . 1 983 . D iv ided w es t and : a spec t so fa rchaeo logy a nd i n f o rma t ion . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 8 : 3 16 . R enf rew A .C . 1 986 . V a rna a nd t h ee me rgenc eo fw ea l th i np reh is to r ic E u rope . I nA . Appadu ra i( e d . )T he s oc ia ll i f eo f t h ing s :c ommod i t ie si nc u l tu ra lp er spec t ive . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 4 1168 . R enf rew A .C . a nd P .B ahn 1 99 1 . A r chaeo logy : t heor ie s , m e thod sa nd p rac t ice . L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son . R enf rew A .C . a nd S .S hennan ( e d s ) 1 982 . R ank ing , r e sou r ce a nd e xchange . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . R ev i l la C o r ra le sA . a nd A . B aez d eR ev i l la 1 989 . L aa l f a re ia e n l a sc omun idade sd e Machacma rca , R a jch i , Qquea yP ichu ra , C u sco , 1 967 . I nR . R av ine sa nd F .V i l l ige r( ed s ) L ac eräm ica t r ad ic iona ld e lP eru . L ima : E d i to r ia l L o sP ino s E . I .R .L . : 1 57 -160 R ice D .S . ( ed . ) 1 993 L a t in Amer ican Hor i zon s . Wa sh ing ton : Dumba r ton O ak sR e sea rch L ib ra ry , H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty . R ice P .M . 1 976 . R e th ink ing t he w a re c oncep t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 1 : 5 38 -543 . R ice P .M . 1 981 . E vo lu t ion o fs pec ia l ised p o t te ry p roduc t ion : at r ia l mode l . C u rren tA n thropo logy 2 2 : 2 19 -240 . R ice P .M . 1 987 . P o t tery a na ly s i s : as ou rcebook . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s . 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A rchaeo logy a nd p hy s ica la n thropo logy i nO cean ia 1 : 1 06 -137 . R y eO .S . 1 981 . P o t te ry t e chno logy :p r inc ip le sa nd r econ s truc t ion s . Wa sh ing ton : T a raxacum . R ye 0 .S . a nd E van sC . 1 976 . T rad i t iona lp o t tery t e chn ique so fP ak i s tan :f i e ld a nd l abora tor ys t ud ie s . Sm i thson ian C on t r ibu t ion st o An th ropo logy N o2 1 . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu t ion . S ab lof fJ . a nd C .C . L ambe rg -Ka r lov sky ( ed s ) 1 975 . A nc ien tc i v i l i sa t ion a nd t r ad e . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . S aboga lW ie s se J .R . 1 982 . L ac eräm ica d eP iura . Qu i to : I n s t i tu to And ino d eA r te sP opu la re s . S acke t tJ .1 986 . I s och re s t i sm a nd s t y le : ac l a r if ica t ion . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 5 :2 66 -277 . S ah l ins M . 1 974 . S tone a ge e conom ic s . L ondon : T av i s tock P ub l ica t ions L td . S a l lnow M .J . 1 987 . P i lg r im so ft h eA nd e s : r eg iona lc u l t s i nC u sco . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s . S a l lnow M .J . 1 989a . C oope ra t ion a nd c on t rad ic t ion :t he d i a lec t ic so fe ve ryday p rac t ice . D ia lec t ica lA n thropo logy 1 4 : 2 412 57 . S a l lnow M .J . 1 989b . P rec iou s me ta l s i nt he Andean mo ra le conomy . I nJ .P a r ry a nd M . B lo ch ( e d s ) Money a nd t h e mora l i ty o fe xchange . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 2 09 -231 . S a ra swa t iB . a nd N .K . B ehu ra 1 966 . P o t tery t e chn ique si np ea san tI nd ia . C a lcu t ta : An th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia Memo i r No .13 . S ca r re C . a nd F .H ea ly ( e d s ) 1 993 . T rad ea nd e xchange i np reh i s tor ic E urope . O xf o rd : Oxbow Monog raph 1 3 . S chaede l RP . 1 992 . T he a rchaeo logy o ft h eS pan ish C o lon ia l e xpe r ience i nS ou th Ame r ica . A n t iqu i ty 6 6 : 2 17 -242 . S ch if f e rM .B . 1 972 . A rchaeo log ica lc on tex ta nd s y s tem ic c on tex t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 7 : 1 56 165 . S ch if f e rM .B . 1 975 B ehav iou ra lC ha in Ana ly s is : A c t iv i t ie s , O rgan iza t ion , a nd t he U se o fS pac e F ie ldan ia 6 5 : 1 03 -174 . S ch if f e rM .B . 1 976 . B ehav ioura la r chaeo logy . N ew Y o rk :A cadem ic P re s s . S ch if f e rM .B . 1 987 . F orma t ion p roce s se so ft he a rchaeo log ica lr ecord . A lbuque rque : Un ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . 2 16
B ib l iog raphy S ch if f e rM .B . a nd M . S k ibo 1 997 T he e xp lana t ion o fa r t if ac tv a r iab i l i ty Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 6 2 : 2 7 -50 . S ch i ldk rou tE . 1 978 . A ge a nd g ende ri nH ausa s oc ie ty : s oc io -econom ic r o le so fc h i ld ren i nu rban K ano . I nJ .L aF on ta ine ( e d . ) S ex a nd a g ea sp r inc ip le so fs oc ia ld if f eren t ia t ion A SA 1 7 . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s : 1 09 -138 . S ch iange rN . 1 994 . M indf u l t e chno logy : u n lea sh ing t he c ha ine o p&a to i re f o ra n a r chaeo logy o fm ind . I n : C . R enf rew a nd E .Z ub row ( ed s ) T he A nc ien tM ind : e l emen t sf or c ogn i t ive a rchaeo logy C amb r idege U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 43 151 S ega len ,M . 1 984 Nuc lea ri s No tI ndependen t : O rgan iza t ion o ft h eH ou seho ld i nt he P ay sB igouden S ud i nt he N ine teen th a nd Twen t ie th C en tu r ie s I n : R .M .N e t t ing , R .R . W i lk , a nd E .J . A rnou ld ( ed s ) Hou seho ld s ; c ompara t ive a nd h i s tor ica ls t ud ie so ft h ed ome s t ic g roup B e rke ley : U n ive r s i ty o fC a l if o rn ia P re s s : 1 63 186 . S hank sM .a nd C . T i l ley 1 987 . S oc ia lt h eory a nd a rchaeo logy . C amb r idge : P o l i ty P re s s . S hennan S .1 989 . I n t roduc t ion : a rchaeo log ica l a pp roache st oc u l tu ra l i d en t i ty . I n S .S he rman ( e d . ) A rchaeo log ica l a pp roache st oc u l tu ra li d en t i ty . L ondon : U nw in H yman : 1 32 . S hepa rd A .O . [ 1 956 ] 1 985 . C eram ics f or t h ea rchaeo log i s t . Wa sh ing ton : C a rneg ie I n s t i tu te . S hepa rd A .O . 1 942 R io G rand eG la ze P a in t Wa re ; as t ud yi lu s tra t ing t h ep lace o fc eram ic t e chno log ica la na ly s i s i n a rchaeo log ica lr e sear ch Wa sh ing ton D .C . : C a rneg ie I n s t i tu t ion o f Wa sh ing ton , P ub l ica t ion 5 28 C on t r ibu t ion N o .39 . S hepa rd A .O . 1 965 R io G rande G laze -Pa in tP o t te ry : at e s to fp e t rog raph ic a na ly s is . I nF .R . Ma t son ( ed . ) C eram ic sa nd Man . N ew Y o rk : V ick ing f und p ub l ica t ion s i n An th ropo logy 4 1 : 6 2 -87 . S h imada I .( e d . ) 1 994 T ecno log ia y o rgan i zac ion d el ap roducc ion d ec eram ica p reh i span ica e nl o sA nd e s L ima , P on t if ic ia Un ive r s idad C a to l ica d e lP e ru . S h imada I .1 987 . H o r izon ta la nd v e r t ica ld imen s ion so fp reh i s to r ic s t a te si nn o r th P e ru . I nJ .H aa s , S .P ozo r sk ia nd T . P ozo r sk i( ed s ) T he o r ig in sa nd d eve lopmen to ft h eA nd ean s t a te . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 30 1 44 . S id ry sR . 1 977 . Ma s s -d i s tance mea su re sf o rt he Maya o b s id ian t r ade . I nT .E a r le a nd J .E r ic son ( e d s ) E xchange s y s tem s i n p r eh i s tory . N ew Yo rk : A cadem ic P re s s : 3 14 . S igau tF .1 994 T echno logy I n : T . I ngo ld ( ed . ) C ompan ion E ncyc lopaed ia o fAn thropo logy L ondon : R ou t ledge . 4 20 -459 . S i l la rB . 2 000 ' Dung b yP ref e rence : T he c ho ice o ff u e la sa ne xamp le o fh ow Andean p o t te ry p roduc t ion i se mbedded w i th in w ide rt e chn ica l , s oc ia la nd e conom ic p rac t ice s . ' A rchaeome tr y 4 3 -60 . S i l la rB . 1 996 ' The D ead a nd t he D ry ing ;t e chn ique sf o rt r ansf o rm ing p eop le a nd t h ing si nt h eA nde s ' J ourna lo f Ma ter ia l C u l tur e 1 ( 3) 2 59 -289 . S i l la rB . 1 996 b ' P lay ing w i th God : c u l tu ra lp e rcep t ion o fc h i ld ren ,p l ay a nd m in ia tu re si nt he A nde s ' A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew f rom C ambr idge 1 3 (2 )4 7 -63 . S i l la rB . 1 997 ' R epu tab le p o t sa nd d i s repu tab le p o t te r s : i nd iv idua la nd c ommun i ty c ho ice i np re sen t -day p o t te ry p roduc t ion a nd e xchange i nt he Ande s ' . I nC . 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