Serving the empire in the Great War: The Cypriot mule corps, imperial loyalty and silenced memory 9781526103673

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General editor: Andrew S. Thompson Founding editor: John M. MacKenzie When the ‘Studies in Imperialism’ series was founded more than twenty-five years ago, emphasis was laid upon the conviction that ‘imperialism as a cultural phenomenon had as significant an effect on the dominant as on the subordinate societies’. With well over a hundred titles now published, this remains the prime concern of the series. Cross-disciplinary work has indeed appeared covering the full spectrum of cultural phenomena, as well as examining aspects of gender and sex, frontiers and law, science and the environment, language and literature, migration and patriotic societies, and much else. Moreover, the series has always wished to present comparative work on European and American imperialism, and particularly welcomes the submission of books in these areas. The fascination with imperialism, in all its aspects, shows no sign of abating, and this series will continue to lead the way in encouraging the widest possible range of studies in the field. ‘Studies in Imperialism’ is fully organic in its development, always seeking to be at the cutting edge, responding to the latest interests of scholars and the needs of this ever-expanding area of scholarship.

Serving the empire in the Great War

SE L ECT E D T IT L E S AVAIL AB LE IN T HE SER IES IMPERIAL EXPECTATIONS AND REALITIES El Dorados, utopias and dystopias ed. Andrekos Varnava BRITISH IMPERIALISM IN CYPRUS, 1878–1915 The inconsequential possession Andrekos Varnava BEASTLY ENCOUNTERS OF THE RAJ Livelihoods, livestock and veterinary health in North India, 1790–1920 Saurabh Mishra ENGINES FOR EMPIRE The Victorian army and its use of railways Edward Spiers THE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BRITISH WORLD ed. Barry Crosbie and Mark Hampton

Serving the empire in the Great War the cypriot mule corps, imperial l o ya lt y a n d s i l e n c e d m e m o ry Andrekos Varnava

M AN CHE S T E R UN IV E R S IT Y P R E S S

Copyright © Andrekos Varnava 2017 The right of Andrekos Varnava to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Published by MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS ALTRINCHAM STREET, MANCHESTER M1 7JA www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

ISBN  978 1 5261 0367 3  hardback First published 2017 The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for any external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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I dedicate this book to all those Cypriots who served in the Cypriot Mule Corps in the British army during and after the Great War, but especially to family members: my great grandfather on my father’s side, Varnavas Michael Varnava, from Frenaros, Famagusta, who enlisted on 28 September 1916 and served until 24 September 1917 with the number 5048; my wife Helen’s grandfather on her father’s side, Nicholas Zacharias Komodromou, who enlisted on 3 November 1917 and served until 20 January 1919 with the number 8938 and his brother Leondis Zacharias Komodromou, who, with the numbers 3622 and 12287, served twice, first from 14 August 1916 to 24 September 1917, and then from 15 July 1918 to 28 May 1919, from Rizokarpaso, Famagusta. This book attempts to put forward their story within the wider social, economic, imperial, colonial and military contexts without fear and without prejudice. It also attempts to understand the political and cultural circumstances that have caused their story to be silenced from Cypriot national consciousness. I hope that I have done justice to their story.



C ONT E NT S

List of illustrations—page viii List of tables—ix Acknowledgements—xi Abbreviations—xiii Introduction 1 1 Historiography and theories

9

2 British Cyprus, 1878–1918: from backwater to bustling war base 31 3 The formation of the Cypriot Mule Corps

58

4 Mule and muleteer recruitment: pushed or pulled?

77

5 Contracts, challenges, hardships and the ‘liminal space’

107

6 Conditions for mules and muleteers

130

7 Muleteer behaviour during service

161

8 Veterans and their families after service

180

9 Remembering and forgetting the Cypriot Mule Corps

210

Conclusion 227 Select bibliography—231 Index—246 The appendices referred to in the book can be accessed at www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/serving-the-empirein-the-great-war-appendix/

[ vii ]

L IS T OF IL L UST RATIO N S

0.1 ‘Travoys Arriving with Wounded at a Dressing Station at Smol, Macedonia, September 1916’, Sir Stanley Spencer page xvi 1.1 Map of the Eastern Mediterranean. 22 1.2 Map of Cyprus. 23 3.1 ‘Fed No Complaints’. Courtesy of the Office of the Secretary of the Board of Governors, Nicosia English School. 59 3.2 Cypriot muleteers 1917, Photo I. Courtesy of the Office of the Secretary of the Board of Governors, Nicosia English School. 72 3.3 Cypriot muleteers 1917, Photo II. Courtesy of the Office of the Secretary of the Board of Governors, Nicosia English School. 73 4.1 Muleteers enlisting, with Canon Newman and Zaptiehs. Courtesy of the Office of the Secretary of the Board of Governors, Nicosia English School. 77 5.1 ‘Mule-Panniers for the Transport of Wounded: Two Wounded Serbians Brought Down from the Mountains’, Illustrated London News, 1916. 108 5.2 ‘Light Railways Used for Bringing In Wounded: Two Stretcher-Cases on a Horse-Drawn Truck’, Illustrated London News, 1916. 110 5.3 ‘Light Railways Built for Supply Transport: Truck-Loads of Provision Drawn by Mules Going Up to the Front’, Illustrated London News, 1917. 111 5.4 ‘The Sleigh as a Transport Vehicle for Crossing Deep Mud: An Improvised Method of Carrying Timber’, Illustrated London News, 1917. 113 5.5 ‘The Mule as Locomotive on a Light Railway: Giving the Animals a Push-Off with Their Ten-Ton Load’, Illustrated London News, 1917. 114 5.6 ‘With the Greek Soldiers in Macedonia: Muleteers’, Illustrated London News, 1917. 116 7.1 Photograph of British War Medal I, Macedonian Mule Corps, Eraklis Theodorou. 162 7.2 Photograph of British War Medal II, Macedonian Mule Corps. 163 [ viii ]



L IS T OF TA B LES

2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.1 7.2

Cypriot revenue, 1909–25 page 48 Distribution of Macedonian and Cypriot muleteers, 7 August 1916 63 Cypriot muleteers across various British units, 4 May 1918 64 Exports of mules and donkeys, 1905 to 1916 69 Number of muleteers across districts in Cyprus in 1901 and 1911 censuses 69 Mules purchased by 31 August 1916 81 Transport animal exports 82 Enlistment numbers until March 1919 84 Religious/ethnic distribution of the Cypriot Mule Corps 86 Religious/ethnic distribution of population, 1911 87 Enlistment numbers and percentages across Cyprus 88 Distribution of population in urban centres, 1911 88 Urban–rural spread in Cypriot Mule Corps 88 Ethno-religious composition of foremen 90 Urban–rural composition of Cypriot foremen 90 Ethno-religious composition of interpreters 91 Urban–rural composition of Cypriot interpreters 91 Next of kin results for Cypriot Mule Corps members 93 Next of kin breakdown of married men 94 Civil status of men, 1911 Census 94 Literacy in Cyprus, 1911 Census 100 Reason for discharging muleteers on HMS Verbera, 11 March 1917 141 Ethno-religious composition of discharged muleteers 141 Urban–rural composition of those discharged 142 Next of kin results for repatriated muleteers suffering venereal disease 142 Reasons for discharge of muleteers on HMS Umballa, 13 July 1917 143 Numbers with venereal disease from 31 October 1917 to 1 March 1918 149 Religious breakdown of those who died 154 Urban–rural spread of Cypriots who died 154 Next of kin spread of dead 155 Demographic distribution of desertion 165 Urban–rural composition of Cypriot deserters 165 [ ix ]

LI ST O F TA BLE S

7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

Next of kin spread of deserters 166 Religious breakdown of those dismissed for misconduct 168 Urban–rural composition of Cypriots dismissed for misconduct 168 Next of kin spread for Cypriot muleteers dismissed 169

[x]

A C K NOWL E DGE MEN TS

Researching and writing this book has been an amazing experience for so many reasons. It pushed me as a researcher and it has changed me as a person. There are therefore many people, institutions and organisations that I must thank. First I must thank all those who funded and provided services to facilitate my research. Thank you to the Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences and the School of History and International Relations at Flinders University, and the Australian Academy of the Humanities for various grants to make research trips to the UK, Cyprus and Turkey, for an (albeit short-lived) research assistant (thanks Iliya MarovichOld), and to present my work at various conferences. I am also thankful to the late Dr Vangelis Kechriotis who invited me to be a Visiting Professor at Bogazici University in Istanbul in the European Summer of 2012. Not only was this a memorable experience for my family and me, it allowed me to access the Bas¸bakanlık Osmanlı Ars¸ivleri (Office of the Prime Minister Ottoman Archives). I must thank the staff of the numerous archives, museums and libraries I visited for assisting me with my research: the National Archives of the UK, Kew, London; The British Library, London; the Imperial War Museum, London; the State Archives, Nicosia; the Bas¸bakanlık Osmanlı Ars¸ivleri in Istanbul; and last but not least the Flinders University Library, especially document delivery staff. I am also thankful to the many historians and scholars from other disciplines for listening patiently whenever I explained my project, for their encouragement and their thoughts and comments. The following names are listed in no particular order: Tim Reardon, Ann Matters, Evan Smith, Rolandos Katsiaounis, Panikos Panayi, Michael J. K. Walsh, Joy Damousi, Nicholas Doumanis, John M. MacKenzie, Mete Hatay, Tabitha Morgan, Mehmet Polatel, Nicholas Coureas, Hubert Faustmann, Christopher Schabel, Costas M. Constantinou, Vangelis Kehriotis, Selim Deringil, Christalla Yakinthou, Michalis N. Michael, Eric S. Richards, Matt Fitzpatrick, Peter Monteath, David Lockwood, Melanie Oppenheimer, Catherine Kevin, Brian Dickey, Lance Brennan, David Close, Ian Copland, Giuseppe Finaldi, Trevor Harris, Klearchos Kyriakides, Yiannis Papadakis, Gareth Knapman, Erdem Erginel, Mehmet Erginel, Richard Scully, Alexis Rappas, John Connor, Marios Shammas, Roger Christofides, Jay Winter, Hew Strachan, Alison Fletcher, Peter Stanley, Malcolm Cook and Martin [ xi ]

A C KN O W LED G EM E N T S

Griffiths. I also thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions. I must also thank the conferences who accepted my papers on the Cypriot Mule Corps and the people who attended my various presentations at (1) ‘And this island: who knows it?’ Cypriot Identities across Millennia, University of Nicosia, Cyprus, 7–9 September 2012; (2) public talk at Kochinohorka Lyceum, 26 September 2012; (3) Flinders History Seminar Series, 2 November 2012; (4) Imperial Faultlines, 23rd meeting of the Australasian Association for European History (AAEH), Victoria University of Wellington, 2–5 July 2013; and (5) Perspectives on the ‘Great’ War, Queen Mary, University of London, 1–4 August 2014. Thanks to Michael J.K. Walsh for our collaboration and friendship which allowed us to organise The British Empire during the Great War: Colonial Societies / Cultural Responses conference at Nanyang Technological University, 19–22 February 2014, which also allowed me to present on the Cypriot muleteers. Working with Manchester University Press on this, my third book with them, has been, once again, amazing. Thank you to all the staff and especially to Emma Brennan and the series editors for their support. Researching and writing a book of this nature means sacrifices and help from family. First I thank my extended family for their help in Cyprus and the UK, which facilitated my research in those places, especially to my brother-in-law Michael Komodromou for his help in both the UK and Cyprus with matters of accommodation. I want to thank my father, Varnavas Michael Varnava, father-in-law, Christos Nicholas Komodromou, and his brother-in-law, Antoni Pitrakkou, for answering various questions about what they knew of the Cypriot Mule Corps. Finally, but by no means least, I want to especially thank my wife Helen Komodromou-Varnava and our son Barnabas and baby daughter Maria. Although I have juggled many projects, small and large, during the last five years, the Cypriot Mule Corps has dominated my focus. It was certainly not easy for either Helen to listen to the stories of the Corps or for Barnabas, Maria and Helen to share their spare time with it. I thank them for their patience, understanding and love. Lastly, I must thank the men who served in the Cypriot Mule Corps. I hope this book will lead to the recognition that you deserve and your rightful place in the memory of all Cypriots.

[ xii ]

A B B R E V IAT ION S

The entries are mainly to assist in deciphering acronyms in the footnotes. Sometimes for ‘Assistant’ or ‘Acting’ an ‘A’ has been added, for example Acting Chief Secretary (ACS) or Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General, Salonica (DAQGS), and these are not listed below. The full names of individuals are usually provided in the text. ABS AHQ AKEL

Army of the Black Sea Army Headquarters Ανορθωτικό Κόμμα Εργαζόμενου Λαού (Anorthotikó Kómma Ergazómenou Laoú – Progressive Party of the Working People) ASC Army Supply Company ANZAC Australian and New Zealand Army Corps AVSS Army Veterinary Service, Salonica CAB Cabinet Papers CCABS Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the Black Sea CCPC Chief Commandant of Police, Cyprus (Cypriot Military Police – Zaptieh) CFC Conservator of Forests, Cyprus CICAOA Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Occupation Army CICBSA Commander-in-Chief of the British Salonica Army CICEEF Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force CICMF Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet CMC Cypriot Mule Corps (also Macedonian Mule Corps) CMOC Chief Medical Officer, Cyprus CO Colonial Office CPC Communist Party of Cyprus CSC Chief Secretary / Colonial Secretary (from 1926), Cyprus CWGC Commonwealth War Graves Commission DAG Deputy Adjutant-General DAS Deputy Adjunct, Salonica DCFa District Commissioner of Famagusta DCKy District Commissioner of Kyrenia DCLa District Commissioner of Larnaca DCLi District Commissioner of Limassol DCNi District Commissioner of Nicosia DCPa District Commissioner of Paphos DMO District Medical Officer [ xiii ]

A BBREV I A TI O N S

DMSS DOSS DPC DPE DPS DQMGC DQMGE DQMGS DRS DSTBS DSTS DVSS EEF EMSIB EOKA FO GHQC GHQS GRD GRO HCC HMSO HMT HTC IO IOR IWM LCCMP NAUK OCMPC OCTC PIO QMGS RA RAMC RASC RE RFA SA1 SMO

Director of Medical Services, Salonica Director of Ordnance Services, Salonica District Paymaster, Cyprus District Paymaster, Egypt District Paymaster, Salonica Deputy Quartermaster General, Cyprus Deputy Quartermaster General, Egypt Deputy Quartermaster General, Salonica Director of Remounts, Salonica Director of Supplies and Transport, Black Sea Director of Supplies and Transport, Salonica Director of Veterinary Services, Salonica Egyptian Expeditionary Force East Mediterranean Special Intelligence Bureau Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters) Foreign Office General Headquarters, Constantinople General Headquarters, Salonica Greek drachma General Routine Orders High Commissioner of Cyprus His/Her Majesty’s Stationary Office His/Her Majesty’s Transport Horse Transport Company India Office India Office Records Imperial War Museum (UK) Local Commandant of Cypriot Military Police National Archives of the United Kingdom (Kew Gardens, London) Officer Commanding Mule/Muleteer Purchasing Commission (Famagusta) Officer Commanding the Troops, Cyprus Public Information Office (Republic of Cyprus) Quartermaster General, Salonica Royal Army Royal Army Medical Corps Royal Army Service Corps Royal Engineers Royal Field Artillery Secretariat Archives (State Archives, Nicosia) Senior Medical Officer [ xiv ]

A bbreviations

SSC SSW WC WDSA WO

Secretary of State for the Colonies Secretary of State for War War Cabinet War Diary Salonica Army War Office

[ xv ]

0.1    ‘Travoys Arriving with Wounded at a Dressing Station at Smol, Macedonia, September 1916’, Sir Stanley Spencer, Imperial War Museum, IWM ART 2268, 1919, 1828 mm × 2184 mm.

INT R ODUCT ION

‘Travoys Arriving with Wounded at a Dressing Station at Smol, Macedonia, September 1916’ by Sir Stanley Spencer is one of the most recognisable and striking paintings of the Great War. Based on what he witnessed while serving in the 68th Field Ambulance, Spencer painted it in 1919 after the British War Memorials Committee of the Ministry of Information commissioned him to paint something for a proposed, but never built, ‘Hall of Remembrance’. The painting shows muledrawn stretchers carrying wounded men to a dressing station, an old Eastern Orthodox Church, while animals and humans watch the lifesaving efforts of the surgeons. The image recalls the depictions of the birth of Jesus Christ. For Spencer the wounded men on the stretchers represented a wounded Christ on the Cross and the work of the surgeons represented the Resurrection. He wrote, ‘I meant it not a scene of horror but a scene of redemption.’1 One would have thought that the scene was a sordid one … but I felt there was grandeur … all those wounded men were calm and at peace with everything, so the pain seemed a small thing with them. I felt there was a spiritual ascendancy over everything.2

Now it may or may not depict Cypriot muleteers, but the painting represents the service of all muleteers (as does his Sandham Memorial Chapel), irrespective of their ethnic/religious backgrounds, during the Great War, and not merely those in the image, or those who served in Macedonia. It also includes the animals that were worked to exhaustion during the war. Paintings have the ability to be inclusive. Yet most Cypriots and British today do not know that Cypriots even served in the Great War. They have been excluded from the story of the Great War in the broader context of the Allied victory and commemorations, and their service silenced from the Cypriot national consciousness. At the most basic level this book reconstructs the story of their contribution, transporting wounded men and various supplies to the front, across steep mountains, with dangerous ravines and in a climate that changed from one extreme to another. Simultaneously, this book also endeavours to include the role of mules in Salonica into the Great War. But this book seeks to do much more than merely ‘fill the gap’. The reader may ask, Who cares about a group of Cypriot mule drivers and a handful of interpreters in the British army serving in Macedonia and Constantinople during and immediately following the [1]

S ERV I N G TH E EM PI RE I N TH E G R E A T W A R

Great War? The importance is not merely in that nobody has written about them. This should be important to Cypriots, who have a highly nationalistic view of their past that excludes ‘the other’ and condemns the ‘occupier’, and for the British in order to understand the contributions of their Empire in the Great War. The reader interested in military and/or imperial history should be interested in why the corps was created and what value it offered, as well as in the role of the mules. Those interested in military history should, however, also be aware of the social implications of war. Thus, given the strong enlistment rates, it is important to understand what this means for imperial identity and loyalty. It was a mixed Christian–Muslim corps largely made up of peasants and unskilled labourers. How could such a successful corps have existed as a mixed Christian–Muslim force given the violent post-Second World War history of the war-torn island? For that matter, how did the British, the targets of that violence, at least from 1955 to 1959, manage to recruit so many Cypriot men? This necessitates a focus on the socio-economic conditions of the men and the urban and rural divide in the island. The experience of the men while serving and as veterans, as well as that of their families, also necessitates a socioeconomic awareness. Finally, the reader is returned to the beginning and why nobody has written about this before, to show how culturally this case has been silenced from the memory of Cypriots. After war, forgetting is just as important as remembering. In this case, political considerations are at the fore of this silence, as they will be if this story ever enters Cypriot national consciousness. This book argues that Cypriot mules and mule drivers played a pivotal role in British logistics in Salonica and Constantinople, especially the former. The Cypriot colonial government passed laws to facilitate the procuring of mules and the enlistment of men, offering incentives to breeders and to the men. The law prohibiting the emigration of men of military age was a major facilitator of enlistment, since Cypriot men were looking to emigrate, while excellent wages, 12-month contracts, bonuses for re-signing, and an allotment scheme for their dependents, amongst other incentives, attracted an incredible 25% of the male population aged 18–35 to enlist (not including the many rejected). Although men enlisted from all parts of Cyprus and from all communities, most came from rural areas, and from peasant or labouring families. Ethnic distinctions played little role in enlisting. The few men who had any nationalist affiliations, to the broader Pan-Hellenic or Pan-Islamic identities, were not prevented from enlisting. Loyalty to the British Empire was strong, even if it must be understood alongside the primary motive – the significant financial and material rewards. Had all Cypriots wanted the British [2]

I N TRO D U C TI O N

out of Cyprus would there have been such enthusiasm to enlist? The experiences of the men were on the whole positive; most made money and supported their families. Some, however, did not go so well. Many contracted venereal disease during their training in Famagusta, while others became ill during their service and died, and others became invalids. Still others misbehaved in a criminal way. Although clearly a subaltern group, they did speak up when they thought that the British had failed to implement any of their responsibilities, such as early on with the allotment scheme or when they insisted on their understanding of the 12-month contract to force them to serve longer. The British listened when it suited them, namely when recruitment was at risk. But they also reduced their own responsibilities to the muleteers and their families, such as in case of invalidity and death, which had devastating consequences for veterans and their families. The failure to care for veterans coupled with various social and political developments during the interwar years saw the story of the Cypriot Mule Corps silenced from Cypriot national memory.

A brief service history of the Cypriot mules and muleteers Officially, the Cypriot Mule Corps was operational from summer 1916 until April 1920, when it was disbanded. First the vast majority of the men served in Macedonia and, indeed, the corps was officially known as the Macedonian Mule Corps. The base camp of the mules and muleteers was at Lembet Road.3 The personnel served in various units of the British army in Salonica. The reports on the strength of the forces and the letters of veterans to the Cypriot colonial government show which divisions and units they belonged to. In the XII Corps they were the 22nd and 26th Divisions and in the XVI Corps they were the 10th (Irish), 27th and 28th Divisions. During the Great War a small number of muleteers and interpreters served in British units outside of Salonica. For example, Cypriots in British army units that left Salonica for Egypt went with them, such as Haris Panaou, from Rizokarpaso, who lost a leg in Alexandria.4 The Armistice at Mudros, signed on 30 October, resulted in the Allied (British, French and Italian) occupation of Constantinople. French troops entered the city on 12 November 1918, followed by British troops, including the Cypriot Mule Corps on the next day.5 The Mule Corps was based at Bostancı in Kadıköy, on the Asian side of the city.6 It is important to understand the nature of the work done by the muleteers and mules. Muleteers drove mules that carried arms, ammunition and medical and food supplies to the front and wounded [3]

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and dead soldiers back to camp, across the treacherous mountain terrain. Injuries, disease, death and misconduct, although not endemic, occurred. There is little information on the role of foremen, although they had 20 muleteers under their supervision, and even less on the 100 interpreters, who were based in each unit and at base camp. Generally the Cypriot Mule Corps was a success for both those who formed it and those who served in it. Yet the focus of this book is not merely to explore positives. It is to provide a holistic portrait of the Corps, focusing on all the issues surrounding it, as well as broader imperial, colonial, military, social, economic, political and cultural lenses.

Sources and methodology In 2010 I was in London undertaking research on the Legion d’Orient / Armenian Legion in the National Archives when I discovered the honour roll of the ‘Macedonian’ Mule Corps. Opening the file was a ‘jaw-dropping’ moment. Stunned by the number of names and the information, such as addresses and enlistment and discharge dates, I decided to write an article. But after realising that the Corps impacted upon almost the entire population of the island and that it was hardly ‘Macedonian’, but really Cypriot, leading to my renaming it ‘Cypriot Mule Corps’ (by which it was sometimes referred to in official documents), I decided to write a book. In Adelaide I began the slow, fiveyear process to reconstruct the story of the Cypriot Mule Corps and to understand its broader importance. This was no easy task since none of the men were alive nor, being mostly peasants and labourers, had they left any account, written or oral, like the diaries, scrapbooks and private letters left by many who served in the two Liverpool battalions (men who belonged to the middle class) studied by Helen McCartney.7 Meanwhile the existence of the Cypriot Mule Corps had been erased from the Cypriot national consciousness. The first step was to consolidate the main source, the honour roll. I acquired an electronic excel copy and began the long process of correcting the names and the place names, and adding the missing names and dates of enlistment and discharge, since the original honour roll was incomplete. This took years. This process was helped when I discovered local files on the subject in the State Archives in Nicosia in 2012.8 This archive, rich for its (and the region’s) Cypriot history, contains the correspondence and memoranda to and from the Cypriot colonial government as they were catalogued by the Chief (later Colonial) Secretary.9 I discovered several files on the Cypriot Mule Corps, which completed the story as regards its formation and administration (with [4]

I N TRO D U C TI O N

Colonial and War Office files from the National Archives, UK) and opened a new line of enquiry on the experiences of the men during and after their service. These documents, usually complaints about outstanding pay, requests for welfare from those disabled, widows or destitute veterans, or applications from veterans for their medals, are the main primary sources containing the voices of the men who served and that of their families, even if in many cases others wrote for them. A subsequent trip to the National Archives in the UK in 2014 to research the London Cypriot community during the interwar years afforded me the opportunity to access the War Office files. Although there was no official history produced, there were numerous diaries and memoranda that provided the day-to-day about the corps and policy debates that led to various decisions. This gave me something about the experiences of the men, but I wanted more. The voices of the men from their graves being impossible, the next best thing was the project ‘Europeana 1914–1918’, a component of Europeana’s broader programme to digitise European cultural heritage. Publicly announced in 2011 as ‘Europeana Collections 1914–1918: Remembering the First World War’, its goal was to digitise over 400,000 source items. Public online submissions were opened and roadshows were held inviting the public to bring physical artefacts or documents to be digitised, and to record stories connected to them. Fifty-one sessions were run across Europe until December 2013, with the Cypriot roadshow on 1–2 December 2012. The team in Cyprus also visited people’s homes to scan and photograph items, and interview descendants.10 The benefits of this collection outweighed the problems, since these sources offered some voice for those who served, even if it is relayed by others. The main problem was that there was not one entry on a Turkish Cypriot muleteer; clearly, whether intended or not, this was the result of the division of the island and their continued exclusion from Cypriot history. This is a major concern, especially since the project is pan-European. Another problem was that the interviews were conducted by people who knew little about the history of Cyprus, especially on the Great War and the Cypriot Mule Corps. This resulted in errors and the material gathered not being as useful as it may have been, especially if the right questions had been asked. A trip to Istanbul in 2012 was surprisingly fruitful. I found a memorial to fallen Cypriot muleteers who served in the Black Sea at the British cemetery at Hader Pasha, but it was the Ottoman archives, namely the Bas¸bakanlık Osmanlı Ars¸ivleri (Office of the Grand Vizier’s Ottoman Archives) in Istanbul, which proved most useful. That I found anything here on the Cypriot muleteers was a complete surprise. The material, discussed mostly in Chapter 7, was from the Ottoman [5]

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Interior Ministry and was mainly police reports on the behaviour of Cypriot and other muleteers in Constantinople. It was illuminating to have the Ottoman perspective on the Cypriot muleteers, especially since there were no corresponding Greek sources from their service in Macedonia. Indeed the reader may wonder why no Greek archives were accessed. This was not for want of trying. Although no personal visit was made, many archives were contacted in writing and colleagues searched high and low, all to no avail. Perhaps no material exists because the muleteers were, unlike in Constantinople, not easily able to obtain leave to visit Salonica. The book is built around nine chapters. The first two provide valuable and necessary historiographical, theoretical and historical context, and the rest discuss, in a chronological and thematic framework, the Cypriot Mule Corps from its formation through to the issues that veterans had even into the 1940s, and finally ending with how and why it has been forgotten from Cypriot and British memory. Chapter 2 provides the necessary historical context. It first explores Cypriot society from late Ottoman through to early British rule, until the Great War. This is necessary to understand why so many men enlisted in the Mule Corps. The next part covers the role of Cyprus during the Great War beyond the Mule Corps to show that the Cypriot contribution was much greater. It also explores the impact of the war on Cypriot socio-economic conditions, particularly of so many men serving abroad on the local economy and society. The next chapter delves into the formation of the Mule Corps. It explores questions such as why and how it was formed, why Cypriot mules and men were selected, and its administration and organisation. This leads into a discussion in Chapter 4 on why and how so many mules were procured and so many men enlisted. Were the men pushed or pulled? If pushed, what pushed them? If pulled, what pulled them? What were the recruiting strategies? To begin to answer these questions, it is important to know how many enlisted, from which parts of the island, from which religious groups and from what civil status. This analysis helps to prove that the Cypriot Mule Corps primarily attracted peasants and labourers, especially rural labourers.11 The following chapter explores what threatened recruitment and how these threats were overcome. It looks at how Cypriots, as subalterns and within the ‘liminal space’, had a limited voice. Only when their voice threatened enlistment did the British listen, while the Cypriot government served as a tempering force between the men and the military. The sixth chapter reconstructs the treatment of the mules and the experiences of the men while on service and upon their immediate repatriation. What were conditions like for man and beast in Salonica and Constantinople? [6]

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How well did the muleteers treat their mules? What were the experiences of the men close to the front? The chapter focuses on the health of the muleteers, especially venereal disease, which jeopardised the mule corps, and provides statistics on casualties, which were high given the British promises of safety. The next chapter explores the behaviour of the men, namely the incidence of desertion and crime, and how these were punished. Although the vast majority of the muleteers were valued and got along well, there were some who did not. Their stories provide valuable insights into the overall experience and British reactions. Chapter 8 continues with the experiences of the men, now as veterans seeking welfare or their papers and medals, and how families, especially widows, struggled. These ‘orphaned widows’ were left unprotected and vulnerable, yet received little, if any, compensation from the military authorities, and none from the colonial government. Disabled men were not treated any better, while many veterans fell on hard times and some were supported by the branch of the British Legion in Cyprus. Still others emigrated and found it necessary to seek proof of their service for employment and social inclusion. Nevertheless, most veterans were proud of their service, despite the rise of anti-colonialism. One of the more extraordinary aspects of this story is its absence from Cypriot national memory. The final chapter explores how the service of the muleteers never entered national consciousness, buried, first, under the hardships of the interwar years and then underneath opposed ‘Greek’ and ‘Turkish’ nationalist narratives of the island’s history. This necessitates an understanding of Cypriot political history and the eventual splitting of the integrated peasant and labouring classes and their reintegration into the ‘Greek-Christian’ and ‘Turkish-Muslim’ ethnic groups. This and the British neglect to support and commemorate the veterans of the Cypriot Mule Corps combined to see its story never entering Cypriot national memory. The existence of the Cypriot Mule Corps was incompatible with the programme and desire for enosis of Greek Cypriot political elites of both the right and left, who eventually won the hearts and minds of the peasant and labouring classes after the Second World War. The erasure of the Cypriot Mule Corps from Cypriot national consciousness and memory shows how epic events in a country’s history can be excluded from that consciousness and memory. The archive-driven account is given a human face through individual stories of Cypriot muleteers and their families, and their mixed fortunes as part of the British Empire and its war efforts, in what Jay Winter would refer to as ‘the braiding together of family history and national history’.12 One can see the lives of the muleteers unfolding alongside the wider, more powerful, forces at play: the different [7]

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e­ xperiences of war service; life for families and veterans during the rise and suppression of nationalism and communism and the hardships of the Great Depression; and finally the Second World War. Ultimately this is the story of military service from a loyal mixed ChristianMuslim, primarily peasant and rural labouring, colonial society, which was controlled by the powerful British Empire and yet neglected by it after their service. Such a story opens the door for other studies of similar colonial groups that contributed to the British war effort during the Great War, even with few first-hand personal accounts.

Notes 1 Accessed from the website of the Imperial War Museum, http://archive.iwm.org. uk/upload/package/95/collections/art/stanley-spencer.html on 16 February 2015. 2 John B. Allcock, ‘Stanley Spencer: An English Artist in Macedonia’, Macedonian Review, 18(3), 233–42, 238; Also, Art from the First World War, Imperial War Museum, London, 2008. 3 Cypriot State Archives (SA1), SA1/722/1916/1, Sisman to Stevenson, 11 February 1918. 4 See the documents on Haris Panaou in SA1/978/1916 and SA1/607/1917. His story features in Chapter 8. 5 Nur Bilge Criss, Istanbul under Allied Occupation, 1918–1923, Brill, Leiden, 1999. 6 See DH.EUM.AYS/36/17/1338.B.4. 7 Helen McCartney, Citizen Soldiers: The Liverpool Territorials in the First World War, Cambridge University Press, 2005. 8 The original hand-written list is in WO/405/1. After the war, typed lists were produced, see WO329/2357 and WO329/2358. Along with the various files in the State Archives (SA1) in Nicosia, I produced a consolidated list. It is from this list that the service numbers, next of kin and addresses of the muleteers have been sourced. 9 When Cyprus became a Crown Colony in 1925 the post of Chief Secretary was renamed Colonial Secretary, while the High Commissioner became a Governor. 10 Jamie Andrews, ‘Digitisation and the First World War: Europeana Collections, 1914–1918’, The British Empire and the Great War: Colonial Societies / Cultural Responses, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 19–22 February 2014. 11 Two articles were developed from Chapter 4. One appeared in Itinerario (2014) and the other is under review. 12 Jay Winter, Remembering War: The Great War between Memory and History in the Twentieth Century, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2006, 2.

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Historiography and theories

Two things I am interested in are my own family history and the life of Steven Georgiou/Cat Stevens/Yusuf Islam. How are these connected to this book let alone this chapter? As the dedication to this book reveals, my great-grandfather and my wife’s grandfather served in the Cypriot Mule Corps and so did Yusuf’s father. Stavros Georgiou, born in Tala, Paphos, in May 1900, to Georgios Adamou (his next of kin on the honour roll), enlisted on 9 May 1918, the month he turned 18, and served until 28 May 1919 in both Salonica and Constantinople.1 Family history is important. It helps us understand who we are and where we and our ancestors came from, yet it can only go so far in providing meaning to our lives, unless it is understood alongside the experiences of others and wider historical forces. This is of course not the only reason why this chapter is important. It places the history of the Cypriot Mule Corps and the experiences of the men who served in it and their families in the appropriate historiographical and theoretical contexts. It shows that the history of the Cypriot Mule Corps contributes to various historical debates and can only properly be understood by viewing it through various theoretical lenses.

Historiographical context This book speaks to a number of interlocking historiographies. Obviously, it speaks to the historiography of British Cyprus during the Great War, on which there is no study. More importantly, it speaks to the historiography of British non-settler colonial enlistment and experiences, for which there is a small yet significant literature, especially around the involvement of Indians, east Africans and Jamaicans in the British West Indies Regiment. Including the Cypriot case within this historiography will contribute to various debates, [9]

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e­ specially around enlistment/volunteerism, imperial loyalty and veterans issues. Additionally, this study explores the agency and ‘voices’ of the Cypriots, situating these within the subaltern school, shifting the focus away from its Asian roots and onto a ‘European’ space. It also contributes to the historiography of war memory, again shifting the focus, this time away from the settler/former settler colonies and from remembrance to forgetting. Fourthly, this study contributes to the historiographies of the Macedonian Campaign and the Allied Occupation of Constantinople, areas little studied by historians. Finally, but by no means less important, is the contribution to understanding the role of mules in particular and equines more generally during the Great War. Secondary sources on wartime Cyprus and the Cypriot Mule Corps There has been little research carried out on British Cyprus during the immediate years before, during and after the Great War. My 2009 monograph remains the most comprehensive on British imperial aims and policy in Cyprus prior to 1915, while a recent effort, published six years later, fails to acknowledge or engage with this and other works.2 Aside from a number of works on the British offer to cede the island to Greece in October 1915,3 a study on the immediate post-war colonial policies and local politics,4 and two recent articles on aspects of the Great War,5 the historiography consists of generalist accounts,6 studies that chronicle the minor (dwarfed alongside the service in the British army during the Great War) Greek Cypriot contributions in the Greek army,7 or brief notes8. There has been some more focus on the Cypriot Regiment from the Second World War,9 yet if the figures George Kazamias provided are accurate, and by the end of the Second World War 11,749 Cypriots had enlisted in it,10 proportionally more served in the Cypriot Mule Corps. It is not so astonishing that the Cypriot Mule Corps is rarely mentioned in secondary sources. It is surprising that it is not mentioned in the classic A History of Cyprus, volume 4, on the Ottoman and British periods, written by George Hill and Sir Harry Luke, because this (and Hill’s other volumes) were meticulously researched, and Luke had served in the island during the Great War and mentions it in the Handbook of Cyprus he co-authored in 1920.11 It was mentioned in A Chronology of Cyprus in 1930, which Sir Ronald Storrs prepared during his governorship for the other colonies and Whitehall.12 This reflects the lack of information and interest in the Cypriot Mule Corps. This study aims to rectify this historical omission and show why its inclusion has significance for various historical debates for and beyond Cyprus. [ 10 ]

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Contemporary accounts and primary sources on the Cypriot Mule Corps Numerous primary accounts on the Salonica front also fail to mention much about the Cypriot Mule Corps.13 Some sources mention muleteers, but not specifically Cypriots, resulting in false assumptions and confusion about who these muleteers were. Such accounts tended to be about the men fighting rather than those in support services, who were sometimes written about as a burden. For example, in his 1919 The Salonica-Side-Show, his second book on the Salonica Front, V.J. Seligman wrote that the Brigade Supply Officer had the added complication of ‘having to feed “foreign” troops attached to his Brigade: Indians, Greeks, Muleteers, Civil Labourers, Prisoners of War, Maltese, etc., who are all entitled to a different ration’.14 The ethnic origin of the muleteers is unspecified, but since the majority were Cypriots and Indians, Seligman’s muleteers must include the Cypriots. Labelled as ‘foreigners’, Indians, Maltese and Cypriots serving were denied their British colonial status. In his 1920 ‘history’ of the Salonica front, A.J. Mann stated that a ‘Greek Muleteers Corps had been formed on the civilian contract basis’, but ‘on the formation of the new army, most were absorbed in other Greek units’.15 Mann failed to mention that Cypriots were added to the mule corps. Again this reflects a denial of both ethno-religious and imperial identity, since Greeks were not a part of the British Empire. It also hides the role of Cypriot Muslims. H. Ward Price, the official correspondent with the Allied forces in the Balkans, also mentioned only ‘Greek muleteers’: The Greek Muleteer Corps that we enlisted was at first dressed in khaki uniform, with only a tin badge on the arm as a distinguishing mark, and one used to have the shock of meeting what seemed to be the most rapscallion, untidy mob of English drivers you had ever set eyes on. Later on, however, the Muleteer Corps’ dress was changed to black tunics and slouch hats. They get three drachmas (2s. 6d.) a day. They are not so good as English drivers, of course, but transport is such an immense problem in the Balkans that we had to have more drivers from somewhere, and Greek labour was the only solution. It is always undesirable, or course, to use aliens in the zone of any army in the field, and on a few occasions some of these people have been found carrying letters with spy-reports for the enemy, which they were to hide in pre-arranged places to be fetched by other agents, but we have never had enough men in the Balkans to do anything big as it is, and we should have had fewer combatants still if we had had to find drivers for all the horse and mule transport that we use.16

Price was referring to Cypriot muleteers, but he too had turned them into Greeks and ‘aliens’. On the other hand, Colonel R.H. Beadon, the official historian of [ 11 ]

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the Army Services Corps, mentioned the Cypriot Mule Corps. He established that the Salonica Front had to help itself because of the commitment of resources to other fronts and so, despite the neutrality of the Greeks, in March 1916 100 Greek muleteers at a pay of GRD (Greek drachma) 3 a day were recruited into the Army Services Corps. They were subsequently increased to 250 and sent to field ambulances, proving so satisfactory that by August 1916 there were 1,250 Macedonian muleteers serving in field units and a further 850 being trained in the Base Horse Transport Depot.17 Beadon explained that more were needed when in May 1916 the Allies advanced towards the Struma River and the 10 miles to the original front now became 50, necessitating increasing divisional trains up to the establishment sanctioned for mountain warfare, involving eight companies in each train, four being wheeled with limbered wagons or army transport carts and four consisting of pack mules – one company of each nature working in echelon for each brigade.18

For this reason Cyprus was asked to provide 3,000 muleteers through Major Sisman. By the 22nd of July over 1,100 [Cypriots] had been enlisted and the first detachment left at once with four hundred mules. A month later, of some 6,700 drivers required to complete the special Salonica establishments, there were slightly over that number in sight including 2,000 British promised from Egypt and the United Kingdom, and 2,000 Cypriots to complete the demand from Cyprus.19

Then in 1935, in his Slouch Hat, a British officer in Salonica, Captain Malcolm Burr, also mentioned the Cypriot muleteers. Visiting the Balkans in 1926, Burr found many friends from his time in Macedonia, including Major Saunders, who was living in Salonica, and who ‘had commanded a unit much like my own, the Macedonian Muleteers, mostly Cypriots’.20 Indeed Burr, an expert on orthoptera, was the officer commanding the No. 1 Civil Labour Battalion, a mixture of Serbian exiles and local Greek peasants tasked with improving the poor roads. Unfortunately, Burr provided little information on the muleteers and Saunders is not mentioned in the archival record. Beyond British reminiscences, Luigi Villari, of the Italian contingent in Macedonia, mentioned in his 1922 book that because the strength of the divisions became dangerously low, the British sent to the front all able-bodied British men from the auxiliary services, and substituted them with ‘Indians, Cypriots and Macedonian natives’. He revealed that ‘a school for these new transport drivers was instituted at Lembet near Salonica and gave good results’.21 [ 12 ]

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The information from those with first-hand experience of the Cypriot muleteers is thus scanty. This book aims to provide a comprehensive history of the Cypriot Mule Corps and the men who served in it. Colonial enlistment, experiences and behaviour Janet Watson has convincingly argued that ‘service could lead to fulfilment as well as disillusionment’ and many variables determined the experiences of those serving.22 There have been few studies on the colonial experiences of military service, yet Watson’s statement holds true for the periphery as it does for the metropolis, though not necessarily for the same reasons. An excellent example is Helen McCartney’s book on two Territorial battalions from Liverpool. She breached, as this study aims to do, the blinkered approach of many war histories that focus on military organisation and policy often separate from social, cultural and economic factors by combining military knowledge with the impact of the war on society and identity. Class played an important role in her cases since her two Territorial battalions were from the middle class, unlike most Territorial battalions which were workingclass men.23 The same applies for this study, since the Cypriot Mule Corps mainly consisted of peasant and labouring men. This allows for a deeper understanding of society and identity beyond the traditional nationalist approach to colonial histories. The historiography on British colonial enlistment and experiences distinguishes between those enlisting as combatants, auxiliaries and labour, yet no study mentions the Cypriot Mule Corps. In their study on military labour during the Great War, Starling and Lee disclose the various military labour corps. Under ‘British and Dominion Units’ they listed the Royal Marine Labours Corps, Middlesex Aliens, Maltese Labour Corps, Bermuda Royal Garrison Artillery, Cape Coloured Labour Battalion, South African Native Labour Corps, Seychelles Labour Battalion, British West Indies Regiment, ANZACs, Canadians, Indian Labour Corps, Fijian Labour Corps and Mauritius Labour Battalion. The Cypriot Mule Corps was not listed, not even under ‘Foreign Labour Units’, which lists the Egyptian Labour Corps, Jewish Labour (including the Zion Mule Corps), Greek, Macedonian and Serbian Labour, Chinese Labour Corps, Portuguese Labour, Italian Labour and German Prisoners of War.24 Research on the recruitment of non-settler colonial populations varies in both quality and quantity. There is more published on India, the West Indies and the informal empire in China, compared to Africa and the Pacific, with nothing on Malta and little on Cyprus25. There were, of course, several official and personal accounts published [ 13 ]

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during and immediately after the war, most celebrating the Indian contribution.26 More recently, numerous publications, mostly articles, have appeared on the fighting and labouring contributions of the nonsettler colonies to the British war effort, especially on Indians,27 West Indians28 and Chinese,29 but also on a smaller scale on Africans30 and Fijians,31 and the smaller informal empire in Latin America.32 General accounts have attempted a trans-imperial and trans-colonial comparison across European empires and the colonial periphery.33 Most of these studies focus on numbers rather than recruiting strategies, motivations to enlist and experiences, mostly during the war, and are often celebratory. One fine exception is the article on the service of the Sudanese, who interestingly were one of the few parts of the Empire to have suffered compulsory enlistment soon after the outbreak of the Great War because certain tribes were recalcitrant to volunteer and the British believed that by exposing certain tribes to military life they would instil them with a discipline and respect for authority, which would end their involvement in unrest against the British.34 This was the opposite of the Cypriot case, since the British rejected conscription for the mule corps and enlistment for a legion of Cypriots, proposed by a Venizelist Greek Cypriot nationalist, for fear it would nationalise the Cypriot peasant and labouring classes and bring unrest against the British after the war.35 No study explored any mule corps, which is interesting given that the Indian army had their own. The failure to thoroughly study the role played by colonial personnel, whether combatants or skilled/unskilled labourers, must be understood within the developing historical focus to include marginalised groups. Smith’s book on Jamaican war service is the most relevant to this study, but this is not a comparison of ‘like with like’. A major difference was that Jamaicans enlisted to fight, but most were asked to labour, which they did not want, causing tensions. Yet as with the Cypriots, Jamaicans were used as indentured labour.36 The Cypriot contracts were reminiscent, although not identical, to the Indian indenture system, having in common a set period of service, nature of labour, days of work per month, overtime without pay, and free repatriation.37 Obviously the Cypriot example saw them serving in the British army and subject to military law. The experiences of Jamaicans compared to Cypriots is impacted by the fact that the Jamaicans wanted to fight while the Cypriots were not meant to and promised that they would not be in harm’s way. So Jamaican grievances were greater and reflected in their mutinous behaviour and political activism after the war. Yet that they were meant to fight and the involvement of their elites in recruitment, as well as the political activism of veterans and their advocates, meant that veterans got a better deal than [ 14 ]

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Cypriots.38 Cypriots had complaints too, mostly as regards the British failing to implement the financial scheme to benefit their dependents, or because they believed they were in harm’s way on the Salonica front or for being forced to undergo treatment for venereal disease at their own expense once repatriated. Cypriot veterans, unlike Jamaicans, were largely ignored by both the British, whom they had served so loyally, and their own politicians, who wanted to forget such loyalty to the establishment of anti-colonialism. Another area little explored in the literature is the behaviour of the armed forces. Work on the Great War has been limited to studies on British deserters and those who faced the firing squad,39 or to more general accounts on the differences between military and civilian crimes during war.40 In the dominions there have been studies on New Zealand41 and Australia.42 All of these have focused on the fighting man, not auxiliaries, male or female. This book seeks to rectify this, yet there are still comparisons to be made with Peter Stanley’s Bad Characters on the Australians in the Australian Imperial Force. Australians and Cypriots were similarly engaged in offences ranging from malingering, disobedience, contracting venereal disease (Cypriots while training at Famagusta) and criminal behaviour such as theft, assault and murder. Stanley ultimately argues that these Australians were not really ‘bad characters’ and that the totality of the First World War can explain their misbehaviour, yet regardless of criminal intent or not, the application of military law usually meant that it ended very badly for them. Veterans, grief and the Great War The aftermath has not been a neglected aspect of the war experience, although it has been neglected in a colonial context. Little has been written about post-war consequences for veterans and families in the colonial world beyond Australia, Canada, New Zealand and a little on Jamaica, making the Cypriot case (a rare example of a non-settler colonial study) important for changing understandings of post-war experiences. Bereavement for wives and parents and physical and emotional trauma for the disabled have preoccupied scholars over the last two decades. Disabled Veterans in History by David Gerber in 2000 challenged historians to explore the relationship between veterans and the state, private welfare groups and broader society.43 This was explored in two special issues: European Review of History in 2007 and First World War Studies in 2015. The disabilities discussed in the 2007 articles crossed a more diverse historical period, yet two were on the Great War and Britain, one on the King’s National Roll Scheme, an e­ mployment programme (something lacking in Cyprus), and the other on one [ 15 ]

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e­ xperience of amputation, which challenged the assumption that disability was emasculating (contradicted by Cypriot cases in Chapter 8).44 The 2015 articles discussed the emotional and physical problems arising from disability, the role of technology, such as prosthetics, and community care.45 In a British context, there is much on the Great War and shell shock, death and disability from the lens of masculinity and its treatment and representation.46 In a British colonial context there is little beyond the white dominions, where three studies standout: Serge Durflinger’s study on Canadians blinded during the war;47 and those on Australia by Joy Damousi and Marina Larsson.48 Damousi shows that Australian widows grieved the loss of their husbands, as did Cypriot women, but Australian women did so publicly as well as privately, while Cypriot women only could in private, except momentarily if and when they went to accept the medal awarded to their husbands. Thus, unlike Australian women, their emotions were seldom on full show. Like Australian widows, they also sought welfare, but they received nothing from the government, and only some were ‘compensated’ by the military. Another difference was that although Australian women were left devastated, destitute and distraught, Cypriot women were additionally left ‘unprotected’, calling themselves ‘orphaned widows’, a reflection on their ‘ownership’ by their husbands. The differences continued with those disabled. Australians were lauded as heroes, aided by government welfare, and associations were formed to protect their interests. This did not happen in the Cypriot case beyond the branch of the British Legion. Australian limbless veterans were also given preferential treatment for employment in the civil service, which occurred only for one Cypriot muleteer, who was eventually dismissed (see Chapter 8). More importantly, Australian disabled war veterans had a public presence, whereas disabled muleteers kept to their villages, living as peasants and rural labourers. Yet suffering and feelings of having lost their masculinity were common. Agathocles Haji Christodoulou’s sentiment that he ‘was tormented, felt useless to society because he could not work, and that he would have been better off dead’ is one example. This suggests that although the role of government and civil society might differ between ‘core’ and ‘periphery’, personal feelings of helplessness are common. Macedonian Campaign Despite the recent thorough account by Wakefield and Moody,49 the men who served in the Macedonian Campaign have never lived down the tag of ‘the gardeners of Salonica’.50 This is a shame. The front, established in October 1915, may not have had the carnage of the Western Front, or the catastrophic landings of the Eastern (i.e. [ 16 ]

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Gallipoli), but it had its own trials and tribulations for those serving. This book will bring these to light as they were experienced by the Cypriots who served and by the British who worked to make the front and the Cypriot Mule Corps a success. It will also show how linked (especially as regards supplies) the fronts in France, Macedonia and Egypt were, a fact neglected in the historiography. By showing that the Cypriots, a small colonial group, made such a significant impact on this front, the history of the Macedonian Campaign can be seen in a more inclusive and broader light. Allied occupation of Constantinople Historians have neglected to study Constantinople/Istanbul under allied occupation, with one solitary study on the subject.51 The occupation of the Ottoman capital by British, French and Italian forces transpired in accordance with the Armistice of Mudros, which ended Ottoman participation in the Great War. French troops entered the city on 12 November 1918, followed the next day by British troops. The occupation had two stages: initially the occupation took place in accordance with the Armistice (from 12 November 1918); from 16 March 1920 it was sanctioned by the Treaty of Sèvres, which was then overridden by the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923, with the last Allied troops leaving on 23 September 1923. This study contributes to the understanding of allied-occupied Constantinople, where the Cypriot Mule Corps was based after Salonica. It compares the nature of the service given the differing situations between the Macedonian Campaign and the occupation of Constantinople, which allowed for greater freedoms and more scope for criminality at the latter location. Mules and the Great War This study also contributes to the historiography of equines in war. Several historians, perhaps inspired by Michael Morpurgo’s 1982 novel War Horse (and probably more so by the subsequent awardwinning Nick Stafford play in 2007 and Steven Spielberg’s 2011 Oscarnominated film adaptation), have explored equine history, especially in war. As Alan Mikhail has recently argued, For the vast majority of human history, until at least the early nineteenth century, the chief concern of human communities was their multiple relationships with animals – how to use them, eat them, avoid them, and wear them. Animals are indeed so ubiquitous in human history that they have remained largely invisible to historians.52

Mikhail explored the historical relationship between humans and animals in Ottoman Egypt. He argued that animals were central to the [ 17 ]

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transformative socio-economic and energy changes occurring in Egypt between 1780 and 1810, so when their numbers were reduced during this period Egypt changed from an early modern agrarian subsistence economy to one based on commercial agriculture, large landholdings and human labour.53 This book follows Mikhail’s approach and discloses a great deal about the human–mule relationship. It explores the issues of breeding, selling, procuring, shipping, working and caring for mules in war. Chapter 3 explores the nascent mule-breeding industry that had a trans-imperial reach, since Cypriot mules were in demand across the British Empire and during various imperial wars in the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This explains the choice of mules and muleteers from Cyprus in 1916. Historians have written little on the army transport mule during the Great War, in keeping with a greater focus on horses in warfare more generally.54 The other focus of the historiography has not been on equines as subjects, but rather as objects alongside the labour, usually colonial labour, recruited to handle them. Significant research has been published on the role of horses in warfare. Aside from general accounts,55 there have been important works on their role in the English Civil Wars,56 the American Civil War57 and even in the highly mechanised Second World War.58 For the Great War the focus has been on the role of horses and their fate.59 Mules have been treated as an afterthought, with an obvious cultural bias against mules in favour of the more glamorous horse. Mules are ‘half-breeds’, with no real identity. Various colloquial expressions such as ‘stubborn as a mule’ and ‘silly ass’ make them less attractive to scholars and the general public, evident in the historiography and contemporary sources.60 Singleton’s article provides some information on the use of mules during the Great War, yet the title of his article mentions only horses.61 Focusing on the functioning of the British Remount Department on the Western Front, he found that ‘the success of the British war effort was heavily dependent on the horse’.62 This may be true for the Western Front but on the Salonica Front mules were in greater numbers, as shown by Captain Sidney Galtrey.63 Singleton also concluded that ‘horses and mules were treated with greater care by the British army in the war than earlier wars because veterinary services and fodder rations were better’.64 Mules are also mentioned, although more as objects rather than as subjects, in the historiography of labour recruitment during the Great War. Three articles are worthy here for the British context in the Great War: one is on African labour in the East Africa Protectorate;65 another on Chinese labour;66 and a third on Indian.67 They deal with the experiences of the men, but not the treatment of the mules, which are there, but little is said about them. [ 18 ]

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Theoretical context This book engages with several interlocking theoretical concepts. Debates on wartime enlistment and volunteerism and experiences of service feed into theoretical discussions on imperial identity, local identity formation, peasant and subaltern studies, veterans issues, grief, and memory and forgetting, which must be understood for a nuanced picture. Enlistment, volunteerism and migration Historians have studied the motivations behind the enlistment of men (and women) during the Great War and the tensions between enlistment and volunteerism (i.e. was it voluntary?) and this book speaks to this. It attempts to fully explore and contextualise the push-and-pull factors behind the extraordinary scale of Cypriot enlistment. The historiography of enlistment and/or volunteerism focuses on the metropole of the main belligerent powers, and not the colonial periphery. In the British case, this is well tackled by John Morton Osborne, Nicholas Mansfield and Catriona Pennell for 1914–16 and McCartney in the case of Territorials from Liverpool. Pennell’s book explores the myriad of responses from the British and Irish publics and elites and shows that they depend on one’s background and ideology, especially class.68 The Territorial Army was a volunteer force mostly consisting of working-class men, yet traditionally their experiences and responses to their service have not been the focus of historical accounts,69 until McCartney explored two Liverpool battalions which consisted of middle/lower- and middle-class men.70 The experience of working-class Territorial battalions would certainly compare well in terms of motivation to enlist with that of the Cypriot Mule Corps, as does that of the ‘Pals battalions’, since, as Michael Durey showed in the case of the 11th (Lewisham) Battalion Royal West Kent Regiment, working-class men volunteered based on various push-andpull factors.71 Osborne showed that although the voluntary recruiting scheme was considered a failure, into 1915 it was still a success, built upon a national excitement, which was exploited around the themes of duty, honour and sacrifice.72 Yet Osborne showed that the Labour movement believed that poverty played a major role in rural men enlisting: The ‘calling up’ of men has brought vividly to light the depth of the poverty in which many families of our brave troops have lived; for no sooner has the breadwinner gone than the poor penniless wife has had to fly to the Poor Law or the charity-organisers.73

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Mansfield explored the ‘contradiction in the actions of workers, trade unionists and even socialists, who, at odds with the established order, still volunteered to fight for their country’. Yet he showed that the men who enlisted did not do so to defend the established order, but for other reasons: poverty, adventure, duty, peer pressure and later fear of conscription. Recruiters used a mixture of persuasion, tangible benefits and emotional blackmail. Fundamentally, as was the case for most of the Cypriot muleteers, poverty was a key push factor for rural British men, and recruiters did, as in the Cypriot case, play to this.74 Yet ultimately, unlike in the Cypriot case (and indeed in all the British Empire), conscription was introduced in Britain, whereas in Cyprus it was considered but rejected because more than enough men were volunteering. Part of the reason was that the Cypriot government approached enlistment from the perspective of temporary migration. As already established above, the Cypriots were enlisted into a form of overseas indentured labour. Their service was a form of temporary overseas work, which some would have been used to, namely in Egypt. As Eric Richards has argued, ‘one of the great themes of modern history is the movement of poor people across the face of the earth’.75 In order to facilitate enlistment the Cypriot government banned emigration of men of military age, thus targeting those men most likely to want to emigrate, and offered them a 12-month well-paying job. The Cypriot government also defended the men when controversy arose over the duration of the contract, arguing that this was a pivotal component of enlistment strategies. Clearly these men fit the term ‘temporary overseas worker’. The disproportionate contribution of Scottish Highlanders to military recruitment in the United Kingdom has been viewed, in part, as a form of out-migration driven by economic hardship, a useful parallel with Cyprus.76 Imperial and local identity The enlistment of about 25% of Cypriot men aged 18–35 says something important about imperial and local identity, especially alongside the traditional nationalist Cypriot historiographies that have focused on elites and outlined a past that belongs to either a ‘Greek’ or a ‘Turkish’ nation77 and the reflexive scholarly accounts that suggest that colonial subjects must always have yearned to resist their colonisers. There can be no doubting that such a rate of enlistment was a massive success for the British Empire. To be sure, most of the men enlisted for financial and material gain, yet many identified with the British Empire and its cause. Daniel Gorman wrote about imperial citizenship as regards the dominions and the complex nature of [ 20 ]

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belonging,78 while Sukanya Banerjee’s Becoming Imperial Citizens showed how elite Indians formed an imperial citizenship before the anti-colonial nationalist movement and the idea of a free i­ ndependent postcolonial nation state.79 Such an imperial identity exists at the elite level in Cyprus before, and later alongside, nationalist ambitions, but has not been fully studied.80 This study shifts the focus from the educated elites onto the peasant and labouring classes, showing that any ethno-nationalist loyalties to ‘Greek’ and ‘Ottoman’ motherlands did not exist or did not preclude loyalty to the British Empire and service in the British armed forces. McCartney’s findings that her middle/lower- and middle-class Liverpudlian Territorials remained invested in thoughts of home and saw their war service as an interval that would protect their civilian identities and lives applies well to the Cypriots since many were the only financial support for their families. Increasingly, nationalist discourses and approaches to Cypriot history are shown as exclusivist and not holistic.81 Efforts to redress this, starting in the 1970s with theories such as ‘peaceful co-existence’, failed because these too were mired in political rather than scholarly aims.82 This book adds to the new way of seeing Cyprus as a diverse place with a diverse past83 and not merely from an ethno-religious perspective, because it focuses on showing that social diversity was as important as ethno-religious differences during the period when Cyprus was experiencing British modernisation.84 Eugen Weber showed in his classic book on French modernisation that it was only in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that the majority of the French people, the peasant and rural labouring classes, became Frenchmen.85 In the Cypriot case, before (or with some rarer cases while) the peasants and labouring classes became ‘Greeks’ and ‘Turks’ (or with some rare exceptions ‘Cypriots’), they first became imperial citizens because a quarter of the male population aged 18–35 served at one point in the Cypriot Mule Corps. If the French did not become a nation until the Great War, how could the Cypriots have become ‘Greeks’ and ‘Turks’ well before it as the traditional historiography claims? Peasant and subaltern studies Peasant studies, as a distinct focus of historians and anthropologists, promote critical thinking about social structures, institutions, actors and processes of change in and in relation to rural societies. It asks how agrarian power relations between classes and other social groups form, and are contested and transformed.86 Agency is a key question in understanding these marginalised rural societies, particularly their autonomy and capacity to interpret and change their conditions. [ 21 ]

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1.1    Map of the Eastern Mediterranean.

This anti-essentialist approach is one of ‘history from below’, focused more on what happens among the masses, in this case rural masses, rather than among the elite. Linked with imperialism and colonial power dynamics, such an approach spawned ‘subaltern studies’.87 The term ‘subaltern’ derived from the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci’s work on cultural hegemony, which identified the voices of social groups who were excluded from a society’s established political structures. Focused around scholars interested in the postcolonial and post-imperial societies of the subcontinent, the geographical reach has expanded more recently to cover the developing world more generally, especially Latin America. This analytical re-essentialisation of the peasant rejected inauthentic European discourses as colonial impositions, thereby recovering an unheard grassroots voice that was authentically nationalist. Can the Cypriot muleteers be considered ‘subaltern’? The British colonised the Cypriots, and although they considered them ‘European’, [ 22 ]

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1.2    Map of Cyprus.

within the British imperial project they occupied a space on the fringes of Orientalism. The British, especially those back in London, considered the Cypriot Orthodox Christians as Greeks, partly based upon their misunderstanding of ancient Greece as a unitary state. This discourse dominated early British Cyprus, yet existed alongside an orientalist discourse of Cypriots as exotic others, not Greeks, nor Turks, but a mixture of various racial/ethnic settlers from its varied history. This complicates the categorisation of Cypriots, who do not easily fit into the ‘east’ and ‘west’ Saidian dichotomy, making them ‘in-betweens’.88 Like Said’s dichotomy, Todorova’s ‘Balkanisation’ theory does not precisely capture how Cypriots were categorised, represented and depicted, nor how they saw themselves. Contrary to what Milica Bakic-Hayden has interpreted,89 Todorova does not claim that her Balkanisation theory is another form of Orientalism. She outlines various reasons for this, such as that the Balkans are concrete, whereas the notion of ‘the Orient’ is vague; the self-perception of Balkan peoples is not colonial; Orientalism posits Islam as the other, whereas Balkanisation deals with Christians and is fixed alongside an ‘other’, usually Islam; and Orientalism categorises non-white people, whereas Balkanisation deals with whites.90 From the outside Cypriots were seen as occidental, oriental or a mixture. In trying to define a group along ethnic lines, other forms of identity are ignored. [ 23 ]

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Using Spivak’s definition of the ‘subaltern’, the muleteers who enlisted and their families were indeed the ‘men and women among the illiterate peasantry, the tribals, the lowest strata of the urban subproletariat’91 and lacked agency in the relationship between the coloniser and colonised. Thus they fit the historical profile of subaltern. But to what extent did the Cypriot peasant and rural labouring classes ‘volunteer’? Where they pushed, pulled or both? Did they control their service conditions and experiences? As Spivak asks, ‘can the subaltern speak?’92 They were sought after but were they able, in what Homi Bhabha called the ‘liminal space’, to negotiate with their colonisers?93 British imperialism largely met the needs of the peasant and labouring classes, allowing the colonised to express their imperial identity and loyalty. Silenced memory A compelling conceptual contrast can be made between the Cypriot case of ‘forgetting’ versus the typical focus of so many scholars on remembering and memorialising. There are significant studies of memory and the Great War, from Winter94 to other accounts on individual nations and regions,95 with again Australia featuring prominently.96 These studies focus on how the war has been remembered, commemorated and in some cases forgotten. With the case of the Cypriots it is only about forgetting, both consciously and unconsciously, and the exclusion of this extraordinary contribution to the Great War from national consciousness. The erasure of the Cypriot Mule corps from Cypriot national narratives is striking for the stark contrast it presents to the more wellknown cases of the impact of the Great War on other former colonial territories. In particular, scholarship has argued for the centrality of the experience of the Anzacs to national narratives of Australia and New Zealand and of the tirailleurs senegalais to the anti-colonial nationalist narratives of the successors to colonial French West Africa. In the West Indies and in West Africa, anti-colonial nationalists harnessed the memory of the unrecognised heroism and sacrifices of those men who served, precisely to argue for their worthiness of political independence.97 Why did Cyprus follow the opposite pattern, even though on the surface it would seem to have emerged from similar structural conditions?

Conclusion This chapter shows that the history of the Cypriot Mule Corps contributes to various rich historical and theoretical debates. There is a [ 24 ]

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growing literature on volunteerism and enlistment in the Great War and this chapter shows how this book will contribute to it. How does it compare to British enlistment and other colonial cases? Were the Cypriots motivated by the same factors to enlist as British men from Liverpool or Jamaicans? The chapter also highlights the theoretical lenses through which this study is conducted, showing that in a colonial context volunteering and war and post-war service experiences were more complex than previously understood, given the imperial power imbalance between colonial societies and their imperial overlords. By understanding the broader historiographical debates and theories, the significance of the Cypriot Mule Corps and its silenced memory can be better understood beyond the significance for Cypriots.

Notes 1 See service no. 12152 in WO405/1; biographical information on Stavros Georgiou (excluding his service in the CMC) was obtained from http://web.archive.org/ web/20120321144015/http:/www.yusufislam.org.uk/lifeline/0/bdf531e09252cc4c73fc5d84c4138cb3/. The one ‘biography’ of Cat Stevens/Yusuf incorrectly stated that Stavros Georgiou emigrated to New York at the age of 17. It is not possible that he could have done so because of the Cypriot government’s ban on emigration from late 1916. Chris Charlesworth, Cat Stevens: The Definitive Career Biography, Proteus Books, New York, 1984, 8. In an interview, ‘Islam and My Life’, in 1980, Cat Stevens/Yusuf stated that his father had grown up in Egypt. It is likely that Stavros went back and forth from Cyprus and Egypt before the war. 2 Andrekos Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 1878–1915: The Inconsequential Possession, Manchester University Press, 2009; Gail Ruth Hook, Protectorate Cyprus: British Imperial Power Before WWI, I.B. Tauris, London, 2015. 3 George Georghallides, A Political and Administrative History of Cyprus, Nicosia, 1979, 88–102; Stavros Terry Stavridis, ‘Greek-Cypriot Enosis of October 1915: “A Lost Opportunity”’, Balkan Studies, 1996, 282–307; Loukis Theocharides, The British Offer of Cyprus to Greece (1915), Nicosia, 2000; Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 246–71. 4 See Georghallides, A Political and Administrative History of Cyprus. 5 Andrekos Varnava, ‘British Military Intelligence in Cyprus during the Great War’, War in History, 19(3), 2012, 353–78; Andrekos Varnava, ‘Recruitment and Volunteerism for the Cypriot Mule Corps, 1916–1919’, Itinerario, 38(3), 79–101. 6 The best is Tabitha Morgan, Sweet and Bitter Island: A History of the British in Cyprus, London, 2010, 67–94. See my review, The Cyprus Review, 23(2), 2011, 149–54. 7 These are works (not peer-reviewed) by the Greek-Cypriot nationalist, Petros Papapolyviou, including: (ed.), Εμμανουήλ Μ. Εμμανουήλ, Ημερολόγιον ή Πολεμικαί Σελίδες: Το ημερολόγιο ενός Κύπριου εθελοντή του ελληνοβουλγαρικού πολέμου του 1913 (Emmanuel M. Emmanuel, diary or war pages: The diary of a Cypriot volunteer in the Greek–Bulgarian War of 1913), Germanos, Salonica, 1996; Η Κύπρος και οι Βαλκανικοί πόλεμοι: Συμβολή στην ιστορία του κυπριακού εθελοντισμού (Cyprus and the Balkan Wars: contribution to the history of Cypriot volunteerism), Nicosia, 1997; (ed.), Πολεμικά Ημερολόγια, επιστολές και ανταποκρίσεις Κυπρίων εθελοντών από την Ήπειρο και τη Μακεδονία του 1912–1913 (War diaries, letters and responses of Cypriot volunteers from Epirus and Macedonia 1912–1913), Nicosia, 1999; ‘Ο κυπριακός εθελοντισμός στους πολέμους της Ελλάδας, 1866–1945’ (‘Cypriot volunteerism in the wars of Greece, 1866–1945’), in Andreas I. Voskos (ed.), Κύπρος: Αγώνες ελευθερίας

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S ERV I N G TH E EM PI RE I N TH E G R E A T W A R στην ελληνική ιστορία (Cyprus: struggles for freedom in Greek history), Athens, 2010, 204–29. 8 Antigone Heraclidou, ‘Cyprus’s Non-military Contribution to the Allied War Effort during World War I’, The Round Table, 103(2), 2014, 193–200. 9 Jan Asmussen, ‘“Dark skinned Cypriots will not be accepted!” Cypriots in the British Army, 1939–1945’, in Hubert Faustmann and Nicos Peristianis (eds), Britain in Cyprus: Colonialism and Post-Colonialism 1878–2006, Bibliopolis, Mannheim, 2006, 167–85; Anastasia Yiangou, Cyprus in World War II, I.B. Tauris, London, 2010. 10 Georgios Kazamias, ‘Military recruitment and selection in a British colony: the Cyprus regiment 1939–1944’, in E. Close, M. Tsianikas and G. Couvalis (eds), Greek Research in Australia: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of Greek Studies, June 2005, Flinders University Department of Languages, Adelaide, 333–42, 335. 11 George Hill, A History of Cyprus, IV, ed. Sir Harry Luke, Cambridge University Press, 1952 and see my review, Reviews in History, 1051, March 2011; H.C. Luke and D.J. Jardine, The Handbook of Cyprus, Eighth Issue, Macmillan, London, 1920, 293–4. 12 Sir Ronald Storrs, A Chronology of Cyprus, Government Printing Office, Nicosia, 1930, 35. 13 Harold Lake, In Salonica with Our Army, Andrew Melrose, London, 1917; G. Ward Price, The Story of the Salonica Army, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1918; V.J. Seligman, Macedonian Musings, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1918; H. Collinson Owen, Salonica and After: The Sideshow that Ended the War, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1919. 14 V.J. Seligman, The Salonica Side-Show, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1919, 93. 15 A.J. Mann, The Salonica Front, A. & C. Black, London, 1920. 16 Price, The Story of the Salonica Army, 101. There is no evidence of Cypriot muleteers spying for the enemy. 17 Colonel R.H. Beadon, The Royal Army Service Corps: A History of Transport and Supply in the British Army, II, Cambridge University Press, 1931, 196–7. 18 Ibid., 197–8. 19 Ibid., 198. 20 Malcolm Burr, Slouch Hat, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1935, 323. 21 Luigi Villari, The Macedonian Campaign, T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1922, 68–9. 22 J.S.K. Watson, Fighting Different Wars: Experience, Memory, and the First World War in Britain, Cambridge University Press, 2004, 51. 23 McCartney, Citizen Soldiers. 24 John Stirling and Ivor Lee, No Labour, No Battle: Military Labour during the First World War, Spellmount, Gloucestershire, 2009, 196–320; For the Zion Mule Corps see Matityahu Mintz, ‘Pinhas Rutenberg and the Establishment of the Jewish Legion of 1914’, Studies in Zionism, 6(1), 1985, 15–26; Yanky Fachler, ‘The Zion Mule Corps and its Irish Commander’, History Ireland, 11(4), 2003, 34–8; Martin Watts, The Jewish Legion and the First World War, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2004. 25 That is until my article, Varnava, ‘Recruitment and Volunteerism for the Cypriot Mule Corps, 1916–1919’. 26 J.W.B. Merewether, and Frederick Smith, The Indian Corps in France, William Clowes & Sons, London, 1917; Sir Archibald Murray, ‘Egyptian Labour Corps, January 1916–June 1917’, Appendix F in Sir Archibald Murrays Despatches, 206–16, J.M. Dent, London, 1920; Government of India, India’s Contribution to the Great War, Calcutta, 1923; Frank Cundall, Jamaica’s Part in the Great War, 1915–1918, West Indian Commission, London, 1925. 27 Including: David Omissi, Indian Voices of the Great War, Macmillan, London, 1999; Omar Khalidi, ‘Ethnic Group Recruitment in the Indian Army: The Contrasting Cases of Sikhs, Muslims, Gurkhas and Others’, Pacific Affairs, 74(4), 2001–2, 529–52; Gordon Corrigan, Sepoys in the Trenches, Spellmont, Stroud, 2006; George Morton-Jack, ‘The Indian Army on the Western Front, 1914–1915: A Portrait of

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H istoriograph y and theories Collaboration’, War in History, 13(3), 2006, 329–62; Radhika Singha, ‘Finding Labor from India for the War in Iraq: The Jail Porter and Labor Corps, 1916–1920’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 39(2), 2007, 412–45; Roy Kaushik (ed.), The Indian Army in the Two World Wars, Brill, Leiden 2012; George MortonJack, The Indian Army on the Western Front, Cambridge University Press, 2014. 28 W.F. Elkins, ‘A Source of Black Nationalism in the Caribbean: The Revolt of the British West Indies Regiment at Taranto, Italy’, Science and Society, 33(2), 1970, 99–103; C.L. Joseph, ‘The British West Indies Regiment, 1914–18’, Journal of Caribbean History, 2, 1971, 94–124; Richard Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War, Manchester University Press, 2004. 29 Nicholas Griffin, ‘Britain’s Chinese Labor Corps in World War I’, Military Affairs, 40(3), 1976, 102–8; Michael Summerskill, China on the Western Front, M. Summerskill, London, 1982; Paul J. Bailey, ‘From Shandong to Somme: Chinese indentured labour in France during World War I’, in A.J. Kershen (ed.), Language, Labour, and Migration, Ashgate, Farnham, 2000, 179–96; Gwynnie Hagen, ‘The Chinese Labour Corps’, in Dominiek Dendooven and Piet Chielens (eds), World War I, Lanoo, Tielt, 2008, 136–44; Paul J. Bailey, ‘“An army of workers”: Chinese indentured labour in First World War France’, in Santanu Das (ed.), Race, Empire and First World War Writing, Cambridge University Press, 2011, 35–52. 30 Donald C. Savage and J. Forbes Munro, ‘Carrier Corps Recruitment in the British East Africa Protectorate, 1914–1918’, Journal of African History, 7(2), 1966, 313–42. 31 Margaret Pointer, Tagi tote e loto haaku (My heart is crying a little), University of the South Pacific, Suva, 2000; Christine Liava’a, Qaravi na’i tavi (They did their duty), Polygraphia, Auckland, 2009. 32 Trevor Harris, ‘British Informal Empire during the Great War: Welsh Identity and Loyalty in Argentina’, Itinerario, 38(3), 2014, 103–17. 33 Christian Koller, ‘The Recruitment of Colonial Troops in Africa and Asia and Their Deployment in Europe during the First World War’, Immigrants and Minorities, 26(1/2), 2008, 111–33. 34 Karmal O. Salih, ‘British Colonial Military Recruitment Police in the Southern Kordofan Region of Sudan, 1900–1945’, Middle Eastern Studies, 41(2), 2005, 169–92. 35 Andrekos Varnava, ‘The Politics and Imperialism of Colonial and Foreign Volunteer Legions during the Great War: Comparing Proposals for Cypriot, Armenian and Jewish Legions’, War in History, 22(3), 2015, 344–63. 36 Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War. 37 Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1820–1920, London, 1974. 38 Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War. 39 Anthony Babington, For the Sake of Example: Capital Courts-Martial, 1914–1920, St Martin’s Press, New York, 1983; Cathryn Corns and John Hughes-Wilson, Blindfold and Alone: British Military Executions in the Great War, Cassell Military, London, 2001; David Johnson, Executed at Dawn: British Firing Squads on the Western Front 1914–1918, Gloucestershire Spellmount, Stroud, 2015. 40 Clive Emsley, Soldier, Sailor, Beggarman, Thief: Crime and the British Armed Services since 1914,​Oxford University Press, 2013. 41 Christopher Pugsley, On the Fringe of Hell: New Zealanders and Military Discipline in the First World War, Hodder &​Stoughton, Auckland, 1991. 42 Peter Stanley, Bad Characters: Sex, Crime, Mutiny, Murder and the Australian Imperial Force, Pier 9, Sydney, 2010. 43 David Gerber (ed.), Disabled Veterans in History, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 2012. 44 Meaghan Kowalsky, ‘“This Honourable Obligation”: The King’s National Roll Scheme for Disabled Ex-Servicemen 1915–1944’, European Review of History, 14(4), 2007, 567–84; Wendy Jane Gagen, ‘Remastering the Body, Renegotiating Gender: Physical Disability and Masculinity during the First World War, the Case of J.B. Middlebrook’, European Review of History, 14(4), 2007, 525–41.

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S ERV I N G TH E EM PI RE I N TH E G R E A T W A R 45 Julie Anderson, ‘“Jumpy Stump”: Amputation and Trauma in the First World War’, First World War Studies, 6(1), 2015, 9–19; Alice Brumby, ‘“A painful and disagreeable position”: Rediscovering Patient Narratives and Evaluating the difference between Policy and Experience for Institutionalised Veterans with Mental Disabilities, 1924–1931’, First World War Studies, 6(1), 2015, 37–55; Monika Barr, ‘Prosthesis for the Body and for the Soul: The Origins of Guide Dog Provision for Blind Veterans in Interwar Germany’, First World War Studies, 6(1), 2015, 81–98; Martina Salvante, ‘“Thanks to the Great War the blind gets the recognition of his ability to act”: The Rehabilitation of Blinded Servicemen in Florence’, First World War Studies, 6(1), 2015, 21–35. 46 Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male: Men’s Bodies, Britain, and the Great War, University of Chicago Press, 1996; Peter Leese, Shell Shock: Traumatic Neurosis and the British Soldiers of the First World War, Palgrave, New York, 2002; Jeffery S. Reznick, John Galsworthy and Disabled Soldiers of the Great War: With an Illustrated Selection of his Writings, Manchester University Press, 2009; Fiona Reid, Broken Men: Shell Shock, Treatment and Recovery in Britain, 1914–1930, Continuum, London, 2010; Jessica Meyer, Men of War: Masculinity and the First World War in Britain, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2009; Emily Mayhew, Wounded: From Battlefield to Blighty, 1914–1918, Thorpe, Leicester, 2014. 47 Serge Durflinger, Veterans with a Vision: Canada’s War Blinded in Peace and War, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, 2010. 48 Joy Damousi, The Labour of Loss, Cambridge University Press, 1999, 65–102; Marina Larsson, Shattered ANZACS: Living with the Scars of War, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, 2009. 49 Alan Wakefield and Simon Moody, Under the Devil’s Eye: The British Military Experience in Macedonia 1915–18, Pen &​Sword Military, Barnsley, 2011 (orig. 2004). 50 Alan Palmer, The Gardeners of Salonika, Andre Deutshe, London, 1965. 51 Nur Bilge Criss, Istanbul under Allied Occupation, 1918–1923, Brill, London, 1999. 52 Alan Mikhail, ‘Unleashing the Beast: Animals, Energy, and the Economy of Labour in Ottoman Egypt’, The American Historical Review, 2013, 118(2), 317–48. 53 Mikhail, ‘Unleashing the Beast’. I agree with Mikhail that the terms ‘human’ and ‘animal’ are inadequate, simply because ‘human’ refers to one species and ‘animal’ to many, yet I too use these words in their general meaning. 54 This conference title reflects this: ‘War Horses of the World’, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 3–4 May 2014. 55 Richard St Barbe Baker, Horse Sense: Horses in War and Peace, St Paul, London, 1962; J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations, A.A. Knopf, Toronto, 2006; see Chapter 4. 56 Gavin Robinson, Horses, People and Parliament in the English Civil War, Ashgate, Farnham, 2012. 57 Gervase Phillips, ‘Writing Horses into American Civil War History’, War in History, 20(2), 2013, 160–81. 58 Paul Louis Johnson, Horses of the German Army in World War II, Schiffer Military History, Atglen, PA, 2006. 59 John Singleton, ‘Britain’s Military Use of Horses, 1914–1918’, Past & Present, 139, May 1993, 178–203; Simon Butler, The War Horses: The Tragic Fate of a Million Horses Sacrificed in the First World War, Halsgrove, Wellington, 2011; Jill Mather, War Horses: Hoof Prints in Time: Amazing True Stories of Heroic Australian Walers and New Zealand Horses 1914–1918, Jill Mather, 2012. 60 For a discussion on the perception and representation of the army transport mule during the Great War see Andrekos Varnava, ‘The Vagaries and Value of the Army Transport Mule in the British Army during the Great War’, Historical Research, forthcoming 2017. 61 Singleton, ‘Britain’s Military Use of Horses, 1914–1918’, 178–203. 62 Ibid, 202.

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H istoriograph y and theories 63 Captain Sidney Galtrey, The Horse and the War, Country Life, London, 1918, 16. 64 Singleton, ‘Britain’s Military Use of Horses, 1914–1918’, 203. 65 Savage and Munro, ‘Carrier Corps Recruitment in the British East Africa Protectorate 1914–1918’, 313–42. 66 Brian C. Fawcett, ‘The Chinese Labour Corps in France, 1917–1921’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 40, 2000, 33–111. 67 Singha, ‘Finding Labor from India for the War in Iraq’, 412–45. 68 Catriona Pennell, A Kingdom United: Popular Responses to the Outbreak of the First World War in Britain and Ireland, Oxford University Press, 2012. 69 The focus has been on their contribution rather than their experiences. See Geoffrey R. Codrington, The Territorial Army, Sifton Praed, London, 1938; Peter Dennis, The Territorial Army, 1906–1940, Royal Historical Society, Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1987. 70 McCartney, Citizen Soldiers. 71 Michael Durey, ‘South London’s “Age-Fudgers”: Kitchener’s Under-Age Volunteers’, The London Journal, 40(2), 2015, 147–70. 72 John Moreton Osborne, The Voluntary Recruiting Movement in Britain, 1914– 1916, Garland, New York, 1982. 73 Ibid., quoting from Labour Leader, 29 October 1914, 83. 74 Nicholas Mansfield, English Farmworkers and Local Patriotism, 1900–1930, Ashgate, Aldershot, 2001, 79–96. 75 Eric Richards, ‘How Did Poor People Emigrate from the British Isles to Australia in the Nineteenth Century?’ Journal of British Studies, 32, July 1993, 250–79 (250). 76 Diana M. Henderson, Highland Soldier: A Social Study of the Highland Regiments, 1820–1920, J. Donald, Edinburgh, 1989; Andrew MacKillop, ‘For king and country? The Highland soldiers’ motivation and identity’, in S. Murdoch and A. MacKillop (eds), Fighting for Identity: Scottish Military Experiences, 1550–1900, Brill, Leiden, 2002, 185–212. 77 See Costas Kyrris, Peaceful Co-existence in Cyprus under British Rule (1878–1959) and after Independence, PIO, Nicosia, 1977; Yiannis Papadakis, ‘The Politics of Memory and of Forgetting in Cyprus’, Journal of Mediterranean Studies, 1993, 139–54; Yiannis Papadakis, ‘Greek Cypriot Narratives of History and Collective Identity: Nationalism as a Contested Process’, American Ethnologist, 25(3), 1998, 149–65; Yiannis Papadakis, ‘Nation, Narrative and Commemoration: Political Ritual in Divided Cyprus’, History and Anthropology, 14(3), 2003, 253–70; Rebecca Bryant, Imagining the Modern: The Cultures of Nationalism in Cyprus, I.B. Taurus, London, 2004; Yiannis Papadakis, Echoes From the Dead Zone: Across the Cyprus Divide, I.B. Taurus, London, 2005; Michalis N. Michael, ‘The Unchanging “Turkish Rule”, the “Fair Ottoman Administration” and the Ottoman Period in the History of Cyprus’, in Michalis Michael, Matthias Kappler and Eftihios Gavriel (eds), Ottoman Cyprus: A Collection of Studies on History and Culture, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2009, 9–24; Varnava and Michael, ‘Archbishop-Ethnarchs since 1767’. 78 Daniel Gorman, Imperial Citizenship: Empire and the Question of Belonging, Manchester University Press, 2006. 79 Sukanya Banerjee, Becoming Imperial Citizens: Indians in the Late-Victorian Empire, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 2010. 80 See Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 1878–1915, 152–201; Alexis Rappas, Cyprus in the Thirties: British Colonial Rule and the Roots of the Cyprus Conflict, I.B. Tauris, London, 2014, 88–122. 81 See Andrekos Varnava, ‘The State of Cypriot Minorities: Cultural Diversity, Internal-Exclusion and the Cyprus “Problem”’, The Cyprus Review, 22(2), 2010, 205–18. 82 Kyrris, Peaceful Co-existence in Cyprus under British Rule. 83 See Yiannis Papadakis, Nicos Peristianis and Gisela Welz (eds), Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History, and an Island in Conflict, University of Indiana Press, Bloomington, 2006; see my review, The Cyprus Review, 18(2), 2006, 167–72; Varnava, ‘The State of Cypriot Minorities’.

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S ERV I N G TH E EM PI RE I N TH E G R E A T W A R 84 Andrekos Varnava and Christalla Yakinthou, ‘Cyprus: Political Modernity and Structures of Democracy in a Divided Island’, in John Loughlin, Frank Hendriks and Anders Lidström (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Local and Regional Democracy in Europe, Oxford University Press, 2011, 455–77. 85 Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchman: The Mobilization of Rural France, 1879– 1914, Stanford University Press, 1976. 86 See the Journal of Peasant Studies and the work of Tom Brass and Henry Bernstein. 87 See G.C. Spivak, ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’ in C. Nelson and L. Grossberg (eds), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1988; V. Lal, ‘Review: Subaltern Studies and its Critics: Debates Over Indian History’, History and Theory, 40(1), 2001, 135–48; D. Chakrabarty, Habitations of Modernity: Essays in the Wake of Subaltern Studies, University of Chicago Press, 2002; H. Singh, ‘Caste, Class and Peasant Agency in Subaltern Studies Discourse: Revisionist Historiography, Elite Ideology’, Journal of Peasant Studies, 30(1), 2002, 91–134. 88 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 1878–1915, 22–4, 152–201; Andrekos Varnava, ‘Sophronios III, 1865–1900: The Last of the “Old” and the First of the “New” Archbishop-Ethnarchs?’ in Varnava and Michael (eds), The Archbishop’s of Cyprus in the Modern Age, 106–47. 89 Milica Bakic-Hayden, ‘Nesting Orientalisms: The Case of Former Yugoslavia’, Slavic Review, 54(4), 1995, 917–31. 90 Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans, Oxford University Press, 1997. 91 Spivak, ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’ 283. 92 Ibid., 271–313. 93 Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture, Routledge, London, 2008, 5. 94 Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History, Cambridge University Press, 1995; Winter, Remembering War. 95 Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory, Oxford University Press, 1975​ ; Angela Gaffney, Aftermath: Remembering the Great War in Wales, University of Wales Press, Cardiff, 2000; George Robb, British Culture and the First World War, Palgrave, Basingstoke, 2002; Ray Westlake, Remembering the Great War in Gloucestershire &​Hertfordshire, Brewin Books, Studley, Warwickshire, 2002. 96 Alistair Thomson, Anzac Memories: Living with the Legend, Oxford University Press, 1994 (rev. 2013); Simon Miles, Anzac Memorial, Adelaide, South Australia, Workskil Inc., Adelaide, 1995. 97 Michael J.K. Walsh and Andrekos Varnava, ‘The Great War and the British Empire: Culture and Memory’, in Walsh and Varnava (eds), Australia and the Great War: Identity, Memory and Mythology, Melbourne University Press, 2016, 1–22; Myron J. Echenberg, Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa, 1857–1960, J. Curry, London, 1991; Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War.

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C HAP T E R T WO

British Cyprus, 1878–1918: from backwater to bustling war base

A few days before the outbreak of the Great War, the officers of the German battlecruiser Goeben had lunched at the English club at Famagusta.1 But by the time the war had started the Goeben had left Cypriot waters and there were ‘no German submarines in the [eastern] Mediterranean in those early days’ of the war.2 The war impacted Cyprus in other ways, but it was not until mid-1916 that the island started to play a strategic role. This was the first time it had done so after the British occupation in 1878, even though the island had been occupied for strategic reasons.3 This chapter has two aims: first to explore the development of Cypriot society from its late Ottoman period and the first decades of British rule in order to understand the conditions that pushed and pulled so many Cypriot men to enlist in the Cypriot Mule Corps; and second to provide an overview of the impact of the war and the role of Cyprus in it beyond the Cypriot Mule Corps. By the end of Ottoman rule there were deep class/social cleavages in Cypriot society across the urban and rural divide and among religious communities. These divisions continued during British rule, yet were less pronounced by 1914.4 They impacted on the political and socioeconomic conditions, on local relations with the British colonialists and between the two main religious groups. British rule ‘modernised’ Cyprus, facilitating significant population growth, yet its inconsequence to British imperialism and strategy in the region meant little economic development, with the corresponding lack of employment for the growing population. When emigration for men of military age was banned in 1916 to expedite enlistment into the Cypriot Mule Corps, such men had little alternative. The Cypriot Mule Corps was a mammoth undertaking for the Cypriot government and a significant event for Cypriots given the numbers that served, yet Cyprus contributed to the war in other ways. Cyprus attained some strategic significance from mid-1916 as a bustling military, humanitarian and [ 31 ]

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provisions base connected to the ‘Eastern Campaigns’, which impacted on the island.

Cyprus, 1800s to 1914 Society in Ottoman Cyprus During Ottoman rule Cypriot society had greater socio-economic and sociopolitical cleavages than religious or ethnic. Collective identities were based upon religion, which is not the same as upon ethnicity. Some secular elites developed an ethnic identity, but they did not unite behind this with the clergy until the eve of the Great War. Religious differences between Muslims and Eastern Orthodox Christians did not preclude integration within classes, cutting across religion. During Ottoman rule there was little ethnic division and disturbances were mostly driven by economic inequalities. Thus, class, geography (urban– rural divide), and religion determined identities.5 The elites in Ottoman Cyprus were composed of both Muslims and Christians. Cyprus was incorporated into the Ottoman imperial system in 1571 (after centuries of Frankish and Venetian rule), meaning the implantation of the Ottoman civil and military bureaucracy. The leading clergy of the Eastern Orthodox Church gained much power because the Orthodox Church replaced the Catholic Church as the only recognised Christian authority.6 The Cypriot Orthodox Church was autonomous of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople and the three Apostolic Patriarchates in Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, giving it religious and political independence and authority. The Ottoman millet system, which allowed for religious autonomy so long as millet leaders ensured the loyalty of their people (dhimmi) to the government, allowed the Cypriot archbishop and the higher clergy to become secular as well as spiritual leaders, with the archbishop becoming the ethnarch. So the Eastern Orthodox Church elite were willingly co-opted into the ruling class and their power derived from the Ottoman imperial system. Within the context of this ‘contract’ they received power in exchange for guaranteeing the loyalty of their people, the lower-class Christians. They guaranteed this loyalty by either suppressing revolts led by the lower class or representing them to the imperial government during droughts, locust plagues and famine. Thus, Christian and Muslim elites relied on each other for power and control over the Cypriot masses.7 The Christian and Muslim lower classes also relied on each other and were integrated. They shared economic and social hardships, brought on by droughts, bad harvests, locust plagues, and a lack of [ 32 ]

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technological advancement and government and private investment in industries and infrastructure. Together they opposed high taxes in memorials and revolts. They also shared a folklore, a commonly spoken language (i.e. Cypriot Greek), cultural events (even religious), and even intermarried.8 The increase in mixed villages exemplifies integration: the 1832 Ottoman Census recorded 172 mixed villages;9 in 1858 the British consul estimated 239;10 in 1891, in the second British census, there were 346 out of 702 villages.11 Ottoman Cypriot society was divided along class/social lines as follows: (1) the Ottoman Muslim elites; (2) the Eastern Orthodox Christian elites, mostly the higher clergy and government employees; (3) the Muslim peasant and labouring classes; and (4) the Christian labouring and peasant classes. The problem with this typology is that the Christian elites sometimes exercised more power than the Muslim elites, who were not a consistent staple and often relied on the local knowledge of the Christians. Although when the Christian elites were considered to have broken ‘the contract’ and to be fermenting revolt, as they were falsely accused of doing in 1821 in support of the ‘Greek’ revolt, the imperial government agreed to the execution of leading Cypriot Orthodox Christian elites.12 Ultimately the relations between the two classes (upper and lower) were far more fraught than what they were between the different religions. The Cypriot Orthodox millet was not a Greek or Greek Orthodox Christian millet. The Cypriot Eastern Orthodox millet was indigenous to the island and independent of the patriarchs and the ecumenical patriarch. Cypriot Eastern Orthodox Christians continued to refer to themselves as Romiee (Romans), a term used by all Eastern Orthodox Christians after the spread of Christianity to the Roman Empire (because to call oneself a Greek denoted paganism),13 yet there was also a regional differentiation from other Romiee. In 1868, ten years before British rule started, the Archbishop of Cyprus, Sophronios III, sent an autobiographical note to the Jerusalem Theological School, stating that ‘my homeland is Cyprus and my parents are Orthodox Christians of the Eastern dogma’.14 Sophronios characterised his identity according to his geographic space (Cyprus) and his religion (his Eastern Orthodox Christianity). His identity reflected his political and social position as an Ottoman subject of the high Eastern Orthodox clergy in an independent church, the geographical isolation of the island and his religion. Thus he was an Ottoman subject of some prominence (i.e. ruling classes) and the leader of his ‘flock’. Neither Greece nor being Greek was mentioned, although he was aware of the rise of ethno-nationalism and the ‘Great Idea’ from his years in Smyrna and Athens. Sophronios remained devoted to the identity that reflected his [ 33 ]

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­ nderstanding of Christianity (Eastern) and his homeland (Cyprus), u rather than an imagined and imposed one from Greece.15 The disconnection between the Christian upper and lower classes was political and socio-economic. Numerous monasteries were constructed or significantly redeveloped during the Ottoman period in rural areas, for example St Minas near Kato Drys in Larnaca, St Panteleimonas at Myrtou, Kyrenia, St Nicholas of the Cats at Akrotiri, Limassol, St Thekla at Mosfiloti, Larnaca, and others.16 In the nineteenth century the church also took the lead in running schools in the towns and some regional centres for Orthodox Christians. Yet its power in collecting and imposing taxes resulted in a dilution of religiosity as the peasant and labouring classes saw them as overlords.17 Some Christians (originally mostly Roman Catholics) were ‘linobambaki’ (linen-cottons): publicly Muslim and privately Christian, developing their own hybrid religion, confusing practices, traditions and rituals of both.18 By the last decades of Ottoman rule, the rise of a middle class of merchants and professionals disturbed Ottoman Cypriot society. Many of the merchants and professionals, namely money-lenders, advocates, doctors and teachers, were ‘Hellenised’: some were Cypriots educated abroad and introduced to Greek national identity and the project of the Greek state for a ‘Greater Greece’; or Greek citizens, especially from the Ionian Islands.19 Yet not all foreign-educated Cypriots were Hellenised, Sophronios being an example.20 The development of Greek nationalism in Cyprus was elitist. For it to resonate with the majority of the Orthodox Christians it needed institutionalisation at various levels, especially in education, and a liberal constitution so the Hellenised professional and middle classes could work in it. British rule provided such an environment, so much so that by 1914 the British had aided the Greek nationalist Bishop of Kitium to win the disputed (since the death of Sophronios in 1900) archiepiscopal throne.21 These changes and challenges to the previous order help explain the passive role of the political elites in recruitment efforts, yet were not developed enough to have a significant influence on the formation of the Cypriot Mule Corps. The British understood that for the majority of the population (i.e. peasantry and unskilled labourers) religion and nationalism would not be a barrier to volunteering, and targeted them appropriately. The impact of British rule on socio-economic conditions In June 1878 Lord Beaconsfield’s government demanded and received from the Ottoman Sultan, Abdul Hamid II, the right to occupy and administer Cyprus. Beaconsfield and Lord Salisbury, the Foreign [ 34 ]

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Secretary, wanted to balance Russian gains from the Russo–Ottoman War of 1877–8, which they perceived as threatening British financial, economic and strategic interests in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt and India. In the Anglo–Turkish Convention they promised to militarily support the Ottoman Empire if Russia ever threatened it again and to do so they needed to make Cyprus into a place of arms.22 Beaconsfield’s government justified selecting Cyprus against the advice of the army and navy experts, who wanted Stampalia, because they believed Cyprus was the right size and location to base an army, it had a harbour (at Famagusta) which they would make world-class, plentiful water, an agreeable climate and docile Christian and Muslim inhabitants. Cyprus would be an experiment in how British modernity and Occidentalism could transform a premodern Oriental Ottoman space into an oasis of enlightened government, with its people bathed in the wealth generated by British industry and investment.23 The British confidence in ‘renewing’ Cyprus to its ‘formerly glorious days’ was misplaced. The island was unhealthy, with marshy grounds and filthy towns, it lacked water, and had virtually no internal and external communications. Cyprus was as mythical an ‘El Dorado’ as the Amazonian one.24 Beaconsfield’s government knew it, indefinitely postponing the redevelopment of Famagusta Harbour. Then the Liberal opposition, which had strongly opposed the occupation of Cyprus, won the 1880 election and transferred the island from the Foreign to the Colonial Office, slowing further British development. They slashed the public works budget, while Cypriot revenue was hampered by the imposition of a tribute to the Ottoman government that the British retained in lieu of Ottoman Crimean War debt.25 Yet British rule changed Cypriot political and socio-economic conditions and set Cyprus on the road towards modernisation, even if this road was long and bumpy. British rule encouraged and even supported the importing of rival Greek and Turkish nationalisms into the island. The Liberal government introduced a legislative council with a local majority and rejected the introduction of English-language instruction alongside the Greek and Turkish languages because they considered the Cypriots, at least the Orthodox Christians, as Europeans that belonged to the broader Greek family and enlightened enough to develop without English. This contradicted the views of most men on the ground, some of whom considered the Cypriots as their own group. It also ignored the Muslim community. Clearly for the British, Cyprus, unlike most other British possessions, was primarily ‘Christian’ and thus perceived as being, at least partly, ‘European’ and would be treated within the framework of modernity. This eventually allowed for the development [ 35 ]

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of Greek (and Turkish) nationalism after 1910, when the decade-long dispute over who would succeed Sophronios resulted (through British intervention) in the victory for the Greek nationalists and the uniting of the two sides behind enosis. Their wish was granted, but rejected by their ‘mother’ during the Great War.26 The nature of British colonial rule in Cyprus and the imperial status of the island as a backwater had two pivotal results: (1) the limited extension of political modernity, which allowed for the development of a new nationalised, specifically Hellenised (and later Turkish), Cypriot elite, which the British did not check because they considered Cyprus a backwater and the Christians as Greeks;27 (2) the British improvements in internal communications, public hygiene, and medical services and practises, resulted in a significant increase in the population from 186,173 in 1881 to 274,108 in 1911, a 47% increase, which meant change across Cypriot society especially in relation to living standards, occupations and the nature and character of the middle and lower classes. With the exception of the small professional and merchant classes, most Cypriots worked in agriculture, either as peasants or labourers, or sometimes as both, depending on the season. Some agricultural labourers worked on large estates, chefliks.28 Each village had its own pastures and, depending on location, its own woodlands for fuel. The Karpas peninsula grew cereals and summer crops, and most notably cotton and tobacco. In the non-irrigated low-lying Mesaoria (between the Troodos and Kyrenia Mountain ranges) cereals were primarily cultivated, while in the flood-irrigated areas of the Mesaoria summer crops were also grown. In the Paphos and Limassol Districts, where rocky hills predominated, vines were cultivated. In the Kochino-chorka (redvillages) of the Famagusta District, where a terracotta-coloured clay soil prevailed, potatoes, colocasi (taro) and onions were grown. Only in the well-irrigated areas west of Limassol, south of Famagusta town, and in Lefka, Morphou and Lapithos, could citrus and pomegranate be grown.29 Harvest and therefore profit depended on the climate, which often turned bad, with frequent droughts and locust plagues. Although British reforms improved agricultural production and conditions for the peasants, Nicholas Lanitis, who reported on rural indebtedness in Cyprus in the 1940s, argued that in the early twentieth century there was still little fertile land under irrigation, little knowledge in modern cultivation methods and not enough credit available beyond the usurer.30 Usury, being unregulated by the Ottoman and British governments (at least until the Usury (Farmers) Law of April 1919, which made it illegal to impose interest on loans to farmers above 12% per annum),31 meant very high interest rates and the obligatory sale of land, dwellings and/or animals to repay loans. [ 36 ]

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British modernising reforms increased life expectancy and lowered infant mortality rates by improving public health and medical facilities; securing food supplies from locust destruction; and by developing internal communications, allowing for faster access to trade and medical facilities. The last two developments have been discussed elsewhere,32 but little has been written about public health and medical facilities. British reforms to eradicate various diseases met with some success, yet in the absence of studies comparing policies and outcomes across the British Empire it is not clear how this success measures comparatively. With malaria Cyprus compares favourably with its neighbours: it was totally eradicated in Cyprus by 1949;33 in Palestine by 1947;34 Italy not until 1962;35 and Greece in 1974.36 This, of course, has no bearing on efforts to eradicate diseases during the first decades of British rule, although the evidence suggests that the British introduced important measures. A report in 1879 revealed that the diseases in and around the town of Famagusta included typhoid, smallpox and malaria, and advised that much work was needed to prevent the formation of marshes, which were blamed for the prevalence of these diseases.37 Another report costed the recommendations to remedy the insalubrity of Famagusta at over £100,000.38 By this time the Cypriot government had created a medical department and employed medical officers at the six districts. Within three years of British rule, hospitals and/or dispensaries had been established and/or pre-existing ones redeveloped in all the district towns, though some relied on voluntary contributions.39 In 1892 a new government hospital was opened in Nicosia, while the Cyprus Society, a group of High-Church Anglicans in Britain, opened a new district hospital in Kyrenia, which eventually came under government control because of little funding. By 1914 the island had a government-administered central hospital in Nicosia, which included consumptive wards, a dispensary and a maternity block,40 and others in Famagusta, Larnaca, Limassol, Paphos and Kyrenia. The rise in the number of doctors reflects the improved medical facilities, with 27 in 1891 rising to 70 in 1911.41 The colonial medical department embarked upon vigorous and partially successful campaigns to alleviate the ‘fevers’, trachoma and leprosy. They implemented an extensive campaign to vaccinate and revaccinate as many people as possible and planted Australian eucalyptus to deal with the stagnant waters.42 Yet malarial fever was still common. High Commissioner Sendall informed Lord Ripon, the Colonial Secretary, in October 1894 that he and his party could not conduct affairs because they were ill with malaria after returning from the Paphos District.43 Initiatives were also undertaken to alleviate blindness caused by trachoma ophthalmia, with a successful reduction from 2,238 cases in [ 37 ]

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1881 to 1,415 in 1911, and syphilis and gonorrhoea, although many did not seek treatment for these diseases because of stigma and conservative attitudes.44 The first major imperial investment occurred when Joseph Chamberlain was Colonial Secretary from 1895 to 1903. He managed to convince a parsimonious treasury to offer generous loans to the underdeveloped parts of the British Empire.45 Chamberlain, with the support of High Commissioner Sendall, wanted to encourage agriculture and sericulture, redevelop internal and external communications and undertake irrigation works with the £314,000 loan under the 1899 Colonial Loans Act: £60,000 for irrigation in the Mesaoria; £124,000 for the redevelopment of Famagusta Harbour, completed in June 1906; and £130,000 for the construction of a railway between Nicosia and Famagusta, finished in October 1905.46 These works created new local employment (both temporary and permanent) and contributed to the increase in agricultural production and trade by 1914. The tonnage of imports and exports at Famagusta Harbour increased from 45,752 in 1905–6 to 95,032 in 1911–12. To be sure it took the railway until 1913–14 to post a profit and it never kept up with the loan interest and the sinking fund charges, yet the tonnage of goods to and from Famagusta Harbour on the railway steadily increased.47 The ‘inconsequential possession’ was never more felt than with the lack of concrete legislative reforms to facilitate economic growth, particularly finance for all sections of Cypriot society. For example, the British introduced the Companies Act of 1862, which was amended in 1900 and 1907 and then consolidated in 1908, to most overseas possessions by 1917, but Cyprus (along with Bermuda, Gibraltar, Malta, Newfoundland, The Seychelles, and Egypt) was left out.48 An analysis of the increasing population and where it was increasing, geographically and across the rural and urban divide, allows for an understanding of the socio-economic changes. The censuses for 1881, 1891, 1901 and 1911 show a significant increase in population, from 186,173, to 209,286 (rise of 12.75%), to 237,023 (13.25%) and 274,108 (15.65%), respectively.49 British rule created the right conditions for the Cypriot population to increase: life expectancy and birth rates rose, while infant mortality rates fell because of improved hygiene and medical care. But to understand the implications of the nature of this growth it is important to understand at what rate the population increased across the six districts, and across the urban and rural spectrum. Famagusta district had the most population growth between 1891 and 1901 at 17.1%, and between 1901 and 1911 at 20.66%, growing from 41,423 in 1891 to 58,530 in 1911. The town (Old Famagusta [ 38 ]

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and Varosha) grew 23.85% between 1881 and 1891, down to 13.6% between 1891 and 1901, and by a huge 39.3% between 1901 and 1911, with the population rising from 3,367 in 1891 to 5,327 in 1911.50 There are two reasons to account for these fluctuating levels of growth: (1) a factor in the growth of 23.85% between 1881 and 1891 was the famine that had gripped the Karpas Peninsula in the late 1880s, necessitating internal migration from those rural areas to the town, while the improvement in rural conditions by the mid-1890s saw some movement from the town back to the rural areas; (2) the incredible rise of nearly 40% between 1901 and 1911 must be attributed to the various works in and around the town, necessitating much local labour, as well as to an increase in trade towards the end of the decade owing to more production and better communications (reflected in the significant rise in revenues, from an average of £197,889 between 1899 and 1903, to an average of £271,851 between 1904 and 1908, increasing further to £318,539 between 1909 and 1913).51 The breakdown across rural areas also tells an interesting story. In the 1901 Census the increase in population in certain rural areas (where the population was above 1,000) in the ten-year period was mostly around the district average of 17.1%, such as Trikomo 16.7%, Marathovouno 18.4%, Vatili 19.4%, Akanthou 19.1% and Asha 16.3%, with Lefkoniko being the lowest at 13.2%, with the exceptions being the last two villages at the tip of the Karpas Peninsula, Rizokarpaso at 32.6% and Yialousa at 41.5%.52 These sharp increases for the last two cases can be attributed to former inhabitants returning after the famine: indeed Rizokarpaso had a drop in population of 7.2% between 1881 and 1891. Another reason for the rise was the British investment in the sericulture and tobacco industries in these regions.53 From 1905 to 1910 exporters of cotton, silk cocoons and tobacco made good profits.54 The population growth of the Karpas continued between 1901 and 1911, despite the massive increase in the population of Famagusta town, with Rizokarpaso on the district average (which was 20.66%) at 20.1% and Yialousa above it at 23.84%.55 This explains the high enlistment of these places in the Cypriot Mule Corps. The increase in population of the other districts tells a different story. Nicosia district ranked second in 1901 and fourth in 1911. The growth was around the national average (13.25% and 15.65%, respectively) at 15.6% and 14.3%, respectively, but in 1901 it was primarily in or around the town, with Nicosia town increasing by 23% from 1891, the highest of the towns. Kaimakli, today a suburb of Nicosia, grew by 27.4%. But in 1911 the increase in Nicosia town was the lowest of all the towns, at 8.8%, with significant growth (likely internal migration) in nearby villages, large villages and regional [ 39 ]

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centres, with Kaimakli growing 22%, Strovolos 24%, Athienou 22%, Palaiochorio 21% and the Muslim village of Lourougina by 18.2%. Therefore the trend in relation to Nicosia district was in the reverse to that of Famagusta, excepting the Karpas: more urban growth between 1891 and 1901, and more rural growth between 1901 and 1911.56 There were two reasons for this: the expansion of Nicosia towards Kaimakli (which had a railway branch) and Strovolos (near Government House) can be characterised as semi-urban sprawl owing to the smallness of the town and its proximity to Kaimakli and Strovolos; and better agricultural prospects saw people moving to places between Nicosia and Famagusta, such as Athienou, Dhali and Lourougina. These places were not the main recruiting grounds for the Mule Corps. Proportionally, Kyrenia was the most important district for recruitment in the Mule Corps, yet it was the smallest in population and land. It ranked third in population growth between 1901 and 1911 (rising 17.5%). The villages with 1,000 or more inhabitants, Lapithos, one of the largest in the island, and Karavas, grew well below the district average, at 5.3% and 0.8% in 1901, and 7.3% and 6.4% in 1911, reflecting the growth in the town which rose from a 9.8% increase between 1881 and 1891, 16.9% from 1891 to 1901, and 29.2% from 1901 to 1911.57 Unemployment drove the movement from Lapithos, Karavas and other villages to the town and this was reflected in the high numbers that enlisted from these places in the Mule Corps. The other districts show similar connections between their population ebbs and flows and enlistment into the Cypriot Mule Corps, although that they did not have the same access to the rail transport that the three other districts had. Limassol district followed a similar pattern in growth to Famagusta, but on a smaller scale, with enlistment into the Mule Corps driven by the presence of the British garrison at Polymedia. Paphos and Larnaca consistently had the lowest growth, with both lacking agricultural land and its people migrating to other districts, namely Famagusta, for work. Paphos was the poorest and most isolated of the districts.58 Despite the lack of communications, all these districts significantly contributed to the Mule Corps. Population growth meant more housing, more jobs, a greater diversification in employment and a greater demand for finance. It also meant that more jobs needed creating. During the first four decades of British rule, most Cypriots remained small-scale cultivators, herders and labourers, although with the rise in population and its redistribution across the urban and rural spectrum, other careers became feasible. The 1891 Census was the first time that occupations were counted. Out of the population of 209,286, 68,010 (32.5%) stated an occupation, in addition to 35,748 (17%) claiming to be landowners as [ 40 ]

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well as having a second occupation. At the top of the list of occupations were farmers with 15,605, followed by scholars and students at 13,196, labourers 8,476, herders 4,705, domestic servants 3,745, weavers 3,424 and shoemakers 1,840. In the 1901 Census, 86,905 people, out of 237,023 (36.7%) stated an occupation, in addition to 35,338 (15%) stating that they were landowners, in comparison to 1911 which saw an increase to 103,352 stating an occupation, in addition to 44,055 claiming to be landowners as well as a second occupation, while only 631 stated that they were only landowners. The increase in employed people seems commensurate with the population increase, but the increase to landowners seems disproportionate, and must be due to more people owning land or not stating in the 1901 Census that they were landowners as well as having another occupation. In the 1901 Census 14,642 claimed to be farmers, but in 1911 it doubled to 29,363. This increase in farming and land ownership was also reflected in the significant increase in agricultural labourers and ploughmen, at 16,080 in 1911, while the figures in 1901 show 1,162 ploughmen and 12,862 labourers (in 1911 2,000 were also counted as ‘day labourers’).59 The increase in farming and agricultural labouring was reflected in the decrease in domestic service from 4,050 in 1901 to 2,532 in 1911. This meant that more people needed finance to achieve their dream of owning property, enough animals, farming equipment or a spinning wheel, evidenced by the increase in clerks from 282 in 1901 to 1,218 in 1911, bank employees from 11 in 1901 to 57 in 1911 and 25 bankers or brokers. This increase in the private sector was mirrored in the government sector, with the civil service growing from 500 in 1891 to 847 in 1911.60 The development of savings and cooperative banks before 1914 reflected these increases in population and occupations, and was an important step in mitigating the social and economic issues that arose out of them. In January 1899 a group of Greek Cypriot political elites, headed by Ioannis Economides, a Hellenised Cypriot nationalist and a merciless usurer, started the Nicosia Savings Bank. Based on Italian Popular Banks, it aimed to mobilise the savings of small depositors, attracting deposits from the middle- and lower-class urbanites in and around towns and regional centres, mostly housewives, shopkeepers and clerks, and investing into the private sector, especially small businesses. Other savings banks followed.61 The establishment of the Nicosia Savings Bank prompted the Cypriot government to pass the Government Savings Bank Law in 1900.62 By 1903 each of the principal towns had a Government Savings Bank, but the private banks offered better rates and the Government Savings Bank did not lend to the private sector, investing its funds in the London money market, [ 41 ]

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so by 1929 it had a mere £841 in deposits, while the Bank of Cyprus (formerly, Nicosia Savings Bank) had £122,000.63 The establishment of savings banks provided the financial security and opportunities for the expansion of the professional and middle classes – groups not especially represented in the Mule Corps – but also helped finance the cooperative movement. The development of the cooperative movement aimed to help cash- and credit-starved peasants and labourers. The first cooperative society was founded in Lefkonico, Famagusta, in November 1909, named ‘Lefkoniko Communal Bank’, under the directorship of Economides. Its charter stipulated that its members (initially 23) were jointly responsible for the liabilities (without any limit) of the society. The bank provided loans to new members with credit at reasonable terms.64 Economides figured that there was more money to make (by comparison to usury) by making credit more readily available and on better (though not overly generous) terms, through loaning the money of small savers (invested in the Savings Banks) to farmers through the cooperative. By loaning more at relatively high interest rates to more people, he would increase his profits. He established the cooperative society as another source of credit, beginning the important step of ending the stranglehold of the usurer. Soon, other societies were created and these became regulated in 1914 with the Cooperative Credit Societies Law.65 Yet the cooperative movement was still in its infancy and peasants saw the Mule Corps as a golden opportunity for fast money. The British arrival slowly ‘modernised’ Cyprus, even if this was inconsistent, especially politically.66 Important improvements were in public hygiene and health, which led to the rapid population growth, which in turn resulted in a surplus of the lower classes looking for work by 1914. The Cypriot Mule Corps came along at exactly the right moment for them.

Cyprus, 1914–18: beyond the Cypriot Mule Corps The service of the Cypriot Mule Corps from summer 1916 until April 1920 was not the only role played by Cypriots during the Great War. This section outlines this wider contribution, since there are important political and socio-economic implications from this on the Cypriot Mule Corps. From a backwater to a pawn By the end of October 1914 the Ottoman government of the Committee of Union and Progress had joined the Central Powers. On 5 November [ 42 ]

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Whitehall reacted by annexing Cyprus.67 This meant that the British Empire and Cyprus were at war with the Ottoman Empire. From a strategic point of view, the island remained insignificant for at least the first 18 months of the war, when it was primarily a pawn. When the war began in August 1914 there were less than 150 troops forming the garrison: one company of infantry and a few details of the Army Service and Army Medical Corps, all deriving from the Egyptian Command.68 This reflected the strategic inconsequence of the island. At the time, the military police (Zaptieh) were responsible for internal security. C.W. Orr, the Chief Secretary from July 1911 to May 1917, claimed in the annual report for 1914–15 that the Ottoman entry into the war and the annexation ‘created a new situation for Cyprus, but in practise the results were little felt’.69 He was not wrong. For the first 18 months most British military and political planners saw Cyprus as insignificant, of value only as a pawn that could be ceded to Greece in exchange for that country joining the war. The British acknowledged that in a war against another major power they were unlikely to defend Cyprus. In 1912 the General Staff and Field Marshall John French, Chief of Imperial General Staff, reported that in a war with Austria-Hungary and the British having lost command of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea for the first two months of the war, the defences of the island would not withstand an invasion. If the Ottoman Empire was also aligned with the Triple Alliance, the invasion could not be stopped.70 That Cyprus was inconsequential was further reflected in the decision to put it in the French naval patrol sphere at meetings in December 1915 and March 1916 which delineated French, British and Italian naval patrol zones in the Mediterranean.71 The British wanted to patrol areas in and around Malta and Egypt where they had strategic and military interests. The idea of Cyprus being a pawn had a long historical context, dating back to its controversial occupation in 1878 when leading Liberals opposed the Conservative government’s policy.72 Then in October 1908 the French and Russian governments, both British allies, suggested returning Cyprus to Ottoman rule if the Porte accepted the cession of Crete to Greece. Whitehall rejected this, yet privately the Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, argued, I believe Cyprus is of no use to us and the Convention respecting it an anachronism and encumbrance, I would therefore give the island away in return for any better arrangements we could obtain. Indeed bargain or no bargain we should be better without Cyprus.73

This resonated with David Lloyd George, the Chancellor of the Exchequer since April 1908, and Winston Churchill, the First Lord [ 43 ]

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of the Admiralty since October 1911. Churchill, who had coolly brushed off the fanatical enosis party when he visited Cyprus in 1907 as the Under-Secretary of State for Colonial Affairs, by referring to the protection of the Muslim Cypriots,74 was in 1912 so absorbed by the naval arms race with Germany that he set aside the welfare of Muslim Cypriots. Along with Lloyd George, Churchill proposed in December 1912 to the Pro-Entente Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos that in exchange for Athens granting Whitehall the right to use Argostoli harbour on Cephalonia, one of the Ionian Islands, in time of war and peace, the British government would cede Cyprus to Greece. Churchill, who claimed to have had the approval of both Prime Minister Asquith and Grey, was thinking pre-emptively: in a war against the Central Powers the British from Argostoli could block the Austro-Hungarian Fleet from exiting the Adriatic and menacing British shipping in the Mediterranean, while Cyprus would become a Greek responsibility to defend. A deal could not be worked out before the war started in August, when the benefits to the British had become redundant, after they and the French occupied Corfu.75 Cyprus remained a pawn, now as part of the allied game of enticing the Balkan states into the war. Within weeks of the war starting, the Cabinet agreed to cede Cyprus to Greece at the first chance.76 Chances came and went; the best was in October 1915 after the failed Gallipoli landings and Bulgaria’s entry and quick successes against Serbia. Whitehall was concerned at the resistance of the King of Greece, Constantine I, to adhere to the Greco–Serbian Treaty of 1912 that stipulated that a Bulgarian attack on either Greece or Serbia would mean that the other had to attack Bulgaria. Constantine’s position had resulted in the resignation of the popularly elected Anglophile, Venizelos.77 Whitehall decided to test the new royalist government, offering to cede Cyprus to Greece forthwith if Athens aided Serbia against Bulgaria. The elaborate plan was never implemented properly, and was also stalled by the high commissioner of Cyprus, Sir John Clauson, but in any event the pro-royalist Greek government of Alexander Zaimis rejected it.78 So even as a pawn Cyprus had failed. From backwater to bustling The rejection was a wake-up call for the British and the French to realise their common aims; this was not simply a reflection of the Gallipoli failure, but also of failures on the Western Front. This meant pressuring neutral states, such as Greece, by consolidating their position in Macedonia. They also decided that they needed to focus their military effort on their imperial aims after defeating the Ottoman Empire. British and French aims were captured in the Sykes–Picot [ 44 ]

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Agreement in May 1916. Devised by Mark Sykes, a Conservative MP and ‘Middle East’ expert, and Francois Georges-Picot, a French diplomat, the agreement divided the Ottoman provinces from Cilicia to Mesopotamia into either direct or indirect (where an Arab state would be created) French or British control.79 The structures and infrastructure to achieve these aims now needed conceptualisation and implementation. Cyprus was important to these aims, as they now centred on its adjacent mainland, rather than the distant Ottoman capital and the Balkans, which, in the case of the latter, continued as a secondary theatre on a more defensive strategy. Cyprus was valuable enough for the British to agree in Clause 4 of the Sykes–Picot Agreement that they would not cede it to another power without consulting the French government.80 Suddenly, the geographic location of Cyprus made it important as a military and humanitarian base. It played an important role as an intelligence base for the Middle East campaigns (namely Palestine), as a military base for the French trained Legion d’Orient, as a place to house POWs, and as a place for refugees. The Troodos Hill Station and the Polymedia Garrison Camp in Limassol served as bases for British and Commonwealth convalescents from Gallipoli and Egypt, although playing second fiddle to Malta, even though Troodos had more space and a cooler hills climate.81 Cyprus had an important role in gathering intelligence and counterintelligence. The Eastern Mediterranean Special Intelligence Bureau (EMSIB) operated on the southern shores of Anatolia and the northern Syrian coast out of Cyprus (with southern Syrian intelligence out of Port Said). Cyprus was used as the base for human and electronic intelligence gathering. Both proved unreliable. Electronic intelligence, which necessitated the construction of wireless stations (namely direction finders) in Cyprus, was in its infancy, and while obtaining credible information was one thing, it needed deciphering and communicating to the front, and action taken accordingly. Human intelligence was even more unreliable. Although Jewish agents proved good, Cypriot agents were unreliable. There was a risk that vital military information about troop movements and military plans in Cyprus and Egypt could be leaked via Cyprus. There was a disagreement between the military intelligence officers and the colonial government as regards counterespionage. After martial law was declared, progressively new regulations were added, but these did not satisfy EMSIB, who demanded that martial law in Cyprus be brought into line with the tougher one in Egypt. Sir John Clauson, who replaced Goold-Adams within weeks of the war beginning, refused. Ultimately, the repeated threats posed by disloyal Cypriots and the pressure from military intelligence forced [ 45 ]

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Clauson’s hand in April 1918.82 EMSIB had been right to worry: some Muslims tried to break-out Ottoman POWs and another group stole a boat and at Antalya revealed numerous military secrets.83 Cyprus served as a location for various military and humanitarian camps during the war. Karaolos, a few miles north of Old Famagusta, served as a major Ottoman Prisoner of War camp from October 1916 to February 1920. By May 1917 the camp housed 3,500 prisoners, rising to 5,400 in early 1918 and to 10,000 by the end of the war.84 As mentioned, disloyal Cypriot Muslims attempted to ‘break-out’ Ottoman POWs in what was one of several breaches that forced Clauson to implement the tougher restrictions.85 Also in October 1916, French army officers established a camp at Monarga, 12 miles north of Famagusta, to train Armenian volunteers in the Legion d’Orient. Over 4,500 Armenian volunteers from genocide survivors to those of the diaspora, especially from the USA, trained at the camp, which disbanded in February 1919. The Legion d’Orient, renamed the Armenian Legion in 1919, served in the Palestine Campaign, namely at the Battle of Arara, and in the French army of occupation of Cilicia and other Ottoman Armenianpopulated provinces.86 The Cypriot government attempted to keep the Legion a secret, but this was not easy because some of the Armenians misbehaved and caused problems for locals and because Cypriot Muslims revealed the existence of the Legion at Antalya and the Ottomans sent surveillance planes, which photographed the camp.87 Cyprus also provided asylum to many groups fleeing Ottoman dominions, namely from Cilicia and Syria. The Cypriot government formed a special committee to arrange for their housing, care, education and employment.88 Indeed a number of refugees from Syria arrived in Cyprus both before and after the Ottoman declaration of war. A critical evacuation was that of Ruad Island, which the French had occupied in August 1915, after the Ottoman army threatened to bombard it in November 1917. The women, children and elderly, numbering 761, were housed in the quarantine station at Dhekelia, Larnaca. After the armistice they were repatriated.89 As for Armenian refugees fleeing the genocide, they were less welcome, such as those from the Musa Dagh resistance in July 1915, but later Armenians were settled in the island in the 1920s.90 All these camps were provisioned and maintained entirely from local resources.91 Cyprus, being geographically located and its primary industry being agriculture, served as an important supplies base for the Allied forces in the Near and Middle East. As the Handbook for Cyprus in 1920 stated, ‘it is probably true to say that at no time for many hundreds of years has there been so great a demand as during the war for the various products of the island’.92 A number of commissions from the [ 46 ]

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Expeditionary Forces in Egypt, Salonica and France visited/had representatives in the island and purchased supplies, such as grain (wheat, barley and oats), carobs, potatoes, onions, eggs, various vegetables and fruit, cheese, dried fruits, wine and brandy, and chopped straw. The war diary of the Director of Supplies and Transport, Salonica, Brigadier-General Arthur Long, shows how valuable Cyprus was for allied supplies in Egypt, Salonica and France. Long started buying Cypriot products in summer 1916, when he started to procure mules and enlist muleteers.93 The most important products from Cyprus were potatoes, carobs (locust beans) and wood. Thousands of tons of potatoes were exported from Cyprus to Salonica during the war for both consumption and as seed. As early as May 1917 Long decided that he did not need Italian potatoes or potato seed because he could obtain requirements from Cyprus.94 He was also planning to grow the entire vegetable ration from July onwards, with the exception of onions, which would be obtained from Cyprus.95 But he soon conceded that Macedonian conditions were too harsh and as early as October 1917 he wired Sisman that Salonica needed all the potatoes Cyprus could produce in 1918 and to ask Clauson to ‘induce Cypriots to increase potato cultivation’.96 Cypriot potatoes became imperative to Salonica when in January 1918 Long could no longer procure potatoes from France.97 Carobs were just as important and Long purchased them for Salonica and France to feed horses and mules.98 In 1917 Sisman purchased 30,000 tons of carob beans, 20,000 tons for France and the rest for Salonica.99 In October 1917 Long purchased another 12,000 tons.100 Then in 1918 about half the 1917 harvest (over 40,000 tons) was purchased for France and Salonica.101 Cyprus also supplied wood to the army, especially in Egypt, which entirely relied on fuel from abroad. In 1916 Cyprus donated more than 2,000 tons of fuel for the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Subsequently, the General Officer-Commandingin-Chief in Egypt requested a regular supply of wood fuel from Cyprus. Until 31 March 1919, about 75,000 tons of fuel costing about £80,000; 200,000 cubic feet of sawn timber valued at £23,000; 410,000 pickets costing £7,000; and 36,000 telegraph poles valued at £13,000 were supplied.102 The Cypriot government implemented policies to increase the production of food-stuffs. For example, good prices were paid for potatoes, thus encouraging more cultivation, while the government also provided generous grants of seed corn to farmers. More significantly, perhaps, were the restrictions placed on the cultivation of ‘non-­ essential products’. A labour shortage especially impacted upon the government departments engaged in the provision of transporting supplies to the army. The Railway Department was already disadvantaged [ 47 ]

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Table 2.1  Cypriot revenue, 1909–25 Year

Revenue (£)

1909–10 1910–11 1911–12 1912–13 1913–14 1914–15 1915–16 1916–17 1917–18 1918–19 1919–20 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925

309,775 286,848 319,572 334,685 341,816 290,110 363,692 332,584 498,460 610,499 602,927 668,518 682,374 668,294 567,389 593,318 668,130

Source: Cyprus Annual Reports for the respective years.

because of the shortage of rolling stock, which consisted of a mere nine locomotives and 72 wagons. This was ‘barely sufficient for the ordinary requirements of the island in normal times’, so the task of transporting war materials in addition to internal needs ‘imposed a very severe strain on the resources of the railway’. Consequently it was difficult to keep the rolling stock in order, especially since it was ‘practically impossible to obtain renewals or spare parts from the outside world’. The Forestry Department was arguably the most impacted since the need to provide timber and fuel was so great, and necessitated the undertaking of additional works because the existing infrastructure was insufficient. Three new saw-mills were built, while 28 miles of road and 102 miles of forest tracks were created to transport the timber and fuel from the places where they were felled to the railway or sea. Various means were used to transport the timber aside from the railway, including native boats, some of which were sunk by enemy submarines. Owing to the constant damage to roads and culverts from the heavy military lorries and carts moving supplies, the Public Works Department had considerable work repairing roads and building new ones.103 The requirements of the war and the action taken by the authorities dramatically increased government revenue. The first boom year was 1917–18 with £498,460, a massive increase from the previous [ 48 ]

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years, while the following year the revenue collected skyrocketed to £610,499, and continued to be consistently at about this amount into the 1920s. In November 1920 the Treasury in London, having noted the excellent state of Cypriot finances and having accumulated a reserve fund of £200,000, wrote to the Colonial Office about how Cyprus should contribute to the cost of the war. Claiming that the island had not made any contribution it asked whether it could ‘offer any relief to the sorely burdened British taxpayer’.104 The Colonial Office replied that ‘the political reasons against making any demand upon her [Cyprus] at the present time are … conclusive’.105 Cypriot society and the Great War Various sections of society, across class and religion, reacted differently to the war. Overall, Cypriot society was loyal, yet not monolithic. The peasant and labouring classes were the most loyal. Many educated elites supported the ‘neutralist’ King Constantine of Greece or the Ottoman enemy, even if there were only a few acts that threatened the war effort. The British watered down the disloyal elements of the local population and the impact of the war on society. Sir Charles Prestwood Lucas, a civil servant in the Colonial Office and later head of the Dominion Department, claimed in his official account of the British Empire during the Great War that ‘the body of Moslems in Cyprus, as elsewhere in the British Empire, showed no desire to follow the lead of Turkey, and were all content with British citizenship’.106 This was a generalisation and some Cypriot Christians were also disloyal, despite Muslims and Christians enlisting in the Mule Corps in droves. Lucas exaggerated when he claimed that No inconvenience was … caused to the civil and industrial life of the community, and the existence of martial law made it unnecessary to pass the manifold war enactments which kept the local legislatures busy in most colonies.107

He neglected that martial law placed many limitations on the population, while the military intelligence authorities constantly wanted the Cypriot government to upgrade it to match Egypt’s. Stevenson echoed Lucas, claiming in his report on Cyprus during the war that all classes of the community combined in a cheerful and resolute manner to assist the Government of the island by willingly meeting the many demands made on them and by readily submitting to the restrictions imposed by the various regulations which military exigencies necessitated.108

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These rosy assessments imply a loyal population, yet it was not so monolithic. Stevenson’s use of the word ‘all’ should be replaced with ‘most’. There is much evidence to suggest that the loyalty of some of the Cypriots, especially of the political, professional and business elites, across the ‘religious divide’, was dubious, yet most of the peasant and labouring classes were loyal.109 One reason for the educated classes being less loyal was, in Lucas’s words, the fact that the war, like elsewhere in the world, ‘brought high prices and great increase[s] in the cost of living’.110 The political, professional and business classes made much money through lending it but since the peasant and labouring classes were making money through the Cypriot Mule Corps and the nascent cooperative movement they were losing out. So, most of the political, professional and business elites were economically adversely affected, especially in conjunction with the rising living costs and the lack of a corresponding rise in income from their fixed salaries. Politically the educated classes were either pro-British status quo or followed the divisions in Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Some Cypriot Christians and Muslims, especially civil servants, were pro-British and supported the status quo. A smaller group of Cypriot Orthodox Christians were Anglophile supporters of Venizelos, yet still Greek nationalists. The British questioned their loyalties to British rule because they supported enosis and so the British rejected an offer from one of them to create a Cypriot fighting force for the war.111 More of the Cypriot Orthodox elite were Royalists and supported Greek neutrality. An illustrative example was the incident on 12 February 1917 when the firebrand Greekborn nationalist Dr Philios Zannettos interrupted a speech by the Venezelist Bishop of Kitium, Metaxakis, at the Girls School, Larnaca when Metaxakis expressed sorrow at the massacre of British troops in Athens on 1 and 2 December 1916. Zannettos angrily shouted that the massacre was a British lie, betraying his anti-British sympathies. Denying his intervention, Zannettos was contradicted by a stream of witnesses, while the Royalist newspapers criticised Metaxakis for blindly following Venizelist and British positions. The incident, one of many, highlighted the political divisions within the Christian political elites across Venizelist and Royalist lines.112 This disloyalty, however, did not threaten the British war effort as some Muslim acts did. A small group of Muslims were fanatically loyal to the Young Turks,113 such as those groups that attempted to break out Ottoman POWs and that fled to Antalya and revealed vital intelligence to the enemy. On the other hand, during the war the peasant and labouring classes were substantially better off. They were able to off-set the rise in living costs by selling more products than before the war, and producing [ 50 ]

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more vegetables and grains for their own use. Moreover, there was a significant increase in labouring jobs, aided by the fact that so many able-bodied men enlisted for the Cypriot Mule Corps, reducing competition.114 There was also more money for those with an allotment or those muleteers returning with their pockets full to invest back into the Cypriot economy. The ‘loyalties’ across the class and religious divide must therefore take into account political and socio-economic considerations. Peasants and rural labourers were too busy trying to feed their families to care about local politics or a world war and had less knowledge about such matters. Yet they knew that the Mule Corps was a unique opportunity for well-paid work and their loyalty to the British cause was inherent in their enlistment.

Conclusion Two British approaches to Cyprus dictated the transition in society from the premodern to the modern: the first was the British breaking of the traditional Ottoman system of co-opting the local elite, namely the higher clergy of the Cypriot Orthodox Church, and instituting a limited introduction of political modernity; the second was to regard Cyprus as an inconsequential possession, which meant little imperial and private investment, necessitating the colonial government trying to do its best with the limited finances to develop the island and increase productivity and revenue. There were a number of repercussions from these two approaches. The failure to co-opt local elites left a political and social power vacuum at the top. New social and political elites emerged from the introduction of political modernity, such as the legislature. One group, although not homogenous, were the outgrowth of the British modernist path that the British were closely controlling. These were mostly educated elites who were soon joined by the rising middle class to slowly adopt a new ideology – nationalism. This was not, however, a Cypriot nationalism that included Muslims as well as Christians, or a ‘state’ nationalism, but an exclusive nationalism that identified Cypriot Orthodox Christians as Greeks and the ‘motherland’ as Greece, thus necessitating the creation of a selective and nationalised script of the Greek nation in Cyprus. This left the traditional elite out in the cold, until they assimilated into the movement. Ultimately, British modernisation led to the development of a pro-British group, mostly civil servants, and two nationalist groups, one closely tied to the Greek monarchy and the other to the liberal movement in Greece. The Muslim elite were also divided between those supporting the British, those who supported the British but also had ties with the old [ 51 ]

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order in the Ottoman Empire, and those supporting the Young Turk Movement. In any event, the nationalisation of the peasantry and working classes did not occur before the Great War and therefore did not deter them from attempting to enlist in the Cypriot Mule Corps. Cypriot government efforts to develop society resulted in a significant rise in population and a corresponding rise in men seeking work, some of which was alleviated by an increase in traditional and non-traditional employment, which had an important impact on socio-economic structures. Although it did not produce a politicised or nationalised polity, it did mean that there were more economic opportunities for the lower classes, namely in agriculture and construction, necessitating the need to obtain finance so more land could be cultivated and homes built. There were only two ways to obtain funds: borrow it from money lenders or from the few cooperative banks. The alternative was to emigrate. For this reason the offer to work as muleteers in the British Army offered significant financial incentives to those peasant and rural labouring men and their families. The Cypriot Mule Corps was not the only contribution made by Cyprus. In July 1919 High Commissioner Stevenson sent Milner, the Colonial Secretary, a statistical breakdown of the contribution of Cyprus during the Great War, broken down into five sections, men, animals, money, foodstuffs and timber.115 Except for the first, all have been discussed above. Even without the Cypriot Mule Corps, it was a significant contribution, yet it was the enlistment of men into it that was the most impressive.

Notes 1 Captain L.B. Weldon, ‘Hard Lying’: Eastern Mediterranean, 1914–1919, Herbert Jenkins, London, 1925, 97. 2 Ibid., 20. 3 See Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus. 4 For a broader context see Michalis N. Michael, Tassos Anastassiades and Chantal Verdeil (eds), Religious Communities and Modern Statehood: The Ottoman and Post-Ottoman World at the Age of Nationalism and Colonialism, Klaus Schwarz Verlag, Berlin, 2015. 5 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 152–201; Varnava, ‘Sophronios III, 1865– 1900: The Last of the “Old” and the First of the “New” Archbishop-Ethnarchs?’ in Andrekos Varnava and Michalis N. Michael (eds), The Archbishop’s of Cyprus in the Modern Age, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013, 106–47; Andrekos Varnava and Irene Pophaides, ‘Kyrillos II, 1909–16: The First Greek Nationalist and Enosist’, ibid., 148–176. 6 Costas Kyrris, ‘The Role of Greeks in the Ottoman Administration of Cyprus’, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Cypriot Studies, 3(A), 1973, 149–79; Nicholas Coureas, ‘The Cypriot Reaction to the Establishment of the Latin Church: Resistance and Collaboration’, Sources Travaux Historiques, 43/4, 1995, 75–84.

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British C yprus , 1878 – 1 9 1 8 7 See generally Varnava and Michael (eds), The Archbishops of Cyprus in the Modern Age. 8 Achilles Aimilianides, ‘Η Εξέλιξει του Δίκαιου των Μικτών Γάμων εν Κύπρω’ (‘The development of the Law of Mixed Marriages in Cyprus’), Kypriakai Spoudai, 2, 1938, 197–236 (209); Paschalis Kitromilides, ‘From Coexistence to Confrontation: The Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus’, in Michalis Attalides (ed.), Cyprus Reviewed, Nicosia, 1977, 35–70; Paul Sant Cassia, ‘Religion, Politics and Ethnicity in Cyprus during the Turkocratia (1571–1878)’, European Studies of Sociology, 1986, 3–28; Kemal Cicek, ‘Living Together: Muslim–Christian Relations in Eighteenth-Century Cyprus as Reflected by the Sharia Court Records’, Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 4(1), 1993, 36–64; Theodore Papadopoullos, Δημώδη Κυπριακά Άσματα εξ Ανεκδότων Συλλογών του ΙΘ’ Αιώνος (Cypriot folk Songs on unpublished collections of the nineteenth century), Nicosia, 1975, 63, 151–7, 213–16, 220–5, 239–41, 243–50; K. Giagoullis, ‘Ο Χριστοφής τζε η Εμινέ’ (‘Christophis and Emine’), Laographiki Kypros, 23, 1972, 15–21. 9 N. Kizilyurek, ‘The Turkish Cypriot Upper Class and Question of Identity’, Turkish Cypriot Identity in Literature, Fatal, London, 1990, 21. 10 FO 198/13, consular report, 1858. 11 Richard A. Patrick, Political Geography and the Cyprus Conflict: 1963–1971, Ontario 1976, 12; Census, 1891. 12 Michalis N. Michael, Η Εκκλησία της Κύπρου κατά την οθωμανική περίοδο (1571–1878): Η σταδιακή συγκρότηση της σε θεσμό πολιτικής εξουσίας (The Church of Cyprus during the Ottoman period (1571–1878): the gradual establishment of an institution of political power), Cyprus Research Centre, Nicosia, 2005, 215–40; Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 153–5. 13 John Kakridis, ‘The Ancient Greeks and the Greeks of the War of Independence’, Balkan Studies, 4(2), 1963, 251–64; Victor Roudometof, ‘From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularisation, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453–1821’, Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 16(1), 1998, 11–48. 14 Sophronios autobiographical note, 1868, Theodore Papadopoullos, ‘Εθναρχικός Ρόλος της Ορθοδόξου Ιεραρχίας’ (Ethnarchic Role of the Orthodox hierarchy), Kypriakai Spoudai, 35, 1971, 95–141 (115). 15 Varnava, ‘Sophronios III’. 16 Demetrios Kappae, Τα Μοναστήρια της Κύπρου (The monasteries of Cyprus), 3rd edition, author, Limassol, 1998. 17 Rolandos Katsiaounis, Labour, Society and Politics in Cyprus in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century, Nicosia, 1996, 72–7; Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 167. 18 Roland L.N. Michell, ‘A Muslim-Christian Sect in Cyprus’, The Nineteenth Century and After, 63, May 1908, 751–62; R.M. Dawkins, ‘The Crypto-Christians of Turkey’, Byzantion, 1933, 247–75; Costas M. Constantinou, ‘Aporias of Identity: Bicommunalism, Hybridity and the “Cyprus Problem”’, Cooperation and Conflict, 42(3), 2007, 247–70. 19 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 163–4, 294. 20 Varnava, ‘Sophronios III’. 21 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 185–6. 22 Ibid., 75–87. 23 Ibid., particularly chapters 3 and 4. 24 See Andrekos Varnava, ‘El Dorados, utopias and dystopias in imperialism and colonial settlement’, in Andrekos Varnava (ed.), Imperial Expectations and ­ Realities: El Dorados, Utopias and Dystopias, Manchester University Press, 2015, 1–25. 25 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 93–126. 26 Ibid, 172–5, 152–201, 272–80. 27 Varnava and Yakinthou, ‘Cyprus: Political Modernity and Structures of Democracy in a Divided Island’.

[ 53 ]

S ERV I N G TH E EM PI RE I N TH E G R E A T W A R 28 Cyprus: Report of the Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Extent, Causes and Effects of Indebtedness in the Island, Government Printing Office, Nicosia, 1918. 29 Nicholas Constantine Lanitis, Rural Indebtedness and Agricultural Co-operation in Cyprus, Limassol, 1945 (revised, Proodos, Limassol 1992), 8. 30 Ibid., 10–12, 34, 41. 31 Stanley Fisher, The Statute Laws of Cyprus, 1878–1923, I–II, Waterlow & Sons, London, 1923, I, 906–7. 32 For the locust campaigns and internal communications, see Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 132–45, 155. 33 Morgan, Sweet and Bitter Island, 197–8. 34 Sandra M. Sufian, Healing the Land and the Nation: Malaria and the Zionist Project in Palestine, 1920–1947, University of Chicago Press, 2007. 35 Frank M. Snowden, ‘“Fields of death”: Malaria in Italy, 1861–1962’, Modern Italy, 4(1), 1999, 25–57. 36 A. Vakali et al., ‘Malaria in Greece, 1975 to 2010’, Euro Surveillance, 17(47), 2012, pii=20322. Available online: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle. aspx?ArticleId=20322. 37 CO67/10, General Report on Famagusta District by Civil Surgeon, Dr C. Irvine, 20 November 1879. See further Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 118. 38 Report on the Sanitary Condition and Drainage of the District of Famagusta and the Mesaoria in Cyprus, the Chevalier David Bocci, Chief Engineer, RE, Parma, 5 June 1880, CO, November 1881; Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 97–107. 39 For example with the new hospital in Larnaca being built on land donated by the Cypriot landowner Richard Mattei. 40 The maternity block struggled to attract women, with only 13 admissions in 1913–14. 41 Second Annual Report of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of Cyprus for the Year 1881, CO Confidential Print, Mediterranean, No. 12, April 1883; Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 169–71; Censuses 1891 and 1911. 42 Second Annual Report of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of Cyprus 1881. 43 CO 67/87/19066, No. 305, Sendall to Ripon, 20 October 1894. 44 Censuses of 1901 and 1911; Second Annual Report of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of Cyprus 1881. 45 Robert Kubicek, ‘Joseph Chamberlain, the Treasury and Imperial Development, 1895–1903’, The Canadian Historical Association, 44(1), 1965, 105–16. 46 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 142–3. 47 Ibid., 142–5, 289; Annual Report for Cyprus, 1913–14, 38–41. 48 Andrekos Varnava and Peter Clarke, ‘Accounting in Cyprus during Late Ottoman and Early British Rule, 1840–1918’, The Cyprus Review, 26(2), 2014, 33–55. 49 Census Reports 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911. 50 Ibid. 51 Diamond Jenness, The Economics of Cyprus: A Survey to 1914, McGill University Press, Montreal, 1962, 198. 52 Census Reports 1891, 1901 and 1911. 53 Jenness, The Economics of Cyprus, 187. 54 Ibid., 206; Fisher, The Statute Laws of Cyprus, 259. 55 Census Reports 1901 and 1911. 56 Census Reports 1881, 1891, 1901 and 1911. 57 Census Reports 1901 and 1911. From 1901 to 1911 Kyrenia must have received people from Nicosia, the closest town, probably because the redevelopment of the small harbour at Kyrenia (completed in the early 1890s) improved trade between Cyprus and Anatolia. Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 135–9. 58 Sir Charles R. Tyser, Cyprus: Extract from the Annual Report of the Chief Justice Sir Charles Tyser for the Year 1913–14, Government Printing Office, Nicosia, 1914, 1, 6–7.

[ 54 ]

British C yprus , 1878 – 1 9 1 8 59 The other occupation to drastically increase between 1901 and 1911 was weavers, from 6,034 to 10,121, tripling since 1891. The increase was linked to the greater production of cotton and silk and so was directly related to cultivation. As Katsiaounis also showed, the relative poverty of the first decade or so of British rule was gradually changing by the turn of the century. Katsiaounis, Labour, Society and Politics in Cyprus, 119–37. 60 Census Reports 1881, 1891, 1901 and 1911; Varnava and Clarke, ‘Accounting in Cyprus during Late Ottoman and Early British Rule’. 61 Kate Phylaktis, ‘Banking in a British Colony: Cyprus 1878–1959’, Business History, 1987–8, 416–31; Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 135–9, 179. 62 Fisher, The Statute Laws of Cyprus, 850–6. 63 Phylaktis, ‘Banking in a British Colony’, 421. Phylaktis argued that the growth of the Nicosia Savings Bank was largely due to the decision of the Cypriot government in 1912 to allow it to change its status into a Societe anonyme, on the basis of the Ottoman Commercial Law. Thus the Bank of Cyprus enjoyed the rare privilege of limited liability before the 1922 Companies (Limited Liability) Law. See Varnava and Clarke, ‘Accounting in Cyprus during Late Ottoman and Early British Rule’; and Peter Clarke and Andrekos Varnava, ‘Accounting in Cyprus during British Rule, Post-World War I to Independence’, Accounting History, 18(3), 2013, 293–315. 64 Kevork K. Keshishian, Famagusta Town and District Cyprus, Limassol, 1985, 103; The Co-operative Movement in Cyprus, Public Information Office, 2004, 25–8. 65 Fisher, The Statute Laws of Cyprus, 170–80; Aristedis Koudounaris, Βιογραφικόν Λεξικόν Κυπρίων, 1800–1920 (Biographical lexicon of Cypriots, 1800–1920), Nicosia, 2001, 267–8; Varnava and Clarke, ‘Accounting in Cyprus during Late Ottoman and Early British Rule’. 66 Varnava and Yakinthou, ‘Cyprus: Political Modernity and Structures of Democracy in a Divided Island’. 67 See the following files on why Cyprus was annexed rather than made a protectorate, and for matters relating to Cypriots becoming British subjects. FO371/2143/56311, FO371/2143/62037, FO371/2143/65473, FO371/2143/65957, FO371/2143/67613, FO371/2143/67712 and FO371/2143/67792. 68 Sir Charles Lucas, The Empire at War, V, Royal Colonial Institute, Oxford University Press, 1926, 21. 69 Annual Report on Cyprus for 1914–15, Cd-7662, HMSO, London, 1915, 40. 70 CAB 38/20/13, Attack on Cyprus by Austria; Defence of Cyprus, 9 May 1912; CAB 38/20/16, Note by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff covering the following papers prepared by the General Staff on the attack and defence of: Malta (92C); Cyprus (93C); and Egypt (149B), 9 May 1912. 71 Mediterranean Staff Papers Relating to Naval Operations from August 1917 to December 1918, C.B. 1546, compiled by staff of the Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean, Admiralty, January 1920. 72 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 97–100, 246–7. 73 Ibid., 248–9; FO800/172, private, Grey to Bertie, 29 October 1908. 74 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 183–6. 75 Ibid., 250–61. 76 FO800/91, Grey to Harcourt, 19 January 1915; Philip Magnus, Kitchener, London, 1958, 313–14. 77 See George B. Leon, Greece and the Great Powers, Institute for Balkan Studies, Thessaloniki, 1974. 78 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 261–6. 79 See file FO371/2767/23579; Andrekos Varnava, ‘French and British Post-War Imperial Agendas and Forging an Armenian Homeland after the Genocide: The Formation of the Légion d’Orient in October 1916’, The Historical Journal, 57(4), 2014, 997–1025. 80 For text of the Sykes–Picot Agreement, see Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919–1939, First Series, IV, London, 1952, 241–51.

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S ERV I N G TH E EM PI RE I N TH E G R E A T W A R 81 Lucas, The Empire at War, V, 21; Andrekos Varnava, ‘Recreating Rural Britain and Maintaining Britishness in the Mediterranean: The Troodos Hill Station in Early British Cyprus’, The Cyprus Review, 17(2), 2005, 47–80. 82 Varnava, ‘British Military Intelligence in Cyprus during the Great War’. 83 Ibid.; for the stolen vessel see SA1/806/1917. This was revealed to the Cypriot authorities after the war by a Cypriot Muslim asked to interpret for the men. 84 CO67/182/61931, secret, Clauson to Bonar Law, 11 December 1916; Annual Report for Cyprus, 1916–17, 17; Lucas, The Empire at War, V, 21; Danny Goldman, ‘Famagusta’s Historical Detention and Refugee Camps’, Journal of Cypriot Studies, 11, 2005, 29–53, 32. 85 Varnava, ‘British Military Intelligence in Cyprus during the Great War’. 86 Varnava, ‘Imperialism First, the War Second’; Varnava, ‘French Imperialism, Armenian Autonomy and Anglo–French War Aims’. 87 SA1/780/16; Andrekos Varnava, ‘Famagusta during the Great War: From Backwater to Bustling’, in Michael Walsh (ed.), Famagusta: City of Empires, 1571–1960, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2015, 91–111; Ulvi Keser, Kıbrıs 1914–1923: Fransız Ermeni kampları I˙ngiliz esir kampları ve Atatürkçü Kıbrıs Türkü (Cyprus 1914–1923: French Armenian camps, British prisoner camps and Kemalist Cypriot Turks), Akdeniz Haber Ajansı Yayınları, Istanbul, 2001, photos 234–6 and 243–5. 88 Annual Report for Cyprus, 1914–15, 41; Annual Report for Cyprus, 1919–20, Cmd. 508–29, HMSO, London, 1920, 4; Lucas, The Empire at War, V, 21. 89 Lucas, The Empire at War, V, 21. 90 Andrekos Varnava and Trevor Harris, ‘“It is quite impossible to receive them”: Saving the Musa Dagh Refugees and the Imperialism of European Humanitarianism’, work in progress; For Armenian population statistics see Andrekos Varnava, ‘The minorities of Cyprus in the history of Cyprus textbook for Lyceum students: a critique’, in Andrekos Varnava, Nicholas Coureas and Marina Elia (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal-Exclusion, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009, 299–313. 91 CO67/192/37309, Stevenson memorandum, 3 June 1919; see SA1:1068/1916 and SA1/1184/1915; Varnava, ‘Famagusta during the Great War: From Backwater to Bustling’. 92 Luke and Jardine, The Handbook of Cyprus, 293–4. 93 WO95/4790, WDSA, DSTS, 23 and 24 July 1917; ibid., 8 August 1917; ibid., 15 December 1917; from May 1918 Cyprus came under the administration of Egyptforce. WO95/4791, WDSA, DSTS, 26 May 1918; ibid., 12 June 1918. 94 WO95/4790, WDSA, DSTS, 12 May 1917. 95 Ibid., 17 May 1917. 96 WO95/4791, WDSA, DSTS, 26 May 1918; WO95/4790, WDSA, DSTS, 11 October 1917. 97 WO95/4791, WDSA, DSTS, 5 January 1918. 98 Ibid., 17 January 1918. 99 WO95/4790, WDSA, DSTS, 12 January 1917; ibid., 13 January 1917; ibid., 15 January 1917; ibid., 18 January 1917; ibid., 12 February 1917; ibid., 7 March 1917; ibid., 29 March 1917. 100 Ibid., 20 October 1917. 101 WO95/4791, WDSA, DTS, 16 February 1918 and 22 April 1918. 102 Lucas, The Empire at War, V, 21. 103 Ibid. 104 CO67/201/54305, Upcott, Treasury, to Fiddes, CO, 3 November 1920. 105 CO67/201/54305, Fiddes, CO to Upcott, Treasury, 12 November 1920. 106 Lucas, The Empire at War, V, 21. Muslims in India were not all loyal. See Philip Stigger, ‘How Far Was the Loyalty of the Muslim Soldier in the Indian Army More in Doubt Than Usual throughout the First World War?’ Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 87(351), 225–33. 107 Lucas, The Empire at War, V, 20.

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British C yprus , 1878 – 1 9 1 8 108 CO67/192/37309, Stevenson memorandum, 3 June 1919. 109 Varnava, ‘British Military Intelligence in Cyprus during the Great War’. 110 Lucas, The Empire at War, V, 21. 111 Varnava, ‘The Politics and Imperialism of Colonial and Foreign Volunteer Legions during the Great War: Comparing Proposals for Cypriot, Armenian and Jewish Legions’. 112 See FCO141/2373, which includes police reports, witness statements and news­ paper articles. 113 See also Altay Nevzat, Nationalism amongst the Turks of Cyprus: The First Wave, Oulou, 2005, 218–55. 114 CO67/192/37309, Stevenson memorandum, 3 June 1919. 115 CO67/192/44124, Stevenson to Milner, 15 July 1919.

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C HAP T E R T HREE

The formation of the Cypriot Mule Corps

In summer 1916, the British authorities established the Cypriot Mule Corps for service in the British army at the Salonica Front. Officially styled the Macedonian Mule Corps, the majority of the men were Cypriots, not Macedonians. This chapter deals with its formation, answering why and how it was formed, why Cypriot mules and men were selected, and outlining the roles of the various authorities involved. Soon after establishing themselves in Salonica, the British, realising the harsh conditions, especially the terrain, turned to procuring Cypriot mules and enlisting Cypriots to drive them. In the absence of a document that discloses why Cypriot mules and drivers were chosen, this chapter suggests prior British experiences. By integrating the local with the global, this chapter shows how the British Empire operated and how Cypriot mules and muleteers were selected for this important war service. On 6 October 1915 French and British forces established the Salonica Front after their failed Gallipoli landings to aid Serbia against the combined German, Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian forces.1 The French and British forces were sent north of Salonica, but failed to prevent the fall of Serbia. Greek political divisions did not help. The pro-Entente prime minister, Eleftherios Venizelos, resigned at the stubborn (perceived as pro-German) neutrality of King Constantine.2 Subsequently the new Royalist government rejected the British offer to immediately cede Cyprus to Greece in exchange for militarily aiding Serbia.3 Allied troops, numbering 600,000, under French Commander Maurice Sarrail, withdrew to the Salonica town area and established strong defensive positions from the Albanian Adriatic coast to the Struma River through an extensive system of trenches. Limited allied attacks near Monastir in Serbia in 1916 and 1917 led in September 1918 to the breakthrough into Bulgaria and the armistice.4 The campaign was fought in difficult climatic and physical [ 58 ]

The formation of the C ypriot M ule C orps

3.1    ‘Fed No Complaints’, contained in Canon Newham’s trunk.

c­ onditions, which the allies had not properly prepared for. Diseases, particularly malaria, were prevalent. In the winter the winds were fierce and freezing, while in the summer the heat was unbearable and filled with malarial mosquitoes. All-year round the allied forces dealt with the barren mountains filled with treacherous ravines. Good roads were sparse; most were dirt-tracks in the mountains used by goats, donkeys, mules and the occasional bullock and old cart. Roads needed construction and serious resources devoted to transportation of all kinds in order to traverse the difficult mountains.5 In the first months the British, who were making their way to Doiran, found the roads congested. It was not until after 24 April 1916 that General Sir Bryan Mahon, the commander of the 10th (Irish) Division and then the head of the British Salonica Force, upon being ordered to march to the Greco–Serbian border claimed that to succeed he immediately needed an additional 1,676 pack animals and 1,232 drivers per division.6 This is when and why Cypriot mules (and from many other parts of the world) and Cypriot muleteers became pivotal.

Formation The origins of the formation of the Cypriot Mule Corps lie with a 24 May 1916 enquiry from the British Minister in Athens, Sir Francis [ 59 ]

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Elliot, to the High Commissioner of Cyprus, Sir John Clauson, asking if 7,000 Cypriot muleteers could be raised for service in the British army in Salonica.7 Three days later Lieutenant-General George Milne, the Commander of the British Salonica Forces, asked Clauson if 3,000 Cypriot muleteers could be furnished at once. I am anxious to raise [a] corps [of] muleteers for service in this area. I understand that some reliable Cypriots might be forthcoming. Daily pay [is] approximately three Drachma with higher rates for foreman [and] certain articles of clothing and fixed rations [provided free]. Could employ at once 3,000 and as many more later. Would you kindly inform me what numbers would be forthcoming from Cyprus and [the] time necessary to enrol.8

It is unclear what evidence they had that Cypriots were expert muleteers and ‘reliable’. Clauson replied on 29 May that 3,000 muleteers could be raised in three weeks.9 The Salonica authorities initially attempted to recruit Macedonians as muleteers and to procure Cypriot mules. The involvement of mules was pivotal in all theatres in the Great War. In comparison to horses the importance of mules was most evident in the ‘Eastern’ Theatres, Salonica, Mesopotamia and Egypt-Palestine (see Appendix I), with the Macedonian and Mesopotamian theatres the only ones with more mules than horses. In March 1916 the Serbian army informed the French army that many of their horses had died during the bitterly cold winter and that they needed more animals than previously foreseen. The French asked the British to provide the Serbians with mules, and after much debate it was decided to procure mules from Cyprus.10 On 14 June the British Salonica authorities enquired if 6,000 mules could be furnished from Cyprus, to which Clauson replied that 2,000 were available.11 Also, Brigadier-General Arthur Long, the Director of Supply and Transport, had been trying to fill the want of mule drivers by recruiting Macedonians. As early as March, 25 had been recruited12 and more followed, but on 9 May Long was advised that the Greek Royalist government had forbidden the Allies to recruit Macedonians, leading him to conclude that Athens ‘wishes to place all possible obstacles in our way’.13 The Venizelos government also disappointed him. Despite the first 100 Macedonian muleteers proving good and being doubled, Venizelos could not guarantee that they could remain in British service, so muleteers from Cyprus were finally sought.14 By 13 June the authorities in Salonica were negotiating with the Cypriot government on obtaining muleteers.15 On 22 June the British Mission to the Serbian army at Famagusta informed Clauson that the War Office had approved the purchase of 2,000 mules and 500 men [ 60 ]

The formation of the C ypriot M ule C orps

to conduct them. Clauson replied that the mules and muleteers had to be for the British and not the Serbian army. Milne replied that the muleteers would be for the British army, but most of the mules were for the Serbian army.16 By 30 June, Major Lewis Collingwood Bearne,17 who was in Cyprus to purchase mules for the Serbs, had been ordered to enlist 1,000 Cypriots.18 Bearne advised Salonica on 1 July that the purchase of mules for the Serbian army was now under the General Officer Commanding Egypt, while he would assist him and also enlist the muleteers.19 It was not until the end of June that Clauson informed the Colonial Office of the details to enlist muleteers for service in the British army in Macedonia. On 26 June (and in a telegram on 28 June) Clauson opined to Bonar Law that The raising of a Cypriot transport corps for British army service is a measure from which excellent results may be hoped for, both politically and also, judging from the Military Report on Cyprus prepared by the General Staff in 1913, from the military standpoint. … The Cypriots, both Christian and Moslem, are with insignificant exceptions keenly desirous of the success of the British arms, but in view of the mixed feelings with which the former section of the population regard the relations between Serbia and Greece it would be a mistake to send Serbians to Cyprus to collect mules for the Serbian Army.20

Clauson raised three points: (1) the political reasons in favour of an inter-Cypriot muleteer corps, because most of the Christian and Muslim population supported the British war effort; (2) the military reasons in favour, which centred on the Cypriot skills in driving mules; and (3) to not involve Serbs because many Cypriot Orthodox elites supported King Constantine’s neutrality.21 The Colonial Office, although impressed with its officials in Cyprus, was none too impressed with the War Office. A 29 June minute stated, ‘It is a great pity this is so late in the day – I can’t imagine why the C-in-C Salonica did not think of it before.’22 Two weeks later, the perceived military inaction saw the impatience of the Colonial Office increase, evident in the comment that there was ‘a good deal of indecision and procrastination’ from Salonica.23 The initial task of enlisting 1,000 muleteers was quickly doubled and then tripled. As early as 9 July 1916 the authorities in Salonica were preparing to receive the first batch of Cypriots.24 On 13 July Bearne cabled Salonica that the enlistment of Cypriots was a success, and Egyptforce asked Salonica if it wanted more because it seemed possible that over 2,000 could be enlisted.25 On the same day, MajorGeneral Travers Clarke, Deputy Adjunct and Quarter Master General, [ 61 ]

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wired Egyptforce that 600 Cypriot muleteers had been enlisted, 400 would follow, and 3,000 more were sought.26 On 15 July the Salonica authorities asked Egyptforce to enlist 2,000 and Egyptforce immediately ordered Bearne to do so.27 On 22 July Bearne informed Long that 150 muleteers were leaving Cyprus, and Long noted that they (153 in total) arrived on 25 July.28 By 24 July the number wanted was increased to 3,000. Salonica wired Egyptforce that they were ready for the 2,000 mules from Cyprus, but they really needed the 3,000 muleteers and they could not take the mules before the muleteers or they should come together. They also requested one foreman for every 20 muleteers, with pay GDR 4 per day.29 The Egyptian authorities queried the request for 3,000,30 but on 27 July Egyptforce telegraphed Clauson that it was ‘very urgent that 3,000 Muleteers from Cyprus should be obtained as soon as possible for Salonica. About 1,200 only secured up to date. Major Sisman is in charge. Hope you will give every assistance in your power.’31 L. Sisman, who was in charge of the Mule Purchasing Commission at Famagusta, had wired Long on 25 July that 1,050 muleteers were awaiting passage, but he needed Salonica to arrange it with Egypt.32 On the day before Long had cabled Sisman to enlist 3,000 muleteers, with a ratio of one foreman to twenty mule drivers.33 On the same day Salonica also cabled Egyptforce that the 3,000 being enlisted were sufficient, and should proceed to Egypt to accompany the mules with a ratio of one man to two mules.34 On the next day the first instalment of Cypriot muleteers had arrived in Salonica.35 Clauson replied, ‘I am gladly giving every assistance in my power.’36 As will be shown, to this end Clauson worked tirelessly as did his personnel. Urgency now became paramount. The Army Council replied to the Colonial Office, which had been pressuring the War Office, on 1 August, that the Cypriot muleteers ‘should be raised as quickly as possible’, under the following conditions: i.

ii. iii. iv. v.

The Army Act should apply, without modification or exception, to these men whilst they are serving with troops subject to the Army Act, and that this should be clearly stated in the Local Act, or Imperial Order in Council, authorising their enlistment. The men should receive pay as Infantry at the rates laid down in Article 852, Royal Warrant for Pay, 1914, but would not be entitled to proficiency pay, corps pay or working pay. A free ration (scale to be fixed hereafter) should be provided. Separation allowance should be issuable at the rates laid down in para. 120, Allowance Regulations, 1914. Disability pensions should be granted as provided for European ­soldiers in Article 1161, Royal Warrant for Pay, 1914.

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The formation of the C y priot M ule C orps

Table 3.1  Distribution of Macedonian and Cypriot muleteers, 7 August 1916 Division 10th Division 22nd Division 26th Division 27th Division 28th Division 7th Mounted Brigade Total

No. in divisional trains

No. in field ambulances

Total

 0 325 253 128  79  27 812

162  70 202  0  0  0 434

162 395 455 128 79 27 1,246

Source: WO95/4790, war diary, Director of Supply and Transport, 7 August 1916.

vi. The widow of a soldier who died in the circumstances referred to in Article 1245, Royal Warrant for Pay, 1914, should be granted a gratuity of one year’s pay at the rate at which the soldier was in receipt at the time of his death or discharge. vii. The period of enlistment should be defined.37

These conditions were well thought out, so the War Office procrastination must have been merely bureaucratic. They reflected how, at least initially, the conditions of muleteers were closer to soldiers than to labourers, yet, as will be shown in subsequent chapters, this was not the case. Meanwhile, the Cypriot government, along with Sisman, continued recruiting muleteers. Clauson advised Bonar Law on 5 August 1916 that 1,091 Cypriot muleteers had already left for Salonica and he was sending the agreement they had signed, covering them as campfollowers under the Army Act.38 To this the Colonial Office minuted, ‘I am very glad to find that while the WO was occupied in sweltering this proposal in red tape & working us … The people on the spot were going ahead.’39 Indeed on 2 August the second batch (796) of Cypriot muleteers arrived at Salonica and 500 were allotted to the 12th Corps and the rest to the 16th.40 On 7 August Long devised this table (3.1) on the distribution of muleteers (297 Macedonians and 949 Cypriots) and added that another 851 were being trained. Almost two years later the number of muleteers had more than trebled, showing how important they were to the Macedonian Front (Table 3.2).

Why Cypriot mules and Cypriot muleteers? Before exploring the organisation of the Cypriot Mule Corps it is important to digress in order to explore why Cypriot mules and [ 63 ]

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Table 3.2  Cypriot muleteers across various British units, 4 May 1918 British 12th Corps

Cypriot muleteers

British 22nd Division ASC train British 26th Division ASC train Other units – details Total 12th Corps

Sick

412

Totals 412

526 3 941

 2  2

526 5 943

489

 8

497

 9  17

482 62 128 1169

British 16th Corps British 10th (Irish) Division British 27th Division ASC train British 28th Division ASC train 228th Brigade Other Units – details Total 16th Corps

482 62 119 1152

L of C & Base Camp ASC Supply RE RAMC Total L of C & Base Camp HT Units with Serbs Grand total

2011 10 12 2035 14 4142

119  2 121 140

2011 10 14 2156 14 4282

Source: WO95/4768.

muleteers were sought. The archives do not provide the answers. The idea to raise Cypriot muleteers must have emanated from the British military authorities in Salonica because, as mentioned above, the Colonial Office wondered why the Commander-in-Chief of the Salonica Forces had not thought of it before and the initial contact with Clauson was from the British minister in Athens and not from the War Office. It must be assumed that there were members of the British military forces in Salonica with knowledge of the Cypriot mule and the capacity of Cypriots to be muleteers. For Cypriot rural society, beasts of burden, especially mules and donkeys, were important for their economic base and subject to various commercial transactions (individuals could own shares in them and other animals) and usages, as had been the case in Egypt into the early nineteenth century.41 A historical survey, beginning from the mid-nineteenth century, shows that Cypriot mules and muleteers had good reputations. The British military authorities in Salonica must have thought to recruit them [ 64 ]

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because of previous experiences in the Egyptian–Sudan campaigns, Anglo–Boer War and British India. During the Crimean War, when Cyprus was a part of the Ottoman Empire, French merchants arrived in the island to buy mules for the French army in the Crimea. The subgovernor of Cyprus informed the Ottoman Foreign Ministry that mules would be sold to the French consul in Larnaca and that the local Mejlis would facilitate the consul’s work.42 After the British occupation they too discovered the value of Cypriot mules and muleteers. Pivotal to British society in Cyprus was the sixmonth summer season when the central government left Nicosia and the garrison left Polymedia in Limassol for the Troodos Hill Station. There, one of the many sporting pursuits was polo and matches were played on mules.43 In December 1880 High Commissioner MajorGeneral Sir Robert Biddulph received a rude awakening to ‘Greek’ politics when he did not act to stop the Greek military purchasing mules in the island despite this being a breach of British neutrality since Greece was mobilising against the Ottoman Empire. He received a letter of thanks for ‘his assistance’ from the Greek Consul in Cyprus on behalf of King George of Greece for Biddulph’s assistance in the matter. Biddulph denied to the Colonial Secretary, Lord Kimberley, that he or anybody in his government had offered any assistance.44 The British realised the value of Cypriot mules and muleteers during the Egyptian Campaigns from 1882 to 1885 when Cypriot mules were prized.45 An officer also recruited Cypriot Muslims for service under General Evelyn Wood on six-month contracts.46 Hugh Sinclair, Biddulph’s private secretary, claimed that Cypriot muleteers ‘were famous for horse-mastership … and the mules … unequalled for docility and endurance’.47 Muleteers died in the line of duty, but there was no compensation for their dependents.48 Also the government awarded the medals at the Troodos Hill Station, although most veterans could not make it because they lived in other parts of the island and mainly in rural areas.49 By the turn of the century, the Indian government showed a great interest in the Cypriot donkey stallions, mules and jennets. From the mid-1880s the Indian government had been consistently purchasing Cypriot donkey stallions or jacks, reaching a high in 1897–8 with 21.50 Then in 1898–9 the Indian government ordered a record 61 and followed this up the next year with 25.51 In October 1898 Colonel A.E. Queripel, Inspector-General of the Civil Veterinary Department in the Indian government, visited Cyprus to purchase donkey stallions and report on the state of transport animals generally. Queripel established that the general state of transport animals on the European continent [ 65 ]

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was very poor and that for a small island Cyprus was doing well. He saw in the island numerous pony mares with mules at their feet, whose height on average exceeded those bred in India. He revealed that the donkey mares were larger than the donkey stallions because the best mares were crossed with pony stallions to obtain mules (i.e. the jennet). Although this was not the norm in most parts of the world, this meant that the mules in Cyprus were of medium size, ideal for pack transport purposes. This also meant that there were not that many donkey stallions in the island, and indeed many were sold overseas (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Constantinople and Syria), although many were also crossed with horse mares. He approved of those donkey stallions for India, purchasing nine, and recommended that the Indian government enter into an agreement with the Cypriot government to purchase 25 to 30 donkey stallions aged about four per year, with a three-year warning of termination.52 Queripel made some substantial recommendations for the Cypriot government to improve the breading stock of all transport animals: a) The levying of a small tax on all donkeys exported; b) Either the levying of a heavy tax on the importation of donkeys or the prohibition of importation altogether; c) The awarding of prizes at all the large fairs to donkey stallions (fairs at Famagusta in March, Larnaca in April, and in September at Paphos and the Karpass); d) The Cypriot government should maintain two indigenous donkey stallions in each district for breeding purposes; e) To improve the breed of ponies there needs to be maintained a few good Arab pony stallions not exceeding 14 hands in size.53

The Indian government strongly endorsed Queripel’s report, which it sent to the India Office on 9 March 1899. The cover letter agreed that it was highly desirable for the Indian government to enter into an agreement with the Cypriot government on purchasing 25 to 30 donkey stallions every year.54 The recommendation was also supported by the under-secretary of state for India, Charles Leslie Sutherland, who claimed that Poitou was noted for its focus on mule breading, and Cyprus too could become noted for its donkey stallion breeding, to make Cyprus the breeding ground for Indian mules.55 The India Office agreed with the proposal to formally have a contract with the Cypriot government to purchase donkey stallions, informing the Colonial Office of the offer in September 1899 and was pleased that some of Queripel’s recommendations had been implemented.56 Before the Cypriot government could respond, the India Office ordered 28 donkey stallions for 1900–1.57 William Haynes Smith, the high ­commissioner [ 66 ]

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of Cyprus, approved the offer of the India Office, only pointing out that prices needed to be reconsidered every three years because they were unstable and because he intended to encourage better breeding. Haynes Smith had already tried to improve quality, with the government stationing in some districts high-class donkey stallions whose services were offered for free and the offspring purchased by the Agriculture Department.58 The Indian government’s interest in the Cypriot donkey encouraged Haynes Smith to offer the mule to the War and India Offices.59 The fact that he waited over four months from the time that the Colonial Office had first informed him of the India Office offer on 15 September 1899 to when he accepted it on 24 January 1900 and first decided to write on the Cypriot mule indicates that Haynes Smith wanted to capitalise on the interest in Cypriot transport animals by pushing forward the claims of the Cypriot mule. He forcefully argued that the Cypriot mule was better than any other mule in the world because it: was more active than the Italian and American mule; could bear hard work better; could stand hardships better; was less prone to sickness; thrived on dry food; was more docile; was cheaper. Haynes Smith claimed that there were a considerable number sized 12.3 to 13.3 hands, and some 13.3 to 14.2 hands, but if larger animals were wanted they could be bred at 15 hands in a few years. But from his experience of the various sized mules in Cyprus, Haynes Smith believed that the medium-sized mule was just as strong and more mobile. In order to strengthen his argument, he referred to how Lord Kitchener had used the Cypriot mule to great advantage in the Sudan.60 The Colonial Office strongly endorsed Haynes Smith’s proposal and referred to Queripel’s report as more evidence.61 This hit a chord with Lord Lansdowne, the War Secretary. Within a week he asked how soon 1,000 draught Cypriot mules aged five to nine and measuring 13.3 hands to 14.2 hands could be ready for shipment and at what price. The matter was so urgent he wanted communication via telegraph.62 Seemingly satisfied that 1,000 mules could be purchased in no time, three days after his initial message he asked the Colonial Office to gather the mules at Larnaca for inspection by his purchasing officer.63 Then on 17 February the War Office asked the Colonial Office to telegraph Haynes Smith that the purchasing officer was arriving on 1 March and wanted to ensure that the rejected mules would be disposed of without loss.64 A week later the War Office became concerned about information that the majority of Cypriot mules were ‘jennets’ and therefore unsatisfactory compared to mules produced from a horse mare. It wanted most of the mules put up for inspection to be from horse mares.65 The inspection officer, however, was [ 67 ]

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­ issatisfied, finding Cypriot mules too young and small.66 A year later d Haynes Smith tried again, this time he proposed a similar agreement over the mules to that agreed to with the India Office over the donkey stallions. He claimed that currently the average mule was 13.2 hands, but would be willing to implement policies to encourage the breeding of bigger animals, while he emphasised that Cypriots were experienced in raising docile mules.67 The War Office, however, did not believe that Cypriot mules, or ‘jennets’, were suitable. The War Office referred to the men sent to Cyprus to purchase transport animals for the Anglo–Boer War who mainly saw ‘jennets’. Of the 590 mules examined, a mere 128 were deemed fit for army requirements and purchased at £UK19 per head. The War Office informed the Colonial Office that military requirements for mules were that they be aged between five and nine, with a height between 14 and 15 hands, trained to harness and not stallions or albinos. Lastly, the War Secretary was not interested in a continuing contract and any arrangement would be temporary.68 If this was not the slap in the face for the proponents of Cypriot mules, it came when in May 1902 the War Office proposed to the Colonial Office that if the Anglo–Boer War continued they wanted to establish a horse and mule reception depot in Cyprus for animals purchased in Russia and Syria.69 Clearly the Cypriot mule was being rejected. Correspondingly, the Indian government had a different view of Cypriot jennets and donkey mares. In 1901 Captain Knapp visited Cyprus to report on the donkey and mule supply in the island for the ‘Horse and Mule Breeding Commission’ appointed by the Indian government in 1900. Knapp argued that Cypriot jennets and donkey mares were exceedingly fine and that the Indian government should purchase these animals until it produced its own. He was enthusiastic about using the jennet as an ordnance mule, as those in Cyprus were large enough and were purchased for this purpose by the Egyptian artillery. Knapp also argued that Cypriot donkey stallions, although few in number because many were sold to South Africa, Uganda, Egypt and Syria, were fine animals, and that the Cypriot government had established a ‘Breeding Committee’ which had stationed six donkey stallions at the district headquarters for breeders. Also Cypriot stallions were about a third of the price of Italian donkey stallions.70 To encourage agriculture the British invested in improving the Cypriot mule breeds without altering the attraction of Cypriot jennets. The Porte, which still had sovereignty over Cyprus, reacted to this in December 1910, when the British Embassy in Constantinople informed the Ottoman Foreign Ministry, which in turn informed the Grand Vizier, that the Cypriot government wanted to import horses [ 68 ]

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Table 3.3  Exports of mules and donkeys, 1905 to 1916 Year

Mules

Donkeys

1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 (June)

654 675 342 162 602 1,305 1,906 1,486 1,006 676 887 323

513 430 424 564 2,148 3,256 3,951 2,420 1,988 2,197 2

Source: SA1/758/1916, statement showing number of mules and donkeys exported from Cyprus from 1905 to end of June 1916.

Table 3.4  Number of muleteers across districts in Cyprus in 1901 and 1911 censuses Year/place Nicosia Famagusta Limassol Larnaca Paphos Kyrenia Total 1901 1911

172 246

82 62

17 44+1w

 3 50

 74 153+2w

 6 172

354 730

Source: relevant Census reports.

and mules from Arabia to improve the quality of the horse and mule breeds. The Grand Vizier informed the Sultan that he initially wanted to oppose this, but realising that he had no right to do so he gave his ‘consent’.71 Mule and donkey exports grew from 1910 as breeding practices improved, as Table 3.3 shows. Reflecting the government’s success in encouraging mule breeding was the increase in the number of muleteers in the island between 1901 and 1911, particularly compared to camel drivers. In the 1901 Census 354 men were listed as muleteers, as opposed to 325 camel drivers.72 In the 1911 Census muleteers were 730, while camel drivers remained static at 348 (see Table 3.4).73 Beyond the main point, namely that muleteers more than doubled in the ten-year period between 1901 and 1911, only one district had a decrease, and that was Famagusta, almost certainly because of the introduction of the train. This also explains why Nicosia had the least growth in this profession compared to all the other districts. [ 69 ]

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Someone in the British military force in Salonica may also have read the two War Office reports published before the Great War, one in 1907 and another in 191374. They gave information on the characteristics of Cypriot pack animals and the martial qualities of Cypriots that, if read, could have led to the proposal to seek mules and muleteers from Cyprus. The report from 1913 was positive on the value of Cypriot pack animals. With respect to horses, it stated that although small (mostly around 13 hands) they were hardy and docile. Larger horses were increasing thanks to crossing with English and Syrian stallions and the Athalassa stock-breeding farm had done much to achieve this. Nevertheless, only a small number were suitable for army work. Far more was said about Cypriot mules. The report stated that they were ‘particularly fine and docile, and well adapted to mountain work’, and therefore British military personnel in Salonica would have realised that they would be ideal for Macedonian conditions. More specifically the report added that the ‘points of great importance in their suitability for mountain artillery work are the straight backs and well-arched ribs’. Additionally, the report clarified that mules bred from donkey mothers were preferred for pack, while the ones from pony mares were preferred for harness work. Larger mules were fewer in number, but the Egyptian artillery purchased theirs almost exclusively from Cyprus.75 The report added that The weight-carrying powers of Cyprian mules are considerable, and it is not unusual to see them carrying from 350 to 450 lbs. of wheat from Nicosia to the mills of Kythrea, a distance of 8 miles, and return the same evening laden with flour. For harness purposes they are not less suitable, and are noted for their endurance, being capable of performing the journey from Nicosia to Larnaca and back (52 miles) in a day.76

The report also disclosed that the Cyprus Blue Books gave the total number of horses, mules and donkeys as 69,832 in 1911–12, and that at least half of these animals were mules.77 The entire report can only, therefore, be taken as a very positive endorsement of the Cypriot mule, especially for mountainous work. Equally important was that both reports claimed that the Cypriots had military potential, especially as muleteers. They mention that Cypriot Muslim muleteers showed considerable courage in the Sudan in 1885, while all Cypriot men were excellent horsemen and horsemasters. The report claimed that the desperate and gallant defence of Nicosia and Famagusta against the Turks in 1570 shows that the Christian inhabitants were not devoid of martial qualities; while the opinion held regarding the Cypriot Turk, by

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those who have had the best opportunities of judging, are to the effect that he is probably as fine military material as his co-religionists on the mainland. In the operation against the Mahdists at Suakin in 1885 a number of Cypriot Turkish muleteers were employed, and were reported on as having shown, though unarmed, considerable courage during one or two night alarms, where their conduct was in marked contrast to that of other natives similarly employed. We have, however, no recent experience of their value as soldiers, though both Mohammedans and Christians are from their childhood fearless horsemen, as well as good horsemasters, and would appear to offer useful material for cavalry or mounted infantry.78

The statements about the Christian inhabitants were bizarre, not least because many Orthodox had welcomed the Ottoman invasion.79 The perceived Muslim fighting abilities were enmeshed in martial races theory becoming a received wisdom: Clauson referred to them when he supported the raising of the mule corps in 1916; and these passages were repeated in the two subsequent reports.80 There is much evidence to prove that the British considered the Cypriots, both Muslims and Christians, as reliable and loyal. Sophronios promised Cypriot loyalty as far back as his welcoming address to Sir Garnet Wolseley in 1878; a loyalty that he maintained until his death and which was then taken up, even with increasing reference to enosis, by the Bishop of Kyrenia and his supporters during the archiepiscopal dispute.81 The British government, both in the island and back in London, consistently believed that the Cypriots were reliable and loyal, using these characteristics to support their policy to reduce the British garrison during the 1880s and 1890s.82 The police were especially praised for their loyalty and reliability, and racial and religious integration. This was evident when a group of Zaptieh volunteered in 1900 to serve in the Anglo–Boer War, or between 1899 and 1904 when the government promoted the idea of an inter-religious Cypriot regiment to garrison the island or even be used in other imperial stations, only for the War Office to reject both ideas.83 The British observed this religious integration amongst the peasant and labouring classes, which comprised the vast majority of the population.

Organising the Cypriot Mule Corps The organisation and running of the Cypriot Mule Corps was a complex endeavour involving three different authorities: the British ­military authorities in Salonica; the Cypriot government in Nicosia and Troodos; and the Mule Purchasing Commission, renamed in July 1917 the Muleteer Recruiting and Supply Purchasing Staff, at Famagusta.84 [ 71 ]

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3.2    Cypriot muleteers 1917, Photo I, contained in Canon Newham’s trunk.

Often the organisational structure worked well, but sometimes there was a breakdown in communication, methods and priorities. Each authority, of course, had its own responsibilities. The authorities in Salonica and later in Constantinople were responsible for the day-to-day operational running of the Mule Corps and communicating [ 72 ]

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3.3    Cypriot muleteers 1917, Photo II, contained in Canon Newham’s trunk.

with the other two authorities in the island over needs and problems. The two authorities in Cyprus where responsible for all matters relating to recruiting and repatriation, as well as for the running of the allotment scheme and treating those men returning with venereal and other diseases. The Cypriot government had much responsibility for running the Corps and dealing with the societal repercussions when, for example, problems arose with the allotment scheme, as well as with quarantining muleteers with venereal disease. It did well given the lack of resources and personnel. The Cypriot Mule Corps was a success for the vast majority of those involved, yet for any successful major operation there are always problems.

Conclusion The British imperial family presented unique opportunities for those belonging to it. The Cypriot Mule Corps was formed in haste in summer 1916. The lack of British transport service personnel and the need to use them and other British forces in other capacities, coupled with the mountainous terrain and lack of roads, necessitated mules and mule drivers. Cypriot mules and muleteers, which had good reputations, were the answer. The Cypriot government took the organisation of the mule corps in their stride, working relatively well with the military authorities to bring it to fruition. The next chapter will [ 73 ]

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explore the strategies used to recruit so many men and whether the Cypriots were pulled or pushed.

Notes 1 On the Greek seizure of Salonica during the First Balkan War see Richard C. Hall, The Balkan Wars 1912–1913: Prelude to the First World War, Routledge, London, 2000; and André Gerolymatos, The Balkan Wars: Conquest, Revolution, and Retribution from the Ottoman Era to the Twentieth Century and Beyond, Basic Books, New York, 2002. 2 There are many books on Greece’s schism. The best remains Leon, Greece and the Great Powers. 3 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 261–5. 4 For the latest account on the Salonica Front see Wakefield and Moody, Under the Devil’s Eye. 5 Ibid. 6 C. Falls, Military Operations – Macedonia, I, HMSO, London, 1933, 112; see also Palmer, The Gardeners of Salonika, 63. 7 See CO67/181/32730, various minutes, summaries of correspondence between Salonica and Cyprus; SA1/722/1916, telegram, Elliot to Clauson, N/A, 1916. 8 SA1/722/1916, telegram, GHQS, to Clauson, 27 May 1916. 9 CO67/181/32730, telegram, Clauson to Milne, 29 May 1916; ibid., Clauson to Milne, 23 June 1916. 10 WO107/62, Colonel Le Vicomte de la Panouse, French Military Attaché, London, to Lieutenant-General Sir J. Cowans, WO, 21 March 1916; Ibid, 27 March 1916; ibid., Cowans to Panouse, 31 March 1916. 11 CO67/181/40421, secret, Clauson to Bonar Law, 7 August 1916, with enclosures; for early promises see CO67/181/32730, various minutes, summaries of correspondence between Salonica and Cyprus. 12 WO95/4790, WDSA, Long, DSTS, 7 March 1916. 13 Ibid, 9 May 1916. 14 WO95/4788, GHQS, Long, DSTS, October 1915–December 1916, 8 June 1916; WO95/4762, WDSA, AQMGS, June–July 1916, despatched messages, June 1916, G.I. Fraser, DAQMG, Salonica, to Egyptforce, 13 June 1916. 15 WO95/4762, WDSA, AQMGS, June–July 1916, despatched messages, June 1916, G.I. Fraser, DAQMG, Salonica, to Egyptforce, 13 June 1916. 16 See CO67/181/32730, various minutes, summaries of correspondence between Salonica and Cyprus; CO67/183/36388, A.S.C/958 (Q.M.G.5), WO to CO, 1 August 1916; SA1/722/1916, telegram, Elliot, Athens, to Clauson, N/A, 1916. 17 On 22 October 1916 a French motor lorry, loaded with 3,000 lbs of bombs, caught fire in the camp of the Serbian army. Efforts to beat out the flames with earth proved ineffectual and, after the fire had been burning for seven or eight minutes, Major Lewis Collingwood Bearne and Private Albert Edward Usher crawled under the lorry and extinguished the flames, thus averting a serious disaster at the risk of their own lives. Both were severely burnt on their hands and arms and were awarded the Albert Medal for their bravery. London Gazette, 28 December 1917. 18 WO95/4762, WDSA, AQMGS, June–July 1916, 30 June 1916; ibid., despatches, Lieutenant-Colonel, C.H. Furneaux, AQMG, to DQMG, 29 June 1916. 19 Ibid., 3 July 1916; ibid., despatch messages, Bearne to Salonica, 1 July 1916. 20 CO67/181/32730, secret, Clauson to Bonar Law, 26 June 1916; CO67/181/30717, telegram, Clauson to Bonar Law, 28 June 1916. 21 CO67/181/30717, telegram, Clauson to Bonar Law, 29 June 1916. 22 CO67/181/30717, minute, 29 June 1916. 23 CO67/181/32730, minute, 12 July 1916.

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The formation of the C y priot M ule C orps 24 WO95/4833, WDSA, Divisional Train, 10th Division, 9 July 1916. 25 WO95/4762, WDSA, AQMGS, June–July 1916, despatch messages, Egyptforce to Salonica, 13 July 1916. 26 Ibid., Clarke, DQMGS, to Egyptforce, 13 July 1916. 27 Ibid., 19 July 1916; ibid., despatch messages, Egyptforce to Salonica, 15 July 1916; ibid., despatch messages, Salonica to Egyptforce, 15 July 1916. 28 WO95/4790, WDSA, Long, DSTS, 20 and 22 July 1916; ibid., 22 and 25 July 1916. 29 Ibid., 24 July 1916; WO95/4762, WDSA, AQMGS, June–July 1916, 24 July 1916. 30 WO95/4762, WDSA, AQMG, June–July 1916, despatch messages, Egyptforce to Salonica, 25 July 1916. 31 SA1/722/1916, telegram, Egypt Force to Clauson, 27 July 1916. 32 WO95/4762, WDSA, AQMGS, June–July 1916, despatch messages, Sisman to Long, 25 July 1916. 33 WO95/4788, WDSA, Long, DSTS, October 1915–December 1916, 24 July 1916. 34 WO95/4762, WDSA, AQMG, June–July 1916, despatch messages, Salonica to Egyptforce, 24 July 1916. 35 WO95/4788, WDSA, Long, DSTS, October 1915–December 1916, 25 July 1916. 36 SA1/722/1916, telegram, Clauson to Egypt Force, 27 July 1916. 37 CO67/183/36388, WO to CO, 1 August 1916. 38 SA1/722/1916, telegram, Bonar Law to Clauson, 4 August 1916; CO67/181/37153 and SA1/722/1916, telegram, Clauson to Bonar Law, 5 August 1916. 39 CO67/181/37153, minute, 7 August 1916. 40 WO95/4788, WDSA, Long, DSTS, 1 August 1916–31 August 1916, 2 August 1916; WO95/4790, WDSA, Long, DSTS, 25 July and 2 August 1916. 41 Mikhail, ‘Unleashing the Beast’, 326. 42 Bas¸bakanlık Osmanlı Ars¸ivleri (Prime Minister’s Office Ottoman Archives), (BOA), Istanbul, HR.MKT/108/85, 27.Sh.1271, Subgovernor of Cyprus to Foreign Ministry, 27.Sh.1271; Subgovernor of Cyprus to Cyprus local parliament (Local Mejlis), 17 Rejep 1271; Subgovernor of Cyprus to Cyprus local parliament (Local Mejlis), 21 Rejep 1271. 43 Varnava, ‘Recreating Rural Britain and Maintaining Britishness in the Mediterranean’, 47–79. 44 CO67/13/277, 507, Biddulph to Kimberley, 24 December 1880, including letter from Ajax Caravias, Greek Consul, 22 December 1880. 45 G.C. Dawnay, Campaigns: Zulu 1879, Egypt 1882, Suakim 1885: Being the Private Journal of Guy C. Dawnay, Ken Trotman, Cambridge, 1989, 104; Lieut.-Colonel Hermann Vogt, The Egyptian War of 1882, Kegan Paul, London, 1883, 159, 166; Wolseley to Childers, 1 September 1882, Charles Royle, The Egyptian Campaigns 1882 to 1885, London, 1900, 165. 46 CO67/36/3748, 180, Sir E. Barring, Cairo, to CO, 29 February 1884; minute, Fairfield, 4 March 1884; CO to Biddulph, 7 March 1884; SA1:762/85, Muleteers application form, 19 February 1885. 47 Hugh Sinclair, Camp and Society, London, 1926, 130; Storrs, Chronology, 135. 48 SA1/1957/85, Michael Kyriako invalided from Suakin pleaded for the Cypriot government to pay £4 compensation to his wife, which was being paid by BrigadeMajor E.E.S. Swaine, Famagusta’s first Commissioner; SA1/2670/1885. A muleteer from Nicosia, Costi Hadji Yanni, was fatally shot. 49 See SA1/2549/1886; see also Varnava, ‘Recreating Rural Britain and Maintaining Britishness in the Mediterranean’, 47–79. 50 India Office (IO), British Library: IOR/L/MIL/7/1009, 1885–6; IOR/L/MIL/7/1013 1886–7; IOR/L/MIL/7/1015 1887–8; IOR/L/MIL/7/1022 1894–5; IOR/L/MIL/7/1024 1895–8; IOR/L/MIL/7/1029 1897–8; IOR/L/MIL/7/1033 1897–8. 51 CO67/121/8430, IO to CO, 30 March 1899. 52 CO67/121/24299, IO to CO, 9 September 1899, including Indian government to IO, 9 March 1899, signed by Lord Curzon and other members of council. This included Edwin H.H. Collen, who had written one of the reports that had been used to justify the choice of Cyprus in 1878; see, Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 84–6.

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S ERV I N G TH E EM PI RE I N TH E G R E A T W A R It also included the Veterinary Colonel A.E. Queripel’s report, Simla, 30 October 1898, and also Charles Leslie Sutherland’s report, 15 June 1899. 53 CO67/121/24299, Queripel’s report, Simla, 30 October 1898. 54 Ibid., Indian government to IO, 9 March 1899. 55 Ibid., Sutherland’s report, 15 June 1899. 56 Ibid., IO to CO, 9 September 1899. 57 CO67/121/33903, IO to CO, 5 December 1899. 58 CO67/122/3962, Haynes Smith to Chamberlain, 24 January 1900; CO to IO, 8 February 1900, formal CO acceptance of offer. 59 CO67/122/3962, Haynes Smith to Chamberlain, 24 January 1900; CO67/122/3000, Haynes Smith to Chamberlain, 17 January 1900. 60 CO67/122/3000, Haynes Smith to Chamberlain, 17 January 1900. 61 CO67/122/3000, CO to IO, 3 February 1900. 62 CO67/126/4415, WO to CO, 9 February 1900. 63 CO67/126/4856, WO to CO, 12 February 1900. 64 CO67/126/5439, WO to CO, 17 February 1900. 65 CO67/126/6187, WO to CO, 24 February 1900. 66 CO67/126/8013, WO to CO, 10 March 1900. 67 CO67/127/6025, Haynes Smith to Chamberlain, 7 February 1901. 68 CO67/129/8515, WO to CO, 5 March 1901. 69 CO67/133/21055, WO to CO, 28 May 1902. 70 Cyprus: Horse, Mule and Donkey Breeding, 1901 and 1917, HMSO, London, 1917. 71 I.HR/425/1, 4.M.1329, 1, Foreign Ministry to Grand Vizier, 10 December 1910; ibid., 2, Grand Vizier to Sultan, 4 January 1911. 72 Census Report, 1901, 54. 73 Census Report, 1911, 61. There were three women mule drivers and five camel drivers. 74 General Staff, WO, Military Report and General Information concerning the Island of Cyprus, London, 1907. Hereafter, Military Report (1907); General Staff, WO, Military Report and General Information concerning the Island of Cyprus, London, 1913. Hereafter, Military Report (1913). 75 Military Report (1913), 34. 76 Ibid. 77 Ibid. 78 Military Report (1907); Military Report (1913), 17. 79 Ahmet An, ‘The Cypriot Armenian Minority and their Cultural Relationship with the Turkish Cypriots’, in Andrekos Varnava, Nicholas Coureas and Marina Elia (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal-Exclusion, Cambridge Scholars, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 2009, 268–82; R.C. Jennings, Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean World, 1571–1640, New York University Press, 1992. 80 CO67/181/32730, secret, Clauson to Andrew Bonar Law, 26 June 1916; Military Report (1913), 17; Military Report (1936), 27; Varnava, ‘“Martial Races” in the Isle of Aphrodite’. 81 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 152–201; Varnava, ‘Sophronios III’, 106–47; Varnava and Pophaides, ‘Kyrillos II, 1909–16’, 148–76. 82 Varnava, British Imperialism in Cyprus, 215–19. 83 CO67/122/1498, 5, Haynes Smith to Chamberlain, 4 January 1900, including letter signed by the men, 24 December 1899; CO67/126/2924, 079/917, WO to CO, 25 January 1900; see also Varnava, ‘“Martial Races” in the Isle of Aphrodite’, 1058–9 for Anglo–Boer War. 84 SA1/722/1916, Sisman to Stevenson, 12 July 1917.

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CHA P T E R FOUR

Mule and muleteer recruitment: pushed or pulled?

In March 1920, Elias Christou, from Agios Theodoros, Karpasia, informed the government that he had served as a muleteer for three years but was owed £30 in wages. He claimed that he was ‘a poor man and the head of a family’, forced to borrow money to survive, and was ‘ruined by the interest’, and still his ‘children remain[ed] day and night without food’. At length he revealed that ‘I abandoned my family and my children for three years for the purpose of serving the glorious English army.’ Christou, as with the vast majority of muleteers, was a peasant or an unskilled labourer, who, although loyal to the British Empire and the Allied cause, was really lured to enlist by the offer of secure and well-paying work.1 After a few early concerns, the British were mostly satisfied with these makeshift Cypriot muleteers. On 6 September 1917, a little over

4.1    Muleteers enlisting, with Canon Newman and Zaptiehs, contained in Canon Newham’s trunk.

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a year after the Cypriot Mule Corps was established, Major General Sir William Henry Rycroft, the Deputy Quartermaster General at Salonica, reported to General Milne, the Commander-in-Chief of the British Forces in Macedonia, that he was satisfied with training at Lembet Road. Although some men were too old, they could relieve British men, while new recruits would be better trained. ‘I am certain we ought to encourage recruiting in Cyprus and try and increase output’, with the desired age being 18–35, he opined.2 Clearly the British authorities in Salonica were content with the Cypriot muleteers and so recruitment became even more paramount from mid-1917. Procuring mules and recruiting muleteers were major jobs for the Cypriot government and for the military personnel in Cyprus and Salonica, needing much planning, organisation and coordination. A successful advertising campaign balanced the benefits the British were willing to offer, alongside the rights they did not wish to grant the muleteers. Ultimately, Cypriot men were both pushed by the conditions on the island and pulled by the allure of money into enlisting. Recruitment into the Cypriot Mule Corps overtook the initial focus to procure mules, as reflected by the operation changing its name in July 1917 from ‘Mule Purchasing Commission’ to ‘Muleteer Recruiting and Supply Purchasing Staff’.3 It succeeded in attracting about 25% of the male population aged 18–35, based on the 1911 Census, about 12,200 men, owing to the Cypriot government’s successful recruiting campaign and local push factors. Most muleteers, who were chiefly peasants and unskilled rural labourers, were effective and were valued. Yet many issues arose to threaten the Mule Corps and were the cause of complaints from muleteers and their families during and after their service. These issues were connected with the difficulty of running such a massive operation, across two geographical areas, with three different jurisdictions, and civil colonial staff thrown into the deep end. This chapter contributes to the ongoing debates (Mansfield, Osborne, Pennell and McCartney) about enlistment in the Great War discussed in Chapter 1, by shifting the focus, as Smith did with the Jamaicans, onto a colonial context. It additionally contributes to the history of equines, also detailed in Chapter 1, and is the first study to explore the procurement of mules. The chapter attempts to answer, How and why were British procurement and recruitment methods so successful? This will necessitate providing statistical data on the number of mules procured and men enlisted and its analysis across typologies, for example the ethno-religious and urban-rural demographic breakdowns, as well as a discussion of the various British recruiting strategies. This chapter argues that mules were procured and muleteers were enlisted by using legal methods that left mule owners and men of military age [ 78 ]

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with little alternative: a law to force owners to sell their mules; and another banning the emigration of men of military age. Additionally the British targeted the most vulnerable, peasants and labourers. Using Spivak’s definition of the ‘subaltern’, the muleteers, who were the ‘men and women among the illiterate peasantry, the tribals, the lowest strata of the urban subproletariat’, had little agency.4 This differs from Jamaica where the men were motivated to fight alongside their white overlords and not merely for the money.5

Mule purchasing and numbers Before discussing muleteer recruitment, it is important to understand mule procurement because initially, as reflected in the name of the operation at Famagusta, the Mule Purchasing Commission, the focus was on purchasing mules. By July 1917 the focus had clearly switched to muleteers when the name changed to Muleteer Recruiting and Supply Purchasing Staff6 and greater numbers of muleteers were recruited in comparison to mules. Clauson, the high commissioner, advised Colonial Secretary Bonar Law, on 7 August 1916, that the Mule Purchasing Commission had been created to buy mules and enlist muleteers. Some 919 mules had been purchased in six weeks, yet he had promised 2,000.7 A week later Clauson acted, issuing a proclamation under martial law to requisition mules for military purposes. Any person having in his ownership or under his control any mule when warned by public notice under this order signed by or on behalf of the District Commissioner and Provost Marshal and posted in the village or when notified by any member of the Cyprus Military Police produce such a mule at any place and time specified and shall deliver up such mule if required by the military purchasing officer on payment of such compensation as may be awarded by a Board appointed by the High Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief consisting of an officer of His Majesty’s Military Service and an inhabitant of the Colony. In case of a difference of opinion the amount of compensation to be awarded shall be decided by the votes of a majority of the members and the award shall be final.8

The proclamation ended with a warning that any person who did not comply would be taken before the Provost Marshal (the commissioner of each district) and upon conviction would be ‘liable to fine or imprisonment or both such punishments’.9 This was harsh, but reflected the government’s desire to facilitate military needs. It also opened further opportunities for the development of a mule-breeding industry. No doubt, however, those without [ 79 ]

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a means to breed and who merely had a mule or two for farming could be severely harmed, and the various district boards established did consider this. Initially, it was decided to purchase the mules by treaty, with the experiment first conducted at Platres on 17 August. Failure would lead to the commandeering as per the proclamation. The government had the district commissioner of Limassol, Wilfred Nash Bolton, warn all the villages around Platres to comply. The warning echoed Clauson’s proclamation. Platres was chosen because it was close to the summer seat of the government at the Troodos Hill Station.10 The board consisted of Captain T.P. Goodchild, from the Remount Department of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, H. McLaughlan, a policeman, and the muktar of Platres, Ioannis Demetriou.11 The approach trialled in Platres was adopted throughout the island. Although the proclamation had been made, it was decided to purchase mules by treaty before commandeering them. Consequently, the structures for both approaches were in place and virtually identical, since the commandeering board in each district first tried to purchase mules by treaty, being conscious of not depleting mule stocks, damaging breeding programs, and harming the peasantry. Goodchild was a constant member of the boards, as the military representative and expert on the suitability of the mules. The government was represented by a policeman, such as McLaughlan in Limassol, M.C. Kareklas in Paphos12 and inspector Alfred Wilson in Larnaca; by a civil servant, such as C. Barrett in Nicosia and C.M. Georgiades, Railway Department in Famagusta; or by a member of the judiciary, such as Michael John Lobarides, Mudir of Kyrenia. The local population was also represented, in Nicosia by Nicolakis Papadopoulos of Lacadamia, in Larnaca by Costis Aspri, in Famagusta by C. Constantinides, in Paphos by Yannakos Maltezos of Ktima, and in Kyrenia by N.K. Pyrgos, the mayor of Lapithos.13 The treaty approach did not work to the satisfaction of the authorities. In August 1916 numerous events were held where the purchasing of mules by private treaty was undertaken (see Table 4.1).14 By 31 August a total of 2,208 mules (over 1,000 since Clauson’s letter to Bonar Law on 7 August) had been purchased. This was not enough, especially since the Mule Purchasing Commission now wanted larger mules for riding and draught.15 So on 26 September Clauson authorised the compulsory acquisition of mules irrespective of size under his order of 14 August. All mule owners within a radius of 20 miles from the purchasing place had to produce their mules for inspection by Goodchild at various centres across the island, from 1 to 13 October.16 This only resulted in the purchasing of slightly over 500 more mules. So from July to November 1916, 2,750 mules, 1,200 donkeys and 140 ponies embarked for Salonica.17 [ 80 ]

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Table 4.1  Mules purchased by 31 August 1916 District Famagusta Kyrenia Kyrenia Larnaca Larnaca Larnaca Limassol Limassol Limassol Limassol Limassol Limassol Limassol Nicosia Nicosia Nicosia Nicosia Nicosia Paphos Total

Place

Number

Famagusta Kyrenia Myrtou Larnaca Lefkara Kofinou Limassol Troodos Perapedi Alektora Omodos Kilani Platres Nicosia Dali Kythrea Pedoula Morphou Paphos

96 40 10 176 7 20 357 113 124 10 12 7 464 429 16 18 15 69 225

Totals 96 50 203 1,087

547

225 2,208

Source: SA1/758/1916, numbers of mules purchased at various centres.

Cypriot mules purchased in 1916 were largely for the Serbian army. The British authorities in Salonica did not consider them suitable for the British army. But on 23 August 1916, Salonica wired Egyptforce that a better class of mule was available in Cyprus for £25–50 and that Colonel Holdsworth should find out how many were available.18 The purchasing and sending of mules and other animals to Salonica continued into 1917, although the recruiting of muleteers took precedence. From July 1916 to 30 September 1917 the Mule Purchasing Commission had purchased 5,881 transport animals, the majority being mules.19 In June and July 1919 the acting High Commissioner of Cyprus, Malcolm Stevenson, informed the Colonial Secretary, Lord Milner, that over 3,500 mules and over 3,000 donkeys had been exported for military purposes during the war (Table 4.2). He underestimated the mule numbers given that (see Table 3.3) in 1915 887 mules had been exported and he had left out 1914. This leads one to question the figures for the other years and to conclude that closer to 5,000 Cypriot mules were procured for military purposes. [ 81 ]

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Table 4.2  Transport animal exports Year

Mules

Donkeys

Horses

1915 1916 1917 1918 Total

400 2,750 393 – 3,543

– 1,200 1,676 373 3,249

– 140 – – 140

Source: SA1/910/1919, Stevenson to Milner, Colonial Sec., 3 June 1919 and 15 July 1919.

Goodchild was in Cyprus for several months in 1916 and 1917 and produced an important report on mule and donkey breeding on the island.20 He claimed that Knapp’s report of 1901 was so much to the point that very few new ideas can be put forward, even after the lapse of 16 or 17 years, during which time the conditions of road transport on the Island have considerably changed, and even also after the recent severe drain on animals caused by the purchase of mules made on a large scale for Army purposes under war conditions.21

Goodchild stated that mule and donkey exports from Cyprus were ‘of considerable importance’ and so ‘the Government must decide which is of the most importance, the draught, the riding, or the pack animal’ so it could focus on breeding the best of these. Because of the excellency of the Cypriot jennet, at size 13.1 hands to 14.1, an improvement from ten years earlier when most were 12.3 to 13.3 hands, they were ideal for army pack transport and according to Goodchild they ‘cannot be surpassed in any country in the world’. Consequently, he recommended that ‘it is to this class of animal that the most encouragement in breeding should be given’. In order to improve the jennet, it was important to develop the breeding of large donkey stallions, so that a plentiful supply of donkey mares was available. Thus, the Cypriot breed of donkey stallion would also improve and be sold to India. Equally important was to import a quality stallion breed, such as an English or Welsh variety. So, Goodchild concluded that ‘when the excellency of the Cyprus donkey is maintained by selection, and the stamp of pony stallions is improved by importation, the production of that most useful and valuable pack animal – the Cyprus jennet – is sure to follow’.22 The district commissioner of Nicosia, C.S. Cade, and the principal forest officer, A.K. Bovill, agreed with Goodchild’s recommendations, although Cade believed that the best locations for pony stallions were [ 82 ]

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not the hills south of Mount Troodos (i.e. Platres, Fini, Omodos and Kilani), as Goodchild suggested, but on the plains at Morphou, Deftera, Lefkoniko and Vatili. It is not possible to determine from where the most mules were purchased, but it can be determined from where more muleteers were recruited, even though this is not an accurate representation of where better mules came from because many of the muleteers were inexperienced in handling mules. The results are instructive, since Morphou (11% of the 1911 male population), Deftera (12%) and Vatili (14%) had enlistment percentages well above district averages (Nicosia was 7.1% and Famagusta was 5.6%), while for Platres (0.8%), Fini (5.8%), Omodos (2.1%) and Kilani (6.7%) the averages were either on or below the district percentage (Limassol had 6.5% enlistment). Goodchild’s report had engaged Cypriot colonial service personnel and both contributed important recommendations on mule breeding. Not only were the Cypriot government and the British military authorities interested in breeding more mules, but they were interested in breeding better-quality mules, and these recommendations helped achieve this during the war, creating opportunities for Cypriot breeders to profit. A good example was the father of Dr Fazil Kuchuk (later the first Vice-President of Cyprus), who profited from breeding and selling mules to the British.23 Yet the main game quickly shifted from procuring mules to enlisting drivers.

Muleteer numbers and composition As already indicated, the number of Cypriot muleteers engaged for service in the British army in Salonica was staggering, as much as 25% of the male population aged 18 to 35 served at one time or another, meaning over 11,000 men, and most probably over 12,000, had served. Since Cypriots also served elsewhere in the British army, such as in Egypt and the Western Front, and in the merchant navy, they were, proportionally, the largest represented national group from the Empire serving in the British armed forces during the Great War, surpassing even the settler colonies and India. According to a note in the Cypriot State Archives, between July 1916 and March 1919, the period when recruitment was open, 12,288 Cypriots enlisted.24 This includes those who re-enlisted a second and sometimes a third time. These men can be determined from the Honour Roll in the War Office, which, however, ends in November 1918 with the armistice, because the Honour Roll was compiled in order to distribute the British War Medal and those enlisting after were ineligible. Also, because the mule corps was created in such a rush, records of those men enlisting in the early days are incomplete, with thousands of names missing. [ 83 ]

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Table 4.3  Enlistment numbers until March 1919 Date

Enlistment no.

4/7/16–24/1/1918 25–31/1/1918 Feb 1918 March 1918 April 1918 May 1918 June 1918 July 1918 August 1918 September 1918 October 1918 November 1918 December 1918 January 1919 February 1919 March 1919 Total

7609 166 734 878 248 163 170 334 161 219 235 111 198 220 345 497 12,288

Source: SA1/722/1916/1, note for Secretary of State by Chief Secretary, April 1919.

The Honour Roll contains 11,178 entries (including re-enlistments and hundreds of numbers missing); but more documents in the War Office and in the State Archives in Nicosia provide the names and numbers of other muleteers, several enlisting after the armistice, and others in the early days who were not on the Honour Roll. Once all the various lists were collated, the Honour Roll was consolidated, and 10,788 were found to be Cypriots. Then when those who re-enlisted were taken into account, 10,015 Cypriots were shown to have enlisted once (i.e. 775 re-enlisted), meaning that 19.5% of the male population (according to the 1911 census) aged 15–39 enlisted. Of these there were full addresses in Cyprus for 9,119, which still represents an average enlistment of 17.8% of the male population aged 15–39. The overall percentage (i.e. 19.5%) increases to 22.2% when it is considered that between December 1918 and March 1919 at least a further 1,371 men had enlisted according to the list in the State Archives in Nicosia, while it is possibly a higher figure since a muleteer has been found with the number 14,888, meaning an additional 1,580 enlisted. The 775 that re-enlisted represent 7.2% of the men (775/10,788). Taking 1,371 as the more accurate figure of enlistments after the armistice, it is logical that more of these men re-enlisted for a second and third time, and indeed of the 79 men for which there are details, 24 had enlisted before, [ 84 ]

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representing 30%. If the average of the two percentages was taken, the average being 18.75% (257/1,371), this would provide an estimate of 1,114 Cypriots volunteering after the armistice, bringing the total estimate of Cypriots who enlisted to 11,129, representing 21.7% of the male population aged 15–39.25 This figure is likely even higher. First, there are still numerous regimental numbers missing, and indeed out of the first 3,000 numbers and names, over 1,400 are missing. To be sure many of these men would have re-enlisted a second time, while some of them were likely Macedonians, but no doubt the majority were Cypriots. In any event, it is not unreasonable to estimate the number of Cypriots at over 12,000. If the 18.75% was applied the number of men re-enlisting would be 262, while if the percentage of Macedonians were also applied, a further 140 would be factored out, bringing the total to 998 and the overall total to 12,127, making the average 24.1% of the male population aged 15–39. Second, the figure of 11,129 does not take into account that the Census figures for 1911 grouped age divisions thus: 15–19; 20–24; 25–29; 30–34; 35–39. Therefore, this takes into account boys aged 15, 16 and 17 who were mostly precluded. This would also increase the average, even if some men aged 40 initially did get through. Moreover, after the second wave of large recruitment in mid-1917, men aged over 35 were excluded, again increasing the percentage. It is therefore not unreasonable to claim that at least a quarter of the male population in Cyprus aged 18–35 volunteered. The religious demographic composition of the Cypriot element reveals as much about urban and rural life on the island as it does about inter-communality. Some 90.4% of the Cypriot element were Eastern Orthodox Christians, 8.4% were Cypriot Muslims, and 0.77% were Maronite Christians, with smaller numbers of Armenians and others (Table 4.4).26 This compares to the population distribution at the 1911 Census as follows: Eastern Orthodox Christians numbered 78.2%, Muslims were 20.6% and Maronites 0.4% (Table 4.5). The religious distribution needs explanation. First, the percentage for the Orthodox Cypriots and Maronite Cypriots was not exact because the Maronites could only be determined from their villages (Kormakitis, Asomatos, Karpasha, all in the Kyrenia District, and Agia Marina, in the Nicosia District), therefore those living in towns, which numbered 64 in the 1911 Census, could not be identified. This would slightly reduce the Orthodox contribution to below 90% and slightly increase the Maronite enlistment. The 1911 Census, however, also has irregularities, since the number of Christians comes to 1,133 from the four villages of Kormakitis, Asomatos, Karpasha and Agia Marina, which were almost exclusively Maronite, and this figure was greater [ 85 ]

9,794 875 83 25 13 1,131 4 22 11,947

Total enlisted 740 29 6 0 0 0 0 0 775

Re-enlisted 9,054 846 77 25 13 1,131 4 22 11,172

Total (excl. re-enlisted)

Source: SA1/722/1916/1, note by Chief Secretary, April 1919, and WO405/1 and WO329/2357.

Orthodox/Cypriot Muslim/Cypriot Maronite/Cypriot Armenian/Cypriot Others/Cypriots Orthodox/Macedonian Muslim/Macedonian Others/Non-Cypriots Total

Religion/ethnicity

81  7.57  0.69  0.22  0.12 10.14  0.04  0.2

% Total (excl. re-enlisted)

Table 4.4  Religious/ethnic distribution of the Cypriot Mule Corps

10,015

90.4  8.45  0.77  0.25  0.13

% Cypriots

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Table 4.5  Religious/ethnic distribution of population, 1911 Religion

Number

Percentage

Eastern Orthodox Muslim Maronite Roman Catholic Gregorian Church of England Jewish Protestant Presbyterian Wesleyan Catholic Eastern Catholic Total

214,280 56,428 1,073 815 549 397 193 126 25 12 9 1 274,108

78.2 20.6  0.4  0.3  0.2  0.15  0.07  0.05  0.009  0.004  0.003  0.0

Source: Census report 1911.

than the total Maronites on the entire island, which is given as 1,073. This does not even include the few Maronites in Kambili village and those many more living in the urban centres, which according to the 1911 Census were 64, meaning that it was likely that there were 1,200 Cypriot Maronites in 1911. Ultimately, even at 0.77%, the Maronite enlistment was twice their population as an overall percentage of population. A second issue is how to explain why the Muslim enlistment does not match their demographic representation on the island. It would be easy to assume that the comparatively lower Muslim enlistment was due to loyalties to the Ottoman Empire. Such assumptions would be readily made by Greek and Greek Cypriot nationalists, as well as by Turkish and Turkish Cypriot nationalists. As the work of Altay Nevzat and my own have shown, such assumptions are not black and white.27 Indeed, there is a better explanation for the discrepancy. Cypriots, regardless of their religion, enlisted together. There are many examples on the Honour Role of Christians and Muslims from the same village enlisting on the same day. Given the distance from the villages to the recruiting centres, they probably travelled together.28 Also, the tables below show that enlistment was greater in rural than in urban areas. This is indicated by the higher enlistment rates (almost 35%, when no other district had 20%) in the Kyrenia District, where there was little urbanisation (Table 4.6). II shows the average enlistment from the entire male population from across the districts, broken down into a selection of urban and rural centres, showing how rural areas had a [ 87 ]

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Table 4.6  Enlistment numbers and percentages across Cyprus District

1911 Census – Males 15–39

Nicosia Famagusta Limassol Paphos Larnaca Kyrenia Total

Cyprus Mule Corps

% Males 15–39

2,909 1,570 1,451 1,274 737 1,178 9,119

18.93 14.73 15.53 18.62 13.00 34.83 17.79

15,366 10,658  9,343  6,842  5,669  3,382 51,260

Source: WO405/1 and WO329/2357.

Table 4.7  Distribution of population in urban centres, 1911 Municipality

% Orthodox Christians

% Muslims

% Other

58 77.6 75 51.4 68.3 65

37.6 20.7 23 47.9 25.4 33

4.4 1.6 2.1 0.7 6.3 2

Nicosia Famagusta Limassol Paphos Larnaca Kyrenia Source: Census 1911.

Table 4.8  Urban–rural spread in Cypriot Mule Corps Urban–rural spread Urban Semi-urban Regional centre > 2,000 Village – large 900–1,999 Village < 899 N/A Total

No.

Percentage

1409 306 683 1401 5240 79 9,118

15.45  3.36  7.49 15.37 57.47  0.87

Source: WO405/1 and WO329/2357.

much higher rate of enlistment. Table 4.7 shows that more Muslims lived in urban than in rural areas, hence their lower enlistment, while Table 4.8 shows that the Mule Corps was mostly composed of men from rural areas (almost 60%) and therefore mainly of peasants and rural labourers. Tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.7 show that since the majority of [ 88 ]

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the Cypriot population and muleteers were Orthodox Christians and more Orthodox Christians lived in rural areas compared to Muslim Cypriots, then most of the Mule Corps was bound to be Orthodox Christians. This argument is strengthened by Appendix II, which shows that, with the exception of Limassol, the percentage of enlistment across the rural areas of each district was always more than the percentage of the town. Additionally, villages (