Selected Drama and Verse (Volume 37) (The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe: The Toronto Series) [1 ed.] 0866985328, 9780866985321

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Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa

Selected Drama and Verse

ed it ed b y Patrick John Corness and Barbara Judkowiak t r an sl at ed by Patrick John Corness t r an sl at ion Ed it or int ro d u c t io n b y Barbara Judkowiak

Aldona Zwierzy´nska-Coldicott

The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe: The Toronto Series, 37

SELECTED DRAMA AND VERSE

The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe: The Toronto Series, 37

MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE TEXTS AND STUDIES VOLUME 478

The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe: The Toronto Series

Se rie S ed i to r S Margaret L. King and Albert Rabil, Jr. Se rie S ed i to r , e ng l i Sh te x tS Elizabeth H. Hageman

Previous Publications in the Series Madre María Rosa Journey of Five Capuchin Nuns Edited and translated by Sarah E. Owens Volume 1, 2009 Giovan Battista Andreini Love in the Mirror: A Bilingual Edition Edited and translated by Jon R. Snyder Volume 2, 2009 Raymond de Sabanac and Simone Zanacchi Two Women of the Great Schism: The Revelations of Constance de Rabastens by Raymond de Sabanac and Life of the Blessed Ursulina of Parma by Simone Zanacchi Edited and translated by Renate Blumenfeld-Kosinski and Bruce L. Venarde Volume 3, 2010 Oliva Sabuco de Nantes Barrera The True Medicine Edited and translated by Gianna Pomata Volume 4, 2010 Louise-Geneviève Gillot de Sainctonge Dramatizing Dido, Circe, and Griselda Edited and translated by Janet Levarie Smarr Volume 5, 2010

Pernette du Guillet Complete Poems: A Bilingual Edition Edited by Karen Simroth James Translated by Marta Rijn Finch Volume 6, 2010 Antonia Pulci Saints’ Lives and Bible Stories for the Stage: A Bilingual Edition Edited by Elissa B. Weaver Translated by James Wyatt Cook Volume 7, 2010 Valeria Miani Celinda, A Tragedy: A Bilingual Edition Edited by Valeria Finucci Translated by Julia Kisacky Annotated by Valeria Finucci and Julia Kisacky Volume 8, 2010 Enchanted Eloquence: Fairy Tales by Seventeenth-Century French Women Writers Edited and translated by Lewis C. Seifert and Domna C. Stanton Volume 9, 2010 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Sophie, Electress of Hanover and Queen Sophie Charlotte of Prussia Leibniz and the Two Sophies: The Philosophical Correspondence Edited and translated by Lloyd Strickland Volume 10, 2011

The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe: The Toronto Series

Se rie S ed i to r S Margaret L. King and Albert Rabil, Jr. Se rie S ed i to r , e ng l i Sh te x tS Elizabeth H. Hageman

Previous Publications in the Series In Dialogue with the Other Voice in Sixteenth-Century Italy: Literary and Social Contexts for Women’s Writing Edited by Julie D. Campbell and Maria Galli Stampino Volume 11, 2011 Sister Giustina Niccolini The Chronicle of Le Murate Edited and translated by Saundra Weddle Volume 12, 2011 Liubov Krichevskaya No Good without Reward: Selected Writings: A Bilingual Edition Edited and translated by Brian James Baer Volume 13, 2011 Elizabeth Cooke Hoby Russell The Writings of an English Sappho Edited by Patricia Phillippy With translations by Jaime Goodrich Volume 14, 2011 Lucrezia Marinella Exhortations to Women and to Others If They Please Edited and translated by Laura Benedetti Volume 15, 2012

Margherita Datini Letters to Francesco Datini Translated by Carolyn James and Antonio Pagliaro Volume 16, 2012 Delarivier Manley and Mary Pix English Women Staging Islam, 1696–1707 Edited and introduced by Bernadette Andrea Volume 17, 2012 Cecilia Del Nacimiento Journeys of a Mystic Soul in Poetry and Prose Introduction and prose translations by Kevin Donnelly Poetry translations by Sandra Sider Volume 18, 2012 Lady Margaret Douglas and Others The Devonshire Manuscript: A Women’s Book of Courtly Poetry Edited and introduced by Elizabeth Heale Volume 19, 2012 Arcangela Tarabotti Letters Familiar and Formal Edited and translated by Meredith K. Ray and Lynn Lara Westwater Volume 20, 2012

The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe: The Toronto Series

Se rie S ed i to r S Margaret L. King and Albert Rabil, Jr. Se rie S ed i to r , e ng l i Sh te x tS Elizabeth H. Hageman

Previous Publications in the Series Pere Torrellas and Juan de Flores Three Spanish Querelle Texts: Grisel and Mirabella, The Slander against Women, and The Defense of Ladies against Slanderers: A Bilingual Edition and Study Edited and translated by Emily C. Francomano Volume 21, 2013 Barbara Torelli Benedetti Partenia, a Pastoral Play: A Bilingual Edition Edited and translated by Lisa Sampson and Barbara Burgess-Van Aken Volume 22, 2013 François Rousset, Jean Liebault, Jacques Guillemeau, Jacques Duval and Louis De Serres Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern France: Treatises by Caring Physicians and Surgeons (1581–1625) Edited and translated by Valerie WorthStylianou Volume 23, 2013 Mary Astell The Christian Religion, as Professed by a Daughter of the Church of England Edited by Jacqueline Broad Volume 24, 2013

Sophia of Hanover Memoirs (1630–1680) Edited and translated by Sean Ward Volume 25, 2013 Katherine Austen Book M: A London Widow’s Life Writings Edited by Pamela S. Hammons Volume 26, 2013 Anne Killigrew “My Rare Wit Killing Sin”: Poems of a Restoration Courtier Edited by Margaret J. M. Ezell Volume 27, 2013 Tullia d’Aragona and Others The Poems and Letters of Tullia d’Aragona and Others: A Bilingual Edition Edited and translated by Julia L. Hairston Volume 28, 2014 Luisa de Carvajal y Mendoza The Life and Writings of Luisa de Carvajal y Mendoza Edited and translated by Anne J. Cruz Volume 29, 2014 Russian Women Poets of the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries: A Bilingual Edition Edited and translated by Amanda Ewington Volume 30, 2014

The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe: The Toronto Series

Se rie S ed i to r S Margaret L. King and Albert Rabil, Jr. Se rie S ed i to r , e ng l i Sh te x tS Elizabeth H. Hageman

Previous Publications in the Series Jacques du Bosc L’Honnête Femme: The Respectable Woman in Society and the New Collection of Letters and Responses by Contemporary Women Edited and translated by Sharon Diane Nell and Aurora Wolfgang Volume 31, 2014 Lady Hester Pulter Poems, Emblems, and The Unfortunate Florinda Edited by Alice Eardley Volume 32, 2014 Jeanne Flore Tales and Trials of Love, Concerning Venus’s Punishment of Those Who Scorn True Love and Denounce Cupid’s Sovereignity: A Bilingual Edition and Study Edited and translated by Kelly Digby Peebles Poems translated by Marta Rijn Finch Volume 33, 2014

Veronica Gambara Complete Poems: A Bilingual Edition Critical introduction by Molly M. Martin Edited and translated by Molly M. Martin and Paola Ugolini Volume 34, 2014 Catherine de Médicis and Others Portraits of the Queen Mother: Polemics, Panegyrics, Letters Translation and study by Leah L. Chang and Katherine Kong Volume 35, 2014 Françoise Pascal, Marie-Catherine Desjardins, Antoinette Deshoulières, and Catherine Durand

Challenges to Traditional Authority: Plays by French Women Authors, 1650–1700 Edited and translated by Perry Gethner Volume 36, 2015

FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Selected Drama and Verse •

Edited by PATRICK JOHN CORNESS AND BARBARA JUDKOWIAK Translated by PATRICK JOHN CORNESS Translation Editor ALDONA ZWIERZYŃSKA-COLDICOTT Introduction by BARBARA JUDKOWIAK

Iter Academic Press Toronto, Ontario Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies Tempe, Arizona 2015

Iter Academic Press Tel: 416/978–7074

Email: [email protected]

Fax: 416/978–1668

Web: www.itergateway.org

Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies Tel: 480/965–5900 Email: [email protected] Fax: 480/965–1681 Web: acmrs.org © 2015 Iter, Inc. and the Arizona Board of Regents for Arizona State University. All rights reserved. Printed in Canada. Iter and the Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies gratefully acknowledge the generous support of James E. Rabil, in memory of Scottie W. Rabil, toward the publication of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Radziwillowa, Franciszka Urszula, ksiezna, 1705–1753. [Works. Selections. English] Franciszka Urszula Radziwillowa : selected drama and verse / edited by Patrick John Corness and Barbara Judkowiak ; translated by Patrick John Corness ; translation editor, Aldona ZwierzynskaColdicott ; introduction by Barbara Judkowiak. pages cm. -- (The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe ; The Toronto Series, 37) (Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies ; 478) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-86698-532-1 (alk. paper) I. Corness, Patrick. II. Judkowiak, Barbara. III. Zwierzynska-Coldicott, Aldona Maria. IV. Title. PG7157.R3A2 2015 891.8’5--dc23 2015001378 Cover illustration: Portrait of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa, by Hirsz Lejbowicz, supplied by the Polish National Library, Warsaw. Cover design: Maureen Morin, Information Technology Services, University of Toronto Libraries. Typesetting and production: Iter Academic Press.

Contents Credit Contributors

xi xiii

Acknowledgments

xv

Introduction

1

Translator’s Note

75

Selected Drama of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 1. Witty Love 2. An Act of Divine Providence 3. The Judge Who Lost His Reason 4. Love is Born in the Eyes 5. Dishonesty Entrapped 6. Consolation after Troubles 7. Gold in the Fire

79 79 117 137 173 233 261 311

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 1. Letters to her husband. First letter 2. Woe 3. Apologia for the wrath of a certain lady against the attentions of the importunate Mr. Pac 4. Epitaph to my son Mikoła Radziwiłł, who died in Biała in 1729 at the age of three years 5. O God, defender of the whole wide world 6. A song 7. A song 8. Admonition to value the life eternal more than the temporal 9. Admonition to form a modest opinion of oneself 10. Recipe for a courtier’s etiquette 11. On censure 12. To priests 13. To a fickle lady 14. Delusions and contentious thoughts 15. If you know how to read people’s character 16. What good is love that’s not returned? 17. It’s hard to set your will against your fate

343 343 344 344 344 347 347 348 349 349 351 351 351 352 353 354 354 355

18. Response to her husband … 19. Freedom of choice is the rule in love 20. If fate bestows a figure quite divine 21. The constant conflict heart and mind are in 22. A song 23. Such strong emotions in my heart 24. Emotions insincere, just seeking pleasure 25. Ah! When will my torments cease?

356 359 359 360 361 361 362 363

Appendix

365

Bibliography

369

Index

385

Credit Interior illustrations included in this volume are from copper engravings by Michał Żukowski (Radziwiłłowa, Urszula Franciszka, Komedye y Tragedye … S.I., 1754), and are reproduced by kind permission of the Jagiellonian Library, Jagiellonian University, Kraków. The cover image is a portrait of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa by Hirsz Lejbowicz, and is reproduced by kind permission of the National Library of Poland, Warsaw.

xi

Contributors PATRICK JOHN CORNESS is Visiting Professor of Translation at Coventry University, England, and Honorary Research Fellow at the Centre for Translation Studies, University of Leeds. He has translated works by Cyprian Norwid, Olga Tokarczuk, Jan Twardowski, Otar Dovzhenko, Vasyl Gabor, Eugenia Kononenko, Nataša Tanská and others. Other publications include The Taming of Dostoevsky: a Note on English Translations of Crime and Punishment, (Matador, 2002) and a translation of Jiří Levý’s The Art of Translation (J. Benjamins, 2011). In 2013 he was awarded the Silver Medal of the Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, for international dissemination of Czech scholarship and culture. BARBARA JUDKOWIAK is Professor of Polish Literature at Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland, with research interests in early modern literature, theatre and culture. Her publications include Słowo inscenizowane. O Franciszce Urszuli Radziwiłłowej — poetce  [The Dramatised Word: Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa — the poet] (1992) and  Wzgardzony wielogłos. Kultura teatralna czasów saskich i jej tradycje [Contempt for Polyphony: Theatrical Culture in the Saxon Era and its traditions] (2007). ALDONA ZWIERZYŃSKA-COLDICOTT is a Polish Translator/Interpreter with an MA in English Philology (UMCS, Poland) and MPhil in Linguistics (Coventry University, England). She has been a university lecturer in the English Department at the UMCS in Poland and as a Member of the Chartered Institute of Linguists for the last 20 years she has provided translation and interpretation for a wide range of commercial and public sector clients in the UK, specialising in management and educational services. She is the author of Poland Festivals of the World (1998). The works by Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa included in this volume, and Barbara Judkowiak’s Introduction, were translated by Patrick John Corness (Translation Editor Aldona Zwierzyńska-Coldicott), as were all quotations, titles of publications etc., except where otherwise indicated.

xiii

Acknowledgments I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the assistance given me by my colleague Professor Barbara Judkowiak of the University of Poznań, the foremost expert on the life and works of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa. I have benefited from her professional insight into the original Polish text, especially with respect to the numerous obscure passages and expressions, which in many ways, I am assured, are mysterious even to educated Polish native speakers because of the historical and cultural distance. My understanding of Radziwiłłowa’s works and their rendering into English have also been enhanced as a result of close discussions with the translation editor, Aldona Zwierzyńska-Coldicott, a professional translator and translation studies scholar; her dedication to the task and her insight as a native speaker of Polish who is bilingual in Polish and English have been truly invaluable. I am grateful to the staff of the Jagiellonian Library in Kraków, who provided me with a microfilm of the 1754 edition of Radziwiłłowa’s works, and to the National Library of the Czech Republic in Prague for producing, in collaboration with AiP Beroun, a digitized copy of this publication.1 The Slavonic Library in Prague enabled me to undertake the preliminary research that led to the proposal for the present book and much of the background research involved in the translation project itself. The Brotherton Library of the University of Leeds and Warwick University Library helped me to fill in the remaining gaps. I am grateful to the Other Voice series co-editor, Albert Rabil, for inviting me to work on the present volume. His forbearance and his confidence that it would eventually be completed, despite the numerous external obstacles faced by the contributors, are greatly appreciated. The contributors’ thanks are also due to Margaret L. King, Other Voice series co-editor, Margaret English-Haskin of Iter: Gateway to the Middle Ages and Renaissance (University of Toronto), and Natalie Oeltjen of the Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies (CRRS; University of Toronto) for their helpful co-operation in the final stages, to Sharon Brinkman for her meticulous copyediting, and to Lena Borise for her advice on the transliteration of Belarusian. Last, but certainly not least, I owe a debt of gratitude to my wife Jitka for her unwavering patience and support over the years of this project. Patrick John Corness 1. The source text for this translation was, however, edited by Professor Judkowiak in the light of her investigations of Radziwiłłowa’s original manuscripts, copies, and other editions. The 1754 edition has since been made available online by the Polish National Digital Library: www.polona.pl/ item/1111190/9/.

xv

Introduction Aloisio Sajkowski in memoriam 1. FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA AND THE OTHER VOICE Until now, the work of Princess Radziwiłłowa has scarcely been given any attention from the viewpoint adopted by the Other Voice series.1 In communist Poland, behind the iron curtain, the climate was unfavorable for women’s studies. In the course of the last three decades those arrears have been made good to a certain extent, and there has been a substantial output of works published under the banner of feminism and gender studies. However, the latter focus in the main on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Research on earlier periods, up to the eighteenth century, is far less satisfactory. Some initial synopses have appeared, broadly surveying the position of women and their culture, as well as some specialized descriptive historical studies. However, the depth of analysis remains far from satisfactory, particularly with respect to cryptic adaptations of official (male) discourse by women or of their quest for adequate means to express inherent feminine sensibilities.2 Naturally, Princess Radziwiłłowa is mentioned in traditional literary history—the first Polish woman dramatist could hardly be ignored. However, her dramas were valued merely for their pioneering role. Hence, her Molière translations enjoy a particularly elevated status, set above that of her own idiosyncratic dramatic works by a canon imposing the classicist, constructional “discipline of the original.”3 In the nineteenth century only a few individual, isolated voices drew attention to “the casting of women in theatrical roles,”4 a particularly striking fact in the light of the then widespread model of the didactic drama, which eschewed 1. In addition to brief discussions in Borkowska et al.’s Pisarki Polskie (2000) and Phillips (2001), the author of this Introduction has undertaken reflective studies inspired by the translation of the works of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa in the present volume (see Judkowiak 2006, 2008, 2009, 2011c, 2013b); see also Maciejewska 2008, 2009. 2. In literary scholarship there is a clear lack of analytical tools and an objective, balanced, descriptive language, free of ideological entanglements. 3. Klimowicz 1998, 75. 4. Chomętowski 1870, 4, 112–135 (a quotation from an article in Tygodnik Ilustrowany 8/1903 popularizing his opinion under the cryptonym J.P.) Chomętowski considered this mainly a matter of convention, but in emphasizing “knowledge of the heart” and by his interest in characteristics of the heroines, he implied that the issue undoubtedly goes deeper, for, of course, it has deeper consequences for dramatic representation, legitimizing (initially in court theater circles) both the portrayal of women and, gradually, their alternative sensitivities and worldview.

1

2 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK female figures and erotic emotions. Since the publication in 1882 of Radziwiłłowa’s love letters in verse to her husband, these intimate lyrics have been included in evaluations of Radziwiłłowa’s works and are highly valued for their simplicity and “great sincerity in their outpouring of emotions on paper,”5 its unsophisticated language of the heart.”6 Typically, in the twentieth century, the position allocated to Radziwiłłowa in synopses of the history of Polish literature was still predicated on a protective, paternalistic approach to evaluation. Considered a precursor of the literary era of the Enlightenment, simultaneously still leaning toward provincial Baroque culture, she can be summed up in the following words, written over a century ago: “The author had a natural talent, though she lacked any substantial literary background […] Assessed, however, as a literary phenomenon, a woman writing with no clear association with contemporary literary trends and exerting no influence on them, she is deserving of attention.”7 Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa’s works are of interest in the context of The Other Voice series principally in that they represent one of the few women’s voices to make their mark within the literary culture of her time, as they attempted to break the monopoly that excluded women authors from that cultural life. The very fact that she expressed dissent, albeit mere expressions of doubt regarding the domination of the male voice in public life, is notable in itself, limited though it was in her case to the narrow sphere of private handwritten communications among her circle of family and friends.8 Not only did she incorporate in many of her works polemics regarding the dominant male cultural model, but she also sought her “own voice”—a means for expressing the sphere of sensibility 5. Radziwiłłowa 1882, 368. 6. Which, moreover, had been excluded from literature, as it would not be capable of handling such frankness and simplicity! Wasylewski 1922, 4, 5: “exuberant flowering of sentiments without literary embellishment.” 7. Chmielowski 1914, 457. The survey of the state of research in part 4 of the present Introduction confirms the exceptional tenacity of this interpretation: from a scholarly authority on the literary history of the late nineteenth century, as was Piotr Chmielowski, to Marek Prejs from the early twenty-first century: Prejs 2008. An earlier monograph devoted to the study of late Baroque poetry by the same author contained only one page on her dramas and their amorphic Baroque characteristics: Prejs 1989, 89. 8. Radziwiłłowa’s works were published only thanks to the insistence of Józef Andrzej Załuski, publisher of the first Polish anthology of contemporary poetry. Having published the works of Elżbieta Drużbacka (1752), he wanted to include Radziwiłłowa’s poems, which he had heard recited, in a second volume. In 1751, Bishop Załuski’s proposal was rejected, and printing of the plays was begun in Nieśwież. The edition, of which only individual fragments survive today, was probably never completed, as it was noted in contemporary bibliographies as hearsay. It appears that Radziwiłłowa (bowing to conventional pressures relegating activities of women to the private sphere) may herself have considered her literary works unworthy of wider publication. In 1753, immediately after her death, her Przestrogi córkom [Admonitions to Daughters] (written in 1732) were published, as well as a full, illustrated edition of her dramas.

Introduction 3 previously lacking in literature, of a specific worldview of her own as a woman. This applies both to direct lyrical expression and to genres expressing the author’s opinions through literary structures and conventions, thereby shaping models of femininity in cautionary works (recommendations to daughters, polemics on matrimonial issues) and dramatic works (characters of heroines). The otherness of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa’s voice in the series is further highlighted by her belonging to a cultural borderland, as her voice is one of the first to be heard from east-central Europe. Emanating from a part of the continent where Western and Eastern influences mingle, giving rise to a specific cultural identity, this is bound to be a distinctive voice, particularly for Western readers. Whereas from the viewpoint of Paris or London (or Chicago or Toronto) Poland belongs to Eastern Europe, it must be noted that in Polish (as in Czech and Hungarian) cultural history, Western elements deriving from the impact of Latin civilization, and later of the Italian and French languages, have been more powerful than Eastern influences (e.g., Russian Orthodox religion).9 Therefore, the specific cultural mix that was formed in the region between Germany and Russia, on the territory of the republic then known as Poland-Lithuania (in essence making up a multinational federal state with a common social structure, administration, and political institutions) is emphatically distinct from that of the Russian part of Europe. It is worth adding, regarding the cultural-historical image of gender in this region, that in early Polish culture, seen from a comparative viewpoint,10 there was no real debate on women’s rights, no counterpart of the French querelles des femmes, and echoes of the latter amounted to mere literary fragments, rather bland substitutes for discussions on the nature of the sexes, their rights, and obligations. There were few misogynistic works—rather there was benign, indulgent, albeit ribald, humor in satires and anecdotes. In the light of early documents, the model of marriage can be described here as based on partnership (as in England and Bohemia, by contrast with neighboring Germany or Italy). Paradoxically, economic backwardness by comparison with Western countries, and an agrarian socioeconomic structure, favored women, preserving the feudal basis for their independence in a fairly broad sense. The characteristic otherness of the voice of Radziwiłłowa can also be appreciated from the perspective of cultural history. It arose from her need to discover a language of her own in the context of the conflict between the old and the new, in a phase of transition to a new era. This transitional phase, providing an opportunity for liberation from traditional patterns of thought and expression, 9. The Catholic Cult of the Virgin Mary in Poland (supported by the Mother of God concept of Eastern Christianity) was tempered in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries by contact with the spirituality of numerous protestants of various denominations, Jews, Aryans, and followers of Islam. Characteristically, Radziwiłłowa’s religiosity is not particularly associated with the Marian cult. 10. Cf., e.g., Charewiczowa 1938; Bogucka 1998; Malinowska 2008.

4 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK demanded independence and creativity, inspiring intuitive and imaginative ideas, rather than scientific thinking, and receptivity to presentiment and things as yet unknown. Therefore it favored the exploitation of feminine traits and gave women an opportunity to come into their own in the hiatus, as it were, between the old, moribund canon and the new, emergent cultural model, still in its formative phase. This is the source of Radziwiłłowa’s other voice; classical critics considered her disregard for the constraints of the official literary norms, the “Aristotelian golden rules,” inexcusable. In this respect she is distinctive in her bold selection and intermingling of diverse aesthetic traditions and models. The elements of Rococo feminization of form and style are also worth noting (e.g., the predilection for miniatures, represented in Radziwiłłowa’s literary work by cycles of portraits and riddles and in the theater by one-act plays). 2. THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE LIFE AND WORK OF PRINCESS RADZIWIŁŁOWA Princess Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa was a citizen of the Commonwealth of Two Nations, a federation of the Polish Crown Lands and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that was formed in the sixteenth century by the Union of Lublin (reinforced by the so-called coequality of rights declaration of 1697). The Commonwealth was effectively a multinational, multiconfessional, and consequently multicultural state, comprising, in addition to the crown territories of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, and Mazovia; the strongly German-influenced western borderlands of Pomerania and Silesia; and beyond the Lithuanian heartland, Żmudź, Belarus, and Ukraine, which were consequently populated by Germans, Tatars, Jews, Armenians and others as well as by Poles, Lithuanians, and Russians. Her lifetime spanned the first half of the eighteenth century, which was for the Commonwealth a period of personal union with Saxony, that is, the rule of two successive elected kings of the Wettin dynasty (1697–1764) who mounted the throne of Poland in the wake of the traditional rivalry in Europe between France and the Habsburgs. This period incorporates the two-year civil war following the dual election in 1733 of Augustus III and Stanisław Leszczyński. The resulting second downfall of Leszczyński, following the dual monarchy during the Northern War (1704–1706), was evidence of the declining political influence of Louis XIV’s state in this region of Europe. The French cultural and linguistic expansion that began in the mid-seventeenth century and that was accelerated by the influence of the royal courts of two queens coming from France (that of Louise Marie Gonzaga and that of Marie-Casimire d’Arquien Sobieska) was to last well into the eighteenth century, carrying newer Enlightenment trends. The Saxon era in the history of Poland-Lithuania is marked by a crisis in its political and social structure and by the gradual decline of the institution of the

Introduction 5 parliamentary monarchy governed by the nobility, which had for two centuries spelled the European distinctiveness of a country whose erstwhile position of power was actually linked in the consciousness of its population with this organizational structure. The Commonwealth, obstinately adhering to its democratic tradition, became progressively more defenseless in the face of absolutist powers, particularly the new neighboring militarized police states. A combination of internal11 and external12 factors led at the time to a deep crisis of sovereignty in the Commonwealth, which was no longer treated internationally as an independent political entity but as an object permanently vulnerable to interference by foreign states in its internal affairs. After 1717, the Russian protectorate increasingly paralyzed Polish politics. The Commonwealth found itself defenseless in the face of Russia’s various manipulations as it masqueraded as the guarantor of the status quo. This historical appraisal emerges from an ex post facto inquiry into the causes of the partitions that erased the Commonwealth from the map of Europe at the end of the eighteenth century. Yet the then inhabitants of the Commonwealth, including the magnates13 who played political games on a greater or lesser scale,14 generally lacked the perspicacity to comprehend this state of affairs, and they could not imagine that the independent existence of their vast state might be under threat. 11. The most important of these is the erosion of the heterogeneous structure of the state, the decline of the sejm [parliament] and the impotence of the king vis-à-vis the nobility, and the rival magnate clans’ idiosyncratic (dynastic) concept of the public interest. 12. Especially worthy of note is the new constellation of forces in eighteenth-century Europe—the union of the imperial courts of Petersburg and Vienna and the emergence of the new powers Russia and Prussia, immediate neighbors of the declining Commonwealth. 13. The highest stratum of the noble estate, having no separate legal identity. Membership was based on substantial landed property and political influence, at least on a provincial level, and the maintenance at their own expense of private armies and opulent residences. The exercise of patronage reinforced their status and prestige. The underdeveloped state of the middle classes enabled the wealthiest nobility and the magnates to build up a network of social connections on a national scale (marriages beyond their own provinces, appointments to national offices). The system under which the lesser aristocracy was in a relationship of patron-client dependency on the magnates led to the latter’s taking control of the local state apparatus in the Saxon era. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, this process was furthered by the greater disparity of wealth (vast landed estates) and above all by the remnants of the pre-Union of Lublin legal code (distinguishing manorial and dependent aristocracy). Therefore, the coequality of rights reform represented a limitation of the earlier virtual impunity of the Lithuanian magnates: cf., e.g., Augustyniak 2008, 259–63. 14. The Radziwiłłs, supporters of the Wettins, were the object of various diplomatic endeavors by Russia. Without going into the details of this complex issue, it is worthy of note that, for example, in June 1742 Franciszka Urszula informed her absent husband that she was receiving a Russian courier who was seeking to find out whether she saw herself as a princess of Kurland. She gave the noncommittal reply that it was a matter for the Commonwealth and the king: AGAD AR, dział [section] V, teka [portfolio] 50, koperta [folder] 662.

6 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK In the Saxon era, during decades of political stabilization, the nobility attempted to revive the economy,15 and there were local commercial initiatives (e.g., the Radziwiłłs’ manufacturing workshops, which began to develop in the 1740s). Tentative reform proposals were mooted. They were actually of minor political significance, focusing markedly on education reforms and the raising of levels of learning and culture. The difficulties were compounded by the country’s vast territorial extent, its agrarian structure and the consequently limited degree of urbanization, and poor communication routes. Culture tended to be provincialized by the wide dispersal of small cultural centers. No center of culture existed in the capital, for example. Warsaw was to become a powerful center of culture radiating out across the country only in the second half of the century. Toward the end of the 1740s, Józef Andrzej Załuski endeavored to provide an institutionalized focus for literary and academic life and cultural initiatives, founding a public library here and announcing literary competitions, periodical subscriptions, and the publication of an anthology of contemporary literature and bibliography. Naturally he was concerned with the Radziwiłłs and their writings, among others. However, there was no close-knit literary center to speak of; certain of Załuski’s initiatives, and those of individual magnates—patrons and amateur artists—were ephemeral in nature. Because the magnates did not reside permanently in the capital, assembling there only for meetings of the parliament, and because the royal court was present only intermittently, no literary salons were established to be run by Polish ladies on the French model. This general outline of the background to Radziwiłłowa’s cultural and literary activity is based on her membership in the magnate elite of the Commonwealth. The culture of this social stratum is aristocratic, cosmopolitan, based on the European, Western model founded on latinitas christiana, and informed by the native variety of the chivalric-civic ideology of the nobility, which stood for equality within the framework of the estate, expressing an attachment to freedom.16 Franciszka Urszula née Wiśniowiecka was born into an influential family that traced its ancestry back to Dymitr Korybut, brother of Jogailo (Władysław II Jagiełło, fourteenth-century king of Poland). The Wiśniowiecki princes possessed vast landed estates in Ukraine, then part of the federal Commonwealth. On her mother’s side she was a blood relation of the Leszczyński family from the crown 15. The involvement of Augustus II as King of Saxony in the Great Northern War of 1700–1721 contributed to the country’s ruin, turning the Commonwealth into a sphere of military activity on the part of Sweden and Russia, invaded by their troops and by the Saxon army. 16. In her didactic admonishment to her daughter, Radziwiłłowa pointed out: “Be aware that you are brought up in a country that is free,/So you are the equal of any noble family,” on which she based appropriate advice to the young princess regarding her behavior. The nobles’ ideology of equality and freedom penetrated even into her drama Z oczu się miłość rodzi [Love is Born in the Eyes] (in this volume), based on the French romantic novel Artamène by M. de Scudéry (1972).

Introduction 7 lands of Greater Poland. On both sides, therefore, she was related, among others, to Polish kings; Michał Wiśniowiecki was elective king from 1669 to 1673, Stanisław Leszczyński jointly from 1704 to 1709 and again for five months in 1733/34. After her marriage to Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, Franciszka Urszula contributed to the fame of his family (illustrious and princely like that of her father), the most influential in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Her father was a serious candidate for the throne, but he declined it. Several of those close to her husband also had ambitions toward the throne, rivaling one another for prestige through their financial contributions and patronage and seeking to demonstrate to the kings the importance of the oligarchy of the magnates in the noblemen’s Commonwealth.17 Male members of Princess Radziwiłłowa’s family occupied the highest positions in the state, while the women at their side fulfilled representative (cultural) functions in so-called society, assisting them to enhance the family’s status. They occasionally intervened in politics, devised their own intrigues, or simply advised their husbands.18 Franciszka Urszula did so rather rarely and modestly19 in her letters to her husband (not for any deficiency of intellect or political culture but rather for reasons of temperament, and also as a concession to the traditional division of roles and spheres of activity of the sexes, reserving public matters for men and according the private sphere to women). Franciszka was the daughter of Janusz Wiśniowiecki and Teofila née Leszczyńska. She was born on February 13, 1705, in Czartorysk in Volhynia, in the Łuck district.20 Franciszka’s godfather at her baptism in Biała Krynica was Ivan Mazepa, the educated, intelligent Cossack hetman (commander) whom her grandmother Anna Wiśniowiecka, née Chodorowska, the wife of Konstanty Wiśniowiecki,21 had sought to win over for Stanisław Leszczyński, since he had just ascended to the Polish throne under the patronage of Charles XII, King of Sweden. Franciszka was brought up by this grandmother, who died in 1711, bequeathing to her beloved granddaughter Biały Kamień and Żmigród. Her father was by then Provincial Governor of Kraków22 and his six-year-old only daughter 17. For recent advances on the topic of the connection between these ambitions and patronage, see Bernatowicz 2011. 18. Discussed on the basis of correspondence by Popiołek 2003. 19. In the autumn of 1741 in a letter to her husband making political observations and expressing her opinion on the topic of his own involvement, she apologizes (significantly) for coming up with such ideas in the face of his genius (i.e., his discernment and shrewd intelligence). 20. The estates of Samuel Leszczyński (they had come into the Wiśniowiecki family through his wife Konstancja) were inherited by Teofila in 1695 from her grandfather Dymitr Wiśniowiecki (who had acquired them in 1676). 21. By her second marriage Janowa Karolowa Dolska, widowed in 1695: cf. Czamańska 2007, 357–63. 22. In the Senate of the day, this accorded him the highest position in the hierarchy of secular crown senators (the Provincial Governorship of Wilno (Vilnius) carried a similar status among the Lithuanian senators—this position would be occupied by her husband in 1744).

8 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK undoubtedly began her education at her parents’ home. In his youth (from 1695 to 1697) her father undertook the typical educational grand tour in the West, studying in the military academy in Paris for a year and refining his manners in various seats of the aristocracy.23 He had a good historical, later also legal, education and possessed a good knowledge of the French language and admirable oratorical skills. His occasional, frivolous writings were published under a pen name. His brother, Michał Serwacy, with whom he maintained close contacts, was the architect of the reconstruction of the family seat in Wiśniowiec in the style of French classicism; he also wrote poetry and translated from French. The daughter of the Provincial Governor of Kraków inherited certain literary ambitions, which were encouraged during her lifetime by various acquaintances, not only among aristocratic amateurs (such as the Jabłonowskis, Jan Fryderyk Sapieha, and Udalryk Radziwiłł), but also among aristocratic or monastic writers (Kazimierz Niesiołowski, Antonina Niemiryczowa, and Reverend Poszakowski). For her intellectual development Franciszka owed more to her education at court than at the convent, although a hypothesis regarding her education by Dominican nuns in Lwów24 has been mentioned. In any case, she had above all a good command of the French language, essential to the European aristocracy.25 Given the dearth of facts regarding her youth and her teachers, it is preferable to replace academic hypotheses of earlier scholars about a thorough education, which are difficult to support on the grounds of her accomplishments, with the view that insofar as she rose above the level of her intellectual milieu this was owing to many years of persistent self-study, that is, more to her extensive reading than to contacts with scholars. After her death, the publisher of her dramatic works, her former assistant Jakub Fryczyński, commandant of the Nieśwież cadet corps, actor, and 23. The guardian of the fatherless juvenile prince was King Jan III Sobieski, a friend of the deceased. In Paris the eighteen-year-old young prince and his brother were warmly welcomed by the sister of Queen Maria Kazimiera Sobieska, Maria Ludwika de Béthune. Her daughter Joanna had for several years been the daughter-in-law of Hetman Stanisław Jan Jabłonowski, another guardian of the young Wiśniowiecki children. 24. Czamańska 2007, 391. 25. Evidence of her education acquired from Visitationist nuns from France might be the fact that she was praying from a French book when her husband arrived, surprising her in her bedroom. In 1732 she copied, on her husband’s recommendation, various French books and treatises, clearly for the improvement of her language skills (manuscripts in Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in Kraków], sygn. [ref.] 2268), imported French and German newspapers, and collected inter alia the Journal de Sçavans. Among library issue slips and among books donated from her private collection to the Castle library in Nieśwież, books in Polish were outnumbered by French books; at any rate, in the introduction to her dramatic works we read the testimony of her collaborator that she read several languages. She must have had some knowledge of Italian, since she taught the elements of the language to her daughter. We can also accept that we are not dealing with translations into French; the librarian’s notes in French merely conceal the actual language of many items, mainly in fact written in romance languages—Italian and Spanish: cf. Judkowiak 1992a, 147–61; Judkowiak 1992c, 147–61.

Introduction 9 director of performances at Nieśwież, praised the author for her “untiring reading of books published in various languages.”26 The Jesuit Józef Katenbring likewise confirmed that her custom of reading every day was Princess Radziwiłłowa’s favorite occupation.27 In his preface, Fryczyński wrote of Radziwiłłowa’s love of the liberal arts, of her exceptional knowledge of the holy scriptures, and of her familiarity with polemical issues in theology (“controversies on articles of the Catholic faith”), in canon and civil law, general history, geography, and politics,28 that is, in traditionally male spheres of erudition (these interests may have developed under the influence of her father). Radziwiłłowa also took pleasure in conversation, eagerly engaged in “discourse” with men (as evidenced by her letter to her husband dated May 23, 1742), for example, with army officers about the Turks and other nationalities,29 undoubtedly confronting their personal experience with her knowledge acquired through reading.30 Evidence of her knowledge of the rules of the French art of salon conversation is found not only in relevant fragments of instructive reading in French transcribed by Radziwiłłowa31 but also in her cycles of riddles and portraits. As her parents’ only child and heir to a massive fortune, she was highly eligible. However, she did not marry as a young girl, nor did she do so under pressure from her parents without regard for her own inclinations. The first potential husband was Seweryn, the son of a friend of her father’s, a full crown hetman, Provincial Governor of Podlasie Stanisław Mateusz Rzewuski. The young couple may actually have been engaged, but Rzewuski could not win the heart of the young princess, so her parents, not persisting with their suggestion, put forward another candidate, the Hungarian count Aspremont Rockheim, evidently the nephew of Prince Franciszek II Rakoczy.32 Meanwhile Anna Ogińska, niece of 26. Jakub Fryczyński, Przemowa do czytelnika [Address to the reader], in Komedyje i tragedyje …, 1754, k. 1. 27. Katenbring 1755. 28. Jakub Fryczyński, Przemowa do czytelnika [Address to the reader], in Komedyje i tragedyje 1754, k. 1. 29. AGAD AR, dział [section] IV (Listy Radziwiłłów [Radziwiłł letters]), teka [portfolio] 50, koperta [folder] 663. 30. Cf. her letter dated May 23, 1742. 31. Comment plaire dans la conversation, manuscript of 1732, now in Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in Kraków], sygn. [ref.] 2268, pp. 65–67. A small fragment from a guide of a type popular since the Renaissance, like the famous book by Giovanni de La Casa, Archbishop of Benevento, of 1558, which was translated into many languages. Princess Radziwiłłowa could have had recourse to Duhamel’s French translation, published in Paris in 1674, Galetée ou l’art de plaire dans la conversation or Pierre d’Ortigue de Vaumorière’s l’Art de plaire dans la conversation, first published in 1688 and frequently reissued in the eighteenth century. 32. Czamańska 2007, 383, 391. Her father was friendly with Franciszek Rakoczy and in 1703 committed military divisions to the support of the latter’s efforts to liberate Hungary by armed insurrection.

10 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK Prince Janusz, decided to introduce her to Michał Radziwiłł (born 1702), who had been searching for a potential wife for several years without finding any of his mother’s suggestions attractive or emotionally compatible.33 Early in 1725 he went to a carnival in Czartorysk with his uncle, Paweł Sanguszko, his mother’s brother. He found the young, beautiful princess (“like Diana”) restrained and taciturn in company at the table. He was very taken by her and “fell terribly in love,”34 nota bene, only after an opportunity arose to talk privately. He realized that the divine will had found him a match, discovering that while he had nothing to talk about with other women, he could maintain interesting conversations with Franciszka for hours on end on numerous topics, instead of eating and dancing. The young princess, whom he was already addressing, in accordance with the conventions of courtly love, as his angel and his queen, was well disposed toward him and accepted his proposal of marriage. They exchanged rings on the fifth day, when Michał first made an “impetuous advance”35 as they kissed in a corner of the room. He announced to his highly disapproving mother that he would never abandon his beloved until his death and resisted all his mother’s powerful emotional and economic blackmail, giving up the worldly goods that would have been his due. His resolute stance in the face of his mother’s intransigence could be directly attributed to the widespread acceptance since the seventeenth century of the custom of raptus puellae, recognizing the free will of engaged couples, who frequently opposed arrangements made by their parents.36 True, his uncle was supportive, and there was of course no question of actual abduction from the family home. Franciszka and Michał confirm the observations of historians of family and marriage that in the eighteenth century (by contrast with the preceding golden age of paternal authority and powerful family ties) more scope was gradually being admitted, even within the framework of family institutions, for individual freedom and the right to personal happiness, as was also expressed, albeit in formulaic or thematic form, in Princess Radziwiłłowa’s writing. The wedding ceremony and reception took place in Biała Krynica in April, and as can readily be concluded from the diary notes of M.K. Radziwiłł,37 the newlyweds, for both of whom it had been virtually love at first sight, began their 33. Michał’s father died at a young age in 1719. 34. Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł Rybeńko, Diariusz …, 7 lutego 1725 [Diary …, February 7, 1725], AGAD AR, dział [section] VI, sygn. [ref.] II–80a, 192–193. 35. Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł Rybeńko, Diariusz …, 9 lutego 1725 [Diary …, February 9, 1725], AGAD AR, dział [section] VI, sygn. [ref.] II–80a, 193. 36. Radziwiłłowa’s later objection to such practices was perpetuated in the play Igrzysko fortuny [A contest of fortune]; in act 4, scene 4, Tymaretka opposes Sesotryx, who would “steal her and carry her off to another country,” for “virtue and reason forbid it.” 37. Sajkowski 1981, 225–32, discusses matches and matchmakers, quoting extensive extracts, including the Prince’s expression of satisfaction that God had given him a “pure virgin.”

Introduction 11 married life. Their union was founded on strong emotions and tenderness, as demonstrated, for example, by revelations in their correspondence of rather bold allusions to erotic satisfaction and impassioned declarations of yearning at times of separation. This is particularly marked in Franciszka’s letters, which recorded their marriage on the amitié tendre model.38 The marriage lasted twenty-eight years (until her death in 1753), surviving various trials affecting their lives (the antagonism of her mother-in-law Anna Radziwiłłowa, the financial difficulties that beset them for the first dozen or so years and from which they were rescued by Franciszka’s parents, the deaths of her children and their illnesses). Emotional upsets (certain suspicions on the part of Franciszka, complaints of neglect and indiscretions) were resolved thanks to the civilized nature of the partners’ relationship within the framework of the traditional family model.39 They both maintained warm relations with Franciszka’s parents throughout their lives, and the experience of that harmonious relationship undoubtedly played a significant role. Prince Michał recorded the usually boisterous celebrations of their wedding anniversaries and her birthdays, singing the praises of Franciszka (e.g., my dear wife, a great, upright and sensible mother). A married woman’s most important social responsibility was motherhood; indeed for many women in those days it was also the only possible way of avoiding being “doomed to immanence”40 and the only means of self-advancement. This was particularly true in the higher echelons, since the inheritance of enormous fortunes and political influence were at stake. Radziwiłłowa experienced some twenty-nine pregnancies,41 and she was by no means an isolated exception. It was customary for aristocratic women to be pregnant with “chronic” frequency. In the medieval and early modern periods, by contrast with our own times, more children were born to women of higher social status, who did not engage in hard physical labor as breadwinners. At the time, infant mortality was very high, and after numerous miscarriages (including twins and triplets) and several live births (including twins Janusz and Karol), Franciszka succeeded in raising only three 38. Excerpts from private correspondence, preserved in AGAD AR, are found in Sajkowski 1981, 232–62; addenda in Judkowiak 1985. 39. It is difficult to agree with the view that Franciszka Urszula, “madly in love with the man of her heart,” was “destined to love and wait […] prepared to put up with anything, blindly subordinate to her husband” and “harassed”; it is worthy of note that she openly wrote, inter alia, of her own “dedication and folly” (www.instytut ksiazki.pl/literature polska/o_literaturze_polskiej/o_literaturze/pisarki _polskie_rekonesans_na_koniec_stulecia). This is an embellishment of a sentence in a survey of Polish women writers, Borkowska et al (2000, 26) referring to what is significant here, namely, the convention of Ovidian heroides adopted by Radziwiłłowa in her letters in verse to her husband: “like Penelope, she was condemned to pain and eternal waiting, but as a faithful and virtuous wife she accepted, her fate—at least she appeared to do so.” 40. “condamnée à l’immanence”—Simone de Beauvoir 1949. 41. One contemporary researcher described her as a “baby factory”: Sajkowski 1965, 153.

12 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK children to full maturity: two daughters, Katarzyna Karolina and Teofila Konstancja; and just one son, Karol Stanisław.42 However, besides her own children, she was surrounded for many years by a number of orphaned children of her relations who were under her care. After the death of her first-born son, traditionally given over to a wet nurse in the grandmother’s household, she became an advocate of breast-feeding by the mother and resolved to bring up the children herself, foreshadowing similar developments in France, for example. The adoption of these attitudes, familiar to her not only as a lady of higher social standing but as an intellectual, represented a further form of self-advancement. The role of a mother, involving continual, close, and direct contact with her children, although it was at times exhausting, represented a value complemented by artistic achievements and other forms of self-realization. Her educational concerns also involved a significant number of young noble ladies in her court entourage at Nieśwież acquiring the ways of the court at her side.43 Their training in housekeeping, entertainment, social life, cultural events, and ceremonies was organized in a mutually complementary fashion. Before outlining the role of Franciszka Urszula’s literary creativity in her life, let us add that the author supported her husband not merely for the purpose of enhancing the prestige of the Radziwiłł name.44 During his absences she took over certain of his duties connected with the management of his estate, which was an especially difficult task during the civil war from 1733 to 1735. She supervised investments, including, in particular, her own glass manufacturing workshop in Urzecz, she oversaw building works and repairs or organized celebrations—for 42. The rather poor reputation of the prince nicknamed “Beloved Sir” (born 1734) did not speak well of the way his mother brought him up (considered too indulgent in the nineteenth century; this criticism should be directed equally toward his father, as the education of the sons was supposed to be his domain). Franciszka favored Karol’s more talented and less recalcitrant twin brother Janusz, who unfortunately died in his youth (in 1750, following his first successful public speeches). 43. They were actresses in Nieśwież performances. The emotional turbulence of some of the latter was sufficient justification for the accompanying commentary preserved in the draft of the play Wizerunek niestatecznych afektów [Portrait of Fickle Affections]: AGAD AR, Rękopisy biblioteczne [Library manuscripts section], sygn. [ref.] 49, p. 90; also in Judkowiak 2013b, 382–387). Here they introduced the “altercations and adventures” and the “turns of happiness” of the couples, praising the bravery and innocence of the young girls and highlighting the young men’s “tendency to unreliability, hypocrisy and fickle sentiments.” In turn, Franciszka entertained her mother-in-law’s court in Biała (no doubt during her stay there in February 1733) with epigrammatic portraits of the young ladies who belonged to it: manuscript in Biblioteka Polska w Paryżu, [Polish Library in Paris], sygn. [ref.] 127); cf. Judkowiak 1992a, 105, where attention is drawn to similarities with convivial games involving riddles originating in seventeenth-century French salons and psychological generalizations in the nature of moralizing maxims (Theophrastus, La Bruyère) and to forms of politeness and the implementation of rules of good taste. Formal miniaturization allowed these minutiae to be incorporated in Rococo aesthetics. 44. Górzyński 1997; also Chynczewska-Hennel 1993, 205–214.

Introduction 13 example, the magnificent funeral on the death of her mother-in-law in 174745— and represented her husband at their sons’ side as they began to undertake public duties, for example, during sessions of the regional assembly (sejmik). When she eventually suffered a decline in her health, she did not abandon her cultural activities in Nieśwież. She died on May 23, 1753, near Nowogródek. At the time, despite her illness, she was on her way to meet her husband in Grodno. Franciszka Radziwiłłowa’s literary output before her marriage is unknown. Since the first love letter in verse to her husband Prince Michał is dated 1725, soon after their marriage, she had clearly become adept at writing poetry earlier than that. The next known poems bearing a date are further love letters to her husband from 1728. Michał Radziwiłł, moving in elite social circles in the capital and frequently taking his young wife with him, encouraged her to develop her knowledge of French and her literary creativity. Evidence of this is the eulogy to her son Mikołaj at his funeral in 1729, the declaration that she wrote poetry “out of obedience” (see Response to a Response 1732)46 and most significantly the manuscript in French “written in my own hand at the behest of my beloved husband the Prince.”47 As in earlier letters, she adopts a sensitive tone and form of expression regarding their marriage, and here too one can observe the interplay with her beloved husband, calculated to reinforce their mutual obligations (her brief discourses entitled Du mariage and Des devoirs réciproques de l’homme et de la femme). Further works can be dated from the early 1730s (Respons na list księżniczki krajczanki [Izabeli Radziwiłłówny] [Response to a Letter from a 45. Besides her body, the remains of the first-born son of the Radziwiłłs and of the scion of the Kleck line, Jan Radziwiłł, Provincial Governor of Novgorod, were placed in the Nieśwież necropolis. 46. Respons na Respons [na „Wiersze księżnej Jejmci koniuszyny litewskiej na weselu Im Pana wojewody kijowskiego Potockiego”] kawalera pewnego, księżny koniuszyny litewskiej z r. 1732 [Response to the Response (to “Poems by the Princess, Consort of the Lithuanian Master of the Horse at the wedding of His Excellency the Governor of Kyiv, Potocki”] See all three texts: Wiersze księżnej na weselu, Respons […] kawalera pewnego and Respons […] księżnej Radziwiłłowej [A poem by the Princess at the wedding, Response […] by a certain gentleman and the Response […] by Princess Radziwiłłowa]—in the State Archive in Poznań (sygn. [ref.] MS 73, p. 348–355, line 5 on p. 352); according to a copy of the first two works in a MS in the Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kórnik (sygn. [ref.] 513, p. 271), the certain gentleman was a nobleman [Józef Teodor] Mogilnicki, Mayor of Nieszawa, Secretary to His Highness the Prince Primate, i.e., Teodor Potocki, who officiated at the wedding on October 27, 1732; the wedding celebrations in Warsaw, attended by the Radziwiłłs, continued until October 29. 47. Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in Kraków] sygn. [ref.] 2268. For a long time the first part of the title,Wiersze przeze mnie komponowane [Verses I Have Composed], confused scholars, who repeatedly wrote that Franciszka wrote poetry and prose in French. Meanwhile, further items prove to be works by French poets (F. Malherbe, J.B. Rousseau, T. de Viau et al.) It is more difficult to establish the authorship of prose fragments. Franciszka herself dated the manuscript on the title page: 1732.

14 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK Princess (that is, Izabella Radziwiłłówna)],48 Wiersze na akcie weselnym Józefa Potockiego z Responsem na respons [Poem on the Occasion of the Wedding of Józef Potocki with a Response to a Response] (in verse by Józef Teodor Mogilnicki),49 and Opisanie dam księżnej kanclerzyny [Description of Ladies of the Princess’s Chancellery] (Michał’s mother, Anna Radziwiłłowa, née Sanguszko). Since in later years Józef A. Załuski, who knew the works of Radziwiłłowa as they were received in friendly circumstances “with applause from the audience”50 in the late 1740s and early 1750s, unsuccessfully sought to have them included in a volume of contemporary poetry, it can be assumed that Prince Radziwiłł included inter alia his wife’s works in the publication program of his renovated printing press at Nieśwież. From the mid-1740s she was writing plays for the amateur théâtre de société in Nieśwież. For unknown reasons, however, the publication of her dramatic works was delayed in 1751 (most extant fragments were included in a posthumous edition published several years later). In view of the fact that even her Przestrogi córkom [Advice to Daughters], written originally for Anna as early as 1732, went to press only after the death of Franciszka in 1753, it may be assumed that the author herself blocked their publication. She characterized her writings as “trivial,”51 according them recognition merely as “minor works of feminine simplicity,”52 justifying them to readers as “poor poetry” because they were “written by a woman.”53 Elsewhere, she emphasized their autotherapeutic purpose (in the role of confidant, writing for solace). Whether as a result of her submission to the persuasive male model of written culture or perhaps of excessive selfcriticism, the woman’s hand and pen are represented in Princess Radziwiłłowa’s

48. At the time when Radziwiłłowa wrote this Response … , she was “indisposed,” most probably in the year 1732, when she nearly died giving birth to Anna, as confirmed by her Admonitions to My Daughter …), the reference could only be to Izabella Radziwiłłówna (1711–1761), daughter of Michał Antoni Radziwiłł (1687–1721), Carver of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The latest possible date of a response in verse indicates the date of her marriage: 1737, when she married Tadeusz Franciszek Ogiński, the great Lithuanian writer. 49. He complimented Franciszka as a poet, recalling the universal amazement at “the birth of a female Ovid.” 50. List J.A.Załuskiego [Letter from J.A. Załuski], AGAD AR, dział [section] V, teka [portfolio] 466, pozycja [title] 18414, list [letter] dated 15 III 1752. Quoted in Judkowiak 1992a, 92. 51. A reference to the play Miłość dowcipna [Witty Love] in the introductory Powinszowanie [Congratulations], line 39. 52. Waleta księżnej Imci hetmanowej wielkiej W.Ks.Lit. z księciem Imcią krajczycem odjeżdżającym w drogę [Farewell to Her Highness the Princess Consort of the Grand Hetman of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with His Highness the Prince, Carver of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, setting off on a journey]: manuscript in Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in Kraków], sygn. [ref.] 2332, s. 9. 53. See previous footnote.

Introduction 15 poetry as dull, timid, shabby, and inept. But then, perhaps this was actually a kind of strange game she played. 3. THE WORKS OF FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA— THE QUEST FOR HER OWN VOICE Franciszka was born, as mentioned above, in Volhynia in the Polonized family of the Ukrainian Wiśniowiecki princes, and for half her lifetime she was associated with her husband’s Belarusian and Lithuanian estates. Princess Franciszka Urszula’s writings therefore bear witness to the European roots of the cosmopolitan culture of the aristocratic circles, simultaneously illustrating the strong individuality of a major nation on Europe’s eastern fringe. Until today, Princess Radziwiłłowa’s wider contribution to Polish national culture has overshadowed her personal lyrical expression.54 The virtually unknown poetic works of the first Polish woman dramatist are deserving of attention as evidence of the quest by women of past eras for their “own voice.” In this Introduction, therefore, special consideration is given to analysis of forms of expression more direct than works of fiction. When, twenty years ago, the brief monograph Słowo inscenizowane. O Franciszce Urszuli Radziwiłłowej—poetce [The word on stage: Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa the poet]55 appeared, the title itself suggested that it was in the author’s unpublished legacy that the historical-cultural interpretation of her path to the theater and dramaturgy should be sought. In approaching her creative lyricism, in an attempt to read it from a different perspective—that is, as women’s writing—it is worth briefly recalling why one of the first Polish women writers is mentioned condescendingly and merely tolerated on the cultural scene as a “blue stocking” and as the first Polish woman dramatist. The contribution to cultural advance by the princess from Nieśwież was first acknowledged in the mid-eighteenth century when she founded a theater offering an established repertoire at the court of her husband Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, who was by then Grand Hetman of Lithuania and Provincial Governor of Wilno (Vilnius). The dozen or so plays published posthumously in Żółkiew in 1754 in the volume entitled Comedies and Tragedies56 were soon forgotten. However, as early as the beginning of the nineteenth century they were arousing consternation among antiquaries interested in monuments of Poland’s past, because when they attempted to evaluate their literary worth, they found that they did not conform 54. In Belarus in the twenty-first century, thanks to the translation and research work undertaken by Natalia Rusiecka (Vybranyia tvory [Selected works] 2003; Niasvižski albom [Nieśwież album] 2011), Princess Radziwiłłowa is also known as a poet (Rusiecka 2003, 2007, 2009). 55. Judkowiak 1992a. 56. Radziwiłłowa 1754.

16 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK to classical norms of drama, even if one took into account the way they had been adapted for the provincial stage, which was actually an amateur undertaking relying on the efforts of family and friends. If only Wacław Borowy had not excluded her from his otherwise excellent book O poezji polskiej w wieku XVIII [On Polish Poetry in the eighteenth century]! His declaration that “there is not a trace of poetry in her plays,” referring to their “naivety, sheer banality, earthy language and mannerisms,”57 effectively diverted scholars’ interest to the “Sarmatian Muse” and “Polish Sappho,” to whom he devoted an entire chapter, that is, Elżbieta Drużbacka. Hieronim Juszyński, who in 1820, in his Dykcjonarz poetów polskich [Dictionary of Polish poets], on the basis of her dramas [!], acknowledged a “poetic talent, for in many instances the poetry is admirable […] mellifluent songs and unspoiled contemporary speech”,58 perceived a certain poetic style in excerpts from the dramaturgy [sic] of “the lady of Nieśwież.” Admittedly, this is also because Radziwiłłowa’s minor poetic works have never, with limited exceptions, appeared in print. At the end of the nineteenth century, Jerzy Mycielski published her love letters in verse to her husband.59 In the end, only several poems have been made accessible, thanks to the editors of anthologies of Baroque and Enlightenment poetry,60 and a few more are included in the appendix to a brief sketch of the author.61 They are available in modern translations into Belarusian published in Minsk in 2003 in an edition of selected works.62

Beyond Conventions A further challenge regarding Radziwiłłowa’s lyrical confessions in the manuscripts lies in the fact that they do not adhere to known conventions, which we would be able to analyze and evaluate, for example, the anticipated Baroque. Radziwiłłowa speaks about herself in a strange, idiosyncratic way, devoid of poetic means recognizable to us and stripped of the trimmings. Therefore it is not the proficiency of the versification noted by Juszyński and Mycielski in the dramas and letters, but the “sincerity and simplicity” pointed out by the latter that we can 57. Borowy 1948, 20. 58. Juszyński 1820, 103. 59. Radziwiłłowa 1882, 368. 60. Sokołowska and Żukowska 1965; Libera 1983; Kostkiewiczowa and Goliński 1981; in this volume, unfortunately, under an erroneous title, once again confusing the reader. 61. Kostkiewiczowa and Goliński 1992. 62. Vybranyia tvory [Selected works] in Радзівіл 2003. This volume also addresses problems of the provenance of various works appearing in copy volumes alongside or among Radziwiłłowa’s works (and unknown in original manuscripts; see Judkowiak 2004). Poetry has been made accessible recently also online in a bilingual edition (original Polish with translations by N. Rusiecka: Niasvižski albom [Nieśwież album], in Радзівіл 2011.

Introduction 17 turn into tools to guide our reading and to use as criteria of assessment. Received means of emotional expression were rejected by Radziwiłłowa as inadequate for her experience, and she experimented with formerly unrecognized means of expression to verbalize her inner anguish. But she did, after all, prove her ability to apply rules of rhetoric and mythological imagery in her occasional poetry (in her rhyming congratulatory verse or in the case of her little son’s gravestone).63 She also won acclaim in her own lifetime through her satirical or didactic moralizing writing, as copies of her poems were read out on various occasions—this is how the noted bibliographer and publisher Józef A. Załuski, previously mentioned, became acquainted with them, on visiting the parents of the future King Stanisław August Poniatowski. This kind of literary activity by the “Minerva of Nieśwież” astounded her contemporaries (Józef Teodor Mogilnicki, secretary to primate Teodor Potocki, wrote, “The lady achieved so much”).64 Today, however, nobody pays it any attention.

“Minor works of feminine simplicity”65 At least until the mid-eighteenth century, moral reservations abounded regarding women’s writing as inappropriate. The equally universal conviction that bad poetry, in the words of the famous Baroque poet Wacław Potocki, “was written only by women”66 left traces in Radziwiłłowa’s statements about herself justifying the “shoddy style of female language” (accusing herself of “getting into writing without having the skill”). Her request to “excuse the poor poetry, written by a woman” may of course be ascribed to modesty. However, there seems to be more to it than that. Radziwiłłowa’s confession contains the conventional introductory formula, declaring that her “modest hand scarcely guides the pen.” In the following line she adds that her “lack of intelligence” precludes congratulations, whereas in fact that is exactly what would be in order here—“I am a woman, I am quite aware of my own capabilities.” These quotations from the occasional literature requested for social events67 (Radziwiłłowa picked up her pen in those days “as

63. According to a modern scholar, “no Polish woman wept over her child in this manner. […] Paradoxically, she adopted a male role, applying patterns developed by men. A woman’s nature was subjugated here by art, i.e., literary convention and classical erudition. A woman deprived of a classical education would be unable to write such a work …” Partyka 2004, 210. 64. Respons na te wiersze kawalera pewnego …, [Response to that poem by a certain gentleman] lines 2–3. Cf. n46. 65. Judkowiak 1992a, 126–134. 66. Potocki 1987, vol. 3, 218. 67. Wiersze na weselu […][Józefa] Potockiego [Poem for the Wedding (of Józef) Potocki], 1732; Respons na Respons (cf. n46).

18 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK a matter of obedience” or “as she was ordered”)68 tell us why writing for internal purposes in such a society had to remain hidden, out of modesty, as it was “minor” and “trivial.” They also emphasize the effective exclusion of women from creative writing as the “Road to Parnassus”69 and immortal fame. We must retrace our steps, returning to the question as to why the lyrical component of the author’s works has remained to this day consigned, at best, to manuscript copies for the family, while libraries binned some manuscripts after her death, along with other rough drafts. By some miracle, the bins have to this day not been completely emptied.70 It was only during the eighteenth century that a lack of classical erudition (i.e., male school education) began to be less of an inhibition to women’s writing activity. At that time Polish women began writing in a women’s style (not simply as women but like women). The ferment in those decades of a radical offensive by an ideology based on criticism, on slogans of progress or the “liberation” of nature, in short, the abandonment of the old cultural model with the dawn of the age of Enlightenment and modernity, opened the way for the promotion of feminine traits (for example, in a letter to her husband, Radziwiłłowa invokes the universal conviction that one of these traits is sensibilité—‘sensitivity’). Women wielding a pen “in their feeble hands” began more and more boldly to circumvent or transform the norms of the written word obligatory in the culture of their fathers, husbands, and sons. Radziwiłłowa’s disdain for official literary models is therefore of interest. Julian Krzyżanowski called it “her Grace’s freedom,”71 ascribing to it a different, that is, a social, motivation. Seeking to observe that specifically feminine tone of voice and the distinctions of psychic makeup that manifest themselves in manner of speech, which are referred to as ‘the spirit of difference”72 that underlie feminine identity, one should be aware not only of her emotional experience in respect to specific interpersonal relationships but also of images relating to the individual and the organization of the powers of the soul, which today we would call her psychological profile. Indeed, it is difficult to overlook the fact that the greater part of her work concerns women’s experience: questions of love, marriage, and motherhood. In the content of Radziwiłłowa’s Przestrogi zbawienne dla córki [Salutary admonitions for my daughter] and her translation of the French Code for Married Women,73 to which she added her own Response addressed to husbands, some readers and scholars can recognize a common thread inspired by the life experiences of an 68. Cf. previous footnote. 69. A reference to Sarnowska-Temeriusz 1974. 70. Judkowiak 1992a, 141–43. 71. Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej 1961, 32. 72. A reference to Janion 2006. 73. The title of the original French code which Radziwiłłowa translated into Polish is unknown.

Introduction 19 affectionate and caring mother and a faithful and happy wife. The latter inaccurate and overgeneralized characterization requires some refinement, however.74

Autobiographism as an Essential Hypothesis The topic of matrimonial love first appeared in the letters, several of them in verse, written by the perpetually pining, lonely young wife to the prince she had only just married but who was frequently absent on public duties for a considerable length of time.75 When he appears also in the later personal lyrics such as Wiersze narzekające na małżeństwo [Poetry complaining about marriage] and complaints, laments, and regrets on a much more intimate level, the hypothesis of autobiographism must be considered valid.76 In the lyrics of intimate confessions, this hypothesis would be strengthened by M. Foucault’s statement about the European as a “confessional animal” and about the “discourse of truth,” demanding exposure of the self on the confessional model, particularly the truth of internal feelings incompatible with the imposed norm, including the matrimonial.77 So Radziwiłłowa shelved her lyrical confessions, conscious that their publication could carry a stigma. It appears that a received interpretation of Radziwiłłowa’s personal poetry (and possibly of her entire literary work) based on thoroughgoing autobiographism is also suggested by a handbook that would have us recognize that in her case the “motives for undertaking artistic work” and “the relation between life and creativity” are valid.78 In the poetic correspondence, the focus is on “a gamut of intimate emotions, from unbelievable sadness to regret and envy:” the writer “condemned to pain and eternal waiting […] accepted her fate—on the face of it, at least.”79 The supposition of an internal revolt, of a conflict between her subjective self and roles imposed on her (enforcing the concealment of the truth about herself, dissimulatio, sham, pretence) seems to be the key to the fascination of reading the old manuscripts. It is certainly not insignificant that as the wealthiest unmarried woman in the region80 she was highly eligible. However, she did not marry any of the can74. E.g., Kulesza-Woroniecka 2003, 633–34. 75. Radziwiłłowa, Franciszka Urszula. 4 listy do męża wierszem [Four letters in verse to her husband] 1882, 369–71, 372–75, 376–80, 388–98; Judkowiak 1992a. 76. Ziomek 1975. 77. Foucault 1976–1984. 78. Borkowska, Czermińska and Phillips 2000, 24. 79. Borkowska, Czermińska and Phillips 2000, 24–27. 80. More important than royal kinship between their two houses was the fact that as the only child of her parents Franciszka inherited vast landed estates, since landed estates were not normally included in daughters’ dowries. In general, it is also accepted that in Lithuania, unlike in the Polish

20 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK didates thrust upon her by her parents, not even Count Aspremont Rockheim or Seweryn Rzewuski. It is significant that she rejected these suitors at the time when Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł appeared on the scene. He had previously been hopelessly in love, and he had already been the object of matchmaking in line with the plans and wishes of his family on several occasions. The marriage of Franciszka to Radziwiłł was not the result of economic and political calculations on the part of his parents (indeed it aroused objections from the prince’s domineering mother, Anna Radziwiłłowa, and his father had died many years previously). It resulted rather from an immediate infatuation on the part of Michał, who by then had rejected a variety of excellent potential brides. That year, 1725 (encouraged by his uncle, his mother’s brother),81 Prince Michał, only two years her senior, deflected the twenty-year-old Franciszka from her engagement to the son of Stanisław Rzewuski, Hetman of the Crown, and soon won her over. It should be remembered that courage to resist the will of the family was supported by the church’s emphasis on a couple’s autonomous decision to establish a family, by the fact that the mutual agreement of a man and a woman was sufficient for marriage to take place, and by the recognition of equality of the sexes in the making of this decision.82 Their mutual love at first sight, actually after their first conversations, when they discovered that they were made for each other, was so strong that an early decision was made about the wedding, under pressure from the young couple. The details, interesting from a sociocultural point of view, but also engaging for the sincerity of their relationship, can be found in the thorough records of Radziwiłł’s diary.83 At first, Franciszka and Michał did not receive a great deal from their parents and, however well-known it was that she was heiress to a vast fortune, they grappled for years with financial difficulties. The dowry, which was supposed to form the basis of Franciszka’s financial independence, was relatively modest. As for Michał, in addition to his sisters he had a younger brother Hieronim, to whom after 1725 their mother transferred her chief designs and dynastic ambitions. It was not until later that Michał achieved the position of undisputed leader of his Crown lands, the receipt of a dowry excluded a woman outright from inheritance from blood relatives: Popiołek 2003, 212. However, the parents’ wishes and the efforts of Michał led to the desired transfer of property—the final estate deeds were acquired by Radziwiłł from his long-lived mother-in-law three months before the death of Franciszka! 81. According to canon law, the young couple were already of so-called proficient age, enabling them to enter into a union with the consent of their parents or guardians (12 years for a girl and 14 for a boy) but underage in respect of regional law (at least in the part of the Commonwealth called Lands of the Polish Crown), which demanded that both be over twenty-four (when they became legally responsible, i.e., they were able to make decisions affecting themselves and were beyond their parents’ jurisdiction). 82. Malinowska 2008, 18, 19, 27. 83. Sajkowski 1981, 225–32.

Introduction 21 dynasty, acquiring the majority of the family estates. Among the Polish nobility a system of compulsory property division applied to married couples. Under the terms of the traditional prenuptial contract, the parents of the princess ensured that for all powiaty [districts] acquired in the future Radziwiłł made a bequest of ius communicativum, thereby assigning property rights to the wife on the death of the husband. In 1728, having received property from the Wiśniowecki family guaranteeing the extent of Franciszka’s dowry, the couple signed a mutual bequest for life of all their possessions. They repeated the procedure in 1737, extending it to all their movable possessions and real estate. The Polish custom of mutual bequests for life by husband and wife ensured the surviving partner’s enjoyment of the property of the deceased partner for life, thus postponing claims by the heirs.84 After his death in 1741, Franciszka inherited all her father’s possessions, but she conveyed the right to own and manage them to her husband, granting him power of attorney to handle legal matters relating to them.85 After the death of her first-born son she restricted her public duties alongside her husband, finding motherhood more and more demanding. She was responsible for an evergrowing number of children, her own and those who were entrusted to her care, which also enabled them to acquire social graces at the court, which was run in an increasingly grand manner as the couple’s economic situation improved and the status of her husband was enhanced. The marriage of Franciszka and Michał was a permanent, traditional union, as far as the distribution of roles is concerned—she gives birth and nurtures the children, he manages the property; she creates a home, he devotes himself to public duties. But this is thanks to the efforts of Radziwiłłowa which, in Ilona Czamańska’s estimation “involve certain characteristics of a partnership.”86 The relationship of the couple, who addressed one another (as witnessed by their correspondence and the prince’s diary)87 by affectionate pet names, remained very close until the end of their lives, and the prince documented their anniversaries up until 1753, with gratitude to Providence for such a sworn and perpetual friend (historically in Poland it was the custom to express oneself about one’s wife with all solemnity using the masculine form przyjaciel [friend]). Franciszka struggled for the empowerment of the wife and a new concept of an intimate, emotional union of the couple, free of family intervention, when she asked her husband to be discreet: “I beg you, Michasieńku [Mikey], my letters are for your eyes alone, not to be passed from hand to hand. I think that is how it should be between 84. Malinowska 2008, 50. 85. Czamańska 2007, 393, 395, 402. 86. Czamańska 2007, 395. 87. Manuscripts in sections IV and VI of AGAD AR. However, it must be taken into account that Franciszka also frequently signs her name using conventional formulae as a servant or even … a footstool!

22 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK a husband and wife; not even a mother or a sister should know these things.”88 Likewise, protecting her cousin’s betrayed wife, she wrote to her mother-in-law, “it is difficult to intervene entre mari et femme.”89 On the whole, their marriage was a happy one, but from time to time Franciszka—judging by her writing and her private correspondence—suffered from a cultural norm that allowed men the freedom of extramarital relations. Every extended absence of her husband and absence of correspondence was disturbing to her, causing vehement expressions of sorrow, amorous fulminations, reminders of premarital vows and obligations, and the request to “show the whole world that you do have some love for me.”90 Additionally, there were cases of slander and intrigue. High-born Polish women were burdened with cultural asymmetry in matters of honor, suffering disgrace as a consequence of premarital and postmarital liaisons, unlike the men. Therefore the statement that the princess “honneur estime plus que la vie”91 becomes the leitmotiv of these lyrics. There is a connection here with the strict approach to the question of pedigree characteristic of the nobility that applied from the year 1578, when the institution of De illegitima prole (applying mainly to marriage of couples unequal in status)92 was introduced, until 1768. Ten years after their marriage, Princess Radziwiłłowa again writes to Michał, warning him, “I know that absent husbands often enjoy refraîchissements” and wittily sends him a watermelon, asking him “not to seek other ways of cooling down” when away from home.93 88. List Franciszki Urszuli Radziwiłłowej do męża, Michała Kazimierza [Letter from Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa to her husband, Michał Kazimierz], AGAD AR, dział [section] IV, teka [portfolio] 49, koperta [folder] 659, list z 5 grudnia 1731 r. [letter dated December 5, 1731] 89. List Franciszki Urszuli Radziwiłłowej do teściowej, Anny z Sanguszków Radziwiłłowej [Letter from Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa to her mother-in-law, Anna Radziwiłłowa, née Sanguszko], AGAD AR dział [section] IV, teka [portfolio] 49, koperta [folder] 660, list z 28 marca 1734 r. (dotyczy Aleksandry z Bełchackich Marcinowej Radziwiłłowej, żony krajczego [Letter dated March 28, 1734, concerning Aleksandra Marcinowa Radziwiłłowa, née Bełchacka]). 90. Sajkowski 1981, 242. 91. Further discussion in Judkowiak 2011c. 92. Even if the parents subsequently married! The Polish nobility applied harsher norms of civil law than the decree of the Council of Trent announced in 1577 in respect of marriage (Tametsi Decree); children born outside wedlock had no inheritance rights and no claim to noble status: Malinowska 2008, 23–24. In cases of adultery apprehended in flagranti in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, both sexes were punished (in France, women only), however, leniency of sentence was subject only to civil crown law; meanwhile, under the harsh jurisdiction of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the death sentence was mandatory, although in practice (possibly under the influence of the ecclesiastical law, which operated in parallel and which was more moderate in this respect), the severest sentences were generally not carried out, except in individual cases. Malinowska 2008, 55, 62. 93. AGAD AR dział [section] IV, teka [portfolio] 51, koperta [folder] 667, no. 1020 (undated), a letter she signed as spouse of the Castellan of Troki and of the Lithuanian Field Hetman (nr 1020 bd; i.e., between 1735 and 1737).

Introduction 23 The cultural norm was demanding for high-born people almost completely bereft of privacy in their palaces. The court lifestyle demanded enormous efforts on the part of women in their fulfillment of duties to “the outside world”: continuously, from morning till night, they were supposed to be seen by all as glamorous and radiant, always self-composed, considerate, full of courtesy and polite manners.94 Continual exposure to the critical observation of their surrounding environment, “spying” eyes—as Radziwiłłowa writes—was a hindrance to the establishment of harmonious relations with those closest to you. When the elite by birth95 are also the cultural elite, when the blood aristocracy feels obliged to be also the spiritual aristocracy, titular rights to the ownership of riches and power are accompanied by obligations, in the form of both external compulsion and an internalized sense of duty. The more rights and privileges, the greater (subjectively at least) the obligations. Reading Radziwiłłowa’s lyrical confessions, which are of interest to us today, we can recognize a woman enslaved by cultural conventions, yearning for reciprocity and fidelity in the sincere emotional relationship she wanted to achieve in marriage, whose life is slowly slipping away in heartfelt torment. Humiliated time after time, she loses the will to live, and her health suffers in a situation of unrelenting, tormenting exposure to the gaze of the courtiers, householders, and guests toward whom she has the task of acting out a spectacle of the magnificence of her husband’s dynasty. When women were particularly burdened by the obligation to be beautiful and polite, courteously maintaining a sociable and cultural way of life, ameliorating customs and promoting a culture of emotions, it was easy in the era of Rococo gallantry and seemingly innocent flirtation to form emotional attachments that were a threat to harmonious marital relations. At the same time, a married woman’s honor and her good name, the loss of which would entail the defamation of the entire dynasty, was rendered conditional on her fidelity to her vows.

“What good is love that’s not returned?”96 In Radziwiłłowa’s lyrical confessions we can see the mark of temporary disappointments caused by emotional suspicions and envy and of the burden of the one-sided obligation to be faithful as well as the necessity to maintain a pretence toward the perpetrators of intrigue at court. Wolne prawo kochania [Freedom of choice is the rule in love] is situated in this collection of poems only apparently in conflict with 94. Möbius 1982, 35. Norbert Elias remarked on the lack of distinction between private and public and professional life in aristocratic circles: “la vie sociale et mondaine à la cour […] était […] l’équivalent de notre vie privée, elle assure […] détente, plaisirs, divertissements. En même temps […] elle était l’instrument direct de l’autodéfense et de la promotion …”: Elias 1985, 32. 95. Cf. Zajączkowski 1993. 96. Title of Poem No. 16 in this volume.

24 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK the advice directed, for example, Do damy niestatecznej [To a fickle lady], who, instead of modestly seeking out a single candidate for a husband, draws a bevy of gallant lovers. Characteristic here is the association of the concept of marriage expressed in legal terms (league, decree) with moralistic-religious discourse (honor, i.e., fidelity, commensurate with the divine purpose, i.e., monogamy) and also its reinforcement by a motivation appealing to true feelings controlled by reason; however, “Love cannot share divided hearts,”97 and dishonesty in suitors is exposed (false oaths, intrigue). Amorous advances would be rejected in a yearning for emotional security (not fully expressed in this or in other works). Thus Radziwiłłowa refers to “the rule of love” for the young as Wolne prawo kochania [Freedom of choice is the rule in love] in the first line of the poem of the same title.98 But this law of nature, permitting capitulation to emotions and “hidden feelings,” conflicts with divine law, which most expressively sponsors that harmony in the framework of the binding social order. For this other law favors concepts adopted by Radziwiłłowa (sociologists call them social regulators): reason and honor, requiring her to “quell the storm that’s in my heart,” for “lovers often have to heal their wounds.” The poem ends on a sigh and a prayer: “The law is harsh. Lord, change our nature, or these dreadful laws.” Having recourse to legal terminology, Radziwiłłowa tackles the more general European problem of anthropology, ethics, and pedagogy—the conflict between human nature and culture. But in speaking up on this matter and applying to herself (or recommending to her daughters) such categories as reason, restraint, virtue, i.e., courage, honor, glory, which belong to the sphere of control over human characteristics, she did not concede that women should be restricted just because they are women (including being subjugated to their husbands). It is interesting that these poems also record women’s disappointment at the duplicity of men who flirtatiously make vows or assert the quasi-legal security of their relationship: So full of promises at first, commitment sworn by oath. Before too long of course both love and hope are violently betrayed.99 Radziwiłłowa bases this accusation on her own “experience”: 97. “To a fickle lady”: Poem 13 in this volume, l.15. 98. Poem 19 in this volume. This discussion was transferred to the play Miłość mistrzyni doskonała [Love is the perfect mistress]; the elder sister ridicules the heroine’s scruples with perverse irony: “Fiddlesticks! You don’t have to obey your husband. Where does the law decree that? […] You can do as you will, albeit covertly.” 99. Poem 24 in this volume: “Emotions insincere, just seeking pleasure.”

Introduction 25 The copious tears that I have shed, though honor made me keep them secret, give me the right to speak this way. I’ve suffered such unfair attacks.100 A woman suffers from a sense of emotional and social exploitation, convinced that she is being deceived by insincere declarations of affection, all of which “impair her honor and her name.” This is a sign of the woman’s internalization of the latter values together with the accompanying prohibitions and demands inculcated by the educational system favoring the institution of marriage. It is of course within the framework of a recognized relationship—according to the ecclesiastical term matris monium, that is, protecting the rights of the mother—that the family, the basis of social organization, is created. However, this internalization led, particularly in court circles, to internal conflicts, inflamed by the cultural norm (a different, considerably more liberal, one for men) encouraging coquetry and conducive to liaisons in the aura of Rococo culture. Beginning with the observation that “worldly manners are quite different now,” Radziwiłłowa, with a melancholy yearning for the past, criticizes the contemporary “strange way of behaving” and the “hypocrisy of deceit”: The pleasant rules we knew are gone, like love that did not need fine words. Respect expressed in words would last for ever after, firmly bound.101 From the seventeenth century, in French culture and evidently also in its wider sphere of influence, women began to speak out on the subject of mutual feelings in a relationship, opening the way from men’s power over women to partnership in marriage. With increasing frequency in the eighteenth century, when individuals begin to be perceived as changeable and subject to development, their love is able to acquire permanence (formerly it was viewed as inconstant in the light of the immutability of character determined by temperament) and as such can now form a basis for marriage.102 Actually, Franciszka Urszula appears to be already formulating such an expectation in respect to Prince Radziwiłł in her letters in verse—when in her calls for fidelity she emphasizes the opportunity for 100. In correspondence of Michał Kazimierz in 1730, Zuba 2002, 63–64 discovered evidence that he underwent several months’ embarrassing treatment in Dresden (however, in letters to his wife he assures her he is returning “clean as a whistle”; of course, he did not admit it to his mother, nor did he record it in his Diary)—this historian of medicine sees this as evidence of venereal disease. 101. Poem 15 in this volume: “If you know how to read people’s character.” 102. Luhmann 2003, 123.

26 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK a permanent relationship. This is evident when she refers to […] “My most enlightened and beloved Prince/with whom I’m bound in marriage by our love”103 and when she calls him “the sole comfort for my heart,”104 and also when she emphasizes the authenticity of emotions independent of marriage ties: “I love you not just because of my vows/[…] But even if I was not your wife/I would love no other but you.”105 In return she expects the exclusivity of mutual feelings: “No love is without cost.”106 This concept of matrimonial unity allows one to see a couple inseparable for eternity107 and to reject accusations: “Matrimonial love is no enslavement/Where there is one body, thought, heart and will.”108

Writing as autotherapy, or … “When I’m banned from speaking, I enjoy taking up my pen” These words from Waleta […] z księciem Imcią krajczycem … [Farewell … to His Highness the Prince, Carver …] (her husband’s younger cousin)109 may be read as a generalization of Princess Radziwiłłowa’s entire intimate lyrical writing. They correspond to her youthful confession that “the dictating heart instructs you to write impetuously.” First of all, love for her husband becomes a source of inspiration—“I will find something to print” and the letters will be her witness (“In the letter I will enwrap a heartfelt sigh”). One of Radziwiłłowa’s early letters in verse to her husband asks for the right to express her amorous yearning in writing: to confess her heart’s torment.110 Simultaneously, the confession has therapeutic value: under the pressure of an onrush of great longing: “I will find my heart’s solace and relief,/expressing fidelity through many words.” The motif of solace derived from the expression of emotions in writing may appear in the contradiction: “If at least in my unhappy fate/I could express the pain in my heart!” This complaint from the poem Użalenie się [Lament] appears to point not only to the difficulty of verbalizing that pain but also to the taboo, the social “gagging”—the 103. Letter I, 1–2. 104. Letter II, 35. 105. Letter III, 11, 13–14. 106. Letter III, 71. 107. Letter III 59, 67–68. 108. Letter III, 57–58. 109. In a manuscript in Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in, Kraków], sygn. [ref.] 2332, 9–11. As some of the headings show, Leon Radziwiłł would have been the author of the poetry entered here alongside the works of Princess Radziwiłłowa: cf. n52. 110. Original MS in AGAD AR, Rękopisy biblioteczne [Library manuscripts], sygn. [ref.] 87: entitled. Pieśń, [Song]; copy entitled Użalenie się [Lament] manuscript in the Biblioteka Zakładu Narodowego im. Ossolińskich we Wrocławiu [Library of the National Ossolineum Institute in Wrocław], sygn. [ref.] 11984, 82

Introduction 27 rule forbidding a woman to speak of her experiences. Literature then changes from a practical to a spiritual entity, and the resulting communicative situation is somehow reflected back on itself. Recalling the genesis of the marriage between Franciszka and Michał, one must consider that in the preceding century psychological enquiry, indispensable for the conception and establishment of freedom of choice, came increasingly to the fore in European culture. After 1700, it became more and more common to understand love as affection, likening it to friendship and also reducing the asymmetry of power in the family. The woman is again revealed as a person, in marriage finding her human role and moral fulfillment; as a consequence of this self-discovery relationships in marriage cease to be hierarchical.111 And so, however insistently Franciszka reassures her husband (and probably not simply coquettishly) of her submissiveness to male domination, we should not take her statements lightly. Franciszka’s correspondence shows, inter alia, the following connection between submission and emotions: “I am doing well. But a servant cannot do without a master, so you, most beloved comfort of my life, come home to her who swears her faithful, abiding love until the end of her days.” In a poem to her “most enlightened and beloved Prince,” Franciszka Urszula writes, for example, to soothe any anger he might feel, that she is afraid of “alienating her gracious master,” adding, however, that she is concerned about his good humor and gentleness. However, when she is unsettled and pining in Michał’s absence, calling him the master of her heart and finding it appropriate to give the following assurances: “My love is abiding, You will be my beloved while life remains,” these are not so much declarations of obedience, submissiveness, and fidelity as an emotional quest for mutual love and the swift return of the husband from whom she is parted. Nor does Franciszka hesitate to question the sense of power arising from the couple’s legalized union that devastates their emotional bonds: “No sooner power reigns than wedded love becomes inconstant.” Such bitter generalization, arising out of disappointment in love, occurs in plaintive matrimonial verse (“I see only contempt for love”) and the disappointment when “the wedded husband abandons his wife” and when “matrimonial betrayal wins out.”

“Compliance with her husband’s command is a woman’s principal right”112 The above maxim quoted from a letter written by Franciszka to her husband is linked to the rest of the sentence by the conjunction “but,” immediately 111. Luhmann 2003, 124. 112. Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa do męża [to her husband] AGAD AR dział [section] IV, teka [portfolio] 52, koperta [folder] 669, listy niedatowane [undated letters], list [letter] nr 1237 (rok 1738 lub 1739) [year 1738 or 1739].

28 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK undermining the unconditional nature of this reasoning. Such vocal skepticism, ostentatiously highlighting the traditional authority of a husband over his wife, also heralds the poet’s reservations that are found within the framework of her literary writing. Albeit discreetly, not to say timidly, she expressed a variety of doubts and a certain objection to the prevailing patriarchal norm. In Princess Radziwillowa’s early manuscripts, our attention is drawn to passages of French prose: Du mariage and Des devoirs réciproques de l’homme et de la femme, the source of which was identified only recently.113 Some scholars were inclined to acknowledge, as the title page of the complete fascicle suggests, that they are original works by Franciszka and drew from this certain far-reaching conclusions.114 Our position is more cautious—insofar as we recognize other works by French authors in this notebook of hers, we are increasingly convinced that the entire fascicle is a copy. In the case of these treatises on morality and customs, Radziwillowa rejects the poetics of the entretien. Despite the removal of sentences that are not very positively disposed toward women, it is still clear that the writer is a man and the male point of view is represented regarding potential wives and marriage. Although the leading role of the man is accepted, since God endowed him with superior talents and gave him authority, the remark is made, however, that the basis of authority must be love and justice. The husband must treat his wife not as a slave, a servant, or a caregiver but as his equal. The wife, on the other hand, is supposed to provide entertainment and amusement, so that her husband does not become bored by monotony.115 In any case, the selection of texts on marriage and the manner of their editing by Radziwillowa (the second of them, through its title alone, emphasizes mutuality of obligations) are valuable to the interpreter of her literary output.116 The next step appears to be the addition to her translation from the French of A Code for Every Married Woman: What Her Relationship to Her Husband Should Be … of the disputatiously polemical The Wife’s Response to Her Husband.117 The 113. Manuscript kept today in Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in Kraków] sygn. [ref.] 2268, 71–85, 91–106). Belarusian scholars mentioned L’Ecole du Monde by Eustache Le Noble as the most likely source of Du mariage and De devoirs …; see Kim 2009. 114. See, e.g., Rarot 2006 and Czamańska 2007. 115. E.g., Bogucka 1998, 146; Sajkowski 1981, 259–60. 116. The popular dialogues of Le Noble (Paris 1694–96) had many editions in the first decades of the eighteenth century. Du Mariage and Des devoirs de l’homme et de femme are contained in a new extended edition (Paris 1702, Amsterdam 1709). Vol. 3 (of 3 volumes) in the Amsterdam edition of 1715 notes a list of books of the mother-in-law of Franciszka, Anna, née Sanguszko: Karkucińska 2000, 267. Princess Radziwiłłowa actually copied from dialogues 15 and 16, with minor abridgements, the content of Aristide’s teachings. 117. Manuscripts of the Biblioteka Polskiej Akademii Nauk w Kórniku sygn.1604 i sygn.513 [Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kórnik, sygn. [ref.]1604 and sygn. [ref.] 513, 16–23 and 19–22)] and Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in Kraków], sygn. [ref.] 2332, 22–25 and 25–28). The subtitle reads “ode mnie skomponowany” [composed by me].

Introduction 29 French Code118 declares that a wife is supposed to sweeten by her love the “heavy burden” of his marriage vows and not associate with other men in contravention of accepted custom. In response, Franciszka points out that the vows are mutual and that the obligations are consequently commensurate too, adding that “he likewise is obliged to remain faithful, …” [1.6]119 Item by item, therefore, twelve parallel demands are stated: “Women should not seek fame and beauty alone, to ensure their husbands stay ever their own …” [2.1–2] “But praise of others must the husband eschew, wishing such words only from his spouse so true” [2.5–6]. This is clearly justified in point no. 11, for “We both promised faithful and loving to stay, honesty with devotion gladly repay” [11.3]. Here also, therefore, in accordance with our above remarks, the author substitutes or sometimes complements external demands with the necessity to create internal impulses and make moral choices.120 18. Response to her husband … 2. Women should not seek fame and beauty alone, to ensure their husbands stay ever their own. And in this regard she must trust her soul mate, living as mother nature her did create. But praise of others must the husband eschew, wishing such words only from his spouse so true. 11. Mutual love between a man and his wife, not falsely dissembling, must last them for life. We both promised faithful and loving to stay, honesty with devotion gladly repay. When wife devotion, husband honesty keep, God’s reward of true love for shared faith they reap.

118. The title of the French original Code is unknown. 119. This question occurs also in the comedy Miłość dowcipna [Witty Love] (1746); the frivolous daughters do not like their father’s exhortations (researchers have associated his depiction of the ideal woman with the advice of Molière’s Arnolphe). They shrug off his strictures behind his back, reminding him that in his youth he was also in love. Besides, he courted other women even when he was married. 120. Judkowiak 1992a, 65. Unfortunately, it has not yet been possible to determine the French source of these twelve six-line stanzas.

30 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK Then there is the humorous Punkty dla Arlekina [Points for Harlequin],121 who is recommended to busy himself from first light around a lazy wife, which is an Italianate version (or borrowed from the Italian, it has not yet been possible to establish which) of the buffoon husband, a character familiar from so-called bourgeois or plebeian parodies of “statutes” or regulations. The latter regulated à rebours traditional relations between the sexes—creating in effect a world in reverse (i.e., one in which the husband waits on the wife) entertaining with his frivolous, therefore temporary, carnivalesque reversal of roles, impossible to make permanent. Such works are therefore classified in official, male literary history as nothing more than antifeminine satire, reflecting the inappropriate aspirations harbored in marriage by representatives of the “other” sex, which are in reality nonthreatening, however, since they are unrealistic. In a woman’s manuscript they can be read as an expression of compensatory hopes playfully observed from a distance. More or less a decade later than the minor discourse Du mariage or Response to the Code for Women, Radziwiłłowa writes the following letter, from which the above title is quoted: Compliance with her husband’s command is a woman’s principal right [not obligation! my emphasis. B.J.]. I would gladly comply [with your wishes], not only for the sake of the authority of your Highness my husband and benefactor, but out of sheer incogitable love for you in all circumstances [he wanted her to stop breast-feeding their little daughter. B.J.]. But, my beloved husband, consider that now it’s the solstice, the most dangerous time, when Tolka is teething. My dear Mikey, don’t reproach me. After all, I adore your blood that is in her veins. It is a sign that I desire to love only him and what is from him throughout my life […] every drop of mother’s milk passing the little girl’s lips will teach me that I am duty bound to love one for the other.122 With arguments such as this Radziwiłłowa ventured, at a time when wet nurses were still popular in higher circles, to persuade her husband—admittedly, rather shrewdly—that her maternal instincts, and the value of the new custom, were right. For in most cases a wife is also a mother, and complex matrimonial

121. Princess Radziwiłłowa’s authorship is confirmed by the National Historical Archive of Belarus in Minsk (F 694, v. 1, spr. 241. k. 36–37) on the basis of a copy. My thanks are due to Dr. Natalia Rusiecka and Professor Siarhiej Kavalioŭ for making the text available to me (B.J.) 122. AGAD AR dział [section] IV, teka [portfolio] 52, koperta [folder] 669 listy bez daty [letters undated] (nr 1237), after September 30, 1738 (Teofil’s birthday), presumably written during first six months of 1739.

Introduction 31 relationships, which are of course not exclusively legal, traditional, and emotional, cannot be separated from the maternal role. However, Radziwiłłowa included in her occasional works, such as wedding congratulations (Wiersze na weselu Józefa Potockiego [Poem for the Wedding of Józef Potocki], 1732), generalized and conventional notions regarding marriage and motherhood. Of interest to readers who would expect here certain loci communes connected with marriage and love will be the statement that conventions of wedding speeches and toasts cultivated in high-born circles required Radziwiłłowa to link praise for young people and auguries for their shared future with the extent of the families they represented, the services rendered by their ancestors and heraldic devices. The fertility of the future union interested the author more than the emotional situation of Ludwika Mniszchówna, the fiancée of very tender age who was being married to a rich widower old enough to have been her father. Very telling is the suppression of a fact that renders this situation more piquant. Although Józef originally intended to marry Ludwika to his son, it was he himself who stood at her side at the wedding ceremony six months later, by which time he was a widower.123 As a guarantee of her happiness, the second wife is supposed to be satisfied (apart from the wealth and social standing) that she will be treated with the same respect that he accorded to the first.

The French Sentimental School and Women’s Literature Departure from these traditional ideas was facilitated by contact with French literature. Thanks to their ability to read French, European elites promoted the culture and innovations of France (and via French, gradually those of England too—Radziwiłłowa read, e.g., Locke). On the other hand, the literature of the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries demonstrates that there was a growing expectation of a new, individualized approach to other people, getting to know them not merely rationally (their objective moral traits and social values) but also emotionally. Love demands mutual commitment, while coquetry and the art of pleasantry and gallantry, recently still in fashion, appear deliberately dishonest—according to Radziwiłłowa, the above-mentioned “Emotions insincere, just seeking pleasure:”124 “This strange way of behaving,” as she calls it, “means yearning, passionate gaze/gives way to deceit these days.”125 Subjective values of authenticity and sincerity come more and more explicitly to the fore (manifested in sentimentalism in the second half of the century). Meanwhile, French précieux writers of the previous century, in whose works Radziwiłłowa was well read, led her to cultivate the concept of love based on glorious high ideals of perfection free 123. Popiołek 2003, 203. 124. Poem No. 24 in this volume 125. Poem No.15 in this volume, 5–7.

32 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK from coquettishness and rules of correct behavior, essentially entailing equality between partners, believing in the power of natural emotions and common sense. Their writings were a sophisticated literary revolt against the soulless life at court. One might also attempt to propose further, deeper research into the influence of the work of Madeleine de Scudéry on Radziwiłłowa’s writing. Regarding the dependence of three of her plays on episodes from Le Grand Cyrus,126 it can be assumed with virtual certainty that Princess Franciszka also read book 1 of part 7 of the novel, where during discussions about marriage arguments are advanced by a woman who is implacably opposed to terrible bondage; even if young married couples are in love, this state of affairs cannot last long. A wife who is subjugated to her husband gradually loses her health, beauty, and youth. Furthermore, she is obliged to tolerate her husband’s jealousy or to experience it herself. In these discussions, Elise127 denounces those who contend that a young girl has to choose either marriage or the convent—considering the most offensive aspect of this contention to be the presumption that to defend her virtue she needed either a husband or tall, massive walls. Regarding marital happiness, she reasons that it can be ensured by love, youth, and wealth, but not for long, as the relationship usually turns sour. There are several preconditions for mutual love: the husband must be an honest man (“soit honnête homme”), disposing of means appropriate for his position; and he must not be eccentric, jealous, or miserly. His wife must, however, involve herself in all his interests and give adequate support to his ambitions, adapt herself entirely to his moods, and be uncomplainingly submissive toward him. In the weightiest of matters she is never free—she is not even mistress of her own personality. Burdened with the worries associated with the management of a substantial economy (the home), she is exposed to all the negative consequences of marriage; she forfeits her good health, and with it her beauty, while still young. One has to be extremely bold, claims Elise, to take a decision to marry very lightly.128 This would be virtually a mirror image of men’s perennial objections to marriage as bringing only problems, or, in less subtle misogynist versions, a philosophical aversion to marriage: a permanent state of war, madness, and a disgrace to members of “the first sex.” Aspects of the reasoning of Elise underlie various statements by Radziwiłłowa’s literary heroines.

126. Madeleine de Scudéry 1972. Her novel Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus [Artamène, or Cyrus the Great] is said to be the longest novel in French literature (13,095 pages in the original edition). See http://www.artamene.org/oeuvre.php. 127. The heroine of Artamène ou Le Grand Cyrus. 128. The text is online at www.gallica.bnf.fr.

Introduction 33

From Declaration to Instructive Representation The theater, in particular théâtre de société, amateur dramatics, offers opportunities to transmit a personal message. In addition to the entertainment functions ascribed to it with respect to the majority of recipients, it can perform additional functions with respect to selected members of the audience—I earlier analyzed Radziwiłłowa’s Opera Europa [Europa] as a declaration by the author addressed to her husband.129 Considering here the socializing dimensions of the theater at Nieśwież, one must take into account that it was a unique kind of school for young actors and audiences. The sixteen plays written (after 1746) by Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa, a mature, experienced woman, are in most cases adaptations of familiar themes or reworkings of various originals, not always dramas, and the theme of love in various forms is predominant throughout. These works offer a remarkably rich and diversified range of approaches to the topic, from acclaim for the defense of a maiden’s virtue at any price by martyrs at the time of persecution of Christians under Diocletian (Sędzia bez rozsądku: Tragedyja trzech rodzonych sióstr Agappy, Chiony, Ireny męczenniczek za Dyoklecjana cesarza [The Judge Who Lost His Reason: The Tragedy of the Three Sisters, Chionia, Agape and Irena, Martyrs under Diocletian]), to the testing of the suitor’s true feelings (Komedia Partenii i Tymanta, czyli Konsolacja po kłopotach [The Comedy of Partenia and Tymant, or Consolation after Troubles], based on a story taken from Le Grand Cyrus ou Artamène by Mlle. de Scudéry), to the Polish Griselda—obediently, unquestioningly loving her husband who submits her to many cruel tests of her constancy (Boccaccio’s Decameron, Day 10, Tale 10 (La Griselda paziente [Patient Griselda]), entitled in the Polish version Komedia Cecylii, czyli Cnota wypróbowana albo Złoto w ogniu [The Comedy of Cecylia, or Virtue Put to the Test or Gold in the Fire]). There are also ambiguous130 victories by women from oriental tales, adapted as one-act plays for the Paris comic opera theater by a certain Pierre Gallet (Les coffres du marchand Banut; Le Double Tour ou Le Prêté Rendu), or finally the farcically ambivalent image of marriage as presented by the translation of Molière’s Le médecin malgré lui, with the claim, allegedly supported by the authority of Aristotle, that “a disobedient woman is worse than the devil,” with protests by Martine concerning Robert’s intervention when she is being beaten by her husband (Sganarelle), 129. Cf. Judkowiak 1996. 130. This is the view of the author of Komedia oświeconych [Comedy of the enlightened], in consideration of the fact that the praise for the heroine who triumphs in court is expressed by Harlequin: Ratajczakowa 1993, 26. However, it appears that this assistant of dubious morality is not in a position to prevent the revelation of facts; Aruja [Aruya] in Niecnota w sidłach [Dishonesty Entrapped] sums up the matter by convincing her husband of what the audience knows, namely, that she did not betray him in any of these adventures, upholding her promise to be faithful.

34 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK and finally with her declaration below the scaffold that she will remain his wife until death do them part, so she will “cordially encourage” him to face this death. In the pastoral-mythological play about Paris,131 Radziwiłłowa perpetuated the marital dialogue, revealing characteristic dependencies; Priam orders Hecuba to reveal the reasons for the distress that brings her to tears but softens his imperative “Speak!—that’s an order” with the persuasive “after all, you’re my [only] wife and my health.” Her enthusiastic response “Oh, my husband, my king, ah sire, ah [my] life!/I conceal nothing, I want to have no secrets from you!” masks the game Hecuba is playing: in the ensuing scenes, contrary to the will and without the knowledge of her husband she orders that the life of her newborn son shall be saved.132 Concerning Radziwiłłowa’s representation of marital issues, it is of no small importance that alongside the mature or less mature admirers or suitors (who sooner or later seek to formalize the relationship), the parents appear onstage, mainly as a testimony to the continuing golden age of fathers representing power in the family. Sometimes they are accompanied by the mothers—the evil fairy tale mother, jealous of her daughter’s beauty (An Act of Divine Providence), or the well-wishing but naive mother Bogumiła (a further figure in the Griselda-Cecylia story, additional to those familiar from Boccaccio’s novel); she does not share her husband’s evil presentiments or his fundamental concerns when their child, a girl from a simple cottage, is to become the lady of the castle. In the play Miłość mistrzyni doskonała [Love is the perfect mistress], based on the story of Galesus (also taken from the Decameron),133 the wife of Aristedes intercedes between him and their daughters to enable them to follow the call of their hearts. At this point it must be noted that didactic elements in Radziwiłłowa’s works and plays should come as no surprise. The actors appearing onstage were her own children and those whose upbringing she was responsible for. This reinforced the contextualization of each relationship between two young people and their parents, counteracting the author’s efforts in the cause of emancipation that she expressed elsewhere.134 In Poland, as elsewhere in Europe, marriages were solemnized in the presence of the parents, in consequence of their desire to achieve economic 131. Interesowany sędzia miłość [Love is a Self-Interested Judge], on the title page of the play, in Komedyje i tragedyje … 1754. 132. Act I, scene 2, k. Av. 133. A play of 1752. The mediator between Radziwiłłowa and Boccaccio’s novel was also in this case, as in the case of Griselda, the Polish translation in an anthology with the title Antypasty małżeńskie [Matrimonial antipasti]: Kraków 1650; see also Kruszewska 1961. 134. However, one of Radziwiłłowa’s daughters, Teofila, drew far-reaching life lessons from the pedagogical environment created by her mother, basing her marriage scenario on love and independent choice, violating the clannish calculations seeking the best connections among European princes or Polish magnates; she eloped with a lover who was incompatible with her status (Morawski, commandant of the palace guard) and forced her brother Karol Stanisław, who was formally her guardian

Introduction 35 security for their offspring. Young girls in love in Princess Radziwiłłowa’s plays take into account the views of their parents, declaring their obedience to their will and their choice of a fiancé, such as Tymaretka in The Comedy of Sesotryx (i.e., Igrzysko fortuny [Contest of fortune], the plot of which is also taken from Artamène), or Filida in the comedy Miłość mistrzyni doskonała [Love is the Perfect Mistress]. In act 4 of that play, the young men elope with the girls that were denied to them (testifying to the practice of elopement as a means to marriage, which was accepted in France as well as in Poland in the seventeenth century), but the female protagonist Filida objects and seeks her father’s consent to the marriage. However, Princess Radziwiłłowa’s favorite category among polemics regarding accepted norms and rights was the freedom of the individual. All the girls who are courted by their admirers are concerned about their loss of freedom. Generally, they are terrified about the “yoke of obedience.” This can be seen both as a new phenomenon in the sphere of the culture of emotions conducive to freedom of choice by individualized personalities with a powerful sense of their own subjectivity (which would be a Baroque heritage) and as a specifically Polish feature (reinforced by the then dominant political culture and republican institutional principles).135 4. THE THEATER OF FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

By Way of Introduction, a Passport to Literary History: Radziwiłłowa as a Translator of Molière Discussion of the dramatic works of Princess Radziwiłłowa can be introduced nonchronologically, beginning with her translations of Molière, which complement the repertoire of plays presented by her in Polish at Nieśwież. Her reward for introducing classical French comedy with its constructional principles into Polish literature and theater is a kind of passport to textbooks and bibliographies of the literary history of the Enlightenment. This French author’s name acts as a kind of magic spell opening the doors to literary salons, although assessments of Radziwiłłowa’s translations vary and, although it has already been pointed out136 that her experience in working on Molière was not brought to bear when she following the death of her parents, to accept this scandalous misalliance: Sajkowski 1981, 314–43; Terlecka 2008. 135. Appeals to the freedoms of the nobility as a value specifically applying to well-born individuals, consolidated since the sixteenth century as an institutional principle with consequences that must be taken into account in everyday life, were incorporated by Radziwiłłowa into Przestrogi zbawienne dla córki [Salutary admonitions for my daughter] and into the legislation of Solonia in the play Z oczu się miłość rodzi [Love is Born in the Eyes]; cf. n16. 136. E.g., Chomętowski 1870, 134.

36 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK came to create the rest of her plays, they diverged en masse from the rules and norms of French classicism as far as the poetics of drama is concerned. In 1821, Jan Sowiński noted the “quite fluent” translations in a folio of Radziwiłłowa’s dramas.137 A hundred years later, Stanisław Windakiewicz considered them “rather labored, though at the same time quite faithful.”138 The issue that interested the critics above all else was the purity of the Polish language— any excess of gallicisms was considered a fault. They were also displeased by the rendering of Molière’s prose in verse. In his latest major academic synopsis of Enlightenment literature, Mieczysław Klimowicz suggests that Radziwiłłowa destroyed the comic finesse of Molière (however farcical), blunting his satirical sharpness and deviating from his stylistic intentions (replacing the pompous précieux style by late Baroque concettism).139 Radziwiłłowa was not the first to translate Molière into Polish. She chose three titles: the comedy-ballet Les amants magnifiques and two comedies of social manners: Les précieuses ridicules and the farce Le médecin malgré lui. The last of these seems without a doubt, as a cultural challenge for the translator, the most interesting test of theatrical instinct and technique. Consider only the fact that the translation of Les amants magnifiques, probably written in the first half of the year 1749 (according to Fryczyński’s suggestion in the posthumous edition of Radziwiłłowa’s drama), was given a more general title: Miłość wspaniała [Magnificent love],140 which—as is seen in the confrontation of the protagonists—loses none of Molière’s ironic ambiguity. It seems equally significant in terms of casting (Radziwiłłowa’s twin sons Janusz and Karol appear onstage in the roles of the eponymous lovers) that there is a shift of emphasis in the title in a copy of the text prepared for printing in 1751—the title was supposed to be Wspaniali kawalerowie [The magnificent suitors], which was closer to the title in French. Finally, in 1754, the publisher gave the piece a “wise” maxim as a title: Przejrzane nie mija [Fate is unrelenting]. Interesting as a presumed motive for the choice of the play and for Radziwiłłowa’s translation is the creation of the character of Princess Arystiona as the mother encouraging her daughter’s emotional development. The piece also attracted attention thanks to the exploitation of the theatrical potential of the prototype by the insertion of musical and ballet scenes.141 In turn, Radziwiłłowa’s translation of Les précieuses ridicules bears the title Komedia wytwornych i śmiesznych dzi[é]weczek [Comedy of elegant and 137. Sowiński 1821, 69, 70. 138. Windakiewicz 1921, 79. 139. Klimowicz 1998, 75. 140. Original MS in AGAD AR, Rękopisy biblioteczne [Library manuscripts section], sygn. [ref.] 48, 540–86. 141. Żurawska 2002, 44.

Introduction 37 ridiculous girls]142 (not dziwaczek [eccentrics][!] as was suggested by a reading of this Molière play as a satirical comedy of manners in K. Wierzbicka’s interpretation). The publisher dated it September 23 (actually 3), 1752143 and—astoundingly and damningly in the eyes of critics unaware of the editor’s intervention, thinking that she did not understand genre differences and the distinguishing features of types of drama—gave it the title of a tragedy!144 This translation is important with respect to the reluctant, critical reception in Poland of French précieux culture and its galanterie to the extent that it was a reflection of the discussion surrounding prefeminist emancipation salonière circles (the first salons emerged in the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania only after the mid-eighteenth century). Characteristically, J. Sowiński shifted the interpretational emphasis, selecting from the dramatis personae the designation of the two main characters: the spurned bachelors, elevating them to title status. Finally, there is Le médecin malgré lui, the most cheerful and wittiest farce in Molière’s repertoire. It had the record number of performances at the Comédie Française after Tartuffe, which may have been significant for the translator. Meanwhile, misunderstanding of the clownish representation of the world, of the deepest qualities of the ambivalent humor of the farce, is what was taken over from the seventeenth-century classics by representatives of the Enlightenment. Later, opinion was negatively influenced by Voltaire, for example; he contrasted disdainfully Le Misanthrope—the work of a wise man—with Le médecin malgré lui, a farce in which a wise man acts the fool in order to gain the applause of recognition from the crowd. The eighteenth-century publisher of Molière’s works, while quoting the opinion of the famous wise man from Ferney, nevertheless emphasized the genuine hilarity aroused by the farce concerned—in comparison with other works, it still clearly stood out as readable in a topical, elemental and witty way— charming folly, as he calls it. Not overrating the allegedly dominant satirical aspect that the critic associates with the first part of the title (Le médecin), we shift the emphasis to the second part of the title: malgré lui (as in another Molière comedy about marriage forcé), which seems to be just as important, if not more so, for recognizing the suggested human condition and people’s relationships with others, for the elementary, universalized existential experience represented by the farce. The imposition of the 142. AGAD AR, Rękopisy biblioteczne [Library manuscripts section, sygn. [ref.] 48 , 1–44. 143. September 23, although according to the diary of the author’s husband (Sajkowski 1961, 425) the première was performed earlier, on September 15. This discrepancy, among others, detracts from the authority of the publisher, Jakub Fryczyński. 144. Fryczyński, no doubt wishing to enhance the dignity of the prince, designated two other titles as tragedies, discussed below: one of the one-act farces, Niecnota w sidłach [Dishonesty Entrapped] and Komedia polska [A Polish comedy] (as the play of 1754 known as Opatrzności boskiej dzieło [An Act of Divine Providence] was entitled in Princess Radziwiłłowa’s manuscript).

38 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK role expressed in the title (‘despite himself ’) is rendered by Princess Radziwiłłowa, significantly perhaps, with a more powerful formula: Gwałtem medyk [A doctor by force].145 In the theatrical sense, but also in a dramaturgical sense, the play is organized by Skanarel, the main character of the play, who dominates the action (not a man in love, and not a servant leading the intrigue, as he would in a literary comedy). Accordingly, on a performance level the actor is expected to be a dominating buffoon. This is Molière’s own type of actor-author farce, which he evolved over the years out of the Théâtre Illustré in the provinces and in Paris out of Sganarelle ou le cocu imaginaire (1660). In the spirit of the latter title,146 in his Diary, Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł several times noted a production in Nieśwież of the French Comedy of Skanarel, the “playing of Doctor Skanarel” or the “Polish Skanarel”—no doubt his wife’s translation. The order of the dramatis personae is significant in that, whereas many editions of Molière’s comedies place Géronte, his daughter, and her lover at the top of the list, in accordance with their literary comic roles, in the case of Princess Radziwiłłowa, who notes the dramatis personae in the order of their appearance onstage, the main hero, Sganarelle, occupies the first position. It is characteristic, too, that in the explanations of the dramatis personae Radziwiłłowa defined only the most important relationships from the point of view of the action: “Łukasz (Lucas)—husband of Jakobina (Jacqueline).” It is difficult to say whether Radziwiłłowa’s selection from Molière’s plays was motivated above all by her theatrical sense or whether she perhaps also saw in a play by this French author a fortunate literary enhancement of an old theatrical tradition. Such ennoblement of the clownish theater by its incorporation in the literary structures and genre conventions of comedy seemed to be substantiated by the division into three comedy acts (albeit short ones, six to eleven scenes), a love theme—the adventures of a pair of young lovers, their conflict with the father, an ordinary social milieu, everyday matters, a happy ending—the removal of obstacles to marriage on the basis of a deus ex machina (the suitor seeking the hand in marriage of an heiress suddenly inherits property from an uncle), and the reconciliation of an estranged couple (Martine and Sganarelle). In spite of everything, of course, Le médecin malgré lui remains rather open in its composition, a series of scenes, episodes, and a collection of sketches, frequently unnecessary for 145. In the manuscript, with which the printed version of Komedyje i tragedyje (Żółkiew 1754), has been compared: AGAD AR, Rękopisy Biblioteczne [Library manuscripts section], sygn. [ref.] 48, 49– 112. In the posthumously published anthology of Princess Radziwiłłowa’s dramas, the title Komedyja z francuskiego [A comedy from the French] (without indication of the name of the original author, which is actually missing in the manuscript also) is given by the publisher, Jakub Fryczyński. He gives the date of production as 1752. 146. It expresses a model of farce resting on a main actor-author creating a type, as did the French farceurs (something different from the Italians in the commedia dell’arte, who incorporated themselves instead into a stereotyped role, individualizing it somewhat virtually throughout their lives).

Introduction 39 the development of the action, merely representing a framework for the motif of matrimonial revenge. Characteristic of Radziwiłłowa’s rendering is submission to a chain of events in the first two acts and emphasis on the continuity of the stage action instead of (constructional) scene breaks, although there are no clear markers in Molière either: in act I she amalgamated scenes 2 and 3, reducing the total number of scenes to five; in act II, she amalgamated scenes 1 and 2, 3 and 4, and 6, 7, and 8, making only five scenes of Molière’s nine; only act III has eleven scenes, in accordance with the original. Farcical generalization of the experience of the human condition is governed by its own laws of abstraction of humanity, masquerade, and puppetry. Radziwiłłowa avoided exaggeration to grotesque and absurd proportions, the hallmark of farce, a characteristic of its comic quality and its worldview. The temporary suspension of norms, the mad world of ambivalent laughter, possessing its own crazy logic, is not fully conceded in the translation by the aristocratic author. She rendered expletives milder or removed them, if necessary deleting from the text of the work many curses on the devil, with which Molière is replete. And it is not exclusively a question of style; after all, the curses arouse suspicions of demonic involvement in buffoonery. To demonstrate the real human world, even if only an external, desecrated, godless, topsy-turvy one, reduced ad absurdum, means to also acknowledge as amoral the actions of characters ignoring the existence of the will of God and treating moral standards with disrespect. Fraud, deceit, or half-truths, behind which the devil usually stands, will only give the character an advantage over another (because there are no heroes in farce) and will resolve nothing (merely temporarily alleviating conflict, neutralizing it). If we agree with the proposition of A.E. Knight147 that the action in farce is not merely an imitation of the tricks people play on one another in the real world, it follows that the plot of a farce represents a comic analogy of demonic acts in a world characterized by human propensities to corruption and tainted by sin. The change made by the translator is a radical one; in place not only of many simple ejaculations such as “Oh!” but also Molière’s “To the devil” or “To a hundred devils,” Radziwiłłowa frequently has “O dla Boga,” “Na Boga,” “O Boże!” [“Oh Lord!”]. Again, in designations relating to untypical behavior, Radziwiłłowa chose to use intellectual qualifiers or to name ethical qualities. So instead of “madness” (being possessed), dureń [fool] and hultaj [scoundrel] appear as alternatives alongside szaleniec [madman] in places where Molière wrote fou [crazy]. Alongside Martine’s designation of Sganarelle as a błazen [jester] (in accordance with Molière’s bouffon), in other cases, in the context of Géronte’s “stately” home, Radziwiłłowa deviates from this designation in the direction of other qualities, finding epithets such as śmieszny [ridiculous (person)] and prawdziwie żartobliwy [truly facetious].

147. Knight 1983.

40 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK Translating faithfully, albeit in verse (more faithfully than Franciszek Zabłocki, the most eminent writer of Polish Enlightenment comedy,148 did in prose some time later), Radziwiłłowa conspicuously abbreviated protracted themes. Satirical or comic arguments were not particularly favored by the translator—idle, ridiculous chatter did not interest her on an extensive scale, although her sensitivity to entertaining language cannot be denied.149 Radziwiłłowa translated more accurately the rapid repartee, which has an important function in the comedy of the situation. In order to achieve full thirteen-syllable verse lines, she frequently had to add several (fairly neutral) words. She thereby toned down the differences that promoted a pulsating dialogue tempo in Molière, an alternation between an acceleration of dialogue turns150 and a deceleration, focusing attention on the comic monologue of a single character. In Princess Radziwiłłowa’s translation, the dialogue becomes more compact and uniform, yet it remains fluent, appropriate to the rapid tempo of situational changes. In accordance with the quasi-theatrical (farce) form in which it is realized, it remains a theatrical discourse that is compliant with the envisaged stage production. After all, farce is merely “an act of limited literary formalization … a fundamental model of a verbal record of the experience of a performance,” and in effect it represents an elementary type of relationship between literature and the stage.151 Paradoxically, then, the fewer stage directions that are given, the more clearly visible it becomes that it is the actor who is the creative element, poised over and above an event, endowed with the gift of confidence of his having the ability to complement the working diagram in its concretization onstage. The text of Radziwiłłowa’s translation simply demands and expects to be played; it determines the theatrical form, however much the translator abbreviates the stage directions, which in Molière are so developed and so precise. One example is the peculiar ballet around a bottle in the closing scene of act 152 I ; another example is Sganarelle’s comic groping antics and the attempts by Lucas to protect Jacqueline in scene 2, line 3, of act II (movement and gesture correspond 148. An extensive comparison of translations (Judkowiak 2000) enables the values of Radziwiłłowa’s translational technique to be assessed, not only in terms of respect for the “constructional discipline” of the drama as pointed out by Klimowicz 1998. 149. As demonstrated by her own outstanding compositions of doctors’ macaronic Latin, by no means borrowed from Molière, in scene 4, line 6, of act II (where, nota bene, the publisher ruined the text by omitting a by no means pointless line: Filia tua voluit meam naturam) and scene 6 of act III (prescription with a plan for the elopement of the lovers), and the translation of the compliments of mammariness (scene 2, line 3 of act II). 150. Sequences of monosyllabic and disyllabic questions and exclamations, provoking the development of comic mimicry and gesture. 151. Ratajczakowa 1993, 236. 152. From the description of the “backward and forward” movements of all three characters on stage, Radziwiłłowa retains brief information about the basis of such a choreographic setup dictated and

Introduction 41 to dialogue in this scene). In Radziwiłłowa’s version, the dialogue itself (“[…] to embrace you, embracing her,” “gently with my wife,” “cease these advances,” “I feel attached to you both […],” “I embrace you […], “I embrace her”) suggests that the embraces are acted out and that Lucas three times (only twice in the stage directions) repels Sganarelle’s importuning of his wife. In the stage directions for the following scene, Molière describes how Lucas makes the importunate Sganarelle perform a pirouette, then how Jacqueline also makes Lucas perform a pirouette— Radziwiłłowa finds it adequate to give only one direction, limiting Molière’s ballet script: “Jacqueline takes hold of her husband and turns him round.” In replacing the pirouette by a (single?) rotation, she appears to be making the production at Nieśwież more realistic. In scene 4, line 6, of the same act, rather than following Molière’s directions indicating a repeated rhythmic movement of the hand from the mouth to the head and the chin, Radziwiłłowa added the direction to indicate Lucinde’s stuttering “by gestures,” Radziwiłłowa also abandoned the farcical sequences where Sganarelle holds out his hand—taking Martine by the hand as a gesture of reconciliation with his wife, proposing to “make peace between them” (act I, scene 2, line 3), offering it in expectation of a payment (in the scene with Thibaut and Perrin (act III, scene 2), or where Lucas is supposed to keep slapping Géronte on the chest to maintain the rhythm as he speaks (Radziwiłłowa’s version is he “struck him [once] on the chest” [act II, scene 1]). Although Radziwiłłowa simplifies Molière’s choreography (his farcical exaggeration acquired aesthetic characteristics), she does not abandon the repeated battering characteristic of low comedy (here the beating with sticks is a structural means for transforming a simple villager into a doctor), the face slapping, the erotic subtext in Sganarelle’s approaches to Jacqueline, or even the physiologically crude medical examination, the spitting and the demand to “step on that [spit].”153 Radziwiłłowa’s sense of theater probably prompted her to take the opportunity that presented itself when she decided to turn the farcical situations and the demands they made on the actors into verse. As theatrical dialogue, verse considerably limits the theatricality of the text, that is, its interpretational flexibility and the scope for improvisation on the part of the actor and the unequivocal nature of the meter, which cannot be changed without danger of its breaking up, becomes a challenge for the actor. In the technique of the translator from Nieśwież, the thirteen-syllable line is alive, free and flexible; the rhythm highlights the emotions and the meaning, occasionally causing their unanticipated onrush. The line is rendered particularly theatrical by the elimination of the caesura (demolishing somehow directed by the protagonist: “Sganarelle performs various gestures with the bottle, hiding it now on one side, now on the other.” 153. Sganarelle, présentant sa bouteille à Valère.— Tenez cela vous: voilà où je mets mes juleps. (Puis se tournant vers Lucas en crachant.) Vous, marchez là-dessus, par ordonnance du médecin (act I, scene 5).

42 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK the rhythmical boundary by syntactical-intonational means of emotional expression) and the division of the line between as many as three or four actors. The balance between the action and the related dialogue, characteristic of French theater, finds its expression in Radziwiłłowa in the treatment of verse as a theatrical means and not merely as a device for lending literary refinement to a low genre. On all levels, Radziwiłłowa responded to the challenge presented by the ambivalence of farce. This shows that she found theater entertaining, enjoying the triumph of the inferior over the superior and vice versa, play with allusion, understatement and tension at the narrow interface between literary convention expressing stereotypical conceptions of reality and the theater that discredited them. The omission of information about the location of the action (Molière’s already rather vague “in the village”) generalizes the action, abstracted from its specific location, confirming its inherent value so that it can be enacted anywhere. Of course, Sganarelle chops timber in the forest and brings it to the house of his master Géronte, but this house would not be a palace as understood by the Nieśwież audience. Radziwiłłowa’s recognition of farce as a significant model transcending social divisions and national differences is arguably a further valuable insight. Following this intuition in act I, according to Molière’s suggestion, she retains Sganarelle with Harlequin’s buttons and black beard, wearing the traditional yellow and green clown costume, the colors of which actually correspond excellently to the concept of a school of speaking for parrots. Abandoning the use of the grotesque pointed hat,154 she toned down the buffoonery, giving precedence to common gestures that are well-known and universally comprehensible. For, although Radziwiłłowa grasped the essence of farce and its deep existential meaning, when she took up her pen she found it difficult to escape her own ingrained court etiquette and manner of speech entirely. In accordance with the linguistic convention of her environment, Radziwiłłowa replaces the direct interpersonal relationships implied by verbs and the personal pronouns je/tu. So, for example, instead of “méritais-tu d’épouser une personne comme moi?” we read, “Are you worthy to marry a virtuous person?” and for “gens qui s’aiment” we find “matrimonial couple.” Emotional attachment (affection) is rendered as faith (i.e., the virtue of fidelity). When she bumps into Lucas and Valère (act I, scene 4), Martine expresses herself politely: “Ah! Messieurs, je vous demande pardon, je ne vous voyais pas: et cherchais dans ma tête quelque chose qui m’embarrasse;” and she receives the reply, “Chacun a ses soins dans le monde: et nous cherchons aussi, ce que nous voudrions bien trouver.” (Radziwiłłowa translates this as, “Oh sirs, I apologize humbly that I approached you without giving a curtsy … Bad manners do not anger us at all.”) In reply to Sganarelle’s “Eh quoi?” Valère says, “Je vous 154. In scene 6 of act III Sganarelle, exhausted from “entertaining” Géronte in order to divert his attention from the lovers and terrified by the threatening new situation he faces, rather than fanning himself, simply, prosaically, “mops his brow as he walks around the stage.”

Introduction 43 demande, si ce n’est pas vous, qui se nomme Sganarelle.” Radziwiłłowa translates this as “Or what? … I will be obliged as long as my body and soul are together.” Jacqueline, resisting the proposal to cuckold her husband, says, in act III, scene 3, of Radziwiłłowa’s version, “I am not at all concerned about his interests./My only concern is for my honor and my soul.” “I know what I would do if I was not married.” The bitter and sometimes cruel truth about interpersonal relationships that Molière reflects through a grimace in farce is mollified by Radziwiłłowa, who places it in the context of Christian values and the courtly etiquette of honorable behavior. The good intentions professed repeatedly by the characters are ethical rather than aesthetic in nature, shaping not only their verbal utterances but also their mimicry and gestures. However, the appropriateness imposed on the translations of Molière’s works does not disturb the deeper structures of the action or the motivation of the characters; therefore, even the ethical values as justifications for the actions of the protagonists undergo no fundamental change in terms of the moralizing form of the work. At most, they merely deepen the contrast between what we hear and what we observe; in other words, they effectively contrast the bitterness of recognition of the truth about human nature with its predisposition to mask its own motives and succumb to an interplay of interests. Moreover, it may be worth mentioning that in her lyrical writing Radziwiłłowa frequently denounced hypocrisy and pretence, inherent attributes of her own environment. This made her all the more eager to give a voice to her heroines: Lucinde, protesting against her father’s control over her emotions, and the artless Martine.

Dishonesty Entrapped: An Example of a One-Act Play from the Paris Opéra Comique in Nieśwież The path of Princess Radziwiłłowa’s creative inspiration by the French theater of comedy leads from her first play (dated 1746, discussed below) to its translation into Polish for the Nieśwież stage in 1749 (published in 1751): Molière’s “elegant and artful comedy-ballet”155 Les amants magnifiques (from the manuscript Miłość wspaniała [Magnificent love]). Next, in late 1750/early 1751, she translated two one-act farcical comic operas (unsurprisingly, in the context of what we know of the quite unprecedented popularity of petite comédie in the eighteenth century), proceeding, in 1752, to Molière’s farce Le médecin malgré lui, her translation of which is discussed in the previous section. From the point of view of the quality of dramatic composition, after the Molière translations, two one-act farces stand out in Radziwiłłowa’s literary output. Julian Krzyżanowski discussed both of them as examples of realisticcomic orientalism rooted in authentic oriental humoresques. He was prepared

155. As Kencki puts it: 2010, 40.

44 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK to recognize that these ideas reached Nieśwież “possibly via the medium of the French theater.”156 He mentions that Adolf Stender-Petersen, investigating the models on which these plays were based, identified Pierre Gallet,157 the author of Paris opéras comiques and divertissements. However, no elements of the musical-ballet format of their Nieśwież adaptations are extant or even suggestions of them, even though from the outset music played a significant role in Radziwiłłowa’s theater. These short plays, thanks to their clear, concentrated dramatic structure, were eminently suited to the formation of the theatrical taste of an unsophisticated audience. Their compactness was also better suited to the abilities of the youthful performers and audience, including Radziwiłłowa’s children (for Dishonesty Entrapped Princess Radziwiłłowa casted parts exclusively with members of the court). The dramatic composition of both plays is not bad, thanks to the action being focused, as is typical for this type of drama, on a single episode that functions as the epitasis, heightening tension. In Dishonesty Entrapped, it is the defrauding of the fraudsters (the triumph of the heroine over the dishonest debtors). In The Judge Who Lost His Reason, the same theme takes on the character of a reversal typical of the composition of farce.158 It appears that a predilection for farcical proliferation clearly demonstrates that feature of Radziwiłłowa’s dramatic composition that was not so much a talent for dramatizing fable motifs (which is what has traditionally been looked for in her work by literary historians) as a sense of theatricalization, which in the cases discussed emphasizes the actions of the protagonists. Anthropology, on the other hand, encoded in farce and the worldview it represents, contributes knowledge about fundamental, as it were precultural, relationships between the sexes. Farce seems to be in some sense subversive; when it is not concerned with gender—not caring unduly about the depiction of the background, motivation, and cultural factors—it shows men and women 156. Krzyżanowski 1961, 25. 157. In volume 5 of the Dictionnaire des théâtres de Paris (1756) he found the prototype of the comedy of Zemruda, or Brzydota, entitled in the 1754 edition of Princess Radziwiłłowa’s works Sędzia od rozumu odsądzony [The Judge Who Lost His Reason]: Le Double tour rendu (performed in Paris for the first time on February 26, 1735): Stender-Petersen 1960, 277. In accordance with the specification of a small, free genre, François Parfaict independently associated the one-act play Les Coffres (performed from September 5, 1736) with Gallet (Mémoires pour servir d’histoire des spectacles de la Foire, Paris 1743). 158. The eponymous “double reversal,” as Prince Faldlalach is twice converted into a beggar) or a “double trick, prank, or piece of deceit” (as the title may also be translated, considering that the false judge plays a trick, marrying off the daughter of his enemy to a supposed prince, in reality a beggar; on another occasion the judge is punished for deceit owing to the trick played by the avenging girl). On the proliferation of fraud and the mechanism for rendering the action autonomous, see Rey-Flaud 2006, 209–222. For that matter, in Dishonesty Entrapped, instead of two debtors, as in the basic versions of the theme in folklore, in anecdotes and novellas, we have three of them—they all fall into the same trap.

Introduction 45 as protagonists with equal rights. The shrewd have opportunities to defeat the stronger, women and men alike. In the context of eighteenth-century culture, the contrariness of the ending of Dishonesty Entrapped requires the verdict to have the force of an ideological affirmation by official authority in the final collective scene; the ruler proclaims to the mob that justice has been won by a woman compromised by dishonest, cynical officials, her husband’s debtors. The freedom and simplicity of the genre, which was not yet incorporated into the literary canon and which derived from nonclassical theatrical practice, was, as can be imagined, easy to adopt in an undertaking remaining under the control of the author as a woman and thus breaching other traditional patriarchal systems of cultural norms. The recreational nature of Radziwiłłowa’s theatrical performances was condescendingly approved, mainly in recognition of their entertainment value. This was frequently their nature, but they were, of course, not exclusively playful. Recently, an interpretation of Radziwiłłowa’s dramatic works has been proposed from the perspective of the “swan song,” the provincial oral noetics, still alive in the culture of the first half of the eighteenth century, albeit obsolescent. It exhorts the researcher to see here—in spite of the fashion for French, and in Dishonesty Entrapped in spite of the “pedantically mathematical composition”— “detailed mastery in the use of rhythmic balance,” consciously disturbed, so the audience would not be bored by a series of repetitive scenes (mention of the debt three times, the luring of the suitors three times).159 Indeed, this was promoted by the théâtre de société as a communicative community that adopted the living word and took advantage of the scope for freedom to improvise, also involving the audience in the creative experience of entertainment. If we agree to accept the concept that Radziwiłłowa’s approach was in some respects influenced by traditional oral culture and its techniques (as applied by storytellers, not writers), we must take care not to overlook the fact that Radziwiłłowa belonged to the cosmopolitan handwritten culture of the Polish aristocracy. Actually, the one-act plays, which were by no means hurriedly written, using an enthusiastic “coarse stitch” but tightly knit and well composed (albeit far from depicting complex motivation for actions or offering a valid psychological portrait of the heroes), demonstrate that Radziwiłłowa, immersed as she was in outdated traditions, nevertheless succeeded in keeping pace with the spirit of the times. Drawing on the inspiration of fashion flowing from Paris, the center of contemporary culture, she participated in the dismantling of the rigid system of cultural values typical of classicist drama and theater culture; by reviving old clownish traditions she undermined the poetics officially promoted since the mid-seventeenth century.160 159. Prejs 2008, 111–12. 160. It was not actually imposed in Poland until after 1764, when it was adopted by the cultural reformers of the royal camp and enforced as the obligatory aesthetics in the national theater.

46 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK The Parisian provenance sufficed in Nieśwież for the schematic nature of farce to be accepted. Fashionable exotic costume from the Orient created the appropriate distance necessary to lend sophistication to the low comedy of farce as far as the court actors and audience were concerned. Part of the essence of this comedy is ambivalence, which Dobrochna Ratajczakowa also associated with the oriental costume, “creating a space appropriate for dramatic ambiguity.”161 The moral relativism of the bedroom trap and the play on eroticism and wealth discerned by Ratajczakowa in Dishonesty Entrapped and The Judge Who Lost His Reason, albeit veiled in oriental exoticism, cannot be resolved with the aid of a moral. For that matter, according to Ratajczakowa, the weight it carries is suspect, since it was declared by Harlequin. In this way, Radziwiłłowa, whose activity as a writer and her freedom to express independent ideas were not supported by the contemporary model of official culture, asserts her right to criticize it skeptically and soberly, to doubt its universal and immutable authority. The spirit of defiance referred to above in selected examples of the French tradition pervades virtually all Radziwiłłowa’s writing, while the form of the oneact play and the Harlequin, native to Paris, inform her theatrical activities from the very beginning of her writing for the Nieśwież stage, that is, from 1746.

Witty Love (1746) or an Appeal for Greater Freedom for Young Ladies The circumstances surrounding the genesis of the first play produced by Radziwiłłowa at the Nieśwież theater may go some way to explain certain aspects of its meaning. As an extended pièce d’agrément (i.e., a comedy combined with a divertissement)162 written for performance by an amateur troupe (théâtre de société), it was an element of court celebrations that had a social significance and purpose, to present to guests and the public at large a “display of power and prestige.”163 In correspondence with her husband, Radziwiłłowa promised to arrange a birthday party on his return, with une petite comédie.164 The text of the Comedy for the Birthday of His Highness [Witty Love] was also shaped by the requirement for society entertainment. This piece would more aptly have been termed a scenario, because it was difficult to categorize it as a play in the classical sense, arising as it did (like an English masque)165 out of the needs of the court. The 161. Ratajczakowa 1989, 26. 162. On this musical entertainment in the theater, popular in the first half of the eighteenth century, see also Żórawska-Witkowska 1997, 273, 280–285, 346. 163. The term is used by Duvignaud 1965; see chapter entitled Dramatisations sociales. 164. Adding, “It would be fit for a king” (AGAD AR, dział [section] IV, teka [portfolio] 50, koperta [folder] 664, Letters, May, 1746). 165. This analogy is pointed out in Ratajczakowa 1993, 18.

Introduction 47 courtly dramatization of reality and the theatrical representation of the court that emerges intensify the interplay of illusion and allusion. Literary dramatic models (based on the ideal of unity of action) give way to the pressure of irregular, free theatrical forms. Interludes of music and dance are conducive to the characteristic opening up of form: the symmetry of the musical and choreographic arrangements of Witty Love and the instructions to the soloists not to sing “oddly” in the Italian style clearly point to a French orientation. Models were sought among French harlequinades (very probably one-act plays from the second Théâtre Italien in Paris),166 from which may be derived the characteristics of the Harlequin character and the comic old folk originating in the Italian commedia dell’arte—the father (Pantalone) and the doctor.167 During decades of performances by Italians in Paris, French refined culture imposed the requisite veneer of urbanity (civilité) on the uncouth, coarse, common gags of the Italian lazzi that allude to the physiology of illness and old age. Radziwiłłowa harnesses for her own purposes the subversive speech of folk comedy: in Witty Love it is propitious for the young people (thirteen daughters and their lovers). The father’s didactic admonitions toward the girls (inter alia, to renounce reading and companionship!) clashed with their critical view of the parent’s hypocrisy (whom they do not hesitate to deceive). Wit (esprit, cunning, shrewdness) emphasized in the new title of the play—only after the death of Radziwiłłowa by the publisher of her works in 1754—further highlights the double meaning of the message of the “little comedy” presented to their father on his return by the children with the encouragement of their mother and by young people entrusted to his court for their education. The prince was called upon by his wife to read an appeal to consider the reasons for advocating greater freedom for girls (or the fair sex in general), to which the goddess Iris would give her blessing, as suggested by the ending.168 The names given to certain heroes and heroines in Witty Love allude to a distant, ancient tradition of idylls of Theocritus and Virgil, but that is most probably mediated—for a long time now the courtly idyll has adopted pastoral costume for its own ends. In the retinue of friends of Mirtyll and Amarylla, whose wedding here suggests a connection with the famous Pastor fido, we have Koryska, Dorynda, Sylvia, Lizetka (from the same 166. Library records at Nieśwież confirm that Radziwiłłowa drew on Gherardi’s Théâtre Italien in an edition marked Amsterdam 1721. 167. Stender-Petersen (1960, 268–273) took up and developed the earlier suggestion by Marian Szyjkowski to interpret the work in the context of the Italian comedy of masks, however, in the context of French and Molièrian mediation (remarking on the pastoral stylization), Niekraševič-Karotkaja (2002, 85) attempts to show that the plot of the play is the fruit of Radziwiłłowa’s imagination. 168. According to Socrates, the goddess is derived from the god of surprise (Taumantos), who gave the impulse to philosophical reflection. In dedicating one of his fables (Le Corbeau, La Gazelle, La Tortue, et Le Rat) to his friend Mme de La Sablière, reflecting her affectionate heart, her appeal, and her amazement at the diversity of the world, Jean de La Fontaine wanted to raise a temple to Iris. For Mme de Villedieu, Iris is the heroine of true love.

48 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK work by J.B. Guarini), but also Tyrsys, Phyllis, Lyceas, Korydon, Klorys—Molière’s shepherds (Princesse d’Élide, Psyché, Pastorale Comique, La fête de Versaille or Amants magnifiques, the comedy that Radziwiłłowa would translate). Into this European cultural universal (although they are drawn from a different tradition), the allegorical characters of Time, the Four Seasons, fit perfectly, appearing in the final part (scenes 11–14) on the same level alongside the classical goddesses (Lucyna and Diana) and characters from the Nieśwież court (four housekeepers bearing gifts and the dwarf Jacek in the role of an admiral of a miniature fleet). They all pay homage to the Lord of Nieśwież, Prince Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, representing the actual as well as symbolically strengthened focus of power in this world, bringing him gifts and greetings. The attractive conclusion, patriarchal in its expression, rendered acceptable the earlier discussion about this norm, which the author ventured to raise (cautiously couching it in a frivolous, comic citation).

An Act of Divine Providence, or a Fairy-Tale Initiation into Maturity (1746) Six months after her first theatrical success, at the end of 1746, Princess Radziwiłłowa staged a “Polish comedy composed and presented by the young Radziwiłł princesses Teofila and Karolina,” also mentioned in the prince’s diary as “Julia’s Comedy” (even though its genre was identified in Fryczyński’s edition as tragedy, with its title, An Act of Divine Providence, referring to Providence and its formula representing the role of Radziwiłłowa’s daughters in the staging of the play).169 Taking into account the chronology of its genesis and its first performances, we can observe in this work an interesting example of the involvement of her young daughters170 in creative activities, a particular case of the implementation of the educational-recreational function of the court theater. The literary genesis in various phases of the formulation of the topic can be observed in four differing textual variants of the work—two manuscripts (a carelessly executed manuscript and a corrected copy) and two printed versions.171 The original manuscript is a kind of scenario or script (the author later deleted the numerous stage directions, leaving only the dialogue). 169. All these changes, having a bearing on the author’s intentio operis only in 1754, in the posthumous edition of Radziwiłłowa’s dramas, are of much greater significance than those mentioned in K. Wierzbicka’s commentary, pointing out the formal textual differences: the omission of the synopsis, condensing the content of the acts, the removal of information regarding the entre-actes, and the breaking up of the four scenes of act VII into six scenes. Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej 1961, 214. 170. Katarzyna Karolina in the role of Julia was about six years old; the elder Teofila, transformed into Olympia, was eight. 171. AGAD AR, Rękopisy biblioteczne [Library manuscripts section], sygn. [ref.] 48, 248–271, kopia w rękopisie [copy in manuscript] sygn. [ref.] 50, 35–51, editions: 1751 and in Komedyje i tragedyje 1754.

Introduction 49 It is difficult to identify directly the sources among the variety of tangled threads of poems and magical tales in the unrecorded oral tradition on which were superimposed the inspirations of a literary culture saturated at that time with a fascination for the fantastic in oriental and popular tales (to recall only Galland’s French translations from the Arabic that Radziwiłłowa used to read or the adaptations of the magical contes [fairy tales] popularized by Charles Perrault,172 Mme d’Aulnoy,173 and their numerous continuers). The topic is a variation on familiar themes from the Sleeping Beauty tale.174 It has not been possible to determine whose version—in which two Sleeping Beauty themes were combined (Sleeping Beauty in a glass casket)175 and [Princess] Snow White176—Radziwiłłowa came across prior to the theatrical production at Nieśwież, so one may venture a hypothesis regarding the originality of Radziwiłłowa’s development of itinerant themes and her creativity rooted in live oral culture177 at the interface of folklore and court culture, which was in any case predominantly a woman’s domain (a further contribution to the investigation of links between oral culture and gender). Fairy tales, today so keenly analyzed through the prism of psychoanalysis,178 the discovery of a person’s own permanent identity (values as much as burdens),179 reveal the value of this type of story for preparing children for (biological and social) development as they approach maturity, involving (inter alia) the necessity to break away from a psychological dependency on their mother.180 Radziwiłłowa, 172. One of the Moderns supported in the dispute with the Ancients [Querelle des Anciens et Modernes] by women. La belle au bois dormant was included in a collection of contes, 1697. 173. Here the most important tale would be La Biche au Bois from her Contes nouveaux ou les fées à la mode (1698). 174. Cf. recently Heiner 2010. 175. Literary codification certified, for example, in the sixteenth century by the French variant of Perceforest, by the Italian Giambattista Basile in the early 1630s, again in France in 1697 from the pen of Charles Perrault, and finally canonized by the Grimm brothers’ version at the beginning of the nineteenth century. 176. In the Aarne-Thompson tale-type index, numbers 410 [Sleeping Beauty] and 709 [Snow White]. 177. Marek Prejs devoted some attention to the analysis of An Act of Divine Providence in the context of the enduring nature of oral noetics, the technique of rhapsodic stitching together of episodes, also internally contravening handwritten genre models of other dramas by Radziwiłłowa: Prejs 2008, 97–107. 178. Classic title: Bettelheim 1976. 179. Here one could take into account the change (metamorphosis) of the evil mother into an ugly mask. 180. It is worthy of note that as early as 1812, in an edition of the tale by the Grimm brothers, the evil mother appeared in Dornröschen (Sleeping Beauty)—the stepmother (who passes for a canonical character in this motif) appears only in the second edition of this tale (1819). Several investigators have been drawn to the topic of mothers in fairy tales; for example, Birkhauser-Oeri 1988, Lundell 1990, and Schectman 1993.

50 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK in accordance with the children’s needs, accompanies them in their initiation into existential experience, helping to adapt original, archetypal characters and situations to the world with which they are familiar. Traditional motifs—the magic mirror that speaks the truth,181 enchanted objects (the ring, the shoes, or the poisoned apple) leading to the persecuted daughter’s sleep (instead of death), the prince who falls in love with her and who is responsible for bringing her back to life with a kiss (symbols of sexuality: maturity and initiation)—were subjected to additional courtly contextualization (e.g., Julia is awoken for the third time by the mother of the prince as she removes the magic ring from the girl’s finger). In Radziwiłłowa, the mirror, the fairy tale instrument of evil forces and the cultural symbol of vanity as an attribute personifying a sin or defect (superbia), brings to light the darker side of human nature (on the level of the plot it is the trigger to it), showing the threat presented by its excesses. The transformation of Olympia into a monster, presented as a punishment for pride and criminal jealousy toward her own daughter—is not definitive; instead of condemning the mother, Radziwiłłowa gives her an opportunity (conditional on regret and contrition) to gain forgiveness and return to her former state. The character of the hermit182 and his declaration authorize the publisher to represent the concept of Providence in the title. From act II the issue of trust in Divine Providence and reliance on the divine will enters into a polemic with the magical worldview of the fairy tale (“Today I see the Lord’s almighty power, for sorcery’s revoked, the grave defied, The soul of this innocent girl’s restored by him today to her own mortal body, so no satanic force prevails today”[act IV, scene 2]; “… for God’s good grace has thwarted all the evil traps devised” [act VII, scene 2]), establishing the pivot of the drama on the level of rationalization and religious choice. Through a sequence of events (provoked by anger, magic spells, and pagan activity), Radziwiłłowa promotes the thesis of the superiority of “virtue and piety” rooted in the Christian worldview, thereby lending a catechismal-didactic dimension to what is ostensibly a magical fairy tale theatrical lesson. Nothing is changed here by the names given to the heroes, which establish an additional layer of complex references to classical literary scholarship183 in the form of arcane allusions accessible only to an erudite audience. 181. Imposing itself as a Lacanian figure of the infant phase of self-identification (the so-called mirror stage), it could only serve the interpretation that a child (also at a somewhat more advanced age) addresses the mother as the guardian, the Great Other, for confirmation of its subjectivity—from this perspective it would be possible to read coauthorship of mother and daughters into this fairy tale theatrical entertainment. See also Bernheimer 1998. 182. He would here represent the dwarves familiar to us from (later) literary versions of Snow White. 183. Olympia, mother of Alexander the Great, was famous for her beauty, ambition, and impetuousness, brooking no opposition and capable of bloody revenge; like Roksana, she would be taken from a story about Macedonian history; Talestris, Queen of the Amazons, would also have been introduced— thanks to the writings of Curtius Rufus—from the sphere of Alexander the Great; her son Antiochus

Introduction 51

The Comedy Virtue Tried and Tested, known as Gold in the Fire, that is, the Moral Victory of Patient Griselda This is another adaptation of a familiar thematic motif in the repertoire of the Nieśwież Theater. This time Radziwiłłowa chose the familiar story of the virtuous wife subjected to cruel trials by her husband. The plot, derived from medieval folktales, underwent a number of modifications in its various European adaptations and reworkings, which have attracted the attention of numerous scholars. However, the intertextual intricacies of Radziwiłłowa’s play still remain to be definitively researched; only the most important references for the interpretation of her version will be mentioned here. The motif was canonized in narrative form as early as the fourteenth century by Giovanni Boccaccio.184 As is well known, the popularization of his version throughout Europe was promoted largely by the symbolic, moralizing Latin adaptation of the concluding story of the Decameron185 by Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch). A Polish adaptation of Boccaccio’s version, which formed the basis for Radziwiłłowa’s play, is found in an anthology of novellas published in 1650 entitled Antypasty małżeńskie [Matrimonial antipasti] and ascribed to Hieronim Morsztyn. The author of this adaptation gave Griselda the name of Cecylia and Gualtieri the name of Przemysław, transferring the action to the Kraków region.186 The distinguishing features of Radziwiłłowa’s edition of the familiar story must have been determined by her varied reading experience.187 bears the name of kings of the Seleucid dynasty ruling in the Near and Middle East in the Hellenistic era; Tygranes and Zenobia, heroes of the history of Armenia, may here rather relate (in his case) to the novel Artamène or to the libretto of the opera Grisella by Apostolo Zeno (1725 in Kraków) or (in her case) to the libretto of the opera Metastasia (music composed by J.A. Hasse; it would be performed in Warsaw only after 1748), epitomizing the heroic-aristocratic model. 184. The tenth tale from the tenth day (day of deeds of munificence), commented on by a spicy joke from the narrator, whose detached irony distances him from praise of the heroine, forms the conclusion to the entire collection, which is critical of social inequality. Previously, the tale was introduced into literature by Marie de France in Lai du Fresne (Lay of the ash tree, a twelfth-century AngloNorman long poem). For the history of the theme, see Morabito 1990. 185. De insigni oboedientia et fide uxoria, 1373 (Seniles XVII, 3). Evidence of its wide popularity is its occurrence among incunabula: Franczak 2008, 7–9. The author also discusses traces of influence of German adaptations of the novella on Polish Renaissance editions: Franczak 2008, 15. 186. Historyja o Przemysławie, książęciu oświęcimskim, i o Cecylijej, małżonki jego, stateczności [The tale of Przemysław, Prince of Oświęcim, and of the courage of Cecylia, his wife] (cf. Kruszewska 1961, 34–44). Antypasty also contains a second adaptation from Boccaccio—The Story of Galesus (Kruszewska 1961, 29–33)—nota bene, also dramatized by Princess Radziwiłłowa in the play entitled Miłość mistrzyni doskonała [Love is the perfect mistress]. 187. Recently, following Julian Krzyżanowski (1938) and Teresa Michałowska (1970, 138–49, 267–72), significant Polonizing adaptations in the history of the novella’s reception have been most closely studied by Jolanta Żurawska, who indicates new affinities between Polish and other European adaptations;

52 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK At the turn of the twentieth to the twenty-first century, considerations regarding the significance of the motif generally focus on the (mooted) matrimonial ideal of a woman, while social and psychological issues (broached in the work in a way radically different from the modern approach) obfuscate the deeper seated ethical conception underlying the shocking story line. Thus it is a vehicle for her impressive sounding observations regarding “a true monstrosity of matrimonial virtue,”188 “super-human obedience,” and “inhuman experimentation”189 and the “absurdity” of a story from which “a supposedly edifying moral doctrine”190 is supposed to emerge. This was indeed the direction indicated by Boccaccio. Some attempts at an interpretation introduce psychoanalytical terminology, indicating sadomasochistic relations between the spouses and condemning Gualtieri’s compensating obsessions or fantasies and his psychopathic behavior, inflicting moral torture. The designation “scandal” also appears, highly value laden in terms of social custom. This approach entails a dilution of the humanist-Christian message addressed to its audience regardless of their sex, and it is difficult not to see that from a feminist perspective it is liable to undergo an even more pronounced trivialization.191 Regarding Radziwiłłowa and the audience of her plays, one should take into account the historical-cultural contexts that turned the Griselda story into a didactic tale for future wives.192 Contemporary education strategies treated women virtually as objects—like children deprived of strength and values, which are characteristics of men. The humanist interpretation can also be narrowed by Griselda’s inclusion among famous women.193 However, such exemplary status, emphasizing three studies, previously published separately, are found in Żurawska 2002. Radziwiłłowa’s play is directly mentioned in Ostatnie wcielenie Gryzeldy-Cecylii [The latest incarnation of Griselda-Cecylia], 35–48; the article contains a suggestion regarding its inspiration by musical theater. Important independent findings are also contributed by a Belarusian monograph on Radziwiłłowa’s dramas by Žanna Niekraševič-Karotkaja (2002, 103–107). The author indicates two new affinities with versions familiar from Volhynian and Ukrainian folklore concerning trials of a wife by the tsar or lord. 188. Sajkowski 1962, 543. 189. Franczak 2008, 8. 190. Prejs 2008, 108, 113. 191. In relation to Griselda, the author of an article on the web page akira.ruc.dk/~Michel/Publications/ Griselda_Lund.pdf arrived at similar conclusions. 192. This is reflected in many subtitles, for example, the French, where the novella is an appendix to the Livre du chevalier de La Tour Landry pour l’enseignement de ses filles; or the Polish: Historia znamienita wszystkim cnym paniom na przykład pokory, posłuszeństwa i cichości wydana; O posłuszeństwie, stałości i cierpliwości szlachetnej, dobrej a cnotliwej małżonki: nadobny przykład … [A celebrated tale published to exemplify humility, obedience, and silence for all virtuous ladies: on obedience, constancy, and forbearance in a noble, good, and virtuous wife: a fine example …]. 193. Christin de Pisan availed himself of the French translation of Petrarch’s version by Philippe de Mézières, dated 1385, summarizing it in his Cité des Dames as an example of women’s constancy

Introduction 53 exceptionality, surpassing the norm, tends to be a double-edged sword: it turns out that the example is not one to be followed and that fame is ambivalent. It is interesting that the Polish Renaissance title of such a gallery of outstanding women includes the attribute mężny [manly, courageous],194 clearly illustrating the close connection between reputation and virtue as męstwo [manliness, courage]; i.e., an ideal that even in the light of etymology asserts itself as masculine). In the strictly hierarchical, deeply stratified Polish society, the inferior social status of a married woman forced her into the role of passive heroine-victim. Radziwiłłowa’s eponymous “tried and tested” virtue brings women faith in their own strength and moral victory. It must not be forgotten that Petrarch’s anagogic (mystical) interpretation would have us see in Griselda (a character constructed as an allegorical symbol) the personification of every Christian soul. Models of saints (among whom Griselda was mentioned, actually in a theatrical context),195 whether men or women, have a universal significance in Christianity. Griselda appeared as early as the fourteenth century in French mystery and miracle plays196 and in Florentine sacre rappresentationi. In religious-ethical drama, trials of obedience, servile humility, constancy, faith, and forbearance become criteria of belief in God, probatio fidei. In her play about Griselda-Cecylia, Radziwiłłowa intensified appeals to God, which Krzyżanowski recognized as reflecting a build-up of Polish local color.197 Nevertheless, her interpretation of trial situations has a more humanist dimension (in the text, virtue is frequently contrasted with the fickleness of Fortune). Here we find a world of images inspired by the trend toward a Christianized neostoicism, widespread in early Polish culture. Radziwiłłowa’s genre designation of “comedy” emphasizes the sustainment of the happy ending and stresses the victory of the chief heroine.198 The production in Krakow in 1727 (counter to the stereotype of ladies’ inconstancy, unpredictability, and capriciousness propagated by misogynists). 194. Wzór pań mężnych [A model of courageous ladies] (six portraits in prose from Plutarch) published by Jan Januszowski in a posthumous collective edition: Jan Kochanowski (Kraków 1585). 195. E.g., in the Preface to Tragedyja […] o Sądzie Ostatecznym [The Tragedy […] of the Last Judgement]: Załuski (1754): Do czytelnika [To the reader], 6), the Bishop of Kyiv names Griselda, alongside St. Catherine, St. Barbara, St. Margaret, and St. Clare, among the holy martyrs and virgins whom European spiritual tragedy concerning the mystery of faith has exploited, “taken from the holy gospel, from real life or martyrdom.” 196. Griselidis by Camille Bellaigue and Georges Chastelain. See also further titles edited by G. Albanese, Fra narrativa e rapppresentazione teatrale: meatmorfosi umanistiche della “fanciulla perseguitata”: http://siba2.unile.it/ese/issues/250/583/filv15p85-108a.pdf. 197. Cecylia does indeed accept all her husband’s decisions, however difficult for her, as manifestations of the divine will. 198. Certain authors of various dramas about Griselda saw potential for the transference of this motif to a higher level stylistic register and genre, such as tragicomedy (P. Mazzi, Bolonia 1620; L. Riccoboni [dit Lelio], the Parisian Théâtre Italien 1717; Goldoni 1737) and even tragedy (e.g., C. M. Maggi,

54 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK of an opera about Griselda, popular since the beginning of the century, and the printing of the libretto written by Apostolo Zeno199 are accepted by scholars as a possible further source of her inspiration. In this context, a perceptible but so far unnoticed association of Radziwiłłowa with the sphere of influence of the opera would be the title suggesting the reception it would receive: as in the subtitle of two of its productions: Griselda, ovvero La virtù al cimento.200 There are grounds for assuming that Radziwiłłowa took an interest in various treatments of the motif, not necessarily theatrical, and in Italian, French, and Polish variants, compiling her own version from a variety of sources. Her sphere of attention undoubtedly included a volume by the Jesuit author Piotr Kwiatkowski entitled Theatrum życia ludzkiego [The Theatre of Human Life],201 including an adaptation of Petrarch’s apologia for the virtues of the heroine: Cudne Gryzeldy w szczęściu i nieszczęściu pomiarkowanie i roztropność [The fair Griselda’s marvelous moderation and prudence in fortune and misfortune]. Radziwiłłowa, who was not accustomed to uncritically adopt in her work moralistic teachings directed toward women, at least indicated that she distanced herself from them and attempted to give psychological depth to portraits of heroines; in this case she focused, in the presence of her children and her husband, on considerations of obedience in marriage. Although she certainly was familiar with the Contes en vers by Charles Perrault (who—as is worth noting in this context— wrote in his Apologie des femmes in opposition to Boileau’s antifeminist satire), she took the opportunity to voice her praise for women, although not a criticism of husbands. Perrault presented his contes as bagatelles with a cautionary moral, thus subordinating his frequently ambivalent tales to the principle of “teach while entertaining.” The moral of Griselda “tend à porter les femmes à souffrir de leurs maris et à faire voir qu’il n’y a en a point de si brutal ni de si bizarre, dont la patience Mediolan 1700). Interestingly, from the beginning of the nineteenth century, the trend toward an optimistic interpretation of the heroine’s fate was reflected in genre qualifiers (from dramma semiserio to giocoso, and in Germany Komische, namely, Marco 2008. 199. This well-known reformer of the musical drama restored its tragic dimension, seeking to achieve purity of genre by simplifying the action and—as seems important here—focusing on moral issues. The reference is to J. Matyaszkiewicz’s publication of a “Viennese” version displayed at the court of Teodor Konstanty Lubomirski. 200. In Brest in 1716 and in Mantua in 1717. This is one of about fifty different editions of the same libretto. Contrary to the opinion of J. Żurawska, we consider that Radziwiłłowa’s musical pastorella is an insert with a different origin. 201. In the lines advocating acceptance of the divine will, Bernacki (1903) saw evidence of Kwiatkowski’s “spiritual sustenance.” This book by the Jesuit writer (Kwiatkowski 1744) is included in the list of books borrowed by Princess Radziwiłłowa from the Castle Library that was compiled by the Nieśwież librarian after her death (AGAD AR XXVII, I–4, t. 2, k. 14 r.–18v., 1st ed. Theatrum …Kraków 1736); it was soon reprinted, which testifies to its readability (Kwiatkowski 1744, original printing 1736, reprinted also in Kalisz 1740 and 756).

Introduction 55 d’une hônnete femme ne puisse venir à bout”.202 The author presents her as a model of forbearance (noting in a tone of badinage that in Paris she would be tantamount to a miracle), however, not in the situation of the proposed trial, which is supposed to reveal to the world and exalt the virtue of the heroine, but in contrast to the maliciousness of her husband, to whom are attributed “dark vapors.” The contextualization of Radziwiłłowa’s drama did not permit such a characteristic to be attributed to the hero of the play. She does not even associate the prince with the alleged dissatisfaction of his subjects—he represents incontrovertible reason and law. It was not only the idea of a monologue by the young prince fearful of marriage as a loss of freedom203 that found its way from Perrault’s conte about Griselda into Radziwiłłowa’s play. J. Żurawska added to the list of Radziwiłłowa’s diverse references the ornamentation (broderie) from an adaptation of Perrault’s contes, Griseldis ou La marquise de Salusses authored by a woman writer, Mlle Allemand de M*** [Montmarin]. Of interest here are certain additions, for example, the heroine, expelled from the castle, sitting at the spinning wheel in her family’s modest cottage continually thinks about the husband she still loves. Żurawska perceives an echo of this in the princess from Nieśwież.204 Characteristically, out of consideration for the actual audience, Radziwiłłowa contextualizes the traditional coniunx rusticana motif. Her Cecylia, the poor village girl, is not a peasant, nor even a shepherdess as in Perrault, but the daughter of an impoverished worthy nobleman, who has lost his status as a senator as a result of court intrigues. Radziwiłłowa selects the Aristotelian tradition of associating a disposition and capacity for virtuousness with elevated social status, which is considered to be inborn and which carries obligations. Virtue is more readily established by nature, on the foundation of nobility: of noble blood, property, and tradition, which—one must remember—was of an obligatory nature and formed the basis of the class ethos. Another interesting modification of the motif with respect to the context determined by the purpose of the play is the introduction of the character of Cecylia’s mother, alongside her father (Theofil). It involves a didactic message about respect for parental authority, addressed to the child actors participating in the production. By giving her this name (Bogumiła), which is the Polish female equivalent of the Greek name of the heroine’s husband (Theophil), Radziwiłłowa emphasizes not only the meaning of its lexical components (God-loving/loved by God) but also a symbolic unity and harmony between the spouses. 202. Perrault 1931, 15. 203. The theme of freedom in the context of marital issues is virtually an obsession in Radziwiłłowa’s works, and it can be read in the light of an autobiographical hypothesis. 204. See act 5, scene 15, lines 17–18, and scene 18, line 8, when Cecylia prays for her husband’s happiness in his announced new marriage. Radziwiłłowa may have been familiar with the first edition of the publication of Mlle Allemand de M*** (Paris, 1724) or subsequent editions.

56 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK The Nieśwież Comedy of tried and tested virtue was published under a title in principle faithful to the content of the author’s title, but one more glittering and indeterminate: Złoto w ogniu [Gold in the Fire]. Although “virtue” appears at least twenty-four times in the text of the play, in only two cases could the publishers of the posthumous edition of Radziwiłłowa’s dramatic works, by means of phraseological associations, suggest the notion of the sublime metaphorical characterization of the play.205 Gold may here signify the purification of the soul, as also the highest stage of perfection, constancy, and the most important of the Christian virtues: love. Insofar as in Radziwiłłowa, as in Boccaccio, the spouse subjects his wife’s virtue to trial, the associations of virtue with gold (testing) and trials by fire, reminiscent of a biblical phrase from the Sapiential Book (Wisdom 3:5–6), instruct us to recognize the husband as an instrument of God’s will (as does the heroine). The eponymous interpretation by the publisher reinforces the suggestion that the drama should be read in accordance with the Petrarchian tradition. Any erotic allusion in the phraseology of act I (hunting innocent game, that is, the desires of the prince, to be satisfied by Cecylia) is so subtle that it could be understood by the adult audience without harming the children participating in the production. Nevertheless, when making the work of his princess accessible in print to a much wider audience, Jakub Fryczyński sought to draw a veil of discretion over the risqué subtext of this court entertainment by titling the play Złoto w ogniu [Gold in the Fire]. In associating the trials of virtue with gold and fire from the outset of the play, he enhanced its dignity.

A Martyrological Tragedy of Three Sisters from the Pen of Princess Radziwiłłowa, or The Judge Who Lost His Reason The Lady of Nieśwież, by whom there are several surviving religious poems, infused her instructions to her daughters with Christian moralistic teachings and endowed the female protagonists of her dramas with heroic virtues. This next play from her repertoire is evidence of her interest in the possibilities of finding a place in an elevated and demanding genre, that is, tragedy, for women and their religiosity. As the only religious play by Princess Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa, and indeed the only tragedy she wrote (since we do not take into account the 205. First, in act II, when in scene 2, line 20, the expression “burnished humility” occurs; in the phraseology of the era, the reference is to gold purified in the fire; second, in act V, scene 5, line 10: the more his lustrous honor will find favor, that is, the necessity for greater endeavors and efforts gives emotions a more welcome luster (polish), that is, they radiate virtue. In lexicographical terms, “polish” signifies both smoothness and luster, with many figurative meanings (urbanity, good manners, civilization, dependent on practice, improvement); there is a saying “gold is thoroughly polished (cleansed) by fire.” Further analysis of issues of interpretation in the context of Fryczyński’s eponymous metaphor is found in Judkowiak 2013a, 115–126.

Introduction 57 alteration of genre categories ventured by Jakub Fryczyński in the posthumous edition), it is worthy of our most careful attention. Attitudes to classical models of tragedy were considerably altered in the Christian world by the most significant death—the redeeming martyrdom of the Son of God. Frequently generalized since the Middle Ages in mystery plays, the Passion of Christ was not reflected in highly traditional classical forms of tragedy, which were distinctly anthropocentric. In the light of Christ’s act of redemption, it actually appears impossible for anything to be tragic, or a tragedy.206 In the work by Radziwiłłowa presented here we find the cryptic line in which Chionia declares, “We’re glad we’re soon to die the way that’s right,/and pay the ransom for our God and faith, …” consonant with the observation that tragic situations can only occur in cases of a somehow forsaken redemption—a person takes upon himself the guilt of God, who, of course, by definition, cannot be guilty.207 Therefore, religious tragedy is possible in a Christian context only on the level of individual accounts with God, when we approach religious issues from the perspective of a human being experiencing it in a dramatic manner. Despite the fundamental antinomy between the classical model of the tragedy and Christianity, the princess from Nieśwież, along with numerous representatives of a European culture firmly rooted in the classical heritage, attempts to incorporate Christian death in conventions of tragic drama drawn from antiquity. According to Julian Krzyżanowski, her work is worthy of attention on a level transcending the purely Polish context, as an interesting attempt—somewhat belated, at the dawn of the Enlightenment—to create a mystery play.208 Published under the title Sędzia bez rozsądku [The Judge Who Lost His Reason], according to the author’s intentions this play should be entitled Tragedyja trzech rodzonych sióstr Agappy, Chiony, Ireny męczenniczek za Dyoklecjana cesarza [The Tragedy of the Three Sisters Agape, Chionia and Irena, Martyrs of Emperor Diocletian], as a single fortunately surviving manuscript page confirms. Close reading of her text suggests the possibility, in my view, of a more adequate genre designation as an attempt at a martyrological tragedy rather than a mystery play. In the context of the secularization of martyrological drama in Europe at the turn of the eighteenth century, when its structure frequently expressed concerns that were more secular in nature, reflecting national or civil concerns, with the martyr becoming an exposer of the imperfections of the contemporary world,209 Radziwiłłowa’s tragedy represents an intriguing religious message. 206. E.g., Charles de Saint-Evremond (1672) stated categorically: “L’esprit de notre religion est directement opposé à celui de la tragédie.” Saint-Evremond 1962, 205. 207. Barthes 1963. 208. This view, difficult to accept in genre terms, however, is popularized by the introduction to Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej [Drama of Urszula Radziwiłłowa]: Krzyżanowski 1961. 209. As shown, for example, by the investigations of Szarota 1967.

58 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK It is worth mentioning a certain analogy and precedent pointed out by Julian Krzyżanowski in the history of the popularity in Europe of the three eponymous sisters perpetuated in the martyrology of the era of persecution of Christians under Emperor Diocletian, namely, the interesting treatment of their fate by Saxon editors (prior to their appearance in The Golden Legend by Jacopo da Varazze (1228–1298)—in the circles of the female branch of the order of St. Benedict. Here from the pen of a tenth-century nun, Hroswitha of Gandersheim, the hagiography of Agape, Chionia, and Irena, who Princess Radziwiłłowa would make the heroines of her tragedy seven centuries later, takes a form aspiring to drama, showing evidence of medieval knowledge of Terence and a widespread fascination with his style. The work about the sisters was accompanied by a separate commentary: I do not hesitate to emulate the language of this poet […], in order, in the same admirable style in which the shameless deeds of debauched women are recited, to glorify now […] the praiseworthy virtue of the purity of Christian virgins […]. But if for shame I have been in any way neglectful […] and have not expressed the praise of innocence with sufficient clarity […], that is because the more outrageous the importuning of the insane, the more sublime the praise of the Almighty, and the more renowned the victory of virtue, especially when feminine fragility is victorious and male violence is defeated.210 Here we find an intention to polemicize against the themes of Terence’s comedies, a desire to exploit the advantages of the dramatic format for the greater glory of God (ad maiorem Dei gloriam); the emphasis is not so much on moralistic persuasion as on pointing out the sublimity of virtue victorious in the acceptance of a cruel death. It is worth investigating the approach of another woman, dramatizing the same passio sanctarum virginum much later and in a different cultural environment, all the more so since interest in drama on martyrdom continued to appear both in European theater and in the theatrical culture of Poland-Lithuania.211 Martyred women were found in the Jesuit school theater, as, for example, in the exemplary uplifting tales whose message is that unbending faith indeed leads the heroines to death, but to such a death that confirms the moral victory of the victims over their persecutors, ensuring a joyful entry into heaven. The particular attention focused on persecution in the first centuries of Christianity by the authors of tragedies of St. Catherine, St. Felicity, and others may be interpreted as a combination of two factors. First, a historical theme was sought 210. Strzelczyk (2007, 393) on Hroswitha in chapter “Rara avis in Saxonia—Hroswitha z Gandersheimu,” at 380–439, with a substantial European bibliography. 211. More on this topic in Judkowiak 2007, 189–95.

Introduction 59 that was recognized as an indicator of tragedy by grammarians of late antiquity and authors who (advocating classicism in modern poetics), in the name of the verisimilitude demanded since the time of Aristotle, upheld this connection between the historical theme and the genre. Second, the theme of persecution was universal, common to the various nations of Christian Europe. Polemics regarding martyrological tragedy clearly indicated the impossibility of establishing a pure classical model (even in the sense of Renaissance contamination of classical models, taking into account the opinions of Aristotle and Horace). However, even in Euripides we can observe signs of a crisis of the genre, tending toward tragi-comedy. The Renaissance champion of the mixed formula, Giovan Battista Guarini, admitted as a decisive argument its capability of rendering a faithful image of reality, intertwining, however, both the high and the low, the tragic and the comic. Agape, Chionia, and Irena were tragic heroines in a natural fictional manner when they met misfortune (loss of life) as a result of their own error or their own fault (declaration of Christian faith). But at the same time, of course, they introduced a different set of values, undermining the meanings suggested from the above perspective (since in death they gained eternal happiness, the salvation they sought in their earthly life). In Radziwiłłowa, tragic situations do not lose out in their struggle with didacticism, nor are they diminished by simplistic moralizing. If it is defused, this is not through the register of low comedy either, but through death, which is not, however, the result of tragic guilt, the hero’s error in unwittingly provoking misfortune, bringing upon himself a catastrophe and ultimate downfall. Tragic situations can be defused by voluntary death. Free will brings about a radical change in the world of values. Such a death as radical evidence of truth becomes not only a moral victory over the persecutors but a victory for faith, ordering a meaningful worldview. A symbol of this victory is the crown (wreath) in Heaven, summoned by the heroine—as forecast by the holy scripture. There is also a danger of converting tragic situations into horrific effects, as shown especially by English, or early seventeenth-century French, macabre tragedy. In dramatic language that denotes the replacement of guilt as the circumstance leading to catastrophe through ordinary crime, transgression subject to unambiguous appraisal. It can mean an appeal to Divine Providence as a judge meting out just punishment and the substitution of moral for nervous shock; or it can mean the identification of a tragic event as an atrocity (atrocitas), provoking a fictional chain of crime and revenge (la cascade de vengeance). The latter is incompatible with the spirit of Christianity as a religion of love and forgiveness (Christ forgives his persecutors, who know not what they do). Radziwiłłowa (or the author of the direct model of the play concerned, who has so far not been identified) manages to escape the trap of the tragic tradition. Atrocity is realized mainly on the lexical level, with frequent recourse to long sequences enumerating

60 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK the various tortures and torments that threaten the heroines, and the drastic nature of the description of Christ’s Passion contemplated by the sisters is intended to fortify them by evoking their compassion. In the action onstage, horrific effects occur only during the struggle as the soldiers attempt (in vain) to strip the girls bare. Because the clothes magically grow into their bodies, into their skin, the tension is very soon released and the audience feels relief almost immediately. Two of the sisters remain condemned to burning at the stake, but the audience does not even receive a report of the execution offstage. While, on the other hand, Irena, the third, the youngest, and the most beautiful of the sisters, dies onstage in the finale, she does so under the classical convention of a “white” death—uplifting, sensitive, with restraint in gestures and words, on the summit of a symbolic mountain, inaccessible to the persecutors, stolen from their grasp by an angel and ennobled by a mortal wound from an arrow, like a knight in battle. Radziwiłłowa attempted to avoid the stereotyping that was commonplace in modern tragedy productions of the tyrant-victim type. The world of the persecutors is presented through several characters introducing various values into the discussion of life and death, actually marked more by a lack of the gift of faith than by cruelty (apart from Sisinnius, who carries out the Emperor’s decree). No member of this heterogeneous group will be punished by hellfire, nor by a just stroke of fate, nor even by remorse (for they are untouched by distress such as is felt by the weak empress who covertly sympathizes with the Christians). The emperor is rebuked only in the spirit of Western Christianity, the Roman conception of secular rule, as devoid of religious sanctions as a republican ruler. The only punishment, excellent theater, however, although it is not a tragedy, is the humiliation of the governor Dulcius (i.e., The Sweet) who, in love with the “noble virgins,” is smeared with soot as he passionately embraces kitchen utensils, and of the tyrant Sisinnius, who runs around the mountain, attempting in vain to climb it, quite out of breath, at the conclusion of the play. It is clear that for Radziwiłłowa the criteria of tragedy were more formal and literary than philosophical or theatrical. She sought material for five acts, which she composed applying the poetics of classical tragedy, involving more words than action in a rhetorical style (not entirely consistently, but that is another matter), in protracted speeches, frequently irrelevant to the dramatic development, and tirades of a homiletic-polemical nature. Radziwiłłowa set great store by her heroines’ elite status, several times stressing their noble birth (in contrast to the popular hagiography Golden Legend by Jacopo da Varazze (1228–1298), according to which Irena, Chionia, and Agape were servants). Accordingly, she had to ascribe to them elevated emotions and exceptional virtues that—according to the opinion still universally held at the time—were available exclusively to the wellborn, and she also confirmed the heroines’ role in events of great importance (profession of faith when under persecution). Radziwiłłowa created a typically tragic

Introduction 61 domina-serva scene, a version of events familiar from hagiographic accounts of a theme, which, although it concerns a secondary character, the emperor’s wife, and although it may actually appear dramatically redundant, helps to create an opportunity for a triple profession of faith, which by force of symbolic convention denoted constancy). This scene also fulfills the requirement to present an ideological alternative (not to be accepted by the heroine, of course): covertly professing faith while simultaneously offering formal sacrifices to pagan gods. Ordeals in which the validity of the initial decision is tested in successive scenes—readiness to sacrifice even one’s life for the faith—delaying the catastrophe in order to build up tension, begin to smack of comic vicissitudes (particularly the scenes involving Dulcius). On the whole, dignity rarely reaches the sublime, or only for an instant, and then the pathos is ruined by triviality, degraded by grotesque comedy. On a linguistic level it manifests itself as an unexpectedly forceful colloquial expression, in the realm of events—an incongruous burlesque debasement lowering the tone (hagiography scholars explain the Dulcius episode, actually highlighted by Hroswitha more than by Radziwiłłowa, as derived from folk sources). The work is also brought closer to the tragicomic model by the happy-ending type of conclusion, when death means victory and deliverance from oppression, and tricks straight from the theater of comedy, for example, the angels, whose true role could best be defined as that of a psychopompos, masquerade instead as soldiers of Sisinnius, so as to lead him out into the field and humiliate both the tyrant and his forces, the soldiers. Radziwiłłowa did not choose another saint, nor did she wish to translate Polieucte, for example, known to her from French editions of Corneille. Could it be that she intended to cast her adolescent daughters in the chief roles? The didactic intent of such plays may be considered suspect. At first glance, martyrological tragedy may appear gruesome, given the horrendous portrayal of someone striving for self-destruction, displaying a desperate or pathological yearning for death (which in the real world universally inspires dread and is considered a misfortune). Meanwhile, sometimes, despite the declaration by the protagonist prepared from the outset for death, the essence of such a tragedy is not an attitude that could be motivated by pessimism, summarized in the classical expression of consolation: “it would be better to have never been born.” Life is something valuable, and—as far as possible—it should be protected, as various characters in the Tragedy of the Three Sisters declare several times, beginning significantly with the scene where they take refuge in the forest in the name of that value. But the author is not concerned with a fugitive attitude. In fact, it is not death that is involved here, but actually, in accordance with the Greek etymology of the word “martyr” (witness), it is evidence, in its various aspects, testifying to oppression and persecution, including the ultimate evidence—blood. This is achieved in the dramatic composition through a sequence of trying situations (temptation,

62 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK threats and requests, extortion) verifying the attitude of the hero. It culminates in death, which is quite unnecessary and generally speaking is not merely liberation. In the series of preceding situations of moral and physical anguish, this death is the supreme punishment only in the conviction of the authority that metes it out.212 The infliction of death by the persecutors is an illusory power; in committing brutal violence, they are in fact the losers. The death of a martyr is the death of an innocent victim. The perfect model is the death of Jesus Christ, which is repeatedly mentioned; as Chionia says, “We seek to emulate the Christ our Lord” (act III, scene 17). His sacrifice on the cross, complete and final, unmasks in a unique way, as René Girard wished to emphasize in his analyses, what he called the mythologies of violence, any mythical portrayal of persecution. After Christ, bloody sacrifices are rendered ineffectual and inadmissible. The mythological approach to martyrs fails—their exceptional nature actually depends on the fact that they are not subject to socialization (as are victims of collective violence in other religions) or to false apotheosis.213 We are accustomed to emphasize the moral victory of martyrs and the moralistic aspects of the characterization of the protagonist personifying the virtues of purity, courage, and constancy, since from the sixteenth century European humanism has treated religion in a utilitarian fashion. As for the ethos, its importance is acknowledged insofar as it has the power to organize the lives of individuals and societies, whereas the martyrology of saints created an opportunity to display steadfastness, the least contentious element in the stoic heritage, allowing it to be interpreted in the spirit of Christianity, where constantia has become a model for the rationalization of suffering, teaching how to bear it with dignity. It is worth considering whether in the context of the contemporary education systems it is not striking that—alongside heroic courage (deriving from conscious, free choice)—this particular virtue is best represented on Radziwiłłowa’s stage by members of the “weaker” sex!

Love is Born in the Eyes and Consolation after Troubles: Love, History, and Fiction in Dramatized Stories from the Novel by Madeleine de Scudéry Current research into the sources of Princess Radziwiłłowa’s literary culture so far indicates only a general inspiration derived from echoes of chivalric-adventurous narrative poems (e.g., the popularity of John Barclay’s Argenida in the translation 212. The Latin persecutio, since Lactantius and Tertulian denoting persecution, originally meant only a summons to appear before a tribunal. 213. René Girard writes “La canonisation n’est pas une sacralisation. Dans la glorification des martyrs, certes, et plus tard dans les vies de saints médiévales, il existe des survivances du sacré primitif ”: Girard 2007, 1471.

Introduction 63 by Wacław Potocki), from Italian-French sentimental romance or from its lateBaroque echoes in Poland.214 Julian Krzyżanowski accepted the suggestion by Stanisław Windakiewicz regarding Radziwiłłowa’s comedy based on the adventures of Tymaretka and Sesotryx, later (1754) entitled Igrzysko fortuny [A game of fortune] that it was constructed on motifs familiar from Heliodor’s Ethiopics.215 Further, however, in characterizing the novels that were the sources of the orientalism peculiar to Radziwiłłowa’s drama, he recalled the possibility of a mediated influence, since the Ethiopian story by the Greek author was also a model for “renowned stories like L’Astrée by Honoré. d’Urfé, Polexandre by Marin Le Roy Gomberville, and Le Grand Cyrus by Mlle de Scudéry and their romantic imitations, countless soon forgotten novelettes.”216 Certainly, the culture of préciosité, an important component of which were discussions and alliances of Parisian salonières with academics and knowledgeable people, introduced a variety of ancient sources into the world of literary fiction. As is well known, historiographers and classical poets were exploited, for example, by the siblings Georges and Madeleine de Scudéry for the construction of a romantic (pseudohistorical) vision of an exotic past, which was to create a rather transparent mask for their contemporary (seventeenth-century) era.217 However, Krzyżanowski clearly did not take account of these novels, as he did not specifically identify the prototypes for Consolation after Troubles or A Game of Fortune, or for Radziwiłłowa’s comedy Love is Born in the Eyes. All three plays were based, as we have been able to determine, on fragments of the most voluminous French novel of the seventeenth century, Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus. According to Władysław Chomętowski, Love is Born in the Eyes, published in the present volume, is one of the best original comedies that he assumed to have 214. As Syloret, also by Wacław Potocki, or Elżbieta Drużbacka’s Historia księżnej Elefantyny Eufraty, mentioned by Tyszyński 1875, 170. 215. Windakiewicz 1921, 76. 216. Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej 1961, 21. 217. By no means exclusively, and not even primarily, thanks to the poetics of the novel with a key, the recognition of which was suggested by the studies of Victor Cousin. The popular title by the well-known philosopher, reissued several times (La société française au XVIIe siècle d’après “Le Grand Cyrus” de Mlle de Scudéry, 1st ed., vol. 1–2, Paris, 1858–1859), was not considered valuable by the research team who made Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus available online (http://www.artamene.org/). The “doubtful” quality of Cousin’s pronouncements does not prevent Benedetta Cravieri, who identifies the chief members of the Fronde and the salons with the protagonists of the novel, from appreciating his monumental documentary work: Cravieri 2009, 52–53, 63, 75, 97, 113, 142, 203, 496, 517. The allusional level of the novel could have been significant for Princess Radziwiłłowa herself and for several aristocratic members of her audience who were capable of grasping her references to the élite of the French ancien régime, who interested them all. The wider intention of the author concerned the possibility of popularizing cultural models relating to femininity and masculinity, relations between the sexes, and marriage (discussed in précieux circles).

64 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK been originally written by Princess Radziwiłłowa.218 This view of their authorship was recently reinforced by a monograph on Radziwiłłowa as a playwright by the Belarusian author Žanna Niekraševič-Karotkaja.219 Chomętowski’s appraisal refers to “the perfect delineation of the main characters,” particularly the women, “scenes full of life” and dramatic action. This writer particularly emphasizes “the excellently drawn character” of the proud, stubborn Aretaphila, faithful throughout to her adopted role—triumphing with apparent indifference over the king who is in love with her. Krzyżanowski included this comedy in Radziwiłłowa’s sphere of classicaloriental-pastoral interests; however, he sternly criticized the values in her dramatic works as a whole. In his summary he writes of a confused story of two friends. One of them, Polyxen, King of Cyprus, suffers unrequited love only because the garrulous incompetent cannot summon up the courage to propose; while his friend Philoxyp, the enemy of love, first of all falls in love with a portrait of Venus, then later with its subject, a poor shepherdess. Following explanations that he is not the King’s rival […] and that the shepherdess is the daughter of the legislator Solon, and therefore a princess—the whole story ends with two weddings. […] An entertaining, promising idea became virtually a caricature under the pen of Radziwiłłowa, […] something heavy and inept.220 The source of her “typical romantic theme,” in broad terms, was pointed out by Adolf Stender-Petersen, writing about the dramatization of a certain sentimental novel, most probably a French work in the style of préciosité.221 Dobrochna Ratajczakowa situated this play at the interface between romantic comedy (as in terms of its genesis it is a court performance) and tragicomedies (represented by Consolation after Troubles and A Game of Fortune). Clearly, then, the latter are characterized in Radziwiłłowa by the introduction of “a serious conflict that is positively resolved in the course of the action, a covert allegorical blueprint governing the development of the plot, and a pastoral idyll personifying the concept of life dominated by love.”222 Ratajczakowa finds that of the court romantic plays sui generis, confusing the genre conventions of comedy and tragedy, the comedy Love is Born in the Eyes is actually the most interesting, contrasting two love themes against a background in which an Arcadian Shangri-La is closely 218. Chomętowski 1870, 130–32. 219. Niekraševič-Karotkaja 2002, 101. 220. Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej 1961, 22. 221. Stender-Petersen 1960, 259. 222. Ratajczakowa 1993, 23–24.

Introduction 65 intertwined with the courtly world. The courtly love of the first couple is destroyed by a thirst for power and by vanity. The second couple, on the other hand, express a “naive rural idyll of true love, flourishing in the bosom of nature.” But nature does not affect the social and personal hierarchies of the characters; the presumed shepherdess turns out to be a lady: for in this world there is interplay between the artificial environment of the court and the reality to which the values of naturalness are ascribed. Niekraševič-Karotkaja, who also tries to discern here the development of a variant of the classical Pygmalion myth, draws attention to a range of trials the lovers must undergo and to the happy ending, two marriages that are confirmation of the observation of the philosopher Solon proclaimed at the beginning of the play, that everyone is conquered by love at least once.223 Finally, therefore, it is necessary to point out the definitive source of the theme dramatized by Radziwiłłowa; it is the story related in part 3, book 2, of Artamène by Madeleine de Scudéry. In turn, the stories in part 6 are the basis for two other comedies by Radziwiłłowa, mentioned above: Consolation after Troubles (a fragment from book 2) and A Game of Fortune (from book 3). Radziwiłłowa herself, having first of all abridged The History of Tymant and Partenia in prose, indicated in the manuscript that she was “transforming it into a comedy,” when in 1750 she was “composing” her Comedy of Partenia and Tymant. Following the author’s death it was given the title Consolation after Troubles).224 Further evidence that Radziwiłłowa had in her hands the volumes of Madeleine de Scudéry’s novel is provided by a document of 1753: Consignation des livres, que j’ai reçu de la Bib­ liothèque de S.A.S [Son Altesse Serenissime] Madame la Princesse P.[alatine?] selon le Billet souscrit de la Main de la ditte Princesse, le 29 de Juin 1753—we can assume that the date relates to the return of books to the Radziwiłłs’ librarian, according to the receipt signed earlier in the hand of Princess Franciszka Urszula herself, as is clearly indicated by the contents of the list.225 The librarian Machnicki, sorting out affairs following the death of the dramatist Princess Radziwiłłowa, noted Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus in 8vo dix volumines among the titles borrowed by her from the extensive library at Nieśwież. Differences that can be observed between the narrative and its by no means slavish dramatization, in places following the original quite closely, in places freely 223. Niekraševič-Karotkaja 2002, 101. 224. AGAD AR, Rękopisy biblioteczne [Library manuscripts section], sygn. [ref.] 48 455–511. She also began copying a History of Sesotryx and Tymaretka from the following book of this part of the novel; however, she wrote down only the heading, leaving the rest of the page blank. The adventures of the same protagonists, probably without the intermediate stage of abridgement in Polish of the plot of the French novel, were contained in the succeeding comedy by Princess Radziwiłłowa: Igrzysko fortuny [Contest of fortune]. 225. AGAD AR, among library catalogues: section XXVII, sygn. [ref.] I–14, vol. 2, 14 r.–18v.; cf. Judkowiak 1992c, 147–61. Work from mid-seventeenth century, interest in which declined by the end of the century but which was renewed in 1731.

66 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK introducing its own dénouements, may raise suspicions regarding the existence of some mediation. At present, however, there is a lack of systematic research findings and sufficiently detailed and sufficiently extensive identification of the romantic novel’s influence on theatrical culture in this era. Artamène (1649–1653) is treated as belonging to that variant of the genre that presented its protagonists against a backdrop of historical events (in Polish genre terminology, the term pseudohistorical romance, characteristic of positivist scientific ideas in the humanities, was adopted).226 Masculinized early scholarship, with a touch of condescending contempt, broadly recognized the influence on Radziwiłłowa’s dramatic art of the convention of chivalric-adventurous love tales, which it did not rate highly (being reluctant even to understand them). In 1875 Aleksander Tyszyński wrote disapprovingly of fantastic tales (although in the first half of the eighteenth century they were, as he accepted, still considered to be marks of erudition in poetry); he also wrote of the excessive fantasy (playful reveries, as it were) and the multitude of characters and events, accompanied by “a total lack of any logical thread.”227 Some of Radziwiłłowa’s dramas reminded Stanisław Tarnowski of “the dismal last echoes” of the romantic novel convention, which others found boring.228 Windakiewicz, mentioned above, recalled, somewhat more graciously, albeit vaguely, “the rather apt references to the novel genre.” Speculation regarding a reliance on the French model during the following half-century could be rendered difficult to verify in detail by the fact that Radziwillowa also translated Molière’s Les précieuses ridicules (not omitting the lines in which there is a mention of marriage with reference to the names of Cyrus and Mandana). Radziwillowa’s translation is recognized as adopting a classicist aestheticism and worldview, rejecting “the preposterous emotionalism” of the eponymous “elegant young ladies,”229 stylizing their behavior according to models popularized by Artamène. Admittedly, Radziwiłłowa’s Molière comedy was written two or three years later than the three dramas based on three love stories drawn from Artamène. 226. Below I adduce excerpts from my own study: Judkowiak 2009, 27–35. 227. Tyszyński 1875, 169–70. 228. Tarnowski 1904, 127 and Radziwiłłowa 1882, 388. 229. A scholar of the reception of the Western novel in Poland wrote that Princess Radziwiłłowa “ridiculed the affected young ladies” (Sinko 1968, 61). The publishers even wanted to read “dzi[é]weczki” [girls] in the manuscript title as “dziwaczki” [bizarre girls] (and this was perpetuated, let us remember, in the title of the translation in Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej. In an academic synopsis of the period, M. Klimowicz also popularizes the view that under the pen of Princess Radziwiłłowa, the sharp satire was dulled and that attempts to replace the pompous précieux style by concepts and wordplay borrowed from late Baroque poetry deviated from the intentions of Molière’s text: Klimowicz 1998, 75. Meanwhile, for example, Roger Duchêne asks, provocatively, “Précieuses ou Galantes ridicules?” (Duchêne 1992, 357–65). Further re-evaluations of the category of préciosité are discussed in a review of Sophie Raynard’s book La seconde préciosité (2002) by Anne Defrance in “Féeries” 2005, no. 2: http://feeries.revues.org/document135.html.

Introduction 67 However, it is difficult to see here any fundamental change or markedly different evaluation of Mlle de Scudéry’s work. Radziwiłłowa quite simply detected the nuances of the cultural change brought about by the above-mentioned literary works much better than her successors who were educated after the dawn of the Enlightenment, and she attempted through these works to introduce this change into the Polish cultural scene. Control over emotions, but also the right to feel them, the heroic ideal belonging to the ethic of les grands—internalized and transferred to the sphere of marriage, giving both partners equal rights and obligations—these, of course, are the issues directly verbalized in Radziwiłłowa’s lyrics and other writings. This “partnership” ideal would prove, during several following decades, to be the basis of a new conception of the family, paradoxically in effect democratized and resting on an emotional union. Under the pen of women writers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, fiction built on the basis of classical historical sources turns out to be the design and the prediction of a different realization of so-called Great History. It brings us closer to experiencing history in the postmodern era: with unconventional, nonclassical, historiography as witness to change in the perception of history, focused on honesty, empathy, and existence. Unfolding in the context of the story of conquests by great leaders against a classical oriental backdrop, French heroic romances of the seventeenth century were still popular in Poland in the first half of the following century and still enjoyed success in competition with new romances and free nouvelles galantes (particularly in aristocratic circles), doubtless thanks to the lofty ideals of self-denial and erotic restraint they incorporated. Princess Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa drew from de Scudéry’s romantic frame tales only sporadic allusions to the historical background, whereas fictional narrative in the direct stage presentation typical of the adopted literary genre allowed the debate taking place in France, initiated by women, regarding rights to strong emotions, irrational characteristics, and incomprehensible aspirations, about sincerity and the mutual obligations of both sexes, to be successfully transferred to the Polish environment. The concept justifying fiction, verisimilitude, proved more important for women authors in the psychological and moral dimensions than on the level of events in political history and the achievements of exceptional individuals (in her drama, Radziwiłłowa avoided a narrative framework relating to the character of Cyrus). The confusion of Herodotus and Xenophon with poets in the French romance and the mediation of suprahistorical sources, essentially literary ones like Vies parallèles by Plutarch (for Solon) or Bion’s Chant funèbre en l’honneur d’Adonis (in the detailed description of the ceremony devoted to the unhappy lover of Aphrodite, tainted by the incompatibility of historical detail) merely point out the characteristically ahistorical, or rather literary-mythical, character of the Mediterranean cultural universe in the fictional sphere of reference. This is why in Madeleine de Scudéry and in Radziwiłłowa (in Cyprus, in the Grecian era, at the time of Solon) the Roman counterpart Venus

68 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK is worshipped instead of Aphrodite, It was not only thanks to the opportunity to display erudition and the attraction of exotic ceremonies and customs (e.g., the Festival of Adonis) that the latter found their way into Princess Radziwiłłowa’s theatrical productions—the inclusion of rituals connected with survivals of a matriarchy, the cult of regeneration of life, and the assertion of identity constituted an ideological choice, making as it were a cultural-historical case in the debate regarding the validity of the dominant patriarchal norm. The literary genre cultivated by Radziwiłłowa offered a further inducement—to advance the women’s literary revolution one stage further through fictional means. For drama locates the audience’s focus of attention on the here and now of a character; it intrinsically ensures the communication of different points of view, as expressed by the characters, without the mediation of a narrator, so the audience can make its own choices. This type of distance from represented reality and the values it carries are characteristic of mimetic fiction. It is based on the existence of common convictions about reality, and this type of fiction, not demanding total identification or belief (like mythical fiction) or compliance with superordinate external meanings (as in parabolic-didactic fiction) actually established an excellent literary convention for women. Reaching for their pens, they demanded that what was in their view worthy of attention should be recognized as real, that recognition should be given to internal reality, to experiences and emotions previously ignored. Since the fictional sphere of reference incorporates a model of the world and views of the human condition, women writers began to transform the traditional model through their own conceptions of the world (previously virtually unexpressed in the official literary culture). Promoting romantic sentimental adventure fiction, in which the adventure is a trial of the hero’s worth, women writers in précieux circles showed how to reveal the psychological and moral dimensions of events. In the debate regarding the primacy of reason and will they began to undermine the principles of the prevailing philosophy. Thanks to them, by the time of Princess Radziwiłłowa the concept of human nature had gradually begun to be seen less as a rational, arbitrary moral order and was increasingly perceived in psychological terms.230 Thus romantic fiction allowed what was absent from the History of the Other of those days to be retrieved: emotionality and specifically feminine sensitivity, previously marginalized. From this perspective, Princess Radziwiłłowa’s choice can hardly be considered anything other than apt and purposeful. The biographical key to other plays by Radziwiłłowa allows one to suggest a reading of Consolation after Troubles, also taking into account the 230. A similar process can be found in aesthetic principles. The pseudohistorical novel, a typical manifestation of préciosité romanesque (the fundamental goal ascribed to it being to please), is generally considered one of the pre-Rococo components of French seventeenth-century aesthetics, associated with the trend of galanterie salon culture, goût naturel, sometimes goût-sentiment, and the well-known je ne sais quoi concept.

Introduction 69 author’s reflections on the evolution of one of her roles as a woman (the mother of adolescent daughters)—the continuation of a theme put forward several years earlier in An Act of Divine Providence: the confrontation of two fairy tale mothers, the evil one (Olympia) and the good one (the mother of the prince). The juxtaposition of French romance sources and their Polish adaptation in the context of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century literary culture, divided between history and fiction, allows one to discern how the nonheroic (or rather heroic “in a different way”)231 nonmasculine vision of history, which is concerned less with strength and domination than with the truth of heart and conscience, paves a way for itself through literature in modern European consciousness, even in the Lithuanian lands of the Republic of Two Nations. 5. THE HISTORICAL AND LITERARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WORKS OF FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA AND THEIR RECEPTION As mentioned above, it has been customary until now to emphasize the pioneering role of Franciszka Radziwiłłowa in the sphere of eighteenth-century Polish drama and secular theater and—with greater enthusiasm and conviction—the merits of her creation of a center of culture in Nieśwież. From the perspective of The Other Voice, we must emphasize that the history of literature records significantly fewer women as dramatists than as poets or novelists, so it can be said that Radziwiłłowa showed her ability to cultivate a literary genre that tends to be seen as a male preserve and that demands a sense of structure. She was not entirely successful here, however, and both classicist and positivist critics attacked the shortcomings of this usurper mercilessly. Meanwhile, in addition to recognition of the richness and variety of her literary achievement, attention must be given to the paradigm change that can be observed in the negative male interpretation of her work (censuring nonadherence to the obligatory norms prevailing in the official culture of her times). The attempt to create her own voice, distinct from the assumed male literary culture, was not appreciated as such, but it was noted. Alongside the contemporary women poets Drużbacka and Niemiryczowa, Radziwiłłowa represents the beginning of modern women’s writing, recorded already in their own day by bibliographers and publishers.232 231. Taking into account the high moral standards set here for the lovers, their will to respect virtue, and their striving for inner perfection through self-deprivation—which found expression in typical dramatic sequences depicting testing situations in which the protagonist is subjected to verification as he faces difficult choices. 232. First the brother-in-law of her husband, Józef Aleksander Jabłonowski (1751), then Józef Andrzej Załuski, a leading figure in literary and scientific life of the day who maintained contact with the

70 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK The reception of her works and references to her creativity, as a measure of the impact of her innovative inspiration, is not impressive, in the light of the rather limited research by traditional literary historians. In one of the few extant copies from the small print run of Comedies and Tragedies, which once belonged to the poet Elżbieta Drużbacka, there are only occasional minor signs of its having been read.233 Drużbacka was not a dramatist, and it is difficult to show any impact of the princess from Nieśwież on her work or to find traces of direct contacts or correspondence between them.234 Radziwiłłowa’s relations with Antonina Niemirycz were certainly closer. The Radziwiłłs exchanged visits with the Niemirycz family in 1745, after which the two poetesses began their correspondence (the first small volume containing reflective secular poetry by Antonina Niemirycz modeled on the odes of Jean Baptiste Rousseau had appeared in Lwów two years previously). Niemirycz wrote a further series of poems on letters from Franciszka Radziwiłłowa, among others, who called her “sister,” in July 1753. It seems very characteristic that the various kinds of epigrams (from the emblematic and reflective to courtly discussions between a lady and her suitor) present scholars seeking traditionally recognized categories of literary culture with problems similar to those surrounding Radziwiłłowa’s writings.235 In the light of analysis of the intimate lyrics of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa, it may also be considered that the confrontation with Niemiryczowa postulated in studies devoted to the latter, linking her to the Rococo movement, becomes less credible and that Radziwiłłowa is to be labeled as a continuer of Baroque literary conventions. Crucial for the reception of Princess Radziwiłłowa’s work, actually, was the fact that much of her literary output was limited to the circulation of manuscripts among her circle of family and friends. Her plays remained a privilege of visitors to the Nieśwież theater. They were performed for a number of years (at least until the death of Michał Kazimierz in 1761), and the repertoire was extended to a limited degree by Polish works by amateur playwrights from the magnate classes— the tragedy Joseph the Patriarch by Stanisław Mycielski (the new brother-in-law of the prince), Wacław Rzewuski’s tragedies about noblemen and military commanders Stanisław Żółkiewski and King Władysław Warneńczyk, a translation of

prince, in his bibliography (Bibliotheca Poetarum Polonorum 1754), and finally his secretary Jan Daniel Janocki in the first volume of Polnischer Büchersaal (Wrocław, 1756). 233. Contrary to the opinion of Natalia Rusiecka: Rusiecka 2007, 24. 234. Drużbacka knew Franciszka’s husband from the time of his youth, when at the behest of his mother he courted Miss Sieniawska. Drużbacka also served in the Sanguszko household, that is, the family of the prince’s mother, and a further connection between them might be through Józef Andrzej Załuski. 235. Czyż 1988 and Roćko 1998.

Introduction 71 Voltaire’s Zaїre by Michał Antoni Sapieha (also his brother-in-law),236 and French performances by cadets and dialogues by pupils of the Jesuit school. The first and the only avowed successor to Princess Radziwiłłowa’s dramatic art was Józef Katenbring, a Jesuit teacher of poetics and rhetoric at Nieśwież, who on July 27, 1755, produced the tragedy of Próżność nad próżnościami albo Tomasz Poundus [Vanity of vanities or Thomas Poundus] on the princess’s stage, with a cast of twelve pupils of the local Jesuit college. He also published the play in Nieśwież, dedicating it, however, not to Karol Stanisław, then in his twenties—the son of Franciszka who had herself died two years earlier—but to her younger daughters, Princesses Teofila (nearly seventeen years old) and Katarzyna Karolina (fifteen years old). He may have been following the example of the publisher of the princess’s volume Comedies and Tragedies, Jakub Fryczyński, who had two years earlier dedicated the edition to the princesses. Significantly, he is on the lookout for potential patrons among the women, although Fryczyński was not to experience the expected satisfaction from the reception of this book, which had been prepared and printed thanks to his efforts (Franciszka Urszula’s daughters were probably expected to appeal to the generosity of their father, who had already remarried after becoming a widower). The Jesuits vied with him for the favors of the prince’s court, undoubtedly counting on the generosity of their traditional sources of funding. No doubt a stimulus was provided by Michał Kazimierz’s statement of intent, in connection with which Katenbring writes in his dedication that “last year he had been encouraged by the Prince’s command,” which, together with his desire for “a suitable emulation” of Franciszka Urszula had overcome his trepidation about writing in Polish, “which is not my native language.”237 He was born, according to a legal historian, in Warmia (i.e., in East Prussia, which in 1657 was under the rule of Brandenburg). In 1748, at the age of eighteen, he joined the Society of Jesus and moved from Połock to Nieśwież when Franciszka Urszula was still alive and theatrical life at court was thriving. Nothing is known of his other dramatic works. The monk’s fluency in Latin was of benefit to him a little later, when he directed his panegyrics to the Saxon princes (printed by Mitzler de Kolof in 1756 in the Acta Litteraria, forming the basis for his assessment by Jan Daniel Janocki as “an uncommon Latin poet”). In 1755 he admitted that in choosing the topic of his play he had “kept one eye on” Franciszka Urszula’s dramatic works, on various levels, wishing to emulate the work of “such an erudite lady” in content and composition as well as versification. Many literary scholars have correctly emphasized that Franciszka Urszula’s dramas were destined for private entertainment, which justified the fact that so 236. Judkowiak 2011c. 237. Józef Katenbring SJ, Przedmowa, [w:] Próżność nad próżnościami albo Tomasz Poundus …, [Preface, in Vanity of vanities or Thomas Poundus] Nieśwież 1755, k. nlb. The writer’s native language was German; he was born in Warmia.

72 BARBARA JUDKOWIAK few copies were printed.238 However, the uniqueness of these dramatic works already appeared worthy of attention in the aura of early nineteenth-century Romanticism, since Franciszka Urszula had not wished to follow the model of Corneille and Racine,239 but “to tread a path different from all the others.”240 In the mid-nineteenth century, Karol Estreicher (before the triumph of the positivist paradigm) commented in the same vein: “It is a remarkable thing that only one person, and a woman at that, should have made so bold as to override all the conventions imposed on poets by the rigors of classicism.”241 But as long as one does not stubbornly associate the nature of the beginnings of the Polish theater with eighteenth-century concepts and practice of the public commercial stage, the first Polish woman dramatist, who wrote for her own particular theater, casted and instructed actors from the members of her family and court milieu, introduced tragedies, comedies, farces, one-act plays, and ballet and musical adaptations, could be humorously called the “mother of the Polish theater.” However, her plays were not adopted by the public theater, since they did not comply with the new tastes and the ideological program of the royal Enlightenment for the public stage after 1764, while the public imagination in Poland in the second half of the eighteenth century was controlled by Wojciech Bogusławski, actor, director, playwright, director of the public theater and of the school of acting, referred to as the “father of the Polish theater.” Alongside him, it was younger women in the theater who now “mothered” the beginnings of the public theater. These facts obscure the pioneering role of Princess Radziwiłłowa— the lady of the Nieśwież theater, which she founded and which thrived for many years after her death; it was the longest running uninterrupted active courtly center of theatrical art, an alternative to the Warsaw public theater. In the 1770s and 1780s, at a time when the Nieśwież theater flourished on the return from exile of Karol Stanisław after the Confederation of Bar, the now professional repertoire offered a much more modern continuation of the native creativity initiated by Franciszka Urszula: Agatka [Dear Agatha]—a folk opera by Maciej Radziwiłł (1749–1800) and his Wójt osady Albańskiej [Headman of the Hamlet of Alba].242 238. Sowiński 1821, 60. 239. Sowiński 1821, 60. Nota bene the radical view that Radziwiłłowa had not read Corneille and Racine (Juszyński 1820,104) ought to be rejected in the light of booklists and Nieśwież library shelves: Judkowiak 1992c. 240. Sowiński 1821, 60. 241. Estreicher 1853, 322–323. 242. Maciej, born in 1749, was raised in Nieśwież. F.U. Radziwiłłowa sponsored the literary efforts of his parents, Leon Radziwiłł (died 1751; his poetry is preserved in MSS in Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in Kraków], sygn. [ref.] 2332) and Anna, née Mycielska (the daughter of her half-sister). Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł decided to marry Anna only six months after the death of Franciszka (her poetry was assessed by Marcin Matuszewicz). Her contemporary diarist, as “quite

Introduction 73 The premiere of Agatka in the presence of King Stanisław August Poniatowski in Nieśwież in 1784 began the theatrical career of this play, which was performed in Warsaw, Lublin, Vilnius and Lwów, and up to the end of the 1820s it rivaled Wojciech Bogusławski’s most outstanding drama Krakowiaki i Górale [Cracovians and Highlanders]. Barbara Judkowiak

good.” Anna’s complete autobiography in verse is preserved in a manuscript in the Jagiellonian Library, sygn. [ref.] 119).

Translator’s Note In preparing a version of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa’s Polish eighteenthcentury drama and poetry for the modern English-speaking reader, the translator must, clearly, address not only contrasts of linguistic form and literary convention but also broader questions of cultural transfer and time shift from eighteenthcentury Poland to the contemporary English-speaking world. In the case of Radziwiłłowa’s plays, there is a further dimension to be considered, in that the sources, models, and themes of the dramas are secondary, derived from other cultures and treating historical or biblical topics and folktale legends in a Polish eighteenth-century context. An Act of Divine Providence is a dramatized adaptation of the Snow White fairy tale theme; The Judge Who Lost His Reason is modeled on the medieval play Dulcitius by Hroswitha von Gandersheim (ca. 935–ca. 975), dealing with the persecution of Christians by the Roman Emperor Diocletian; Love is Born in the Eyes is derived from the Story of Philoxype and Policrite in Artamène, a novel in French of monumental proportions by Madeleine de Scudéry, published 1649–1653; Gold in the Fire is a version of the Griselda story, originally occurring in Boccaccio’s Decameron in the fourteenth century, translated and rewritten by Petrarch and subsequently widely imitated in other European countries.1 In his Art of Translation, Jiří Levý writes, The author’s subject also incorporates traces of his historical context and his living environment, which infiltrate the story line in contradiction of historical truth. For example, the action of many of Shakespeare’s plays takes place beyond the shores of England. The objective environment of the action of The Taming of the Shrew is Italy, in Twelfth Night it is Illyria and in Julius Caesar it is ancient Rome. The playwright lived in England, however, and all his plays are permeated with reflections of Elizabethan England, which are part and parcel of his creative subject. The circumstances at the 12th century Danish royal court mirror those of the English court in the 16th century; people in ancient Rome behave as they did in Renaissance England. In this respect, Shakespeare departs from historical truth, but his historical conception acquires a broader validity in that he views ancient Rome not in terms of some personal whim of his 1. In the words of Reynir Þór Eggertsson (University College London), “The earliest known version of this story is found in Boccaccio’s Decameron, written c. 1350 in Italian. Twenty years later, Petrarch translated and rewrote the story, and it was his version that became the basis for the story’s transmission to the rest of Europe in the following centuries.” http://www.dur.ac.uk/medieval.www/sagaconf/ reynir.htm.

75

76 PATRICK JOHN CORNESS own but through the eyes of contemporary English society in general. The subjective aspects of an image created by a realistic artist are also a projection of non-individual, collective factors. These aspects therefore acquire objective validity in a given situation and do not cause distortion; they cannot be entirely excluded, because an artistic image is never identical with reality. It is evident from the above that objective reality must be distinguished from the reality depicted in the work; facts of life must be distinguished from artistic facts. The Rome of Julius Caesar was different from Shakespeare’s Rome. It is not objective reality that is incorporated in a work of art but the author’s interpretation of reality, and it is the latter that the translator should attempt to capture.2 In the present book, these issues are addressed directly and explicitly by my rendering in English of Professor Judkowiak’s copious footnotes, obviating the need for the translation of the plays or other works to attempt to convey complex cultural information in an implicit or explicit way. More straightforward cultural meaning is readily incorporated in the normal process of translation, which is by definition a process of cultural transfer. A literary work, as any text, has dimensions of both content and form. Cultural transfer involves the rendering of both content (cultural meaning) and form. In the present case, form involves not only choice of vocabulary, style and syntax but also versification. The last of these is language specific in that there is a significant relationship between the structure and rhythm of a given language, its prosody, and its versification patterns. There are important contrasts between the prosody of Polish and that of English, and therefore the respective versification schemes differ in important ways too. My main concern has been to create a text that, as nearly as possible, mirrors the Polish text for the English-speaking reader. This means, for example, that the English translation must conform to the expectations of the modern English-speaking reader, having regard for the genre (drama) and the rhythm and style of the English language in such a context, while transferring the meaning and as far as possible the structure and style of the original Polish text. The conventions applying to the Polish dramatic genre in the mid-eighteenth century required plays to be written in rhyming verse, and furthermore the versification scheme conformed, naturally enough, to the conventions of Polish verse of the time, in strong contrast with Polish verse conventions of today, with much contemporary Polish poetry being rhymeless and meterless. Radziwiłłowa therefore wrote her plays in rhyming verse. It is worth noting that her translations of two of Molière’s plays, Le Médecin malgré lui and Les

2. Levý 2011, 24–25.

Translator’s Note 77 Précieuses ridicules, included in the collection of her dramatic works published in 1754, are also in rhyming verse, although Molière wrote them in prose. Since Polish prosody and the conventions of Polish eighteenth-century drama are quite specific, differing from those of English, the translator must decide which, if any, of the formal features of Radziwiłłowa’s original Polish plays should be emulated in English, and the following considerations apply. First, it is accepted practice not to attempt to imitate the original by using a form of English current at the time when the original source text was written but rather to write the translation in modern English, adopting a suitable style. After all, to associate and identify Polish culture of the mid-eighteenth century with English culture of the same, or another, historical period would be misleading, to say the least. The respective denotations and connotations would be incompatible. The only reasonable way to attempt to match the denotative and connotative meaning of the source text is to render it in modern English, a known currency. Second, the rhyme scheme adopted by Radziwiłłowa in her plays (aabbccdd etc.) is unsuitable as a default form in English because it would force the translator to use a limited range of repetitive rhymes and to employ unnatural syntactical structures. As Czesław Milosz writes in the Afterword to a bilingual edition of his selected poetry: “What to do with rhymed poems? The English language is rather poor in rhymes and its poetry has been living without them quite well, while imitating the rhymed originals in their English versions has been rarely successful.”3 In my translation of Radziwiłłowa’s works, therefore, I have adopted the blank verse form, traditional in English verse drama and therefore a suitable counterpart to the Polish versification in this case. Unrhymed iambic pentameter is particularly well suited to the natural rhythm of English; indeed it is often perceived by the reader as prose. Patrick John Corness

3. Milosz 1996, 453.

Selected Drama of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 1. WITTY LOVE

Fig. 1 Witty Love 79

80 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Dramatis personae Goddess Iris Satyrs Musicians Singers Lucydor, an old shepherd Doctor Shepherds: Tyrsys, Atys, Klitander, Sylvester, Mirtyll, Lopes, Mirtus, Lykaon, Korydon, Eatus, Sesotryx, Lyceas, Alfion Shepherdesses: Phyllis, Tyrsa, Aminta, Lia, Amarylla, Dorynda, Kloryda, Koryska, Florynda, Lucynda, Sylvia, Klorys, Bryzeida Harlequin Maids: Marotka, Lizetka, Hasia, Laura Lads: Piretek, Mironek, Lamus, Filonek Gypsy women: Gerla, Molda Admiral and sailors Goddess Diana Goddess Lucyna, Time, Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter Housekeepers, maids: Klimena, Kaliska, Filida, Dafnis, Armida, Eudoxianna1 1. Copies of the MSS from Nieśwież give the names of the actors performing the respective roles, that is, Princess Radziwiłłowa’s ladies-in-waiting and courtiers, including the dwarf Jacek and the black woman Katarzyna. The twin princes Karol and Janusz (born 1734) played two shepherds; two maids taking part in the Harlequinade were played by princesses: Marotka was played by Teofila (born 1738), and Lizetka was played by Katarzyna Karolina (born 1740). The appearance of the dancing teacher Szreter (in the role of the shepherd Alfion) is significant; he would certainly have been responsible for

Witty Love 81 The set represents the frontage of a splendid palace, with arcades between which fourteen pedestals are placed. ACT ONE

Scene One Marotka, Lizetka, Hasia, Laura, Piretek Lizetka Marotka? Marotka? Marotka Oh, what d’you want? Lizetka What are you doing there? What are you doing? Marotka Such shouting. What’s the shouting all about? When anyway you’re slow with all your tasks. Lizetka Where’s Hasia, Laura too? What hopeless girls! Marotka They’re making coffee, something else besides. Lizetka Where are you, Hasia, Laura? Do come on! Pick up the broom, sweep up, come on, be quick! And you, Marotka, get the table cloth. Bring out the china, is it all washed up? I’ll wipe the table. Such a useless girl! Piretek, tell me if the master’s here. Marotka We’re ready now, we wait for him to come. Let’s have the coffee hot and freshly made. the choreography, traces of which can be seen in the stage directions. Jakub Fryczyński played Diana. In these MSS, Lucydor and the doctor are recorded in Italian: Seigneuro Lucidoro and Doctoro.

82 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Before the dodderer can reach this room, make sure the chairs are cleared away in time. Piretek His lordship comes, the doctor’s with him too. He’s in bad humor, looking weak and sick.

Scene Two Lucydor, Doctor, Lizetka, Marotka, Hasia, Laura, Piretek, Mironek Lucydor Advanced in years, my strength is quite used up, my health’s in ruins, what a dread decline. Each step I take is such an effort now. What’s more, one leg is lame; that wolf ’s to blame. When I was young and boldly chased the beast, it bit me hard and left me sorely injured. My lack of breath, to boot, the coughs and colds. The life that’s left to me seems very short; sit down and tell me, Doctor, do you think the time has come to say the final rites? Doctor Your pulse is weak, irregular, and slow. Sometimes it’s calm, sometimes it races wildly and these blue patches could be gangrene too. Fear not your fate; the gods have willed it so. Eyes dimmed by cataracts and innards rotten, it means you’ll soon be buried in your grave. I may be wrong; don’t lose a moment though; I recommend you write your final will; share out among your many daughters now your cattle, sheep, and all; because I know you have perhaps five years to live at most, and then your final journey will begin. Lucydor Unhappy times we mortals have to face. Today you beckon to my end that’s nigh. It’s true that all the creatures of this earth

Witty Love 83 must pay their due respects to the gods’ decrees; a little child as well, three ells in height.2 Mishaps befall the young; the old must go. I’m truly grateful for your words of warning; my plans already do ensure complete well-being for my daughters five years hence, to be well situated, married well. Lizetka, Marotka, summon to me my daughters one and all. Lizetka Yes, sir, at once.

Scene Three Lucydor, Doctor, Phyllis, Tyrsa, Aminta, Lia, Amarylla, Dorynda, Kloryda, Koryska, Florynda, Lucynda, Sylvia, Klorys, Bryzeida, Marotka, Lizetka, Hasia, Laura, Piretek, Mironek, Lamus, Filonek Lucydor Phyllis, Aminta, Lia, Amarylla, Dorynda, Klorys, Tyrsa, I can’t breathe; Bryzeida, Florynda, Lucynda and Koryska, Kloryda, and Sylvia too; Your mother chose hard names for all of you. My daughters, come and look me in the eye. Now hear your father’s words of wise advice. All shepherdesses in unison We listen Father, tell us your command, and we’ll obey your every word for sure. Lucydor3 All children, if they’re good, must take to heart their gods’ dictates at first, and then their father’s. They should obey their father’s stated wish, 2. The ell (so called because it was based on an average measurement from palm to elbow) was an old unit of measurement used by tailors until the nineteenthth century; in Poland it varied regionally but was equivalent to over fifty centimeters, so there appears to be an error here in the description of a small child. Three ells would be approximately 150–180 centimeters, the height of an adult. 3. Lucydor’s admonishments are to be compared with Radziwiłłowa’s Przestrogi dla córki [Admonition for my daughter] as well as Arnolphe’s monologue in Molière’s École des Femmes.

84 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA especially now that he’s advanced in years, a truly venerable man of honor. The doctor says I’m ill and death is near; my strength has gone, my health is poor indeed. Beloved daughters, heed these words, I pray. Although exhaustion dogs my mind and speech, my eldest, Phyllis, you I must command, and all my daughters, that your hearts be chaste, for this exceeds all other forms of joy. And so I trust you’ll seek this worthy goal. Lia, partake of pleasures that befit your sex, ensure the sheep are washed and cared for. Remember—shear the sheep and comb the wool. Take care of all your tasks, for your own good. Aminta,4 For winter cut the hay in time to feed the sheep, then store the rest and keep it dry. Make sure you have the medicine that you need. Eat a lamb now and then and you’ll be fed. Klorys, Learn needleworking skill, embroidery, designing flowers, and choosing colors well. Spin wool so you can make the cloth and linen; you’ll never suffer boredom when you’re busy. Amarylla, Advice from books should always be ignored; you’ll read just clever words, or talk of love. You’ll soon succumb to lust and be enslaved; the pen will trap you like a fish that’s hooked. Dorynda, Beware of playful men who seek to court you; there may ensue some untoward event. Don’t be entrapped by glances that they cast; reject them even if it’s impolite. Tyrsa, Do not berate, dispute, or speak in slander, seek gain, make friends amongst your equals only. Don’t whisper secrets, even to your friends, 4. From this point, the shepherdesses are not actually summoned by name, although the father does address them in turn with a few lines each. The names in italics are probably in the nature of a stage direction indicating that they approach him in turn or else that he pauses as he comes to each one of them in turn.

Witty Love 85 lest all of you are blamed for your misdeeds. Bryzeida, Reveal no secrets, don’t dress up too smartly, for such coquettishness may cause worse crimes. Do not despoil with powder and with rouge the smooth complexion nature’s blessed you with. Florynda, Taking on airs and posing to the mirror, lingering looks that penetrate men’s hearts. Those charming smiles, endearing little tantrums must be eschewed, for virtue must prevail. Lucynda, The ambiguity of certain jokes offends the modesty that’s women’s nature. But don’t be coy or else you may arouse in men all kinds of thoughts they should not have.5 Koryska, Resist all flatterers, all those who want to visit you, invite you to a dance. They’ll all outwit you, but don’t weep false tears to make a man take pity; for it’s love that mostly causes one to weep and sigh. Kloryda, Don’t seek old wives’ advice; you’d better shun them. If what’s at stake is money, they’ll deceive you. Maintain your bearing, choose decent pursuits. I dearly hope you will; I want to bless you. Sylvia, Tending the flock, do not enter the woods, where the young men give vent to their desires. Be modest, calm, and kind, be good and plain. You’ll keep your virtue if you heed all this. Your mother died when she was very young; few are as good as her, as calm, as pretty. My thirteen daughters, aged as I am, approaching death and soon to be no more, you’ll share my sheep and all my worldly goods. I beg you, keep our honor, do not fail. 5. “Modest” shunning of male company may be a form of flirting—intriguing, attractive, encouraging all kinds of (inappropriate) thoughts in potential lovers, that is, arousing passion, craving (on the principle of the forbidden fruit, which appears more tasty than any other)—their father warns them against such calculated false feminine “modesty,” enjoining them to avoid such pretences.

86 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Don’t irk me, don’t reject these thoughts of mine that I express through tears, fearing the gods. My breath is short, so I must take a rest. See to your jobs and tend the sheep with care. Bless you my daughters dear. Doctor, kind sir, in a short while attend me here again. Lucynda, Filida, you come with me; enjoy yourselves, the rest of you, keep busy. My legs, my chest, my head, my stomach, aah! They hurt me, most of all my aged bones. Adieu, my children, may the gods ensure your lives may be a web of noble thoughts.6 All, in unison Good-bye, dear Father, go and have a rest. Thank God he’s gone; he talked with such great zeal.

Scene Four Phyllis Instructions such as this stick in my throat. Three hours nonstop; have we no scruples then? Lia Unheard of, surely? Better lock us up than keep berating us with admonitions. Aminta Of course. He’s grown so old and lost his mind. No one may dance, address a living soul.7 Klorys And not dress up, just weave, and harvest hay. Such pastimes never have been known before.8

6. The weaving image suggests that each of the twelve shepherdesses has different emotions but that these form various threads woven into a single braid, that is, that they should all express only noble thoughts, together representing a unified, harmonious tone. 7. In this and the following line the daughters are making fun of their old father. 8. Klorys is horrified by her father’s instructions. To tell daughters to undertake household chores is an anachronism.

Witty Love 87 Amarylla We women may not see a man, but nor are we allowed to talk amongst ourselves.9 Dorynda Enough, dear sister, now. You cannot do without a hat if your spirits are high.10 Tyrsa We may not seek old women’s good advice, so better sew up then our eyes and lips. Bryzeida Listen, my sisters, mother used to dance, he said, when she went out to tend the sheep. Florynda I nearly fell asleep as he went on, to me his tedious words were sheer vexation. Lucynda When young himself, of course, he loved and joked. He still saw women after he was married. Koryska I yearn to come across my shepherd boy; how shall I find a husband, my soul mate? Kloryda I don’t know where they seek their entertainment. I heard we’d have a wedding party here. Sylvia It’s true. My dears Marotka and Lizetka, see if they’re coming yet. I’ll pay you well.

9. It is understandable that he warns against associating with men, but against the girls enjoying each other’s company? That would be too great an imposition. 10. The hat is a symbol of modesty here (perhaps it shields the face of a wilful young lady, ensuring she does not cast frivolous glances).

88 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Lizetka Who do you mean? The shepherd boys, my mistress? Thirteen of them, you’ll welcome them quite soon. Marotka I’ll go to show them in; they must be lonely. Their friend is coming too, it’s Harlequin. Phyllis Marotka, when they come, wait in the hall. Lizetka, you keep watch: the old man soon will rise for sure. It would be bad for us if he should catch us unawares like this.

Scene Five Phyllis, Tyrsa, Aminta, Lia, Amarylla, Dorynda, Kloryda, Koryska, Florynda, Lucynda, Sylvia, Klorys, Bryzeida, Tyrsys, Atys, Klitander, Sylvester, Lykaon, Lopes, Mirtus, Mirtyll, Korydon, Eatus, Sesotryx, Lyceas, Alfion, Marotka, Lizetka, Hasia, Laura, Piretek, Mironek, Lamus, Filonek, Harlequin Tyrsys Greetings, fair ladies, greetings, one and all. Phyllis, to me the dearest one of all. Phyllis You’re welcome here amongst us, all of you. I can’t believe you’ve love for me, my Tyrsys. Atys Beloved Tyrsys how I’ve longed for you! A moment seems a year, when time’s delayed. Tyrsys Your words of love you speak in vain, dear Atys, for you are finding happy times without me. Klitander You’ve quite enslaved my heart, my dear Aminta. Describe your life alone; what did you do?

Witty Love 89 Aminta If I’m to tell the truth, my dear Klitander, I wondered who it was my shepherd courted. Sylvester Your father’s withering words kept us at bay; I could not see the lovely eyes of Lia. Lia Leave me, Sylvester, beautiful or not, no fear nor love have I for you. Mirtyll In awe I greet the fairest Amarylla. Now, as before, I know I’ll be rejected. Amarylla But why, my Mirtyll, when I greet you humbly? You’re welcome here, but utter no false sighs. Lopes The only one who’s in my thoughts, Dorynda, I wait to learn what fate you choose for me. Dorynda The gods, and father’s will, decide it all. Meanwhile young hearts are prone to fickle ways.11 Mirtus Kloryda, how do you repay my love? I long to hear the words of your true heart. Kloryda Why’s Mirtus here, that out-and-out deceiver Who finds his joy with other shepherdesses? Lykaon Koryska’s form so fine, her speech and manner reward my loving heart; it’s all I want. 11. While God and Lucydor declare that it is vital to swear to be faithful to one man alone, the girls’ fickle hearts are inclined to enjoy their freedom and make their own choices—while they still have time!

90 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Koryska You are not short of compliments, Lykaon, but you have other girls, your secret loves. Korydon I love your modest sprightly charms, my dear Florynda, let me kiss your hand, come on! Florynda I do not know, I truly cannot tell, what joy you seek with arrogance like this. Eatus Fairer than all, with such a modest face, allow a hidden sigh to steal your heart. Lucynda Eatus, what’s the meaning of your words? Leave me alone. I really can’t love you. Sesotryx Welcome dear Sylvia, I long for you. Do you return my love, if I may ask? Sylvia What I’ve confessed in secret, Sesotryx, I must stand by, or else incur gods’ wrath Lyceas Fair shepherdess, how sweet your voice does sound; you know of course you’re my true love, just you. Klorys Thanks be to God, Lyceas, that you’ve come. We’ll play and sing, though Father wants to ban it. Alfion Have you prepared your flute, Bryzeida dear? I’ve just composed a fine new dance today. Bryzeida All right, I’ll play it gaily, Alfion, so even your old father will join in.

Witty Love 91 Lizetka His Lordship comes, O Mistresses, he’s near! Marotka He’s nearly here. Oh, dear! Oh woe is us! Several shepherdesses, in unison What shall we do? There’s bound to be a scene! Father will want to beat us, that’s quite sure. Harlequin Mistress, I know! Let’s get up on these stands. He can’t remain for very long of course. Whoever’s left behind don’t be afraid, you’ll tell him these are statues that he sees. So just don’t move at all, don’t move your heads. Don’t speak unless you absolutely must. Several shepherdesses, in unison Oh, hurry please, for heavens’ sake come on! We’re so afraid, we’re terrified, we are! That’s good, that’s good; just stand like that, be bold; you’ll look as though you’re merely carved from wood. Don’t turn your head, your features mustn’t move. To hell with all these stupid old ideas! Lizetka Mistress, he’s coming, now he’s nearly here! Marotka I hear him calling Filida by name.

Scene Six Lucydor, thirteen shepherdesses, four girls, four boys, thirteen shepherds on columns and Harlequin on a pedestal Lucydor What’s going on, my daughters? What’s this noise? Where are the suitors? What is going on? Someone’s been here just now; tell me their names.

92 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Day in, day out I hear them. Where are they? Tell me; I’ll thrash them … Lizetka Nobody was here. Marotka Why are you shouting, Father? Don’t be angry. Several shepherdesses, in unison Someone can carve in wood a human form so cleverly it moves upon the plinth, Several other shepherdesses, in unison so when we heard of this we bought fourteen Several other shepherdesses, in unison and set them up just here—it made a noise. Lucydor Really? They’re very fine; quite lifelike too. They’re most impressive, pleasing to the eye. But strange to say, their posture seems to change. All of a sudden they alter their pose.12 Forgive me, children, I was in the wrong. Folk often blame each other though they shouldn’t. I wish my daughters joy of these fine figures; may their enjoyment find a holy blessing.

Scene Seven Thirteen shepherds, thirteen shepherdesses, Harlequin, boys and girls Harlequin Well? How was Harlequin? Success or not? I hardly know for laughing what went on. The old man looked us squarely in the eye. But all that matters is, he’s quite content.

12. The shepherds change the poses they adopt as statues, behind Lucydor’s back.

Witty Love 93 Phyllis I’m out of breath, I can’t stop laughing yet. Thanks be to God you stood up to that nonsense. Let’s sit down here and listen all together; guitars and lutes and flutes will play together. Kloryda Now play, Mirtus, Lyceas and the rest. Please sing for us in your fine voice, dear Klorys Klorys If they tune up I’ll also do my best; I’ll try to sing along with Piretek. First clear your throat, then Lyceas will start, but not Italian, please, and nothing strange. And Mr. Harlequin, don’t interfere, just sit down here on this your little stool. Harlequin (sings) Ta ra ra ra Klorys, Lyceas, and Piretek (sing) It’s hard to follow all the rules the gods dispense and treat your elders with respect, but it’s no blemish on your name if you have found true love and now you wish to marry. The truly innocent may not be those who always look so modest and demure. Love may distort your judgment; a man has only little worth if he has never been rebuked. People who don’t believe in fate are too cocksure by far. Often all fades away, for it depends what God decides. The one who lets you down because you’re just for show not love deserves to lose out in the end. No girl should trust too soon or she’ll be caught as fish are hooked. If she’s not careful, she will find

94 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA the bigger promises are made the less they’re really worth. Love’s bonds are onerous and are not easily released. She should not make her lover’s vows unless she really values a true friend. Though love arouses many passions now, both time and lack of care cause them to fade.

Scene Eight Lucydor, thirteen shepherds, thirteen shepherdesses Harlequin, girls and boys Marotka Ah, Mistress, we are spied upon again. Lizetka You daft old fogey, stay where you belong! Harlequin Oh hurry up, oh hurry up! Come on! We should keep still, just as we did before. Several shepherdesses in unison We’ll say one person stood here on the ground. We were all scuffling round and round and round. Bryzeida, take the flute, Klorys will sing. That’s how young ladies rid themselves of spies. Lizetka The old man’s coming, Marotka … he can scarcely walk I hope our plan will work again this time. Lucydor Children, what now? I heard with my own ears playing and singing. It’s quite clear to me that your excesses will bring down the roof.

Witty Love 95 Besides, I heard men’s voices; I despair; that no one’s here, for they can’t hide, nor yet pretend; my senile mind is full of grief. Phyllis But Father, really, we’ve nothing to tell. Could all your daughters show disloyalty? Dorynda There was some noise, when all of us together put up that statue; see the iron joints that hold it in one piece, you see them all. It was quite hard for us to stop it falling. Kloryda It’s heavy marble too! Klorys was there. Bryzeida played the flute and Klorys sang. Klorys That’s true, I sang, Bryzeida … and I played, Florynda … I carried The statue; all my sisters helped me out. Lucydor Enough, good heavens! I can’t catch you out. I’ll have to wait some time and ask elsewhere. I’ll find out quietly from Amarylla. Good night, my children, God bless one and all.

Scene Nine Thirteen shepherds, thirteen shepherdesses, Harlequin, girls and boys Harlequin I’ve saved them once again from strife and trouble. He’s so upset, the poor old man’s in pain.

96 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA He won’t be back again, so all of you sit down in pairs. Come on: tra la la la. Klorys, sings May all the people learn that worldly gains bring only happiness that does not last, and may they never in the course of time, forget this truth and lose what they have learned. Among the free as well as the enslaved grief and assassination still abound. Scepters and crowns, electors’ coats of arms; oppression leaves its traces everywhere. It’s seen not only in the human race. The world’s misguided ways delude us so. Not even beasts escape it in the wild. The same discord that troubles people too. The huntsmen catch their prey with powerful nets. They bait the deer and then without ado it’s captured. Straightaway its life is lost. This shows how fortunes suddenly may change. Small birds are shot by avaricious archers; they’re lured and caught; they always take the bait. Not even snakes that crawl along the ground can be immune to evil fate’s assaults. The wind fells oaks, while thunderbolts smash walls. Metal once mined soon melts when in the fire, the water bursts the banks, puts out the fires, sometimes the earth can yield no food at all. Free hearts, free thought—these are the only things that can ensure we really will be happy. So let’s be sure to follow common sense and we’ll enjoy a happy life for sure. Don’t bait our hearts, for you will try in vain. The arrows Cupid sends will be rebuffed by our beloved freedom unassailed. We crave no ties, no bonds of love we seek. Klorys My song is ended now; is it your view we should renounce all torment and all love?

Witty Love 97 Aminta Let those who wish agree, but I dare say that love is life, the essence of our being. Lia Of course, my dear, but only when two hearts are joined and love is shared, not unrequited. Koryska Yes, I agree with you, Klorys my dear; I vow I’ll love no one until I die. Lykaon I must object to that … Mirtyll And so do I. Amarylla Koryska’s right, so let us live together. Freedom’s what brings us joy throughout our lives. I live in freedom; may it last forever. Dorynda Come on, don’t spoil their fun; they play so well. I’d like to be alone, there’s such a crowd. The lute’s melodic sound will ease our woes and soothe our yearning. Listen, let them play.

Scene Ten Thirteen shepherds, thirteen shepherdesses, Harlequin, boys, girls. Lucydor, rising from his bed, listens and calls. Lucydor Mironek! Mironek … What is your desire, my lord? Lucydor My daughters make such noise and music plays.

98 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Three times I’ve heard it, so I hurry down, but all is turned to make me look the villain. This time I’ll creep barefoot: they’ll be surprised, and if I catch them out this way I swear I’ll banish all of them to tend the sheep. The gods’ reward to me for wrongs they’ve done. Lucydor (quietly approaches and takes the shepherds by surprise) … are you the rascals then? You bring disgrace upon our decent house. Are these the savage customs of the young? My daughters, all of you go out at once to graze the sheep, to shear them, tease the wool. Be sure today you fill the cases well and you defilers of my daughters’ honor, be gone, don’t dare to set foot here again. All enter the field. Lucydor complains and sends for the doctor. Lucydor O gods! Such times! Such people! Ages past! Today you soak my aging cheeks with tears. O wheel of fortune sealing my sad fate! You brought me many ills throughout my life. The monarch fathered me when on the throne, with the usurper fought a bitter fight. The land was steeped in blood that flowed profusely. Numitor,13 hapless king, by his own brother deposed and driven out of his kingdom. The King of Latium departs this world. Hersilia,14 my mother, poor exile, 13. Numitor, legendary king of Alba, son of Prokas, deposed by his brother Amulius with the assistance of his grandsons Romulus and Remus, begot by Ilia (Rea Silvia), daughter of Numitor who was obliged by her tyrannical uncle to remain a vestal virgin but who admitted she conceived the twins with Mars. The tyrant cast the children into the Tiber, and they were suckled by a she-wolf. Recognized by Numitor, they killed Amulius. 14. Hersilia, one of the Sabine women seized by Romulus, who took her as his wife and had with her a daughter Prima and a son Aollios. After his death, Romulus was deified as the god Quirinus and Hersilia as the goddess Hora. (“Hersilia, his consort, mourned his loss, And royal Juno bade Iris descend Her rainbow and exhort the widowed queen: […] if your heart is set to see your spouse Come let me guide your footsteps to the grove That crowns Quirinus’ hill with greenery […] Iris obeyed and […] she answered ‘guide me now! […] if […] the Fates […] enable me to see him […] Quickly she

Witty Love 99 pierced her heart with a sharp stiletto blade, abandoned me; I waited by the spring, thirsting for drink and wailing loud and clear. A shepherd tending sheep by chance passed by, observed the child right by the river bank, and with compassion followed nature’s instinct. He kept it warm and took it home himself. His wife Tersylla, who was childless then, swaddled me well and took me as her son. They left a little note to tell of me:15 it named my father, said they killed my mother, said who I am and what’s my name. I had to graze the flock, a shepherd till the grave. Fair Rea16 met a fate like mine as well, and we were joined by love in later days for twenty years, had thirteen daughters, then she met grim death and left me to decay. And now my children—they are all I own— taken away because my health has failed. I should have fallen on the field of war, A hero’s death relieves a wretched fate. I wish the waters that are swift and strong had drowned me then as I lay on the bank, wild boar that rush through empty woods at will had come and finished me with their sharp tusks. O wretched frolics! O clandestine vice! You take away what honor I have left. The degradation of heartfelt despair. So long does fate so cruelly deceive! All thirteen loving daughters cause me shame; reached the hill of Romulus With Thaumas’ daughter. There a star from heaven Dropped gliding to the ground and by its glow Set the queen’s hair ablaze, and with the star Hersilia ascended to the sky. The founder of Rome’s city welcomed her In arms she knew of old and changed alike Her body and the name she used to bear. Then, renamed Hora, she was deified, a goddess consort at Quirinus’ side.” Ovid, Metamorphoses 14, lines 829–851, trans. A. D. Melville). Plutarch mentions that Hersilia was the only married woman among the abducted Sabine women and points out that after the death of her husband, some say, she married Romulus’s comrade Hostilius, by whom she had a son, Hostus, father of the future king Tullus Hostilius. 15. The note describing the origin of the abandoned baby is a frequent motif in fables, tales, and comedies—a letter or note left with a child abandoned under pressure of circumstances, telling of its highborn status. 16. Rea Silvia, daughter of Numitor—mother of Romulus and Remus.

100 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA in my old age these suitors make a scene.17 They have no shame, their father is deceived. They stood their suitors up on pedestals, while I believed the young ones all were honest, I’ve had enough of loss and shame today. Oh, doctor! Oh my God! I’m weak, I’m dying! Doctor (comes running) What’s wrong? Your pulse? Your breathing? What’s wrong now? Reine d’hongarie, sal volatile spirits. But they will hardly bring him round this time. Monsieur my lord, mein Herr, oh, after all! His soul has passed away; he’s gone to heaven. Lucydor Oh! Oh! Doctor … he’s still alive, we’re just in time. Let’s go, and leave him be; he needs to rest. Lucydor Oh, Doctor, what’s the point? Just let me die. Iris, you goddess, kindly come to me: Throughout my life I’ve always worshipped you. I offer you my life, I love you so. You never failed to grant my every wish. You always heeded my lowly requests. I formed the letters with great care for you, Show mercy, Goddess, now my glory’s gone. Grant me a peaceful end; return my joy.

17. Lucydor complains that at the end of his days fate still torments him; if it is their father they love (though perhaps it is the suitors) a greater contrast is obtained—perhaps this was the author’s intention: the consternation of the father who is taken by surprise, not expecting of his daughters that they would all be seeing their lovers simultaneously (losing their good name and consequently that of their father as well—atrocious!). It is not a case of one of them going astray, but of a challenge to the father’s whole approach to their upbringing in a collective protest, of the total failure of his endeavors and the disappointment of his expectations.

Witty Love 101 ACT TWO

Scene One Curtain suddenly falls.18 Goddess Iris sitting on her throne. Satyrs with musical instruments in the arcades. Goddess Iris Why such distress? What grief have you to bear? I’m pleased you call, just tell me of your woes. Is your poor heart afflicted by old age? Almighty God will aid you, trust in me. Lucydor O Goddess! Shepherds’ mistress, you’re our hope now my mind falters and my strength declines. My thirteen daughters quite without compunction defile our home; it’s utterly destroyed. They’ve all defied my rules, it’s quite improper, that they receive such guests within our walls, and play deceitful tricks upon their father, by making out that they were all mere statues. Iris These peccadillos should not cause such grief. Just harmless fun, you must not take it ill. The rules you make are too severe by far. Sometimes the moment must be seized and won. The heart’s true worth is not belied by jokes. Couples, though close, are still beyond reproach. With such large numbers, such a crowd of women, you can’t conceal a fault this way, for sure. Don’t always trust someone who tells you tales, Be slow to judge and punish, lacking proof. Care for your children, but don’t be so strict, Most keenly sought are things that are forbidden, but do not doubt, my mighty power ensures, through firm restraint, I serve both love and honor. So your distress will be dispelled and healed. Your house, I promise, will not suffer harm. 18. The curtain fell as in the unveiling of a statue or memorial.

102 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Now dry your tears and hide the grief you feel. To soothe your breast I’ll join the satyrs’ song. Today’s the day that Mars is born, what joy! He’s forty-four, we wish him happy birthday, starting the fifth year of his fifth decade. We wish him nine times nine years from today.19 As is his due, let’s honor our great prince. Songs and cantatas sounding in his homage. But you, old man, sit at the doctor’s side. Satyr, bow loud and clear upon the strings. Lucydor and the doctor sit. Goddess and satyrs sing and play Italian concerti.

Scene Two Phyllis, Tyrsa, Atys, Tyrsys Phyllis In those green fields the birds are all at play, but I don’t hide my inner grief and tears. Our father’s angry at our thoughtless deeds. Tyrsa You all took part in them and we’re at fault. At least some fun with cards will cheer us up. Atys Please, shepherdesses, let me join in too. Tyrsys Please, I would also beg you, let me play. I have the cards, I’ll sit beside you here. They play cards.

19. An allusion to Prince Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, the husband of the playwright, to whom the performance of this play was dedicated to celebrate his forty-fourth birthday on June 17, 1746. He is often referred to by his nickname Rybeńko (literally ‘My Little Fish’—a term of endearment), to distinguish him from a seventeenth-century prince with the same name.

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Scene Three Aminta, Lia, Klitander, Sylvester Klitander Graceful Aminta, your beauty exceeds bountiful Nature’s most generous gifts. Eyes so delightful. Rosy cheeks to boot. My heart is captured, you possess my soul. Aminta My dear Klitander, yes, I love you too. If it’s God’s will, our hearts will both be joined. I’ll quickly finish work, remove the skeins, so I can make you traps good and robust. Sylvester I love you, Lia, I don’t wish to be the least offensive but to be polite. Heaven bestows on you a handsome form, so now I swear I always will be faithful Lia I see your many virtues, wisdom too, But he who hesitates is lost, you know, so you should sit in church and say your prayers or go to war, thus serving Mars not Venus.

Scene Four Kloryda, Koryska, Mirtus, Lykaon, weaving wreaths and bouquets. Florynda Make me a crown of flowers please, Koryska. I’ll dress up just to see what Mirtus says. He’ll have to play the lute, so let’s sit down and make ourselves bouquets; we’ll have two each. Enter Mirtus I’ll pick the flowers; in return, I hope you will consent, Kloryda, to my wish.

104 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Koryska, love, oh please, do help me out!20 You know my friendship can’t be ever doubted. Lykaon On my behalf propose and say I’m faithful. Kloryda, tell Koryska—she’s quite ruthless, for if a flower wilts in fairest hands incessant torment means a heavy heart. Koryska I’m not in love, I only feast my eyes on all those different artefacts I see, the many-colored flowers, such lovely things. Neither romance nor grief is on my mind.

Scene Five Florynda, Lucynda, Korydon, Eatus Florynda (soaks the wool) The wool’s so slow to come off my distaff. It’s hard to wash and always comes apart. Help me Korydon, here’s a jug of water. Fear not, you’ll be rewarded, you will see. Korydon (pours water) All right, Florynda? Oh, how hard you work. With your fair hands you gently wash the wool. If they could only find some different work; accept my hands’ caresses, all my passion.21 Lucynda (fishes with a rod) Come from the freezing water, little fishes. I’ll eat you up and your reward will be to leave the icy river in a trice; leap from the frying pan into the fire! 20. The reference to different work in conjunction with the previous line is a euphemistic expression of Korydon’s desire for intimacy; instead of getting Florynda’s hands cold pouring water to wash the wool, he would rather she welcomed his hands in passionate caresses. 21. An example of synecdoche (a part of something representing the whole). It is a device used to emphasize a particular feature of a character in literature, here a woman’s hands, which then become a representation of the woman as a whole.

Witty Love 105 Eatus But you’ve already got Eatus hooked. I can’t escape the fiery flame you’ve kindled. Free will has caught me in the net, it will not do if she who trapped me throws me back.

Scene Six Sylvia, Sesotryx, Klorys, Lyceas, Bryzeida, Alfion Sylvia (arranges fruit in a basket) Sesotryx, help me fill the basket up and count the fruit: how much does it contain? I do salute you, and I’ll gladly join with you in nuptial vows; I give my word. Sesotryx Sylvia fair, so dear to my own heart, I will ensure that no one hinders us. Perhaps you’ll wish to taste forbidden fruit yourself with me, as though in Paradise. Klorys (weaves flax) Why can’t I spin the yarn as it should be? This spinning wheel is slow, it’s hard to pedal. I’m so exhausted. Listen, let me tell you: A wedding starts, I think; Harlequin calls. Bryzeida (combs wool) Alfion, place the yarn straight in the box, for if you don’t, it will fester and rot. Lyceas Klorys, I think I really can announce, Mirtyll will wed Amarylla for sure. Alfion Come on, let’s thank our goddess and rejoice; this gift of hers will bring us all together.

106 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Scene Seven Amarylla (sits with Dorynda, laments) You keep my secrets, Dorynda my love; you see the sorrow my sad heart endures. We have offended Father, what’s our fate? The gypsy woman comes; will she foretell? Dorynda Hey! Both come here, make haste, Gerla22 and Molda; save one who’s full of grief, console the sad. What’s in her palm? Show your hand, Amarylla. Are they in love, Mirtyll and Amarylla? Gerla (looks into her eyes and reads her palms) You’ll say to Father sorry, then you’ll wed someone who loves you truly and have children. Happiness, wealth, and honor will be yours. Just keep a civil tongue, eschew bad moods. Wed Mirtyll—that’ll be wholesome for you. A wedding wreath shall crown your head today. Enter Mirtyll, lost in thought Oh such misfortune; I’m so dreadfully sad. Too much good will brings slander on my head. It’s not your palm she’s reading, Amarylla.23 First tell me, Gerla, how I’ll end my anguish. Gerla Today you’ll be united, fortune says. Give him your hand, be happy, Amarylla, From this day forth, forever bound together. Promise him faith and he’ll be faithful too.

22. In Komedyje i tragedyje 1754, this name is spelled Gorla. 23. Mirtyll addresses Amarylla, who is standing before the gypsy, holding out her hand to have her palm read. But Mirtyll did not hear the fortune teller’s prediction that they would marry, because he is too preoccupied by Amarylla’s earlier negative response and is upset at having been rejected and reviled by her. So Mirtyll pushes Amarylla aside, saying he is the one whose fortune should be told—he needs to know how to end the anguish he is suffering.

Witty Love 107 Mirtyll What wondrous joy! Such blissful happiness I feel, winning your hand, Amarylla. O goddess Venus! O you son of Venus! I swear undying love till death us parts. Dorynda Will I be happy too? Please tell me, Molda. When will I also find my wedded bliss? Lopes Dear Molda, tell me too, and in return I will reward you richly for your pains. Molda Before sunset the gods will preordain that wedding bells shall ring for one and all and Mirtyll too will enter married state. All you young maidens shall embrace your men.

Scene Eight Marotka (weaves wool. She calls) Mironek, hey! Just bring me here that sheep. Mironek Just wait Marotka dear, a little while. Lizetka Piretek! Bring Brunette, come on, make haste and find a nice thin stick for me to hold.24 Piretek Brunette and Harlequin are standing guard against the wolf. What shouts of joy are those? Hasia Mirtyll and Amarylla’s wedding, come! 24. Lizetka is preparing for the wedding, carrying the stylized, conventional court shepherdess’s light stick decorated with ribbons attached to the top of a thin stick—as shown in the illustration to this and other plays: see Figure 1.

108 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Laura They’ll make their wedding vows in just a trice. Lamus Come on, my lovely children, let’s all go. Filonek We’ll leave a shepherd here to keep good watch. All assemble and the shepherds and shepherdesses dress up Amarylla for her wedding. They sing: Forget all quarrels on this day, for love alone shall now hold sway. Mirtyll and Amarylla fair are joined forever, man and wife. They’re blessed by Venus, now give thanks! We sing aloud vivat! Vivat! They have endured such great distress, but love has conquered all their pain; let others cease all needless fuss. You see, the goddess treats you very kindly. You’re blessed by Venus, now give thanks! We sing aloud vivat! Vivat! Play flute and lute and strum guitars, with all our voices sing to her who gives us all a loving spouse, and promises a life of joy. We’re blessed by Venus, now give thanks! We sing aloud vivat! Vivat! Now that we see how fine it is to join together in true love. Let all believe that these intrigues have brought about what’s meant to be. And so we give our thanks to Venus singing aloud vivat! Vivat! We all as one do bow our heads, in gratitude for her fine gifts. The ram is ready, bring him here; we offer him in sacrifice to Goddess Venus, now give thanks! Singing aloud vivat! Vivat!

Witty Love 109

Scene Nine The shepherds and shepherdesses dispatch a messenger to Goddess Iris. Atys, you go, address the goddess such, that she will deign to kindly greet us all. Enter Atys, followed by four lads. Deign now, great Goddess, to accept from us the prayers we humbly offer for these two, and give your blessing to their bond of love. A sacrifice to you shall seal the act. When we arrive and enter through those gates, may all be bound to their true love forever. Goddess Iris. Lucydor and the doctor sit with her, engrossed in thought. Tell the assembled throng, handsome Atys, honor and joy shall both always be theirs. Their every wish shall be fulfilled today. You’ll all be blessed with true companions here. With outstretched hands I wait to give my blessing. Doubt not, for all your torments soon will end.

Scene Ten Enter shepherds, shepherdesses, boys and girls. Marotka and Lizetka bring a sacrificial ram. Goddess I bless this couple, joined as one today. You’ll be betrothed today, each one of you. Old man, reject bad thoughts, for Satyr now will play as both their hearts are joined as one. Look in their eyes, bless them and speak your mind. Tell them this wedding’s yours, not theirs alone. Lucydor O Goddess! Children, happiness forever! What joy! What sights my eyes light on today!

110 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I feel rejuvenated by this day. God now repays the trials of many years.

Scene Eleven The Wedding. Dancing. Afterwards the goddess sends a messenger to all the actors and audience.25 Iris Come, Tyrsys, greet your lord, announce to him26 that a great throng is coming with the goddess, to greet him humbly, all in harmony,27 hoping our mighty prince brings us rewards.

Scene Twelve Enter Tyrsys, followed by four lads. I pray, my prince, my leader and commander, Pray let the goddess stand before you here with all the shepherds joyfully assembled, who’ll pay their homage to their sovereign lord. Pray don’t decline to bless with the same hand that wields great power yet is kindly too. On this the day Lucyna gave you birth may heaven grant you all good fortune too.

Scene Thirteen The entire cast enters as a body and begins to sing: We’re celebrating gallantry today, so let festivities begin, 25. Here ends the play (petite comédie, a combination of harlequinade and pastoral drama), and the birthday party begins (paying of homage and wishes in speech and song addressed directly to the prince, in theatrical fashion, with the use of costumes). 26. I.e., Prince Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, in whose honor the celebrations were held, in a manner typical of court celebratory spectacles. The world of fiction mingles with the world of reality surrounding the theater. The drama has ended, and the spectacle now focuses on the most important member of the audience, the prince who has his seat at Nieśwież. 27. ‘in harmony’: a clear allusion to the accord reached between the prince and his brother, as described at the end of the play.

Witty Love 111 now Iris offers you her tribute, her company are joining in. The monarchs greet you on their thrones their armies too, in serried ranks. The shepherds also with their wives bring you their gifts and sacrifice. Accept, our prince, from all of us, the tokens of our love for you, sincere good wishes, friendly thoughts. Accept the duties we perform. Live a long life, amass great fortunes, enjoy happiness and respect. May all your heirs bring hope, just as your wife expects with all her heart. You’ll find your strength in loyal subjects; the court, the knights, and children all together make a fervent wish that you will live a hundred years and rule benignly till old age. Today your forty-fifth begins; live on until your ninety-ninth.

Scene Fourteen Lucyna, Time, Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter, four housekeepers, four maids Time Here’s Time, its form so dreadfully decrepit. They say time gives but then it takes away.28 I don’t recall what ends when time is up, for my decrees are bound with God’s own will. I know no laws beyond what nature holds, Time brings you only your immortal fame. Death has three forms; no one escapes the first. The soul may perish, and your memory too. People may often die in all these ways if there’s dishonor or a guilty soul. Grim Time predicts a different fate for you; your mortal health will serve until a hundred. 28. “Time gives but then it takes away”—a Polish proverb reflecting on the transitory nature of the benefits of nature, happiness, and so on.

112 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA No other death you’ll die, you’ll be eternal. Your soul is pure, your exploits and your fame will last; you’ll pass them on to your own heirs, as you inherited forefathers’ glory. Time pays you homage, tokens of its faith. Accept the offerings of the four goddesses. Since Time and all four seasons serve you well, they’ll bring a hundred years’ respect and health. Spring [Flora] gives a basket of flowers. I bring you tokens of colors I make; May fortune send you kindnesses in plenty. May cornflowers29 and tulips, violets, roses, signify good fortune, joy, and respect. Summer [Ceres] gives a basket with ears of wheat. Accept these fruits of fertile earth I bring. May years of plenty lie ahead for you. These prosperous years, give thanks for them to God, for years and years may you be happy still. Autumn [Pomona] gives a basket of fruit. Though I come late, I bring to offer you hazelwood cherries, fruit of apple trees.30 Accept these gifts I bring; they are your due. Many long years may you enjoy happiness. Winter [Proserpina] A stiffened figure brings you winter’s gifts. Unhappy couples always feel my chill. All wreathed in ice I make for them a path. I freeze ill fortune, smooth the way ahead. Lucyna Dragging old legs I come, you see that now the flush of youth is gone, but virtue’s grown. I am Lucyna, wet nurse of your mother. When she gave birth I helped her through the pain, the first to cradle you in my own arms. 29. Blue cornflowers, a common sight in Poland. 30. An allusion to Radziwiłłowa’s (maiden) family names (Wiśniowiecki—wiśnia = cherry; Leszczyński— leszczyna = hazelwood; Jabłonowski— jabłoń = apple tree) in the context of progeny (“fruit”).

Witty Love 113 May you be granted four score years and ten. Remember me for now I’m old and frail. Do not forget Lucyna’s true deserts. First housekeeper All the estates are making merry now. Housekeepers set to work, we all make haste. Because the cows have let me work so hard I give a jug of milk, a pat of butter, wishing good health will last a hundred years for you; that’s what our presents signify. Second housekeeper My lord, I wish you boundless happiness. Good fortune everlasting; take my gifts. Accept this cheese, it’s made with my own hands. May your great riches ever be preserved. Third housekeeper Fresh bread I offer as my gift to you, a pair of loaves from me, servant grown old. May your prolific bounty bring forth fruit. I give you yarn as well, my handiwork. Fourth housekeeper And I bring eggs, these cheeses, and these meats. I offer all these goods for your nameday. Long life, eat well and rest and drink your fill; may heaven grant you every happiness. First maid I join my mother; we sincerely wish good fortune always shall accompany you. Second I pay due homage just as mother does. May joy repay in full your upright stance. Third I come as but a lowly servant girl, to wish you many years of life to come.

114 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Fourth I hail from Africa, a distant land,31 and hope you’ll see a hundred years go by. Admiral32 Battered and beaten by tempestuous waves, my fleet is floundering in your harbors, Prince. I’ve taken shelter with your men of war. I’m loath to put to sea and anchor here. As loud congratulations echo round, I gain my respite after waves and storms. Today’s your birthday: hear my greetings too. Rain clouds be banished, may the sun live on. Diana the Huntress33 You’re welcome in these the lands of my domain. You shall enjoy the beasts and fowl at will. With all exuberance the horn will sound, and you, great prince, must take me at my word, that as I nimbly guard my shining virtue34 I’ll keenly seek to aid your hunt today.35 Wishing that nimble fate be in your favor and give you what your manly heart desires. And you the hunting pack that I command, go quickly nymph, but don’t unleash the dogs. The game is in the woods, no Actaeon’s there.36 31. This role was actually performed by a black actress. 32. A dwarf actor playing Admiral Jacek Wiśniewski probably arrived on a miniature battleship, from which he disembarked after mooring it by a canal bank (the play was performed in the gardens) and came to offer birthday greetings to the prince. The complaints about the storms that battered his ship during the voyage symbolize the troubles on life’s journey: the admiral metaphorically wishes the prince plain sailing under clear skies, recalling the well-known image of navigatio vitae (‘life is a voyage’). 33. Diana—Roman goddess, guardian of all forms of life, corresponding to the Greek Artemis— daughter of Zeus and Latona, guardian of plants and animals, patroness of huntsmen. 34. This may be an allusion to the playwright as a lonely wife. Prince Radziwiłł’s official duties took him away from home for long periods. 35. Diana persuades the prince that her unsullied purity is defended by her fleetness of foot. The princess’s erotic subtext here seems to suggest that she personally remains pure and faithful to her absent husband, awaiting his return in anticipation that her “ ‘shining virtue” will inspire his passion and that they will have an opportunity for intimacy, as “the coast is clear.” 36. “There’s no Actaeon” means “it’s safe,” “the coast is clear.” (Actaeon is a mythological huntsman, son of Aristaios and Autonoe, daughter of Kadmos. When he caught sight of Artemis, i.e., Diana,

Witty Love 115 The coast is clear—the deer have no antlers.37 Klimena Come on, be quick! Look out, there goes a hare. Beneath that bush another one is lurking. Dafnis The rabbit’s running, soon we’ll catch him up. My legs are weak, but I can run all right. Kaliska Release the greyhounds, Klimena, and then be bold and lift your skirt, you’ll run much better. Armida Hush, hush, there’s something rustling in the bushes. We’ll be in luck, the greyhounds are at hand. Filida Diana, Thames, London, and York, Dandy, Rascal, Chestnut, Darling. Eudoxianna Dogs, fetch! Take care they don’t purloin the game. My hunting skill ensures I’ll catch the hare. Shepherd Tyrsys I welcome here the honored guests; I must congratulate them on their wedding day, sincerely hoping you agree today, since they enjoy such sudden turn of fortune. Now I can welcome them, since there’s no hindrance.38 I humbly wish your uncle health, long life,39 ready to serve him with love and respect. taking a bath, he was turned into a stag and torn to pieces by his own dogs.) 37. I.e., there is no stag around: no Actaeon is watching (cf. n36). 38. I.e., Tyrsys is not prevented from offering his greetings, as he wishes to do, now that the family dispute has been resolved. 39. Michal’s brother Hieronym was summoned from Słuck in order that certain controversial matters could be resolved and an agreement signed, which has now been achieved, after disagreements lasting several days.

116 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Today in unity their friendship’s sealed, so may our hearts be never rent asunder.

2. AN ACT OF DIVINE PROVIDENCE

Fig. 2 An Act of Divine Providence

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118 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Dramatis personae Tigranes, the king Olympia, his queen Julia, their daughter Elvira, confidante to the queen Zenobia, confidante to Julia Talestris, queen, mother of the prince Antiochus, prince Kleon, confidant to Antiochus Roksana, confidante to Talestris Old Woman Hermit Echo Sorceress

Author’s Synopsis Act One

In a certain kingdom a king and a queen sit on the throne. One day there comes a plenipotentiary, an envoy bearing a declaration of war, who receives a reply returning this animosity and declaring preparedness for battle. Thus the king departs, and the queen, rejoicing in her awareness of her great beauty, asks the mirror whether there is anyone in the world fairer than her. It replies, to her surprise, “Your daughter Julia.” Horrified at these words, the jealous queen commands an old woman to lead her daughter the princess mercilessly into the wilderness to be devoured by wild animals.

Act Two

Leading Julia away, the old woman takes pity on such an innocent young beauty. As she meditates in her heart why she should spill the blood of such a beauty for the sake of envious hatred, the idea comes to her of abandoning the princess outside the hut of a certain hermit living nearby, together with another young girl of the same age. The hermit, returning from his devotions, is astonished to hear from a distance the crying and the wailing of those children wandering in the forest. Approaching them, he asks who they might be, whereupon Julia, remarkable for her uprightness as well as her beauty, relates the whole tale of the queen’s jealousy and her evil command. The hermit takes pity on her and promises to shelter and nurture her, teaching her every virtue, godliness, and trust in God’s will.

An Act of Divine Providence 119

Act Three

The old woman returns to the queen, to whom she swears that Julia has been devoured by a lioness. Rejoicing at this account, the queen boldly asks the mirror whether anyone in the world is fairer than her. The mirror replies, “Your daughter is more beautiful than you.” Bitter and ashamed, the queen berates the old woman, who explains that she took pity on the innocence of such a beautiful young girl and left her by the hut of a certain hermit who would certainly give her sustenance. To compensate for this she recommends a certain sorceress, who is asked by the queen to employ her witchcraft to deprive Julia of her life. She vows to carry out the queen’s wish, handing her a pair of bewitched shoes for the queen to send to her daughter by the old woman.

Act Four

The old woman goes into the forest where she finds the princess playing with Zenobia and gives her the shoes. No sooner does she put them on than she turns cold and falls lifeless to the ground. The old woman hurries off, and the hermit, finding Zenobia wailing and Julia lying on the ground, berates the cold-hearted mother. Bringing a little water to refresh the body from its swoon, he removes the shoes. Julia leaps to her feet as though awoken from her sleep, whereupon the hermit marvels at the power of God’s perspicacity and asks the cause of this weakness. When he hears the account of how the old woman brought the shoes, put them on the princess’s feet, and then ran away, he forbids her to accept anything without his permission.

Act Five

When the old woman returns to the queen and relates the effect of the spell, the queen is pleased to hear this and once again asks the mirror whether there is anyone to equal her beauty. The mirror again replies, “Yes, there is, your daughter Julia.” Overcome by bitterness and jealousy, the queen again sends for the sorceress and requests her to provide the most powerful means of destroying her daughter’s life and beauty. Thereupon the sorceress induces her witchcraft and gives the queen an exquisite, scarcely noticeable, little ring to send to her daughter. The queen gives it to the old woman with instructions to take it to Julia.

Act Six

The old woman delivers the ring. Julia is rendered senseless by a spell as before, bewailed by Zenobia and the hermit, washed and laid out on a branch with an inscription telling who she is and through what tyranny she is laid low. Then the hermit leaves with Zenobia. Antiochus, out hunting in the vicinity, comes riding by and notices the princess lying there. He and his confidant carry her to his dwelling. She is laid on a low table and constantly watched over by the sorrowful

120 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Antiochus. When this comes to the attention of his mother, Queen Talestris, she asks her confidante Roksana why such sadness had overcome the heart and mien of the prince, her son. Roksana relates forthrightly to her mistress the whole tale of what occurred when the prince was out hunting. The queen and Roksana carry Princess Julia from the room, amazed to behold her beauty as she sleeps, and as they admire her lovely body Roksana notices the magic ring on her finger. When the queen removes it for her son, Julia immediately awakes. They are all greatly alarmed, the princess because she is no longer in the hut of the poor hermit, the others at the magical awakening of the young girl, for which they praise God. Prince Antiochus, finding his beloved Julia missing from his room, goes in utter despair to take leave of his mother, intending to plunge a sharp dagger into his heart. The queen restrains him, telling him and showing him that his beloved Julia lives and will be his wife. Regaining his spirits at such a beautiful sight, the prince and his mother send a messenger to Queen Olympia, rebuking her and announcing that the princess lives and is to marry Prince Antiochus.

Act Seven

The messenger goes on his way, but he finds Queen Olympia magically transformed into an ogress as a punishment from God. When he has delivered the message, she responds by expressing boundless joy over her daughter’s good health and declares sorrow and contrition for her past crimes. Olympia is therefore resolved to be reconciled with her daughter, although she appears in such a frightful form, whereupon the ineffable kindness of God, stirred by such deep contrition and sorrow in her heart, removes the dreadful mask and returns her to her original form. She hurries to Queen Talestris and together, recognizing the almighty power of God, they abdicate their thrones, one to her son and the other to her daughter, and they praise God’s wonderful decision to unite the couple. The hermit and Zenobia join them not only in wishing good fortune but in declaring to the world that God represents the foreordained purpose and goal of human life. Zenobia returns to the service of her former mistress. ACT ONE

Scene One The king, the queen, the princess, the senate, an envoy, the queen’s confidante, the princess’s Favorite, an old woman, that is, the queen’s old wet nurse Envoy Pardon me, sire, the greeting that I bring does not anticipate a mild response. The message tells that war has been declared.

An Act of Divine Providence 121 My master bids me bring this news to you. For grievance sustained in his vast land, he craves now your subjection and defeat. Forgive me, though, I merely bring the message, a servant bound to do his master’s bidding. King I’m bold of heart, with valor I accept this challenge, bringing victory and glory. For God directs the weapon, by his will determining the outcome and our fate. So go and say my army is prepared. And be advised: such tidings bear no more.

Scene Two King, queen, senate, and the same characters as before, except the envoy King (to the queen) Impetuous despoilers force my hand; reluctantly I go, though I’m not strong. Farewell, my other half, my own true heiress; all power and rule are now conferred on you.

Scene Three Queen and old woman [mirror, Julia] Queen Oh joy, oh bliss, all this I can enjoy. No higher rule hangs over me today. O mirror that sincerely tells the truth, now tell me whether in the whole wide world there’s anyone who is as fair as me. Mirror There’s one much fairer. Queen Oh, what do I hear? Such miracles, they’re never seen or heard.

122 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I’m so distressed, whoever can be fairer? Tell me, what is her name, where does she live? Mirror None other than your Julia—your daughter. Queen Whatever next? Old woman, go post haste and see to this; make sure you get it right. Remove the girl and cast her in the forest, so some wild beast will soon devour her there. Old woman Just feel no grief, be mindful of your life. I’ll secretly remove the child to die I’ll bind her to a tree, for lions to gnaw. Come, Julia, and be a good girl now, just make a bow and say good-bye to mother. ACT TWO

Scene One Old woman, leading the princess by the hand, princess, Zenobia Old woman What’s this? Grief, fear, and sorrow fill my heart. It’s contrary to nature and God’s law, to spill this pure child’s blood, it’s quite abhorrent; must God’s own creature end its life today? Beloved child, your mother ordered me to take you to the woods for lions to tear apart. For pity’s sake I’ll leave you here and tell her you were savaged by wild beasts. Here in this hut there lives a kind old man who’s famous for his honor in these parts. He’ll know a way to save you from her clutches; your wicked mother shall not harm you, child.

An Act of Divine Providence 123

Scene Two Julia, Zenobia, hermit. Julia and Zenobia weeping and wailing. Song Make sure you’re careful and stay healthy— Echo What’s this I hear at such a time? … Your mother’s wrath now drives you here— Echo Oh dear, this is indeed so strange … Don’t be afraid, for even here the guardian angels will protect you; wild lions cannot cause you harm. Our God’s decrees are merciful; Have faith in him, my dear princess. Echo That’s true above all things … Forget your sorrows straightaway. Echo Decrees will alter in good time … The miters and the purple robes, for all their splendor, undergo more serious worries and dire pain. Where greater power is amassed, the rule of might and tyranny become the values most esteemed. To play among young saplings though— Echo is not to lose your reputation. Be not downhearted. Echo For God will lessen your misfortune … Let heaven through almighty God bring some relief to your poor heart; this is my wish for you.

124 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Believe your fate will be benign; the only goal is God above; no other will restore your joy. Julia Oh, oh, my dear Lord God, what is our fate? Let’s go and seek the old man anyway. They walk, weeping. Zenobia He’s coming, wait, he’s hurrying this way. The old man’s coughing; look, he’s in dark clothes. Hermit What brings you here my children, to the woods? Your own free will, or is it some misfortune? What’s this I see, why all these tears and sorrow? I cannot bear such shameful wretchedness. Tell me your name. Julia I’m Princess Julia, Olympia’s daughter, seven years of age. The king’s at war, my mother in her rage has told that woman beasts must eat me up. Zenobia But she had taken pity on such beauty, and having led us here made off in haste. I ran to follow dearest Julia, to live or else to die this death with her. Hermit Oh you relentless, cruel rapacious brute, not queen, nor mother, vile Olympia! Oh beauty, innocence, you little soul, you don’t deserve this dreadful cruelty. Don’t be afraid, for in my humble dwelling though poor, you’ll gain more than you ever had. You also stay, my child, so young in years; be virtuous and modest in my care, be tranquil while I go to seek advice,

An Act of Divine Providence 125 to seek God’s guidance on this turn of fate I’ll go and pray to him there in the forest. ACT THREE In which the Queen looks in the mirror. Old woman and Elvira

Scene One Old woman, queen, mirror Old woman I’ve carried out forthwith what you decreed, I saw the lion’s tracks, blood from her claws. Queen Thank God! Now mirror, truthfully declare, am I the fairest in the whole wide world? Mirror There is a fairer one by far—she’s Julia. Queen You hag! You said wild beasts devoured her then? Old woman Well truly, Majesty, what could I do? The child is innocent; I was so sad, I led her to a hut deep in the woods. A hermit living there, though poor as poor, will take her in; she cannot harm you now. I have a cunning plan; a sorceress will see that Julia is put to death.

Scene Two Queen, old woman, Elvira, and sorceress Queen I beg you, with your magic skill and knowledge ensure my daughter’s torn to death by lions.

126 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Sorceress Your Majesty, I know what is afoot, so never fear, the deed will soon be done. The sorceress draws a circle. She gives the queen a pair of shoes to send to the princess and then departs. Just take these shoes and send them to your daughter. She’s playing with her friend beside the hut. She’ll put them on and fall asleep for good. Old woman, take them to her as a gift. ACT FOUR

Scene One Old woman, princess, and Zenobia Old woman How are you, Princess? Is all well with you? Julia God bless you, Nanny dear, yes, all is well. Old woman Thank goodness. Look, the queen sends with her love new shoes, so try them on, they’ll fit you well. Princess Oh, show me, Nanny, let me put them on. What pretty golden shoes. Oh, Lord, help me! She faints and the old woman runs away. Zenobia Julia! Goodness, Julia! Oh dear! Oh dear, she’s dying, what am I to do?

An Act of Divine Providence 127

Scene Two Julia, Zenobia, hermit Hermit What are you crying for? What has occurred? Your breathing’s stopped—oh, Julia, oh why? Well, who’s been here? Please tell the truth at once, what have they done? You must be calm, my dear, just wipe your eyes and dry these bitter tears. Zenobia That woman came who brought us to the woods. She brought these shoes you see—a gift, she said, and so the princess ought to put them on, then Julia fell—her heart was struck with fear. Hermit Wild beasts, but not a mother, could commit a heinous deed like this, a dreadful crime. Undress the princess while I go for water to wash the lovely corpse that lies before us. The hermit fetches water, Zenobia undresses Julia and removes the shoes, whereupon Julia comes to life. Julia Don’t wake me up, Zenobia, I slept so soundly that an hour passed in a flash. Hermit Today I see the Lord’s almighty power, for sorcery’s revoked, the grave defied, the soul of this innocent girl’s restored by him today to her own mortal body, so no satanic force prevails today. Oh Julia, God’s beloved child, the threat of such an evil death is past for now, receive no guests and live quite modestly. If gifts are offered, show them first to me. I’ll go to pray again amongst the trees, while you lie down to sleep in half an hour.

128 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA ACT FIVE

Scene One Queen, old woman, Elvira, mirror Old woman I gave young Julia the magic shoes; she put them on and fainted straightaway. Queen Thank God! Now mirror, truthfully declare, am I the fairest in the whole wide world? Mirror A fairer one by far is Julia. Queen What do you mean, old woman? Still she lives? Elvira, hurry, find the sorceress. She must be summoned here to me at once. Elvira She’ll come without delay. From her dark cell, that fearful place, she’ll bring the herbs she’s boiled, some sort of poison in a flagon too, and she will bind the spirits to your will.

Scene Two Queen, old woman, Elvira, sorceress Queen You have the power to bring such joy into my life; I beg you, please restore it now. I’d rather die a hundred times today than live a freak. The girl is not yet dead; you must ensure that she’s despatched forthwith! Sorceress At once, at once, take heart, do not despair.

An Act of Divine Providence 129 Again the sorceress draws circles and hands the queen a finely wrought ring to give to Julia. Oh Queen, just take this ring to send to Julia. It’s far more dreadful than a wild beast’s claws. And yet the spirit made it so refined no one will notice it; they won’t suspect. Old woman, go again and take this gift; she’ll fall and lose her senses, in a trice. ACT SIX

Scene One Julia, Zenobia, and old woman Old woman Good health, Princess. How are you? Are you well? Princess I’m healthy, happy, and I’m full of life. Old woman Dear Julia, come play with me a while. Be off, Zenobia, you could be mischief. Dear Princess, look, your mother sends you this: A little ring she made all by herself. Julia No, Nanny, no, I can’t! Old woman Just try it on. Julia No, no, I don’t want any ring at all. I tried the shoes before and nearly died. Old woman Your swooning fits are just some made-up tales; In all your innocence you think some deed

130 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA of treachery was done. Don’t be afraid. Go on, just place it boldly on your finger, and then you’ll see there’s much to gain for you. Julia All right. Oh dear, Zenobia, oh, help! Zenobia What’s this? That woman’s killing her again.

Scene Two Hermit, Zenobia, Julia senseless Hermit Oh heavens! Julia dear, what’s this I see? Take off her clothes, she must be all undressed. The bonnet, skirt, the shoes and stockings too. She’s lost her life, she’s gone forever, surely. My dear, my darling child, light of my life, Miraculous sight in a living being. Oh Lord, determiner of human lives, performer of incessant miracles, I dedicate your creature to your will. We place the lovely Julia upon this branch and may the sun’s bright rays through God’s almighty power release her from her pain. And I will write her name, attach it here; but we must go, for I can hear some voices. The hermit ties Julia to the branch, attaches an inscription, then leaves with Zenobia. A prince arrives, hunting on horseback. Inscription Whoever nurtures pity in their heart, Announce this tyranny in years to come, how envious Olympia the Queen inflicted injury and death upon her daughter Julia, for God had made of her the greatest beauty in the land. Sorcery has taken her life away.

An Act of Divine Providence 131 May he into whose hands this child shall fall ensure she does not perish here in vain.

Scene Three Prince Antiochus, with Kleon. In the field, the prince sees Julia laid on the branch. Antiochus What wonder’s this I see, my dear Kleon? Just look what’s lying there upon that branch. Oh, heavens, what a ruse is this, what wonder? True beauty’s here portrayed, is it a vision? Kleon, revive her, come, let’s have a look, for she’s not dead, she’s only in a swoon. Young lady, goddess, you’re the purest beauty! No greater beauty can there be on earth. My love, my life, my heart, oh my dear lady! But look there, Kleon, what’s that note attached? Kleon Well, read it, Prince, but everything’s in vain. Her breath has stopped, and she’s no longer living. Her eyelids don’t show life, so just forget this sorrow now and see to your own work. Antiochus Oh God, the queen’s an evil, heartless mother. But Kleon, come, we’ll carry her between us and take her into my apartment now. My every living breath I’ll spend with her. Antiochus rides off with the princess and places her on a table in his room. We’ll lay her here upon this table, Kleon. I wish to share with her in death and pain. Bring here the finest flowers you can find; fair Julia’s beauty never can be rivaled.

132 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA ACT SEVEN

Scene One Queen Talestris and Roksana, her confidante Talestris Tell me, my dear Roksana, what’s afoot. Why is my son so pale and so unsmiling? His ruddy cheeks have turned all pale and white. What is he lacking, what is on his mind? Could he be ill? What is he suffering from? Does he no longer love his mother now? Or is it love that pulls at his heartstrings? Tell me, Roksana dear, let grief not gnaw at my insides; speak boldly, tell me all. Relate it all, in confidence, of course. Roksana My lady, I’m your true and faithful servant. I’ll tell you what it is that grieves your son. Recall the day he set off to the hunt. He asked your blessing, then he went back home. He had the horses saddled—rode at dawn; the pair of hounds he took—York and Diana. The dark, dense forest brought him no success, and so he tried his luck out in the fields. And then he spotted something in a thicket, tied to a branch high up amongst the trees. He called Kleon—they both rode there at once, and in the woods they found a lovely girl, a lifeless, speechless body there before them. Today she lies just as she died, but he’s no longer free, he’s ever in her thrall.40 He still declares his love to her, all lifeless she lies upon the table, strewn with flowers. In death her cheeks look fresh, as though she sleeps. There lies his love, his one and only love; that’s why he grieves, that’s why he looks so wretched. 40. Radziwillowa emphasizes the paradox of freedom—its ambiguity and dangers. For good or bad, freedom is always forfeited.

An Act of Divine Providence 133 Queen Roksana, let us see this wondrous sight. So beautiful, as though she’s just asleep. A young princess who’s poisoned by her mother— we’ll take her from his sight, to ease his grief. Roksana Oh, what a finely crafted tiny ring! I think it is a gift from Antiochus, a token of eternal love for her. Queen We’ll take it from her finger, his keepsake. But goodness! What is this? Is she awake?

Scene Two Queen, Roksana, and Julia, revived after the ring has been removed. Julia What’s going on? I don’t know where I am. What is all this I see, what do I hear? I’m in some royal palace—I’m afraid and quite confused. Where has my father gone— the hermit, and my little friend Zenobia? Who’s with me here? Who sees my sad misfortune? Queen Don’t be afraid, my child, for God’s good grace has thwarted all the evil traps devised. So bless his goodness and we’ll both declare almighty God the glory of our life.

Scene Three Prince, Queen, Roksana, Kleon, and Julia Prince I’m wracked by grief, I’m going to end my life. Farewell dear mother; ever since my birth you’ve loved me more than words can say, your son.

134 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA This blade shall take my life for Libityna.41 Queen Oh wait, my son, comfort your mother’s heart! Your Julia lives and wants to be with you. I give you her alive, not in a shroud, you have my blessing—such an upright couple. The cruel mother ought to be rebuked. You must prevent her doing further evil. We’ll send for her, and may she bless you both. Your trusty Kleon will take care of this. Antiochus Oh Mother, Queen, you give me birth once more! Oh Julia! I go to do your will. Ride on, Kleon, and tell that godless queen Olympia that Julia now is mine; inform her that her daughter’s live and well. Kleon, Olympia turned into an ogress, Elvira, and old woman Kleon Today I stand here, Majesty, in fear; I see that God has punished you severely. Despite the form you now assume, I bring you news of Julia, your only daughter. She is alive and well, and Antiochus, my master, takes her as his wife today. He asks that you suppress your evil rancor. Please bless the pair, so they may always prosper, and as your loyal subjects count my master, his mother too, and your own daughter Julia. Olympia O God! How merciful indeed you are! I see today at last that you possess almighty power over us, and so at once I’ll go to bless the pair in person. Repentant of my sins, I’ll shed this hideous form.

41. Libytina is the goddess who cares for the dead.

An Act of Divine Providence 135 As the queen moves, the hideous form falls from her. O Lord, your wondrous powers, beyond our grasp, have drawn me to a heavenly state today. Kleon I have fulfilled my task, Olympia comes; she looks with favor on the loving pair.

Scene Four Olympia, Talestris, Antiochus, Kleon, Elvira, Zenobia, Roksana, Julia. Talestris and Olympia abdicate their thrones to Antiochus and Julia and place their crowns on their heads. Talestris I welcome you, my noble, worthy queen, I thank you for your trouble and I ask that you permit your daughter who’s been saved to be betrothed and married to my son. So bless them both, go, bring them here Kleon, and we will sit together on the throne. Talestris and Olympia From both our crowns we hand you down the laurels and step down from our thrones, our earthly rule. And then, when God decrees our end we’ll go to heaven, where the virtuous find reward. God bless you both; may you for many years to come enjoy prosperity and peace. Antiochus We lay before you both the purple robes and miters, symbols of our earthly rule. When you command, our scepter shall be raised. I vow to render true respect to you. The will of God has bound me to this lady. My heart will always do its bounden duty. All the above, Hermit and Zenobia

136 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Hermit I’ve heard about the famous couple blessed by the will of God and so I come today to this your land along with all the others, to mark this change in fortunes in our world, in our unceasing rote of life and death our daily battle with the devil’s works. We know that God alone is our sole aim. He is ancestral lord of all our world. I, the hermit, make the sign of the cross the Lord in heaven is our only goal. Zenobia I too, my mistress, will return to you, if we will live in harmony on earth we’ll find our harmony in heaven too.

3. THE JUDGE WHO LOST HIS REASON

Fig. 3 The Judge Who Lost His Reason (act III, scene 11)

137

138 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Dramatis personae Diocletian, Roman emperor The emperor’s wife Paula, confidante to the emperor’s wife Agape, Chionia, Irena (martyrs) Dulcius, judge and governor of Thessalonica Sisinnius, successor to Dulcius Tiburtius, confidant to Sisinnius Agasp, confidant to Dulcius Atarab, confidant to Sisinnius Maids Courtiers of the imperial palace Soldiers ACT ONE

Scene One Emperor, Tiburtius, Agasp Tiburtius Agasp is sent by Dulcius with news of daily sacrifices to our gods. Do you command him, Caesar, to report the evil ways these diehard Christians lead? Shall such disloyalty be drowned in blood? Emperor What’s this audacity, O gods, I hear! How they pursue so firmly secret faith. Though I uproot them, ravage and destroy, blood flows abundantly, but to their glory. Each drop that’s spilt spawns thousands more adherents. They’re deep in gore, and yet they revel in it. Let Agasp come and tell us all the news. Prepare to torture and to put to death. Agasp My emperor let me humbly bow before you. Your subjects everywhere, all-powerful Caesar,

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 139 proclaim allegiance to the crown and scepter and they rejoice in all your power and might. Only a few, of weaker female sex, three stubborn sisters, speak with words that merit a thousand tortures at the axe man’s hands: Chionia, Agape, and Irena, their guilt compounded by three diehard souls. They shun their heritage, have no respect; no force dissuades them, they’ve no fear or qualms. What are your orders? Issue a decree and sternly halt this infamy at once. Diocletian Bring them, Agasp; warn them they risk their lives. They shall be scolded by the empress first, then she shall secretly cajole and beg. Speak soft, request, then threaten, make them fear. Be calm, then strict; ensure they praise our gods. If they persist and risk the danger still, bring them before my throne here in the court.

Scene Two Agape, Chionia, Irena Agape Sisters! Our ties through blood are strong indeed. Can your emotions ever be appeased? Are we such easy prey that worthless wealth should make us stray and quit our bounden duty? Shall wild satanic pleasures, fleeting fancies, blight honesty and make debauchery rife, and shall immortal souls become mere mortals, for brief delights, eternal virtue lost?42 Recall how man was formed from worthless clay, fashioned from bones, his body given spirit. Recall that Adam was expelled for eating 42. The idealism of the sisters is characteristic of their social standing. In Radziwiłłowa’s work, by contrast with hagiographic tradition, the sisters are highborn; they are concerned not only to gain redemption and go to heaven but also to maintain their good name, their integrity, their honor, avoiding shame and maintaining a glorious, honorable reputation (cf. act III, scene 8).

140 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA forbidden fruit and punished, set to work. Observe whose power brought the clay to life, He banned our kin from Eden to the fields where now the soil that’s tilled with sweated labor sustains the body as it works the plough. Whose handiwork is this? My sisters dear! Can our creator bear such dire ingrates? Chionia What do I hear, my sister dear? How can you thus impute to us such fraud and falsehood? Who of us three could have such disrespect that we’d reject the faith we all enjoy. We’d sooner die; this never can be changed. We don’t deserve this slur or this rebuke. I know how transitory are worldly goods. The more one values them, the less they’re worth, for nothing lasts, days come and go just like a dream that passes by in just an instant. The Day of Judgment waits for one and all. Good is rewarded, evil punished too. Flames consume vice—all forms of hellish conflict. Heaven rewards the virtuous, but hell’s eternal suffering awaits the evil. We’ll find true happiness in our Lord God and constant praise from all the heavenly hosts. We know why souls of saints must do their penance, we know primeval sin’s our parents’ lot. To expiate that sin, we do believe, God sent his Word by way of that pure vessel43: Unlike the human soul that he had made, a holy soul incarnate God created, imparting human form unto his son within the Virgin Mary’s pure fresh body, and he was sacrificed to save my soul. Who wouldn’t quail before the blows he suffered? Irena Ah, Sisters! How could I abandon him whose bleeding wounds I still see everywhere? 43. The concept represents the universally accepted cultural code of the time, inspired by liturgical texts and iconography (Annunciation; see Luke 1.26–38).

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 141 Whom for? For all lost souls, for all those sinners that perish wantonly of their free will. Our love’s repaid by love when we’re united, How dreadful is the loss of one that’s loved, whose death inflicts no suffering on him. But what despair! They wring their hands to see the dire torment his body had to bear. They failed to comprehend how great his virtue. The thorns that pierce his battered bones right through drain all his blood, thereby to end his days. They tie him, scourge him, beating they revile him. Cut veins, torn hair, blow after blow rains down. His blood flows ever freer and congeals. His body, naked, battered; bones show through. At length the Savior’s body dies upon the cross, the Holy Spirit stays, oppressed. They gave him vinegar with gall to drink, and in his loving heart they thrust a spear. Oh, Lord, I can’t express my grief enough; I call on you with all my heart, O God. I want to die a Christian; you, dear sisters, you keep that faith, prepare with me for death. Agape My soul attains relief, as do yours both. We scorn those idols, and we always will. But listen: now they’ve heard of us in Rome. They know our names; let’s take some action now. Chionia It’s true, but let us wait for that decree and suffer, even if we die in jail. Our lot is torment, sweetened though by love. God will repay us well with life eternal. Irena Most just and true are bold courageous hearts that counter evil fortunes with great thoughts. We’re taught by God to save life where we can; for faith and honor we must save ourselves.

142 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Agape Let’s hide away … Chionia … Let’s go into the forest. Irena Then let’s make haste, since times are bad for us. Lead on, I’ll follow you—you follow me. And when we’re there we’ll think what we should do.

Scene Three Diocletian, his wife, Tiburtius, Paula Diocletian Listen, my wife, and bear in mind my will. Placate the wanton will of your fair sex. These noble girls of Thessalonica, obdurate sisters, seized by wild ideas, Chionia, Agape, Irena, these sisters will not worship our true gods. On my command they shall be brought to you. Promise, as queen, rewards, but mention death. And if they stubbornly refuse to listen, my royal might will force them to obey. Pursue the fugitives, Tiburtius. Say deprivation’s hard on their fair sex. My wife, go make them promises then threats, for you’re well versed in tactics such as these. Diocletian’s wife Indeed, my lord, we all would serve the gods. I’ll do my best to carry out the task, luring with charm, scaring with threat of pain. You will dispense our justice anyhow. Diocletian Yes, that’s the only way to deal with evil. I worship Jove, him only I respect. This unknown lord, creator of the world,

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 143 can only cause courageous people’s death. Farewell for now, just keep it to yourself; use any means; convert the girls for sure.

Scene Four Diocletian’s wife, Paula Paula Forgive my question, Lady, but I think what Caesar asks disturbs you, does it not? You’re tearful, anxious, and you’re quite uncertain. I think you like the stand the sisters take. Emperor’s wife In vain the heart conceals its deep regrets. You’re right, dear Paula, it’s a sad decree. The truth arouses doubts within one’s mind so secretly one recognizes Christ. Though I’m no Christian, still it’s clear to me the world’s creator must of course exist. But those distorted faces, ugly forms, are struck by lightning, worn by time, and rot. But we must stay discreet about these things or else we’ll be beheaded with the sisters. Paula Suppress your grief, you must forget that suffering.44 It’s true, there surely is a hand that made us, But hush! Our sighs alone may speak his praise who guides our human fate, giver of all. Let’s go with haste, while you sit on your throne. Persuade them, mindful of their dreadful fate.45

44. Implicit in this line is the Christian thinking that characterizes life on earth as wretched by comparison with the promised immortality. 45. Paula heightens the empress’s dilemma, emphasizing to the audience that she is aware of the dramatic situation she finds herself in, directing her (for her own safety) to be severe and do her duty, despite her own intuitions and beliefs.

144 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA ACT TWO

Scene One Agape, Chionia, Irena Agape Slacken your steps, don’t be in such a rush. I think our sleep won’t be disturbed tonight. Chionia Such pleasant greenery, lush foliage, such calm and shade among the spreading branches, such luscious grass and brightly shining rocks. All kinds of birds that sing in praise of God. Irena Beloved sisters on this grass right here,46 Agape, bring the image for an altar, Chionia, place the Savior’s figure first.47 The Holy Trinity is here, the Cross. I’ll place the Virgin Mother of our God. We’ll all now kneel before them, and we’ll pray. Agape O God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, we give our hearts to you, the ever present. Chionia You gave your blood so you could save us all, and we’ll repay you with our lives, our freedom. Irena You are ineffable in your great mercy, you’re pure, conceived without primeval sin. You, Mother both of God in human form and of the Word, we kneel before you now. 46. The place where the sisters find refuge is characterized here as a pleasant environment (locus amoenus), which serves to heighten the contrast of mood with the following scenes. 47. The figure is in the iconographic style known as frasobliwy [sorrowful], common in Polish folk art. Christ is depicted in a sedentary position, wearing a crown of thorns, resting his head in the palm of one hand, deep in meditation.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 145

Scene Two Tiburtius, Soldiers, Agape, Chionia, Irena Tiburtius What heathen sacrifices do you make? Adoring things unseen will seal your fate. Agape Stop! Speak no more and cease this blasphemy. Are you our torturer? Who sends for us? Tiburtius You’ll see, for you’re highborn, a beauty too,48 that by rejecting falsehood for the truth, your heart and heathen … Chionia Cease these evil words; Our faith is strong; we stand by our beliefs. We have one God, the Holy Trinity, His virgin mother, body pure and saintly. Tiburtius Silence, audacious witch, you speak too brash. Do not blaspheme this way against our Jove. Irena Why hasn’t death forever closed your mouth? It rants so fiercely against the truth. Fulfill your orders as your lord has bid, Lead us to torture, suffering is joy. Tiburtius Listen, fair maidens, you of noble birth,49 You’ll suffer torture and eternal death, 48. Her beauty and her fine figure are emphasized to contrast with her “crude error”—the falsity of her religious convictions. 49. The repeated highlighting of the noble, aristocratic, high birth of the heroines (by contrast with hagiographic tradition, in which they are servants!). See also act I, scene 3; act III, scene 1; act III, scene 4; act III, scene 7; act III, scene 15, indicating the dramatist’s concern to emphasize their tragic status, deepening the significance of their position and the extent of what they stand to lose.

146 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA so why not keep your rank and your great wealth, and live your life while praising our true gods? Jewels and silver, gold and bags of cash, prestige and privilege, and sheer delights,50 a husband’s faithful love, you’ll have it all if you will take our incense to the altar, or else you’ll burn and torment will ensue. Your blood will flow and stain your pure white skin. Harsh iron pincers, burning fire and drowning, you’ll drink hot pungent pitch from raging flames, and all the tortures, all the axe man’s wiles, will force your false beliefs to be expunged. Let me advise, persuade you of your fault; that your self will’s abhorrent in a woman.51 Agape I want no silver, gold, possessions, money. Let those who seek eternal life stay poor. For God himself is all my wealth and gain, and we all three desire to die with laurels.52 Chionia How you blaspheme! I shiver at your tricks. My Savior’s blood—that is our purple mantle.53 The greatest privilege we will enjoy when all our suffering takes us up to heaven Irena Our wealth, our children stay with Jesus Christ, as all our thoughts go up to God the Father. 50. Tiburtius’s lines here (“so why not keep your rank and your great wealth”) represent the temptation of the heroines, the counterpart to the temptation of Christ (the martyr as alter Christus), followed by the threat (“or else you’ll burn and torment will ensue”). 51. Her wilfulness is contrasted with the stereotypical contemporary model of the role of women, implying docility, obedience towards the husband and towards men in general. 52. An allusion to Paul, 2 to Timothy, 4: 6–7: “For I am now ready to be offered, and the time of my departure is at hand. I have fought the good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith” (KJV). Since antiquity the symbol of rewards for victory has been the crown of laurels. 53. For the ancients, purple was the quintessential godly and regal color. Full regalia in purple was the exclusive privilege of the Roman emperors; dignitaries and the wealthy could wear only a purple sash from the shoulder to the hem of the tunic. Represented in Byzantine mosaics as the true Kyrios, Christ wears the regal purple.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 147 The Holy Ghost and Mary’s sacrifice lead me to wish no mercy and no favors. Pursue your goal, and take us there in haste. My God I praise, your false gods I deny. Tiburtius Audacious harlots, bent on your demise, committing readily such evil crimes; so haste to die, but first meet Caesar’s wife, and see if gentle words can win your hearts. ACT THREE

Scene One Emperor’s wife, Paula, Agape, Chionia, Irena, Tiburtius Emperor’s wife Go, leave us ladies now, Tiburtius, I wish to talk with them a while quite free. Of noble rank and figure quite alluring, Why lose your great prestige through worthless faith?54 Accept the sense of Caesar’s firm decrees. Your kinsmen nearly all accept our gods. What of your own beliefs? Don’t be afraid.55 Describe the principles that you hold dear. Agape There is one God, creator of all things.56 He formed our bodies, then he gave them life. He made darkness and light, moon, stars and sun, celestial bodies circling round the earth,57 54. I.e., by thoughtlessly adhering to the Christian faith, you forfeit the respect you are due by virtue of your noble birth and your physical beauty (according to classical concepts, however, it is confirmed by spiritual nobility). 55. Although the empress is attempting to persuade the sisters to obey the emperor’s commands and conform, she is intrigued and wishes to learn more about the Christian faith. 56. Agape, declaring her belief in a unique God, relates the story of the Creation from the Book of Genesis—the creation of the world in seven days and the original sin. 57. In the wake of the sixteenth-century Council of Trent, a landmark in the counterreformation, Copernicus’s book setting out his heliocentric model of the solar system, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium [On the revolutions of the celestial spheres] was banned by the Catholic church and his

148 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA the elements: Earth, Air and Fire and Water58 he did create, and made the cold earth moist. He made the sky and hung the earth therein, then he created clouds around the globe. He made the birds and beasts and all the reptiles, the butterflies and all the atoms too. And then he fashioned Man, whose strength you see. He made the elements in seven days59; from clay he made Man and gave him a Soul; power to move and reason; while he slept, he took a rib and shaped it to our form. The Man he named as Adam, Eve the wife. In Paradise they dwelled; all power was theirs.60 One tree alone they weren’t allowed to touch, but haughty Satan cunningly did tempt the woman; she was weak and ate an apple, and thereupon they ceased to be God’s equals. Eve ate the fruit and gave the core to Adam.61 For this God banished them from Paradise. Chionia By this transgression God was truly angered; primeval sin was punished then in hell, while saints in purgatory await the gift62 that comes from Christ’s spilt blood, the Word of God. So mercifully with his Holy Spirit views rejected as contrary to the Christian view of the world. This lasted until 1758 (n.b. Radziwiłłowa’s plays were published in 1754 and written and performed earlier than that). 58. Earth, air, fire, and water are the four elements which, in ancient philosophy, formed the basis of all matter in nature. 59. This was a formula relating to the concept of Deus Artifex, God the creator of the world. 60. The power of the first dwellers in Paradise was total and founded on unlimited generosity; only one thing was forbidden (see next footnote). 61. Thus Eve did not actually share the forbidden apple with Adam but gave him the inedible leftovers—the core, the stalk, and a leaf. Radziwiłłowa here repeats (with intentional irony regarding male views on the subject?) those sections of the biblical story of original sin which ascribe to Eve not only gullibility in the face of temptation but also greed and bad treatment of Adam (for which she would be punished more—not only by expulsion from Paradise with Adam and condemnation to hard labor, but by the pangs of childbirth). 62. The modern conception of purgatory is anticipation of the redemption of the universal curse of the original sin that afflicts everyone except a chosen few good and just people like the Greek philosophers or Virgil; the remainder of those in purgatory are deprived of God’s care.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 149 he introduced him in the purest woman, the Virgin Mary quite immaculate, betrothed to Joseph yet a virgin still, she bore within her womb the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, the Trinity in one. Therein the Son of God takes human form, of humble birth, just wrapped in swaddling clothes— an empty stable was his dwelling then. And soon the faith was spread, the word of God. Our Lord a prisoner in human form, with godly soul, has suffered pain for us. The tortures that he suffered move us all. Irena The unbelievers take the Lord betrayed by a disciple, Judas, his own servant. Ingratitude the first torment, he kissed him, just a sycophant and so betrayed the Christ, who’s dragged and beaten, crowned with thorns, severely tortured, lashed while bound in chains, tormented, dragged, nailed on the dreadful cross. His mother grieves; our hearts are all in pain. Blood flows to expiate the sin of Adam. The saints ascend as heaven’s gates unlock. Those firm believers living virtuous lives will enter heaven, certain of its joys. Do not detain us with your empty words. The gain we seek befits our spirit only. Emperor’s wife What’s this I hear! Deliver them to Caesar! No longer will I seek to change their minds; say they remain quite obstinate, all three. Let them be given what they claim they want.

Scene Two Emperor’s wife, Paula Emperor’s wife Have you considered, Paula, what beliefs these girls so bravely hold, their secret faith?

150 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA They have no fear of death, this life must end, but life eternal follows in the next. Paula My lady, speak no more, but hide your grief. Believe there is indeed one perfect God. Be quiet, though, for if we’re overheard, and if you show the tears that wet your eyes, our fate is sealed, so let us keep the faith; Deride it though, and pray to silent gods.63 Emperor’s wife Pray tell them, Paula, that my head is sore. Make sure the guard admits no one at all.

Scene Three Emperor, Tiburtius, Paula Paula My lady bids me come before your throne, By every means she sought to turn those Maidens, To no avail she begged, then threatened them. She sends them here to you; they’ve no regrets, whereas my lady rages, she’s gone wild. She lies in bed, she groans, her head is bound. Those lovely ladies come; I hear their steps. Meanwhile my lady needs me straightaway. Emperor Give her my greetings, may she calm her grief. Now listen, how they quite reject our gods, hear what these witches say, what they expect. Degrading torture shall be wrought on them.

63. The expression “silent gods” (idols, pagan images) is a controversial issue; it has apologetical sense in reference to fundamental concepts of the Judaeo-Christian religion in opposition to pagan cults: in biblical terms God speaks to people, searches for people in order to speak to them; by his word he somehow anticipates the establishment of a religious cult among humans. Decorum demands that a proposition of this kind (falsehood, deceit, hypocrisy) could only come from the mouth of a nonheroic character, realistically and pragmatically inclined, a rather shrewd servant.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 151 Tiburtius As you commanded, Majesty, I sought to tame their stubbornness by every means. I begged, I offered wealth then threatened pain. They have no fear of death at their God’s hand. They wish for nothing, life for them is worthless. The bliss to come in heaven gives them courage. All three as one, they’re handsome, healthy, fine. They care for nothing; why I cannot tell. I found them kneeling in the sylvan grass. They offered fervent prayers to their One God, three figures stood before them; I could tell the three were one in both their hearts and minds. Emperor Then bring them here, my lesson is severe: I’ll take their life, their honor, fortune, health.

Scene Four Emperor, Tiburtius, Agape, Chionia, Irena Emperor What madness seizes you? Who is so haughty? Who still rejects our gods with such contempt. You’re all of noble birth, such lovely girls. Don’t be so arrogant; you’ll have rich husbands. Reject your Christ and his divinity. Your skin so fine will else be torn away.64 If you agree to bow before our gods, you’ll yet receive rich honors in reward. Agape Surely you know your Commonwealth, O Caesar.65 64. A historical anachronism. The Romans did not practice this form of torture, whereas the Tatars did tear strips of skin from live victims, for example, the Jesuit missionary Andrzej Bobol in 1617. In Radziwiłłowa’s day he was idolized, and there was a movement for his beatification, announced in 1728. Radziwiłłowa’s uncle, Michał Serwacy Wiśniowiecki, among others, experienced a miraculous recovery thanks to this martyr, as was recalled during the Jesuits’ funeral orations on his death in 1744. 65. It is an obvious anachronism in respect of the late Roman Empire to adopt the term “commonwealth” here, a synonym for the state in the tradition of the so-called Commonwealth of PolandLithuania, which had at the time been in existence for two hundred years.

152 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Whether your people number thousands strong, how far your borders reach, how vast your army. Do not offend the living Lord of all. He is your aid, his goodness your forgiveness. Your every deed is sanctioned by his will. Emperor Take her away at once, she’s gone quite crazy. Bring me the second one. What can I say! Chionia Agape rightly blames you, she’s not crazy; the world is subject to one God alone. Your views are wrong, she speaks good sense indeed. All true believers say the same as I. Emperor Lead her away, she too has lost her mind. Subject them to the prefect’s awesome trials.66 You truly are the finest flower of youth. Don’t be so obstinate; bow to our gods,67 set an example to your elder sisters. You all will profit if you condescend. Irena Let him whom God condemned in wrath to fate that’s cruel bow down his head before your idols. It’s total folly worshipping such gods.68 A pagan god must first be bought and sold. Baptized an idol, made by artisans, can he be called the lord of all the world? That hideous mammon—sacrifice to him while smoking musk and crowning worthless heads? Can I revere this god, who’s fouled by dogs, consumed by worms? No, Caesar, let me die. 66. Stefan Wielewiejski, SJ, refers to Dulcius as a prefect (mayor): Wielewiejski 1736, 11. 67. The emperor hopes that he will more readily achieve success by breaking the will of the youngest sister. He falsely appeals to her ambitions (arguing that she should set an example for her elder sisters). Her youth underlines her innocence. Her separation from her sisters, who are accused of insanity and already condemned to suffer torture, is intended to weaken her morale. 68. This motif was treated by S. Wielewiejski in “The Martyrdom of the Three Holy Sisters,” (Wielewiejski 1736, 10) with a gloss in the margin: “Wise teaching about idols.”

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 153 Emperor I’ll drown this blasphemy in blood, and you unsightly grubs will get incessant lashes.69 While I’m away to see my Macedonia, someone who sins against my own true gods must needs be brought to book by Dulcius and suffer torture till their soul departs.

Scene Five Dulcius, Agasp, Agape, Chionia, Irena Dulcius Agasp, just look! Ah, what a gorgeous sight! Venus alone is worthy to compare. All three are lovely girls; such eyes, such lips. They stir my fancy, all are so delightful. A man can hardly keep his thoughts at bay. Where love takes hold, disputes may fade away. Come here, three goddesses, creatures divine, pray to our gods and live a joyful life. My lord has sent you here today, you know the reason why, and why he promises great wealth but also issues threats of death. Agape We know, and martyrs’ death is what we want. We seek not riches, nor the married state. One loses all in death, and in the grave the earthworms eat one’s body, drink one’s blood. Nothing has worth, not freedom, wealth, or crowns. To those who wait comes heaven’s eternal joy. Chionia All kings and emperors, all princes die,70 and likewise farmers, peasants, beggars too. Instant by instant, minute by minute 69. The blue stripes and the red of the bleeding wounds will be a symbol of the renewal of Christ’s passion, that is, of belonging to him. 70. Emphasizing the transitory nature of life and the fact that all humans, however grand their status, are mere mortals and liable to die at any moment.

154 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA goes by, and any time your breath may stop. You cannot threaten us or buy us off. We’re glad we’re soon to die the way that’s right,71 and pay the ransom for our God and faith, Our biers will run with blood; it shall flow fast. Irena You threaten, judge, with wealth and soul’s reward, but is your heart not moved to hear the truth, Will our resolve, our passion that’s unyielding, not move your cruel, steely hearts to love? We do not die, for after we are buried our bodies rot, our souls rejoice in heaven, enjoying praise that’s boundless from our Lord and secret joy eternal in the Savior. So cut, torment, and burn; we’ll gladly suffer. My God ordains it all; this is his will. Dulcius Take them away, Agasp, to your own house, and I will come along, but keep it secret. Carnal desire will surely seal my fate. I will not worship now, so take them home and I’ll postpone my verdict for a while. Go now, Agasp will guard you with great care.

Scene Six Dulcius Unhappy eye that’s free to roam at will, were only reason firmer than a rock. A fleeting glance, that’s all, ensnared the mind.72 The heart’s confused, it’s bound as though in chains. While reason battles love, caution fights passion. While eyes don’t see, yet reason can prevail. But once deep passions are aroused once more, 71. Chionia is glad that they will die soon and “as they should,” that is, they are prepared for it, it is their deliberate choice and not a sudden, unexpected end. 72. The battle between heart and mind is played out here. A mere glance leads to the captivation of the heart, and tight constraining bonds are forged in the struggle between reason and emotion, passion and caution.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 155 The eye thwarts reason, so the fight resumes. As does a butterfly; I freely soared.73 Like all the flowers, virtue tasted sweet. A prickly bush gave me a rose today. Its beauty hides the thorn that pricks so sharp. My faith and duty equally advise that they will perish who betray their gods. But why do I delay; what’s to consider? I’ll go wherever love directs my heart. If they resist and scorn my wishes, though, whatever pleases me I’ll take by force.

Scene Seven Dulcius, Agasp Agasp I’ve truly carried out your orders, sir. But what is wrong? There’s something on your mind. They won’t relent; they’re stubbornly resolved. These maidens fear no injury nor torture, but welcome pain; today they’re quite prepared to lay their heads upon the block for Christ. Dulcius Agasp, a dagger could not pierce my heart as does the sight of these three lovely girls. They hold me spellbound, each of them, as though74 they’re not enchained; it’s I who am imprisoned. Make them accept our gods if yet you can, and may they not refuse to mate with me. If they will freely celebrate our love, then I’ll ensure they stay alive and well. Agasp Yes, master, yet I doubt their noble hearts can be won over; all your power will fail. They say their faith is proved by deeds not words.75 73. Reason prevails over emotions as long as the eye does not see the object of desire. 74. Paradoxically, Dulcius is captivated by the beauty of the sisters who are his captives. 75. I.e., the rejection of the attempt to make them deny Christ, thereby choosing martyrdom.

156 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I know that none will dare commit this crime.76

Scene Eight Agasp, Agape, Chionia, Irena Agasp I greet you all with great respect, fair ladies. Today your fate hangs in the balance still. The torturers prepare, they build the pyre. The mob are crowding in to see the sight. Now quickly hear me; only one way’s left. Dulcius pines for love of each of you; submit to him and when he’s had his way the dread tribunal he’ll revoke at once. But should you not agree of your free will, then he must violate your honor too. He’ll satisfy himself, and then you’ll die. It can’t be wrong to do what saves your life.77 Agape Tyrant’s abuse is crueler than death. I wish to die by spilling of my blood, not be defiled by harlotry this way. Oh shame! My brow perspires, my sorrow grows. Go, say they may torment us, all the same.78 Both God and honor shall be thus upheld. Chionia How dare you, rogue! Let them torment us all. We have no fear, we will not be betrothed. We have but one beloved in our flock,79 with whom we will rejoice in heavenly bliss.80 How can this murderer, with wife and children, 76. I.e., the crime of bowing down before idols, denial of Christ, and acceptance of the Roman gods. 77. The suggestion is founded on the ethic that survival is paramount, having precedence over all other goals and values, that the saving of one’s own life must be achieved whatever the cost. 78. Agape finds solace in the fact that if they are ravished by force God will defend them and will not permit them to fall into dishonor (force does not violate chastity). 79. They are God’s lambs, and Christ, their beloved, is a good shepherd. 80. They will rejoice in being with Christ and not with Dulcius, who proposes erotic pleasures.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 157 accost these maidens, innocent, all three? We will forever guard our priceless honor until we die, and then we’ll shed no tears. Irena Our Lord is generous and full of pity; he81 won’t condemn all lechery outright. Make anyone insane or take his life. The tyrant’s house and home is not destroyed. Our faith is firm, and we’ll retain our honor. In perfect virtue we will surely die. We fear not death; may those who sully honor all be aware that God is its defender. Agasp So disobliging, so impetuous, repaying love that’s true with evil words. I’ll first report and rapidly return with those who’ll take your haughty life and honor.

Scene Nine Dulcius, Agasp Agasp Such thoughtless gall; they wouldn’t let me speak.82 Prepared to die today, they won’t surrender. In vain you rack your brains, there’s no reprieve. Use force, and fully satisfy your lust, for what is gained by force tastes sweeter still. You always want forbidden fruit still more.83 81. I.e., Dulcius. 82. Before the discovery of the circulation of blood, the human body was thought to contain four fluids—blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile, ideally in perfect balance. A superfluity of one of the fluids was held to cause one of four humors (temperaments). An excess of yellow bile indicated the choleric temperament, or anger, of blood the sanguine temperament, of black bile the melancholy temperament, and of phlegm the phlegmatic temperament. There are philosophical associations with the ancient concept of the four elements constituting the whole of nature: earth, air, fire, and water. 83. It is interesting to note that in this rider to the proverb mentioned in the previous line Radziwiłłowa shifts the emphasis to an internalization of the prohibition, to guidance by one’s conscience, pointing out that in the realm of virtue we make our own individual decisions, in accordance with custom (social norms of acceptability) rather than in accordance with an express external prohibition. Once

158 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Dulcius That’s good advice, so go, put them in prison where those utensils lie, all stowed away. I’ll follow on, my secret urge will drive me. I’ll have my way by force with all three sisters

Scene Ten Dulcius Today by force at last I must defeat84 these proud objections and such haughty spirits, for wild infatuation goads me on. I’ll feast my longing eyes on their whole bodies. They’ll be in prison now, I’ll waste no time. I’ll satisfy my urge, my lust today.

Scene Eleven Agape, Chionia, Irena pray to God in a corner. Instead of them, Dulcius embraces and kisses kitchen utensils, covering himself in grease and losing his mind. Dulcius Here’s one, another, all three lovers here. You all enslave my will, I can’t resist. Lovely Chionia, let me kiss your lips. They uttered harsh complaints a while ago. And you, Agape, I embrace you now. Please soothe the pain and longing of my life. Irena, soul of mine, taste these sweet lips.85 How good this is! I’ll never want to leave. What have you led me to? Farewell at last. Think now that you and I can both be rested. Thank goodness now I take this victim first. again, she shifts the emphasis from a performed action (it is tasty) to a temptation (I want something) and then from satisfaction in disobeying the prohibition to the necessity to overcome temptation! This is an expression of the mature a priori ethic that Radziwiłłowa wished to consolidate as much as possible in her environment. 84. Dulcius is now also guided by frustrated ambition—he wants to break the sisters’ resistance at any cost. 85. Note the irony: Dulcius’s name means sweet. In the comedy on the same topic by Hroswitha of Gandersheim (c. 935 to c. 1002) the eponymous prefect is called Dulcitius.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 159 They’ll suffer for resisting me before. Oh how I took my fill, my soul is warmed. No one can fail to be aroused by love. Dulcius leaves, and people run away when they see him covered in black grease and acting crazily, calling for his confidant. He stumbles into the court and the emperor’s apartments. Ridiculed and expelled from there, he runs home, calling Agasp, hey! Agasp, Agasp, Agasp! Hey! I make the best of things when there’s a chance. Agasp! Well, can you hear me still, Agasp?! He’s running off just like a dog gone wild. Agasp, my Agasp …

Scene Twelve Emperor, Tiburtius, Dulcius, the assembled court Emperor … What? He’s going mad. Tiburtius It’s true. Oh, help! Whatever’s going on? Emperor Get him out! Tiburtius Get out! Dulcius Agasp! Emperor Take him to court. What’s up with him? He’s shouting out like mad.

160 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Scene Thirteen Dulcius, his wife and children, Agasp Dulcius What’s this? My wife and children all in mourning? They thought me dead. I’d formed a new alliance.86 Agasp, I cannot bear to see these veils. My strength has gone; I cannot even speak. Agasp What is afoot, where is your reason, master? How could you thus reject your wife and children? Whatever’s made your face all black and filthy? Your love for all three sisters was so great it proved to be a dirty business then! Dulcius (sees himself in the mirror) Oh, what a face! How have the spiteful witches so cunningly besmirched my charming cheeks. I’ll hide my face for shame, but in revenge I’ll see these cheats are tortured with no mercy. Fetch them, Agasp, to face their execution. Let them depart this life that means so little. The mob will mock them as I strip them bare. Their naked backs shall take a thousand lashes.

Scene Fourteen Dulcius, Agasp, Agape, Chionia, Irena, Soldiers Dulcius Take charge of all these fickle, godless witches. You soldiers, strip them bare, take all their clothes. First let me look on them, and then ensure the thorny whip shall tear their skin to shreds. Take her and strip those clothes with soldiers’ hands. Beat her, don’t show the hussy any mercy.

86. This reversal reveals more clearly the nature of Dulcius’s intentions and actions, previously described in the text and by his gestures in a roundabout manner.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 161 Agape O Lord! In all your boundless charity, protect the chasteness of your brides today and keep them in your mercy from this shame. You work such miracles, beyond our ken. Close those accursed eyes that would look on. Dulcius Beat them to death, come on! … First soldier … I can’t—their skin87 is like a donkey’s, tough as tough can be. Dulcius Nonsense, come on! … Second soldier … The same with her, the clothes will not come off. Chionia Oh you accursed scoundrel, infidel! You see how mighty is our Christian God! He hides our shame, our clothes adhere to us. We’ll not be sullied by your evil lust. Irena Jesus, who naked suffered pain for us,88 defends us now, restrains your shameful hand. The Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, One God, will in the name of Mary thwart your scheme.89 87. The motif of the miracle of a maiden’s clothes adhering to her body so they cannot be torn off occurs in The Golden Legend or Lives of the Saints (Aurea Legenda), compiled by Jacopo da Varazze, Archbishop of Genoa, 1275, and in Wielewiejski’s Nowe żywoty świętych (New lives of the saints), 1736: “… they adhered so that they appeared to be the skins of their bodies.” Perhaps this explains Radziwiłłowa’s donkey simile. She may have been influenced by the poetic motif of eastern origin in Charles Perrault’s fable Peau d’Âne [The donkey’s skin], 1694: disguised in a donkey’s skin, a princess escapes from her widowed father who proposed to marry her. This was a familiar theme in France from 1547. 88. For Irena, the passion of the naked Christ is something she hopes to emulate. 89. Irena promotes the cult of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God (cf. above, act III, scene 1), the Mother of Purity, the model for young girls and their protector.

162 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA The Virgin Mary’s honor will prevail and you’ll be punished for audacity. Dulcius falls asleep on his throne. Agasp So now what, Dulcius, you’ve gone to sleep. Let’s take him out and find a quiet place. I’ll speak to Caesar; take the sisters back and throw them into prison while I bring a harsh decree which shall be carried out by some new judge, who’ll have a heart of stone. Dulcius is carried out, asleep.90

Scene Fifteen91 Emperor, Tiburtius, Agasp Tiburtius Agasp is back again, I’ll ask him why. Shall I admit him sire, to hear his news? Emperor Let him approach—what news? Your lord’s gone mad? Agasp I’ll tell you sire what has transpired alas. Those three fair sisters, noble ladies all, would fain be known as martyrs, suffering pain. Enchanted Dulcius had hoped to seize92 his chance to gain the favors of all three and sought to make them bow before our gods. 90. In the MS: “Dulcius fell asleep on his throne” (Dulcius falls asleep, in the hagiographic tradition of the legend of Agape, Chionia, and Irena). 91. The messenger’s account is a typical feature of the poetics of tragedy. It has no particular justification from the point of view of dramatic structure, however, as it concerns events shown earlier on stage. It interprets and clarifies them further—this is a baroque device for showing the same events from various points of view, a reflection in a mirror, a verification of earlier representations. 92. Agasp informs the Emperor that Dulcius wanted to ravish the sisters, if not by their own free will, then by “robbery,” that is, rape.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 163 He told me what he boldly had proposed, which proudly they rejected, sad to say. They were prepared to face the sword and die. This angered Dulcius, who then in secret made haste to seek them in their kitchen cell, where he embraced instead the pots and pans. You saw the ridicule that thus was caused. He thought he’d gained the objects of his passion when he embraced those culinary vessels. Returning home he banished wife and children. Then when the mirror showed his face all soiled he ran in shame back to the court of death. To be avenged he’d spill the sisters’ blood. But so he’ll still achieve his satisfaction he ordered first that they be stripped all bare. But as the clothes were torn they still adhered unto their bodies, covering their shame. The sisters arrogantly praised their God, and showed no fear; they still are undeterred. My master swooned away upon his throne, borne out by courtiers—so what’s afoot? He lies and snores; this is the devil’s work.93 All three maintain their faith, and they’re untouched. Another judge must be appointed, sire. The people are agog for your decree. Emperor What is afoot? Our gods are disrespected. Summon Sisinnius, of stern repute. Let him torment and sully them at once. The first he’ll burn, the next consign to whoredom.

Scene Sixteen Emperor, Tiburtius, Sisinnius, Agasp Sisinnius What is your wish? I’m at your service, sire.

93. The Romans’ belief in the devil is an anachronism, as is the reference to black magic (cf. act I, scene 2).

164 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Emperor Hear me, Sisinnius, I’m handing you these maidens, firm in faith and honor still. They shall bow down before our gods, or die. Agasp will tell you all … Sisinnius … your servant, sire. Your royal will shall swiftly be dispatched.

Scene Seventeen Sisinnius, Agasp, Agape, Chionia, Irena Sisinnius Take them at once as Caesar has decreed. No spell shall here protect these three again. They’ll bow before our gods as Caesar bids, or else I will destroy all three at once. Agasp Beauty so rare, their figures are sublime. Beware, Sisinnius, avert your gaze. Sisinnius You’re in the thrall of magic, devil’s work.94 It’s Caesar’s wish that you should wed today. He’ll set you free as soon as you’re all wed. We’ll bow to Jupiter’s graven image. But should you still maintain your stubborn will, not one of you will live until this night. Agape Satan and all his ruses played on us shall perish when he sees the Holy Cross. We will not marry, and we spurn such freedom. Our God’s within our hearts; we’re quite fulfilled. We will not worship idols; our God lives, the one true God, the Holy Trinity. 94. Agape confirms the connection between black magic and the works of the devil (cf. six lines below (“Satan and all his ruses played on us”) and act III, scene 15 (“this is the devil’s work”).

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 165 We have no dread of death and fearlessly defend our faith, despising all false gods. Sisinnius She’s said enough, and soon she’ll be consumed by fierce flames; now let the second speak. Chionia I speak the truth and never will desist, for we’ll all gladly perish for our faith, rejecting marriage, riches, and high status. We seek to emulate the Christ our Lord; as he once spilt his blood upon the Cross, we suffer too and rest our hopes in him. You speak in vain; you cannot break our will, We value faith, our courage, and our God, while freedom, wealth, and privilege of wives are but ephemeral idolatry. Sisinnius No more audacious words! Bring pen and paper.95 It’s my decree. In flames her skin shall scorch. But I’ll delay the verdict on the youngest, and cast her into jail; she’ll never rest. Irena Why must I suffer such distressing treatment? Dear sisters, why must we be parted thus? Will you go first, despite my keenest wish, and leave me thus to bear my sisters’ loss. Oh judge! I beg you humbly, kindly grant my fervent wish to share my sisters’ tortures. Sisinnius Accursed witch, you rue that you won’t die at once, condemned to live enslaved and poor, and satisfy men’s ever-lustful urge, fulfilling every secret youthful passion. Take her, you soldiers, I have so decreed. Her place is in a house of ill repute, 95. Sisinnius addresses another servant.

166 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA to satisfy men’s sheer unbridled lust. And you once more should listen to my plea: insane are those who will not save their lives. If you will sacrifice unto our gods I’ll then revoke your punishment and death; instead you’ll keep your honor, have your gain. Agape, Chionia We will not sacrifice, we wish no gain. Sisinnius Then both of you go to the fiery stake. Agape96 We gladly go, Sisinnius, our hearts rejoice in secret that eternal life awaits, for we’ll transcend this mortal state; for this we praise our glorious God of mercy. Remember what you were before your birth. What you then were, what now, and what you’ll be. All bare with senseless cries you left the womb, and then you grew, wore clothes, sometimes felt hungry, and when you breathe your last it’s just as sure you’ll molder in the ground to feed the worms. God has for centuries decreed when man shall be conceived, then live his span, and die; when human life shall terminate or start.97 How do you judge the time you’ve spent on earth? Do you recall, did you rule well or not? Small thorns torment the body that’s defenseless; mere wrinkles may suffice to cause you pain. Soon all is past; the minutes turn to hours; and then from dusk to dawn the hours drive on, the ever-changing sun and moon take turns; nature plays havoc; first with rain then shine. The summer heat, the ears of corn, pink flowers, the frost will kill all growth; in time all dies. But life and death are in the hands of God; 96. An affirmation of faith, an attempt to convert the torturer with the argument about the irrelevance of status, which also consoles those going to their death. 97. The comparison of death and birth is a homiletic theme.

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 167 he gives us bounty, and he takes away. But souls remain immortal, safe, and sound. In heaven time and tide no longer harm them. That joy that’s boundless has no limitation, Rejoices, and it profits from this sun that makes the darkness light and rules the world. Since God is truth, believers cannot fail. So, judge, pronounce at once, for this soul’s sake. Brave hearts will not be swayed by worthless dogma. Chionia What gives us cause to blench? Death comes to all. It makes no matches, favors are there none. It’s kith and kin to all the human race. At death one instant can recall all life gone by, as day is locked in dreadful darkness. Kings, lords, and shepherds—all are grouped together. Were you to dig up bones from earthly graves, no one could tell if they were man or beast. For kings and commoners it’s all the same, but heaven gives rewards for faith and honor: for there the powerful with rich estates are only specks of dust when they’re compared with boundless benefits bestowed in heaven, with blessed joy at last that’s quite complete, true happiness enjoyed by pious folk, there in that bright contentment with no shadow98 I go into the flames but shed no tears, for fear that they might quench the blazing fire. Do it at once; my soul brooks no delay but strives to go where God’s decrees appoint. Sisinnius Now cast them in the flames to burn alive. May all their tears and wailing quench the fire. Then bring Irena, let her lovely body afford young men their pleasures, all their passion.

98. A contrast is expressed with erotic satisfaction, demanding surreptitious intimacy, darkness, embarrassment.

168 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Scene Eighteen Sisinnius, Irena, Soldiers of the court Sisinnius Accept our gods and perish not in vain, like both your sisters burned alive in flames. Irena I will not pray to them; I wish to share my sisters’ suffering, not to be a heathen. Sisinnius Ensure you don’t endure more pain than they; it’s such a shame about your fine young body. Irena I want to burn; the fire will cool me down.99 A diamond can’t be spoiled by blade or flame. Sisinnius In vain you seek to share your sisters’ fate, for you’ll be violated as a harlot, severely treated, men will vent their love until the Fates cut through your thread of life.100 Irena You will not force me to accept your gods; torment me, send me to the bawdy house; whatever tortures you may else devise, I’ll disregard them, suffer them with ease. Let them defile my body, souls stay pure. The blood they force between the martyrs’ lips from heathen sacrifice, that beastly blood within the body couldn’t harm their souls. Although the lips are fouled by streams of blood, the soul retains its worth and honor still. 99. A baroque paradox. 100. The Fates: Radziwiłłowa refers to the Parcae, that is, the Roman equivalent of the Moirae of Greek mythology. The Moirae controlled the “thread of life,” which they could sever to end the life of mortals and even immortal beings (the Greek gods).

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 169 Sisinnius How can the soul escape the body’s pain? The spirit feels what human bodies suffer. Irena We’re undefiled by your misdeeds; we’re blessed. My conscience blames all those who relish evil. The blood that’s forced between unwilling lips gains the reward, not censure, of the Lord. If any willingness were shown in this, damnation of the soul forever follows. For no such violence defiles me, but I must preserve my body from this sin. Though you consign me to the bawdy house, my heart belongs to Christ, by grace of God. I will not remonstrate against my fate, but, as they torture me, recall Christ’s passion. God’s name protects me everywhere I go, no one can steal my honor, blot it out. My guardian angel keeps at bay this evil. God won’t allow such lust to touch my heart. I trust in him to bar you from your goal, though you unite my soul with God by torture. Sisinnius Take her away, my verdict makes quite clear, whoever wishes may torment her now, so take this wretch and cast her in the brothel. May hordes of lustful youths bring on her death. First you two soldiers take her, and this night may she thus learn the might of Cupid’s bow.

Scene Nineteen Soldiers, Irena Soldier Make haste, I long for joy of easy prey. Second soldier Come on, my appetite is growing too.

170 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Irena O Lord, who overpowers the soldiers’ ranks, inflict harsh punishment on these pursuers. Other soldiers, catching them up First soldier Just wait, Sisinnius has sent us here. You’ll take this girl to join our Lord’s great feast. (to the escort) We scarcely caught you up, our orders are to slowly take the route uphill with you. (to Irena) Climb on the rock with care; await the verdict. Hold in your heart this heaven you perceive.101 Second soldier We’ll rest upon the rock while you return: say you have laid this virgin here, just as your master ordered you, but we’ll protect her honor for the Lord who rules us all.102

Scene Twenty Soldiers, Irena Soldier Almighty God has sent us here to you so your true honor shall reveal his might. Angelic grace today takes human form, and our accustomed nature is transformed. What is your wish, to live or in God’s grace, rejecting harlotry, to die victorious? Irena, falling to her knees Oh! May my tortured soul give thanks to God, for in my heart today I worship him. 101. He appears to her as an angel. He has not yet sent Irena’s escort back to Sisinnius, but the original soldiers are just being sent away by the second soldier-angel, thus the words of the first one are mysterious, comprehensible only to the initiated (Irena). 102. There is deliberate ambiguity here: is “the Lord” to be taken to mean the emperor, or God?

The Judge Who Lost His Reason 171 I wish to die with hope like this, not live. May God permit my soul to flow to heaven at once as blood is spilt and there’ll be silence. My ears, my breath, and all my senses then will suffer pain but hear no blasphemy. Soldier Then go to heaven’s gates, struck down by iron, a deadly arrow pierced your heart so true.

Scene Twenty-One Sisinnius, soldiers Soldier We gained the summit, where we laid Irena and those two soldiers were again on watch. As you commanded, now we come back here while they remain to guard the lady there. Sisinnius Where do you mean? Who mentioned that? Who? What? You’re led astray—by whom, along which path? Second soldier We went as you commanded, but those two in uniform pursued our trail with haste. Stop there! To carry out our master’s will you were to lay Irena in that forest. When she remained upon a rock high up, with haste we brought the news; she talked with them. Sisinnius Show me, I’ll rush and drag her by the hair. I’ll ravish, thrash, and beat her, slash and hack. And those false spies I’ll put to painful death; they’ll learn so many tortures as they die. She kneels upon that rock that can’t be reached; that witch’s maw will soon begin to groan. No way up there? Here then—it’s hard. That way in vain, without the talons of a beast.

172 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I’d climb a little way then slide back down. I can’t contain my anger and my fury. My bow is strung, my arrow’s head is sharp. May it at least make her repent her sin.103 Irena Your heathen’s arrow pierces my heart, but yet my stalwart honor is intact. I die still pure, protected by God’s hand my soul is unaffected by this blow. You wretched knight, how can you thus attack a poor defenseless maiden in the forest? I gladly take my leave of savage works, as at your hands I perish like a knight, I go to Jesus Christ my Lord so pure, redeemed in joy although my blood is spilt. My death is willed by God, it is not caused by your pathetic powers on this earth. My tongue is failing now, my end is near. My body fades, my soul goes to its God.

103. I.e., it is a punishment (or his personal revenge) for her resistance. This is an anachronism.

4. LOVE IS BORN IN THE EYES

Introduction The original text is based on the 1754 edition. In the manuscript, the title is given as simply Komedia [A comedy]. A full-page illustration in this edition features the interior of the palace, with Philoxyp in his princely robes, Solon before a portrait of Policrite, and the painter Mandrocle with his palette of paints. This play is a dramatization of Leontidas’s account to Artamène in part 2 of L’Histoire de Philoxipe et de Policrite (book 3, pp. 560–713 in Augustin Courbé’s Paris edition dated 1656 of Madeleine and Georges de Scudéry’s monumental novel Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus.104 Here the text is collated with a manuscript fragment (to act I, scene 9) in volume 1 of Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej (Drama of Urszula Radziwiłłowa) in the Warsaw Central Archives of Historical Documents, Radziwiłł Archive (AGAD AR) Library manuscripts section, ref. 48. pp. 604–619, in which the play is entitled simply Komedia [A Comedy] and the 1751 edition (from which the title page is missing) and an extant fragment in the Institute for Literary Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw (IBL) ref. XVIII 3.3, collated to act V, scene 2, and a copy with missing title page in volume 2 of the above Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej. (ref. 49) The performance of the play, based on the 1754 edition, took place “on the solemn festival of St. John, patron of His Excellency Prince Janusz Radziwiłł, Lord of the Manor of Nieśwież, Petyhorski, Captain of Horse, Chief Tribunal Judge of Kowno [Kaunas] in the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania, Knight of the Order of St. Hubert on June 24, 1750.” However, the handwritten diary of Michał Radziwiłł records the “Comedy of Solon” at an earlier date, June 13, 1749, that is, the nameday of the same prince and two performances three years after the death of Princess (Franciszka) Urszula (Radziwiłłowa), at the end of August 1756. The cast list is not mentioned. It is possible that the performance on the festival of St. John in 1750 was connected with the introduction to public life of the twin sons of Prince Michał and Princess Urszula, Karol and Janusz, in 1748; in February 1750 they became deputies of regional councils (sejmiki), to which they traveled with their mother—Karol from Pińsk, Janusz from Kowno (Kaunas). In May Janusz made speeches in the presence of the king and queen in Warsaw. Seventeen-year-old Janusz was taken ill in October and died in Oława. The parents’ grief at this loss was expressed in his father’s diary (“it was nearly the death of us not only because he was my child, but because he was a grown-up young man, well educated and ready to serve his country”). Princess Urszula wrote a brief

104. Accessed at http://www.artamene.org.

173

174 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA twelve-line poem on the day her son died: “In vain one counts on happiness … ”, overcoming her wish to die, as was God’s will. (Barbara Judkowiak)

Fig. 4 Love is Born in the Eyes

Love is Born in the Eyes 175

Dramatis personae Polyxen, King of Cyprus105 Philoxyp, prince, confidant to Polyxen106 Solon, philosopher, Athenian lawmaker Aretaphila, princess, lady friend of Polyxen Policrite, daughter of Solon, lady friend of Polyxen Partenia, Princess Salamis, sister of Philoxyp107 Agarysta, confidante of Aretaphila108 Cleante, an old man Megista, wife of Cleante (an old woman) Doryda, daughter of Cleante and Megista, confidante of Policrite Leontidas, friend and confidant of Philoxyp Arasp, confidant of Philoxyp109 Mandrocle, painter A slave (of Cleante) Two servants110 ACT ONE

Scene One Polyxen [alone, in contemplation] Past years of freedom, memories—that’s all. No conflict then; my heart knew no discord. My senses soared just like a bird in flight; I was content, my virtue was assured. Now freedom’s lost, my liberty is gone, 105. In the novel by M. and G. de Scudéry, the king does not bear this name. 106. In Artamène, the king’s confidant is called Philoxype. 107. According to the 1751 edition (omitted in the 1754 edition). Princess Partenia of Cyprus appears also in Radziwiłłowa’s play Consolation after Troubles. 108. In M. and G. de Scudéry’s novel, this is the name of a sister of Philoxyp (Agariste). In this play, Agarysta is more prominent in the conventional dramatic role as friend, confidante, and companion to Aretaphila than as the sister of the hero. 109. In Artamène by M. and G. de Scudéry, a character of this name (Araspe) is a captain and friend of Artamène and his name recurs throughout the novel, but he does not figure in the Story of Philoxyp and Policrite within that work. 110. They do not appear in the MS; they are introduced in the copy: AGAD AR, Library manuscripts section,Volume 2 (ref. 49) of the MS Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej containing copies of plays prepared before the 1751 edition. A unique copy of the play Z oczu się miłość rodzi [Love is Born in the Eyes] is found in volume 2, but their role is unclear—they are not mentioned in the text!

176 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA the harm my life has suffered still not healed. My peace of mind is lost; there just remains my deep unhappiness that none can match. My treatment’s harsh, fair eyes are still averted; distraction drives me to an early grave. To free my heart again I’d give away my throne, my scepter, crown, and royal state. These times are hard to understand, when hearts have grown audacious, why do they command my life to meet an early end this way? When my Aretaphila’s so ungrateful and gives me not a moment’s hope today. Then take me, death, be merciful to me. What makes my lady still stay so aloof? Just let her tear my heart apart, revealing that it enjoyed the sight of her, no more. Come, Philoxyp, accept the heavy fate; Aretaphila won’t accept the oath: she can’t believe or love me in return, I’ll die for her, what more does she demand?

Scene Two Polyxen, Philoxyp Philoxyp Oh can it really be that Polyxen is speaking mournfully today because he’s been defeated and he’s now in love?111 Those hands that bear the royal orb and scepter, could they be weakened now he’s in distress? That’s idle vanity’s main fault of course; some like to grieve and say that love’s to blame. It’s nature’s fault when people’s moods are sad, but not because someone believes in love. Polyxen Your words on passion sound severe to me; when love holds sway it all but takes your life; 111. The suggestion here is that since a ruler is supposed to be in control of everything, including his own emotions, falling in love is considered a personal defeat.

Love is Born in the Eyes 177 it drives unwilling victims to such limits their eyes are all awash, they’re drowned in tears. Philoxyp It’s quite beyond my powers of comprehension how someone’s love can be in name alone— can just be blown away at any time when just the faintest waft of air is felt. Polyxen Oh dear, if only one could really love, and plight one’s troth, delighting in this joy. For sure, as long as love is not mere whim, the more it lasts the stronger it becomes. Philoxyp Can it be true? What would a soldier say: is love more powerful than manly courage? Commanders of a thousand men-at-arms: would they in turn be ruled by love’s goddess? Polyxen I might as well be talking with the blind of colors, telling you my woes and loves. I’ll go to seek a sympathetic soul who’ll understand what sorely grieves my heart.

Scene Three Philoxyp [alone] Such feigned distress, we’ve heard it all before. these put-on acts of broken hearts, these tears, complaints of love that can’t be understood, those unseen fetters binding human hearts. No, I reject all this; I can’t believe that one can fall in love if it’s in vain, or call mere cravings arrows of true love. It’s just a trick of pure imagination. Can eyes indeed devour your common sense, your reason, and your mind when you’re stout-hearted? It’s either just a trick of evil nature,

178 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA or else you seek some pleasure—fine affair! I value freedom more than life itself. I worship all the goddesses bar none, but she who’s praised throughout our island here112: I beg her guard my heart from all love’s passions.

Scene Four Philoxyp, Solon Philoxyp I come here, Solon, seeking your advice how such a raging passion can be calmed. For Polyxen is seized by untold grief; he says he’ll die entrapped by love this way. You know full well the impact of such passions; so tell me, can a man be overcome like this and burn in some mysterious flame; can fruitless misery consume his soul? It’s strange to see him weep in such distress. We know that pain can rend the heart, but now some love of his is making him complain; his eyes are full of tears; his lips are parched from talking all the time. He sighs, can’t sleep, he doesn’t drink, he doesn’t eat a thing, he walks, lies down, gets up, sits down again. He’s quite worn out, beset by dreadful grief. He’s silent first, and then he talks nonstop, though no one ever ventures to enquire. He makes pronouncements, taking various forms: complaints at first, then eloquence returns. One could believe he’d really lost his mind, although it was bestowed by God in heaven. You gave to Athens its own code of laws, so tell me, can such sadness strike our hearts? Solon You still enjoy that happy time when you still soar away with free, unfettered heart. 112. Cyprus, the most beautiful island in the Aegean Sea, is dedicated to the Goddess Venus. Unlike M. de Scudéry, Radziwiłłowa does not refer to the cultural history regarding the distinction between Venus Urania (daughter of Uranus) and Venus Anadyomene (‘rising from the sea’).

Love is Born in the Eyes 179 But yet the time is bound to come; on you there’ll be bestowed despair like this as well. For all of us who’re born into this world will fall in love at least once in our lives. And when this love is countered by disdain, it has all sorts of tricks and wily ruses; it sets its traps in various subtle ways; if you resist, the sooner you succumb. Well, would a deer or mournful beast entrap itself and seek to fall into the net? But time and tide and love, the tender bait, will fetter most of all those hearts that balk at it. Don’t try to win, you stand no chance when heart and nature drag you there by force. Philoxyp Solon, you too are not opposed to this? Oh dear, what strange behavior you describe! When you speak I believe you, yet I’m sure that I’ll repulse in time the evil instinct and thus I’ll stay within the bounds of reason. I will not lose my heart, my eyes resist those curious eyes that always spy on me. My eyes won’t steal a glance at someone else; for it would be an outrage if I did. Solon Through time and nature all will be resolved. Your happiness all gone, laughs change to sighs. You’ve no defenses, so you cannot find relief for all your pain, it just gets worse. A dagger may quite often end one’s life, perhaps because one’s simply lost one’s mind or else by sickness from a host of passions. Whoever loves must die, and if your love is unrequited then you’ll die from grief. It’s like a fire, but water will not quench it. Though tears may flow, the flames grow hotter still. Those tears are like dry twigs thrown in the stove; they only fan the flames of love still more. Do not resist your love when you’re at peace;

180 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA you’re bound to lose the struggle, that’s for sure. Although by now my hair has turned quite gray, my heart has known true passion many times. Farewell. May reason ease your troubled heart. We all must fall in love once in our lives.

Scene Five Aretaphila, Agarysta Agarysta Strange are the ways of fortune, quite contrary, that you don’t love, just seek to wear a crown. Aretaphila, do you think it’s love that plays those tricks? It seems to me it’s feigned. If it was meant sincerely from the heart then you would give up fortunes and all honors. When only pride and greed are what’s involved no one’s in love, but erring in the mind. What can be gained by cold and heartless actions? You fret and mope, you try to hide your sadness. You simply want to seize the reins of power, to love so you can be a queen, that’s all. Aretaphila It’s true, for hearts are stirred by different things. I want no love, my passion is to rule. But if I’m given scepter, throne, and crown, my heart may well be captured and find love. If this his royal promise is in earnest, undignified rejection is ruled out. Where brilliant riches cast their dazzling rays it’s easy to inspire both love and passion. Agarysta If you are keen to rule, take my advice. Just be sincere and fair towards the king. If you incur disfavor, you will lose his love for sure and this will thwart your plans. Be more amenable—no shame in that! Don’t be so harsh, it’s better to be kind.

Love is Born in the Eyes 181 Aretaphila Dear Agarysta, I’ll confide in you that long ago I fell in love before. But now I’d rather die than love without the throne; I simply could not live like that. I’m highly skilled in all the arts and wiles; I scold at first, and then I turn all mild. It cools their love if you appear too docile, if there’s some conflict they will make more effort. So if you want to keep the passion live you must complain, dissimulate as well.113 You must combine these talents both together, so now be docile, now resist quite firmly. All sorts of arguments help pass the time, you’ll argue and make up, that’s food for love. The situation never really changes, time passes pleasantly when you sometimes have quarrels, then you’re reconciled again. This is the scheme that makes the world go round. The tears that flow when you’re ensnared by love will join two hearts in greater passion still, but now I see the king is coming here; he’s in distress, entrapped by secret passions.

Scene Six Polyxen, Aretaphila, Agarysta Polyxen I come to learn if you decree today that I shall live or die, if wrath is calmed and you will deign to offer me compassion. May my devotion, this true love of mine, 113. To dissimulate (pretend)—to keep secret, to be circumspect in speech and appearance. Dissimulation (in Latin hypocrisis), demanded by classical orators, was condemned by Christian moralist commentators on Aristotle as a deviation from truth (and sincerity) and was later admitted only in a jocular context. In court circles it was justified on aesthetic grounds and in political circles on praxiological grounds, but even in those times it was kept within certain bounds (norma virtute). It is worthy of note that Princess Radziwiłłowa’s library included the third edition of L’Homme de cour by Baltasar Gracian in a French translation by Amelot de Houssaie (Paris 1691), and in its individual lyricism numerous complaints are expressed in respect of the burden of the dictates of dissimulation operating in the culture of the court.

182 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA begin to soften your hard heart at last. What reason can you have for all this rancor? At first you’re friendly, then you turn against me. Aretaphila I must address you with respect, your Majesty. Courage and reason mark out kings, not love. Although your love is true I’m still your subject. I know my lowly status all the same. Polyxen Fair lady, please reject these baseless notions, don’t let your senses suffer in this way. Let all your wishes be fulfilled at once. Where there is love the heart won’t be denied. Aretaphila Excuse me please, if I’m to say my piece,  I have to ask how long such love can last. Where eyes are wandering, feet quite soon may follow, and go elsewhere, just like to me today. Polyxen There’s nothing wrong in looking with those eyes that see no beauty equal to your own; one can’t object to such polite encounters; those gestures and those greetings are expected. But staying faithful, quite beyond reproach. One looks but does not see, one steps with care, my thoughts, my will, my eyes, my heart, as one, can see your image only all the time. Aretaphila A fine excuse, just looking since you should. Because it’s done, you visit many ladies, you take their hands and firmly press your lips, enjoying looks and gestures all the while. But if your love is subtle and heartfelt, no harm is done in seeing all those ladies. Passion you quelled when seeing all that beauty will be aroused again where it belongs.

Love is Born in the Eyes 183 And when you’re drawn sometimes to go elsewhere, return as soon as you have passed the message. Love has its rules in eyes and legs and arms; your pleasure’s in the pangs felt in your heart. Love’s never satisfied, but if you’re brave and stay quite true you shall enjoy those favors. Polyxen So do you think it’s best to stay at home? You know, of course, that passion blinds completely. Whoever’s there—you may just see blank walls— your heart and eyes see only your true love. Must comrades too be shunned, amusement banned? No chance to keep your friends or guard your fame? Aretaphila I’m sure that if you love you fear no ill, you risk your fortunes, care not much for honors. True love consumes emotions, friendships, all. It bears no arms, nor does it fear their might. It wins unarmed, it has no need of fetters, and it rejects all suitors every time. All other paths are overgrown, the view that love enjoys the only one in sight.114 It levels kings and shepherds, goddesses and simple girls. You live with her you love, but you must die if you remain alone. You give up throne and scepter and your crown. Love guides all happiness and cuts life short. I can’t commit myself to this with you. Few in this world are genuine true lovers. Polyxen If this is how things stand—they can’t be changed, I’ll bid you now farewell, Aretaphila.

114. I.e., the lover has eyes for his beloved only.

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Scene Seven Polyxen, Philoxyp Polyxen Go seek Aretaphila, Philoxyp. Be full of praise to her and kiss her feet. Make my excuses, ask her: please forgive my faults, or else she’ll drive me to my death. Philoxyp Why such strange words—are you beset by love? Hand her the scepter, sire, then all will change, or else she will not love and will betray you. She’s full of pride and all she seeks is glory. Polyxen I’ll abdicate the throne and she can rule. But on condition that she loves me truly. Let love now pave the way to reach the throne. Then I will win her as my loving wife. So go now, hurry, catch her up and say that if she loves him, Polyxen will give his throne and will devote his life to her.

Scene Eight Philoxyp, Aretaphila, Agarysta Philoxyp Fair Agarysta, why this dreadful hurry? Please tell me do, who’s in your lady’s favor. Please tell me what you know: where can I find her? Please try to help me win her for the king. Agarysta Her heart is wanton, full of false ideas; she plagues her master, acting quite unfairly. And yet she weeps. I wonder if by chance you could through eloquence calm wild excess.

Love is Born in the Eyes 185 Philoxyp I come at once in your footsteps to say: for all your beauty you are hard of heart. Aretaphila It’s not your way to greet me thus, my friend, so why today such anger, may I ask? Philoxyp Dear lady, calm your anger, understand the king’s in love with you, he truly is. He’s so distressed he’s near to death because you always torture him with such harsh words. Aretaphila You can’t be serious, Philoxyp, the king rejects me now, no longer speaks false words of passion, ends our love without a qualm, and so my love for him is quite destroyed. Philoxyp All love has ups and downs and constant fights, but making up is always pleasant too. It strengthens bonds, and if a link is broken the chain can soon be welded back again. When friendship’s firm, disputes are soon resolved, two hearts may clash, but soon it’s all forgotten. I know you’re hurt, but please forgive the king and truly love him; soon you will be married. Aretaphila For you I’ll calm my grief, dear Philoxyp. for willy-nilly it will have to be. But if the king rejects me once again,  I swear my love will be snuffed out forever. Philoxyp Since you oblige, my thanks; I’ll tell the king and this good news will soothe his heart at least.

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Scene Nine Polyxen, Philoxyp Polyxen A sad affair is this that I’ve begun; it overwhelms my life, I can’t survive. My heart’s all troubled by diverse events; it weeps and cries and drowns in floods of tears. Why should I suffer torment anymore? I’ll pierce my heart with steel, to manly die. Philoxyp You’ll die a tyrant lacking any honor, since your distress is your own fault for sure. So shame on you, there’s now a new accord. Reward is yours if you will love your lady, for now a firm agreement has been made; I’ve told her you will never part again. Cease your despair and dry your tears at once; your heart will have its wish, for she’ll agree. Polyxen My Philoxyp, I’ll thank you for your aid as long as I shall live. I’ll go at once to her in haste and kiss my lady’s feet. And you meanwhile set off where you must go.

Scene Ten Philoxyp [alone] What strange commotion, what bizarre events! Reason and honor trapped by bad intent. When scheming love deceives and broken hearts can find no friend but death, such dread despair is hard to comprehend if reason rules. Can such adventures harm your health and fame? Why then consider love’s so senseless ways? Perhaps one day I’ll fall in love as well. But that can’t mean that I must sacrifice my life, my health, my fortune, and my soul,

Love is Born in the Eyes 187 that charming eyes, a pretty female form, or warm embrace can easily seduce you? Well, I’ll be sure to keep my wits about me and guard against these charms that men must face. I’ll muster strength of mind, and in reserve my honor’s firm. My corps is on alert, and shame shall be my arms. If battle’s joined, I’ll quench the fire with massive floods of tears, relieving wisdom, calling up my fame. I’ll keep my honor for the cause of freedom. But now it seems that worthy Solon comes. A wise man brings one peace of mind and soul. Mainly now, as we ride to our estates, he’ll help me found a town, give freedom’s rights.

Scene Eleven Philoxyp, Solon115 Philoxyp Where are you bound, Solon, bowed down by age? What benefits entice you to this land? You wrote the famous code of laws for Athens. What brings you to this isle of Venus now? If you have time or wish to stay awhile, then come to visit me, and you shall see amazing views; a river flows nearby, a garden, castle, beasts lie in the groves. I plan to found a famous town just here that shall defend the borders of our land. I want to give it freedoms, just like Athens. so I’ll enact those laws that you drew up. To honor you I’ll change the region’s name; 115. This scene, although it appears to stray beyond the romantic theme of the play and to be irrelevant for the development of the plot, is in fact rooted in M. de Scudéry’s novel. Nevertheless, it is interesting that, with significant necessary omissions of elements of that source, this episode survived under Radziwiłłowa’s pen; Solon’s views have attracted the attention of scholars (e.g., Stender-Petersen 1960, 260–61) as the “idiosyncratic utopia” of a politically naive writer like Radziwiłłowa, an individualistic idealization of the prevailing order in the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania, founded on religion, the union of king, senate, and military but respecting the freedoms of the aristocracy. Solon’s “tirade” introduces an element of Polish realia into a nominally classical world.

188 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA in future it shall be Solonia.116 The river Klaria’s broad and long, you see;  it flows as far as you benignly gaze. I beg you, Solon, please don’t hesitate to teach me laws and freedoms—how to rule. Solon Just as you wish, I come to join you here and on the island we can talk together. As best I can I will explain to you what freedom means, but first of all you must eradicate all scheming plots. God’s will in heaven must determine all, then your intentions really can succeed. You must have faith, for faith or deeds alone are not enough; your plans are bound to fail. You must build churches, statues to your gods; they’re freedom’s pillars, so account for them. Provide the income, see that they are built, and see the priests take honest care of them.117 Establish three estates: throne, senate, mace: the king, his loyal council, and his army. Let noble lords have sway in their assemblies; they should resolve injustices throughout the land; let people speak and state their case. And two by two then send them to the king who with the senate, deputies, and knights will duly see that justice is dispensed. Your army’s budget must be fixed, ensure the soldiers always get their pay when due. Make sure the nobles’ heritage is kept, but all must pay the hearth tax that you set. Ensure the people all enjoy their freedoms. And foreign merchants, those of other gods, shall pay a toll per head on all their goods. Set up a court of law, and if you find 116. In Artamène, Philoxyp founds the town of Soly, named after the Athenian philosopher Solon, on the plain at the foot of a mountain near Paphos, a favorite residence of the kings. 117. I.e., the priests must determine how the funds are to be distributed justly and manage them without pocketing anything themselves (Radziwiłłowa combines elements of her knowledge of classical theocracies with concepts of the contemporary Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth).

Love is Born in the Eyes 189 deceit or fraudulent accounts, or if someone deprives another of his dues, the court shall set the punishments and fines. The rest I’ll tell you in due course, but first I want to hear your views on what I’ve said. Philoxyp I heed your laws and take your good advice. Today I welcome you; here is my realm. Let’s ride together so that you may see the gardens, springs and walls, the forests planted, where you’ll write down the statutory law. But now let’s ride together, if you please ACT TWO

Scene One Philoxyp, Solon Solon What luscious groves, and foliage in abundance! A glorious view indeed is offered here: such shapely hedges, gardens well designed, green lawns and benches, steps all laid with turf. But let’s go in the palace. Philoxyp There you’ll see the work of Mandrocle at every turn. Statues of gods and figures of all hues. Please deign to cross my threshold now all’s done.

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Scene Two Mandrocle, Solon, Philoxyp Solon Such beauty everywhere, the art’s amazing though; I’ve never seen such skill. Philoxyp Just look at this, a truly lifelike figure. The goddess Venus, form indeed divine. The smile on that dead face: she seems to draw your eye audaciously to win your heart. Mandrocle, tell me, where’s your inspiration? When painting, did you see someone like that? Is there her like on earth, can such a girl, so charming, elegant, and fair be found? Mandrocle She’s just invented by my own mind’s eye; I’m glad you find she meets with your approval. You give me inspiration for my work. But I can show you several more like her. Philoxyp Oh what delights to see! I’m quite amazed. Why isn’t one, at least, alive and real? But I hear voices, so the king is here; today I have the honor of his visit. Solon I must leave now, I have important business. My kind regards, dear Philoxyp, my friend. I’ll come again as soon as there is chance to pass this way; for now I take my leave.

Scene Three Polyxen, Aretaphila, Agarysta, Salamis, Leontidas, Philoxyp Philoxyp When hopes are more than just fulfilled, of course

Love is Born in the Eyes 191 the pleasure’s greater, since it’s unexpected. My greetings, sire, with heart and mind and soul. My household’s ready to fulfill your wishes. All these assembled guests are welcome here; accept my humble service if you will. Polyxen Aretaphila and Leontidas will join us here, and Agarysta too, and we will all discuss how long you’ll find love still remains abhorrent in your eyes. Philoxyp I’m master of my heart as of my home. I hold no grudge for love that others have but will not live in thrall to its demands, till heaven grants the beauty Venus has to one you see inside this hall today. All ladies praise her beauty; but they’re jealous. Aretaphila A figure so divine, she’s made in heaven. The artist’s skill is quite without a blemish. If such a beauty had the gift of speech perhaps her voice would not be so divine. Philoxyp Then if her voice would cool hearts’ passion so she ought to stay all silent in her beauty. For lovers need no words, a glance will do. One cannot always speak as one would like, but eyes can sometimes read what words don’t say and understand a silent wish at once. Agarysta A glance is fine if it is well intended. But if it’s not, the heart is merely fooled. Seductive looks can be misleading too; they give a lover hopes that then are dashed. Philoxyp Better avoid those loving looks sometimes;

192 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA avoid those words of eloquence as well. They often give us looks like daggers drawn and torture us with hurtful, scornful words. Blind love, as long as it was mute as well, would win most hearts just out of its sheer kindness. Salamis Whether one’s love is dumb and blind or speaks and sees, or though one finds that love’s repellent, that love can always punish in a trice. Persistence usually just brings you pain, and if you’re not accustomed to these things, your heart will suffer more one day, you’ll see. Philoxyp Until that time I’ll keep my freedom still and pay respects to love just from afar. Leontidas Respect will help you win the one you love. Your wished-for beauty means hard times as well. When hearts are humble, pity’s warmed by love, the stubborn lose respect and nothing’s gained. And yet unfeeling hearts will suffer pain for this is where the darts of love strike sharpest. Philoxyp Just let the storms and gales blow their revenge; though storm clouds gather, rain may yet be light. But wind and waves can grow from little clouds. To fall in love may not mean love is true. I’m like that little cloud, not now, but maybe. I’ll love someone if she is like that image. Polyxen Do as you wish, if you’re convinced it’s so. But I must hurry back to my abode.

Love is Born in the Eyes 193

Scene Four Philoxyp [alone] They say I ought to be in love by now, but reason warns me not to just submit. If I was really to be trapped by love I think she’d send that goddess down to earth.  Ah, what delightful bright blue eyes118 she has! They’re so alluring, natural, and pure. Her lips are parted slightly, showing teeth: a smile that captivates the hardest hearts. Her head119 uncovered, hair that loosely falls: ensure you’ll say good-bye to freedom soon. Your fresh pale cheeks are rosy as a berry; such lovely breasts just showing from her dress; ah, that’s a sight that surely can’t be real. But if I can’t resolve this anyhow, a walk outside will clear my mind again. Farewell, you’re quite unique, unreal in nature.120 ACT THREE

Scene One Policrite is drawing on a rock. Philoxyp appears. Philoxyp Oh Lord! What wonders! What a sight is this? This is my Venus, let me see her closer. Can she be real, or is this just a vision? Has God’s good providence just led me here? It’s her, for sure. She’s seen me—off she goes … Oh what a figure! She’s quite tall, I see. She’s joined her parents and her sister now. She gave a piercing look that wounded me. 118. Note the symbolism of the color blue here: it is the color of the sky (heaven), symbolizing constancy, faith, permanence, divinity, communion with the deity, moral integrity, purity. 119. The 1751 copy reads “Her leg”! 120. Philoxyp points out that the painting idealizes the subject. There is an ironic suggestion that the ideal woman would be mute.

194 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Shall I retire, or follow in her footsteps? Must I go home? Oh heart, advise me now. I’m drawn by love to her but dare not go. When I get home I’ll set a spy on her.

Scene Two Philoxyp, Arasp Philoxyp My worthy confidant, come here at once. Find out who lives among those rocks, post haste. Arasp There’s no one lives out there, wild beasts, that’s all. I’ve been there many times, and that’s the truth. But still I’ll go and look, then tell you all; by God’s good grace I hope I’ll see it through. Philoxyp Then you go there, Arasp, I’ll to the woods, but as we go we must keep very quiet.

Scene Three Philoxyp [alone] What does this mean? Can those distracted thoughts of freedom really just be brought to nought? Accursed prophecies, dread sisters’ words.121 Where’s reason gone? My honor and my glory? I seek in haste, yet don’t know what’s my goal. Today my head is covered all with shame. What is this endless pain my heart endures? I love a lowly shepherdess and lose my name. I’ll go to look out from afar to seek a dwelling; maybe someone’s there. 121. Philoxyp is saying that sisters’ observations and opinions (in general) tend to be sharp and cruel. His own sisters predicted that he would fall in love; in act II, scene 3, his sisters Salamis and Agarysta (it is not evident from the list of dramatis personae that the latter is a sister, but it is made clear in act VIII, scene 2) declared that “unfeeling hearts will suffer pain, for this is where the darts of love strike sharpest,” that is, that such stubborn hearts are prime targets for Eros, that is, Philoxyp will succumb to love, which actually happened. He is probably not referring to the voices of the shepherdess and her sisters, who slipped away from Philoxyp with their parents in act III, scene 2.

Love is Born in the Eyes 195 I see a hut; the treasure must be there. I’ll go: what beauty stirs may dullness quench. It’s just her looks I love, so her coarse speech may heal the wound and I’ll regain my honor. But now I see her parents and her sister; these humble folk will shortly pray to Venus. I ought to go as well; I have good reason: I may obtain release from this affliction.

Scene Four Philoxyp, Cleante, Megista, Policrite, Doryda Philoxyp Old man, I greet you, and I should explain: I also come to offer Venus homage, so common cause has led us here today; together all of us bow down to Venus. Cleante It’s no surprise that we, in our old age, and these young girls, as modesty demands, should offer our devotions constantly: the young and also those who’re very old. But you, endowed by nature with success, what brings you here to our concealed abode?122 Philoxyp I made an error and I lost my way. I live nearby; your gods are also mine.123 But though your dress, I see, is very modest, why should you hide away here with your wife? You’ve been endowed with intellect in plenty, but buried assets lose all worth they had. Esteemed in years, your wife has noble bearing. Your daughters both are goddesses incarnate. What are your names? The world has never seen such beauty anywhere, of that I’m certain. 122. The part of the temple where sacrifices took place was accessible only to the priests. 123. Cleante reproaches him for his error, asking what he, a wealthy man, wants to ask for; it is the poor and the needy who offer sacrifices, making supplications—he, an old man, and the young girls. Philoxyp replies that he wishes to honor the local gods, having strayed from his path.

196 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Megista He’s Cleante, I’m Megista, since you ask, and in this church you meet with our two daughters; one’s Policrite, the other’s called Doryda. In these poor lowly huts we dwell alone; no crowds of people spoil our peace and quiet. We’re spared the bane of curious spying eyes. This modest quiet life is all we wish. But now it’s time for us to hurry home, and you should also go to take your rest. Philoxyp Please wait, don’t go so soon … Megista I have no time. Philoxyp Please, just a second. Megista No, I really can’t. I have to take my rest. Cleante We must go home. Good night! Philoxyp How hard it is to gain one’s happiness! ACT FOUR

Scene One Philoxyp My mind is tortured to excess: upset by heavenly decree? Is love so cruel a lowly girl can seize my heart, a shepherdess? I seek a balm for aching wounds,

Love is Born in the Eyes 197 but medicine’s tantamount to poison. Fine bodies guard fine souls within. A glance alone disturbs the mind. What will they say of my downfall? Sharp tongues are always quite relentless; they cut like knives where there’s no wrong, no less than when a fault’s committed. Some company may help me now, but still my heart will keep its secret. I’ll seek relief from darts of love, just be polite to everyone I meet.

Scene Two Polyxen, Philoxyp Polyxen Dear Philoxyp, good day! It’s been so long since your last visit; tell me where you’ve been. I must rely on you to ease my woes. You take it lightly, but I’m near to death. Please save me from this grief that you don’t know. Aretaphila wishes me to die; please intercede; I don’t deserve her wrath. I swear by Venus she’s my only love. Philoxyp Impulsive hearts cannot withstand true love. Those fires ignite in stubborn souls as well. Before too long, I bet, she’ll be ensnared, her freedom lost, her haughty stance avenged. And so I’ll not resist; I’ll try to coax Aretaphila when it’s opportune.

Scene Three Aretaphila, Philoxyp Aretaphila What brings you here today, good Philoxyp? You’ve traveled far; how are your health and fortunes?

198 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Philoxyp One’s joy is spoilt by changing turns of health. It saddens me that you will not desist and still are ruthless to a fault, alas. The king’s good humor has been dashed, I fear; he’s sorely grieved by your severe response. His days are tearful, and his health declines. Dear lady, just remember it won’t do; the gods will punish anger with ill fate. Give up displays of your unseemly anger; a subject’s milder tone will please the king. Aretaphila That is a harsh remark! How dare you speak in such an angry tone and chide me so! He’s king, you say, and I’m a lowly subject. Then let him seek an equal in that case. My heart cannot be won by such duress. How can I keep my honor, it’s all false if I can’t claim to be a rightful wife and just suppress objections, don’t complain. Under duress, no love can ever flourish, you cannot simply rule the human heart. Instinctive feelings are what governs love, and if you were to love a thousand ladies, while one may wound you there’ll be one that heals. Philoxyp I beg you, don’t be arrogant or strict, my master’s love for you is always true. Don’t be hard-hearted; even stones wear down. Forgive him; grief and tears just spoil his life. Don’t torture me as well, don’t cause distress. The king will fall at your feet … Aretaphila If you insist then, Philoxyp, I’ll do as you request. May all your wisdom guide your master’s heart, so he will cease to grieve and calm his mind. And may he love me truly without fail.

Love is Born in the Eyes 199 You do not know the evil of deceit; there’s much hypocrisy, but love is rare.

Scene Four Polyxen, Philoxyp Philoxyp You’re free now sire to love again, for you were quite sincere, so you’re absolved of fault. The joyous heart enjoys a sweet requital when after quarrels two make up again. But this reward is not for everyone. The outcome’s bleak for those who can’t agree. Excuses, then forgiveness all the time. Fate smiles on those who can be reconciled. But if you never can complain at all, your body scarcely can contain your soul. Go, sire, make sure she speaks of no delay. But please allow me now to go back home. Polyxen Where are you bound, what is this urgent goal that’s cutting short our pleasant time together? Our friendship that was meant to last forever has been usurped by your domestic life. So let’s talk longer. Is there something wrong? Today I can’t be happy, since you’re sad. You seem so melancholy, lost in thought. Admit it Philoxyp, it must be love. Philoxyp We’re all made up of many parts and moods: both good and bad, like weather fair and foul. But love is not the cause of every sadness; I do not share that view, am I so hard? So I would rather spend my time in peace than hear incessant arguments and strife.

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Scene Five Philoxyp What happy times these are you recollect, the freedom some continue to enjoy. I spent my years in such delightful ways, but now it’s different, all has gone awry. Love’s now become a tyrant, my tormentor. My freedom’s disinherited by love that now repays me for the tricks I played and makes me drown in floods of tears these days. Where are my happy dreams, my appetite? Where is that happy mood I treasured so? I slept so well and woke up cheerful too, I ate and talked and always spoke good sense. But now I’m fit to die, don’t eat a thing. Don’t sleep, don’t drink, my head is full of cares. Though passion beckons, honor holds me back. I cannot hide my face from everyone. At any rate I’ll go where love is luring. Perhaps her simple mind will cool my heart.

Scene Six Philoxyp, Policrite, Doryda Philoxyp Excuse me Policrite, I’m quite bemused. Quite unannounced I trouble you again. I’ve made you drop those lovely flowers, too. I’ll pick them up for you and give them back. Policrite Oh please don’t bother, let them lie right there. We’re blessed with thousands more upon this earth. They are not worthy of your noble hands and they could cause some injury, I fear. Philoxyp It’s no surprise that such a simple girl can be a beauty and a source of joy,

Love is Born in the Eyes 201 but pleasant turn of speech and intellect, that’s quite above your lowly peasant station. Please tell me how you come to speak so well, no less astounding than your looks and figure. Is this your native land? Why do you live in this poor hut when you have such great talent? Who taught you social graces, what’s the cause of your retirement to this lowly place? Policrite Our native land is elsewhere, far away. Our father served with honor in the wars, though not highborn; we used to live in Cyprus.124 For certain reasons then our parents moved and came to live here on this friendly island. We have a happy life and all we need. Our parents teach us customs, and we live quite well this way; we’ve no concerns at all. Although our hut looks poor, our lowly state is happier than the bustle of the court. Philoxyp You set great store by happiness in life; why then ensnare someone that’s noble born? I used to shrug off beauty and good looks, yet I’m henceforth enslaved by love for you. When I come back I’ll make it my concern that all your family is better housed; in place of that poor lowly hut you’ll have a palace, riches, fame, a grand new life. Policrite Your hopes are all in vain. Do not disturb our happy life in this secluded spot. I’m most of all disturbed because you speak these words when both my parents are away. The ways and customs of our village life demand you leave our quiet land at once. 124. Cyprus here represents the literary province of courtly love, that is, of people of noble birth, perhaps appearing in pastoral guise; this calls for authentication by Policrite of the ostensibly humble origins of her family.

202 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA But if you wish, then come again tomorrow. My parents then will hear you out, but now my youthful modesty won’t let us talk, and so I think that now we ought to go. Philoxyp I’ll do as you demand, with heavy heart; your order causes me immense dismay. I’ll leave this hut, containing such great treasure. But you should know your eyes rule me forever. Policrite I’m small, of low estate, and unattractive, ashamed of banter from a nobleman. But tell me what to say when father comes. What is your name, what business have you here? Philoxyp My name is Philoxyp; that hut is my concern. Policrite Excuse me, Highness, my poor manners. Forgive my disrespect, my country ways. Please leave us now, for you must feel ashamed to enter such a lowly hut as this when you are used to grand and sumptuous quarters. Philoxyp I bid you both farewell, dear Policrite, Doryda too. I leave with great regret. Policrite and Doryda [in unison] We wish you well, devoted servants both; we’re at your service, please remember kindly.

Love is Born in the Eyes 203

Scene Seven Policrite, Doryda Doryda You were so disobliging, Policrite. What will you say when father wants to know? Policrite Young ladies have to follow rules like these to guard their honor and their own good name. Although this custom seems to you too bold, it serves to keep my reputation safe. Doryda What is the point? If modesty won’t let you speak, with others present does that change? Your reputation grows, it does not fall. Good manners have their proper time and place. Policrite That’s very risky, hearts can be too eager. You’ve read how love can often cause dismay. We both are young like him, but what of that? We’re simple girls, but he’s a noble prince Doryda My dear sister, mother will be cross you took offence, he spoke fine words to you. Policrite In that regard I never take advice; my honor and my conscience are as one. The slippery slope of flattery and praise can be a trap ensnaring you in love. Doryda Do you intend to stay here in these woods forevermore? Why don’t you seize the chance that God has brought and find your happiness?

204 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Policrite A rose is fine to see but has sharp thorns. The grain that flourishes bears cockles too. The bee brings honey, but its sting is harmful. Gains may be great, but happiness elusive. Doryda Here come our parents now. I’ll have my say.

Scene Eight Cleante, Megista, Policrite, Doryda Doryda You’ll both be cross with Policrite, so let me tell you what has happened here today. Prince Philoxyp, who lives nearby, came here. He asked your names; my sister told him off. She had some strange misgivings, and she asked him brusquely to depart, to leave our hut. He was polite and did as she demanded. He said he feared he might offend our parents. Cleante Your sister was correct, she showed good sense, for secret meetings harm your reputation. Bounds must be set; you must have certain scruples. Exchanging glances lets love steal its way into your heart; your conscience can’t be trusted. Your honor’s safer when the rules are strict. Megista No harm can come if Policrite was cautious. She acted well. But what’s the prince’s aim in resting here? I clearly saw he looked at Policrite, and he was full of passion. Policrite He wished to see you, it was just a ploy.

Love is Born in the Eyes 205 Cleante I’ll answer all commands with willing heart. He’s very wise, and I’ve heard say he claims no lady’s ever won his heart till now. He firmly stands his ground against all lovelies. He disapproves of love; he’s full of scorn. Let’s go, Megista. Bring the flowers, Doryda. But you remain; we don’t want any trouble.

Scene Nine Policrite [alone] My thoughts are troubled, but they can’t be spoken. When I was free I suffered no distress. My whims have never caused me any sadness. I just enjoyed the blissful calm of home. But whether rich or poor one always finds confusion reigns supreme in heart and soul. Although I know it’s so, I can’t admit, although I can’t explain the reason why, I’ve now entirely lost my peace of mind. My heart’s disturbed, it seeks to calm its longing. My hidden memories loom large again; I pass my days in misery and pain. Who’s this appearing now before my eyes? Oh, Policrite,125 have you been more than bold, are you entrapped in love that may not be? From your low state you aim to reach too high, your sights are set on things you cannot have. I must abandon all these empty hopes, suppressing thoughts of fame and all my yearnings, to show that I respect my honor more than any gains to which I might aspire.

125. Policrite begins to admit to herself that it is love that is causing her distress, but she does not want to admit that it is Philoxyp she is in love with.

206 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA ACT FIVE

Scene One Philoxyp, Leontidas Leontidas The king has sent me here; he keeps on asking the reason why you’re now so down at heart and why your mind is prone to fear the worst, on whose account your heart and mind conflict. I must admit I have concerns myself— forgive this candor—I’m a lowly servant. Good humor can’t be lost without some reason. A heart that’s free has no desire to hide. Philoxyp A pity people can’t accept that you are simply sad, especially when you’re sick. My health is poor, I’m bored to death as well. Domestic chores are always on my mind. Let everyone consider their own case; they find their moods are always changing too, as in the sky sunshine and clouds take turns, so smiles and sadness also come and go. Leontidas You may be sick, and so you’re out of sorts, and those who aren’t in love don’t guard a secret. Some fall in love and tell it to the world; when people fall in love they always pine in silence if it’s genuinely real. But now the king requests you come to court, attempt to look as though all’s well again. Philoxyp As he commands, I’ll go, but it is hard for me just now, so you ride on ahead. I must attend to certain matters first; so please, my friend, excuse me some delay.

Love is Born in the Eyes 207

Scene Two Polyxen, Leontidas Leontidas As you commanded, Philoxyp makes haste, but he’s unwell and sad, we’re all dismayed. He can’t regain good humor, and he says it’s from poor health; I don’t know if that’s true. Polyxen There is no sickness and no pain that’s worse than loving hearts that suffer from rejection. Some cannot outwardly reveal their passion, but some love deeply, with undying ardor. I will reveal, to you alone, his woes are caused by love for fair Aretaphila. He is my secret rival, and my friend, his love and woes he hides because he’s loyal. Who would not weep for my unhappy state? The horns of a dilemma split my soul; love bids me keep my vow but lose a friend. There is no doubt that I am bound to die. Unhappy circumstances, cruel fate; one face that at a glance breaks both our hearts. Leontidas You should not think this way, it will not do. I swear it is not so; he does not think or feel such things, courageous Philoxyp would not succumb to such a love for sure. Polyxen There is no shield to ward off love’s sharp darts. It conquers virtue, honor, fame, and all. Strong hearts resist, but love is more determined. Where will is strong, the bows are drawn more often. Persistent darts will always strike so deep, the more one heals, the more they wound again. Despite the many scruples felt at first, one loves all the more when love’s forbidden.

208 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Leontidas, go back again, find out quite clearly why he can’t be in good humor. Leontidas While hearts seek reason, love wants friendship too. It can’t be wrong if you’re on guard for virtue. If fire should take the upper hand in nature, the eyes would flood it like a shower of rain. While caution quenches fires, love’s darts are stopped by courage. Reason always stands its ground. But now I’ll go and learn all there’s to know; be sure to banish all those fears you had. ACT SIX

Scene One Policrite, Doryda Doryda For some time past my beady eyes have seen my sister spurn all pleasantry and fun. We’re here alone, so please do tell me why you’ve given up those former happy times. Policrite With those distractions I can’t concentrate; I’d rather be alone and just reflect. Doryda That’s true, but yet you dress with greater care, and often check your beauty in the stream. When you retire into the shady grove, your sad, slow gait still has a certain charm. Although you pine, your looks could captivate a thousand hearts at once if you so wished. Why are your cheeks are flushed? You’ve gone quite red. Recent events are causing you some pain. Policrite O dear Doryda, you have guessed my secret.

Love is Born in the Eyes 209 It overwhelms all joy, and life itself. Here in the shady woods we’re quite alone: yes, I’m in love, but how can I be glad? For Philoxyp’s a noble royal prince and I am just a lowly shepherdess. It’s hard to say these words, I’m so upset. You cannot know this pain that troubles me; you’ve yet to feel the treachery of love. Doryda Although I’m not in love, it doesn’t mean I can’t have sympathy with your distress. Your love is strong, and so you’ll surely find it brings you better fortunes in the end. Policrite How can that be? Doryda It often is the case that love is true and never falters once. Will he, a prince, despite your lowly state, request your hand? Love levels all, so kings and shepherdesses too. Policrite Oh no, Doryda. Such dreadful thoughts should never bring him shame. I value virtue, not just fame and glory. It can’t go on; I must avoid dishonor. I’ll flee at once, the earth may swallow me. I’d rather die than harm his name that way. But here he comes, let’s run away. Doryda Please wait he won’t be pleased and he won’t understand. Stay here, I’ll tactfully inform our parents; politely entertain him in good humor.

210 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Scene Two Policrite, Philoxyp Philoxyp Why are you making me endure such grief by running off, avoiding me completely? Policrite Our customs say young girls should trust their parents. I’m just a simple girl, and you’re a prince. Your royal entertainments know no bounds, my only gain is not to harm my name. Philoxyp Don’t be afraid, dear Policrite, for love that’s true involves respect and honor too. I will not speak a word that could offend but give my word: I swear you’re my true love, and every day my passion grows; it could not ever change, for I would rather die. Policrite So what’s to do? Philoxyp It cannot be prevented. Policrite Nor can it be allowed. Philoxyp How can we live? Policrite It’s best I go away. Philoxyp But that’s too cruel. Policrite Though virtue says I must.

Love is Born in the Eyes 211 Philoxyp Don’t you love me? Policrite My reason tells me to resist the flame that’s in your heart and overwhelms your brow. My virtue often seems engulfed in fires; in this poor hut, in this poor state of mine, I fear my feeble heart may be dishonored. But now my parents hurriedly approach; it’s clear that something is amiss with them.

Scene Three Philoxyp, Cleante, Megista, Policrite, Doryda Cleante Most noble prince, our gracious sovereign lord, I thank you for this honor here today. My wife and all my family are here, we’re pleased to welcome you in our abode. But what is your command? Though old and frail, I stand prepared, I’m at your service, sire. Philoxyp I wish to talk with you; you have great sense. Such talent’s rare, it draws me like a magnet. This wisdom heaven’s granted can’t be hidden; it can’t be locked away in this small hut. Parents so wise, a mother who’s so virtuous, your daughters, Policrite, Doryda too, both conquer hearts with their unrivalled beauty, but they’re unmoved by all laments and tears. Megista We give you thanks for this warm praise; your fame is known not only here but far and wide. My daughters granted me by God cannot consort with noble blood; they are unworthy. The lack of sympathy that you impute must be the fruit of your frivolity.

212 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Equals belong together, horse with horse, and ox with ox; it’s bad if simple girls consort with princes so above their station. Philoxyp What harsh demands. You’re hard of heart it seems. My princedom’s not so strict as you surmise. Passion unites us all in love you see; nobles respect the lowly when in love. Cleante There’s nothing here for you. I tell you straight, my daughter’s honor cannot compromise; she cannot be your wife, so cease your jokes. Do not persist, that’s hard on virtuous girls. Farewell, great prince, my wife and daughters too sincerely pay their homage at your feet. Philoxyp Farewell Cleante and all your family too. I won’t withdraw my love or my respect; I’ll soon return and clearly will declare: my love is true, wherever I may go.

Scene Four Polyxen, Leontidas, Arasp Polyxen Arasp, come on! Just tell me where’s your master, whether he’s ill or well. Come, what’s the news? What are you waiting for, I want to know. I left the palace, seeking him beyond. Arasp I don’t know what has happened, what’s the matter. He’s weeping all the time and never laughs. He groans a lot and sighs, he’s so upset. “What if the king were told,” he says, “what’s on my troubled mind, what would he say? And then, the great disfavor I’d be in with him. Better to lose both life and freedom now.”

Love is Born in the Eyes 213 Polyxen You hear, Leontidas? Was I not right? You see, of course, I must accept it’s true. No use pretending it can’t really be. Aretaphila, how could you do this? How could you cruelly torment this way a thousand hearts at once? But here he comes, all sad and weeping, passionate, in shame.

Scene Five Polyxen, Philoxyp, Leontidas, Arasp Philoxyp I don’t know if I really see my king here in the forest; is it just a vision? Polyxen It’s me indeed, my friendship wins, and so I come, for now I know why you’re distressed. Philoxyp Don’t blame me, please, for my misfortune, sire. Just be content to know why I’m distressed. Forgive the fate that has befallen me, my cruel fate, don’t speak of it again. Don’t speak of why I’m sorrowful and sad. Polyxen I know for sure this means a blow for me, Aretaphila is the one you love. Out of respect for me you try to quench the fire, a valiant effort on your part. But fate is vehement in its response. The more you quench the fire, the more it rages. Although good sense puts out the spark at first, love always does prevail, though, in the end. Philoxyp What dreadful things you say, your majesty. Will these suspicions mean you’ll hound me down?

214 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I swear by all the secrets of the gods I feel no love for your Aretaphila and have no wish to visit her again. Believe me sire, and may I suffer death if such a thought should ever cross my mind. Polyxen What’s that you say? You know that I’m disturbed by two conflicting causes in my life. Though I’m in love with Aretaphila, you’re still my friend, and in my heart you share an equal place beside my love for her. Devotion so divided by harsh fate has brought redoubled sadness to my life. Philoxyp You cannot doubt my loyalty, what more then can I do? You surely do not wish my life to end in such a wretched state. You suffer most in pain and dire distress when you’re accused of something you’ve not done. All other woes can sooner be dispelled than stormy condemnation not deserved. Polyxen I know of course your valiant heart resists; I know your innocence is clear. I don’t deny my love, but how will I survive, through floods of tears? I’ll either die or else concede this lady’s favors shall be yours. Come, ride with me. When she’s around your eyes reveal to me of what you will not speak. Philoxyp I’ll come, of course; my eyes don’t go astray, I’ll cure your ills and your despondent heart. Although my privacy means all to me, I must relieve this grief, it must be done.

Love is Born in the Eyes 215 ACT SEVEN

Scene One Cleante, Megista, Policrite Cleante Come, Policrite, come quickly, hurry up, and tell me why the prince is coming here. This will not do; young girls like you are bound to guard their virtue, but you don’t at all. It seems that you expect of this grand prince that he will give his heart and all to you, a simple girl, but you are quite mistaken, for in this world honesty does not pay. Unthinking lust for gain means virtue’s lost. It’s time to tell the secret of your life, so you are rid of frivolous admirers. We’re not your parents, though Megista is a close relation in your noble line. You come from royal lineage, what’s more, your forebears ranked above the princely state. I have to hide you from the world; adverse events dictated such a life for you. So you are equal in your rank and name, in prowess too. I’ll say no more, but keep for honor’s sake this secret of your past. Protect your honor, hold your head up high. Remember you’re the equal of the prince. Policrite What are you saying? Are you not our parents? Doryda not my sister. What a riddle! Then tell me who I am and what high rank my royal forebear held. I must know all. Megista In vain you tax your mind, my daughter dear. The secret can’t be told, on pain of death. Suffice to say you are of noble birth, as I am too, your father, and Doryda.

216 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I can’t at present tell you more than this, but in your father’s name I bless you now. In time, I’ll tell who you truly are.

Scene Two Policrite [alone] My fate is harsh, it treats me with deceit, unkindly causing torment in my heart and falsely raising hopes in secret terms. It might as well have sentenced me to death. It’s hard to feel one’s fate will turn out well without a balm to soothe one’s heart that aches. Good sense shall be the cure. I’ll heal that wound; I know I’ll never cease to love him though. Relentless fate is also tempered now the love that binds my heart is for an equal. I hear my rank exceeds that of the prince, and so I can exchange my throne for his.

Scene Three Policrite, Doryda, Megista, Cleante, Slave Megista Dear Policrite, you’re left all on your own to meditate out here among the trees, but soon I’ll set your troubled mind at rest and we will live a modest life elsewhere. Prepare to leave before the sun goes down; we’ll flee, and Philoxyp will never find you. Cleante Collect clean clothes and all you need to take; I must insist you’re quite prepared to leave within an hour at most. Policrite I hear your words. Today I’ve been the butt of ridicule, but now I’m ready; I’ll depart without demur, although my heart is full of tears.

Love is Born in the Eyes 217 Doryda But mother, why are you so hard of heart? Put off the journey, since she’s innocent, until tomorrow, please. Cleante No, I can’t wait. Get ready now, we leave in two hours’ time. Don’t say a word, the coaches are prepared. You and your sister wait for our command.

Scene Four Policrite, Doryda, a slave Doryda Such cruel rules, this is a dreadful torture, unfeeling, forced obedience of our elders. How fortune eagerly rejects our bliss! For sister Policrite I’ll leave this hut. What can we do? What will the prince say now, when all the family have run away? Our slave will stay behind here in the house. Please write a line or two, in secret though. Policrite O dear Doryda, look, my hands are trembling. It’s hard to write if all the words are blurred by endless floods of tears that fill my eyes. Bring me a little table and I’ll try. I’ll write as best I can, to show the prince he’s not in love with just a simple girl. Policrite’s letter to Philoxyp Please read this letter from your Policrite, taken away from here before you come. I know I’m going, but I don’t know where. I’m sent away because of you, my prince. Until my circumstances can be changed they put an end to meetings for us two. A baneful turn of fortune has decreed

218 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I have to end my days in melancholy. I have no hope to see you face to face, and so I write my secret feelings down. My letter will reveal my true emotions, concealed from you by modesty before. Pay close attention to my letter please, to what I didn’t tell you previously, because I thought it would be wrong of me if as a simple girl I loved a prince. I thought myself unworthy of your love, and since I had but lowly standing then, I offered firm resistance at the time, because your burden seemed indeed severe. But now, although you are a mighty prince, my fortune makes me equal in my standing and so I should consider your advances; my royal blood gives added strength to that. I’m happy now that none of those pretexts apply. Equality now plays no role. Myself, I won’t object on that account, since we both share nobility of rank. And if relentless fate ordains it so, my Philoxyp, then love your Policrite. Believe me, whether in a royal palace or in a lowly hut, I’ll stay the same. My virtue’s just the same; it’s led by love. My love and my respect will know no bounds. I promise I’ll be faithful all my life and always show my endless gratitude. And if your heart enquires who wrote these lines, then let the truth be told, that Policrite composed a secret letter to you once, in bitter tears, bemoaning her sad fate. She gives her letter to a slave, with the words Observe your silence, my trustworthy slave. When Philoxyp arrives, give him this letter, say that it’s for him. They’re taking us somewhere, a place unknown. But please don’t give the letter to my parents. Here’s your reward, farewell, stay here, good health!

Love is Born in the Eyes 219 Slave I’ll see to that and be here when you come again. I swear I’ll never say a word. ACT EIGHT

Scene One Philoxyp, Leontidas Leontidas How are you faring, Philoxyp? The king has ordered me to ascertain your health and find out what you’re doing day by day. I see you’re ill, quite pale, you sigh and moan, and all the time you spill great floods of tears. Philoxyp To satisfy the king’s command, I live in Patmos, suffering poor health, alas. Leontidas, my friend, have you some news? Leontidas The only news I have concerns the king, who’s filled with sadness, sighing all the time. He says Aretaphila shall be yours alone, but grief and sadness fill his days. Admit it Philoxyp, I’ll keep your secret. I want to know so I can ease his pain. Philoxyp I will confess, as you request, and trust you not to speak a word of this affair before the king. My love, it knows no bounds. The one I love is not my equal though, so she’s unworthy—can’t become my wife. Do you recall the painting in my house? Mandrocle painted once a simple girl. He painted her in secrecy of course. By chance I met her then out on the rocks. I tried to quell the passion she aroused;

220 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I thought the simpleton’s unmannered ways would soon relieve the ardor of a prince. I paid a visit: to their hut, but found that she had charm and poise beyond compare, alongside beauty, and she stole my heart. Her mother, father, sister too, are all like gods; they’re paragons of purest virtue. Out there I lost my heart and I’m in love. Without my Policrite I’ll surely die. Leontidas, conceal my weakness, please. Persuade the king to let me come back home. Here comes Aretaphila; she’s so proud it fills my heart with greater grief than ever.

Scene Two Aretaphila, Agarysta, Salamis, Philoxyp Aretaphila I come to see you since you’re weak and ill. Please pay attention to your health, get well, for everywhere there’s sadness when you’re gone. The king has shunned us all in his distress. Agarysta My heart is full of tears for you, dear brother. Salamis We all are really suffering for you. Philoxyp I thank you, noble, fair Aretaphila. Although my mind is occupied by woes, I thank you both, dear sisters, for your care. Here comes the king; he kindly asks you tell him how his servant’s faring; how’s his health.

Love is Born in the Eyes 221

Scene Three Polyxen, Philoxyp, Aretaphila, Salamis, Agarysta, Leontidas Philoxyp I surely can’t be worthy, sick and ailing, to die before your eyes, my sovereign lord. Polyxen No, I your king shall be the one to die, and you won’t perish, Philoxyp, my friend, you’ll take Aretaphila from my hands. Princess, it’s you who shackled us and caused such grief and pain to Philoxyp and me, but I’m the first to break the bonds of passion, regain my former power as the king. You’ll take my place, my prince; enjoy your life. Unhappy words; how shall I live this life? At least refrain from causing him such pain as you inflicted formerly on me. Aretaphila What are you saying? Philoxyp, do you repay my friendship with this flood of tears? I will not choose between the two of you, not even if I gain a thousand crowns. [Farewell] Philoxyp Dear lady, wait a while. I swear to God though cruel fate assails me, there’s no blame. My love is not for you, fair though you are. Let me release you to the king; at once he’ll fall before you on his knees and then the royal crown will soon adorn your head. Aretaphila Well, there’s a change! Someone who gives up love for friendship’s sake does not feel love. I don’t want love, I don’t want friendship either. Just let the king pursue his own affairs. Adieu, good Philoxyp.

222 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Philoxyp Oh, my dear sisters! Do what you can to heal this gaping wound. Agarysta and Salamis We’ll try our best, we’ll see what we can do. The king deserves his love, and you your honor.

Scene Four Philoxyp, Leontidas Philoxyp Leontidas, exhort the king to come let me relieve his troubled mind of all this grief: my secret must come out at last, for failure in one’s life means honor lost. Leontidas I will, so please be sure you tell him all so he can confidentially advise.

Scene Five Polyxen, Philoxyp, Leontidas Polyxen I come post haste as you request, my friend. But please excuse the floods of tears that flow. I grant you love and happiness, to save your health; it seems though that is not enough. Philoxyp My king, what have you done? I must reveal my secret now and tell you I’m in love, I’ll tell you what it is that pains my heart. Not your Aretaphila, but … . Please tell the king, Leontidas, what harms my honor. Leontidas I will. You know the painting of that Venus,

Love is Born in the Eyes 223 the one that has no equal in the world, the one that Philoxyp and I admired. Well, when we left and walked a little way; he saw the same fair lady, in real life. But she was just a simple shepherdess, so he then tried to find some fault in her. He paid a visit to their poor abode, expecting rough, uncultured, rustic ways to counteract the beauty of her form. But then he found her elegance and poise caused him to spurn his status and his crown, his noble standing and his life itself. He’s so in love today that he is near to death when Policrite is out of sight. Please let him go, sire. Polyxen Oh, what’s this I hear? I’ve never heard of such a thing before; I have to see it for myself. Philoxyp Let’s go at once. The sight of her will ease my soul. But guard your feelings well; don’t change your mind; don’t make my Policrite your queen consort. Polyxen Oh, my dear life! Let’s ride off there at once, if your poor health permits. May all my woes and all distress now end. Philoxyp Love cures at once; when that which wounds the heart has been removed. Let’s go; but sire, please tell no one at all; just say you’re going out to take a ride. Console Aretaphila with the crown; please marry her, as soon as you learn all.

224 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA ACT NINE

Scene One Polyxen, Philoxyp, Leontidas, Slave Philoxyp Pure virtue’s here, and beauty knows no bounds. The only fault she has is lack of pity. Just wait a while, I’ll go to take a look. What’s this? The door is locked. The slave hands him the letter They’ve gone away. Now several days ago, it was quite sudden. I don’t know if they went by land or sea. In secret, Policrite, all full of tears, wrote you this letter—gave it me in secret. Doryda sends her greetings. Philoxyp Oh, my lord! Please read it out; it’s such a lovely letter. I’ll die! Polyxen Please listen, don’t be so upset, just hear what Policrite’s letter says. [He reads aloud Policrite’s short letter to Philoxyp] Philoxyp Unhappy fate, I must depart this life. I’ll plunge a dagger in my heart myself and die! Polyxen Just calm your grief, don’t be so rash, now equal rank means happiness is found.126 126. A reference to Policrite’s letter to Philoxyp that the king has just read without fully grasping its significance; Polyxen explains that he will be able to marry his loved one now that she has turned out to be of equal standing—noble birth.

Love is Born in the Eyes 225 I’ll see my realm is searched, the coast as well.127 We’ll gather news and runners will be placed in all our forests and our fields; we’ll ride meanwhile together through the darkest forest. Philoxyp Then let my fate rest in your hands entirely, if that’s your will; you are my lord and master. My love’s my equal, I’ve no cause for shame. May God forbid I ever change my mind. Polyxen Go now, Leontidas, and give the order; you know what for. And see that it is done. But rest in Clarie while I ride to town, confess my love to Aretaphila, I’ll make her queen, repay her for my fault, I’ll give my love this honor she deserves. ACT TEN

Scene One Philoxyp, Solon Solon I greet you, friend. I see your health is poor. I’m in distress myself, and you are sick. My hair is gray, and I am full of sadness. In vain you seek my help to heal your woes. The one who’s harmed by fate he must lament.128 Philoxyp Your presence hereabouts is unexpected. I’m sick, but tell, why do you look so sad? Solon I’ll tell you all. When I was still quite young 127. I.e., to ensure she is not taken overseas. 128. In this scene Solon explains why he is unable to help Philoxyp or offer solace—contrary to the views of the Stoics that even wise men (Solon refers to himself) must submit to what fate brings.

226 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I knew a man possessing such great wisdom, the planets told him all there is to know. I had a pretty little daughter then, in swaddling clothes she lay, a tiny mite. I asked what life might hold in store for her and he foretold there might be certain threats. Hide her away for several years, he said: throughout her life you’ll then ensure she has good fortune, honors, and true happiness. But if she caught a courtier’s lustful eye, the tyrant ruling Athens would then fall in love with her at once and win her hand so she would be his wife and be his queen, and he’d oppress our country, her as well. I sent her here to keep her from such harm, to be brought up in secret in this forest. When troubled years were past and I had gained my wealth and fame, I wanted to reveal my lovely daughter to the world. I found the hut deserted; how could I not weep at such a loss? I saw a slave. He lay already dead; I knew him by his clothes. So weep with me, dear friend! Philoxyp O wise Solon! Like you I feel my heart all full of tears. What is your daughter’s name? Solon She’s Policrite. Her mother Megista, Cleante her father, respected, wise old man. Sister Doryda. You seem confused. What ails you now? You know my daughter? Philoxyp Yes, I do, I love her dearly, but she is not inclined to marry me. Her letter shows her goals are firmly set, explains her secret ancestry as well.

Love is Born in the Eyes 227 Where is she now? I’ve no idea, and so I live a life of torment, half alive. Solon reads the letter This was my wish: that by the will of God you’d be my daughter’s husband in the end. Let’s find my daughter, if you wish—your wife. Let’s go to pray in that deserted place. We’ll place our gifts to Venus at her chapel, and she will grant that you are wed today. Philoxyp You make me happy with these words, dear father, your promise drives me on to reach my goal. I’ll hurry, riding fast to lay a gift, may noble goddess Venus bless our love.

Scene Two Policrite, Doryda, Cleante, Megista, Solon, Philoxyp, pirates Solon What’s that? What is that noise, those women shouting? Philoxyp What’s this I see? It’s her; it’s God’s decree. The callous brigands want to kill her, look! Come on, let’s save her, there’s no time to lose. Let’s punish all these shameful, vicious rogues. I’ve killed a pair of them with my own hands. I’ll soon track down the rest; I’ll come back soon. Meanwhile attend to your sick daughter now. Cleante Protect us, Philoxyp, old Solon too, I’ll follow on behind and fight as well. Philoxyp Enough,129 the fighting’s over, two lie dead. All those marauding pirates fled away. 129. Philoxyp orders the pursuit of the fleeing marauders to be called off.

228 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA But I’ve revenged the evil that they’ve done. Policrite is swooning, Doryda’s weeping, mother’s terrified. She looks as though she’s dead. Revive her Solon, else may a dagger stab me in the heart. Policrite Great prince, you’ve saved my life, can it be true? I live and I’ll be grateful till I die. Megista There’s someone else besides your Philoxyp, among the people that you welcome here. He’s your own father, nobleman Solon. Your daughter now returns. No cares remain. Good sense resolves them all, with honor too. Policrite Oh father, let me fall down at your feet. I must hold back in great respect,130 for I would fain embrace your feet and boldly ask: is this my father here with Philoxyp? Solon Arise, my daughter, you can have no doubt I am indeed your own beloved father and here’s your Philoxyp; you’ll marry him. Accept the mighty hand of all the gods; it’s turned unhappiness to joy today. By law of nature fortunes always change, and virtue turns an evil into good. Since now you share these mutual inclinations, admit your love for Philoxyp is true. Policrite In all that meets with fatherly approval a loyal daughter always finds her pleasure. I do accept my lot, my father’s blessing. I vow I don’t refuse the prince’s heart. 130. Policrite wants to embrace his feet, but showing respect by restraining her emotions she emphasizes her control over her confusion after being attacked and then rescued by her lover and the unexpected discovery of her father, increasing her chances of reciprocating Philoxyp’s sentiments.

Love is Born in the Eyes 229 Philoxyp A happy day, a moment quite sublime, my joy is boundless, pain and woe are gone. My heart delights to hear your father’s will. I have the honor to be quite content: your heart accepts me for I’ll always love you. Allow me leave to tell the king, so he will also act. Arasp, you go at once; inform the king of everything, and tell him of the standing of her family too. Quite soon I’ll come; I will at last ensure the king and his Aretaphila wed.

Scene Three Polyxen, Solon, Philoxyp, Policrite, Doryda, Cleante, Megista, Leontidas Polyxen I hurry here, my mind is all confused. I never thought that fate would so decree. Congratulations, father, on your daughter, and to the groom, who’s found an equal match. All augurs well for you, as I predict. Let’s go together, my dear Philoxyp, we’ll reconcile my ruthless lady’s humor. And you, Leontidas, make sure it’s known tomorrow both the couples will be wed. She’ll wear the crown, absolve me in a trice, because my love is faithful and it’s true. Leontidas Yes, gladly sire, but grant me this reward, if your Aretaphila does consent. I’m quite in thrall to fair Doryda’s eyes; my heart will let me think of nothing else. May she today declare without delay that she will love me in her heart forever. I’ve loved her since I saw her in the church: a mind that’s pure, exquisite in her figure. My passion knows no bounds, I’m at a loss: what shall I do? She’s life and joy to me.

230 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I beg you parents both, her uncle too: ensure I win Doryda for my wife. Cleante We suffered grief before, it was God’s will; but now our fate will comfort us again. I give consent. Now mother, tell us please if in her turn our daughter loves him too. Megista I wish you happiness in my old age; it pleases me the heavens joined your hearts, and if Doryda’s truly so inclined I know she’ll gladly plight her troth with you. Doryda I’ll do your wish as your obedient daughter, and I’ll accept him; I won’t hesitate. Solon Such happiness when hearts are both agreed, when love and duty coincide like this. Leontidas, announce the news at once; persuade Aretaphila: you know how. Leontidas I’ll go, and hope to gain my great reward; but I’ll return to tell you what she says. ACT ELEVEN

Scene One Leontidas, Aretaphila, Agarysta, Salamis Leontidas I bring you happy news; please dry those eyes that wet your lovely face with woeful tears. The king … Aretaphila I tell you straight that I’ll have none

Love is Born in the Eyes 231 of this, as long as I shall live. Don’t say a word; I cannot ever love the king, not even if I had to die right here. He gave me up before to please a friend, a wily scheme that makes a fool of me. Leontidas But now the king’s in earnest; hear, dear lady. You’ll soon relent and wear the crown instead. Aretaphila The crown? Oh no! I have no wish to rule; until I die the king shall feel my anger. No crown can compensate my just revenge; his eyes must run with endless floods of tears. But speak, I want to know what brings you here; why is the king so condescending now? Leontidas He’s told you what had troubled Philoxyp because he fell in love with Policrite, but now he knows that she is Solon’s daughter; and so tomorrow they will be betrothed. The king will marry you; he’ll make you queen; and give my love Doryda’s hand to me. Aretaphila Such strange unheard-of change and change about; well, tell the king we parted long ago. Agarysta Don’t act so strangely, fortune smiles on you; a fine exchange, your anger for a crown! Salamis Don’t be so adamant and hard of heart; go where your honor and your wish dictate. Aretaphila Then tell the king that if the gods so will I’ll meet them all assembled at the palace.

232 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I’ll do as he commands, and all three pairs shall gain their wealth, their honor, and their fortune. But now I see I need to say no more; here comes the king with Philoxyp, Solon, two ladies by his side, their parents too, Cleante, Megista, slowly make their way and all are happily united here.

Scene Two Entire cast Polyxen Oh joyous culmination, holy vows: when virtue is rewarded by true love that brings a lasting union, joy forever, the hours will seem but minutes, years just days. Today we gain our happiness at last; my love has placed you on the royal throne. Three couples join in offering our gifts; we’ll make our vows and offer sacrifice. Music and singers Vivat, vivat, all evil fate is banished; for love unites these hearts so full of hope. Three couples freed in love and wealth and honor as fortunes change all troubles are dispelled. Vivat, vivat that love ineffable. We wish these couples fame and fortune both. Vivat! Vivat! These are my final words: May life and health be granted by the gods may they all live a hundred years to come. Dance

5. DISHONESTY ENTRAPPED

Fig. 5 Dishonesty Entrapped

233

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Dramatis personae Banut, a merchant Aruya, his wife Doctor Danisckmende Judge Governor Laura Harlequin Emperor Imperial court Soldiers Grand vizier

Scene One Banut, Harlequin Banut My trusted servant, now my lot is dire. You’re all I have, for nothing else is left. Such wealth I had, it ran to many thousands, but now I’ve spent it all, I’m destitute. My only hope’s in you and my dear wife. My body’s weak; no money’s left for food. Harlequin So do you plan to eat up both of us? Banut Oh no, of course I don’t, for heaven’s sake. From lack of food I’m dreadfully enfeebled. Harlequin Too bad for Madam, who’s so young and fair. We’ll pawn her off, redeem her when we can. Banut You don’t know what you’re saying. Harlequin But how’ll you cope

Dishonesty Entrapped 235 in such dire straits?—you’re weak and facing death. I know you want to eat us up—we’re done for! I’ll have to die before I marry Laura. But Madam’s tastier, she’s white and plump, while I’m just skin and bone, turned black: I’m frazzled.131 I’m off, I’m scared to death. Banut Oh, Harlequin! Stand by me as a friend in these dire straits. Harlequin To save a friend, all eaten up? No chance! Banut Collect the furniture that we still have and pawn it where you can. I’m owed some debts. The doctor and the judge were once in need, severely pressed for cash—the governor too. I gave them money then, when time was short. Two thousand ducats132 each I lent them quick. All three were due to pay me back that day, but now three years have passed, it’s all that’s left: collect my debt—regain my life once more.

Scene Two Doctor, Banut Doctor Banut, my friend, what brings you here today? I trust we’re still the friends we used to be. Do you feel ill? Old age has its defects. Be seated, please, refresh yourself with oils. Banut I’m here for something else. 131. The color black associates Harlequin with the devil. He must wear, at the least, a black mask. 132. The ducat was a gold coin in circulation from the twelfth century as an international trading currency.

236 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Doctor Quick, quick, bring water! Banut There’s something else I need to cool me down. Doctor Some wine? Banut No, thanks. Doctor Then sugar? Banut I don’t like it. Doctor Coffee? Banut No, that’s not it. Doctor Then take some tea? Banut I see that my demise is on your mind! Doctor What’s troubling you? It’s bad to worry; doctors know that’s true. Banut But hear me out, my friend, two years have passed; high time you paid me back the cash I lent. Doctor The cash you lent?

Dishonesty Entrapped 237 Banut Of course, you know full well; two thousand ducats, pay me back at once. Doctor I borrowed cash? You’ve gone quite mad, old man. You’ve made it up you toady, go to hell. Banut Think back, you know I have the paperwork. Doctor Old dotard, go away, you scorn my honor. Banut Pay back your debt! Doctor Leave me in peace, you rogue. Don’t pester me; I’m innocent, you know. Banut A plague on you, ungrateful wretch you are. Doctor Be gone! A hundred blows or more you’ll get on your old back before two thousand ducats. Banut May God then punish you; I’ll see the judge. Perhaps I’ll find the justice I desire.

Scene Three Banut, Judge Banut I come to you and offer humblest greetings. I’m near my end; I’m starving quite to death. I’m dying, weak for lack of what I crave. My wife and I are driven to our graves.

238 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA The doctor owes a debt, but he won’t pay. But you’ll repay the loan I gave, for sure. Judge A loan? But when? How much? You must be dreaming. Banut Oh dear! You can’t forget that at that time when you acquired your seat upon the bench, you used my loan to treat officials well. Two thousand ducats, I have written proof. I’m old but still I’m honest, I’m no swindler. Judge You must be crazy—me, a loan in gold? And this you call your honesty, your virtue? Doctor Oh judge, just give me back a half or so; you have the funds, it’s there in ready cash. I’ll waive the interest. Judge Get out, you louse! Is someone there? Remove him straightaway.

Scene Four Banut, Governor Governor Please show him in. Hello, Banut, old chap! Banut I’ve come to plead my case, I’ve suffered wrongs. I’m owed two thousand ducats each by both the doctor and the judge, but when I ask them now to pay, or else I’ll starve to death, they just deny their debt. I’ve drawn a blank. Governor The judge and doctor, what about their scruples?

Dishonesty Entrapped 239 What of their conscience? What’s become of them? They’re honest, aren’t they? Banut No, there’s worse to tell. They threw me out, despite my weakened state. Oh, bitter fate! Their servants roughly seized me beneath my arms and took me out at once. Governor Banut, my friend, I’m sad to hear your woes. Banut Return the money then, for pity’s sake. I see that you possess a finer conscience. May all dishonor be dispelled by God. Governor You lent me money? When I don’t recall, for I have never in my life been poor. Banut Oh, woe is me! You’ll answer to your God! Your urgent journey meant you needed cash. You wrote it down in black and white, see here. Two thousand ducats, that’s no joking matter. Governor That’s not my hand, what tricks are these he plays? How dare he cast aspersions on my name? He’s crazy; if he asked, I’d help him out. Banut Repay me, keep the promise that you made, I beg you humbly, else I’ll starve to death. Now I’m quite penniless, have mercy please. Soon God will pay you back, and in abundance. I only ask for what is mine. Governor Damn you, old man; of course I could afford that sum!

240 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I’d always pay a debt I really owed. You can’t fool me, so go! Show him the door! May this old swindler die a beggar’s death.

Scene Five Banut (alone) What can I do? I’ve grown so weak from hunger. My wife is virtuous and such a beauty. O death! For wrongs and loss my only solace, the sole redress I seek is now just you. I’m old and weak, I’ll scarcely reach my home. But hear, my wife and Harlequin are calling.

Scene Six Banut, Aruya, Harlequin Banut Beloved wife, my only treasure left, I was too generous then, so now we’re lost. Today I begged from those three ruthless men. When old I’m forced to fight for what is mine. They wouldn’t pay me back, denied their debt point blank, and even sent me rudely packing. So go, true life, for if the time is right you may collect my debt on my behalf. Aruya My husband dear, your feelings change so much, I see you don’t appreciate my maxims. I will not go, my youth and honor ban it; a woman must beware of many dangers. For my protection modesty comes first. Reason dictates that caution is my byword. Banut Ah, will you starve, dear wife, of your free will? Make haste and go, till now you’ve lived uprightly.

Dishonesty Entrapped 241 Aruya I’d rather die, for death will bring relief, than live by dint of some unworthy deed. Harlequin If you must starve there’s nothing for it then. Your beauty should ensure you’ll earn your crust. Let’s go, I’ll guard you loyally. You don’t want me—I won’t touch you—so no one shall. Banut Make haste, without delay, take Harlequin, and don’t be obstinate, find no excuses. Aruya I’ll go, but won’t achieve a thing, you’ll see, and I’ll return quite soon, without success. Harlequin Just wait, my lady, wear a different dress. Show off your shape, you’re such a gorgeous creature! Look down, all coy, just smile and blow your nose. The judge will soon repay, and you know why.133 Aruya Come on then, Harlequin. Harlequin Fine mess this is you’ve got me into now! Your looks today will save our lives. But don’t put on your airs.134 I’d go myself, if I were made a woman.

133. Harlequin alludes suggestively to certain obvious and powerful reasons why the judge will repay his debt. 134. The vocabulary used here is an allusion to Molière’s play Les Précieuses ridicules [The pretentious young ladies] (1659), a classic French comedy of manners (via Maria Potocka’s Polish translation of 1749).

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Scene Seven Doctor, Aruya, Harlequin Doctor You come to me, I see, with sprightly gait. I’m used to seeing weak, enfeebled people. What brings you here? You cut so fine a figure! Perhaps your mother’s fallen badly ill? Aruya I’m Banut’s wife; that’s why I’m in such haste. Half starved to death, he’s been insulted direly. I come to ask you kindly to repay, or else you won’t escape the wrath of God. Doctor Your words are very bold, but lift your veil. Have you a charming face, just like your body? Harlequin Such beauty! God be thanked! The money’s ours!135 His heart’s seduced by drops from her fine eyes.136 Doctor Oh, marvels! Such a delicate complexion! The form, the eyes, the face—Venus herself. The goddess who was wife to that lame Vulcan could never be so fair. If you’ll submit and do my will, I’ll go beyond two thousand; I’ll give you four or more if so you wish. Leave your old husband, just as Venus did. As she with Mars, betray him for your pleasure.137

135. This is an aside to the audience by Harlequin (not indicated in the stage directions). 136. A contemporary paramedic metaphor: love is a disease contracted through the eyes, which secrete “spirits” or poisonous drops, infecting the blood of the victim’s “injured” heart. 137. The goddess of beauty Aphrodite (Venus) was the wife of the ugly and lame god Hephaestus (Vulcan). She deceived her husband with another god, the handsome Ares (Mars), until Hephaestus caught them in flagranti delictu and took his revenge by throwing a strong net over them and delivering them to Zeus.

Dishonesty Entrapped 243 Harlequin You are right generous, so don’t delay. Banut and Harlequin won’t starve to death. Aruya Stop it, you scoundrel, may you rot in hell! Venus succumbed; temptation was so shameful. Pay up or not, I’ll die content and chaste. Till death I’ll keep my honor, save my soul. Doctor Succumb, my eager spirit’s all enfeebled. Harlequin I humbly beg you, don’t be too concerned. No honor after death may yet be gained; if you’re so obstinate we’ll surely die. Let’s do this then: on Sunday you’ll be his, the other days you’ll still be Banut’s wife. Doctor You see, your servant urges you to act; it’s such a sin if you refuse to live.138 I’ll give you what you’re asking for, but straight away you must agree to soothe my passion. Aruya Let me be dead and eaten up by worms before for gain I sell my soul and honor. I ask for nothing, let me starve to death; that’s how I’ll guard my name and gain salvation. Good day! Harlequin You’ve taken leave of all your senses now! You harm yourself, but what have you to lose? Just say what I must do, I’m only human. Your husband wouldn’t know the means you used. Let’s go back home! 138. Condemnation of the grave sins of suicide and murder: Aruya is dying of hunger and condemning her husband and Harlequin to the same fate.

244 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Aruya Deceitful rogue, you have no shame at all. Make haste, for Banut waits; he’s quite distressed. Let’s go to see the judge at once. Harlequin This way. We won’t preserve our lives or get the cash.

Scene Eight Judge, Aruya, Harlequin Aruya I fall before you, hopeful, though I’m starving. In my distress I beg you, pay your debt. My husband stoops with age—you drove him out. Through me he sends you humble salutations. Judge But who are you? I owe no one a debt. Why do you hide your face in my good home? What is your name, who sends you on this errand? Aruya Banut—you made such threats when he was here. You are a judge, all powerful and just, and yet ungratefully deny your debt. Judge Audacious wench! She’s lying to my face. The penalty for perjury’s severe! Aruya Judge as you will, for God is still supreme. Just don’t prevaricate but pay what’s due. Judge What have we here? She’s such a lithesome snake. Remove your veil. Let’s see your face and shape. Good gracious! All combined, the charms of fair

Dishonesty Entrapped 245 Diana, Venus, Pallas, Juno too. I’ll pay six thousand to you straightaway; just yield to me; my passion melts my heart. Your husband’s old, take me, so fine and young, and I’ll reward your charms, all debts surpassing. Don’t hesitate to satisfy my passion and on the spot I’ll gladly count six thousand. Aruya Where’s your unfailing honesty—for shame! Is that the verdict you pronounce, your honor?139 That cannot be; God’s wrath be on your head. I’d rather starve to death in dire distress. Harlequin What’s that you say? Oh dear, you’re really crazy— would you refuse his little joy—and die?140 Give in and save our lives; there’s nothing to it. Your Harlequin will always serve you, though. His lordship141 only wants you to agree, so he’ll caress you: thanks to your great beauty. Judge So, angel, come, your shape is so divine. Illicit love brings even greater pleasure. Aruya Does fate ensnare us in unhappy ways, so gain conflicts with virtue every time? No, no! I’ll starve to death, my husband too, Laura and Harlequin. We’ll share a grave. Treacherous rogue, I’ll follow in the steps of true Penelope142 and stay unblemished.

139. The use of the title represents an ironic jibe at the judge’s commitment to justice. 140. The adjective “little” is intended to be understood in a physical sense, for comic effect. Harlequin is likely to have accompanied these words with an obscene gesture. 141. I.e., the judge. 142. Penelope is a symbol of marital faithfulness, after Penelope in Homer’s Odyssey, who waited many years for the return of her husband.

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Scene Nine Governor, Aruya, Harlequin Aruya Your humble servant, I fall at your feet, esteemed and worthy ruler of Damascus. My husband’s Banut, merchant of repute, I’ve come to ask you for my spouse’s debt. Governor Come closer then, I owe no debts at all, yet you accuse me thus in my own house. What is this arrogance? Who says these words? Unveil your face; reveal who shames me so. Aruya That is not right, so please do not insist. It’s not my face that matters, don’t be angry. Just pay my debt, my husband else will starve. He’s old, so kindly pay without delay. Governor I swear upon my soul I owe no debt. Remove your veil and show who makes so bold. Aruya I’ll do your bidding, look upon my face. Governor I’ll judge your husband’s fortune by your beauty. O Prophet! Such a ray of sun from heaven!143 Thousands and thousands you shall have today; I’ll give you ten, not two, if you concede. Your husband’s old, you’re free to guide your fate. His days are numbered, sweaty, gnarled old man. Dispose of him and take what I can give. I’ll count the money straightaway, just get divorced and then you’ll soon become my wife. Let Banut take my wife—she’s very old— a dowry too. They’ll make a splendid pair. 143. “The Prophet” is a reference to the Muslim deity Allah or Muhammad.

Dishonesty Entrapped 247 Harlequin Oh, please, my lady, come on—acquiesce! Don’t cause our ruin when you have this chance. Aruya Where’s virtue, honesty? Governor, judge, one makes the law, the other sees it’s kept, the third makes good the flaws in people’s health. I hope disaster strikes you all at once. You all are loathsome rogues, I’ll starve to death if this is how I have to keep my honor. I’ll say no more, just perish, meet your end. May God’s full wrath be visited on you.

Scene Ten Banut, Aruya, Harlequin, Laura Harlequin My lady, sad to say, has ruined you of her own will, so all our hopes are dashed. She could have had four thousand from the doctor, six from the judge, the governor said ten, he was so keen,144 just add up six and four, add four and six, that’s ten, I’m very frank, Six, four, and ten—so that makes twenty thousand. The lady’s awful wrath would not consent. For that mere trifle all the money’s lost!145 Since she’s so mean and stubborn, let her suffer. I humbly begged her, nothing would be lost, and you would never know, you’d not be harmed,146 but she refused when they in their delight would fain enjoy themselves at your expense.147

144. Jesting ambiguity by Harlequin: is the governor so very keen to repay his debt, or to possess Aruya? 145. Harlequin calls the loss of Aruya’s honor, which she defends by refusing to accept the money, a mere trifle. 146. Aruya would have nothing to lose, repeats Harlequin, and Banut would not need to feel cuckolded. 147. I.e., they wanted to have their enjoyment, seducing Aruya, and to make Banut a laughing stock into the bargain.

248 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Banut O Lord! What’s this I hear? Were all three men inclined this way? I won’t collect the debt.148 Aruya That’s right, my dear, an honest face is shamed when in their hearts such ugly passions stir. But now I’ve shown I’m true to you, I have a certain stratagem for my revenge. Don’t ask; suffice to say my honor’s kept. I’ll get the cash and so I’ll win the day. I won’t deceive you, go and have a rest. Don’t be alarmed—there’ll be a hue and cry. Banut All right, my dear, just do as you think fit. Be sure I won’t impede your cunning wiles.

Scene Eleven Aruya, Harlequin, Laura Aruya Make haste, good Harlequin, now off you go and with what little cash I still have left buy three big chests: now that will do the trick. I’ll stir the passions of these lecherous rogues, but hurry now, look sharp and come straight back. With luck, their sordid game will end tonight. Harlequin At last my lady’s giving up her scruples; only a fool could not succumb to her. Aruya Good servant Laura, bring our furniture and pawn it so we can fulfill our scheme. Buy wine, liqueurs, and cooling drinks and sweets. Borrow our neighbors’ silver, lay the cloth. 148. Banut has clearly understood what Harlequin’s euphemistic words imply, and he also rejects the offer that would disgrace his wife, abandoning the achievement of justice at such a price.

Dishonesty Entrapped 249 Prepare right now the best repast you can, and when I tell you, do as I command. Laura All shall be done; the food will be prepared. Your faithful servants follow your commands.

Scene Twelve Aruya (alone) O Lord, please help us, for our honor’s wronged. Reveal today the power of your hand. Kindly permit the scheme that I’ve devised to save my wealth and keep my honor too. The tiny birds survive by your good grace, as do the beasts, the worms, and snakes as well. So live the flies and butterflies and ants, fish, salamanders, and chameleons. We’re all created in your image, so with your good grace we’ll end our mortal suffering.

Scene Thirteen Aruya, Laura, Harlequin Harlequin I’ve bought three chests and placed them in the house. I had a job to get them through the crowd. Laura All is prepared, I’m waiting for your order to carry out at once the said command. Harlequin You wretch, you never do a thing I say. So fair, smooth-skinned, just like a pig’s white back.149 Aruya My faithful servants, Harlequin, you too, please help me out at this distressing time. 149. In an ironic aside, Harlequin, resentful of Laura’s noncompliance with his own wishes, compares her with a pig, whose back is not smooth and white but bristly.

250 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Call on the doctor; greet him quite politely. Choose your words well and speak in pleasant tones. Say Banut’s wife, who came for that old debt, is quite disposed to yield to your desires, so if you wish, she’ll wait for you at ten. Just bring the cash and you will be rewarded, then go to see the judge; report to him that I respect him more than life and health. He should arrive at eleven o’clock. My heart and mind are one in this desire. Laura, go pay the governor a call; request he come to visit me tonight. I’ll do his will when midnight is the hour. A docile bride awaits him in my house. Say that my fame is dear to me and so, albeit secretly, I would give in. But come back quickly! Harlequin Yes, I’ll do it well. Laura I’ll do my best to carry out your wish.

Scene Fourteen Doctor, Harlequin Harlequin Sir, I’m so nervous, sir, my lady bids me. My lady has … that lady is inclined; the wife of Banut, sir, she’s called Aruya. She sends her greetings, asking for a pill to breathe, a little sal volatile, and then she’ll wait for you at ten to talk. Since she was here she’s talked of nothing else. Your love has sorely smitten her, it seems. Have you not given her a secret potion? Be sure to come at ten o’clock tonight. Doctor Good servant of your lady, Harlequin,

Dishonesty Entrapped 251 I’ll come, and you shall have your just reward. Four thousand ducats promised her before, in gold—I’ll give as much again tonight.

Scene Fifteen Judge, Harlequin Judge Good day, my Harlequin. So what of Banut? Harlequin He’s old and frail. My lady begs me greet you. She’s love struck, she can neither eat nor sleep, such is the passion you’ve aroused in her. She’s very shrewd, she wants to keep her fame. Come at eleven, she will wait for you, but bring the cash—remembering Harlequin.150 May her old man go off to sleep and die. Now I’ve persuaded him, I’ll have the aid of love and nature, have my fun with Laura.151 Judge Oh, happy times, I’ll hurry over there. I’ll gladly give in gold six thousand ducats. She needn’t fret, her secret’s safe with me. You’ll get your share as soon as I emerge.

Scene Sixteen Governor, Laura Governor Where are you from, my love,152 what brings you here? Laura It’s love and duty both this errand’s for. My mistress, Banut’s wife Aruya, sir, 150. A reminder of Harlequin’s reward. 151. An aside by Harlequin to the audience. 152. The governor is accustomed to treat any young girl he meets in a highly familiar manner.

252 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA is truly touched by promises you’ve made. To save her honor, and for caution’s sake, she bids you come with stealth at twelve tonight. Do bring the cash, for truly I can say it’s clear your feelings fill her heart with joy; for love of you she cannot sleep or eat. She’s looking forward to your happy tryst. Governor Take this reward, good servant of your mistress; you well deserve it. Say I also yearn for her great beauty and at twelve I’ll quench the burning flames consuming both our hearts. Ten thousand ducats she shall have, just as I promised. Meanwhile say I wish her well.

Scene Seventeen Aruya, Harlequin, Laura Harlequin I can’t find words to tell how both were seized with joy as soon as they received the news. They’ll come, they’ll bring the cash, good Harlequin! So you’ll be happy, I with Laura too.153 Aruya The Lord be praised, for Laura’s cheerful too. Virtuous honor’s saved, our vengeance gained. Laura He’ll gladly bring the cash at twelve o’clock. He paid me, Harlequin as well; today we will not starve. He’s quite delighted—but it’s nearly ten. Come on, let’s tidy up. Aruya Prepare the table, set out all the food. 153. Harlequin addresses Aruya about her “guests,” who will bring her satisfaction (not physical pleasure, as he keeps suggesting, wishing this for himself with Laura, but the anticipated realization of Aruya’s scheme for revenge).

Dishonesty Entrapped 253 There’s lots of wine and spirits, sweetmeats too. But hurry, there’s a knock. Laura The doctor’s here. It’s time his labors were rewarded now.

Scene Eighteen Doctor, Aruya, Harlequin, Laura Aruya Hello. I’ve waited so impatiently. My heart was troubled: what if you fell ill? Doctor You are my life, I’ll gladly die today once I’ve enjoyed embraces in your arms. Please take the cash. Aruya Just leave it there for now. The reckoning up can be delayed a while. Things are all different now, I’ll tell you straight. I’ve never loved a man as much as you. Let’s take refreshment first—here, have a drink. Meanwhile disrobe; your hopes may be fulfilled. Doctor Of course, my angel. Aruya Take your turban off, robe, belt, and shoes, the food is now prepared. I’ll drink a toast with pleasure as you feast. But what commotion do I hear? Alas, my husband comes. Harlequin Just get in one of these new chests we’ve bought. Don’t worry sir, though things seem very bad.

254 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Aruya Oh hurry, please, I hear his grumbling voice. Doctor Yes, straight-away, my dear, don’t be alarmed. Aruya Thank goodness, one is caught. Let’s hide those clothes. Money and honor, and his robes, are mine. Laura The judge is on his way. Aruya Then open quick. I’ll keep my honor still and have the cash.

Scene Nineteen Judge, Aruya, Harlequin, Laura Harlequin My lady waits, her tribulation’s dire, for she expects great joy from love of you. Aruya Oh my dear heart, how long you have delayed. You did not come with true alacrity and I complained, so bitterly I wept, but yet I beg you, open up your heart. Judge Beloved pet, your ardor has aroused my love’s true feelings. Oh, I’m overcome. Let’s go inside at once, look, here’s your cash. Aruya Compose yourself and taste what I have made myself for you with love from all my heart. My darling pet, your appetite is vast.154 154. Possibly an ironic suggestion to the judge.

Dishonesty Entrapped 255 But let your hair down, take that turban off. Remove your robe and make yourself at home. But what commotion do I hear? Alas, I’m shamed unless you kindly leave at once. Harlequin Your husband, brother, parents too are here. I hear they want to put you quite to shame.155 Aruya Your honor, please get in this chest, I beg! Judge But I’m the judge, they can’t accuse you, dear. Aruya Ah, woe is me! I’ve always been so chaste, yet now I’m doomed to die in such sad plight. Judge Cheer up, I’ll go. Just show me to this chest. Aruya It’s here, but listen, what a noise they’re making. Close it up, Harlequin, it’s not for long. Soon love will reunite us in our joy. Harlequin He’s in the chest. Aruya Thank goodness, such a joy! The hand of God takes care of us always. Laura I’ll gather up the clothes—the governor’s here. Oh Lord, imprison him just like the rest.

155. Harlequin suggests that Aruya’s whole family (husband, brother, and parents) want to see her suffer the shame of destitution; the stigma will be indelible if everyone witnesses this disaster.

256 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Scene Twenty Governor, Aruya, Harlequin, Laura Governor I come, my lady, answering your call. I bring the money too, take it, my dear. Aruya Oh that will keep, just place it over there. Let me enjoy your company, my lord. Will you drink wine or rather something sweet? There’s fruit as well—the sinful Eve’s red apple. Good Lord! How young you look, so handsome too! My dear, that’s what has truly won my heart. You’ll be too warm in that attire, undress and put aside your robe, my greatest love! Come here, dear heart. Harlequin Ah, now the master comes! Aruya Oh, what a game is this that Fortune plays? Laura Let’s hide the governor in that new chest. Governor No fear; who’d dare to challenge my great power? Aruya I don’t know what to do, I tear my hair. Good sir, have mercy, save me from this fate! Governor I won’t get in the chest. Aruya Well then I’ll die!

Dishonesty Entrapped 257 Harlequin Just for a little while; that’s all it takes. Aruya I love you so, my husband is so cruel. I’ll open up the chest, you’ll see, quite soon and then I’ll give you back your bag of cash. Governor So where’s this chest? I’ll get inside, meanwhile you can calm down. I’m off—they’re getting near. Harlequin He’s inside now, I’ve double locked it too. Aruya I’ll teach the rogues a lesson now, thank God.

Scene Twenty-One Banut, Aruya, Harlequin, Laura Aruya You’ll never guess what I have done, my dear. I’ve locked all three of them in those new chests: the judge, the doctor, and the governor too. All three locked up, they’ll never get away and they will face the emperor’s court forthwith about their debts, and we can then rejoice. Banut Do as you wish, my dear, you’ve saved the day. Honor and beauty both have triumphed now.

Scene Twenty-Two Emperor, Vizier, courtiers, Aruya, Harlequin Emperor Among the throng I see a woman comes. With what complaint does she approach the throne?

258 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Who might she be? Well, let her state her case. She’ll find my judgment fair if she is wronged. Vizier What is your name? Most humbly come before the throne and state what grievance you have suffered. Aruya The famous merchant Banut is my spouse. He’s bent with age so I present his case. Vizier Then tell his royal highness … Emperor Your complaint? Aruya You hold the power of justice in your hands. Judge for this victim who appeals to you. My husband, honest merchant, once gave loans. Now they refuse to pay and so we starve. The doctor, governor, and judge together, obstinate men, no chance to settle up. Emperor Can this be so? They all are honest men. Is this some crafty trick that you’ve devised? Aruya With your consent, my witnesses are here. If you allow them, they’ll come forward now. Harlequin, send the guard to show the way. Carry them in, I know it’s heavy work. Emperor Must they be carried in? Aruya Well, they can’t walk. May their deceit be punished by your hand,

Dishonesty Entrapped 259 for here I have the proof in black and white. A gang of witnesses sit in these chests, which I will now unlock. Emperor What’s this I see? The judge, the doctor, and the governor too. What shameful deeds could they have done? Speak up. Aruya Three years ago, your highness, if you please, my husband lent them each two thousand ducats, but now he’s poor they all deny their debts. When I was sent they sought to buy me off. All three proposed to pay large sums in cash, if in return they would enjoy my favors against all honor, duty, conscience too and filled my heart with such profound disgust I was determined that I’d get revenge, so asked them all to call on me that night. The doctor first of all climbed in his chest. Likewise the judge, and then the governor too. I tricked them all and got their debts in full. I charge that their behavior was improper. Do as you will with them, I know you’re just. Punish severely crime against one’s virtue. Emperor Your scheme is laudable, be gone, you rogues. Cast them all three in one same prison cell. I make Banut your governor today; it’s his reward, for honesty shall win. Good Harlequin, you’ll be our honest judge, but may the doctor starve, as he deserves. Show us those tantalizing charms you have. No wonder then the weak all fall in love. You’d better go and veil your face! Such charms will surely captivate all human hearts. Harlequin You see, good people, honor’s always best.

260 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Enrich yourselves this way and gain rewards. I bow most humbly down before you all. I vow to marry Laura, as the judge.

6. CONSOLATION AFTER TROUBLES 156

Fig. 6 Consolation after Troubles 156. Taken from the MSS in the Radziwiłł Archive, AGAD AR, Library manuscripts section, (ref. 48), pp. 455–511, entitled: Komedia Partenii z Tymantem komponowana roku 1750 [Comedy of Partenia and Tymant, written in the year 1750]. There is no list of dramatis personae or of actors. It should be noted that volume 1 of Teatr Franciszki Urszuli Radziwiłłowej [Drama of Franciszka Urszula

261

262 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Dramatis personae Prince Philoxyp Policrite, wife of Philoxyp Tymant, Prince of Cyprus Partenia, princess, sister of Philoxyp Prince Salamis Prince Polidamas Megasid Kalikrates Antymak, confidant of Tymant Zoil, Servant of Kalikrates Amaxyta, confidante of Partenia Critic157 Goddess Venus Susanna Doryda (nonspeaking part) Follebelle Gardener ACT ONE

Scene One Partenia (alone) I’m torn between two forms of happiness. I could gain wealth but thereby lose my freedom. Radziwiłłowa] was a rather casual binding of several fascicles, which even varied in page dimensions. Some plays are fragmentary, and the sequence of scenes and acts is sometimes confused. The present comedy also lacks a part of scene 7, and scene 8 is entirely missing. This is bibliographically nonchronological, since pp. 512–538 contain a short story in prose: Historyja Timan[t]a i Partenii na komedię przełożona przeze mnie - F[ ] X[iężna] R[adziwiłłowa][History of Timant and Partenia translated by me, Pr(incess) F(ranciszka) R(adziwiłłowa), as a comedy]. This play is missing in the copy prepared for the Nieśwież edition of 1751. It was first published in the 1754 Żółkiew edition, where it was identified as the tenth comedy, performed on September 3, 1750, the occasion of the birthday celebrations of the princess’s daughter Teofila Radziwiłłówna. On January 19 of the same year it was performed to celebrate the birthday of her younger sister Katarzyna Karolina, although there is no mention of this in the diary of Prince Michał Radziwiłł. In the 1754 edition, the list of dramatis personae (headed “Actors”) is derived from the text of the play. In the short story, the Prince of Cyprus is Philoxyp, and Tymant is Prince of Crete. 157. Throughout the play, the (otherwise unnamed) Critic always adopts a critical stance towards everything. This role seems to derive from the baroque convention whereby the substantive onstage characters are accompanied by personified abstract concepts such as Freedom, Fortune, and so on.

Consolation after Troubles 263 My instinct tells me I should stay unmarried, but honor rests on gains that are material. O fate, why do you make such harsh demands by founding ladies’ fame on married state? My life of freedom’s caught tight in a noose; in just a trice my own self-will is lost. So in relentless clash of heart and mind the marriage vows take precedence for sure. Since common sense dictates against my heart,158 I’ll willy-nilly plight my solemn troth.

Scene Two Partenia, Amaxyta Amaxyta What’s wrong, my lady? Here you’re all alone. Why do you whisper just unto yourself? For entertainment’s rife; your hall is filled with many guests, but you are pining here. Partenia Amaxyta dear, I’d much rather stay alone than join that throng; they’re so exhausting and though some words are spoken, yet the heart can muster only languorous replies. You see, when one is loath to speak, though words may come to mind, they are but half expressed. But who goes there? Amaxyta Two princes, and with them is Kalikrates, cheering pining hearts: Prince de Salamis and Polidamas declare their hearts enchained by love for you. Partenia Let them approach, my dear, for I confess that Polidamas looks to me more handsome, though Prince de Salamis has greater fortunes; 158. These two lines suggest that reason can quell emotions (here, selfish desires for personal freedom).

264 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I’d rather marry him—there’s much to gain. He’s unrefined in speech, but in his face there’s charm; I’m somehow strangely drawn to him. But go, invite them all, as matters stand one’s duty must be done, without complaint.

Scene Three Partenia, Amaxyta, Polidamas, Prince Salamis, Kalikrates who notes down Polidamas’s every word. Salamis After a long delay the time has come; we now can fall down humbly at your feet, two hearts that share both passion and regret. We both now thank you for receiving us. Partenia I beg your pardon, princes, now I wish to entertain you both with various talk. But why is Polidamas out of sorts?159 There’s something gloomy in his eyes and face. Polidamas My stomach ails me, and I have the runs that keep me on the go throughout the night. I hardly slept a wink, because I dreamt my backbone all at once was going rotten. Scared to death, sensing awful premonition, as in my bowels those dreadful winds were rumbling. Partenia The best interpreter of dreams about your dying day is up above in heaven. Poor health is not unusual, you know, but common sense can moderate it all, so yet I wish your mood will not be spoilt.

159. The following lines are inspired not by the short story but by Radziwiłłowa’s concept of the comicdidactic (“But why is Polidamas out of sorts … But I must go—delay will harm my health”).

Consolation after Troubles 265 Polidamas That’s nothing yet, today my chestnut steed went lame when in a turn he fell on thorns. Partenia No cause for great dismay; just bear in mind the will of God and you will be consoled. Polidamas Another worry now is my new clothes; today I cannot find the silk I need. Fine clothes they’ll be, red coat and yellow trousers. Black hat to match, all in the latest fashion. White gloves and also stockings in bright blue, Caparisons of velvet, all in green. I’ll surely cut a dash, my hair styled too. If only Chestnut gained his health again. Partenia Though things affect your mind, they aren’t so dire, these woes of which you speak so much today. The tailor’s there for you, horse doctors too. Should you be ill, the doctor has a cure. But we have heard enough of your afflictions Let’s talk of other things, I beg you now. Polidamas I truly lack the time and need to sleep, sudden departure’s forced by nature’s call. The humors are upset and plague me badly; I’ll purge these belly aches and then return.160 But I must go—delay will harm my health. Partenia What are you writing, Kalikrates now? Kalikrates I’m taking care to note it all, and then you’ll have to work out what’s between the lines.

160. See n82 on p. 157, regarding the four humours (temperaments).

266 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Salamis I wish to lose no time by staying here, soon to return, my passion unabated. If you will honor me and so allow, I shall return and court you if you will. Partenia Such things are not for me to say alone, they’re fore-ordained; the will of God decides. What were you writing, Kalikrates, with such care? Please tell me now; I’m dying to know. Kalikrates Promise me then you’ll cast aside your rage. Just read the words and see what they propose. You’re shrewd enough to see that conversation with Polidamas made no sense at all. Partenia (after reading Polidamas’s words) Kalikrates, you rogue, you clever censor! Such strange ideas have got into his head. I see the funny way you turn them round,161 so I will not become too fond of him. Go now! My heart is full of shame and grief: that his fine body harbors stupid thoughts. It’s absurd. Amaxyta, close the door. What do you think his criticism’s based on? Admit yourself, it’s true. What’s it to me: lame horse, his stomachache, and taste in clothes? Grief so affects my heart now I perceive my instinct bids me part at once from him. Amaxyta I see quite clearly Kalikrates made a joke; it’s written in a funny way. Believe me it is bad when rumors spread that someone’s wife has made him see she’s right. The prince your brother and his spouse approach: they look as though they bring some welcome news. 161. I.e., in a humorous way, you have distorted the words of Polidamas, showing them in a different light.

Consolation after Troubles 267

Scene Four Philoxyp, Policrite, Partenia, Amaxyta Philoxyp Dear sister, after such a long delay it’s time you entered the state of marriage. Your parents, brother, my whole land request it; tell us who your instinct names as groom. Partenia My brother dear, if you demand my marriage, permit some time to ponder such a step. I heed your views, but you heed mine as well. That Prince Salamis cannot be my choice, nor Polidamas, for he is too stupid. There is no other suitor, as you know. So let your view prevail, whom I should choose. Policrite A lady’s passions can’t hold sway in this, whether he’s loved or whether he’s despised. Good sense and honor, trophies, gain and fame hold sway with modest hearts, not love or hate. So if Prince Salamis is rich enough we’ll seek at once to make a match with him. Partenia Since you explain my obligations well and speak so wisely, then I must consent. My will submits to yours, I’m in dire straits,162 so do not fail to aid me in distress. Philoxyp Thank you, my sister, for your kind compliance. The marriage bed will by and by bring love—163 what instinct rends asunder reconciled. 162. This line emphasizes that she concedes under duress and explains the following appeal for assistance. 163. I.e., sexual pleasure should guarantee a closer emotional relationship in marriage. (“The marriage bed will by and by bring love—[…] Both hearts find love when bodies join as one.”)

268 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Both hearts find love when bodies join as one. So let us go and ring the wedding bells. Dear sister, do ensure you’re quite prepared.

Scene Five Partenia Oh joy! Just let me ask today at least, what is my guilt that I must I drown in tears, and like the sun concealed by dark storm clouds my eyes cannot be seen for floods of tears? But now I’ll dry these tears; I’ll not complain for all can see my fate is not in doubt. [Ballet]164

Scene Six165 Prince Salamis, Megasid Prince Salamis I’ve gained my wish, but now that I am wed, we do despise what with such ease we gain. I am in charge, my trophy’s in my power. It’s dull to have one partner all alone. I’ve seen two ladies, one of lowly birth, 164. In the MSS there is an additional handwritten note by the author in the margin at the beginning of scene 5: “Dance following scene five”. This would have been choreographed to mark engagement and marriage celebrations. 165. Scenes 6 and 7 illustrate the significant adaptations made by Radziwiłłowa to the conception of the novel, by condensing time and simplifying the motivational framework to favor Partenia. The following is a relevant excerpt from the novel (back-translated here from the manuscript Polish translation entitled Historia Tymanta i Partenii [The Story of Tymant and Partenia] by Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa (AGAD AR, Library manuscripts section, ref. 48, pp. 512–538, transcribed in Judkowiak 2013b, 389): “Her brother the Prince and her parents persuaded her to marry Prince Salamis, who was deeply in love with her, though she was unable to return his love right up until the exchange of marriage vows. However, in a strange twist of human affairs the tables were turned; whereas at first Partenia did not love the Prince but he loved her, afterwards she loved him while he could not bear her, claiming that once he won a woman over a man was no longer obliged to care for her and could always seek another. The fair Partenia was inconsolable after this; she almost died of sorrow and her grief ruined her fine appearance. To avoid public shame, she abandoned the court and hid away in a nearby principality. Soon afterwards the gods took pity on her unhappy fate, when the Prince’s debauchery led to his miserable end at Pathos.”

Consolation after Troubles 269 the other noble, and I fancy both. Good Megasid, approach that lowly one, give her a gift, so she will fall for me, and tell that noble one I die for her. Then there’s a third who also wounds my heart. The fourth a vestal virgin, the fifth a wife. The sixth a girl who’s buxom, young, and fair. Take care of all of them, I’ll pay you well. Assure them all their honor is quite safe. Megasid But what rewards are these, my worthy prince, for what, when God bestows so fair a wife? Where’s honor, conscience too? It’s foul deceit. True love’s your bond, it’s not a case of greed. Three days have scarcely passed, and yet you wander. Would you thus sully faith and your good name? Please don’t involve me in such loathsome deeds. You know I’m honest, not inclined to cheat. Prince Salamis While seeking happiness, that’s what one wants. A suitor loves his lady till they’re wed. But once his hungry appetite’s fulfilled, his taste is spoiled and other game is sought. A hunter when his quarry’s in the bag rejects it soon and hunts in pastures new. Am I to be enslaved? Just for one oath must I now hide away like some dull oaf? I’d rather give up marriage and set off wherever I’m perforce compelled to go. I have my eye on ladies in their dozens. I beg you, Megasid, don’t think too deep. Go tell my tiresome wife, who’s in my way, to go away and live somewhere apart. She should not ask for me. If she objects, just say the husband’s will must be obeyed.

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Scene Seven Megasid, Partenia, Amaxyta Megasid I’m bid to tell you that the prince’s wish is that you leave him now and go at once. Partenia Why in such haste? I’ll take my brother’s leave. Ah Megasid, I’m dogged by wretched fate. Megasid Just leave, my lady, better hold your tongue; just bear these bitter burdens; don’t protest. Partenia Who’ll go with me? Shall I then leave my husband? Megasid I pray your higher mind will win the day. Amaxyta So don’t be sad; I’ll always be your friend. Partenia Dear Amaxyta, when life’s fate is vile and heart from soul is rent, well then at least pray cast no blemish, do not cause my ruin. I swear to stay within those walls forever. I’ll hide away my sadness, life that’s lost and fortune’s fickleness I’ll have to bear.

Scene Eight Partenia My fortunes all have been upset and ruined; there’s nothing in this world that stays the same. The day gives way to night, as sun to moon, as light to darkness, time keeps moving on. As winter leads to spring: the earth’s alive,

Consolation after Troubles 271 and flowers when they fade are gnawed by frost. A cheerful life can turn into deep gloom— these common changes hold the world in bondage. When in full spate the river’s stopped by dams. All things must bow to change or force majeure. And so where ample gains may yet be found I rest my woes and do not count my loss.

Scene Nine Philoxyp, Kalikrates, Megasid, Zoil166

Philoxyp Death is a law unto itself; today by sudden whim it took my brother too. It metes out punishment to one and all, for all are equal in its eyes. But those that fate inclines to sin are hunted more, and those who live by crime shall die unmourned. But who shall bear the wretched news that says her husband’s guilt shall be atoned in death? Kalikrates Allow me, Prince, to speak this truth myself and calm the lady’s mind in her distress. Her virtue’s wounded; though revenge is sure,167 but when her foe is dead she’ll weep for him. And so her wounded heart, all full of mercy, will quite forget the harm and cool her anger. Philoxyp All right, go forth in haste and soon return. Console my sister, help to heal her woes and let her rest content with God’s decree,

166. In the dramatis personae, the servant of Kalikrates. Generally, Zoil is a name for an envious, malicious critic, seeking a pretext to rebuke someone. Here it is possibly a proper name and an allusion to the actual person who was the model for the abstract generalization, Zoil of Amfipolis, Macedonia, in the fourth century b.c., rhetorician and literary critic, famous for his petty criticism of Homer, Plato, Isocrates, and others. 167. The following lines explain the meaning of true virtue, which bears no grudge and pities an opponent, despite the fact that in the death of the opponent appropriate revenge is taken for injury caused, that justice is done, and that equilibrium and moral order are restored, for this is clearly Christian virtue (love of one’s enemies, mercy).

272 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA for we’ll ensure that she is always happy.168

Scene Ten Partenia, Amaxyta, Kalikrates, Zoil Kalikrates I bear unwelcome news, a sad affair. No one escapes a fate that’s preordained; today this truth is shown, for ruthless death for his excesses claims the prince, your husband. Partenia What’s this I hear? Please help me, Amaxyta, in this my dying breath, with woeful heart. Kalikrates My lady, hear my words, take my advice: Does this deceitful drunkard deserve your tears? Partenia Oh, Lord, what falsehood’s this—be gone at once! You too a drunken sot, of careless words. Amaxyta, approach the prince my brother. May he not cause me sadness anymore.

Scene Eleven Kalikrates, Zoil Kalikrates Zoil, you’ve seen she’s fair of face. Because her sadness stirs my passion even more. You know her inward thoughts and all her tricks, so tell me why she’s angry, why such rage, such tears of woe like dew upon a rose. Despite distress, her eyes are lovely still. Since I return rejected, with no hope, 168. This line demonstrates the dependence of an unmarried woman on her brother in ancient times; although Partenia’s parents are still alive, Philoxyp has clearly taken over control in the family from his father.

Consolation after Troubles 273 I’ll send someone to spy and take revenge, and I’ll pretend to be in love with her. Pray help me now, and do as I command. Zoil I’m quite prepared to spread the rumor round that ladies seek to put their suitors off. Their haughty mien they mask with modest looks. I swear they all can do just what they wish. If one could seek a really honest woman … I’ve tried at least a hundred lady friends. A lady shouts and scolds, masks love with shyness, but if you really want her you’ll succeed. Kalikrates Good servant, listen, now I’ll feign despair, I’ll mope and sigh and then I’ll come to you to whisper, send you off, and then depart; I’ll make such faces as I speak of her,169 a fool alone can fail to see the truth: Partenia loves me, and I love her too.

Scene Twelve Philoxyp, Kalikrates, Zoil, Megasid Philoxyp You’ve seen my sister; tell me all the news. Can I now hope she’ll come to visit soon? Kalikrates In woe, laments, and tears I long despaired. On your behalf I offered deep respects, but no response was straightaway forthcoming. I saw less sorrow in her face and eyes.170 169. I.e., in moments of feigned lack of caution, supposedly out of control in situations where an intimate relationship should be concealed (in the short story, the princess’s admirers included “Kalikrates, who was highly adept and deceitful and possessed a peculiar frame of mind, and who thanks to favorable circumstances and the amassing of fortunes had risen from lowly origins to honorable status,” but this motif is lacking here. 170. It is suggested here that Partenia showed mute signs of welcoming the approach in her facial expression, although she remained silent.

274 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA The lady kindly did receive my missive; she bade me stay to act as her helpmate. But as I know that folk are apt to think the worst, I hastened back to you at once. Philoxyp Your muddled words tell me you must be sick. Kalikrates My head is aching—lack of sleep, and boredom. Megasid What’s changed in you; what’s all this upset for? Kalikrates One’s heart is often pained by dreadful secrets. Zoil What’s in the urgent message? Read it out. Kalikrates Take care; don’t give the letter just like that. If you permit—for it concerns me much. Philoxyp A willing lady must have sent this note. Show me, Kalikrates. Kalikrates I’d rather die. You can’t see this—it’s from my friend in secret. Megasid You must reveal it, for we doubt your words. Kalikrates You’ll have to fight me then, to test my grief. Philoxyp I clearly saw the hand must be a lady’s. But let him read it here in private first.

Consolation after Troubles 275 Although the secret will be understood, he can resist his inclinations too. Kalikrates reads the letter in private. He kisses it and sighs, pretending to do so secretly. Ah, darling letters, many many many! Each shape reveals heartfelt desires, I know. So read it, Zoil, make the horses ready to take that road (you know, beyond the maze). Farewell, my lord, I beg you’ll let me go. Then I’ll set off, but I’ll be back by dawn. Philoxyp These last three days you’ve been confused. Why, pray? Kalikrates My secret’s valued more than life itself.

Scene Thirteen Philoxyp, Megasid, Policrite, Doryda, Critic, Kalikrates, Zoil Policrite What’s with you, Kalikrates, day and night I hear you dashing off to certain places. At night you leave, return before day breaks. What is the latest scheme that’s in your head? Kalikrates It isn’t true that I’m retiring early thus causing certain people to complain. Partenia saw me—oh, I mean Doryda. For while you sat here I was in the room. Philoxyp You often make mistakes; though you’re confused I know you’re still in love, for I can tell. Policrite We also knew it’s true, so why so sad if you have gained the love you sought so much?

276 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Kalikrates Unjust suspicions of Parte- or rather Policrite, are terribly embarrassing. Megasid It’s really strange, though you are blessed with favors. I wish you’d show the lady more respect; you kiss her letters, run around at night, and don’t refrain from calling out her name! That is so incorrect. You ought to keep such things in confidence if you love her. Kalikrates I don’t know what you mean. Parte- Oh dear! I meant to say the Critic, but in haste some other words emerged; I don’t know why. Thus people often perish, blaming innocents. Critic (to Philoxyp) Your face revealed it long ago to me, your secret love is plain for all to see. Those sidelong glances, joking all the time. Once when we talked his171 mind was quite made up, but now he’s blurted out a different story, you say he’s cleverly concealing secrets.172 In truth, though she’s your sister, Philoxyp, so well endowed, her beauty’s harmful though. Were I a man, I never would choose her. She’s shallow, flighty, loved a thousand men. Policrite There’s ample proof that this is all quite false. No fairer, dearer face have you yet seen. Fine figure, modest honor all in one, such wisdom rarely found in womankind. 171. Referring to Kalikrates. 172. The Critic now addresses Philoxyp: Kalikrates had declared himself to be insensitive to the prospective bride’s charms. When he now contradicts himself, blurting out secret feelings, returned by Partenia, you immediately suspect him (calling his meaningless, random words a sly and cautious masking of something that occurred between them), meanwhile your sister, although beautiful and generous, can’t be loved, is ugly and repulsive.

Consolation after Troubles 277 The only flaw in this perfection you can find is cold resistance in her heart. Kalikrates These are the traits that she’s been handed down. She still sheds tears of sorrow without end, If she could have a soul mate of her own, would it be bad if she could love him too? Philoxyp Make haste, dear Megasid, request my sister: may she concur with our deliberations. Make sure she comes to us, the time is now: let reason, beauty, honor too be saved.

Scene Fourteen Policrite, Philoxyp, Partenia, Amaxyta, Critic, Megasid, Doryda Partenia I come without delay as you demand, I’ve spent my days in mourning state without regret; there came one person to my aid who could console me in my bitter sorrow. Critic I’m sure that when one finds someone to share one’s sorrow, love that’s true then brings relief. Philoxyp Abandon tears and grief, for now with us your thoughts will turn from inner pain to joy. Don’t burden others with your silent pain, because you’ll heal your wounds in just a trice. Policrite Some indiscreet attentions have revealed what you feel now; before you kept it secret. The power of such emotions is too strong; we know you’re now in love; you shouldn’t hide it.

278 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Philoxyp We know you’re travel weary, you must rest; you’re angry and upset, so we’ll go now.

Scene Fifteen Partenia, Amaxyta, Megasid Partenia What’s this? Defender of man’s innocence,173 I swear I know not why I’m so accused. Dear Megasid, who blames me so, and why? Can anyone be more upset than me? Megasid Kalikrates on leaving you, you see, was sad and lost, he hardly ate at all. At night he went to you, and secretly he read your letters, kissed the words you wrote, and spoke your name when meaning someone else. Each time he spoke, your reputation suffered. Without a word, he still revealed the secret; he spied on you and knew his love’s requited. Partenia And I’m in love? Letters? Visits from him? Ye gods! What harmful falsehood he has spread! He’s quite unknown to me; I haven’t seen him. I did not want to write or talk to him. You can ask the sister; she’ll tell the truth.174 I swear by all the gods. But Megasid, defend me so I must not bear this shame. May Philoxyp avenge the family’s honor; I’ll live in innocence until I die. My reputation pure, I’ll go to Delphi and pray the goddess punishes this slander.175 173. An appeal to the deity. 174. Partenia probably refers to Amaxyta, her “spiritual sister.” 175. Delphi, on the slopes of Mount Parnassus, was the seat of the famous Greek Oracle of Apollo. Radziwiłłowa makes it the center of the cult (and the location of the Oracle) of Venus (the Roman goddess, instead of consistently that of Venus’s Greek counterpart, the goddess Aphrodite); this is typical of the ahistorical, baroque reception of the ancient world, confusing Greek and Roman traditions.

Consolation after Troubles 279

Scene Sixteen A church with the image of a goddess, chorus, Partenia Partenia I come to offer homage to my goddess. I’ve come to ask what fate awaits me now my reputation’s harmed by spiteful talk, false slander too, avenge me for this wrong. Declare what fate now lies ahead for me; I trust entirely in your higher will. Let hymns be sung aloud, the music heard. Deny the blame, defy all treacherous wiles. Chorus Goddess of conscience pure, defender of the calumnied. Tell me success awaits and happiness for me. When is my heart to find a harbor safe and sound? I bow to your divine decree; oh calm the storm of accusations and wipe away my bitter tears. The curious Acteon176 was cut off short by you. The guilt of course is punished in Callista.177 My honor begs today to be avenged. Nor is this entirely logical in terms of the imprecise location of the action of the play; Aphrodite was worshipped in Paphos, Cyprus (her birthplace); in the short story, Filoxip does indeed rule in Cyprus, whereas in Radziwiłłowa’s play the immigrant Tymant is Prince of Cyprus. 176. The famous mythical Acteon of Thebes, who while hunting came across Artemis taking a bath and who was consequently torn to pieces by dogs. Radziwiłłowa attributes the initiative for this punishment to Aphrodite/Venus (“Goddess of conscience pure, … The curious Acteon was cut off short by you”). 177. The nymph Callista, one of the companions of Artemis, was turned into a she-bear as punishment for breaking her vow of chastity and the loss of her virginity to Zeus. In this form, she was killed by her own son Arcas and Zeus raised them both to the skies as the Great Bear and Arcturus constellations. This mythological tale of double transformation was popularized by Ovid in his Metamorphoses. However, according to various versions of the myth, the metamorphosis was performed by Artemis herself, by the envious Hera, or by Zeus himself. Without justification, Radziwiłłowa ascribes the initiative for the nymph’s punishment to Venus, thus making her omnipotent, as she is in matters of love, the guardian of chastity!

280 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Tell me thy will; what state must I adopt? I beg you, guide my steps as you do so ordain I will declare my heart’s desire. Goddess178 I see you shedding bitter tears. I will reward the honor that you guard. This harsh revenge I do decree: the sick opponent is to die. Your fate meanwhile is thus decreed: you are assured of happiness. If someone falls in love with you you’ll be united in true love, when though he cannot see your face, he still will love you secretly. Your fate requires he love you just for sake of talents that you show, or else your happiness is doomed: if someone loves you for your looks, before he knows your inner self, your downfall surely will ensue. Partenia My fate’s unsure; it means I must retire at once to live a life of isolation. I’ll hide my grief in innocent pursuits I’ll see no one, my name shall not be harmed.

Scene Seventeen Tymant, Philoxyp, Antymak, Policrite, Megasid Tymant I’ve made my way through many distant lands; my ship of happiness has reached your port. My name is Tymant; father rules in Cyprus. Your hospitality’s superb, he tells. 178. In the original Polish, the prophesy is written in octosyllabic verse, setting it off from the dominant form of versification.

Consolation after Troubles 281 Philoxyp Your presence pleases me; as best I can I will ensure that you shall not be bored. Once you are rested after arduous travels, the teams of chariots shall be prepared for tournaments and races in your honor. With what device do you command your shield shall be emblazoned? Just declare your wish. Tymant I’m grateful, you’re most kind; it bears a phoenix, “I patiently await the blazing sun.”179 It always represents defense of freedom.180 Policrite The freedom of young hearts is fine, it’s true. I hope some beauty in our land will tempt you so you’ll stay and you’ll enjoy it more. I’m at your service, and my husband too. Now go and rest; meanwhile we will prepare all kinds of entertainments for your pleasure. ACT TWO In the forest

Scene One Partenia, Amaxyta Partenia Rejecting all the world, I walk this maze, wherein I seek relief from dreadful fate, for chaos rules the life I have to lead. 179. The phoenix was a mythological Greek bird that was supposed to live for several hundred years, after which it built a nest in which it burned, to arise from the ashes reborn and rejuvenated. It is associated with the cult of the sun (and the Egyptian city of Heliopolis, where it appeared reborn). It has become a symbol of sacrifice and rebirth (also in the Christian religion). 180. An allusion to the expectation of being consumed by the (regenerating) fire (of love)—here prevented by the sun (his lover). In the short story, there is only an allusion to his being overcome by passion despite the veil: “On the shield he ordered the motto to be inscribed: The burning sun shines even through dark clouds into the heart” (Scudéry 1972, 528).

282 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I’ll emulate the maze: in mine I’ll dwell, enjoying there the happiness foretold. Amaxyta I sympathize with you; we’re undivided. Our paths through life we share, they touch us both. But who can tell what lies in store for us? Your hardships soon will turn to joy, thank heaven. Your fate does not allow true love on sight, yet you’ll succeed by dint of well-turned body.181 Your genius, shapely, slender form to boot will surely capture someone’s heart quite soon.182 Partenia Ah, Amaxyta! Don’t speak empty words. Henceforth my fate wards off attacks like this. I will not nurture hopes; perforce they’re vain. Confined within these hedges I will sing a few new songs that I’ve composed myself. Amaxyta Let’s go right in the maze; we know our way. In peace and quiet there you’ll sing these words to me, and I will try my best as well to calm your grieving mind with soothing tones.

Scene Two Tymant, Antymak—lost during their hunting expedition183 Tymant The noisy hunting mob would drive one crazy; the softly rustling trees alone are heard. Let’s go into these woods, the paths are strange. A maze, it seems; I fear we’ve lost our way. 181. I.e., shapely—potter’s wheel metaphor. 182. I.e., you will be married. Amaxyta does not understand that Partenia wishes to achieve her freedom in solitary existence (cf. act I, end of scene 16: “My fate’s unsure; it means I must retire/at once to live a life of isolation”). 183. MSS: “Antymak blows his hunting horn.” Its loudness contrasts with the “softly rustling trees.” In the novel, Tymant lost his way when out for a ride, entering the maze as a tourist attraction!

Consolation after Troubles 283 Antymak For sure, the further in these woods we stray, the more we’ll lose our strength; we’ll be exhausted. Tymant Just listen, Antymak, to that sweet voice! We must find out the source of that fine sound. How can we reach it through the thick dark branches? Perhaps that voice will lead us from the maze. [Song]184 Our willful fortune, fickle in its ways, destroys the weft of life.185 it binds us first with all the boons of life,186 but then it fills our days with grief. Engulfed by sadness in my life, in grief, in freedom too, I struggle on. I’ve suffered not a few reversals, so many ups and downs. My life is better now; I know the wily tricks that people play. I won’t be fooled by flippant friends who try these tricks on me; though plausible, they’re false and seek to ruin me. I will not risk deceit again. I know all sorts of cases where promises of joy all end in pain; chicanery abounds. At times when hearts are firmly bound, a thousand words of affirmation, 184. Consists in the original Polish of four nine-syllable lines in a regular versification pattern: 12a, 7a, 12a, 7b, 8c, 8c, 6d, 6d, 8e. Copied as text 13 in Biblioteka Zakładu Narodowego im. Ossolińskich we Wrocławiu [Library of the National Ossolineum Institute in Wrocław, MSS ref.11984 I (pp. 12–14). It was most probably from the family chronicle containing copies of Radziwiłłowa’s works kept by her daughter Teofila. Teofila may have acted in the play; she was born in 1738 and would have been about twelve years of age. 185. Metaphor of life woven as a pattern. 186. Baroque paradox.

284 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA they swear on oath they won’t forget; they swear concord forever. But when its quarry’s in the bag, love ceases to respect these oaths. Laments and bitter tears are what betrayal feeds. In heavy seas my ship has foundered; I seek safe haven. My heart’s relieved; no cause to make complaint. I want no new adventure to prove I’m right in this. So I accept the burden; God’s might will be my aid, as this shall be the certain way, may I enjoy this freedom till I die.

Scene Three Partenia, Amaxyta, Tymant, Antymak Tymant Now if your figure proves to match that voice then you’ll deserve the gifts of goddesses. Antymak So may this sound that pleases us who’ve gone astray soon guide us strangers back again, and may this charm that lures us off our track direct us back towards the proper way. Partenia Although you call it charm, the bait must pall if you so soon regret that you have strayed. Tymant I don’t agree with what my friend has said. I hear your song and want to stay, not go. I’d love to hear you sing just one more song, and even more if I could see you too. Partenia The first I’ll grant, of course, but your next wish is far too bold; please don’t insist on this.

Consolation after Troubles 285 Antymak At least have pity, as your sex inclines, and lead us both from our misguided path. Partenia Prince Tymant will forgive belated greetings; let him accept sincere respects at once. Our feminine compassion shall ensure he’s disentangled from the wooded maze. I humbly take my leave; sincere good wishes. Tymant Don’t rush away! Please sing for our delight. You promised once; God punishes false words. Let me enjoy your singing voice at least. Partenia To show that you’re distinguished in the world as well as in these woods, although you’re lost, the voice that nature blessed me with will guide you out, with others’ help, and honor you. I so respect the grace of noble birth I’ll see they lead you out without delay, but do not ask my name or who I am, because my honor and my happiness, indeed my life itself, depend on this. [Song]187 The fate of Daedalus is complex188 he struggles in the maze 187. Copied without graphical differentiation of the lines in MSS Biblioteka Ossolińskich 11984 I, pp.14–15. An unusual versification scheme (possibly motivated by, and certainly supported by, a musical accompaniment) is distinctly visible in the reconstruction of the composition. The six-line AB AB AB AB stanza arrangement contains an internal structure formulated here in the notation of the number of syllables and rhymes (including internal rhymes) in the line: 6a, 4b+4b, 9a, 6c, 4d+4d, 8c (in stanza A) i: 9e, 9e, 7f, 9g, 9g, 7f (in stanza B). 188. Daedalus, a mythical inventor, said to have been a pupil of Hermes. Exiled to Crete for the murder of his nephew, the inventor of the potter’s wheel, out of envy, he built a labyrinth there for Minos’s son, the Minotaur. It was inspired by the complexity of the palace of Knossos. Imprisoned by Minos, Daedalus and his son attempted to escape on wings made of feathers and wax, but Icarus flew too high and he fell into the sea when the sun melted the wax, destroying his wings. Partenia’s song tells the story.

286 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA and finds the exit, though the way is hard to find. The artful Daedalus is most inventive: adorned with wings that he has made himself, with skill he overrules the wind and then he teaches Icarus his son to fly. He makes him wings as well, from feathers sewn together, held by wax. He warns his son he must not fly too low nor yet too high, avoid the damp below and fiery sun. But rashly Icarus flies blindly on headlong towards the burning solar heat. The wax then melts: he falls into the sea, and there he meets his end. But swiftly Daedalus flies ever on; he circles then and makes for land, dismayed, tormented for his son. Maintaining level flight, a happy medium, he does not go too high nor yet too low, and so ensures he’ll keep himself quite safe. Whenever hopes are raised too high the wax is melted by the scorching sun; for human fate is so ordained. Within the labyrinth confusion reigned; Kind-hearted Ariadne189 was so moved she saved the life of Theseus out of pity. Her ball of thread helps him retrace his steps and to emerge from there alive and well. Once he has slain the bull with human head,190 ungrateful for the victory ensured,191 he takes on board his savior Ariadne, abandons her on rocky desert isle. He then unfurls his sails. 189. The daughter of Minos, out of love for Theseus, who had come to Crete to free the Athenians from the annual tribute of seven youths and seven maids offered to the bull-headed Minotaur every year gave him a ball of twine to unwind as he entered the labyrinth, to enable him to find his way out again. 190. The Minotaur was a monster—half bull, half man. Contrary to Radziwillowa’s description, it had a bull’s head and a man’s body (as seen on a black-figured Boeotian vase from Tanagra, today in the Louvre). 191. It was Ariadne who ensured the victory. Theseus took her away as he had promised but then abandoned her on the island of Naxos, leaving her asleep on the shore (various reasons are suggested by scholars, of no particular relevance here).

Consolation after Troubles 287 Good deeds are commonly repaid with grief; ingratitude is what ensues of course. When serious troubles loom like dark storm clouds one turns to God in times of need like this. But when the goal of happiness is gained well, kiss good-bye all gratitude, for then one seeks a pretext for a change. Pure happiness is only then ensured when true love’s found and shores of fortunes gained. Partenia Of Daedalus I’ve sung in my high voice; without delay I must go home; farewell … Tymant Such cruel haste! First tell me who you are and where you dwell. I’ll seek you everywhere! Partenia I’m bound by such mysterious quirks of fate that I may not reveal my name to you. Since fickle fortune treats me in this way, you cannot learn my name while I still live. Do not enquire, while I with troubled thoughts must take my leave and urgently depart.

Scene Four Tymant, Antymak Tymant Seductive maze, all treacherous and mean, If only paths were real, I’d follow her. A fear like this has never gripped my heart, confusion worse than straying in the maze. Despite the tightly woven hedge you saw white arms, fine figure, truly such a beauty. Her dress, her voice, her speech, all so refined, although her beauty’s hid, her face concealed, I don’t know what is ailing me, I’m full

288 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA of sadness now the longing that I feel outweighs the love of freedom I once had.

Antymak How fickle is the game of human fortunes if you can fall in love just at first sight. Because you’re lost your troubled mind’s confused. Do you desire to quit the maze at once?192 Tymant Come on, let’s see if we can catch her up; It must have been a clever lover’s trick. Believe me, I won’t eat; I cannot live unless I reach the cause of my distress.

Scene Five Partenia, Amaxyta, gardener Partenia I must admit the prince’s handsome face confused my thoughts today, dear Amaxyta. Now, gardener, I’m going in the maze; you follow on, but first you wait one hour. Lead out the stranded; I’ll reward you well. Don’t say my name; pretend you’ve never met us.193 If asked then say you may have seen just now the mistress of these woods, but you’re unsure. Gardener I’ll do as you command and keep the secret be it on pain of punishment at law. Amaxyta Time flies, let’s hurry since the prince is sad; may he recover once he’s free again.

192. The editor changed the original question into a statement, emphasizing Antymak’s levelheadedness. 193. I.e., Partenia and Amaxyta.

Consolation after Troubles 289 Tymant (alone) Deluged suddenly life’s delight Rain cloud conceals the sun that’s bright Gentle streams their banks overflow Grasses green under frost and snow Grimly winter with summer vies Now sultry sun, now steely skies Sun traversing bright blue heavens Earth’s aromas waft and leaven Nought abides in its appointed place But moves restless on and on apace Mother nature hastens the surge Wonder not my heart senses this urge No more that serene so peaceful life My spirit stirs among storm clouds rife In sun unseen rage fiercer the fires194 Quenched are they not by these floods of tears As frosts green blades of grass here scorch Fate unkind in me lights a torch Embraced by numbing bitter frost Grimly enchained am I, my freedom lost Though fate malign for me doth unfold This hapless state must remain untold Though hidden senses well touch it may Deep in my heart must I lock it away.

Scene Six Tymant, Antymak Tymant My heart is sad and weary, I’m tormented; this unknown lady’s always on my mind. I hear today’s the feast of lost Adonis195; 194. A suggestion that the flames of passion are fanned by the mystery of Partenia’s face, hidden behind her veil; cf. act IV, scene 3 (“Admit you feel the burning sun behind the clouds”). 195. Adonis—mythical young huntsman, hero of the Fourth Idyll of Theocritus, lover of Aphrodite torn to pieces by wild boar while hunting. The goddess poured nectar on his body, turning each drop of blood into an anemone (or a rose, Adonis annua, Adonis flammeus: goutte de sang). The eightday Festival of Adonis was celebrated in his honor in Athens. During the first four days the women mourned his death over his grave, and during the following four days a statue is paraded, celebrating

290 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA let’s go; perhaps I’ll find another there, in Amatonta; it’s their capital. As foreigners we will observe their ways. Antymak I’ll gladly go; the team is all prepared. Just don’t get lost, as on that hunting trip! So many years quite free. How strange to fall in love with someone never seen! Tymant Such joyless fate, a destiny so sad; till now no beauty has enslaved me so. But I admit as soon as doors are opened at once I gaze; at once my hopes are raised. I thought of each and every one I knew— the ladies’ figures, what they looked like. I asked if anyone had heard of such a lady, went to all the balls and feasts and tournaments, all gatherings they held, but all to no avail, no hope, I fear. In Amatonta we may find relief from all our sadness, from our many troubles if we attend the celebrations there. ACT THREE

Scene One Church of the tomb of Adonis, nymphs in lament around the tomb, which at once becomes a mound covered by flowers named after Adonis; then dancing and ballet performances are given around this mound. Chorus Weep, weep, these eyes, sorrow is all around. Adonis perishes by tusks of the wild boar. the rebirth of the young man. The Garden of Adonis (signifying something ephemeral) was a pot containing flowers that quickly grew and wilted, placed by funeral biers during the festival: cf. stage instructions at the beginning of act III, scene 1, below.

Consolation after Troubles 291 Weep, weep, with bitter tears Adonis perished, there’s no doubt. May sorrow thus be great, For sake of Venus, weep. Weep, weep, these eyes that mourn ill-fated love, at times of grief pour out laments. Weep, weep, because the world is so capricious, when such a loss affects us all. Joyous chorus Let us in sorrow yet rejoice, respect the power of miracles our goddess has to turn our sadness into joy again, so on proud grass the flower of that blood bears fruit.196 Our hearts shall welcome it with dance and song. Let us rejoice in our fate, though death may take someone away, rejoicing in our fate, though death may come. Though time or chance may close our eyes our souls in Paradise remain immortal; how sweet is then the soul’s eternal gain!197

Scene Two Partenia, Tymant, Amaxyta, Antymak Tymant Oh Lord, I hear the voice of her unknown! O glorious Venus, you have brought her here in secret by a miracle, and though behind a veil her lovely eyes still shine, Her walk, her figure and her form arouse in me emotions never felt before. 196. I.e., the body perishes and the soul flourishes, unbound by mortal limitations. 197. Allegorical explanation of mythical history in the spirit of Christian eschatological hope: a flower blooming on a hillside or a high meadow is supposed to signify the eternal gain of the immortal soul in paradise. It presumes to replace the ancient lament with a “cheerful” chorus. The division into stanzas is not indicated in the MS or in the 1754 edition.

292 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA O goddess, whom the heavens let me find, reveal the passion of the heart unseen. You, my lady, after endless misery, my lady, tell me, is it you I saw, the object of my longing all that time, now clearly recognized amongst the throng?198 Please show me if your face can match your figure, for beauty seems at odds with nature here. The gods who made you in a form like this could hardly fail to make you fair of face. Partenia Because you recognized me in the crowd, I won’t conceal from you the thoughts I have. But if you truly would be kind to me, don’t seek to see my face; restrain yourself. Tymant Oh dear! At such an age may death not take me yet today, I do beseech the gods. Show me your lovely face; you’ll hear at once my vow of faithfulness upon my honor. Partenia No, prince, I do not wish not to hear your words. You harm your princely name; I’m quite unknown. I may be your equal, it’s hard to tell. To you we may be equals, but who knows? You cannot tell if I’m highborn, that’s sure. Tymant Do not forget the sacrifice is great that we must make to all the awesome gods. Remove your veil, condemn me not to perish! Partenia Please hear me, if your love is true, my prince. I cannot lie, for else I will incur the punishment the goddess brings on me. If you will leave me free and stay away, make no demands of me and send no spies, 198. Tymant distinguishes his loved one from the general mass of people.

Consolation after Troubles 293 I will attend the tournament tomorrow. I do not give you hope to see my face unveiled, but if the fates give me a chance, I’ll tell you so and try to meet with you. But if I see the smallest sign of haste in you I’ll say good-bye to all my hopes and to the inclinations that you’ve shown. You see, my future happiness depends on this, so do not ask the reason why. Tymant I do accept your terms, and I do swear my love is true; I’ll live for you alone.

Scene Three Partenia, Amaxyta Partenia Dear Amaxyta, chance may favor me. I saw the prince; he was in church just now. Did you detect his words and my reply? I must admit I was confused and faint. Amaxyta That must have been a sign from God, I’m sure: he loves you, though he hasn’t seen your face. I’ll help you go to town unseen. An aunt of mine, an old and trusty widowed woman, lives on her own; she has a fine apartment. From there we can observe the square, the carousel itself, the garden too. We both can go there quietly for sure. Partenia I’m almost speechless from so many thoughts; I’ll leave it all to your good sense. But though I’ll go, I won’t … I’ll keep my word. I trust it all to you, dear Amaxyta.

294 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA ACT FOUR In the garden (carousel)199

Scene One Tymant (alone)200 I feel quite faint from all my great emotions. I’ll take a rest and think my inner thoughts, while now this breeze that cools the autumn leaves may cheer me up on my arrival here. Sing little birds to calm my careworn heart. Life ends and does not tell us rhyme or reason, and you the moon with all the shining stars201 give light at night, when days are full of sadness. Beneath this sky I’ll tell my tale of woe: my life’s quite pitiful and filled with tears. When I am scorched by rays of bright sunlight202 that hide behind the clouds, then God will see those hidden flames as well, I do believe. Deceit expected of the weaker sex builds up our hopes in complex ways, and breaking promises, does not stand by the words it has expressed in solemn vows. Seductive tricks and tortures without end are always part and parcel of your passions. You’d better live this life expecting death than take the ladies at their word, it seems.

199. Cf. illustration by Michał Żukowski of Lwów in 1754 edition. 200. In the MSS, divided into stanzas, perhaps suggesting that the text was to be sung, with accompaniment. 201. The moon is referred to as a planet, in accordance with contemporary astronomical definitions; cf. act IV, scene 4 (“The day was long drawn out; the moon at length/casts powerful rays that leave the sun in shade”). 202. cf. act II, scene 5 (“In sun unseen rage fiercer the fires”)—repetition of the motif of Tymant’s device on his shield. See act I, scene 17 (“I patiently await the blazing sun”) and act IV, scene 3 (“Admit you feel the burning sun behind/the clouds”).

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Scene Two Partenia, Amaxyta, Tymant Partenia The night is fine, the moon and stars are bright. We play, our eyes not yet prepared for sleep. With doleful eyes Tymant was keeping watch when in the carousel; did you see that? But is it likely that his love is true? Tymant He loves and always will, though he’ll die sad. Partenia Oh, Amaxyta, how you let me down203; why is my happiness betrayed this way? Amaxyta The gods shall punish me, I can’t escape it. I swear upon my life, I have no knowledge. Tymant I also swear I did not know a thing. I sought to find respite here in the garden. But as I took a pleasant rest below204 this window, to revive my weary body, I heard your voice; it took me by surprise. I make true declaration of my love, 203. Partenia believes they are alone and that the words she hears are spoken by Amaxyta. 204. This line indicates the appropriate set for the garden scene (cf. a passage from the Polish abridged version by F.U. Radziwiłłowa of Historia Tymanta i Partenii, [The Story of Tymant and Partenia] from the novel Artamène corresponding to this scene, in Judkowiak 2013b, 395–396: “… the night beautifully adorned by the moon aroused Tymant’s desire to take a stroll, to rest after his exertions during the day, which brought him his greatest successes, and he entered the garden near his residence, where the mistress of the house had given him permission to walk and where Partenia was. Good fortune favored love, for the most attractive walk was in front of her windows. He sat down to rest, propping his head against the recess of that window, meditating. Unaware of this, Partenia came to open a window pane and began a discussion with Amaxyta: ‘Dear Amaxyta, did you notice Prince Tymant’s motto? I don’t know if it was truly meant for me, or if it’s likely that he who declared his heart’s wishes regarding me, resolved not to love anyone, should love me without knowing my beauty; no, that is not likely.’

296 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA but in the calm of night unveil your eyes.205 Do this for him who will respect you always. Nothing can change my heart I swear forever,206 so may my faithful tears break your resolve. Partenia Don’t ask it, prince, for that I’ll never do, but let us meet tomorrow as arranged, right here; today we can no longer talk. Good night, but keep our secret, save my honor.

Scene Three Tymant, Antymak Antymak What is afoot, why are you so upset? Admit you feel the burning sun behind the clouds; what have you pray to gain; do tell if there’s a dreadful sadness in your heart. Tymant Dear Antymak, please swear you’ll keep my secret. I’ll tell you how my actions are restricted: it’s quite unheard of, tear on tear is shed. I may not see my love: Fortune decrees. I’m here and so is she, but always veiled; my life’s consumed by ever greater passion. Antymak Are you insistent? Have you brought a gift? Can you enjoy to be with such a person? Offer a gift, perhaps. I swear she’ll then remove the veil some villains have her wear. Tymant I’ll do your bidding, but I think she does not have such faults; she’s honest and upright.207 205. Tymant deviously attempts to persuade Partenia to remove her veil, which must restrict her vision. 206. I.e., nothing you may be hiding from view can affect my feelings for you. 207. Tymant defends Partenia, believing her to be an upright person with motives that are not base, but laudable. He is more inclined to accuse her of excessive pride, so he doubts Antymak’s suggestion

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Scene Four Partenia, Amksyta, Tymant Tymant The day was long drawn out;208 the moon at length casts powerful rays that leave the sun in shade. I’m on my way, but taking every care, I bid you judge if this my gift will suit tomorrow for the queen to be my bond. I’ll wait below the window as agreed.

Scene Five Amaxyta, Partenia (examining the jewels and reading the letter) Letter:209 As people make their offerings to the gods, as subjects pay their homage to the king, what more can servants bring to give a lady to show their deep respect for her high rank, to offer homage, love, and gifts in one. Should I offend then may I rather die, for if such dreadful fate shall be my lot that this my modest gift shall be rejected, then let me die if you determine so, before I see there’s anger in your face. But at the end of my mere mortal days you’ll know that Tymant dies by your own hand. Partenia Oh, Amaxyta, what dire faults are these. Tymant is judging me: he is too rash. Please ask your brother—I will send him more, revealing riches of my royal chest, that she is motivated by certain previous experiences. 208. Delay of the anticipated moment (i.e., the evening meeting below the window, when he would see Partenia). Until the meeting, psychologically, time is drawn out and passes too slowly for the lover. From this perspective the moon (in this line) seems kindly, since it is a sign of the anticipated time of the meeting (and, possibly, lights the way to the loved one). 209. The letter is written in hendecasyllabic verse; it appears here as in the published edition (in the MSS, the text is continuous).

298 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA my portrait casket all inlaid with jewels, this gift shall Tymant have from my own hand. Amaxyta Reply—my brother’s here—but don’t be scolding,210 beware, he may be risking life and limb. Partenia Listen, this is what I’ve briefly written, but be assured I will not seek revenge:211 Response (letter) It seems I am so low in your esteem that you see fit to send me costly jewels. Your truly loving heart is what I sought, these gifts are not the kind that honor me, enjoying plentiful material riches, I wish to be respected for good deeds. But if you wish to calm my angry mood, then take this offer from my hand today. Your bright escutcheon cannot suffer blemish if you accept this casket with my portrait, and if your heart indeed does wish me well may curiosity defer to patience.

Scene Six Partenia, Megasid, Amaxyta Partenia By all the mysteries of the gods I beg you, go to the castle now while Prince Tymant is still asleep and place at his bedside my gift, incalculable in its worth. Megasid I know your scheme, what wonders though are these? 210. Why should Partenia scold Megasid? For delivering the letter? In the following line, it is also unclear what could be harmful to Tymant’s health and even threaten his life. 211. I.e., I have written harshly. I feel I have no strength to take revenge, as my initial emotions dictated (insulted by his wish to bribe her?)

Consolation after Troubles 299 God’s will is done, for Tymant’s well disposed. Your face stays hidden, yet he loves you still. If you go on you’ll be the death of him. I’ll carry out your will as you intend and bring the treasure casket while he sleeps. Amaxyta Why go so far when all is now resolved, when you’ve already won Tymant’s affections? Reveal your noble kin and your great beauty. Unite your hearts, relieve the hard torment. Cease this ingenious trial, love cannot wait. Your happy destiny is quite fulfilled. Your cool response could well cool Tymant’s ardor. Yet though you hide your face his love endures. Partenia Oh leave me Amaxyta, I’m dead tired; I’ll sleep forever if defeat is near.

Scene Seven Partenia, Tymant, Amaxyta Partenia I ought to utter angry curses since you find me miserly and offer fortunes. You’re wrong, Tymant, in status I’m your equal, for I enjoy abundant wealth and freedom. Tymant I kneel before you, calm your bitter anger. I swear I love you, hear my solemn oath. I offered gifts, but not as signs of doubt, but homage to a goddess, my devotion. Why do you keep your heart so closed and cold, although you see you are my one true love? Partenia Well, if you wish, Tymant, I’ll venture now to tell my feelings and reveal my face.

300 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA The moment when I lift the veil, don’t speak. You’ll see your love is flourishing at once. You’ll find me waiting at a certain church. I’ll greet you bowing very low, tomorrow morning at the stroke of six. Your steps shall take you to the mosque212 of Venus. Please swear a solemn oath unto this goddess that you will place me under no duress.

Scene Eight Partenia, Amaxyta, Susanna Partenia Susanna, wear your very finest clothes, dress up and wash your face; I know it’s pock-marked. With head held high, set off at break of day. The prince must find you waiting in the church. For just an instant lift the veil, then curtsy. Come, Amaxyta, show her how it’s done. Amaxyta Your tricks and stratagems are strange indeed. Her figure’s shapely, but her face is scarred. But what have you to gain from such harsh trials? He’d love you even with an ugly face. He’s strongly drawn to you, so in his eyes that very unattractiveness is beauty. Partenia Do not oppose my will, persuade your brother to go first thing to the appointed place, and see if he’s confused what happens there. If Tymant’s curious, he must be stopped213 by asking questions and enquiring more. Return at once, before he has you followed.

212. It is unclear why Radziwiłłowa introduces here an Islamic designation of the place of worship— perhaps to emphasize that the “churches” that were the heroes’ rendezvous were pagan, not Christian? 213. Megasid is to devise questions to ask Tymant, so as to delay him and give Susanna and Amaxyta time to escape—the following scene 9 shows how he achieves this.

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Scene Nine Church—Susanna, Amaxyta, Tymant, Megasid Amaxyta Look, Tymant comes! He’s over on that side. Now raise the veil to show your face, and bow. Tymant arrives, Susanna raises her veil and curtsies to him. Tymant Dear gods, it’s so unjust, you must regret, a face like this in such a noble soul. But I can see that these are not her hands, it’s not her figure, this is not her posture. I’ll make her show … Megasid O prince! What are you doing? I’m at your service, how can I assist? Tymant I thank you kindly, but the matter’s pressing. Megasid Oh Tymant, such unfriendly words today! Tymant Excuse me, I must go; I’ll soon return. Megasid But what’s the hurry? Things go well for you. Tymant You’re most importunate; don’t hold me up! I cannot free myself, how hard I try. Megasid What is this pressing wish? Do let me help. Tymant May all such friends be swallowed in the ground!

302 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Megasid I’ll go with you, just wait for prayers to end … Tymant Oh, may the devil take this interference! Megasid Excuse me, don’t be angry, let’s go now. No need for prayers, they’re going on too long. Tymant I’m sad I cannot see the one I love as I’m opposed by willful stubbornness. No chase will catch her after this delay. Tonight I’ll tell her what I’ve learnt of her.

Scene Ten Philoxyp, Policrite, Critic, Antymak, Megasid, Tymant Philoxyp Here in this land I have arranged for you amusements of all sorts, but you don’t look as though you find them to your taste, so tell me what to do: so I can cheer you up. Tymant Your entertainment’s fine, my somber look does not mean gloom, it’s just my usual face. Policrite There’s nothing to your liking, no face appeals, though in these parts the fashion is to love. That Venus we adore claims many hearts. Few folk escape the jaws of love affairs. Although our sister’d meet your high demands, seclusion is her chosen way of life. Tymant I’ve heard she’s fair of face, her eyes are bright, a beauty, but inconstant—fearing blame.

Consolation after Troubles 303 Critic Fair-haired it’s true, but unattractive, plain. She is good mannered, but flirtatious too. She’s slender but she’s awkward, tall, but shapeless. She sings so loud it seems she’s shouting help. She stands so tall her figure looks gigantic. She seems unpleasant, hiding her good nature, but I have never had a chance to see her comely face, her figure or her form. The way she speaks, although the words flow fast, it’s nonsense; when she starts she never stops. What people praise is often quite untrue. I must repeat again, she’s quite unpleasant. Tymant That’s strange indeed, I formed a different view. They say that all men here are drawn to her. Critic That isn’t true, no doubt at all of that. It’s hardly likely, since she looks repulsive: her lips are thin, her eyes are far too wide, she’s even slovenly in her attire. She’s broad, flat-chested, arms and legs too big. Her hair is long and blonde, her eyes bright blue. Her neck is short, she holds her head aloft. She can’t seem grateful, even when in need. She plays guitar and sings accompaniment. Her poor complexion’s just concealed by rouge. Tymant I’m losing interest then, there is no doubt. Tell me the rest when we meet up again. Just now I have too many things to do. Farewell, I’m leaving this so crowded court.

Scene Eleven Tymant, Partenia, Amaxyta Tymant Forgive me my delay in coming here,

304 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA as inconsolably I shed such tears. I must complain, your words were all deceptive, and what I dearly wish I may not see. That figure in the church that I was shown is not your own, my cautious eye could tell. Partenia Its true, you saw her hands; the sight of them214 relaxed your tensions, soothed your pain somewhat. If I indeed resembled her you saw, you surely would not love me or be true. Tell me pray, what beauty touches your heart, who pleases you and captivates your soul. Tymant I swear there is no other, but your likeness, though it’s unknown, is deeply troubling me. They praise Princess Salamis,215 but again the Critic says she’s plain—can it be so?— she’s slim but unattractive, far too tall. She’s blonde, her cheeks are red, but she looks glum. She sings too raucously, muddles her words. She has so many shocking ways and habits. Partenia The good are blamed unjustly as you know, untruths are spread by that annoying Critic. Tymant How shall I see her if she hides away always? Do I deserve an audience? Partenia In view of your declarations of love, please go two days from now to that church door. The princess always makes devotions there, communes about her future with the goddess. You’ll see with your own eyes and make your judgment, 214. Cf. act IV, scene 9 (“But I can see that these are not her hands,/it’s not her figure, this is not her posture”). 215. Partenia married Prince Salamis; as his widow, she inherited the title of Princess Salamis.

Consolation after Troubles 305 you’ll see if what the Critic said is true. I bid good night, tomorrow is the ball; the prince has kindly sent an invitation. Tymant I keenly wait to see you present there, to recognize the beauty of your form.

Scene Twelve Policrite, Philoxyp, Tymant, Critic, Antymak, Follebelle, Megasid Tymant They say it’s her, but no, it isn’t really. This is no life, I spend my days in torment. Now there she comes, that is her face, her form. She’s truly beautiful, but wait, she speaks … Follebelle I’ve come, your highness, though sick in the head. It’s raining, and the weather’s bad for health. Round here it’s dances, parties all the time. Amazing how the stars all shine so brightly. Philoxyp Please take a seat and rest awhile, fair lady of noble family, illustrious name. Follebelle It’s true, I’m noble, but my dress is spoilt. Is it still warm outside? Who’s dancing now? Tymant She’s not the one I know. She talks nonsense. She’s quite attractive, but she’s rather stupid. Whereas the words my lady speaks are wise, the head of this one stays above the clouds; both in the air and on the ground, she’s crazy. Although my lady’s under veil, her words yet all ensnare me, fill my heart with love. I’ll go to find that tantalizing beauty. No one, however dull, can fail to know her.

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Scene Thirteen Partenia, Tymant, Amaxyta Tymant I come in haste where love is calling me, I’m sad, for hope of happiness is faint. Partenia So soon abandoning the dance and ballet, you come at night, though there’s no point in this.216 Remember what I said and go first thing: you’ll see if they are right to blame Partenia. Tymant Just like a loyal servant given orders. Good night. In sleep I can forget my woes.

Scene Fourteen Partenia, Amaxyta Amaxyta What new deceit is this? What tricks again have you dreamed up in your unsettled mind? Who will you show this time? Partenia I’ll tell you who: myself. I want to see if in his heart attraction and true love are stirred on sight. For this I have to dress accordingly.

Scene Fifteen Partenia in the window, Tymant passes by, to catch a glimpse of her. Tymant Spell-binding beauty—hard to look away. 216. Once more, a nighttime scene! Partenia continues her game of concealing her identity, her banter with Tymant, to test him.

Consolation after Troubles 307 When I see her my faith is sorely tested. Her eyes, her figure and her lips, her hair; this sight is like a victory dance of love.217 Oh fickle heart: two Cupid’s arrows strike. Let’s go, I must avert my gaze from her. Antymak Forget the farcical chimera, take the hidden reins into your hands at once. Release your heart, these tortures are all pointless. Where eyes deceive you, follow your desire, and let the will of all the gods prevail. Tymant My mind is torn apart, it bids me love the lady there and then another here, but then she disappears, all in a flash. No sooner was her face revealed, she hid it.

Scene Sixteen Partenia, Tymant, Amaxyta Partenia Today you saw the princess? Did she please you? But both in body and in soul, say truly. Tymant She’s very beautiful and pleasant too, she captivated me far more than others, but yet no less than you. Admiring her, I still do love you though you hide from me. Partenia Such secret passions, fickle and untrue. So is your love so faithful and so honest? If you’re beguiled by charms of pretty faces, I swear you’ll never now set eyes on me.

217. I.e., the sight of her convinces Tymant it is her beauty that has captivated him.

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Scene Seventeen218 Tymant I cannot live, O gods, if such mischance deprives me of the happiness I crave. My heart is split in two by love, therefore your will must now determine its resolve. I have two loves, my life depends on both. If I should fail to make the choice between my loves, her body but a different soul, may I be punished by a bitter death.

Scene Eighteen Partenia, Amaxyta Amaxyta My lady, in God’s name, why wait and wait, now fortune’s wheel assures your happiness. Partenia Enough, leave me alone, Amaxyta. My inner thoughts shall now achieve their goal.

Scene Nineteen219 Partenia, alone Hidden betrayal, destroyer of hearts Now status, now beauty’s what you demand. Desire divided, sentiment is fickle; he’s holding both at once in his mind’s eye. If this is how things are, I can’t love him. I’ll spend my life politely keeping modest, make light of what my inclinations mean, amused by all the deeds of love that’s false. May those of you who’re fickle and untrue spend all your days in sadness and distress. May fortune make you suffer pain likewise. The wheel of fortune shall torment your life. 218. In this confession scene, Radziwiłłowa wrote in hendecasyllabic verse. 219. The heroine’s confession is also in hendecasyllabic meter.

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Scene Twenty Amaxyta, Megasid Amaxyta Well, did you tell the prince what we agreed? Megasid I did. He’s making out that he’s gone hunting, else Tymant would not come (he fears the one unknown), although consumed by inner fire. Amaxyta I bade the princess wear her finest clothes; I said I’d paint her portrait right away. But now let’s go, I hear footsteps approaching. Let’s see their figures and their faces both.

Scene Twenty-One Philoxyp, Policrite, Tymant, Partenia, Antymak, Amaxyta, Megasid Policrite I come with many friends, and now I will present the guest here in your house at once. Partenia Ungrateful man. Tymant What’s this I see? Two ladies in one person. Did you on purpose put me through long trials? Partenia What of your promise to an unknown lady if then my face was what your eyes adored. Tymant It’s true, I did not see that both were one, and so I loved you for your form and face.

310 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Philoxyp Don’t squabble, sister, now your fate is clear. You must exchange your marriage vows today, as providence sees fit for human fate. What God ordains for you prevails always. Partenia I gladly will accept these words you speak, if Tymant offers me his true affections. Tymant I swear that I devote to you my life, my heart, each living breath for evermore. Philoxyp Come, happy pair, united now in love, As providence proposes, God disposes.

7. GOLD IN THE FIRE

Fig. 7 Gold in the Fire (act II, scene 1)

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Dramatis personae Przemysław, Prince of Oświęcim Henryk, confidant of Przemysław Ferdynand, Prince of Opole Bolesław, son of Przemysław Jadwiga, daughter of Przemysław Rzegota, senator and envoy Theofil, an old man, father of Cecylia Bogumiła, an old woman, mother of Cecylia Cecylia, daughter of Theofil and Bogumiła, wife of Przemysław Adleida, Princess of Opole, sister of Przemysław Adelfreda, confidante of Cecylia Teodora, confidante of Princess Jadwiga Zuzanna, confidante of the Princess of Opole ACT ONE

Scene One Przemysław, Henryk Przemysław True servant, Henryk, follow my command, ensure the huntsmen saddle up to go. As soon as nighttime yields to rays of sun, we’ll ride a mile or so to seek new game. What happy, blissful freedom we enjoy, setting off to stalk our innocent prey.220 Henryk Just blink an eye: at once your will is done, but, sire, there’s talk about that you must heed. Przemysław Good Henryk, tell me … Henryk Nothing new to tell. 220. The expressions “blissful freedom” and “to stalk our innocent prey” have erotic connotations and characterize the enjoyment of bachelor’s freedoms by Prince Przemysław. In scene 3 he complains of the perceived bondage of the married condition. Hunting is a metaphor from romantic poetry.

Gold in the Fire 313 I know you take to heart its clear import. In recent days your counselors declared their heartfelt wish their prince would soon be wed. From people, senate, knights an envoy comes; they keep on pleading that you’ll marry soon. Your praises echo loud across the skies; the people hope you’ll give them soon an heir. Przemysław Misplaced alas are their lordships’ concerns. Please tell me, Henryk, this is not God’s will. Henryk I really can’t gainsay my own heart’s wish; your realm deserves a worthy heir, of course. Przemysław Your fervent plea persuades me to agree; go bid the envoy welcome here at court.

Scene Two Envoy, Przemysław, Henryk Envoy All three estates of your great realm declare they jointly swear allegiance to their prince. They lay their humble wish before you sire, and they sincerely beg you: take a wife. Endowed with talents God and Nature gave, you rule your people well—an upright prince. Your people hold you dear in hearts and minds; they bid you take a spouse, to jointly rule and bring forth heirs in plenty to your line; your subjects thus befittingly request. Przemysław I hear your pleas and promise soon to prove that I intend to earn the love you show. Although my stubborn heart still balks at wedlock, your ruler truly does respect your wish,

314 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA but I demand you shall approve my choice; no matter whom I choose, you must concur. If lowly born, from foreign parts perhaps, she’ll share my glory; your princess she’ll be. Sad is the prince who has to take a bride he does not love, for mere convenience’ sake. Envoy I swear your subjects one and all declare, they’ll share your inclination come what may; ensuring thus: your heir shall rule this realm. So marry whom your will and heaven choose. I’ll spread the joyful tidings of good cheer. Make haste meanwhile to seal the marriage bonds.

Scene Three Przemysław221 A loveless marriage brings but meager fortune. A heavy burden princes have to bear to gain escutcheons, titles, greater fame. One’s choices are denied, one lacks free will, surrenders peace and calm and gains but strife, from constant dispute never gains relief. Beset by conflict, else discordant peace222; instead of talking, quarrels without end. A bride of beauty sets men’s hearts aflame223; a noble bride talks down her husband’s name.224 A bride who’s rich will still demand yet more, and who can tell the mood a lady’s in? Sometimes a shy demeanor, all angelic, then silent sulks and soon there follows rancor. When wives are garrulous, no peace is found; 221. In the following monologue, the prince laments the onerous imposition of a marriage contract against one’s will, the slippery slope of happiness, and the misfortune of wealth. 222. Przemysław characterizes marriage as a state of constant conflict and discord. 223. A sexist remark: marrying a beautiful woman arouses envy in others. This could be taken to suggest that she can be expected to be unfaithful and that the more attractive the woman is, the more dissolute she is. 224. A wife who comes from an aristocratic family can always rebuke her husband, reminding him of the high status she has sacrificed by marrying him.

Gold in the Fire 315 their joy is feared, their sadness can’t be borne. And when perplexing thoughts beset my mind, then marriage turns into a holy scourge. To marry though my heart is free and loveless I need God’s help; my intellect has failed.

Scene Four Przemysław, Henryk Przemysław Good Henryk, mark the prompt response I make to all my subjects’ pleas and your persuasion. I’ll wed indeed, although it means I’ll face hard times. But note I’ll choose my bride myself. I’ll take a restful ride in fields nearby; my fate reposes in the hands of God. ACT TWO

Scene One Przemysław, Henryk, Cecylia carrying a pail of water Przemysław Let’s rest a while, we’ve gone a mite astray; we’ve bagged no game, I’m tired and thirsty too. Henryk A maiden bearing water, cold and pure.225 Young lady, come, approach. Przemysław O maiden fair! Whence do you come, who are your parents, pray? Such gracious elegance, how rare her beauty! Pray tell your name. 225. Lines 1–3, in which the prince, exhausted by the unsuccessful hunt (search for prey/a partner), loses his way and comes across a girl carrying pails of pure water, are rich in connotations. Hunting symbolizes the courting of women. Water symbolizes femininity, motherhood, life, rebirth, and so on (note the attribute of purity in this context), and drinking is a frequent contemporary Polish metaphor for sexual gratification.

316 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Cecylia My father’s Theofil,226 a poor nobleman227 who lives just here nearby. I bring fresh water, but I’ve lost my way while going home. I’m called Cecylia. The name of my dear mother’s Bogumiła. My father tills the land just over there. Mother and daughter both, we tend the beasts and spin the wool and flax for clothes to wear; I pray to God my maker as I weave. Przemysław Fair maiden, show me where your parents live; come tell me why you live here shut away and why your parents, noble by descent, constrained by poverty, both till the land. Cecylia I bow, my royal prince, to your command. Once Father was a senator228 it’s true, 226. The Greek name Theofil, adopted by the Polish writer Hieronym Morsztyn in his version of the Griselda story, entitled Historia o Przemysławie książęciu oświęcimskim i o Cecyliej, małżonki jego, dziwnej stateczności [The story of Przemysław Duke of Oświęcim and Cecylia his wife, a lady of remarkable composure] means “favored by God.” The mother’s name, Bogumiła, is the Polish equivalent of the same name, with the same meaning. As the daughter of these parents, the poor peasant girl Cecylia is represented as doubly favored by God. Note that the mother does not feature at all in other versions of the Griselda story; she is unique to Radziwiłłowa’s play. 227. Exclusively in Radziwiłłowa’s version of Boccaccio’s Griselda story (Decameron, day ten, story ten) is Cecylia’s father represented as an aristocrat who once held high office in the state. In other reworkings the heroine’s rank is below that of the prince; she is depicted as an Italian townswoman, a village girl, a French girl, and a literary-rustic shepherdess. In Historia o Przemysławie książęciu oświęcimskim i o Cecyliej, małżonki jego, dziwnej stateczności [The story of Przemysław Duke of Oświęcim and Cecylia his wife, a lady of remarkable composure] by Hieronym Morsztyn (ca. 1580 to before 1645), there is a suggestion of aristocratic rank: Theofil is the “first man” in the hamlet neighboring the castle. Note that the ancient Polish aristocracy was highly stratified, in contrast to persistent ideological insistence on the principle of equality among the aristocracy, on a legal basis, independent of property ownership, supported, for example, by the seventeenth century Law against Titles (the 1638 Constitution banned the acquisition of foreign titles, declaring that all members of the nobility were equal). Cecylia’s references to agriculture and rural self-sufficiency, the philosophy of a modest, undemanding lifestyle, with religious connections (I give thanks to God that I am alive and thanks for what I have), are part and parcel of the common mythology of the landed nobility. 228. Further elements of old Polish ideology come into play here. Cecylia’s father had been a senator, which means that he held the most senior office in aristocratic Poland, gaining this rank by his prowess

Gold in the Fire 317 brave knight in war and counselor in peace, able, sincere, and faithful to our land, at court esteemed. But then resentful rivals alleged disloyalty towards the prince. Intrigue and slander, driven by their greed, drove out my father, banished us from court. He toils these days in simple solitude, content to plough and sow far from the throng. Przemysław Delightful words from lips of innocence. Attend, Cecylia, make haste, prepare, young maiden fair, to carry out my orders. For my heartsease I seek my soul’s companion.229 Cecylia Your loyal subject, I will do your bidding. I know you’ll justly guard my honor, sire, or else I’ll bear the penalty of death. I’m only poor, but I will keep my honor. Przemysław Favors withheld just strengthen one’s desire; the harder gained, the sweeter they become. Such priceless honor shines forth brighter yet; one’s inner qualities are known to all.230 I hope you’ll be my lawful wedded wife. Are you content, my dear, with this decree? Cecylia To such great heights I do not dare aspire; in battle and maintaining it in peacetime in parliament. Now he suffers an undeserved wrong—those envious of his high standing with the prince (i.e., the father of the present Prince Przemysław; see act II, scene 2, line 9: “Your Father granted favors many times …”) accused him of disloyalty towards the ruler and succeeded in having him banished from the royal court. Work on the land and seclusion from the false world of the court are a source of satisfaction to him. 229. It was common in this period, especially in teachings about marriage, to encourage young people to the idea of marriage as friendship, emphasizing the chances of a marriage surviving successfully on this basis once the initial infatuation and the ephemeral passions were over. 230. Przemysław possibly refers to the honorable character of Cecylia’s father Theofil, or perhaps to the respectable name of the family as a whole, who are of noble origin, although they are now hidden away (cf. the beginning of scene 2 and following).

318 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA modesty bids me cast my eyes to earth. But if this status be decreed for me, I’ll be a loving wife and serve my lord. Without my parents, more I cannot say231; this modest cottage here is where we live.

Scene Two Przemysław, Henryk, Cecylia, Theofil, Bogumiła Przemysław Despite your wartime feats, brave Theofil, your seat in senate, residence so grand; why do you live in such a poor abode, accepting calmly fate’s unkindly whim. One can’t conceal one’s worth beneath a bushel. How life turns out God only can devise. You know my name, Theofil? Theofil Sire, good day! Your father granted favors many times. My former glory’s lost, now I’m quite poor, for fickle fortune, mistress of our fate, bestows first favors, bounty then withdraws. I shun such vagaries, just live in peace. Przemysław The wheel of fortune may not turn so mean; it often blesses those who suffer pain.232 Theofil This lowly cottage serves my needs full well; no worldly goods I own, so fear no loss; I only work to gain my daily bread, a quiet life, thereafter peace in heaven. 231. Obedience is a further virtue of the young girl; she does not take decisions of her own accord but is subject to the will of her parents. 232. Przemysław rejects Theofil’s logic of resignation to the fickleness of fate. Moralists used the image of the wheel of fate as a cautionary tale to combat decadence. The prince, pointing out that the wheel of fate can also be seen in a positive light, predicts what is in store for Cecylia (she will become the princess). Indirectly, he also praises Theofil in the moral spirit of reward for virtue.

Gold in the Fire 319 Przemysław Your burnished humility is more worthy, favors you don’t expect are valued more. I bring you gain, if you do not demur. I’m captivated by your daughter’s charms; I beg you’ll give her readily to me. Theofil Oh sire, I’d rather die a thousand times than suffer shame, dishonor, and disgrace233; my house would sooner turn to wrack and ruin. Przemysław Do not misjudge my passion: it’s true love, which cannot contemplate a shameful deed. I seek her hand; she’ll be my married wife. Theofil Then stay quite firm in your resolve, my prince; don’t trust emotions that may yet prove false and breach your honor, to your subjects’ shame. I always speak the honest truth, my lord. Przemysław Good Theofil, you know that all my realm requests I take to wife the one I choose. I have sincerely stated if they let me choose a bride who truly pleases me, they won’t object, not even if she’s poor. They will concur, whatever I may wish. While riding out today I saw your daughter, discreetly bearing water from the woods.234 I begged a drink and looked her in the eye235; she’s such a beauty, truly fair of face. 233. Theofil fears disgrace; if the prince were to take his daughter merely as a lover, the shame would fall on him, as her father. 234. In the version of the Griselda story by Kwiatkowski (1744), when the prince saw the girl carrying water, he took this as a good omen. 235. One of Radziwiłłowa’s plays (included in the present edition) is entitled Love is Born in the Eyes (1749); that is, thanks to the sense of vision a love is born that is superior to the admiration of beauty (cf. the topic of quinque lineae/gradus amoris/ladder of carnal love; Curtius 2013).

320 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I swear to God I’ll never wed unless I gain your daughter’s hand. This cannot change. If you reject my suit then boldly speak; it means the realm will never have an heir. Theofil Such firm intent, such strong, unbending will; consider, sire, is this not mere caprice. But if her happiness is thus decreed, I give consent; the wedding shall take place.236 Przemysław Do you consent, bride’s mother, Bogumiła? Bogumiła I give consent, may God bestow long life. Przemysław My fair Cecylia, do you agree to be my loving wife? Pray say you will. Cecylia I’ll act as both my parents tell me to, I’ll serve you willingly, and in good faith.237 Przemysław Now let all people hear that I take you as my beloved wife, I swear by God. But make a vow that as my spouse you will obey me always, stay steadfast238 and true, you’ll not demur, whatever I command. For this I’ll love you till my dying day.

236. Theofil shakes his head at the prince’s uncompromising attitude; but the resistance of the maiden’s father gradually melts away. 237. Cecylia replies in the spirit of obedience to her parents and concepts of a woman’s duty in marriage. 238. Here and in the following line comes the prediction of extraordinary trials (“Whatever I command”). Cecylia responds by declaring she will endure the severest of commands without protest or complaint.

Gold in the Fire 321 Cecylia I know my subject’s duty so I swear I will obey your orders, so severe. Without a knitted brow, with lips tight sealed, I’ll shed no tears for life in thrall to you. Theofil I vouch my daughter ever will remain a faithful, modest wife who’ll hold her tongue. Bogumiła I too can vouch that she’ll be good and modest. She’ll do your bidding, loyal wife and true. Przemysław Pray keep our secret hid till my return. Farewell. A few days hence we shall be wed; meanwhile she still must wear her simple weeds. May God protect you, go in peace till then.

Scene Three Theofil, Bogumiła, Cecylia Bogumiła In such a change of fortune I rejoice, though I’m unused to life at court these days. Theofil Be not too sure, a crown may not bring joy.239 The higher fickle fortune’s wheel rotates, the further then in turn you have to fall. At first the sun shines brightly, then it’s night. The rays turn droplets into clouds and then their dampness makes them fall, like human fate.240 A rose first blooms in dew, then wilts in heat. 239. Theofil warns against premature rejoicing, foreshadowing bitter experiences later on in the play. 240. A comparison of the circulation of water in nature (some particles of water are carried up into the sky as steam by the warmth of the sun’s rays, while others are simply soaked up by the ground) with the fickleness of human fate, the turning of the wheel of fortune (the essential image is that of circularity, circulation).

322 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA By nature metal’s hard, but melts in fire. By wind great oaks are felled and storms burst walls. The rivers break their banks, invade the land. All-powerful nature rules throughout the world. Time flies; the living all too soon are dead. In time this grandeur all will come to nothing; alone God’s creatures hope, though there’s no hope. Though kings may sit on thrones, crowns on their heads, when ill winds blow, their fame is soon all gone. Bogumiła But what’s the cause of doubt and grave concern about Cecylia, so chaste and brave? Theofil241 My only daughter, come, you shall be wed. By birth unworthy of the groom, alas; of noble stock but born to be so poor. Be more enriched by honor than by wealth. All wives are bound to serve and to obey, just suffer silently and bite their tongues.242 Don’t mention things that cause you some concern; do not frequent the places he forbids; do his command, don’t meddle or complain; fear him and suffer, smiling when he’s kind; just bear his scolding tongue without a word; don’t ever pry into the man’s affairs; take meals at his behest and with decorum; retire when ordered; don’t deceive him ever. Your gaze must stay exclusively on him, ignoring others’ elegance and charm. Perform his will quite blindly, don’t object, and God will care for you, my daughter dear. 241. Szyjkowski (1920, 63–64 and 1921, 15) found the following monologue by Theofil to be a kind of distant echo of Arnolf ’s instructions in act III, scene 2, of Moliere’s École des Femmes, although here the dos and don’ts have a serious ring, without a trace of irony or comic intent. (However, the polemic intention of the author can be sensed, a protest against such enslavement of women.) Adolf StenderPetersen (1960, 265–266) found this to apply to four lines at the most. 242. Avoiding conflict by not speaking up. A Polish translator of Boccaccio’s novel (published in 1571) wrote, “Griselda, despite her name, does not grizzle.” (The stereotypical defect of women is loquacity. It is no surprise that Theofil promises in line 70 of act II that his daughter will be “a faithful, modest wife who’ll hold her tongue.”)

Gold in the Fire 323 Now let us go and kneel to pray to God; our fate, our happiness, is in his hands. My daughter, praising fervently the Lord, you gain the blessing of Almighty God.243 ACT THREE

Scene One Przemysław, Henryk Przemysław I charge you, Henryk, you shall not disclose my choice of bride to any living soul. Make haste, announce the wedding will take place a week or two from now, no more delay. If asked to tell to whom I will be wed, then say my heart has not revealed it yet. Prepare for song and dance and carousels.244 Proclaim the wedding, torches set alight. Have all the ladies gather and prepare to greet the realm’s new guests with great acclaim. Henryk I’ll gladly see your orders all performed, and I’ll incline the people to your wish, but as your servant let me still advise: it’s better if you find another love; passionate ardor may turn cool quite soon. The hand of God determines all our fates245; 243. An example of the frequent appeals to the deity in this play, lacking in other European reworkings of the Griselda story and, according to J. Krzyżanowski, lending it a characteristic atmosphere. It provides a religious sanction for the conception of the wife represented above, and the supplication at the end of act II throws light on the heroine’s endurance in the practice of Christian virtues under various turns of fate (she will interpret the cruel trials to which her husband will subject her as afflictions visited on her by God). 244. The carousel was popular in Dresden under the Wettin dynasty, and it was preserved by Radziwiłłowa at Nieśwież and used in her play Konsolacja po kłopotach [Consolation after Troubles] 1750; see the illustration by K. Żukowski from Fryczyński in Komedyje i tragedyje 1754, Fig. 6. 245. The prince’s confidant makes so bold as to broach the topic of his choice (he was with him in the forest when he saw Cecylia), pointing out the fickleness of his passion (unless it is supported by divine predestination).

324 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA great shame will fall upon your noble name; voices of censure will at once be heard.246 Przemysław Do not protest, but carry out my will; heaven ordains that she alone is mine.

Scene Two Przemysław247 Duty conflicts with my heart’s own desire. She’s poor, though noble born, a grand prince I. Possessions, titles, splendor are as nothing if they obstruct the path to wedded bliss. Her beauty, virtue, and her charm enthroned, devoted modesty through fortunes gained, submissive love for title and prestige. My bride is poor, but she has many talents. Lord God who blesses couples when they marry, my humble heart requests and prays you’ll grant me beauty, wisdom too, so all may see no fault in wedlock, if you’ll be our guide.248

Scene Three Przemysław, Henryk Henryk Now all are gathered here for dance and sport; such entertainment, grand beyond compare. As you direct they all will wish to go, 246. Henryk warns that those who bring dishonor on their high status (deliberately entering a misalliance in defiance of social customs) must expect censure (exclusivity entails the burden of inconvenience). 247. This scene depicts the hero’s inner conflict, duties of reason and honor struggling with the feelings of the heart. From his fiancée’s penury he derives hopes of a happy life: her beauty and her talents are to compensate for her low status and poverty (cf. the proverbial “clothes do not make the man”). 248. The prayer (uttered with a contrite heart, with regret for his sins and acknowledging his own insignificance) pleading to be granted discernment and intuition to guide his actions and for the shame that befalls him to be erased in people’s eyes if he acts in accordance with divine predestination will indeed be heard, for his wife will soon gain the hearts of his subjects and gain recognition.

Gold in the Fire 325 but, Highness, mark the perils you may face. Przemysław To horse, a change of heart will never come; this creature’s quite divine; she’ll be my wife.249 ACT FOUR

Scene One Przemysław, Henryk, Cecylia, Theofil, Bogumiła senate, knights, guests, populace Przemysław She’s heaven sent, the one to be my wife; my realm’s estates shall pay their due respects.250 She’s poor, though noble born, endowed indeed with beauty, virtue, modesty, and faith. If you resolve today it may not be, I swear thereafter I will never wed.251 Do you agree? We may then take the vows? If not, you’ll cause my downfall, end my life.252 All, in unison We wish long life, God willing, to you both, when you’re united, sharing vows and faith. Przemysław Then let us ride, come, join us Theofil. Theofil Permit me, Prince, so sad has been my fate, I prize my lot above a noble state. 249. Despite the repeated warnings by his confidant that he will incur dishonor, the prince’s resolve to marry such an ideal wife is fixed. 250. All the subjects and government representatives must bow down before Cecylia. 251. Public blackmail by Przemysław; cf. act II, scene 2: “I swear to God I’ll never wed unless/I gain your daughter’s hand. This cannot change./If you reject my suit then boldly speak;/it means the realm will never have an heir.” 252. You will suffer feelings of guilt (qualms of conscience), in fact you will bear responsibility for my demise.

326 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA I choose my humble cottage, not the court; my meager life away from all intrigue. Albeit from afar, I pray for you. Too great this happiness my daughter gains. I fear in time she’ll find her heart has changed253; I’m old, no longer drawn by Mammon’s254 call; I pray God grants my wife and me long life. Przemysław Mother-in-law, go with your daughter, please. Bogumiła Allow me, pray, to stay at home as well. My careworn features don’t these days command that much respect. They’re ridiculed by most; as man and wife we never are apart. Farewell, I wish you many happy years. Przemysław With great respect, I bless you parents both. I wish you health, much joy, a long life too. Please bless your daughter. Theofil255 My blessing to you. I praise our God who makes you happy now. Beware of wealth, stay humble when you’re happy. As sure as rain must follow sunny days, in life we first find joy, then comes the pain. Be eager, but you must be patient too. 253. In the light of his experiences at the hands of fate, Theofil rejects the proposal of a return to the royal court. He wants to retain his modest way of life. In other reworkings of the Griselda story, the father accompanies her to court. Radziwillowa needs Theofil’s refusal in order to express a certain dissatisfaction, fear and doubt as to whether time will change her, that is, incline her to a life of luxury. 254. “No man can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon” (Matthew 6:24; KJV). 255. Theofil’s final exhortations to his daughter in this act contain a warning based on his own bitter experience; it is actually a direct criticism of the royal court (already intimated above). “In times of trouble” (i.e., in Theofil’s experience)—a prediction of trials ahead. In terms of dramatic purpose, the anticipation of the audience is heightened; in terms of moral persuasion the religious motivation is deepened: difficult situations must be endured, with a view to eternal salvation.

Gold in the Fire 327 In times of trouble, still pursue your goal, which is true joy in heaven; life’s soon past.256 ACT FIVE

Scene One Przemysław, Cecylia, Henryk, senate, knights, etc. Przemysław Begin the wedding; let the band strike up. Both free, by God united, we rejoice. Ladies, attend my bride; ensure she’s dressed in robes right royal, crown and scepter too. Go now, Cecylia, in fine head gear, to share the honor of the throne with me. [Ballet] [Pastorale]257 Shepherdess 1 The weather’s bright and fine today, so let’s go forth and graze our flock. Shepherdess 2 This grove so wonderful and green affords us all a restful day. 256. Nothing in mortal existence on earth has significance compared with the goals of the life hereafter—eternity and salvation. 257. The pastorale ballet is introduced as a performance for a wedding. The theme of theater within theater first appeared on the stage at Nieśwież in 1749, in Radziwiłłowa’s translation of Molière’s Les Amants magnifiques (following act II), in Fryczyński (in Komedyje i tragedyje 1754) entitled Przejrzane nie mija [Fate is unrelenting] and in the author’s manuscript Miłość wspaniała [Magnificent Love]. The pastorale ballet interlude is intended as comment on the substantive drama. Its source is uncertain. The symmetry of the configuration of the characters in the respective scenes undoubtedly derives from the aesthetics of the French ballet. The initial apologia for freedom from the bonds of marriage forms a parallel to Przemysław’s praise of freedom and his opposition to marriage. The ideological and didactic message of the piece is extended here by the shepherdesses’ rejection of the shepherds’ advances. The persistent shepherd lovers prevail, however, despite the repeated rejections of their advances. The ultimate proof of their genuine affections, persuading the shepherdesses to return their affections, is their risking life and limb to rescue their loved ones from the attacking wolves. It may also be assumed that the pastorale was introduced by the author as a comment on a specific situation within her own family or in wider court circles, difficult to ascertain today.

328 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Shepherdess 3 Some rather stay in shady nooks; no love they have, no debt they owe.258 Shepherdess 4 In such seclusion time just flies; they know no guilefulness of love. All in unison Gather the sheep, together all. We live a life that’s good and free. Be quiet, sisters, if we’re still the wolf won’t hear the slightest sound. Here come the shepherd boys to court us, so let them see we do not care.

Scene Two Four shepherds, four shepherdesses Shepherdess 1 Be gone, you vile deceiving youths,259 you cause such misery and harm. Shepherdess 2 Be gone, mean stealers of girls’ hearts; your tricks just make us laugh, that’s all. Shepherdess 3 Depart from us, make haste and go. No matter we may starve to death.260 Shepherdess 4 You saucy rogues, you know that fate’s unkind; your pledges merely mock us. 258. I.e., those who do not fall in love have no commitments. 259. This line suggests that the shepherdesses know of some treacherous, deceitful behavior by the shepherds (not necessarily the betrayal of their affections, which would be the strongest motive for their reluctance; the overall message is tantamount to the possibility of forgiveness, even of unfaithfulness) or the assumption that men always win affection by deceitful means. 260. This line extends beyond the pastoral idyll to the realm of contemporary realia and their stereotypes: the man is the breadwinner and a lone woman risks death from penury.

Gold in the Fire 329 Shepherds Why are your hearts so pitiless, when we have done good deeds for you? We faithful lovers hope we’ll soon be with you, tending sheep together. Shepherd 1 Your cold rejection won’t deter us, but kindle ever brighter flames. Shepherd 2 Disdainful torture at your hands will only make our love more strong. Shepherd 3 You may chastise and scold at will; our hearts will never cease to love you. Without complaint we’ll bear this pain, remaining faithful to our loves. Shepherdesses Away, get gone far from our sight; you’ve dared to go beyond the pale; our slings and arrows thus provoked will soon drive out you good-for-nothings.

Scene Three Shepherdess 1 Our peaceful times return again; come sisters let us get to work. I’ll shear the sheep as best I can; how bold they make declaring love. Shepherdess 2 I’ll coil the fleece, prepare it well, deride and mock those suitors too. Shepherdess 3 I’ll gather up the wool just fresh; they aren’t all bad, though much we rail.

330 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Shepherdess 4 I give my help; this is our work; I’ll have no truck with their advances. All in unison Be glad, let’s celebrate with joy, that none of us succumbed to love; that freedom held by us so dear will surely bring a happy life. Wolves attack the flock, the shepherdesses flee. Help! Help! Save us! Beat off the wolf!

Scene Four Shepherds and shepherdesses Be gone, rapacious wolves, be gone. Shepherdesses Our thanks for your so prompt defense. Shepherd 1 Fair shepherdesses let us then enjoy the triumph of our love. Shepherd 2 For our good deeds and work performed, let us spend time with you today. Shepherd 3 Reward us with this freedom now, and hear our protests of true love. Shepherd 4 Grant just reward for our true love; come join with us and share our fate. Shepherdesses Immodest, amorous tongues, be gone from here; our thanks are just our way of being polite.

Gold in the Fire 331 Unless you get away, out of our sight, your brazen cheek will reap its just deserts.

Scene Five Shepherdess 1 Consider sisters in the course of time we’ll all of us be bound to face our lot. Beware of casual advances though261; grant frugal favors, closely guard your fame. Shepherdess 2 Ladies must always show their calm restraint, although their hearts may suffer pangs of love. They say that temperance makes hearts grow fonder; no man respects a conquest that’s too easy. Shepherdess 3 The greater effort he’s obliged to make, the more his lustrous honor will find favor; a suitor’s ardor cools to fast response. No one rejects a bride because she’s chaste. Shepherdess 4 But if all trials of honor be endured, permit the marriage then, it shall take place. Our hard endeavors over now, at last, in peace we’ll tend our flock, stay side by side.262 Shepherdess 1 My eyes are sleepy, I’ll lie on the grass; let us all lie just as we wish. Shepherdess 2 I’ll doze a while.

261. Praise for the modesty and inaccessibility of a pure maiden—casual relationships, with no intention of entering a permanent union, threaten the reputation of a maiden, who must save her favors (and so retain her good name, honor, and fame), judiciously disposing of her unsquandered signs of affection. 262. “Working together” has erotic overtones here.

332 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Shepherdess 3 I’ll make a scarf. Shepherdess 4 I’ll graze the sheep; I’ve washed my face and neck. The wolves attack again. Shepherdess 1 Help! For the love of God, please help! And we will owe you lifelong thanks. Shepherdess 1 I’m caught! Shepherdess 3 I’m bitten too! Shepherdess 1 It’s tearing out my heart!

Scene Six Shepherds and shepherdesses Shepherd 1 A dreadful sight! Let’s rush to their defense! Shepherd 2 I’m giving chase. I’m beating them—what now? Shepherd 3 I snatched fair Phyllis263 from those murderous jaws. Shepherd 4 I rescued Klimena; she’s half asleep.264 Shepherdesses Those saved from death must pay a debt of thanks; marauding wolves had caught them in their jaws. 263. Phyllis is a conventional name for a shepherdess, typical of the poetic idyll. 264. Klimena is also a conventional name for a shepherdess, typical of the poetic idyll.

Gold in the Fire 333 As you have clearly earned it by good deeds, we’ll take you now to be our wedded husbands. Shepherds and Shepherdesses Therefore go hand in hand all full of joy. Acknowledge: heaven has ordained at last, our hearts shall join in marriage vows forever and bind us lovers in our holy tryst.265 We thus conclude with joy a pact of love, our worthy hearts rewarded as is right. So we resolve forever to be true; our thanks to God who joins us, man and wife. [Dance] [End of the pastorale]

Scene Seven Przemysław, Henryk Henryk Princess Cecylia has given birth. I wish your lovely daughter a long life. Great prince, may you survive a hundred years! May God endow you with a worthy heir. Przemysław I offer up my thanks for God’s great gift; he grants a child and heir by my dear wife. Now keep this secret; I must test my wife’s true worth. Will she obey me, or object? So when my wife recovers from the birth, my sister promises to take the child; she’ll care for her and bring her up for us. I’ll give her up, pretend she must be killed. I want to prove that though she’s not highborn,266 my wife is worthy of my bed and has 265. Possibly a paraphrase of a sacramental oath? 266. The prince wants to overcome his own complexes, demonstrating to the world that although she is apparently unworthy of the status of princess, his wife deserves to be respected.

334 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA no doubt she always must obey her prince, that all may see her noble dignity. Make haste, good Henryk, bring my daughter here. I’ll say: abandon her for wolves to seize.

Scene Eight Przemysław, Cecylia, Henryk Przemysław Bring here my child and heir, Cecylia. With venom you have sullied my good name, woman lowborn, of petty noble stock,267 worthless, you dared to wed above yourself— how can your progeny remain alive to vilify my name and all my realm? Henryk, go take my child to those deep woods. The beasts shall seize it, take its life away. A kiss, a blessing, wish her then Godspeed; you must retire in silence, not a word. Cecylia My lord, you have the right to take your blood, to save, or order it shall live no more. I must submit to your superior will; without demur I must accept my fate. Obey then, Henryk, don’t have any qualms. I’ll kiss the child and bless her in farewell.268

Scene Nine Przemysław Unrivaled virtue, showing such forbearance, a paragon; you’re wise as you can be, 267. Przemysław unexpectedly attacks his wife; stylistically, his words are heavily contemptuous (“petty nobility”) and disrespectful: “worthless; sullied, noxiously defiled my name” (the concept “poisonous, venomous” is used intentionally—the poisonous snake is not merely obnoxious but is associated with temptation and woman). Cf. act V, scene 11, in which he greets her with the invective “audacious beggar” and act V, scene 15, “worthless woman, wench”). 268. In the versions of the Griselda story by Hieronym Morsztyn, Stanisław Samuel Szemiot, and Kwiatkowski, the mother makes the sign of the cross on the child’s forehead as she blesses him.

Gold in the Fire 335 but yet I have to test you more somehow and then your fame will live forevermore.269

Scene Ten Przemysław, Henryk Henryk I gave your daughter to your sister’s care. On my return, exhausted by the ride, I’ve heard the news; today your son is born270; congratulations, sire, are thus in order. Przemysław Give thanks to God, this way I’ll find the means to test her true forbearance: let my life’s companion come and bring our son to me.271 I’ll give the order: leave him in the woods. I’ll prove again today what stand she’ll take, how she’ll defeat the onslaught of my wiles. Henryk Permit me sire, most humbly I submit, be not so cruel … Przemysław Be silent, servant, go!

269. Radziwiłłowa merely hints that the prince, having acquired a taste for persecuting his wife, belatedly justifies his desire for a further, flagrant ordeal by his wish to extol her name. 270. Chronologically inaccurate; Radziwiłłowa is unconcerned about verisimilitude. The Principality of Opole (in Morsztyn’s version, Cieszyn, at any rate, Lower Silesia) was adjacent to the Principality of Oświęcim. She also foreshortens the interval of several years before the birth of the son found in other versions. At the end of the play, the children will be of marriageable age (in Poland in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was not unknown for girls to be married at the age of fourteen, and sometimes even younger, especially when family interests were at stake). Cf. act V, scene 14—there is a lack of any dramatic device to render such considerable elapsed time plausible. 271. Przemysław is pleased at the birth of a son, as it will provide him with an opportunity to test his wife’s patience. The form of words (“my life’s companion”) is intended as a signal to the audience that he does not really wish to send her away and marry again.

336 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

Scene Eleven Przemysław, Cecylia, Henryk Przemysław Audacious beggar, show me my new son. You made so bold: defiled my wedding bed; can this be right—a pauper on the throne? Oh wiles of Fortune, what have you decreed? Henryk, abandon him to those wild beasts. Banish this heir by my unworthy spouse. Wife, bless your son, now part without complaint; you know, of course, you are of base descent. Cecylia This order, sire, is harsh in the extreme, but still I bear it humbly, bow my head. A ruling prince may do just as he will. While I’m your subject, lowly, base, and poor, no noble heir can come from my base blood. A servant’s role is all that I deserve, so take him, Henryk, as your master bids. I’ll bear my fate with patience; it’s God’s will.

Scene Twelve Cecylia, Adelfreda Adelfreda272 My lady, rumors rife throughout the land declare your children both were put to death, and yet you’re silent, holding back your tears.273 Such patience surely earns your soul’s redemption.

272. For the first time Radziwiłłowa introduces a typical dramatic device (absent from the reworkings of the theme in the novelistic genre)—the role of the heroine’s confidante, who facilitates the revelation of her feelings in more intimate, confidential terms. Adalfreda admires her mistress, for her patience and her calm reserve, learning through the grapevine of her various ordeals. 273. To weep is the natural human reaction to such dramatic experiences. The theme of salvation as Cecylia’s reward is reintroduced here (it is linked to her trust in the will of God expressed in act V, scene 19, below: “Though not deserved, my fortune comes from God.”

Gold in the Fire 337 Cecylia God ordains, prince commands, servant must bear.274 My grief is great, but duty’s paramount; unworthy subject, born to be a slave, I suffer fate as it’s ordained for me.

Scene Thirteen Przemysław, Adelfreda Przemysław Well, does my wife shed tears or does she laugh? Please tell me what you know, how she’s disposed. Adelfreda Such patience words alone cannot relate; all meek she bears her fate; she sheds no tears. I bid her talk, but all she would reply was that the will of God ordains all things.

Scene Fourteen Przemysław, Henryk Henryk My long, hard ride to take your son away rewarded me with such a joyous sight; I saw your daughter, fourteen years of age. No fairer blue-eyed maiden walks this earth. She steals all hearts; her chatter and her laughter and captivating charm are so endearing; dark tresses fall across her radiant eyes. Happy the man that she’ll marry one day. Demure demeanor, calm composure, poised, pretty, soft-spoken, kind. She thinks she is the daughter of the Prince of Opole, 274. Cecylia associates the Polish saying “The master ordains, the servant must bear” (first documented in 1822 by the Polish writer Adam Mickiewicz) with the higher will of God, and from this standpoint the prince becomes an instrument of God, that is, the prince’s whims are not considered extravagances of a sadistic personality! On this philosophy, all forms of power are considered Godgiven and political and sexual inequality are sanctioned.

338 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA model of beauty, figure quite sublime. The prince is taller, though in years still young; in time he’ll match his sister’s charm for sure. Przemysław O Lord my God, you are my guiding light. For your great glory, may they prosper both. A final test I’ll set my loving wife, to show the world her true devoted heart. Dear Henryk, go and see my sister now; ask her to bring my children, as her own, and say it’s hard to be apart from them. I’ll say I wish to wed—all thanks to God. I’ll feign to scorn my wife’s ignoble birth, to test the firmness of her heart’s resolve. My wife must show her worth for all to see; let her now come; go, call her to our presence.

Scene Fifteen Przemysław, Cecylia, Henryk Przemysław You worthless woman, pay my words close heed. No longer can we live as man and wife; I shamed my name; beneath myself I wed. Virtuous bride, but base, you proved fecund. You know you brought my princely house no good. You came, it’s true, quite openly to me. Your peasant weeds you’ll wear now once again. Return back home, retire where you will. I’ll take another wife, of noble rank instead of you, the wench who shames my name. Take nothing that is mine, return it all,275 or else disgrace and shame will then ensue.276 Cecylia I wish for nothing, losing you, my prince. As you command, your subject goes back home, 275. A reference to all she acquired thanks to her status in the royal household, now revoked. 276. I.e., the embarrassment of sequestration procedures.

Gold in the Fire 339 prostrate before you, grateful for the honor, contrite for venturing to marry you. Farewell, my spouse; henceforth your worthless subject, will pray to God for you and for your bride.

Scene Sixteen Cecylia It’s hard to hold back tears and not complain when Fate becomes so hard and does not change. First peasant then princess, then cast back down, honor bestowed at first, but now distress. Your hand, O God Almighty, governs all. This lowly pauper, with your gracious help, may earn her daily bread by honest toil, find heaven when her careworn days are done.

Scene Seventeen Przemysław, Henryk Henryk Your sister comes and brings the children too. The people know your wedding day draws near. Cecylia’s working in the garden now. I’ve told her soon your wedding will take place. She raised her eyes in prayer to wish that you will gain from this new marriage what you seek. Przemysław The like of this forbearance is unknown; so dignified, you cannot call her base. Although she’s poor, her virtue’s unassailed, always commanding praise and high regard, she comes to take at last her final test, Will she submit once more to my command? Henryk Ah, Prince, I see you’re still unmoved, like stone. Consider what Cecylia must bear; just think what grief she’s fated to endure. With such humility and calm it’s borne.

340 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Przemysław The drama’s over, let the doubters see277 in humble ways there’s virtue just as firm. I’ll tell my wife to sweep and clean these rooms; she’ll wear her peasant’s dress, just as before.

Scene Eighteen Przemysław, Cecylia, Henryk Przemysław Your mistress comes quite soon, Cecylia, so take a broom and sweep her rooms; make haste. Arrange what’s needed; you’re well versed in that. On bended knee you’ll welcome her, d’you hear? I’ll greet the guests, make haste, apply your broom. You’ll greet her ladyship, and kiss her feet. Cecylia At once I’ll tidy and I’ll sweep the rooms, I’ll pray to God to make you happy, both. Cecylia sweeps the apartments.

Scene Nineteen Przemysław, the Prince of Opole, the Princess of Opole, son and daughter of Przemysław and Cecylia, Henryk, Adelfreda Przemysław I bid my guests right welcome in my home. Beloved lady, dear to my own heart. Come here, Cecylia. Cecylia In deep respect my noble lady, I prepare your rooms. I beg you, look with mercy on your subject. I pray that fortune always smiles on you.

277. I.e., those who had condemned the marriage as a misalliance.

Gold in the Fire 341 Przemysław No more ordeals, my good Cecylia; let all pay homage, heaven favor you. You are my faithful wife, my own true joy. You bear so calmly pain that has no end. My sister raised your son and daughter—see! Both bless your mother! Your ordeals are over. Let fanfares sound, new weddings be announced. No woman matches you in all the world. Daughter We kneel before you, mother brave and true. Now dry your precious tears, forget your pain. Son We kiss our mother’s feet, for she’s real truth as well as dignity personified. Princess of Opole Your children, sister dear, return to you. Your virtues evermore shall be acclaimed. Przemysław To make the bonds between us closer yet, our son will wed your daughter straightaway. Your son shall wed my brother’s daughter278 too; thus virtue joins virtue, fortune fortune. Cecylia Is this a dream or do I really see my son, my daughter, husband, sister too? Though not deserved, my fortune comes from God; this I avow and offer up my thanks. May all who hear the news give praise to God, who thus rewards my grief with tears of joy.279 Przemysław The dance shall now begin, Cecylia. This joyful news shall echo far and wide, 278. I.e., her brother (our daughter). 279. Note the irony: previously Cecylia never wept over her terrible misfortunes.

342 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Extol the fame and virtue of my bride. Tell all the world at last you are rewarded. You’ve served your mistress well, true Adelfreda. May you yet live with her a thousand years. Now let my brother280 be betrothed to you. I add rich gifts to his true love and faith. Let all these couples join in marriage vows, forever live in happiness like mine.

280. This must be another brother, younger than the one who is the father of his niece’s fiancé.

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 1. Letters to her husband. First letter My most enlightened and beloved Prince with whom I’m bound in marriage by our love. When we’re apart for you’re in distant lands, until I see you, to my heart’s delight, I’ll find my comfort, my heart’s ease my dear, in writing long confessions of my love. My heart commands me write it quickly down; it matters not what form and style it takes, for sure, however many words I pen; they’re far outnumbered by the lonely minutes. Although you’ve disappeared, gone out of sight, you’re always present here in my mind’s eye. In daylight hours, as best they can somehow, the people always keep me entertained. But most of all my love is here with me when sun’s bright rays have hastened into night, for then I see you come to me again, most clearly when we’re bound in love’s embrace, we’re kissing, then I’m left quite satisfied; the taste so sweet remains upon my lips. And then my eyelids quit the world of dreams; I think of you on journeys far away. Anxiety and fear for you then rend my heart, as I recall where you have gone. Imagining adventures that befall my love, I stare wide-eyed into the blue, left speechless, meaning everyone who spoke to me would think that I had been struck dumb. When I arise each morning, once I’ve dressed, with fondest thought remembered from my dreams, whatever then I touch, then put away, I find distasteful or no use at all. The finest day, bright sunshine and blue skies, or music, dancing, singing or fine clothes, they have no worth. I like the solitude that bids me tell my woes so clear and loud. 343

344 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Whatever tasty meals may be prepared, they all taste bland, have no appeal for me. My food just turns to gall inside my mouth whatever dish I try, though just a taste.

2. Woe Oh woe! Oh woe! You’re gone so far away. Such longing in my heart—no one shall know. I love you madly, though my life’s so simple. One thought alone keeps gnawing at my soul; as long as I still live you’re in my heart and in my every waking thought forever.

3. Apologia for the wrath of a certain lady against the attentions of the importunate Mr. Pac I always thought that Pax meant peace on earth, but you have shown how very wrong I was. Forgive me, please, I’m just a simple woman so I have never learned a word of Latin. Well, after all, I see that Pax means “war,” so kindly forgive my stupid mistake. I did not realize, but now it’s clear that War can break the Peace at any moment.

4. Epitaph to my son Mikoła Radziwiłł, who died in Biała in 1729 at the age of three years O death, too soon did you begin to reap; you stole the life so recently I bore, that flowered in May three years ago, that’s all; you took him from his grandma’s arms and laid him here to rest in such a mournful grave. Your hand is quite relentless; why, oh why does it not heed a mother’s bitter tears? You did not even grant him time to tell his grandma by himself that he was grateful. Today his mother thanks her in his stead for all the loving kindness he enjoyed. These words may not suffice, but on my knees

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 345 I truly speak my heartfelt gratitude. The fruit of love and my unswerving faith villainous death lays on the bier today. A summer’s day becomes thus dreary autumn, my offspring honored long before his time. Oh, tell me, surely this cannot be right; too early for the vine to bear its fruit, you did not grant the grape the time to ripen, but plucked my child before the summer came. Not even roses fade away so soon when rays of sun no longer keep them bright, nor yet do lilies wilt in summer’s heat, like my beloved child that died too soon. The rains may frequently delay the harvest; when storms are rife it can’t be gathered in, yet you ignored a mother’s grief, it’s clear her floods of tears have no effect on you. The scythe is blunted by untimely harvest, but yours is sharpened by its frequent strokes, for in one year you’ve taken from my home my four relations, and my son makes five, two Wiśniowiecki,1 two Zamoyski children, my cousin’s2 offspring, all of them my blood. The cherry trees,3 these days not bearing fruit, are laid to rest beneath the marble gravestones. Is it the branches’ fault they both have died as withers too the tree that gave them life?4 I’ll not relate good deeds my clan has done; 1. The reference is to the death in this short space of time of several children who would have continued the Wiśniowiecki line, sons of Franciszka Urszula’s uncle (her father’s brother Michał Serwacy), Jeremi (born 1726, died 1727) and Ignacy (born 1728, died 1729); their mother died giving birth to a third, stillborn son on December 4, 1728. 2. The reference is to Elżbieta Wiśniowiecka, daughter of Michał Serwacy, cousin of Franciszka Urszula, four years her senior, born 1701, who in 1722 married Michał Zamoyski (ca. 1679–1735) with whom she had only one surviving child—a daughter, Katarzyna, who inherited the Wiśniowiecki fortune from her grandfather. The poem here indicates that Elżbieta Zamoyska probably gave birth to sons who also died in childhood in 1729. 3. An allusion to the meaning (wiśnia: ‘cherry, cherry tree’) implicit in the surname of the grandfather Janusz Wiśniowiecki (father of Urszula), who had no son. 4. These two lines are an allusion to the fact that Janusz’s brother Michał Serwacy also had only daughters, so the Wiśniowiecki male line was discontinued. They pose the question: Is it the fault of the branches (i.e., the daughters) that they have died without issue, just as the family tree has “dried up”?

346 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA they’re known to all, we keep no secrets hidden. We’re nought but helpless prisoners in death; our erstwhile status and our lives are lost. Did not that wanton waste suffice for you, those kings and governors you took from us? Our thrones, our mace, our wisdom, and our courage; to this you cruelly add a little child? The toil, the comfort too, our marriage brought in you: is thus a mother’s pain repaid? Is such a loss how parents are rewarded, as hurriedly you leave them unconsoled? The eagle is a noble bird, for when the bright celestial orb illumines cloudless skies, its gaze is not averted by those rays; bright-eyed and proud it soars up to the heavens. But you, I see, were startled by the sun, a different course entirely now you follow: far from the path of our heraldic bird, returned to earth to feed the lowly worms. So should three hunting horns now sound a fanfare?5 They should blare out to roust the game in May.6 The yellow that’s emblazoned on your arms is false today, for you’re cocooned in black. Make haste, your parents’ well-beloved soul, unto that place your God has bid you go. Now praise the Lord and joining with the voice of angels please pray also for your parents. To follow Job’s example in his patience, I seek our God’s protection on this day. His will is indisputable for ever, so if I humbly place my faith in him, he’ll grant the seed of Jacob and our joy.

5. This is an allusion to a symbol in the Radziwiłł coat of arms. 6. An allusion to the son born on May 18, 1727 (and brought up from July 8 in that year in Biała by his grandmother Anna Radziwiłłowa), who died in 1729 at the age of two. He fell ill shortly after ostentatious birthday celebrations (and his parents’ departure), and he did not survive this illness during the spring hunting season; he died on June 27.

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 347

5. O God, defender of the whole wide world O God, defender of the whole wide world, you have neither beginning nor an end. You gave our land proportions at your will. The human race that dwells there you did make. It must submit to your omnipotence, embodied three in one, beloved of all. You sit upon your throne in shining glory, the object of our true undying faith. In our meek hearts we beg you grant us mercy. If we are sinful, weaklings that we are, cease not to look upon us with compassion. Our feeble eyes cannot perceive you truly, our God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, one God ineffable in your great glory. Expunge my sins; my soul is craving mercy. As long as strength permits me, wretched being, while you still deign to keep me here on earth, for that I’ll praise you, giving thanks forever for your solicitude of me, O God. Your hand has fashioned me from humble clay. Long since would I have ceased to live unless it was your will, and so may I continue to render praise to you until I die. But if my senses fail me, weak, infirm, may your compassion not desert me yet. Redeem my human frailties, as you are so merciful, my one and only God.

6. A song O God, from up on high you see how deep the wound is in my heart. I suffer grief, I’m wracked with pain. You know I lie, poor sinner, at your feet. Your Providence takes care of little birds, and all wild beasts enjoy their sustenance. The smallest earthworms and the smallest reptiles have tiny mites that form their daily prey. You feed the hungry with a crust of bread;

348 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA you clothe the naked and provide for all. You care for all, be they the wretched poor, be they of moderate means, or be they rich. Your even-handed Providence is proof that all are loved by God in equal measure. And so a lord consumes no more than does a lowly beggar, neither dies too soon. Thus you dispose, in your almighty realm, for those who seek your Holy Providence. You know my needs, right humbly I do pray; support us Lord, may we abide by you.

7. A song O Jesu, blood stained from your wounds, Surrounded by the murderous mob, you’re lashed by whips from every part, and bear a crown of thorns so sharp. A spear has struck into your heart. so cruelly are you nailed upon the cross. From all your wounds the blood is flowing fast, and stains the mob so crazed, they even mock you now. Your Mother swoons, but yet she stands, her heart is filled with grief and tears, her pain will have no end. O Jesu, as they flay you, both your Godly and your mortal form alike feel pain at once. The godly pained by sinners’ cruel excess, the mortal body wracked by cruel pain as at the hands of torturers it dies. One’s eyes would have to be just carved in stone if they were not to shed their bitter tears on seeing torture such as this. My hopes shall rest upon this blood you shed, for since you suffered here for sinners’ sake, my soul will not have perished all in vain.

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 349

8. Admonition to value the life eternal more than the temporal It’s folly too to seek long life, forgetting how to live it well, or to exert oneself and suffer hardships in this our age when sophistry is rife. It’s folly too to value short-lived joys, while yet forgetting life that comes hereafter. It makes no sense to covet transient joys and fail to seek what through the course of time is everlasting and will always bring eternal happiness that does not fade. Remember, eyes will never tire of looking and ears will always be prepared to listen. Restrain your heart, so it may extricate itself from snares of empty love. May it yearn instead to seek good things that guarantee you happiness for sure, while mere delusions of one’s will deprive one of one’s virtue and the sight of God.

9. Admonition to form a modest opinion of oneself Of course it’s natural if someone feels they are the greatest, know it all, of course. But mastery like this unless you have a fear of God of course amounts to nought. A simple fellow if God fearing though is better than a pompous clever-clogs who while his soul remains neglected is full of useless facts about the planets. If you’re self-centered you will just be bored and you’ll despise yourself then all the more, quite unaware of all the praises spoken, though people clearly speak their mind aloud. What is the use of science that’s merely transient? If I had perfect knowledge of all nature, rebukes are all that I would gain from that. For if you’re greedy, want to know it all, curiosity dissipates your thoughts and then you can’t acquire true wisdom.

350 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA You’ll make immense mistakes, succumb to evil. Wise men rejoice to get response, to know that fame’s bestowed on them by nature. The pinnacle of vanity, of course, is knowledge that just has no use at all. But empty, useless curiosity is of no use to mind or soul. You can’t rely on facts that bring no hope to human souls, that’s simply folly. While clever schemes result in disappointment, just living well is better for the soul. Clear conscience gives you trust towards the Lord, inspiring thoughts of holy life eternal. The baser thoughts and lights that guide a man, the more severe the judgment passed. So should you stray and leave the sacred paths, a sinner you’ll be judged at last. Draw nothing purely futile from the skill or knowledge of an expert in his craft, but rather fear the evil use of skills your learning sensibly provides you with. If you believe about yourself in error you know it all, know more than others do, take others’ word for things you can’t make out. Don’t harm your mind and soul for no good cause. Don’t let your thoughts be based on pride. A simple heart will frankly recognize that if you think you’re cleverer than most you ought to seek the company of others, for soon you’ll find that they’re endowed by God with greater intellect than you possess. If you are keen to find out useful things, be modest, don’t be vain and have disdain for what you are, avoid impetuous pride. Reject self-pride and take the humble path you know. The most worthwhile and pleasant thing to have is knowledge of yourself that shows your worth. The sign of wisdom and good sense is knowing your own views have little value, while others have a modesty that’s natural and they can teach you better understanding

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 351 of folk whose evil knows no bounds. Don’t sit in judgment though, as if you were their better. Like them, you too incline to sin. You can’t be sure how long you’ll stay so pure. So do not torment others. We all are handicapped and weak in life, but you must know the greatest handicap. Apply it to yourself, this will adorn your soul.

10. Recipe for a courtier’s etiquette Just take two drams of arrogance and add two ounces of hypocrisy and pious falsehood, a grain of patiently deceiving gestures, three grains of artificial flattering words. Two grains of smiley face repel discord. Stir all together, oiled with juice of grace. Four hours and twenty keep it on the boil, then sieve it through the mesh of your clear conscience. Just let it cool, stir in a spoonful’s patience, your threefold hopes with doubts in equal measure. This recipe will serve for sure when needed as long as you take care to use it well.

11. On censure It’s no uncommon thing to hear pure gossip. When people find they’ve nothing else to talk about, their mind’s a blank, then they resort to this, you see; at first they find someone to blame, or simply make them up, why not? These days it’s all the rage, of course, to cause them harm with some glib talk.

12. To priests The priests take holy services of course, and daily sing the psalms, there is no doubt.

352 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA They even shed a humble tear at Mass. Don’t tell me though they scorn to gain some profit! Conceit in lay folks laughed right out of court, but chaplains’ arrogance is blamed still more. I see that things are turning upside down as priests become so worldly arrogant. Sheer greed we’ve always found abhorrent, in noble and in simple homes alike, but bad behavior grows as time goes by. Lay folk abandon greed, but priests are grasping. The stubborn rage, the anger of the pompous, and nasty tricks are all condemned in laymen, so reason quells the laymen’s verbal outbursts. It’s now the churchmen who become enraged. If laymen’s flawless honor’s sometimes tarnished it’s no great sin, such outbursts can occur. The priesthood isn’t bound to stay so cool. The fault of envy one condemns in laymen occurs quite rarely; usually it’s hidden. These days it’s not accepted by lay people and yet you’ll find it rife amongst the priests. All gluttonous excess we see as sinful. Lay folk, when lax in their behavior may easily succumb, but nowadays more often priests become the worse for drink. Sheer sloth’s a failing natural in laymen, and everyone condemns it as a sin. While laymen strive to mend their lazy ways, the clergy tend to be the slothful ones. (a reminder of the seven mortal sins)

13. To a fickle lady Oh why though honor strictly says you shouldn’t do you entice a thousand men at once? Since you can only have one man to wed, why carry on with such a countless number? Restrain your passion, calmly ask yourself are you respected by that crowd of suitors? Just think it over, for indeed you know one man alone will be your lawful husband.

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 353 Not many men amongst so many lovers are true and faithful; mostly they deceive. Their solemn oaths and all their talk of honor have no foundation; they are simply worthless. For sure, a man who is sincere will soon withdraw on seeing you with many others. Love cannot share divided hearts, nor bear a passion easily aroused. Take my advice and moderate your urges, your natural gripes, impatience too. So reconsider now what you should do, and God will help you to decide.

14. Delusions and contentious thoughts Delusions and contentious thoughts Belie my morals and undoubted virtue. The wrath of God will fall on those who lie about my words and what my eyes reveal. It’s hard to keep concealed how sad I look to see someone who’s guided by base motives. Let them prepare their traps and try their tricks. For my own part I always act politely. Concerning jokes that for a time dispel the sorrow that one feels throughout one’s life I must accept that once the tears are dried I have to laugh at pranks the joker tries. But publicly just as behind closed doors, in laughter or in tears I guard my honor. I take great care to hold emotions back, else punishment would surely follow soon. I know of course whatever mood I show those clever folk will criticize my actions. So be it then; whatever fate may bring I’ll always stay obedient to God’s will.

354 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA

15. If you know how to read people’s character If you can read the characters of people, their eyes will tell you straight away that worldly manners are quite different now. One rarely loves or settles down. This strange way of behaving means yearning, passionate gaze gives way to deceit these days, berating you who aren’t in love with them. Their labors are designed to offer bait, so you may fall into their trap. You see emotions are all false, their goal’s seduction, love is merely feigned. Attraction is ephemeral, that’s all; no effort’s made to care for anyone. A hasty step just cools our love. The looks we get just cool our love. The pleasant rules we knew are gone, like love that did not need fine words. One’s admiration grew quite simply when love was seen by eyes alone. One watched and took great care, so mutual affection was more lasting. Respect expressed in words would last forever after, firmly bound, but now although it’s secret, affection finds its way into one’s heart for instinct wins the day, you can be sure. Though reason scarcely can control it, it must be quelled almost by force, so honor shan’t be compromised. While even friendly glances must be shunned, avoiding criticism and dishonor.

16. What good is love that’s not returned? What good is love that’s not returned? Why entertain such hopes in all good faith that your advances are indeed rewarded? If you persist in these advances though,

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 355 while in return you are not loved, and live your life in sad distress, there is I’m sure, a dreadful risk a lady will be cheated and deceived, deprived alas of just reward. I’d not begrudge ungratefulness bestowed by my beloved in return for all the love that I’d expressed; my thoughts on this are not the same. We must excuse the rulers’ role for they’re the chosen ones of God. But hearts do not respond to words like this. Unkindly I’m accused and yet I take this not to heart at all. I let them think just what they like; I know they’re simply in the wrong. Let those who blame their neighbors think again, hear words of reason, moderate their passion, for will they not be judged themselves as well? You are allowed to love one of your kind, declare these folk, while they forget that they love too, reproaching others straight away, as soon as someone falls in love. Oh, how incautious are the words they speak! They’d better set their house in order before they judge what others do.

17. It’s hard to set your will against your fate It’s hard to set your will against your fate, keep sorrow under wraps or try to beat it. May smiles of satisfaction serve who can enjoy good health and happiness the longest. For now the fates have suddenly announced the fruits of my endeavors won’t at all be what I had in mind if I pretend I’m happy when I’m not. My heart will blame me openly for that. A feeling that I can’t explain at all is leading me to judge my life so far. Forbearance makes me pay the price,

356 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA and so my health declines apace as I conceal my bitter grief. Those hearts suppressing sighs meet early deaths when floods of tears are forcefully held back and one’s true feelings are concealed. Suppressing love is meant to be a virtue; this is a living death. Oh God, determiner of human fate, if you would be a doctor for long life, restore a healthful joy to bless our married life. My happiness, my fate I place in your safe hands. to end thus my lament.

18. Response to her husband …7 1. Of a good honest wife must strictly be said, 7. A wife’s response to her husband concerning a moral code for married women translated from the French. Original MS not extant. Copies in Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie [Czartoryski Library in Kraków] (ref. 2332, pp. 19–22) and Biblioteka Polskiej Akademii Nauk w Kórniku [Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kórnik] (ref. 1604, pp. 25–28). Date of origin uncertain, but the topic of a similar MS in Czartoryski Library, dated 1732, is interesting in this context: In her treatise Du mariage, Des Devoirs réciproques de l’homme et de la femme (my emphasis, BJ), Radziwillowa wrote, for example, that marriage “doit être fondée […] sur l’amour et la juste domination de l’homme,” with the proviso that the husband “ne doit regarder sa femme ni comme esclave, ni même, comme inférieur, mais comme son égale”! The present text is a response to A Code for Every Married Woman: What Her Relationship to Her Husband Should Be, translated by me from the French. The source of the French text is presently unknown; its title is noteworthy for the universal application of its precepts—for “every married woman,” without exception, and the specific compulsory unilateral obligations “bestowed” by the husband. In a letter to her husband dated July 5, 1726, Radziwillowa wrote, “… remember, beloved husband, that the pledge of everlasting love may not be broken by any other infatuations …” Dialogue (not always polemical) and the need to express her own, dissenting, opinion occurs a number of times in Radziwillowa’s writings under the heading “A Response …” The tone of didactic literature for women, if not directly that of the above French code, is echoed in Radziwillowa’s first comedy Miłość dowcipna [Witty Love], 1746), in a monologue by the comical old father Lucydor. Apparently on his deathbed, he dispenses precepts of living to his daughters, a negative scenario similar to that of the French code: Beware of acquaintance and revelry. Eschew gossip. Do not wear fashionable attire. Let your smooth complexion not know powder or rouge. Be modest—avoid craning the neck and giving sidelong glances and alluring smiles, receive neither messengers bearing compliments nor visitors. In short, modesty, timidity, exclusion from society, avoidance of fraternization and enticements. Ultimately, the daughters contrive to make a mockery of their father’s authority, succeeding in circumventing the prohibitions, ignoring the old man’s exhortations, and meeting their lovers.

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 357 to crave liaisons may not enter her head. Her duty is plain; the groom taking her hand expects she’ll honor her vows solemn and grand But she too is aware, as she plights her troth that he likewise pledged true love, he and she both. 2. Women should not seek fame and beauty alone, to ensure their husbands stay ever their own. And in this regard she must trust her soul mate, living as mother nature her did create. But praise of others must the husband eschew, wishing such words only from his spouse so true. 3. Men oftener break faith, so I have heard tell, deceive your eyes, they’re good at that as well. Though onto his cheeks no cheat rouge applies, the virtuous face masks conjugal lies. If a man and his wife true shared love expect, he sham faith and she vanity must reject. 4. Too bold, not averting her feminine glance, she would don in vain the finest veil perchance. A lady rejects frivolity with ease, her honor beyond doubt, sans veil if she please. But let men remain true and honest likewise, for their wives alone shall they ever have eyes. 5. Husband absent, assignations do not suit, this way lie blots on one’s honor, and dispute. Shared love means hardship shared in cases of need, while secret assignations perfidy breed. But share and share alike your conjugal life. the husband in turn should visit with his wife. 6. A wife who seeks the blessing of marriage vows should not be tempted false desires to arouse.

358 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Grateful are spouses for the blessings they share, honor at stake, false gifts can scarcely compare. From such gifts the husband should likewise refrain, his profit they seem but cause other men pain. 7. If he bars her writing in her own fair hand, in this case a lady should heed her husband, Lay down her pen if his displeasure is shown, lest this hand reveal some feelings of her own. When a man has matters of concern to air, she may guide, but let him address the affair. 8. Join not the slanderous tongues, take none to mind. Domestic cares suffice, you surely will find. From company such as this there’s nought to gain, better their ilk to shun, demure to remain. But husband if over your spouse you hold sway, sycophants brook not who would lead you astray. 9. In games of chance may ladies not seek delight, for husbands’ displeasure thereby we incite. From joys and revelries, objects of disdain, befitting not true love, ladies should refrain. But the husband wishing his wife to restrain without her may not a lady entertain! 10. Secret assignations in cranny and nook are disgraceful foibles in anyone’s book. Wives should not sanction a secret rendezvous, lest their honor be vanquished in wise undue. Husbands in turn dubious triumph beware, to lie in the grass with lovers do not dare. 11. Mutual love between a man and his wife, not falsely dissembling, must last them for life. We both promised faithful and loving to stay,

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 359 honesty with devotion gladly repay. When wife devotion, husband honesty keep, God’s reward of true love for shared faith they reap. 12. Where hearts are conjoined there is but one will shared. If your resolve is firm, caprice you are spared. Love readily keeps fidelity alive, thence may a husband’s authority derive. She loves him the more, showing greater respect, when he bides with her and all else does reject.

19. Freedom of choice is the rule in love The rule in love is choosing as you will. For when you’re young it’s pleasure, not a sin. But lovers often have to heal their wounds, for sense and honor too must be obeyed. No need to speak your reasons, not a word, but hidden feelings still show through. Those sighs and glances, blushes and confusion, and even silence tell what dreams you have. Love always speaks aloud, mere silence tells, when someone forms a secret bond. For nature can’t be helped, love bids you sin. Insulting heaven’s law is banned by God. You need to place your faith in God or nature, one or the other, so I pray to heaven; help quell the storm that’s in my heart, so I may choose the law of God, not nature. For nature leads love on, to grievous sin, while heaven threatens punishment forever. So who should one believe? The law is harsh. Lord, change our nature, or these dreadful laws.

20. If fate bestows a figure quite divine If fate bestows a figure quite divine, expect a nature less than modest. If he delights in mere external show, that’s pure delusion, masking inner faults.

360 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Those charming eyes, those lovely lashes, smiling red lips, a high forehead, fine head of hair, and all that one could wish; abundant beauty, can’t deny the fact. It’s like a palace, just façade, alas, suggesting all is fine inside as well. But then we find that bats are in the belfry. There may be beauty, but therein lie faults. He eats and drinks and sleeps so well, but is he cheerful, is he sad, who knows? You cannot tell, whichever way he moves. Now lying down, now moving, standing still. No one can tell what are his thoughts. It seems he’s nature’s own creation. He lives in it, it lives through him. In marble on his headstone in advance, the way he lived and died and ate and drank, it can be carved, was contrary to nature.

21. The constant conflict heart and mind are in The constant conflict heart and mind are in grants no respite to restless thoughts. This conflict means that love is not advised, yet love is no encumbrance, says the heart. Such powerful passions, struggling hard, are causing me to live an anxious life. My qualms and common sense weigh in the balance, by heart and love instinctively opposed. It’s hard to reconcile conflicting thoughts, when sense says honor, heart says love. Emotions secretly hold sway. The way the heart inclines will win the day. The fiery planet is more powerful. Love always gains the victory of course. Not wishing to be full of pride, I love with honor yet retain good sense. But since good sense complains it’s on a par with love, I’ll take on board a third decree and keep my feelings under wraps.

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 361

22. A song If in unhappy times at least I might express the pain that’s in my heart, my lips would not be always sealed. I’d vent my sadness, everyone would know it. My thoughts are plagued by numerous concerns, for reason’s sake I hid my aggravation. Because I value honor more than life, I laugh out loud, though secretly I weep. The way I live is not unpleasant, but fortune palls, success is merely hollow, and my good name is all I care about. The brutal blows they deal to pierce my heart will surely hasten soon my mortal end. Relief can secretly be found in tears. One drop releases many more at once. As one by one they fall upon the cheeks they wash away their natural beauty. How can one hide from prying eyes of others? It’s hard to hide what’s held in store for me. Though life is hard, I’m on the verge of joy, I trust the providence of God.

23. Such strong emotions in my heart My heart has plunged me into deep emotions which must remain concealed of course. But now I’m firmly bound by mutual bonds, which means I’ve need of base intrigues. When I secured my love with vows, it meant that I accepted binding rules; believing words and tears, I pledged my troth. Mere feeble echoes sadly now remain, ingratitude and selfish hatred. That treachery, such false deceit, divides emotions, what am I to do? Ungrateful man to reckon with my wealth while making love to other women. No sooner had he won me, then he dared

362 FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA to boast of his accursed betrayal. May Venus yet be overruled, courageous reason win the day and bravely cool emotions down, see sense and heal my sorrow. In time may wisdom, freedom be regained. I have resolved I’ll never love again until I die; it’s brought me only sorrow. Instead of pouring out such floods of tears I’ll place my hopes in God alone.

24. Emotions insincere, just seeking pleasure Emotions insincere, just seeking pleasure are feeble signs of love that’s real. They harm one’s honor, glory’s all they want, a quick reward that does not last. So full of promises at first, commitment sworn by oath. Before too long of course both love and hope are cruelly betrayed. A glance to penetrate the heart in my rejected lover’s eye had left its trace. I was so eager. Too late I tried to hide my feelings. My longings now are kept in check. I guard my feelings with great care. That fondness eagerly displayed has turned to love betrayed. Be guarded, don’t be taken in by all those promises you hear. Don’t swoon and sigh just yet, for love is rarely what it seems. It mostly seeks a lady’s favors, impairs her honor and her name. Then right away he turns the tables and says you forced yourself on him. The copious tears that I have shed, though honor made me keep them secret, give me the right to speak this way.

Selected Verse of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa 363 I’ve suffered such unfair attacks, I value happiness but little. I want to die and gain from having courage. I offer God my life that’s only brief. For sake of praise in heaven, these slanders I reject. For God alone means perfect happiness.

25. Ah! When will my torments cease? Ah! When will torments cease, when will I gain my joy? Is this my fate, can destiny be such that I am scarcely still alive? Hemmed in by anxious fears, in tears I pray to God, my life is waning now. I must endure a thousand blows, no end to suffering in sight. Ingratitude and insults, all concealed, as well as other harsh decrees. I have to bear the brunt in secret; no recompense is ever granted. And then, to boot, there’s vicious slander. I must fend off suspicious glances I calm my natural instincts, just in case they think my eyes reveal the cause of all these floods of tears. I dare not even sigh. Who will advise me, if not God? He is the goal of joy, the way to him is sure. I pray his might will calm those thoughts, the pen cannot express. My grievous fate is harsh.

Appendix A Letter1 from Princess Radziwiłłowa to her husband, August 4, 17342 … making a surprise attack on the town of Nieśwież,3 they first of all posted sentries at all the gateways […], captured all the cavalry,4 and then sent two of their 1. One of the 1,347 letters from Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa to members of the Radziwiłł family that are preserved in the Radziwiłł Collection in the Central Archives of Historical Documents in Warsaw (AGAD AR, teki [portfolios] 49–52). The majority of Radziwiłłowa’s letters, including this one, were addressed to her husband Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł. 2. When this letter was written by his wife, in August 1734, Prince Michal Kazimierz Radziwiłł had already been away from home for many months, involved since the previous autumn in the War of the Polish Succession on the side of Augustus III, from the Saxon House of Wettin, against the French protégé Stanisław Leszczyński. There had been two consecutive elections to the Polish throne in the previous year. In September 1733, Stanisław Leszczyński was chosen, but the Russian military intervention that this provoked led to a rerun of the contest in the following month, when a new college of electors chose the Wettin candidate. Prince Michał had not yet seen his twin sons Janusz and Karol, born in February 1734. The chaotic state of the country, plunged into civil war, gave rise to the popular Polish saying “Od Sasa do Lasa” personifying chaos or political instability by reference to the two rivals—the Saxon (Sas) and Leszczyński (Las). However, the tone of the letter, illustrating the actions of a true mulier fortis of Old Poland standing in for her absent husband (in the unruly eastern borderlands women commonly had to defend their homes by force of arms!) is indicative of Princess Radziwiłłowa’s enhanced self-confidence and self-esteem after the birth of her two sons (previously, she had been tormented by numerous miscarriages and by the death of her first-born son Mikołaj in 1729). Her mother-in-law, who had been pestering the couple for years with her enquiries about the prospects of a son and heir, expressed her satisfaction in a letter to her younger son Hieronim Florian in the following words: “by a remarkable divine miracle, the Princess and consort of the Marshal of Lithuania [as Prince Michał Radziwiłł then was], your sister-in-law, has given birth to two sons. A woman who when times were favorable for our country was unable to bear a child to full term, has now given birth successfully, just at a moment when we need to demonstrate to our friends that God is on our side and will not allow us to perish.” [Anna Radziwiłłowa, née Sanguszko, Letter in Radziwiłł Collection, Central Archives of Historical Documents, Warsaw, quoted from Sajkowski 1981, 255.] 3. The letter was sent from Nieśwież (today in Belarus, in the District of Minsk), an ancient ducal seat that was incorporated into Lithuania in the mid-thirteenth century, in the sixteenth century becoming the property of the Radziwiłłs. The status of the town was enhanced to an unprecedented extent in 1551, when it became the seat of the Archives of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (until the Partitions of Poland annexing the country to Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the late eighteenth century). After 1586, the importance of Nieśwież grew thanks to its role as the center of the Radziwiłł demesne, secured by the privilege of estate in tail (i.e. the inheritance, on the principle of exclusively male primogeniture, of an entire complex of villages and towns, lands and estates, which it was forbidden to divide up or mortgage). As the heir in tail or lord of the manor, the husband of Franciszka Urszula, Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, eldest son of Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł and Anna née Sanguszko, maintained his principal residence. 4. The letter describes an attempt by supporters of Stanisław Leszczyński to capture military personnel, not only the cavalry stationed in the town, but also the court infantry (the Nieśwież castle,

365

366 Appendix company to me (this was the first I knew of these events), requesting the release of those men [i.e., the court infantry], for if I did not comply of my own accord they would carry out a search and take them by force. I was overcome by bitterness and fury and immediately declared that I was not holding them and that even if I had been I would not have released them, for I am not bound by any orders issued by the military.5 Thereupon, they informed me that they would seize my men. I rode out in an open carriage6 and alighted amongst the serried ranks of their armed rabble, demanding to know immediately the reason for their incursion and whose orders they were following. Zasulicz7 replied that he had “received a verbal command.” I responded that I was not bound by any military commands, verbal or written, declaring, “I am issuing my own command to your company to withdraw, for I will order that you be expelled.” “But we have it in writing also,” they all stated in unison. I asked to see it, but when I read it and saw that it was signed by Paszkowski.8 I tore up and destroyed that order, throwing it in the face of that brute Zasulicz, challenging him with the words: “A fine deputy supreme commander he is! That wretch has forgotten that he owes his position to the good will of my uncle, the true deputy supreme commander,9 by whose orders I am bound and by no others.” I declared that I also had orders from him to “break up bands of rebels.” So if they did not return my cavalry and depart they might be certain that I would teach them by whose orders they and I are respectively bound. I will not write down what else I said as I railed at them for five hours out surrounded by fortifications, was a defensive structure, but it should be added that the magnates also maintained detachments at the court for chiefly ceremonial purposes). 5. The strong sense of personal sovereignty assumed by the mistress of Nieśwież may be emphasized here. From her letter it can be assumed that Princess Radziwiłłowa valued particularly highly her independence of any other authorities. 6. It is of significance for the context of the letter that from the sixteenth century there was a castle on an island in the lake (rebuilt in the seventeenth century and again in the eighteenth), and, linked to it by a causeway, there was a town, also founded in the sixteenth century by Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł. This is why the Princess writes that she “rode out” (to the town from the castle) in a carriage. 7. One of Leszczyński’s armed followers. 8. Colonel Paszkowski, with Lithuanian detachments in league with Leszczyński, laid siege to Brest in June 1734, but he was repulsed by forces of deputy commander-in-chief Wiśniowiecki. 9. I.e., Michał Serwacy Wiśniowiecki (1680–1744), brother of her father Janusz Wiśniowiecki. From 1719 Grand Chancellor of Lithuania; in 1730, on the death of Grand Hetman (i.e., commander-inchief of the army) of Lithuania Ludwik Pociej, made temporary deputy commander of the army by Augustus II (wishing to limit the power of the magnates, the king took advantage of the law of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth banning the simultaneous holding of the offices of Chancellor and Hetman by one individual). The king’s policy in this regard remained consistent (not only in this particular case) for decades to come, so Wiśniowiecki remained unable to convert his temporary appointment into that of full hetman right up to the death of Augustus II Leszczyński—since Wiśniowiecki declined to recognize his election as king—appointed Antoni Pociej Lithuanian commander-in-chief. The latter was not recognized by the Wettin camp, which included the Radziwiłłs.

Appendix 367 in the blazing sun, with such determination and resolve that I was ready to die if […] I will relate to you the rest of the ridiculous things that were said when we meet, God willing. Suffice it to say that they were petrified, realizing that I had several thousand men under my command […] be assured that I would not have surrendered either myself or my men.

Bibliography Primary Sources MANUSCRIPTS OF DRAMATIC WORKS OF FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Rękopisy dramatów w Archiwum Radziwiłłowskim (AR), dziś w Archiwum Głównym Akt Dawnych (AGAD) w Warszawie, dział Rękopisy biblioteczne, 3 woluminy pt. Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej, sygn. 48 (autografy), sygn. 49 i sygn. 50 (kopiariusze). [Manuscripts of dramatic works in Radziwiłł Archive (AR), today in the Central Archives of Historical Documents (AGAD) in Warsaw, Library Manuscripts section, 3 volumes entitled Drama of Urszula Radziwiłłowa, ref. 48 (original manuscripts), ref. 49 and ref. 50 (copies)]. LETTERS OF FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Archiwum Radziwiłłowskie (AR), dział IV, teka 50 [Letters of Princess Radziwiłłowa: in Warsaw (AGAD), Radziwiłł Archive (AR), section IV, portfolio 50]. AGAD AR, dział Rękopisy biblioteczne, sygn. 87: Radziwillana (akta luźne); Wiersze Franciszki Urszuli z Wiśniowieckich Radziwiłłowej [AGAD AR, Library Manuscripts section, ref. 87: Radziwillana (loose documents); Poetry by Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa, née Wiśniowiecka]. AGAD APiJ (Prozorów i Jelskich), sygn. 139 [AGAD APiJ (Prozor and Jelski Archive), ref. 139]. AGAD AS (Sucha), sygn. 20/30 [AGAD AS (Sucha Archive), ref. 20/30]. MANUSCRIPT COPIES OF WORKS OF FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA Archiwum Państwowe w Poznaniu (dawniej Wojewódzkie), sygn. 73 [State Archive in Poznań, ref. 73]. Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie, sygn. 2332, sygn. 2347, sygn. 2268 [Czartoryski Library in Kraków, ref. 2332, ref. 2347, ref. 2268]. Biblioteka Jagiellońska w Krakowie, sygn. III 7241 i sygn. Przyb. 110/75 [Jagiellonian Library in Kraków, ref. III 7241 and ref. Przyb. 110/75]. Biblioteka Narodowa w Warszawie sygn.II 6903 i sygn. III 6304 [National Library in Warsaw, ref. II 6903 and ref. III 6304]. Biblioteka Ordynacji Zamoyskich w BN, Warszawa, sygn. 1316 [Library of the Zamoyski Estate in the National Library, Warsaw, ref. 1316]. 369

370 Bibliography Biblioteka Polska w Paryżu, sygn. 127 [Bibliothèque polonaise à Paris, ref. 127]. Biblioteka Polskiej Akademii Nauk w Kórniku, sygn.1604 i sygn. 513 [Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kórnik, ref. 1604 and ref. 513]. Biblioteka Zakładu Narodowego im. Ossolińskich we Wrocławiu, sygn. I 11984 i II 5359 [Library of the National Ossolineum Institute in Wrocław, ref. I 11984 and II 5359]. CBN National Archive, Kyiv [Kiev], ref. I 5960. Нацыянальны гістарычны архіў Беларусі, Мінск [National Historical Archive of Belarus, Minsk], ref. F.694 (Radziwiłł Archive), vol. 1, spr. 248, k. 163– 166; 241, k. 36–37. PUBLISHED WORKS OF FRANCISZKA URSZULA RADZIWIŁŁOWA (IN ORDER OF DATE OF PUBLICATION) Komedyje i tragedyje przednio dowcipnym wynalazkiem, wybornym wiersza kształtem, bujnością rzeczy i poważnymi przykładami znamienite przez […] złożone … [Comedies and tragedies … ]. 1754. Żółkiew. http://www.polona.pl/dlibra/doccontent2?id=32684&from=&from=metadatasearch&dir ids=1&lang=en [egz. Bibioteki Narodowej sygn. SD W.3.3917]. Radziwiłłowa, Franciszka Urszula. 1882. 4 listy do męża wierszem [Four letters in verse to her husband]. In Przegląd Polski 16: Matka księcia “Panie Kochanku” [Mother of the prince “Beloved Sir”], edited by Jerzy Mycielski: 9: 369–71, 372–75, 376–80, 388–98. List pierwszy [wierszem do męża] [First letter in verse to her husband]. 1922. In Merwin Bertold, ed., Polskie listy miłosne od XV do XIX wieku [Polish love letters from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century]. Lwów: Wydawnictwo Polskie. Teatr Urszuli Radziwiłłowej [Drama of Urszula Radziwiłłowa]. 1961. Edited and with a postscript by Karyna Wierzbicka. Introduction by Julian Krzyżanowski. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. Sokołowska, Jadwiga, and Kazimiera Żukowska, eds. 1965. Poeci polskiego baroku [Poets of the Polish baroque]. 2 vols. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. Kostkiewiczowa, Teresa, and Zbigniew Goliński, eds. 1981. Świat poprawiać— zuchwałe rzemiosło [Putting the world to rights is an audacious business]. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. Pp. 39–43. Libera, Zdzisław. Poezja polska XVIII wieku [Polish eighteenth-century poetry]. 1983. 2nd ed. Warszawa: Czytelnik. Kostkiewiczowa, Teresa, and Zbigniew Goliński, eds. 1992. Pisarze polskiego oświecenia [Writers of the Polish Enlightenment]. Vol. 1. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Pp. 81–89.

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Index Armenia 51 Armenians 4 Artaméne ou le Grand Cyrus 6, 32, 33, 35, 51, 63, 65, 66, 75, 173, 175, 188, 295, 381 asymmetry: cultural 22; of power in the family 27 audience 14, 33, 42, 44–46, 50, 52, 55, 56, 60, 63, 68, 110, 143, 242, 251, 326, 335 Augustus II, King of Poland 6, 366, 380, 383 Augustus III, King of Poland 4, 365 authority: of a husband 28, 30, 359; parental 55; paternal 10, 356 autobiographical hypothesis 55 autobiographism 19, 383 autotherapy 14, 26

absolutist powers 5 absurd, absurdity 39, 52, 266 actresses 12, 114 adaptation 1, 16, 33, 44, 49–51, 54, 55, 69, 72, 75, 268 admonishment 6, 83 admonition 2, 14, 18, 35, 47, 86, 349 aesthetic: characteristics 41; grounds 181; intentions 43; model 4; principles 68; traditions and models 4 aestheticism 66 aesthetics 12, 45, 68, 327 Agape, martyr 33, 57–60, 138 ff. agrarian structure 3, 6 allusion 11, 42, 47, 50, 56, 63, 67, 102, 110, 112, 114, 146, 241, 271, 281, 345, 346 amateur: artists 6; dramatics 33; playwrights 16, 70; théâtre de société 14; troupe 46; writer 8 ambivalence 33, 37, 39, 42, 46, 53, 54 amitié tendre model 11 An Act of Divine Providence 34, 37, 48–50, 69, 75, 117–36 anagogic 53 anecdotes 3, 44 anthropocentric 57 anthropology 24, 44 antifeminine/antifeminist satire 30, 54 antinomy 57 antiquity 57, 59, 146 apologia 54, 150, 327, 344 archetypal 50, 372 archetypal: characters 50; image in fairy tales 372; situations 50 aristocracy 5, 8, 23, 45, 187 aristocrat 316 aristocratic 6, 8, 11, 15, 23, 39, 51, 63, 67, 145, 314, 316, 376, 377, 378 Aristotelian: golden rules 4; tradition 55 Aristotle 33, 59, 181

ballet 36, 40, 41, 43, 44, 72, 268, 290, 306, 327; adaptations 72 Baroque 2, 16, 17, 35, 36, 63, 66, 70, 162, 168, 262, 278, 283, 370, 373, 378, 379, 380, 381 Belarus 4, 15, 30, 365, 370, 381 Belarusian xv, 15, 16, 28, 52, 64, 371, 376, 380 Biała Krynica 7, 10 Biały Kamień 7 biographical key 68 blue stocking 15 Boccaccio, Giovanni 33, 34, 51, 52, 56, 75, 316, 322 Bohemia 3 Boileau, Nicolas 54 buffoon 30, 38 buffoonery 39, 42 canon law 9, 20 canon, literary 1, 4, 45, 49, 51, 62 cast, casting 1, 36, 44, 61, 71, 72, 173 385

386 Index catechismal-didactic 50 Catholic 3, 9, 147, 382 cautionary works 3, 54, 83, 318 celebrations 11–13, 46, 102, 110, 262, 268, 289, 290, 346 character 3, 25, 30, 36–40, 43, 47–50, 53, 55, 60, 61, 64–68, 104, 121, 150, 175, 262, 317, 327, 354 characterization 19, 56, 62–64, 144, 312, 314 Charles XII, King of Sweden 7 Chionia, martyr 33, 57–60, 62, 138 ff chivalric-adventurous love tales 66 chivalric-adventurous narrative poems 62 chivalric-civic ideology 6 choreography 40, 41, 47, 81, 268 Christian: a 141; churches 300; context 57; death 57; eschatological hope 291; Europe 59; faith 59, 147; God 161; message 52; moralistic teachings 56, 181; no 143; religion 150, 281; soul 53; thinking 143; values 43; virgins 58; virtues 56, 271, 323; world 57; worldview 50, 148 Christianity 3, 53, 57–60, 62, 281, 300 Christianized 53 Christians 33, 58, 60, 138; persecution of 33, 58, 75 civil war 4, 12, 365 classical: concepts 147; convention 60; critics 4; drama 16, 46; erudition, education 17, 18; French comedy 35; goddesses 48; heritage 57; literary scholarship 50; model 59; orators 181; poets 63; theocracies 188; tragedy 57, 60; world 187 classical-oriental-pastoral interests 64 classicism 8, 36, 59, 72 classicist 1, 45, 66, 69 clown, clownish 37, 38, 42, 45 Code for Married Women 18, 356 coequality of rights 4, 5 Comédie Française 37 Comedies and Tragedies 15, 70, 71, 370

comedy 29, 33, 35–38, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46–48, 51, 53, 56, 59, 61, 63–66, 158, 173, 241, 261, 262, 356, 378, 380, 382; low 41, 46, 59; of manners 37, 241; of masks 47 comedy-ballet 36, 43 commedia dell’arte 38, 47 commercial initiatives 6 communication routes 6 communist 1 compliance 27, 30, 249, 267 composition 38, 43–45, 61, 71, 285 concettism 36 confession 16, 17, 19, 23, 26, 308, 343 coniunx rusticana motif 55 Consolation after Troubles 33, 62, 63–65, 68, 175, 261 ff., 323 convention 1–3, 10, 11, 16, 17, 21, 23, 31, 38, 42, 57, 60, 61, 64, 66–68, 70, 72, 75–77, 107, 175, 262, 332, 379 Corness, Patrick John, xiii–xv, 77, 379 correspondence 7, 11, 19, 21, 22, 25, 27, 46, 70, cosmopolitan 6, 15, 45 court: actors and audience 46; artificial environment 65; celebrations 46, 110; circles 25, 181, 327; culture 49, 181; education at 8, 47; entertainment 56; entourage at Nieśwież 12; etiquette 42, 43; infantry 365, 366; intrigue 23, 55; lifestyle 23; milieu 72; needs 46; Nieśwież 48; performance 64; romantic plays 64; royal 6; soulless life at 32; theater 48; theater circles 1; theatrical life 71; theatrical representation 47 courtly: center of theatrical art 72; contextualization 50; discussions 70; dramatization 47; etiquette 43; idyll 47; love 10, 65, 201; world 65 creativity 4, 12, 13, 19, 49, 70, 72, 382 cultural: activity, Radziwiłłowa’s 6, 13; advance 15; asymmetry 22; borderland 3; centers 6; challenge for the translator 36; change 67; code 140;

Index 387 conventions 23; distance xv; elite 23; environment 58; events 12; expansion, French 4; factors 44; functions 7; history 3, 178; identity 3; information 76; initiatives 6; life 2; meaning 76; mix 3; model 2, 4, 18, 63; norm 22, 23, 25, 45; reformers 45; scene 15, 67; symbol 50; transfer 75, 76; universal, European 48; universe, Mediterranean 67; values 45; way of life 23 culture 1, 6, 18, 24, 45, 376; cosmopolitan 15; court 49, 181; drama and theater 45, 58, 66, 376; eighteenthcentury 45, 69; European 27, 57; French 25, 31, 37, 47; literary 2, 49, 62, 68, 69, 70; of emotions 23, 35; official 46, 68, 69; oral 45, 49; Polish 3, 15, 53, 77, 374, 375; political 7, 35; Rococo 25; written 14, 45 custom 10, 21, 23, 28–30, 52, 68, 157, 201, 203, 210, 324 Czartorysk 7, 10 Czech cultural history 3 d’Arquien Sobieska, Marie-Casimire. See Sobieska, Marie-Casimire d’Arquien de France, Marie 51 De illegitima prole 22 de Scudéry, Georges 63, 173, 175 de Scudéry, Madeleine 6, 32, 33, 62, 63, 65, 67, 75, 173, 175, 178, 187, 376 Decameron 33, 34, 51, 75, 316, 378 democratic tradition 5 devoirs réciproques 13, 28, 356 dialogue 28, 34, 40–42, 48, 71, 356 diary 10, 20, 21, 25, 37, 38, 48, 173, 262, 371 dignity 37, 56, 61, 62, 334, 341 Diocletian, Roman Emperor 33, 57, 58, 75, 138 ff. discourse 1, 9, 13, 19, 24, 30, 40, 378, 380 Dishonesty Entrapped 33, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 233–60

dissent 2, 356 dissimulation 19, 181 distinctive voice 3 divertissement 23, 44, 46 divine law 24 division of roles 7 dominant male cultural model 2 dominant patriarchal norm 68 Dominican nuns 8 drama 1, 2, 6, 16, 33, 36–38, 40, 44, 45, 48–50, 52–58, 63, 66–69, 71, 73, 75–77, 79, 110, 173, 261, 327 dramatic: action 64; ambiguity 46; art, Radziwiłłowa’s 66, 71; composition 43, 44, 61; development 60; device 335, 336; experience 336; format 58; genre 76; language 59; models 47; purpose 326; representation 1; role 175; sequences 69; situation 143; structure 44, 162; works 1, 3, 8, 14, 35, 45, 56, 64, 71, 72, 77, 369, 371 dramatist 1, 15, 65, 69, 70, 72, 145 dramatization 47, 64, 65, 173 Drużbacka, Elżbieta 2, 16, 63, 69, 70, 379 Du mariage 13, 28, 30, 356 dual election 4 dual monarchy 4 duties, public 13, 19, 21, 23, 114 east-central Europe 3 economic backwardness 3 education: reforms 6; strategies 52 elected kings 4 elite status 6, 13, 23, 31, 60, 63, 383 England 3, 31, 75 Enlightenment 2, 4, 16, 18, 35, 36, 37, 40, 57, 67, 72, 370, 374, 378, 382 entertainment 12, 28, 33, 45, 46, 50, 56, 71, 87, 210, 263, 281, 302, 324 epitasis 44 equality 6, 20, 32, 51, 218, 316, 337; of the sexes 20, 22

388 Index erotic: allusion 56; connotations 312; emotions 2; overtones 331; pleasures 156; restraint 67; satisfaction 11, 167; subtext 41, 114 eroticism 46, 379 eulogy 13 Europa, opera 33 evaluation 2, 66, 67 exoticism 46 extramarital relations 22 fairy tales 49, 372, 381 farce 36–40, 42–44, 46, 72, 380 feminine: fragility 58; identity 18; modesty 85; sensibilities 1; sensitivity 68; simplicity 14, 17; tone of voice 18; traits 4, 18 femininity 3, 63, 315, 376 feminism 1 feminization 4 feudal 3 fickleness 53, 270, 318, 321, 323 fidelity 23–27, 42, 359 folk: comedy 47; opera 72; sources 61 folklore 44, 49, 52 folktale legends 75 folktales, medieval 51 fortune 9–11, 20, 35, 53, 54, 63–65, 96, 98, 106, 110–13, 115, 120, 136, 141, 151, 180, 183, 186, 197, 209, 217, 218, 226, 228, 231, 232, 246, 256, 262, 263, 270, 273, 283, 287, 288, 295, 296, 299, 308, 314, 318, 321, 324, 336, 340, 341, 345, 361 France 4, 8, 12, 22, 31, 35, 49, 67, 161, 377, 379 freedom 6, 10, 18, 22, 23, 27, 35, 45, 46, 47, 55, 89, 96, 97, 132, 144, 153, 164, 165, 175, 178, 187, 188, 192, 193, 194, 197, 200, 212, 262, 263, 281, 282–84, 288, 289, 299, 312, 327, 330, 359, 362 French: Code 18, 29, 356; language 3, 8; Sentimental School 31, 377; theater of comedy 43

Fryczyński, Jakub 8, 9, 36–38, 48, 56, 57, 71, 81, 323, 327 galanterie 37, 68 gallantry 23, 31, 110 Gallet, Pierre 33, 44 gender 1, 44, 49; cultural-historical image 3 genesis 27, 46, 48, 64, 147 genre 3, 37, 38, 42, 44, 45, 48, 49, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 64, 66–69, 76, 336, 373, 378 Germans 4 Germany 3, 54 gesture, gestures 40–43, 60, 160, 182, 245, 351 Gold in the Fire 33, 51, 56, 75, 311 ff. Gonzaga, Louise Maria 4 Grand Cyrus. See Artaméne ou le Grand Cyrus Great Northern War 6 Griselda 33, 34, 51–53, 54, 56, 75, 316, 319, 322, 323, 326, 334, 372, 377, 379, 383 Grodno 13 grotesque 39, 42, 61 Habsburgs 4 hagiography 58, 60, 61, 139, 145, 162 harlequinade 47, 80, 110 hendecasyllabic verse 297, 308 hero, heroes 38, 39, 45, 47, 50, 51, 55, 59, 62, 68, 99, 175, 289, 300, 324 Herodotus 67 heroic: courage 62; ideal 67; romance 67; virtues 56; vision of history 69; writers 373 heroic-aristocratic mode 51 heroides 11 heroine, heroines 1, 3, 24, 32, 33, 43, 44, 47, 51, 53–56, 58–61, 145, 146, 308, 316, 323, 336 hetman 7–9, 14, 15, 20, 22, 366 homiletic 60, 166 Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) 59

Index 389 Hroswitha of Gandersheim 58, 61, 75, 158, 382 human nature 24, 43, 50, 68 humanist 52, 53 humor 3, 30, 37, 72 humor (temperament) 27, 82, 157, 198, 206–9, 229, 265 humoresques 43 Hungarian cultural history 3 hypocrisy 12, 25, 43, 47, 150, 181, 199, 351 idyll 47, 64, 65, 289, 328, 332 illusion 47 imagery, mythological 17 independence 3, 4, 20, 366 infant mortality 11 inspiration 26, 43, 45, 49, 52, 54, 62, 70, 190 interference by foreign states 5 interludes 47, 327 interpersonal relationships 18, 42, 43 interpretation 2, 15, 19, 37, 41, 45, 50–54, 56, 69, 76, 371, 375, 377 intertextual intricacies 51 intrigue 7, 22–24, 38, 55, 108, 147, 317, 326, 361 intuitive ideas 4 investments 12 Irena, martyr 33, 57–60, 138 ff. Italian 30, 47, 49, 54, 63, 93, 316, 383; concerti 102; language 3, 8, 75, 81; style 47 Italianate 30 Italians 38, 47 Italy 3, 75 ius communicativum 21 Jabłonowski family 8, 112 Jabłonowski, Józef Aleksander 69, 374 Jabłonowski, Stanisław Jan 8 Jesuits 9, 54, 58, 71, 151 Jews 3, 4 Jogailo (King Władysław II Jagiełło) 6 Judaeo-Christian religion 150

Judkowiak, Barbara xiii, xv, 1, 8, 11, 12, 14–19, 22, 29, 33, 40, 56, 58, 65, 66, 71–73, 76, 174, 268, 295, 371, 374–76 Juszyński, Hieronim 16, 72, 377 Katenbring, Józef 9, 71, 377 Korybut, Dymitr 6 Kraków 7, 8, 51, 53, 54 Krzyżanowski, Julian 18, 43, 44, 51, 53, 57, 58, 63, 64, 323, 370, 378, 381 Kurland 5 landed estates 5, 6, 19 language 1, 3, 16, 17, 40, 58, 59, 71, 76, 381; dramatic 59; English 76, 77; entertaining 40; female 17; French 3, 8; Italian 3, 8; of Radziwiłłowa’s own 3, 16; of the heart 2; Polish 36; skills, of Radziwiłłowa 8, 9; Spanish 8 Latin civilization 3 latinitas Christiana 6 lazzi 47 Le médecin malgré lui 33, 36–38, 43, 76, 375, 378 Le misanthrope 37 Les précieuses ridicules 36, 66, 77, 241, 373, 378 Leszczyński family 6, 112 Leszczyński, Stanisław, King of Poland 4, 7, 365, 366 letters 2, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25–27, 30, 46, 70, 99, 217, 218, 224, 226, 227, 274–76, 278, 297, 298, 343–44, 356, 365–67, 369, 370, 381 library, Nieśwież 8, 47, 54, 65, 181 literary: achievement 69; activity 6, 17; ambitions 8; background 2; canon 1, 4, 45, 49, 51, 62; center 6; codification 49; comedy 38; comic roles 38; competitions 6; convention 3, 17, 42, 68, 70, 75; creativity 12, 13; criteria of tragedy 60; critic 271;

390 Index culture 2, 49, 62, 68–70, 375, 381– 83; dramatic models 47; efforts 72; embellishment 2; enhancement 38; era of the Enlightenment 2; fiction 63; formalization 40; fragments 3; genesis 48; genre 38, 67, 68, 70; heroines 32; history 1, 2, 30, 35, 44, 70; life 6, 69; models 18; norms 4; output 13, 28, 43, 70; phenomenon 2; province of courtly love 201; refinement 42; revolt 32; revolution, women’s 68; salons 6, 12, 35, 37, 63; scholars 71; scholarship 1, 50; sources 67; structures 3, 38; trends 2, 53, 54, 68; versions 50; work 19; works 2, 4, 67; works of Radziwiłłowa, significance of 69; worth 15; writing 28 Lithuania 3–5, 7, 14, 15, 19, 22, 37, 58, 69, 151, 173, 187, 188, 365, 366, 376, 381; Grand Duchy 4, 5, 7, 14, 22, 365, 376, 381 local color 53 loci communes 31 Locke, John 31 Louis XIV of France 4 Love is Born in the Eyes 6, 35, 62–64, 75, 173 ff. Łuck 7 Lwów 8, 70, 73 lyrical: confessions 16, 19, 23; expression 3, 15; writing 26, 43 lyricism 15, 181 lyrics 2, 19, 22, 67, 70, 371, 376 magic spells 50 magnates 5, 6, 7, 34, 366, 375 male domination 27 male voice 2 manufacturing workshops 6 manuscripts xv, 13, 16, 18, 19, 28, 30, 37, 38, 43, 48, 57, 65, 66, 70, 73, 173, 268, 327, 369–70 Marian cult 3

marriage 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18–35, 37, 38, 54, 55, 63, 65–67, 165, 263, 267–69, 310, 314, 315, 317, 320, 327, 331, 333, 335, 339, 340, 342, 343, 346, 356, 357, 379 martyrdom 53, 57, 58, 152, 155 martyrological tragedy 56, 57, 59, 61, 382 martyrology 58, 62 martyrs 33, 53, 57, 58, 61, 62, 138, 146, 151, 153, 162, 168 masque 46 masquerade 5, 39, 61 maternal instincts 30 matrimonial: antipasti 34, 51; betrayal 27; ideal 52; issues 3; love 19, 26; norm 19; relationships 30; revenge 39; unity 26; verse 27; virtue 52 matris monium 25 Mazepa, Ivan 7 Mazovia 4 mimicry 40, 43 miniatures 4 misfortune 54, 59, 61, 106, 123, 124, 133, 213, 314, 341 Mniszchówna, Ludwika 31 modernity 18 Mogilnicki, Józef Teodor 13, 14, 17 Molière (Jean Baptiste Poquelin) 1, 29, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 47, 48, 66, 76, 77, 83, 241, 322, 327, 377 moral: relativism 46; victory 51, 53, 58, 59, 62 moralistic-religious discourse 24 moralizing 12, 17, 43, 51, 59 Morsztyn, Hieronim 51, 316, 334, 335 motherhood 11, 18, 21, 31, 315 motif 26, 39, 44, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 63, 99, 152, 161, 273, 294 multiconfessional 4 music 44, 51, 97, 279, 285, 343, 383 musical: adaptations 72; arrangements 47; ballet format 36, 44;

Index 391 entertainment in the theatre 46, 47, 232; theatre 52, 54, 372, 375, 377 Mycielski, Jerzy 16, 370 Mycielski, Stanisław 70 narrative 65, 67; form 51, 67; poems 62 national differences 42 neostoicism 53 Niekraševič-Karotkaja, Žanna 47, 52, 64, 65, 371, 379 Niemiryczowa, Antonina 8, 69, 70, 373, 380 Niesiołowski, Kazimierz 8 Nieśwież 2, 8, 9, 12–17, 33, 35, 38, 41–44, 46–49, 51, 54–57, 65, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 80, 110, 173, 262, 323, 327, 365, 366 nobility 5, 6, 21, 22, 35, 55, 147, 218, 316, 334, 380 noetics, oral 45, 49 nonclassical: historiography 67; theatrical practice 45 nonheroic: character 150; vision of history 69 novelette 63 Nowogródek 13 obedience 13, 18, 27, 35, 52–54, 146, 217, 318, 320 obligation 3, 13, 22, 23, 28–30, 55, 67, 267, 356 occasional writings 17, 31 Ogińska, Anna 9 oligarchy of the magnates 7 one-act plays 4, 33, 45, 47, 72 opera 33, 43, 51, 54, 377 opéra comique 43, 44 Opisanie dam księżnej kanclerzyny [Description of Ladies of the Princess’s Chancellery] 14 orientalism 43, 63 orphans 12 otherness 3

Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) 11, 14, 99, 279, 379 pagan 50, 61, 150, 152, 300 parental authority 55 parliament 5, 6, 317 parliamentary monarchy 5 Parnassus 18, 278, 381 parodies 30 partitions 5, 365, 372 partnership 3, 21, 25, 67 pastoral(e) 34, 47, 48, 64, 110, 201, 327, 328, 333 pathos 61, 268 patriarchal, patriarchal norm 28, 45, 48, 68 patrons 6, 71 performance 38, 40, 45, 46, 64, 102, 173, 327 performances 9, 12, 37, 47, 48, 71, 173, 290 periodical subscriptions 6 Perrault, Charles 49, 54, 55, 161, 380 persecution 33, 58–62, 75 Petrarca, Francesco 51 pièce d’agrément 46 pioneering role 1, 69, 72 Plutarch 53, 67, 99 Podlasie (Podlachia) 9 poetics 28, 36, 45, 59, 60, 63, 71, 162 poetry 2, 8, 13–17, 19, 26, 66, 70, 72, 75–77, 312, 369, 370, 372–74, 379–81 Poland 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 15, 21, 34, 35, 37, 45, 58, 63, 66, 67, 72, 75, 83, 112, 151, 173, 187, 316, 335, 365, 371, 372, 374, 375, 377, 379, 381, 383; Commonwealth 4–7, 20, 22, 37, 151, 173, 187, 188, 366; crown lands, territories 4, 6–7, 20; Greater 4, 7; Lesser 4; Old 365, 372, 374, 381; Poland-Lithuania 3, 4, 37, 58, 151, 173, 187; Republic of Two Nations 69 polemics 2, 3, 35, 59 Poles 4

392 Index police states 5 Polish cultural history 3 Polish literature 2, 35, 372, 382 Polish nobility 21, 22 Polish politics 5 Polish women writers 11, 15, 380 Pomerania 4 Poniatowski, King Stanisław August 17, 73 portraits 4, 9, 12, 53, 54, 382 positivism 66, 69, 72 Poszakowski, Jan, Revd. 8 Potocki, Józef 14, 17, 31 Potocki, Teodor 13, 17 Potocki, Wacław 17, 63, 380 powiaty (districts) 21 précieux: circles 63, 68; culture 37; style 36, 66; writers 31 préciosité 63, 64, 66, 68 pregnancies 11 premarital vows and obligations 22 prenuptial contract 21 prestige 5, 7, 12, 46, 146, 147, 324, 378 pretence 19, 23, 43, 85 printing press 14, 375 probatio fidei 53 property division, compulsory 21 protagonists 36, 43–45, 56, 63, 65, 66 Providence 21, 48, 50, 193, 310, 347, 348, 361 psychoanalysis 49 psychological: dependency 49; depth 54; dimensions 67, 68; enquiry 27; generalizations 12; issues 52; portrait 45; profile 18; terms 68 public duties 13, 19, 21 public library 6 Punkty dla Arlekina [Points for Harlequin] 30 puppetry 39 querelles des femmes 3 Radziwiłł, family 5–7, 9, 12, 13, 65, 70, 346, 365, 366, 371, 374, 378

Radziwiłł, Jan 13 Radziwiłł, Janusz 11, 12, 36, 80, 173, 345, 365 Radziwiłł, Karol Stanisław jun. (“Panie Kochanku” [Beloved Sir]) 11, 12, 34, 36, 71, 72, 80, 173, 365 Radziwiłł, Karol Stanisław sen. 365 Radziwiłł, Leon 26, 72 Radziwiłł, Maciej 72 Radziwiłł, Michał Antoni 14 Radziwiłł, Michał Kazimierz (“Rybeńko” [Little Fish]) 7, 10, 13–15, 20–22, 25, 38, 48, 70–72, 102, 110, 114, 173, 262, 365, 383 Radziwiłł, Mikołaj (“Sierotka” [Orphan]) 13 Radziwiłł, Mikołaj Krzysztof 366 Radziwiłł, Udalryk 8 Radziwiłłowa, Aleksandra Marcinowa, née Bełchacka 22 Radziwiłłowa, Anna, née Mycielska 72 Radziwiłłowa, Anna, née Sanguszko 11, 14, 20, 22, 28, 346, 365, 377 Radziwiłłowa, Franciszka Urszula, née Wiśniowiecka xi, xiii, xv, 1–77, 80, 83, 112, 139, 148, 151, 157, 158, 161, 168, 173, 175, 178, 181, 187, 188, 262, 264, 268, 278, 279, 283, 295, 300, 308, 316, 319, 323, 327, 335, 336, 365, 366, 369–71, 373–83 Radziwiłłówna, Anna 14 Radziwiłłówna, Izabella 14 Radziwiłłówna, Katarzyna Karolina 12, 48, 71, 80, 262 Radziwiłłówna, Teofila Konstancja 12, 34, 48, 71, 80, 262, 283 Rakoczy, Franciszek II (Rákóczi Ferenc) 9 raptus puellae 10 reception 37, 51, 54, 66, 69 ff. receptivity to presentiment 4 redemption 57, 139, 148, 336 reform, reformer 5, 6, 45, 54 religiosity 3, 56

Index 393 religious message 57 Renaissance 9, 51, 53, 59, 75 repertoire 15, 35, 37, 51, 56, 70, 72 repetitive scenes 45 Respons na list księżniczki krajczanki [Response to a Letter] 13 Response to a Response 13, 14 reversal 30, 44, 160 reworkings 33, 51, 316, 323, 326, 336 rhetoric 17, 71 rhetorical style 60 riddles 4, 9, 12 Rockheim, Count Aspremont 9, 20 Rococo 4, 12, 23, 25, 68, 70, 373 roles: spheres of activity 7, 19, 21, 69; theatrical 1, 30, 36, 38, 61, 80 romantic: comedy 64; fiction 68; frame 67; imitations 63; novel 6, 66; play 64; poetry 312; theme 64, 187; vision 63; romanticism 72 royal court 4, 6, 75, 317, 326 Rusiecka, Natalia 15, 16, 30, 70, 371, 381 Russia 3, 5, 6, 365 Russian: military intervention 365; Orthodox religion 3; protectorate 5 Russians 4 Rzewuski, Seweryn 9, 20 Rzewuski, Stanisław Mateusz 9, 20 Rzewuski, Wacław 70 sacre rappresentationi 53 sacrifices 61, 62, 108, 109, 111, 138, 140, 145, 147, 152, 166, 168, 186, 195, 232, 281, 292, 314 sadomasochism 52 saints 53, 61, 62, 140, 145, 148, 149, 161, 377, 383 Sajkowski, Alois 1, 10, 11, 20, 22, 28, 35, 37, 52, 365, 381 salons 6, 9, 12, 35, 37, 63, 68 Sanguszko family 70 Sanguszko, Paweł 10 Sapieha, Jan Fryderyk 8

Sapieha, Michał Antoni 71 satire 3, 17, 30, 36, 37, 40, 54, 66 Saxon era in the history of Poland 4–6, 58, 365, 372, 375, 376 Saxony 4, 6, 71 scientific thinking 4 secularization 57 sejm 5 sejmik 13, 173 sensibilité, sensitivity 18, 40, 68 sentimental school 31, 377 separation 11, 152 sexes: equality 20, 22; relations/relationships 30, 44, 63; rights and obligations 3, 67; roles 7 Sganarelle 33, 38–43 shepherdess 55, 64, 65, 80, 83, 84, 86, 89–92, 94, 95, 97, 102, 107, 108, 109, 194, 196, 209, 223, 316, 327–33, 377 Silesia 4, 335 slander 22, 84, 106, 278, 279, 317, 358, 363 Sleeping Beauty 49, 374 Sobieska, Marie-Casimire d’Arquien, Queen 4, 8 social: divisions 42; regulators 24; responsibility 11 socioeconomic structure 3 solace 14, 26, 156, 225, 240 sovereignty 5, 366 spirit of defiance 46 spirit of difference 18, 374 status: elite 6, 13, 23, 31, 60, 63, 383; of literary works 1; social 5, 7, 11, 21, 22, 34, 37, 52, 53, 55, 60, 99, 153, 165, 166, 182, 223, 273, 299, 308, 314, 318, 324, 333, 338, 346, 365; tragic 145 stereotype 38, 42, 53, 60, 146, 322, 328 submissiveness 27, 32, 324 subversive 44, 47 suitors 20, 24, 33, 34, 36, 38, 45, 70, 91, 100, 183, 267, 269, 273, 329, 331, 352

394 Index Sweden 6, 7 symbolic convention 61 Tartuffe 37 Tatars 4, 151 Terence (Publius Terentius Afer) 58 The Judge Who Lost His Reason 33, 44, 46, 56, 57, 75, 137 ff. The Other Voice xv, 1–4, 69, 376 theater 1, 4, 15, 33, 35, 38, 41–46, 48, 51, 52, 58, 60, 61, 69, 70, 72, 110, 327, 375, 376, 378, 379, 380, 383; secular 69 théâtre de société 14, 33, 45, 46 Théâtre Illustré 38 theatrical: discourse 40; taste 44; tradition 38 theatricalization 44 Theocritus 47, 289 thirteen-syllable verse lines 40, 41 thought and expression 3 tradition: outdated 45 traditional: ideas 31; family model 11; literary history 1; patterns of thought and expression 3 tragedy 9, 15, 33, 34, 37, 38, 48, 53, 56–61, 64, 70–72, 106, 145, 162, 323, 327, 370, 381, 382 tragicomedy 53, 59, 61, 64 translation 1, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 28, 33–40, 43, 49, 52, 62, 66, 70, 75–77, 181, 241, 268, 327, 371–73, 378, 379 trivialization 52 Turks 9 Ukraine 4, 6 Union of Lublin 4, 5 urbanity 47, 56 urbanization 6 Urzecz 12 verisimilitude 59, 67, 335 verse 2, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 25–27, 36, 40–42, 73, 76, 77, 280, 297, 308, 343–63, 370

versification 16, 71, 76, 77, 280, 283, 285 Vilnius 7, 15, 73 Virgil, (Publius Vergilius Maro) 47, 148 virtue 10, 24, 32, 33, 42, 50–56, 58, 60, 62, 69, 85, 103, 112, 114, 118, 139, 141, 147, 155, 157, 175, 207–11, 215, 218, 220, 224, 228, 232, 238, 245, 247, 259, 271, 318, 323–25, 334, 339–42, 349, 353, 356 Visitationist nuns 8 voice, male 2; own 2, 15, 69, 371, 377; women’s 2, 18 Volhynia (Wołyń) 7, 15, 52 Voltaire, (François-Marie Arouet) 37, 71, 377 vows 22–24, 26, 29, 94, 105, 108, 232, 263, 268, 294, 310, 325, 333, 342, 357, 361 wedding anniversaries 11 western borderlands 4 Wettin dynasty 4, 5, 323, 365, 366 Wierzbicka, Karyna 37, 48, 370, 378, 381, 383 Wilno (Vilnius) 7, 15 Wiśniowiec 8 Wiśniowiecka, Anna, née Chodorowska 7 Wiśniowiecka Teofila, née Leszczyńska 7 Wiśniowiecki, Dymitr 7 Wiśniowiecki family 6, 7, 8, 15, 112, 345, 373 Wiśniowiecki, Janusz 7, 345, 366 Wiśniowiecki, Konstanty 7 Wiśniowiecki, Michał Serwacy 8, 151, 345, 366 Witty Love 14, 29, 46, 47, 79–116 , 356 Wołyń (Volhynia) 7, 15, 52 woman dramatist 1, 15, 72 women: portrayal 1; literary revolution 68; rights 3; studies 1; voices 2; writers 11, 15, 380; writing 15, 17, 18, 69, 380

Index 395 Xenophon 67 Załuski, Józef Andrzej 2, 6, 14, 17, 53, 69, 70, 383 Zwierzyńska-Coldicott, Aldona xiii, xv Żmigród 7 Żmudź 4 Żółkiew 15, 38, 262, 370