Shang Civilization 0300024282, 9780300024289

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Shang Civilization

K W A N G - C H I H CHANG

Shang Civilization NEW H AVEN AND LONDON YALE U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS 1980

Copyright © 1980 by Yale University. All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers. Set in Monophoto Apollo type by Asco Trade Typesetting Ltd., Hong Kong. Printed in the United States of America by The Murray Printing Co., Westford, Mass. Published in Great Britain, Europe, Africa, and Asia (except Japan) by Yale University Press, Ltd., London. Distributed in Australia and New Zealand by Book & Film Services, Artarmon, N.S.W., Australia; and in Japan by Harper & Row, Publishers, Tokyo Office. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Chang, Kwang-Chih. Shang civilization. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. China— History— Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.c. 2. China— Antiquities. I. Title. DS744.C383 931 79-19107 ISBN 0-300-02428-2 Translations of the Shih ching by Arthur Waley, The Book of Songs, are reprinted by premission of George Allen & Unwin (Publishers) Ltd. and Grove Press, Inc. The modernized James Legge translation of the appearing on pages 11, 12, 13, 194—195, 201, 203, and 211# is from Shu Ching: Book of Chinese History, edited by Clae Waltham, copyright © 1971 by Clae Waltham.

Dedicated to Professor Li Chi (1896- 1979)

Contents

Figures Tables Preface Acknowledgments Bibliographie Note Prolegomena : Five Doors to Shang

PART I 1

3

1

The Shang Society from An-yang

67

An-yang and the Royal Capital

69

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

2

ix xii xiii xv xvii

The Royal Capital and the An-yang Core Hsiao-t'un Hsi-pei-kang Other Shang Sites in An-yang Archaeology of the Royal Capital Outside An-yang 6. The Royal Capital in the Written Records

69 73 110 124 129 132

Natural and Economic Resources

136

1. Landscape and Climate of North China during the Second Millennium b.c . 2. Wild and Domestic Animals 3. Natural and Cultivated Plants 4. Rocks and Clays 5. Copper and Tin 6. Precious Materials

136 142 144 149 151 153

The Shang Dynasty and Its Ruling Apparatus

158

1. Tsu (Lineage) and Yi (Town) 2. The Royal Lineage in An-yang 3. Internal Divisions of the Royal Lineage and Succession Rules 4. Other Members of the Ruling Class 5. Military Force

158 165 175 189 194

viii

Contents

6. Law 7. Rituals 8. Royal Symbols 4

PART II

Economy and the Political Order of the State 1. The Shang State Network 2. Flow of Resources within the State 3. Relations with Other States

Shang History Beyond An-yang

5

Cheng-chou 1. The Erh-li-kang Phase of Shang Civilization 2. The Shang City at Cheng-chou in the Erh-li-kang Phase 3. Erh-li-kang Phase in Ancient Northern Honan Cultural Stratigraphy

6

Shang Archaeology outside An-yang and Cheng-chou 1. Major Sites of the Erh-li-kang Phase 2. Major Sites of the Dynastic An-yang Phase 3. General Discussion

7

General Issues Concerning the Shang Civilization 1. Evidence for an Absolute Chronology 2. Language and Physique 3. Early Shang, Hsia, and the Question of the Shang's Origins

Epilogue : Shang in the Ancient World Postscript Appendix Bibliography Index

200 202 204 210 210 220 248 261 263 263 272 283 289 289 309 318 322 322 329 335 357 369 371 373 407

Figures

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Possible locations of the capital cities of the Shang dynasty. Principal types of Shang and Chou bronze vessels. Bronze vessel of Karlgren's Style A and Style B. Bronze vessels of Loehr's Styles I-V. An inscribed turtle shell. An inscribed shoulder blade. Major archaeologists who excavated the Yin hsii, 1928-37. A scene of Yin hiii excavations. Possible areal scope of the Shang capital at Yin. Possible structure of the various components of Yin. Locations of archaeological loci near An-yang. Grid divisions of the archaeological site at Hsiao-t’un. Water-ditches at Hsiao-t'un. Clusters of pit dwellings in predynastic Hsiao-t'un. Major types of predynastic pit dwellings at Hsiao-t'un. Artifacts from grave M 188. Grave M 188 at time of excavation ： Artifacts from grave M 232. Selected artifacts from the Fu Haotomb. Fu Hao and Hou Hsin in the bronze inscriptions from the Fu Hao tomb. A house foundation of rammed earth. Three reconstructions of ground houses at Hsiao-t'un. Ground plan of the three groups of house floors at Hsiao-t’un. Ground plan of the Middle Group houses and associated burials. House floor ^z-7 and associated burials. Tung Tso-pin's first group of chen-jen. Chen-jen of five periods according to Shima Kunio. Four phases of Yin hsii pottery at Miao-p'u-pei-ti. Three phases of Yin Hsii pottery at Hsiao-t'un Locus South. An-yang stratigraphy according to hairpin typology.

8 25 29 30 36 37 46 47 71 72 74 75 77 79 80 83 84 85 89 91 91 93 94 96 97 101 103 107 108 109

X

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 7 7 9 9 6 7 8 9 1 2 4 5 8 9 1 2 4 4 7 5 6 9 4 6 7 ^ 5 8 9 9 9 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 7

1 1 1 Ô1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

2 4 4 50 5 9 V

47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

2 3 5 6 0 2 3 0 4 7 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3

42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

Ground plan of large royal graves at Hsi-pei-kang. Royal grave M 1001 at Hsi-pei-kang. Stone sculptures from grave M 1001. Wooden sculpture remains from Hsi-pei-kang. Small graves at Hsi-pei-kang excavated before the war. Small graves at Hsi-pei-kang recently excavated. Human skeletons in small Hsi-pei-kang graves. Structural model of An-yang urban network. Shang characters indicative of architecture. Possible palaeogeography of An-yang. Distribution of copper and tin ore locations in relation to An-yang. Distributions of Cypraea moneta and C. annulus. "Emblems" in Shang bronze inscriptions. Occurrence of the ten celestial signs in ancient bronzes. Four types of dynastic structure. A hypothetical model of the royal succession system of the Shang dynasty. A set of Shang weapons. Remains of a horse chariot at Hsiao-min-t'un. Reconstruction of a Shang horse chariot. Human face and two tigers in Shang bronze art. Yd-shaped characters. Flags in Shang characters. The hierarchy of the Shang state network. Distribution of Shang lords. Distribution of Shzng fangs. Lei in Han art. Ou keng and the early form of the plow. Rubbing of inscription about using war captives for agricultural work. Clay figures of war captives. Shang economic classes in agricultural production. Emblems that may be profession-related. Clay molds for casting bronze vessels. Pottery inscriptions at Ma-ch'ang culture site. Rubbing of Shang inscription describing foreign raids. Major types of pottery of Erh-li-kang phase. Major types of bronze vessels in Cheng-chou. Inscription found at Erh-li-kang, Cheng-chou. Shang sites in Cheng-chou. Shang town wall at Cheng-chou. Human skulls in ditch in Shang palace in Cheng-chou.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

Figures

Figures

71. Bronze vessels from Ming-kung-lu site in Cheng-chou. 72. A structural model of the Shang urban network at Cheng-chou. 73. Pottery inscriptions from Shang site in Kao-ch'eng. 74. Bronze vessels from Shang site in Kao-ch'eng. 75. Bronze vessels from Shang site in Chia-shan. 76. Shang sites at P'an-lung-ch'eng. 77. House floor at Shang site at P'an-lung-ch'eng. 78. Reconstruction of Shang house at P'an-lung-ch'eng. 79. Shang grave M 2 at Li-chia-tsui, P'an-lung-ch'eng. 80. P'an-lung-ch'eng bronze vessels compared with Hui Hsien and Cheng-chou types. 81. P'an-lung-ch'eng bronze decorative motifs compared with Hui Hsien and Cheng-chou motifs. 82. Bronze ax at P'an-lung-ch'eng. 83. Bronze vessels from Shang site at Ching-tang# Ch'i-shan. 84. Distribution of Ef*h-li-kang phase sites. 85. Shang tomb at Su-fu-t'un, Shantung. 86. Shang burial site in Ch’iu-wan, Kiangsu. 87. Erected rocks at center of Shang burial site in Ch'iu-wan. 88. Distribution of Shang sites of dynastic An-yang phase. 89. Human faces in Shang art. 90. Five groups of Shang skulls according to Yang Hsi-mei. 91. Shovel-shaped incisors on a Shang skull. 92. Radiocarbon dates from the Three Dynasties. 93. Parallel development model of the Three Dynasties.

xi

280 282 292 293 297 298 299 300 301 302 304 305 307 309 312 313 314 320 330 333 336 351 354

Tables

1. Chronological Correlation of Hsiao-t'un and Hsi-pei-kang according to Hairpin Types 2. Dimensions of Five Chariots from Yin-hsii 3. Northern Honan Cultural Stratigraphy 4. Relative Chronology of the Shang Civilization 5. Years b .c . of the Occurrences of Five Lunar Eclipses according to the Babylonian Day 6. Years b .c . of the Occurrences of Five Lunar Eclipses according to the Roman Day 7. Archaeological Cultures and Evolutionary Stages in China

118 198 284 323 327 327 363

Preface

This volume presents a brief but comprehensive history of the Shang civilization of ancient China (ca. eighteenth-twelfth century b .c .), drawing upon available sources of all kinds. There are many reasons why a book of this kind is now timely, but the following are foremost. First, we need a book on Shang history, as well as on Shang historical sources (with the accent on the plural of the word sources). Because of the wayvShang historiography has evolved (see the pro­ legomena, fpllowing), Shang scholars have been traditionally trained within individual disciplines that focus on particular sources—texts, oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions, or archaeological data. All of these source materials are important, but each discipline tends to emphasize only some particular aspect or aspects of the Shang civilization. There is need for a study that is to be based on all of these sources, resulting, it is hoped, in a more complete picture of the Shang history than can be achieved within each single discipline. Second, archaeological discoveries in the last decade of Shang sites and Shang artifacts throughout China have, on the one hand, immensely enriched our knowledge of this particular civilization and its antecedents and called into question some of our cherished notions about the nature of Shang society and the characteristics of Shang history and, thus, on the other hand, are compelling us to rethink some of our fundamental premises about the Shang. A book at this time is more than a synthesis of the known and the familiar; it prompts us toward new ideas and new understandings at a crucial juncture of Shang studies. Third, our understanding of the Shang civilization has now reached a point, qualitatively, where we are able to attempt to place Shang society in a comparative light, essential for us to understand it in a world context and for world historians (as well as comparative social historians and evolutionary anthropologists) to formulate, or at least to assess, evolutionary models that are purported to be universal. The Chinese civilization is an important component of human civilization, and its study must carry its own weight in the illumination ÖFtheoretical xiii

xiv

Preface

issues of universal interest. It is time, I believe, to take stock of the available data and studies to see where we stand with regard to such important issues as the origin of the state, the so-called Asiatic society, and universal evolutionary models. Let me add, finally, that placing China in a comparative context will also serve to better our understanding of China herself. The fact that such a book ought to be written is not by itself sufficient to enable it to be written by any author. There are a couple of points about the writing of this book to which experts may take excep­ tion, and let me put in a word or two here about them by way of explanation. First of all, although I advocate a comprehensive—instead of a disciplinary—approach, I myself, like the rest of us, was trained within a single traditional discipline—archaeology—and the book will undoubtedly reflect that fact. Second, the sheer volume of first-hand data and important studies is simply overwhelming, and I have been forced to be highly selective with regard both to the use of data and to the description of various options. I have tried to write a book that can be read by more than the handful of experts on Shang history, and sometimes I have been rather subjective and arbitrary in not only what to include in the book but also how to describe and explain an issue. I hope my expert colleagues will excuse me for not writing a biblio­ graphic essay under every footnote. Finally, my reliance at many points on textual data to enrich and corroborate has resulted from a deliberate decision. It would have been ideal to use contemporary documents (i.e., oracle bone and bronze inscriptions) for every issue I discuss, but the contemporary documenta­ tion does not suffice to give life and spirit to the picture that can be painted. I use Chou and even later textual documents to help complete the Shang picture only under two conditions: First, when they alone are not the crucial data on which to base any critical point, and, second, when we have reason to believe or justify the essential continuity in that area of society and culture in which the pertinent documents are used. March 8, 1978 Cambridge, Massachusetts

Acknowledgments

My thanks go first of all to Professors Li Chi 李濟 ， Shih Chang-ju 石埠如 ， and Kao Ch'ü-hsün 高去尋 and the late Professor Tung Tso-pin 董作賓 ， my college professors all, who taught me archaeology through teaching me about An-yang. An-yang has ever since occupied a special place in me, and that I have written a book on the Shang at all despite the great difficulties of such a task I owe to this emotional attachment to An-yang. The late Mr. P'an K’o 潘怒 and Messrs. Li Kuang-yü 李光宇 and Hu Chan-k’uei 胡 占 奎 ， also participants in the An-yang drama before the war, taught me their valuable experience in informal ways. For information and first-hand accounts of post-war An-yang work I am indebted to the generous help of Dr. Hsia Nai 夏鼐 and Messrs. An Chih-min 安 志 欲 ， Wang Shih-min 王 世 民 ，Ch'en Chih-ta 陳 志 達 ， Yang Hsi_chang 揚 踢 球 ， Yang Pao-ch'eng 揚 寶 成 ， Tai T’ung-hsing 戴同興 ， Hsü Ôhing-yüan 許 吾 元 ， and Mmes. Cheng Chen-hsiang 鄭振香 and Liu Yi-man 割 一 是 ， whom I met and talked with in 1975 and/or 1977. I will always remember the two days and two nights of long and very fruitful conversations I had at An-yang in July 1977 with Yang Pao-ch'eng, Ch'en Chih-ta, and Cheng Chen-hsiang. This work was made possible through the assistance of a re­ search grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities. The findings and conclusions presented here do not necessarily represent the views of the Endowment. The discussion here on Shang chronology was helped by two unpublished manuscripts by P'an Wu-su and Elizabeth Freund. Shao Cheng-yuan of the Astronomy Department of Harvard was helpful in astronomical material. David N. Keightley of the University of California at Berkeley has influenced my thinking about various issues of Shang historiography in more ways than can be enumerated. I thank Mr. Lai Yung-hsiang at the Harvard-Yenching Library for his generous bibliographic help, Whitney Powell, Donna Pletcher, and Nancy Fernald for their artwork, Hillel Burger and Christopher Burnett for their assistance in photography, and Mary Clare Gubbins, who typed the manuscript. XV

XVI

A cknowledgments

At the Yale University Press, Sally Cobb Serafim, herself a China scholar, prepared the manuscript for publication with meticulous care and infinite patience.

Bibliographie Note

A full bibliography, arranged alphabetically according to the names of the authors, is given at the end of the book. In the footnotes only the names of the authors and the titles of the works are given. All works are listed under the name of the author or authors when their names are given in the publications. When works are published anonymously or under the name of an institution, they are listed, alphabetically according to the first word of the title, under the journal or series in which they are published. The latter are abbreviated as follows : CR JH KK KKHCK KKHP

SS WW

China Reconstructs Jen-mm Hua卞a o 人民畫 :報 Kfao-ku 考 古 ，K'ao-ku t fung-hsü/i 考古通 JiL Kfao-ku-hsüeh chuan k/an 考 古 ‘ 專十\ K’ao-ku hsüeh pao 考 古 學 威 Chung-kuo k ’ao-ku hsüeh pao 中 磉 考 古 學 報 THen-yeh k'ao-ku paa-kao 田 野 考 古 報 告 Scientia Sinica

Wen-wt/ 文物 ，

ts’cw-fc’ao fzt/-Ziao

文物參考資料

Periodicals are listed according to the standard Western practice by volume number, except for certain Chinese periodicals that use citation by year rather than by volume number.

Prolegomena : Five Doors to Shang

Shang 商 is the second of the Three Dynasties— Hsia 夏 , Shang, Cho三 周 一 of ancient three dynasties that markedjthe end of cHnesejgreWstory ^ Chinese civilization. But who wére tiie èiiang? (5r, perhaps more appropriately; Whàt does the name Shang mean? Shang is the name the Shang used to refer to their own ancestral capital tow n,1 and the Chou people, who came after the Shang on China's political stage, called the dynastic rulers who resided in force in their walled capital towns the Shang.2 Shang, thus, is first the name of the royal house which was afforded a dynastic status in Chou literature. The term came to symbolize the state ruled by the Shang royal house, and it has further been extended to the civilization created by the people of the Shang state and the people of the other states contemporary with the Shang. Shang is also used to designate the period of Chinese history in which the Shang dynasty rèigned. Many of the above terms and concepts are tricky to use, but this will not become clear until later on in the course of our study. At the outset, we need only say enough to make clear who the people are whose history we are describing. In this volume we deal with the people in China during the Shang period, traditionally placed between 1766 and 1122 b .c . (The traditional chronology is, however, problematic; we discuss this later.) We are primarily concerned with the people within the Shang state, but we also touch upon some of those outside whose civilization was similar or almost identical. Shang was a literate civilization, but after the fall of the dynasty the royal archives, if there were any that survived the wrecking of the capital, became gradually dissipated. By the time of Confucius, barely 1. See Ch'en Meng-chia 味夢家，yin-Asä ⑶m名-sA“ 肷 壚 卜 I f 綜 述 , pp. 255-258; but see also chapter 4 below. 2. See, for example, the poem ''Pi kung" in Lu sung: "Descendant of Hou Chi/Was the Great King/Who lived on the southern slopes of Mount Ch'i/And began to trim the Shang.. . . /In the field of Mu . .. /He overthrew the hosts of Shang/' Arthur Waley, trans.. The Book of Songs, p. 270.

1

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six hundred years after the fall, the Master was known to have lamented the fact that. I could describe the ceremonies of the Yin 殷 [-Shang] dynasty, but Sung 宋 cannot sufficiently attest my words. (They cannot do so) because of the insufficiency of their records and wise men. If those were sufficient, I could adduce them in support of my words. 論 語 ， section "Pa yi’’ 八 償 ； translated by James Legge] In the first century B.c" when Ssu-ma Ch'ien 司馬遑 came to compile his Shih chi / there were only a few documents he was able to use for the Shang history ; the Shang (or Yin) chapter was only a bare outline, consisting of a royal genealogy and a few events. This meager amount of information about Shang was all we had to contend with during most of Chinese history, and Chinese scholars developed a long and detailed historiographic tradition dealing with the few surviving documents. It was in the Northern Sung dynasty, around the twelfth century, that scholars of ancient China began to pay serious attention to the many bronze ritual vessels, known since the Han dynasty, that were regarded as being of the Three Dynasties. Most of the attention was given to the inscriptions that were cast on the bronzes. During the last century or so, these bronzes found their way into museum collections in Japan and the West, forming the focus of many significant studies by art historians. Toward the end of the Ch'ing dynasty, another source of Shang history—inscribed cattle shoulder blades and turtle shells used by the Shang for divination— unexpectedly turned up in the antiquities market and eventually fell into the hands of ancient historians. The study of these inscribed shells and bones—chia ku hsüeh ， 脅 學 —has become a primary source of much information on Shang society and religion, a source of great importance that was totally unknown to Confucius and to Ssu-ma Ch'ien. Finally, beginning in 1928, the year when the Academia Sinica began scientific excavations in An-yang 4c the site of the last royal capital of the Shang, modern archaeology is providing a new and constantly increasing source for Shang history. Thus, the major sources of Shang history did not become available at the same time ; rather, they appeared on the historiographic scene successively, each becoming available a lotig interval after the appearance of the previous source, during which a long and sophisticated historiographic tradition had become established, with its peculiar body

P rolegomena : Five Doors

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3

of literature, conventions, and defenders. For this reason, to this day Shang scholars are often trained as narrow specialists. This volume attempts to use all available sources to write tîie beginning of a com­ prehensive Shang history. It is, however, necessary to begin it with a brief description of the several historiographic traditions—the several doors to the same Shang history.

1. TRADITIONAL HISTORICAL TEXTS The single most important traditional text pertaining to Shang is found in Yin pen c/zi 殷 本 已 ， a chapter of SAi/z by Ssu-ma Ch’ien. Ssu-ma served as an official historian-archivist under Emperor Wu Ti 武帝（ 140- 87 b.c.) of the Han dynasty ; his writing of S/zi/z c/zi, the first of China's official historical annals, began in 104 b.c., when he was fortytwo years old. As court historian-archivist, Ssu-ma had access to the records preserved af the Han court, but even then the material available to him on the Shang dynasty was severely limited. For the Shang chapter, we know that his major sources consisted of Shu ching (including Shu hsü f 序)， Shih ching 詩 經 ， Kuo yü 風 語 ， Tso chuan 左 傳 ÿ Shih pen 世 本 ， r a ra i Zi 大 戴 禮 （section "Ti hsi” 帝 蘩 ）， and other books.3 Some of these books survive to this day, often in fragmentary form, while others have long since been lost. In the next few pages, I will enumerate and describe the major events and principal categories of information contained in Yin pen chi, supplemented by other sources. THE GENESIS OF THE CLAN

The royal house of the Shang dynasty came from the Tzu 子 clan, whose mythological founding ancestor was Hsieh M • Yin pen chi begins with the story of Hsieh's birth : Yin's Hsieh, his mother was Chien Ti 簡 狄 ， a daughter of Yu Jung shih 有 喊 氏 and second consort of Ti K'u 帝 嚳 • Three persons [including Chien Ti] went to take a bath. They saw that a black bird dropped an egg. Chien Ti took and devoured it, became impregnated, and gave birth to Hsieh 契 • Hsieh grew up, assisted Yü 禹 in his work to control the flood， with success.

3. Ch，ü Wan-li 屈 萬 里 ，" ’Shih»chi Yin pen-chT chi ch'i-ta chi-lu chun so tsai Yin-Shang shih-tai ti shih shih〃史記殷本纪 反其他紀錄中所载 殷商時代的史 事 ，87; Chin Te-chien 金 德 建 ， CA'ien so cAien /cio 司 馬遑所見當考.

4

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Ti Shun 帝 舜 …• çnfeoffed Hsieh at Shang 商，and gave him the clan name Tzu 子 • [Translated by author.*] This ancestral myth of the Tzu clan, also seen in Shih ching,4 has a theme of bird-egg birth, which is widely seen in the eastern coastal parts of China in early historical periods.5 THE ROYAL GENEALOGY AND CAPITALS

The genealogy of the Shang royal house consists of two segments as recorded Sy Ssu-ma Ch'ien : predynastic, ffom Hsieh to T'ang 湯， the dynasty's founder, and dynastic, from T'ang to Chou ^f.6 It was com­ monly believed that there were fourteen predynastic lords prior to the dynastic founding, belonging to fourteen successive generations.7 The lords' names, in their various versions according to Yin pen chi and other sources, are as follows : Hsieh 契 Chao-ming 昭明 Hsiang-t'u 相土 Ch'ang-jo 昌若 Ts'ao-yü in Shih chi so yin quoting Shih pen ; 根圉 in /fan s/m piao 漢 當 古 今 人 表 ；也國 in Li c/zi C7zi/a 禮 記 祭 法 正 義 ， quoting S/zi/z pen) Min 冥 （ 季 in r ’ie/2 uwz 天 問 ， according to Wang Kuo-wei 王 國 維 ） Chen 振 （王 亥 ， according to Wang) W ei 微 （上 甲 in üTt/ojâ • 國語魯語） Pao-tino 報丁 Pao-yi 報匕 Pao-ping 報丙

*Unless another translator is specifically mentioned, all translations of Chinese sources were made by the author. 4. See the poem "Hsiian niao*" in Shang sung : "Heaven bade the dark bird/To come down and bear the Shang/' Translation by Waley, The Book of Songs, p. 275. 5. Fu Ssu-nien 傅 斯 年 ， "Yi Hsia tung hsi shuo” 夷 夏東西 説 . 6. The last Shang king was referred to by the Chou (first tone) people as Chou 纣 （fourth tone). In oräer to avoid possible confusion, Chou the people will be spelled without tone mark, but Chou the king will be spelled as Chou. 7• 尺 B 語 （"Chou yü”， hsia 用語下） ： "The Dark King was industrious for the cause of Shang, which rose in power after fourteen generations.” rzti 苟子 ("Ch’eng hsiang"成相) ："Hsieh, the Dark King.… After fourteen generations there was T’ien Yi, who was Ch’eng T’ang.’’

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Chu-jen 主壬 Chu-kuei 主癸 T ien-yi 天 Ci or Ch’eng T'ang 成潘 Some of these names have been found in the oracle bone inscrip­ tions (to be described later), but in the latter are other names of possible predynastic Shang lords. Ssu-ma's selection of the fourteen listed above was based on grounds that are no longer clear. Both traditional texts and oracle bone incriptions, however, are clear on one point : From Wei, or Shang-chia, on, all the kings' names contain one or another of the ten "celestial stems" : chia yi C», ping 丙 ， ting 丁, wu 戍 ， chi 已 ， keng 庾 , hsin 辛 ，jen 壬 ， or kuei 奏 • The Slîang calendar uses the ten stems to mark the cyclical hsiin 旬； each /zsün consisted of ten days, beginning with the day chia. The traditional explanation of the naming practice has been that Shang children were named according to the days of the hsiin on which they were born.8 Other explanations have been proposed, including one by this author.9 We will come back to this issue in due course. The predynastic lords are thought to have ruled from a number of capital towns. The precise nature of the Shang state and its predynastic form are topics to be discussed at length later in the book, but it can be stated now that the predynastic Shang lords were probably overlords of a political entity of considerable magnitude, and that capital towns were essential ingredients of such an entity. As stated above, Hsieh, Shang's founding ancestor, is said to be seated in Shang. Shang was placed by Cheng Hsüan 鄭 玄 （ d. 200) and Huang-fu Mi 皇 甫 諉 （late third c.), as quoted in 幼认 chi cAi c/iie/z 史記 集 解 ， in Shang Hsien 商縣 in east-central Shensi.10 Wang Kuo-wei 王 國 維 ，however, has convincingly demonstrated that Shang was located in eastern Honan, near the present city Shang-ch'iu 商 丘 •11 Wang's view is widely accepted by modern historians.12 According to S/m hsü 會序 ， from Hsieh to T'ang, the political seat of power of Shang had moved eight times. Wang Kuo-wei made an 8. Pai hu t rung (^Hsing ming p'ien^): /#The Yin people named their sons according to the day of birth." See Tung Tsopin 董作有， "Lun Shang jen yi shih jih wei m in g " 論 商 人 以 十 日 爲 名 ，and Ch，ü Wan-li 屈 fa lan-shang yü Yin tai Urn〃极 法 潘 觴 於 簌 代 論. 9. "Shang wang miao hao hsin k'ao” 商 王 康 號 新 考 • 10. Ch’ü Wan-li 屈 萬 里 ，"Shih chi Yin pen-chi chi ch'i-ta chi-lu chung so tsai Yin-Shang shih-tai ti shih shih〃 史 記 殷本紀及其他記 錄 中所Ä 殺 商 時代的史事， 105-106. 11. Wang Kuowei 王 _ 維 ， "Shuo Shang"说 商 . 12. Ch'ü Wan-li 屈 萬 里 ，op. ciL 106.

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attempt to name all eight capitals according to miscellaneous references scattered in various texts, and they seem to be concentrated in the eastern and northern Honan and the western Shantung area,13 but he admits to the highly uncertain nature of his identification. The precise number of Shang kings from T'ang to Chou is some­ what uncertain, and the generational relationships of the kings are not always clear. The following lists the kings given in Yin pen chi : 1. Ch’eng T ang 成湯 [T’ai Ting 丁 ：Crown prince, son of Ch'eng T'ang. Died before ascension.] 2. Wai Ping 外丙 ， younger brother of T’ai Ting 3. Chung Jen 仲 壬 ， younger brother of Wai Ping 4. T ai Chia 太甲 ， son of T ai Ting 5. Wo Ting 沃丁 ， son of T ai Chia 6. T'ai Keng 太 庾 ， younger brother of Wo Ting 7. Hsiao Chia 小甲 ， son of T’ai Keng 8. Yung Chi 雍 己 ，younger brother of Hsiao Chia 9. T’ai Wu 太 戍 ， younger brother of Yung Chi 10. Chung Ting 仲丁 ， son of T’ai Wu 11. Wai Jen 外 壬 ， younger brother of Chung Ting 12. Ho T’an Chia 河亶 甲 ， younger brother of Wai Jen 13. Tsu Yi 祖 已 ， son of Ho T'an Chia 14. Tsu Hsin 祖 辛 ， son of Tsu Yi 15. Wo Chia 沃 〒 ， younger brother of Tsu Hsin 16. Tsu Ting 祖 丁 ， son of Tsu Hsin 17. Nan Keng 南 庾 ， son of W 〇Chia 18. Yang Chia 陽甲 ， son of Tsu Ting 19. P’an Keng 盤 庾 ， younger brother of Yang Chia 20. Hsiao Hsin 小 辛 ， younger brother of P'an Keng 21. Hsiao Yi 小 C , younger brother of Hsiao Hsin 22. Wu Ting 武 丁 ， son of Hsiao Yi 23. Tsu Keng 祖 庾 ， son of Wu Ting 24. Tsu Chia 祖甲 ， younger brother of Tsu Keng 25. Lin Hsin 廩 辛 ， son of Tsu Chia 26. Keng Ting 庾 丁 ， younger brother of Lin Hsin 27. Wu Yi 武 匕 ， son of Keng Ting 28. T ai Ting 太丁 ， son of Wu Yi 29. Ti Yi 帝 匕 ， son of ai Ting 30. Ti Hsin 帝辛 ， son of Ti Yi 13. Wang Kuo^wei 王國維广 Shuo tzu Hsieh chih Ch’eng T’ang pa ch'ien” 説 自契至成 涛 八遂• See also Chao T ieh-han建 鐵 寒 ， sAi/i sAm古史4 速 .

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Most of the thirty names recorded here have been identified in the oracle bone inscriptions, but there are a few discrepancies and a few corrections to be made, which will be described in chapter 3. Seven dynastic capitals are generally attributed to the dynasty's thirty kings. T’ang is long known to have had his capital in Po 毫 ， believed by a number of historians to be located near Po Hsien 毫縣 in Anhwei.14 P'an Keng, the nineteenth king, is known to have moved his capital to Yin J&. Before his move, the book P'an keng in Shu ching speaks of "five moves," presumably five moves since tÉe first capital, Po. Yang Shu-ta 揚 樹 達 15 lists them as follows: Po 毫 ， old capital under T’ang (no. 1) Hsiao X (or Ao St), moved under Chung Ting (no. 10) Hsiang 相 ， moved under Ho T’an Chia (no. 12) Keng 灰 or Hsing 邢 ，moved under Tsu Yi (no. 13) Pi $L, moved under Tsu Yi when Keng was destroyed by a flood 、 Yen 奋 ， moved under Nan Keng (no. 17) Yin 殷 ， moved under P’an Keng (no. 19j These seven towns are all thought to be located in the eastern and northern parts of Honan, western Shantung, and northern Anhwei.16 Or, in other words, they are in the same general area as the one in which the capitals of the predynastic lords are believed to be located (fig. 1). Yin, near the modern city of An-yang, remained the dynastic capital 古 本 竹 當 紀 年 stated that until Shang’s fall. üTt/ pew C/m 5/w/ cAé "from P'an Keng’s move to Yin through to the fall under Chôu, for 273 years17 [they] had not moved [their] capitals/' MAJOR PERSONALITIES AND EVENTS

Textual records pertaining to each of the 44 Shang lords and kings vary greatly in amount and detail. Many are mere names to us, while others are known as personalities and doers of events. I will give 14. Wang Kuo»wei 王 國 維 ， "Shuo P o " 説 毫 ； Tung Tso-pin 董 作 賓 ' "P'u tz’u chung ti Po yü Shang"卜酹 ■中 的 毫 與 商 ； Chao T'ieh-han 規 鐵 寒 ，op. cit. 15. CAi Wei CAä 如-s/m cAi積 徵 居 讀 當 記 ，p. 1. 16. T'ang Lan 唐明 ，"Ts'ung Ho-nan Cheng-chou c h ü u ti Shang tai ch,ien c h i chH ng-ting-chl shuo c h i〃 從 河 南 鄭 州 出 土 的 商 代 前 期 青 銅 器 説 起 ；Ch'ü Wanli Æ萬 里 ，öp- c红 • ；Chao T'ieh-han 趙 鐵 寒 ， ifsAiA /:'(io s/m 古 义 考 述 . 17. 773 years in another version.

1. Possible locations of the capital cities of the Shang dynasty.

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below a brief account of the major personalities, based on Yin pen chi but supplemented by other sources.18 Predynastic Lords. Other than Hsieh, the founder, the predynastic lords are not at all well known. Hsiang T'u is in some accounts (Shih pen as quoted in various texts) credited with the use of horses, and he is called a "glorious" king whose rule was extended to the seacoast (S/zi/z ching, "Ch'ang fa''). Another lord, Chen (= Wang Hai in the oracle bone inscription, after Wang,19) is credited with the first use of cattle pen) and he app 肛ently led the Shang to significant hostiliti^ an alien group (Yu yi 有 易 ） in the Yi River area of Hopei.20 The story concerning the latter had it that Chen, while a guest of Yu yi, had committed moral indiscretions and was killed by King Mien Ch’en 糠臣 of Yu Yi. Four years later, Chen's son, Wei, took revenge and killed Mien Ch’en after a raid. Tang (Chfeng Tang, Tien Yi). Mencius claimed that T'ang's initial territory was only 7Ö Zi 里 across ("Liang Hui Wang, hsia") and that from that smaU beginning he reached political prééminence after a series of eleven conquests, starting with conquering his neighboring lord of Ko %. In addition to Ko, T'ang's successful conquests aimed at Wei 幸 ， Ku 麵 ， and K'un-wu 昆 吾 • Both Yïnpen cAi and Mencit/5 (Men^tzu attributed his success to his moral superiority over his adver­ saries. The initial conquest of Ko, for example, was carried out only because the lord of Ko refused to worship his ancestors even after repeated pleadings and offers of assistànce by T'ang and, also, because he killed a boy who was bringing food to farmers in the field (but see chapter 4 for more on the story). His final triumph at the ruins of Yu Jung, over King Chieh 桀 of the Hsia dynasty, was because Chieh was a hated despot. His conquests were eagerly awaited by the people of the conquered states: people in the west were heard to complain, when T’ang directed his troops eastward, "W hy later for us?" Those in the north said the same when his troops headed toward the south. He even treated birds and beasts fair and square: he once had a hunting net open on three sides so that only willing victims would get caught! 18. This accounting is restricted to the most important events, based on sources that are somewhat reliable. For a more detailed account, see Chou Hungrhsiang

用鴻麵 ， Shang Yin ti wang pen chi商敦帝王本it •

19. Wang Kuo-wei 王 國 維 ，"Yin p'u-tz’u chung so chien hsien kung hsien w a n g k io 〃 殷 卜 辭 ^ 所 見 先 公 先 王 考 • 20. Ku Chieh-kang 顧 韻 明 ， "Chou Yi kua yao tz'u chung ti ku-shih” 肩易升

又畔中的故事•

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When this story became widely known, thirty-six states voluntarily submitted themselves to T'ang as his subordinates! Another story concerning T’ang’s moral leadership relates to a long drought and T’ang’s offer of himself as sacrifice in a rain-praying ritual in a grove of mulberries. (Rain came and put out the ritual fire before T'ang was roasted.) These stories undoubtedly reflect the prevailing principle of benevolent rule in the late Chou period, but very possibly the same principle constituted one of the factors for the maintenance or change of the world order during earlier times as well. We will discuss this again later on. During his reign T'ang was aided by Yi Yin 伊 尹 ， his most important official. Yin pen chi records two versions of how Yi Yin came to his post. One had Yi Yin serve as a dowry-servant from Yu Hsin Shih 有 苯 氏 and bring himself to T’ang’s favor by his extraordinary cooking skills. The other had Yi Yin as a farmer well known for his wisdom, who finally succumbed to T’ang’s repeated invitations to serve in his court. Some texts claim that Yi Yin had once left T'ang to become an official of Hsia, but he came back to T'ang because he didn’t like what he saw at Hsia. Many of these stories, mostly based on late Chou accounts, are undoubtedly conflicting and unreliable, but that Yi Yin and T'ang acted sometimes in opposition and sometimes in concert seems to be a common theme. This becomes clear after T'ang's death. T'ai Ting, who was crown prince under T'ang, predeceased him. After T'ang's death, the throne was assumed by T'ai Ting's younger brothers Wai Ping and Chung Jen, successively. They ruled only three and four years respectively. After Chung Jen died, Yi Yin brought T'ai Chia (T'ai Ting’s son, or T’ang's grandson) to the throne. But within three years T'ai Chia is said to have begun to rule contrary to T'ang's traditions, and Yi Yin had him exiled at the T'ung 拥 palace, assuming himself the power of regent. After that, the accounts differ. Yin pen chi says that within three more years, Yi Yin brought T’ai Chia, now repentant, back to the throne, where he later became a good ruler. But Ku pen Chu shu chi nien says differently: T'ai Chia escaped from T'ung palace and assassinated Yi Yin, making Yi Yin's sons Yi Chih 伊 晚 and Yi Fen 伊 杳 succeed to his office and divide up his land and houses between them. We will seek to reconcile these different stories later, with a new interpretation. Vai Chia to Yang Chia. No significant stories are known for the period from T'ai Chia (no. 4) through Yang Chia (no. 18). Yen pen shi speaks of Shang's ups and downs. When they Were down, "the state lords did not come," and when they came up again, "the lords came to pay homage•” A significant period of low prestige was, according to

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Yin pen chi, the nine reigns beginning with Chung Ting (no. 10-no. 18). There is, however, a significant discrepancy in the records. According to Wu yi JtäL, in Shu ching, Chung Tsung + ^ was considered a good king, and he enjoyed his reign for seventy-five years. Yin pen chi iden­ tifies Chung Tsung as T'ai Wu, Chung Ting's father, but Wang Kuo-wei has convincingly shown that this good king was really Tsu Yi. P'an Keng and Wu Ting Renovations. In traditional texts P'an Keng and Wu Ting are the best-known kings following T’ang. The major contribution P'an Keng made to his own fame was the removal of the royal capital from Yen to Yin, crossing the Yellow River. The event was immortalized by the three documents called P'an keng in Shu ching, in which P'an Keng admonished his officials and his people, whose inertia did not favor the move, about the compelling reasons behind his decision, beginning with these words : Our king Tsu Yi came and fixed on Keng for his capital. He did so from a deep concern for our people, because he would not have them all die where they cannot help one another to preserve their lives. I have consulted the tortoise shell and obtained the reply: "This is no place for us .〃When the former kings had any important business they gave reverent heed to the commands of Heaven. In a case like this especially they did not indulge the wish for constant repose; they did not abide ever in the same city. Up to this time the capital has been in five regions. If we do not follow the example of these old times, we shall be refusing to acknowledge that Heaven is making an end of our dynasty here. How little can it be said of us that we are following the meritorious course of the former kings! As from the stump of a felled tree there are sprouts and shoots, Heaven will perpetuate its decree in our favour in this new city. The great inheritance of the former kings will be continued and renewed. [Translated by James Legge and Clae Waltham] His persuasion was apparently successful, for the move was made and Yin remained the Shang capital until the end of the dynasty. P'an keng is considered one of the most important texts pertaining to the Shang, because it is believed to contain many genuinely Shang elements and because, made up of words that are both pleading and threatening, it reveals some of the essence of the governing art of the Shang dynasty. After his death, P'an Keng was succeeded by two younger brothers before the throne went to a nephew. King Wu Ting. In Wu-yi, a Shu ching document, we find :

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If we come to the time of Wu Ting, he toiled at first away from the court and among the lower people. When he came to the throne and occupied the mourning shed, it may be said that he did not speak for three years. Afterwards he was still inclined not to speak; but when he did speak, his words were full of harmonious wisdom. He did not dare to indulge in useless ease but admirably and tranquilly presided over the regions of Yin until throughout them all, small and great, there was not a single murmur. It was thus that he enjoyed the throne fifty and nine years. [Translated by Legge and Waltham] According to Yin pen chi and a few other late Chou texts Wu Ting was effectively aided Fu Yüeh 傅 説 in his rule. In a dream, Wu Ting met a sage whose name was Yiieh. Undertaking a search Wu Ting found the same man at Fu-hsien 傅 險 ，where he was a pisé (版集 pan c/m/， "rammed earth") builder at a labor camp. He talked to the man, was pleased by what he said, gave him the name Fu Yüeh, and made him prime minister. All this diligence and ability to use the right people apparently served Wu Ting well. He undertook some major military campaigns; an important campaign, referred to in Yi ching (The Book of Changes), was with Kuei Fang in the northwest, whom he eventually subdued after three years. As the result of his conquests, Wu Ting is depicted in the poem Hsiian niao in The Book of Songs (Shih ching) as presiding over a vast state. Even their inner domain was a thousand leagues; In them the people found sure support. They opened up new lands as far as the four seas. Men from the four seas came in homage. Came in homage, crowd on crowd ; Their frontier was the river. Yin received a charge thât was all good ; Many blessings Yin bore. [Translated by Arthur Waley】 And Mencius ("Kung-sun Ch'ou, shang'') says of him, "W u Ting com­ manded the homage of the feudal lords and maintained the possession of the Empire as easily as rolling it on his palm" (translated by D. C. Lau). The End of the Shang Dynasty. After Wu Ting, not much is said about the kings until Chou in the traditional texts, but one or two references are of interest. Tsu Chia (no. 24) is said by Yin pen chi to be one who indulged in moral improprieties (yin luan and led the

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dynasty into another decline. Kuo yii also talks about his interference with tradition, resulting in the dynasty's demise after seven additional reigns. But Wu yi in Shu ching refers to him as another exemplary Shang king. In the case of Tsu Chia, he refused to be king unrigh­ teously, and was at first one of the lower people. When he came to the throne, he knew on what they must depend for their support and was able to exercise a protecting kindness toward their masses. He did not dare to treat with contempt wifeless men and widows. Thus it was that he enjoyed the throne thirty and three years. [Translated by Legge and Waltham] This conflict in the textual accounts is important, as Tung Tso-pin's oracle bone inscription studies have revealed that Tsu Chia was in fact a significant reformer. We will discuss this point in chapter 3. After Tsu Chia, the dynasty is seen in the traditional texts as undergoing a steady decline that climaxed in the Chou conquest. Wu yi says : The kings that arose after these from their birth enjoyed ease. Enjoying ease from their birth, they did not know the painful toil of sowing and reaping, and had not heard of the hard labors of the lower people. They sought for nothing but excessive pleasure; and so not one of them had long life. They reigned for ten years, for seven or eight, for five or six, or perhaps only for three or four. The most morally defunct king, in this telling, was, of course, Chou. The section of Yin pen chi dealing with Chou deserves to be translated in full, below : Ti Chou had a quick intelligence and discriminating powers, and was fast in his hearing and eyesight, and had unusual physical strength, [and was known 】to have fought with strong beasts with his bare hands. He was intelligent enough to resist criticism and had enough verbal faculty to cover up his wrongdoings. Dazzling his subordinates with his ability and towering over all under Heaven with his talk, he believed that all were beneath himself. He enjoyed wine and music and was fond of women. He loved Ta Chi 妲 己 ， followed Ta Chi's every word. Thus he asked musician Chüan 涓 to compose new erotic lyrics. North Precinct's dances, and degenerate music. He

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increased tributes and taxes to fatten his treasury on the Deer Platform and his granaries at Giant Bridge. He collected more dogs, horses, and exotic objects to fill the palace rooms. He expanded his gardens and platforms at Sand Dunes and placed in them more wild beasts and flying birds. He was negligent to ghosts and deities. He presided over orgies at Sand Dunes, pouring wine into a pond and hanging meats like trees in a forest. He had men and women undressed and chasing one another among them, drinking into the night. The commoners [began to] complain and some of the subordinate lords tore themselves away. Thereupon Chou used heavy penalties, inventing the Grill Roast Technique. He made Hsi Po Ch'ang 西 伯 昌 ， Chiu Hou 九 侯 ， and Eh Hou 部侯 his Three Senior Lords. Chiu Hou had a pretty woman and presented her to Chou. The Chiu Hou girl was not fond of sensual pleasures. Angry, Chou killed her and made Chiu Hou into meat sauce. Eh Hou expressed his disagreement strongly and argued violently. And Chou had Eh Hou made into dried meat. Hsi Po Ch'ang heard about this, and sighed in private. Ch'ung Hou Hu 崇候虎 heard about his sigh and informed Chou on him. Chôu had Hsi ?〇 imprisoned at Yu Li 炎 里 • Hsi Po's official. Hung Yao 閎 夭 ， and others gathered beautiful women, exotic objects, and good horses to present to Chou, who then released Hsi Po. After he was out, Hsi Po presented the land west of River Lo [to Chou] and asked him to eliminate the use of the Grill Roast penalty. Chou agreed, giving him a gift of [ceremonial] bows, arrows, adzes, and axes so that Hsi Po was [again】enabled to make conquests and to act like Hsi P o 「 Duke of the West”]. He employed Fei Chung 费 中 as an administrator. Fei Chung was good at flattery and fond of greed, and the Yin people could not close to him. Chôu also employed Eh Lai 急 來 • Eh Lai was good at saying bad things, and the subordinate lords drifted away. Hsi Po returned (to Chou), and discreetly built merits and did good things. Many subordinate lords turned against Chou and drifted toward Hsi Po. Hsi Po spread [his powers], and Chou gradually lost authority and weight. Prince Pi Kan 比干 gave him critical advice, but he did not accept. Shang Jung 商容 was a wise man. The commoners loved üim, but Chôu removed him [from his office]. ••• After Hsi Po died, Chou Wu Wang 周武王 led an eastern expedition to Meng Chin 孟 泽 . Eight hundred subordinate lords left Yin to meet Chou. The lords said, "it is time to conquer Chôu.” Wu Wang said, "You do not know the Heaven’s Mandate," and returned.

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Chou continued his indulgence in inappropriate be­ havior without cease. Wei Tzu critically advised him several times without him listening. After discussing it with the Senior Ritualist and Junior Ritualist, he went [into exile]. Pi Kan said, "As an official I must register my disapproval at the risk of d eath /' and went to advise Chou against his behavior in very strong terms. Angry, Chou said, "I hear sages' hearts have seven holes/' and had Pi Kan cut open in order to observe his heart. Afraid, Chi Tzu feigned madness to join the rank of the slaves, and Chou had him imprisoned in any event. The Senior and Junior Ritualists of Yin went to Chou, carrying their ritual and musical paraphernalia. Thereupon Chou Wu Wang 周 武 王 came to lead his subordinate lords in a conquest of Chou. Chàu sent his troops to resist them at Mu Yeh 牧 野 • On day chia-tzu, Chou's troops were defeated. Chou went in, climbed the Deer Platform, put on his precious jade clothing, and went into a fire t a vhis death. Chou Wu Wang cut off Chou's head, hanging it at the top of a large white flag pole. He killed Ta Chi, released Chi Tzu from prison, marked Pi Kan's tomb, put up a sign of honor at the gate to Shang Jung's precinct, and gave CÉôu's son, Wu Keng Lu Fu 武 庾 祿 交 , an office to continue Yin's rites, asking him to administer in the tradition of P'an Keng. Yin’s people were greatly pleased•… After Chou Wu Wang's death, Wu Keng, in collusion with Kuan Shu 管 权 and Ts'ai Sim 蔡 权 ，rebelled. Ch'eng Wang 成 王 ordered Chou Kung 周 公 to have him exterminated, and placed Wei Tzu at Sung to continue Yin's descent. SHANG CHRONOLOGY

In traditional texts, the first year of the Kung Ho 共 和 regency during the Western Chou dynasty, the year 841 B.C., is of especial import. Shih chi gives yearly accounts of events after this year, but before it Ssu-ma Ch'ien was only able to place the kings in relative sequential order, without being able to assign a precise number of years to each reign. In various states of the Chou and Shang dynasties good genealogical records were apparently kept in the royal and noble houses for the sake of ancestral worship, but undoubtedly many were lost before Ssu-ma's time, and the materials that he had perhaps were not adequate or mutually consistent. There will be occasions later on to discuss some of the more important chronological problems pertaining to Shang, using a variety of non-textual methods and sources. But here we will describe a few of the chronological issues wholly within the textual domain. These

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include: (a) the year of the Wu Wang conquest of Shang; (b) the total number of years of Shang’s dynastic reign, which, when added to the conquest year, would also give the initial year of T’ang’s dynastic founding; and (c) the years of each of the thirty reigns. In the traditional texts there are basically four items that have a direct bearing on the dating of the Wu Wang conquest. They are as follows : 1. /i： 如 舛 國 語 周 語 ：“ 昔 武 王 伐 殷 ，歲 在 鶉 火 ” ("When Wu Wang attacked Yin, the year 卜star】[Jupiter] was at the Cancer-Leo station.") 2. Shu ching Wu ch’eng 書 經 武 武 [as quoted by Shih ching 世 經 in /fern s/m L äh c/zi/z漢 書 律 曆 志 ） ： “ 惟 一 月 壬 辰 旁 死 霸 。 若 翌 日 癸 已 ，武 王 迺 朝 步 自 周 于 征 伐 对 。專 若 來 三 月 陡 死 霸 ， 專 五 曰 甲 子 ，咸 割 商 王 对 。唯 四 月 晚 望 ，旁 生 霸 ，專 六 曰 庾 戍 ， 武 王 燎 于 周 廟 ，翌 日 辛 亥 ，祀 于 天 位 。專 五 日 已 印 ，乃 以 庶 國 祀 誠 于 周 廟 。” （The above passage can be approximately

translated as : "In the first moon, day jen-c/z’en, the moon was at the p fang ssu pa position. The following day, kueUssu, Wu Wang left Chou in the morning on a journey of conquest of Chou. In the following third moon, the moon was at the chi ssu pa position, and five days later, on day chia-tzu, [the Chou] exterminated Shang king Chou. In the fourth moon, the moon was ät the u； an又 and p ’a% 5 /^% pa positions. Six days later on day keng-hsü Wu Wang performed the Xiao ceremony at the Chou temple. The following day, hsin-hai, ritual was performed to Heaven. Five days later on day yi-mou the junior states participated in the sacrifice of the Shang head(s) at the Chou temple.") 3 . 仙 pen C/zw s/zw c/zi merz 古 本 竹 I 紀 丰 （as quoted in 份 in T'angshuHchih 新 唐 當 曆 志 武 王 ) 十 一 年 庾 寅 ，周 始 伐 商 〃 (''The 11th Year [of Wu Wang], the year keng-yin, the Chou began their conquest of Shang''). 4. /Tw pen C/rn s/m c/zi nierz (as quoted in S/n/z c/n•史記 Yin pen c/zi c/zi c/zie/z毅 本 紀 聲 解 ）：" ▲ 武 王 滅 殷 以 至 幽 王 凡 二 百 五 十 七 年 ” （"From the time when Wu Wang extinguished Yin to King Yu, 257 years [had passed]/’） Several hypotheses concerning the year of the conquest have been proposed on the basis of these passages, supplemented by other, more indirect, sources. The most influential has been the one advanced by Liu Hsin 割 歆 （46 b.c.-a.d. 23), who based his calculations on the first and second items, above. The first refers to the position of Jupiter in its

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twelve-year cycle through the stars, and the second includes informa­ tion pertaining to the kan-chih names of several dates in the first, third, and fourth months in the lunar calendar. According to Liu Hsin's cal­ culations, the only year that fits both items is "142,109 years after the primeval y e a r/' We know from Liu's system that the year 206 b.c. (the first year of the Han emperor Kao Tsu) was 143,025 years from the primeval year and, therefore, that the primeval year was 143,231 B.c. Take 142,109 years from 143,231 b.c. and we get 1122 b.c. This 1122 b.c. date of the Wu Wang conquest is the so-called orthodox chronology. The calendrical system which Liu Hsin used to reconstruct the late Shang-early Chou calendar to match the lunar month divisions and the kan-chih dates according to the information contained in Wu-ch'eng has, however, long been considered less than accurate. In the year a .d . 721, a Buddhist monk, Yi Hsing recalculated the pieces of in­ formation in Wu-chfeng according to an improved calendrical system, resulting in the year r i l l b.c. This new date, which is seen in T fangshu ("Li chih^), would still fit the same Jupiter station, with its short, twelveyear cycle, and it would also fit item (3) ; namely, that the year 1111 was a keng-yin year. However, kan-chih is not known to be used for recording years until late in the Later Han period, so this piece of information must represent an extrapolation long postdating the original Chu shu passage. Therefore, this 1111 b.c. date does not represent a vast advance from the 1122 b.c. orthodox date, but its having been embraced by Tung Tso-pin has given it greater weight. The final piece of textual information on the year of the conquest stands mainly by itself, giving no support to the two schemes above, nor deriving any support from them. Since we know the final year of Yu Wang is 771 B.C., we can simply add 257 years to 770 and arrive at 1027 b.c. This is the year adopted by Lei Hai-tsung,21 Ch'en Mengchia,22 Bernhard Karlgren,23 and other contemporary scholars.24 These three dates, 1122, 1111, and 1027 b .c ., are the most influential, but none can stand on its own on textual evidence alone. There are other hypotheses that are more or less problematic.25 We will 21. Lei Hai-tsung 雷 海 宗 ，"Yin Chou ni’en-tai k'ao” 殷 周 年 代 考 . 22. Ch’en Meng-chia 陳 ‘ 家 ，份 i C/wu men-如i fc’czo 西 周 丰 代 善 • 23. Bernhard Karlgren, "Some Weapons and Tools of the Yin Dynasty.” 24. Ho Ping-ti 何 柄 棣 ，"Chou ch'u nien-Ui p'ing yi” 用 初 年 代 平 議 • 25. See Tung Tso-pin 董 作 賓 ， "Wu Wang fa Chàu nien yüeh jih chin k’ao” 武 王 伐 纣 年 月 日 今 考 ； Ting Su 丁 繡 ， "Sui tsai Ch'un-huo yü Wu Wang fa Chôu〃歲在 搞 火 與 成 王 戌 纣 ； Chou Fa-kao 4 法 高 ， "Certain Dates of the Shang Period,’ and "Hsi Chou nien-tai k’ao” 西 周 年 代 考 ； Wang Pao-tê 王 保 德 ， "Wu Wang fa Chôu tu yü Meng«chin ü nien-tai k 'a o " 武 王 伐 纣 渡 于 孟 津 的 年 代 考 ； Lao K an 勞 榦 ， "Chou ch'u

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come back to this issue later on when new kinds of evidence are added to the discussion. It should be noted here that all of the above textual information represents knowledge of people of Eastern Chou period, several hundred years after the conquest. Its seeming inconsistency may suggest that by Eastern Chou times there already were different versions of the event ; some may represent an accurate surviving text, while others had seen corruption. We surely need contemporary records before we can date the conquest with conviction. The second chronological issue has to do with the dynasty's length. Chou texts contain three references to this, as follows: Tso chuan, 3rd year of Hsüan Kung: "Chieh had bad virtue, and the ritual vessel was moved to Shang, where rituals were performed for six hundred years” 桀 有 备 德 ， 無 逯 于 商 . 载 祀六百. Menaws, "Chin hsin, hsia" : "From Tang to Wen Wang, more than five hundred years [had passed】" 由 湯 至 於 文 王 ，五 百 有餘歲. Ku pen Chu shu chi nien: ''From Tfang's overthrow of Hsia to Shou, [there were altogether] twenty-nine Kings and 496 years 〃 湯 滅 夏 以 至 於 受 ，二 十 九 王 ，用 歲 四 百 九 十 六 年 • The first two items are approximations, but they are quite consistent with each other. Mencius mentions the period through Wen Wang only; Wen Wang is known to have reigned a long time (fifty years, according to Wu yi, in Shu ching), and when the years of his reign are added to the "more than 500 years’’ mentioned by Mencius, the total could come close to the 600-year figure in Tso chuan. Add 600 to 1122 b . c .# and we have the founding year of T'ang in the eighteenth century B.C., but the exact year is unknown.26 The 496-year figure of C/m s/zw is probably wrong, being on the too-brief side. Since the beginning year of the Shang dynasty cannot be exact, the reign years of the 30 kings cannot be known in all cases, and

nien-tai wen-t'i yü yüeh hsiang wen-t’i ti hsin k'an-fa" 周 初 年 代 問 題 與 月 相 同 超 的 新 看 法 . In a recent study of the mention of Halley’s comet in Chinese historical records ("Ha-lei hui-hsing ti kuei-tao yen-pien ti ch’ü-shih ho ta ti ku-tai li-shih’’ 冷當 慧 星 的 机 遑 演 變 的 趣 勢 和 它 的 古 代 歷 史 )， Chang Y ü -c h ê 張 Ä 哲 ， the astronomer at the Purple Mountain Observatory in Nanking, citing a record in Huai~nan tzu >11 Lüeh h sü n " 兵 略 訓 ） about a comet in the sky at the time of Wu Wang’s conquest, maintains that the event could be placed in 1057-1056 B.C., a year when Halley's comet could be seen in North China. There are too many uncertainties for us to accept this view at this time. 26. Liu Hsin placed the conquest of Hsia (in T'ang's own sixteenth year of reign) in 1751 B.c.

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the exact figures given in many studies27 can only be a game of allot­ ments. The only textually exact reign years contained in Chou literature were the following : 1. 2. 3. 4.

T'ang Wai Ping Chung Jen T ai Chia

? 2 years 4 years 12 years

(Mencius) (Mencius) (Chu shu, quoted by Shih chi Lu shih-chia So-yin 史記魯世家索隱）

5. Wo Ting 6. ra iK e n g

25 years

7. Hsiao Chia

17 years

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Yung Chi T a iW u v Chung Ting Wai Jen Ho r a n Chia TsuYi Tsu Hsin Wo Chia Tsu Ting Nan Keng Yang Chia P’an Keng

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Hsiao Hsin Hsiao Yi Wu Ting Tsu Keng Tsu Chia Lin Hsin Keng Ting W uYi T aiT in g TiYi TiH sin

(Shih chi as quoted by Tai/a n 袅 平 御 觉 ，vol. 8) (Shih chi as quoted by Tai卢 叹 > /cm ‘ 平 御 覽 ，vol. 8)

75 years

(From P'an Keng to Chàu, 773, 275, or 273 years. according to different references in Chu shu).

59 years

(购

列

(W uyt) 33 years (10 years, 7 or 8 years, 4 or 3 years fw “ 列 but C/rn s/rn, as quoted in How Han shu [^Hsi Ch'iang Chuan^], mentions the 35th year of Wu Yi and 11th year of T à i Ting)

27. Such as the figures given in C/zin pen CAu sÄti chi men 今 本 竹 當 I己年 ； see Chou Hung-hsiang 周 蛛 翔 ，S/w% Wn ri pen c/zi 商 股 帝 王 本 紀 .

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2. BRONZES Ritual bronze vessels have long been known as common Shang artifacts ; Yin pen chi records a ritual event during the reign of Wu Ting in which a pheasant landed on top of the handle of a bronze cauldron. Kuo yii (chapter "Chin yü") even includes an essay supposedly inscribed on a bronze vessel dating from the declining years of the Shang. Ever since at least Han times, ancient Chinese bronzes have been an important part of the antiquarian collections in the royal houses and of private individuals, and the earliest extant catalogue (üT’ao fcw f't/ 考 古 由 ）was published in 1092 (or shortly thereafter) by Lü Ta-lin 呂 大 臨 • This catalogue, K'ao ku Vu, initiated the field of study of ancient Chinese bronzes in important ways. Drawing its data from the Imperial (Sung dynasty) Collection and from thirty-seven private collections, it includes drawings and descriptions (as to size, capacity, weight, and place of origin of each piece) of 148 Shang and Chou artifacts, 63 Ch’in and Han artifacts, and 13 jade objects. Each artifact is given a type designation according to the ancient Chinese terminology in use in the classics, and Shang objects are distinguished from Chou objects largely on the basis of inscriptions—those that contain names with a Vien kan compound (Father C&ia, Mother Yi, Ancestor Ping, Brother Ting, and so forth), in the manner of the names of the Shang kings, are usually classified as Shang. These practices of K fao ku t fu are repeated in other, later catalogues; among the latter the most famous include Po ku Vu 博 古 圖 （revised after 1123), ffsi C/z’in客 fcw c/zien 西 清 古 银 （ 1755), iVin客 •S/zow c/zien 箄 壽 鑑 古 （between 1755 and 1795), ffsi C/z'i% /zsü c/zien 西清 續銀（ 1793), r ’ao C/zai c/zi c/m>z Zi/ 陶 齋 吉 金 錄 （1908), and many, many others. The collections that these catalogues record do not always survive (of the more than six hundred pieces recorded in Sung catalogues, only 2 are extant).28 These catalogues constitute important firsthand source material for archaeological study pertaining to the Shang and Chou civilizations before modern archaeology brought about the dis­ covery of not only archaeological remains but also additional bronzes with true provenances. In a very recent catalogue of Shang and Chou bronze inscriptions,29 4,835 bronze artifacts are listed as having inscrip­ tions, and they have been taken from 192 titles in Chinese, Japanese, and Western languages. Most of these titles record bronzes of unknown provenance, including uninscribed as well as inscribed pieces. The oldest catalogue included therein is K9ao ku t'u, previously mentioned, and the most recent ones were published in the nineteen seventies. 28. Jung Keng 容 庾 ， S/w叹 CAcm fti 叹 /r'cio 商 周 养 器 通 考 ， p. 257. 29. Chou Fa-kao 周 法 高 ， Sem Tai cAi c/iin u/en “ ’tin cÀti /“ 三 1戈吉金文 存著錄表-

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These catalogues are the basic sources for all types of contemporary studies of the Shang and Chou civilizations using bronze artifacts. In what ways can bronzes be studied to illuminate Shang his­ tory, culture, and society? Those that have been excavated scientifically serve as a part of the total archaeological assemblage and can be studied in the same manner as all other classes of archaeological artifacts are studied. These scientific archaeological methods and results we will take up later. Here we concentrate on bronzes per se, that is, bronzes found in art collections, without precise archaeological provenance. Scholars of Shang and Chou bronzes have focused on four areas of research : inscription, typological classification, decorative art, and manufacture. We will briefly describe the main results of studies in each area. Before we proceed with these descriptions, a word must be said here about the issue of separating Shang bronzes from Chou bronzes. Traditionally, bronzes were referred to as "of the Three Dynasties," and it isi not always ^possible to separate them. But the phrase ''Three Dynasties" can have two meanings: it marks three successive chronolo­ gical periods, and it also designates three overlapping political entities. There are bronzes apparently of Shang date that have been found in Chou territory. Traditionally, these would have been classified as Shang bronzes, since the successive chronological sense of the Three Dynasties was stressed. However, the political transition from Shang to Chou dynasties is not clearly marked in art, and early Western Chou bronzes cannot always be separated from late Shang bronzes. We shall refer in the following to the methods and results of research that are applicable to bronzes of all periods and shall specify Shang only when necessary to do so. INSCRIPTIONS

Inscriptions, which are present on only a small portion of the extant Shang and Chou bronzes artifacts, were usually cast as intaglios in the process of making the whole artifact. The shortest inscription consists of a single character, and the longest known is that cast on Mao 尺t/n黑 汾 这 毛 公 鼎 •， a Western Chou piece, numbering 497 characters.30 All the inscriptions can be classified into two groups: signs and statements. A sign consists of one or more of the following elements : (a) One

30. Mao 尺 rin客毛公戒 is a controversial piece as regards its authenticity. See Noel Barnard, "Chou China: A Review of the Third Volume of Cheng Te-k'un's Archaeology in China,t; Chang Kuang-yüan "Hsi Chou chung ch'i Mao Kung ting 〃西周重器毛公鼎.

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of a number of characters (mostly pictographic) that are considered as family or clan emblems; (b) a kin term such as tsu ^SL (ancestor), p'i At (ancestress), /iz 父 （ father), mu (mother), hsiung JL (elder brother), fu ^ (royal consort), and tzu ^ (prince) ; and (c) one of the ten celestial stems (chia, yi, ping, ting, wu, chi, keng, hsin, jen, kuei). The usual inter­ pretation of the signs is that they identify the ancestral group and person to whom the artifact was dedicated or by whom it was used. A sign consisting of emblem-Father-Chia, for example, is usually interpreted as follows : Father Chia (an individual ancestor) of the clan represented by that emblem. I have suggested a modified interpretation: instead of a specific individual. Father Chia refers to the generation (father's) and the lineage unit (Chia) for which the ritual object was made.31 But in any event, signs contain no statements of any kind and were cast simply to mark the social position of the object. Scholars have studied these signs with a number of objectives. The emblems and the other marks have been studied for sociological information pertaining to the users.32 They have been used for chronolo­ gical studies ; usually most emblems are considered as Shang rather than Chou markers,33 and the use of ancestral signs has been regarded as a late Shang institution.34 Since the emblems are often pictographic, they are sometimes regarded as representing an archaic stage of Chinese writing and thus are used in the study of the history of writing in China.35 Inscriptions that contain statements also often include signs, but they contain statements mostly about the circumstances that led to the casting of the vessel. Most of the statements had to do with the making of the bronze as the result of a royal gift, and often mentioned the amount of money that formed part of the gift, but some pertained to other matters such as a military campaign or a royal journey. These statements, though not historical in intent, very often incidentally record pieces of informa­ tion that are highly significant, and much of our knowledge pertaining to Western Chou history must derive from this source. Among bronzes 31. Chang Kwang-chih 張 光 直 ，"Shang Chou ch'ing-t'ung-ch’i ch'i-hsing chuang-shih hua-wen yü ming-wen tsung-ho yen-chiu ch'u-pu pao-kao" 商周青 鋼器 器形裝飾花紋與銘文综 合研 究初步報告•

32. Kuo Mo-jo 郭 沐 若 ，"Yin yi chung t’u-hsing wen-tzu chih yi chieh" 股 # 中 圖 形 文 字 之 一 解 ；Hayashi Minao 林 已 奈 夫 ，"In Shü jidai no zushö kigô” 殷 周 時 代 象 記 号

•

33. Jung Keng 容 庾 ，S/w叹 CAo“ r’u% fc'cio 商 周 輿 器 通 考 ，p. 67; Karlgren, #/Yin and Chou in Chinese Bronzes/' 34. Virginia Kane, "The Chronological Significance of the Inscribed Ancestor Dedication in the Bronze Vessels/' But see KKHPf "An-yang Yin hsü wu-hao mu ti fa-chüeh 〃 安 陽 股 壚 五 號 墓 的 發 掘 . 35. Tung Tso-pin 董 作 有 ，"Chung-kuo wen-tzu chih ch’i-yüan’’ 中國文字 之起源•

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that are regarded as being Shang, only a few contain statements, and they are relatively short, numbering at most fifty characters.36 However, since they are contemporary records, these inscriptions are exceedingly valuable "literary texts" for a period of Chinese history with few reliable contemporary literary texts of other kinds. Akatsuka in a 1959 collection of Shang bronzes texts37 collected sixty inscriptions with statements, classified under the following headings : recording the years, conquests, gifts, agricultural rites, ancestral rites, feasts, women, and miscellaneous. But a far more comprehensive concordance has been compiled by Chou Fa-kao and others where one finds detailed entries on occurrences of specific names, terms, phrases, and the like.38 TYPOLOGY

Shang and Chou bronzes may be classified according to either a contemporary or an archaeological terminology. Names of classes of bronze artifacts appedt in the classics and sometimes in the inscriptions themselves; in fact, in the Sung catalogues, artifacts were fitted into categories with names from classical sources. This practice, if successful, would probably be the best for the purpose of Shang and Chou cultural reconstruction, but it cannot in fact be universally applied. The names that appear in inscriptions do not include all the types and they are of various levels of inclusiveness. The names that appear in the classics are not always reliably identifiable with actual artifacts. For these reasons practically all scholars of bronzes adopt one or another kind of archaeological classification, using the traditional names when possible and other, newly coined names when traditional names are lacking or uncertainly applicable. The most widely adopted classification system of Shang and Chou bronzes is one based on the known or conjectured uses of the objects. The following classification by Ch'en Meng-chia39 is a good example : 1. Food Vessels a. Cooking vessels (1) Ting Li Yen jfe (2) Lu Chao  (3) L a 鱸 , L i 锡 ，乃 伽 竈 36 . Jung Keng 容 庾 ，S/w% C / k m / r ’tm名fc'ao 商 用 葬 器 遑 考 ，p. 8 2 .

37. Akatsuka Kiyoshi 赤 深 忠 ， Jn Ârififru/i fcdsAafct/ 殺 金 文 考 释 • 38. Chou Fa-kao 局 法 ;^ et al” Cftin uwi fctWin 金 文 話 林 • 39. Hai uw' f'u /ti 海 外 中 國 鋼 器 圖 錄 .

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2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

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Shang

b. Food-containers: üTwei 紋 ，份 ä H, Ft/ 簠 ，7Ym 豆 c. Serving Instruments : Sst/ 匕 Drinking Vessels a. Wine-warming Vessels: Chia Ho Chiieh 0 , CTziao 角，C/ziao rswn 鎳 尊 b. Wine-containers: (1) rswn-family: rstm 尊 ，沿 / 紙 ，沿 /an客 恍 (2) P ’ing-family: Lei 卷 ， Chan 綠 ， Cheng 隻 ，P’en 盆 j3) Hi/-family: yü 盂 ，Ht/ 壺 c. Serving Instruments : S/zao 勺 Vessel Supports Water Vessels Musical Instruments Weapons Chariot and Horse Fittings Measurements and Weights Farming and Crafts Implements Garment and Toilet Articles Miscellaneous Articles

The major classes (1-11) are based on presumed use, and so are the secondary classes. Specific varieties of each type are then named according to the traditional terminology. These are principles that are almost universally followed at the present time in classifying both bronze objects in museum collections and freshly excavated pieces, but the precise classes and terminologies for them vary greatly,40 primarily because the classificatory criteria, based upon uses that are mostly guessed at, cannot be precise (fig. 2)• Reacting, in part, to the imprecision of classification systems like the one just mentioned, Li Chi 李 濟 ， using the ritual vessels excavated from the Shang sites in An-yang, proposed a new system in which the primary classes are based exclusively upon the form of the vessels.41

1. Round-based Vessels 2. Flat-bottomed Vessels 3. Ring-foot (Pedestal) Vessels 40. See Hayashi Minao 林 已 奈 夫 ， "In Shu seidö iki no meishö to yotö” 股 周 青 細 犇 器 名 称 K 用 途 ； Umehara S u e ji 掩 原 末 治 ， "Kodöki keitai no kökogakuteki kenkyü” 古 詷 器 形 態 t'un pao»kao s h u " 民 國 十 七 年 十 月 试 搞 安 隱 小 也 報 告 書 ，3-6.

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C

d

to

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e

7. Major archaeologists who excavated the Yin hsü from 1928-37 (a, Li Chi; b, Liang Ssu-yung; c, Tung Tso-pin; d, Shih Chang-ju; -ef Kao Ch'ü-hsün).

Tung’s recommendation was immediately accepted, and the first field season at Shang site in An-yang took place in October of the same year. Thus began a series of 15 seasons of archaeological excavation in An-yang by archaeologists (headed by Li Chi beginning with the second season) (fig, 7) of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, which ended in 1937 shortly before the July Seventh Incident that triggered the full-fledged Sino-Japanese War (fig. 8). The 1928-37 archaeological data from An-yang are described in Academia Sinica

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8. A scene of Yin hsü excavations in the 1930s (after Shih Chang-ju, Yi ch'ii chi-chih shang hsia ti m u -tsan g, pi. 3).

p u b l i c a t i o n s d a t i n g f r o m t h e 1 9 2 0 s a n d 1 9 3 0 s in P e k in g , f r o m t h e la te 1 9 3 0 s a n d 1 9 4 0 s i n t h e S o u th w e s t, f r o m t h e la te 1 9 4 0 s in N a n k in g , a n d f r o m t h e 1 9 5 0 s t o d a t e in T a iw a n , s u c c e s s iv e lo c a tio n s o f t h e I n s t i t u t e a s i t m o v e d w i t h t h e m ig r a tin g s e a t o f t h e N a tio n a lis t g o v e r n m e n t .91

91. For th e principal literature on th e A n-yang excavations 1928-1937, see 客/a-cAüe/ipao-Ârao 安 陽 發 掘 報 告 ， nos. 1- 4, 1929-1933; CTmf这 fazo cAi c/rfA erA ffsûzo-rtm 中 國 考 古 報 告 集 之 二 ，小 也 ，1948- 1976; CA“n客 fc'ûo«/:“

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A f te r 1949, t h e y e a r t h e P e o p le 's R e p u b lic o f C h in a w a s f o u n d e d , t h e A n - y a n g S h a n g s ite s c o n tin u e d to b e t h e fo c u s o f m u c h a rc h a e o lo g ic a l a c ti v ity . T h e f o llo w in g is a b r i e f c h r o n ic le o f t h e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l w o r k a t A n - y a n g , w i t h t h e a v a ila b le p u b lis h e d s o u r c e s : 192 8

1929

1931

1932

F ir s t s e a s o n o f t h e e x c a v a tio n b y t h e I n s t i t u t e o f H is to r y a n d P h ilo lo g y (IH P ), O c to b e r 1 3 - 3 0 . E x ­ c a v a te d fo c i a t H s i a o - t'u n , H s i a o - t'u n N o r th , H s ia o t 'u n N o r t h e a s t .92 I H P 's s e c o n d s e a s o n . M a r c h 7 —M a y 10, a t H s ia o - t'u n , H s ia o - t/u n N o r th , a n d H s ia o - t’u n S o u th .93 I H P ’s t h i r d s e a s o n . O c to b e r 7 - 2 1 a n d N o v e m b e r 1 5 D e c e m b e r 12, a t H s i a o - t'u n N o r t h a n d P a - t/a i 燦 台 to t h e n o r t h w e s t o f H s i a o - t 'u n .94 I H P 's f o u r t h s e a s o n , M a r c h 21 - M a y 11, a t H s i a o - t'u n N o r t h ,95 A p r il 1 6 - 3 0 , a t S s u - p 'a n - m o 四 盤 磨 ,96 a n d A p r il 1 6 - M a y 12 a t H o u - k a n g 後 岡 .97 I H P 's f if th s e a s o n , N o v e m b e r 7 - D e c e m b e r 19, a t H s i a o - t'u n N o r th , a n d N o v e m b e r 1 0 - D e c e m b e r 4, a t H o u k a n g .98 I H P 's s i x t h s e a s o n . A p r il 1 - M a y 31, a t H s i a o - t'u n

c/zi c/zi/z saw Hoti-cAia-c/man於 中 國 考 古 報 告 集 之 三 ，侯 家 莊 ， 1%2- 1 976; fc'ao-fcü pao-fcao c/zi Asin pfen 中 國 考 古 報 告 集 新 編 ，1%4- 1 972. (All of the above published by the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica.) Li Chi, Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ， Kn Asü/a-cAäeA 殷 墟 發 掘 ； Shih Chang-ju 石 津 如 ， iTcw-fcw nien piao 考 古 年 表 ； Chang Kwang-chih 張 光 直 ， "Yin hsü fa-chüeh wu-shih nien 〃 殷 楗 發 掘 五 十 年 • 92. Tung Tso-pin 董 作 賓 ，〃Min-kuo shih-ch’i nien shih yüeh shih chüeh An-yang Hsiao-tfun pao-kao shu " 民 國 十 七 年 十 月 試 掘 安 陽 小 也 報 告 當 • 93. Li Chi 李 濟 ，#/Hsiao-t’un ti-mien hsia ch'ing-hsing fen-hsi ch'u-pu " 小 也 地 面 下 情 形 分 析 初 步 ； "Yin Shang t'ao>ch1 ch'u-lun 〃 殷 商 崗 器 初 論 . 94. Li Chi 李 濟 ， " Min-kuo shih-pa nien ch'iu-chi fa-chüeh Yin hsü chih ching-kuo chi ch'i chung-yao fa-hsien〃 民 國 十 八 年 秋 季 發 掘 救 壤 之 絰 遏 及 其 重 要 發 現 ；"Hsiao-t'un yü Yang-shao" 小 也 與 仰 招 ； "Fu shen tsang’’ 俯 身 葬 • 95. Li Chi 李 濟 ，"An-yang tsui-chin fa-chüeh pao-kao chi liu tz’u kung-tso chih tsung ku-chi” 安 降 最 近 發 掘 報 告 及 六 次 工 作 之 熄 估 計 ； Kuo PacM： hün郭 寶 鈞 ， "B-cKü fa-chüeh chi chih yi" B 區 發 掘 記 之 一 • 96. Li chi 李 濟 ，"An-yang tsui-ch:fa fa-chüeh pao-kao chih liu tz’u kung-tso chih tsung ku-chi〃 安 降 最 近 發 掘 報 告 及 六 次 工 作 之 總 估 計 ； Wu Chin-ting 吳 金 聶 , "Chai chi Hsiao-t'un yi hsi chih san ch'u hsiao fa-chüeh” 摘 記 小 也 迤 西 之 三 處 小 發 掘 • 97. Liang Ssu-yung 梁 思 永 ，"Hou-kang fa-chüeh hsiao chi’’ 後 网 發 掘 小 記 ； "Hsiao-t'un Lung-shan yü Yang-shao” 小 也 龍 山 與 仰 艇 . 98. Li Chi 李 濟 ，"An-yang tsui-chin fa-chüeh pao-kao chi liu tz’u kung-tso chih tsung ku-chi〃 安 降 最 近 發 掘 報 告 及 六 次 工 作 之 總 佑 計 ； Kuo Pao»chün 郭 寶 鈞 ， "B-ch'ü fa-chüeh chi chiîi erh” B S 發 掘 記 之 二 ； Liang Ssu-yung 梁 思 永 （see note 97 above).

P rolegomena : Five Doors

to

Shang

49

N o r t h ， A p r il 8 - 1 6 ， a t K a o - c h in g - tfa i- tz u 高 台 井 子 , A p r il 15 a t S s u - m ie n - p e i 四 面 碑 ， a n d A p r il 1 4 - M a y 10 a t W a n g - y ü - k 'o u 王 裕 口 a n d H o - c h ia - h s ia o c h u a n g 霍 家小莊 1933

I H P ’s s e v e n t h s e a s o n , a t H s i a o - t 'u n N o r t h . 9100 I H P 's e i g h t h s e a s o n . O c to b e r 2 0 - D e c e m b e r 2 5 , a t H s ia o - t’u n N o r t h , 101 N o v e m b e r 1 5 - D e c e m b e r 21 a t S s u - p 'a n - m o , a n d N o v e m b e r 1 5 —J a n u a r y 3, J a n u a r y 1 5 - 2 4 a t H o u - k a n g .102

1934

1935

1936

I H P 's n i n e t h s e a s o n . M a r c h 9 - A p r il 1 a t H s ia o - t’u n N o r th , M a r c h 1 5 —A p r il 1, A p r il 1 0 - 2 0 a t H o u - k a n g , A p r il 3 0 - M a y 2 2 a t N a n - p a - t 'a i 南 碟 台 ， a n d A p r il 2 - M a y 31 a t H o u - c h ia - c h u a n g 候 家 莊 S o u t h .103 I H P 's t e n t h s e a s o n . O c to b e r ] - D e c e m b e r 3 0 a t H s i - p e i- k a n g 西 i t 岡 n e a r H o u - c h ia - c h u a n g a n d O c to b e r 2 9 - D e c e m b e r 5 a t T 'u n g - lo - c h a i 同 樂 寨 •104 IH P ^s e l e v e n t h s e a s o n . M a r c h 1 0 - J u n e 15, a t H s i - p e i- k a n g .105 I H P 's t w e l f t h s e a s o n . S e p te m b e r 5 - D e c e m b e r 16 a t H s i- p e i- k a n g , O c to b e r 2 0 —D e c e m b e r 5, a t T a - s s u k 'u n g - t s ’u n 大 司 空 村 S o u th , a n d O c to b e r 2 0 —N o v e m ­ b e r 7, a t F a n - c h ia - c h u a n g 見 家 莊 N o r t h . 106 I H P 's t h i r t e e n t h s e a s o n . M a r c h 1 8 —J u n e 2 4 , a t H s i a o - t 'u n N o r t h . 107 I H P ’s f o u r t e e n t h s e a s o n . S e p te m b e r 2 0 —D e c e m b e r 31,

99. See note 96 above. 100. Shih Chang-ju,石 蜂 如 ， "Ti ch’i tz'u Yin hsü fa-chüeh: E-ch'ü kung-tso pao^kao〃 第 七 次 殷 坺 發 掘 ：E 區 工 作 報 告 . 101. Shih Chang-ju 石 緣 如 ， “ Yin hsü tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu lun Hsiao»t'un ti-ts'eng’’ 殷 坺 最 近 之 重 要 發 現 附 論 小 也 地 層 ；"Hsiao»t'un ti wen-hua ts'erig” 小 也 的 文 化 層 • 102. Shih Chang-ju 石 蜂 如 ，"Ho«nan An-yang Hou-kang ti Yin m u " 河南安 降後网 的殷墓• 103. See note 101 above. 104. Shih Chang-ju 石 璋 如 ，"Hsiao*t，un ti wen-hua ts’eng” 小 也 的 文 化 層 • 105. Liang Ssu-yung 梁 思 永 and Kao Ch'ü-hsün 高去尋， 客 JOW-Zwo m mw 侯家莊 1001 號 大 墓 ，J0O2-/W0 扣 1002Ifc大 如 如 mw 1003號 大 墓 ， 如 mti 1004致 大 墓 • 106. Shih Chang-ju 石 埠 如 ，"Yin-hsü tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu lun Hsiao»t’un ti-ts’eng” 殷 壤 最 近 之 拿 要 發 現 附 論 小 也 地 層 ； Liang Ssu-yung 梁 思 永 and Kao Ch'ü-hsün 高 去 尋 ， J刀 7-Ado 加 侯 家 莊 1217號 大 墓 ； J5〇0-/wo 如 mu 1 5 00^ 大 如 如 爪 “ 1550號 大 墓 ； Kao Ch’ü-hsün 高 去 尋 ， "The Royal Cemetery of the Yin Dynasty of An-yang ”；Paul Pelliot, "The Royai Tombs of An-yang/' 1937 and 1938. 107. Shih Chang-ju 石 琿 "Yin hsü tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu lun Hsiao«t#un ti-ts'eng” 殷 楗 最 近 之 重 要 發 现 附 論 小 也 地 層 .

P rolegomena : Five Doors

50

193 7 1 9 3 7 —4 5

1950

1 9 5 3 -5 4

1955

1957

108.

to

Shang

a t H s i a o - t'u n N o r th , a n d O c to b e r 2 4 - D e c e m b e r 10 a t T a - s s u - k 'u n g - t s 'u n S o u t h .108 I H P ’s f if t e e n t h (fin a l) s e a s o n . M a r c h 1 6 - J u n e 19, a t H s i a o - t'u n N o r t h . 109 D u r in g t h e w a r y e a r s J a p a n e s e a r c h a e o lo g is ts o f K eio a n d T o k y o u n iv e r s itie s u n d e r t o o k e x c a v a tio n s in A n - y a n g in 19 3 8 a n d 1 9 4 0 - 4 1 .110 I n 1 9 3 9 f S. H . H a n s f o r d m a d e a b r i e f v is it t h e r e a n d m a d e a r e p o r t o f c o n d itio n s a t t h e t i m e .111 T h e f ir s t e x c a v a tio n a f te r t h e f o u n d in g o f t h e P e o p le 's R e p u b lic o f C h in a w a s u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e I n s t i t u t e o f A r c h a e o lo g y o f t h e A c a d e m ia S in ic a , A p r il 12 —J u n e 10 a t H s i- p e i- k a n g (r e n a m e d W u - k u a n - t s 'u n 武 官 村 N o r th ) a n d a t s e v e r a l lo c a litie s s o u th o f t h e R iv e r H u a n to t h e w e s t o f H s i a o - t 'u n .112 E x c a v a tio n b y t h e I n s t i t u t e o f A r c h a e o lo g y a t T a - s s u - k 'u n g - t s 'u n S o u th e a s t i n M a r c h - A p r i l , J u n e J u l y , a n d J a n u a r y . 113 E x c a v a tio n b y t h e F ir s t C u ltu r a l R e lic s W o r k T e a m o f t h e B u r e a u o f C u ltu r e , H o n a n P r o v in c e , in A u g u s t 1 8 - O c to b e r 2 3, a t H s i a o - t'u n S o u t h .114 E x c a v a tio n b y C u ltu r a l R e lic s W o r k T e a m o f th e B u r e a u o f C u ltu r e , H o n a n P r o v in c e , in A u g u s tS e p te m b e r a t H s iie h - c h ia - c h u a n g 薛 家 莊 S o u t h .115 E x c a v a tio n b y s a m e te a m in e a r ly N o v e m b e r a t H s iie h - c h ia - c h u a n g N o r t h . 116

Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ， "Yin hsü tsui-chin • • • hou chi” 殷 棱 最 近

…後 記 • 109. 110. 111. 112.

See note 108 above. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，Kfi Asû/fl-cAùeA 殷 壚 發 掘 ，pp. 117-118. "A Visit to An-yang .〃 Kuo Pao-chün 郭 寶 鈞 ，"Yi-chiu-wu-ling nien ch'un Yin hsü fa-chüeh pa〇-ka〇〃 一 九 五 〇 年 春 殷 墟 發 掘 報 告 . 113. Ma Te-chih 馬 得 志 ，Chou Yung-chen 周 永 珍 ，Chang Yün-p'eng 張 當 磷 , "Yi-chiu-wu-san nien An-yang Ta-ssu-k’ung ts’un fa-ch.üeh pao-kao” 一 九 五 三 年 安 场 大司空村發掘報告. 114•尺尺H P , "1955 n ie n c h 'iu An-yang H siao-t’un Y in hsü t i fa-chüeh" 1955 年 秋安降小也股壚 的發掘. 115. Chao Hsia-kuang 趙 霞 光 ，"An-yang shih hsi chiao ti Yin tai wen-hua yi-ch ih " 安 陽 西 郊 的 股 代 文 化 遺 址 ； Chou T a o 周 到 and， Liu Tun_-ya 東 亜 广 Yichiu-wu-ch’i nien ch’iu An-yang Kao-lou-chuang Yin tai yi-chih fa-chüeh’’ 一 九 五 七 年 秋安陽高樓莊股代遺址發掘• 116. KK, "Ho-nan An-yang Hsiieh-chia-chuang Yin tai yi-chih mu-tsang ho r a n g mu fa-chüeh chien pao， ，河 南 安 降 鈐 家 莊 救 代 遺 址 基 葬 和 唐 基 發 掘 簡 報 .

P rolegomena : Five Doors 1958

1959

1962

1963 1969 1971

to

Shang

51

E x c a v a ti o n b y a b o v e te a m in F e b r u a r y a n d M a r c h a t T a - s s u - k 'u n g - t s 'u n S o u t h . 117 B e g in n in g t h a t y e a r , c o n t i n u a l e x c a v a tio n s in A n ­ y a n g b y t h e I n s t i t u t e o f A r c h a e o lo g y (IA ). L o c a litie s e x c a v a te d i n 1 9 5 8 - 5 9 in c l u d e d H s i a o - t 'u n W e s t, M i a o - p 'u 苗圃 N o r th , C h a n g - c h ia - f e n 張 家 漬 ，P a ic h ia - f e n 白 家 墳 ，M e i- y ü a n - c h u a n g 梅 園 莊 f H s ia o m i n - t ’u n 孝 民 也 ，P e i- h s in - c h u a n g 北 辛 莊 ，F a n - c h ia c h u a n g 落 家 莊 ，H o u - k a n g , T a - s s u - k ’u n g - t s 'u n , a n d W u - k u a n N o r t h . 118 I A 's w o r k c o n t i n u e d . A f ie ld s ta t io n a n d m u s e u m w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d j u s t w e s t o f t h e v illa g e o f H s ia o t ’u n . 119 I A 's e x c a v a tio n s i n a u t u m n a t T a - s s u - k ’u n g - t s ’u n S o u t h e a s t .120 I A 's i n v e s t ig a ti o n s o f H u a n R iv e r s ite s o u ts id e t h e im m e d ia te p e r i m e t e r o f Y in h s ü . C o n tin u e d i n v e s t ig a ti o n s o f H u a n R iv e r s ite s o u ts id e Y in H s ü .121 IA e x c a v a t e d in s p r i n g a t W u - k u a n - t s 'u n N o r t h ( H s i- p e i- k a n g ) .122 IA a n d t h e C u ltu r e a n d E d u c a tio n B u r e a u o f A n - y a n g C ity e x c a v a t e d i n H o u - k a n g .123 IA e x c a v a te d o n D e c e m b e r 8 a t a n o r a c le b o n e lo c a lity a t H s i a o - t 'u n W e s t. T h is e x c a v a tio n c o n ­ t i n u e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y u n t i l M a y 1 9 7 3 .124

117. KK, "Yi-chiu-wu-pa nien ch'un Ho-nan An-yang shih Ta-ssu-k'ung ts'un Yin tai mu-tsang fa-chüeh chien pao〃 一 九 五 八 年 春 河 南 安 陽 市 大 司 空 村 救 代 墓 葬 發 掘簡報• 118 . 尺尺，"1958- 1959 n ie n Y in hsü fa-chüeh c h ie n pao” 1958-1959年股壤發 掘 簡 教 ；Kuo Mo-jo 郭沐若，"A n-yang yüan k'eng mu chung tin g m in g k 'a o ^ s h ih " 安 陽 圓 坑 i t 中 鼎 銘 考 釋 ；Chao P 'ei-hsin 趙 体 聲 ，"A n-yang H ou-kang yüan-hsing k'eng h s in g - c h ih t i t' a o J u n " 安 陽 後 岡 圓 形 坑 性 質 的 討 論 • 1 1 9 . 尺尺，"1958- 1959 nien Yin hsü fa-chüeh chien pao"1958-1959 年 毅 坺 發 掘簡報• 12〇m 962 nien An-yang Ta-ssu-k，ung ts，un fa-chüeh chien pao" 1962 年 安降大司空村發掘簡報. 121. ü d "A n-yang H uan ho liu - y ü c h i ko y i- c h ih t i s h ih c hü e h” 安 fljr;至河流 城幾個遣址的試掘• 122. /U , "A n-yang Y in hsü n u - li chi-ssu k ’eng t i fa-chüeh” 安 隱 股 壚 奴 鍊 祭

祀坑的發掘

• 123. 闲 發掘簡報•

尺 足 "1971

nien An-yang Hou-kang fa-chüeh chien pao" 1971 年 安 降 後

郭泳若， An-yang h s in c h ’ u-t’u c h ih n iu chia-ku c h i c h 'i k ’o tz V 安降新出土之牛胛骨及其刻辭. 124. Kuo M o-jo

52

P rolegomena : Five Doors 1972

1973 1975 1976

to

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IA e x c a v a te d in J a n u a r y 2 8 - M a r c h 3 0 a t H o u k a n g .125 IA e x c a v a te d in M a r c h —A p r il a t H s ia o m i n - t ’u n S o u t h .126 IA e x c a v a te d a t H s i a o - t'u n S o u th in M a r c h - A u g u s t 10 a n d O c to b e r 4 —D e c e m b e r 4 . 127 IA e x c a v a te d in w i n t e r a t H s i a o - t'u n N o r t h . 128 IA e x c a v a te d in A p r il 1 6 - J u n e 3 0 a t W u - k u a n - t s 'u n N o r t h . 129 IA e x c a v a te d in J u l y in H s i a o - t'u n N o r t h . 130

I t h a s n o w b e e n f if ty y e a r s s in c e T u n g 's in itia l d ig g in g a t A n ­ y a n g , a n d t h e A n - y a n g w o r k is c o n tin u in g . T h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta f r o m t h e s ite s th e r e , a s w e ll a s t h e t e x t u a l in f o r m a tio n p r o v i d e d b y t h e o ra c le b o n e r e c o r d s t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d in A n - y a n g a lm o s t e x c lu ­ s i v e l y ,131 c o n s t i t u t e t h e b u l k o f o u r b a s ic s o u r c e s o n S h a n g c iv iliz a tio n a n d a re t h e p r i n c i p a l b a s is o f th e p r e s e n t v o lu m e . O u ts id e A n - y a n g , a r c h a e o lo g y h a s d is c lo s e d a la r g e n u m b e r o f s ite s w i t h a c iv iliz a tio n s im ila r o r e v i d e n t l y r e la te d to t h a t a t A n - y a n g , b u t o n ly a t C h e n g - c h o u 鄭 州 h a s t h e r e b e e n e x te n s iv e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l w o r k w i t h d e ta ile d s tr a tig r a p h ic in f o r m a tio n . T o s u m m a r iz e w o r k t h a t h a s b e e n d o n e , I g iv e t h e f o llo w in g lis t o f t h e S h a n g a r c h a e o lo g ic a l w o r k a t C h e n g - c h o u a n d e ls e w h e r e . SHANG ARCHAEOLOGY AT CHENG-CHOU T h e f ir s t S h a n g r e m a in s in t h e C h e n g - c h o u a r e a w e r e f o u n d in 1 9 5 0 o n t h e E r h - li- k a n g 二 里 岡 h ill, s o u th e a s t o f t h e c ity , b y a s c h o o l 125_ /in "1972 nien ch'un An-yang Hou-kang fa-chüeh chien pao〃1972 年 春 安陽後岡發掘簡報• 126• 尺尺，"An-yang hsin fa-hsien ti Yin tai ch'e-ma k'eng " 安 降 新 發 現 的 殷 代 車馬坑. 127. WC "1973 nien An-yang Hsiao-t'un nan-ti fa-chüeh chien pao" 1973 年 安陽小也南地發掘簡報. 128• 尺尺， "1975 nien An-yang Yin hsü ti hsin fa-hsierT 1975 年 安 隋 殷 坺 的 新 發現. 129. "An-yang Yiri hsü nu-li chi-ssu k'eng ti fa-chüeh” 安 降 殷 壚 奴 緣 祭 祀 坑 的 發 掘 ； Yang Hsi-chang 揚 踢 球 and Yang Pao-ch'eng 揚 寶 成 ，"Ts'ung Shang tai chi-ssu k'eng k'an Shang tai nu-li she-hui ti jen sheng” 從 商 代 祭 把 坑 看 商 代 奴 捸 社 會 的 人 牲 ；欠尺，"An-yang Yin tai chi-ssu k'engjen ku ti hsing-pieh nien-ling chien-ting’’ 安陽殷代祭祀坑人骨的性别 年聆鑒定. 130• 欠尺HP, "An-yang Yin-hsü wu-hao mu ti fa-chüeh” 安 降 股 壤 五 號 墓 的 發掘 K ’'Yin hsü k'ao-ku fa-chüeh ti yu yi chung-yao shou-hu— H siaot’un fa-hsien yi-tso pao-ts'un wan，cheng ti Yin tai wang-shih mu-tsang” 股 壚 考 古 發 掘 的 又 一 言 要 收獲一小也發現一座保存完整的股代王室基葬. • 131. For oracle bone records found outside An-yang, see Ch'en Meng-chia, Wfi Gtin客-s/zu 股 壤 卜 综 述 ，p. 27, and Li Hsüeh-ch'in 李 學 勤 ，"T’an Anyang Hsiao-t'un yi-wai ch'u-t’u ti yu tzu chia-ku” 談 安 降 小 也 以 外 出 土 的 有 字 甲 會 •

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t e a c h e r .132 E r h - li- k a n g w a s t h e n in v e s t i g a t e d b y s t a f f m e m b e r s o f t h e H o n a n P r o v in c i a l C o m m is s io n f o r t h e P r e s e r v a t i o n o f C u ltu r a l R e lic s 133 a n d o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f A r c h a e o lo g y , A c a d e m ia S in ic a , in 195 L 134 I n 1 9 5 2 a n d 1 9 5 3 t h e s ite w a s t h e lo c a tio n f o r a S h o r t T e r m A r c h a e o lo g ic a l T r a in i n g I n s t i t u t e f ie ld p r o g r a m s p o n s o r e d j o i n t l y b y t h e M in is t r y o f C u ltu r e , P e k in g U n iv e r s ity , a n d t h e I n s t i t u t e o f A r c h a e o lo g y .135 T h e s e i n v e s t ig a ti o n s r e v e a le d t h a t E r h - li- k a n g , t o g e t h e r w i t h a f e w o t h e r lo c a litie s in t h e C h e n g - c h o u a re a , w a s t h e s ite o f a S h a n g s e tt le m e n t o f c o n s id e r a b le m a g n i t u d e a n d , f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e S h a n g r e m a in s t h e r e in c lu d e d th o s e le f t f r o m a c u l t u r a l p h a s e s e e m in g ly e a r lie r t h a n t h e r e m a in s a t Y in h s ü i n A n - y a n g .136 I n t e n s i v e i n v e s t ig a ti o n s t h e n b e g a n to b e u n d e r t a k e n , in 1 9 5 3 , b y s t a f f m e m b e r s o f t h e C u ltu r a l R e lic s W o r k T e a m o f C h e n g - c h o u C ity ( la te r t h e C u ltu r a l B u r e a u o f t h e c ity , t h e C ity M u s e u m , a n d H o n a n P r o v in c i a l M u s e u m ). T h e f o llo w in g is a lis tin g o f a ll k n o w n e x c a v a tio n s a n d t h e p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n ts o f th e m : 1953

1954

B e g in n ih g o f c o n t i n u a l i n v e s t ig a ti o n s , in c o n ju n c t io n w i t h t h e u r b a n c o n s t r u c t i v e p r o g r a m s , b y t h e c ity o f C h e n g - c h o u . T h e in itia l lo c u s w a s a t E r h - li- k a n g , s ite o f t h e 195 2 e x c a v a t i o n s .137 F o u r m a jo r s ite s w e r e e x c a v a te d in t h i s y e a r : J e n - m in 人 民 ( P e o p le ’s) P a r k ， 138 P a i- c h ia - c h u a n g 白 家 莊 , 139 T z u c h in g - s h a n 紫 荆 山 N o r t h , 140 a n d N a n - k u a n - w a i 南閼 外 . 14i

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T h e P a i- c h ia - c h u a n g e x c a v a tio n b e g u n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r

132. 尺，C/ze%«c/z(Hi 鄭 州 二 里 岡 ，p. 1. 133. Chao Ch’üan-ku 趙 全 振 ，"Ho-nan chi ko hsin-shih-ch'i shih-tai yi-chih” 河南幾個新石器時代遺 址 . 134. Hsia Nai 夏 鼐 ，"Ho^nan Ch’eng-kao Kuang-wu ch'ü k’ao-ku chi lüeh’’ 河 南 成皐廣武 區 考 古 紀 略 • 135. An Chih-min 安 志 敏 ，"Yi-chiu_wu-erh nien ch'iu chi Cheng-chou Erhli-kang fa-chüeh chi” 一 九 五 二 年 秋 季 鄭 州 二 里 岡 發 掘 記 • 136. W W , "Cheng-chou shih Yin Shang yi-chih ti-ts'eng kuan-hsi chieh-shao'' 鄭州市殷商遺址地層闞 係介紹. 137. W W , ^Yi nien lai Cheng-chou shih ti wen-wu tiao-ch'a fa-chüeh kung-tso 一年來鄭州市的文物調査發掘工作； 鄭州二里岡. 138. An Chih-min 安 志 敏 ，"Cheng-chou shih Jen-min kung-yüan fu-chin ti Yin tai yi-ts'un” 鄭 州 市 人 民 公 園 附 近 的 殷 代 遺 存 ；WW, "Cheng-chou shih Jen-min kung-yüan ti erh-sliih-wu hao Shang tai mu-tsang ch’ing-li chien pao” 鄭 州 市 人 民 公 園 第二十五號商代基葬清 理簡報. 139. WW, "Cheng-chou shih Pai-chia-chuang Shang tai mu-tsang fa-chüeh chien pao〃鄭 州 市 白 家 莊 商 代 墓 葬 發 掘 簡 報 ；W W ，"Cheng-chou Pai-chia-chuang yichih fa-chüek chien pao 〃鄭州 白 家 莊 遺 址 發 掘 簡 報 • 140•尺A： HP, "Cheng-chou Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh" 鄭 州 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ，56. 141. Ibid.

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c o n tin u e d . A d d itio n a l e x c a v a tio n s to o k p la c e a t M in g k u n g - l u 銘 功 路 W e s t ,142 E r h - li- k a n g ,143 a n d N a n - k u a n w a i .144 E x c a v a tio n s to o k p la c e t h is y e a r o n a b r o a d f r o n t, a t th e f o llo w in g s ite s : M in g - k u n g - lu W e s t , 145 T z u - c h in g - s h a n N o r t h , 146 L o -ta -m ia o 洛 達 肩 ， 147 N a n - k u a n - w a i,148 a n d K o -la -w a n g 备 王 • 149 A ls o b e g in n in g t h is y e a r w a s a n e x te n s iv e e f f o r t to tr a c e a n d m a p t h e S h a n g t o w n w a ll, a n u n d e r t a k i n g t h a t p e r s is te d u n t i l 1 9 7 3 .150 A f te r 1 956, in s o f a r a s p u b lis h e d a c c o u n ts a r e c o n c e r n e d , a r c h a e o lo g ic a l w o r k a t t h e S h a n g s ite s in C h e n g - c h o u b e c a m e le ss in te n s iv e t h o u g h s till p e r s is te n t. T h e o n ly a c c o u n ts h a v e d e a lt w i t h e x c a v a tio n s a t S h a n g - c h ie h in 1 9 5 7 - 5 9 ,151 M in g - k u n g - lu W e s t in 1 9 6 5 ,152 a p a la c e f o u n d a t i o n s ite in 1 9 7 3 a n d 1 9 7 4 ,153 a n d C h a n g - c h a i- n a n c h ie h 張 寨 南 街 in 1 9 7 4 .154

142. WW, "Cheng-chou fa-hsien ti Shang tai chih t’ao yi-chi 〃 鄭 州 發 現 的 商 代製陶遺跡. 143. W W , ''Cheng-chou ti wu wen-wu ch'ü ti yi hsiao ch'ü fa-chüeh chien pao 〃 鄭 州 第 五 文 物 區 第 一 小 區 發 掘 簡 報 . 144• 尺A7fP,"Cheng-chou Nan-kuan-wai Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh 鄭 州 南 關外商代遺址的發掘• 〃

145. Ma Ch'üan 馬 全 ，"Cheng-chou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts'e ti Shang tai yi-ts^ in " 鄭 州 市 銘 功 路 西 側 的 商 代 遺 存 . 146. Liao Yung-min 庫 永 民 ，"Cheng-chou shih fa-hsien ti yi ch’u Shang tai chü-chu yü chu-tsao t'ung-ch'i yi-chih chien ch ieh " 鄭 州 市 發 現 的 一 處 商 代 居 住 與 _ 製造銅器遺址簡介• 147. WW, "Cheng-chou Lo-ta-miao Shang tai yi-chih shih chüeh chien pao” 鄭州洛達瘸 商代遺址試掘簡報. 148. KK, "Cheng-chou Nan-kuan-wai Shang tai yi-chih fa-chüeh chien pao" 鄭州南關外商代遺址發掘簡報. 149• 尺尺ZfP, "Cheng-chou Ko-la-wang ts’un yi-chih fa-chüeh pao~kao”鄭 州 絶 旮 王村遺址發掘報告. 150. WW, "Cheng-chou Shang tai ch'eng chih shih chüeh chien pao’’ 鄭 州 商 代城址試掘簡報. 151• 欠/C"Cheng-chou Shang-chieh Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh” 鄭 州 上 街 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ；尺尺，"Ho-nan Cheng-chou Shang-chieh Shang tai yi-chih fa-chüeh pao-kao〃 河 南 鄭 州 上 街 商 代 遺 址 發 掘 報 告 • 152. KK, #,Cheng-chou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts'e ti liang tso Shang tai mu^ 鄭州市銘功路西側的兩座商代墓• 153. W W t ''Cheng-chou Shang ch'eng yi-chih nei fa-hsien Shang tai hang-t#u t i i chi ho nu-lu fo u k i T 鄭 州 商 城 遺 址 内 發 現 商 代 夯 土 会 基 和 奴 捸 頭 骨 . 154. WW, "Cheng-chou hsin ch’u-t’u ti Shang tai ch’ien ch’i ta t’ung ting” 鄭州新出土的商代前期大銅鼎.

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T h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l w o r k a t C h e n g - c h o u , lik e t h a t a t A n - y a n g , is s till c o n t i n u i n g , a n d t h e w o r k t h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h le s s in te n s iv e , i n p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e c o in c id e n c e o f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e S h a n g t o w n w i t h t h e p r e s e n t c ity s ite . B u t f r o m w h a t h a s b e e n le a r n e d so f a r , 155 t h e S h a n g a r c h a e o lo g y t h e r e is o f e x tr e m e im p o r ta n c e i n p r o v i d i n g d a ta o n a S h a n g s e t t l e m e n t w h i c h is i n a ll lik e lih o o d e a r lie r t h a n A n - y a n g a n d is, th e r e f o r e , a n a n c e s tr a l f o r m o f t h e l a t t e r c a p ita l. SHANG ARCHAEOLOGY ELSEWHERE I n t h e la s t t h i r t y y e a r s a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s ite s w i t h r e m a in s s im ila r to t h o s e o f A n - y a n g a n d / o r C h e n g - c h o u a n d , t h u s , d e s ig n a te d a s o f a S h a n g d a te h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t to lig h t t h r o u g h o u t C h in a , f r o m L ia o n in g in t h e n o r t h to s o u t h o f t h e Y a n g tz e R iv e r in t h e s o u th . N o n e o f th e s e s ite s h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t e d to t h e d e g r e e s e e n a t A n - y a n g a n d C h e n g c h o u , b u t q u i t e lik e ly o t h e r s ite s w ill b e s h o w n b y f u t u r e in v e s t ig a ti o n s to b e a s i m p o r t a n t o r in s o m e w a y s e v e n m o r e so . A b r i e f s u m m a r y o f a v a ila b le i n f o r m a t io n is g iv e n b e lo w i n e a c h o f t h e m a jo r a r e a s o f d is trib u tio n . N o r th w e s t H o n a n a n d S o u th e r n S h a n s i. T h is is t h e a r e a o f d is t r i b u t i o n o f t h e E r h - l i - t 'o u 二 里 頭 t y p e o f s ite s , u s u a ll y r e f e r r e d to a s E a r ly S h a n g i n t h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l l i t e r a t u r e . 156 I n v ie w o f m o r e r e c e n t r e s e a r c h o n t h e E r h - l i - t 'o u t y p e o f c u l t u r e a n d o n t h e o r ig in q u e s ti o n o f t h e S h a n g c iv i l i z a t i o n ,157 a s p e c ts t h a t w ill b e d is c u s s e d in d e ta il la te r in t h i s v o lu m e , w e w ill r e m o v e t h i s c u l t u r e f r o m t h e d o m a in o f t h e S h a n g . D e p r iv e d o f t h e E r h - l i - t 'o u s ite s , t h e a r e à h a s r e l a t i v e l y f e w S h a n g s ite s 155. The following syntheses of the Cheng-chou site may be consulted: WW, "Cheng»chou shih Yin Shang yi-chih ti-ts'eng kuan-hsi chieh-shao”鄭 州 市 股 商 遺 址 地 層 闞 係 介 绍 ；尺尺，"Cheng-cüou shih ku yi-cfih mu-tsang ti chung-yao fa-hsien” 鄭 州 市 古 遺 址 基 葬 的 重 要 發 現 ；Tsou Heng 餅 衡 ， "Shih lun Cheng-chou hsin fa-hsien ti Yin Shang wen-hua yi-chih 〃試 論 鄭 州 新 發 現 的 殷 商 文 化 遺 址 ；尺尺HP ，"Cheng-chou Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh” 鄭 州 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ； An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 "Cheng-chou tich'ü ti ku-tai yi-ts'un chieh-sfiao 鄭 州 地 區 的 古 代 遺 存 介 ig ; An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ， "Shih lun Cheng-chou Shang tai ch'eng chih— Ao t u " 試 論 鄭 州 商 代 城 址 一 敵 邹 ； An Chih-min安 志 敏 ，"Kuan-yü Cheng-chou #Shang ch'eng' ti chi-ko w en-t'r’ 閼 于 鄭 州 ‘ 商 域; 的 幾 個 問 趙 ； Liu C h'i-yi 割 啓 益 ， …Ao tur chih y i” ‘Ä 都 ’ 質 疑 ；T'ang L an 唐 繭 ， "Ts'ung Ho«nan Cheng-chou ch’u-t'u ti Shang tai ch’ien-ch’i ch’ing-t'ung-ch'i shuo ch'i” 從河南鄭州出土的商代前期音銅器説 起； "Cheng-chou Shang tai yi-chih 〃鄭州 商代遺址. 156. K. C. Chang, The Archaeology of Ancient China, pp. 258-259. 157. Chang Kwang-chih 張 光 直 ， "Yin Shang wen-ming ch'i-yüan yen-chiu shang ti yi-ko kuan-chien wen-t'i 〃 殷 商 文 明 起 源 研 究 上 的 一 個 闊 健 W H ; Chang Kwang-chih 張 光 直 ，"Ts'ung Hsia Shang Chou san-tai k'ao-ku lun san-tai kuan-hsi yü Chung-kuo ku-tai kuo-chia ti hsing»ch'eng” 從 夏 商 周 三 代 考 古 論 三 代 闞 係 典 中 _ 古代國家的形成.

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(o f t h e C h e n g - c h o u o r A n - y a n g v a r ie tie s ) o t h e r t h a n th o s e in t h e C h e n g c h o u r e g io n , a t t h e e a s te r n m a r g in o f it. T h e y in c lu d e s ite s f o u n d in C h 'i- li- p ’u 七 里 铺 in S h a n H s i e n ,158 L u - s s u 鹿 寺 in M i e n - c h 'i h ,159 C h ie n h s i 利 溪 in M e n g H s i e n ,160 H s ia o - n a n - c h a n g 小 南 張 in W e n H s i e n ,161 a s e r ie s o f s ite s in t h e n e ig h b o r h o o d o f L o - y a n g ,162 S h a o - c h 'a i 稍 柴 in K u n g H s i e n ,163 a n d M e i- s h a n 煤 山 in L i n - ju .164 C e n tra l S h a n s i a n d S h e n si. S h a n g s ty le b r o n z e s a r e s a id to h a v e b e e n f o u n d in S h ih - lo u 石 樓 ， in c e n tr a l- w e s te r n S h a n s i in t h e H u a n g H o v a lle y b e f o r e 1949. A s s e m b la g e s o f th e s e f in d s , m o s tly c h a n c e d is ­ c o v e r ie s , h a v e n o w b e e n r e p o r t e d a ll a lo n g t h e Y e llo w R iv e r v a lle y a s n o r t h a s P a o - te 保 德 ， a n d im p o r t a n t f in d s a r e n o w a v a ila b le f r o m s e v e r a l lo c a litie s ( E r h - la n g - p 'o 二 郎 坡 , 165 T 'a o - h u a - c h u a n g 桃 花 莊 ， 166 H o u - la n c h ia - k o u 後 蘭 家 溝 ， 167 Y i-tie h 義 勝 ， 168 a n d o t h e r s 169) in S h ih - lo u ，P a o t e , 170 a n d a lso S u i- te 絲 德 in S h e n s i, a c r o s s t h e r i v e r fr o m P a o - te .171 158. KK H P, "Ho-nan Shan Hsien Ch'i-li-p'u Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chiiehf, 河南陕 縣七里舖 商代遺址的發掘.

159. KKt "Ho-nan Mien-ch'ih Lu-ssu Shang tai yi-chih shih chüeh chien pao" 河南泷 池鹿寺商代遺址試掘簡報• 1 6 0 . 尺尺，"Ho-nan Men#g Hsien Chien-hsi yi-chih fa-chüeh" 河 南 孟 縣 利 溪 遺 址發掘. 161. WW, "Wen Hsien ch’u-t’u ti Shang tai t’ung-ch'i" Ä 縣 出 土 的 商 代 銅 器 . 162. Kuo Pao-chün 郎 寶 釣 and Lin Shou-chin 林 壽 晋 1952 nien ch’iu-chi Lo-yang tung chiao fa-chüeh pao-kao" 1952 年 秋 季 洛 陽 東 郊 發 掘 報 告 ；尺尺HP, "Loyang Chien pin ku wen-hua yi-chih chi Han mu” 洛 陽 測 濟 古 文 化 遺 址 及 漢 墓 ； /IX "Yi-chiu-wu-ssu nien ch'iu-chi Lo-yang hsi chiao fa-chüeh chien pao’’ 一 九 五 四 年 秋 季 洛 陽 西 郊 發 掘 簡 報 ,H " 1958 nien Lo-yang Tung-kan-kou yi-chih fa-chüeh chien pao” 1958 年 洛 陽 東 乾 溝 遺 址 發 掘 簡 報 . 163. T'ung Chu-ch'en 体 柱 臣 ，"Ts'ung Erh-li-t#ou lei-hsing wen-hua shih t'an Chung-kuo ti kuo-chia ch'i-yüan wen-t'i”從 二 里 頭 類 型 文 化 試 談 中 國 的 國 家 起 源問題， 29. 1 6 4 . 尺欠，"Ho-nan Un-ju Mei-shan yi-chih tiao-ch'a yü shih chüeh” 河 南 臨 汝 煤山遺址調査與試掘• 165. WW, "Shan-hsi Shih-lou hsien Erh-lang-p’o ch’u-t'u Shang Chou ch’ingt'ung-ch'i〃 山 西 石 樓 縣 二 郎 坡 出 土 商 周 青 銅 器 . 166. Hsieh Ch'ing-shan 謝 j 山 and Yang Shao-shun 揚 紹 舜 ，"Shan-hsi Lüliang hsien Shih-lou chen yu fa-hsien t/ung-ch'i” 山 西 呂 梁 縣 石 樓 鎮 又 發 現 銅 器 . 167. Kuo Yung 郭 勇 ，"Shili-lou Hou-lan-chia-kou fa-hsien Shang tai ch'ingt'ung-ch'i chien pao〃 石 樓 •後 藺 家 溝 發 現 商 代 青 銅 器 簡 報 . 168. 尺尺，"Shan-hsi Shih-lou Yi-tieh fa-hsien Shang tai fu n g -c h r ' 山 西 石 樓 義 牌 發 現 商 代 銅 器 ；WW，"Shan-hsi Shih-lou Yi-tieh Hui-p'ing fa-hsien Shang tai pingch'i〃 山 西 石 樓 義 牒 會 坪 發 現 商 代 兵 器 • 169. W W f "Shan-hsi Shih-lou hsin cheng-chi tao ti chi-chien Shang tai ch'ingt'ung-chï 〃 山 西 石 樓 新 微 集 到 的 幾 件 商 代 青 銅 器 . 170. Wu CÎien-lu 吳 振 求 ，"Pao-te hsien hsin fa-hsien ti Yin tai ch'ing-t’ungch'i〃 保 德 縣 新 發 現 的 股 代 青 銅 器 . 171. W W , ^Shan-hsi Sui-te Yen-t'ou ts'un fa-hsien yi-p'i chiao-ts'ang Shang Ui t'ung-ch] 〃 陕 西 綏 德 塢 頭 村 發 現 一 批 窖 藏 商 代 銅 器 •

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I s o la te d f in d s o f S h a n g - lik e r e m a in s h a v e a ls o b e e n id e n tif ie d in t h e F e n H o v a lle y o f C e n tr a l S h a n s i, s u c h a s T ’a i- y ü a n 太 原 a n d H s in H s ie n 析•縣 , 172 a n d in C h ’i- s h a n 峡 山 in C e n tr a l S h e n s i.173 N o r th e r n H o n a n a n d S o u th e r n H o p e i. T h is is t h e p la in s a r e a o f t h e l o w e r Y e llo w R iv e r w i t h A n - y a n g a s its c e n te r , e x t e n d i n g n o r t h w a r d a lo n g t h e e a s t e r n s id e o f t h e T 'a i - h a n g M o u n ta i n s . K n o w n s ite s i n t h is a r e a i n c l u d e L u - w a n g - f e n 游 王 墳 in H s i n - h s i a n g ,174 s e v e r a l s ite s in H u i H s ie n ， 175 C h ’a o - k o 朝 歌 i n T ’a n g - y i n ， 176 C h ie h - tu a n - y in g 界 段 營 i n T z 'u H s i e n ,177 C h i e n - k o u - t s 'u n 利 漢 村 i n H a n - t a n , 178 s e v e r a l s ite s in H s i n g - t’a i , 179 T ’a i - h s i - t s 'u n 台 西 村 in K a o - c h 'e n g ,180 P e i - c h a i - t s 'u n 北 宅 村 in L i n g - s h o u ,181 F e n g - c h ia - a n 瑪 家 岸 i n C h ü - y a n g ,182 a n d L iu - c h ia - h o

172. W W , "Shan-hsi sheng shih nien lai ti w en-w u k'ao -k u hsin sho u -h u " 山 西 省 十 年 來 的 文 物 考 古 新 收 穫 ，2. Shen C h e n -c h u n g 沈 振 中 ，"H sin hsien Lien-ssukou c h 'u -t#u ti ch 'in g -tfu n g rch 'i 〃忻 縣 連 寺 溝 出 土 的 青 銅 器 . 173. W W , "Shan-hsi sheng Ch'i-shan hsien fa-hsien Shang tai t'u n g - c h 'i/' 陕 西省岐山縣發現商代銅器• 174. KKHP, "H o -n an Hsin-hsiang Lu-w ang-fen Shang tai yi-chih fa-chiieh pao«kao 〃 河 南 新 鄉 游 王 境 商 代 遺 址 發 掘 報 告 . 175. Kuo Pao-chün 郭 寶 汽 ， Hsia Nai 夏 兼 ， et al., fft/i ffsien/fl-c/zäeApao-fcao 輝縣發掘報告； "H o-nan W ei-ho chih-him g kung-ch'eng chung ti k ’ao-ku tiao-ch’a chien pao” 河 南 術 河 淨 洪 工 程 中 的 考 古 調 查 簡 報 ；尺尺，"H o-nan Hui hsien C h'u-ch'iu c h ü u ti Shang tai t'u n g -c h ’i " 河 南 輝 縣 褚 丘 Ä 土 的 商 代 銅 器 • 176. An C hin-huai 安 金 槐 ，"T 'an g -y in Ch#ao-ko-chen fa-hsien Lung-shan ho Shang tai teng w en-hua y i - c h i h r 陰 朝 歌 錢 發 現 龍 山 和 商 代 等 文 化 遺 址 • 177• 尺尺, " T z 'u Hsien C hieh-tuan-ying fo-chüeh cAien pao " 磁 縣 界 段 營 發 掘 簡報

.

178• 欠ü：, "1957 nien H an-tan fa-chüeh chien pao " 1957 年 邯 鄆 發 掘 簡 報 ； JSX "Ho»pei H an-tan Chien-kou ts ’u n k u yi-chih fa-chüeh chien p a o " 河 北 邯 郸 利 游 村 古遺址發掘簡報. 179. KK, ^H o-pei H sing-t'ai Tung-hsien-hsien ts 'u n Shang tai yi-chih tiaoc h V ’ 河 北 邢 台 ^ 先 賢 村 商 代 遺 址 調 查 ；A： 尺f/ 凡 "H sin g -t’ai Ts’ao-yen-chuang yi-chih fa-chüeh p a o » k a o " 邢 台 曹 演 莊 遺 址 發 掘 報 告 ；WW, "H sin g -t，ai shih fa-hsien Shang tai yi-chih” 邢 台 市 發 現 商 代 遺 址 ；WW, "H sin g -t'ai Shang tai yi-chih chung ti t'ao yao” 邢 台 商 代 遺 址 中 的 T 'an g Yün-ming 唐 雲 明 ，"H sin g -t'ai N an-ta-kuo ts'u n Shang tai yi-chih t'an -ch ü eh chien pao 〃 邢 台 南 大 郭 村 商 代 遣 址 探 掘 簡 報 ； WW, "H sing-t'ai Chia ts 'u n Shang tai yi-chih shih chüeh chien pao” 邢 台 貧 村 商 代 遺 址 試 掘 簡 報 ；W W ," H s in g -t'a i Y in-kuo-ts'un Shang tai yi-chih chi Chan-kuo m u-tsang shih chüeh chien pao” 邢 台 ^ 郭 村 商 代 遣 址 及 戰 國 暮 葬 試 掘 簡 報 • 180. KK, "H o-pei Kao-ch'eng hsien Shang tai yi-chih ho m u-tsang ti tiao-ch'a" 河北藁城縣商代遺址和墓葬的調査； "H o-pei Kao-ch'eng T 'ai-hsi ts’un ti Shang tai yi-chih " 河 北 藁 城 台 西 村 的 * 代 遺 址 ； WW, "H o-pei Kao-ch’eng hsien T ’ai-hsi ts 'u n Shang tai yi-chih 1973 nien ti chung-yao fa-hsien” 河 北 藁 城 縣 台 西 村 商 代 遺 址 1973 年 的 重 要 發 現 • 181. KKt "H o-pei Ling-shou hsien Pei-chai ts 'u n Shang tai yi-chih tiao-ch'a" 河北霞壽縣北宅村商代遺址調査•

182. An Chih-min 安 志 敏 ， 'Ho^pei C h'ü-yang tiao-ch’a c h i’’ 河 北 曲 降調 査

記

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in P e k i n g .183 A n a s s e m b la g e o f b r o n z e v e s s e ls f o u n d in L ia o n in g , m u c h f a r t h e r to t h e n o r t h , h a s a lso b e e n d e s c r ib e d a s S h a n g .184 S h a n tu n g . A c c o r d in g to s u r v e y d a ta u p to 1 9 7 2 , S h a n g r e m a in s a r e s a id to h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d fr o m t h e e n t i r e p r o v in c e e x c e p t f o r th e d i s t r i c t o f T e - c h o u in n o r t h e r n m o s t S h a n t u n g .185 T h e b e s t k n o w n o f th e S h a n g s ite s , h o w e v e r , a r e tw o t h a t w e r e d is c o v e r e d m a n y y e a r s a g o a n d w h e r e n e w in v e s tig a tio n s h a v e r e v e a le d i m p o r t a n t d a ta . T h e s e a r e T a - h s in - c h u a n g 大 辛 莊 ， in t h e e a s te r n s u b u r b o 亡C h i- n a n ,186 a n d S u - fu t ’u n 蘇 毕 也 ， n o r t h e a s t o f Y i- tu .187 H u a i H o P la in in H o n a n , N . K ia n g su , a n d A n h w e i. T h e H u a i H o p la in in e a s te r n H o n a n , s o u t h w e s t e r n S h a n tu n g , a n d n o r t h e r n K ia n g s u a n d A n h w e i is p o t e n tia lly a c r u c ia l a r e a f o r S h a n g a r c h a e o lo g y b e c a u s e m o s t h is to r ia n s (as s h o w n e a r lie r ) h a v e p la c e d P o — T 'a n g 's c a p it a l— in th e e n v ir o n s o f S h a n g - c h ’iu . B u t d e s p it e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e H u a i H o a re a w a s a n e a r ly t a r g e t o f S h a n g a r c h a e o lo g is ts ,188 S h a n g s ite s h e r e a r e n o t y e t v e r y m a n y . S h a n g r e m a in s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d a t F u - k o u 扶 漢 in Y e n -lin g , c e n tr a l H o n a n ; 189 s e v e r a l s ite s in t h e H s ü - c h o u a r e a o f n o r t h e r n K ia n g s u , e s p e c ia lly K a o -h u a n g - m ia o 高 皇 廟 190 a n d C h 'iu - w a n

183. WW, "Pei-ching shih P'ing-ku hsien fa-hsien Shang tai mu-tsang" 北 京 市 平谷縣發現商代墓葬• 184. KK, "Liao-ning K'o-tso hsien Pei-tung-ts'un fa-hsien Yin tai ch'ing-t'ungch’i ” 逡 窣 味 左 縣 北 洞 村 發 現 殷 代 青 銅 器 ；尺尺, "Liao-ningK'o-tsohsienPei-tungts'un ch'u-t'u ti Yin Chou ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i" 逡 箄 嗔 左 縣 北 網 村 出 土 的 殷 周 青 鋼 器 ； Yen Wan 晏 碗 ， "Pei-ching Liao-ning ch'u-t’u t/ung-ch’i yü Chou ch’u ti Yen” i t 京 逡 窣 出 土 銅器與周初的燕. 185. Ch'i Wen-t'ao 齊 文 涛 ， "Kai shu chin-nien lai Shan-tung ch'u-t'u ti Shang Chou ch'ing-t'ung^ch'i” 概 述 近 年 來 山 東 出 土 的 商 周 青 銅 器 ； see also XiCShan-tung P'ing-yin hsien Chu-chia-ch'iao Yin tai yi-chih” 山 東 平 陰 縣 朱 家 樣 殷 代 遺 址 . 186. F. S. Drake, "Shang Dynasty Find at Ta-hsin-chuang, Shantung’ ’ ；F. S. Drake, "Ta-hsin-chuang Again"; "Chi-nan Ta-hsin-chuang Shang tai yi-cüih k'anch'a chi yao ， ’ 濟 南 大 辛 莊 商 代 遺 址 勘 察 紀 要 ；Ch，i W en-t'ao 齊 文 涛 ， "Kai shu chinnien lai Shan-tung ch'u-t'u ti Shang Chou ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i” 概 述 近 年 來 山 東 出 土 的 商 周 青 钢 器 ；尺尺，"Chi-nan Ta-hsin-chuang yi-chih shih chüeh chien pao" 表 南 炎 辛 莊 4 址 滅 Ä 簡 報 ；Ts’ai Feng-shu 蔡 來 書 ，",Chi-nan Ta-hsin-chuang Shang tai yi-chih ti tiaoc h V '濟 南 大 辛 莊 商 代 遺 址 的 調 査 . 187. Ch’i Yen-p’ei 邮 延 东 ，"Shan-tung Yi-tu Su-fu-t'un ch’u-t'u t'ung-ch’i tiao-ch’a chi” 山 東 益 都 蘇 痒 也 出 i 銅 器 調 査 記 ； WW，"Shan-tung Yi-tu Su-fu-t'un ti-yi-hao nu-li hsün-tsang mu〃 山 東 益 都 蘇 i車 也 第 一 號 奴 棣 珣 葬 暮 . 188. Li Ching-tan 李 景 "Yü tung Shang-ch'iu Yung-ch'eng tiao-ch'a chi Tsao-lü-t'ai Hei-ku-tui Ts'ao-ch’iao san ch'u hsiao fa-chüeh” 像 東 商 邱 永 城 調 査 及 逄 律 台黑孤堆曹橋三處小發掘• 189. KK, #/Ho-nan Yen-ling Fu-kou Shang-shui chi ch'u ku wen-hua yi-chih ti tia o -c h V ' 河 南 鄢 陵 扶 溝 商 水 幾 處 古 文 化 遺 址 的 調 査 • 190• 尺尺HP, "Hsü-chou Kao-huang-miao yi-chih ch’ing-li pao-kao" 徐 州 高 皇

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； 191 s ite s i n F u - n a n ,192 S h o u H s i e n ,193 a n d C h ia - s h a n 194 in n o r t h e r n A n h w e i, a n d e v e n in F e i-h s i in c e n t r a l A n h w e i a t t h e Y a n g tz e d r a i n a g e .195 T h e H a n s h u i a n d M id d le Y a n g tz e V a lle y s. T h is a r e a r e p r e s e n t s t h e S h a n g c i v iliz a t io n 's s o u t h e r n e x t e n t , b r o u g h t to lig h t a r c h a e o lo g ic a lly m o s t r e c e n t l y . T o b e g in , i n s o u t h w e s t e r n H o n a n in t h e u p p e r H a n s h u i S h a n g s ite s a r e k n o w n a t S h ih - li- m ia o 十 里 廟 i n N a n - y a n g 196 a n d a t H s ia - w a n g - k a n g 下 王 岗 in H s i - c h 'u a n . 197 F u r t h e r d o w n t h e H a n s h u i ， a s e r ie s o f i m p o r t a n t S h a n g s ite s h a v e b e e n f o u n d in t h e d i s t r i c t o f H u a n g - p 'i .198 S o u th o f t h e Y a n g tz u R iv e r , S h a n g r e m a in s o c c u r r e d in C h 'u n g - y a n g in H u p e i ,199 S h ih - m e n ,200 L i- lin g ,201 N in g - h s ia n g , a n d

肩 遺 址 清 理 報 告 ；A X "1959 n ie n H sü-chou ti-ch'ü k fao-ku tiao»ch'a" 1959年 徐 州 地 區 考古調査.

"Chiang-su T'ung-shan Ch'iu-wan ku yi-chih ti fa-chüeh" 江 蘇 铜 山 丘 灣 古 遺 址 的 發 掘 ； Yü W^i-ch'ao 介 偉 超 ，"T'ung-shan Ch'iu-wan Shang tai she ssu yi«chi ti t/u i-tin g " 銅 山 丘 洚 商 代 社 祀 遺 迹 的 推 定 ； Wang Y ü-hsin 王 宇 信 and Ch#en Shao-ti 陳 紹 棣 ，"Kuan-yü Chiang-su T'ung-shan Ch'iu-wan Shang tai chi-ssu yi-chih” 閽 于江緣銅山丘灣商代祭祀遺址• 192. Ko Chieh-p’ing 葛 介 屏 ，"An-hui Fu-nan fa-hsien Yin Shang shih-tai ti ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i〃 安 徵 車 南 發 現 殷 商 時 代 的 青 銅 器 ；Shih Chih-lien 石 志 廉 ，"T'ant'an lung hu tsun ti chi-ko wen-t'广 談 談 龍 虎 尊 的 幾 個 問 題 . 193. Wang Hsiang 王 湘 ，"An-hui Shou hsien shih-ch'ien yi-chih tiao-ch'a pao»kao” 安 徵 壽 縣 史 前 遺 址 調 査 報 告 ；Li C h i 李 濟 ，"Yin hsü yu jen shih-ch'i t'ushuo” 殷 虛 有 豕 石 器 圖 説 ，612. 194. W W , "An-hui Chia-shan hsien Po-kang-yin-ho ch'u-t'u ti ssu-chien Shang tai t\m g-ch'i 〃 安 徽 喜 山 縣 泊 尚 引 河 出 土 约 四 件 商 代 銅 器 . 195. The Committee of the Exhibition of the Archaeological Finds of the Peo­ ple's Republic of China, The Exhibition of Archaeological Finds in the People's Republic of China, p. 18. 196_ JWC "Ho-nan Nan-yang shih Shih-li-miao fa-hsien Shang tai yi-chih" 河南南陽市十里肩發現商代遺址. 197. WW, "Ho-nan Hsi-ch'uan Hsia-wang-kang yi-chih ti shih chüeh” 河南浙川下王尚 遺址的試掘. 198. W W , ^Yi-chiu-liu-san nien Hu-pei Huang-p'i P'an-lung-ch'eng Shang tai yi c a d e m ia

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b e f o r e 5 0 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 B .c .,11 h a s b e e n f o u n d , a l t h o u g h s u c h la y e r s o c c u r e ls e w h e r e in t h é A n - y a n g a r e a ( p r o m in e n t ly a t H o u - k a n g a n d T a -s s u k 'u n g - t s 'u n ) . 12 T h e r e a re , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , v e r y e x te n s iv e r e m a in s o f t h e n e x t p r e h is to r ic c u ltu r e , H o n a n L u n g - s h a n , n o w d a te d a t f r o m 2 8 0 0 to 2 3 0 0 b .c .13 A c c o r d in g to S h i h ,14 t h e c e n te r o f L u n g - s h a n r e m a in s a t H s i a o - t 'u n lie s in G rid D a n d t h e y a lso e x t e n d in to p o r ti o n s o f G rid s B, C, a n d E. L i C h i s tu d ie d t h e r e m a in s o f f o r t y p a ir s o f s u p e r im p o s e d s to r a g e p its a n d f o u n d o n ly t h r e e o f t h e lo w e r p its to b e lo n g to th e L u n g - s h a n s t r a t u m ,15 s u g g e s tin g t h a t , w h ile H s i a o - t 'u n h a d a L u n g - s h a n o c c u p a ­ tio n , i t r e p r e s e n t s m e r e ly a r e la tiv e ly s m a ll v illa g e d w a r f e d b y th e m a s s ­ iv e s e tt le m e n t o f t h e S h a n g c u ltu r e . PREDYNASTIC SHANG OCCUPATION AT LOCUS NORTH T h e c u ltu r a l s t r a t i g r a p h y o f t h e S h a n g o c c u p a tio n h e r e , as e ls e w h e r e in t h e A n - y a n g a re a , is n o t a lto g e th e r c le a r fr o m t h e p u b lis h e d r e c o r d s . I w ill u s e t h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l a s s e m b la g e o f T o m b N u m b e r F iv e , e x c a v a te d in 1 9 7 6 , a s a s t a r t i n g lin e f o r t h e d y n a s ti c p e r io d . R e m a in s t h a t a p p e a r to b e e a r lie r a re , t h u s , a s s ig n e d to t h e p r e d y n a s tic p e r io d . I w ill s ta te t h e r e a s o n s f o r th is d e c is io n a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e s e c tio n o n th e d y n a s ti c p e r io d . T h e m a jo r a r c h i t e c t u r a l f e a tu r e a t H s i a o - t 'u n b e f o r e th e tim e o f P 'a n K e n g is ééa la r g e s e r ie s o f u n d e r g r o u n d p its , c e lla rs , a n d s u b t e r r a ­ n e a n d w e l l i n g s " ; 16 r e la te d to th e s e d w e llin g a n d s to r a g e p its w e r e a la r g e s y s te m o f d r a in a g e d itc h e s a n d , p r o b a b ly , a n u m b e r o f g r a v e s , s o m e o f w h ic h c o n ta i n e d r i t u a l b ro n z e s R e p o r ts o n s o m e o f t h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l m a te r ia l e x c a v a te d b e f o r e t h e w a r h a v e n o w b e e n p u b lis h e d , b u t t h e u n d e r g r o u n d p its h a v e n o t y e t b e e n f u lly d e s c r ib e d . W e la c k a d e ta ile d p la n o f s u c h p its t h r o u g h o u t t h e s ite a n d a d e ta ile d d e s c r i p t i o n o f a ll t h e r e m a in s in e a c h p it. If, a s S h ih C h a n g - ju n o w c o n c lu d e s ,17 t h e w a t e r - d i t c h e s s e r v e d a s a d r a in a g e

11. Hsia Nai 夏 痛 ， "T’an-14 ts’e-ting nien-tai ho Chung-kuo shih-ch’ien k'ao-ku hsüeh 〃破- 1 4 測 定 年 代 和 中 國 史 前 考 古 學 ， 222. 12. WIT, "1958-1959 nien Yin hsü fa-chüeh chien pao” 1958-1959 年 股 壤 發 掘 簡 報 ，p . 63. 13. See note 11 above. 14. "Yin hsü tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu lun Hsiao-t'un ti-ts'eng" 殷墟最近之重要發現附論小也地層• 15. "Studies of the Hsiao-t'un Pottery: Yin and Pre-Yin/' 113. 16. Li Chi, Anyang, p. 104. 17. Shih Chang-ju 石 律 如 ，yin Asä 股 虚 建 蔡 遺 存 ，p. 268; "Yin tai ti hang-t'u pan-chu yü yi-pan chien-chu” 股 代 的 夯 土 版 ^ 與 一 般 建 集 ， 139-141.

K3

13. The water-ditches at Hsiao-t'un (after Shih Chang-ju, Yin hsii chien-chu y i-ts'u n , p. 140).

78

T he Shang Society

from

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s y s te m f o r t h e s e m i - s u b t e r r a n e a n d w e llin g s a t H s i a o - t 'u n , t h e n t h e p r e d y n a s tic o c c u p a tio n h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n q u ite e x te n s iv e . T h e a re a c o v e r e d b y t h e d itc h e s s tr e tc h e s a b o u t 170 m e te r s n o r t h - s o u t h a n d a lm o s t 9 0 m e te r s e a s t - w e s t ,18 a n d w e a r e to ld t h a t u n d e r g r o u n d p its c lu s t e r d e n s e ly a lo n g t h e d i t c h e s . 19 T h e d itc h e s t h u s o u tlin e a p r e ­ d y n a s ti c s e ttle m e n t o f c o n s id e r a b le s iz e (fig . 13). W i t h i n t h e s e ttle m e n t, t h e r e a r e in d ic a tio n s t h a t p i t d w e llin g s c lu s t e r e d in g r o u p s . S h ih C h a n g j u h a s p u b lis h e d t h e l a y o u t o f t h e p its a t t h e s o u th w e s t c o r n e r o f G rid C o f t h e s ite (fig. 14). H e re in a n a re a 2 0 m e te r s n o r t h - s o u t h a n d 18 m e te r s e a s t- w e s t t h e r e w e r e f o r ty - s e v e n p its , d iv id e d in to f iv e g r o u p s , e a c h c o n ­ s is tin g o f a la r g e a n d s e m i - s u b t e r r a n e a n d w e llin g p i t a n d s e v e r a l s m a ll s to r a g e p its s u r r o u n d i n g it. I f t h e d e n s it y o f p its w a s r e la tiv e ly u n if o r m t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e ttle m e n t, t h e n t h e a r e a fille d b y t h e d itc h e s c o u ld a c c o m m o d a te a b o u t tw o h u n d r e d d w e llin g p its . T h e s e d w e llin g p i t s " a r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t la r g e a n d s h a llo w s t r u c tu r e s , w i t h r a t h e r s t r a i g h t w a lls . . . a n d r a m p s o r s ta ir s f o r g o in g u p a n d d o w n . I f w e c o m p a r e t h e d ia m e te r a n d t h e d e p t h o f t h e p its , in m o s t c a s e s t h e d ia m e te r is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e d e p t h . S o m e tim e s t h e y a re a b o u t e q u a l, b u t o n ly r a r e ly is d e p t h g r e a t e r t h a n d ia m e te r . S ix ty p e s m a y b e d is tin g u is h e d a c c o r d in g to t h e e x t e r i o r s h a p e a n d t h e p o s itio n o f th e s ta ir s : c ir c u la r , w i t h s ta ir s a lo n g th e w a ll; c ir c u la r , w i t h s ta ir s in th e m id d le ; o v a l, w i t h s ta ir s a lo n g o n e w a ll; o v a l, w i t h s ta ir s a lo n g tw o w a lls ; o v a l, w i t h s ta ir s in t h e m id d le ; a n d s q u a r e , w i t h s ta ir s a lo n g t h e w a l l . … O n t o p o f e a c h o f th e s e p its t h e r e w a s p r o b a b l y a r o o f o r c o v e r . A t t h e c e n te r o f t h e s m a lle r p its t h e r e w a s o f te n a la r g e r o c k , w h ic h m a y h a v e s u p p o r t e d a c e n tr a l p o s t. F o r la r g e r p its , n o t o n ly w a s t h e r e a la rg e r o c k a t th e c e n te r , s m a lle r r o c k s o f te n r in g e d t h e p i t a lo n g t h e u p p e r e d g e o f t h e p i t . . . . I n s o m e o f t h e p its , p ie c e s o f w a t t l e - a n d - d a u b w e r e f o u n d a m o n g t h e d e p o s its , p o s s ib ly r e m a in s o f fa lle n r o o f s ’’20 (fig . 15). S in c e t h e a r c h a e o lo g y o f t h e d w e llin g p i t s h a s n o t b e e n s y s ­ te m a tic a lly p u b lis h e d , w e h a v e n o u s a b le in f o r m a tio n o n t h e c o n te n t s o f th e s e p its . I n h is C o rp u s o f Yin H s ii P o tte r y ,21 Li C h i illu s tr a te d p o t t e r y s a m p le s a s t y p e s p e c im e n s o f h is c la s s ific a tio n s y s te m , a n d a m o n g th e s a m p le s a r e n in e c o m p le te v e s s e ls t h a t a r e m a r k e d a s c o m in g fr o m so m e o f th e f o r t y - s e v e n p its o f f iv e g r o u p s s h o w n j u s t a b o v e . T h e s e in c lu d e a f i - t r i p o d (fro m p i t Y H 190), a fcu ez-b o w l (fro m Y H 3 02), a y u b o w l (fro m Y H 28 5 ), a n d a f l a t - b o t t o m k u a n (fro m Y H 2 7 2 ) t h a t a re L8. Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ，yifi Asü 殷虚 建集遺存， p. 203. 19. Ib id .f p.268. 20. Shih Chang-ju 石 律 如 ，"Hsiao-t'un Yin tai ti chien-chu yi-chi’’ 小 也 狡 代 的 建 蔡 遺 磧 ，131-136. 21. Li Chi 皁 濟 ，ffsûw-r’un 小 也 器 .

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14. Clusters of pit dwellings in predynastic Hsiao-t'un (after Shih Chang-ju, '"Hsiao-t'un Yin tai ti chien-chu yi-chi", 168).

ty p o lo g ic a lly c h a r a c te r is tic o f t h e P e r io d I p o t t e r y o f M i a o - p 'u - p e i - t i 22 o r t h e E a r ly P e r io d o f H s i a o - t 'u n L o c u s S o u t h .23 T h e c h r o n o lo g y o f c e r a m ic t y p e s f r o m H s i a o - t 'u n w ill b e d is c u s s e d in s o m e d e ta il p r e s e n tly . S u ffic e i t to s a y h e r e t h a t t h e t y p o l o g y o f th is g r o u p o f p o t t e r y s h o w s c le a r ly t h a t th e s e p i t s a r e in d e e d e a r ly , a n d t h a t th e f ir s t p e r io d o f t h e

22. Labels and exhibitions at the exhibition hall at the An-yang Field Station, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. 23. 尺/C "1973 nien An-yang Hsiao-t'un nan-ti fa-chüeh chien pao” 1973 年安 降小也南地發掘簡報•

15. Cross-sections and plans of major types of predynastic pit dwellings at Hsiao-t un (after Shih Chang-ju, "Hsiao-t’un Yin tai ti chien-chu yi-chi,’’ 134).

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p r e v a l e n t f o u r - s t a g e s y s te m o f Y in h s ü c e r a m ic s is p r o b a b l y e q u i v a l e n t , a t le a s t in p a r t , t o t h e p r e d y n a s t i c p e r io d . A t t h e H s i a o - t /u n s ite t h e r e w e r e a la r g e n u m b e r o f g r a v e s e v i d e n t l y o f t h e S h a n g p e r io d . T h e s e g r a v e s h a v e o f te n b e e n d e s c r ib e d in c o n ju n c t io n w i t h t h e g r o u n d s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e d y n a s ti c p e r io d , a s w ill b e m e n tio n e d b e lo w . T h e r e a r e o t h e r g r a v e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t a re , s p a tia lly s p e a k in g , f r e e - s t a n d i n g , a n d t h e i r d a t i n g m u s t b e b a s e d m o r e o n a r t i ­ f a c t t y p o l o g y t h a n o n s t r a t i g r a p h y . I f T o m b N u m b e r F iv e is t a k e n to in itia te t h e d y n a s t i c p e r i o d , t h e n a ll H s i a o - t 'u n to m b s c o n ta i n in g a r tif a c ts ty p o lo g ic a lly a n t e c e d e n t to T o m b N u m b e r F iv e a r tif a c ts c o u ld b e p re d y n a s tic . H e r e M a x L o e h r 's f iv e s ty le s o f A n - y a n g b r o n z e v e s s e ls m a y b e h e lp f u l. T h e b r o n z e v e s s e ls f r o m T o m b N u m b e r F iv e , a t le a s t th o s e t h a t h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d so f a r , 24 c le a r ly fa ll w i t h i n L o e h r 's s ty le s IV a n d V . T h is r e c e n t d i s c o v e r y is, t h u s , o f t h e u t m o s t im p o r ta n c e in b r o n z e d a tin g , s in c e i t m e a n s t h a t t h e la te s t o f L o e h r 's s ty le s h a d a lr e a d y a p p e a r e d b y W u T i n g #s r e ig n , v e r y c lo s e to t h e b e g in n in g y e a r s o f t h e A n - y a n g r o y a l c a p it a l i n s te a d o f b e lo n g in g to t h e la te s t p e r io d o f Y in , a s is s o m e tim e s t h o u g h t . I t a ls o s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e b r o n z e v e s s e ls fr o m H s ia o t 'u n t h a t a r e c la s s if ia b le in L o e h r 's s ty le s I - I I I , i f n o t a c c o m p a n ie d b y v e s s e ls o f a l a te r s ty le , h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l o f b e in g p r e d y n a s t i c in o r ig in . A c c o r d in g to V ir g in ia K a n e 's a n a ly s is o f t h e b r o n z e v e s s e ls f r o m th e s e t o m b s ,25 t h e f o llo w in g H s i a o - t 'u n to m b s so q u a l i f y : M 188, M 2 2 2 , M 2 3 2 , M 3 3 3 , a n d M 3 8 8 . A m o n g th e m , M 2 3 2 a n d M 3 3 3 a r e g r o u p e d b y T s o u H e n g i n t o h is e a r lie s t s e g m e n t a n d M 3 8 8 a n d M 188 in to h is s e c o n d e a r lie s t.26 O n t h e b a s is o f S h ih C h a n g - ju 's d e ta i le d d e s c r i p t i o n o f M 2 2 2 , w e k n o w t h a t i t c o n ta i n s la te f e a t u r e s a n d s h o u ld n o t b e i n c lu d e d w i t h t h e p r e d y n a s t i c g r o u p . 27 A m o n g t h e r e m a in in g f o u r , t w o a r e lo c a te d w i t h i n t h e m id d le (jyi) g r o u p o f h o u s e f o u n d a t i o n s (M 188, M 2 3 2 ), a n d t w o (M 3 3 3 a n d M 3 8 8 ) a r e w i t h i n t h e s o u t h e r n {p in g ) g r o u p . S h ih C h a n g 24. K X ffiV 'A n-yang Yin hsü wu-hao mu ti fa-chüeh " 安 降 殷 樓 五 號 暮 的 發 掘.

25. "A Re-examination of An-yang A rchaeology/' 108. 26. See his "Shih lun Yin hsü wen-hua fe n -c h 'i" 試 論 殷 棱 文 化 分 期 . 27. M 222 is a rectangular pit-grave, oriented east-west, 2.2 meters long east-west, 1.05 meter wide north-south, 0.31 meter deep, filled with yellow and gray earth. Three human skeletons were found inside. One was in the western half, heading north, bent at the waist, lying face-down. The two others lie stretched in the eastern half, heading west, the northern skeleton lying face-up and the southern one face-down. Grave goods included four bronze vessels (two fct/-beakers and two c/iüeA-tripods), three pottery vessels, and a deer antler. (See Shih Chang-ju 石 缚 如 ，K-cAïi cAi-cAiA 这 Asia ri mw-baf这 C»區 基 址 上 下 的 基 葬 ，pp. 159-166). The pottery vessels, in­ cluding a round-base ürt/an and two flat-base /ei w ith shoulder handles, resemble the type

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j u 28 r e g a r d s th e m a s a c c e s s o r y g r a v e s to t h e h o u s e f o u n d a tio n s , p e r h a p s la id th e r e a s r i t u a l s a c rif ic e s r e la tin g to th e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f th e h o u s e s , b u t th is is m e r e ly b a s e d o n t h e i r lo c a tio n a n d h a s n o s tr a tig r a p h ic a l f o u n d a tio n , s in c e M 188, M 2 3 2 , M 3 3 3 , a n d M 3 8 8 a re a ll f r e e - s ta n d i n g . A v a ila b le d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e s e f o u r g r a v e s is a s fo llo w s : M 1 8 8 . M 188 is a r e c t a n g u l a r p i t g r a v e , o r ie n te d e a s t- w e s t , 1.8 m e te r s lo n g e a s t - w e s t a n d 1 .0 8 m e te r s w id e n o r t h - s o u t h , 0 .5 5 m e te r s d e e p , fille d w i t h y e llo w e a r t h t h a t is n o t c o m p r e s s e d . T w o h u m a n s k e l­ e to n s w e r e in s id e . O n e w a s lo c a te d in t h e e a s te r n h a lf h e a d in g n o r t h a n d f a c in g e a s t, k n e e lin g , w i t h a rm s f o ld e d in f r o n t, a n d t h e o t h e r w a s in th e w e s te r n h a lf, h e a d in g n o r t h b u t fa c in g w e s t, p r o b a b l y a lso k n e e lin g w i t h a rm s f o ld e d b e h in d th e b a c k . G ra v e f u r n is h in g s in c lu d e e ig h t r it u a l v e s s e ls , m o s t p la c e d o n t o p o f t h e p e r s o n o n t h e w e s t, w h ic h c o n s is t o f a tin g - tr ip o d , a h s ie n - tr ip o d , a p 'o - c o n ta in e r , tw o c /z ia -trip o d s , a p ie n - (o r k u e i) c o n ta in e r , a n d a  :t/-trip o d (fig s. 16, 17). S h ih b e lie v e s t h a t th e tw o p e r s o n s ( p e r h a p s a m a n a n d a w o m a n , j u d g i n g b y th e w a y t h a t t h e i r a rm s w e r e tie d b e h in d a n d in f r o n t) w e r e r i t u a l a t t e n d a n t s w h o h a d t a k e n c a re o f th e v e s s e l s e t.29 M 2 3 2 . T h is w a s t h e la r g e s t g r a v e f o u n d in H s i a o - t 'u n b e f o r e T o m b N u m b e r F iv e w a s d is c o v e r e d in 1 9 7 6 . I t is a g a in a p i t g r a v e , b u t in it th e r e w e r e a w o o d e n c h a m b e r (3 .1 0 m e te r s b y 2 .1 5 m e te r s b y 1.35 m e te r s b e in g th e e x t e r i o r d im e n s io n s ) a n d a w o o d e n c o ffin ( p a in te d in r e d la c q u e r , 2 .1 0 m e te r s fr o m n o r t h to s o u th , 0 .9 m e te r fr o m e a s t to w e s t, a n d 0 .8 m e te r d e e p ). T h e m a s te r o f th e g r a v e w a s p r e s u m a b ly b u r ie d in th e c o ffin , b u t h is s k e le to n n o lo n g e r e x is ts , d u e to a n e a r ly p lu n d e r in g . E ig h t s a c rific ia l v ic tim s w e r e p la c e d w i t h i n t h e w o o d e n c h a m b e r , a n d th e s k e le to n s o f f o u r d o g s w e r e a lso f o u n d , o n e a t th e b o tto m o f t h e p i t a n d th e o th e r t h r e e n e a r th e u p p e r e n d o f th e g r a v e p it. G ra v e g o o d s (fig. 18), m o s t f o u n d w i t h i n t h e w o o d e n c h a m b e r , in c lu d e 10 b r o n z e v e s s e ls (2 k u , 2 ch ü eh , 2 ch ia , 2 p 'o , 1 tin g , a n d 1 p 'a n ) , 9 w e a p o n s (6 b r o n z e k o , 2 s to n e ko, a n d 1 s to n e a x ), 9 s e ts o f h e a d o r n a m e n ts (o f j a d e , tu r q u o i s e , s h e ll, s to n e , b r o n z e , a n d b o n e ), a n d a s to n e m o r t a r .30 M 3 3 3 . M 3 3 3 is a p i t g r a v e , 0 .9 5 - 1 .7 5 m e te r s fr o m g r o u n d s u rfa c e , in w h ic h th e r e a r e f o u r h u m a n s k e le to n s , th r e e o f th e m p r o b a b ly s a c rific ia l v ic tim s , a n d a d o g b u r ia l a t t h e c e n te r o f t h e b o tto m . G ra v e specimens of the Middle group of the pottery of Hsiao-t'un Locus South (see KK, ^1973 nien An-yang Hsiao-t'un nan-ti fa-chüeh ci^ien pao” 1973年 安 降 小 也 A 地 發 掘 簡 報 ， pp. 35-36), and stratigraphically the tomb intruded into a house foundation (Shih Changju 石 埠 如 ， op. cir., p. 160). For these reasons M 222 should not be included in the predynastic group despite the stylistic characteristics of its bronze vessels. 28. Shih Chang-ju 石 緣 如 ， Fin Asii 股棱 建集遺存• 29. Shih Chang-ju 石 律 如 ，Pei rsw mtM知 n客 北 組 基 葬 ，pp. 343-350. 30. Shih Chang-ju 石 埠 如 ，iVûfz Bu 南組墓葬.

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16. Artifacts from grave M 188 at predynastic Hsiao-t'un (after Shih* Chang-ju, Pei tsu m u -ts a n g , fig. 105).

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17. Artifacts from grave M 188 at time of excavation (after Shih Chang-ju, P ei tsu m u -ts a n g , pi. 242).

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20 c m .

18. Artifacts from grave M 232 at predynastic H siao-t^n (after Shih Chanc-ju, N a n tSU m u ~ t ^ n n a

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g o o d s f o u n d t h e r e in c lu d e 10 b r o n z e v e s s e ls (2 k u , 2 chiieh, 2 tin g , 2 c h ia , 2 p 'o ), 1 b r o n z e k n if e , 12 p ie c e s o f j a d e o r n a m e n ts a n d s to n e a r tif a c ts , 2 9 b o n e a n d s h e ll a r tif a c ts , a n d 2 p o t t e r y o b je c t s .31 M 3 8 8 is a p i t g r a v e , 0 .9 5 - 2 . 0 6 m e te r s f r o m th e s u r f a c e , c o n t a i n ­ in g f o u r h u m a n s k e le to n s , t h r e e o f w h ic h w e r e p r o b a b ly v ic tim s , a n d a d o g a t t h e c e n te r o f t h e b o tto m . G ra v e g o o d s in c lu d e 10 b r o n z e v e s s e ls (2 k u , 2 ch ü eh , 1 tin g , 2 c h ia , 2 p fo, 1 p fin g -y ii), 5 b r o n z e k o , 3 3 j a d e a n d s to n e p ie c e s , a n d 2 p o t t e r y to u .32 S u m m in g u p t h e a b o v e d a ta t h a t a re k n o w n o r p r e s u m e d to b e fr o m th e p r e d y n a s t i c o c c u p a tio n p e r io d a t H s i a o - t 'u n L o c u s N o r th , w e see a s e tt le m e n t m e a s u r in g a t le a s t 1 70 m e te r s f r o m n o r t h to s o u th a n d 9 0 m e te r s fr o m e a s t to w e s t. W i t h i n t h e a r e a w e r e p o s s ib ly a s m a n y a s tw o h u n d r e d d w e llin g h o u s e s t h a t f o r m e d c lu s te r s . A d r a in a g e s y s te m o f w a t e r d itc h e s w a s b u i l t a m id t h e h o u s e s . A m o n g t h e r e m a in s f o u n d in th e s e h o u s e s w e r e p o t t e r y (o f P e r io d I in t h e Y in h s ii c e ra m ic c h r o n o lo g y ) , s to n e s , u n i n s c r i b e d o ra c le b o n e s , a n d p o s s ib ly b r o n z e s , a lth o u g h a n a c c u r a te i n v e n t o r y is im p o s s ib le to c o m p ile o n t h e b a s is o f a v a ila b le d a ta . F o u r g r a v e s p o s s ib ly b e lo n g t o t h i s p e r io d , t w o in a g r o u p s o u th w e s t o f th e d w e llin g a r e a a n d t h e o t h e r t w o a t t h e c e n te r o f t h e s e ttle m e n t a re a o u tlin e d b y t h e d i t c h s y s te m . T h e s e g r a v e s in d ic a te a le v e l o f S h a n g a r t a n d te c h n o lo g y s im ila r to t h e la te C h e n g - c h o u p e r io d (see c h a p t e r 5) a n d a le v e l o f s o c ie ty n o t d r a s tic a lly d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e d y n a s ti c p e r io d . I t is n o t p o s s ib le to s a y w h e t h e r t h e g r a v e s w e r e a ll c o n te m p o r a r y w i t h th e d w e llin g s , o r w h e t h e r t h e d w e llin g s in c lu d e d a n y t h a t w e r e th o s e o f n o b le m e n ( th o s e b u r ie d a s m a s te r s in t h e g ra v e s ). B u t i t is c le a r t h a t H s ia o - t’u n , t h o u g h s m a ll, w a s d e n s e ly in h a b i t e d p r i o r to its a s s u m in g c a p ita l s ta tu s , a n d t h a t its i n h a b i t a n t s in c lu d e d p e o p le o f h ig h p o litic a l s ta tio n . DYNASTIC SHANG OCCUPATION AT LOCUS NORTH T h e d y n a s ti c p e r io d a t H S ia o - t'u n (a n d e ls e w h e r e in A n - y a n g ) s a w t h e q u a lita tiv e t r a n s f o r m a tio n o f th e s ite fr o m a m o d e r a te - s iz e d s e tt le m e n t in to a r o y a l c a p ita l f e a tu r in g th e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l a p p e a r a n c e o f th r e e n e w p h e n o m e n a : h o u s e f o u n d a tio n s o f m a jo r p r o p o r t i o n s ( " p a l ­ a c e f o u n d a t i o n s 'i n s c r i b e d o ra c le b o n e s , a n d to m b s so la r g e a n d r ic h as to w a r r a n t a " r o y a l " d e s ig n a tio n . A c c o r d in g to t e x tu a l r e c o r d s , it w a s P 'a n K e n g , w h o , in h is f o u r t e e n t h y e a r o f r e ig n ( a c c o r d in g to K u p e n C hu sh u chi nien), m o v e d h is c a p ita l to Y in , a n d d ie d f o u r te e n y e a r s la te r . H is 31. Shih Chang-ju 石 _ 如 ，“ Hsiao-t'un Yin tai Ping tsu chi«chih chi ch'i yu-kuan hsien-hsiang 〃 小 也 股 代 丙 組 基 址 及 其 有 闞 現 象 ， 795- 798. 32. Ib id .

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tw o b r o t h e r s , w h o s u c c e e d e d h im o n e a f te r a n o th e r , a c c o u n te d f o r a n o t h e r t h i r t y o r so y e a r s .33 T h is in itia l p e r io d , o f a b o u t t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s , s till c a n n o t b e s p e c if ic a lly id e n tif ie d w i t h c e r t a i n t y in t h e a r c h a e o ­ lo g ic a l r e c o r d s . T h e n e x t k in g , W u T in g , h o w e v e r , w h o r e ig n e d f i f t y n in e y e a r s a c c o r d in g to a ll t e x t u a l r e c o r d s , w a s e x tr e m e l y a c tiv e a n d le f t a c o n s p ic u o u s r e c o r d . T o m b N u m b e r F iv e , e x c a v a te d in 1 9 7 6 , is g e n e r a lly b e lie v e d to b e t h e to m b o f o n e o f h is m a jo r w iv e s , F u H a o 婦 好 ( " L a d y H a o " o r " t h e L a d y W h o C am e f r o m t h e T z u C la n " ) , a ls o k n o w n a s H o u H s in 后 辛 （ " Q u e e n H s i n ” ). T h is g r a v e is a v e r y r ic h f in d , a n d it h a s b e e n w e ll p r e s e r v e d . I p r o p o s e , th e r e f o r e , to u s e t h is g r a v e to r e p r e s e n t t h e W u T in g p e r io d . T h e p r e - W u T in g d y n a s ti c p e r io d o f t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s m a y f o r t h e tim e b e in g b e r e g a r d e d a s a p r e f a t o r y a p p e n d a g e o f t h e W u T in g p e r io d u n t i l p r o v e n o t h e r w i s e b y f u t u r e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l f in d s . T h e F u H a o T o m b . S h a n g r e m a in s c a m e to l ig h t d u r i n g a g r i c u l ­ t u r a l w o r k i n t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 7 5 o n a p ie c e o f la n d o f s lig h tly h ig h e r e le v a tio n t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g f ie ld s , n o r t h w e s t o f t h e v illa g e o f H s ia o t 'u n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 0 m e te r s w e s t o f t h e s o u t h e r n e d g e o f G r id C. I n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 6 , t h e s ite w a s e x c a v a te d b y m e m b e r s o f t h e A n - y a n g A r c h a e o lo g ic a l T e a m o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f A r c h a e o lo g y , A c a d e m ia S in ic a . M o r e t h a n a d o z e n S h a n g h o u s e f o u n d a tio n s , e ig h ty p its , a n d m o r e t h a n a d o z e n S h a n g to m b s w e r e d is c lo s e d . O f t h e to m b s . T o m b N u m b e r F iv e is t h e la r g e s t a n d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t . 34 T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e g r a v e w a s la r g e ly in t h e s a m e t r a d i t i o n a s M 2 3 2 d e s c r ib e d a b o v e f r o m t h e p r e d y n a s t i c p e r io d , b u t T o m b N u m b e r F iv e w a s m o r e e la b o r a te a n d m u c h r i c h e r . A g a in it w a s a r e c t a n ­ g u l a r p i t g r a v e , o r i e n t e d la r g e ly f r o m n o r t h to s o u th . T h e o p e n in g o f t h e g r a v e p i t w a s o n ly h a l f a m e te r b e lo w t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e , b u t a n a b o v e ­ g r o u n d h o u s e f o u n d a t i o n 5 .5 b y 5 m e te r s w a s b u i l t e x a c tly o n t o p o f it, p o s s ib ly a s a c r if ic ia l s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e b u r ia l u n d e r n e a t h . T h e g r a v e p i t o p e n in g w a s 5 .6 m e te r s n o r t h - s o u t h a n d 4 m e te r s e a s t- w e s t , a n d t h e p i t w a s 7 .5 m e te r s d e e p , t h e p i t w a lls s lo p in g s lig h tly i n w a r d . A b o u t 6 .2 m e te r s d o w n f r o m t h e p i t o p e n in g , a le d g e 0 .3 m e te r w id e a n d 1.3 m e te r ta ll w a s b u i l t a lo n g a ll f o u r w a lls . J u s t a b o v e t h e le d g e o n t h e e a s t a n d w e s t w a lls , a lo n g n ic h e (le ss t h a n 2 m e te r s in le n g th ) w a s e x c a v a te d o n e a c h w a ll in w h ic h s a c r if ic ia l v ic tim s w e r e b u r i e d . A c h a m b e r c o n s t r u c t e d o f t i m b e r fille d t h e p i t w i t h i n t h e le d g e , a n d a c o ffin w a s p la c e d in s id e t h e c h a m b e r . A t t h e b o tto m o f t h e p i t a s m a ll p i t w a s e x c a v a te d s o u t h o f t h e 33. TungTso-pin 董 作 窨 ，Kn /ip ’“ 殷 曆 譜 ， part I, vol. 4, pp. 9-11. 34. ZiTAi/P, "A n-yang Yin hsü wu-hao mu ti fa-chüeh" 安 fîr 殷 壤 五 致 基 的 發 掘 ；WC "Yin hsü k'ao-ku fa-chüeh ti yu yi chung-yao shou-hu 股 壤 考 古 發 掘 的 又 一 重 i 收 稂 ；CÄ, "Best-preserved Yin Dynasty Tom b"; J //, "Yin hsü k ’ao-ku ti hsin fa-hsien’’ 殷壚 考古的新發現.

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c e n te r f o r a s a c rif ic ia l h u m a n v ic tim a n d a d o g . T h e m is tr e s s o f t h e g r a v e w a s p r e s u m a b ly p la c e d in t h e c o ffin , a n d s h e w a s a c c o m p a n ie d b y s ix te e n s a c r if ic e d h u m a n s (f o u r o n t o p o f t h e c h a m b e r , tw o in s id e u n d e r t h e e a s te r n w a ll n ic h e , o n e in s id e t h e w e s te r n w a ll n ic h e , o n e in a p i t d u g in t h e flo o r o f t h e c h a m b e r , a n d t h e r e m a in in g e ig h t t a k e n o u t o f u n d e r ­ g r o u n d w a te r w i t h t h e i r o r ig in a l p o s itio n s u n k n o w n b u t p r e s u m a b ly w i t h i n t h e c h a m b e r ) a n d s ix s a c r if ic e d d o g s (o n e in th e p i t b e lo w b o tto m a n d t h e o t h e r o n t o p o f t h e c h a m b e r) . A m o n g t h e s ix te e n h u m a n s , f o u r w e r e m e n , o n e o f th e m y o u n g ; tw o w e r e w o m e n , t w o w e r e c h i l d r e n ; t h e s e x e s a n d a g e s o f t h e r e s t w e r e u n c le a r . A t le a s t o n e w a s k ille d ; o n e o t h e r w a s c u t in h a l f a t t h e w a is t. E n o r m o u s q u a n t i t i e s o f g r a v e g o o d s w e r e p la c e d in v a r io u s p a r ts o f t h e g r a v e , in s id e t h e c o ffin , in s id e t h e c h a m b e r , a n d in th e fill o f t h e g r a v e p i t a ll t h e w a y to w i t h i n a m e te r o f t h e o p e n in g . A lto g e th e r t h e r e w e r e m o re t h a n 1 ,6 0 0 o b je c ts , p lu s a b o u t 7 ,0 0 0 c o w r ie s h e lls . A m o n g t h e o b je c ts t h e r e w e r e m o r e t h a n 4 4 0 b r o n z e s , m o r e t h a n 5 9 0 ja d e s , o v e r 5 6 0 b o n e o b je c ts , in e x c e s s o f 7 0 s to n e o b je c ts , s e v e r a l iv o r y c a r v in g s , s e v e r a l p o t t e r y o b je c ts , m o r e t h a n a d o z e n s h e ll o b je c ts , a n d t h r e e s e a s h e lls (fig . 19). T h e s e w e r e p la c e d in t h e g r a v e a n d in t h e p i t fill a s t h e p i t w a s fille d w i t h s ta m p e d e a r t h la y e r b y la y e r (e a c h la y e r w a s 1 0 - 1 1 c e n tim e te r s d e e p ). T o m b N u m b e r F iv e is a d is c o v e r y o f t h e f ir s t m a g n itu d e in t h e h is t o r y o f S h a n g a r c h a e o lo g y b e c a u s e o f its r ic h n e s s , a c c o u n te d f o r b y th e f a c t t h a t s in c e its c o n s tr u c ti o n t h e to m b h a s n e v e r b e e n p l u n d e r e d , u n lik e t h e o v e r w h e l m in g m a jo r ity o f S h a n g g r a v e s in a n a re a w h e r e g r a v e p l u n d e r e r s h a d b e e n a c tiv e f o r a t le a s t e ig h t h u n d r e d y e a r s . T h e c o m b in e d to ta l o f b r o n z e v e s s e ls f r o m a ll t h e e x c a v a tio n s b e tw e e n 192 8 a n d 1937 in A n - y a n g is o n ly 176, m u c h s m a lle r t h a n th e n u m b e r o f b r o n z e v e s s e ls f r o m t h is o n e to m b ! T h e to m b t h u s g iv e s u s a m u c h t r u e r m e a s u r e a b o u t b o th t h e r a n g e a n d t h e a t ta in m e n t o f S h a n g a r t a n d te c h n o lo g y a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e Y in p e r io d . M o r e o v e r , t h e n a m e o f th e to m b m is tr e s s is k n o w n , a n d s h e is a h is to r ic a l p e r s o n a g e w e ll k n o w n fr o m p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h o n o r a c le b o n e in s c r ip tio n s . M a n y o f th e b r o n z e v e s s e ls a n d w e a p o n s a n d a f e w ja d e a n d s to n e p ie c e s w e r e in s c r ib e d , a n d th e b u lk o f t h e in s c r ip tio n s c o n ta in s e v e n n a m e s o r e m b le m s . T h e n a m e F u H a o a p p e a r s o n m o re t h a n s ix ty o b je c t s ; H o u H s in a p p e a r s o n a t le a s t fiv e o b je c ts , i n c lu d in g tw o la rg e s q u a r e c a u ld r o n s ; H o u T 'u a p p e a r s o n s o m e t w e n t y o b je c ts ; th e th r e e y a - n a m e s a n d t h e s e v e n th n a m e , a n e m b le m , a p p e a r o n a r e la tiv e ly f e w p ie c e s . F u H a o , o r L a d y H a o (L a d y fro m th e T z u c la n ), w a s , in a d d itio n to b e in g o n e o f W u T i n g 's s i x t y - f o u r k n o w n w iv e s , a p r o m i n e n t p e r s o n ­ a g e w h o s e n a m e a n d a c tiv itie s a p p e a r o f te n in o r a c le b o n e in s c r ip tio n s o f o f th e W u T in g p e r io d . S h e is k n o w n fr o m th e in s c r ip tio n s to h a v e b e e n

19. Selected artifacts from the Fu Hao tomb (after J e n -m in H u a -p a o , 1977:6, 1978:1).

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a le a d e r o f m ilit a r y c a m p a ig n s ; s h e w a s m a d e m is tr e s s o f a la n d e d e s ta te o u ts id e t h e r o y a l c a p ita l ; s h e w a s s o m e tim e s in c h a r g e o f s p e c ific r it u a ls ; a n d s h e w a s t h e s u b je c t o f W u T i n g 's d i v in a tio n s c o n c e r n in g h e r ill­ n e s s e s , c h ild b ir t h s , a n d g e n e r a l w e ll- b e in g . S h e d ie d d u r i n g W u T i n g 's lo n g r e i g n .35 T h e n a m e H o u H s in (Q u e e n H s in ) is a ls o s ig n if ic a n t: I n th e r i t u a l c a le n d a r o f la te r S h a n g k in g s (to b e d e s c r ib e d la te r), W u T in g w a s s h o w n to h a v e b e e n p a ir e d w i t h t h r e e o ffic ia l w iv e s : H s in 辛 ， K u e i 癸v a n d W u 戍 • S in c e th e s e a r e b e lie v e d to b e p o s th u m o u s n a m e s . Q u e e n H s in w a s e v i d e n t l y t h e p o s th u m o u s n a m e o f th e w if e w h o w a s k n o w n in h e r lif e tim e as F u H a o . T h e f a c t t h a t in th i s to m b in t h e s a m e b r o n z e a s s e m b la g e th e n a m e s F u H a o a n d H o u H s in o c c u r t o g e t h e r is r e a s o n a b le p r o o f t h a t th e s e n a m e s r e f e r r e d to t h e s a m e p e r s o n , t h e p e r s o n k n o w n as F u H a o in W u T in g p e r io d in s c r ip tio n s (fig . 20). T h is is t h e f i r s t tim e in S h a n g h is t o r y t h a t a n a r c h a e o lo g ic a l f in d c a n b e id e n tif ie d w i t h a h is to r ic a l i n d i v i d u a l .36 P a la c e F o u n d a tio n s. T h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t a r c h a e o lo g ic a l f e a tu r e a t H s i a o - t 'u n f o r t h e d y n a s t i c p e r io d is t h e h a n g - t fu ( ''s ta m p e d o r ra m m e d e a r t h " ) f o u n d a t i o n s o f a b o v e - g r o u n d h o u s e s , k n o w n in C h in e s e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l te r m in o lo g y a s chi c h ih f o u n d a tio n site s'" ). S tr ic tly s p e a k in g , chi ch ih m a y b e b u i l t o n s o lid a n d le v e l g r o u n d w i t h o u t a n y h a n g - t % b u t m o s t o f t h e a b o v e - g r o u n d h o u s e s a t H s i a o - t 'u n w e r e b u ilt o n a t le a s t s o m e t h i n h a n g - t'u f o u n d a t i o n s a n d s o m e o f th e m w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h i c k f o u n d a t i o n s a s d e e p a s 3 m e te r s , c o n s is tin g o f a s m a n y a s 3 0 la y e r s o f s ta m p e d e a r t h (fig . 21). M o s t o f t h e f o u n d a tio n s a re s q u a r e o r r e c ta n g u la r , a l t h o u g h s o m e m a y b e ir r e g u la r . O n t h e f o u n d a ­ tio n s a t i m b e r s t r u c t u r e w a s b u ilt, s o m e tim e s w i t h p o s ts r e s te d o n b o u l­ d e r s o r b r o n z e d is k s a s s u p p o r t s , a n d t h e n w a t t l e - a n d - d a u b w a lls a n d t h a t c h e d r o o f s w e r e b u ilt. E x t a n t a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s c o n s is t o f t h e f o u n d a tio n s , p o s t h o le s a n d s o m e b o u l d e r o r b r o n z e p o s t s u p p o r ts , a n d w a t t l e - a n d - d a u b f r a g m e n ts p r e s u m a b ly fa lle n f r o m w a lls .3738S o m e o f t h e p o s t h o le s a n d b o u ld e r s s h o w e v id e n c e o f fir e , s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e s e 35. Wang Yü-hsin 王 宇 信 ， Chang Yung-shan 張 永 山 ， and Yang Sheng-nan 榜 升 南 ， "Shih lun Yin hsü wu-hao mu tiT u Hao〃’ 試 論 殷 垓 五 致 墓 的 ‘嫜 好 ’ • 36. There is another Fu Had in the oracle bone inscriptions of a later period, and some scholars are inclined to identify Tomb Number Five with the later Fu Hao; see 尺尺，"An-yang Yin hsü wu-hao mu tso-t/an chi-yao" 安 降 股 壤 五 號 基 座 談 紀 要 • But the combination of Fu Hao and Hou Hsin strongly favors the earlier identification, and the art style as a whole of the Fu Hao tomb assemblage also points to an earlier rather than later dating. 37. Shih Chang-ju 石 肄 如 ，"Hsiao-t'un Yin tai ti çhien-chu yi-chi” 小 也 殷 代 的 建 集 遺 靖 ；朽” 股 虛 建 集 遺 存 ； "Ÿin tai ti hang-t'u pan-chu yü yi-pan chien-chu ’ ’股 代 的 夯 土 版 集 與 一 般 建 à . 38. Shih Chang-ju 石 埠 如 ， Kn /wü c/nen-c/m 殷 虚 建 集 遺 存 ，pp. 49-50.

20. Fu Hao (le ft) and Hou Hsin (rig h t) in the bronze inscriptions from the Fu Hao tomb (from K K H P , ''A il-yang Yin hsü wu-hao mu ti fa-chiieh^).21

21. A house foundation made of rammed earth (after Shih Chang-ju, Y in h sii c h ie n < h u y i-ts'u r i).

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b u ild in g s w e r e b u r n t d o w n .38 O n t h e b a s is o f p o s th o le a n d b o u ld e r p a t ­ te r n s , S h ih C h a n g - ÿ u h a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h r e e h o u s e s fr o m t h e D y n a s tic S h a n g p e r io d a t H s i a o - t 'u n 39 (fig. 22). F if ty - th r e e h a n g - tfu f o u n d a tio n s w e r e e x c a v a te d b y t h e I n ­ s t i t u t e o f H is to r y a n d P h ilo lo g y b e f o r e t h e w a r a t H s i a o - t'u n L o c u s N o r th . T h e lo n g e s t f o u n d a t i o n is 8 5 m e te r s lo n g a n d 14.5 m e te r s w id e a n d t h e la r g e s t is a t le a s t 7 0 m e te r s lo n g a n d 4 0 m w id e . S h ih C h a n g - ju g r o u p s t h e s e in to t h r e e c lu s te r s , t h e N o r t h e r n G r o u p (o r c h ia f - g r o u p ), c o n s is tin g o f 15 f o u n d a tio n s ; t h e M id d le G r o u p (o r y i C» - g r o u p ), 21 f o u n d a t i o n s ; a n d t h e S o u th e r n G r o u p (or p in g ^ - g r o u p ) , 17 f o u n d a ­ t i o n s 40 (fig . 23). I n v ie w o f t h e i r s o m e tim e s m a s s iv e s iz e , t h e i r r e g u la r a r r a n g e m e n t, a n d t h e m a n y s a c rif ic ia l b u r ia ls t h a t a p p e a r to b e a s s o c ia te d w i t h s o m e o f t h e h o u s e s (to b e d e s c r ib e d b e lo w ), th e s e h o u s e s h a v e b e e n d e s c r ib e d as p a la c e s o r te m p le s , a n d H s ia o - t’u n L o c u s N o r t h is g e n e r a lly b e lie v e d to b e t h e c e n te r o f th e A n - y a n g c o re . T h e f if te e n f o u n d a tio n s o f th e N o r th e r n G ro u p , lo c a te d in G rid s D a n d E in a n a re a a b o u t 100 m e te r s f r o m n o r t h to s o u th a n d 9 0 m e te r s fr o m e a s t to w e s t, a r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t a r r a n g e d p a r a lle l to o n e a n o th e r , r u n n i n g le n g th w is e n o r t h - s o u t h . T h e la r g e r h o u s e s h a d t h e i r d o o r s f a c in g e a s t, b u t t h e s m a lle r o n e s f a c e d s o u th . N o h u m a n o r a n im a l s a c rif ic ia l b u r ia ls w e r e f o u n d in th is a re a . S h ih b e lie v e s t h a t th e s e b u ild in g s w e r e r e s id e n ti a l. O n th e b a s is o f s t r a t i g r a p h y a n d a s s o c ia te d m a te r ia ls , S h ih b e lie v e s , f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e N o r t h e r n G r o u p o f h o u s e s w a s t h e e a r lie s t to b e b u ilt, p e r h a p s d u r i n g t h e r e ig n o f W u T in g , a lth o u g h t h e h o u s e s c o n tin u e d to b e o c c u p ie d u n t i l t h e e n d o f Y in . I f h e is r ig h t , t h e s e tt le m e n t l a y o u t a t H s ia o - t/u n d u r i n g t h e e a r lie s t s e g m e n t o f t h e D y n a s tic p e r io d c o n s is te d o f a r e s id e n ti a l a re a in th e n o r t h a n d a b u r ia l a re a ( w h e r e th e F u H a o to m b is lo c a te d ) a b o u t 3 0 0 m e te r s to t h e s o u th w e s t. T h e M id d le G roup, c o n s is tin g o f t w e n t y - o n e h o u s e f o u n d a tio n s in a n e le v a te d a re a a b o u t 2 0 0 m e te r s n o r t h - s o u t h b y 1 0 0 m e te r s e a s tw e s t, la r g e ly w i t h i n e x c a v a tio n g r id s B a n d C, is r e g a r d e d b y S h ih to b e t h e n e x t g r o u p to b e c o n s tr u c te d , p o s s ib ly b e g u n b y T s u C h ia ’s r e ig n . H e re m o s t ( s ix te e n ) h o u s e s h a d t h e i r d o o r s f a c in g s o u th , a n d o n ly a fe w (fo u r) fa c e d e a s t. M a n y o f th e m a s s iv e h o u s e s s e e m to h a v e b e e n p la c e d in r e la tio n to o n e a n o t h e r in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a n o v e r a ll p la n . T h e la y o u t b e g a n in t h e n o r t h , w i t h f o u n d a t i o n a s q u a r e p la tf o r m o f p u r e y e llo w e a r th . O th e r h o u s e s t h e n r a n s o u th , p o s s ib ly in tw o r o w s 39. Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ， "Yin tai ti-shang chien-chu fu-yüan chih yi li’’ 股 代 地 上 建 蔡 復 原 之 一 例 ； "Yin tai ti-shang chien-chu fu-yüan ti ti*erh li〃 殷 代 地 上 建 集 復 原 的 第 二 例 广 Yin tai ti-shang chien-chu fu-yüan ti ti-san 1广 股 代 地 上 建 蔡 復 原 的 第三例• 40. Shih Chang-ju 石 律 如 ， yin Asù* cAien-cAuy-rs’tm 股 虚 建 集 遺 存 .

22. Three reconstructions of ground houses at Hsiao-t'un (b o tto m , after Shih Chang-ju, "Yin tai ti-shang chien-chu fu-yüan chih yi l i ' ; m id d le , after his rf/Yin tai ti-shang chien-chu fu-yiian ti ti erh li''; to p , after his '"Yin tai ti-shang chien-chu fu-yüan ti ti-san li’’).

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s y m m e tr ic a lly o n t h e e a s t a n d t h e w e s t. I n t h e m id d le , s o u t h o f t h e p la tf o r m , w e r e t h r e e h o u s e s 〇 3, j i - 9 , a n d j i - 11) a n d a s e r ie s o f f iv e g a te s ( t h r e e o n y i- 3 , o n e o n y i- 9 , a n d o n e o n y i - l l ) p o i n t i n g s o u th . F u r th e r m o r e , in t h i s a r e a w e r e a n u m b e r o f s a c r if ic ia l b u r ia ls o f h u m a n s , a n im a ls , a n d c h a r io ts (fig . 24). S h ih b e lie v e s t h a t t h e s e b u r ia ls , e s p e c ia lly th o s e n e a r f o u n d a t i o n j i - 7 (fig . 2 5), w e r e a p a r t o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s o f s o m e o f t h e h o u s e s , o f f e r e d a s s a c rif ic e s d u r i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n la y in g , p o s t e r e c tin g , d o o r in s ta llin g , a n d c o m p le tin g p r o c e s s e s .41 A s s o c ia tin g a ll t h e b u r ia ls w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s m a y b e t e n u o u s , a n d s o m e w e r e p o s s ib le s a c r if ic ia l b u r ia ls i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e c o n s t r u c ­ tio n . B u t th e s e s a c r if ic ia l b u r ia ls in d ic a te t h e r i t u a l n a t u r e o f th e s e h o u s e s , w h i c h m a y t h u s b e d e s c r ib e d t e n t a t i v e l y a s te m p le s . T h e S o u th e r n G ro u p , c o n s is tin g o f s e v e n te e n s m a ll f o u n d a tio n s , is t h e s t r a n g e s t. I n a n a r e a o n ly 5 0 b y 35 m e te r s , t h e h o u s e s w e r e d o m ­ in a te d b y t h e la r g e s t f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e g r o u p , p i n g - l , i n t h e n o r t h , f a c in g s o u th , a n d t h e n s m a ll h o u s e s w e r e a r r a n g e d n o r t h to s o u t h in t w o g r o u p s in t h e e a s t a n d t h e w e s t. A n u m b e r o f s a c r if ic ia l b u r ia ls , h u m a n s o n t h e r i g h t a n d a n im a ls o n t h e le ft, a ls o a c c o m p a n ie d th e f o u n d a tio n s , w h i c h s e e m to h a v e c o n s t i t u t e d a s e p a r a te q u a r t e r f o r s p e c ific r i t u a l u s e s .42 S h ih b e lie v e s t h a t th i s g r o u p w a s c o n s t r u c t e d t h e la te s t, p o s s ib ly t o w a r d t h e e n d o f t h e Y in p e r io d . A c c e s s o r y B u ild in g s . O th e r t h a n t h e e v e r - e x p a n d i n g b lo c k o f a b o v e - g r o u n d h o u s e s a n d t h e b u r ia l g r o u n d f o r i m p o r t a n t p e o p le a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e F u H a o T o m b (u s e o f w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n d i s c o n t in ­ u e d a f te r W u T in g b e c a u s e o f t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e p a la tia l b lo c k , w h ile t h e r o y a l b u r ia ls b e c a m e c o n c e n t r a t e d in H s i- p e i- k a n g , n o r t h o f t h e H u a n R iv e r), t h e S h a n g s e t t l e m e n t a t H s i a o - t 'u n in c lu d e d o t h e r b u ild in g s a n d t h e i r a s s o c ia te d a c ti v itie s . A t le a s t t h r e e m a jo r c a te g o r ie s o f s u c h b u i l d ­ in g s , w h i c h w e r e a ll s e m i - s u b t e r r a n e a n o r u n d e r g r o u n d , c a n b e d i s t i n ­ g u is h e d : d w e llin g s , s to r a g e p its , a n d w o r k s h o p s . T h e p i t h o u s e s in e s s e n c e c a r r ie d o n t h e p r e d y n a s t i c tr a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e i r r o u n d i s h s h a p e , a n o c c a s io n a l s ta ir , a n d lo w w a lls in s o m e c a s e s . " T h e c o n t e n t s o f th e s e p i t h o u s e s w e r e m o s tly a n im a l b o n e s a n d p o t s h e r d s , a ll n e c e s s itie s o f d a ily l i f e . " 43 N u m e r o u s s u c h p i t h o u s e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d a t H s i a o - t 'u n ; s o m e w e r e u n d e r n e a t h t h e a b o v e - g r o u n d h o u s e f o u n d a tio n s , s o m e w e r e b u i l t b e s id e a n d a m id s t th e m , a n d o th e r s 41. Shih Chang-ju 石 琿 如 ，"H siao-t'un C-ch'ü ti mu-tsang ch’ü n ” 小 也 C 區 的墓葬尊.

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i n t r u d e d in to th e m , te s t if y in g to t h e i r lo n g h is to r y o f u s e b u t v a r y in g le n g th s o f i n d iv id u a l o c c u p a tio n .44 I f t h e a b o v e - g r o u n d h o u s e s in c lu d e d t h e d w e llin g s o f t h e r o y a l fa m ily a n d o t h e r im p o r t a n t p e o p le , t h e n th e s e p i t h o u s e s w e r e p r o b a b l y d o m ic ile s o f th e s u p p o r t, m a in te n a n c e , a n d s e r v ic e p e r s o n n e l, a lth o u g h t h e a b s e n c e o f d e ta ile d r e p o r tin g a b o u t th e s e p its m a k e s it im p o s s ib le to s t u d y t h e p r e c is e r e la tio n s h ip o f s p e c ific p i t h o u s e s w i t h s p e c ific g r o u n d h o u s e s . S to ra g e p its w e r e r e c t a n g u l a r o r r o u n d in g r o u n d p la n a n d o f te n d e e p e r t h a n t h e y w e r e w id e . M a n y s u c h s to r a g e p its c o n ta in e d p u r e , g r e e n is h so il, a n d w e r e a p p a r e n t l y g r a n a r ie s .45 O th e r s h a v e y ie ld e d im p o r t a n t f i n d s : 46 la r g e n u m b e r s o f b r o n z e w e a p o n s , o ra c le b o n e s , a n d w h ite p o t t e r y fr o m p i t H -1 6 , n e a r g r o u n d h o u s e c h ia -2 ; la rg e n u m b e r s o f o ra c le b o n e s a n d f r a g m e n te d m u s ic a l s to n e s f r o m H - 2 0 n e a r c h ia - 6 ; a s e t o f t h i r t e e n p o t t e r y io u - d is h e s a n d p o t t e r y j a r s fr o m H - 1 9 6 n e a r 17; s e v e r a l d o z e n b u r n e d s p a c u la e fr o m H -0 0 1 n e a r jyz-5; a n d t h e s p e c ta c ­ u la r H -1 2 7 p i t n e a r j z - 7 a n d y i- 1 2 , in w h ic h m o r e t h a n t h r e e h u n d r e d w h o le t u r t l e p l a s t r o n s a n d m o r e t h a n t e n t h o u s a n d p ie c e s o f f r a g m e n ts o f o ra c le b o n e s w e r e f o u n d in 1 9 3 6 .47 A p p a r e n t l y a la rg e p a r t o f th e w e a lth o f th e r o y a l h o u s e , in c lu d in g g r a in s , p r e c io u s o b je c ts , a n d th e o ra c le a r c h iv e s , f o r m e d th e c o n t e n t o f m a n y o f th e u n d e r g r o u n d s to ra g e p its a s s o c ia te d w i t h t h e g r o u n d h o u s e s . F ro m t h e s c a tte r e d d e s c r ip ti o n s o f th e p i t h o u s e s i t is c le a r t h a t th e r e s id e n ts o f s o m e o f th e m e n g a g e d in s p e c ia liz e d in d u s t r i a l a c tiv itie s . K u o P a o - c h ü n o b s e r v e d a m a jo r in d u s t r i a l c o m p le x in th e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f th e m id d le g r o u p o f g r o u n d h o u s e s as e a r ly as 1 9 3 3 : " S e v e r a l h u n d r e d b r o n z e - c a s tin g m o ld s a n d s e v e r a l te n s o f c r u c ib le s w e r e f o u n d n e a r B -15 (in th e n o r t h e r n e n d o f t h e m id d le g r o u p o f g r o u n d h o u s e s ), p r o b a b l y a b r o n z e - c a s tin g a r e a ; s e v e r a l te n s o f w o r k e d s to n e s , ja d e s , a n d s h e lls , a n d n e a r ly a t h o u s a n d s to n e k n iv e s w e r e f o u n d n e a r o r to th e n o r t h o f B -1 4 , p e r h a p s a j a d e a n d s to n e w o r k s h o p ; n e a r ly a t h o u s a n d b o n e a r r o w h e a d s a n d s e v e r a l h u n d r e d p ie c e s o f b o n e m a te r ia ls o c c u r r e d n e a r B -1 2 , p o s ­ s ib ly a b o n e - w o r k i n g a r e a ''. 48 A n o th e r b r o n z e - w o r k i n g a re a , in d ic a te d b y a s m a n y a s t e n p i t h o u s e s c o n ta in in g c la y m o ld s (1 ,6 1 0 p ie c e s in o n e o f th e h o u s e s ) ,49 w i t h tw o o f th e m p o s s ib ly in te r c o n n e c te d in to a n u n d e r 44. Shih Chang-ju 石 緣 如 、 Wn /zsö cr/ziefi-c/my-Wun 殷 虛 建 集 遺 存 . 45. Kuo Pao-chün 郭 寶 鈞 ， "B -ch’ ü fa-chüeh c h i c h ih e rh ’ ’ B i 發 掘 記 之 二 ， 605-606.

46. Shih Chang-ju 石 蜂 如 ， "Yin tai ti hang-t#u pan-chu yü yi-pan chien-chu’’ 殷 代 的 夯 土 版 集 與 一 般 建 集 ，133. 47. Shih Chang-ju 石 緣 如 ，"Yin hsü tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu lun Hsiao-t'un ti-ts'eng” 股 樓 最 近 之 重 要 發 現 附 論 小 也 地 層 ，7-8 . 48. Kuo Pao-chün 郭 寶 鈞 ，"B-ch’ü fa-chüeh c h i c h ih y i" B 區 發 掘 記 之 一 ， 594. 49. Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ，Kn Asü 殷 虛 建 集 遺 存 ，p. 75.

A n - yang

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Royal Capital

99

g r o u n d m o lte n - m e ta l p o u r i n g s y s t e m ,50 o n l y s l ig h tly t o t h e n o r t h w e s t o f t h e b r o n z e w o r k s h o p n e a r B - 15, is p o s s ib ly a n e x t e n s i o n o f it. O u ts id e t h i s m a jo r i n d u s t r i a l a re a , a t le a s t t w o o t h e r w o r k s h o p s h a v e b e e n f o u n d in H s i a o - t 'u n L o c u s N o r th , o n e in t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e s ite a n d t h e o t h e r i n t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n e x t r e m i t y . T h e f o r m e r is r e p r e s e n t e d b y s to r a g e p i t E - 181 , in w h i c h w e r e f o u n d , o t h e r t h a n p o t s h e r d s , 7 6 0 p ie c e s o f a n im a l b o n e s , 102 b o n e o b je c ts , 5 3 5 m o llu s c a n s h e lls , 78 s h e ll o b je c t p ie c e s , 8 9 p ie c e s o f s to n e , 4 4 4 s to n e k n iv e s , v a r i o u s s to n e o b je c ts , 1 ,1 7 9 t u r t l e s h e ll p la c e s , 163 c o w r ie s h e lls , a n d v a r i o u s a n d s u n d r y o t h e r o b j e c t s .51 T h e o t h e r w o r k s h o p w a s b r o u g h t to l i g h t in 1 9 7 5 , in c lu d in g a c o m p le x o f p i t h o u s e s , a s to r a g e p i t , a n d la r g e n u m b e r s o f g r i n d i n g s to n e s , u n f i n i s h e d s to n e a r tif a c ts , a n d s to n e b l a n k s . 52 CHRONOLOGICAL SUBDIVISIONS OF THE DYNASTIC PERIOD T h e d y n a s t i c p e r i o d a t H s i a o - t 'u n , a c c o r d in g to K u p e n C hu s h u chi n ien a n d o t h e r s o u i t e s , la s te d f o r 2 7 3 y e a r s a n d in c l u d e d t h e r e ig n s o f t w e lv e k in g s . T h e is s u e o f d a t i n g a n a r tif a c t, a h o u s e , o r a n e v e n t a r c h a e o lo g ic a lly w i t h i n t h i s n o t to o b r i e f s e g m e n t is o f c o n s id e r a b le im p o r ta n c e to S h a n g a r c h a e o lo g y a n d h i s t o r y . S t r a t i g r a p h y is o n ly u s e f u l in is o la te d c ir c u m s ta n c e s s in c e a H s i a o - t / u n - w i d e s t r a t i g r a p h y h a s n e v e r b e e n w o r k e d o u t b y t h e e x c a v a t o r s .53 T h e g r o u n d h o u s e s d id n o t o v e r la p , so t h a t t h e i r c h r o n o lo g ic a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n o n ly b e c o n je c tu r e d a t f r o m th e ir s tra tig ra p h ic a l re la tio n s h ip s w ith o th e r s tru c tu re s a n d th e ir a rtif a c tu a l a s s o c ia tio n . G o o d c h r o n o lo g ic a l s e q u e n c e , h o w e v e r , is a v a ila b le b y u s in g t h e c h a n g in g c h a r a c te r is tic s o f t w o c a te g o r ie s o f a r c h a e o lo g ic a l f i n d s : o r a c le b o n e in s c r i p t i o n s a n d p o t t e r y . B o n e h a i r p i n s p r o v i d e a t h i r d p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l c h r o n o lo g ic a l y a r d s t i c k . D a tin g th e O ra cle B o n e In s c r ip tio n s . N o o r a c le b o n e in s c r i p t i o n s d a tin g f r o m t h e f i r s t t h r e e k in g s in Y in ( P 'a n K e n g , H s ia o H s in , H s ia o Yi) h a v e y e t b e e n i d e n t i f i e d .54 T h e r e f o r e , a ll o r a c le b o n e i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t 50. Shih Chang-ju 石 蜂 如 ，"Yin tai ti chu t/ung kung-yi” 殷 代 的 缉 銅 工 藝 ， 124—125. 51. Shih Chang-ju 石 埠 如 ，"Ti-ch'i-tz'u Yin hsü fa-chüeh: E-ch'ü kung-tso pao^kao〃 第 七 次 殷 坡 發 掘 ：E 區 工 作 報 告 ， 722- 723. 52. 尺尺， "1975 nien An-yang Yin hsü ti hsin fa-hsien” 1975年 安 降 股 壚 的 新 發現. 53. Tsou Heng 你 衡 ， "Shih lun Yin hsü wen-hua fen»ch’i 〃 試 論 股 埃 文 化 分 is a noble attem pt but cannot be used as the definitive source because he had to cull his information from incompletely published materials. 54. Ch'en Meng-chia 味 夢 家 ， Kn Asä 4 fsim客 s/zw 殷 壚 卜 辭 综 述 ， p. 139.

T^he Shang Society

100

from

A n - yang

h a v e b e e n f o u n d so f a r in H s ia o - t’u n (a n d e ls e w h e r e w i t h i n A n - y a n g ) b e lo n g to t h e p e r io d in S h a n g h i s t o r y c o v e r e d b y n in e k in g s : W u T in g , T s u K e n g , T s u C h ia, L in H s in , K 'a n g T in g , W u Yi, W e n W u T in g , T i Yi, a n d T i H s in . (T h e n a m e s a r e g iv e n h e r e a c c o r d in g a m o d if ie d g e n e a lo g y n o t id e n tic a l w i t h t h a t o f Yen p e n c h i; see c h a p t e r 3 f o r d e ta ils .) D a tin g th e o ra c le b o n e in s c r ip tio n s is in f a c t to d a te th e m to t h e in d iv id u a l r e ig n s o f th e n in e k in g s . T h is , h o w e v e r , is n o t a n e a s y o p e r a tio n , b e c a u s e n o n e o f o f t h e in s c r ip tio n s w a s m a r k e d b y a r e ig n n a m e . B u t, s in c e a lm o s t a ll o f t h e in s c r ip tio n s p e r t a i n e d to a c tiv itie s w i t h i n t h e r o y a l fa m ily , d e c e a s e d k in g s w e r e r e f e r r e d to b y t h e i r p o s th u m o u s c y c lic a l s ig n s , to g e th e r w ith k in te r m s . T h e k in g s r e f e r r e d to , h o w e v e r , o f te n c a n n o t b e s p e c ific a lly id e n tif ie d , b e c a u s e m a n y o f th e m h a d t h e s a m e c y c lic a l s ig n s , a n d t h e f a th e r a n d h is b r o t h e r s w e r e i n d i s tin g u is h a b l y r e f e r r e d to b y t h e s a m e te r m , f u X . A F u Yi X C » , f o r e x a m p le , r e f e r r e d to in a n o ra c le r e c o r d , c o u ld h a v e b e e n H s ia o Yi, f a t h e r o f W u T in g , o r W u Yi, f a t h e r o f W e n W u T in g , o r T i Yi, f a t h e r o f T i H s in . A F u T in g 父 丁 c o u ld h a v e b e e n W u T in g , f a t h e r o f b o t h T s u K e n g a n d T s u C h ia , o r K 'a n g T in g , f a th e r o f W u Yi, o r W e n W u T in g , f a t h e r o f T i Yi. T h e i d e n t i t y o f a n a n c e s to r r e f e r r e d to in t h e o ra c le r e c o r d c a n b e n a r r o w e d d o w n f u r t h e r w h e n s o m e o f t h e le ss c o m m o n ly u s e d s ig n s a p p e a r a n d w h e n s e v e r a l f a th e r s w e r e m e n tio n e d to g e th e r . A p ie c e w i t h t h e n a m e F a th e r H s in o n it is lik e ly o f e ith e r W u T i n g 's p e r io d o r e lse W u Y i's, a n d a p ie c e w i t h t h e n a m e s o f a ll f o u r f a th e r s . F a th e r C h ia, F a th e r K en g , F a th e r H s in , a n d F a th e r Yi, c a n o n ly b e o f W u T i n g ’s p e r io d , a n d so f o r th . T h is m e th o d o f d a tin g w a s t h e e a r lie s t u s e d , 55 b u t it is f a r fr o m p r e c is e in m o s t c a s e s, n o t o n ly b e c a u s e m a n y k in g s u s e d th e s a m e c y c lic a l s ig n s b u t a lso b e c a u s e t h e n a m e s o f m a n y o f t h e k in g s ' o t h e r d e c e a s e d a n c e s to r s b e s id e s th o s e w h o w e r e e a r lie r k in g s a lso a p p e a r in t h e in s c r ip tio n s , v a s tl y c o n f u s in g t h e i d e n t i t y p r o b l e m .56 T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c r ite r io n f o r d a tin g , to s u p p le m e n t t h a t b a s e d o n th e a n c e s tr a l n a m e s w h e n t h e y a re c le a r ly k n o w n a n d to s u p e r ­ c e d e th e m w h e n t h e y a r e n o t, is t h e n a m e o f t h e i n q u i r e r . T u n g T s o - p in w a s th e f ir s t s c h o la r to r e c o g n iz e t h e c h a r a c te r in th e o ra c le b o n e i n ­ s c r ip tio n s b e f o r e t h e c h a r a c te r ch en ^ (to a s k , in q u ir e ) a s t h e n a m e o f t h e i n q u i r e r a n d to d is c o v e r t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r n a m e s s o m e tim e o c c u r to g e th e r o n t h e s a m e b o n e o r s h e ll p r o v id e s a s o u n d b a s is f o r g r o u p in g th e m in to " i n q u i r e r s ' g r o u p s ’’ t h a t s e r v e d a t t h e c o u r ts o f i n d iv id u a l k i n g s .57 T h e f ir s t s u c h g r o u p t h a t T u n g w o r k e d o u t, in la rg e

王國維 ，"T su mou fu mou hsiu n g m ou” 祖某父某兄某 • 56. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳夢家 ，"Shang wang miao>hao k ’ao 商王廟號考， 5. Kaizuka Shigeki 貝 琢 冷 樹 ，々 说 〇 Dcz如 Jinhun 尺a於2/:ü 尺e n / : » sAozâ ZcöÄroati 京 都 大 学 人 文 科 学 研 究 所 所 藏 甲 骨 文 字 ，PP. l 〇6- 1〇9. 57. Tung Tso-pin 董作有，"T a k u e i ssu pan k'ao s h ih ” 大氬 四板 考 釋 • 55. W ang Kuo-wei

A n - yang

and the

Royal Capital

101

26. Tung Tso-pin's first group of c h e n -jen , who served at King W u Ting's court (after Tung Tso-pin, "Ta kuei ssu pan k'ao shih” ).

p a r t b a s e d o n t w o t u r t l e p l a s t r o n s w i t h c o n c u r r e n t i n q u i r e r s ' s ig ­ n a t u r e s , 58 w a s o n e c o n s is tin g o f t h e n a m e s i n fig . 2 6 . T h is g r o u p c a n b e f ir m ly d a t e d to K in g W u T i n g ’s r e ig n b e c a u s e o v e r t h e s ig n a t u r e s o f s o m e o f th e m , r i t u a l s h a v i n g to d o w i t h " F a t h e r Y i" a n d " M o t h e r K e n g " w e r e d i v i n e d a b o u t . 59 S in c e t h e o n ly K in g Yi w i t h a w if e n a m e d K e n g w a s H s ia o Y i, w e k n o w t h a t t h e i n q u i r e r s m u s t h a v e s e r v e d o n W u T i n g 's c o u r t. T h e s a m e p r o c e s s c a n t h e n b e r e p e a t e d , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a n e v e r - in c r e a s in g d a ta b a s e . I n 1 9 3 3 , w h e n T u n g T s o - p in p u b l i s h e d h is g r o u n d - b r e a k i n g " C h i a - k u - w e n t u a n - t a n y e n - c h i u l i " , 60 h e w a s a b le to g r o u p t h e n i n e k in g s i n t o f iv e p e r io d s , o n t h e b a s is o f t h e i n q u i r e r s ' g r o u p s a n d o t h e r c r ite r ia : P e r io d P e r io d P e r io d P e r io d P e r io d

I II II I IV V

W u T in g (a n d h is t h r e e p r e d e c e s s o r s ) T s u K e n g , T s u C h ia L in H s in , K 'a n g T ，in g W u Y i, W e n W u T in g T i Y i, T i H s in

11 i n q u i r e r s 6 in q u ire rs 8 in q u ire rs 0 in q u ire rs 1 in q u ire rs

S u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h b y T u n g h im s e lf a n d b y s e v e r a l o t h e r s c h o la r s f o llo w in g h is le a d h a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y in c r e a s e d t h e n u m b e r s o f i n q u i r e r s w h o c a n b e id e n tif ie d w i t h i n e a c h p e r io d , a n d in m a n y c a s e s h a s e n a b le d s c h o la r s to m a k e f in e r s u b d iv is i o n s w i t h i n s o m e o f t h e p e r io d s . T u n g 's la te s t w o r k in c r e a s e d t h e n u m b e r o f k n o w n P e r io d I i n q u i r e r s to t w e n t y 58. I b i d , f p . 4 4 0 . 59. Tung Tso-pin 董 作 賓 ， "Chia ku wen tuan-tai yen-chiu li " 甲 甘 文 斯 代 研 究 例 ，347.

60. I b id .

102

T he Shang Society

from

A n -yang

fiv e . P e r io d II i n q u i r e r s to e ig h te e n . P e r io d III i n q u i r e r s to t h ir te e n . P e r io d IV i n q u i r e r s to s e v e n te e n , a n d P e r io d V i n q u i r e r s to f o u r .61 S h im a K u n io h a s f u r t h e r in c r e a s e d t h e n u m b e r s i n t h e f iv e p e r io d s to t h i r t y - s i x , t w e n t y - f o u r , tw e n t y - f o u r , t w e n t y - f o u r , a n d s e v e n , r e s p e c ­ t i v e l y 62 (fig . 27). T h e a p p lic a tio n o f t h e a b o v e t w o c r i t e r i a — a n c e s tr a l n a m e s a n d i n q u i r e r s ' s ig n a t u r e s — is in m o s t c a s e s, w h e r e th e s e tw o ite m s o f in f o r m a tio n , o r a t le a s t t h e la tte r , a r e i n c lu d e d in th e in s c r ip tio n s , s u f f ic ie n t to d a te t h e p ie c e to o n e o f t h e f iv e p e r io d s o r e v e n to th e r e ig n o f a s in g le k in g . U n f o r t u n a te ly , a t t h e p r e s e n t tim e t h e r e is a m a jo r c o n ­ tr o v e r s y in t h e c h r o n o lo g ic a l s t u d y o f th e o r a c le b o n e in s c r ip tio n s t h a t in v o lv e s t h e a s s ig n m e n t o f a f e w i m p o r t a n t in q u i r e r s to P e r io d I o r P e r io d IV . T h is c o n c e r n s in t h e m a in tw o g r o u p s o f in q u ir e r s , o n e c o m p r is in g o f € . 欢 、A a n d o t h e r a s s o c ia te d n a m e s (o f te n i n c lu d in g i , th e k in g G im se lf), a n d t h e o t h e r o f ¥ 科 a n d t h e i r a s s o c ia te d n a m e s . T h e f i r s t g r o u p is r e f e r r e d to a s t h e 6 g r o u p b y C h ’e n M e n g c h ia 63 b u t a s t h e " R o y a l F a m ily ” g r o u p o f i n q u i r e r s b y K a iz u k a S h ig e k i,64 a n d th e s e c o n d is r e f e r r e d to as t h e 爭 g r o u p S y C h ’e n a n d a s t h e " G r o u p s o f P r in c e s " i n q u i r e r s b y K a iz u k a . B o th C h ’e n a n d K a iz u k a p la c e th e s e tw o g r o u p s in W u T i n g ’s r e ig n a n d , t h u s , a s p a r t o f P e r io d I, a lth o u g h C h 'e n s p e c if ie d t h a t t h e y b e lo n g e d to a la te r s u b p e r io d . H e b e lie v e d t h a t th e s e g r o u p s o f i n q u i r e r s p r o b a b l y s e r v e d g r o u p s o f n o b le m e n o n ly o v e r la p p in g w i t h o r o u ts id e t h e r o y a l fa m ily , b u t K a iz u k a t h i n k s t h a t th e R o y a l F a m ily i n q u i r e r s s e r v e d t h e k in g s ' p r i v a t e lin e a g e in te r e s t s (as a g a in s t t h e C o u r t's p u b lic in te r e s t s s e r v e d b y t h e o t h e r W u T in g p e r io d i n q u ir e r s ) a n d t h a t th e G r o u p s o f P r in c e s i n q u i r e r s s e r v e d th e G r o u p s o f P r in c e s , a s p e c u la te d p a r a m ilita r y o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e r o y a l p r in c e s . T u n g T s o - p in , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p u t th e m b o th t o g e th e r in to h is P e r io d IV ( th e r e ig n s o f W u Yi a n d W e n T u T in g ).65 T u n g r e a d ily c o n c e d e s t h a t in s ig n if ic a n t w a y s t h e s e c o n d a r y c h a r a c te r is tic s o f h is P e r io d IV in s c r ip tio n s a r e s im ila r to P e r io d I in s c r ip tio n s , b u t h e u s e s th is p o i n t a s a p r in c ip a l b a s is f o r h is t h e o r y o f " O ld S c h o o l" a n d " N e w 61. C hia /eu h sü e h liu -s h ih n ien 令 骨 學 六 十 年 ，p p . 7 9 - 8 6 .

62. 殷 墟 卜 辭 研 究 ，p. 34. 63. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， "Chia ku tuan-tai yü k'eng wei— Chia-ku tuan-tai hsüeh ting p'ien" 甲 會 斯 、 與 坑 位 一 甲 膏 斯 代 學 丁 篇 ； 於” 如 ö 殷 壚 卜 辭 综 pp. 145-155, 158—161. 64. Kaizuka Shigeki 貝 琢 茂 樹 ， ZrodcnÜ黑afcii no 中国 古代史 学 ^ l t l 0 铷

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樹 墳

A n - yang

and the

Royal Capital

121

group of 10 was excavated in 1958—59.102 In 1969 and 1976, additional excavations took place in the area east of the 1934-35 excavations and west of the small graves area of 1950; 250 such graves were located, but only 191 were excavated. They were similarly clustered, and the ex­ cavators recognized 22 groups, ranging in their size from 1 to 47 graves (fig. 36). The burial patterns are again similar to Kao's description, but the 1976 excavators explicitly stated that many skeletons were dismembered or mutilated and many were bound.103 Of the 1,178 skeletons and skulls that were found, 715 to 718 individual skeletons have been studied with regard to sex and age. Of these, 339 were believed to be males, 35 famales, the rest undetermined. Other than 19, which were probably children under age fourteen, all were young adults : averaging 20-35 years old for women, and 15—2 5 for men. Men and women tended to be buried in the same pits.104 Chronologically, the excavators observed that from stratigraphical indications the graves that were oriented north-south were earlier than those oriented east-west, but that the whole group excavated in 1969 and 1^76 belonged to the Early Periods (but essentially Period II). Kao Ch'ü-hsün believes that all the small graves "must be related to the ten big tombs in one way or another/' although he is not yet certain about "the question of to which big tombs the nine groups of small graves were dedicated as sacrifices'' in the eastern section of the cemetery.105 But since the small graves were clustered in the eastern section (into at least thirty-six groups, including Kao's nine, the four groups of 1950, one group in 1958-59, and the twenty-two excavated in 1976), and if each group represents a single ritual act, the ritual events represented there cannot hâve been confined to mere sacrificial burials that were made in coordination with the construction and use of the large royal tombs. Yang Hsi-chang and Yang Pao-ch'eng's interpreta­ tion— namely that although some of the small graves could be related to the royal burial rites, these graves largely represent the sacrificial use of human victims in rituals as abundantly recorded in oracle bone inscrip­ tions— is certainly consistent with the facts (fig. 37). The human victims may include members of more than a single social stratum. Grave goods were found among some of the graves, but the nature and amount of such goods varied with the type of burial. In the 102. M ： , "1958-1959 n ie n Y in hsü fa-chüeh chie n pao"

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坑的發掘. 104. KK, "A n-yang Y in ta i chi-ssu k'eng je n k u t i hsin g -p ie h n ie n - lin g chientin g 〃 安 降 殷 代 祭 祀 坑 人 骨 的 性 别 年 蛉 鑒 定 • 105. ''The R oyal Cemetery o f the Y in Dynasty at A n-yang/f 9.

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■■ ■ ■ I y , 97 102 s th e ty p e site w ith p o tte ry sim ilar to th e E rh -lik a n g lo w e r s tra tu m o f C h e n g -c h o u , th u s p re d a tin g th e p re d y n a s tic p e rio d o f H sia o - t 'u n . 119 10. H s ia o -m in -t’u n L ocus S o u th 孝 民 也 南 地 • T h re e c h a rio t p its w e re fo u n d in 1 9 5 8 -1 9 5 9 a n d in 1972, p ro v id in g in v a lu a b le d a ta fo r S hang c h a rio t r e c o n s tru c tio n . 120 11. P e i-h s in -c h u a n g L ocus S o u th 北 辛 莊 南 地 • A lso e x c a v a te d in 1 9 5 8 -5 9 , th is lo c u s is b e s t k n o w n fo r a b o n e w o rk s h o p fin d : a g ro u n d h o u se flo o r, a p it fu ll o f b o n e m a terials, a n d re m a in s o f b o n e m aterials, h a lf-fin is h e d b o n e a rtifa c ts, a n d b o n e -w o rk in g tools, w ith in a n a rea o f o v e r 2 0 0 s q u a re m e te rs . 121 12. F a n -c h ia -c h u a n g L ocus N o rth 泛 家 莊 北 地 . T e ste d in 1935 116. Wu Chin-ting 吳 金 戒 ， "Chai chi Hsiao-t'un yi hsi chih san ch'u hsiao fa-chüeh〃 摘 記 小 也 迤 西 之 三 處 小 發 掘 ，631-G33. 117. Kuo Pao-chün 郭 寶 釣 ，"Yi-chiu-wu-ling nien ch’un Yin hsü fa-chüeh pao*kao” 一 九 五 〇 年 春 殷 坺 發 掘 報 告 ， 48-58; Li Chi 李 濟 ， "An-yang tsui-chin fa-chüeh pao-kao chi iiu tz'u kung-tso chih tsung ku-chi” 安 陽 叙 近 發 掘 報 告 及 六 次 工 作 之 線 佑 計 ，568; Wu Chin-ting 矣 金 戒 ， "Chai chi Hsiao»run yi hsi chih san ch'u hsiao fa-chüeh" 摘 記 小 也 4 西 之 三 是 小 發 掘 ， 627- 628. 118. "1^58—1959 nien Yin hsü fa»chüeh chien pao" 1958-1959 年 殷 埃 發 搞 簡 報 ，63; Yang Pao»ch'eng 揚 竇 成 ，personal communication. 119. Ib id ., 65. 120. Ib id ., 72-73; KKf '"An-yang hsin fa-hsien ti Yin tai ch'e-ma k'eng" 安降新發現的殷代車馬坑. 121. JWC "1958-1959 nien Yin hsü fa-chüeh chien pao’’ 1958-1959年 股 壤 發 掘 簡 報 ，69,

128

T « e Shang Society

from

A n -Vang

a n d e x c a v a te d in 1 9 5 8 -5 9 , th is locus h as y ie ld e d g en e ra lly sim pler rem ain s, b u t also b u ria ls w ith b ro n z e s . 122 NORTH BANK OF THE RIVER HUAN

1. T a - s s u - k ’u n g - ts 'u n L ocus S o u th 大 司 空 村 南 地 • T his locus is a c tu ally situ a te d on th e east b a n k o f th e riv e r, d ire c tly across th e riv e r fro m H s ia o -t'u n L ocus N o rth , a n d it could b e an ex c ee d in g ly im p o rta n t area. A rchaeological e x c a v a tio n s to o k p lace h e re sev eral tim es (in 1935, 1936, 1953- 54, 1958, 1 9 5 8 -5 9 , a n d 1962) b u t h av e b een o f rela tiv e ly sm all scale, a n d re p o rts o n o n ly a sm all p o rtio n o f th e rem ain s h a v e seen th e lig h t o f p r in t . 123 T h ese in c lu d e p its, g ro u n d h o u se floors, c h a rio t-a n d -h o rse b u rials, a n d h u m a n b u rials. T h e b u ria ls w e re sh a rp ly d iffe re n ­ tia te d acco rd in g to th e sh a p e o f th e p it, th e u se o f th e w o o d en ch am b er, an d th e n a tu re a n d a m o u n t o f g rav e goods. T w o in sc rib e d oracle bones w e re fo u n d in 1 9 5 8 -5 9 . T h ese p o in t to a fa ir-siz e d se ttle m e n t w h o se re sid e n ts in c lu d e d n o b ility o f c o n sid erab le sta tu s. 2. S su -m ie n -p e i 四 面 碑 • O nly v e ry sk e tc h ily in v e stig a te d in 1932, th e c o n d itio n s a t th is locus are n o t w ell u n d e rsto o d . It is so u th o f H s ia o -s s u -k 'u n g - ts 'u n 小 司 空 村 ， d ire c tly across th e riv e r from H siaot 'u n L ocus N o rth a n d co u ld b e o f c o n sid erab le significance. 3. P a - t'a i 碟 台 s o u th o f W u - k u a n - ts 'u n . T his is in a sm all m o u n d situ a te d d ire c tly across th e riv e r from S s u -p 'a n -m o . It h as b een claim ed th a t it a n d S s u -p 'a n -m o o rig in ally form ed a single site, w h ic h w as th e n c u t in tw o b y th e riv e r H u an . A sm all-scale e x c a v a tio n in 1934 re su lte d in th e d isc o v e ry o f p its, b u rials, a n d o racle b o n e s . 124 4. H o u -c h ia -c h u a n g L ocus S o u th 候 家 莊 南 地 • T h is locus w as e x c av a ted o nce in 1934 fo llo w in g re p o rts o f in sc rib e d oracle bones, u n c o v e rin g p its, g ro u n d h o u se floors, a n d b u rials w ith h a n g - t'u fill, as w ell as in sc rib e d oracle b o n e s . 125 T h is is th e fifth archaeological locus in 122. Ibid., 63. 123• 尺欠，"1958-1959 nien Yin hsü fa-chüeh chien pao’’ 1958-1959 年 股 埃 發 掘 簡 報 ，65, 66, 69, 73, 7 5 : 欠尺， "1962 nien An-yang Ta-ssu-k’ung ts’un fa-chüeh chien pao” 1962年 安 降 大 司 空 村 發 掘 簡 報 ；尺欠，"Yi-chiu-wu-pa nien ch'un Ho-nan An-yang shih Ta-ssu-k’ung ts'un Yin tai mu-tsapg fa-chüeh chien pao — 九 五 八 年 春 河 南 安 降 市 大 司 空 村 投 代 暮 葬 發 掘 簡 報 ； Ma T e-ch ih 馬 得 志 ， Chou Yung-chen 周 永 珍 ， Chang Yun-p’eng 張 雲 碡 ，"Yi-chiu-wu-san nien An-yangTa-ssu-k'ung ts’un fa-chüeh pao»kao" 一 九 五 三 年 安 陽 大 司 空 村 發 掘 報 告 ； Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ， "Yin hsü tsui^chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu lun Hsiao-t’un ti-ts’e n g " 股 坡 最 近 之 重 要 發 現 財 論 小 也 地 層 ， 12, 75; "Hou chi” 後 記 . 124. Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ， "Yin hsü tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu lun Hsiao-t'un ti-ts'eng” 股 楗 最 近 之 重 要 發 現 附 論 小 也 地 層 ， 75; Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ，"Hsiao-t'un ti wen-hua ts'eng" 小 也 的 文 化 層 • 125. Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ， "Yin hsü tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu

A n - yang

and the

Royal Capital

129

th e A n -y a n g area th a t h as y ie ld e d in sc rib e d o racle b o n es. (T he o th e r fo u r are H siao_t/un, H o u -k a n g , T a -s s u -k 'u n g -ts 'u n , S su -p 'a n -m o .) 5. K a o -c h in g -t'a i-tz u 高 井 台 手 • P its a n d sim p le re m a in s w e re tu r n e d u p h e re in 1932.126 6 . T 'u n g -lo - c h a i 同 樂 寨 • M in o r e x c a v a tio n s in 1934 d isclo sed b u ria ls w ith b ro n z e vessels. N ear th e lo cu s a larg e a re a o f h a n g - t'u , p o s­ sib ly a ce m etery , w as lo c ate d , b u t it h as y e t to b e e x c a v a te d . 127 T h e a b o v e arch a eo lo g ical loci in b o th b a n k s o f th e r iv e r c o n ­ s titu te a w e b -lik e n e tw o rk m ad e u p o f th e fo llo w in g n o d u le s : H siao t 'u n as th e ro y a l p a la c e -te m p le b lo c k w ith its se rv ic e accessories, w o r k ­ sh o p s, a n d (d u rin g som e o f th e p e rio d s) h u g e g ra v e s ; th e ro y a l c e m e te ry a t H s i-p e i-k a n g ; re s id e n tia l h am lets, som e o f w h ic h h a d d iv e rsifie d social s tra ta a n d o th e rs th o se o f co m m o n ers, b u t m o st if n o t all e q u ip p e d w ith th e ir o w n b u ria l g ro u n d s ; a n d w o rk s h o p s o r w o rk s h o p q u a rte rs . T h ese n o d u le s w e re n o t sp a tia lly c o n tig u o u s so as to form a n u rb a n area o f d e n se h o u se s a n d stre e ts, b u t th e w h o le n e tw o rk w as th e p o litic a l a n d cerem o n ial c e n te r o f tjie ro y a l cap ital, a n d , in th e c o n te x t o f th e S h an g state, th e c e n te r o f th e e n tire sta te (fig. 38).

5. A R C H A E O L O G Y O F T H E S H A N G C A P I T A L O U T S ID E A N -Y A N G

I f o u r d isc u ssio n in th e b e g in n in g o f th is c h a p te r o n th e sp a tial e x te n t o f th e S h an g ca p ita l a t Y in h a s b e e n v a lid ly b ased , th e n th e A n ­ y a n g n e tw o rk c o n s titu te d b y th e A n -y a n g sites w as o n ly th e co re o f th e cap ital, w h ic h a t a h ig h e r le v el o f o rg a n iz a tio n h a d o th e r n o d u le s c o n ­ s titu tin g a la rg e r n e tw o rk . If w e ta k e th e H s in -h s ia n g (in th e so u th ) to H s in g -t'a i (in th e n o rth ) area as th e area o f th e la rg e r cap ital, it w as th e n an area a b o u t 2 0 0 k ilo m e te rs lo n g fro m n o r th to so u th , in th e p la in s east o f th e T 'a i-h a n g M o u n ta in s, w h ic h w as d ra in e d b y se v eral sm all riv e rs (C h'i 填 ， H u a n j’亘， a n d C hang 淳 ,)， w h ic h flo w ed in to th e riv e r W ei 衛 . A n -y a n g w as a t th e sp a tia l c e n te r o f th is area, a b o u t 100 k ilo m e te rs fro m each e n d o f it, a n d a rch a eo lo g ically it w as th e co m m an d n u c le u s o f th e v a s t cap ital. O u tsid e A n -y a n g , v e ry little a rch a eo lo g y h as b e e n d o n e w ith in hin Hsiao-t^m ti-ts'eng” 殷 壚 最 近 之 重 要 發 現 附 論 小 也 地 層 ，74; Tung T so -p in 董作 有 ，"An-yang Hou-chia-chuang ch'u-t'u chih chia ku w en-tzu" 安 陽 侯 家 莊 出 土 之 甲 》 jj* 文字.

126. Wu Chin-ting 吳 金 你 ，"Kao-ching-t'ai-tzu san chung t'ao yeh kai lun” 高井合子三種崗黹 概 論. 127. Shih Chang-ju 石 律 如 ，"Yin hsü tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien fu lun H sia o ^ u n tits'e n g " 殷 壚 最 近 之 重 要 發 現 附 論 小 也 地 層 ，75.

130

T he Sh ANG Society

N C I

Ch X

from

A n - yang

Nobility Commoners Industrial workshops Chariot burials Inscribed oracle bones

38. A structural model of the An-yang urban network during the Shang dynasty based on archaeological loci.

th is larg er cap ital area. O ne Shang site has b een lo cated 15 k ilo m eters u p th e H u an R iver (T a -c h e n g -c h i 大 正 集 ） an d a n o th e r 15 k ilo m eters d o w n riv e r (K u o -ts'u n 郭 村 ） ， b o th y ie ld in g som e im p lem en ts an d p o tte ry in d ic a tiv e o f farm ing se ttle m e n ts o f sm all size a n d early d ate (p re -H sia o t 'u n fo r T a -c h e n g -c h i a n d P eriod I o r earlier for K u o -ts'u n ), th u s p e rh a p s n o t ev e n p a rts o f th e Shang d y n a stic c a p ita l . 128 C Ïi'ao-ko 朝 歌 ， so u th o f A n -y a n g , in th e a d m in istra tiv e co u n ty o f T 'a n g -y in , is th e location th a t m an y scholars place to th e im m ediate east o f M u -y eh 牧 野 ， th e last b a ttle g ro u n d o f th e ê h o u c o n q u e st, an d th e 1 2 8 . 尺欠，"An-yang Huan ho liu-yü chi-ko yi-chih ti shih chüeh” 安 陽 鱼 河 流 域 幾 個 遺 址 的 試 掘 ，332, 333 - 335.

A n - yang

and the

Royal Capital

131

fro n t lin e o f th e c a p ita l's u n su c c e s sfu l d e fe n s e . 129 Local fo lk lo re a t tr i b ­ u te d th re e p ro b a b ly c o n c e n tric s ta m p e d -e a rth e n c lo su re s to th e S hang d y n a s ty , b u t arch aeo lo g ical s tu d y sh o w e d th e m m o re lik e ly to d a te from E astern C hou. B ut a b u n d a n t rem a in s o f b o th H sia o -t/u n a n d p re-H siao t 'u n ty p e s h a v e b ee n fo u n d s c a tte re d in a w id e area, in d ic a tiv e o f e x te n siv e S h an g o c c u p a tio n . 130 F u rth e r to th e s o u th , S hang sites h a v e b e e n re p o rte d fro m H u i H sien a n d H sin -h sia n g . In H u i H sien, S hang re m a in s h a v e tu r n e d u p a t th re e loci : H u a - m u - ts ’u n 花 木 村 a n d C h’u - c h ’iu 褚 丘 ， to th e w e st o f th e to w n , a n d L iu -li-k o 琉 璃 閣 ， to th e s o u th . 131 R e sid e n tia l rem ain s, m o stly lith ic s a n d ceram ics, w e re fo u n d a t all th re e sites a n d a p p e a r to b e o f C h e n g -c h o u 's e a rlie r p h ase. B urial sites o c c u rre d a t L iu -li-k o o n ly , in c lu d in g b o th e a rly (p re -d y n a s tic H s ia o -t'u n ) a n d la te (d y n a stic H siao t ’u n ) p h ases. Som e o f th e la te to m b s w e re o f c o n sid e ra b le size, e q u ip p e d w ith w a is t-p its a n d a c co m p a n ied b y h u m a n sacrificial v ic tim s . 132 If th is area w as w ith in th e S h an g ca p ita l, it w o u ld b e a sm all c e n te r in h a b ite d b y m e m b ers o f th e ru lin g class. In H sin -h sia n g , f u rth e r to th e so u th , a p o tte ry k iln a n d th re e b u ria ls w e re e x c a v a te d a t L u -w a n g -fe n in 1958, y ie ld in g re m a in s o f b o th e a rly a n d la te p h a s e s . 133 N o rth o f A n -y a n g , S h an g sites a re firs t e n c o u n te re d a t H sia -p 'a n w a n g 134 a n d C h ie h -tu a n -y in g 135 in T z ’u H sien, acro ss th e C hang riv e r fro m A n -y a n g , a n d C h ie n -k o u -ts ’u n in H a n - ta n , 136 all in th e s o u th e rn e n d o f H o p ei P ro v in c e . R em ains fro m th e se sites (sto n e im p le m e n ts a n d p o tte ry ) su g g e st re s id e n tia l h a m le ts o f b o th e a rlie r a n d la te r p e rio d s w ith in th e S hang, a lth o u g h a n e la b o ra te ly m a d e p o tte ry w in e c o n ta in e r tu r n e d u p a t H s ia -p 'a n -w a n g , p o ssib ly fro m a to m b o f som e p e rso n o f sta tu s. F u rth e r to th e n o r th in th e d is tric t o f H s in g -t'a i, s o u th e rn H opei, 129. Ch'ü Wan-li 屈 萬 里 ，SAfl； 这 s/m cAzVi c/m cAm 尚 書 今 說 今 釋 ，p. 70. 130. An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ，’T'ang-yin Ch’ao>ko-chen fa-hsien Lung-shan ho Shang tai teng wen-hua yi-chih" 湯 陰 朝 歌 鎮 發 現 龍 山 和 商 代 等 文 化 遺 址 . 131. KK, ^Ho-nan Wei ho chih-hung kung-ch'eng chung ti k'ao-ku tiao-ch'a chien pao” 河 南 衡 河 滯 洪 工 程 中 的 考 古 調 查 簡 報 ， "Ho-nan Hui hsien Ch'u-éKiu ch’u-t'u ti Shang tai t'ung-ch'i” 河 鑫 輝 縣 褚 丘 i 土 的 商 代 銅 器 ； Kuo Pao-chün 郭 寶 鈞 Hsia Nai 夏 痛 ，et. aL, Hui 輝縣發掘報告• 132. For the high instancy of dental disease and malnutrition of the sacrificial victims, see Mao Hsieh-chün 毛 资 均 and Yen Yen 嚴 閎 ，"An-yang Hui hsien Yin tai jen ya ti yen-chiu pao«kao〃 安 g 輝 縣 殷 代 人 牙 的 研 究 報 告 • 133. KKHP, "Ho-nan Hsin-hsiang Lu-wang-fen Shang tai yi-chih fa-chiieh pao-kao" 河 南 新 鄉 潞 王 墳 商 代 遺 址 發 掘 報 告 . 134. WiCHP，"Tz'u hsien Hsia-p'an-wang yi-chih fa-chüeh pao-kao” 磁 縣 下 潘 汪 遺 址 發 掘 報 告 ，98-99. 135. H "Tz’u hsien Chieh-tuan-ying fa-chüeh chien pao” 磁 縣 界 段 營 發 掘 簡 報 ，360-363. 136. KK, ''Ho-pei Han-tan Chien-kou ts'un ku yi-chih fa-chüeh chien pao" 河 北 邯 鄆 洞 溝 村 古 遺 址 發 掘 報 ，201_

132

TAe Shang Society

from

A n - yang

a larg e series o f S hang sites h as b ee n located, rev ea lin g a sm all n e tw o rk o f se ttle m e n ts o n th e A n -y a n g m odel (albeit la ck in g th e la tte r's a ris to ­ cratic cen ter). R em ains are p re d o m in a n tly resid e n tia l, in c lu d in g p ith o u ses, lith ics, p o tte ry , a n d a few b ro n zes (such as a rro w h e a d s, aw ls, adzes, an d th e like), an d (u n in scrib e d ) o racle bones, b u t several p o tte ry k iln s h a v e also tu rn e d u p . A s y e t n o b u ria ls h a v e b een fo u n d , a n d no g ro u n d h o u se floors, in sc rip tio n s (ex cep t fo r p o tte rs ' m arks), b ro n ze vessels, o r o th e r in d ic a to rs o f th e ru lin g class. If th is w as w ith in th e cap ital area, it does n o t seem to h av e b ee n m ore th a n a re sid e n tia l n e tw o rk o f farm ers an d p o tte rs . 137

6.

T H E R O Y A L C A P IT A L I N T H E W R IT T E N R E C O R D S

T h e arch aeo lo g y o f th e ro y a l cap ital d e scrib ed ab o v e has so far d isclosed a n e tw o rk o f sites o f d iffe re n t sizes a n d m a g n itu d e s in an area a b o u t 200 k ilo m ete rs long n o rth to so u th , w ith th e A n -y a n g sites, c o n ­ stitu tin g a n o th e r n e tw o rk a t a lo w er level o f c o n tra st, as its core. O u tsid e A n -y a n g , sites are as y e t few an d p o o rly k n o w n , b u t a p p e a r to r e p r e ­ se n t farm in g villages. T h e A n -y a n g core, h o w e v e r, m a rk s an an c ie n t civ ilizatio n o f g re a t so p h istic a tio n a n d d istin c tiv e c h a ra cte r. T h e H siaot ’u n locus has y ie ld e d b lo ck s o f g ro u n d h o u ses, som e o n p latfo rm s, an d som e o f tw o sto ries, a rra n g e d in a sy m m etrical p lan , associated w ith a sq u a re p la tfo rm a n d m u ltip le gates, all o rie n te d n o rth -s o u th . B ut th is w as a civ ilizatio n th a t flo u rish e d th re e m illennia ago, an d it w as a ca p ita l c ity th a t w as a t least in p a rt b u rn e d to th e g ro u n d . T h e d r y a n d h e a v ily e ro d e d N o rth C hina loess w as n o t p a rtic u la rly c o n d u c iv e to arch aeo lo g ical p re se rv a tio n , a n d C hinese farm ers h av e tu rn e d th e su rface soil o v e r a n d o v e r fo r th o u sa n d s o f y ears. A n tiq u e th ie v e s h av e, in a d d itio n , p lu n d e re d th e b u rie d tre a su re s fo r a t least one th o u s a n d y ears. U n d er th e se co n d itio n s one can re a d ily conceive th a t th e archaeological p ic tu re iç b u t a pale reflec tio n o f th e life o f a city in w h ic h th e fin e st b ro n z e vessels th e w o rld has e v e r seen, to m e n tio n o n ly on e exam ple, w e re m a n u fa c tu re d . W ritte n re c o rd s a d d a little to th e archaeological p ic tu re , b u t th e few th a t e x ist to u c h e d u p o n oiily th e k in g s a n d th e ir doings. T h e oracle b o n e in sc rip tio n s o fte n re fe rre d th e k in g ’s ritu a l an d o th e r a c tiv ities to

137. WW, "Hsing-t'ai shih fa-hsien Shang tai yi-chih” 部 台 市 發 現 商 代 遺 址 ； WW, "Hsing-t'ai Shang tai yi-chih chung ti t'ao yao” 邢 台 商 代 遺 址 中 的 K9客 ；T'ang Yün-ming 康 雲 明 ，"Hsing-t’ai Nan-ta-kuo ts'un Shang tai yi-cAih t’an-chüeh chien pao’’ 邢 台 南 大 郭 村 商 代 遺 址 探 掘 簡 報 ； VVW, "Hsing-t，ai Chia ts，un Shang tai yi-chih shih chüeh chien pao” 邢 台 贫 村 商 代 遺 址 試 掘 簡 報 ；尺尺HP, "Hsing-t’ai Ts’ao-yenchuang yi-chih fa-chüeh pao-kao〃 邢 台 曹 演 莊 遺 址 發 掘 報 告 •

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th e p laces w ith in th e p alace w h e re th e y to o k p la c e — p re su m a b ly so m e­ w h e re in th e g ro u n d h o u se s a t L ocus N o rth in H s ia o -t'u n o r its e n v iro n s. T h e re are m a n y men 門 一 d o o rs o r g ates : d o o rs to th e ts u n g ^ (lineage) r itu a l c h a m b er, d o o r to th e c o u rty a rd , th e C. d o o r, th e tin g T d o o r, th e S o u th e rn G ate, th e T h re e G ates, a n d so fo rth . T h e re w e re 室 or ch a m b e rs : T 'a i sh ih 太 室 o r " P rim a ry C h a m b e r,” a n d th e fo u r c h a m b e rs in th e fo u r d ire c tio n s. T h e re w e re k u n g o r O fficiating H alls. T h e re w e re c h in o r sle ep in g ro o m s, p re su m a b ly th o s e o f th e ro y a l fam ily m em b ers. T h e re w as a t fa n ^L, a n e a rth e n p la tfo rm o r a lta r. T h e n , m o st im p o rta n t, th e re w e re th e v a rio u s ts u n g o r lin e ag e halls, in w h ic h a n c e stra l ta b le ts w e re p la c e d . 138 H o w th e S hang h alls o f w o rs h ip a n d liv in g w e re sp a tia lly a rra n g e d is n o t clear fro m th e s k e tc h y re fe re n c e s to th e m in th e o racle re c o rd s. C h 'e n M e n g -c h ia sp e c u la te d th a t th e S h an g lin e ag e te m p le s a n d sle ep in g ro o m s " w e r e all lik e th e (m o d e rn -d a y ) ss u -h o -y iia n 四 合 院 sty le o f a rc h ite c tu re (w ith h o u se s o n all fo u r sid e s facin g o n e a n o th e r, en clo sin g a c o u rty a rd ^at th e ce n ter), h a v in g ro o m s o n east, w est, so u th , a n d n o rth . S leep in g ro o m s w e re called E ast R oom a n d W e st R o o m . . . . T h e S o u th e rn C h am b er a n d th e P rim a ry C h am b er w e re lin eag e h alls in th e lin eag e te m p le , p laces fo r ritu a ls. T h e S o u th e rn C h am b er . . . sh o u ld b e in th e so u th , s o u th o f th e P rim a ry C h am b er, w h ic h b a c k e d to th e n o r th a n d faced th e s o u th . " 139 T h is id e a o f h a v in g fo u r lin e ag e h alls all facin g o n to a c e n tra l p rim a te h all co in cid e s w ith W a n g K u o -w e i's re c o n s tru c tio n o f th e a n ­ c ie n t C hinese sacred h a ll— a p la ce fo r im p o rta n t ritu a ls p e rfo rm e d to a n c e sto rs a n d to d eitie s, re fe rre d to as sh ift s h ih ^ (ta sh ih ) b y th e H sia, c/ztm客 u ； t/ 重 屋 b y th e S hang, a n d min 客 f 'a % 明 堂 b y th e C hou, a c c o rd in g to K fao k u n g ch i in C hou /i . 140 Kao C h 'ü -h s ü n b eliev e s th a t W a n g 's re c o n s tru c tio n is p ro b a b ly e sse n tia lly v a lid , a n d o n th a t b asis h e c o m ­ p a re s th e c ro s s -s h a p e d b u ria l p it a t H s i-p e i-k a n g to a n u n d e rg ro u n d sa cred h all, b u t h e d o es n o t b e lie v e th a t all p alace a n d te m p le s tru c tu re s in Yin w e re n e c e ssa rily o f th is s h a p e .141 N o n e o f th e g ro u n d h o u se s o r th e ir la y o u ts c o u ld be s tric tly co m p a re d to th is sh ap e. E ith e r th e

138. Ch'en Meng-chia 眛 夢 家 ，Kn Asü p V f z ’tt 殷 棱 卜 鮮 综 述 ，pp. 468-482; Ch'en Pang-huai 陳 邦 懷 ，yin rai s/ze-Atti sAi/z-Ziczo cAen客以un 殷代社 j 史料微 存，pp. 14-21. 139. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， Krz Asû’ p V rz'“ “ ung s/w 殷 壤 卜 鮮 综 述 , p. 481. 140. Wang Kuo-wei 王 國 維 ，"Ming-t’ang ch'in miao t'ung k'ao" 明 堂 寝 肩 邋 考. 141. "Yin tai ta mu ti mu shih chi ch'i han-yi chih t’u i-ts V 股 代 大 暮 的 基 室 及 其涵義之推測•

134

T he Shang Society

È

e

f

⑧

c jjl g

A n - yang

A

^

d

from

h

i

j

39. Shang characters indicative of contemporary architecture (all from KKHCK, Chia ku wen pien, except for b, from KKHCK, Chin wen pieri).

re c o n s tru c tio n is m ore im a g in a ry th a n realistic, o r th e real sacred halls o f th e S hang k in g s are still b u rie d u n d e rg ro u n d . A few c h a ra c te rs in th e S hang oracle b o n e in sc rip tio n s are rela ted to b u ild in g s a n d m ay c o n trib u te to o u r im age o f th e Shang capital. T h e c h a ra c te r fo r y i (settlem ent) (fig. 39 a) an d fo r w ei ^ (''d e fe n s e " ) (fig. 39 b) b o th sh o w th a t th e essence o f a se ttle m e n t w as a w alled en clo su re. T he S hang c ity at C heng-chou h ad su ch an en clo su re (see c h a p te r 5), b u t n o su c h a w all has b een d isc o v ered in A n -y a n g . P o s­ sib ly a w alled e n c lo su re e x isted a ro u n d th e H s ia o -t'u n ce n ter, an d its rem ain s h av e elu d e d th e arch a eo lo g ists' reach, b u t it is also p o ssib le th a t th e last ro y al cap ital w as so v a st a n d its g a rriso n forces so co n c e n tra te d th a t a w all h ad n o t b een n ec essary in th is in stan ce. T he c h a ra c te r for " c ity w a ll" (/zsian客 享 = 3 7 播 ， c in fig. 39) sh o w s an en c lo su re w ith tw o o r fo u r g ate to w ers, su g g e stin g th a t su ch a w all w as in d e ed th e u su al featu re . S everal c h a ra c te rs (d, e , f ) sh o w a p latfo rm on w h ic h a ho u se w ith

A n - yang

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Royal Capital

135

g ab led ro o f w as b u ilt. S h ih C h a n g -ju 's re c o n s tru c tio n s o f som e o f th e H s ia o -t'u n g ro u n d h o u se s co n firm th e h o u se sh a p e in th e se c h a ra c te rs, b u t th e la tte r em p h asiz e th e p ro m in e n t fe a tu re o f th e h ig h p la tfo rm . In te x tu a l re fe re n c e s to m a n y p ro m in e n t b u ild in g s th e w o rd t ’a i 台 （" p la tfo rm " ) w as in v a ria b ly a p a r t o f th e n am e, p o in tin g in th e sam e d ire c tio n . C h a ra cte rs fo r ce re m o n ia l b u ild in g s ( g , h, i, j ) h a v e tw o c o m p o n e n ts: a c ro ss-sh a p e , w h ic h h as ju s t b e e n m e n tio n e d , a n d a g a b le d ro o f as sy m b o l fo r a ritu a l ch a m b er.

2

Natural and Economic Resources

1. L A N D S C A P E A N D C L I M A T E O F N O R T H C H I N A D U R I N G T H E S E C O N D M I L L E N N I U M B .C .

T h e ro y a l capital, o f w h ic h A n -y a n g w as th e core, w as situ a te d in a p la in s area, a t a b o u t 360 n o rth la titu d e a n d 1140 east lo n g itu d e, th a t e x te n d e d to w a rd b o th th e n o rth a n d th e so u th b u t w as co n fin ed in th e w e st b y th e T 'a i-h a n g M o u n ta in s an d in th e east b y th e lo w er Yellow R iv er allu v iu m , th e n p ro b a b ly a m a rsh la n d if n o t in p a rt su b ­ m erg ed . T h e lo w e r Y ellow R iver ch a n g ed co u rse re p e a te d ly d u rin g th e h isto ric al p e rio d , b u t h isto ric a l g eo g ra p h e rs g en e ra lly believe th a t in th e a n c ie n t h isto ric a l p e rio d it flo w ed n o rth , a fte r m erg in g w ith th e riv e r Y ün 洗 （T h e u p p e r co u rse o f th e riv e r Chi 濟 ） to w a rd th e G u lf o f Chihli, ta k in g in th re e w est-to -e a st trib u ta rie s along th e w a y : th e C h'ing, th e C h'i a n d th e C hang (fig. 4 0 ).1 T h e ca p ita l area w as essen tially th e p lain s area th a t w as d ra in e d b y th e se th re e riv e rs b efo re th e y jo in e d w ith th e Yellow R iver. Since th e Y ellow R iv er a p p e a re d o n th e oracle bo n e in s c rip tio n s — as sim p ly Äo 河 ，" R iv e r” 2— th e N o rth C hina p la in m u st h a v e b een w id e e n o u g h (from east to w est) to acco m m o d ate it. Some g eo g ra p h e rs b eliev e th e S hang sites along th e T 'a i-h a n g w ere located rig h t o n th e coast, m ost o f th e allu v ial p la in s b ein g still su b m e rg e d .3 But if th e Y ellow R iv er h ad b een flo w in g o n th e p la in s d u rin g th e S hang p erio d , th e p la in s m u st h a v e a lre a d y lo n g em erged. W e believe th a t th e S hang sites w e re n o t o n th e coast, b u t w ere se p a ra te d from th e coastal area, som e d ista n c e aw ay , b y th e Y ellow R iver itself. T h ere is good reaso n to believe th a t th e riv e r p la in s w h e re th e ro y al cap ital w as lo cated w ere h e a v ily v e g e ta te d a n d th a t th e clim ate o f th e area w as w a rm e r a n d m o ister th a n a t p re se n t. It w as p o ssib le to 1. Li Tao-yüan 鄭 逭 元 ，S/ziii cAi% cAti 水 絰 注 ，pp. 79-103; Wang Shih-to 汪士鋒， SAui cAi% c/zw 水 絰 注 圖 ，pp. 9-10. 2. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ，"Ku wen-tzu chung chih Shang Chou chi-ssu" 古 文 字 中 之 商 周 祭 祀 ，l 24- B 〇. 3. Ting Su 丁 濰 广 Hua Pei ti-hsing shih yü Shang Yin ti li-shih” 華 北 地 形 史 與 商 殺 的 歷 史 ，155-162.

136

40. Possible palaeogeography of An-yang d u rin g ancient p e rio d (based on W ang Shih-to, Shui-ching-chu t'u).

138

1*he Shang Society

from

A n - yang

re a c h th a t co n c lu sio n as ea rly as 1959 o n th e basis o f th e n available e v id en ce in g eo m o rp h o lo g y , fau n a, a n d flo ra .4 In th e last few years, paly n o lo g ical stu d ie s o f H olocene d e p o sits (especially o f p e a t deposits) in s o u th e rn L iaoning h a v e disclosed a so lid ly b ased clim atic sequence, as fo llo w s: P 'u -la n -tie n p e rio d , 1 0 ,3 0 0 -8 ,0 0 0 b.p.. E a r ly T a -k u -s h a n p e rio d , 8 ,0 0 0 -5 ,0 0 0 b.p., L a te T a -k u -s h a n p e rio d , 5 ,0 0 0 -2 ,5 0 0 b.p., and period, 2,500 b.p. to p re se n t. A fte r th e close o f th e P leistocene, th e re w as a g en e ra l tre n d to w a rd clim atic am elioration, a n d th e o p tim u m w as re a c h e d d u rin g th e T a -k u -sh a n p erio d s. " T h e E arly T a -k u -sh a n p e rio d has th e w a rm e st a n d m ost m oist clim ate, w ith an a n n u a l te m p e ra tu re av erag e o f 13° C, w h ic h is 3 - 5 ° C h ig h e r th a n th e p r e s e n t • … T he L ate T a -k u -sh a n p e rio d … h a d a clim ate d rie r th a n th e E arly p e rio d , b u t it w as still 2—4° C w a rm e r th a n th e p re se n t w ith an a n n u a l av e ra g e te m p e ra tu re o f 12° Ç " 5 T h is co n clu sio n o f th e m ost re c e n t stu d ie s is c o n siste n t w ith o th e r stu d ie s d o n e elsew h ere in C hina.6 In th e A n -y a n g area, a clim ate w a rm e r a n d m ore m oist d u rin g th e second m illen n iu m b .c . th a n th e p re se n t is s u p p o rte d b y th e fau n al m aterial fo u n d at th e S hang archaeological sites th em selv es. A cco rd in g to th e stu d ie s o f th is m aterial b y T eilh ard d e C h ard in , Y oung C hungchien, an d L iu T u n g -sh e n g ,7*th e m am m alian rem ain s from th e S hang sites in A n -y a n g in d ic a te th e fo llo w in g anim als (listed in th e ta b le below in o rd e r o f e stim a ted to ta l n u m b e r o f in d iv id u a ls ): O v er 1 ,0 0 0

w a te r buffalo [ B u b a lu s m e p h isto p h e le s) b o ar (S u s v it t a tu s v ar. fr o n ta lis ) e la p h u re [ E la p h u ru s m e n z ie s ia n u s ) O ver 100 dog (C a n is fa m ilia r is ) p ig (S u s cf. sc ro fa ) 4. Chang Kw ang-chih 張 光 直 ，〃Chung-kuo h sin shih-ch’i shih-tai wen-hua tuan-tai” 中 國 新 石 器 時 代 文 化 斯 代 ； see also 77ze i4m:zenr CTnmi, chapter 1. 5. SS, "L ia o -n in g sheng nan-pu yi-wan n ie n la i tzu-jan huan-ching t i yenp ie n 〃 逡 挛 省 南 部 一 萬 年 來 自 然 環 境 的 演 變 ，6〇9. 6. Chu K ’o-chen 竺 可 袖 ，〃Chung-kuo c h in w u-ch’ien nien la i c h ’i-hou p ie n - c h ' ie n tic h #u - p u y e n - c h iiT 中 國 近 五 千 年 來 氣 候 變 逶 的 初 步 研 究 ，15-18. 7. T e ilh a rd de C ha rdin and Young, "O n the Mammalian Remains from the A rchaeological Site of Anyang;” C. C. Young (Yang Chung-chien), "Budorcao, a New Elem ent in the Proto-historic A nyang Fauna of C hina"; Yang Chung-chien 揚 鍾 健 and L iu Tung-sheng 到 東 生 ，"A n-yang Y in hsü c h ih pu-ju tung-wu ch'ün pu y i" 安 f%殷 壤

之哺乳動物尊補遺.

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139

w a te r d e e r (H y d r o p o te s in e r m is ) sik a d e e r [ P s e u d a x is h o tu lo r u m ) S h an g sh e e p (O v is sh a n g i) c a ttle (B o s e x iq u u s ) O ver 10

ra c c o o n d o g (C a n is [N y ste re u te s] p ro c y o n id e s) b e a r [U rs u s sp.)

badger (MeZes Zet/a/ri/s) tig e r [F elis tig ris) r a t ( E p im y s r a ttu s ) b am b o o r a t ( R h iz o m y s cf. tro g lo ty le s) r a b b it (L e p u s sp.) h o rse (E q u u s c a b a llu s) U n d er 1 0 fo x [ V u lp e s cf. v u lg a r is ) U ssu ri b e a r [U rs u s c f. ja p o n ic u s ) le o p a rd (F elts p a r d u s ) ca t (F elis sp.)

w h a le (Cetacea in d e t.) field r a t (S ip h n e u s p s ilu r a s ) ta p ir [ T a p ir u s cf. in d ic u s) rh in o c e ro s (R h in o c e ro s sp.) g o at (C a p ra sp.) a n te lo p e (B u d o c ra s ta x ic o la ) e le p h a n t (E le p h a s in d ic u s) m o n k e y [M a c a c u s tc h ih lie n s is ) * Y oung a n d L iu, o b s e rv in g th a t th is fa u n a c e rta in ly d iffe rs fro m th e c o n te m p o ra ry fa u n a o f th e A n -y a n g area, su g g e ste d th a t th e d iffe re n c e m ay be e x p la in e d b y th e fo llo w in g a lte rn a tiv e s : e x h a u s tio n b y h u n tin g , d e fo re sta tio n , artific ia l tra n s p o rta tio n , a n d clim atic ch an g e, b u t th e y feel th a t th e a b u n d a n c e o f w a te r b u ffa lo in d ic a te s th e in d ig e n o u s n a tu re o f th is an im al a n d a w a rm e r a n d m o re m o ist clim a te.8 In re c e n t y ea rs, w a te r b u ffa lo b o n e s h a v e b ee n fo u n d e x te n s iv e ly in N eo lith ic sites in th e lo w e r Y angtze th a t m ay be d a te d to th e fifth m ille n n iu m b .c . o r e a rlie r.9 T h e a b u n d a n c e o f w a te r b u ffalo sk e le to n s in A n -y a n g su g g ests clim atic c o n d itio n s sh a re d w ith th e la tte r area. T h e e la p h u re .

8. Yang Chung-chien 揚錢健 and Liu Tung-sheng 則東生 ，op. a r , 151. 9. K K H P , /#Ho-mu-tu y i- c h ih tun g c h ih w u yi-ts'un t i c hien -ting yen-chiu 河 姆 渡 遺 址 動 植 物 遺 存 的 鍅 定 研 究 ，96 and 101.

140

TtiE Shang Society

from

A n - yang

a ttrib u te d to a h o m elan d in th e H uai R iver v alley in a re c e n t s tu d y ,10 h as lo n g b een re g a rd e d as an anim al w h o se n a tiv e h a b ita t w as flat m a rsh y la n d .11 T he w ild boar, th e w ild anim al w ith th e la rg e st p o p u la ­ tio n , is also an in h a b ita n t o f th e fo rest. T h is_ th a t a w a rm e r an d , esp ecially , m ore m oist a n d h ea v ily fo re ste d e n v iro n m e n t w as th e o rig in al h a b ita t— is also tru e fo r th e n e x t m ost com m on w ild an im als: th e w a te r d ee r, th e sika d ee r, a n d th e b am boo ra t. A ll th re e anim als w e re id e n tifie d a t th e N eolithic site a t P a n -p 'o , n e a r Sian, S hensi. T he zoologists w h o stu d ie d th e bones co n c lu d e d th u s : " T o d a y , th e w a te r d ee r a n d th e b am boo ra t are d is trib u te d in th e Y angtze v alley a n d so u th o f th e Y angtze . . . in d ic a tin g th a t th e clim ate in Sian w as w a rm e r an d m o re m oist a t th e tim e. W a te r d e e r liv e in m a rsh lan d , a n d bam boo ra ts in b am b o o g ro v es. T his su ggests th a t th e re w e re m arsh es a n d bam boo g ro v es in th e Sian area … • Sika d e e r su g g est th a t th e re w ere fo re sted hills in th e P a n -p 'o area in th e N eo lith ic p e r i o d / '12 A sm all n u m b e r o f fish a n d b ird b o n es e x c a v a te d from A n -y a n g h a v e b een id e n tifie d . O f th e six k in d s o f fish, five [P e lteo b a rg ru s fu lv id r a c o , C y p rin u s c a rp io , M y lo p h a r y n g o d o n , C te n o p h a ry n g o d o n id e llu s, an d S q u a lio b a r b u s c u rric u lu s) are still com m on in th e A n -y a n g area, b u t th e re m a in in g ty p e , th e m u llet (M u g il sp.), is o n ly seen in coastal o r

e stu a rin e w a te rs a n d n e v e r re p o rte d fro m th e in te rio r.13 T h is confirm s th e to p o g ra p h ic d isc u ssio n ab o v e, p la cin g A n -y a n g closer to th e seacoast th a n it is n o w . A m ong th e b ird b ones, o th e r th a n p o ssib le c h ick en b o n e s ,14 o n ly th re e are k n o w n : T h e p eaco ck [P aco cf. m u tic u s ), th e cin ereo u s v u ltu re [A e g y p ic u s m o n a c h u s), a n d th e silv er p h e a sa n t (G e n n a eu s cf. n y c th e r m e r u s ).15 O f th ese, th e p eaco ck a n d th e silv er p h e a sa n t are in te re stin g . If th e m u tic u s id e n tific a tio n is co n firm ed , th e n th e b ird in q u e s tio n is th e g reen , o r Ja v an ese, p eacock, w h ic h does n o t to le ra te cold w e a th e r.16 T he m o d e rn silv er p h e a sa n ts are all fo u n d in S o u th ea st C hina a n d m ain lan d S o u th ea st A sia17 a n d th e tru e silv er 10. Ts’ao K'o»ch’in g 曹 克 清 ，"Shang-hai fu~chin ch'üan-hsin-shih ssu-puhsiang-lu ya-hua-shih t i fa-hsien y i-c h i Wo-kuo che-shu tung-wu t i ti- sh ih t i- li fen-pu"

上海附近全新世四不像鹿亞化石的發現以及我國這屬動物的地史地理分布• 11. J. G. Andersson, ''Researches in to the P rehisto ry of the Chinese/' 38-40. 12•尺尺HCA： , Hsi-an Pfln-p'o 西 安 半 坡 ，pp. 267-268. 13. Wu Hsien-wen 伍 惠 文 ，"Chi Yin hsü ch’u-t’u chih yü k u " 記 股 壚 出 土 之 魚 骨 ， 140. 14. Shih Chang-ju 石 球 如 ，"Ho-nan An-yang Hsiao*t’un Yin mu chung ti tung-wuyi-hsieh 〃 河 南 安 降 小 也 股 基 中 的 動 物 遺 f t , l 2. 15. Personal com m unication from Raymond A. Paynter, Jr., Museum of Comparative Zoology, H arvard U n iversity , received 14 January 1960. H is id e n tific a tio n was made on bony specimens s u p p lie d by L i Chi. 16. N. G. Gee, L. I. Moffett, and G. D. W ild e r, A T en tative L ist o f Chinese Birds, p. 57; B. F. K in g and E. C. D ickinso n, A Field Guide to the B irds o f South-E ast A sia, p. 110. 17. Jean Delacour, The P heasants o f the W orld, pp. 139-155; P h ilip Wayre,

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p h e a sa n t (G. n y c th e r m e r u s ) is fo u n d o n ly in th e fo re sts o f S o u th C hina a n d E a ste rn T o n k in .18 T h e fa u n a l d a ta fro m A n -y a n g a re c o n c lu siv e in sh o w in g th a t th e area, a r iv e r p la in , w as h e a v ily fo re ste d a n d n e a r m arsh es, a n d so m e w h at w a rm e r th a n th e a rea to d a y , a c o n c lu sio n to ta lly c o n s iste n t w ith p a ly n o lo g ic a l stu d ie s e lse w h e re in C hina, b o th to th e n o r th a n d to th e s o u th .19 T h is co n c lu sio n is f u rth e r re in fo rc e d b y w ritte n m aterials. H u H o u -h s ü a n h a s p o in te d o u t th a t m a n y p lacen a m es c o n ta in e d in th e o racle re c o rd s in d ic a te o r im p ly th a t th e s e ttle m e n t w as lo c ate d o n to p o f a h ill o r a m o u n d ,20 a fa c t lo n g p o in te d u p b y M e n g W e n -t'u n g o n th e basis o f a n c ie n t te x ts .21 T h e lo c atio n o f som e se ttle m e n ts o n h ig h g ro u n d m u st m ean th a t th e lo w la n d s w e re w e t o r m a rsh y , w h ic h w o u ld n o t be in c o n g ru e n t w ith th e p aleo n to lo g ica l co n c lu sio n s th a t h a v e a lre a d y b e e n d isc u sse d . T h e m o st d ire c t e v id e n c e o n th e S h an g clim ate m ay b e in th e o racle re c o rd itself. H u H o u -h sü a n liste d th e fo llo w in g as th e m e tero logical e v id e n c e th a t avw a rm e r a n d m o iste r clim ate p re v a ile d : (a) T h e re are re c o rd s o f rainfall, all y e a r ro u n d , in c lu d in g J a n u a r y th r o u g h M arch , th e w in te r m o n th s d u rin g w h ic h p re c ip ita tio n n o w ta k e s th e fo rm o f sn o w , a n d th e ra re re c o rd s o f sn o w re fe r to sn o w th a t fell m ix e d w ith ra in o r in th e ev e n in g s, (b) R eco rd s o f ra in th a t fell c o n tin u a lly fo r as lo n g as m o re th a n te n d a y s (e ig h te en d a y s in o n e in stan ce ) a p p e a r to su g g e st th a t th e re w e re m o n so o n s in th e S h an g p e rio d in th e A n -y a n g area, (c) R e co rd s o f h a rv e s ts in d ic a te th a t tw o c ro p s o f b o th m illet a n d rice w e re h a rv e s te d a n n u a lly in th e A n -y a n g area, (d) R eferen ces to rice, e le p h a n t, a n d rh in o c e ro s are seen in th e o racle re c o rd s, (e) R eco rd s o f h u n ts re fe rre d to s u c h an im als as rh in o c e ro s, e le p h a n t, tig e r, e la p h u re , b o ar, w olf, a n d p h e a s a n t th a t ag ain w o u ld in d ic a te a w a rm e r a n d m o re fo re ste d e n v iro n m e n t.22 A Guide to the P h easan ts o f the W orld, pp. 155-156. 18. Delacour, op. cit., pp. 153-154; K in g and D ic k in s o n , op. cit., p. 105; Gee et al., op. cit., pp. 52-53. 19. H o P in g -ti, how ever, in several recent p u b lic a tio n s (H u a n g -tru y ii Chungfctto c A 黃 土 與 中 國 農 業 的 起 源 ；"T h e Loess and the O rig in of Chinese A griculture'' ; and The C radle o f the E ast), takes strong issue w ith th is conclusion, m ain­ ta in in g that N o rth C hina was steppe-like thro u g ho u t its recent geohistory. Ho's use o f the p o lle n data has been c ritic iz e d by R ic h a rd J. Pearson and T in g Su, and the lite ra ry data he based h is vie w upon are m uch too late for o u r purposes. 20. H u Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，" P ’u-tz’u t i m ing y ü k u je n chü c h ’iu shuo” 卜辭地名與古人居丘説 . 21. Meng W en-t'ung 蒙 文 遑 ，"K u -tai Ho-yü ch'i-hou y u j u c h in Chiang-yü shuo 〃 古 代 河 域 氣 候 有 如 今 江 域 説 . 22. H u Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，"C h'i-hou pien^ch'ien yü Y in tai ch'i-hou c h ih c h ie n - t' a o " 氣 候 變 遑 與 殷 代 氣 候 之 檢 討 . See also K a rl A. W ittfo g el, "M eteoro lo gica l Records from the D iv in a tio n In s c rip tio n s o f Shang," and T ung Tso-pin 董 作 嘗 ，“ Tu

142

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W I L D A N D D O M E S T IC A N I M A L S

T h e fau n al list b ased o n th e archaeological d a ta fro m A n -y a n g g iv en ea rlier sh o w s th e ra n g e o f anim als av ailab le to th e c a p ita l's in h a b ­ ita n ts. T h e w ild anim als, esp ecially w ild bo ar, e la p h a n t, sika d eer, an d w a te r d eer, w e re d w ellers o f th e fo rests a n d m arsh es n e a r a n d to th e east o f A n -y an g , a n d som e o f th e m as w ell as o th e r m am m als su c h as th e m o u n ta in g o at a n d th e a n telo p e m ay h a v e com e from th e T 'a i-h a n g M o u n ta in s to th e w est. M an y o f th e se anim als u n d o u b te d ly p ro v id e d m eat, sk in , h o rn , a n d b o n e for th e S hang, b u t h u n tin g o f th e m w as also a m ajor ro y a l s p o rt.23 To w h a t e x te n t w ild anim als w e re d e p e n d e d u p o n fo r food b y th e S hang is a d e b a ta b le p o in t. In so fa r as th e h u n tin g re c o rd s in th e o racle b o n e in sc rip tio n s are co n c ern ed , h u n tin g w as m ore a sp o rt th a n a su b sisten c e a c tiv ity , b u t th e gam e th a t w as h u n te d w as p re su m a b ly to be co n su m e d .24 From th e h u n tin g reco rd s, a t least o n e th in g w as q u ite c e rta in : th e fo re sts w e re d e n se ly in h a b ite d . O ne su c h reco rd , d a te d to K ing W u T in g 's reig n , lists th e fo llo w in g gam e : D ivined o n th e d a y W u -w u Ku m ade th e in q u iry : W e are g oing to chase a t 〃C h 'iu 〃；a n y c a p tu re ? H u n tin g on th is d ay , (we) a c tu a lly c a p tu re : T igers, o n e; D eer, fo rty ; Foxes, on e h u n d re d a n d six ty -fo u r ; H o rn less d ee r, one h u n d re d a n d fifty -n in e ; a n d so fo rth .25 H u n ts th u s d e sc rib e d w e re n u m e ro u s; th e g re a te st ca tch th a t w as re c o rd e d w as one o f 348 e la p h u re s.26 C h 'en M en g -ch ia says th a t anim als th a t a p p e a re d in h u n tin g re c o rd s m ore th a n fiv e h u n d re d tim es w ere elap h u res, fox, w a te r d eer, a n d d e e r; th o se th a t a p p e a re d o v e r one Wei-t'e-fu Shang tai p'u-tz'u chung t i c h ’i-hsiang c h i- lu " 讀 魏 特 夫 商 代 卜 醉 中 的 氣 象 記 錄 ，and Chang Ping-ch’üan 張 采 權 ，"Shang tai p'u-tz'u chung t i ch'i-lisiang c h i- lu c h ih s h a n g - c h 'ü e h ” 商 代 卜 鲆 中 的 氣 象 紀 錄 之 商 榷 . 23. L i C h i 李 濟 ，"H u n tin g Records, Faunistic Remains，and Decorative Pat­ terns from the A rchaeological Site of An-yang• ”

24. Shima Kunio 島邦男， to /:# 殷 埔 卜 辞 研 究 ，p. 5〇3 ; Ch'en Meng-chia 味夢家， yin Asùp’u-rz’ti rsun客sAu股 城 卜 鮮 综 述 ，p. 552.

25. Tung Tso-pin 董 作 賓 ，7m Asü Wpi en 股 虚 文 字 C»編 （ Yi-2908). Translated in L i C hi, The Beginnings o f Chinese C ivilization, p. 23. 26. Shima K u n io 島 轉 男 ， 股 壚 卜 辨 研 究 ，p. 503.

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h u n d r e d tim es w e re b o a r a n d w ild c a ttle ; a n d th a t tig e r, a la rg e r d ee r, a n d a n o th e r a n im al as y e t u n d e c ip h e re d a p p e a re d fe w e r th a n te n tim e s .27 T h e in c id e n c e o f an im als th a t a p p e a re d in th e h u n tin g re c o rd s is th u s la rg e ly in a g re e m e n t w ith th e fa u n a l list p re p a re d b y zo o lo g ists fro m b o n e rem a in s. D o m esticated a n d ta m e d an im als w e re p ro b a b ly o f m u c h g re a te r im p o rta n c e as so u rc e s o f m eat, sk in , a n tle r, a n d b o n e, a n d som e o f th e se w e re also o f ritu a l sig n ifican ce. T h ese in c lu d e dog, ca ttle , w a te r b u ffalo , sh eep , h o rse , p ig , a n d , in all p ro b a b ility , th e e la p h u re , a n d th e y sh o u ld b e d isc u sse d se p a ra te ly . T h e e la p h u re w as n o t d o m e stic a te d in th e sam e sen se as th e o th e rs, b u t e la p h u re h e rd s a re so m etim es th o u g h t to h a v e b e e n fen c e d in to a ssu re a s te a d y s u p p ly , as a s u p p le m e n t to h u n te d a n im a ls ,28 T h e w a te r b u ffalo , o n th e o th e r h a n d , w as a fu lly d o m e stic a te d an im al a n d a m ajo r so u rc e o f s h o u ld e r b la d es fo r th e d iv in e rs .29 D ogs, c a ttle , sh e ep , h o rses, p ig s, a n d c h ic k e n s w e re u se d fo r ritu a l p u rp o s e s a n d fo u n d in b u ria ls .30 O f th e se , all b u t th e h o rse w e re id e n tifie d also in g a rb a g e h e a p s a n d w ere, th u s , c o n su m e d . T h e h o rse , h o w e v e r, w as p ro b a b ly u se d e x c lu siv e ly to p u ll th e c h a rio t. I t w as p ro b a b ly n o t ra ise d lo cally a n d h a d to b e im p o rte d . O racle re c o rd s m e n tio n e d th e " e n t r y " o f h o rs e s ; H u H o u -h s ü a n b eliev e s th a t th e y w e re im p o rte d fro m th e n o r th w e s t .31 I t sh o u ld b e m e n tio n e d th a t d o m e stic a te d an im als w e re a h ig h ly sig n ific a n t re s o u rc e in S h an g life; th e n u m b e r o f c a ttle u se d in ritu a ls is tr u ly am a z in g : 1,000 c a ttle in o n e r itu a l o n ce, 500 once, 400 once, 300 th ric e , 1Ö0 n in e tim es, a n d so o n , a c c o rd in g to H u H o u -h s ü a n ’s in v e n to ry o f o racle re c o rd s .32 O ne g ets a n in k lin g fro m th e se n u m b e rs a b o u t th e size o f th e h e rd . In fact, W a n g H ai, a p re d y n a s tic a n c e sto r o f th e S hang, is c re d ite d in S h ih p e n w ith b e in g th e o rig in a to r o f ca ttle b re e d in g , a n d W a n g K uo-w ei c h a ra c te riz e d h im as a tr u e c u ltu ra l h e ro w h o civ ilized th e S h an g p e o p le .33 Yi c h in g m e n tio n s h is d e a th a t th e

27. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳夢家， p V rz 'i/ tsw;这 s/m 殷 坡 卜 辭 综 述 , pp. 555-556. Also see Huang Jan-wei 黃 然 偉 ， "Yin wang t/ien lieh k'ao (chung广 救 王 田 躐 考 （中） • 28. See Teilhard de Chardin and C. C. Young, "On the Mammalian Remains from the Archaeological Site of A ny an g /' 38. 29. Ch’en Meng-chia 陳夢家 ，Km Bun客sAti 股 樓 卜 鮮 綜 述 ，p. 5. 30. Shih Chang-ju 石 蟑 如 ，"Ho-nan An-yang Hsiao»t'un Yin mu chung ti tung-w u yi-hsieh”河 南 安 知 小 也 殷 ▲ 中 的 動 物 遺 做 • 31. "W u Ting shih wu chung chi shih k ’o tz'u k'ao” 武丁 時五種記本刻 辭 考 ，51. 32. "Yin tai p 'u kuei chih lai-yüan” 殷 代 卜 象 之 未 揀 ，5-6. 33. Wang Kuo-wei 王 國 維 ， "Yin p 'u -tz’u chung so chien hsien kung hsien wang k 'a o " 救 卜 辭 中 所 見 先 公 先 王 考 .

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h a n d s o f th e Yu Yi Shih, a n o rth e rn trib e , p ro b a b ly as a re s u lt o f a d isp u te o v e r g razin g g ro u n d s .34

3. N A T U R A L A N D C U L T I V A T E D P L A N T S E x cep t fo r tw o pieces o f w o o d , 35 no b o tan ical sam ples h av e b een su b je cte d to scientific analysis, a n d o u r k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e p la n t reso u rce s av ailab le to th e S hang in A n -y a n g is to ta lly d e riv e d from th e oracle b o n e in sc rip tio n s, su p p le m e n te d b y te x tu a l d a ta on a n c ie n t p la n ts in g en eral. A t th e p re s e n t tim e th e area o f A n -y a n g — an d , in fact, m ost o f e a ste rn N o rth C hina— is in th e n a tu ra l v e g e ta tio n zone ch a ra c te riz e d b y d e c id u o u s b ro a d -le a v e d fo rests p re d o m in a te d b y d e c id u o u s o a k s .36 H ow ­ ev er, in S hang tim es, g iv e n an a n n u a l te m p e ra tu re 2 - 4 ° C h ig h e r th a n th e p re se n t, th e A n -y a n g area w o u ld easily m ove in to th e zo n e o f m ix ed m eso p y tic fo re sts o f th e Y angtze v a lle y .37 S ignificantly, th e tw o pieces o f S hang w o o d th a t h a v e b een id e n tifie d are R e h d e ro d e n d ro n sp. an d M e llio d e n d ro n sp ., b o th m em b ers o f th e m ixed m e so p h y tic fo re st n o w g ro w in g in th e u p p e r Y angtze v a lle y .38 B ut w e m u st aw a it m an y a d d i­ tio n a l b o ta n ica l stu d ie s o f th e archaeological rem ain s in th e A n -y a n g area b efo re w e are in a firm p o sitio n to fu rth e r ch a ra cte rize th e n a tiv e p la n t assem blage d u rin g th e S hang p erio d in A n -y an g . T h e m ost d ire c t refe re n c e to p la n ts in th e A n -y a n g area is fo u n d in th e S h ih ch in g , th e B o o k o f S o n g s. H o P in g -ti g a th e re d to g e th e r all b o ta n ica l n am es in th e S h ih c h in g an d co n c lu d e d from a s tu d y o f th e m th a t th e y sh o w th a t " th e a n c ie n t loess area in d e e d h a d th e n a tu ra l la n d sca p e o f sem i-arid s te p p e s / ' 39 T h e p rim a ry ev id e n c e fo r th is co n ­ clu sio n w as th e in c id en c e o f referen ce s to A r te m is ia in th e S h ih ch in g : " T h e single g e n u s o f A r te m is ia , w ith te n v a rie ta l nam es, leads all th e p la n ts re c o rd e d in th is a n c ie n t w o rk , arb o re a l a n d n o n a rb o re a l, b y a 34. Ku Chieh-kang 顧 箱 剛 广 Chou Yi kua yao tz'u chung ti k u -sh ih " 周 易 补 爻辭中的故事•

35. Ho T'ien-hsiang 何 天 相 广 Chung-kuo chih ku mu (2广 中 國 之 古 木 ( 二 ）， 274- 275, 280-281. 36. C. W. Wang, The Forests o f China, pp. 10-11. 37. According to Wang, Ibid., p. 71 the mean annual temperature (MAT) in K’ai-feng, Honan, just south of An-yang, is jl4.4° C. Add 2 -4 0 to it and we wili have an MAT of 16.4-18.4° C. The lower end corresponds to the present MAT of Hang-chou (p. 97) and the upper end would bring our area to the temperature range of southern Chekiang and northern Fukien (p. 131). 38. Wang, op. cit., p. 226. 39. Hua 叹 ntm客-y A ri 黃土與中國農黹 的起源， p. 85.

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w id e m a r g in .. . . .[this] is an u n m is ta k a b le in d ic a tio n th a t th e loess area w as a sem i-arid s te p p e / ' 40 H o 's h e a v y re lia n c e o n A r te m is ia in S h ih c h in g to ''p r o v e '' th a t a n c ie n t N o rth C hina w as " s e m i-a rid ^ h as b e e n c ritic iz e d b y b o th P e a rso n 41 a n d W illiam T in g ;42 T in g p o in te d o u t th a t re fe re n c e s to A r t e m is ia — or, fo r th a t m ater, to a n y p la n t 一 are m o re u se fu l fo r d e te r­ m in in g m icro clim ates a n d soil th a n fo r g e n e ra liz in g a b o u t zo n a l clim atic c o n d itio n s. O ne can f u rth e r p o in t o u t th a t in W e s te rn C hou N o rth C hina (a tim e p e rio d a n d area c o v e re d b y th e S h ih ch in g ) clim atic c o n d itio n s p re su m a b ly v a rie d fro m re g io n to reg io n , a n d th a t fo r th is re a so n th e p o em s in th is w o rk sh o u ld firs t be an a ly z e d o n a re g io n a l basis. A fte r th e C hou c o n q u e s t o f C hou, th e S h an g ca p ita l, as m e n tio n e d b efo re, w as d iv id e d in to th re e s ta te le ts : Pei, Y ung, a n d W ei (H a n s h u T i4 i-c h ih ). In th e S h ih c h in g are n in e te e n o d es c o llec ted fro m Pei, te n fro m Y ung, a n d te n fro m W ei. W h a te v e r th e tr u e sig n ific an c e o f A r te m is ia fo r th e d e te rm in a tio n o f clim ate, o n ly a sin g le re fe re n c e to it is fo u n d in th e th irty -n ijie o d es fro m th e A n -y a n g area. T h e la n d sc a p e th a t em erg es fro m th e se o d es is o n e w ith tre e s, fo re sts, b am b o o g ro v es, a n d lo ts o f w a te r :43 L ook a t th a t little b a y o f th e C h’i, Its g re e n b am b o o so d e lic a te ly w a v in g . T h e C h’i sp re a d s its w av e s ; O ars o f ju n ip e r, b o a t o f p in e -w o o d .

\C W ia o , W e i f eng]

[C hu k a n , W e i fe n g ]

W h e re th e w a te r o f th e riv e r, d e e p a n d w id e. F low s n o rth w a rd in stro n g co u rse. In th e fis h -n e t's sw ish a n d sw irl S tu rg e n , sn o u t-fish le ap a n d lash . [ S h u o je n , W e i fe n g ] H ere w e sto p , h e re w e sta y . H ere w e lose h o rse s A n d h e re fin d th e m ag ain D o w n am o n g th e w o o d s. [Chi k u , P ei fe n g ] T h e la n d sc a p e th e se lin es (in c id e n ta lly ) d e p ic t is s u re ly n o ^semi^-arid s te p p e '' ! U n fo rtu n a te ly , S h ih c h in g h as co llec ted n o fo lk so ngs 40. The C radle o f the E ast, p. 33. 41. Pearson, "Pollen Count in North China.” 42. William Ting (Ting Su), "Chung-kuo ti-li min-tsu wen-wu yü ch'uanshuo shih " 中 國 地 理 民 族 文 物 與 傳 説 史 ，版 43. Translation by A rthur Waley, The Book o f Songs. For the second line in Ch'i ao, Waley used the word ^kitesfoot" (A kind of reed-like grass) to translate the original, lii chu, green bamboo. Here the original wording is restored.

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su c h as th e se fro m th e S hang p eo p le w h o liv e d in th is area ju s t c e n tu rie s b efo re th e se lines w e re w ritte n . In th e oracle b o n e in sc rip tio n s, th e re are n o la n d sc a p e -d e p ic tin g lines, a lth o u g h m a n y c h a ra c te rs h a v e w o o d a n d g rass c o m p o u n d s th a t p o ssib ly p ro v id e som e d a ta fo r stu d y . P re­ su m a b ly th e se w e re am ong th e c h a ra c te rs th a t th e S hang u se d to d esig n ate th e p la n ts fro m w h ic h th e y d e riv e d food, tim b e r, fib er, a n d m a n y m aterials fo r v a rio u s crafts. Li H sia o -tin g 's C h ia -k u w e n - tz u c h i-s h ih [é4C o llected I n te r p r e ta ­ tio n s o f O racle B o n e C h a ra c te r s,r)AA has co llected 48 c h a ra c te rs w ith th e mw 木 (w ood, tree) c o m p o u n d , in c lu d in g th o se id e n tifie d w ith th e fo llo w in g tre e s : a p ric o t, w illo w , m e d lar (L y s iu m c h in e n sis) a n d cy p ress. T h e sam e b o o k in c lu d e s 25 c h a ra c te rs w ith th e ho (cereal) c o m p o u n d .4454 O f th e se (an d a few c h a ra c te rs o th e rw ise classified a c co rd in g to th e S h u o w e n co m p o u n d s), Yii H sin g -w u sin g led o u t th e fo llo w in g sev en as o f p a rtic u la r sig n ifican ce: s/zw (黍 )，c/zi (稷 ) ( 稿 )， m ai (麥 )， Zczi (萊 )， ni a n d ho ( ^ l ).46 Since am ong th e se w e re th e S h an g 's m ajor crops, each d e se rv e s som e d e ta ile d e x p la n a tio n a n d d iscu ssio n . SHU乎

T h e w o rd s h u a p p e a rs in o racle b o n e re c o rd s m u c h m ore fre q u e n tly th a n a n y o th e r cereal : oracle b o n e specialists are ag reed th a t th is w as th e S h a n g ’s le ad in g g ra in , 47 a n d m ost sch o lars o f a n c ie n t C hinese a g ric u ltu re are ag reed , too, th a t sh u re fe rre d to p an ic m illet (P a n ic u m m ilia c e u m ).48 S hang arch aeo lo g y h as n o t y e t y ie ld e d rem ain s o f p an ic m illet (or a n y o th e r m illet) to co n firm th is, b u t in N eo lith ic arch aeo lo g y th e re is o n ly a single o c c u rre n c e o f th is m illet, a n d th e c irc u m sta n ces o f its o c c u rre n c e w e re u n c le a r 49, a n d all o th e r m illet fin d s h a v e b een id e n ­ tifie d as th e fo x ta il m illet (S e ta r ia ita lic a ). T h is situ a tio n co u ld h a v e b een th e re s u lt o f a m ajor ch a n g e o f p re fe rre d cereals fro m th e N eo lith ic to th e S hang, o r it co u ld be an in d ic a tio n o f in a d e q u a te arch aeo lo g y .

44. Li Hsiao-ting 李 孝 定 ， CAûz fcu

c/mÜA 甲 骨 文 字 集 释 ，pp. 1937-

2047. 45. Ib id .t pp. 2349-2420. 46. Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 吾 ，• "Shang tai ti ku lei tso-w u ' 商 代 的 教 類 作 物 . 47. Chang Ping-ch’üan 張 采 權 ， "Yin tai ti nung-yeh yü ch 'i-h sian g " 股代 的 展 黹 與 氣 象 ，3〇3- 3〇4 ; Yü Hsing-wu ，你 (.’•， 88. 48. Yü Ching-jang 于 景 讓 广 Shu chi su liangyü kao»liang” 黍 猨 粟 粱 與 高 粱 ； Te-tz'u Chang, ''T he Origin and Early Cultures of the Cereal Grains and Food Legumes/' 2. But Edward Schafer considers shu a glutinous variety of this millet; see his "T 'a n g /' in K. C. Chang, ed.. Food in Chinese Culture, p. 88. 49. Carl W. Bishop, "The Neolithic Age in Northern C hina/' p. 395.

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B oth fo x ta il m illet a n d p an ic m illet are th o u g h t b y m a n y to h a v e b e e n d o m e stic a te d in N o rth C h in a , 50 b u t J a c k H a rla n h as p o in te d o u t th a t " b o th are fo u n d in a s p rin k lin g o f N eo lith ic v illag e sites o v e r E u ro p e th r o u g h th e s ix th m ille n n iu m b.p. . . . P a n ic u m h as also b e e n re p o rte d fro m J e m d e t N asr, M eso p o tam ia, a t 5,000 b.p. a n d p o ssib ly A rgissa, G reece, a b o u t 7,500 b .c . " 51 H e sp e c u la te d th a t b o th m illets m ay h a v e b e e n in d e p e n d e n tly d o m e stic a te d in se v e ra l p a rts o f E u rasia. B ut in a n y e v e n t th e re is n o q u e s tio n , as o f n o w , th a t s h u w as a n a tiv e N o rth e rn C h inese c u ltig e n a n d a m ajo r S h an g sta p le. chi

ï

T h e oracle b o n e c h a ra c te r th a t Yü H sin g -w u in te rp re ts as ch i, w h ic h is a co m m o n c h a ra c te r fo r a n a n c ie n t g ra in in th e classical te x ts , is v a rio u sly in te rp re te d as o th e r c ro p s b y o th e r sc h o la rs , 52 a n d as a v e rsio n o f th e c h a ra c te r s h u b y Li H sia o -tin g in h is S h an g d ic tio n a ry .53 Since n o o th e r c h a ra c te r in th e S h an g in s c rip tio n s is c o n v in c in g ly s h o w n to b e c h i,54 a n d sin c e ch i w as a m ajo r g ra in , Y ü 's in te rp re ta tio n is th u s h ig h ly a p p e a lin g q u ite asid e fro m its e ty m o lo g ic al a n d e p ig ra p h ic a l m erits. B u t th e b o ta n ic a l id e n tity o f ch i is h ig h ly c o n tro v e rsia l. H a lf o f th e sc h o lars id e n tify it as P a n ic u m m ilia c e u m (g lu tin o u s o r n o n -g ltitin o u s) a n d th e o th e r h a lf as S e ta r ia ita lic a ; " th e n o m e n c la tu ra l co n fu sio n s s u rro u n d in g th e tw o m illets m ay n e v e r b e re so lv e d b y av a ila b le e v id e n c e a n d r e c o rd s / ' 55 B ut P a n ic u m a n d S e ta r ia h a v e b o th b e e n id e n tifie d arch a eo lo g ically . Yü H sin g -w u id e n tifie d th e c h a ra c te rs s h u a n d ch i in o racle b o n e in s c rip tio n s (w ith s h u o c c u rrin g m o re th a n a h u n d re d tim es a n d ch i 4 0 tim es); a n d b o th s h u a n d ch i a p p e a r f re q u e n tly in th e S h ih c h in g [shu o c c u rrin g 19 tim es, c h i 18 tim es, in 12 o c c u rre n c e s a p p e a rin g to g e th e r ) .5657T h ese p arallelism s lead o n e to g e n e ra l a g re e m e n t w ith th e co n c lu sio n th a t ch i w as m o st lik e ly S e ta r ia ita lic a , w ith s h u b ein g co m m o n ly a g re e d to b e P a n ic u m m ilia c e u m .51 D u rin g th e S h an g p e rio d . 50. Ho, The C radle o f the E a st ; Te-tz'u Chang, "The Origin and Early Cultures of the Cereal Grains and Food Legumes.” 51. "The Origins of Cereal Agriculture in the Old W orld,” 379-380. 52. Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 香 ，"Shang tai ti ku lei tso-w u” 商 代 的 教 類 作 物 ， 92. 53_ Li Hsiao*ting 李 孝 定 ，CAia fcu cAi sAi/z f 膏 文 字 ¥ 释 ，p. 2387. 54. Ib id ., p. 2351. 55. Te-tz’u Chang, "The Origin and Early Cultures of the Cereal Grains and Food Legum es,’ 28. 56. Ch'i Ssu-ho 齊 思 和 ， "Mao Shih ku ming k 'a o " 毛 詩 敘 名 考 ，268. 57. Tsou Shu-wen 你 樹 文 广 Shih-ching shu chi pien’’ “ 經 黍 稷 辨 .

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chi, a lth o u g h it a p p e a rs in th e o racle re c o rd s less fre q u e n tly , w as in fact u sed m ore o fte n th a n s h u fo r an c e stra l ritu a ls .58 tao

g

T h e c h a ra c te r d e p ic tin g g rain s in a ja r is co m m o n ly in te rp re te d as ta o ,59 th e w o rd fo r rice, a lth o u g h Yü H sin g -w u re g a rd s it as so y b e a n 60 a n d C h 'e n M en g -ch ia th in k s it w as a v a rie ty o f m ille t .61 A cc o rd in g to C hang P in g -c h ’ü an , rice w as o f co m p arab le im p o rta n c e w ith m illet in th e S hang oracles, since d iv in a tio n s a b o u t rice h a rv e s ts o fte n to o k place to g e th e r w ith d iv in a tio n s a b o u t m illet h a rv e s ts .62 Rice (O r y z a s a tiv a ) rem ain s h a v e b een fo u n d in H o n an fro m a N eo lith ic c o n te x t , 63 a n d it is w id e ly c u ltiv a te d to d a y in N o rth C hina w ith im p ro v e d irrig a tio n . G iv en th e N o rth C hina clim ate d u rin g th e S hang p e rio d th a t w as c h a ra c te riz e d earlier, th e re sh o u ld h a v e b een no e n v iro n m e n ta l b a rrie r to rice b ein g p la n te d in th e S hang fields in th e A n -y a n g area a n d e lsew h ere w itîiin th e S hang te rrito ry . Rice w as p ro b a b ly firs t d o m e stic ate d in S o u th C hina o r th e re a b o u t , 64 b u t its in tro d u c tio n in to N o rth C hina u n d o u b te d ly to o k p lace lo n g b efo re th e Shang. MAI ^

W h e a t w as u sed fo r ritu als,, b u t oracle b o n e in sc rip tio n s c o n tain n o c e rta in referen ce s to w h e a t h a rv e s ts (su ch as th o se to m illet a n d rice h arv ests). A lm ost c e rta in ly an in tro d u c tio n from W e ste rn A sia , 65 w h e a t— also called /ai, " th e o n e th a t cam e, 〃 in oracle re c o rd s — w as u n lik e ly an im p o rta n t c ro p in S hang fields. In o racle re c o rd s th e w o rd m a i is o fte n p re c e d e d b y th e w o rd k a o o r " to tell a b o u t," " to in fo rm 58. Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 吾 ， "Shang tai ti ku lei tso»wu” 商 代 的 教 類 作 物 ，93; Chang Ping>ch'üan 張 采 攉 ， "Yin tai ti nüng-yeh yü ch’i-hsiang” 殷 代 的 農 索 與 氣 象 ， 303. 59. Li Hsiao«ting 李 孝 定 ， fcu cAi f 青 文 字 集 釋 ，pp. 2355- 2358; Chang Ping-ch'üan 張 采 攉 ， "Yin tai ti nung-yeh yü ch'i-hsiang” 殷 代 “ 展 業 與 氣 象 ，3〇4- 3〇6. 60. Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 吾 ， "Shang tai ti ku lei tso»wu” 商 代 的 榖 類 作 物 ，95. 61. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， Asä p V t 'u sAu 肷 坡 卜 齡 综 述 ， p. 257. 62. Chang P ing< h，üan 張 采 權 ，叩 • cir, 305- 306. 63. G. Edman and E. Söderberg, "Auffindung von Reis in einer Tonscherte ais einer etwa fünftausendjährigen Chinesischen Siedlung"; J. G. Andersson, "Pre­ historic Sites in H onan/# 64. Te-tz’u Chang, "The Origin, Evolution, Cultivation, Dissemination, and Diversification of Asian and African Rices/' 65. Jack Harlan, "The Origins of Cereal Agriculture in the Old W orld.’’

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a b o u t •〃 Yü H s in g -w u 's in te rp re ta tio n w a s: " T h e S h an g k in g ’s b o rd e r officials k e p t close w a tc h o v e r th e m a i h a rv e s t o f n e ig h b o rin g trib e s a n d se n t in te llig e n c e re p o rts to th e S h an g k in g . T h e k in g e n g a g ed in ra id s o n th e b asis o f s u c h in te llig e n c e / ' 66 N I杉

T h e w o rd n i, in te rp re te d as w ild rice, o c c u rs in o racle re c o rd s o n ly o n c e , 67 b u t its m e a n in g is u n e q u iv o c a l. T h e fa c t th a t w ild rice w as " h a r v e s te d ” n e a r (p o ssib ly w e s t o f ) A n -y a n g is h ig h ly sig n ific a n t in th e h is to ry o f rice d o m e stic a tio n in C h in a .68 T h e re are c h a ra c te rs o f a n d re fe re n c e s to o th e r c e re a ls , 69 b u t as y e t th e y are o f less im p o rta n c e a n d th e ir b o ta n ic a l id e n titie s are as y e t u n c le a r. O ne su sp e c ts th a t am o n g th e m a n y fo o d , fib e r, a n d o th e r econom ic p la n ts a n d v e g e ta b le s th a t are k n o w n to h a v e b e e n p la n te d in N o rth C hina sin ce a n tiq u ity 70 m o st c o u ld b e tra c e d b a c k to th e S h an g p e rio d . T h e o n e p la n t th a t is w ell d o c u m e n te d , h o w e v e r, is th e m u lb e rry , th e a ll-im p o rta n t food tre e fo r th e silk w o rm . O racle re c o rd s c o n ta in e d th e c h a ra c te rs fo r m u lb e rry , silk w o rm , a n d silk, a n d arch aeo lo g ical rem a in s fro m A n -y a n g in c lu d e silk -im p re ssio n s o n b ro n z e s a n d o n w o o d , th e silk w o rm m o tif in b ro n z e a rt, a n d ja d e s c u lp tu re s o f th e s ilk w o rm .71

4. R O C K S A N D C L A Y S O f th e 444 sto n e im p le m e n ts a n d w e a p o n s fro m Y in h s ü th a t h a v e b e e n s tu d ie d b y p e tro lo g ists, 405, o r a b o u t 91 p e rc e n t, w e re m ad e o f e ig h t ro c k s : slate (273, o r 61.49 p e rc e n t), d ia b a se (37, o r 8.33 p e rc e n t), lim esto n e (16, o r 3.6 p e rc e n t), q u a rtz ite (also 16), p h y lite (14, o r 3.15 66. Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 吾 ，"Shang tai ti ku lei tso-w u” 商 代 的 敘 類 作 物 ，97_ Yü, however, interprets m ai as barley, and regards another word, lai, to be wheat. Most other scholars regard m ai and lai to be the same cereal, wheat. 67. Chang Ping-ch’üan 張 采 權 ， "Yin tai ti nung-yeh yü c h 'i-h sia n g " 啟 代 的 農 業 與 氣 象 ，308. 68. See Ho Ping-ti 何 蜗 棣 ，Huan客 ri 黃 土 與 中 國 農 業 的 起 源 ，pp. 140- 160. 69. See Chang Ping-ch'üan 張 采 權 ，op. ch. ，308-309. 70. Ch'i Ssu-ho 齊 思 和 , ’Mao Shih ( u ming k'ao’’ 毛 詩 教 名 考 ; Li Hui-lin, "The Origin of Cultivated Plants in Southeast Asia", and "The Vegetables of Ancient China.” 71. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，"Yin tai ti ts'an sang ho ssu-chih” 股 代 的 J t 条 和 絲 織 ；Wan Chia-pao 萬 家 保 ， "T s'ung Hsi-yin ts'u n ti ts'an-chien t ’an tao Chung-kuo tsao^ch'i tis su -c h ih k u n g -y e h " 從 西 陰 村 的 蠶 繭 談 到 中 國 早 期 的 絲 織 工 業 ；V. Sylvan, "Silk from the Yin Dynasty.”

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p erce n t), sa n d sto n e (11, o r 2.48 p erce n t), a n d ja d e (7, o r 1.58 p ercen t). T h e so u rces o f th e se ro c k s h av e n o t b ee n scien tifically d ete rm in e d , a lth o u g h Li Chi has sta te d th a t "g e n e ra lly sp eak in g , som e o f th e com ­ m o n ly u se d ro ck s, su c h as slate, lim estone, a n d d iabase, w e re p ro b a b ly p ro d u c e d in th e n e ig h b o rh o o d o f A n -y a n g / ’ 72 W e w ill leav e th e q u e stio n o f ja d e to th e last sectio n o f th e c h a p te r. O b v io u sly d iffe re n t ro c k s w e re selected fo r d iffe re n t artifacts. D iabase an d lim esto n e w e re m ost o ften u se d fo r axes a n d ad z es; th e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity o f h a rv e s tin g k n iv e s (95.88 p e rc e n t o r 243 pieces) w as o f slate ; a n d m ost o f th e w ea p o n s w e re m ade o f slate a n d ja d e .73 On th e o th e r h a n d , th e k o h a lb e rd s fo u n d in to m b s w e re m ade o f m arble, ch alced o n y , a n d ja d e , w h e re a s th o se fo u n d in p it h o u se s w e re m ade o f lim esto n e, q u a rtz ite , o n y x , opal, ch a lce d o n y , a n d a fine, com pact, silicified r o c k .74 Scientific an aly sis o f th e ceram ics in S h an g 's A n -y a n g has b een b a re ly s ta rte d , b u t th e re su lts u n m is ta k a b ly p o in t to v e ry carefu l selectio n o f clays fo r each w a re a n d th e p o ssib ility th a t all o f th e m w ere n o t sim p ly locally availab le m ix tu re s. Li Chi d istin g u ish e s th e p o tte ry fro m A n -y a n g in to fiv e m ajor w a re s: w h ite , black, g ray , h a rd a n d /o r glazed, an d p a in te d . T h e p a in te d a n d th e b lack w ares b elo n g ed to th e p re h isto ric c u ltu ra l stra ta in A n -y a n g , q u ite u n re la te d to th e S hang, b u t a co m p ariso n o f th e ir chem ical co m p o sitio n s w ith an aly sis o f sim ilar p o tte ry e lsew h ere su g g ested to Li Chi th a t th e p a in te d p o tte ry w as p ro b a b ly lo cally m ade o f local clays, b u t th a t th e b lack p o tte ry w as th e p ro d u c t o f m u c h m ore d isc rim in a tin g selectio n o f clays. T h e S hang p o tte ry , as re p re s e n te d b y th e g ray , w h ite , a n d glazed w ares o f H siaot'u n , re p re s e n ts a fu rth e r a d v a n c e m e n t, ac co rd in g to Li C hi: " T h e y in d ic a te v e ry h ig h skills o f clay selectio n a n d m i x t u r e .. . . T he ra w m aterial fo r p o tte ry m ak in g o f th e P a in te d P o tte ry p e rio d w as d e riv e d fro m locally av ailab le sources. T his c o n d itio n h a d b een alte re d b y th e Y in—S h an g p e rio d , ' 75 T h e glazed p o tte ry o f A n^yang d ese rv e s closer a tte n tio n . Sim ilar p o tte ry fro m C h en g -ch o u a n d fro m C h a n g -c h ia-p 'o h as b een re g a rd e d as im p o rte d from S o u th C hina, p o ssib ly fro m th e lo w e r Y angtze d e lta .76 72. Li Chi 李 濟 ，"Yin hsü yu jen shih-ch’i t ’u s h u o " 殷 虛 有 豕 石 器 明 説 ， 524-525. 73. Ibid., 525. 74. Ibid., 534-535. 75. Li Chi 李 濟 ，"Hsiao-t’un t ’ao ch’i chih-liao chih hua-hsüeh fen-hsi〃 小 也 W器 質 料 之 化 學 分 析 . 76. Chou Jen 扃 仁 ，Li Chia-chih 丰 家 治 ，Cheng Yüng-fu 鄭 永 圃 ，"Changchia-p’o Hsi Chou chü-chu yi-chih t ’ao*tz’u sui-p'ien ti yen-chiu’’ 張 家 坡 西 用 居 住 遺 址 碎片的研 究.

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T h e A n -y a n g g lazed w a re is so m e w h a t d is tin c tiv e , a n d w h e th e r o r n o t it w as m ad e lo cally c a n n o t y e t b e d e te rm in e d .

5. C O P P E R A N D T I N B ro n ze m a k in g w as a m ajo r in d u s try d u rin g th e S h an g p e rio d — m ajor in th e sense, am o n g o th e rs, o f th e q u a n tity o f o res th a t w e re sm elted to m eet th e d e m a n d . A s m e n tio n e d in th e last c h a p te r, th e F u H ao to m b e x c a v a te d in 1976 sh o w s th a t th is sin g le a t m o st se c o n d -ra n k in g m e m b er o f th e ro y a l fam ily w as ab le to ac c u m u la te , in life a n d in d e a th , m o re th a n 4 0 0 o b je c ts o f b ro n z e . T h ese in c lu d e d m o re th a n 200 ritu a l vessels, th e la rg e st b e in g a p a ir o f s q u a re c a u ld ro n s, w e ig h in g 117.5 k ilo g ram s o r 258.5 p o u n d s e a c h .77 W h e re d id th e y o b ta in th e ir c o p p e r a n d tin o re s? T h e re w as a tim e w h e n m a n y sc h o la rs lo o k e d to th e s o u th as th e so u rce o f b o th c o p p e r ajid tin fo r th e S h a n g , 78 sin ce N o rth C hina h as b e e n re g a rd e d as b e in g re la tiv e ly p o o r in c o p p e r a n d tin d e p o sits, w h e re a s S o u th C hina is k n o w n to be ric h . B ut b o th A m an o 79 a n d S h ih 80 h a v e a rg u e d , q u ite re a s o n a b ly , th a t th e S h an g c o u ld h a v e q u a rrie d in larg e o r sm all m in es th a t h a v e b e e n e x h a u s te d o f o res a n d , th e re fo re , th a t th a t h isto ric a l re c o rd s o f a n c ie n t m in es in N o rth C hina m u st b e c o n s u lte d to see if s u c h m in es w e re av a ila b le. A m ano d isc o v e re d th a t b o th c o p p e r a n d tin w e re a m p ly av a ila b le in th e fo u r p ro v in c e s o f N o rth C h in a: 6 c o p p e r m in es a n d 6 tin m in es in H o n an , 2 c o p p e r a n d 2 tin in S h a n tu n g , 15 c o p p e r a n d 6 tin in S hansi, a n d 4 c o p p e r a n d 1 tin in H opei. S h ih id e n tifie d 3 c o p p e r m in es a n d 4 tin m in es w ith in 100 k ilo m e te rs o f A n ­ y an g , 6 c o p p e r a n d 3 tin w ith in 200 k ilo m e te rs, 11 c o p p e r a n d 4 tin w ith in 300 k ilo m ete rs, a n d 6 c o p p e r a n d 6 tin w ith in 400 k ilo m e te rs (fig. 41), S h ih c o n c lu d e d : It w as p o ssib le to tr a n s p o r t [copper] fro m lo c atio n s w ith in 400 k ilo m e te rs [of th e capital], e sp e c ia lly th o se b e tw e e n w h ic h th e re w as f re q u e n t in te ra c tio n , r e q u irin g fro m h a lf a 77. "An-yang Yin hsü wu-hao mu ti fa-chüeh” 安降殷壤五號1墓 的 發 掘 ，63. 78. Kuo Mo-jo 郭沫若， c/z’i s/ziA•如 青 銅 器 時 代 ； Chien Po-tsan 苜 伯赞 ，"Chung-kuo $hih kang” 中 國 史 輞 ，vol. 1; Umehara Sueji 掩 原 末 治 ，r5û 尺 rcm/:â 東亚 考古学 論考； Sekino Takeshi 間野 雄， "Chügoku seidöki bunka no ichi seikaku” 中 国 青 銅 器 文 化 a K ing W u T in g p e rio d o racle re c o rd sp o k e o f a n e x p e d itio n to th e C h 'ia n g te rrito ry , in v o lv in g a lü a rm y te n th o u s a n d stro n g p lu s th re e th o u s a n d m e m b ers o f th e ts u o f th e k in g 's c o n so rt, F u H a o . 114 If f u rth e r h e lp w as n e e d e d , 110. Translated in Waltham, Shu Ching, p. 68. 111. Ib id ., p . 89. 112. Chin Hsiang-heng 金 祥 值 ，"Ts'ung chia-ku p'u-tz'u yen-chiu Yin Shang chün-lü chung chih wang tsu san hang san shih’’ 從 甲 膏 卜 辭 研 究 放 商 軍 旅 中 之 王 族 三行三

113. Ch'en Meng-chia 眛 夢 家 ，Kn Asä p V t ’u

p. 277. 114. Ib id ., p. 276.

客 5/m 殷 壚 卜 辭 絲 述 ，

J

196

he

Shang Society from An -yang

s o ld ie r s a n d u n it s w e r e to b e c o n t r ib u t e d b y t h e v a r io u s w a lle d t o w n s r u le d b y th e ts u m e m b e r s o f v a r io u s c la n s in v a r io u s p a r ts o f t h e s t a t e .115 In fa c t, th e tsu m e m b e r s o f F u H a o w h o p a r t ic ip a t e d in t h e a b o v e c a m ­ p a ig n w e r e in a ll lik e lih o o d r e s id e n t s o f h e r o w n w a lle d t o w n o u t s id e th e c a p ita l. B u t le t u s f o c u s n o w

upon

t h e p r o f e s s io n a l m ilita r y o n ly .

F irst, in th e o r a c le r e c o r d s th e r e a re v a r io u s t it le s t h a t s e e m t o r e fe r to m ilita r y o ffic ia ls : C h 'en M e n g - c h ia h a s lis t e d t h e f o ll o w i n g : m a 馬 (" h o r s e a tte n d a n t " ? ) , y a SL (a m ilita r y t it le o f c o n s id e r a b le im p o r ta n c e ), 知 菔 （ " a r c h e r y c o m m a n d a n t" ? ), s/ze 射 （ " a r c h e r y c o m m a n d a n t" 衛

and

（ " g a r r is o n c o m m a n d a n t" ? ), c W a n 犬 （ " d o g a t t e n d a n t "

a n d /zsä 戍 （ " fr o n tie r c o m m a n d a n t " ? ) .116 T h e ir f u n c t io n s a n d d u t ie s are n o t at a ll c le a r ; h o w e v e r , t h e s e t it le s c le a r ly in d ic a t e th a t t h e S h a n g a r m y w a s o f c o n s id e r a b le s c a le a n d c o m p le x it y . B u t a r m ie s w e r e a ls o c o m m a n d e d b y t h e k in g , b y h is c o n s o r t s , b y h is p r in c e s , a n d b y t h e " c iv ilia n ^ le a d e r s o f tsu . A c c o r d in g to t h e o r a c le r e c o r d s , S h a n g f o o t - s o ld ie r s a n d a r c h e r s s e e m to h a v e b e e n o r g a n iz e d in t o c o m p a n ie s o f o n e h u n d r e d s o ld ie r s e a c h , w it h t h r e e c o m p a n ie s fo r m in g a r e g im e n t , a r r a n g e d as th e le ft, m id d le , a n d r ig h t c o m p a n ie s .117 S u c h fo r m a t io n s h a v e n o t b e e n a r c h a e o lo g ic a lly s u b s t a n t ia t e d , b u t a s e r ie s o f s a c r ific ia l b u r ia ls th a t a p p a r e n tly a c c o m p a n y h o u s e f lo o r y i- 7 a t H s ia o - t 'u n h a s s u g g e s t e d to S h ih C h a n g -ju th a t t h e S h a n g c h a r io te e r s w e r e o r g a n iz e d a s f o l l o w s : 118 1. F iv e c h a r io ts fo r m e d a s q u a d r o n , a n d f i v e s q u a d r o n s fo r m e d a com pany. 2. E a ch c h a r io t h a d t h r e e c h a r io te e r s : t h e m id d le o n e w a s d r iv e r , c a r r y in g a w h i p ; t h e o n e o n t h e le f t w a s s tr ik e r , c a r r y in g a fco -h a lb erd ; t h e o n e o n t h e r ig h t w a s a r c h e r , c a r r y in g b o w a n d a r r o w s . M o s t o f th e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s o f w e a p o n s h a v e b e e n f o u n d in t h e c h a r io t b u r ia ls , a lt h o u g h s o m e h u m a n a n d a n im a l b u r ia ls h a v e a ls o y ie ld e d th e m . T h e f o ll o w i n g w e a p o n s s e e m t o h a v e fo r m e d a s e t : b o w .

115. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ， "Yin tai feng-chien chih-tu k’ao” 殷 代 封 建 剩 度 考 ，30-31.

116. Ch’en Meng-chia 陳夢家 ，Krz /wä p V t z ’u sAu 狄 埃 卜 辭 絲 述 ， pp. 508-517. 117. Ib id .f p. 513. 118. "Hsiao-t，un C-ch，ü ti mu-tsang ch ， ün” 小 也 C 區 的 基 葬 ;f ; "Yin hsü fa-chüeh tui-yü Chung-kuo ku-tai wen-hua ti kung-hsien 股 壚 發 掘 對 於 中 國 古 代 文 化 的 贡

獻 .

0 ________ 20 cm.

0

1

20 cm.

a

47. A set of Shang weapons (from Shih Chang-ju, "H siao-t'un Yin tai ti ch’eng t ’ao ping-ch’i’’).

_The Shang Society from An-yang

198 T able 2 cm)

D im ensions o f Five C hariots from Y in-hsü (all fig u res are in W heel

A x le

Body

Pole

Yoke

M 40, Hsiao-t'un

一

290

255

210

M 20 (1), Hsiao-t'un

—

290

265

170

M 20 (2), Hsiao-t'un

一

270

80-85 high 120 wide 88-94 high 115 wide 66- 74 high 115 wide 94 wide

220

140

280

—

74 high 129-133 wide

256

110

Ta-ssu-k'ung-ts’un Hsiao-min-t’un (1972)

146 (18 spokes) 133—144 (22 spokes)

300 306

arro w s, ito-halberd, shield, sm all k n ife, a n d sh a rp e n in g s to n e . 119 A cco rd in g to S hih C h an g -ju 's re c o n s tru c tio n b ased o n archaeological fin d s an d e p ig ra p h ica l in fo rm atio n , th e S hang b o w w as a stro n g com ­ posite (reflective) bow a b o u t e q u a l in le n g th to a m a n 's h eig h t, m ade o f cattle sinew s a n d h o rn s. T he S hang a r r o w w as m ade o f a h ead o f stone, bone, an tler, shell, o r b ro n ze a n d a w o o d e n sh a ft a b o u t h a lf th e b o w 's le n g th e q u ip p e d w ith feath ers. T he S hang fco-halberd 戈 co n sisted o f a b ro n ze b lade h a fte d o n to a w o o d en sh a ft a b o u t 1.1 m e ters long. S hang sh ie ld s w ere o f tw o k in d s : large o n es fo r c h a rio t u se (longer th a n th e /:o-halberd) an d sm all ones fo r fo o t so ld iers (sh o rte r th a n th e /co-halberd), b o th m ade o f a w o o d en fram e a n d le a th e r o r b a sk e t su rface p a in te d on th e o u tsid e w ith tig e r p a tte rn s. T he s m a ll k n ife o f b ro n ze w as a p p a re n tly a p erso n al w e a p o n w o rn in a sh eath . T h e sh a r p e n in g sto n e w as, o b v io u sly , th e c o u n te rp a rt o f th e m o d e rn so ld ie r's oil can (fig. 47). A n y d iscu ssio n o f th e S hang w e a p o n ry m u st n o t leave o u t th e ch ario t itself. R em ains o f sev en S hang ch a rio ts are availab le fo r d etailed stu d y an d re c o n s tru c tio n — th re e from H sia o -t'u n (tom bs M 20 a n d M 40) ex c av a ted before th e w a r ; 120 o n e fro m T a -s s u -k 'u n g -ts 'u n ex cav ated in 1 9 5 3 ;121 an d th re e ffo m H sia o -m in -t’u n e x c av a ted in 1 9 5 8 -5 9 122 an d 1973 (fig. 4 8 ).123 T he basic s tru c tu re s o f all o f th e m are sim ilar: th e c h a rio t co n sisted o f five m ajor p a rts : w heels, axle, b o d y m o u n ted on th e axle, pole, a n d yoke, a n d it w as p u lle d b y tw o h o rses (fig. 49). T he d im en sio n s o f th e five b est p re se rv e d ch a rio ts are g iv en in tab le 2 . 119. Shih Chang-ju 石 律 如 ，"Hsiao-t’un Yin tai ti ch’eng t’ao ping-ch’i’’ 小也殷代的成套兵器• 120. Shih Chang-ju 石 律 如 ，Pei七 叹 北 組 基 葬 . 121. Ma Te-chih 馬 得 志 ， Chou Yung-chen 周 永 珍 ， Chang Yün-p'eng 張 雲 嶙 • "Yi-chiu-wu-san nien An-yang Ta-ssu-k’ung-ts’un fa-chüeh pao-kao” 一 九 五 三 年 安 陽 大司 空村 發 掘 報告 .

The Shang Dynasty

and Its

Ruling Apparatus

199

48. Remains of a horse chariot found at Hsiao-min-t'un (after KK, "An-yang hsin fa-hsien ti Yin tai ch’e-ma k'eng”).

49. Ä reconstruction of the Shang chariot in M 20 (after Shih Chang-ju, Pei p. 28).

122. M ：, "1958-1959 nien Yin hsü fa»chüeh chien pao" 1958-1959 年 殷 墟 發 掘簡報•

123. d 車馬坑•

"An-yang hsin fa-hsien ti Yin tai ch'e-ma k'eng” 安 除 新 發 現 的 殺 代

-The Shang Society from An-yang

200

T h u s , t h e s e w e r e r o u g h ly t h e s a m e in s iz e , e x c e p t fo r M 2 0 (2), w h ic h w a s s o m e w h a t sm a lle r . T h e w h e e ls o f t h e H s ia o - t 'u n s a m p le s , d e ta c h a b le b y m e a n s o f lin c h p in s , h a d b e e n r e m o v e d b e f o r e b u r ia l, b u t th e o th e r t w o c h a r io ts p r o v id e d g o o d d a ta o n th e m . T h e b o d y , w it h o p e n in g s m o s t ly t o w a r d t h e rea r, w a s m a d e o f w o o d e n fr a m e a n d p o s s ib ly w ic k e r w o r k a n d le a th e r . T h e p o le w a s b e n t s o t h a t t h e rea r e n d w e n t u n d e r t h e c h a s s is b u t t h e fr o n t a l e n d w a s o f a p p r o p r ia te h e ig h t fo r th e h o r s e s . B o th c h a r io t a n d h o r s e s w e r e r ic h ly d e c o r a te d w it h b r o n z e a n d t u r q u o is e o r n a m e n ts , a n d t h e c h a r io t b o d y w a s p e r h a p s p a in te d w it h a n im a l d e s ig n s .

丨

6. L A W

L e o p o ld P o s p is il124 s e e s in lç g ^ l d ç ç isjp îii_ fç )\ir a t t r ib u t e s w h o s e c o e x is t e n c e d e f in e s la w : a u t h o r it y , in t e n t io n o f u n iv e r s a l a p p lic a t io n ,

o b lig a tio , a n d s a n c t io n . S h a n g d a ta o n l e g a T d e cisio n s a re s o ra re a s to b e n o n e x is t e n t , b u t e a c h o f t h e fo u r a t t r ib u t e s is m a n if e s t in a v a ila b le d a ta in s o m e fa s h io n . B u t fir s t le t u s c o n s id e r t h e p a r tie s in v o l v e d in s u c h d e c is io n s . A ll w e c a n s e e a re t h e k in g a n d t h e a u t h o r it y h e r e p r e s e n t e d , o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d h is s u b j e c t s , o n t h e o t h e r . H is s u b j e c t s w e r e t h o s e o f h is p e o p le a d d r e s s e d in t h e S h u c h in g d o c u m e n t s a n d t h o s e w h o b o d ily b o r e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f h is s a n c t io n s a p p a r e n t ly b e c a u s e t h e y fa ile d , o r w e r e r e g a r d e d a s h a v in g fa ile d , t h e ir p a r t o f t h e o b lig a tio . In T a n g sh ih , o f S h u ching , w e s e e t h e o b lig a tio a t t r ib u t e m o s t c le a r ly , w it h o b lig a tio d e f in e d a s /yt h a t p a r t o f t h e le g a l d e c is io n th a t d e f in e s th e r ig h t s o f t h e e n t it le d a n d t h e d u t ie s o f t h e o b lig a t e d p a r t ie s " .125 O n t h e k in g 's p a r t, h e d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e p e o p le " o b e y th e w o r d s I h a v e s p o k e n to y o u " ; o t h e r w is e h e " w i ll p u t y o u r c h ild r e n to d e a th w it h y o u " a n d " y o u w ill f in d n o f o r g i v e n e s s / ' B u t h e a ls o p r o m is e d , b y im p lic a t io n , th a t h e , T ’a n g , w o u l d n o t c o m m it t h e c r im e s h e w a s a c c u s in g t h e H sia k in g o f h a v in g c o m m it t e d : " [h e 】in e v e r y w a y e x h a u s ts t h e s t r e n g t h o f h is p e a p le a n d e x e r c is e s o p p r e s s io n in t h e c itie s ." T h e H sia k in g c o m m it t e d t h e s e c r im e s a n d m u s t b e p u n is h e d , a n d " h is p e o p le h a v e a ll b e c o m e id le a n d w i l l n o t a s s is t h im . T h e y a re s a y in g , 'W h e n w ilt t h o u , O s u n , e x p ir e ? W e w i l l a ll p e r is h w it h t h e e ! ’ ’’ T h u s, th e o b lig a tio e q u a t io n w a s m a d e u p o f p r o m is e o f b e n e v o le n t r u le o n th e p a r t o f t h e k in g a n d t h e e x p e c t a t io n o f o b e d ie n c e o n t h e p a rt o f h is s u b je c ts . W h e n t h e k in g , o r h is d e s c e n d a n t s , fa ile d to k e e p 124. T he E th n o lo g y o f L a w , 125. I b id .t p. 22.

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h is p a r t o f th e b a rg a in , h e w as fit to b e o v e r th r o w n 一 as h e w as a t th e e n d o f th e S h an g d y n a s ty — a t least fro m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f th e C hou. (But d o es o u r p re s e n t T a n g s h ih re p re s e n t a S h an g id e o lo g y o r a C hou id eo lo g y , as it is co m m o n ly re g a rd e d as a n E a ste rn C hou v e rsio n o f a n o ld e r d o c u m e n t ? W e c a n n o t p ro v e it e ith e r w a y , b u t th e k in g ’s o b lig a tio n to w a rd h is s u b o rd in a te lo rd s a t le a st m a y b e said to b e d o c u m e n te d in th e o racle re c o rd s a b o u t re p o rts o f alien in tru s io n o f b o rd e r reg io n s.) O b v io u sly th is re c ip ro c a l u n d e rs ta n d in g w as b y n o m ean s a fa ir o n e b e tw e e n p a rtie s o f e q u a l sta tu s. F or th e p u n is h m e n t o f a k in g o n e h a d to w a it fo r catacly sm ic e v e n ts s u c h as th e rise a n d fall o f d y ­ n asties, w h e re a s th e p u n is h m e n t fo r h is s u b je c ts w as im m e d ia te a n d clear c u t. F ro m S h an g w ritte n c h a ra c te rs som e a u th o rs h a v e c o n c lu d e d th a t th e fo llo w in g p h y sic a l p e n a ltie s m a y h a v e b e e n im p o se d : m u tila tio n o f a leg, m u tila tio n o f th e nose, m u tila tio n o f a n ear, th e p ie rc in g o f a n ey e, c a stra tio n , ta tto o in g o f face o r fo re h e a d , a n d th e u se o f sh a ck le s a n d iro n s (o f w o o d ? ).126 U n e q u iv o c a l re c o rd s o f all o f th e se p u n is h m e n ts are a v a ila b le fo r th e C hou, a n d th e ir e x iste n c e in th e S h an g p e rio d is e n tire ly lik e ly . :、 O th e r b its o f d a ta in th e o racle re c o rd s p e rta in in g to legal d ec isio n s u n d e r th e S h an g d y n a s ty are ta n ta liz in g b u t u n c e rta in . C h 'e n P a n g -h u a i say s th a t " fiv e in sta n c e s o f Y in 's legal p ro c e d u re s are fo u n d in th e o racle re c o rd s : (a) T h e re w a s a litig a tio n b e tw e e n tw o p a rtie s. A ju d g e p re s id e d o v e r it, a n d h e w as re g a rd e d as b e in g fair, (b) T h e k in g a sk e d a Sm all O fficial (Asiao cA’e n -J、臣 ） a b o u t a n im p riso n m e n t m a tte r. T h e Sm all O fficial, s ta n d in g a t th e k in g 's east, d u ly re s p o n d ­ ed . (c) A crim in a l w as trie d b y a ju d g e a n d w as s e n te n c e d to die, b u t th e e x e c u tio n w as sta y e d a n d th e c rim in a l w as p la c e d b a c k in to c u s to d y . (d) A crim in a l w a s s e n te n c e d to die, b u t h e w as p a rd o n e d b y th e k in g . (e) A crim in al w as se n te n c e d to g rin d g ra in s as p u n itiv e la b o r, a n d a n official a p p lie d fo r e x e m p tio n o n h is b e h a lf / ' 127 In ea ch case, h o w e v e r, C h 'e n 's re a d in g o f th e re le v a n t p assag e d e p e n d s u p o n u n c e rta in in te r ­ p re ta tio n o f o n e o r tw o c h a ra c te rs. A b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e legal sy stem o f th e S h an g ca n o n ly be a c h ie v e d w ith th e d is c o v e ry o f som e te x ts w ith c o d ifie d legal ru le s ; a fte r all, w e fin d th a t, a c c o rd in g to T o s h ih in S h u ch in g , '"[the] fa th e rs o f th e Y in d y n a s ty h a d th e ir a rc h iv e s [“ ’e 册 ] a n d s ta tu te s [tien 典 】• "128 T h e o racle re c o rd s w e re p ro b a b ly a p a r t o f th e a rc h iv e s, b u t n o tra c e o f th e S h an g s ta tu te s h as b e e n fo u n d . 126. Shen W en-cho 沈 文 倬 ， "F u yü c h i" 艮 與 耢 ；H u H ou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 , " Y in ta i t i y ü eh h s in g ” 殷 代 的 月 !1刑 . 127. Yin ta i she-hui sh ih -lia o cheng t s ’un 敗 代 社 會 史 ^料 歡 存 ，p . 2. 128. W altham , S h u Ching, p. 177.

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Because th e oracle rec o rd s are relig io u s a n d ritu a l in n a tu re , S hang relig ions an d ritu als h av e b een so m e w h at e x h a u stiv e ly s tu d ie d , 129 b u t th e ro le o f ritu a ls an d th e ir u n d e rly in g relig io u s co n c e p ts in th e po litical c u ltu re o f th e Shang has b een stu d ie d le ss . 130 T he fo llo w in g q u o te from D avid N. K eightley, h o w e v e r, c h a ra cte rizes th e situ a tio n b riefly b u t w ell : Shang religion w as in e x tric a b ly in v o lv e d in th e genesis an d legitim ation o f th e S hang state. It w as b eliev ed th a t Ti, th e h ig h god, co n ferred fru itfu l h a rv e s t a n d d iv in e assistan ce in b attle, th a t th e k in g 's an c esto rs w e re ab le to in te rc e d e w ith Ti, an d th a t th e k in g could co m m u n icate w ith h is an cesto rs. W o rsh ip o f th e S hang ancestors, th e re fo re , p ro v id e d p o w e rfu l p sy c h o ­ logical an d ideological su p p o rt fo r th e p o litical d o m in an ce o f th e S hang kings. T he k in g 's a b ility to d e te rm in e th ro u g h d iv in a tio n , an d in flu en ce th ro u g h p ra y e r a n d sacrifice, th e w ill o f th e an c estra l sp irits legitim ized th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f p o litical p o w e r in h is p erso n . A ll p o w e r em an ated fro m th e th e o c ra t becau se h e w as th e ch an n eï, " th e o n e m an, 〃 w h o co u ld ap p e al fo r th e a n c estra l blessings, o r d issip ate th e a n c e stra l cu rses, w h ic h affected th e com m onality. It w as th e k in g w h o m ade fru itfu l h a rv e s t a n d victo ries p o ssib le b y th e sacrifices h e offered, th e ritu a ls h e p erfo rm ed , a n d th e d iv in a tio n s h e m ade. If, as seem s lik ely, th e d iv in a tio n s in v o lv e d som e d eg ree o f m agic m aking, o f spell casting, th e k in g 's a b ility to a c tu a lly c rea te a good h a rv e s t o r a v ic to ry b y d iv in in g a b o u t it re n d e re d him still m ore p o te n t p o litic a lly . 131

129. Ch’en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， "Ku wen-tzu chung chih Shang Chou chi-ssu” 古 文 字 中 之 商 周 祭 祀 ；"Shangtaitishen-huayüwu-shu 〃 商 代 的 神 話 典 至 術 ; HuHouhsüan 胡 厚 宣 ， "Yin p'u-tz'u chung ti shang-ti ho wang-ti” 殷 卜 辭 中 的 上 帝 和 王 帝 ; Itö Michiharu 伊 藤 道 治 ， "Bokuji ni mieru sorei kannen ni tsuite” 卜辨丨 :：見乏 6 祖 重 念 1: 〇 、、了 ；Itö Michiharu 伊 藤 道 治 ， "Shükyö men kara mita Indai no ni-san no mondai〃 宗 教 而 々 、 b 見 & 殷 代 〇二 ，， 三 〇 問 翅 ， Tsung-tung Chang, Der ifü/r der Shang-D ynastie im Spiegel der O rakelinschriften: Eine paläograph ische S tudie zu r Religion im archaischen China. 130. Paul Wheatley, P ivo t o f the Four Q uarters; David Keightley, "The Reli­

gious Commitment: Shang Theology and the Genesis of Chinese Political Culture"; P'an Wu-su 潘 武 肅 ， "Religion and Chronology in Shang China”；Itö Michiharu 伊 藤 道 治 ， "Shükyö men kara mita Indai no ni-san no mondai” 宗敎面办 、& 見 & 殷 代 〇 二 三 〇 問 I I , (also in his (汝ti /rodai JcAé no fceisei 中 国 古 代 王 輞 〇 形 成 ）• 131. Keightley, op. c it.f 212-213.

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T h u s, in th e a c t o f g o v e rn a n c e , d iv in a tio n w as b asis o f all o th e r ritu a ls as w ell as p re c e d e n t fo r all o th e r ac tio n s. A s a fo re m e n tio n e d , d iv in a tio n s se rv e d to in q u ire a b o u t as m a n y as tw e n ty d iffe re n t m a tte rs, w h ic h m ay be f u r th e r g ro u p e d in to fo u r m a in c a teg o rie s : 1. F u rth e r ritu a l ac tio n s, su c h as sacrifices, re q u e s ts fo r ra in o r fo r fa ir w e a th e r. 2. T h e k in g 's fo rtu n e d u rin g a p e rio d o f tim e (for in sta n c e , a 办 5机 a n ev e n in g ). 3. T h e p o te n tia l o u tc o m e o f c o n te m p la te d a c tio n , su c h as a w a r e x p e d itio n , h u n t, m o v e m e n t, jo u rn e y , etc. 4. I n te rp re ta tio n o f th e p o te n tia l o u tc o m e o f a n in d e p e n d e n t e v e n t, su c h as a d ream , n a tu ra l calam ity , b irth , illness, o r d e a th . R esp o n se to in q u irie s in all categ o rie s p ro v id e d b o th b asis a n d ju s tific a ­ tio n fo r th e e n s u in g a c tio n o n th e p a rt o f th e k in g . In som e o f th e re c o rd s th e re a re th e k in g 's p ro g n o stic a tio n a n d th e n its s u b s e q u e n t v e rific a tio n . " T h e k in g m a d e th e p ro g n o sis a n d said, th is w ill be so a n d t h u s , ’ th e re c o rd w o u ld fa ith fu lly p u t th is d o w n , a n d it s u re ly w o u ld c o n tin u e , " I n d e e d w h e n th e tim e cam e it w as so a n d t h u s / ' T h e re co u ld b e n o q u e s tio n , th e n , th a t th e a n c e sto r sp o k e th r o u g h th e b o n e s o r th e shells, a n d th e k in g m a d e th e c o rre c t p ro g n o stic a tio n . T h e a c tio n h e p re s c rib e d w as, th u s , su re ly th e c o rre c t a c tio n to ta k e . A s P ’aii K eng said, " I h a v e c o n su lte d th e to rto ise sh ell a n d o b ta in e d th e re p ly : 'T h is is n o p lace fo r u s / . . . I f w e d o n o t fo llo w th e e x a m p le o f th e se o ld tim es, w e sh all be re fu sin g to a c k n o w le d g e th a t H e a v e n is m a k in g a n e n d o f o u r d y n a s ty h e r e .” 132 T h a t, o f co u rse , w o u ld n o t do. Som e o f th e c o n te m p la te d a c tio n w as a d d itio n a l ritu a l, w h ic h w as to b e p e rfo rm e d o n ly w ith a n c e stra l c o n se n t. U n d e r th e O ld School, b o th th e tim e a n d th e a m o u n t o f o ffe rin g m u st be a p p ro v e d b y th e a n c e sto r h im se lf w h o w as to d e v o u r it. E v en u n d e r th e N ew School, a lth o u g h o ffe rin g s w e re p re s e n te d a c c o rd in g to a n e a t sc h e d u le o f ritu a ls, in q u irie s a b o u t th e m w e re still ro u tin e ly m a d e o n th e e v e o f th e b e g in n in g o f e v e ry h siin w e e k .133

132. Waltham, Shu Ching, p. 86. 133. Tung Tso-pin 董 作 賓 ， yin /i p i 殷 曆 譜 ； Shima Kunio 島 邦 男 ， bokuji kenkyü Hsii Chin-hsiung Yin p 'u -tz'u chung wti chung c/n-ssu 殷 卜 辭 中 五 種 祭 祀 的 研 究 ； "Yin p'u-tz'u chung wu-chung chi-ssu yen*chiu ti hsin kuan-nien" 殷卜 中 五 種 祭 把 研 究 的 新 觀 念 ； "Wu chung chi-ssu ti hsin kuan-nien yü Yin li ti t'an-t'ao” 五 種 祭 祀 的 新 觀 念 •殷 磨 的 探 討 •

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From th e T so c h u a n passages q u o te d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th is c h a p te r w e h av e seen th a t am ong th e n ec essary p ro p e rtie s g ra n te d b y th e C hou k in g to a n o b le in th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a n e w to w n w ere ritu a l p ara p h e rn a lia a n d sym bolic regalia th a t in c lu d e d su c h item s as ch ario ts, flags, jad es, fe a th e re d bow s, b ro n z e bells, a n d th e d ru m s. T h e S h u c h in g d o cu m en t M u sh ih d escrib es th a t o n th e b a ttle field a t M u Yeh, ju s t b efo re his tro o p s a n d fo llo w ers w e n t o n th e a tta c k o f S hang King C hou, Chou W u W an g "cam e to th e o p e n c o u n try o f M u in th e b o rd e rs o f Shang an d a d d ressed his arm y . In h is left h a n d h e ca rrie d a b attle -ax , yello w w ith gold, a n d in his rig h t h e h eld a w h ite e n sig n w h ic h h e w a v e d ." T he b a ttle -a x a n d th e flag, as w ell as th e o th e r item s listed above, w ere sym bols o f th e a u th o rity o f th e k in g s o f S hang ju s t as m u c h as th e k in g s o f Chou, b u t d iffe re n t colors s u re ly c h a ra c te riz e d d iffe re n t states, as in L i chi : [The p rin c e s o f L u 】h a d , as carriages, th a t o f [Shun】 ， th e lo rd o f Yü, fu rn is h e d w ith b ells; th a t o f th e so v e re ig n o f H sia, w ith its c a rv e d fro n t; th e G reat carriag e (of w ood), o r th a t o f Y in; a n d th e carriag e (ad o rn e d w ith jad e), o r th a t o f C hou. T h ey h ad , as flags o r b a n n e rs, th a t o f (Shun), th e lo rd o f Yii ; th e y a k 's ta il o f th e so v e re ig n o f H sia; th e g re a t w h ite flag o f Y in; an d th e c o rre sp o n d in g re d o n e o f C hou. T h ey h a d th e w h ite h o rses o f th e so v e re ig n o f H sia, w ith th e ir b lack m a n es; th e w h ite h o rses o f Yin, w ith th e ir b lack h ead s ; a n d th e b a y h o rses o f C hou, w ith re d m anes. A nd so o n an d so fo rth , so th e Lu lo rd s u se d all th e tra p p in g s o f th e F our D y nasties to a ssert th e ir o w n a u th o rity . It is im p o rta n t th a t th ese regalia a n d p a ra p h e rn a lia w ere n o t sim p ly m ad e fre sh to o r d e r ； th e y each c a rrie d a h isto ry o f p a st asso ciatio n s w ith som e a u th o rita tiv e regim e so th a t p re se n t possessio n o f th e m signified tra n s fe r o f su c h a u th o rity an d , th u s, th e leg itim acy o f th e p re s e n t ru le rs. S uch co n c ep ts o f tra n sfe r o f a u th o rity a n d leg itim acy o f p re s e n t p o ssesso rs are b est d escrib ed in th is passage o f T so c h u a n (H süan K ung, th ird y ear) a b o u t ritu a l b ro n zes as ro y al sy m b o ls : T he v isc o u n t o f C h’u in v a d e d th e J u n g o f L u -h u n , a n d th e n w e n t o n as far as th e Lo, w h e re h e re v ie w e d h is tro o p s o n th e b o rd e rs o f C hou. W h e n K ing T in g se n t W a n g -su n M an to

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h im w ith c o n g ra tu la tio n s a n d p re s e n ts , th e v is c o u n t a sk e d a b o u t th e size a n d w e ig h t o f th e [bronze] tm ^ -trip o d s. M an re p lie d : " [T h e s tre n g th o f th e state] d e p e n d s o n th e [so v ereig h 's] v irtu e , a n d n o t o n th e trip o d s . In a n c ie n t tim es, w h e n H sia w as d is tin g u is h e d fo r its v irtu e , th e d is ta n t re g io n s s e n t p ic tu re s o f th e ir [rem arkable] o b je c ts in trip o d s . T h e n in e p a s to rs s e n t in th e m e tal o f th e ir p ro v in c e s, a n d th e trip o d s w e re cast, w ith re p re s e n ta tio n s o n th e m o f th o s e o b je cts. A ll th e o b je c ts w e re re p re s e n te d , a n d [in stru c tio n s w e re given] fo r th e p re p a ra tio n s to b e m ad e in re fe re n c e to th e m , so th a t th e p e o p le m ig h t k n o w th e sp rite s a n d e v il th in g s . T h u s, th e p eo p le, w h e n th e y w e n t am o n g th e riv e rs, m a rsh e s, h ills, a n d fo re sts, d id n o t m eet w ith th e in ju rio u s th in g s , a n d th e h ill-sp rite s, m o n s tro u s th in g s , a n d w a te r-s p rite s , d id n o t m e et w ith th e m [to d o th e m in ju ry ]. H e re b y a h a rm o n y w as se c u re d b e tw e e n th e h ig h a n d th e low , a n d all e n jo y e d th e b le ssin g o f H ea v en . W h e n th e v ir tu e o f C hieh w as a ll-o b sc u re d , th e trip o d s w e re tra n s fe rre d t a S hang, fo r six h u n d r e d y e a rs. C hou o f S h an g p ro v e d c ru e l a n d o p p re ssiv e , a n d th e y w e re tra n s fe rre d to C hou. W h e n th e [ru le r's] v irtu e is c o m m en d a b le a n d b rillia n t, th e trip o d s , th o u g h th e y are sm all, w o u ld be h e a v y ; w h e n it g iv es p lace to its re v e rse , to d a rk n e s s a n d d iso rd e r, th o u g h th e y a re larg e, th e y w o u ld b e lig h t. H e a v e n b lesses in te llig e n t v ir tu e ; o n th a t its fa v o r re sts. K ing C h 'e n g fix e d th e trip o d s in H sin -ju , a n d d iv in e d th a t th e d y n a s ty s h o u ld e x te n d th r o u g h th ir ty reig n s, o v e r se v e n h u n d r e d y ea rs. T h o u g h th e v ir tu e o f C hou is d e c a y e d , th e d ec re e o f H eaven, is n o t y e t c h a n g e d . T h e w e ig h t o f th e trip o d s m a y n o t y e t be in q u ire d a b o u t. [T ran slate d b y Legge.] A lth o u g h th e a b o v e d isc o u rse to o k p la ce in th e L ate C hou p e rio d , th e p rin c ip le it a sc rib e s p ro b a b ly a p p lie d to th e S h an g as w ell, a n d w e in d e e d re a d in Yi C hou s h u a b o u t th e sa c k in g o f th e S h an g c a p ita l a t th e tim e o f th e c o n q u e s t a n d th e re m o v a l o f its '"N ine T rip o d s ^ (C h iu tin g A , ^ ) . T h is u ltim a te ro y a l sy m b o l o f th e S h an g m a y sim p ly re fe r to th e ir m o st v e n e ra b le sets o f ritu a l b ro n z e s, o f w h ic h arch a eo lo g ical re m a in s are, o f co u rse, a b u n d a n t. W e can e n u m e ra te th e fo llo w in g as th e S h an g ro y a l sy m b o ls th a t w e can c o n fid e n tly s u b s ta n tia te w ith arch aeo lo g ical o r e p ig ra p h ic a l d a ta : 1. Som e o f th e m o re e la b o ra te sets o f ritu a l b ro n z e s . S ince ritu a l b ro n z e s w e re p re c io u s o b je c ts u se d fo r th e a n c e stra l rite s o f th e u p p e r class, all b ro n z e s w e re in som e senses sy m b o ls o f h ig h sta tu s, b u t th e re

50. Human face lined by two tigers on the handle of a Shang bronze vessel (from the cardboard jacket of Itö Michiharu, Zusetsu Chügoku no rekishi, vol. 1). (By permission of Kodansha International.)

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51. Fa-shaped characters (From K K H C K , C h in -w e n p ie n ).

m a y b e a h ie r a r c h y o f r itu a l b r o n z e s m a r k e d fo r l e v e l s w i t h s iz e , w e ig h t , s h a p e , d e c o r a t io n , a n ^ in s c r ip t io n s . T h e h u m a n f a c e p la c e d b e t w e e n t w o t ig e r j a w s (fig . 5 0 ) t h a t is f o u n d o n t h e la r g e s t e x a m p le s o f f a n g tin g i f is s o m e t im e s in s c r ib e d fo r t h e r o y a l c o n s o r t s , a n d it c o u ld b e a s y m b o l o f t h e h ig h e s t s t a t u s .134 T h e in s c r ip t io n j a h s in g (fig . 5 1 ) is v a r i o u s ly in t e r p r e t e d a s a r o y a l s y m b o l 135 o r a s a n o f f ic ia l t i t l e . 136

F la g s w e r e a p p a r e n t ly a n im p o r t a n t s y m b o l o f a u t h o r it y t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n c ie n t p e r i o d .137 N o a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s c a n s u b ­ s ta n tia te t h is , b u t o r a c le b o n e a n d b r o n z e in s c r i p t i o n s s h o w m a n y c h a r a c te r s w i t h a f la g c o m p o u n d ( fig . 5 2 ). T h e L i ch i s a y s t h a t S h a n g fla g s w e r e w h i t e , b u t in v i e w o f t h e m a n y t ig e r d e s ig n s o n S h a n g c e r e ­ m o n ia l p a r a p h e r n a lia o f w o o d 138 a n d w e a p o n s , 139 a t ig e r v e r y p o s s i b l y a ls o d e c o r a t e d t h e r o y a l c o lo r s . 3. T h e b a ttle - a x C h o u W u W a n g w a s h o ld in g in h is le f t h a n d a s h e a d d r e s s e d h is t r o o p s c o u ld h a v e b e e n a c r u c ia l p a r t o f t h e S h a n g r o y a l s y m b o lis m o f a u t h o r it y a s w e ll , e s p e c ia l ly in v i e w o f it s e v i d e n t 2.

134. David N. Keightley, "The Late Shang State: When, Where, and W h at ?,〃 p. 79. 135. See Kao Ch'ü-hsün 高 去 尋 ， "Yin tai ta-mu ti mu shih chi ch'i han-yi chih f u i - t s 'e " 毅 代 大 墓 的 墓 室 及 其 涵 義 之 推 測 . 136. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， Kn /zsä s/zw 殷 坺 卜 辭 综 述 ， pp. 510-511. 137. Hayashi Minao 林 已 奈 夫 ，"Chügoku senshin jidai no hata” 中 国 先 柰 時 代 z sfci/z 秦 民 奏 術 今 釋 ，p. 3. 32. Lu Mao»te 您 德 ，〃Chung-kuo fa-hsien chih shang-ku t ’ung li k'ao 〃 中 國 發 現 之 上 古 銅 犁 考 • Also the special exhibits on bronze agricultural implements of ancient China in the Shanghai Metropolitan Museum. 33. Li Chi 李 濟 〃 Chi Hsiao»t’un ch’u -t'u chih ch'ing-t’ung ch’i Chung p'ien feng-jen ch 'i 〃 記 小 也 出 土 之 青 銅 器 ，中 篇 ，鋒 豕 器 . 34. Li Chi 李 濟 ， "Yin hsü yu jen shih-ch'i t'u s h u o " 殷 虛 有 豕 石 器 圖 説 ， 616. There were altogether 3,600-plus of these knives at Hsiao-t'un alone; see p. 590 of above article. ，

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56. Lei held by ancient sages as depicted in the stone art in the Wu family temple of Eastern Han (after Jung Keng, H a n W u -lia n g t z 'u h u a -h sia n g lu). L e ft: Shen Nung Shih; rig h t : Hsia YÜ.

s e r v e d a g r ic u ltu r e -r e la te d u s e s , b u t t h e s in g le m o s t im p o r ta n t a g r ic u l­ tu r a l im p le m e n t o f t h e S h a n g p e r io d m a y b e a w o o d e n t o o l th a t h a s la r g e ly e lu d e d t h e a r c h a e o lo g is t 's s p a d e t h u s fa r. T h is is t h e / d 耒 w i d e l y m e n tio n e d in a n c ie n t t e x t s . M a n y o r a c le b o n e c h a r a c te r s c o n c e r n e d w it h c u lt iv a t io n c o n t a in a c o m p o n e n t in t h e s h a p e o f a t w o - p r o n g e d d ig g in g s tic k , th e sa m e s h a p e a t t r ib u t e d to t h e lei in H a n a rt (fig . 56), a n d it is lik e ly th a t th e b a sic S h a n g im p le m e n t to t u r n o v e r t h e s o il fo r c u lt iv a t io n w a s s u c h a d ig g in g s t ic k .35 P o s s ib ly it w a s a la r g e a n d h e a v y a ffa ir th a t m a y h a v e r e q u ir e d n o t o n ly o n e p e r s o n h o ld in g it a n d p u s h in g it in t o th e s o il b u t a ls o a s e c o n d p e r s o n (o r e v e n a b e a s t) t o h e lp to p u ll it (fig .

57). 36 S o m e s c h o la r s b e lie v e th a t p lo w s w e r e u s e d b y t h e S h a n g fa r m e r s ,37 35. HsüChung-shu 徐 中 舒 "L e issu k 'ao ” 来 耜 考 ；SunC h’ang-hsü 孫 常 叙 c/nWz/cj-cAarz i 耜 的 起 源 及 其 發 展 . 36. Sun Ch'ang-hsü 孫 常 叙 ， Liu Hsien-chou 割 仙 洲 ， CAtm客 fcti- 如 A ïA 中 國 古 代 農 業 機 械 發 明 史 ，p. & 37. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，"P ’u-tz'u chung sochien chih Yin tai nung-yeh’’ 卜辭中所見之股代展業. ，

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57. Possible interpretation of the term ou k e n g as an early form of the plow (after Liu Hsien-chou, C h u n g -k u o k u - t a i n u n g -y e h c h i-h sie h fa r m in g s h ih , p. 8).

b u t t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y g i v e e s s e n t ia ll y c o n c e r n s lei b e in g p u lle d a s w e ll as p u sh e d . T h e f a c t t h a t w i t h t h e a id o f s u c h p r im it iv e t o o ls ( w o o d e n lei, s t o n e a n d s h e ll s ic k le s , a n d s t o n e a x e s a n d s p a d e s ) t h e S h a n g w e r e a b le t o p r o d u c e e n o u g h f o o d t o b u ild a g r e a t c i v ili z a t io n is s u f f i c ie n t g r o u n d s fo r s p e c u la t in g t h a t it w a s a t t h e l e v e l o f la b o r t h a t t h e S h a n g a g r ic u lt u r e r e c e iv e d it s g r e a t e s t e n e r g y in p u t , a n d t h e o r a c le b o n e r e c o r d s c le a r ly b e a r t h is o u t . T h e f o l l o w i n g d iv in a t i o n is a g o o d e x a m p le : T h e k in g o r d e r e d t h e c/zwn客 少 n [ 衆 人 " t h e m u lt it u d e " 】 a n d s a id , h sie h [ ^ ] t h e f ie l d s s o t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e g o o d h a r v e s t ! I n t h e e l e v e n t h m o n t h .38

38. Lo Chen-yü 羅 振 玉 Yïn /zsfi sAti cA'i /zsäpien 殷 虛 當 契 續 鳊 ，

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T w o w o rd s in th is passage are n o te w o rth y . T he firs t is h sie h g en e ra lly in te rp re te d to m ean " c u ltiv a te c o llec tiv e ly , " 39 p e rh a p s in c lu d in g th e p ractice o f p u sh in g an d p u llin g th e lei in p airs, som etim es re fe rre d to as ou 4R (" p a ir" ) k e n g # .40 S uch a p ra c tic e stro n g ly su g g ests a g ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c tio n u n its o f som e size , 41 d iscip lin e, a n d su p e rv isio n b y th e k in g an d his g o v ern m e n t. A m ong th e m an y Äsüw c /f en 4 、臣 （ "sm all officials") reco rd ed in th e oracle in sc rip tio n s are p re su m a b ly th o se c o n c ern ed w ith th e ta sk o f su p e rv isin g collective a g ric u ltu ra l te a m s .42 W h o w ere th e p rin c ip a l m em b ers o f th e se co llectiv e farm in g team s? C hun g-jen, acco rd in g to th e ab o v e passage. C h u n g -jen o r c h u n g 衆 43 is g en erally read to m ean " th e m u ltitu d e ," b u t som e scholars believe th a t th e chung, w o rk in g in co llectiv e u n its a n d u n d e r su p e rv isio n , m u st be seen as th e slave la b o re rs o f th e M a rx ia n slave so c iety , 44 b u t m ost o th ers, citin g th e S hang d o c u m e n t P 'a n k en g , in w h ic h th e k in g n o t o n ly a n n o u n c e d his d ecision to m ove his ca p ita l b u t also trie d to ju s tify it to th e chung, see th e m as free farm ers w h o w e re m e m b ers— low ly, to be s u re — o f th e ru le r's o w n g ro u p s .45 E ven g iv e n th e la tte r v iew , th e ch u n g farm ers n ee d n o t h av e b een ''f r e e '' in a n y sense o f th a t w o rd . C hang C h en g-lang’s in te rp re ta tio n p ro b a b ly sum s it u p b est : "C h u n g j é n ’’ w e re farm ers, a n d w ere th e fig h tin g m en in w ars. T h e y … u su a lly o cc u p ied a v e ry lo w ly p o sitio n , o p p o site th e … n o b ility . T h e y h ad no title to la n d . . . a n d th e y w ere se cu rely tie d u p w ith a g ric u ltu ra l collectives, co n ­ tro lle d b y th e . . . ru le rs, w e re co n sc rib e d to becom e soldiers, p aid trib u te s, a n d p e rfo rm e d la b o r services. W h e n th e y w ere 39. Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 吾 ，"Ts'ung chia-ku wen k'an Shang tai she-hui hsing-chih 〃從 甲骨 文 看 商 代 社 會 性 質 ，102- 103. 40. For oa fce% 搞 耕 ， see Wang Ning-sheng 汪 窣 生 ， "Ou keng hsin chieh” 搞 耕 新 解 ； Wan Kuo-ting 萬 國 鼎 "Ou keng k 'a o " 稱 耕 考 ； Ho Tzu-ch'üan 何 茲 全 ， "T ’an ou k e n g " 談 耦 耕 . 41. Chang Cheng-lang 張 政 浪 ， on good oracle bone and textual evidence, suggests 100-200 for clearing new fields; gee his "P 'u tz’u p ’ou t ’ien chi ch’i hsiang-kuan ch u w en -t'i ” 卜醉袞 田 及 其 相 闞 諸 問 題 , l l 2. 42. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，"P 'u-tz'u chung so-chien chih Yin tai nung-yeh" 卜 醉中 所 見 之 殷 代 農 業 67; Shen W en -ch o 沈 文 倬 "Fu yü chi ” 艮與糟 33& 43. Ch’en Meng-chia's 陳 夢 家 division between c/ztm客衆 and 衆人 is not convincing; see his Kn Asüp’u - r ü a “％ s/m 殷 坺 卜 辭 综 述 ，pp. 605-611, anà Su Shih-cheng 束 世 澂 "Hsia tai ho Shang tai ti nu-li chih ， ，夏 代 和 商 代 的 奴 緣 制 42. 44. Wang Yü-che 王 玉 哲 ， "Shih fJ iu Yin tai ti nu-li chih-tu ho kuo~chia ti hsing-ch'eng 〃 試 述 殷 代 的 奴 隸 制 度 和 國 家 的 形 成 • 45. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，"P'u-tz’u chung so-chien chih Yin tai nung-yeh" 卜 辭 中 所 見 之 殷 代 展 業 71-72; Su Shih-cheng 束 世 澂 "Hsia tai ho Shang tai ti nu-li chih” 夏 代 和 商 代 的 奴 棟 制 42; Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 吾 "Ts'ung chia-ku wen k'an Shang tai she-hui hsing-chih” 從 甲 骨 文 看 商 代 社 會 性 質 / 114 - l l 5. ，

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so ld iers th e y w o u ld becom e slav es w h e n c a p tu re d , a n d if th e y re fu se d to becom e so ld iers th e y a n d th e ir fam ilies w o u ld in s ta n tly b eco m e slav es also. T h e ir liv es a n d th e ir p o sse ssio n s w e re c o n tro lle d b y th e k in g a n d th e n o b le s, b e in g in essen ce th e ir to o ls a n d p o sse ssio n s .46 T h is sta te m e n t, as tra n s la te d , is firm ly s u p p o rta b le w ith c o n te m p o ra ry ev id e n c e . A s w e h a v e seen in c h a p te r 3, th e basic S h an g social u n it w as th e ts u , a n d th e ts u , b y v irtu e o f th e in c e ssa n t ra m ific a tio n o f its m e m b er u n its , w as th e seed o f social stra tific a tio n w ith in its e lf a n d am o n g o n e a n o th e r. W ith in e a ch ts u , th e re w e re h ig h a n d lo w ly m e m b ers, a n d am o n g th e v a rio u s ts u th e re w e re h ig h a n d lo w ly ts u s . C h u n g -je n w e re p ro b a b ly th e lo w ly m e m b ers o f each ts u , e sp ecially o f e a ch lo w ly ts u , w ith in th e v a rio u s clan s w ith in th e S h an g sta te. T h e y w e re th e d ire c t p a rtic ip a n ts in fa rm in g la b o r (oracle b o n e in s c rip tio n s g iv e n u m e ro u s in sta n c e s); th e y w e re le c tu re d to a n d th re a te n e d w ith d e a th fo r d is­ o b e d ie n c e ( P 'a n k e n g ); a n d th e ir escap e (s a n g c h u n g , o r ''t h e loss o f c h u n g ,f) w as a m ajo r to p ic o f c o n c e rn in th e ro y a l d iv in a tio n s .47 W h e th e r o r n o t th e y fît th e im age o f " s la v e s " in a slav e so ciety , a n d e v e n th o u g h th e y o b v io u s ly w e re n o t d riv e n in leg iro n s to th e field s to w o rk , th e c h u n g je n w e re th e m a in sta y o f S h an g a g ric u ltu ra l la b o r a n d c o n s titu te a w h o le lo w ly eco n o m ic class. T h e re is e v e n c re d ib le e v id e n c e th a t th is lo w ly la b o rin g class w as tra n s fu s e d w ith n e w m e m b ers b y m ean s o f w a r c a p tiv e s. In o n e in s c rip tio n w e re a d (fig. 58): In q u ire d : T h e k in g to o rd e r th e m a n y C h 'ia n g to clear n e w f ie ld ? 48 H ere th e k e y w o rd C h 'ian g is in c o m p le te in th e o rig in a l p iece, b u t th e re a d in g o f 如 CA’ian 客 多 充 ， " th e M a n y C h’ia n g ," is c re d ib le , sin ce th e p h ra s e w as a co m m o n o n e .49 C h 'ian g , th e p e o p le o f C h 'ia n g F ang, a c o u n 46. Chang Cheng-lang 張政犬良，"P 'u -tz'u p'ou t ’ien chi ch’i hsiang-kuan c h u w e n -t'i” 卜 辭 裒 田 及 其 相 關 諸 問 趙 ，1 ;7. 47. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，"P ’u-tz'u chung so-chien chih Yin tai nung-yeh" 卜醉中所見之殷代農業 ， *71- 72. 48. Kuo Mo-jo 郭 沫 若 ， yin cA’i h ü pien 殷 契 粹 編 ，no. 1222. 49. Chao Hsi-yüan 趙 踢 元 in his "Tui 'Shih shu Yin tai ti nu-li chih-tu ho kuo»chia ti hsing-ch'eng' yi wen ti yi-chien” 對 ‘試 述 殷 代 的 奴 捸 制 度 和 國 家 的 形 成 ’ 一 文 的 意 見 ， reads the word as To Yang 多羊 ， the many members of the Sheep Tsu. Such a usage would be quite unusual. Li Hsüeh-ch'in (in Y in tax tU li ch ien lu n 殷 代 地 理 簡 論 ，p. 80) claims that he inspected the original piece of the oracle bone and determined a totally different reading, which does not contain the word Ch'iang at all and has nothing to do w ith agricultural cultivation. ，

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58. Rubbing of inscription in which the Ch'iang captives may be described as being ordered to cultivate new fields (after Kuo Mo-jo, Yin chH t s fui p ie n , no. 1222).

tr y p ro b a b ly to th e w e st o f Shang, w ere th e fre q u e n t so u rce o f w ar cap tiv es b y th e S hang (fig. 59), a n d th e se ca p tiv e s w e re fre q u e n t v ictim s in Shang an cestral rites, u se d as o fferin g s in th e sam e o rd e r as cattle, sheep, an d k id s as th e oracles re la te d : P erform th e y u ritu a l to T su Yi [and sacrifice] te n C h’ia n g ? T w e n ty C h 'ia n g ? T h irty C h 'ia n g ? 50 On th e C hia-W u d ay , d iv in e d . In q u ire d : T he fo llo w in g d ay Y i-W ei, p erfo rm th e y v ritu a l to T su Yi [and sacrifice] C h'iang, fifteen p e rso n s? P erfo rm th e m o u ritu a l [and use] 50. Fang Fa-lien 方 法 歎 （Frank H. Chalfant), 尺’u p u - t z u 库 方 二 氏 藏 甲 骨 卜 辭 no. I 535. ，

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59. Clay figures of war captives (Collection of Academia Sinica. Photo from Life).

a k id ? P e rfo rm th e y u ritu a l a n d u se o n e c o w ? In th e fifth m o n th .51 D iv in e d . In q u ire d : [P e rfo rm ritu a l a n d sacrifice] C h 'ian g , fo u r h u n d r e d , to T su X . . . ? 52 L ines s u c h as th e se can go o n fo r som e p ages. H u H o u -h s ü a n h as c o u n te d a t le ast 7,426 C h 'ian g in d iv id u a ls th a t h a d b e e n c o n te m p la te d fo r 51. Shang Ch'eng-tso 商 承 神 yin 殷 契 佚 存 ，no. 154. 52. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 CAcm-Zwu mznpei 知 c/zierz cAid-fctWti 戰 後 南 北 所 見 T 青 錄 ，Shih 師 1.40; CAicz fctt Asü rs'un 甲骨1續 存 客上 295. ，

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sacrifice in th is m a n n e r in th e d iv in a tio n re c o rd s w h e re n u m b e rs o f C h’iang c o n sid ered fo r sacrifice w e re g iv e n .53 T h e C h 'ian g p eo p le w ere n o t th e o n ly ones u sed in th is m a n n e r , 54 b u t th e y w e re th e o n ly ''fo re ig n e rs '' fav o red fo r th is p u rp o s e , 55 a n d on e m ay re a so n a b ly assum e th a t h u m a n sacrifice w as one o f th e p o ssib le fates a w a itin g w a r c a p tiv e s o f th e Shang. T he d iv in a tio n re c o rd cited a b o v e su g g ests th a t farm la b o r w as a n o th e r— u n d o u b te d ly a m ore w elco m e— fate. To C h 'ia n g , " th e m an y C h 'ia n g ,’ are also sh o w n in th e oracle re c o rd s to h a v e b een p a rtic ip a n ts in th e ro y a l h u n t , 56 so th a t th e ir jo in in g in a g ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c tio n w ith th e c h u n g je n sh o u ld n o t be re g a rd e d as an u n u su a l e v e n t d esp ite th e ra rity o f su c h re c o rd s in th e availab le d ata. T he ab o v e d iscu ssio n sh o u ld m ake clear th a t in so far as ag ric u l­ tu ra l p ro d u c tio n a n d th e ir roles in it are co n c e rn e d , th e v a rio u s m em b ers o f th e S hang society are d iv isib le in to th e stra ta sh o w n in fig. 60. PRODUCTION OF OTHER GOODS AND SERVICES

It is u n q u e s tio n a b le th a t a g ric u ltu re o cc u p ied th e ce n tral place in Shang food p ro d u c tio n , a n d p ro d u c ts p ro b a b ly in c lu d e d g rain s, v eg etab les, fru its, a n d n u ts. M eat w as p ro v id e d in p a rt b y h u n tin g an d fishing, b u t in v iew o f th e h u g e n u m b e rs o f d om estic anim als (m ainly cattle an d sheep) th a t w ere u se d fo r ritu a l sacrifices th e m ajor so u rce o f anim al m eat w as p ro b a b ly d o m estic anim als. From th e sh ap e o f som e o f th e c h a ra cte rs h a v in g to do w ith dom estic anim als, it ap p e a rs th a t cattle, sheep, an d h o rses w ere k e p t in re c ta n g u la r p en s. N o su ch p en s h av e so far b een id e n tified in th e arch aeo lo g ical rem ain s o f A n -y an g or elsew h ere ; w e w o u ld be in te re ste d in th e ir c o n stru c tio n , size, an d , especially, d is trib u tio n w ith in th e se ttle m en ts fo r e v id en ce p e rta in in g to h e rd in g p a tte rn s an d asso ciatio n o f h e rd in g w ith specific lineage g ro u p s. Lineage [tsu) g ro u p s a p p e a r to h a v e b een o cc u p atio n al u n its engaging in th e p ro d u c tio n o f v a rio u s in d u stria l g oods a n d in specialized services. W e saW earlier th a t T so c h u a n sp o k e o f th e g ift o f ts u o f S hang people to th e fo u n d in g C hou lo rd s; th e nam es o f th e se ts u are o ften 53. "Chung-kuonu-lishe-huitijenhsünhojenchi” 中 國 奴 棣 社 會 的 人 均 和 人 祭 ，57.

54. See Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 ‘ 厚 宣 叩 . ar., and Wang Ch’eng-chao 王 承 招 "Shih lun Yin tai ti #hsi,' 'c h 'i/ Tu’ ti she-hui s h e n -fe n " 試 論 殷 代 的 ‘奚 ’ 、‘妾 ’ 、‘ 民’ 的社會身份 . ' 55. See Shirakawa Shizuka 白 川 靜 ， "Kyözoku” 先 族 考 . Shima Kunio 島 押 男 （in Jn/cp 殷 域 卜 辞 研 究 ） interprets the word Ch'iang as "feathered dance" and, thus, denies that they were sacrificed in rituals. His arguments are not supportable. 56. ShimaKunio 島 邦 男 60 * # Wrtii 股 墟 卜 鋅 綜 顗 ，p . l 8 . ，

，

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60. Shaqg economic classes in agricultural production.

o c c u p a tio n -re la te d : T 'a o 陶 （ p o tte ry ); S h ih 施 （ flag); C h 'i 铸 （c o o k in g p o t) ; C h’a n g sh u o 長 勺 a n d W e i sh u o 龙 勺 （w in e vessels) ; So 索 (c o rd a g e ); Fan 繫 （ h o rse p lu m e ); F an 輿 （ fe n c e ) .57 S ince th e m a n y p ic to ria l sig n s o n S h an g a n d e a rly C hou b ro n z e s a re re g a rd e d as b e in g clan a n d lin eag e em b lem s , 58 ts u n am es u n d o u b te d ly a p p e a r in th e se em b lem s a n d m a n y o f th e m m ay d e p ic t th e ir sp ecialized o c c u p a tio n s. O f th e p ro b a b le em b lem s o n b ro n z e s in c lu d e d in th e c a talo g u e th a t m y asso ciates a n d I h a v e c o m p ile d , 59 th e o n es sh o w n in fig- 61 m a y b e o c c u p a tio n -re la te d .60 T h ese em b lem s are th e o b v io u s — th o u g h b y n o m ean s u n q u e s tio n a b le — ones, b u t m a n y o th e rs are also p o ssib le. In v ie w o f th e h ig h le v el o f te c h n o lo g ic a l s o p h is tic a tio n o f S h an g in d u s tria l p ro d u c ts , th e re w e re p re s u m a b ly s u c h o th e r p ro fe ssio n s as sto n e m a k ers, w o o d -c a rv e rs, ie a th e rm a k e rs, la c q u e rw a re m a k e rs, h o rs e -fittin g -m a n u fa c tu re rs , co o k s o f v a rio u s sp ecialties, a n d o th e r p ro fe ssio n s re sp o n sib le fo r p ro d u c in g all o th e r k in d s o f a rtifa c ts b o th iEound a n d re c o rd e d , a n d m a n y if n o t all o f th e se p ro fe ssio n s w e re p ro b a b ly th e sp e cia ltie s o f v a rio u s lin eag es 57. Li Ya-nung 李 亞 農 ， Krz Mi 殷 代 社 會 生 活 ，p. 50. 58. Kuo Mo-jo 郭 泳 若 ， "Yin yi chung t ’u-hsing wen-tzu. chih yi chieh" 救# 中 圖 形 文 字 之 一 解 • 59. S h a n g C hou c h ’i n g - t ’u n g c h ’i y ü m in g -w e n ti tsu n g -h o y e n -c h iu 束 搏 青 免 蒸

與銘文的综 合研 究• 60. For Ts'e, the interpretation of Shirakawa Shizuka 白 川 靜 is followed here; see his "Sakusatsu k ö " 作 册 考 •

61. Emblems that may be related to professions. a. animal herder; b. trader; c. carrier; d. food service; e. p a in te r;/, archivist;^, herder; h. butcher; i. guardsmen; j . messenger; k . knife-maker; /. bowmaker; m . arrowmaker; n. quiver-maker; o. halberd-maker; p . shield-maker; q. bowman; r. halberder; s. execu­ tioner; t. flag-maker; u. chariot-maker; v. boat-maker; w . house-builder; x . rm^-tripodmaker; ^en-steamer-maker; z. /i-tripod-maker; a a . c/züe/z-cup-maker; b b . wine-maker; cc. silk-maker; d d . woodsman; ee. orchard grower; f f . net-hunter (most from K K H C K , C hin W en Pien).

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a n d lin e a g e -b ra n c h e s. O ne can assu m e th a t m o st 一 if n o t a ll— o f th e se o c c u p a tio n s w e re b e in g p ra c tic e d in th e ro y a l c a p ita l a n d th a t th e y w e re sc arcer in th e p ro v in c e s. In c h a p te r 1 w e d e s c rib e d th e arch aeo lo g ical rem a in s o f som e w o rk s h o p s in th e A n -y a n g a re a ; it is o n ly th r o u g h su c h rem a in s th a t w e h a v e access to som e o f th e p ro d u c tiv e a c tiv itie s th a t w e re g o in g o n h e re a n d e lse w h e re : B r o n z e m a k in g . A s d e s c rib e d in c h a p te r 1, tw o m ajo r b ro n z e

w o rk s h o p s h a v e b e e n lo c a te d in th e A n -y a n g area, o n e in th e h e a rt o f H s ia o -t'u n a n d th e o th e r in th e M ia o -p 'u -p e i-ti/H s ü e h -c h ia -c h u a n g locus. A t th e la tte r site, re m a in s o f a g ro u n d h o u se , a p p ro x im a te ly 8 b y 4 m e te rs a n d b u ilt o n ra m m e d e a rth fo u n d a tio n s a n d w ith ram m e d e a rth w alls, w e re fo u n d a sso cia ted w ith clay m o ld s a n d c ru c ib le fra g m e n ts .61 Since b o th g ro u n d h o u se s a n d ram m e d e a rth a rc h ite c tu re w e re o fte n asso ciated w ith p e o p le o f h ig h e r sta tu s, o n e is te m p te d to in fe r th a t b ro n z e sm ith s, o r a t le ast th e h ig h e r-s ta tu s o n es am o n g th e m , e n jo y e d p e rq u is ite s re s e rv e d fo r th e u p p e r class. T h e in fe re n c e is b y n o m e an s u n re a so n a b le , c o n s id e rin g th a t th e S h an g m e ta llu rg ists w e re h ig h ly sk illed craftsm en . In v ie w o f N oel B a rn a rd 's c o m p re h e n siv e stu d ie s o f th e S h an g b ro n z e m e ta llu rg y , 62 I re fe r to h is w o rk s fo r th e d e ta ils o f th e te c h n o lo g y a n d co n fin e m y se lf to a few o b se rv a tio n s. A t th e w o rk s h o p sites alm o st n o c o p p e r o r tin o res w e re fo u n d in th e ir o rig in a l ro c k y c o n d itio n s, su g g e stin g th a t sm e ltin g w as d o n e a t th e m ines. If som e o f th e m in es w e re w ith in th e S hang te rrito ry , w e m ay e x p e c t to fin d re m a in s o f o ld m in e s a n d th e w o rk s h o p s w h e re th e sm eltin g w as d o n e, o r p e rh a p s som e o re s a n d /o r sm elted c o p p e r a n d tin w e re tra d e d fro m o u tsid e th e sta te. B ut, in a n y e v e n t th e p ro c u re m e n t o f th e m etal so u rce s fo r th e b ro n z e allo y s m u s t h a v e b e e n a c o n sid e ra b le p a r t o f th e o v e ra ll b ro n z e -m a k in g a c tiv ity th a t h as n o t y e t b e e n e v e n v isib le in th e e x istin g arch aeo lo g ical re c o rd . A t th e w o rk s h o p sites in A n -y a n g , clay w as p re p a re d to m ak e m o d els o f ritu a l v essels a n d m o ld s (single a n d d o u b le ) fo r som e w e a p o n s a n d im p le m e n ts. O n th e m o d e ls th e a rtis a n s w o u ld p re p a re th e n e c e ssa ry d e c o ra tiv e d e ta ils a n d th e n m a k e clay m o ld s in se ctio n s (h en ce called se ctio n o r p iece m olds). T h e n th e y w o u ld co m p lete th e d e c o ra tiv e d e ta ils o n th e in n e r su rfa ce s o f th e m olds, sc ra p e o ff a la y e r o f clay fro m th e m o d el su rface, a n d p u t p iece m o ld s a n d th e re d u c e d m o d els (n o w k n o w n as " c o re s " ) to g e th e r (fig. 62), p la n t th e m o n th e g ro u n d , to g e th e r w ith o r se p a ra te fro m th e sin g le a n d d o u b le m o ld s

簡 報 ,67.

61. JWC" 1958-1959n ienY inh sü fa-ch ü eh ch ien pao" 1958-1959 年 殷 坺 發 掘 62. Noel Barnard and Satö Tamotsu, M e ta llu r g ic a l R e m a in s o f A n c ie n t C h in a ;

Barnard, B r o n z e C a s tin g a n d B r o n z e A llo y s in A n c ie n t C h in a .

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62. Clay molds for casting bronze vessels, Shang period, (after Shih Chang-ju, "Yin tai ti chu t ’ung kung-yi,” 113, 117).

p ro p e rly in stalled , an d th e n , on som e a u sp icio u s d ay o r m o m e n t , 63 p o u r th e m o lten m etal in to th e cav ities to p ro d u c e th e vessels. T he alloy w as reaso n ab ly sta n d a rd iz e d (ap p ro x im a te ly 8 0 —95 p e rc e n t co p p er, 5—20 p e rc e n t tin , an d som e lead a n d o th e r m etals), b u t th e size o f som e o f th e ritu a l vessels (one b ro n ze q u a tro p o d m easu red 180 b y 110 c e n ti­ m eters an d w eig h ed 875 kilogram s) w o u ld re q u ire su ch m assive a n d precise effo rts to m ake th e m th a t th e ir m a n u fa c tu re m u st h av e b een b o th m asterful an d collective. P o tte r y M a k in g . A lth o u g h p o tte ry w o rk sh o p s h av e b een arch aeo logically located, d etails are n o t availab le for a n y o f th em an d w e are n o t clear ab o u t th e liv in g c o n d itio n s o f th e p o tte rs. But p o tte ry w as th e m ain item o f th e Yin hsii arch aeological in v e n to ry , an d th e re m u st 63. Yen Yün 燕 拓 ， "Shang tai p ’u-tz’u chung ti yeh-chu shih liao” 商 代 卜 辭 中 的 冶 _ 史 料 ，299.

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h a v e b e e n m a n y c e n te rs o f p o tte ry s u p p ly e v e n w ith in A n -y a n g itself. F u rth e rm o re , in v ie w o f th e c a re fu l se lec tio n o f clay fo r v a rio u s w a re s (see c h a p te r 2 ), th e u se o f p o tte r 's w h ee l, th e s o p h is tic a tio n o f th e ir w h ite p o tte r y e n g ra v in g , a n d th e sig n ific a n t u se o f glaze, som e p o tte ry m a k in g in th e S h an g p e rio d in A n -y a n g w as e x tre m e ly s k illfu l .64 T h e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity o f S hang p o tte ry , h o w e v e r, w as sim ple g ra y w are, p a d d le -im p re sse d w ith co rd a g e p a tte rn s . T h e p o tte ry c e n te rs in A n -y a n g w e re p ro b a b ly o f m a n y k in d s, sp e cia lizin g in d iffe re n t w ares, a n d th e se c e n te rs m u st h a v e fo rm e d stra tifie d re la tio n s h ip s am o n g th e m selv es. S to n e a n d J a d e M a k in g . M a n y g ra d e s o f sk ills a n d scales o f o p e ra tio n w e re e v id e n t in th e fa sh io n in g o f a rtifa c ts fro m sto n e. S tone im p le m e n ts s u c h as h a rv e s tin g k n iv e s o f slate w e re p ro b a b ly th e sp e c ia lty o f w o rk s h o p s d e v o te d to o rd in a ry fare, b u t ja d e c a rv in g s a n d m a rb le s c u lp tu re m u s t h a v e re q u ire d larg e-scale o p e ra tio n s a n d m a ste r c raftsm en . E x p e rie n c e d w o rk e rs a t th e P e k in g Ja d e F ac to ry h a v e c o n ­ c lu d e d , a fte r e x p e rim e n ta l in v e s tig a tio n o f som e o f th e Shang^ ja d e c a rv in g s, th a t th e y re q u ire d an e x tre m e ly h ig h le v el o f w o rk m a n s h ip a n d w o rk s h o p s o f c o n sid e ra b le size. G ro o v e c u tte rs a n d aw ls o f b ro n z e m u s t h a v e b e e n u s e d .65 R em ains o f a h o u se b e lie v e d to b e asso ciated w ith a sto n e a n d ja d e w o rk s h o p w as fo u n d a t H s ia o -t'u n in 1975. It n o t o n ly h a d ram m e d a n d p la s te re d w alls, th e in te rio r w all w as e v e n d ec o ­ ra te d w ith b ic h ro m ie (b lac k a n d red ) m u rals. In sid e th e h o u se w as fo u n d a p it c o n ta in in g a d ism e m b e re d sk e le to n , w ith a b ro n z e v essel lid (in scrib ed ), p o ssib ly th e re m a in s o f a ritu a l e v e n t .66 S uch re m a in s in d ic a te c o n sid e ra b le social s ta tu s a n d m ay su g g e st th a t th e fam ily o r lin e ag e in ch a rg e o f th is w o rk s h o p , o r a t le ast its chief, h a d a s ta tu s sim ilar to th a t o f o th e r crafts. THE UPWARD AND CENTRIPETAL FLOW OF ECONOMIC RESOURCES

W h e re d id th e fo o d stu ffs a n d th e in d u s tria l p ro d u c ts go a fte r th e y h ad b e e n p ro d u c e d a t th e v illag es a n d th e w o rk s h o p s th ro u g h o u t th e s ta te ? C o m p ared w ith som e o f th e o th e r a n c ie n t civ iliz atio n s (su ch as S u m erian ) th e S h an g is s in g u la rly la c k in g in re c o rd s o f econom ic tra n sa c tio n . T h is is a sig n ific a n t fe a tu re in its e lf a n d w ill b e f u rth e r co m m en ted u p o n , b u t a t th is ju n c tu r e it m u st b e h e ld re sp o n sib le fo r

64. Li Chi 李 濟 ， W i 小 也 构 器 ；"Yin hsü ch'u-t'u ti kung-yeh ch’eng-chi— sanlT’ 殷 墟 出 土 的 工 業 成 蜻 一 三 例 • 65. 尺尺, "Tui Shang tai cho yü kung-yi ti yi-hsieh ch’u-pu k'an-fa” 對 商 代 琢 玉工藝的一些初步看法. 66. "1975 nien An-yang Yin hsü ti hsin fa-hsien” 1975年 安 降 股 坡 的 新 發現-

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The Shang Society from An -yang

o u r in a b ility a t th is tim e to an sw e r, d ire c tly a n d w ith fu ll d o cu m en ta tio n , th e sim ple a n d n ecessary q u e s tio n g iv e n ab o v e. B ut w e can c e rta in ly tr y to p ro v id e an an sw er, a lth o u g h o n e w h ic h is b ased som etim es o n in feren ce a n d lacks d etail in m ost resp e cts. From th e p e rsp e c tiv e o f A n -y a n g (w h e re th e d iv in a tio n re c o rd s w ere k e p t a n d from w h ic h th e b est archaeological e v id e n c e avails), th e in co m in g traffic o f econom ic reso u rce s o f all so rts w as h e a v y , co n sistin g o f grain , gam e a n d dom estic anim als, in d u s tria l p ro d u c ts, a n d services. T he o u tg o in g flow w as lig h ter, p rim a rily c o n sistin g o f ro y a l g ifts to p ro v in cia l lords, m a in ten an ce o f a m ilita ry " u m b r e l la /’ a n d ritu a l ex p ressio n s o f th e k in g 's w ish es fo r th e ir w ell-b ein g . First, th e incom e. T he m ost basic a n d im p o rta n t ro y a l incom e w as p ro b a b ly g rain , p rin c ip a lly m illet. T h e d iv in a tio n re c o rd s sh o w th a t th e k in g w as co n c ern ed a b o u t th e h a rv e s ts o f th e fo u r q u a rte rs (E astern L and, W e ste rn L and, N o rth e rn L and, a n d S o u th e rn Land) o f his k in g d o m , a n d he w as co n c e rn e d a b o u t th e h a rv e s ts in th e la n d s o f his co n so rts, his p rin ce s, a n d his lo rd s, b u t n o t a b o u t th e m illet h a rv e sts o f th e alien states ( fa n g ) . S uch re c o rd s allow th e in fe re n c e th a t th e k in g h ad a sh a re in th e g rain h a rv e s ts th ro u g h o u t h is s ta te .67 In a d d itio n , o th e r goods w e re se n t in b y v a rio u s lo rd s w ith in th e state, a n d som etim es d u rin g th e re ig n o f W u T ing th e se so u rces o f incom e w e re re c o rd e d o n th e b rid g es o f tu rtle shells o r a t th e b o tto m o f th e so ck ets o r alo n g th e flat edges o f sh o u ld e r blades. From th e se w e k n o w th a t tu rtle shells, cattle sh o u ld e r blades, p e rh a p s c o w ry shells, cattle, h o rses, e le p h a n ts, w a r cap tiv es, C h’ian g cap tiv es, a n d so fo rth , w e re " e n te re d b y " 〇 入 ） o r "c a m e " (/ai 來 ） from th is o r th a t lo rd nam e. O n o n e b o n e h a irp in fo u n d in H si-p ei-k an g is re c o rd e d th a t it w as o n e o f a p a ir se n t in b y M a rq u is Pei § .68 G ifts like th e se p ro b a b ly re p re s e n t a tin y p ro p o rtio n o f th e m an y scarce g oods se n t in b y th e p ro v in c e s to th e capital. But th e k in g d id n o t ju s t sit in h is ca p ita l to w a it fo r th e gifts an d trib u te s to ro ll in from h is lo rd s ; h e som etim es w e n t o u t p erso n a lly to p ic k th e m u p . T h e ro y a l h u n t th a t w e m e n tio n e d w as en g ag ed in th ro u g h o u t his sta te a n d w as p ro b a b ly a d ev ice o f econom ic e x p lo ita tio n o f th e p ro v in ce s o n th e k in g 's p a rt as w ell as a sp o rt, a n d th e g ain w as som etim es co n sid erab le. T h e k in g also m ade all so rts o f jo u rn e y s in to th e p ro v in ces, n o t to m e n tio n his m ilita ry cam p aig n s ag a in st his n eig h ­ b o rs .69 On th e se jo u rn e y s u n d o u b te d ly th e k in g a n d h is large p a rty 67. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ，"P'u-trr’u chung so^chien chih Yin tai nung-yeh” 卜 畔 中 所 見 之 股 代 展 業 ；Ch'enM eng-chia 陳 夢 家 综 述 ，pp. 313-316. 68. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ， "W u Ting shih wu-chung chi-shih k ' 〇"tz'u k'ao” 武丁時五種記事刻辭考. 一 69. Tung Tso-pin 董 作 窨 ， ym /i p ’ti 救 厝 請 （hsia 下 ，vol. 9 , " W u Ting jih p i 〃 武 丁 曰 糝 )•

Economy

and the

Poutical Order of

the

State

237

liv e d o ff h is su b je c ts in th e areas th e y w e n t th ro u g h . T h e re are d iv in a tio n re c o rd s c o n c e rn in g th e cÄ’ä 取 （ " ta k in g " ) o f h o rses, c a ttle, a n d s h e e p ; p o ssib ly som e o f th e e x p ro p ria tio n s to o k p lace o n th e se o u tin g s .70 A t th e e n d o f su c cessfu l m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s c a p tiv e s in larg e o r sm all n u m b e rs w e re b ro u g h t b ac k , c o n trib u tin g to th e w e a lth o f th e cap ital. In th e o u tg o co lu m n , th e o n ly sig n ific a n t re c o rd s p e rta in to ro y a l g ifts to th e k in g 's p ro v in c ia l lo rd s. S u ch re c o rd s w e re ra re a n d o ccasio n al in th e o racle in sc rip tio n s, b u t sin ce a ro y a l g ift o f co w rie s o r b ro n z e o fte n led to th e c o m m em o rativ e c a stin g o f r itu a l vessels, th a t e v e n t w as so m etim es re c o rd e d in b ro n z e in sc rip tio n s. In th e S h an g -C h o u b ro n z e ca talo g u e m e n tio n e d ea rlier, as m a n y as fifty o b je c ts o f s u p p o se d ly S h an g d a te b e a r in s c rip tio n s c o m m em o ratin g th e ro y a l g ift-g iv in g .71 O b v io u sly s u c h g ifts re p re s e n t a " r e d is tr ib u tio n " o f th e s ta te 's w e a lth o n ly a t th e to p s tra tu m o f so ciety . In fact, o u r b alan ce sh eets, in c o m p le te as th e y are, cle a rly sh o w th a t th e flo w o f w e a lth (grains, m eat, go o d s, a n d serv ices) w as v a s tly u n e v e n in fa v o r o f th e u p p e r s tra tu m o f S h an g so c iety a n d o f th e larg e to w n s o f th e se ttle m e n t n e tw o rk (esp ecially th e la rg e st o f th e m all, th e cap ital). T h e arch aeo fo g ical re m a in s o f th e g ro u n d h o u se s a t H s ia o -t'u n a n d th e ro y a l to m b s a t H si-p e i-k a n g re p re s e n t sig n ific a n t c u m u la tio n s o f S h an g w e a lth a t th e to p a n d c e n te r. A n e x c e lle n t illu s tra tio n is p ro v id e d b y th e in v e n to ry o f th e g o o d s b u rie d in F u H a o 's to m b : 72 W o o d e n c h a m b e r a n d la c q u e re d w o o d e n co ffin 16 sacrificial v ic tim s 6 sacrificial d o g s A lm o st 7,000 c o w ries M o re th a n 200 b ro n z e ritu a l v essels 5 larg e bells a n d 18 sm all bells o f b ro n z e 44 b ro n z e im p le m e n ts (27 o f th e m k n iv e s) 4 b ro n z e m irro rs 1 b ro n z e sp a tu la 1 3 0 -plus b ro n z e w e a p o n s 4 b ro n z e tig e rs o r tig e r-h e a d s 2 0 -p lu s b ro n z e a rtifa c ts o f o th e r d e s c rip tio n s 5 9 0 -p lu s ja d e a n d ja d e -lik e o b je c ts 1 0 0 -p lu s ja d e b ead s, discs, a n d p ieces 2 0 -p lu s o p al b ea d s 70. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ，

/isä p V 以 '“ £5“％ sAu 股 坡 卜 醉 练 述 ,

p. 318. 71 • Chang Kwang-chih 張 光 直 et al., S/w% CAott cA’î>这 ti tsu n g -h o y e n -c h iu 角 禺 青 銅 器 典 銘 文 的 綜 合 研 宄 •

72. ÄMTHP，"An-yang Yin hsü wu-hao mu ti fa-chüeh ”安 降 殷 樓 五 致 暮 的 發 掘.

The Shang Society from An-yang

238 2 q u a rtz c ry sta l o b jects

% 7 0-plus sto n e sc u lp tu re s a n d o th e r sto n e o b je cts 5 b o n e im p lem en ts 2 0 -p lu s b o n e a rro w h e a d s 4 9 0 -p lu s b o n e h a irp in s 3 iv o ry ca rv in g s 4 p o tte ry vessels a n d 3 clay w h istle s In th is one to m b w ere p laced scarce goods g a th e re d fro m b o th w ith in an d b e y o n d th e S hang sta te a n d m a n u fa c tu re d b y co u n tless w o rk e rs in co u n tless w o rk sh o p s, p ro b a b ly b o th in A n -y a n g a n d elsew h ere in th e state. She w as in d e e d b o th a t th e c e n te r (A n-yang) a n d n e a r th e to p (royal c o n so rt o f King W u T ing) o f th e S hang society. M em b ers o f th e o p p o site en d o f th e social stra tu m , w h o se p it h o u se s a n d g rav es w ere n u m e ro u s in th e archaeological rem ain s b u t w a rra n te d o n ly b rie f o r e v e n statistical acco u n ts, o b v io u sly d id n o t com m and a n y w e a lth o f su c h p ro p o rtio n s. T h e ir life d id n o t a p p e a r in th e d iv in a tio n reco rd s, b u t som e o f th e W e ste rn C hou poem s in S h ih c h in g d e sc rib e d it closely e n o u g h : K 'a m - K 'a m , y o u h e w th e t'a n w ood

You place it o n th e b a n k o f th e R iv er; T h e w a te rs o f th e R iver are clear a n d w a v y ; If y o u do n o t sow a n d do n o t reap . H ow can y o u b rin g in th re e h u n d re d y a rd -fu lls o f g ra in ? If y o u do n o t chase a n d do n o t h u n t. H ow can w e see su sp e n d e d b ad g e rs in y o u r c o u rty a rd ? T h at n o b lem an . In d eed he does n o t eat th e food o f id len ess ! [F a -t'a n , tra n sla te d b y B. K arlgren] Big ra t, big rat. Do n o t g o b b le o u r m illet. T h ree y ears w e h av e slaved fo r y o u . Yet y o u ta k e no n o tice o f us. A t last w e are going to leave y o u A nd go to th a t h a p p y la n d ; H ap p y land, h a p p y lan d , W h e re w e shall h av e o u r place. [Shuo sh u , tra n sla te d b y A rth u r W aley] In In In In

th e th e th e th e

se v e n th m o n th th e Fire e b b s ; n in th m o n th I h a n d o u t th e coats. d ay s o f th e F irst, sh a rp fro sts ; d ay s o f th e Second, k ee n w in d s.

Economy and

the

Political Order of

the

State

W ith o u t coats, w ith o u t serge. H o w sh o u ld th e y fin ish th e y e a r? In th e d a y s o f th e T h ird th e y p lo u g h ; In th e d a y s o f th e F o u rth o u t I ste p W ith m y w ife a n d c h ild re n . B rin g in g h a m p e rs to th e s o u th e rn a c re W h e re th e fie ld -h a n d s com e to ta k e g o o d c h e er. " T h e s p rin g d a y s are d ra w in g o u t; T h e y g a th e r th e w h ite a s te r in c ro w d s. A g ir l’s h e a rt is sick a n d sad T ill w ith h e r lo rd sh e can go h o m e /' In th e s e v e n th m o n th th e F ire e b b s ; In th e e ig h th m o n th th e y p lu c k th e ru sh e s. In th e silk -w o rm m o n th th e y g a th e r th e m u lb e rry -le a v e s. T ak e th a t c h o p p e r a n d b ill To lo p th e fa r b o u g h s a n d h ig h . P u ll to w a rd s i:h e m th e te n d e r leaves. In th e s e v e n th m o n th th e s h rik e cries ; In th e e ig h th m o n th th e y tw is t th re a d , T h e b la c k th re a d a n d th e y ello w : " W ith m y re d d y e so b rig h t I m ak e a ro b e fo r m y lo r d •” In th e f o u rth m o n th th e m ilk w o rt is in sp ik e . In th e fifth m o n th th e cicad a cries. In th e e ig h th m o n th th e h a rv e s t is g a th e re d . In th e te n th m o n th th e b o u g h s fall. In th e d a y s o f th e F irst w e h u n t th e raco o n . A n d ta k e th o se fo x es a n d w ild -c a ts To m ak e fu rs fo r o u r L ord. In th e d a y s o f th e S econd is th e G re at M eet ; P ra c tic e fo r d e e d s o f w ar. T h e o n e -y e a r-o ld w e k e e p ; T h e th re e -y e a r-o ld w e o ffer to o u r L ord. In th e fifth m o n th th e lo c u st m o v es its leg. In th e s ix th m o n th th e g ra s s h o p p e r sh a k es its w in g . In th e s e v e n th m o n th , o u t in th e w ild s; In th e e ig h th m o n th , in th e farm . In th e n in th m o n th , a t th e d o o r. In th e te n th m o n th th e c ric k e t goes u n d e r m y b ed . I sto p u p e v e ry h o le to sm o k e o u t th e ra ts. P lu g g in g th e w in d o w s, b u ry in g th e d o o rs :

239

240

The Shang Society from An -yang "C om e, w ife an d c h ild re n . T h e ch an g e o f th e y ea r is at h a n d . Come a n d live in th is h o u s e /' [C h H yü e h , tra n sla te d b y A rth u r W aley]

T h e life o f th e W e ste rn C hou farm ers m ay n o t h av e b een id e n ­ tical w ith th a t o f th e Shang, b u t th e S hang farm ers left no poem s, a n d th e co m p ariso n o f th ese glim pses o f th e life o f th e C hou p ea sa n ts w ith th e Fu H ao to m b in v e n to ry serv es w ell to illu stra te th e u p w a rd a n d c e n trip e ta l re so u rce flow th a t w as com m on to b o th d y n asties. COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORTATION

W e h av e seen th a t th e S hang sta te n e tw o rk co n sisted o f h u n d re d s o f w alled to w n s in h ie ra rc h ica l in te rre la tio n sh ip , a n d th a t econom ic reso u rces flo w ed am ong th e to w n s in a b asically u p w a rd a n d c e n trip e ta l p a tte rn . T ools w ere o b v io u sly re q u ire d to effect o r a t least facilitate th e flow , an d th e y p rim a rily in v o lv e d co m m u n icatio n a n d tra n s p o rta tio n am ong v ario u s u n its o f th e n e tw o rk a n d esp ecially b e tw e e n th e cap ital an d th e p ro v in ce s. I w ill firs t d iscu ss tra n s p o rta tio n because th e re is v e ry little d ata. T he k in d o f in d u s tria l sp ecializatio n a n d re so u rc e flow d e scrib ed ab o v e m u st ta k e as a p re re q u isite an effectiv e tra n s p o rta tio n n e tw o rk to m ove ra w m aterials, g ra in a n d o th e r foods, a n d in d u s tria l goods o v er g re a t d istan ces. U n d o u b te d ly h u m a n ca ra v a n s c a rry in g ore, bags o f g rain , c h u n k s o f ro ck , clay, a n d o th e r h e a v y o r lig h t loads m u st h av e been seen stre w n along long stre tc h e s o f ro ad s lin k in g th e v ario u s settlem en ts, b u t w h a t d id th e S hang h a v e o th e r th a n h u m a n la b o r to ca rry o n th e v a st tra n s p o rta tio n e ffo rt? Boats, u n d o u b te d ly , w h e re riv e rs large a n d sm all w e re passable, as sh o w n b y th e b ro n z e a n d oracle b o n e ch a ra c te rs o f boat. C arts an d carriages, p u lle d b y m en a n d o th e r beasts (horses a n d c a ttle)? Beasts o f b u rd e n (su ch as cattle) to h elp c a rry th e loads o n th e ir b a c k s? A ll o f th e se are p o ssib le. W h eeled veh icles w ere o f co u rse k n o w n in th e fo rm o f h o rse ch a rio ts, b u t tra n s ­ p o rt v eh icles h av e n o t b ee n id e n tifie d e ith e r in th e archaeological rem ain s o r in th e shapes o f w ritte n ch a ra cte rs. C hiu k a o in S h u c h in g spo k e of, " w ith y o u r ca rts am i ç x e n " or, ra th e r, ca rts p u lle d b y o x e n ? In e ith e r case ca ttle p ro b a b ly d id p la y an im p o rta n t p a rt in th e fo rm a tio n o f th e Shang civ ilizatio n , as sh o w n b y ： th e p ro m in e n c e o f W a n g H ai in Shang ritu a ls a n d b y W an g H ai's le g e n d a ry ro le as th e o rig in a to r o f cattle b re e d in g .73 73. Wang Kuo^wei 王 國 維 ， "Yin p'u-tz'u chung so»chien hsien kung hsien

Economy

and the

Political Order of the State

W e a re n o t a n y to o clear a b o u t th e q u e s tio n o f w h o m an ag ed th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n o f go o d s. S ince som e o f th e ts u w e re g ro u p s o f p ro fe ssio n a l tra d e rs a n d sin ce co w rie s w e re u se d as c u rre n c y o f e x ­ ch an g e, u n d o u b te d ly tra d e rs p la y e d a n im p o rta n t ro le in S h an g so c ie ty ; in fact, th e S h an g w e re su c h sk illfu l tra d e rs th a t m a n y o f th e ir d e sc e n ­ d a n ts fo u n d c a re e rs in tra d in g a n d to th is d a y th e w o rd fo r m e rc h a n t, sA a% je/z 商 人 ， is th e sam e as th e w o rd fo r th e S h an g p eo p le. U n fo r­ tu n a te ly , w e h a v e n o re lia b le in fo rm a tio n w h a te v e r o n d e ta ils o f th e S h an g tr a d e a n d tra d e rs . A lo n g w ith m a te ria ls a n d go o d s, in fo rm a tio n , m essages, a n d in s tru c tio n s m u s t h a v e also p assed am o n g th e v a rio u s se ttle m e n ts, a n d th e c o m m u n ic a tio n o f la n g u ag e, o ral a n d w ritte n , m u s t h a v e b e e n a n o th e r p re re q u is ite fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f th e S h an g sta te n e tw o rk . I t is in th is c o n n e c tio n th a t a lo o k a t th e o rig in o f C hinese w ritin g m a y p ro v e u s e fu l— w e m a y b e h e lp e d in g ra sp in g a c u ltu re as a w h o le if w e p a y h e e d to th e a s p e c t o f th e c u ltu re th a t w ritin g w as firs t in v e n te d to re c o rd . A lth o u g h th e b u lk o f th e S h an g w ritin g is in th e fo rm o f o racle re c o rd s in c ise d o n tu r tle sh ells a n d c a ttle s h o u ld e r b la d es, th e e a rlie st fo rm s o f C h inese w ritin g h a v e b e e n fo u n d o n p o tte ry . T h e firs t e x a m p le s o f in sc rib e d p o tte ry d a tin g fro m e a rly C hina cam e to lig h t in th e 1870s in S h a n tu n g a n d H o p ei, esp ecially in th e a rea o f L in -tz u .74 T h ese a rtifa c ts p ro v e d to b e m a d e m o stly in th e sta te s o f C h#i a n d L u in th e la te C hou p e rio d , a n d th e ir in s c rip tio n s p e rta in to th e id e n tity a n d th e lo c atio n o f th e p o tte rs . In s c rib e d p o tte ry a lle g e d ly o f la te C hou d a te also b u t o f a v e r y d iffe re n t sty le w as fo u n d th ro u g h sc ien tific e x c a v a tio n s a t th e C h’e n g -tz u -y a i site in S h a n tu n g in th e la te 1920s a n d e a rly 1930s, w h e re in s c rib e d p o ts h e rd s h a v e also b e e n re p o rte d fro m th e p re h is to ric L u n g -sh a n c u ltu re s tra tu m .75 A t th e sam e tim e, p o tte ry w ith in s c rip tio n s w as fo u n d a t th e S h an g ru in s in A n -y a n g .76 In th e 1930s, p o tte ry w ith sim ilar m a rk s h a d b e e n fo u n d o n th e K w a n g tu n g co ast o f s o u th e rn m o s t C h in a 77 a n d o n th e H a n g -c h o u Bay in c e n tra l C h in a.78 T h u s, b efo re th e

wang k’ao” 救 卜 辭 中 所 見 先 公 先 王 考 ； "Hsü k'ao” 續 考 ； Wu Ch'i-ch’a n g 吳 其 昌 , "P'u-tz'u so-chien Yin hsien kung hsien wang san hsü k'ao" 卜 辭 所 見 殷 先 公 先 王 三 續 考 ； Ku Chieh-kang 顧 箱 剛 广 Chou Yi kua yao tz'u chung ti ku-shih " 周 易 补 艾 鮮 中 的 故 事 ；Ch’en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， "Shang tai ti shen-hua yü w u -sh u " 商 代 的 神 話 與 巫 術 ; Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 广 Chia-ku wen Shang tsu niao t'u-t’eng ti yi-chi” f 骨 文 商 族 烏 囫 蹯 的 遺 助 ^ NaitöTorajiro 内 等 虎 次 郎 ，"Öi〃 王 亥 ，"ZokuÖi” 續 王 亥 • 74. First recorded in Wu Ta-cheng 吳 大 澂 ， cAou 説 文古箱補 and Liu Eh 夢JÜ , “'咖 客 fa o 鐵 雲 载 匈 . 75. Fu Ssu-nien 傅 斯 年 ， Li Chi 李 濟 ， et al.， 城子崖• 76. Li Chi 李 濟 ， r'如 W i 小 也 尚 器 . 77. D. J. Finn, "Archaeological Finds on Lamma island near Hong Kong,"

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w ar, p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s a lre a d y w e re w ell k n o w n archaeologically, n o t o n ly fro m th e earliest h isto rical p e rio d s (the la tte r tw o o f th e T h ree D ynasties) b u t from p re h isto ric p e rio d s as w ell. B ut re la tiv e ly little a tte n tio n h ad b een p aid to th e se in sc rip tio n s. T h o se o f th e S hang w ere, o f course, o v erw h elm ed b y th e sh eer q u a n tity o f oracle b o n e w ritin g s, an d th e few p re h isto ric pieces w ere too sc an ty , too sc atte re d , an d p e rh a p s too sim ple to com m and m u ch sc h o larly a tte n tio n a t th e tim e. In re c e n t years, m u c h sc h o larly a tte n tio n h as b een d e v o te d to th e se a n c ien t C hinese p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s. N ew archaeological d is­ coveries since 1949 h av e n o t o n ly b ro u g h t to lig h t p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s at earlier h isto rical sites in C h e n g -c h o u 7879 a n d Y e n -sh ih 80 b u t h a v e also y ield ed sim ilar m ark s o n p o tte ry at th e v e ry ea rly N eolithic site at P a n -p 'o ,81 a site th a t can n o w be d a te d b y ra d io c a rb o n to ea rly fifth m illen n iu m b .c . S everal h isto ria n s a n d arch aeo lo g ists h a v e re c e n tly w ritte n a b o u t th e se ea rly in sc rip tio n s, fo cu sin g th e ir a tte n tio n on th e issue o f th e o rig in o f C hinese w ritin g .82 Li H siao -tin g co n clu d es th a t th e P a n -p 'o p o tte ry m ark s fu lly w a rra n t th e te rm " w r itin g ," a n d he d ates th e o rig in o f th e C hinese w ritin g to th e c u ltu ra l p e rio d o f th is im p o rta n t site.83 P u sh in g th e th e m e fu rth e r. H o P in g -ti believes th a t som e o f th e P a n -p 'o m ark s w e re n u m e ra ls a n d th a t th e y w ere " th e earliest [num erals] e v e r crea ted b y m a n ." 84 T h is— th e o rig in o f C hinese w ritin g a n d h o w C hina com pares w ith th e re st o f th e w o rld from th e p e rsp e c tiv e o f th e ir re sp e c tiv e

part II; W. Schofield, "The Proto-historic Site of the Hong Kong Culture at Shek Pek, Lantau, Hong Kong"; R. Maglioni, Archaelogical D iscovery in E astern Kwangtung. 78. Ho T ie n -h s in g 何 天 行 ， H ang H sien Liang-chu chen chik shih-ch’i y ü h e i-t’ao 抗 縣 良 渚 鎮 之 石 器 與 黑 陶 ； Shih H sin-keng 施

昕 Licm黑-c/m ’ 渚 . 79. An Chih-min 安 志 敏 ， "Yi-chiu-wu-erh nien ch'iu chi Cheng-chou Erh-li-kang fa-chüeh chi” 一 九 五 二 年 秋 季 鄭 州 二 里 岡 發 掘 記 ，77; "Chengchou Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh" 鄭 州 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ，83; 鄭 州 二 里 岡 ，p. 17. 80• 欠 尤 "Ho-nan Yen-shih Erh-li-t'ou yi-chih fa-chüeh chien pao” 河 南 偃 師 二 里 頭 遺 址 發 掘 簡 報 ，222. 81 • 西安半坡. 82. Li Hsiao-ting 李 孝 定 ，"Ts'ung chi chung shih-ch'ien ho yu-shih tsaoch#i t/ao wen ti kuan-ch'a li-ts’e Chung-kuo wen-tzu ti ch'i-yüan " 從 幾 種 史 前 和 有 史 早 期 构 文 的 概 察 蠡 測 中 國 文 字 的 起 源 ； Kuo M o -jo 郭 泳 若 ，"Ku-tai wen-tzu chih piencheng ti fa-chan〃 古 代 文 字 之 辨 證 的 發 展 ； Cheng T e - k 'u n 鄭 德 坤 ， "Chung-kuo shang-ku shu ming ti yen-pien chi ch'i ying-vung” 中 國 上 古 數 名 的 演 變 及 其 應 用 ； Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 吾 ，"Kuan-yü ku wen-tzu yen-chiu tijo-kan w en-t'i” 關 於 古 文 字 研 究 的 若 干 問 題 ； Ho Ping-ti, 7Vze Crache 〇 / rAe chapter 6. 83. Li Hsiao-ting 李 孝 定 op. cir. ; Li Hsiao-ting 李 孝 定 ，"Chung-kuo wen-tzu ti yüan-shih ho yen-pien” 中 國 文 字 “ 原 始 和 演 變 . 84. Ho Ping-ti, The Cradle o f the E ast, p. 223.

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h isto rie s o f w ritin g — is n o t a th e m e I w ish to e x p lo re h e re . T o m e, e v e n m o re sig n ific a n t issu es p e rta in in g to th e ceram ic in s c rip tio n s o f a n c ie n t C hina c o n c e rn th e ir d is tin c tiv e sty le a n d th e p la ce o f s u c h in sc rip tio n s w ith in C hinese c u ltu re . B ut firs t le t u s e n u m e ra te th e arch aeo lo g ical fin d s o f p re h is to ric a n d S h an g p o tte ry in s c rip tio n s th u s fa r : P r e h is to r ic P a n -p 'o -ts ’u n 半 坡 村

Sian, S h en si (Y ang-shao c u ltu re ) 85 W u 4 o u 五 樓 ，C h 'in -tu -c h e n , Sian, S h en si (Y ang-shao c u ltu re ) 86 H s in -y e h -ts ’u n 苯 野 村 H o -y a n g H sien, S h en si ^Y ang-shao c u ltu re ) 87 C h ia n g -c h a i 姜 寨 ，L in -t’u n g , S h en si (Y ang-shao c u ltu re ) 88 L iu -w a n 柳 灣 ，Lo ，tu , C h in g h ai (M a-ch ’a n g c u ltu re ) 89 (fig. 63) L in g -y an g -h o 陵 陽 河 C hü H sien, S h a n tu n g (T a-w e n -k 'o u c u ltu re ) 90 C h’ie n - c h a i 前 寨 ，C h u -c h 'e n g ， S h a n tu n g (T a-w e n -k 'o u c u ltu re ) 91 C h’e n g -tz u -y a i 城 子 崖 L u n g -sh a n -c h e n , S h a n tu n g (L u n g -s h a n c u ltu re )92 S u n g -tse 崧 澤 ，C h 'in g -p ’u , S h an g h ai (S u n g -tse c u ltu re ) 93 L ian g ， c h u 良 诸 ， H an g H sien, C h ek ian g (L ian g -ch u c u ltu re ) 94 F en g -p i-t/o u 风 鼻 頭 ，^ k ao -h siu n g ， T a iw a n (F e n g -p i-t’o u c u itu re )95 P a -tz u -y ü a n 获 仔 園 （ Pat>ea ，h u i) a n d P ao -lo u 寶 樓 （ P o-lao) ， H ai-fen g ， K w a n g tu n g (G eom etric p o tte ry c u ltu re ) 96 T a-w a n 大 灣 ， L am m a Isla n d , H o n g K ong (G eo m etric)97 S h e k -p ik 石 壁 ， L a n ta u Islan d , H o n g K ong (G eo m etric)98 ，

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85• 尺尺/ f O ：, ifsi-an 西安半故. 8 6 . 尺/C "Feng Hao yi-tai k'ao-ku tiao-ch’a chien pao " 豐 鎮 一 帶 考 古 調 查 簡 報 ，29.

87. K K , "Huang-ho San-men-hsia sjiui-k’u k'ao-k’u tiao-ch’a chien pao 〃 ’ hsin-shih-ch'i shih-tai yi-chih ti hsin fa-hsien” 臨 潼 姜 寨 新 石 器 時 代 遺 址 的 新 發 現 ， 82. 89. K K , "Ch'ing-hai Lo-tu Liu-wan yiian-shih she-hui mu-ti fan-ying chfu ti chu-yao w en-t'i 〃 青 海 樂 都 柳 灣 原 始 社 會 基 地 反 映 出 的 主 要 問 趙 • 9 0 . 狀 HCX ra - u /e n ü w 大 汶 口 ，p. 117. 91. I b id . 92. Fu Ssu-nien 傅 斯 年 ， Li Chi 李 濟 ， et al., 城子崖• 93. K K H P , ''Shang-hai shih Ch'ing-p'u hsien Sung-tse yi-chih ti shih chüeh" 上 海 市 青 浦 縣 崧 澤 遺 址 的 試 掘 ， 7. 黃 河 三 門 峽 水 庠 考 古 調 査 簡 報 ，p i. I, no. 2. 88. W W , 〃Lin-t'ung Chiang-chai

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抗 縣 良 渚 鎮 之 石 器 與 黑 崗 ；Shih H sin-keng 施 昕 更 ，

良渚. 95. Chang Kwang-chih 張 光 直 et al., and 认 e Preh is to r y o f T a iw a n , p. 100. 96. R. Maglioni, A r c h a e o lo g ic a l D is c o v e r y in E a s te r n K w a n g tu n g . 97. D. J. Finn, "Archaeological Finds on Lamma Island near Hong Kong, Part

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98. W. Schofield, ''T he Proto-historic Site of the Hong Kong Culture at Shek Pik, Lantau, Hong Kong."

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63. Pottery inscriptions at the Ma-ch'ang culture site at Liu-wan, Chinghai (after KK, "Ch’ing-hai Lo-tu Liu-wan yüan-shih she hui mu-ti fan-ying ch’u ti chu-yao w en-t’i , ' 376).

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E rh -li-t’ou, Y en-shih, H o n a n 99 E rh -li-k an g , C heng-chou, H o n a n 100 N an -k u an -w a i, C heng-chou, H o n a n 101 H siao -t’u n , A n -y an g , H o n a n 102 T a i- h s i- ts ’u n , K ao-ch'eng, H o p e i103 W u -c h 'e n g , C h 'in g -ch ian g , K ian g si104 A d etailed d e sc rip tio n o r a fu ll re p ro d u c tio n o f th e p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s at all th e ab o v e sites w o u ld be u n n e c e ssa ry h ere, since th e q u estio n h e re has to do w ith th e p u rp o se s fo r w h ic h th e p o tte ry m ark s 9 9 . 尺尺，"Ho-nan Yen-shih Erh-li-t'ou yi»chih fa-chüeh chien pao” 河 南 偃 _ 二里頭遺址發掘簡報• 100. See note 79 above. 101. K K H P "Cheng-chou Nan-kuan-wai Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chiieh" 鄭 州 南 閫 外 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ，83. 102. Li Chi 李 济 ，Hsiao-run f’czo cTz’i 小 也 «J 器 . 103. W W , ''Kao-ch'eng T'ai-hsi Shang tai yi-chih fa-hsien ti t'ao-ch'i wen-tzu#, 藁城台西商代遺址發現的陶器文字• 104. T’ang Lan 康 藺 ，"Kuan-yü Chiang-hsi W u-ch'eng wen-hua yi-chih yü wen-tzu ti ch'u-pu t #an-so” 閫 於 江 西 吳 城 文 化 遺 址 與 文 字 的 初 步 探 索 •

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w e re m ad e. M y o p in io n o n th is issu e is th a t th e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity o f th e ceram ic m a rk s, b o th S h an g a n d p re h isto ric , w e re m a rk e rs a n d em b lem s o f fam ilies, lineages, clans, o r som e d iv isio n s o f on e o f th e se, a n d as su ch , a tte m p ts to m a tc h th e m w ith k n o w n c h a ra c te rs a n d to tra n s la te th e m in to m e a n in g fu l se n te n c e s a re u n lik e ly to b e p ro d u c tiv e in m o st cases. T h e re a re tw o c o n s id e ra tio n s b e h in d th e a b o v e o b se rv a ­ tio n . T h e firs t c o n c e rn s th e p u rp o s e o f th e se m a rk s, a n d th e seco n d has to d o w ith th e s ta tu s o f th e in sc rib e rs. F irst, o n th e p u rp o s e fo r w h ic h th e se m a rk s w e re in c ised • S ev eral s tu d e n ts o f C hinese arc h a e o lo g y h a v e e x p re s se d th e b e lie f th a t th e m a rk s th a t w e re in c ised b e fo re firin g o f th e p o tte ry w e re p ro b a b ly d o n e to id e n tify th e w o rk m a n s h ip o f in d iv id u a l p o tte rie s, w h ile th o se sc ra tc h e d o n a f te r firin g w e re to id e n tify p o sse ssio n rig h ts o f u se rs. It is tr u e th a t m a n y L in -tz u p o tte ry in s c rip tio n s a p p e a r to b e n am es o f in d iv id u a l p o tte rs o r p o tte rs ' s h o p s ,105 b u t th e se ceram ics w e re p ro d u c e d d u rin g th e la te C hou p e rio d w h e n p o tte rs a n d o th e r c ra ftsm e n w e re fu lltim e sp e cia lists a n d tra d e sm e n . A lm o st c e rta in ly th e Y ang-shao p o tte r y w as n o t m a n u fa c tu re d b y sp e c ia lists; p o tte ry m a k in g in th e P a n -p 'o v illag e w as lik e ly a d o m e stic a c tiv ity o f e v e ry h o u se h o ld . T h e re is e v id e n c e , a t th e P a n -p ’o site, th a t p a rtic u la r p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s te n d e d to b e c o n c e n tra te d in p a rtic u la r area s in th e v illag e : W e h a v e fo u n d th a t m a n y sim ilar sig n s o c c u r in th e sam e sto ra g e p its o r in th e sam e areas. F or ex a m p le , a n an a ly sis o f th e p ro v e n a n c e d a ta o f th e m o st co m m o n sign, th e single v e rtic a l stro k e , sh o w s th a t m o st o f th e s e v e n ty -tw o p ieces b e a rin g th is sig n w e re fo u n d a t six loci th a t b asica lly a d jo in o n e a n o th e r in a n area o f ju s t o v e r a h u n d r e d sq u a re m e ters. In sto ra g e p it H 341 w e fo u n d tw o s h e rd s w ith th e sam e sign. A ll fiv e Z -sh ap ed signs c lu ste re d w ith in tw o g rid s q u a re s .106 S im ilar in d ic a tio n s a re seen a t th e F e n g -p i-t'o u site in T aiw a n , w h e re sh e rd s w ith in c ise d X -signs c lu ste r in a sin g le area o n th e s o u th e rn ed g e o f th e v illa g e .107 T h is la st p h e n o m e n o n also su g g e sts th a t th e so-called n u m e ra ls se v e ra l sc h o la rs h a v e re a d o u t o f th e p re h is to ric signs w e re p ro b a b ly n o th in g m o re th a n signs th a t h a p p e n e d to be id e n tic a l in sh a p e w ith som e o f th e n u m e ra ls o f e a rly h isto ric C hina. T h e n u m e ra ls 1, 2, 3, a n d 4 w e re sim p ly c h a ra c te rs w itîi 1, 2, 3, o r 4 s h o rt stro k e s, 5 is 105. Ku T ing-lung 顧 廷 龍 仙 u； en 丨 / u 古 匈 文 孴 106• 尺尺/fCA：, ffsi-咖 Pan-pb 西 安 半 故 ，p. 198. 107. Chang Kwang-chih 光 直 et al” o f T a iw a n , pi. 54. ，

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and 认 e /Ve/»•对 ory

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an X m ark , a n d 7 sim p ly a cross shape. T hese fo rm s are com m on a t m an y site s.108 T h e o th e r C hinese n u m erals, 6, 8, 9, are m ore a rb itra rily d es­ ig n a ted in th e n u m e ra ls system , a n d th e y h a v e n o t b een fo u n d to o cc u r in p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s. A s Li Chi has ask ed , w ith re g a rd to th e p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s a t H siao -t’u n , " h o w is it th a t som e n u m e ra ls (7) are seen so fre q u e n tly , o th e rs (1, 3, 4) are ra re , a n d still o th e rs (2, 6, 8 , 9) are n o t fo u n d at a l l ? " 109 Since single o r m u ltip le stro k es, crosses, a n d X 's are signs com m only u sed in m a n y c u ltu re s to id e n tify a n d d istin g u ish lots, th e se p ro b a b ly w ere sim p ly m e an t to m a rk p o tte ry vessels to in d ic a te th a t th e y b elo n g ed to a c e rta in lot, p o ssib ly in re la tio n to som e social d iv isio n s. C h aracters id e n tifia b le as nam es o r em blem s w e n t a ste p fu rth e r, id e n tify in g p o tte ry vessels w ith specific, n am ed g ro u p s, b u t in p rin c ip le th e re is little d iffe re n ce b e tw e e n th e se a n d th e o th e rs w ith lo t m ark s. If th is v iew p ro v e s v alid , th e n it w ill a c c o u n t fo r m ost o f H s ia o -t'u n 's p o tte ry in s c rip tio n classes. A s fo r th e "p o sitio n a l m a rk s" o f H sia o -t'u n , T u n g T so -p in h ad p o in te d o u t th a t th e c h a ra c te rs fo r " le f t," " m id d le ," a n d " r ig h t" co u ld also se rv e to d e sig n ate p e rs o n s .110 A n d n am es o f p erso n s, as w e h av e le a rn e d fro m o racle b o n e in sc rip tio n s, are o ften in d istin g u ish a b le fro m nam es o f social a n d p o litical g ro u p s .111 T h is in te rp re ta tio n o f som e o r m ost p re h isto ric a n d S hang p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s— as m a rk e rs o r em blem s o f social g ro u p s u sin g th e p o tte r y — is v e ry m u ch in a g ree m en t w ith th e u sage o f m a n y in sc rip tio n s o n S hang b ro n zes. E lsew h ere I h a v e d isc u sse d th e em blem s o f S hang b ro n zes in som e d e ta il,112 a n d one o f th e fin d in g s w as th a t m a n y in ­ sc rip tio n s co n sist o f m u ltip le c h a ra c te rs d e sig n a tin g social g ro u p s o f v ario u s h ie ra rc h ica l le v e ls.113 T h e occasional cases o f m u ltip le c h a ra c te rs in in sc rib e d p o tte ry co u ld p ro b a b ly be ex p la in e d , a t least in som e cases, in te rm s o f th e h ie ra rc h ic a l stra ta o f social g ro u p s. A cc o rd in g to th is v iew , th e n , p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s fo rm a 108. They are, in fact, also found in a part of the world that could not have used the same Chinese numerals. My former Yale colleague. Professor Harvey Weiss, kindly showed me some dozen sherds with similar marks from Qabr Sheykheyn, a late Ubaid (c. 4000 b.c.) site in Khuzistan, southwestern Iran, excavated in 1971. Incised signs that could be identified as Chinese numerals 1, 2, 3, 20 (i.e., V), and 30 (V plus another arm), as well as a grass shape, were placed near the base of a large bowl type. 109. Li Chi 李 濟 ，Hsiao-r'un (Vw cA’i 小 也 尚 器 ，p. 124. 110. Ibid., p. 147. 111. Chang Ping-ch’üan 張 采 權 ，"Chia-ku wen chung so-chien jen ti t'ung m ingk'ao 〃 甲 骨 文 中 所 見 人 地 同 名 考 . 112. Chang Kwang-chih 張 光 直 "Shang Chou ch'ing-t'ung-ch’i ch’i-hsing chuang-shih hua-wen yü ming-wen tsung-ho yen-cüiu ch’u-pu pao-kao” 商 周 青 鋼 器 器 ，

形裝飾花蚊與銘文综 合研 究初步報告.

113. Chang Kwang-chih Ât光 直 "T'an Wang Hai yü Yi Yin ti chi jih ping tsai lun Yin Shang wang-chih 〃 談 王 玄 與 伊 尹 的 祭 日 並 再 論 簌 商 王 剩 • ，

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d is tin c tiv e sy ste m o f w ritin g th a t sh o u ld n o t b e lo o k e d a t in th e sam e v e in as th e w ritin g s fo u n d o n m a n y o th e r m ed ia, s u c h as sh ells a n d b o n es, b am b o o a n d w o o d e n slips, a n d silk. T h is Lo C h e n -y ü h a d lo n g ago n o te d : " T h e p o tte ry s c rip t is a v a ria n t fo rm o f th e arc h a ic sc rip t, a n d , alo n g w ith th e seal a n d co in sc rip ts, d iffe rs fro m th e o rd in a ry a rc h a ic in sc rip tio n s. W u T a-ch e n g h a d p u t th e p o tte ry in s c rip tio n s to g e th e r w ith a n c ie n t ritu a l v essel in sc rip tio n s, b u t th is a c tu a lly is n o t q u ite a p p ro p ria te . T h e p o tte ry s c rip t c o n ta in s m a n y a b b re v ia tio n s a n d v a ria tio n s, a n d [p alaeo g rap h ic] e x p lic a tio n s s h o u ld n o t b e fo rc e d u p o n t h e m / '114 H ere I am n o t su re th a t L o 's c ritic ism o f W u w as e n tire ly ju s tifie d , sin ce som e o f th e b ro n z e in s c rip tio n s — th e em b lem s— p e rh a p s b e lo n g e d to th e sam e sy ste m o f w ritin g as th e p o tte ry in sc rip tio n s, as im p lied in th e d isc u ssio n a b o v e . B ut h is p o in t a b o u t th e p o tte ry s c rip t b e in g clo ser to th e seal a n d c o in s c rip ts th a n to th e re g u la r a rc h a ic s c rip t is w ell ta k e n . T h e re a so n th a t la te C hou p o tte ry in s c rip tio n s re se m b le seal a n d co in in s c rip tio n s is p ro b a b ly th a t th e se w e re th e w ritin g s o f c ra fts­ m e n a n d tra d e rs , p e o p le o f d iffe re n t life s ta tio n th a n a rc h iv is ts a n d h isto ria n s w h o w ro te w ith b ru s h o n silk a n d b am b o o . P re h isto ric a n d S h an g p o tte rs d id n o t n e c e ssa rily h a v e c o m p a ra b le s ta tu s to E a ste rn C hou p o tte rs , b u t th e y w e re in d e e d clo ser to th e co m m o n p e o p le th a n w e re th e o racle a n d b ro n z e scrib es. A s m e n tio n e d a b o v e , sc h o lars h a v e u se d th e p o tte ry in s c rip tio n s to d isc u ss th e g re a t a n tiq u ity o f C hinese w ritin g , I see th e sig n ifican ce o f p o tte ry in s c rip tio n s in th e issu e o f th e o rig in o f C h inese w ritin g also in th is lig h t : T h e in v e n tio n o f w ritin g in C hina w as m o re asso cia ted w ith social id e n tific a tio n th a n w ith econom ic tra n sa c tio n , a n d it w as in itia te d b y th e co m m o n p o tte rs r a th e r th a n so c ie ty ’s h e ro e s a n d g e n iu se s (su ch as a. T s’a n g C hieh 倉 類 ） • O b v io u sly , P a n -p 'o v illag e w a s n o t a stra tifie d , class so ciety , a n d its w ritin g se rv e d th e m ere co m m o n v illag e rs in ste a d o f a n y sp e cia lists o r ru le rs. T h is sam e v illag e tra d itio n o f in sc rib in g p o tte ry c o n tin u e d in to th e S h an g p e rio d , e v e n th o u g h b y th e n w ritin g s o f a m u c h m o re so p h is tic a te d o rd e r w e re u se d fo r o th e r p u rp o s e s b y p e o p le o f v e ry d iffe re n t social s ta tu s .115 B ut th e p ro b a b le fa c t th a t C hinese w ritin g h a d its ro o ts in th e m a rk in g o f p o tte r y fo r social id e n tific a tio n , in m a rk e d c o n tra s t to th e ro o ts o f N ea r E a ste rn w ritin g in a n a c c o u n tin g s y s te m ,116 m ay g iv e u s a

114. Lo Chen-yü 賬 振 玉 t’ao 夢 卷 藏 匈 Asä 序 . 115. Even in modern China, people of different social stations may use some­ what different w riting systems. Examples are the so-called su tz u (vulgar characters) and the popular series of numerals ( I H HIX W 丄 士 士 丈 + ) that are not likely to be found in scholarly essays or government decrees. 116. Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The Earliest Precursor of W ritin g /' ，

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stro n g h in t o f a n c ie n t C hinese p rio ritie s: M e m b ersh ip in o n e 's k in g ro u p w as th e first th in g th a t th e firs t w ritin g re c o rd e d , becau se it w as k ey to a n c ie n t C hinese social o rd e r. In fo rm a tio n th a t w as essen tial to th e w o rk in g o f th e econom ic n e tw o rk th a t has b een d esc rib e d w as tra n sm itte d w ith in th e n e tw o rk o f lineages. W e c a n n o t say th a t re c o rd s o f econom ic tra n sa c tio n s w ere u n n e c e ssa ry u n d e r su c h a fra m ew o rk , b u t th e fact is th a t available archaeological re c o rd s o f S hang w ritin g — th e o n ly in stru m e n ts o f in fo rm atio n tra n sm itta l th a t w e can e v e r h o p e to f in d — co nsist o f g ro u p id e n tific a tio n m a rk s (p o tte ry m a rk s a n d b ro n ze em blem s), d iv in a tio n re c o rd s (oracle b o n e in sc rip tio n s), a n d re co rd s o f g ift ex ch an g es (m ost o f th e m lo n g b ro n z e in sc rip tio n s a n d th e " tr ib u te re c o rd s " from W u T in g 's reign). O nly th e last k in d o f w ritte n re c o rd s can be called econom ical, b u t ev e n th e re th e ir e x p lic it p u rp o se w as p o ssib ly political. A n d th e m ost im p o rta n t w ritte n re c o rd s o f all, th e oracle reco rd s, are p o litical in p u rp o se : th e k in g 's a b ility to co m m u n icate w ith his an c esto rs a n d to su ccessfu lly p ro g n o stic a te fu tu re co u rses o f actio n a n d e v e n ts has b een sh o w n b y D avid K e ig h tle y 117 to be an in s tru m e n t o f leg itim atio n o f his ru le — a n d h is econom ic p o w ers.

3. R E L A T I O N S W I T H O T H E R S T A T E S W h a t do w e k n o w a b o u t S h an g 's co n ta c ts w ith n e ig h b o rin g sta te s? A m ong th e to /cm 又 多 方 (" th e m a n y alien sta te s") d u rin g th e p e rio d o f th e oracle reco rd s, th e la rg e st n u m b e r w as re g iste re d in P erio d 1 re c o rd s: Shim a K unio c o u n te d th irty -th re e f a n g nam es fo r th a t p erio d , w h e re a s h e id e n tifie d tw o in P erio d 2, th irte e n in P erio d 3, tw e n ty -th re e in P erio d 4, a n d eig h t in P erio d 5 .118 O f th e se, th e nam es K ung Fang a n d T 'u Fang w e re m e n tio n e d m ost fre q u e n tly : 486 o c c u r­ ren ces fo r K ung Fang a n d 92 o cc u rre n c e s fo r T 'u Fang. T he n e x t m ost m en tio n ed sta te is J e n Fang, seen 28 tim es in P erio d 5 oracle reco rd s. But th e im p o rta n c e o f an alien sta te is n o t alw a y s in d ic a te d b y th e fre q u e n c y o f referen ce s to it in th e oracle reco rd s. L et u s look b rie fly a t eig h t o f th e m ore im p o rta n t sta te s a n d th e ir p ro b a b le lo catio n s ac co rd in g to oracle re c o rd scholars. 1. K ung Fang ^ f . M ost sch o lars place K ung Fang in th e far n o rth w e st, p ro b a b ly in n o rth e rn S hensi o r e v e n fa rth e r n o rth in th e

117. "Legitimation in Shang China.” 118. Shima Kunio 島 邦 男 ，

殷 壚 卜 辨 所 究 ，pp. 384-385.

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O rd o s a re a .119 A lth o u g h in te ra c tio n w ith K ung F ang w as fre q u e n t d u rin g W u T in g 's re ig n , it w as p ro b a b ly n o t a v e ry p o w e rfu l s ta te ; th e ir ra id s in v o lv e d sm all losses a n d e v o k e d re sp o n se s to a m a x im u m o f six th o u s a n d tr o o p s .120 T h e re w e re also tim es w h e n S h an g a n d K ung F ang w e re in s u c h g o o d te rm s th a t in th e S h an g o racle re c o rd s w e fin d th a t S h an g in q u ire d a b o u t K ung F ang c a rry in g o u t e rra n d s fo r th e k in g .121 T h e n am e a p p e a re d in fre q u e n tly a fte r P e rio d 1. A c c o rd in g to T u n g T so -p in , th e K ung F ang p e o p le w e re h e r d e r s .122 2. T 'u F ang Û f . A n o th e r im p o rta n t sta te d u rin g P erio d I , T 'u F ang w as p ro b a b ly lo c ate d in n o r th e r n S h an si. Its n am e d isa p p e a re d a fte r P e rio d 1, p re s u m a b ly b e c au se T 'u F ang w as e x tin g u is h e d b y W u T in g ’s c o n q u e s ts .123 3. C h 'ia n g F ang ^ f . T h is w a s a sp ecial c o u n try fo r th e S hang, sin ce it w as th e o n ly c o u n try w h o se p e o p le w e re m e n tio n e d as sacrificial v ic tim s in th e Shang. a n c e stra l ritu a ls, a n d w a rs a g a in st it som etim es in v o lv e d v a s t n u m b e rs o f S h an g tro o p s — 13,000 in o n e in s ta n c e .124 U n q u e stio n a b ly C h 'ia n g F ang w as w e s t o f S h an g , b u t its lo c a tio n h as b e e n v a rio u s ly p la c e d in w e s te rn H o n a n ,125 s o u th e rn m o s t S h an si a n d a d ja c e n t a rea s in S h en si a n d H o n a n ,126 o r n o r th e r n S h en si to th e s o u th o f K ung F a n g .127 S h u o w e n e x p la in s th e c h a ra c te r c h 'ia n g ^ as sh e e p h e rd e rs ; th e o racle b o n e c h a ra c te r b e a rs th is o u t w ith its sh e e p -sh a p e d u p p e r elem e n t. C h 'ia n g w as o n e o f th e sta te s w ith w h ic h th e S hang h a d a c o n tin u in g re la tio n s h ip ; th e n am e a p p e a rs in o racle re c o rd s o f P e rio d s 1, 3, 4, a n d 5. C h’ia n g Was also am o n g th e sta te s th a t jo in e d w ith C hou in th e fin al c o n q u e s t o f S h an g (see M u sh ih ). 4. C hou F ang U T h e n am e C hou F ang o r C hou a p p e a re d in th e re c o rd s o f P e rio d s 1, 2, a n d 4, b u t its a b se n c e in P e rio d 5 re c o rd s is su re ly a c c id e n ta l, sin ce it w as th e sam e C hou th a t becam e th e S h a n g 's n em esis a n d c o n q u e ro r a t th e e n d o f th a t p e rio d . A m o n g all th e f a n g s in th e S h an g o racle re c o rd s, C hou w as th e o n ly o n e w ith its o w n w ritte n h is to ry , a lth o u g h its p re d y n a s tic p e rio d is n o t a d e q u a te ly d o c u m e n te d 119. Kuo Mo-jo 郭 沐 若 , P V t z ’ii 客【 s'uan 卜 醉 遑 纂 ； Tung Tso-pin 董 作 嘗 ， p i 殷 曆 譜 ； Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ， "Kung fang k ’a o " 舌 方 考 ； Shima Kunio 岛 邦男， 如 /:吵 殷 墟 卜 锌 研 究 ，pp. 385-388; Ch'en M en g -ch ia 陳 夢 家 ， Fin Asä p V r z ’“ bim 又s/zw 股 破 卜 辭 “ 述 ，pp. 273-274• l20• Li Hsüeh-ch'in 李 學 勤 ， tai rzWi /“n 殷 代 地 理 簡 論 ，p. 64. 121. Chang Ping-ch'üan 張 采 權 ， Fin Asä uwi-rzw Ping pien 股 坡 文 字 丙 編 ， Asûz erA 下 二 ，pp. 67- 68. 122_ TungTso-pin 董作宥，1 ^ « ; > 4 殷 曆 譜 ，评 11111^】 》1?'11” 武 丁 日 譜 ，38. 123. Shima Kunio 島邦男， Jnfcp fcenÂyû 殷 墟 卜 辞 4 究 ，pp. 388—389. 124. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢家， Kn 名s/m 救 壚 卜 奋 练 述 • 125. ShirakawaShizuka 白 川 靜 ，"Kyözoku” 先 族 考 ，61. 126. Ch’en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， Kin Asû* p V t i fstm客A u 殷壚 卜解综 述P.282. 127. Shima Kunio 岛 邦男， /:挪 咖 殷 墟 卜 辞 研 究 ，pp. 404-405. Kn

250

T he Shang Society

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A n - yang

an d its earliest h o m elan d is still a m a tte r fo r sp e cu la tio n a n d d eb a te. T he ce n te r o f a c tiv ity fo r p re d y n a s tic C hou has g e n e ra lly b ee n p laced in th e W e ish u i v alley o f S h en si,128 b u t C h 'ien M u 129 b eliev es th a t th e Chou, b efo re th e tim e o f T ’ai W a n g 太 王 a n d W a n g Chi 王 季 ， liv e d in th e Fen R iver v alley o f s o u th e rn S hansi. T h e d isa g re em e n t c a n n o t y e t be re so lv e d ,130 b u t th e re is n o q u e s tio n th a t th e m id d le a n d lo w er W eish u i v alley n e a r C h 'i-sh a n w as th e p o litical c e n te r o f C hou since T a i W a n g 's reig n . A s th e Lu ode, P i 於 says, D escen d an t o f H ou Chi W as th e G reat King W h o liv e d on th e so u th e rn slopes o f M o u n t C h'i A n d b eg an to trim th e Shang. [T ran slatio n b y A rth u r W aley] T he C h o u 's p o w e r is seen to h av e rise n d u rin g th e re ig n o f T 'a i W an g ("G reat K ing,” above) in th e m id d le W e ish u i v alley . It w as d u rin g th e reig n o f Chi Li ^ , T 'a i W a n g 's son, th a t th e K u p e n C hu s h u chi n ien reco rd s m ajor co n tacts a n d co n flicts w ith th e S hang b e g in n in g to ta k e place : T h irty -fo u rth y e a r o f K ing W u Yi : Chi Li, K ing o f Chou, b ro u g h t his hom age. F o u rth y e a r o f King Ta T in g [W en W u T in g 】：Chi, K ing o f C hou, w as a p p o in te d a M u sh ih 牧 師 o f Yin. K ing W e n T in g : T he k in g h ad Chi Li k illed . Chi Li’s son, W en W a n g 文 王 ， w as re fe rre d to in som e te x ts as H si Po C h'ang, o r C h’ang, th e W e ste rn Po, a n d his son, W u W ang, u n d e rto o k th e co n q u e st o f S hang in his e le v e n th y e a r o f reig n . A ll o f th e se b its o f te x tu a l in fo rm atio n are n o t clearly seen in th e o racle reco rd s, a lth o u g h S him a131 believes th a t th e oracle re c o rd s co n firm C h o u 's lo catio n in th e C h 'i-sh an area. Late in 1977, a c co rd in g to a p re lim in a ry n e w s r e p o r t,132 a b atch o f m ore th a n a h u n d re d pieces o f in sc rib e d oracle re c o rd s w as d isco v ered in a room in a "p a la c e s tru c tu re " fo u n d a t C h ing-tang C om m une in C h’i-sh an H sien, S hensi. T hese re c o rd s are re p o rte d to d a te 128. E.g_, Ting Shan 丁 山 "Yu San-tai tu-yi lun ch’i min-tsu wen-hua" 由 三 代 都 邑 論 其 民 族 文 化 ；Ch'i S su -h o 齊 思 和 ， "Hsi Chou ti-li k'ao” 西 周 地 理 考 • 129. Ch'ien Mu 錢 穆 ， "Chou ch'u ti-li k ’ao” 周 初 地 理 考 . 130. Hsü Cho-yün 許 件 雲 ， "Chou jen ti hsing-ch’i chi Chou wen-hua ti chi-ch'u 〃 周 人 的 興 起 及 周 文 化 的 基 礎 . 131. Shima Kunio 島 押 男 股 墟 卜 辞 研 究 ，p. 410. ，

132. Hsin-hua She news dispatch, November 1, 1977.

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fro m W e n W a n g 's re ig n a n d c o n ta in in fo rm a tio n o n S h ang-C hou co n ta c ts, w h ic h w ill b e d isc u sse d la te r. 5. Chao F ang ^ ^ . T h is w a s a n o ta b le f a n g d u rin g W u Y i's re ig n in P erio d 4. W u Y i's m ilita ry m o v es to w a rd Chao F ang w e re o f c o n sid e ra b le scale, in v o lv in g th e k in g h im se lf as co m m a n d e r a n d m e m b ers o f th e ro y a l lin eag e as tr o o p s .133 T h e s ta te is also p la c e d to th e w e s t o f S h an g, n e ig h b o rin g o n C h 'ia n g Fang, p e rh a p s in c e n tra l S h e n si.134 6. Yu F ang ^ ^ . T h is n am e h as a p p e a re d o n ly tw ic e in th e o racle re c o rd s, b o th p ro b a b ly d a tin g fro m th e re ig n o f K ing W e n W u T in g in P e rio d 4 .135 T h e te x ts in w h ic h th is n am e a p p e a rs m ak es it clear th a t Yu F an g w as lo c ate d b e y o n d th e N a n T ’u , th e S o u th e rn L and, o f th e S hang. C h 'e n M e n g -c h ia ,136 w h o p o in te d o u t th a t th is w as th e o n ly re fe re n c e to th e S o u th e rn L and in W u T in g 's re c o rd s (to w h ic h h e d a te d th e se pieces) in c o n n e c tio n w ith h o stilitie s, p la ces Yu F ang in th e H u ai R iv er v a lle y s o u th o f S h a n g -c h 'iu . B ut th e H u ai R iv e r v a lle y w as c learly asso ciated m o re w ith S h a n g 's E a ste rn L an d th a n S h a n g ’s S o u th e rn L and, a n d Li H s ü e h -c h ’i n ’s id ea o f p la c in g th e sta te in H u p ei, in th e H an R iv er v alley , a p p e a rs to b e th e m o re p la u s ib le .137 It w as p o in té d o u t lo n g ago th a t m o st o f th e alien in v a sio n s cam e fro m th e n o r th a n d n o rth w e s t o f th e S h a n g ,138 b u t th e S h a n g 's s o u th e rn fla n k w as n o t w ith o u t in c id e n t. T h e o d e Y in w u in S h ih c h in g d e sc rib e s W u T in g 's cam p aig n d e e p in to th e H an R iv er v a lle y : S w iftly th o se w a rrio rs o f Yin R u sh e d to th e o n sla u g h t u p o n C hing a n d C h’u, E n te re d d e e p in to th e ir fastn esses. C a p tu re d th e h o sts o f C hing, D iv id e d a n d ru le d th e ir places;* S u ch w as th e w o rk o f T 'a n g 's d e s c e n d a n ts. O y o u p eo p le o f C hing a n d C h 'u , Y ou m u st h a v e y o u r h o m e in th e s o u th e rn p a rts. L ong ago th e re w as T 'a n g th e V ic to rio u s; 133. Ch’en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家

，

又-s/rn 殷 墟 卜 辭 综 述

Fin Asä

,

p. 287. 134. J& ü, p. 287; Shima Kunio 島 邦 男 op. p. 404. 135. Tung Tso-pin 董 作 賓 ， Kn Asä u/en- 匕“ CAicz pien 殷 虛 文 字 T 鳊 ，Chia nos. 2902, 2907. 136. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 K/z Asä p V c 'u rsii% 殷壚 卜醉综 述 p. 289. 137. Chiang Hung 江 靖 ，"P'an-lung-ch'eng yü Shang ch’ao ti nan t V ’ 擊 龍 城 與 商 朝 的 南 土 ，45. 138. Kuo Mo-jo 郭 沐 若 fs'wcw 卜解 通纂，no. 549; Ch'en Mengc h ia 眛 夢 家 Yin A W pV tz'u 客s/m 殷 墟 卜 鮮 综 述 p. 267. ，

，

,

，

，

，

The Shang Society from An -yang

252 O f th o se Ti a n d N o n e d a re d n o t N one dared not Saying, "Shang

C h’iang to m ake o fferin g to him . to acknow ledge him their king. for ever!" [T ran slated b y A rth u r W aley]

T he c o n q u e ro r’s h a u g h tin e ss h e re w as p ro b a b ly b ac k e d b y h is deeds, since th e s o u th e rn states w e re in d e e d m e n tio n e d o n ly ra re ly . T h e Yu Fang d iv in a tio n w as a ra re o c c u rren c e, a lth o u g h th e re w ere a few o th e r m en tio n s th a t m ay h a v e b een re la tin g to th e s o u th .139 W e w ill ta k e u p th is q u e stio n again in d iscu ssin g th e arch aeo lo g ical d a ta in th e H an R iver valley . 7. Je n Fang ^ Je n Fang w as m e n tio n e d in th e oracle re c o rd s th ro u g h o u t, b u t becam e ex c ee d in g ly im p o rta n t to w a rd th e e n d o f th e S hang d y n a s ty . T w o m ajor cam paigns w ere u n d e rta k e n ag a in st J e n Fang u n d e r th e p e rso n a l com m and o f Ti H sin, th e firs t in th e e ig h th y e a r o f h is reig n a n d th e seco n d in th e te n th y ear. T h e la tte r w e h a v e m e n tio n e d befo re in co n n e c tio n w ith th e lo catio n o f S hang th e city . It is g e n e ra lly ag reed th a t th e se cam p aig n s w e a k e n e d th e S h an g 's p o litical s tre n g th a n d h e lp e d th e C hou in th e ir c o n q u e s t.140 T h e lo catio n o f Je n Fang is also ag reed b y m ost sch o lars to h a v e b ee n th e m id d le a n d lo w er H uai R iver valley , in th e p re s e n t p ro v in c e s o f K iangsu a n d so u th ­ e rn S h an tu n g . 8. Yü Fang T his is th e nam e o f a m ajor p o litical u n it n o t v e ry far to th e n o rth e a s t o f th e A n -y a n g area, p ro b a b ly in c e n tra l H o p e i.141 It w as an area w h e re S hang k in g s o fte n en g ag ed in th e ro y al h u n ts, an d its ru le r w as p ro b a b ly co n sid e re d a ''l o r d / ' B ut in P erio d 5 th e re w as a p p a re n tly a reb ellio n , re su ltin g in m ajor m ilita ry ac tio n on th e p a rt o f Ti H s in .142 T h e ab o v e e ig h t fa n g s are o n ly a sm all p a rt o f th e to ta l re c o rd e d ,143 b u t th e y suffice in o u tlin in g th e a p p ro x im a te te rrito ria l e x p a n se o f th e S hang state as follow s : th e n o rth e rn h a lf o f H o n an , th e so u th e rn h a lf o f H opei, w e ste rn S h a n tu n g , n o rth e rn m o s t A n h w e i a n d n o rth w e s te rn K iangsu. A ro u n d th is area, S hang w as e n c ircle d b y T ’u Fang in th e 139. Chiang Hung 江 鴻 ，op. d pp. 42-46. 140. Shima Kunio 島 邦 男 ， 力 殷 墟 卜 辞 研 究 ，p. 391; Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 Yïrz /f s ä p V t z i s/m 股 壚 卜 辭 综 述 p. 304. 141. Shima Kunio 島 邦 男 ，op. d pp. 374- 375. 142. Tung Tso-pin 董 作 賓 ， Yïn /i p i 股 曆 譜 （hsia 下 vol. 2, pp. 45-46); Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 yin 股 坺 卜 辭 练 述 ，pp_ 309-310. 143. For detailed studies see Shima Kunio 島 邦 男 ，op. c it.f pp. 384-424; Ch’en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 Fin /wü p V f z ’w fswn客 s/m 毅 壚 卜 辭 •综 速 pp. 269-310; Li Hsüeh-ch’in 李 學 勤 , Yin tax ti-li chien lun 肤 代 地 理 簡 論 • ，

，

，

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n o r th (n o rth e rn S hansi), K ung F ang in th e n o rth w e s t (n o rth e rn Shensi), C h 'ian g F ang, C hou F ang, a n d Chao F ang in th e w e s t in c e n tra l S hensi a n d v ic in ity , Yu F ang in th e s o u th in th e m id d le H an riv e r v alley , J e n F en g in th e ea st in th e H u ai riv e r v a lle y a n d co astal K iangsu a n d S h an ­ tu n g , a n d Yü F ang in th e n o rth e a s t in c e n tra l H opei. T h e a b o v e te rrito ria l d e fin itio n is n o t o n ly a p p ro x im a te a n d h ig h ly s p e c u la tiv e b u t also d y n a m ic a n d flex ib le. S ev eral p o in ts m u st b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t in e v a lu a tin g th e sta te -to -sta te re la tio n sh ip . F irst, sta te s w e re p o litic a l u n its b u t n o t c u ltu ra l o r e th n ic u n its . Som e­ tim es h isto ria n s, in th e ir e n th u sia s m to d e m a rc a te a n c ie n t C hina in to v a rio u s re g io n a l o r local u n its , h a v e u n d u ly a n d w ith o u t su ffic ie n t e v id e n c e e x a g g e ra te d th e c u ltu ra l, e th n ic , a n d lin g u istic d iffe re n c e s am o n g th e p o litic a l g ro u p s. T in g S han, fo r e x a m p le , c h a ra c te riz e d th e H sia, S hang, a n d C hou d y n a s tie s as th e p o litic a l m a n ife sta tio n s o f th re e se p a ra te e th n ic g ro u p s ,144 a n d W o lfram E b e rh a rd a ttrib u te d to th e m n o t o n ly c u ltu ra l b u t also lin g u istic d iffe re n c e s.145 B ut o b v io u sly c u ltu ra l classificatio n s m u st b e b ased o n e v id e n c e o f c u ltu ra l— n o t p o litic a l— d iffe re n ce s. A s w e w ill d isc u ss in th e n e x t c h a p te rs o n th e basis o f arch aeo lo g ical e v id e n c e , th e c u ltu ra l classific atio n s o f th e arch a eo lo g ical rem a in s in th e areas o f th e S h an g p e rio d fa n g s d id n o t c o in c id e w ith th e ir p o litic a l affiliatio n s. S eco nd, n o t o n ly m a y th e p e o p le in th e v a rio u s sta te s h a v e b e e n c u ltu ra lly sim ilar, th e y m ay e v e n h a v e b e e n o n o ccasio n re la te d in th e m o st in tim a te sense. M e m b ers o f d iffe re n t sta te s m ay h a v e becom e re g u la r m a rria g e p a r tn e rs ; th e p o ssib ility th a t th e C hiang 姜 clan, a w e ll-k n o w n m a rria g e p a r tn e r o f th e Chi clan, o f th e ro y a l h o u se o f C hou, cam e fro m C h’ia n g F ang o f S h an g h a s b e e n re m a rk e d u p o n b y S h ira k a w a .146 In tra c in g th e d is trib u tio n o f in d iv id u a l em b lem s in b ro n z e in s c rip tio n s , o n e fin d s th a t it d id n o t fo llo w p o litic a l b o rd e rs. T h e chii ft em b lem , fo r ex a m p le , o c c u rs in b ro n z e s k n o w n to h a v e b ee n u n e a rth e d in a n a rea th a t s tre tc h e s fro m C h 'i-sh a n to S h a n tu n g a n d fro m H o n a n to H u n a n .147 T h e se g m e n ta tio n o f th e a n c ie n t C hinese lin eag es w as a p p a re n tly a p ro c e ss th a t w as n o t c o n fin e d w ith in sin g le states. E v en fro m th a t p e rs p e c tiv e alo n e, o n e can see th a t sta te b o u n d ­ aries w e re s h iftin g a t b e st a n d s ta te -sta te re la tio n s w e re seld o m p e rm a ­ n e n tly cast. T h e re is e v e n g o o d d a ta to sh o w , a t le ast o n som e occasions, 144. Ting Shan 丁 山 ， "Yu San-tai tu-yi lun ch’i min-tsu w en-hua " 由 三 代 都 色 論其民族文化•

145. W. Eberhard, L o k a lk u ltu r e n im A lte n C h in a . 146. " K y ö z o k u k ö " 羌 族 考 • 147. Chang Kwang-chih 張 光 直 ， "Shang Chou ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i ch'i-hsing chuang-shih hua-wen yü ming-wen tsung-ho yen-cÜu ch’u-pu pao-kao” 商 周 青 銅 器 籌 形 裝 飾 花 纹 與 銘 文 综 合 研 究 初 步 報 告 269. ，

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th e d y n am ics o f te rrito ria l e x p a n sio n o f th e S hang state b y sw allo w in g u p c h u n k s o f la n d o r e v e n e n tire sm all sta tes n e x t to th e S hang b o rd ers. T h e p ro cess, d e sc rib e d in th e fo llo w in g passage b y C hang C heng-lang, m erits a fu ll tra n sla tio n : In a n c ie n t C hina th e area w as v a s t a n d th e social a n d econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t w as u n e v e n . D u rin g th e H sia a n d S hang p e rio d s th e re w e re still m a n y b a c k w a rd areas w h e re liv elih o o d s o f g a th e rin g , fish in g a n d h u n tin g , o r h e rd in g rem a in ed . B ut th e n . . . th e a g ric u ltu ra l eco n o m y d isp la y e d its su p e rio rity , a n d g ra d u a lly it a c q u ire d a le ad in g sta tu s. In th e S hang p erio d , farm in g a n d h u n tin g w e re a c tu a lly tw o d iffe re n t activ ities, b u t th e y sh a re d th e p ra c tic e o f b u rn in g o f hills a n d m arshes, a n d e v e n tu a lly m a n y h u n tin g g ro u n d s tu rn e d in to farm in g fields. A m ong th e oracle in sc rip tio n s cited e a rlier are th e fo llo w in g : D ay Kuei-( ) [d iv in ed ], ( ) in q u ire d : ( ) to o rd e r [name] to o p e n u p n e w [fields] in th e la n d o f H sien H o u ? . . . T o d ay o p e n u p n e w field [in th e la n d of] H sien H o u ? H sien H ou 先 侯 w as a lo rd o f th e k in g , p re su m a b ly h a v in g his o w n la n d w ith a c ce p ted b o rd e rs, b u t th e n w h y it w as n ec essary fo r th e S hang k in g to sen d p eo p le in to o p e n u p n e w fie ld s? T h en , th e re is th e fo llo w in g re c o rd : D ay K uei-Chi d iv in e d . P in in q u ire d : T o o rd e r C hung Je n ( ) to e n te r in to Yang Fang to o p e n u p n e w fie ld ? … Yang Fang h a d th e ir o w n sta te b o rd e rs, w h ic h is w h y it says, ab o v e, " to e n te r in to .” T h a t th e S hang sta te w o u ld e n te r in to th e te rrito ry o f a n o th e r sta te to o p e n u p n e w fields is a b it cu rio u s b u t n o t in c o m p re h e n sib le . T h e a n c ie n t sta tes h ad d if­ ferin g econom ies a n d u n e v e n societal d ev e lo p m e n ts. W h e n a g ric u ltu ra l sta tes h a d p o p u la tio n in creases a n d n e w field re q u ire m e n ts, th e y co u ld go o u t to look fo r u n c u ltiv a te d lan d an d w o u ld tu r n n e ig h b o rin g h u n tin g areas a n d g razin g p a stu re s in to farm in g fields. T his th e a n c ie n ts h ad a te rm for, chi t'ie n 4^ 田 • • • • CAi i ’ien m e an t to c u ltiv a te n e w la n d in a n o th e r state. W h e n th e y o p e n e d u p n e w fields th u s a n d cam e to c u ltiv a te th e m fo r a long tim e, th e S hang p eo p le n a tu ra lly w o u ld n o t

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ca re to g iv e th e m u p , a n d th e n e w ly o p e n e d field s w o u ld , th u s , t u r n in to a n o th e r p a r t o f th e la n d o f th e S h an g k in g . M e n g T z u ( " T ’e n g W e n g K ung h s ia ’’） d e s c rib e d a p a r t o f th e h is to ry o f th e S h an g a t th e d y n a s ty 's fo u n d in g , b ased o n S h a n g s h u : " W h e n T ’a n g w a s in P o , … h is te rr ito r y a d jo in e d th e sta te o f Ko. T h e E arl o f Ko w as a w ilfu l m a n w h o n e g le c te d h is sacrificial d u tie s. T 'a n g s e n t som eone to ask, 'w h y d o y o u n o t o ffe r sacrifice?" 'W e h a v e n o su ita b le a n im a ls / T 'a n g s e n t g ifts o f o x e n a n d sh e e p to th e E arl o f Ko, b u t h e u se d th e m fo r fo o d a n d c o n tin u e d to n e g le c t h is sacrificial d u tie s. T 'a n g o n ce ag ain se n t som eone to ask , 'W h y d o y o u n o t o ffer sa c rific e s ? ' "W e h a v e n o su ita b le g r a i n / T ’a n g se n t th e p eo p le o f Po to h e lp in th e p lo u g h in g a n d also se n t th e ag ed a n d y o u n g w ith g ifts o f fo o d . T h e E arl o f Ko led h is p e o p le o u t a n d w a y la id th o se w h o w e re b rin g in g w in e , fo o d , m illet a n d rice, tr y in g to ta k e th e s e th in g s fro m th e m b y fo rce. T h o se w h o re s is te d w e re k ille d . A b o y b e a rin g m illet a n d m e at w as k ille d a n d th e fo o d ta k e n . . . . W h e n a n a rm y w a s s e n t to p u n is h Ko fo r k illin g th e b o y , th e w h o le E m p ire saidr 'T h is is n o t c o v e tin g th e E m p ire b u t a v e n g in g co m m o n m e n a n d co m m o n w o m e n , " 148 Ko w as a lo rd o f th e H sia d y n a s ty , a n E a ste rn Yi sta te fo u n d e d b y th e Y ing clan. T h e p e o p le p ro b a b ly en g a g ed in fish in g a n d h u n tin g b u t la c k e d ca ttle, sh e ep , m illet, a n d rice, a n d th e y h a d d iffe re n t cu sto m s, m a n n e rs, a n d re lig io u s beliefs fro m th o s e o f th e S h an g . . . T 'a n g s e n t th e p e o p le fro m P o in to Ko to c u ltiv a te la n d … T h e re s u lt w as th a t T 'a n g a b s o rb e d Ko, u sin g th e k illin g o f th e b o y as a m ere ex c u se. T h e Y ang F ang in th e o racle re c o rd s … w as p ro b a b ly a h e rd in g c o u n try … P e rio d 1 re c o rd s m e n tio n e d " to e n te r in to Y ang F ang to o p e n u p n e w fie ld s ," a n d also th a t "Y an g b ro u g h t fiv e [tu rtle sh e lls】 " . . . T h ese in d ic a te th a t a t th a t tim e S h an g a n d Y ang F ang w e re p e rh a p s u n e q u a l sta te s b u t th e y liv e d in peace. O racle re c o rd s o f P e rio d 3 s ta te d : T h is a u t u m n ,… In fo rm ( ta ry o p e ra tio n a g a in st Y ang?

) a b o u t th e m ili­

. . . P e rio d 4 re c o rd s say : ( ) , in q u ire d : T o o rd e r th e m a n y (officials) to o p e n u p n e w field in Y ang?

148. Quotation from M e n g - tz u translated by D. C. Lau, M e n c iu s, pp. 109-110.

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T his last re c o rd d ates from W u Y i's reig n . Y ang w as n o lo n g er re fe rre d to as fang, p e rh a p s b y th e n a lre a d y a p a rt o f th e S hang sta te . . . To look at th is as a w h o le : S h an g 's re la tio n to Yang Fang w as c h a ra cte rized , first, b y clearin g o f n e w fields, an d , th e n , b y m ilita ry o p eratio n s, a n d , fin ally , b y th e a n n e x a tio n o f Yang Fang as a p a rt o f th e S hang te r r ito r y .149 T h e p ro cess d e sc rib e d ab o v e co u ld also p re su m a b ly h a v e b een re v erse d , a n d S hang co u ld h a v e lo st te rrito rie s to n e ig h b o rin g states or at least sto c k a n d g ra in to ra id e rs fro m n e ig h b o rin g sta tes w h e re h e rd in g , fo r exam ple, w as th e d o m in a n t su b siste n c e m ode. T he fo llo w in g W u T ing p e rio d in sc rip tio n s are w ell k n o w n : D ay K uei-Ssu, d iv in e d . K 'o in q u ire d : N o ill fo rtu n e d u rin g th e h siin l T h e k in g p ro g n o stic a te d a n d sa id : T h ere w ill be b ad fo rtu n e . T h e re w ill be tro u b le th a t w ill be in flicted , a rriv in g th re e tim es. Five d ay s la te r o n d a y T ing-Y u, tro u b le w as in d e e d in flic ted , fro m th e w est. C hih M u sta te d th a t T 'u Fang reac h e d th e e a ste rn b o rd e r reg io n a n d in flic ted casualties to tw o to w n s. K ung F ang also cam e to g raze in o u r field s in th e w e ste rn b o rd e r re g io n 150 (fig. 64). … T h e k in g p ro g n o stic a te d a n d sa id : T h e re w ill be b ad fo rtu n e . T h e re w ill b e tro u b le th a t w ill be in flic ted , a rriv in g th re e tim es. S even d ay s la te r o n d a y C hi-Ssu, tro u b le w as in d e e d in flicted , fro m th e w est. C h 'an g Yu Chiao re p o rte d th a t K ung Fang cam e o u t to graze in o u r field s in S hih Lai, [causing casualities of] se v e n ty -fiv e p e o p le .151 B order clashes o f th is n a tu re w ere p ro b a b ly o n e o f th e m ajor reaso n s for w ars b e tw e e n th e states, a n d w ars to o k p lace fo r o th e r econom ic reasons. T h e oracle re c o rd s re fe rre d o fte n to in fo rm a tio n a b o u t w h e a t h arv e sts, referen ce s th a t Yü H sin g -w u believes to be rea lly in tellig en ce re p o rts in p re p a ra tio n fo r b o rd e r ra id s b y th e Shang, w h o d id n o t p la n t as m u ch w h e a t as p e rh a p s som e o f th e n e ig b o rin g states a n d h a d to re ly o n raid s fo r som e o f th e ir w h e a t n e e d s .152

149. Chang Cheng-lang 張 政 浪 ，"P 'u-tz’u p'ou t ’ien chi ch'i hsiang-kuan chu w en-t'i " 卜 畔 哀 田 及 其 相 關 諸 問 題 107-J08. In my translation I have changed all mentions of Yin to Shang. 150.1^〇(： 11611-)^羅 振 玉 ，1^>2/«0^1“ (： /^ (： /^>2客/ « ^ 殷 虛 當 典 普 華 ，11〇.2. 151. Ibid. 152. Yü Hsing-wu 于 省 吾 ，"Ts'ung chia-ku wen k'an Shang tai she-hui hsingchih 〃 從 甲 骨 文 看 商 代 社 會 性 質 ，i 〇4 . ，

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64. Rubbing of Shang inscriptions in which raids from T'u Fang and Kung Fang were recorded (after Lo Cheng-yü, Y in h sii s h u c h 'i c h 'in g -h u a , no. 2).

E conom ic c o n sid e ra tio n s co u ld also h a v e la in b e h in d m a n y o f th e w a rs S h an g fo u g h t in th e n o rth w e s t. In th e a b o v e te rrito ria l d e f­ in itio n w e le ft o u t s o u th e rn S hansi, a n d th a t is b ec au se th e p o litica l g ro u p s in s o u th e rn S hansi a p p a re n tly o sc illa ted th e m o st o fte n in th e ir re la tio n sh ip s w ith th e S h an g : S om etim es th e y seem to be alien sta te s a n d a t o th e r tim es th e y a p p e a r to be am o n g S h a n g 's o w n su b je c t

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from

A n - yang

lo rd s. C h 'en M eng-chia listed C hou 周 ，T 'ao 击 ，C h 'ü a n 犬 ，C h’u a n 串， Kuo 郭 ，H sü n 气 ，Chih 旨，C hih 5止，a n d C h’ü e h 雀 as th e " s o u th e rn S hansi states d u rin g th e reig n o f W u T in g ,153” a lth o u g h C hou sh o u ld ac tu ally h av e b een located in S hensi a n d C h 'ü e h is ac tu a lly p laced b y him in w e ste rn H onan. T h ey w ere also " b u f fe r" states b e tw e e n S hang an d th e m ore rem o te states su ch as K ung Fang, a n d S hang re c o rd s sh o w m u ch co n c ern a b o u t th e ir conflicts w ith th e o th e r states. S o u th e rn Shansi, it m u st be n o te d , w as an area o f tre m e n d o u s econom ic im p o rt. A m ong th e tw e n ty -e ig h t k n o w n co p p e r ore lo catio n s w ith in a ra d iu s o f 400 k ilo m eters from A n -y a n g listed b y S hih C hang-ju, N oel B arnard, an d Satö T o m a tsu ,154 th irte e n o r alm ost h a lf are in Shansi, m o stly in th e s o u th e rn th ird o f th e p ro v in ce , a n d am ong se v e n te e n tin ore locations six are in Shansi. Since so u th e rn S hansi is also th e le g e n d a ry b irth place o f th e H sia d y n a sty , th e first fu ll-fled g ed b ro n z e civ ilizatio n o f C hina (see c h a p te r 1), th e ric h c o p p e r a n d tin d e p o sits o f so u th e rn S hansi m ay h av e p lay ed a m ore p ro m in e n t role in th e rise o f B ronze A ge civ ilizatio n s in C hina th a n has been g en e ra lly reco g n ized . S o u th e rn S hansi has also b een an im p o rta n t c e n te r o f salt p ro d u c tio n . T he salt m arsh es n e a r L u -ts’u n 度 村 ， in H sieh H sien in so u th e rn Shansi, are th e o n ly salt m ines in th e N o rth C hina N u clear A rea n e x t to S hensi a n d w ere th e so u rce o f salt n e a re st to A n -y a n g in th e w e ste rn d irec tio n , since no salt d e p o sits (ro ck o r brin e) are k n o w n in H onan, H opei, A n h w ei, o r H upei, th e p ro v in c e s w ith in easy re a c h o f A n -y a n g .155 E ven in re c e n t y ea rs H sieh H sien salt p ro v id e d m u c h o f th e n eed s o f S hensi in th e w est a n d H o n an in th e e a s t.156 If s o u th e rn S hansi w as th e p rin c ip a l so u rce o f th e su p p lies o f co p p er, tin , a n d salt fo r Shang, it w o u ld be sm all w o n d e r th a t th e so u th e rn S hansi sta tes p la y ed su c h a c tiv e ro les in S h an g 's in te ra c tio n w ith alien states in th e n o rth e rn a n d w e ste rn d ire c tio n s. C h 'en M engch ia's o b se rv a tio n th a t th e lo y alties o f th e states to th e w est o f th e T 'a i-h a n g M o u n ta in s (i.e.f s o u th e rn Shansi) w e re a k e y to th e rise an d fall o f Chou a n d S hang in th e late S hang p e r io d 157 co u ld be h ig h ly sig n ifican t in su c h a view . W h a te v e r th e reaso n , on e tnay sta te w ith fair co n fid en ce th a t 153. Ch’en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 Yin Asii p V r z ’ti fsung s/zti 殷 壤 卜 辭 综 述 pp. 291—298. 154. Shih Chang-ju 石 律 如 ， "Yin tai ti chu t ’ung kung-yi” 股 代 的 轉 銅 工 I ; Noel Barnard and Satö Tomatsu, M e ta llu r g ic a l R e m a in s in A n c ie n t C h in a . 155. Hu Hsiang-yün 胡 翔 雲 ，C/z'äöM rstii /u 全 國 最 近 里 塲 錄 ； Chang Hung-chao 幸 鴻 釗 ，SÄi/zp 石 雅 ，p. 185. 156. HuangCho-hsün 黃 著 動 ， 中 國 破 產 ，p. 11. 157. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， Kn AW pVrz'ti fswr这 s/m 救 壚 卜 辭 综 述 ， p. 312. ，

，

Economy

and the

Political Order of the State

259

in th e sta te -to -sta te d y n am ics, te n s io n w as th e o v e rrid in g facto r, a n d w ar, th o u g h n o t a c o n s ta n t o c c u rre n c e , w as n e v e rth e le s s a p ro m in e n t fe a tu re in th e d iv in a tio n re c o rd s. E arlier w e m e n tio n e d th a t c a p tiv e s w e re h e ld as th e re s u lt o f w a rs o r e v e n th a t th e ir c a p tu re w as som etim es th e in c e n tiv e fo r w ar. Yii H sin g -w u b eliev es th a t som e re c o rd s also re la te d to th e n u m b e r o f en e m y ca su alties in b a ttle s : O ne c a su a lty fig u re th a t w as e n c o u n te re d w as 2 ,6 5 6 .158 A t th e c o n c lu sio n o f a su ccess­ fu l b a ttle , en e m y ch iefs w e re o fte n slain a n d th e ir h e a d s ta k e n as tro p h ie s . H u H o u -h siia n e n u m e ra te d e le v e n h u m a n sk u ll fra g m e n ts w ith in ­ s c rip tio n s th a t w e re f o u n d .159 T h e sam e fate, o f co u rse, cam e u p o n T i H sin a fte r h is c a p ita l fell to th e C hou tro o p s. Since alien sta te s a n d th e S h a n g 's o w n su b je c t lo rd s w e re u n d e r som e c irc u m sta n c e s in te rc h a n g e a b le e n titie s, th e sta te scores c rite ria su g g e sted b y K eig h tley fo r m e a su rin g in tra s ta te c o h e sio n co u ld also be a p p lie d to sta te -to -sta te re la tio n s, at le ast fo r th e p e rio d s in w h ic h w a rs w e re n o t p re v a ilin g . T h e k in g is k n o w n to h a v e d iv in e d a b o u t alien states, as w ell a b o u t as h is o w n lo rd s, in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e ir " la c k o f ill f o r tu n e '' (w u h u o th e ir ru n n in g th e k in g 's e rra n d s (k u w a n g s/zi/z 固 王 事 )， a n d tli’è ir co m in g in to S h an g te rr ito r y a n d S h a n g ’s e n try in to th e irs .

158. "Ts'ung chia ku wen k'an Shang tai she-hui hsing-chih" 從甲 文看商代 社 會 性 質 ，111. 159. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厚 宣 ， "Chung-kuo nu-li she-hui ti jen hsün ho jen chi〃 中 國 奴 緣 社 會 的 人 殉 和 人 祭 ，6〇,

PART II

SHANG HISTORY BEYOND AN-YANG

5

Cheng-chou

A n -y a n g is so v e ry im p o rta n t in S hang h is to rio g ra p h y b ec au se it n o t o n ly h as y ie ld e d a n e n o rm o u sly ric h arch a eo lo g ical site b u t also is th e o n ly S h an g site w ith su ffic ie n t w ritte n d a ta to h e lp p a in t a p ic tu re o f th e w o rld o u ts id e A n -y a n g th a t w as as la rg e as th e S h a n g 's v isio n a n d c o n ta c ts h a d re a c h e d . B ut w h a t a b o u t th a t w o rld as seen fro m its o w n re m a in s? S h an g a rc h a e o lo g y in th e la st th ir ty y e a rs h as b e g u n to fill in o u r p ic tu re o f th a t w o rld w ith som e re a l d a ta , a n d th e firs t m ajo r S hang site — a n d still th e m ajo r S h an g site — o u ts id e A n -y a n g w as b ro u g h t to lig h t a t C h e n g -c h o u in 1950.

1. T H E E R H - L I - K A N G P H A S E O F S H A N G C I V I L I Z A T I O N O ne h u n d r e d fifty k ilo m e te rs s o u th o f A n -y a n g a n d im m ed ia tely s o u th o f th e Y ellow R iv er, C h e n g -c h o u is a b u s tlin g in d u s tria l c ity o f m o re th a n a m illio n a n d th e c a p ita l o f H o n a n p ro v in c e sin ce 1954. T h e im p o rta n c e o f th e c ity in p a r t re fle c ts th e im p o rta n c e o f its lo catio n . N o rth C hina is d iv id e d in to w e s te rn h ig h la n d s a n d th e e a ste rn p la in s. T h e Y ellow R iv er flo w s o u t o f th e w e s te rn loess h ig h la n d s in n o rth e rn H o n a n a n d h a s p o u re d in to th e e a ste rn p la in s alo n g se v e ra l d iffe re n t co u rse s th r o u g h o u t h is to ry . C h en g -ch o u is lo c ate d n e a r th e Y ellow R iv e r's e x it fro m th e h ig h la n d s, a t th e m e e tin g p lace b e tw e e n th e w e st a n d th e east. I t is also rig h t a t th e in te rs e c tio n o f tw o m ajo r ra ilw a y s o f C hina criss-c ro ssin g th e w h o le c o u n try , o n e from , n o r th to so u th (T he P ek in g -C a n to n R ailw ay) a n d th e o th e r fro m w e st to east (L an-chou to L ien -y iin ). T h e m o d e rn city , w ith a n o ld w alled e n c lo su re a b o u t 1.5 k ilo m e te rs e a st-w e st a n d 1 k ilo m e te r n o rth -s o u th a t its c e n te r, is s itu a te d o n a fla t p la in d ra in e d b y th re e sm all r iv e rs — th e C h in -sh u i, C hia-lu, a n d H siu n g -e rh riv e rs — th a t o rig in a te in th e ru g g e d hills to th e w e s t a n d s o u th w e s t o f th e c ity th a t are th e e a ste rn te rm in i o f th e S u n g S h an m o u n ta in s. T h e area o f th e re m a in s o f th e S h an g c ity h e r e — rem a in s firs t fo u n d in th e a u tu m n o f 1950 a t E rh -li-k a n g , a sm all m o u n d 263

264

Shang History beyond An -yang

one k ilo m eter so u th e a st o f th e old to w n — h as b een fo u n d to coincide alm ost e x a ctly w ith th e area o f th e p re s e n t city site, w h ic h is co n sid e ra b ly larg er th a n th e o ld e r w alled to w n . Since th e h isto ry o f th e archaeological ex cav atio n s has alre ad y been su m m arized at th e b e g in n in g o f th is volum e, o u r d e sc rip tio n w ill be based o n th e S hang rem a in s h e re as th e y are k n o w n to d ate, w ith o u t re c o u n tin g som e o f th e p ro b lem a tic al issues. But it is w o rth re p e a tin g th a t b ecau se o f th e fact th a t th e S hang city h ere lies d ire c tly u n d e rn e a th th e area o f p re se n t-d a y o c c u p atio n (and u n lik e A n -y a n g w h e re S hang rem ain s lie b e n e a th w h e a t a n d c o tto n fields), th e arch aeo lo g y h e re h as b ee n d iffic u lt a n d slow , a n d o u r k n o w led g e o f th e S hang site is still fra g m e n ta ry . R em ains o f sev eral c u ltu ra l p h ases fro m p re h isto ric a n d ea rly h isto ric p erio d s h a v e b een b ro u g h t to lig h t in C h en g -ch o u since 1950, b u t th e one p h ase th a t co n c ern s u s n o w is c h a ra c te riz e d b y th e E rh-lik an g site — h en ce th e nam e E rh -li-k an g p h ase. F irst w e d escrib e th e m ajor c h a ra cte ristic s o f th is c u ltu ra l p h a se a n d sta te o u r reaso n s fo r calling it Shang. T he E rh -li-k an g p h a se is g e n e ra lly re g a rd e d as b ein g earlier th a n th e d y n a stic p e rio d in A n -y a n g , a n d th e reaso n s fo r th u s categ o rizin g it w ill also becom e clear in th e fo llo w in g ac co u n t. 1. T he m ost a b u n d a n t a n d c h a ra c te ristic rem ain s o f S hang o f th e E rh -li-k an g p h ase are its g ra y p o tte ry , o f fin e o r g ritty clay, h a n d ­ m ade b u t o ften m olded a n d th e n w h ee l-fin ish ed , im p ressed w ith co rd m arks, an d m o stly u sed fo r u tilita ria n p u rp o se s. T he m ost com m on o r ch a ra cte ristic ty p e s are th e /i-trip o d w ith lo n g a n d p o in te d h o llo w legs, a large b ea k er w ith h u g e flared m o u th , a n d a b asin a n d a ja r w ith ro u n d o r flat base (fig. 65). T h ere are also steam ers w ith a tta c h e d o r d eta c h e d to p , tin g - tr ip o d , c h ü eh - a n d c h ia - tr ip o d s , k u e i, to u , a n d o th e r ty p e s .1 All o f th e ab o v e ty p e s are sim ilar to, a n d h a v e b een re a so n a b ly re g a rd e d as b ein g th e a n te c e d e n ts of, th e g ra y p o tte ry o f d y n a stic p e rio d H siaot fu n . P o tte ry sim ilar to E rh -li-k an g p h ase p o tte ry has b een id e n tified at M ei-y iian -ch u an g in th e so u th e a ste rn p a rt o f th e A n -y a n g area. O th er p o tte ry w ares in c lu d e d re d w are, h a rd p o tte ry , a n d glazed p o tte ry . T h e h a rd p o tte ry w a re w as o fte n im p ressed w ith geom etric p a tte rn s, sim ilar to th e so-called gebm etric p o tte ry o f th e lo w er Y angtze an d th e so u th e a ste rn c o a st.2 T h e glaze w as o f a y ello w -g ree n ish color, ap p lied on b ro w n or g ra y w a re w ith m at- or b a sk e t-im p re ssio n s.3* 1• 尺尺HC尺，CAen客-c/wti 这 鄭 州 二 里 岡 pp. 16-30; An Chih-min nien ch’iu chi Cheng-chou Erh-li-kang fa-chüeh chi" — 九 五 二 年秋季鄭州二里岡發掘記. 2. WW, "Chiang-hsi ti-ch’ü t'ao-tz’u ch'i chi-ho-hsing p ’ai yin wen-yang ts u n g s h iT 江 西 地 區 峋 变 器 幾 何 形 桕 印 紋 樣 综 述 . 3. Clarence Shangrow, #/Early Chinese Ceramics and Kilns''; K K f "Chengchou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts’e ti liang tso Shang tai m u” 鄭 州 市 就 功 路 西 例 的 兩 座 商 代 墓 ，5〇3. ，

安 志 欲 ，"Yi-chiu-wukrh

65. Major types of pottery of Erh-li-kang phase, a. li; b. kuan; c. chia; d. kuei; e. p 'en ; /. hsien; g . tsun.

66. Major types of bronze vessels from Erh-li-kang phase sites in Cheng-chou (after Committee of the Exhibition of Archaeological Finds in the People's Republic of China, T h e E x h ib itio n o f A rc h a e o lo g ic a l F in d s in th e P eo p le 's R e p u b lic o f C hina).

Cheng-chou

267

T h ese tw o k in d s o f p o tte ry seem to b e v e ry ra re b u t re p re s e n t th e h ig h -q u a lity p o tte ry o f th e area. W h ite p o tte ry sim ilar to th a t o f A n -y a n g h as b ee n m e n tio n e d in re p o rts o f fin d in g s ,4 b u t h as n o t b e e n fu lly d e sc rib e d . 2. S to n e a n d b o n e -a n tle r in d u s trie s in th e E rh -li-k a n g p h a se fe a tu re to o ls a n d im p le m e n ts th a t are ty p o lo g ic a lly sim ilar to th o se o f A n -y a n g . 3, B ronze a rtifa c ts o f th e E rh -li-k a n g p h a se are h ig h ly c h a ra c ­ te ris tic (fig^ 66). A lth o u g h re la tiv e ly few in n u m b e r a n d fo u n d m o stly in g ra v e s ,5 th e ritu a l vessels w e re cast sim ila rly to th o se o f A n -y a n g a n d a tta in e d sim ilar fo rm s. H o w e v e r, th e y are th in n e r a n d lig h te r, a n d th e ir d e c o ra tio n s, th o u g h in th e sam e sty listic tra d itio n c h a ra c te riz e d b y an im al m o tifs, are sim p ler. D ec o ra tio n s are fo r th e m o st p a r t c o n fin e d to b ro a d b a n d s a ro u n d th e b o d y , a n d th e an im al d e sig n is n o t se p a ra te d fro m b a c k g ro u n d sp ira ls.6 In th e te rm in o lo g y o f M ax L oehr, sty le s I III are fo u n d h e re , b u t sty le s IV a n d V are n o t. N o n e o f th e v essels can u n q u e s tio n a b ly be d e s c rib e d as b e in g in s c rib e d ,7 a lth o u g h em blem s are seen o n b ro n z e w e a p o n s o f th is p h ase. T h e E rh -li-k â n g b ro n z e s are o f tre m e n d o u s in te re s t in S h an g sc h o la rsh ip fo r a n u m b e r o f reaso n s. In lin e w ith th e sch em e o f sty listic e v o lu tio n p ro p o s e d b y M a x L o eh r, th e se b ro n z e s a p p e a r to be a n te c e d e n t to S ty le IV a n d V p ieces o f d y n a s tic A n -y a n g ; th e sim ila rity o f th e b ro n z e s fro m fo u r p re d y n a s tic g ra v e s o f H s ia o -t'u n to th e E rh -li-k a n g assem b lag e h as b e e n n o te d e a rlier, a lth o u g h th e " p r e d y n a s tic " d a tin g o f th e H s ia o -t'u n b ro n z e s in q u e s tio n w as b ased alm o st to ta lly o n th e ty p o lo g y o f th e b ro n z e s. B ut th e re are o th e r re a so n s fo r b e lie v in g th a t E rh -li-k a n g w as a n te c e d e n t to H s ia o -t'u n a n d H si-p ei-k an g , a n d th u s th e b ro n z e v essels h e re p ro v id e a fu ll-ra n g in g assem b lag e o f ritu a l b ro n z e s b e lie v e d to be a n c e stra l to th e A n -y a n g b ro n z e s, w h o se a n c e s try a n d e a rly h is to ry o f d e v e lo p m e n t h a d lo n g b e e n a p u z z le in C hinese a rc h a e o lo g y .8 B ut th o u g h th e se b ro n z e s m ay b e a n c e stra l th e y are n o t p rim itiv e , a n d as th e y fu lly a tte s t to th e e x iste n c e o f a social class o f 一

4. An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ，"Cheng-chou ti-ch'ü ti ku-tai yi-ts'un chieh-shao” 鄭 州 地 區 的 古 代 遺 存 介 绍 ，19; "Shih lun Cheng-chou Shang tai ch'eng chih— Ao tu ” 試論鄭州商代城址一 隞 都

， 78.

5. WW, "Cheng-chou shih Pai-chia-chuang Shang tai mu-tsang fa-chüeh chien pao” 鄭 州 市 白 家 莊 商 代 暮 葬 發 掘 簡 報 ；HX "Cheng-chou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts'e ti liang tso Shang tai m u " 鄭 州 市 銘 功 路 西 倒 的 兩 座 商 代 基 ；WW, "Chengchou hsin ch'u-t'u ti Shang tai ch'ien cîi'i ta t'ung ting” 鄭州 新 出 土 的 商 代 前 期 大 銅 我 . 6. T'ang Lan 唐 簡 ，"T s'ung Ho-nan Cheng-chou ch'u-t'u ti Shang tai çh'iench'i ch'ing-rung-ch'i shuo ch 'i 〃 從 河 南 鄭 州 出 土 的 商 代 前 期 音 銅 器 説 起 ，6. 7. T a n g Lan 唐 明 ，Zoc. cit. See here an emblem in the shape of a turtle. 8. A. C. Soper, "Early, Middle, and Late Shang: A Note."

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h ig h sta tu s in C heng-chou, th e y are sig n ific an t fo r th e s tu d y o f th e p o litical as w ell as artistic an d tech n o lo g ical h is to ry o f th e Shang. 4. T he social co m p lex ity a n d stra tific a tio n in th e E rh -li-k an g p h ase are in d ic a te d b y m ore th a n b ro n ze assem blages. T he S hang site h e re is m a rk e d b y a ram m e d -e a rth w all th a t e x te n d e d alm ost sev en k ilo m eters to form a ro u g h ly sq u a re e n c lo su re 1 6 9 0 -1 8 7 0 m e ters long on each side. T he h a n g -t'u te c h n iq u e o f c o n s tru c tio n w e h a v e becom e q u ite fam iliar w ith th ro u g h th e h o u se fo u n d a tio n s a n d g rav e fillings in A n -y an g , b u t no S hang p erio d e a rth e n to w n w all h as th u s far been id e n tified in th e A n -y a n g area. H a n g - t fu to w n w alls are a fam iliar featu re o n th e n o rth e rn C hinese la n d sca p e th ro u g h o u t C hinese h isto ry , an d th e E rh -li-k an g w all w as one o f th e earliest, a lth o u g h it is p rec e d e d b y sim ilar w alls o f th e L u n g -sh an villages a t C h 'e n g -tz u -y a i in S h a n tu n g 9 an d at H o u -k a n g in A n -y an g , H o n a n ,10 a n d o f an E rh -li-t'o u c u ltu re to w n site in H sia H sien, S hansi (see c h a p te r 7).11 T h e w all o f E rh -li-k an g C hen g -ch o u is o f significance a rc h ite c tu ra lly , b u t as an e n o rm o u s piece o f p u b lic w o rk s 12 a n d as a p re su m a b ly d efen siv e c o n s tru c tio n it is a sen sitiv e in d ic a to r o f th e level o f c o m p lex ity o f th e so ciety it enclosed. In th e n o rth e a s te rn p a rt o f th e en c lo su re w as an area o f E rh-lik an g o c c u p a tio n ch a ra c te riz e d b y large h a n g -t'u h o u se fo u n d a tio n s w ith large p o sth o les in long ro w s, p ro b a b ly rem a in s o f a h a b ita tio n area " p a la tia l 〃 in sc o p e .13 G re ate r d etails w ill be g iv e n in th e n e x t section, b u t w e m e n tio n th e m h e re to fu rth e r s u p p o rt th e sta te m e n t th a t E rh-lik an g C h en g -chou w as a S hang to w n w ith sh a rp social stra tific a tio n a n d p ro b a b le p o litical im p o rta n c e . B ut h o w im p o rta n t w as E rh -li-k an g C h en g -ch o u in S hang tim es? W as it an im p o rta n t to w n , a p ro v in c ia l capital, o r e v e n a ro y al c a p ita l? In a d d itio n to th e em blem s o n b ro n z e artifa c ts a fo rem e n tio n ed , th e re are tw o o th e r k in d s o f w ritin g th a t offer clues o f its im p o rta n ce. O ne co n ­ sists o f p o tte rs ' m arks, m o stly o n th e in te rio r o f th e fla rin g rim s o f th e large b e a k e rs,14 a n d th e o th e r in sc rip tio n s o n th re e pieces o f b o n e (a rib ,

9. Fu Ssu-nien 傅 斯 年 Li C h i 李 濟 ，et al.，C/fen客- 以“-少出 城 子 崖 10. Shih Chang-ju 石 女 如 ，"Ho-nan An-yang Hou-kang ti Yin m u " 河 南 安 降後岡的股墓• 11. Hu Hou-hsüan 胡 厍 宣 ， personal communication, 1978. 12. An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ， 广 Shih lun Cheng-chou Shang tai ch’eng chih — Ao ，

•

tu” 試 論 鄭 州 商 代 城 址 一 隞 都 . 13. WW, "Cheng-chou Shang tai ch'eng chih shih chüeh chien pao” 鄭 州 商 代 城 址 試 掘 簡 報 ， 25- 27. 14• 尺尺HCX CTzen客-cAo“ 客 鄭 州 二 里 两 ，p. 17; A nChih-m in 安 志 敏 ， "Yi-chiu-wu-erh nien ch’iu chi Cheng-chou Erh-li-kang fa-chüeh chi” 一 九 五 二 ¥ 秋 秦 鄭 州 二 里 岡 發 掘 記 ，7 7 ; 欠尺/fP ，"Cheng-chou Nan-kuan-wai Shang tai yi-chih ti fac h ü e h " 鄭 州 南 閼 外 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ，83.

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67. Inscription on a rib found at the site of Erh-li-kang, Cheng-chou (after K K H C K , C hen g -ch o u E r h 4 i- k a n g , p. 38).

a lim b b o n e, a n d a sm all fra g m e n t).15 O f th e th re e in sc rib e d b o n es, tw o h a d a sin g le c h a ra c te r each, b u t th e rib h as te n c h a ra c te rs (fig. 67), in c lu d in g th e w o rd s chert 貞 （" in q u ir e ” ), p n 又 羊 ( " s h e e p ” o r "Y an g th e s ta te " ), s/zoiz 受 （ " to re c e iv e ” )， a n d t'w 土 （" e a r t h " ) .16 C h 'e n M en g -ch ia b elie v e d th a t th e in s c rib e d rib re s u lte d fro m " p ra c tic in g ” to in cise c h a ra c te rs a n d th a t th e c h a ra c te rs a p p e a r to bé "L a te Y in " s ty le .17 Since th e o rig in a l is n o t a v a ila b le fo r e x a m in a tio n a n d th e p u b lis h e d re p ro d u c ­ tio n o f th e p ie ce is n o t clear, w e h a v e to ta k e C h 'e n 's w o rd fo r it c o n c e rn ­ in g its m e a n in g (or la ck o f m ean in g , as C h 'e n w o u ld h a v e it) a lth o u g h o n e is te m p te d to su g g e st som e p o ssib le m e a n in g to it. A s fo r its b ein g la te Yin, th is sta te m e n t is h ig h ly m islead in g . T h e in sc rib e d rib w as fo u n d a t E rh -li-k a n g , a lth o u g h its e x a c t s tra tig ra p h ic p o sitio n is u n ­ k n o w n . S ince E rh -li-k a n g h as n o t y ie ld e d arch aeo lo g ical rem a in s th a t p o s td a te d th e E rh -li-k a n g p h ase, th e re is n o re a so n n o t to re g a rd th e in sc rib e d r ib as a n in te g ra l p a r t o f th e E rh -li-k a n g c u ltu re , i.e., fro m th e

15. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， yin /wö p V t 'w fs“ ％ s/zw 殷 墟 卜 辭 综 述 ， p. 27. 16• 尺JWfCA：, 鄭 州 二 里 岡 ，p. 38. 17. Ch'en Meng-chia 陳 夢 家 ， Yin Asä rsu% s/m 殷 壚 卜 辭 综 違 • See also Li Hsüeh-ch'in 李 學 勤 ，"T 'an An-yang Hsiao-t'un yi-wai ch’u-t'u ti yu tzu chia k u ” 談 安 降 小 也 以 外 出 土 的 有 字 甲 骨 ，l 7.

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p erio d c o rre sp o n d in g to th e p re d y n a s tic S hang o f H sia o -t'u n . B oth o f th e se issues are e x tre m e ly im p o rta n t, since if th e b o n e in q u e stio n is in fact o f E rh -li-k an g d a te a n d if its in s c rip tio n co n sists o f a d iv in a tio n rec o rd in v o lv in g th e official ac t o f ritu a l in q u ir y — chert — th e n th e ch an ce th a t E rh -li-k an g C heng-chou w as a ro y a l cap ital w o u ld be stre n g th e n e d . As has b een d e sc rib e d at th e b e g in n in g o f th is volum e, ac co rd ­ in g to te x tu a l ac co u n ts, th e second ro y a l ca p ita l o f th e S hang d y n a s ty , after T 'a n g 's Po, w as H siao o r Ao, w h e re C hung T in g a n d W ai Je n h ad th e ir ro y al h e a d q u a rte rs fo r a to ta l o f tw e n ty -s ix y ears, u n til King Ho T ’an Chia m oved th e cap ital to H siang. A c c o rd in g to T ’an g Lan, th e to w n o f H siao or Ao w as lo cated in th e area o f C hen g -ch o u :

A cco rd in g to Li T ao -y iia n 's co m m en tary [six th c e n tu ry . N o rth e rn W ei] o f S h u i ch in g , "C hi S h u i'' se c tio n : " th e Chi R iver flow s to th e east o f M o u n ta in A o. . . . In th e m o u n ta in s is a w alled to w n , th e site to w h ic h K ing C h u n g T in g h ad m o v e d ." T his old S hang p e rio d to w n e x ta n t in th e N o rth e rn W ei p erio d w as lo cated in th e g en e ra l area o f C h e n g - c h o u .. . . Ao th e S hang cap ital is sta te d in te x tu a l m aterials to be lo cated in a h illy area. T he ea rliest re fe re n c e w as m ade b y H u an g -fu M i, w h o sta te d th a t ''i t is id e n tifie d b y som e w ith th e Ao T s’ang [the Ao G ranaries] in H o n a n • " … T he p re se n t city o f C heng-chou, h isto ric a lly sp eak in g , m ay be id e n tified w ith K uan, to w h ic h K uan S hu w as en feo ffed a t th e b eg in n in g o f C h o u . … W e m ay com e to see th a t, a lth o u g h Ao, C hung T in g 's capital, w as n am ed afte r M o u n ta in A o, it could n e v e r­ th eless in c lu d e in its area th e site o f K uan to its east, ju s t as th e te rm Yin H sii h isto ric a lly in c lu d e s C h 'a o -k u o .18

T 'a n g L an 's in c lu sio n o f th e E rh -li-k an g to w n site in to th e area o f th e b ro a d ly d efin ed S hang cap ital A o is reaso n ab le in lig h t o f th e b ro ad d efin itio n o f ro y al cap ital w e h av é m ade co n c e rn in g th e A n -y a n g area, an d a n y m ore specific a n d p recise id e n tific a tio n based o n th e frag m en ­ ta ry an d so m ew h at co n flictin g te x tu a l d ata w o u ld be u n p ro d u c tiv e an d u n n ecessary . M ost re c e n tly , T sou H eng p ro p o se d a m ost u n c o n v e n tio n a l v iew , id e n tify in g th e S hang to w n C h eng-chou w ith T 'a n g ’s Po, th e

18. "T s’ung Ho-nan Cheng-chou ch’u -t’u ti Shang tai ch'ien-ch’i ch’ing-t'ungch'i t'an ch'i 〃 從 河 南 鄭 州 出 土 的 商 代 前 期 青 銅 器 談 起 7一8 ; See, for discussion on the Erh-li-kang site and its literary equivalent, An Chin-huai 安 金 柷 ， "Shih lun Cheng-chou Shang tai ch’eng chih— Ao t u " 試 論 鄭 州 商 代 城 址 一 敝 都 ， and Liu Ch'i-yi 则 故 益 ， …Ao-tu# chih yi’，， 》L邡 ，質 疑 . ，

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firs t S h an g c a p ita l . 19 T h e re h a v e b ee n a b s o lu te ly n o le g en d s re c o rd e d in th e C h en g -c h o u a re a c o n c e rn in g S h a n g 's Po to s u p p o rt th is v ie w , a n d n o n e o f th e m a n y h isto ric a l id e n tific a tio n s o f Po p laces it in th e C h e n g -c h o u area. T h e o n ly th in g g o in g fo r th is id e a m ay b e th e fa c t th a t th e E rh -li-k a n g p h a s e to w n w as n o t o n ly larg e in size b u t w as o f co n ­ sid e ra b le te m p o ra l d u ra tio n . A o w as a ro y a l c a p ita l fo r o n ly tw e n ty -s ix y ea rs, b u t Po se rv e d as th e c a p ita l o f n in e k in g s fo r— a c c o rd in g to T u n g T so -p in 's c h ro n o lo g y 20— a p e rio d o f 183 y ea rs. W h e th e r th e S h an g to w n o f th e E rh -li-k a n g p h a s e w as a ro y a l ca p ita l a n d , if so, w ith w h ic h c a p ita l k n o w n in lite ra ry h is to ry it sh o u ld b e id e n tifie d , a re to p ic s y e t to b e e x p lo re d o n th e basis o f a d d itio n a l ev id e n c e , esp e c ia lly te x tu a l e v id e n c e if it sh o u ld becom e av ailab le. B ut o n tw o p o in ts th e re d o es n o t a p p e a r to be m u c h d o u b t. F irst, th e to w n h e re w as p a r t o f th e S h an g d y n a s ty , a n d , seco n d , its m ain o c c u p a tio n — E rh -li-k a n g p h a s e — w as e a rlie r th a n A n -y a n g . T h e d e s ig n a tio n o f a n arch a eo lo g ical fin d as " S h a n g , 〃 o n ce a seem in g ly sim p le u n d e rta k in g th a t c o n siste d o f m a tc h in g th e n e w fin d w ith th e A n -y a n g ty p e site, is b ec o m in g in c re a sin g ly d iffic u lt a n d u n c e rta in as th e r e s tâ t o f th e e x te n s iv e d isc o v e rie s th a t are s tre tc h in g th e S h an g s te re o ty p e b o th te m p o ra lly a n d sp a tially . In th e la tte r sense, th e area th a t S h an g -lik e re m a in s h a v e b e e n fo u n d in — fro m L iao n in g in th e n o r th to s o u th e rn H u n a n in th e s o u th a n d fro m S h en si in th e w e st to th e P acific co ast in th e e a s t— is w ell la rg e r th a n a n y te rr ito r y th e S h an g d y n a s ty c o u ld p o ssib ly h a v e d ire c tly ru le d , e v e n b y th e m o st g e n e ro u s estim a tes. T h e te rm S hang, th u s , ta k e s o n a b ro a d ly d e fin e d m e an in g th a t d e n o te s b o th a sty le o f civ iliz a tio n a n d a tim e p e rio d . B ut in te m p o ra l te rm s, c iv iliz a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t in a n c ie n t C h in a— a t least d u r in g th e s a n ta i ( ''T h re e D y n a stie s^ ) p e rio d — is s h o w n to be c h a ra c ­ te riz e d m o re b y c o n tin u ity th a n b y d is c o n tin u ity . T h is th e C hou p e o p le h a d lo n g re c o g n iz e d ; to w it, th e ir sa y in g s : " T h e ritu a ls [or th e rules] o f th e T h re e D y n a stie s a re o n e " (Li a n d " th e Yin in h e rite d tlie ir ritu a ls [or ru les] fro m th e H sia, a n d w h a t th e y to o k o u t o r a d d e d o n is k n o w n , a n d th e C hou in h e rite d th e ir ritu a ls [or rules] fro m th e Yin, a n d w h a t th e y to o k o u t o r a d d e d o n is k n o w n " ( L u n y ii) . T h e S h an g civ iliza­ tio n e x te n d s u p w a r d in to H sia o r d o w n w a rd in to C hou, a n d th e th r e s ­ h o ld s w e re m e re ly p o litic a l e v e n ts w h ile th e e v o lu tio n o f c u ltu re a n d so c iety w as c o n tin u o u s. W h e n w e fin d a site so m e w h e re in N o rth C hina, o fte n w e can n o lo n g e r id e n tify it w ith H sia, S hang, o r C hou o n th e b asis o f c u ltu ra l c h a ra c te ristic s alone. W e w ill d isc u ss th is p o in t a t som e le n g th la te r o n w h e n w e lo o k 19. Tsou Heng 斯 衡 ，"C heng-chou Shang ch ’eng chi T 'ang tu Po sh u o " 鄭州商城即 湯都毫説 • 20. Kn /i p i 殷 曆 譜 p art I, vol. 4.

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at a n c ie n t C hina as a w h o le a n d tr y to d elin ea te th e archaeological m a rk e rs o f H sia, Shang, a n d Chou. T he E rh -li-k an g p h ase is id e n tifiab le w ith S hang c e rtain ly in th a t c o n te x t. B ut th e m ost reliab le c rite ria in th is id e n tifica tio n are te m p o ra l a n d sp a tial crite ria. By th is w e m ean th a t th e E rh -li-k an g p hase in C heng-chou w as lo cated at th e h e a rt o f th e tra d itio n a l Shang dom ain, w ith archeological e v id en ce su p p o rte d b y th e fo lk tra d itio n in th is area co n c e rn in g K ing C hung T in g 's c ity o f Ao. C hronologically, th e E rh -li-k an g p h ase m ay be p laced w ith in th e ea rly h a lf o f th e tra d itio n a l S hang d y n a stic p erio d . O ne m ay n o te th a t te x tu a l an d fo lk lo ristic tra d itio n s h av e b een g iv e n m u c h em phasis. T his is in ev itab le w h e n c o n te m p o ra ry e v id en ce is in c o n clu siv e b u t w h e n an in te g ra te d a p p ro a c h — in stead o f a p u re ly archaeological o n e _ is p u rsu e d . T he c h ro n o lo g y o f th e E rh -li-k an g p h ase m ay be a p p ro a c h e d o n several g ro u n d s. As o f th is w ritin g , tw o ra d io c a rb o n d ates are available from th e to w n w alls o f E rh -li-k an g C h e n g -c h o u :21 ZK-177 ZK-178

3215 ± 90 b.p. 3235 ± 90 b.p.

(calib rated to 1560 士 160 B.c.) {calibrated to 1590 士 160 B.c.j

Both d ates fall w ith in th e first p a rt o f th e S hang d y n a stic reig n . A lth o u g h w e w ill n o t com e b ack to th e issue o f th e ab so lu te c h ro n o lo g y o f S hang civ ilizatio n u n til c h a p te r 1, it is o b v io u s th a t th e ch ro n o lo g ical segm ent to w h ic h th e se ra d io c a rb o n d ates b elo n g is o n th e w h o le ea rlier th a n th e d y n a stic p e rio d a t H sia o -t’u n in A n -y an g . T h e ch ro n o lo g ical p re c e d e n c y o f th e E rh -li-k an g p h ase o v er th e d y n a stic p e rio d in A n -y a n g is s u p p o rte d in e v e ry k e y area re le v a n t to d atin g . S tra tig rap h ically , th e E rh -li-k an g p h ase lies b elo w a la ter Shang p h ase in C heng-chou, th e P eo p le 's P a rk p h ase, th e ty p o lo g ical e q u iv a le n t o f d y n a stic H siao -t’u n .22 In a rtifa c t ty p o lo g y , E rh -li-k an g is situ a te d b e tw e e n d y n a stic H siao -t/u n , o n th e one h a n d , a n d H o n an L u n g -sh an , o n th e o th e r, p a rtic u la rly in co n n e c tio n w ith b ro n ze vessels an d p o tte ry . F u rth e r e x p o sitio n o n th is p o in t w o u ld be su p e rflu o u s.

2. T H E S H A N G C I T Y A T C H E N G -C H O U I N T H E E R H -L I-K A N G P H A S E

T h e S hang city at C hen g -ch o u w as sim ilar to th a t a t A n -y a n g in scope an d co n c ep tio n . In an area o f ap p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty -fiv e sq u a re 21. Hsia Nai 夏 激 ，"T'an-14 ts'e-ting nien-tai ho Chung-kuo shih-ch'ien k'aoku hsüeh〃破-1 4 測 定 年 代 和 中 國 史 前 考 古 學 ， 229. 22. W W f "Cheng-chou shih Yin Shang yi-chih ti-ts'eng kuan-hsi chieh-shao" 鄭 州 市 殷 商 遺 址 地 層 閼 係 介 紹 ； Tsao H e n g 鄒 衡 ， "Shih lun Cheng»chou hsin fa-hsien ti Yin Shang wen-hua yi-chih 〃 試 論 鄭 州 新 發 現 的 殷 商 文 化 遺 址 •

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k ilo m e te rs d ra in e d b y th e C h in -sh u i 金 水 a n d H siu n g -e rh 熊 兒 riv e rs, a n u m b e r o f S h an g (E rh -li-k an g p h ase) se ttle m e n ts fo rm e d a n e tw o rk th a t co n siste d o f a larg e w alled e n c lo su re a n d a n u m b e r o f fu n c tio n a lly sp ecialized se ttle m e n ts a ro u n d th e e n c lo su re (fig. 6 8 ). T h e area in sid e th e w alled e n c lo su re h as n o t b e e n fu lly e x c a v a te d b ec au se it co in cid es w ith th e p re s e n t C h e n g -c h o u city , b u t it a p p e a rs to b e th e e q u iv a le n t o f H s ia o -t'u n a n d H si-p e i-k a n g in th e A n -y a n g n e tw o rk . THE WALLED ENCLOSURE F irst d isc o v e re d in 1955 a n d e x c a v a te d in 1 9 5 6 -7 3 , th e e a rth e n w all o f th e S h an g to w n 23 h as p ro v e d to b e a p p ro x im a te ly se v e n k ilo ­ m e ters lo n g , fo rm in g a ro u g h s q u a re sh a p e w ith a c ro o k e d n o r th e r n w all. T h e le n g th s o f th e fo u r sides a re : 1690 m e ters, n o r th w a ll; 1700 m eters, e a st a n d s o u th w a lls; 1870 m e ters, w e s t w all. M o st o f th e w all is n o w b u rie d u n d e r th e p re s e n t g ro u n d su rfa ce , a lth o u g h p o rtio n s are still ex p o se d . E lev en g a p s h a v e b ee n lo c ate d a lo n g th e w all, a t least som e o f th e m p o ssib ly b e in g re m a in s o f th e o rig in a l gates. T h e w all w asvb u ilt b y th e h a n g - t'u m e th o d , n am ely , p la n k s w e re e re c te d o n b o th sid es o f th e w all, e a rth [ t'u ) w as p o u re d in to fill th e sp ace b e tw e e n th e p la n k s, a n d th e e a rth w as th e n tig h tly p o u n d e d [hang), la y e r b y la y er, w ith a h e a v y p o u n d e r. M o st la y e rs are 8 - 1 0 c e n tim e te rs th ic k , b u t o ccasio n ally th e y a re as th in as 3 c e n tim e te rs o r as th ic k as 20. O n th e u p p e r su rfa ce o f ea ch la y e r (w h e n th e la y e r a b o v e is rem o v e d ) are seen d e n s e ly d is trib u te d ro u n d p its ( 2 - 4 c e n tim e te rs in d ia m e te r a n d 1 - 2 c e n tim e te rs deep ) w ith ro u n d o r p o in te d b o tto m s (fig. 69). T h e cro ss-se c tio n o f th e w all is tra p e z o id a l. T h e la y e rs in th e m id d le w e re laid h o riz o n ta lly , w h ile th e la y e rs a t b o th e n d s re c lin e o u tw a rd . T h e m id d le la y e rs (a b o u t 10.5 m e te rs in te rio r-e x te rio r, p o u n d e d in b e tw e e n p la n k s a b o u t 2 .5 - 3 .3 m e te rs long, 0 .1 5 - 0 .3 m e te r w id e) w e re th e m ain b o d y o f th e w all, b u ilt in se ctio n s a b o u t 3.8 m e te rs lo n g . T h e slo p in g la y e rs o f e a rth w e re p o u n d e d a t th e b ases b o th in sid e a n d o u tsid e th e w all to fo rm re in fo rc e m e n ts a b o u t 5 m e te rs w id e . O n th e u p p e r su rfa c e o f th e se re in fo rc in g b ases w as laid a la y e r o f g rav el. T h e h e ig h t o f th e w alls is u n k n o w n ; th e ta lle st o f th e re m a in in g se ctio n s is 9.10 m e te rs fro m th e base. W h e n th e w all w as firs t u n c o v e re d , th e re p o rtin g w as s k e tc h y 24

23. WW, "Cheng-chou Shang tai ch’eng-chih shih chüeh chien pao " 鄭 州 商 代 城 址 試 掘 簡 報 ； An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ， "Shih lun Cheng-chou Shang tai ch'eng chih— Ao tu ” 試 論 鄭 州 商 代 城 址 一 紙 都 ；WW, "Cheng-chou Shang ch'eng yi-chih nei fahsien Shang tai hang-t'u t'ai-chi ho nu-li t'ou k u ” 鄭 州 商 城 遺 址 内 發 現 商 代 夯 土 台 基 和奴綠頭骨

. 24. An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ，op. cir.

274

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68. Archaeological sites of the Shang period in Cheng-chou.

an d th e re w ere q u e stio n s a b o u t th e tru e d a te o f th e w a ll .25 L ater e x te n ­ sive e x p lo ra tio n s along th e w all h av e sh o w n th a t it w as b u ilt o n to p o f o cc u p a tio n la y ers o f p re -E rh -li-k a n g p h ases (see below ) b u t th a t it w as in tru d e d in to b y E rh -li-k an g a n d la te r o c c u p a tio n featu re s, b u rials, a n d

An Chin-min 安 志 敏 ，"Kuan-yü Cheng-chou 'Shang ch'eng’ ti chi w en-t'i 〃 闞 于 鄭 州 ‘ 商 城 ’ 的 幾 個 問 題 ， Liu C h 'i-y i 割 啓 益 ， " #Ao tu 、 hih yi 〃 ‘默 都 ’ 25.

質疑.

69. Sections of the wall of the Shang tow n at Cheng-chou (photo by author, 1975).

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70. Human skulls found in ditch in Shang palace in Cheng-chou (photo by author, 1975).

d eb ris, sh o w in g th a t th e w all w as p ro b a b ly co m p leted at th e b eg in n in g o f E rh -li-k an g o c c u p a tio n .26 W ith in th e w alls h av e b een fo u n d a v a rie ty o f sc a tte re d fin d s. T h e m ost n o te w o rth y are a c lu ste r o f h a n g -t'u h o u se fo u n d a tio n s in th e n o rth e a s te rn reg io n o f th e e n c lo su re e x c a v a te d in 1974. A large floor, 34 m eters n o rth -s o u th b y 10.2 m eters ea st-w est in re m a in in g area, w as b u ilt b y th e h a n g -t'u te c h n iq u e , a n d it h a d sev en ro w s o f p o sts in som e arran g e m e n t. T he floor w as w re c k e d b y a n o rth -s o u th d itc h , in w h ic h w ere d u m p e d v a rio u s k in d s o f ru b b is h a n d m a n y h u m a n skulls, som e o f w h ic h w ere saw ed in to h alv es (fig. 70). M ost o f th e sk u lls a p p e a r to be th o se o f y o u n g a d u lt m ales. P o ssib ly th is w h o le area w as a p a rt o f an a rc h ite c tu ra l c lu ste r o f som e political a n d ritu a l significance. O th er p a rts o f th e area in sid e th e en c lo su re are k n o w n o n ly th ro u g h a n u m b e r o f te st tre n c h e s. A t th e n o rth e a s t a n d n o rth w e s t co rn ers o f th e w alled -in area w ere fo u n d a n u m b e r o f h o u se flo o rs; som e o f th e b e tte r-p re s e rv e d ones are re c ta n g u la r o r sq u a re , p a v e d w ith a la y er o f fine y ello w clay o r w h ite lim ey clay, w ith som e rem a in in g w all bases. Som e o f th e m h ad a d o o r o n th e s o u th w all a n d a raised 26. 代 城 址 轼 掘 簡 報 ， 23- 24.

WW, "Cheng-chou Shang tai ch'eng*chih shih chüeh chien pao” 鄭 州 商

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e a rth e n a lta r a g a in st th e c e n te r o f th e in te rio r o f th e n o rth e rn w all. R esid en tial ru b b is h , in c lu d in g p o tsh e rd s , sto n e im p lem e n ts, sh ell a n d b o n e im p lem e n ts, a n d o racle b o n es, w as also fo u n d in s c a tte re d areas alo n g a n d a g a in st th e w alls. Som e k in d s o f r u b b is h w as also fo u n d in sto rag e p its. A lso alo n g th e east, n o rth , a n d w e st w alls w e re lo cated tw e n ty -n in e p it g ra v e s fu rn is h e d w ith sets o f p o tte ry vessels, in c lu d in g w in e v essels su c h as c h iieh - a n d c/zia-tripods. A t tw o sp o ts in th e n o r th ­ east a n d n o r th w e s t w e re b ro u g h t to lig h t p its c o n ta in in g d o g sk e le to n s ; in th e n o rth e a s t e ig h t su c h p its, in th re e ro w s, c o n ta in e d a larg e n u m b e r o f d o g s— a m in im u m o f six in o n e p it a n d a m a x im u m o f tw e n ty -th re e in a n o th e r. In o n e o f th e d o g p its tw o h u m a n sk e le to n s lay u n d e rn e a th th e d o g sk e le to n s, a n d in a n o th e r w e re sm all, th in p ieces o f gold. T h ese m iscellan eo u s rem a in s are in su ffic ie n t fo r a n y clear u n d e r ­ sta n d in g o f th e s e ttle m e n t p a tte r n in sid e th e w alls, b u t c le a rly th e c o n d itio n s w e re q u ite co m p ïex . If th e re w e re " p a la tia l” areas w ith in th e w alls, th e re w e re also liv in g q u a rte rs a n d g ra v e s o f co m m o n ers a n d rem a in s p e rh a p s ritu a l in n a tu re . A m ix tu re o f su c h c o m p le x ity also o c c u rs a t H sia o -t’u n , so th a t n o c o n c lu sio n can y e t be d ra w n , b u t o b v io u sly th is w a llé d -in area is w h e re a d d itio n a l re se a rc h m u st be c o n c e n tra te d . AREA NORTH OF ENCLOSURE

Som e tw o h u n d re d m e te rs n o r th o f th e n o r th e r n w all is an arch aeo lo g ical lo c a lity (k n o w n as T z u -c h in g -sh a n N o rth 紫 笄 山 ) th a t seem s to b e asso cia ted w ith b ro n z e m e ta llu rg y . In a n area o f 275 sq u a re m e ters w e re fo u n d fo u r h o u se floors, ea ch se p a ra te d fro m th e n e x t b y a b o u t 10 m e ters. T h e h o u se s w e re re c ta n g u la r, w ith th e lo n g ax is p la ced e a st-w est. E ach h o u se w as p a rtitio n e d in to tw o room s, o n e o r b o th h a v in g a d o o r facin g s o u th a n d an e a rth e n a lta r b u ilt a g a in st th e n o r th ­ e rn w all facin g th e d o o r. B oth flo o r a n d a lta r w e re p la ste re d w ith w h ite lim ey clay . T h e flo o r w as b u ilt 0 .2 - 0 .5 m e te r u n d e r th e g ro u n d su rface, a n d th e w alls w e re b u ilt o f h a n g - t'u la y ers. O n th e flo o r o f o n e o f th e h o u se s a n d n e a rb y o n th e o u tsid e w e re fo u n d co n ical p its w ith brO nzelik e d e p o sits, 184 clay m o ld s fo r b ro n z e w e a p o n s a n d vessels, c ru c ib le fra g m en ts, a n d co res fo r b ro n z e v essel legs. A sso ciated p o tte ry p laces th e site d u rin g th e E rh -li-k a n g p h a s e .27 T h e asso cia tio n o f a b ro n z e w o rk s h o p w ith h a n g - t'u h o u se s is sig n ific a n t a n d is sim ilar to th e s itu ­ a tio n in A n -y a n g .

27. Liao Yung-min 赛 永 民 ，"Cheng-chou shih fa-hsien ti yi ch'u Shàng tai chü-chu yü chu-tsao t'ung-ch'i yi-chih chien chieh” 鄭 州 市 發 現 的 一 處 商 代 居 住 與 轉 造銅器遺址簡介.

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O ne h u n d re d m eters fu rth e r n o rth w as a S hang p it from w h ic h cam e to lig h t, in a d d itio n to a few p o tsh e rd s, a n u m b e r o f b o n e a rtifa c ts— saw ed a n d p o lish ed bo n es as m aterials, b o n e d eb itag e, h alf-fin ish ed o b jects, b o n e a rro w h e a d s, a n d b o n e h a irp in s. T h e re w ere also p o lish in g stones. T h e b o n es w ere th o se o f cattle, d ee r, a n d h u m a n s. T hese fin d s e v id e n tly in d ic a te a b o n e w o rk s h o p n e a rb y b u t f u rth e r e x c av a tio n s are still a w a ite d .28 AREA EAST OF ENCLOSURE

A sh o rt d ista n c e to th e n o rth e a s t o f th e w alled to w n is th e P ai-ch ia-ch u an g 白 家 莊 village, n e a r w h ic h arch aeo lo g ical e x c av a tio n s w ere u n d e rta k e n in 1 9 5 4 -5 5 , re su ltin g in fin d in g s b o th o f re sid e n tia l rem ain s a n d g rav es w ith b ro n ze vessels. T h e re sid e n tia l rem ain s co n sist o f h o u se flo ors a n d w all bases p la ste re d w ith w h ite lim ey clay, storage p its, a h a n g -t'u s tru c tu re , a d itc h , a n d ru b b is h h e a p s .29 T h ere w ere fo u r g rav es, e x c a v a te d o n a sm all m o u n d to th e w e st o f th e village. G rave no. 2, a re c ta n g u la r p it, has y ie ld e d five b ro n z e vessels fjei, chüeh, p fa n , c h ia , a n d ting), a ja d e , a n d a n iv o ry vase. G rav e no. 3, also a re c ta n g u la r p it 2.9 b y 1.17 m eters a n d 2.13 m e ters d eep , h ad an e rh ts 'e n g - t'a i (''se c o n d -le v e l le d g e '') b u ilt o f e a rth alo n g th e w alls, a n d a " w a is t p it" a t b o tto m c e n te r c o n ta in in g a dog sk e leto n . T w o h u m a n sk eleto n s w e re fo u n d , o n e in sid e a coffin w ith in th e p it c h a m b er an d th e o th e r, p ro b a b ly a sacrificial v ictim , o n th e w e ste rn side o f th e seco n d -lev el ledge. N in e b ro n z e vessels (th re e tin g , tw o ch ia , o n e lei, tw o k u , a n d one chiieh), tw o ja d e s, an iv o ry com b, a n d a few o th e r o b jects w ere fo u n d o n th e ledge, m o stly a t th e so u th w e s te rn co rn er. A ll o f th e b ro n zes are classifiable in to L o e h r's sty les I a n d II .30 Sig­ n ifica n tly , th e c o n s tru c tio n o f G rave no. 3 w as in th e sam e tra d itio n as th e A n -y a n g g rav es, a n d th e se to m b s su g g est a b u ria l area h e re fo r p eo p le o f c o n sid erab le social sta tu s. N ear th e s o u th e a ste rn c o rn e r o f th e S hang to w n w all w as a n o th e r b u ria l area n e a r Y ang -ch u an g 揚 莊 • N o d etails are a v a ila b le .31 尺尺，"Cheng-chou shih ku yi-chih mu-tsang ti chung-yao fa-hsien " 鄭 州 市 古 遺 址 墓 葬 的 重 要 發 現 ，1 8 -1 9 ; 尺尺H iV 'C heng-chou Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh 〃 鄭 州 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ，57- 58. 29. WW, "Cheng-chou Pai-èhia-chuang yi-chih fa-chüeh chien pao 〃 鄭 州 白

28.

家莊遺址發掘簡報.

30. WW, "Cheng-chou shih Pai-chia-chuang Shang tai mu-tsang fa-chüeh chien pao 〃 鄭 州 市 白 家 莊 商 代 墓 葬 發 掘 簡 報 • 3 1 - 尺/C "Cheng-chou shih ku yi-chih mu-tsang ti chung-yao fa-hsien” 鄭 州 市 古 遺 址 墓 葬 的 重 要 發 現 ， 17.

279

Cheng - chou AREA SOUTH OF ENCLOSURE

A b o u t 500 m e te rs so u th e a s t o f th e S o u th G ate (o f th e o ld C hengc h o u city ), in 1954 w as fo u n d a se co n d b ro n z e w o rk s h o p in an area o f a p p ro x im a te ly 1,050 s q u a re m e ters. In it th e re w e re th re e k in d s o f c ru cib les, in c lu d in g th e la rg e b e a k e r w ith fla re d m o u th ; m o re th a n a th o u s a n d fra g m e n ts o f clay p iece m o u ld s fo r a rro w h e a d s, k n iv e s, adzes, a n d r itu a l v essels su c h as li, c h ia a n d c h iieh ; sm all b ro n z e im p le m e n ts; re m a in s o f ash es a n d c h a rc o a l; a n d n u m e ro u s fra g m e n ts o f v e rtig ris .32 F u rth e r to th e east, a t th e in te rs e c tio n o f L u n g -h a i a n d E rh -lik a n g (C h 'e n g -tu n g ) ro a d s is a c lu s te r o f re s id e n ta l rem a in s, in c lu d in g sto ra g e p its, r u b b is h h e a p s, p o ts h e rd s , sto n e im p le m e n ts, o racle b o n es a n d tu r tle shells, ^m all b ro n z e im p le m e n ts, a n d o th e r o b je c ts o f d a ily u se. In som e o f th e ru b b is h d e p o s its w e re h u m a n sk e le to n s a p p a re n tly b u rie d th e re w ith o u t g ra v e p its o r fu rn is h in g s .33 S till f u r th e r to th e east, a b o u t a k ilo m e te r so u th e a s t o f th e s o u th e a s te rn c o rn e r o f th e o ld c ity w all, is E rh -li-k a n g itself, a h ill a b o u t 1500 m e te rs e a st-w e st, 600 m e te rs n o rth -s o u th , a n d 5 - 1 0 m e te rs a b o v e th e s u rro u n d in g le v el la n d . E v id e n tly a t th is lo c a lity th e re w as an im p o rta n t re s id e n tia l area, th e re m a in s in c lu d in g sto ra g e p its, r u b b is h h e a p s, b u ria ls in th e ru b b is h a rea fu rn is h e d w ith a fe w p o tte ry vessels a n d , in o n e case, a sto n e h a lb e rd . T h e a rtifa c ts fo u n d in th e se re m a in s a re p o tte ry , sto n e s a n d b o n es, a n d sm all b ro n z e a rtifa c ts, in c lu d in g a b ro n z e a w l b e lie v e d to b e a to o l fo r g ro o v in g a n d h o llo w in g o racle bo n es. A re s id e n tia l a re a o f co m m o n ers is in d ic a te d b y th e se fin d s, b u t it w as also fro m h e re th a t th e a fo re m e n tio n e d in s c rib e d rib w as f o u n d .34 AREA WEST OF ENCLOSURE

T h re e h u n d r e d m e te rs to th e w e s t o f th e w e st w all o f th e S h an g to w n , tw o b ro n z e s q u a re q u a tro p o d s w e re fo u n d in 1974 b u rie d sid e b y sid e a b o u t 6 m e te rs u n d e r th e p re s e n t g ro u n d su rfa ce . E ach is ju s t o v e r 60 c e n tim e te rs to a sid e ; o n e is ta lle r (1 0 0 ce n tim e te rs) a n d h e a v ie r (86.4 k ilo g ram s) th a n th e o th e r (87 c e n tim e te rs, 64.25 k ilogram s). In sid e 32.

"Cheng-chou Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh” 鄭 州 商 代 遺 址 的 發

搞 ，56- 57.

33. W W , "Cheng-chou ti wu wen-wu ch'ü ti yi hsiao ch'ü fa-chüeh chien pao" _ 州 第 五 文 物 區 第 一 小 區 發 掘 簡 報 ， "Cheng-chou Nan-kuan-wai Shang tai yi-chih ti fa"Chüeh” 鄭 州 南 閽 外 商 k 遺 址 的 發 掘 . 34. Ä：JWfClC 鄭 州 二 里 岡 ； An Chih-min 安 志 敏 , "Yi-chiu-wu»erh nien ch'iu chi Cheng-chou Erh-li-kang fa-chüeh chi" — 九 五 二 年 秋 季 鄭 州 二 里 《發 掘 記 .

會

i1 -

u

71. Bronze vessels from Shang grave west of Ming-kung-lu in Cheng-chou (after K K t "Cheng-chou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts’e ti liang tso Shang tai mu’’).

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th e sm all v essel w as fo u n d a b ro n z e /z-tripod. T h e li h a d o n ly s trin g d e c o ra tio n s, b u t b o th q u a tro p o d s w e re d e c o ra te d w ith c h a ra c te riz istic S ty le I p a tte r n s .35 T h e e x c a v a to rs sp o k e o f a p o ssib le h u m a n b u ria l o r h o a rd in g , b u t th e s e b ro n z e s c o u ld also b e th e re m a in s o f a n im p o rta n t ritu a l. F u rth e r w est, ju s t u n d e r a k ilo m e te r fro m th e w e st w all o f th e S h an g to w n , is th e im p o rta n t S h an g c e m e te ry a t th e P e o p le 's P a rk lo cu s. M o st o f th e b u ria ls h e re , h o w e v e r, a re d a te d to a p e rio d a fte r th e E rh -li-k a n g p h ase, c o rre s p o n d in g to th e d y n a s tic s tra ta a t H s ia o -t'u n , 36 b u t th e c e m e te ry w as a p p a re n tly firs t u se d b a c k in th e E rh -li-k a n g p h ase. O ne p it g ra v e re p o rte d fro m th is e a rlie r p e rio d h as y ie ld e d a glazed p o tte ry b e a k e r, a b ro n z e c h ü e h -w e ssé i, a b ro n z e k n ife, a ja d e o b je ct, a n d o th e r a rtifa c ts .37 F u rth e r to th e w e st, to th e w e s t o f M in g -k u n g 銘 功 R oad, is a larg e arch a eo lo g ical lo cu s o f th e E rh -li-k a n g p h a s e th a t h as y ie ld e d d w e llin g rem a in s, sto ra g e p its, g ra v e s w ith b ro n z e v essels (fig. 71), a n d a p o tte r y w o rk s h o p . J u s t to th e n o r th w as a g ro u p o f h o u se flo o rs c o v e re d w ith w h ite lim ey p la ste r. T h e la rg e st o n e w as 16.2 m e te rs e a st-w e st a n d 7.6 m e te rs n o rth -s o u th . A sso c iate d w ith th e flo o rs w e re sto rag e p its a n d g ra v e s. Som e o f th e g ra v e s h a d w a is t p its w ith d o g sk e le to n s a n d g ra v e fu rn is h in g s in c lu d in g p o tte ry , a few ja d e s, a n d a b ro n z e v essel, a n d o n e g ra v e (w ith a w a is t p it) c o n ta in e d a p o tte ry ja r in w h ic h c re m a te d b o n e s w e re p la ced . (T his is th e o n ly c re m a tio n re c o rd e d fo r a S h an g b u ria l, a n d th e p o ssib ility th a t th e ja r w as in tru s iv e in to a S h an g g ra v e c a n n o t be ru le d o u t ).38 S o u th o f th e la rg e st h o u se flo o r in an a re a 1250 m e te rs sq u a re w as a c lu ste r o f p o tte ry k iln s. T h ese w e re ro u n d e x c a v a tio n s w ith a n o p e n in g fo r fu e l a n d a n o th e r, co v e re d , b y a grill, fo r th e p la c e m e n t o f p o tte r y to b e fire d . In th e m a n y p its n e a rb y w e re u n fire d p o tte ry , m isfired p o tte ry , p a d d le s, a n d im p re ssin g p a d d le s. N e a rb y w h ite p la ste re d flo o rs a p p e a r to b e asso cia ted w ith som e o f th e k iln s .39 35. WW, "Cheng-chou hsin ch 'u -t’u ti Shang tai ch'ien-ch'i ta t'u n g ting" 鄭州新出土的商代前期大銅鼎. 36. An Chih-min 安 志 敏 ，"Cheng-chou shih Jen-min kung-yüan fu-chin ti Yin tai yi-ts#u n 〃 鄭 州 市 人 民 公 園 附 近 的 殷 代 遺 存 •

37. W W , "Cheng-chou shih Jen-min kung-yüan ti erh-shih-wu hao Shang tai mu-tsang ch'ing-li chien-pao” 鄭 州 市 人 民 公 園 第 二 十 五 號 商 代 基 葬 清 理 簡 報 . 38. W W , "Cheng-chou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts'e fa-hsien Shang tai chih t'ao kung-ch'ang fang-chi teng yi-chüi” 鄭 州 市 銘 功 路 西 側 發 現 商 代 製 Ä 工 塲 房 基 等 遺址， 64 ; Ma Ch’üan 馬 全 ， "Cheng-chou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts'e ti Shang tai yi-ts'un” 鄭州市銘功路西恻 的商代遺存.

39. W W , '"Cheng-chou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts'e fa-hsien Shang tai chih t'ao kung-ch'ang fang-chi teng yi-chih” 鄭 州 市 銘 功 路 西 側 發 現 商 代 製 陶 工 场 房 基 等 遺址， 64; WW, "Cheng-chou fa-hsien ti Shang tai chih t'ao yi-chi” 鄭 州 發 現 的 商 代 製 «J 遺 跡 ；尺尺HP, "Cheng-chou Shang tai yi-chih ti fa -c h ü e h " 鄭 州 商 代 i 址 的 發 掘 ，57.

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u

iP •j

e| •

^

I

0# ^

i

•

e ®0 i a

q

KEY 5Q0

——

Ç

500

1000

1500

--Shang town wall

X-.......... Find spots 〇 ...........Yang-shao sites •

..Lung-shan sites

0 -......... Shang sites

W

—- Workshops

P—

Palace

72. A structural model of the Shang urban network in Cheng-chou.

A few m eters to th e so u th o f th e k iln s w as a n o th e r b u ria l area, ex c av a ted in 1965. Five g rav es w e re o p en e d , b u t o n ly tw o b e tte r fu rn ish e d ones h a v e b een re p o r te d .40 B oth w ere p it grav es, n o t e q u ip p e d w ith e r h - t s fe n g - tfai, a n d w ere fu rn is h e d w ith b ro n z e vessels, b ro n ze w eap o n s, ja d e s, glazed p o tte ry b eak ers, b o n e ob jects, a n d shell beads, an d w ere a p p a re n tly th e to m b s o f p eo p le w ith social sta tu s co m p arab le to th e P ai-ch ia -c h u an g b ro n z e graves. SUMMARY

T he rem ain s d e sc rib e d a b o v e 41 re p re s e n t q u ite a sm all p o rtio n o f th e to ta l m aterial th a t is a p p a re n tly available, a n d e v e n th e m aterial 4〇K

"Cheng-chou shih Ming-kung-lu hsi ts'e ti liang-tso Shang tai mu’’

鄭州市銘功路西側的兩座商代基.

41. Cf. 尺/CHP, "Cheng-chou Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh” 鄭 州 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ； Hsia Nai, "W orkshop of China's Oldest Civilization ”；An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ， "Shih lun Cheng-chou Shang tai ch'eng chih— Ao tu 〃 試 論 鄭 州 商 代 城 址 — fit 邹 ; WW,"Cheng-chou Shang tai ch#eng-chih shih chüeh chien pao” 鄭 : 商 代 城 址 試 掘 簡 板 WW ，"Cheng-chou Shang tai yi-chih” 鄭 州 商 代 遺 址 •

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th a t is av a ila b le h as re s u lte d m a in ly fro m salv ag e w o rk . F rom th e se sk e tc h y d a ta a p ic tu re o f th e c ity o f th e E rh -li-k a n g p h a se em erges w h ic h re p e a ts in th e m ain th e p a tte r n th a t w e h a v e o b se rv e d in A n -y a n g o n th e b asis o f m o re a b u n d a n t, b e tte r-e x c a v a te d , a n d b e tte r-re p o rte d d a ta . A g ain o n e sees n o t o n ly a h ig h ly stra tifie d a n d sp ecialized so c iety b u t also a se ttle m e n t p a tte r n in w h ic h d iffe re n c e s in social s tra ta a n d p ro fe ssio n w e re sp a tia lly e x p re s se d . A t th e h e a rt w as a n e n c lo su re in w h ic h w e re p ro b a b ly se ate d th e ru le rs o f th e to w n , to g e th e r w ith s u p p o r t p e rso n n e l. W o rk s h o p s o f v a rio u s k in d s w e re fo u n d sc a tte re d in all d ire c tio n s o u ts id e th e w all, som e o f th e m a sso cia ted w ith g ro u n d h o u se s w ith o r w ith o u t h a n g - t fu flo o rs a n d w alls, p o ssib ly in d ic a tin g — as in th e A n -y a n g ca se— th a t som e c ra ftsm e n w e re a p p e n d e d to th e u p p e r, r a th e r th a n th e lo w er, class. In th e n o r th e r n s u b u rb s g ra v e s o f c o n sid e ra b le so p h istic a tio n , w ith e r h - t s ’e n g -t'a i, w a is t-p its, h u m a n sacrificial v ic tim s, dogs, a n d r itu a l b ro n z e vessels, h a v e b e e n fo u n d to g e th e r w ith th e d w e llin g q u a rte rs o f th e ir n o b le m a n m asters, w h e re a s d w e llin g s o f c o m m o n ers a n d th e ir b u ria ls in tra s h p its h a v e b ee n id e n tifie d w id e ly in th e s o u th e rn s u b u rb s (fig. 72). T h ese p a tte rtis o f th e S h an g se ttle m e n t are m e re ly w h a t w e h a v e b e e n ab le to p u t to g e th e r o n th e basis o f s till-sk e tc h y d a ta . W e aw a it, w ith in te re s t, a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n fro m f u tu re re se a rc h , esp ecially in th e a rea in sid e th e e a rth e n e n c lo su re a n d its s o u th w e s te rn s u b u rb s . 3. E R H - L I - K A N G P H A S E I N A N C I E N T N O R T H E R N H O N A N C U LTU RA L S T R A T IG R A P H Y

H ere a b rie f a tte m p t w ill b e m ad e to place-th e E rh -li-k a n g p h ase, to g e th e r w ith th e la te r A n -y a n g p h a se o f th e d y n a s tic p e rio d , in to th e g e n e ra l c o n te x t o f th e c u ltu ra l c h ro n o lo g y o f n o r th e r n H o n an . A m ore d e ta ile d d isc u ssio n o f th e issu es in v o lv e d h e re c a n n o t be m ad e u n til w e h a v e p re s e n te d th e S h an g arch aeo lo g ical d a ta fro m o th e r areas o f C hina, a n d u n til w e h a v e d e a lt w ith a n u m b e r o f g e n e ra l p ro b le m s c o n c e rn in g th e a n c ie n t C hinese h is to ry a n d a rch a eo lo g y . T h e n o r th e r n H o n a n a n c ie n t c u ltu ra l s tra tig ra p h y is su m m arize d in ta b le 3. A fu lle r e x p la n a tio n o f th e ta b le w ill be m ad e la te r in th is v o lu m e, b u t p re lim in a ry co m m en ts m ay be d e sira b le a t th is ju n c tu re . P ala eo lith ic a n d M eso lith ic c u ltu re s (1, 2). T h e n o r th e r n p a r t o f H o n a n h a d b e e n o c c u p ie d b y m an since th e U p p e r P alaeo lith ic p e rio d a t th e la te st, as sh o w n b y th e sto n e assem blages fro m th e cav e o f H siaon a n -h a i 小 南 海 s o u th w e s t o f A n -y a n g 42 a n d fro m th e sa n d d u n e s n e a r 42. An Chih-min 安 志 敏 ，"Ho-nan An-yang H siaonan-hai chiu-sliih-ch'i shih-tai tung-hsüeh tui-chi ti shih chüeh " 河 南 安 降 小 南 海 舊 石 器 時 代 消 穴 堆 積 的 试 掘.

S h a n g H is t o r y b e y o n d A n - y a n g

284 鏞

T able 3

N o rth e rn H o n an C u ltu ral S tra tig ra p h y

C u ltu re s

P h a se s

T yp e S ite s

9. Shang

Dynastic An-yang

An-yang

8. Shang

Erh-li-kang

Cheng-chou

7. Hsia

Lo-ta-miao

Lo-ta-miao, Cheng-chou Hou-kang, An-yang Ta-ssu-k'ungts’un, An-yang; Ta-ho-ts’un, Cheng-chou Hou-kang, An-yang P'ei-li-kang, Hsin-cheng Ling-ching, Hsü-ch'ang Hsiao-nan-hai, An-yang

6. Lung-shan 5. Yang-shao

Ta-ssu-k'ungts’un

4. Yang-shao

Hou-kang

3. Early Neolithic 2. Mesolithic 1. Palaeolithic

C a lib ra te d C -14 D a te s ( b . c .)

1210 1280 1560 1590 1470

± 160 ± 150 士 160 ± 160 ± 190

2340 土 140 3070 土 190 3130 土 190 3425 ± 130 3685 土 125 4185 土 200 4390 ± 140 5935 ± 480 (uncalibrated)

10760 ± 220

L in g -ch in g 靈 井 ， in H sü -c h 'a n g , so u th o f C h e n g -c h o u .43 Both are c h a ra cte rized b y flake a n d m icro flak e im p lem e n ts a n d d a te to n e a r th e b o rd e r b e tw e e n P leisto cen e a n d H olocene, a lth o u g h H siao -n an -h ai is co n sid ered ea rlier o n fau n al g ro u n d s. T h ese assem blages re p re s e n t th e c o n tin u in g p o p u la tio n a n d c u ltu re o f th e C entral P lains, a n d it w as am ong th e se p eo p le th a t th e tra n s itio n to an a g ric u ltu ra l life to o k place, a p ro cess y e t to be fu lly d o c u m e n te d b y arch aeo lo g ical m aterial. E arly N eo lith ic (3). O ne o f th e v e ry few sites th a t can tr u ly be called E arly N eo lith ic in N o rth C hina is th e P 'e i-li-k a n g 裴 李 崗 site n ea r H sin -ch en g , so u th o f C heng-chou, d isc o v e re d a n d e x c a v a te d in ea rly 1977. T h ere are p o lish ed sto n e im p lem e n ts h ere, in c lu d in g " s p a d e s ,” sickle-like o b jects, a n d m illing stones, su g g e stin g th e u se o f cereal grasses. T h e re is p o tte ry — re d , coarse, m o stly p lain , occasional­ ly co m b -im p ressed o r ro c k e r-sta m p e d — in th e form o f ju g s, ja rs, bow ls, a n d ïzn ^-trip o d s .44 T h e re is n o s tra tig ra p h ic e v id e n c e a t th e site for th e c u ltu re ’s g re a t a n tiq u ity ,, b u t on e c a rb o n -14 d a te o f 7885 土 480 b.p. (based on half-life o f 57i 〇 土 40) has b een d e te rm in e d . A n o th e r 43. Chou Kuo-hsing 周 國 興 ，"Ho-nan Hsü-ch’ang Ling-ching ti shih-ch'i shih-tai yi-ts，u i T 河 南 許 昌 箋 并 的 石 器 時 代 遺 存 . 44• 欠尺，“ Ho-nan Hsin-cheng P’ei-li-kang hsin-shih-ch'i shih-tai yi-chih 〃 河南新鄭裴丰 岡新石器時代遺址.

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site th a t h as y ie ld e d sim ilar p o tte ry h as b e e n re p o rte d fro m T z 'u -s h a n 磁 山 in W u -a n in s o u th e rn H opei, a n d th e re tw o c a rb o n d a te s o f sim ilar a n tiq u ity (7355 ± 100 a n d 7330 ± 105 b.p.)45 c o rro b o ra te th e E arly N eo lith ic s ta tu s o f c u ltu ra l assem b lag es o f th is k in d . A t th e T z 'u -s h a n site w e re re m a in s o f c a rb o n iz e d cereals a n d also b o n es o f su c h p o ssib ly d o m e stic a te d an im als as p ig s, dogs, ca ttle, a n d sh eep . F rom f u rth e r stu d ie s o f th is n e w ly d isc o v e re d c u ltu re o n e m a y re a s o n a b ly e x p e c t g ro w in g k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e b e g in n in g o f fo o d p ro d u c tio n in N o rth C hina, a n d n o r th e r n H o n a n seem s to be d e fin ite ly w ith in th e b ro a d area in w h ic h th is c ru c ia l p ro c e ss to o k p lace. Y ang-shao c u ltu re (4, 5). By th e tim e o f th e w e ll-k n o w n Y angsh ao c u ltu re w ith p a in te d p o tte ry (5 0 0 0 -3 0 0 0 B .c .),46 th e n o rth e rn H o n a n area w as w e ll-p o p u la te d . T h e e a rlie st k n o w n m a n ife sta tio n o f th is c u ltu re a p p e a rs to b e th e H o u -k a n g site in A n -y a n g ,47 b u t b y th e f o u rth m ille n n iu m b .c. it h a d b eco m e w id e s p re a d . In th e A n -y a n g area th e Y ang-shao p h a s e a t T a -s s u -k 'u n g -ts 'u n is th e b e st k n o w n ,48 a n d in th e C h e n g -c h o u a re a tw o w e ll-e x c a v a te d sites are th o se n e a r L in -sh an ch ai 林 山 喏 49 a n d T a -h o -ts 'u n 大 河 村 .5() L u n g -sh a n c u ltu re (6). By th e p e rio d o f th e L u n g -sh a n c u ltu re , a p p ro x im a te ly th e th ir d m ille n n iu m B.C., th e p o p u la tio n in th e n o r th e r n H o n a n area b ecam e d en se, as in d ic a te d b y th e larg e n u m b e r o f L u n g -sh a n c u ltu re sites h e re . A n u m b e r o f th e S h an g lo calities d isc u sse d a b o v e in b o th A n -y a n g a n d C h e n g -c h o u h a d a p re -S h a n g c u ltu ra l s tra tu m c h a ra c te riz e d b y g ra y a n d b la c k p o tte ry o f L u n g -sh a n form s. In te rm s o f p o tte ry , sto n e a n d b o n e a rtifa c ts, th e u se o f s h o u ld e r b la d e s fo r o racles, a n d o v e ra ll c u ltu ra l c o m p le x ity , L u n g -sh a n c u ltu re p ro v id e d th e b ase fro m w h ic h S h an g a n d sim ilar e à rly h isto ric a l c u ltu re s sp ra n g . 45• 尺f H o - p e i Tz'u-shan hsin-shih-ch'i yi-chih shih chüeh " 河 北 磁 山 新 石 器遺址試掘.

46. Dates according to Hsia Nai 夏 痛 ，"Tan-14 ts'e-ting nien-tai ho Chungkuo shih-ch'ien k’ao-ku hsüeh 破 - 1 4 測 定 年 代 和 中 國 史 前 考 古 學 ， 222 ; Chang Kwangchih 張 光 直 ， "Chung-kuo k'ao-ku-hsüeh shang ti fang-she-hsing t'an-su nien-tai chi c h i yi-yi 〃 中 國 考 古 學 上 的 放 射 性 破 素 年 代 及 其 意 義 ， 3& 47. 狀 , "1971nienAn-yangHou-kangfa-chüehchienpao” 1971 年 安 陽 後 岡 發 掘 簡 報 ；尺尺,"1972 nien ch，un An-yang Hou-kang fa-chüeh chien pao” 1972 年 春 安 降 後两 發掘簡報• 48. ÜX "1958-1959 nien Yin hsü fa-chüeh chien pao” 1958-1959年 殷 壚 發 掘簡報• 49. Mao Pao-liang 屯 寶 亮 ，"Cheng-chou hsi chiao Yang-shao wen-hua yi-chih fa-chüeh chien pao〃 鄭 州 西 郊 仰 招 文 化 遺 址 發 掘 簡 報 ； Chao C h 'in g-yü n 趙 音 當 ， "1957 nien Cheng-chou hsi chiao fa-chüeh chi yao" 1957 年 鄭 州 西 郊 發 掘 紀 要 ； An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ，"Cheng-chou ti-ch'ü ti ku-tai yi-ts'un chieh-shao” _ 州 地 區 的 古 代 遺 存 介 绍 ，16. 50. K K , '"Cheng-chou Ta-ho-ts'un Yang-shao wen-hua ti fang chi yi-chih" 鄭州大河村仰韶文化的房基遺址.

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beyond

A n - yang

M ore d etailed d isc u ssio n o f th is iss u ^ w ill be d e fe rre d u n til th e fin al ch a p ter. H sia civ ilizatio n (7). T his is a c u ltu ra l p h a se th a t is seen sa n d ­ w ich e d b e tw e e n th e L u n g -sh an c u ltu re a n d th e S hang civ ilizatio n o f th e E rh -li-k an g p h ase, b o th stra tig ra p h ic a lly a n d ty p o lo g ica lly . O n th e basis o f th e th re e sites th a t h a v e b ee n u se d as th e ty p e -site s o f th is c u ltu re — L o-ta-m iao 洛 達 廟 ， 51 S h an g -ch ieh 上 街 ， 52 53 a n d th e lo w er stra tu m o f N a n -k u a n -w a i 南闞 夕卜 53— o n e m ay n o te th a t th is c u ltu re has th e fo llo w in g o u ts ta n d in g ch a ra c te ristic s : T he p o tte ry is m o st ty p ic a lly im p ressed w ith clear a n d d ee p co rd m ark s, sim ilar to th e L u n g -sh an , a n d ch e ck -im p ressio n s are also fre q u e n t, ag ain a L u n g -sh an fe a tu re ; îin 客-trip o d s are seen ra th e r o ften , a n d o n e o r tw o fo rm s o f ja rs are d istin c tiv e ; a p o tte ry b asin w ith g ro o v e d in te rio r is c h a ra cte ristic , som etim es called a " s q u e e z e r" o r " s iire d d e r" ; oracle b o n es o f sh o u ld e r b lad es w e re seldom p re p a re d b efo re th e y w e re to rc h e d , a n d tu rtle shells w e re e x tre m e ly ra re to n o n e x iste n t. A ll th e se fe a tu re s p lace th is p h a s e — L o-ta-m iao p h ase in th e lite ra tu re — a t an e a rlier p o sitio n th a n th e E rh -li-k an g p h a se (a lth o u g h th e single C-14 d a te fro m th e L o-ta-m iao site is la te r th a n th e E rh -li-k an g dates), b u t a t th e sam e tim e its affin ity w ith th e la tte r is u n m ista k a b le . F or th e se reaso n s it h as long b een c o n sid ered E arly S hang, a p h a se th a t has b ee n arch aeo lo g ically e x te n d e d w e stw a rd to th e L o-yang area, w h e re it is id e n tifie d w ith th e c u ltu ra l p h ase re p re s e n te d b y th e E rh -li-t’o u site. T h u s, b e g in n in g in th e 1960s th e te rm " E a rly S hang p h a s e " (ty p ified b y E rh -li-t'o u a n d Lo-ta-m iao) h as b een u se d to d e sc rib e th e in itia l p h a se o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e S hang c iv iliz a tio n .54 T h e p ic tu re is b e g in n in g to ch a n g e in th e late 1970s. T he te rm E arly S hang (E rh -li-t'o u o r L o-ta-m iao phase) is b ein g closely reex a m in e d w ith a v ie w to id e n tify in g it, in ste a d , w ith th e h isto ric a l H sia civ ilizatio n . D etailed d isc u ssio n o f th e issue w ill be p re se n te d in th e fin al c h a p te r, b u t let m e a n tic ip a te th a t b y sim p ly sta tin g th a t th e n o rth e rn H o n an area at th e e n d o f th e L u n g -sh an c u ltu re w as w ith in th e e a ste rn p a rt o f th e d o m ain o f th e H sia civ ilizatio n w ith its c e n te r o f ac tiv ities fu rth e r 51. WW, "Cheng-chou Lo-ta-miao Shang tai yi-chih shih chüeh chien pao 〃 鄭州洛達崩商代遺址試掘簡報.

52.

尺尺，"Cheng-chou Shang«chieh Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh " 鄭 州 上 街

商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 ；尺尺, "Ho-nan Cheng-chou Shang-chieh Shang tai yi-chih fa-chüeh pao« kaa 〃 河 南 鄭 州 上 街 商 代 遺 址 發 掘 報 告 • 53. K K , y/Cheng-chou Nan-kuan-wa' Shang tai yi-chih fa-chüeh chien pao" 鄭州南閫 外商代遺址發掘簡報； "Cheng-chou Nan-kuan-wai Shang tai yi-chih ti fa-chüeh 〃 鄭 州 南 關 外 商 代 遺 址 的 發 掘 . 54. See Kwang-chih Chang, T he A rc h a e o lo g y o f A n c ie n t C h in a , pp. 269-271.

Cheng - chou

287

w e st in th e Lo R iv er v a lle y a n d also in th e lo w e r F en R iv er v a lle y o f S hansi. S h an g (8). T h e c h a n g e fro m th e L o-ta-m iao p h a s e to th e E rh -lik a n g p h ase, th e n , in v o lv e d a m ajo r p o litica l u p h e a v a l, a lth o u g h th e re w as e sse n tia l c u ltu ra l c o n tin u ity . T h e n o r th e r n H o n a n area saw th e a rriv a l o f n e w r u le r s — th e S h a n g — in th e n e w p h a se , b e s t ex e m p lifie d b y th e S h an g c ity in C h en g -ch o u , b u t also m a n ife st in th e arch aeo lo g ical assem b lag es o f sim ilar sty le a n d d a te su c h as M e i-y ü a n -c h u a n g (lo w er stra tu m ) a n d p re d y n a s tic H s ia o -t'u n 55 in th e A n -y a n g a re a ; L iu-li-ko a n d C h’u - c h ’iu in H u i H s ie n ;56 L u -w a n g -fe n in H s in -h s ia n g ;57 a n d C h 'a o -k o in T 'a n g -y in .58 In so fa r as th e g re a te r c a p ita l a re a o f la te S h an g is c o n c e rn e d , th e w h o le a re a w as in fa c t in h a b ite d b y S h an g p e o p le in th e E rh -li-k a n g p h ase, sin ce re m a in s d a te d to it h a v e also b e e n fo u n d to o c c u r in T z #u H sie n ,59 H a n -ta n ,60 a n d H s in g -t'a i.61 S h an g (9). F in ally , fo r th e d y n a s tic A n -y a n g p h ase, th e sam e sites in n o r th e r n H o n a n c o n tin u e d to be in h a b ite d , b u t th e c e n te r o f a c tiv itie s h a d b e e n sh ifte d fro m C h e n g -c h o u to A n -y a n g . A t A n -y a n g , as w e h a v e seen in c h a p te r 1, th e p assag e fro m p re d y n a s tic to d y n a s tic p e rio d s tra n sfo rm e d th e a re a fro m a re la tiv e ly sm all c lu s te r o f villages, w ith p e rh a p s a few m e m b ers o f th e u p p e r class w h o se g ra v e s h a v e b ee n b r o u g h t to lig h t a t H s ia o -t'u n (b u t p o ssib ly a sm all a d m in is tra tiv e c e n te r e v e n th e n ), in to a b u s tlin g city . O n th e o th e r h a n d , a c tiv itie s in C hengc h o u su b sid e d d ra stic a lly in th e n e x t local p h a se , th e P e o p le 's P a rk p h ase, w h ic h is g e n e ra lly c o n sid e re d to c o rre s p o n d to d y n a s tic H siaot'u n . T h e o n ly arch a eo lo g ical loci w h e re re m a in s o f th is la te p h a s e h a v e sig n ific a n tly o c c u rre d a re th e P e o p le 's P a rk ju s t u n d e r a k ilo m e te r fro m th e (p re su m a b ly th e n -a b a n d o n e d ) S h an g to w n w a ll62 a n d th e K o-la-w ang 55• 尺反 "1958-1959 nien Yin hsüfa:chüeh chien pao" 1958-1959 年 救 垓 發 掘 簡 報 ， 65, 73. 56. Kuo Pao»chün, Hsia Nai, et al., Hwi 份 如 輝 縣 發 掘 報 告 • 57. K K H P , "Ho-nan Hsin-hsiang Lu-wang-fen Shang tai yi-chih fa-chüeh paokao〃 河 南 新 鄉 潞 王 墳 商 代 遺 址 發 掘 報 告 • 58. An Chin-huai 安 金 槐 ，"T'ang-yin Ch'ao-ko-chen fa-hsien Lung-shan ho Shang tai teng wen-hua yi-chih 〃 湯 陰 朝 歌 镇 發 現 龍 山 和 商 代 等 文 化 遺 址 . 59• 尺X, "Tz'u hsien Chieh-tuan-ying fa-chüeh chien pao" 磁 縣 界 段 營 發 掘 簡報； "Tz’u hsien Hsia-p’an-wang yi-chih fa-chüeh pao-kao" 磁 縣 下 潘 汪 遺 址 4 掘報告• 6 0 . 尺尺, "1&57 nien Han-tan fa-chüeh chien pao” 1957 年 邯 郸 發 掘 簡 報 ；尺尺, "Ho-pei Han-tan Chien-kou-ts'un ku yi-chih fa-chüeh chien pao ” 》 古北都鄭利漢村古遺 址發掘簡報. 61 • 尺ÄifP, "Hsing-t'ai Ts'ao-yen-chuang yi-chih fa-chüeh pao-kao” 邢 台 曹 演莊遺址發掘報告• 62. An Chih-min 安 志 敏 ，"Cheng-chou shih Jen-min kung-yuan fu-chin ti Y intaiyi-ts'un” 鄭 州 市 人 民 公 園 附 近 的 殷 代 遺 存 .

288

Sh a n g H istory

beyond

A n - yang

site 6.5 k ilo m eters w e st o f th e w all.63c/zi/z p 如 地 質 專 報 ， series 2, no. 2, l 9 n . Chang K uang-yüan 張 光 遠 • "Hsi-Chou chung ch'i M ao kung tin g ” 西 周 重 器 毛 公 亦 • C7zi JTan 故 官 季 刊 7, no. 2 (1973): 1 -6 9 . (An English abridg­ m ent o f th is article, by John M arney, appears in Monwmenta Serica, 31 [1974/75]: 4 4 6 -4 7 4 ). Chàng K w ang-chih 4 光 直 • r/ze i4 rc/zaet)Zög[y 〇 / A ndenf C/zina. 3d ed. N ew H aven and L ondon: Yale U niversity Press, 1977. ---------- • "Chung-kuo hsin shih-ch'i shih-tai w en-hua t u a n - t a i" 中 國 新 石 器 時 代 文 化 斯 代 ， Bulletin o f the In stitu te o f H istory and Philology, A cadem ia Sinica, 3 0 (1 9 5 9 ): 2 5 9 -3 0 9 . ---------- • "C hung-kuo k ’ao-k u-h sü eh shang ti fang-she-hsing t ’an-su nien-tai chi c h i y i-y i” 中 國 考 古 學 上 的 放 射 性 破 素 年 長 及 其 意 義 • ï/ze D epartm ent o f Archaeology and Anthropology, N ational Taiwan U niversity, 37/38 (1975): 2 9 -4 3 . ---------- . "The C ontinuing Quest for China's O rig in s/' Archaeology 30 (1977): 1 1 6 -1 2 3 , 1 8 6 -1 9 3 . ---------- . Early Chinese C ivilization: Anthropological Perspectives. Cambridge: Harvard U n iversity Press, 1976. ---------- . '"Food and Food V essels in A ncient C h in a/' Transactions o f the N ew York A cadem y o f Sciences, ser. II, 35 (1973): 4 9 5 -5 2 0 . ---------- . ''The Origin o f Chinese C ivilization : A r e v ie w /' Journal o f the Am erican O riental Society 98 (1978): 8 5 -9 1 . ---------- • "Shang Chou ch ’in g -t’u n g-ch ’i ch'i-hsing chuang-shih hua-w en y ü m in g -w e n tsu n g -h o y e n -c h iu ch 'u -p u p a o -k a o ” 商 周 青 銅 器 器 形 裝 _ 花 紋 與 銘 文 练 合 研 究 初 步 報 告 • ßwZ/efm 〇 /* f/ie Jnstitt/re — 份 AnoZc^, Academia Sinica 3 0 (1 9 7 0 ): 2 3 9 -3 1 5 . ---------''Shang Chou shen-hua y ü m ei-shu chung so-chien jen y ü tu n g-w u kuan-hsi chih yen -p ien 商 周 神 話 與 美 術 中 所 見 人 與 動 物 關 係 之 演 變 •〃 Bulletin o f the In stitu te o f Ethnology, A cadem ia Sinica 16 (1963): 1 1 5 -1 4 6 . ---------- • "Shang w an g m iao-hao hsin k ' a o " 商 王 廟 號 新 考 • 〇 / t/ze In stitu te o f Ethnology, A cadem ia Sinica, 15 (1963): 6 5 -9 4 . ---------- . "Some D ualistic Phenom ena in Shang S o c ie ty /' Journal o f A sian Studies 24 (1964) : 4 5 -6 1 . ---------- • "T'an W ang Hai y ü Yi Yin ti chi jih ping tsai lun Yin Shang w ang-chih" 談王亥與伊尹的祭日並 再論殷商王制• 〇/认 e Jfwti加 e 〇/份 A cadem ia Sinica, 35 (1973): 1 1 1 -1 2 7 . ---------- . '4T ien Kan : A Key to the H istory o f the S h a n g /' In Studies in E arly C ivili­ zation pp. 1 3 -4 2 , ed. b y D avid Roy and T. H. Tsien. H ong Kong: Chinese U n iversity o f H ong Kong, 1978. ---------- • "T s'ung Hsia Shang Chou san-tai k'ao-ku lun san-tai kuan-hsi yü Chungkuo ku-tai kuo»chia ti hsin g-ch 'en g 〃 從 夏 商 周 三 代 考 古 論 三 代 關 係 與 中 國

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