Settlement, Burial and Industry in Roman Godmanchester: Excavations in the extra-mural area: The Parks 1998, London Road 1997–8, and other investigations 9781841714844, 9781407319865

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BAR  346  2003  

Birmingham University Field Archaeology Unit Monograph Series 6

JONES (Ed.)  

Settlement, Burial and Industry in Roman Godmanchester

SETTLEMENT, BURIAL AND INDUSTRY IN ROMAN GODMANCHESTER

Excavations in the extra-mural area: The Parks 1998, London Road 1997–8, and other investigations Edited by

Alex Jones

BAR British Series 346 9 781841 714844

B A R

2003

ISBN 9781841714844 paperback ISBN 9781407319865 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841714844 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Contents Page List of figures……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. v List of tables…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. vii List of plates…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ix List of Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. x List of Appendix plates………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi

PART I: SUMMARY AND INTRODUCTION SUMMARY……………………………………………………………………………………………………... …………... 2 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3 Background……………………………………………………………………………………………………... 3

The Parks excavation……………………………………………………………………………………….. London Road excavation………………………………………………………………………………….. Other investigations………………………………………………………………………………………... Recording (all sites)…………………………………………………………………………………………. Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………….. Arrangement of report……………………………………………………………………………………..

4 6 7 7 7 8

PART II: THE PARKS RESULTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10 Phase 1: Prehistoric activity………………………………………………………………………………... 10

Description and interpretation………………………………………………………………………… Phase 2: Layout of road and property boundaries……………………………………………….. Description……………………………………………………………………………………………..…. Finds and dating evidence……………………………………………………………………………… Interpretation……………………………………………………………………………………………… Phase 3: Pottery manufacture and cremations…………………………………………………………..

Description………………………………………………………………………………………………… Finds and dating………………………………………………………………………………………….. Interpretation……………………………………………………………………………………………… Phase 4: Inhumation cemetery…………………………………………………………………………. Description………………………………………………………………………………………………… Interpretation……………………………………………………………………………………………… Phase 5: Post-Roman activity…………………………………………………………………………… Description and interpretation…………………………………………………………………………. FINDS AND HUMAN REMAINS……………………………………………………………………………………. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………. Prehistoric pottery…………………………………………………………………………………………. Flint…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Coins…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Catalogue………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Small finds……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Brooches…………………………………………………………………………………………………... Other copper alloy objects……………………………………………………………………………… Iron objects………………………………………………………………………………………………… Glass…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Shale armlet……………………………………………………………………………………………….. Stone objects………………………………………………………………………………………………. Romano-British pottery…………………………………………………………………………………… i

10 10 10 11 11 13 13 17 18 21 21 31 36 36 37 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 40 41 41 42 42 42

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………... Methodology………………………………………………………………………………………………. Kilns…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Other pottery………………………………………………………………………………………………. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………. Suggestions for future study……………………………………………………………………………. Mortaria……………………………………………………………………………………………………. Mortaria stamps………………………………………………………………………………………….. Samian……………………………………………………………………………………………………… Graffiti……………………………………………………………………………………………………… Kiln furniture………………………………………………………………………………………………... Introduction, methodology and aims………………………………………………………………… Kiln 1………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Kiln 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Kilns 4a/b………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Kiln 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………………………. Human remains……………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………... Burial type…………………………………………………………………………………………………. Cremated human bone…………………………………………………………………………………... Limitations of analysis: completeness and weathering…………………………………………... Demography……………………………………………………………………………………………….. Metric analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………….. Non-metric traits………………………………………………………………………………………….. Schmorl’s nodes………………………………………………………………………………………….. Degenerative disc disease………………………………………………………………………………. Periosteal new bone formation………………………………………………………………………… Neoplastic conditions……………………………………………………………………………………. Congenital conditions…………………………………………………………………………………… Trauma……………………………………………………………………………………………………... Other conditions………………………………………………………………………………………….. Dental health………………………………………………………………………………………………. Health of the adult sub-sample………………………………………………………………………… Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………………………. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Phase 1. Prehistoric………………………………………………………………………………………… Phase 2. Layout of road and property boundaries………………………………………………... Phase 3. Pottery manufacture and cremations…………………………………………………….. Pottery manufacture……………………………………………………………………………………... Cremations………………………………………………………………………………………………… Phase 4. Inhumation cemetery………………………………………………………………………….. Stratigraphy and dating…………………………………………………………………………………. Overall distribution and alignment…………………………………………………………………… Sex and age………………………………………………………………………………………………... Attitude and characteristics…………………………………………………………………………….. Siting and layout………………………………………………………………………………………….. Nature and organisation of cemetery………………………………………………………………… Religion……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ii

42 43 43 58 59 61 61 61 63 66 66 66 66 67 67 68 68 69 69 69 69 69 70 71 71 73 75 75 75 76 76 76 77 78 79 80 80 80 80 81 81 82 83 83 84 84 85 86 86 87

PART III: LONDON ROAD RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99 Phase 1: Prehistoric activity……………………………………………………………………………… 99 Description and finds…………………………………………………………………………………….. 99 Interpretation………………………………………………………………………………………………. 99 Phase 2: Early Romano-British activity………………………………………………………………. 99 Description…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 99 Interpretation………………………………………………………………………………………………. 104 Phase 3: Romano-British roadside settlement………………………………………………………. 104 Description…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 104 Interpretation………………………………………………………………………………………………. 111 Phase 4A/B: Later Romano-British activity…………………………………………………………. 113 Phase 4A: Clearance and abandonment……………………………………………………………… 113 Phase 4B: Latest Romano-British activity…………………………………………………………… 115 Phase 5: Post-Romano-British activity………………………………………………………………... 116 Description and interpretation………………………………………………………………………….. 116 FINDS, FAUNAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE…………………………………………………… 117 Flint……………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 117 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………… 117 Catalogue…………………………………………………………………………………………………... 117 Raw material………………………………………………………………………………………………. 117 Worked flint……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 117 Utilisation…………………………………………………………………………………………………... 123 Scrapers……………………………………………………………………………………………………... 123 Other tools………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 123 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 123 Prehistoric pottery…………………………………………………………………………………………... 124 Phase 1 pit F104…………………………………………………………………………………………… 124 Phase 2–4A/B layers……………………………………………………………………………………... 124 Coins…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 126 Catalogue…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 128 Small finds…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 131 Copper alloy objects……………………………………………………………………………………… 131 Other copper alloy objects…...…………………………………………………………………………. 132 Iron objects………………………………………………………………………………………………… 132 Lead object………………………………………………………………………………………………… 133 Worked bone object……………………………………………………………………………………… 133 Worked stone objects……………………………………………………………………………………. 133 Glass objects………………………………………………………………………………………………. 134 Romano-British pottery…………………………………………………………………………………… 135 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………… 135 Methodology and aims…………………………………………………………………………………... 135 Chronology………………………………………………………………………………………………… 136 Fabrics………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 136 Catalogue…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 145 Mortaria…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 149 Samian………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 149 Pottery discussion………………………………………………………………………………………… 153 Animal bone…………………………………………………………………………………………………... 155 Introduction and methodology…………………………………………………………………………. 155 Provenance and preservation…………………………………………………………………………… 156 Species present……………………………………………………………………………………………. 156 iii

Butchery……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 158 Metric data…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 158 Pathology…………………………………………………………………………………………………... 158 Environment……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 158 Inter-site comparison…………………………………………………………………………………….. 160 Summary and conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….. 160 Charred plant remains…………………………………………………………………………………….. 160 Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 160 Results………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 166 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 166 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 168 DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 169 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 169 Phase 1. Prehistoric………………………………………………………………………………………………... 169 Phase 2. Early Romano-British activity………………………………………………………………………. 169 Phase 3. Romano-British activity………………………………………………………………………………. 170 Phase 4A/B. Later Romano-British activity…………………………………………………………………. 172 Phase 5: Post-Romano-British activity………………………………………………………………………... 173

PART IV: OTHER INVESTIGATIONS INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 178 CHORD BUSINESS PARK 1998……………………………………………………………………………………… 178 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 178 Results…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 178 Finds and human remains………………………………………………………………………………………... 179 Pottery………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 179 The Human Burial……………………………………………………………………………………………. 179 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 180 West Street Investigations 1997–8…………………………………………………………………………………….. 180 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 180 Results………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 180 Finds…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 183 Roman pottery…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 183 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 184

PART V: CONCLUSION INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 186 Phase 1: PREHISTORIC………………………………………………………………………………………………… 186 Phase 2-4a/b: ROMANO-BRITISH………………………………………………………………………………….. 186 Chronology…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 186 The economy, the suburbs and the town……………………………………………………………………. 188 Legal and administrative aspects……………………………………………………………………………... 189 Religion and death………………………………………………………………………………………………… 189 Late Roman decline and abandonment……………………………………………………………………… 190 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 190

PART VI: REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………. 191 PART VII: APPENDIX TABLES AND PLATES……………………………………………………… 205

iv

LIST OF FIGURES Page Cover

Simplified plan of crouched burial HB 34

Part I: Introduction Fig. 1A Fig. 1B Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Godmanchester and the surrounding area (Scale as shown)……………………………………………………… Modern Godmanchester, simplified street plan, showing The Parks, London Road, other investigations, the 3rd century defensive circuit and the principle Roman and modern roads (Scale 1:6000)……………………. The Parks, areas investigated (Scale 1:1000)…………………………………………………………………….. London Road, areas investigated (Scale 1:1000)………………………………………………………………….

1 1 4 5

Part II: The Parks Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16 Fig. 17 Fig. 18 Fig. 19 Fig. 20 Fig. 21 Fig. 22 Fig. 23 Fig. 24 Fig. 25 Fig. 26 Fig. 27 Fig. 28 Fig. 29 Fig. 30 Fig. 31 Fig. 32 Fig. 33 Fig. 34 Fig. 35 Fig. 36 Fig. 37 Fig. 38 Fig. 39

Simplified plan of the main Phase 2–4 excavated features. Only human burials numbered are those not illustrated on Fig. 13 (Scale 1:350)…………………………………………………………………………... Simplified Phase 2–4 plans (Scale 1:1250)………………………………………………………………………. Phase 2–3 sections (Scale 1:40)………………………………………………………………………………….. Phase 3, Kiln 1, pre-excavation plan and sections (Scale 1:40 and 1:25)………………………………………... Phase 3, Kiln 3, plan and sections (Scale 1:40)………………………………………………………………….. Phase 3, Kiln 4a/b, plan and sections (Scale 1:40)………………………………………………………………. Phase 3, Kiln 2, plan and sections (Scale 1:40)………………………………………………………………….. Phase 3, detailed plan of Structure 1 and other post-rests in Plot 1 (Scale 1:100)………………………………. Kiln furniture, relative quantities of material: pie-charts. See Appendix Table A3 for codes…………………... Phase 4, simplified plan of the inhumations. Southwest and northeast sub-groups (Scale 1:200)………………. Human remains, sex and age profile (U = unknown)……………………………………………………………. Human remains, simplified plan showing gender of individuals (Scale 1:200)…………………………………. Human remains, simplified plan showing age ranges of individuals (Scale 1:200)……………………………... Brooches (Scale 1:1)……………………………………………………………………………………………... Other copper alloy objects, the bracelets (Scale 1:1)…………………………………………………………….. Iron sword (Scale 1:2)……………………………………………………………………………………………. Glass (Scale 1:1…………………………………………………………………………………………………... Shale armlet (Scale 1:1)………………………………………………………………………………………….. Kiln 1: Fabrics by context. See Appendix Table A2 for key to codes……………………………………………. Kiln 1: Vessel classes by context (% rim EVE)………………………………………………………………….. Kiln 1: Form types, ordered by frequency (% rim EVE). See Appendix Table A1 for key to codes……………. Kiln 1 products (Scale 1:4)……………………………………………………………………………………….. Kiln 1: Other coarsewares, not kiln products (Scale 1:4)………………………………………………………… Mortaria: Kiln 1 products, Nos. 1–5; non-local mortaria, Nos. 6–7; local mortaria from non-key group layers, Nos. 8–12 (Scale 1:4)…………………………………………………………………………………………….. Kilns 4a/b: Fabrics by layer………………………………………………………………………………………. Kilns 4a/b: Vessel classes by kiln………………………………………………………………………………... Kilns 4a/b: Form types, ordered by frequency (% rim EVE)……………………………………………………. Kilns 4a/b products (Scale 1:4)…………………………………………………………………………………... Illustrated coarsewares from non-key groups (Scale 1:4)………………………………………………………... Vessels from the cemetery: vessels associated with inhumations, 1–3; cremation F26, Nos. 4–6; cremation F7, No. 7 (Scale 1:4)………………………………………………………………………………….. Mortaria supply through time (MNV)……………………………………………………………………………. Mortaria stamps (Scale 1:1)………………………………………………………………………………………. Samian: decorated samian, Nos. 1–6 (Scale 1:2); samian stamps, Nos. 7–16 (Scale 1:1); graffiti, Nos. 17–19 (Scale 1:2)………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Kiln furniture, Nos. 1–10 (Scale 1:4)…………………………………………………………………………….. Kiln furniture, No. 11 (Scale 1:4)………………………………………………………………………………… Human remains, congenitally deformed spine…………………………………………………………………….

9 11 12 14 14 15 16 16 18 22 23 24 25 39 39 39 39 39 45 45 45 46 47 48 54 54 54 56 58 60 62 62 64 67 68 76

Part III: London Road Fig. 40 Fig. 41 Fig. 42 Fig. 43 Fig. 44 Fig. 45

Simplified plan, features of all phases, north (Scale 1:200)……………………………………………………… Simplified plan, features of all phases, south (scale 1:200)……………………………………………………. .. Phase 1–2 plan, simplified (Scale 1:300) showing location of sections (Fig. 43)……………………………….. Phase 1–2 sections (Scales 1:25 and 1:50). Features numbered in parenthesis belong to later phase(s)………………………………………………………………………………. Phase 3 plan, simplified (Scale 1:300) showing location of sections (Figs. 45–6). For clarity, post-holes are not numbered; Sections 23–4 not shown……………………………………... Phase 3 sections, enclosure ditches and northern internal features (Scales 1:25 and 1:50)………………………

v

100 101 102 103 106 107

Fig. 46 Fig. 47 Fig. 48 Fig. 49 Fig. 50 Fig. 51 Fig. 52 Fig. 53 Fig. 54 Fig. 55 Fig. 56 Fig. 57 Fig. 58 Fig. 59 Fig. 60 Fig. 61 Fig. 62 Fig. 63 Fig. 64 Fig. 65 Fig. 66 Fig. 67 Fig. 68 Fig. 69 Fig. 70 Fig. 71

Phase 3 sections, Structure 1 and southern internal features (Scales 1:25 and 1:50): A, northern feature group; B, Structure 1 and associated features; C, southern feature group……………………………….. 108 Phases 4–5 plan, simplified (Scale 1:300) showing location of sections (Fig. 48). Post-holes are not numbered…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 114 Phase 4, sections (Scale 1:50)……………………………………………………………………………………. 115 Flint, illustrated items, Nos. 1–11 (Scale 1:1)……………………………………………………………………. 119 Flint, illustrated items, Nos. 12–16 (Scale 1:1)…………………………………………………………………... 120 Flint, composition of the total assemblage……………………………………………………………………….. 120 Flint, comparison between composition of assemblages from pit F104 and other material……………………... 121 Flint, relative amounts of cortex on complete flakes and blades (G3)…………………………………………… 122 Prehistoric pottery (Scale 1:2)……………………………………………………………………………………. 125 Coins, number found by issue periods……………………………………………………………………………. 128 Copper alloy objects (Scale 1:1)…………………………………………………………………………………. 131 Iron objects (Scale 1:1)…………………………………………………………………………………………... 134 Worked bone objects (Scale 1:1)…………………………………………………………………………………. 135 Glass object (Scale 1:1)…………………………………………………………………………………………... 135 Percentage quantity of pottery by key group……………………………………………………………………... 137 Roman pottery, Nos. 1–32 (Scale 1:4)…………………………………………………………………………… 138 Roman pottery, Nos. 33–75 (Scale 1:4)………………………………………………………………………….. 139 Roman pottery, Nos. 76–111 (Scale 1:4)………………………………………………………………………… 140 Roman pottery, Nos. 112–139 (Scale 1:4)……………………………………………………………………….. 141 Roman pottery, mortaria, Nos. 1–3 (Scale 1:4)………………………………………………………………….. 149 Roman pottery, samian, Nos. 1–4 (Scale 1:2); samian stamps, Nos. S.1–S.6 (Scale 1:1)……………………….. 151 Roman pottery, occurrence of forms……………………………………………………………………………... 154 Animal bone, number of post-cranial skeletal elements of cattle, sheep and equids, Phase 3–4A/B……………. 159 Charred plant remains, breakdown of plant remains categories for Phase 2 samples……………………………. 165 Charred plant remains, breakdown of plant remains categories for Phase 3 samples…………………………… 165 Charred plant remains, breakdown of plant remains categories for Phase 4 samples…………………………… 166

Part IV: Other investigations Fig. 72 Fig. 73 Fig. 74 Fig. 75

Chord Business Park, areas investigated (Scale as shown)………………………………………………………. Chord Business Park, Trench 1 plan and section (Scale as shown)……………………………………………… West Street, areas investigated (Scale as shown)………………………………………………………………… West Street, plans and sections (Scales as shown)………………………………………………………………..

vi

177 179 181 182

LIST OF TABLES Page Part II: The Parks 1 Kiln furniture, details……………………………………………………………………………………………… 17 2 Human burials, details…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26 3 Human burials, alignment and orientation………………………………………………………………………... 28 4 Human burials, age and sex……………………………………………………………………………………….. 29 5 Grave morphology, details………………………………………………………………………………………... 31 6 Human burials containing more than one nail……………………………………………………………………. 32 7 Roman pottery, summary of total assemblage by phase, and layer………………………………………………. 43 8 Kiln 1, summary of pottery by layer……………………………………………………………………………… 44 9 Kiln 1, summary of pottery by fabric…………………………………………………………………………….. 49 10 Kilns 1, 4a/b, diameters for main vessel classes (rim EVE)……………………………………………………… 52 11 Kilns 4a/b, summary of pottery by layer…………………………………………………………………………. 53 12 Kilns 4a/b, summary of pottery by fabric………………………………………………………………………… 55 13 Mortaria, fabrics by phase………………………………………………………………………………………… 61 14 Samian, chronology of material from Phase 2 deposits………………………………………………………….. 63 15 Kiln furniture, summary of material……………………………………………………………………………… 69 16 Human remains, number and percentage of skeletons for which different bone weathering stages were recorded…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 70 17 Human remains, demographic data………………………………………………………………………………. 71 18 Human remains, stature, means and ranges obtained…………………………………………………………….. 71 19 Human remains, percentage and number of vertebral bodies in which eburnation was recorded from each affected individual………………………………………………………………………………………………... 72 20 Human remains, prevalence of osteoarthritis in each vertebra…………………………………………………… 72 21 Human remains, number of ribs in which eburnation was recorded……………………………………………... 73 22 Human remains, number of bones excavated from the hip joint…………………………………………………. 73 23 Human remains, distribution of eburnation across the skeleton of affected individuals…………………………. 74 24 Human remains, distribution of Schmorl’s nodes in the spine…………………………………………………… 74 25 Human remains, location and distribution of degenerative disc disease in the spine……………………………. 75 26 Human remains, number of fractured ribs recorded in each individual………………………………………….. 76 27 Human remains, percentage of ante mortem and post-mortem loss of teeth…………………………………….. 77 28 Human remains, alveolar resorption recorded for each category………………………………………………… 77 29 Human remains, level of dental calculus recorded in each age category………………………………………… 78 30 Human remains, percentage and number of teeth affected by carious lesions in each age category…………….. 78 31 Human remains, percentage and number of individuals with carious teeth in each age category examined……. 78 32 Human remains, number and location carious lesions recorded…………………………………………………. 78 33 Summary of larger excavated and published Roman inhumation cemeteries……………………………………. 83 34 Kilns containing human remains…………………………………………………………………………………. 87 35 Summary of the main Christian and pagan burial characteristics………………………………………………… 88

Part III: London Road 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Details of selected Phase 2 features, fills and dating evidence…………………………………………………... 103 Details of selected Phase 3 features, fills and dating evidence…………………………………………………… 105 Details of selected Phase 4A/B features, fills and dating evidence………………………………………………. 116 Flint quantification……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 118 Flint, utilisation among flakes and blades………………………………………………………………………… 123 Flint, scraper types and locations…………………………………………………………………………………. 123 Coins, list of layers with coin dates………………………………………………………………………………. 126 Coins, issue periods………………………………………………………………………………………………. 127 Pottery, percentage present in key groups……………………………………………………………………….. 136 Pottery, percentage of fabrics by key groups…………………………………………………………………….. 144 Samian, chronology of Phase 2 to Phase 3–4A/B material………………………………………………………. 153 Animal bone, number of identified skeletal elements (NISP) of major domesticates, by species and phase……. 156 Animal bone, number of identified skeletal elements (NISP) and relative abundance of the major domesticates by phase……………………………………………………………………………………………. 157 Animal bone, live weight ratios for the major domesticates, by species and phase…………………………….. 157 Animal bone, comparison of the relative abundance of the major domesticates between the A1(M) sites and London Road………………………………………………………………………………………………... 158 Animal bone, number of ‘countable’ bones (NISP) by feature type and phase…………………………………. 160 Charred plant remains from Phase 2, details…………………………………………………………………….. 161 Charred plant remains from Phase 3, details…………………………………………………………………….. 162 Charred plant remains from Phase 4A/B, details (WS 2)………………………………………………………… 164 vii

Part IV: Other Investigations 55 56

West Street, summary of the pottery by feature/layer………………………………………………………….. West Street, summary of the fabrics represented……………………………………………………………….

183 183

Part V: Conclusion 57

The main events sequence in the Roman town and the suburbs………………………………………………..

viii

187

LIST OF PLATES Page

Part II: The Parks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

General view of the site after removal of overburden, view northeast………………………………………….. 89 Phase 3, Kiln 1, detail of furnace-chamber F2, showing pottery and stone pedestal in situ…………………….. 89 Phase 3, Kiln 3, detail of furnace F91, showing tongue support………………………………………………… 90 Phase 4, decapitated human burial (HB 42) inserted into Kiln 1………………………………………………… 90 Phase 4, detail of HB 27, showing shale armlet and copper alloy bracelet in situ……………………………….. 91 Detail of vessels from cremation F26, Phase 3…………………………………………………………………… 92 Kiln furniture, incomplete fire-bar (No. 8) from Kiln 4b: top: vertical view, bottom: horizontal view…………. 93 Kiln furniture, incomplete fire-bar (No. 9) from Kiln 4b: top: vertical view, bottom: horizontal view…………. 93 Kiln furniture, incomplete fire-bar (No. 10) from Kiln 1: top: vertical view, bottom: horizontal view…………. 94 Human remains, detail of vertebral column of HB 42, decapitated child, showing cut…………………………. 94 Human remains, osteoarthritis of the knee, detail of eburnation of left femoral condyle of HB 53, male, aged 46+………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 95 Human remains, a Schmorl’s node on the upper vertebral face of a lumbar vertebra…………………………… 95 Human remains, detail of periostal new bone formation on a tibial shaft from HB 59, unknown sex, 15–25 years. Pieces of newly-formed bone have broken off the cortex of this specimen post mortem…………. 96 Human remains, button osteoma on frontal bone of HB 21, adult………………………………………………... 96 Human remains, large osteoma on the occipetal bone of HB 36, adult…………………………………………… 97 Human remains, detail of spondylosis of the fifth lumbar vertebra, HB 56, male, 46+………………………… 97 Human remains, detail of dental caries…………………………………………………………………………… 98

Part III: London Road 18 19 20 21

Phase 1 pit F104, view south…………………………………………………………………………………….. Phases 3–4A well F142, view north……………………………………………………………………………… Phase 4A ditch F100, view west…………………………………………………………………………………. Phase 4B pits F132–F135, view east……………………………………………………………………………..

174 174 175 176

Part IV: Other Investigations 22

Chord Business Park, human burial, detail………………………………………………………………………. 185

ix

LIST OF APPENDICES Part VII: APPENDIX TABLES AND PLATES APPENDIX A: ROMAN POTTERY AND KILN FURNITURE …………………………………………………………. 205 Appendix Table A1 Roman pottery, codes for vessel classes represented…………………………………………………….. 205 Appendix Table A2 Roman pottery, fabric descriptions………………………………………………………………………. 206 Appendix Table A3 Kiln furniture, the fabrics………………………………………………………………………………… 210 APPENDIX B: HUMAN REMAINS, METRIC AND NON-METRIC TRAITS (The Parks)…………………………..

210

Appendix Table B1 Appendix Table B2 Appendix Table B3 Appendix Table B4 Appendix Table B5 Appendix Table B6

210 211 211 211 212 212

Human remains, stature estimation from the femur……………………………………………………... Human remains, comparative stature estimation from Roman cemeteries……………………………… Human remains, the platymeric index…………………………………………………………………… Human remains, the cnemic index………………………………………………………………………. Human remains, the cranial index……………………………………………………………………….. Human remains, non-metric traits reported………………………………………………………………

APPENDIX C: POTTERY AND ANIMAL BONE (London Road)………………………………………………………. 213 Appendix Table C1 Pottery, form occurrence by phase……………………………………………………………………….. 213 Appendix Table C2 Pottery, selected key groups for analysis………………………………………………………………… 215 Appendix Table C3 Animal bone, selected measurements……………………………………………………………………. 216

x

LIST OF APPENDIX PLATES The Parks. Rectified vertical photographs of selected human burials In HB order. Not all burials can be sexed or aged. Scale 1:100 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

HB 3–4, female aged 26–45, and infant aged 6–10……………………………………………………………... HB 6, adult………………………………………………………………………………………………………. HB 10, female, aged 46+………………………………………………………………………………………… HB 13, male, aged 26–45………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 14, female, aged 26–45……………………………………………………………………………………… HB 16, infant, aged 3–5…………………………………………………………………………………………. HB 18, female, aged 16–25……………………………………………………………………………………… HB 22, male, aged 26–45………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 23, infant, aged 3–5…………………………………………………………………………………………. HB 24, female, aged 26–45……………………………………………………………………………………… HB 26, female, aged 46+………………………………………………………………………………………… HB 29, infant, aged 3–5…………………………………………………………………………………………. HB 30, male, aged 26–45………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 31, aged, 11–15……………………………………………………………………………………………… HB 34, male, aged 46+………………………………………………………………………………………….. HB 37, male, aged 26–45……………………………………………………………………………………….. HB 38, aged, 11–15……………………………………………………………………………………………… HB 44, female, aged 46+………………………………………………………………………………………… HB 45, male, aged 46+………………………………………………………………………………………….. HB 46, male, aged 26–45………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 47, female, aged 46+………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 48, male, aged 16–25………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 50, male, aged 16–25………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 52, male, aged 46+…………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 54, male, aged 46+…………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 55, male, aged 26–45………………………………………………………………………………………... HB 56, male, aged 46+…………………………………………………………………………………………… HB 59, aged 16–25……………………………………………………………………………………………….

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217 217 218 218 218 219 219 219 220 220 220 221 221 221 222 222 222 223 223 224 224 225 225 226 227 228 229 229

Fig. 1A: Godmanchester and the surrounding area (scale as shown); Fig. 1B: Modern Godmanchester, simplified street plan, showing The Parks, London Road, other investigations, the 3rd century defensive circuit and the principal Roman roads and modern roads (Scale 1: 6000) 1

SETTLEMENT, BURIAL AND INDUSTRY IN ROMAN GODMANCHESTER Excavations in the extra-mural area: The Parks 1998, London Road 1997–8 and other investigations edited by Alex Jones

PART I: SUMMARY AND INTRODUCTION by Alex Jones SUMMARY This volume presents the results from two excavations in the extra-mural area of Roman Godmanchester. Excavation at The Parks, to the north of the Roman town, was undertaken during 1998 in advance of a housing development, providing an opportunity to examine a large area flanking a Roman road. Important evidence for early Romano-British landdivision and pottery production, mainly in the 2nd to 3rd centuries, was recorded. The most significant discovery was of a cemetery, probably dating to the 4th century, containing 62 largely well-preserved individuals. Excavation at London Road, to the south of Roman Godmanchester, was undertaken in two stages during 1997 and 1998, in advance of a school development, and investigated an area to the rear of the Ermine Street frontage. In addition to evidence of early-prehistoric activity, the excavation identified a sequence of Romano-British ditch-defined enclosures, a timber-framed building, and evidence for industrial activity and livestock herding or ranching. The results of other, smaller-scale investigations, at Chord Business Park, to the south of the Roman town, and at West Street, within the Roman town, are also summarised.

the burials were buried without grave-goods, a few were buried with ornaments, including coins, bracelets, fingerrings and earrings. The area investigated may have formed a peripheral part of a larger cemetery, the location of the individuals within this area perhaps providing a metaphor for their status in society. Alternatively, the excavated cemetery could have formed part of a group of ditched family burial plots. In the medieval period (Phase 5) the site was given over to agriculture. At London Road (Part III below) the earliest activity (Phase 1) was mainly represented by a pit containing 68 sherds of Neolithic/Bronze Age pottery and 571 fragments of worked flint. The earliest phase of Romano-British activity (Phase 2) is dated to the later 1st to early 2nd century, during which time plot boundaries were laid out alongside the western frontage of Ermine Street. The main floruit of Romano-British activity is dated to the later 2nd to 3rd century (Phase 3), when further ditched enclosures were dug to the west of the road frontage. These contained a timber-framed building, wells and other features, including rubbish-pits and cropprocessing ovens. After a period of abandonment, the latest roadside Romano-British activity (Phase 4A/B) is dated to the mid to late 4th century, when a further ditched enclosure and a group of industrial features were in use, perhaps on an occasional basis. In the medieval period (Phase 5) the site was used for agriculture.

At The Parks (Part II below) the earliest, prehistoric activity (Phase 1) was represented by sherds of probable Neolithic pottery and a few flint fragments. The earliest RomanoBritish activity (Phase 2) comprised the cutting of roadside ditches probably in the mid to late 1st century, and the laying-out of ditched plots on the northeastern road frontage. In the mid to late 2nd to 3rd centuries (Phase 3) all three plots were used for pottery manufacture. A building and groups of hearths and ovens may also have been associated with this industry. The other features of this phase were two cremated human remains. By the early to mid 4th century (Phase 4) pottery production had ceased, and the area became largely incorporated within a cemetery. Sixty-two human burials were recorded, following a variety of orientations. The burials were mainly supine, although prone, crouched and decapitated individuals were also located. Although most of

The main feature identified at Chord Business Park (Part IV below) was a single human grave. At West Street (Part IV below) the investigations uncovered two ditches, aligned northwest-southeast, and a pit, all associated with Roman civilian occupation within the town.

2

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Background preparatory to the construction of a courtyard building and bath house. A number of 2nd-century timber-framed buildings laid out end-on to the road frontages have been identified within the town. In the 3rd century a masonry ‘basilica’ was constructed in the centre of the town, which necessitated a slight eastwards realignment of Ermine Street. Another important feature of the 2nd to 3rd century townscape was the temple to the local deity Abandinus.

Godmanchester is located within the valley of the River Great Ouse (Fig. 1A). The town was located to the southeast of the original Roman river crossing, which provided a focal point for the convergence of the Roman road system (Margary 1973; Fig. 1B). The Roman river probably lay slightly to the west of its present course, which may have been created by medieval and post-medieval dams. The Roman route to Sandy (Ermine Street, its course roughly represented in the vicinity of the excavation by present London Road, Margary No. 22) lay to the southwest, while Water Newton lay to the north (route No. 2). The road leading to the southeast, towards Cambridge, largely bypassed the town, although a spur-road, entering the eastern gate, has been proposed. The town itself was located on a gravel spur, at the 10m contour, above the maximum flood level (H Green 1975, 183). The area surrounding the river valley comprises Oxford Clay.

During the late 3rd century a circuit of stone-built defences was built, despite a possible interruption during a major fire which also affected the ‘basilica’ building, temple and bathhouse (Fig. 1B; Burnham and Wacher 1990, 129). It is possible that the 4th century activity was mostly confined within the walled circuit. Evidence for 4th-century activity within the town and its immediate environs is presently limited, with the exception of inhumation cemeteries. Writing in 1987 Esmonde Cleary noted the limited nature of the evidence for extra-mural activity at Godmanchester (1987, 86), mainly comprising gravel spreads, pits and cemeteries. Green (H Green 1975) proposed that the Roman town’s environs were divided into strips 96.1m wide, set at right-angles to the major roads, forming part of an ‘infield’ and ‘outfield’ system of agriculture, an interpretation questioned by Esmonde Cleary (1987, 86).

Roman Godmanchester (Fig. 1B) has been extensively analysed by Green (H Green 1975). More recently, the evidence has been reconsidered by Burnham and Wacher (1990) and by Esmonde Cleary (1987) for the extra-mural area. Although a number of excavations have been undertaken within and also outside the town, unfortunately most of this work has been small-scale in extent, and much remains to be published. In contrast, the work at The Parks and London Road has been undertaken at a larger scale.

The main features identified outside the town comprise roads and cemeteries (Taylor 1997a and b). The roughly east-west aligned road to the north of the town, following the approximate alignment of Park Lane, was flanked by features of mid 1st-century date, suggesting an early layout of the road. One cemetery extended for a distance of 0.8km outside the town, alongside the Cambridge Road (Esmonde Cleary 1987, fig. 32), although this could be purely a rural focus of burial. It contained 2nd-century cremations and a 4thcentury inhumation cemetery. Other burials are recorded outside the southwestern angle of the town, to the south and west of the London Road site, and also within a poorlydefined area to the north of Godmanchester, including the area excavated at The Parks (Part II below).

Like Water Newton (Burnham and Wacher 1990, 81) to the north, Godmanchester has no obvious prehistoric origins. One focus of early prehistoric activity was recorded at Brampton, to the north. Evidence of extensive settlement and farming has been recorded on the river gravels to the south of the town (e.g. French and Wait 1988; Dawson 2000). Trial-trenching at St. Anne’s Lane within the town has identified possible structures of Iron Age date (Hinman 1997), and a hut of Early Iron Age date was excavated at Park Lane (H Green 1977a and b), to the west of The Parks. The earliest phase of Roman activity was military, comprising two forts constructed on different alignments (Fig. 1B; Burnham and Wacher 1990, 122), intended to protect the river crossing to the north. A Claudian date for the earliest fort’s construction has been suggested. The second fort could be of Neronian date, possibly associated with post-Boudiccan campaigns. An associated vicus was established to the north.

Excavation has provided little evidence for the continued settlement of the town in the Anglo-Saxon period, although the Cambridge Road cemetery includes Saxon burials. In the later 9th century the town was raided by Danish armies based at Huntingdon. By the time of the Domesday survey of 1086 it was estimated that the town had grown to a population of around 450. The town received a charter from King John in 1212, by which time the number of inhabitants had roughly trebled from 1086. The town enjoyed a period of economic prosperity in the 13th century, before a decline in the later two centuries, partly associated with the economic ascendancy of nearby Huntingdon.

In the Flavian period, the town centre was replanned after the military withdrawal, with the laying-out of plots adjoining Ermine Street. This earliest phase of settlement was characterised by ditched enclosures containing buildings, with associated evidence for crop-processing and metalworking. An area to the northwest of the main crossroads in the town was cleared in the early 2 nd century, 3

Part I: Introduction _____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig 2: The Parks, areas investigated (Scale 1: 1000)

The Parks excavation (see Part II below) The area excavated at The Parks (centred on NGR TL 247708, Figs. 1B and 2) lay on the northern outskirts of the modern town. It lay on first terrace gravels, subject to periodic flooding (French 1995). The areas evaluated (Reynolds 1992, fig. 2, Areas A and B) were sited to the south of the A14 road, and to the west of a cricket ground. Area A had been recently levelled to create a playing field. Previous fieldwork by Green in Park Lane (H Green 1977a and b), to the west of the site, had identified a pottery kiln and a number of inhumations of Romano-British date. The route of a Roman road was suggested to run along the approximate alignment of modern Park Lane (Figs. 1B and 2) in the southeast of the excavated area. Traces of Saxon Grübenhauser have also been identified

4

adjoining Park Lane. The evaluation of The Parks site comprised a desk-based assessment of secondary historical sources, including an air photograph assessment, followed by an earthwork survey, geophysical survey and trialtrenching (Reynolds 1992). Trial-trenches were laid out to test the anomalies identified by the preceding geophysical survey, and also to test the archaeological potential of the area as widely as possible. The evaluation revealed five inhumations of Roman date (of which only one was lifted), and enclosure ditches and pits which predominantly contained pottery of 2nd to 3rd-century date. The evaluation also examined an area containing medieval earthworks (Site B), excluded from the scope of the 1998 excavation.

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig 3: London Road, areas investigated (Scale 1: 1000) The 1998 excavations investigated an area of approximately 0.7ha (centred on NGR. TL 247708: Fig. 2) in advance of a housing development. The excavation strategy was laid down in a Brief (Cambridgeshire County Council 1998) and a Specification (BUFAU 1998a). The excavation was commissioned by Smiths Gore, Chartered Surveyors on behalf of the Church Commissioners, with advice from John Samuels Archaeological Consultants, and was undertaken by BUFAU between February and May 1998. A total of four areas (lettered A–D) were investigated within the footprint of the proposed development. Area A provided a detailed examination of the inhumation cemetery, the kilns and the ditched plot boundaries and other features identified by evaluation. The remaining areas comprised mainly trenches (B–D), excavated across the postulated alignment of

the Roman road, to provide a representative sample of the features and feature-types present in this possible roadside zone. The detailed aims of the excavation (BUFAU 1998a) were: 1) to provide data concerning the sex, age, and palaeodemography of the human remains, and to compare the data with those from other excavated burials surrounding the town and in the region. 2) to provide an understanding of the morphology and sequence of Romano-British activity on site, and to compare this information with data from other extramural excavations around Godmanchester and in the wider region. 5

Part I: Introduction _____________________________________________________________________________________ of the site investigated by BUFAU in 1997–8. Previous fieldwork by Cambridgeshire County Council Archaeological Field Unit had identified a number of inhumations further to the southwest of the Roman town.

3) to contribute to an understanding of the spatial/temporal relationship of the town and its immediate hinterland. 4) to provide data concerning the possible industrial function of the site.

The evaluation of the London Road site comprised a brief assessment of secondary historical sources, followed by an earthwork survey and trial-trenching (Hinman 1996). Trialtrenches were laid out at right-angles to the course of the Roman road. The evaluation revealed traces of early prehistoric activity. The principal features were RomanoBritish in date, comprising ditches, rubbish-pits, and hearths or ovens. Traces of roadside ditches and a possible bank were found towards the western side of modern London Road. The evaluation also examined areas to the south of the zone subsequently excavated, which were excluded from the associated development, as was the western Roman road frontage which mostly lay outside the area excavated during 1997–8.

5) to assess the significance of the environmental data to assist in an understanding of the Romano-British rural economy. The excavated areas were stripped of topsoil by a 360 degree mechanical excavator working under archaeological supervision. In places the removal of overburden was undertaken as a two-stage process. When burials, kilns or other features were encountered at a higher level, their handexcavation and recording was followed by further, supervised machining, and the planning, hand-excavation and recording of features recorded at a lower level. It became clear that in places the overlying medieval ridge-and-furrow cultivation was responsible for the differential preservation of the later Romano-British features and deposits, with better preservation under the ridges. The surface of the subsoil, or the uppermost archaeological horizon, was hand-cleaned and the archaeological features were planned using a total station EDM. The plan provided the basis for the excavation strategy.

A total area of approximately 0.305ha within the footprint of the new school was excavated in two stages. The first stage excavation (Areas A1–A3 and B) was undertaken by BUFAU between October-December 1997. An additional area (Area A4) immediately adjoining the modern frontage was investigated by BUFAU in September 1998. The excavation strategy was laid down in a Brief (Cambridgeshire County Council 1997) and two Specifications (BUFAU 1997 and 1998b). The excavation was sponsored by the Ely Diocese of the Church of England and the Education Property Section of Cambridgeshire County Council. Areas A1–A4 comprised a zone approximately 30m to the west of the modern road frontage, and Area B included an area towards the rear of the Roman roadside settlement.

Because of the number of burials and several well-preserved pottery kilns encountered it was decided to concentrate resources upon the careful excavation of these features, with only limited sampling of the remaining feature types (comprising pits, ditches and post-holes), sufficient to permit interpretation of their nature, date and the chronological/ functional relationships of each feature relative to others and to the site as a whole. The high water table located at, or just below, the uppermost subsoil horizon also hampered excavation of the deeper negative features. The kilns were excavated in quadrants.

The detailed aims of the excavation (BUFAU 1997 and 1998b) were:

Following completion of the excavation, a watching brief was maintained during contractors’ groundworks in areas adjoining the southwestern and southeastern edges of the excavated areas. Excavation during the watching brief was limited to a maximum depth of 0.3m outside the main excavated areas. Three further burials were identified and lifted. All human remains were hand excavated and lifted in accordance with the conditions of a Home Office Licence, and the local Coroner was informed.

1) to determine the nature of prehistoric activity on the site.

London Road excavation (see Part III below)

5) to consider the chronological and economic relationship between the settlement and the Roman town of Godmanchester.

2) to examine the layout of the prehistoric settlement, and the evidence for the structured deposition of artifacts. 3) to define a model of the spatial and chronological development of the Romano-British roadside settlement. 4) to determine the economy, and in particular the industrial functions, of the settlement.

The area excavated at London Road (centred on NGR TL 52492699, Figs. 1B and 3) lay on the southern outskirts of the modern town. The route of Roman Ermine Street was suggested to run along the eastern side of modern London Road, as indicated by the results of fieldwork undertaken by Green at 8a London Road (H Green 1979), to the northeast

6) to consider the chronological and economic relationship between the settlement and the rural hinterland of Godmanchester, in particular from the finds and environmental evidence.

6

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ 7) to examine the evidence for abandonment of the settlement.

the

decline

by the use of a decimal suffix (e.g. F5.01, F5.02 etc.), as well as by different layer numbers. All small finds were recorded three dimensionally with a Total Station EDM.

and

8) to compare the chronology, layout and economy of this roadside settlement with other roadside settlements on a regional, or possibly a national, basis.

At The Parks the human remains were also numbered in a sequence of two digit numbers, prefixed ‘HB’, whether a grave cut was apparent, or not. The human remains were also recorded by rectified photography. All small finds and finds from within the grave-cuts, with the exception of obviously residual material such as samian, were recorded three dimensionally with a Total Station EDM.

9) additionally, as an aim of post-excavation analysis, to compare and contrast the evidence from the extra-mural areas investigated to the north (The Parks) and south (London Road) of the Roman town.

The records and finds from the evaluation stage of The Parks and London Road projects were not available for consultation in Birmingham during the preparation of this report.

The areas excavated were stripped of topsoil by a 360 degree mechanical excavator working under archaeological supervision. The removal was undertaken as a two-stage process. The first stage involved the excavation of medieval and post-medieval ploughsoils, to expose the underlying horizons. Following hand-cleaning, planning and recording at this first machined horizon, the exposed redeposited roadside bank material and destruction deposits were further machined to expose the underlying features at their uppermost horizons or the top of the subsoil. Following the second stage of machining, this lower machined horizon was hand-cleaned, and a base-plan of features and deposits was prepared. The plan provided the basis for the definition of the excavation strategy. Excavation of some of the deeper negative features (pits and ditches) was restricted by safety considerations. Hand-excavation was severely hampered by repeated disturbances caused by trespassers using metal detectors digging to recover metal finds.

The paper and finds archives have been deposited in the archive store of the County Archaeology Office of Cambridgeshire County Council.

Acknowledgements The Parks excavation was sponsored by Smiths Gore, Chartered Surveyors on behalf of the Church Commissioners, with advice from John Samuels Archaeological Consultants. The excavation was managed by Simon Buteux, and was directed by Alex Jones, who also managed the post-excavation stage of the project. The Finds Manager was Annette Hancocks. The fieldwork was supervised by Peter Leach and Kirsty Nichol, assisted by Edward Newton, Jon Sterenberg, Jonathan Williams, John La Niece, Chris Patrick, Rebecca Hardy and Anna Deeks. The project was monitored for John Samuels Archaeological Consultants by Dr. John Samuels and Nansi Rosenberg, and by Louise Austin and Simon Kaner for Cambridgeshire County Council. The illustrations were prepared by Nigel Dodds and Mark Breedon. Michael Green is thanked for providing advice and supplying draft copies of unpublished reports. Jane Evans and Annette Hancocks would particularly like to thank Colin Wallace for providing advice. Valuable specialist advice and contributions also came from Gillian Braithwaite, Hilary Cool, Dr. Jeremy Evans, Catherine Johns, Rob Perrin, Dr. Richard Pollard and Val Rigby. Lindsey Rollo would like to thank Kay Hartley for her assistance.

Other investigations (see Part IV below) The results of two other, smaller-scale investigations, at Chord Business Park, alongside Ermine Street, to the south of the Roman town, and at West Street, within the Roman town, are also summarised in this report (see Fig. 1B for locations). At Chord Business Park the investigations involved trial-trenching in advance of a proposed commercial development, but no further fieldwork was undertaken there. Fieldwork at West Street within the Roman town comprised trial-trenching, followed by an archaeological watching brief, undertaken in advance of the construction of new dwellings.

Recording (all sites)

The London Road excavation was sponsored by the Education Property section of Cambridgeshire County Council, and the Ely Diocese of the Church of England. The excavation was managed and directed by Alex Jones. The fieldwork was supervised by Richard Cuttler, Louise Bashford and John La Niece, assisted by Jonathan Williams, Edward Newton, Bob Burrows, Catharine Kidd and Graham Brown. The project was monitored by Louise Austin and Simon Kaner for Cambridgeshire County Council. The illustrations were prepared by Nigel Dodds and Mark Breedon. The Finds Manager was Annette Hancocks, and

Recording in all cases was by means of pre-printed proformas for contexts and features, plans (at 1:20, 1:50 and 1:100), sections (1:50 and 1:20), and monochrome print and colour slide photography. Layers were defined to include feature fills and discrete deposits, and were recorded in sequences of four digit numbers. Features comprised ‘negative’ cuts such as pits, ditches and graves. All features were numbered in sequences of four digit numbers prefixed with ‘F’. Where two or more hand-excavated cuttings were dug across the same linear feature these were distinguished 7

Part I: Introduction _____________________________________________________________________________________ Kate Edwards assisted with the preliminary post-excavation analysis. Lynne Bevan supervised the preparation of the flint report, and also edited this text. Drs. Iain Ferris, Simon Esmonde Cleary, Roger White, and Michael Green read and commented upon the volume. Huntingdonshire Local History Society is thanked for providing additional financial support. The Chord Business Park evaluation was sponsored by Dean Homes Limited, and was supervised by Gary Coates, with the assistance of Sally Finter and Jonathan Williams. The West Street investigations were sponsored by Period Property Construction. The fieldwork was supervised by Catharine Mould, with the assistance of Eleanor Ramsey. Simon Kaner monitored both of these projects for Cambridgeshire County Council.

Arrangement of report This report is arranged in seven sections (I–VII). Part I comprises the summary and introduction. Parts II and III describe the results and finds from The Parks and London Road, respectively. Part IV summarises the results of work at Chord Business Park and West Street. Part V provides a conclusion, Part VI the references, and the final part, Part VII, contains the appendix tables and appendix plates.

8

9

PART II: THE PARKS RESULTS by Alex Jones (Figs. 4–16) Phasing A single integrated sequence of phasing has been defined, as follows: Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5

ditch F135 (Area B, equivalent to ditch F125 in Area C), both dug on roughly northwest-southeast alignments, although not exactly parallel. A short length of a possible recut (F126) of ditch F125 was also recorded slightly to the north of the former feature. The re-cut was not recorded to the south (in Area B). These ditches may have flanked a contemporary road, following the approximate alignment of modern Park Lane (Fig. 2), although no trace of metalling had survived. Two parallel ditches (F127–8, Area C) cut on an alignment closer to east-west were also excavated. It is possible that the southeastern terminal of these latter features was recorded within Area A (as feature F134). Ditches F127–8 may have been cut through the suggested road, which was not itself recorded, but no relationship could be recorded with the adjoining ditch F133.

Prehistoric activity Layout of road and property boundaries (late 1st-century to early 2nd-century) Pottery manufacture and cremations (later 2nd- to early 4thcentury) Inhumation cemetery (4th-century) Post-Roman activity

The phasing for London Road (Part III below) is broadly similar, to facilitate cross-comparison, although Phases 3 and 4 at The Parks may have overlapped.

The land to the northeast of the northernmost ditch F136 was sub-divided into three plots (1–3), separated by ditched boundaries, cut obliquely to the line of roadside ditch F136. The projected junctions between the roadside and plotboundary ditches were not available for investigation, although most of the northeastern road frontage was investigated. The full width of Plot 2, the western side of Plot 1 and the eastern side of Plot 3 were defined within the excavated area. The rearmost limits of the plots lay outside the excavated area. Plots 1 and 2 were separated by a droveway, formed by two parallel, slightly curvilinear ditches (F5, Fig. 6.S.1; and F116/F124, Plate 1), dug on a northeast-southwest alignment. These ditches were dug at a separation of approximately 7m (measured centre to centre). Both ditches were probably cut to V-shaped profiles and measured approximately 0.3m in depth.

Description of the evidence is followed by a summary of the finds and dating information, and then by interpretation. Within each phase the evidence is described and then interpreted on a plot-by-plot basis. The Phase 3 kilns are described in chronological order. A selection of the betterpreserved Phase 4 human remains is illustrated (Appendix Plates 1–28) and cross-referenced in the text.

Phase 1. Prehistoric Description and interpretation Prehistoric activity was represented by seven fragments of worked flint and four sherds of probable Neolithic pottery, all derived from Phase 2–5 layers or the ploughsoil. No concentration of this material was observed. It probably represents no more than occasional activity in the area or its surrounds. No features or deposits of prehistoric date were identified.

A further, northeast-southwest aligned boundary ditch (F117, Fig. 6.S.2) was located 35m to the northwest of, and running approximately parallel with, ditch F116/F124, and defined the Plot 2/3 boundary. Part of ditch F117 was re-cut by the northeast-southwest aligned arm of a right-angled ditched boundary (F122, Fig. 6.S.3). Ditches F22 and F122 were Ushaped in profile and measured an average of 0.8m in width and 0.6m in depth, notably smaller than the droveway ditches. The northwest-southeast-aligned arm of ditch F122 was formed of two lengths, both terminating in contiguous, rounded butt-ends.

Phase 2. Layout of road and property boundaries (late 1st- to early 2nd-century) Description (Figs. 4–6) The Phase 2 features were cut into the gravel subsoil. The earliest Romano-British activity was represented by roadside ditches, ditched plot boundaries, and by activity within the plots, mainly pitting, to the rear of the road frontage.

No contemporary features were located in Plot 1. Plot 2 contained a number of contemporary pits. Two were located in the centre of the plot (F57 and F85), the remainder were sited adjoining the southeastern plot boundary (F107, F108, F113, F109). The Phase 2 features within Plot 3 also mainly comprised pits (F20, F23, F117, F119). A shallow, northwest-southeast aligned gully (F137), its southeastern

A number of boundary ditches (Areas B–D, Figs. 2 and 4) was cut towards the south of the excavated areas. Ditch F133/F136 (Areas B and D respectively) lay approximately 20m to the northwest (measured centre-to-centre) of parallel 10

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ terminal cut by the Plot 2/3 boundary ditch (F22), was also recorded. Traces of post-holes (F112, F113, Fig. 6.S.4), possibly forming part of a palisade, were recorded in the base of ditch F116 (but not in its northeastward continuation, ditch F124), which may define a later Phase 2 boundary. Similarly, ditch F5 was also redefined in later Phase 2, in this case by a further ditch (F6), positioned slightly to the northwest of the former but following the same alignment. The excavated, uppermost backfills of the roadside ditches comprised grey silts. Droveway ditches F5 and F6 were backfilled with dark brown silts (1032 in F5; 1027–8 in F6), flecked with charcoal. Ditch F116/F124 was backfilled with dark brown silt (1164), containing much gravel. The backfills of the Phase 2–3 pits comprised banded deposits of silt and gravel, suggesting gradual infilling.

Finds and dating evidence Ditches F125–7 contained pottery of late 1st- to early 2ndcentury date. Pits F20 and F85 and the feature group (F107– F115) in the south of Plot 2 also contained similarly-dated material. Ditch F5 contained two brooches, both dated around AD 1–50 and possibly slightly beyond.

Interpretation Ditches F125/F135 and F133/F136 were cut to provide drainage along the southeastern and northwestern sides respectively of a Roman road. The location and positioning of these roadside ditches corresponds with the known alignment of the Via Devana, whose line was perpetuated by a southeastward continuation of the modern Park Lane (Figs. 1B and 2). No trace was found of the metalled road surface during evaluation or excavation, possibly because of plough disturbance. Ditch F128 could have formed a palisade gully running to the north of parallel ditch F127. Both these features may represent a change in road alignment, although its significance and relationship with the other roadside boundaries is unknown. No trace of a gravel surface was found along the line of the droveway which divided Plots 1 and 2, although the gravel horizons within the backfills of droveway ditches F6 and F116 could be wash derived from a metalled surface. The parallel Plot 2/3 boundary was also located. The southeastern droveway ditch (F5) was re-cut (F6) slightly to the northwest, while the northwestern droveway ditch (F116, F124) could have been at least in part redefined by post-pits (F112). This redefinition could have been contemporary with the re-cutting of part of the Plot 2/3 boundary by an Lshaped ditch (F122). Unusually, the northwest-southeast segment of this ditch, which divided Plot 2, was formed by two contiguous ditch butt-ends. This arrangement could have originated as an entrance-way, subsequently almost entirely Fig. 5 Simplified Phase 2–4 plans (Scale 1:1250) 11

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 6 Phase 2–3 sections (Scale 1:40)

The single, completely excavated plot (2) measured approximately 35m in width, towards the upper end of the plot widths at Catsgore (Leech 1982; 26–46m in depth), and beyond the range of widths recorded at Hibaldstow (R Smith 1987, 31; 18.7m and 30m). The width of Plot 2 approximated to 120 pes monetales (0.295m), the latter being half an actus in length (Rawes 1981). Similar-sized plots were laid out at Wroxeter (P A Barker 1990, fig. 5 and A E Jones 1994, fig. 32), at Brockworth, Gloucestershire (Rawes 1981), and Ilchester (Leach 1982). Later 1st- to early 2nd century ditched plots excavated at London Road (A E Jones, Part III below) lay to the rear of the Ermine Street road frontage. More widely, Green (H Green 1975, 185–6) has proposed that land outside the defences of Godmanchester was divided in units of 96.1m. A maximum plot length of around 50m was recorded by Smith at Hibaldstow (R Smith 1987, 31). Although the northwestern limits of The Parks plots were not found, a length of at least 75–80m may be suggested, which would be unusually long. An alternative interpretation of dividing ditches F122 (Plot 2) and F137 (Plot 3) is that they formed divisions between plots butting against each other, although this interpretation is necessarily highly speculative.

dug-away by re-cuts. Plot 3 was also divided across its width (gully F137), offset from the position of the Plot 2 dividing ditch F122. No evidence was found of any surviving banks or ditches alongside the plot boundary ditches. There was no evidence of domestic or industrial structures or features belonging to this early Romano-British phase. With the exception of the roadside and plot boundary ditches, the other contemporary features comprised pits, which could have been cut to quarry gravel for surfacing the road or the droveway. Such plot-boundary ditches were dug to contain livestock, for arable farming, and to define property boundaries (R Smith 1987). Within the overall system of land-allotment at The Parks, the droveway ditches were clearly the main landdivisions because of their more substantial size. The Plot 2/3 boundary (F22), which also became shallower towards the road frontage, was probably a subsidiary land-division. The offset divisions in Plots 2 and 3 were probably not laid out as one event. Similar plot-dividing ditches at Ilchester (Leach 1982, 68, 71, 288) separated house-plots from associated compounds. Since no dwellings were found at The Parks, an alternative interpretation, such as a functional division between the two halves of the same plot, may be suggested.

12

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ Phase 3. Pottery manufacture and cremations (later 2nd- to early 4th-century)

Description clay, was recorded in the base of the unlined stoke-hole. The basal charcoal deposit (1207) in the furnace-chamber was sealed by a layer containing kiln debris (1174) which also extended into the stoke-hole. Here the kiln debris was set in a matrix of dark brown silt-clay (1211). Above was a brown soil (1005) containing large quantities of kiln debris and pottery.

The Phase 3 features were cut into the subsoil and into the backfilled Phase 2 features. Phase 3 has been defined to include all sub-phases of pottery production on the site, although it is possible that the latest kilns, Kilns 4a/b and 2, could have continued in production into the early 4th century. During Phase 3 the Phase 2 droveway probably remained in use. The Phase 2 roadside drainage ditches and the contemporary Plot 2/3 boundary ditch may also have remained in use during Phase 3. Some of the Phase 2 possible quarry-pits could have been finally backfilled in Phase 3. Four kilns (Kilns 1–4a/b, Table 1), the possibly associated groups of hearths and ovens, and a building (Structure 1), were the main features of this phase. The earliest of the kiln group (Kiln 1, F2, F98) was located in Plot 2. Kilns of later date (Kiln 3, F54, F91; Kilns 4a/b, F89– F90, F93) were located in Plot 3. The latest kiln, Kiln 2 (F1, F29), was recorded in Plot 1, adjoining a timber-framed building (Structure 1). Details of the associated kiln furniture are provided in the finds section (p. 66–69) and in Table 1. The other features of this phase comprise two cremated human remains (Plot 3, F7, F26) which are described at the end of this section.

No associated features were identified within this plot, with the possible exception of a pear-shaped hearth or oven (F123, Fig. 4, Fig. 6.5), to the north of Kiln 1. Feature F123 was backfilled with charcoal-rich brown clay-silt (1233). The other Phase 3 features within Plot 2 comprised pits (F42, F45–F46), hearths (F43–F44), a curvilinear gully (F47), and a single post-pad (F130), all concentrated on the southeastern edge of the plot. Pit F45 was cut by pit F46, which was in turn cut by pit F42. The pits were backfilled with banded silt and gravel deposits. Kiln 3 (F54, F91, Figs. 4 and 8, Plate 3) was the earliest of the two kilns cut along the southeastern edge of Plot 3. The furnace-chamber (F54) was circular in plan, measuring 1m in diameter, and was linked by a flue to a large circular stokehole (F91) to the northwest, which measured 2m in diameter and 0.8m in depth. The furnace-chamber was vertically sided and flat-based. The clay lining (4021) was burnt a red-orange colour in situ on the inside (0.08m in thickness). The outer, unfired layer of lining was grey-green in colour (0.03m in thickness). The elongated pedestal (measuring 0.8m by 0.3m in plan) was surfaced with unfired grey-green clay (4024). The primary fill of the furnace-chamber was a brown-black sand-silt (4005), flecked with burnt clay and charcoal, which also extended into the stoke-hole (as 4027), where it contained more ash. Within the stoke-hole this deposit was sealed by a layer of grey-green clay (4025, 0.3m in depth), similar in composition to the unfired furnace-chamber lining. Above the primary fill of the furnace-chamber (4005) was a deposit of dark brown-black silt (4004), flecked with charcoal, also sealing (as 4007) the unfired clay within the stoke-hole (4025) and infilling the remaining hollows within both features.

Plot boundaries (Figs. 4–6) Phase 2 droveway ditch F116 was redefined by a fence in Phase 3, formed by a line of post-pads, pressed into the ditch backfill. The post-pads (F74–F81, F129–F131) were made of limestone, flint and river pebble fragments, positioned at an average separation of approximately 2.5m. Further post-pads (F101–F103, F105–6), possibly also forming a fence, were also constructed along the line of the backfilled southeastern Phase 2 droveway ditch (F5–F6). Neither fence-line extended along the fully excavated length of the Phase 2 droveway ditches. The Phase 2, Plot 2/3 boundary (F122) may have continued in use in Phase 3.

Kilns and associated features (Figs. 4, 7–11) A possible change in site function in the early 2nd century is suggested by the establishment of the first of four pottery kilns (Kiln 1, F2 and F98, Figs. 4 and 7, Plate 2). Kiln 1 comprised a circular, flat-based furnace-chamber (F2), linked by a flue to a stoke-hole (F98) on its eastern side. The average diameter of the furnace-chamber was 1.2m. The furnace-chamber walls survived to a height of 0.7m, and the central stone pedestal support also remained in situ. The clay kiln lining had been fired in situ. The complete, rounded flue-arch also survived intact, although other parts of the kiln were truncated by the insertion of an inhumation in Phase 4 (HB 42, see below). The base of the furnace-chamber was sealed by a layer of charcoal (1207) which extended into the flue. A similar deposit (1212), also containing flecks of burnt

Kilns 4a/b (Figs. 4 and 9) lay just to the southwest of Kiln 3. Kilns 4a/b comprised a central stoke-hole (F93), joined by flues to two furnace-chambers (F89, Kiln 4a; F90, Kiln 4b). Its long axis was aligned east-west. No clear relationship could be recorded between the stoke-hole and the furnacechambers. The stoke-hole, which measured 1.9m in diameter and 0.2m in depth, was vertically-sided and flat-based. The larger, eastern furnace-chamber (F89, Kiln 4a) was pearshaped in plan. It was flat-based and vertically sided, and survived to a depth of 0.2m. The central stone pedestal and burnt orange-red clay lining (4017) remained in situ. The flue was lined with re-used fire-bars. The smaller furnace13

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 7 Phase 3, Kiln 1, pre-excavation plan and sections (Scale 1:40 and 1:25)

Fig. 8 Phase 3, Kiln 3, plan and sections (Scale 1:40) 14

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 9 Phase 3, Kiln 4a/b, plan and sections (Scale 1:40)

hole (1208). The charcoal layer was sealed in the furnacechamber by a red-brown layer of clay-silt (1192B), also extending within the stoke-hole (as 1004), the latest fill. A deposit of dark-brown silt, flecked with charcoal (1192A), recorded in the furnace-chamber only, formed the uppermost recorded fill.

chamber (F90, Kiln 4b) was circular in plan, measuring a maximum of 1.3m in diameter and 0.3m in depth. It was lined with fired clay, with crushed stone incorporated towards its base. The flue lining of this furnace-chamber included re-used kiln fire-bars. The single fill of the larger furnace-chamber (F89) comprised a dark grey-black sand-silt (4008), including large charcoal fragments. The stoke-hole (F93) was backfilled with a similar matrix (4009), also containing quantities of kiln debris. A similar deposit (4010) was also recorded in furnace-chamber F89, overlain by a dark grey-brown silt (4006), flecked with charcoal and containing fragments of charcoal, kiln debris and burnt stone fragments.

A group of hearths or ovens (F30, F31, F114, Fig. 4) adjoining Kiln 2 may have been associated. The base of feature F30 was made of white, underfired clay (1225). Feature F31, ‘hourglass-shaped’ in plan, was backfilled with alternate layers of black charcoal, ash and burnt clay. Feature F114 comprised a deposit of broken pot and tile, set within a slight hollow. Further to the northeast, a flat-based oven or hearth (F24) was cut into infilled ditch F124. Feature F24 was flat-based, and lined with burnt red clay.

Features F95-F97 (Fig. 4), adjoining Kilns 3–4a/b, may have been associated. Feature F95 comprised a flat-based hearth made of burnt red clay (4012–3), possibly associated with post-hole F97. Pit F96 (only partly excavated) was backfilled with rake-out deposits (4016), sealed by alternating layers of fired and unburnt clay (4011).

Also possibly associated with Kiln 2 was a rectangular timber-framed building (Structure 1, Figs. 4 and 11) located within the northwestern boundary of this plot. The building measured a maximum of 5.5m in width and 8m in length, and was defined by an arrangement of post-pads. The shorter, eastern side of this building adjoined the backfilled Phase 2 droveway ditch F6. The northeastern side of the building was defined by a line of eight post-pads (F64–F70, F121), positioned at an average separation of approximately 1m. Post-pads F62-3 and F104 may have formed part of the southwestern side of the building. Post-pads F71, F73 and F91 may have defined an internal dividing wall. An oval hearth (F86, Fig. 4) lay to the east of the building. The base of the hearth, comprising burnt red clay (1197), was sealed by charcoal-rich soils (1189, 1190), representing its use.

The latest kiln, Kiln 2, was located within the northwestern edge of this plot. The furnace-chamber of Kiln 2 (F29, Plot A, Figs. 4 and 10) was circular in plan, measuring a maximum of 1.2m in diameter. The furnace-chamber was linked by a flue to a roughly square stoke-hole (F1), positioned to the west. The furnace-chamber and stoke-hole were cut into the subsoil. The sides and base of the furnacechamber were lined with orange-red clay (1213), burnt in situ. The centre of the furnace-chamber contained the in situ remains of a stone pedestal and other stone debris which may have derived from it. The furnace-chamber lining was sealed by a layer of charcoal (1199, not illustrated) which extended within the flue and formed the primary deposit in the stoke15

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ Fig. 10 Phase 3, Kiln 2, plan and sections (Scale 1:40)

Fig. 11 Phase 3, detailed plan of Structure 1 and other post-rests in Plot 1 (Scale 1:100) 16

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ products, although otherwise the assemblage was similar to that from Kilns 4a/b.

Cremated human remains (Plot 3: F7, F26) Two cremation-pits were located within Plot C (Fig. 4). Pit F26 adjoining the Plot 2/3 dividing ditch measured a maximum of 3.5m in diameter and 0.5m in depth. It included a jar, containing the cremated remains of an individual aged between 15 and 22 years of age. The jar was capped by a platter, and lay next to a pulley-rimmed jar. The pit was backfilled with grey silt (1080), including a single stamped sherd of samian. Cremation-pit F7 measured 1.5m in diameter and 0.3m in depth. It enclosed a flagon, within which were found the cremated remains of an individual who could not be aged. This pit was backfilled with brown siltclay (1048).

Kiln 1 was the best preserved, and contained the largest quantity of kiln furniture (Fig. 12, Table 1) which mostly derived from the furnace-chamber (F2). The largest quantities of fire-bar fragments derived from furnacechamber layers 1174 and 1005 (166 and 234 respectively), although others were also found in earlier deposit 1207 and in the stoke-hole F98 (1212, equivalent to layer 1207). Dome-plate fragments were similarly concentrated within layers 1174 and 1005 in the furnace-chamber (133 and 170 fragments respectively), although smaller quantities were found within the stoke-hole (1212). Flue-lining, recovered exclusively from the furnace-chamber, was mostly derived from layer 1174 (185 fragments). A few fragments of clay plate were found within the furnace-chamber (1005) and in the stoke-hole (1212). Kiln lining was confined to the furnace-chamber (total 45 fragments, from layers 1005 and 1209). Fired clay (24 fragments) only derived from the stoke-hole (1212). Pits F42-F47 in Plot 2 contained pottery of mid to late 2nd to 3rd century date.

Finds and dating Most of the pottery found within the kilns had been deposited there from adjacent waster dumps, possibly originally derived from this kiln group. No in situ material derived from the last firing was found. The earliest kiln, Kiln 1, may be dated to the late 2nd to early 3rd century. It produced pale, oxidised wares in the Verulamium tradition. Kiln 3 contained pottery of late 2nd- or more probably 3rdcentury date, post-dating Kiln 1 and pre-dating Kilns 4a/b. The pottery was a mixed group, comprising white wares, Nene Valley wares, grog-tempered and grey-wares. Kilns 4a/b contained pottery of late 3rd- to early 4th-century date, comprising rilled or white-slipped, sometimes painted, grey wares. Kiln 2, the latest of the group, contained pottery dating to the late 3rd to early 4th century, or possibly later. Thus this kiln could possibly have been functioning into early Phase 4. This kiln differed from the others by the inclusion within the fills of significant quantities of non-kiln

Most of the kiln furniture from Kiln 3 (Fig. 12, Table 1) derived from the furnace-chamber (F54), although a significant quantity derived from the stoke-hole (F91). Fragments of clay-floor (4005, 582 fragments) were only found in the furnace-chamber. Central pedestal fragments were distributed within the furnace-chamber (71 fragments, 4004) and the stoke-hole (50 fragments, 4025). Dome-plate fragments were found in the furnace-chamber (212 fragments, 4005; smaller quantities in layers 4004 and 4025) and in the stoke-hole (73 fragments, 4007, equivalent to layer 4004). The largest quantity of kiln lining derived from

TABLE 1 Kiln furniture, details CF

CP

DP

FB

FC

FL

KL

P

PF

T

KILN 1 Quantity Weight

80

307

471

24

185

71

1#

1

1140

2595

17039

45955

223

18348

1884

#

107

86151

KILN 2 Quantity

-

112

59

-

58

57

-

-

286

Weight

-

4652

5956

-

1623

1567

-

-

13798

KILN 3 Quantity Weight

582

85

394

100

-

-

818

50

7

2036

31994

2941

15478

12150

-

-

53236

4873

1296

121968

KILN 4a Quantity

-

93

132

-

12

289

-

1

527

Weight

-

6289

15995

-

203

10524

-

1575

34586

Quantity

-

10

5

-

-

-

-

-

15

Weight

-

788

1374

-

-

-

-

-

1162

Quantity

-

10

91

-

17

22

-

-

140

Weight

-

683

17596

-

1164

1955

-

-

21378

KILNS 4a/b

KILN 4b

KEY: CF = clay floor; CP = clay plate; DP = dome plate; FB = fire bar; FC = fired clay; FL = flue lining; KL = kiln lining; central pedstal; PF = perforated floor; T = total # = component too heavy to weigh: weight in gms

17

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ layer 4005 in the furnace-chamber (453 fragments), although significant quantities came from the stoke-hole (184 fragments). Smaller quantities of fire-bars were found in the furnacechamber (4005) and in the stoke-hole (4007, equivalent to layer 4005). Most of the kiln furniture from Kilns 4a/b (Fig. 12, Table 1) again derived from the furnacechambers (F89–F90), although the stoke-hole and furnace-chamber fills were not distinguishable. Only very small quantities of dome-plate fragments and fire-bars were found in the stoke-hole (F93). Of the furnacechambers, feature F89 produced more kiln furniture overall. The largest quantity of material comprised fire-bars, from furnace-chamber F89 (132 fragments, mostly from layer 4006), with 91 fragments from furnace-chamber F90. Most of the fragments of kiln lining and dome-plate were derived from furnace-chamber F89 (107 and 93, respectively, both from layer 4006). The dome-plate fragments had turf and temper impressions, and the fire-bars contained large, organic impressions. A similar number of flue lining fragments was derived in roughly equal quantities from each furnace-chamber. Kiln 2 was the least well preserved, and contained the smallest quantity of kiln furniture (Fig. 12, Table 1). Once again, the largest quantity and widest range of kiln furniture was found within the furnace-chamber. An exception was dome-plate fragments, found in almost equal quantities within the furnace-chamber (54 fragments, mostly from layer 1192), and within the stoke-hole (58 fragments, from layers 1004 and 1208). The largest quantity of fire-bars (38) was found within the furnace-chamber (1192), although these were also found in the stoke-hole (1004, 1208). Flue lining (58 fragments) and kiln lining (56 fragments) were found solely within layer 1192 in the furnace-chamber. Cremation pit F26 contained a mica-dusted platter of early 2nd-century/Antonine date, a jar used as a cremation urn of Hadrianic-Antonine date, and a pulley-rimmed jar (Evans below). It also contained a single sherd of samian stamped ‘VE…’ or ‘VEGET’ (Dickinson below). The urn in cremation-pit F7 was a cupped-mouth flagon of 2nd- to early 3rd-century date.

Interpretation

Fig. 12 Kiln furniture, relative quantities of material: pie-charts. See Appendix Table A3 for codes 18

The backfilled northwestern ditch of the Phase 2 droveway (F116, F124) was re-defined by a line of post-pads, forming a fence, and a similar fence may have been erected along part of the

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ Kiln 3 belongs to the group of tongue pedestal kilns, named after the form of its central support, a common type within the Nene Valley production area (Swan 1984, 95, fig. xii). This form of pedestal provided a secure support to the furnace-chamber floor, and reduced its overall span (ibid., 1984, 87). The closest parallel is provided by a nearby kiln excavated by Green (H Green 1977a) in Park Lane, dated thermomagnetically in the range AD 200–230. A notable feature of Kiln 3 was the evidence for the repair of its furnace-chamber with green clay. During this repair, fragments of green clay had become mixed with kiln furniture and ash was deposited in the stoke-hole during its last firing (F91, 4025). The kiln was not fired subsequent to the repair. Unusually, within the group of kilns from The Parks, the stoke-hole and furnace-chamber both contained roughly equal quantities of kiln furniture by count, probably because the debris from the last firing within the stoke-hole was not cleaned-out. The kiln furniture in the furnacechamber was probably dumped from elsewhere, particularly since it included a pedestal fragment. The walls of the furnace-chamber contained a very slight groove around their circumference, to retain the end of the fire-bars forming the kiln floor (as at Water Newton, Webster 1999, fig. 4).

southeastern droveway ditch. This fence could have been associated with Structure 1, which was of similar construction. The droveway itself may have continued in use, as may be suggested by the absence of features cut along its line. The proximity of Structure 1 and the Plot 3 kiln group to the ditched boundaries suggests any associated banks would have been levelled.

Kilns and associated features Each of the kilns comprised three elements, a furnacechamber, stoke-hole and a flue, all cut into the subsoil, together with an above-ground domed superstructure, mostly represented by dome-plate fragments. The use of sunken kilns is characteristic of the Nene Valley industry. The stokehole was used to feed fuel into the kiln, and also to rake-out the ash from the fire (Swan 1984, 29). Such ash deposits, either derived from the last firing or dumped from elsewhere, were found within the stoke-holes of the excavated kilns. These in situ ash deposits are more commonly associated with reducing kilns, where the wood in the flue and furnacechamber carbonises, forming a layer of thick black ash (Swan 1984, 41), less ash being produced in an oxidising kiln. The flue generated a draught to draw the flames into the furnace-chamber. At The Parks all the furnace-chambers were of updraft construction, comprising a raised oven floor, enabling the hot gases to percolate upwards into the pottery stack, and separating the pottery from the ash and flames, which was particularly important for the production of specialist wares. It is probable that the kiln superstructures were a mixture of temporary and permanent construction. As sunken kilns with an open-topped superstructure of temporary or permanent materials they confirmed to Swan’s type v (1984, fig. ii).

This kiln type was mainly in use in the Flavian-Trajanic period, with examples located at Trent Vale (Mountford et al. 1968), Colchester (Rodwell 1988), Cherry Hinton, Cambridgeshire, Harston, Cambridgeshire (Pullinger and Young 1982, fig. 9), Brampton, Norfolk (H Green 1977a), Hevingham and Ling in Norfolk (Swan 1984, 87), Derby (Brassington 1971), Canterbury, Brampton, Cumberland (Hogg 1965), Northwich (Curzon and Hanson 1971), Ecton, Northamptonshire (Johnson 1969), and at Stibbington, near Water Newton, Cambridgeshire (B Hartley 1960). Dating to the late 2nd to early 3rd century, Kiln 3 is notable as a chronologically-later example of this type, with a more confined distribution, limited to a small number of production centres and associated sites, such as Brampton, Norfolk, the Verulamium area, and the colour-coated industries of Colchester, Mancetter/ Hartshill, Oxfordshire and the Nene Valley (Swan 1984, 87, 96).

The earliest kiln of the group, Kiln 1, comprised a sunken circular furnace-chamber linked by a flue to a circular stokehole, together forming an hourglass-shaped arrangement (Woods 1974, fig. 2, type 1C). Other kilns adopting this simple form have been excavated on the A1(M) (Ellis et al. 1998, fig. 14). The surviving dome-plate fragments indicate that the superstructure was of both temporary and permanent materials (Swan 1984, fig. II, category v). The survival of an in situ pedestal is a rare occurrence (ibid., 59). The rectangular stone pedestal was of dumb-bell type (ibid., 59), square in section and expanded at both ends to assist safe loading. This was the most common form of support in the Upper Nene Valley, introduced before the Conquest. The cigar-shaped kiln-bars would have been supported on the central pedestal (ibid., fig. III, type ii). Large quantities of vented clay floor plates on which the pottery would have been stacked were also found. The short flue is characteristic of kilns with a raised floor (ibid., 29). The only nearby feature possibly associated with the kiln was a keyholeshaped hearth or oven (F123), similar to an example found in a similar context at Malvern (C J Evans et al., 2000), as well as feature F31 at The Parks.

In contrast to the other kilns from the site, which comprised a single furnace-chamber and stoke-hole, Kilns 4a/b comprised a central stoke-hole and two furnace-chambers (F89–F90). As noted above it was not possible to establish a clear relationship between the stoke-hole and the two furnace-chambers, all backfilled with similar ashy deposits. Furnace-chamber F89 had a stone pedestal support, part of which survived in situ, and also contained the largest quantity of kiln furniture. Furnace-chamber F90 at the opposite end of the stoke-hole contained fire-bars. The similarity between the fills of the two furnace-chambers and the stoke-hole could suggest that the abandoned furnacechamber F90 was also used to rake-out material from furnace-chamber F89 and the stoke-hole, after the repositioning of the furnace-chamber. The repositioning of the stoke-hole is not unusual, and kilns were often fired many times (Swan 1984, 33). 19

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ An alternative interpretation of the kiln is that the two furnace-chambers were in contemporary use, as was suggested at Catterick (Busby et al. 1996, 287), although in that case only one of the furnace-chambers was located within the excavated area. Kilns II and II in Area J at Kelvedon, Essex (Rodwell 1988, fig. 20) shared a common stoke-pit, formed by a re-cut along an abandoned ditch. Two furnace-chambers, linked to a common stoke-hole and together forming a V-shape, were recorded at Colchester (Rodwell 1988, fig. 9). This kiln may be distinguished from a more usual type, with a single stoke-hole and two flues (Swan 1984, 117).

defined by posts on either side. In Structure 1 the inner side of the northeastern aisle may have been partly defined by post-pads (F71, F73 and F99). Traces of the other internal and external walls may have been scoured-out by ploughing. Although often used as barns, outhouses, or as the dwellings of estate workers, in the Nene Valley, industrial uses, principally for storage, are common (ibid., 39, Morris 1979, 65, n. 1). Oven F86 could have been associated with this building. If Structure 1 was associated with pottery manufacture, it is possible that this building could have been used as a potter’s workshop or as a drying shed (Swan 1984, 46), although admittedly no evidence of a heating system, such as the hypocaust at Holt (Grimes 1930) or Mancetter (Hartley 1971, 206), was found here. The latter alternative may be favoured because of the apparently flimsy nature of the building. Another possibility is that the building could have been used for the dry storage of timber, which was unusable for firing if wet (Swan 1984, 44). A possible timber-framed potter’s workshop was found at Harston, Cambridgeshire (Pullinger and Young 1982, 3). It is also possible that the contemporary fence-lines at The Parks could have performed a secondary function as drying racks.

The use of cheek-pieces (Fig. 9) to line the edges of the flues at the junction with both furnace-chambers, marked by reused curved fire-bars, is a characteristic of the Nene Valley pottery industry (Swan 1984, 96), intended to reinforce a weak point within the kiln. The walls of furnace-chamber F90 were reinforced with stone fragments, as at Weston Flavell, Northamptonshire (Bunch and Corder 1954, fig. 1). The associated kiln furniture included dome-plate fragments with impressions of turf and temper sealing the oven. The fire-bars contained large, organic impressions. The group of associated hearths or ovens could have been used for drying the pots.

Features F30, F31 and F114 located adjoining Kiln 2 may have been associated. Feature F31 may have formed a drying oven. The elongated rectangular oven-base with flared sides (F30) could have been part of a T-shaped oven, used for drying the pots (Swan 1984, 47), a type of oven or furnace also interpreted for use as a corn dryer (Morris 1979, e.g. figs. 1–9). Another possible drying oven was the hourglassshaped feature F31. Another possibility is that some of these potential drying ovens were used to harden kiln furniture, although this process could also have taken place during the initial firing of the kiln. Alternatively, if feature F30 was interpreted as a corn-drying oven then Structure 1 could be interpreted as a barn. A granary with associated drying-racks was recorded at Park Lane (H Green 1977a). No trace of drying-racks could be identified at The Parks, possibly because of disturbance by extensive Roman pitting, or the concentration of archaeological excavation upon the human remains and kilns.

Kiln 2 was the latest of the kiln group, which may have continued in use into the 4th century. This kiln was also the least well preserved. It comprised a sub-square shaped stokehole and oval furnace-chamber, linked by a narrow flue (Swan 1984, fig. iii, free-standing pedestal). It is paralleled by Woods’ (1974, 27, Type IIIB) ‘dumb-bell’ type of kiln, including an example from Longthorpe (Dannell 1975). The narrow flue would have created considerable suction, increasing the draught and drawing the flames into the furnace-chamber (Swan 1984, 34), a kiln type associated with high temperature firing. This type of kiln was often no more than 0.11m in depth, which might explain why this example was relatively poorly preserved. As in this example, the furnace-chamber would be more than 1m in diameter, making this kiln a smaller example of the overall type. The fragments of dome-plate recovered suggest that this kiln had an open-topped temporary superstructure, although no trace of its above-ground structure survived truncation. The use of a variety of fabrics in the superstructure is suggested to indicate temporary construction (Hancocks below). The furnace-chamber contained the in situ remains of a burnt stone pedestal support, similar to that recorded in Kiln 1. The portable kiln furniture associated with this kiln was limited to a small number of fire-bar fragments.

At The Parks the group of pits (F42, F45–6) dug along the eastern side of Plot 2 could have been dug to recover clay for use in the nearby kilns. Adjoining features F43 and F44 could have been originally associated, the former lined with burnt clay possibly forming a furnace, and unlined feature F44 a stoke-hole. Any trace of a connecting flue could have been removed by plough truncation.

Measuring a minimum of 5.5m by 8m, Structure 1 may be interpreted as an aisled building (Hingley 1989, fig. 17), as is suggested in particular by the possible inner wall (F71, F73, F99) located parallel to the northeastern external wall of the building. Other parts of its internal and external walls may have been removed by plough truncation. Such a building form, common from the mid 2nd century, was defined by a central room running the length of the building, with aisles

Cremations Two Phase 3 deposits of cremated human bone were identified. Cremation was the usual burial rite in early Roman Britain up to the mid 2nd century, from which time inhumation became more prevalent (Philpott 1991, 8). The two Phase 3 deposits of cremated human bone, dating to the early 2nd century (F26) and to the 2nd to early 3rd century 20

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ 185), Welling, Kent (Tester 1953, 77), Skeleton Green, Puckeridge (Partridge 1981a, 249, no. 8), Alton, Hampshire (Millett 1986, 75, 79–80), Kelvedon, Essex (Rodwell 1988, 47) and West Tenter Street, London (Whytehead 1986, 78). This practice may have had a particular significance in the southeast of Britain. An intriguing possibility is the deliberate selection of a stamped samian fragment (Fig. 36.13) for incorporation within the fill of cremation-pit F26.

(F7), are therefore later manifestations of this practice. However, in rural areas cremation may have continued to be practised into the 4th century (such as at Kelvedon, Essex, Rodwell 1988, 47). No trace of funeral pyres was found, which is unsurprising since in the southeast of England cremation pyres were located away from the burial site, with the remains placed in a vessel of pottery, glass, or wood (Philpott 1991, 8). Both sets of cremated bone at The Parks were buried in pits, there being no trace of a wooden box or other container (as at Girton, Taylor 1993, 221). A widemouthed-jar was used as the urn for cremated human bone F26, and a flagon was employed for cremated human bone F7. Usually domestic vessels were used (Philpott 1991, 30). The use of a flagon to contain cremated bone was an occasional 1st to 2nd century practice (ibid., 30), paralleled at King Harry Lane, St. Albans (Stead and Rigby 1989, 201), possibly a continuation of a native, Iron Age practice. Redeposited cremation pyre debris at the Roman cemetery of east London included plaice, eel and herring bones (Barber and Bowsher 2000, 36).

Phase 4. Inhumation cemetery (4th century, Figs. 4– 5, 13–16, Table 2)

Description Introduction Phase 4 is defined to include all the 62 inhumations which almost certainly form the latest phase of Romano-British activity, although only a very limited number of the graves is datable. Some chronological ‘overlap’ may be suggested with the use of the later Phase 3 kilns (Kilns 4a/b and Kiln 2), which may have remained active into the early 4th century. Similarly, it is possible that some of the earlier inhumations may be dated to the later 3rd century, although it is probable that the majority date to the following century. The dating evidence is considered below (p. 31). For simplicity, the alignment of the burials is abbreviated (e.g. NE-SW etc.). The human remains are described thematically in this section of the report.

Cremated human bone F26 was associated with a small jar and a platter, which contained food and drink for the departed (MacDonald 1979, 410). The other deposit of cremated bone had no associated vessels. A notable feature of cremation F26 was the platter covering the urn, to prevent the entry of soil. This platter contained the remains of two eels, part of a food offering. Although it was unusual to use such a vessel for the purpose, a similar vessel is recorded at Cooling in Kent (Thornhill and Payne 1980, 381). A dish or bowl was used in London for the lid of a Dressel 20 amphora (Barber and Bowsher 2000, 109 and fig. 77). The provision of a meal was an important part of the funerary ritual (Philpott 1991, 15). Animal remains associated with cremated human remains occur in a number of burials elsewhere. Two sets of cremated bone at Skeleton Green were mixed with human bone, and a horse skull was found at Alton, Hampshire (Millett 1987, 68). A cremation pit at Cirencester contained the remains of a bird sealed by a tile which formed the lid of the urn (McWhirr et al. 1982, 98). At Baldock wooden trays on which were laid out samian dishes with animal bone which represented the remains of a meal (Stead and Rigby 1986, 63–6). In the southeast, during the 2nd century between two to four vessels were associated with cremated bone, although significant numbers of cremations may be composed of single vessels, as at Braughing (Philpott 1991, 32). Much variation in the number of accompanying vessels occurs not only regionally but also between cemeteries in adjoining settlements, as is demonstrated by the very small sample from The Parks (F26, three vessels; F7, one vessel).

The Phase 4 graves were cut through the backfilled Phase 2– 3 features and into the subsoil. Only a part of a larger cemetery was uncovered, the distribution of excavated graves suggesting a continuation to the northeast. Of the total of 62 burials recorded, only 37 distinct grave-cuts, including two graves each containing two individuals, could be recognised (HB 3–4, Appendix Plate 1; HB 41; 41a). One group of intercutting graves (HB 47, Appendix Plate 21; HB 55, Appendix Plate 26; HB 56, Appendix Plate 27) was also located. The burial population was diverse, including 16 females (26% of the total), 20 males (32%), and 26 individuals of unidentified sex (42%), as may be expected. All age groups from 3–5 to 46+ were represented. The burials were recorded at two different horizons, with those at the lower level being the better preserved. A number of different orientations were recorded, although burials mainly appeared to respect the Phase 2–3 boundaries. Two particular concentrations were noted within the excavated area (northeastern and southwestern sub-groups). Most of the burials were supine (54, 87%), although six prone burials (10%) and two crouched inhumations (3%) were also found.

Two vessels associated with cremated bone F26 were seconds or wasters. These may have had a symbolic use or have been used out of necessity. Wasters associated with cremations have been recorded from a number of sites, including St Pancras, Chichester (Down and Rule 1971, 73), Ospringe (Whiting et al. 1931, 48), Silchester (Boon 1974,

Further details of the remains are tabulated (Tables 2–5), and Appendix Plates 1–28 include rectified photographs of a selection of the best-preserved inhumations. Following description of the stratigraphic groups, the inhumations are described thematically. While the number of burials from The Parks is statistically small, comparison has been made

21

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________

22

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 14 Human remains, sex and age profile (U = unknown) with larger excavated cemeteries (e.g. Cirencester, Lankhills, Poundbury, the Eastern cemetery of Roman London, and Ilchester), to consider the significance of the composition of The Parks inhumations. Within the site, the composition of the northeastern and southwestern sub-groups has been compared. The sub-groups are illustrated in detail (Figs. 13, 15–16); all inhumations are illustrated on Fig. 4.

have formed. The distribution of burials cut at the upper and lower levels is somewhat irregular, although there is some evidence for clustering. This distribution suggests that the two burial horizons were not artificially created by differential preservation under ridge and furrow earthworks, in which case a more regular lower and upper level layout would be anticipated.

Most of the human remains were comparatively well preserved. A total of 24 skeletons (38.7%) were more than 75% complete and 28 were between 26–75% complete (45.2%), with ten (16.1%) being less than 25% complete. In addition, the overall level of preservation of the human bone was good (see Brickley below).

The lower level comprised inhumations cut into, or overlying, the subsoil (1025), comprising a total of 22 burials. These remains (and Phase 2–3 features) were sealed by layer 1003. This layer varied in depth as a result of the differential disturbance caused by the ridges and furrows of medieval ploughing. The uppermost layer of human burials was either cut into, or overlay, layer 1003. A total of 36 burials was recorded within this upper group, these unsurprisingly being the most disturbed by medieval ploughing. The remaining four burials could not be related to this stratigraphic sequence. Layer 1003 could not be dated, and the sparse dating evidence from the graves themselves is considered below (p. 35–36).

Stratigraphy (Fig. 13, Table 2) Most of the burials were cut into the subsoil. Burial HB 42 (unsexed, aged 6–10, Plate 4) was buried within the furnacechamber of Phase 3 Kiln 1, before the clay dome of the kiln had collapsed. A further burial (HB 43) overlay the upper backfill of the Phase 2–3 roadside ditch (F133, Fig. 4). Burials HB 6 (Appendix Plate 2), HB 16 and HB 36 were cut into the backfills of Phase 2–3 ditch F122, within Plot 2. Burials HB 5 and 21 may have been cut along the projected southeastward continuation of this ditch. A number of burials (HB 15; HB 22, Appendix Plate 8; HB 34, Appendix Plate 15; HB 37, Appendix Plate 16; HB 53; HB 57) was cut into unexcavated, earlier Romano-British features, mostly pits (not illustrated on Fig. 4). None of the graves was intercutting, with the exception of three examples (HB 47, Appendix Plate 21; HB 55, Appendix Plate 26, HB 56, Appendix Plate 27). The earliest of this group was HB 47, which was cut by HB 55 and HB 56. No later features cutting any of the graves could be recorded, with the exception of plough disturbances.

Comparison of the relative distributions between the human remains recorded at the two levels suggests that the upper group of burials comprised the majority of the northeastern sub-group (19, or 79%). Only five lower-level burials were recorded in this sub-group, mainly located towards the periphery of the upper-level burials. In contrast, the southwestern sub-group comprised similar numbers of lower-level (15) and upper-level (14) burials. The distributions of the burials cut at the lower and upper levels in this sub-group were less discrete. As may be expected, the lower remains were mostly also the better preserved. Only four out of the 22 lower level burials were not associated with a grave, while only half (18) of the upper burials lay within a grave. More of the upper level of remains could not be sexed (48% compared with 32%), including all of the ten individuals whose remains were too incomplete to age. The proportion of male individuals in the lower level (45%) was higher than those in the upper level (24%), although the numbers of females in both upper and lower levels was broadly the same (28% and 23%

The human remains were recorded at two discrete levels (upper and lower), perhaps suggesting two episodes of burial, separated by period of abandonment, during which the intervening layer of dark brown sand-silt (1003) may 23

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________

24

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________

25

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ TABLE 2 Human burials, details. See key (over) for abbreviations used HB No

G

1 2~

Arm

S/C

M/F

Age

Orient.

P/S

U/L

Sw/NE

E

S

-

6–10

W-E

S

U

SW

Other information

N

-

Adult

S-N

S

U

SW

3

G

@

F

26–45

SE-NW

S

U

SW

Decapitated. Appendix Plate 1

4

G

D

-

6–10

SE-NW

S

U

SW

Decapitated. Appendix Plate 1

N

-

Adult

NE-SW

S

U

NE

-

Adult

WSW-ENE

P

U

NE

Appendix Plate 2

M

26–45

ENE-WSW

S

U

SW

4 nails ? nail cleaner

5~ 6

G

I

7

G

D

8~

C

N

-

Adult

ESE-WNW

P

U

NE

9

G

I

-

46+

WSW-ENE

S

U

NE

10

G

A

F

46+

WSW-ENE

P

U

NE

Appendix Plate 3

11

G

@

F

46+

ESE-WNW

S

U

NE

Inc. cu plate frag

12

G

A

S

-

6–10

N-S

S

L

SW

Poss. decapitation

13

G

G

S

M

26–45

ENE-WSW

S

U

SW

Appendix Plate 4

14

G

B

F

26–45

S-N

P

U

SW

Appendix Plate 5

15

G

@

M

46+

NW-SE

S

U

SW

11 nails

16

G

A

-

3–5

ENE-WSW

S

U

NE

Decapitated. Appendix Plate 6

17

G

C

F

Adult

NW-SE

S

U

SW

4 nails

18

G

E

F

16–25

WSW-ENE

S

U

NE

Appendix Plate 7

19~

G

A

-

6–10

N-S

S

U

SW

20

G

E

-

6–10

WSW-ENE

S

U

NE

21~

G

N

-

Adult

SW-NE

S

U

NE

22

G

F

M

26–45

SE-NW

S

U

SW

Appendix Plate 8

23

G

A

-

3–5

WSW-ENE

S

U

SW

Inc. part of stylus. Appendix Plate 9

24

G

G

F

26–45

SE-NW

S

U

NE

Poss. decapitation. Appendix Plate 10

25~

G

N

F

16–25

WSW-ESE

S

U

SW

Inc. finger ring frags

26

G

F

F

46+

WSW-ENE

S

L

NE

Appendix Plate 11

C C

27

N

F

26–45

NE-SW

S

U

SW

Inc. 3 bracelets. 8 nails

28~

N

C

-

26–45

ENE-WSW

S

U

NE

Skull missing

29

G

D

-

3–5

ESE-WNW

S

L

SW

Appendix Plate 12

30

G

E

M

26–45

NNW-SSE

S

L

SW

Appendix Plate 13

31

G

B

S

-

11–15

WSW-ENE

S

L

SW

Appendix Plate 14

32

G

F

S

F

16–25

SW-NE

S

U

NE

33

C

M

Adult

WSW-ENE

S

U

NE

34

@

M

46+

NE-SW

C

L

NE

Crouched. Appendix Plate 15

F

46+

WSW-ENE

S

L

NE

? head-stone. 13 nails

-

Adult

NNW-SSE

S

U

NE

M

26–45

WSW-ENE

C

U

NE

Crouched. Appendix Plate 16

-

11–15

N-S

S

L

-

Appendix Plate 17. 5 nails

-

6–10

WSW-ENE

S

L

SW

Skull missing

35

G

36~

39

C

N

37 38#

D @

G

A N

C

Cont’d 26

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ TABLE 2 cont’d Human burials, details. HB No

G

Arm

S/C

M/F

Age

Orient.

P/S

U/L

Sw/NE

Other information

40~

G

D

S

Poss. decapitation

-

11–15

WSW-ENE

S

U

NE

41

F

M

Adult

WSW-ENE

S

U

NE

41A

N

-

11–15

WSW-ENE

S

U

NE

Same grave as HB41

42

G

43#~

F

-

6–10

WSW-ENE

S

-

NE

Decapitated. In Kiln 1

N

C

-

Adult

WNW-ESE

S

-

-

6 nails

C

44

G

G

F

46+

WSW-ENE

S

L

SW

Appendix Plate 18

45

G

N

M

46+

WSW-ENE

S

L

NE

Appendix Plate 19

46

G

A

M

26–45

ENE-WSW

S

L

NE

Inc. cu plate frags. Plate 20

47

G

F

F

46+

NNW-SSE

S

L

SW

Appendix Plate 21. 5 nails

48

G

C

M

16–25

SW-NW

S

L

SW

Inc. beaker. Appendix Plate 22. 23 nails

49

G

D

-

6–10

W-E

S

U

SW

Skull missing

50

G

B

M

16–25

NW-SE

S

L

SW

Inc. 3 coins. Appendix Plate 23. 2 nails

51

G

D

-

6–10

NW-SE

S

L

SW

Inc NV beaker. 2 nails

52#

G

@

M

46+

W-E

S

U

SW

Appendix Plate 24. 3 nails

D

M

46+

NE-SW

S

L

SW

53 54#

C S

E

M

46+

WNW-ESE

S

U

SW

Appendix Plate 25

55

G

F

M

26–45

WSW-ENE

S

L

SW

Inc. broken fe ring. Appendix Plate 26

56

G

B

M

46+

NW-SE

P

L

SW

Plate frag. Appendix Plate 27

N

M

46+

NW-SE

S

L

-

Inc. cu plate frag.

57#~ 58

G

A

F

11–15

NW-SE

S

L

SW

31 nails

59

G

D

C

-

16–25

ENE-WSW

P

L

SW

Inc. beaker. Appendix Plate 28

60

N

F

46+

-

S

-

-

61

N

M

26–45

-

S

-

-

Abbreviated headings G = grave; S = shroud burial C = coffin P = prone S = supine # Not illustrated on HB plan, Fig. 13. ~ Poorly preserved HB U = above 1003, below 1002; L = below 1003

SW = southwest sub-group NE = northwest sub-group

G H

both arms bent, right more than left arm folded (doubled-up) upwards, parallel to body arms crossed over upper chest, fingers touching clavicles No details, incomplete

Key to arm positions: (a-g after Lankhills report) I A both arms straight at the sides B right arm straight, left arm bent N C left arm bent, right arm straight D both arms slightly bent, fingers in the pelvic region @ unusual arm positions: E arms crossed over chest/folded at waistburials, HBalignment 3 left arm Hand right orientation arm D TABLE 3:together Human F both arms bent, left more than right HB 11 left arm D right arm I HB 15 left arm H right arm D

respectively). The lower level burials also included an above-average number of individuals aged 16–25 and 46+ (39% compared with an overall average of 26%). The lower group contained fewer individuals aged 26–45 (14, compared with an overall average of 21%), and the upper group contained a slightly above-average number (25%). One of the possible paired-inhumations (HB 3–4, Appendix Plate 1 and HB 50; Appendix Plate 23) was cut at the upper and lower levels respectively, although this pair may be an exception amongst paired, or possibly paired, burials (e.g. HB 18 and HB 19; HB 45, Appendix Plate 19; and HB 46, Appendix Plate 20; HB 2 and HB 22, Appendix Plate 8; HB 26 and HB 34, Appendix Plate 15). 27

Overall distributions The majority of the burials (total of 53) were concentrated within Phase 2–3 Plot 2. This distribution may perhaps suggest that these boundaries were still recognised, although apparently infilled and disused. Only two burials were recognised within each of Plots 1 (HB 43, HB 57) and 3 (HB 52, Appendix Plate 24; HB 54, Appendix Plate 25) although, admittedly, these plots were not fully investigated (see Fig. 4; not illustrated on Fig. 13). The possible continued use of Kilns 4a/b (Plot 3) and Kiln 2 (Plot 1) into the 4th century could also have constrained burial location. One clear pattern to emerge is that the burials were mostly cut at a distance from the road frontage, with one exception (HB 43,

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ overlying the upper fills of roadside ditch F133). Excepting the small number of burials in Plots 1 and 3, and HB 38 in Plot 2, the burials were located at a minimum distance of 30m from the line of roadside ditch F133. The concentration of burials within the northeast of the excavated area suggests that they formed part of a larger cemetery which extended in this direction outside the excavated area. Within the inhumation group located in Plot B two irregularly shaped sub-groups may be discerned, separated by a ‘gap’ of approximately 5m (to the northeast of a line between burials HB 58 and HB 56, Fig. 13, Appendix Plate 27). This ‘division’ lies to the southeast of the line of ditch F122 within Plot 2, suggesting the ditch, or earthwork, hedged or other boundary slightly to the southwest (leaving no trace at excavation), continued to be respected. A number of burials (HB6, Appendix Plate 2; HB 16 and HB 36) all cut at the upper level, was cut into this section of backfilled ditch F122. The southeastern sub-group (29 individuals) was mostly aligned WSW-ENE/ENE-WSW. Three were aligned NESW, the remaining three orientations (NNW-SSE, SE-NW, ESE-WNE) were represented by one or two examples. Both in the proportions of males, females, the number of unsexed individuals, and in the age profile, this sub-group was broadly similar to the overall burial population. The smaller northeastern sub-group (24 individuals) mostly followed the predominant WSW-ENE/ENE-WSW orientation (16 individuals). Three were oriented NE-SW/ SW-NE, and other orientations, NNW-SSE, SE-NW and ESE-WNW, were represented by one or two examples. The proportions of male, female and unsexed individuals were similar to the overall population. The age profile of this subgroup was also similar, with the exception that it contained slightly more individuals aged 6–10 than those in the overall profile, and fewer adults of unknown age, suggesting that the human remains were slightly better preserved than average.

Alignment and orientation (Table 3) Alignment refers to the layout of the body in plan, and orientation to the position of the head (or the original position of the head in the case of decapitations). If, as is suggested, the burials were largely confined within Phase 2– 3 Plot 2 and mostly comprised two sub-groups, it may be expected that the majority of the graves was orientated roughly NE-SW (along the long axis of the plot), or, possibly roughly at right-angles to its axis (SE-NW). Alternatively, the graves could have followed the NW-SE axis of the road, or have been aligned at right-angles to it, although the placement of HB 43 in the top of roadside ditch F133 could indicate that this feature, or even the road itself, could have gone out of use. A total of seven orientations were identified. The most popular orientation overall was WSW-ENE/ENE-WSW, amounting to 42% of the burials (26 out of 62). This alignment was tangential to the Phase 2–3 plot boundaries. The next popular alignment was SE-NW/NW-SE (11), amounting to 18%, which was approximately at right-angles to the plot boundaries. The next popular alignment was NESW/SW-NE (seven individuals, 11%), approximately following the line of the plot boundaries. Alignment N-S/SN was the next common (five individuals, 8%), and ESEWNW/WNW-ESE (five individuals). The less common orientations comprised W-E and NNW-SSE (both three individuals). A few burials were so badly disturbed that their orientation could not be established, notably HBs 60–1 excavated during the watching brief. In the case of five orientations the head could be located at either end (N-S, NE-SW, ENE-WSW, ESE-WNW, SE-NW). In the case of the other two orientations, the head was only located at one end (position of head given first, W-E, NNWSSE). Where burials were dug roughly N-S/S-N the head was more likely to be located towards the north (14 individuals; N-S, three; NE-SW, four; NW-SE, seven) than

TABLE 3 Human burials, alignment and orientation Orientation

Total

M

F

NK

3-5

6-10

11-15

16-25

26-45

46+

Adult

N-S

3

-

-

3

-

2

1

-

-

-

-

S-N

2

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

NE-SW

4

2

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

2

1

SW-NE

3

1

1

1

-

-

-

2

-

-

1

ENE-WSW

5

2

-

3

-

1

-

1

3

-

-

WSW-ENE

21

6

6

9

1

3

3

2

3

6

3

ESE-WNW

3

-

1

2

1

-

-

-

-

1

1

WNW-ESE

2

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

SE-NW

4

1

2

1

-

1

-

-

3

-

-

NW-SE

7

4

2

1

-

1

1

1

-

3

1

W-E

3

1

-

1

-

2

-

-

-

1

-

NNW-SSE

3

1

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

1

1

TOTAL

62

20

16

26

2

10

5

6

13

16

10

Note, position of the head is given first

28

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ the south (nine individuals; S-N, two; SW-NE, three; SENW, four). Where inhumations were buried on a roughly EW axis, the head was more likely to be located towards the east (22 inhumations; WSW-ENE, 21; WNW-ESE, one) than the west (nine inhumations; ENE-WSW, six; ESE-WNW, three). Thus slightly more inhumations had their heads to the north than the south, while the predominance of inhumations with heads to the east rather than to the west was more than 3:1.

TABLE 4 Human burials, age and sex

The E-W alignment is only represented by three individuals buried at the upper horizon, the only alignment not represented in upper and lower level inhumations. Among the most popular orientation (ENE-WSW/WSW-ENE) there are 16 and nine burials in the upper and lower levels respectively. The number of NW-SE/SW-NE burials are similar (six upper; five lower level), as is the number of those buried on a NE-SW/SW-NE alignment (four upper; three lower level), and those buried N-S and S-N (three upper, two lower). There were more upper level burials orientated ESE-WNW/WNW-ESE (three) than lower level burials (one). Among burials aligned NNW-SSE there were two at the lower level, and one at the upper level.

Age

3–5

6–10

11–15

16–25

26–45

46+

Adult

TOTAL

2

10

5

6

13

16

10

%

3

16

8

10

21

26

16

M

0

0

0

2

8

8

2

%

-

-

-

10

40

40

10

F

0

0

1

3

4

7

1

%

-

-

6

19

25

44

6

Not sexed

2

10

4

1

1

1

7

%

8

38

15

4

4

4

27

Percentages rounded up or down to nearest integer

The legs were either extended, or very slightly inturned, in the case of the majority of the supine burials. Both legs of the decapitated burial (HB 42, Plate 4) inserted into Kiln 1 were flexed, probably to ‘fit’ the kiln. The right leg of HB 18 (female, 16–25) was slightly flexed. A number of arm positions were noted (see Table 2 for key and details). In a total of eight individuals (HB 10, Appendix Plate 3; HB 12; HB 16; HB 19; HB 23, Appendix Plate 9; HB 38, Appendix Plate 17; HB 46, Appendix Plate 20; HB 58) the arms were positioned at the sides of the body, including males, females and all age groups except 16–25. In the case of seven individuals, one arm was straight, the other bent, including males and females, and age categories over 11 years (HB 14, Appendix Plate 5; HB 17; HB 31, Appendix Plate 14; HB 33; HB 48, Appendix Plate 22; HB 50, Appendix Plate 23; HB 56, Appendix Plate 27). The left arm was bent in four cases (HB 14; HB 31; HB 50; HB 56, slightly bent, Appendix Plate 27), and in three individuals (HB 17; HB 33, HB 48) the right arm was bent. In nine cases both arms were bent, with the fingers in the pelvic region (HB 4; HB 7; HB 29, Appendix Plate 12; HB 35; HB 40, HB 49; HB 51; HB 53; HB 59, Appendix Plate 28), including only male or unsexed individuals. This position included individuals in all age groups, the largest number being aged 6–10 (three examples). Five individuals had their arms folded over the chest (HB 1; HB 18, Appendix Plate 7; HB 20; HB 30, Appendix Plate 13; HB 54, Appendix Plate 25), this category including males and females but excluded individuals aged 3–5 and 11–15. In a total of ten individuals both arms were bent, one more so than the other. In three cases (HB 13, Appendix Plate 4; HB 24, Appendix Plate 10; HB 44, Appendix Plate 18) the right arm was more bent, while in seven cases the left arm was more bent (HB 22, Appendix Plate 8; HB 26, Appendix Plate 11; HB 32; HB 41, HB 42 in Kiln 1, Plate 4; HB 47, Appendix Plate 21; HB 55, Appendix Plate 26). In two cases both arms were crossed over the chest, the fingers touching the clavicles (HB 6, Appendix Plate 2; HB 9), the former a prone, the latter a supine, burial.

Sex and age (Table 4, Figs. 14–16) The original number of male and female individuals is difficult to identify because a large number of the burials could not be sexed (26 out of 62). Individuals aged 3–5 could not be sexed. All individuals aged 6–10, and most of those aged 11–15, were unsexed, highlighting the vulnerability of such young individuals to disturbance. In the 26–45 age group there were twice as many males (eight) as females (four). Similarly, numbers of males and females were recorded in the age groups 16–25 and 46+. Most of the female burials were orientated WSW-ENE (six), two each being cut SE-NW and NW-SE. Five other orientations were represented by individual burials. Similarly, of the males, the predominant orientation was WSW-ENE/ENE-WSW (nine, the predominant orientation overall), then NW-SE/SE-NW (six), NE-SW (two). Only single examples of the four other orientations were recorded. Both crouched burials were of males (HB 34, Appendix Plate 15; HB 37, Appendix Plate 16). Two prone burials (HB 10, Appendix Plate 3; HB 14) were female, one was male (HB 56, Appendix Plate 27), and the remainder were unsexed (HB 6, Appendix Plate 2; HB 8; HB 59, Appendix Plate 28). The decapitations, or possible decapitations, included males and females, and are considered below (p. 85–86).

Attitude and characteristics A number of different burial positions were noted (Tables 2– 3). Most of the inhumations were buried in the extended supine position (54, 87% of the total), although six prone burials (10%) and two crouched burials (3% of the total) were also recorded.

In three cases the positioning of the arms was unusual. In the case of HB 3 (female, 26–45) the left arm was folded over 29

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ double, lying alongside the body, and the right arm was bent, resting on the pelvis. Similar arm positions were adopted by a male aged 46+ (HB 15). Burial HB 11 (female, 46+) was characterised by a left hand folded on the pelvis, and the right hand folded over double upwards along the side of the body.

Appendix Plate 1), comprising a female aged 26–45 and an infant of unknown sex (possibly her child, although there is no evidence for this), aged 6–10, were placed in the same grave (F3). A further decapitation was of an infant aged 3–5 (HB 16, Appendix Plate 6). Probably the most notable decapitation was that of an infant aged 6–10 (HB 42), buried within Kiln 1 (Plate 4). A further probable decapitation, represented by a skull fragment placed at the feet (HB 56, Appendix Plate 27), is suspected, although it is possible that the fragment was residual. This individual was a male, aged 46+, with a large osteoma on the skull.

Some possible patterns emerge through comparison of the arm positions within the northeastern and southwestern subgroups. The only examples of burials with right arm straight and left arm bent (four), and arms crossed over upper chest, touching the clavicles (two) occur in the northeastern group, which also contained the largest number (six) with arms crossed in the pelvic region (as against two in the southwestern group). There were no discernible patterns in the other arm positions.

In six further burials, the skull was missing (HB 12; HB 24, Appendix Plate 10; HB 28; HB 39; HB 40; HB 49). This is assumed to have been the result of later disturbance in the case of the four instances where no grave cut could be defined (HB 28; HB 36; HB 39; HB 49), although this is not conclusive evidence. Disturbance is less probable in respect of the other three individuals placed within well-defined grave-cuts (HB 12; HB 24, Appendix Plate 10; HB 40). The absence of evidence of the skull could be the result of differential preservation of the human bone. Only one of this group (HB 24), a female, could be sexed. Of the remaining individuals with missing skulls, three possible decapitations were aged 6–10 (HB 12; HB 39; HB 49), one (HB 40) was aged 11–15, two were aged 26–45 (HB 24, Appendix Plate 10; HB 28), and one adult (HB 36) was also found. Amongst this small group there were no individuals in the age ranges 3–5, 16–24 or 46+.

Among burials in coffins (13) the most common position was both arms bent, with fingers in the pelvic region, followed by both arms laid out straight at the sides (two). Four other positions were represented by single examples. A total of 15 burials were too truncated to record the arm or hand position. The prone burials comprised two females (HB 10, Appendix Plate 3; and HB 14, Appendix Plate 5), one male (HB 56, Appendix Plate 27) and three individuals of unknown sex (HB 6, Appendix Plate 2; HB 8; HB 59, Appendix Plate 28). The prone burials included one individual aged 16–25 (HB 59, Appendix Plate 28), one aged 26–45 (HB 14, Appendix Plate 5), one aged 46+ (HB 56, Appendix Plate 27), and two adults of unknown age (HB 6 and HB 8).

Two decapitations were recorded in the southwestern subgroup and three in the northeastern sub-group, together with two individuals with missing skulls in the former and one in the latter sub-group. The four decapitations, or individuals with missing skulls, in the southwestern sub-group (HB 3–4, Appendix Plate 1; HB 12 and HB 56, Appendix Plate 27), were fairly closely set, although two were recorded at the upper and two at the lower level. Five decapitations, or individuals with missing skulls were recorded at the upper level, two in the lower level (HB 12; HB 56), and one prone decapitated burial was inserted into the kiln (HB 42, Plate 4).

The body was positioned differently in each of the prone burials. In one case the arms were folded along the body (HB 10, Appendix Plate 3). Other prone burials were positioned with the right arm straight and the left arm bent (HB 14, Appendix Plate 5; HB 56, Appendix Plate 27). Both arms of burial HB 59 (Appendix Plate 28) were bent, the hands located in the pelvic region. Perhaps the most unusual position was represented by burial HB 6 (Appendix Plate 2) where both arms were crossed over the upper chest, the hands touching the clavicles, possibly suggesting tied wrists. One prone burial (HB 8) was too truncated to identify the arm positions. In each case the legs were either extended or nearly straight. The crouched burials were both male, aged 26–45 (HB 37, Appendix Plate 16) and 46+ (HB 34, Appendix Plate 15). The former was buried on the left side, with both legs flexed, the latter on the right side, in a similar position. The right arm of HB 37 was folded across the waist, and the right arm was straight, parallel to the body. The left arm of HB 34 was folded across the waist, and the right arm was folded back on itself, parallel to the body. A similar folding back on itself of the left arm was recorded for two other burials (HB 3, HB 15), both supine, the former a decapitation.

The pair of decapitations (HB 3–4, Appendix Plate 1) adjoined burial HB 50 (Appendix Plate 23) which contained grave-goods. They also were similarly aligned and thus it was possible that they could be associated with burial HB 50.

Grave morphology (Table 5) A total of 36 graves, and 26 inhumations not associated with a (surviving) grave, were identified. A number of grave shapes were recognised. The most common shape was rectangular, including the double grave (HB 3–4, Appendix Plate 1), rounded at the head or the feet or at both ends. Other shapes were also recorded. Most graves had near vertical sides, with flat bases.

Five burials were decapitated, with the head placed at the feet (HB 3–4, Appendix Plate 1; HB 16, Appendix Plate 6; HB 36; HB 42). Two of the decapitated burials (HB 3–4,

Most graves were backfilled with deposits of brown sandsilt. The fill of some graves had a high gravel content (HB 30

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ 17, HB 24, Appendix Plate 10; 32, HB 38, Appendix Plate 17; and HB 40). The graves of burials HB16–7 were backfilled with red-brown clay-silt, and the grave of HB 46 was backfilled with yellow-brown sand-silt. Another group of graves was backfilled with grey sand-silt (HB 32; HB 38; HB 40, HB 44; HB 48; and HB 58).

The burials associated with grave-goods occurred more numerously in the southwestern sub-group (nine out of 29, 31%), as against only three in the smaller, northeastern subgroup. The grave-goods in the northeastern group comprised copper plate fragments (HB 11 and HB 46) and a possible ‘nail cleaner’ (HB 8). The range of grave-goods in the southwestern group was also richer, including Nene Valley beakers, coins, brooches and finger-rings.

Traces of coffin nails were recorded in a total of nine inhumations, but no other coffin furniture was recorded. The original total of coffins is suspected to be higher. The largest quantity of nails came from HB 58, from which 31 were recovered. Other burials may have originally been placed within coffins, of which no trace survives as a result of truncation or chemical conditions within the soil.

A number of the grave-fills contained sherds of samian (HB 10; HB 15; HB 26; HB 37; HB 42; HB 46, HB 48; HB 54– 6). The grave of HB 15 contained four sherds, while the others contained only single sherds. It may be significant that the graves of HB 46; HB 48, and HB 55–6 also contained other grave-goods. The samian may have been residual material in the grave backfill, or may have been deliberately deposited as fragments. The occurrence of nails in grave fills is tabulated (Table 6).

TABLE 5 Grave morphology, details Morphology

HB nos. Rounded

At head

3–4, 6, 7, 13, 16, 30, 48, 50, 52,

At feet

46, 55

Tapered at skull

24

Slightly rounded

10, 45

At both ends

12, 18, 47, 51, 56, 59

Enlarged at skull

31, 35

Irregular, rectangular

38

‘Boat-shaped’

15, 17, 44

Rounded, oval

19, 29, 32, 32, 58

Other shapes

11, 22, 26

In addition, traces of copper alloy staining were recorded on the tibia of HB 51 (unsexed, 6–10), indicating the possible location of a decayed copper alloy ornament or coffin fitting. Traces of possible copper staining in the mouth region of HB 44 (female, 46+) could indicate the former presence of a bronze alloy coin.

Interpretation Once established, in the 2nd century, the placement of the body in an earth-cut grave-inhumation remained the principal burial rite until the end of the Roman period. By its nature, the rite of inhumation allows more information to be gleaned from the skeleton than from a cremation, given the appropriate ground conditions. In particular, the posture (Clarke 1979, 137–142; McWhirr et al. 1982, 76–86; Whytehead 1986, 52–4), sex, age and health of the individual can be studied, as well as the characteristics of the burial population as a whole.

Grave-goods and dating evidence Grave-goods, or possible grave-goods, were found associated with only 13 of the burials (21% of the total), although some of the items were fragmentary and could have been residual. Copper-plate fragments were found in four burials, three aged 46+ (HB 11; HB 56–7) and one (HB 46) aged 26–45. Of this group three were male, and one (HB 11) was female. Nene Valley beakers were found associated with three burials (HB 48; HB 51; HB 59), one individual aged 6– 10 (HB 51) and two aged 16–25 (HB 48, 59), comprising one male (HB 48) and two unsexed individuals. A fingerring was associated with a female aged 16–25 (HB 25), and a ring fragment was found with a male aged 26–45 (HB 55). Perhaps the richest group of personal ornaments was the two copper alloy bracelets and the shale bracelet associated with a female aged 26–45 (HB 27, Plate 5). The grave (F58) of HB 50 (male, 16–25) contained three coins. One was of the House of Constantine (No. 4), a second was an illegible 4thcentury issue (No. 6), and the latest coin (No. 5) was of Theodosius, dated AD 388–395. The majority of inhumations were buried without grave-goods. The eraser end of a stylus was found with an unsexed individual aged 3– 5 (HB 23), and a possible nail cleaner was found associated with an unsexed adult (HB 8). Burial HB 42 was buried within Kiln 1 which was in production during the late 2nd to early 3rd century.

Stratigraphy The inhumations formed the latest Romano-British activity on the site, albeit possibly chronologically overlapping with the use of the later pottery kilns (Kilns 4a/b, 2). Inhumations were recorded at two levels, both above (upper) and below (lower) layer 1003. This layer may be similar to a buried soil resulting from alluviation, comprising lower A and upper B horizon material, recorded during a nearby evaluation (French 1995). This deposit was equivalent to other alluvial material recorded within the lower Welland Valley (Pryor 1998), and which, notably, had not been reworked by ploughing. Both lower-level and upper-level burials appeared largely limited to the area of Plot 2, possibly as a result of pressure for space from the adjoining pottery industry, if contemporary. The number of burials in the lower and upper horizons in the two sub-groups suggests the earlier burial was more concentrated towards the roadside (southwestern 31

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ Table 6 Human burials containing more than one nail (in HB number order) Feature

HB No.

Context

No.

F133

1

1006

1

F4

6

1027, 1054

2

F136

7

1031

4

F32

15

1078, 1084, 1120

11

F14

17

1049

4

F143

21

1062

1

F144

23

1068

2

F146

27

1090

8

F35

31

1101

2

F36

32

1103

1

F148

33

1128

1

F49

35

1034, 1134

13

F60

38

1162

5

F82

42

1167

1

F154

43

2011

6

F53

46

1141

19

F55

47

1147

5

F39

48

1148–9

23

F58

50

1158

2

F59

51

1160

2

F61

52

1163

3

F84

56

1172–3

2

F87

58

1195–6

31

Cremation F26

The northeastern and southwestern sub-groups of inhumations were separated by a gap, possibly formed by a hedge or other boundary, leaving no trace at excavation, and approximately following the alignment of the northwesternsoutheastern arm of Phase 2 plot-dividing ditch F122. More significantly, this suggested cemetery boundary approximately followed the projected alignment of the fenced limit of the Romano-British cemetery located to the west (H Green 1977a). The intercutting graves (HB 47, Appendix Plate 21; HB 55, Appendix Plate 26; HB 56, Appendix Plate 27) at The Parks are unlikely to be the result of overcrowding or of longstanding use without centralised control, as was proposed at Cirencester (McWhirr 1982, 101). One possible interpretation of the intercutting graves at The Parks lies in the context of a family burial plot, where graves were ‘prebooked’ (Farwell and Molleson 1993, 70), reflecting a desire to be close to an earlier focal burial as also proposed at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 119) and Poundbury (Farwell and Molleson 1993, 24), within a family context or social group. In the adjoining Park Lane cemetery, Green (H Green 1977a) identified clusters of overlapping or overlying inhumations, also interpreted as family groups. Such family burial plots could have been defined by ditches, as at Ilchester (Leach 1984), Kelvedon (Rodwell 1988) and the ditched enclosures on the periphery of the Poundbury cemetery (eastern and northern peripheral burial groups, Farwell and Molleson 1993, 19 and 30). An alternative interpretation could be that there was a rule-of-thumb that 20 years should elapse before the site of a grave was redug or encroached upon, as suggested at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 119), although this interpretation may be more appropriate in the context of a large, urban, managed cemetery, rather than the more haphazard arrangement suggested by The Parks.

35

sub-group), with later burials increasingly clustered away from the road (northeastern sub-group). Significantly, the burials cutting abandoned Phase 2 ditch F122 (whose line may have continued to be marked) belonged to the later group, suggesting a late abandonment of cemetery plot boundaries.

The relative lack of intercutting is probably the result of the relatively sparse distribution overall, as at West Tenter Street, London (Whytehead 1986, 49), rather than suggesting knowledge and continuing respect for the earlier graves as was proposed at Poundbury (Farwell and Molleson 1993, 75). At Lankhills, it was suggested that above-ground mounds over each of the graves facilitated their avoidance during later burial (Clarke 1979, 185), as well as their regular positioning within rows. A different arrangement is suggested at Cirencester where the burials were haphazardly arranged and intercutting was recorded (McWhirr et al. 1982, figs. 30–33).

Overall distributions (Figs. 13, 15–16) As already noted, the distribution of graves in the excavated area suggests that the northeastern limits of the cemetery may not have been found in the excavated area. However, the burials appear to have been largely confined within Phase 2 Plot 2, which may indicate that the plot boundaries continued to have been marked, for example by hedges, leaving no trace at excavation. At Cirencester the cemetery limits were defined by ditches which could have been military in origin (McWhirr et al. 1982, 101). Other cemeteries at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 117), Kelvedon (Rodwell 1988) and Ilchester (Leach 1982 and 1994) were also ditch-defined. Alternatively, the burial distribution could merely reflect a pressure for space from the adjoining pottery industry in Plots 1 and 3, if the two activities were contemporary. At The Parks the roadside area appears to have been largely avoided, possibly to exclude disturbance by earlier cremations, as was suggested at West Tenter Street, London (Whytehead 1986, 49).

At The Parks there is some suggestion of ordered rows in the northeast sub-group (HB 40, 32, 35) and in the southwestern sub-group (HB 25; HB 39; HB 27; and HB 22; HB 2; HB 58). None of the possible rows was carefully arranged, possibly representing either a lack of planning from the start, the result of gradual extension where necessary, or a breakdown in the overall arrangement and management of the cemetery over time, as suggested at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 144). Alternatively, the possible rows could be the result of a fairly random distribution. More regular examples 32

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ of row arrangement are represented at Lankhills, Winchester (Clarke 1989), Northover, Ilchester (Leach 1982), and Poundbury, Dorset. In particular, the neatly arranged graves at Poundbury represent the saturation-use of the limited available space. It is possible, though unlikely, that the gravel infills represent the base of a wooden structure, as suggested at West Tenter Street (Whytehead 1986, 41), although at The Parks there was some evidence of pairing (HB 18, Appendix Plate 7; and HB 19; HB 45, Appendix Plate 19; and HB 46, Appendix Plate 20; HB 2 and HB 22, Appendix Plate 8; HB 26, Appendix Plate 11; and HB 34, Appendix Plate 15).

inhumations at The Parks buried with the head to the west derived from the upper level. Another possibility is that the orientation of the graves reflected the position of the rising sun (Rahtz 1978, 3), between 53 degrees and 122 degrees north, the precise alignment of the body reflecting the angle of the rising sun at the time of burial. This orientation is not specifically Christian in association, although an association with a Christian community, as at Finglesham, Kent (Hawkes 1973, 39) and Caistor-on-Sea and Burgh Castle, Norfolk (Wells and C Green 1977), may perhaps be argued in particular cases, particularly in a significantly later, post-Roman context. Analysis of the grave orientations from The Parks indicates that 32 lay within this arc, 18 just outside it, and a further nine wholly outside. If this theory could be applied, these numbers would suggest that the greatest period for mortality lay around the summer solstice. However, because of the similarity between the angle of the rising sun and the plot boundaries at The Parks it is not possible to establish with certainty if the angle of the sun was a factor in grave alignment.

An alternative interpretation (and phasing) of Phase 2 ditch F116, which contained post-settings along its length, is that it formed part of a funerary enclosure, such as those recorded at Poundbury (Woodward 1993, 235).

Alignment and orientation (Fig. 13, Table 2) At Poundbury (Farwell and Molleson 1993), Ilchester (Leach 1982 and 1994), West Tenter Street, London (Whytehead 1986), Trentholme Drive, York (Philpott 1991) and Lankhills (Clarke 1979) grave alignment mostly reflected that of adjoining landscape features, principally ditches. The more irregular Cirencester layout (McWhirr et al. 1982) is perhaps the best parallel for The Parks, since the overall layout at both sites was somewhat haphazard, suggesting control may not have been that strict, or that different topographic features were being used over the life of the cemetery, or both. At The Parks the predominant alignment (WSW-ENE/ENE-WSW) represented by 46% of the burials was tangential to the plot boundaries. The larger number of burials following this alignment (twelve) in the upper horizon could suggest an increasing abandonment of the former plot layouts, or a more haphazard arrangement overall during the later use of the cemetery. The other common alignments, SE-NW/NW-SE (eleven inhumations) and NE-SW/SW-NE (seven individuals), were cut respectively along the line of, and at right-angles to, the preceding plot boundaries. These alignments were represented roughly equally in the lower and upper burial horizons, suggesting a degree of continuity.

Sex and age (Tables 2 and 4, Figs. 13–16) As noted above, the overall age and sex distribution is difficult to identify given the significant number (26) of unsexed and undated adult (ten) individuals. The unsexed and undated individuals may not necessarily reflect the overall composition of the cemetery, since at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 123) it was noted that male skeletons were the better preserved. Comparison can most usefully be attempted with the composition of larger excavated cemetery groups (e.g. Poundbury, Lankhills, Ilchester), and a complete smaller cemetery group (Lynch Farm, R Jones 1975) although it may be difficult to compare data collected using different criteria. At The Parks a fairly even ratio between males and females was recorded, as at Poundbury, Lankhills (western zone) and Bradley Hill (Leech 1981), suggesting that the composition of the cemetery may have reflected that of the broader population (Woodward 1993, 222). Where males predominate, as at Cirencester, Ilchester, Lynch Farm, Lankhills (eastern zone) and Henley Wood, the presence of veterans at the latter site may be suggested (McWhirr et al. 1982, 109). No patterning of male or female burials could be observed at The Parks, possibly because of the relatively small numbers of graves within the excavated area, or, alternatively, because of the number of individuals who could not be sexed. At other cemeteries such as Poundbury, where a larger number of individuals were represented, the absence of such patterns based on sex or age was suggested to indicate that burial was by family group or by community, and this is also a possibility at The Parks. In contrast, at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 189) it appears that particular areas of the cemetery were reserved by gender, although not exclusively so.

At The Parks the head was more usually located at the north rather than at the south, similar to the pattern recorded at West Tenter Street, London (Whytehead 1986). The strongest pattern to emerge at The Parks was the placement of heads to the east rather than to the west, whilst at West Tenter Street (ibid.) and Poundbury (Farwell and Molleson 1993) more heads were buried to the west. At Poundbury, burials in the peripheral cemeteries were aligned N-S and EW in equal numbers, but mainly W-E (Woodward 1993, 229) in the main cemetery. At Cirencester, 104 burials were orientated N-S, 181 S-N, 30 E-W, and 67 W-E, a majority of 63% being orientated on a N-S/S-N axis (McWhirr et al. 1982, 76). ‘In the 4th century it may be generally suggested that regular alignment in respect of existing boundaries was of paramount importance’ (Woodward 1993, 230). All three 33

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ case of HB 14 and HB 6 at The Parks, the latter buried in ditch F122 (Phase 2), but not signifying disrespect. A third group may be represented by examples including some characteristics of a formal burial, possibly including HB 10 (Appendix Plate 3) and HB 59 (Appendix Plate 28), who may have been excluded from the cemetery by reason of low status, criminal or outcast status. Fourthly, rigor mortis could have prevented formal laying-out, as at Cirencester (McWhirr et al. 1982, 78). Fifthly, prone burial may have been deliberately chosen to reflect dishonour, if the individual was an outcast, or of low status, or to prevent the individual from haunting the living or from being reborn (Philpott 1991, 74). Finally, if the individual had suffered a violent or painful death, and no shroud was available, prone burial may have been chosen to spare the mourners the sight of contorted features (ibid., 75).

At The Parks a total of 17 individuals was aged 3–15 (27%), six were aged 16–25 (10%), 13 were aged 26–45 (20%), and 16 were aged 46+ (26%). Clearly, the results are difficult to interpret because of the ten adults whose remains were too poorly preserved to be aged (17%). Woodward has noted (1993, 222) that generally among later Roman cemeteries there are two peaks in age distributions. The first comprises individuals aged up to 15 years (Poundbury combined 48%, Lankhills 30%, Cirencester 14%), indicating that children were being buried with adults, as is possible at The Parks, particularly in the southwestern sub-group. Alternatively, where children were less frequent (as at Ilchester 18%, Lynch Farm 8%), they may have been buried around domestic structures (Woodward 1993). The second peak involves adults aged 16–25 (Ilchester 57%, Lynch Farm 67%, Cirencester 38%, Poundbury 38%), not apparent at The Parks, where adults appeared to have been predominantly older. However, the small sample size and number of unidentified adults from the site needs to be borne in mind.

Crouched burial may be the continuation of an Iron Age rite (Whimster 1981, 11). The practice persisted in the late Roman period in rural areas, out of contact with the prevailing ‘Romanised’ custom (Philpott 1991, 57), such as Welton Wold (Faull 1977, 29) and Winterton (Rankov 1982, 351), both Humberside, in the 3rd and 4th centuries respectively.

Attitude and characteristics Supine burial may mark the adoption of a Romanised burial custom, although occasionally practiced in the Late Iron Age, as at King Harry Lane, St Albans (Stead and Rigby 1986). The significance of the variation recorded in arm and leg positions (e.g. Clarke 1979, 137–142; McWhirr et al. 1982, 76-86; Whytehead 1986, 52–54, Farwell and Molleson 1993) is not clearly understood (Woodward 1993, 224). Nationally, the most common arm positions were arms by the side or hands on the pelvis (McWhirr et al. 1982, 85; Whytehead 1986, 52). At The Parks in seven cases one arm was bent, the other crossed, and in nine cases both arms were bent. Five individuals had their arms folded over the chest, particularly within the northeastern sub-group, suggested elsewhere to indicate a Christian burial, particularly in a significantly later context. Some arm positions may be considered to be particular to a cemetery, at The Parks perhaps including three individuals whose left or right arms were folded over double along the side of the body.

Crouched burials occur only in small numbers in a limited number of urban cemeteries, for example at Cirencester ten such individuals, amounting to 2.7% of the total were recorded (McWhirr et al. 1982, 81), while at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 138–9) and Ilchester (Leach 1982) decapitations amounted to around 5% of the total. At The Parks this burial position was represented by two individuals (HB 34, Appendix Plate 15; HB 37), amounting to 3.2% of the small overall population. One possibility is that the burials were placed in this position because infirmity prevented proper laying-out (Philpott 1991, 71, Mc Whirr et al., 1982, 8;1, Everton and J Rogers 1982, 267), or because death during sleep prevented formal laying-out (McWhirr et al. 1982, 81). Nationally, the high proportion of children buried in this manner, together with the Anglo-Saxon practice of burial in this position (if representing the continuation of an existing belief), to facilitate rebirth, may be another possibility (Philpott 1991).

Nationally, prone burial is more unusual than crouched or supine burial, although better represented in the 4th century (Philpott 1991, 71). At The Parks six burials were prone (9.7% of the total), a roughly similar proportion to that recorded at Cirencester (33 out of 453; McWhirr et al. 1982, 78) and Ilchester (four out of 61, Leach 1982). Only seven out of 1114 burials at Poundbury were prone (Farwell and Molleson 1993). Fourteen prone burials were recorded out of a total of 851 in the eastern cemetery of Roman London (Barber and Bowsher 2000, 87).

Because both of the crouched burials at The Parks were cut into existing features another explanation may be more likely; that the posture was the result of the careless disposal of a body within an existing feature. This is perhaps supported by evidence for the condition of the two crouched burials from The Parks. One (HB 34, Appendix Plate 15) had a fracture of the fibula. The second (HB 37, Appendix Plate 16) had a rib fracture which had broken again post mortem, perhaps suggesting careless or hasty disposal of the body.

A number of interpretations of this burial position may be suggested. Firstly prone burials could be the result of coercion, possibly including HB 6 (Appendix Plate 2) and HB 59 (Appendix Plate 28) whose arm positions could suggest tying, as at Cirencester (McWhirr et al. 1982, 81). Secondly, the attitude could be the result of careless burial (as at Derby, Wheeler 1985, 242), which is possible in the

A total of five decapitations, and three possible decapitations was recorded, the latter group represented by missing skulls where there was no evidence for disturbance post mortem (HB 12; HB 24, Appendix Plate 10; HB 40). Alternatively, it is possible that the absence of a skull could represent no 34

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ Nationally the age-profile of decapitations includes a higherthan-expected number of elderly females, and a smaller group of infants, both possibly individuals with either no, or lessening social ties, ‘less involved in the world, and [were] relatively close to the otherworld’ (Wait 1985, 239). At The Parks the overall number of burials, and of decapitations in particular, is too small to identify any gender or age patterns, which are also often not apparent even in larger samples (Philpott 1991). Overall, this lack of age or gender patterns may suggest that other factors, such as social status, caste, or kinship (ibid., 1991, 80), were significant. It may be that decapitation was practised upon members of a certain social caste, or of particular kinship, being intended to highlight their outcast status. Two of the three decapitations at Poundbury were located outside the main cemetery, suggesting their deliberate exclusion (Woodward 1993, 227).

more than post-depositional decay, as at London (Barber and Bowsher 2000, 86). Clarke (1979, 374) suggests that the practice originated in rural contexts, extending into urban cemeteries around the middle of the 4th century. The total of eight decapitations, amounting to 13% of the total burials, compares with a ‘national’ average calculated at between 2.5–6%, the latter figure only including cemeteries where decapitation is practised (Philpott 1991, 80). At Lankhills a total of seven decapitations was recorded (Clarke 1979, 192), six at Cirencester (McWhirr et al. 1982, 108), and six at the eastern cemetery of Roman London (out of a total of 851, Barber and Bowsher 2000, 91). Decapitation may have been carried out post mortem, as indicated by the angle of cut on HB 42 (Plate 4; Brickley below), which suggests that the cut was made from the front, upwards, which might be difficult with a live individual, and at other sites, by the posture of the victim. At Cirencester, the decapitations were cut from both the front and the rear (McWhirr et al. 1982, 109), and traces of resistance were recorded at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 192).

Another alternative is that the rite could be founded in religious belief ‘perhaps manifesting respect for the head as the seat of the soul, an idea common to both Roman and Celtic peoples or else a superstitious rite designed to prevent ghosts from walking (Henig 1984, 203). Decapitation could prevent the dead from walking, haunting or disturbing the living (Philpott 1991, 87; Henig 1984, 203). Another possibility is that the decapitated burials were sacrificial, based on graves of military association, which were richly furnished or ritually unusual, as at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 192–3). An association between richly furnished graves and decapitations is unlikely at The Parks, except for the double decapitation (HB 3-4, Appendix Plate 1) which adjoined HB 50 (which contained three coins) and both of which also followed a common alignment. Nationally, there are a number of double or multiple decapitated burials, as at Andover (Frere 1988, 476), Lankhills (Clarke 1979), Cirencester (McWhirr et al. 1982, 109), Cowdery’s Down, Basingstoke (Millett 1983, 181–2), and Ilchester Little Spittle (Everton and J Rogers 1982, 266).

Nationally, there may be no significance to the age-range of decapitations, although juveniles under 16 are absent and infants are very rare (Philpott 1991, 79). The small sample of decapitations, and possible decapitations, from The Parks includes individuals under this age, possibly because of the high level of preservation of human remains at the site. One decapitation was aged 3–5 (HB 16), two were aged 6-10 (HB 4; HB 42), one 26–45 (HB 3), and one 46+ (HB 56, Appendix Plate 27). Among the group of presumed decapitations (missing skulls) is one individual aged 6-10 (HB 12), one aged 11–15 (HB 40), and one aged 26–45 (HB 24, Appendix Plate 10). A group of decapitations, or possible decapitations, including HB 12; HB 24, Appendix Plate 10; HB 40 at The Parks, was characterised by the absence of a head, which may even have been removed from the body, possibly for display aboveground, assuming that the skull was not present because of differential preservation of the skeletal remains. No unassociated skulls were found at the site, although isolated heads are found fairly frequently in Roman contexts (Philpott 1991, 77). Such decapitations with the head missing are interpreted as the result of military execution, as at Whittlesey, Cambridgeshire (Challands 1977, 28), or a judicial execution (Kingsholm, Gloucester, Frere 1985, 300– 303).

Coffins By the late 2nd century the use of a coffin was common (Philpott 1991, 53), only going out of use in the second half of the 4th century in some cemeteries such as Kelvedon and Lankhills (Rodwell 1988, 50; Clarke 1979, 142–4). Burials in wooden coffins may provide an indicator of status (Philpott 1991, 53). In the absence of other surviving possible coffin remains, the presence of at least three nails (as at Cirencester, Mc Whirr et al. 1982, 88) has been used as indicating a coffin. This is not necessarily correct, since coffins may have used pegs and wooden joints, as at Ilchester (Leach 1994, 98), or organic ties, as at Cirencester (McWhirr et al. 1982, 31). If a coffin was not used, a shroud burial may be presumed, since the deceased was unlikely to have been buried in his or her everyday clothes (McWhirr et al. 1982, 88).

Grave-goods were associated with one decapitation (HB 56, Appendix Plate 27), a prone burial, although the copper plate fragment could be residual. Nationally, few decapitated burials are associated with grave furniture (Philpott 1991, 80). Another possibility is that decapitation after death was the closest to ritual killing that was being permitted, human sacrifice itself being unacceptable in a Roman context. Decapitation and prone burial could also be associated with a socially outcast group, unless prone burial was necessitated by the impossibility of formally laying-out the body.

Grave goods and dating evidence Excluding possibly residual coarse pottery and samian sherds, only three of the inhumations (HB 48, 51 and HB 59) 35

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ Notably absent from the finds associated with human burials were hobnails, perhaps suggesting burial without shoes, or that the shoes did not have hobnails, as suggested at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 180), although post-depositional decay at The Parks is another possibility.

contained pottery vessels, amounting to approximately 5% of the total of inhumations, as against a national average of between 10–20% of all burials (Philpott 1991, 136; Woodward 1993, 233). Status is not necessarily reflected in the quantity and quality of grave-goods, which could solely indicate a belief in grave goods (Clarke 1979, 191). Graves with 4th-century pottery are recorded within Cambridgeshire at Litlington (Liversidge 1977, 30), Guilden Morden (Fox and Lethbridge 1924, 54–58), and inhumations associated with pottery of 3rd to 4th-century date are recorded at Cambridge and Colne (Taylor 1993, 214, 220). At The Parks the three inhumations contained Nene Valley funnel-necked beakers with beaded rims, reflecting the predominance of beakers as funerary offerings in the area to the north of the Thames (Philpott 1991, 108). The pottery vessels may have been connected with a funerary feast or have been an offering to the deceased in themselves. Notably, burial HB 59 was associated with a beaker with a badly pock-marked surface, which may have been deliberately selected, echoing the association of waster vessels with cremation F26.

Phase 5. Post-Roman activity Description and interpretation No evidence of post-Roman settlement was recorded by the excavation. Medieval and post-medieval activity was represented by a lower (1002) and an upper ploughsoil (1001), both comprising a dark grey-brown stony silt-sand, within which traces of ridge and furrow were visible. These deposits were sealed by the ploughsoil, which measured an average of 0.3m in depth.

A female aged 26–45 (HB 27) was associated with two copper-alloy bracelets and a shale armlet, worn on the lower arms of the body (Plate 5). Similar bracelets are often 4thcentury in date (Philpott 1991, 129), possibly reflecting their popularity at the time, as is the case with rings (associated with HB 25, and HB 55). A bracelet of similar form was found at the eastern cemetery of Roman London (Barber and Bowsher 2000, 162). Although, as at The Parks, such personal ornaments were usually worn by females, one of the individuals (HB 55) was male. These grave-goods may have had a dual function, serving a decorative purpose and highlighting the social status of the individual. Swift (2000) argues that the wearing of a particular bracelet type may be an affirmation of regional identity, either as evidence of original identity, or of outward assimilation within a new region. In particular, the wearing of several bracelets on one arm is a trait of Pannonian origin (ibid., 230). The two cabletype bracelets worn by HB 27 are of a type with a widespread distribution (ibid., 124 and fig. 146), and it would be unwise to attribute a Pannonian origin for burial HB 27 on the present data. The grave of HB 23 contained the eraser end of a stylus, either deliberately deposited in the backfill or a residual item. Styli may be used to decorate pottery (Swan 1984, 51). Two other burials are associated with styli, at Colchester (Crummy 1983, 452) and Litton Cheney, Dorset (Bailey 1967, 156–9) where the item was associated with a gaming set and pig mandible, and a stylus was associated with a cremation at the eastern cemetery of Roman London (Barber and Bowsher 2000, 134). Such items could have served to denote the activity of the deceased, such as the bronzesmith’s tools at Tattershall Thorpe, Lincolnshire (Rankov 1982, 356), or represent an offering to the gods, the latter more likely in the case of HB 23, an infant aged 3–5. A ‘nail cleaner’ (as possibly found associated with HB 8) was also found within a grave at Lankhills (Clarke 1979, 151).

36

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________

FINDS AND HUMAN REMAINS Introduction dupondii and mid to late 4th-century small change. In practice, this means little, since the extreme wear of the dupondius of Vespasian (No. 1), identifiable only from the distinctive portrait style, indicates that this coin will have been in circulation perhaps throughout the 2nd and even into the 3rd century. The dupondius of Nerva (No. 2) is much less worn, although partly obscured by corrosion products and, given the shortness of Nerva’s reign, this might indicate that it was lost relatively quickly after issue. Taken together, therefore, these coins indicate that the site may have been in occupation from the late 1st century until well into the 3rd century. After this, there may have been a short break in occupation from the mid to late 3rd century into the 4th century, since the very common regular and irregular issues of the period of the ‘Gallic Empire’ (AD 268–273) and the reformed coinage of Diocletian and Constantine I of the late 3rd and early 4th century are entirely missing. Given the small sample obtained from the targeted excavation, however, these omissions from the coin list may not be as significant as they first appear.

This section of the report describes a selection of the finds and human remains from the 1998 excavation only. In accordance with the excavation strategy, analysis and reporting has been focused upon the Phase 3–4 human remains and associated finds, and the Phase 3 kilns and associated finds. Analysis of the pottery from the kilns concentrated upon Kilns 1 and 4a/b, which produced the largest, and relatively uncontaminated, assemblages. The smaller quantity of more mixed pottery from Kilns 2 and 3 has been summarised only. Finally, a small selection of pottery from other features has been included for its own intrinsic value. Because the excavation strategy involved only the handexcavation of a limited sample of the other features present, the small quantities of finds generated were not considered worthy of detailed study. Study of some overall classes of material, such as animal bone and the charred plant remains, were not academically worthwhile. Full details of all finds and the animal bone may be found in the archive. In the catalogues the small find number (prefix ‘SF’) is given first, followed by the layer and then the feature number (prefix ‘F’), the structure, burial (prefix ‘HB’) or kiln number, if appropriate, and the phase. Unphased or unstratified items (U/S) are listed at the end of the catalogue, together with material from the topsoil (1000). Prehistoric finds are summarised first in this section of the report.

The remaining four coins came from two layers. One, from the topsoil (1000), is an issue of one of the sons of Constantine I minted after his death, but before the fall of Constantine II. The poor preservation of the specimen makes it impossible to assign it to a single ruler or mint, but the type—the extremely common GLORIA EXERCITVS—is not in doubt. It may even be an irregular issue since the type was commonly copied. The other three coins (Nos. 4–6) all came from layer 1158 of grave HB 50 (F58). They were found in association with each other and thus might be assumed to have been deposited contemporaneously, even though they are of different dates. No. 6 is impossible to identify closely, since it is worn almost flat, although curiously three letters stand out on its surface which indicate that it might belong to a common VOTIS issue. Unfortunately, without further clues it is impossible to assign a closer date than the 4th century to it. No. 4 is a copy of the common FEL TEMP REPARATIO coinage of the period between c AD 348 and c AD 358. Copies of this coinage are particularly abundant in Britain and Western Gaul after the fall of the usurper Magnentius (AD 350–353). His fall led to a demonetisation of his coinage by the legitimate Emperor, Constantius II, leading to a shortfall in small change. This vacuum was filled by copying legitimate coinage, or by over-striking demonetised coins of the previous issue period (Brickstock 1987, 1–6). The latest coin (No. 5) is an issue of the period AD 388–93. The obverse is clearly legible and unworn but the reverse is obscured by corrosion products, making exact identification difficult. Close examination of the reverse has identified the type and, less certainly, the mint mark. This coin provides a terminus post quem of AD 388 for the grave fill layer.

Prehistoric pottery by Ann Woodward Sherds of probable Neolithic pottery (not illustrated) were found in four different Romano-British features. All contained quartzite inclusions, and one thin-walled sherd had a smoothed surface.

Flint by Lynne Bevan Seven undiagnostic, humanly-worked flint flakes (not illustrated) were recovered from Romano-British contexts. This small collection attests to flintworking in the vicinity in prehistory, but does not denote settlement or activity of any duration.

Coins by Roger White The very small number of coins from the excavation, a total of six in all, cannot be used to provide coherent dating, especially since the coins span the entire period of Roman occupation from the 1st to 4th centuries. Nonetheless, an element of finer chronology may be gleaned from the list in that the coins clearly fall into two groups: late 1st-century

37

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ Catalogue 1. Surface find SF7 VESPASIAN date: 69–79 mint:— diam: 25mm wt. 6.6g 2. Layer 1003, SF19, Phase 4 NERVA date: 96 mint: RM diam: 28mm wt: 13.5g 3. Topsoil, 1000 HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE date: 337-40 mint:— diam: 12.5mm wt. 1.5g

denom: DP? cat:— dieaxis:—

Obv:— Rev:— wear: VW/EW

denom: DP cat: 74 die axis: 6

Obv:IM[PNE]R[VA C]AE[S AVG P]M TRP COS II PP Rev:[FORTVNA] AVGVST S.C. wear: UW/UW

denom: — cat: — die axis: 6

Obv:— Rev: [GLORIA EXERCITVS] 1 std wear: W/W

4. 1158, F58, HB 50, Phase 4 HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE denom:— date: 353+ mint:— cat:— diam: 11mm wt: 1.1g die axis: 12 Note: pelleted border, no legend on reverse. 5. 1158, F58, HB 50, Phase 4 THEODOSIUS I date: 388-393 mint: AQP diam: 13mm

wt: 1.0g

denom:— cat: 9AQ58b CK1106 die axis: 12

6. 1158, F58, HB 50, Phase 4 Illegible denom:— date: 4th cent.? mint:— cat:— diam: 12mm wt: 0.8g die axis:— Note: possibly a VOTIS issue or irregular copy of same.

Obv:— Rev: copy of FEL.TEMP.REPARATIO. FH (2) wear: W/C

Obv: D[N] THEODO-SIUS PF AVG Rev: [SALVS REI-PVBLICAE] wear: SW/C Obv:— Rev: [-] OTO [-] wear: C/VW

Catalogue conventions Mints: RM - Rome; AQP - Aquilea Denomination: DP Dupondius A copy or counterfeit of a particular issue is denoted by single quotation marks. Condition of the obverse and reverse is indicated by the following conventions: UW Unworn VW Very worn SW Scarcely worn EW Extremely worn W Worn C Corroded

Small finds by Lynne Bevan, with contributions by Donald Mackreth and Rob Ixer

Brooches by Donald Mackreth

This small assemblage is limited in size and functional variety, suggesting a generally low level of material culture acquisition. The condition of the metalwork is very poor, precluding illustration in most instances. However, a sword (Fig. 19), a fragment from a blue mosaic glass bowl (Fig. 20) and jewellery, including a ridged shale bracelet (Fig. 21), attest to the consumption of some higher-status luxury goods, although in terms of the burials, the quantity of jewellery is less than would normally be expected from a Roman cemetery site. It is perhaps significant that the greatest concentration of objects, two copper alloy bracelets, and a shale armlet (Figs. 18 and 20), came from one human burial (HB 27).

Late La Tène (Fig. 17)

All are made from copper alloy.

All have, or had, four-coil-internal-chord springs. Catalogue

38

1

All of its spring save for most of the first coil, is lost along with the pin. The bow has a rectangular section and a marked hump at the top and tapers to a pointed foot. Down the front of the bow to about the top of the catch-plate is a pair of grooves. SF 1, 1032, F5.01, Phase 2. Fig. 17.1.

2

Diminutive, the brooch is only 30.5mm long. The section of the bow is a thin rectangle. The profile is straight and the return of the catch-plate is almost parallel with the bow. SF 6, 1032, F5.01, Phase 2. Fig. 17.2.

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 17 Brooches (Scale 1:1)

Fig. 18 Other copper alloy objects, the bracelets (Scale 1:1)

Fig. 20 Glass (Scale 1:1)

Fig. 21 Shale armlet (Scale 1:1)

Fig. 19 Iron sword (Scale 1:2) 39

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ There are two main strands in the development from the typical four-coil-internal-chord sprung brooch of the earlier 1st century BC, the Nauheim with its triangular bow and the Drahtfibel with its rod-like bow, both with a framed catchplate. These two brooches are, in a limited sense, Nauheim derivatives.

Other brooch fragments by Lynne Bevan Catalogue (Not illustrated)

One of the features which help determine the approximate date of a brooch whose overall development runs from the early 1st century BC into the earlier part of the 1st century AD, is its profile. In crude terms, the early brooches have a continuous curve, basically an arc of a circle. The later brooches develop an imbalance which makes the curve much tighter near the head. The latter is related to a changed relationship between the catch-plate and the bow. Earlier and later brooches in Britain tend to have a catch-plate which comes to a point at the base. In the intermediate state the two are almost parallel.

1

Corroded curved catchplate from a bow brooch. Length: 46mm, width: 3mm, thickness: 1–2mm. SF 1, 1032, F5.01, Phase 2.

2

Small brooch fastening, possibly from a circular brooch such as No. 3. Length: 29mm, thickness: 0.5–1mm. SF 6, 1032, F5.01, Phase 2.

3

Fragments from a circular brooch, the outer surface of which has deteriorated but the pin and catchplate of which are still in situ. Diameter: 24mm, thickness: 0.5mm. SF 33, 1047, F10, Phase 3.

Other copper alloy objects In addition to the brooches and brooch-fragments, the copper alloy items consisted of fragments from a finger ring, part of a possible earring, a domed stud, an implement shaft, two fragments of strip, and approximately ten small plate fragments, one of which had a perforated design. The condition of the material was very poor, with a high incidence of corrosion and fragmentation.

The matter of decoration is important. Nauheims are hardly ever undecorated, and the question of when the framed catch-plate is replaced by the solid form of the later Derivatives is hard to resolve. The size of the brooch may mean that what might have been a Nauheim, with its framed catch-plate, becomes a Derivative, and therefore regarded by archaeologists as later, because it was smaller than was convenient for the echt catch-plate. This is exemplified by a brooch from Fox Holes Farm, Little Amwell, Hertfordshire, dated 80–20 BC (Partridge 1989, 132, fig. 76.5) which is absolutely right for the full form but which is not suited to such a narrow bow.

Catalogue (Nos. 2–6 and 8–12 are not illustrated) 1

Complete child’s bracelet or a large earring, the tapered edges of which fit together. The surface is very corroded. Diameter: 41mm, thickness: 2mm. SF 46, 1115, F42, Phase 3. Fig. 18.1.

2

Complete child’s bracelet or a large earring, a straightened version of No. 1 above. Length: 102mm, diameter: 2mm. SF 46, 1115, F42, Phase 3.

3

Complete child’s bracelet with a rectangular section. Dimensions: 55mm x 40mm, height: 2mm, thickness: 2mm. SF 47, 1115, F42, Phase 3.

4

Bracelet fragment with rectangular-shaped section and traces of vertical linear decoration at the widest end. The outer surface might also have been decorated, but this is obscured by corrosion. Length: 68mm, height: 5mm, thickness: 1mm. SF 86, 1139, F52, Phase 3.

Plate

5

Domed stud. Diameter: 15mm, height: 6mm, thickness: 1mm. SF 32, 1047, F10, Phase 3.

Catalogue

6

Complete ovoid twisted wire bracelet with tubular, sleeve-shaped terminals. Dimensions: 63mm x 55mm, maximum thickness: 5mm. SF 52, 1090, F146, HB 27, Phase 4.

7

Complete ovoid twisted wire bracelet with one tubular, sleeve-shaped terminal. The other terminal is missing. This bracelet is virtually identical to No. 6, found in the same layer, with which it might have formed a matching pair. Dimensions: 63mm by 48mm, maximum thickness: 5mm. SF 42, 1090, F146, HB 27, Phase 4. Fig. 18.2.

The style of the decoration used on a brooch from Fox Holes Farm, Little Amwell, Hertfordshire, dated 80–20 BC (Partridge 1989, 132, fig. 76.5) there, however, is not suited to such a narrow bow as that of No. 1. Unfortunately, examples of brooches with similar sectioned and decorated bows are very few, and few indeed have a date. The profile of No. 1 should be later than 25 BC, but how much later is hard to say. The position may be summed up by an example from King Harry Lane, Verulamium, not found at the cemetery, but possibly deriving from it. The date is preFlavian (Stead and Rigby 1989, 14, fig. 10.1). Perhaps Nos. 1–2 can be assigned to the period AD 1–50, possibly slightly later: the bow profile is not common by AD 50.

3

A circular disc with a hinged pin. There are just sufficient signs on the front to point to the former presence of a repoussé plate having been soldered on, but no sign as to what the design had been. SF 33, 1047, F10, Phase 3. Not illustrated.

Assuming that the type has been correctly identified, the date range is from c AD 125 to the end of the century, although possibly some of this type survive into the earlier 3rd century.

40

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ 8

Two parts of a corroded circular ring, possibly an earring. Diameter: 16mm, thickness: 2mm. SF 31, 1072, F145, HB 25, Phase 4.

9

A plain, circular finger ring. Diameter: 20mm, height: 2mm, thickness; 1mm. SF 45, 1084, F32, HB 15, Phase 4.

10

Implement shaft, possibly from a nail cleaner, broken beneath the traces of a former attachment loop. Length: 128mm, average thickness: 2mm. SF 10, 1031, F136, HB 7, Phase 4.

11

Plate with three rows of circular (decorative?) perforations. The plate is very similar to No. 12, below, and although there is no obvious join, they appear to be part of the same object. Length: 40mm, maximum width: 12mm, thickness: 0.5mm. SF 85, 1141, F53, HB 46, Phase 4.

1985, 139). Length of links: 30mm, maximum width: 15mm, thickness: 4mm, length of oval link: 55mm, thickness: 5mm. SF 8, 1005, F2, Phase 3. 2

Possible tool, of unknown function, with a rectangularsectioned handle and a wedge-shaped ‘blade’, terminating in three ‘tines’. The object is now very twisted and corroded. Length: 170mm, length of handle: 75mm, average thickness: 5mm, length of tines: 110mm. Layer 1110, Phase 3.

3

Eraser end of stylus, very corroded. Length: 34mm, maximum width: 12mm, thickness: 2–5mm. 1068, F144, HB 23, Phase 4.

4

Knife with socketed handle, now very corroded. Length: 122mm, width of blade: 25mm, thickness of blade: 3mm, diameter of handle: 14mm. SF 39, layer 1003, Phase 4.

Plate with three rows of circular (decorative?) perforations. The plate is very similar to No. 11 above. Length: 22mm, maximum width: 10mm, thickness: 0.5mm. SF 90, 1003, Phase 4.

5

Sword, very corroded and distorted, with a long, rectangular-sectioned tang. Length: 689mm, average width of blade: 40mm, thickness: 3–4mm, thickness of tang: 7mm. SF 13, topsoil 1000. Fig. 19.

In addition, several undiagnostic items of strip and plate were also recovered.

6

Knife with a broken tip, now very corroded. This type of knife conforms to Manning’s knife type No. 13, a general-purpose knife during the Roman period. The closest parallels for this particular knife are of mid 1stcentury date (Manning 1985, fig. 28.13, 109, 114–115, plate 55.Q43, Q44). Surviving length: 64mm, maximum width: 16mm, thickness: 7mm. SF 9, U/S.

7

Part of a hipposandal, without ‘wings’ and broken across the sole with part of the front hook remaining. Although fragmentary, this general style of hipposandal conforms to Manning’s Type No. 2 (Manning 1985, fig. 16.2, 64– 65, plate 27.H6). U/S.

12

Iron objects Of most interest in the collection was a sword which, despite severe corrosion and distortion, was recognisably a spatha or long sword used by the Roman cavalry, a type without visible morphological changes throughout its broad date range, which was ‘presumably derived from Celtic weapons’ (Bishop and Coulston 1993, 71–72) and became ‘the dominant form employed by the Roman army from the late 2nd to early 3rd century onwards’ (Southern and Dixon 1996, 103). There are several published parallels in Britain, including examples from Newstead and Canterbury (TattonBrown 1979), and in Germany, including Rottweil (Bishop and Coulston 1993, fig. 36.69–72) and Alten Rhein bei Xanten (Schalles and Schreiter 1993, M.1:3, mil 36, 204– 205). The example from The Parks is a slightly shorter version of the spatha, and, as such, is closer in size to an example from Wroxeter (Atkinson 1942, B233, 218–219), dated AD 57–90 (Roger White pers. comm.).

Other iron objects comprised a broken ring (SF 149, 1171, F83, HB 55, Phase 4), a possible fragment of binding strip (layer 1003, Phase 4), a rod or bar fragment (U/S, SF 90), and a tapered fragment of bent bar (layer 1003, Phase 4). Excluding burials the following features also contained more than one nail (the quantity is last number in parenthesis): Phase 2: F5.01 (1032: 2); F22 (1074: 2); F116 (1164: 4); F57 (1154: 29). Phase 3: F10 (1047: 24; 1087: 4); F26 (1081: 2); F43 (1113: 4); F45 (1121: 6); F54 (4004: 2). Single nails were recovered from the following features: Phase 2: F6.01 (1038); F20 (1017); F23 (1014); F37 (1018). Phase 3: F38 (1105); F42 (1115). Phase 4: F50 (1135); F91/ F54 (4007); F96 (4016).

Other iron objects included: two knives, the eraser end of a stylus, a broken ring and five links from a broken chain. In addition, there were seven fragments of plate, 307 nails (most of which probably came from coffins), several unidentified, corroded lumps, and metalworking residues in the form of approximately 50 small pieces of smithing slag (not described in detail).

Glass Four fragments of Roman glass were recovered, one of which was from a predominantly dark blue polychrome mosaic vessel (Fig. 20), the shape of which suggests that it came from below the rim of a constricted convex cup, a form which has a date range of AD 43–65 and is ‘sometimes found in Flavian contexts’ (Price and Cottam 1998, 48–50). The outside is plain blue but the inside has white flecks. The remaining three fragments were undiagnostic body fragments from blue-green bottles, none of which is illustrated.

Catalogue (Nos. 1–4 and 6–7 are not illustrated) 1

Six segments of broken ‘figure-of eight’ link chains with an oval link which would have been used at intervals in the same chain (Manning 1985, plate 64.S13). Figure-ofeight chains were popular during the Roman period, probably in view of their superior strength (Manning

41

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ Catalogue (Nos. 2–4 are not illustrated) 1 2 3 4

Fragment from a dark blue and white mosaic cup. SF 48, 1005, F2, Kiln 1, Phase 3. Fig. 20. Body fragment from a blue-green bottle. SF 41, 1047, F10, Phase 3. Body fragment from a blue-green bottle. SF 190, 1205, HB 59, F94, Phase 4. Body fragment from a blue-green bottle. SF 30, U/S.

Shale armlet A complete, ridged, octagonal shale armlet (Fig. 21) was recovered from burial HB 27, where it had been placed on the wrist. Octagonal armlets are known from Britain and Germany but they are not common finds and the available contextual information suggests that they were made in the late 2nd to the early 4th century (Lawson 1976, 254, fig. 5.44) when ‘they were popular in towns as well as in the country and the military zone’ (Allason-Jones 1996, 31–32). Based on some German examples with surviving gold leaf, the continuous ridges on this form of armlet are thought to have held bands of gold leaf or wire but no traces of such decoration have survived on any of the British examples (ibid.). Published parallels are known from York (ibid., no. 69), Silchester (Lawson 1976, fig. 5.44), and Colchester (Crummy 1983, fig. 38.1568, 37), and unpublished examples are known from Housesteads Fort and Kingscote Villa (Allason-Jones 1996, 31). Although all of the German examples and most of the British examples of this form of armlet are of jet, one of the York armlets proved to be of durain (ibid., no. 69), and shale was a common material for other styles of armlet. Allason-Jones notes that since the relative values of jet, shale and cannel coals during the Roman period are unknown, it cannot be assumed that the other substances were regarded as inferior alternatives to jet (ibid., 7).

3

A fragment of a coarse-grained oolitic/pisolithic limestone, with some local reddening, possibly building stone but any worked surfaces have been lost. Dimensions: 170mm x 130mm x 50mm. 4008, F90, Phase 4.

4

A large fragment of pale yellow oolitic/pisolithic limestone, with a fairly uniform grain size. The upper surface has been deliberately smoothed, probably for use as building stone. Dimensions: 205mm x 80mm x 70mm. Layer 1003, Phase 4.

5

A small fragment of a fairly coarse-grained pale yellow oolitic/pisolithic limestone, similar to No. 4, but any worked surfaces have been lost. Dimensions: 105mm x 70mm x 43mm. Layer 1003, Phase 4.

Introduction The excavation produced a total of 6,290 sherds of RomanoBritish pottery (Table 7), generally in a good condition. The report focuses on the three largest and least-mixed kiln assemblages (Kiln 1 and Kilns 4a/b: 1276 sherds, 34.7kg, rim EVE 32.48), representing 20% by count of the entire excavated assemblage. The pottery industry represented by the five excavated kilns has significance for local, regional, and even national research agendas. Analysis of the pottery produced was therefore one of the two main research foci of the excavation. Kilns have been excavated previously at Godmanchester (Swan 1984 139, fiche 2.370; H Green 1977a and 1977b; Taylor 1981). This report, however, provides the first published descriptions and quantification of Godmanchester products. Kiln 1, dated broadly to the late 2nd to early 3rd century, produced pale-oxidised wares in the Verulamium tradition. Kilns 4a/b dated to the late 3rd or very early 4th century, and produced rilled or white-slipped, sometimes painted, grey wares. The Kiln 2 and 3 pottery was not studied in detail.

Octagonal shale armlet with exterior decoration in the form of three carved, latitudinal grooves. Diameter: 70mm, height: 12mm, thickness: 5–7mm. SF 53, 1090, F146, HB 27, Phase 4. Fig. 21.

Stone objects (with specialist identifications by Rob Ixer) One small quern fragment was recovered (No. 2), one stone with a smoothed surface (No. 1) and three other possible pieces of building stone (Nos. 3–5). None was sufficiently complete for illustration.

The human remains were the other main research focus. This report therefore also includes descriptions of the Phase 3 cremation vessels and the three complete Nene-Valley beakers associated with the Phase 4 inhumations. These complement the larger, unpublished cemetery assemblage excavated in 1990 at Rectory Farm, Godmanchester. Other pottery found with the burials was, however, predominantly residual and has not been described.

Catalogue 1

A quern fragment of a very fine, micaceous, palecoloured sandstone/siltstone with a worn surface. Diameter: 370mm (c 12% of original quern), thickness: 65mm. SF 103, 1005, F2, Phase 3.

Romano-British pottery by C. Jane Evans, with Gillian Braithwaite (pottery masks), Brenda Dickinson (samian stamps), Kay Hartley (mortaria stamps), Lindsey Rollo (mortaria), Steven Willis (samian) and Roger Tomlin (graffiti)

Catalogue 1

2

Fragment of yellow-brown calcareous, fossiliferous limestone/argillaceous limestone, which is now very degraded but was probably used as building stone. Length: 198mm, width: 110mm, thickness: 40mm. 1202, F85, Phase 2.

42

Settlement, burial and industry in Roman Godmanchester _____________________________________________________________________________________ weight and EVE. Only rim EVEs are published but base EVEs are recorded in the archive, as are other details.

The Kiln 1 and Kilns 4a/b assemblages are described in turn, including associated mortaria and locally-produced mortaria not associated with the kilns. The Kiln 2 and 3 material, including Nene Valley wares and other pottery not produced at The Parks, is briefly summarised. Pottery associated with the human remains is described next, followed by a discussion of the pottery from the features studied in detail. A selection of other pottery has also been included for its own intrinsic value. Analysis of the mortaria from other sources has allowed broader trends in supply to be assessed. The samian also provided broader chronological and economic evidence, although only one sherd was derived from the kilns, and only the Phase 2 material has been fully catalogued. Finally, the remaining mortaria, mortaria stamps, and the samian and graffiti are described.

The range of the pottery from the kilns is summarised (Figs. 22–24, 28–30) and illustrated (Figs. 25–7, 31). Additional sherds of samian, mortaria and coarseware have been illustrated where appropriate (Figs. 26, 32–36). All the samian was scanned and spot-dated, but only the Phase 2 samian was fully catalogued. The mortaria were fully catalogued, and are discussed here with particular reference to local products.

Kilns Kiln 1 depositional processes

Methodology

Kiln 1 produced the largest assemblage, representing 60% by weight and 61% by rim EVE of the material studied. Most pottery came from the kiln furnace-chamber (F2, Table 8) and only a small quantity from the stoke-hole (F98). The largest groups came from two layers (1005 and 1174), the latter producing in situ kiln furniture. Cross-context joins were noted between all layers, particularly between layers 1174 and uppermost horizon 1005, and between layers 1174 and 1207. The average sherd weights were generally high, particularly for layer 1174 and the basal layers 1207 and 1212. It seems unlikely that any of the pottery was in situ from the last firing. Instead, the pottery probably represents material from a nearby waster dump, thrown into the kiln when it went out of use. Substantial portions of individual vessels were represented, but none was complete. However, the kiln debris confirms that the kiln was used in the production of oxidised wares, and it seems likely that most of the pottery found was made in this kiln.

During the assessment the entire assemblage was scanned, spot-dated and quantified by count (C Evans 1998; Table 7). Detailed analysis was directed at the largest and least-mixed kiln assemblages (from Kilns 1 and 4a/b) which probably best define the kiln products. The vessels deposited in these kilns were assumed to be their products, although this could not be proved. The pottery appears to have been dumped in the kilns when out of use, rather than being left in situ after the last firing, as discussed below. The Kiln 1 and 4a/b pottery was recorded in full, using the standard BUFAU Roman pottery recording system, described in archive. The coding system used for the London Road assemblage (Hancocks, Part III below) was applied. The forms are listed in Appendix Table A1 and the fabrics in Appendix Table A2. Where possible, precise form types and broad vessel classes (for example bowl, flagon, mortarium) were both recorded. Other characteristics noted included decoration, evidence for manufacture (firing colour, wasters, string marks) and, if present, repairs (rivets and rivet holes). The assemblage was quantified in full: by sherd count,

Variations were noted in the composition of the assemblage, perhaps reflecting depositional differences. As can be seen from Fig. 22, the least mixed groups by fabric came from the main furnace-chamber fill (1174), the flue (1209), and the

TABLE 7 Roman pottery, summary of total assemblage by phase, and layer Phase

Details

3 2

Count

% Count

Level of analysis (Fig. No.)

Kiln 1

733

12

Fully quantified (Figs. 22–27)

Other various

1316

21

Spot dated and assessed

3

Kiln 2

151

2.5

Brief summary included (Fig. 32)

3

Kiln 3

192

3

Brief summary included

3

Kiln 4a

112

2

Fully quantified (Figs. 28–31)

3

Kiln 4a/b

214

3

Fully quantified (Figs. 28–31)

3

Kiln 4b

217

3.5

Fully quantified (Figs. 28–31)

3

Cremations

135

2

Associated vessels described (Fig. 33)

3

Other various

1011

16

Spot dated and assessed

4

Inhumations

652

10

Complete vessels described (Fig. 33)

U/S

Various

1557

25

Spot dated and assessed

Total

6290

43

Part II: The Parks _____________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ TABLE 8 Kiln 1, summary of pottery by layer Description

Layer

Count

% Count

% Wt.

Average sherd wt.

Kiln furnace

1005

268

37

5805

27

22

4.20

21

1174

344

47

11491

53

33

11.00

54

1207

39

5

1697

8

1209

7

1

118

Stoke-hole

1212

66

9

Assoc. layer

1091

9

1

TOTAL

Wt. (g)

732

Rim EVE

% rim EVE

43.5

2.55

12.5