Security and Human Rights 9781472563941, 9781841136080

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Foreword This collection of essays, scrutinising the relationship between security and human rights from a multidisciplinary perspective, could not have come at a more opportune moment. The political interest in security and human rights, and in crime and disorder, has never been more intense. Much of this attention has very direct effects upon the rights of defendants and the interests of the victims of crime. It seems to me that this key place, where the rights of these two groups bisect, is a touchstone for the quality of criminal justice and its moral heart. And this is particularly critical, particularly stark, in cases involving allegations of terrorist activity, where the victim may not be simply private but also in a real sense public— where the victim is, and is intended to be, the community as a whole: all of us and all of our institutions. It is often said that the pendulum has swung too far in favour of defendants. Too many due process restraints are Victorian in culture. They are no longer relevant. They are too restrictive and hamper the search for justice. Much is made of the revived jurisdiction on abuse of process and some of its wilder manifestations. Obviously the prosecuting authority finds itself at the heart of this debate. That is as it should be and I welcome our being there. Of course we have our own view of the appropriate balance between defendants and the victims of crime in a criminal trial. Just as we have our own view of the appropriate relationship between the State and those against whom it determines to apply punitive criminal sanctions. And I understand, as do all criminal lawyers, that in no place is this relationship more sensitive than in cases where it is alleged the defendants have set out to attack the State itself, often hoping to destroy its values and its institutions by deliberately targeting its most vulnerable members. So we need to start by being clear that the threat posed by terrorism is real and serious. It is also necessary to be clear that the precise category of threat which we face is actually new. Of course terrorism isn’t a new phenomenon. But this form is a little different. Terrorists today will use indiscriminate violence. They seek, as a deliberate tactic, mass civilian casualties, of the most vulnerable people they can find. They target individuals, institutions, communities and nations, trying to set people against each other. This is all calculated and deliberate. It can also, if we are not careful, be strikingly successful. Moreover, the terrorist threat comes with global dimensions. It is no longer purely a domestic problem. Its causes are no longer restricted to one state. This means those causes may be a long way beyond our control. We may be dependent on the whims of foreign electorates. But I also believe it is critical that we understand that this new form of terrorism carries another more subtle, perhaps equally pernicious risk: it might

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vi Foreword encourage a fear-driven and inappropriate response. By that I mean it can tempt us to abandon our values. I think it important to understand that this is one of its primary purposes. Understanding this will help us to resist the dangerous temptation to succumb, as will a determination to judge the threat itself with care, and obviously not to underestimate it, obviously. Only a fool would do that. Terrorism is designed to put pressure on some of our most cherished beliefs and institutions. So it demands a proactive and comprehensive response on the part of law enforcement agencies. But this should be a response whose fundamental effect is to protect those beliefs and institutions. Not to undermine them. We must protect ourselves from these atrocious crimes without abandoning our traditions of freedom. Our criminal justice response to terrorism must be proportionate and grounded in due process and the rule of law. So, although a development in the role of the security services and the police is essential and desirable in this context, I believe an abandonment of Article 6 fair trial protections in the face of terrorism would represent an abject surrender to nihilism. It would represent defeat. The rhetoric around the ‘War on Terror’ illustrates the risks nicely. London is not a battlefield. The innocents who were murdered on 7 July 2005 were not victims of war. And the men who killed them were not, as in their vanity they claimed on their ludicrous videos, ‘soldiers’. They were criminals. They were fantasists. We need to be very clear about this. On the streets of London, there is no such thing as a ‘war on terror’, just as there can be no such thing as a ‘war on drugs’. The fight against terrorism on the streets of Britain is not a war. It is the prevention of crime, the enforcement of our laws and the winning of justice for those damaged by their infringement. Acts of unlawful violence are proscribed by the criminal law. They are criminal offences. We should hold it as an article of faith that crimes of terrorism are dealt with by criminal justice. And we should start by acknowledging the view that a culture of legislative restraint in the area of terrorist crime is central to the existence of an efficient and human rights compatible process. We wouldn’t get far in promoting a civilising culture of respect for rights amongst and between citizens if we set about undermining fair trials in the simple pursuit of greater numbers of inevitably less safe convictions. On the contrary, it is obvious that the process of winning convictions ought to be in keeping with a consensual rule of law and not detached from it. Otherwise we sacrifice fundamental values critical to the maintenance of the rule of law—upon which everything else depends. Sometimes it is important to restate the obvious: the complexities of modern society are such that there is unlikely to be an end to the use of violence for political ends any time soon. Perhaps all we have at our disposal are different methods of managing this ugly phenomenon. But it is self evident that the means we choose must be far-sighted. Because every time a conviction is achieved, it can only be sustained and built upon by ensuring that it is fair—and therefore safe from being overturned on appeal. Equally that it enjoys the widest public confidence. People must be able to trust the decisions of the Courts.

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Foreword vii Ultimately, this means sustaining an approach to the prosecution of these crimes that is founded in reason and which welcomes the shield against injustice which due process rules provide. A similar tone may be found in United States constitutional writing, which emphasises that ‘implicit in the provisions and tone of the constitution are the values of a more mature society, which relies on moral persuasion rather than force; on example rather than coercion’.1 These are civilising qualities in the State and criminal lawyers should celebrate them. We should never be defensive about them. So, how should the criminal justice system respond to the terrorist threat? In answering this question, we need to deal with a number of issues: the importance of the Human Rights Act 1998; the role of lawyers; legislation and evidence; and finally, community relations. But more generally, we need to avoid a response to terrorism that is based only on fear and suspicion. This kind of climate has no room for the rule of law. Indeed it encourages the opposite. In the United Kingdom, our institutions are strong, and our liberal values are intact. We continue to have a Constitution and laws that protect rather than oppress us. And our enduring criminal law framework, underpinned by the European Convention on Human Rights, properly directs us towards justice and due process, towards fair procedures and evidence-driven policing. So in fighting terrorism, we shouldn’t make exceptions to the rule of law; we should use the strength inherent within it. Critical to this is that individual rights and national security are not seen as being mutually exclusive. As many of the authors in this timely volume point out, this is not a zero-sum game. Improvements to national security do not have to come at the expense of rights. As the title of this collection has it: security and human rights. Not security or human rights. So where does all this leave us as lawyers, as politicians, as intellectuals? What is our specific response to the threats to our security, and the strains that those threats are putting on our Constitution? As a lawyer myself, I think it is vital that we work to convince the public of the importance of our traditional values of justice. We need to reveal again their centrality to our way of life, especially in the face of terrorist threats. We need to preach more widely than to the converted. We need, all of us, to be advocates for the view that human rights do matter. That far from undermining our national security, they are a critical part of it. There is clear room for security and rights. And it is our duty to protect both. Ken Macdonald QC Director of Public Prosecutions London February 2007

1

S v Makwanyane and Another CCT3/94 paragraph 222 (per Justice Langa).

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Acknowledgments This book arose out of the Oxford Colloquium on Security and Human Rights, which was held on 16–17 March 2006. We are extremely grateful to all of those who took part, both for their support of the project and for their contributions to the Colloquium and this book. We are also deeply indebted to Sarah McCosker for her research assistance, organisational skills and good humour throughout. In addition, thanks must go to Tamson Pietsch, who helped everything to run smoothly during the Colloquium, and to Lisa Gourd, for her meticulous and patient copyediting in the months that followed. Finally, we would like to say thank you to the British Academy and the Oxford University Faculty of Law for their generous financial support of the Colloquium and the publication of this book, and to Richard Hart for his unwavering confidence from the very beginning. Benjamin J Goold and Liora Lazarus Oxford December 2006

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List of Contributors Andrew Ashworth is Vinerian Professor of English Law and Fellow of All Soul’s College, University of Oxford. Didier Bigo is Professor of International Relations at the Institut d’Etudes Politiques de Paris. David Dyzenhaus is Professor of Law and Philosophy, University of Toronto. Sandra Fredman is Professor of Law and Fellow of Exeter College, University of Oxford. Benjamin J Goold is Fellow and Tutor in Law at Somerville College, University of Oxford. Elspeth Guild is Professor of European Migration Law at Radboud University, Nijmegen and a partner at the London law firm Kingsley Napley. Bernard E Harcourt is Professor of Law and Faculty Director of Academic Affairs at the University of Chicago. Liora Lazarus is Fellow and Tutor in Law at St Anne’s College, University of Oxford. Ian Loader is Professor of Criminology and Director of the Centre for Criminology, University of Oxford. S Neil MacFarlane is Lester B Pearson Professor of International Relations and Fellow of St Anne’s College, University of Oxford C H Powell is Senior Lecturer in Law at the University of Cape Town. Victor V Ramraj is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Law, National University of Singapore. Kent Roach is Professor of Law and Criminology at the University of Toronto. Shlomit Wallerstein is Lecturer in Law at St Peter’s College, University of Oxford. Jennifer M Welsh is Lecturer in International Relations and Fellow of Somerville College, University of Oxford. Lucia Zedner is Professor in Criminal Justice and Fellow of Corpus Christi College, University of Oxford.

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List of Colloquium Participants The Oxford Colloquium on Security and Human Rights (16–17 March 2006) was organised in an effort to encourage more interdisciplinary thinking about the relationship between security and human rights. For this purpose, it brought together academics and practitioners from the related fields of criminal justice, public law, international law and international relations. The Colloquium was supported by the Law Faculty of the University of Oxford and the British Academy, and was hosted by St Anne’s College. The following people were participants: Mr Dapo Akande Professor Andrew Ashworth Professor Didier Bigo Professor David Dyzenhaus Professor Sandra Fredman Dr Benjamin Goold Professor Elspeth Guild Professor Bernard Harcourt Dr Gary Hart Mr Richard Hart Mr Murray Hunt Dr Liora Lazarus Professor Ian Loader Professor Vaughan Lowe Mr Ken Macdonald QC Professor Neil MacFarlane Ms Sarah McCosker Ms Cathy Powell Professor Victor V Ramraj Professor Kent Roach Mr David Rose Mr Roger Smith Dr Shlomit Wallerstein Dr Jennifer Welsh Professor Lucia Zedner

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Abbreviations ACLU ASBO AU CAPPS CCTV CERD CHS CIA CODIS CTC DARPA ECHR

ECtHR ECOSOC ECOWAS ESC ETA EU FAA FBI FCC GA HRA ICCPR ICESCR ICISS ICJ ICTY IOCA ISC JCHR JTAC NATO

American Civil Liberties Union anti-social behaviour order (UK) African Union Computer Assisted Passenger Pre-screening System (USA) closed-circuit television Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (UN) Commission on Human Security Central Intelligence Agency (USA) Combined DNA Indexing System (USA) Counter-terrorism Committee (UN) Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (USA) European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, or European Convention on Human Rights (1950) European Court of Human Rights Economic and Social Council (UN) Economic Community of West African States European Social Charter Basque Homeland and Freedom group European Union Federal Aviation Administration (USA) Federal Bureau of Investigations Federal Constitutional Court (Germany) General Assembly (UN) Human Rights Act (1998) (UK) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976) International Covenant for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty International Court of Justice International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Interception of Communications Act (1985) (UK) Intelligence and Security Committee (UK) Joint Committee on Human Rights (UK) Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre North Atlantic Treaty Organization

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xviii Abbreviations NDNAD NGO NYPD OAU P5 PIRA R2P RCAG RIPA RSHO SC SCR SIAC TIA UDHR UN UNDP UNGA UNICEF UNOSOM UNITAF UNSG USA PATRIOT Act

WMD

National DNA Database (UK) non-governmental organisation New York City Police Department Organisation of African Unity Permanent Five (UN) Provisional Irish Republican Army ‘Responsibility to Protect’ Rail Commuters Action Group (South Africa) Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (2000) (UK) risk of sexual harm order (UK) Security Council (UN) Security Council Resolution (UN) Special Immigration Appeals Commission (UK) Total Information Awareness (USA) Universal Declaration of Human Rights United Nations United Nations Development Programme United Nations General Assembly United Nations Children’s Fund UN Operation in Somalia Unified Task Force (Somalia) United Nations Secretary-General Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act (2001) (USA) weapons of mass destruction

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Table of Cases Australia Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 208 ALR 124...............................................................137

Canada Ahani v Canada (2002) 58 OR (3d) 107 (CA); [2002] 1 SCR 78 .......................241 Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) v Chiarelli [1992] 1 SCR 711 ...............................................................................................237 Chaouilli v Quebec (Attorney General) 2005 SCC 35..............................316–21, 335 Charkaoui v Canada [2004] FCA 421; 2007 SCC 9..............................................237 Chiau v Canada [2001] 2 FC 207 (FCA) ..............................................................237 Gosselin v Quebec (2002) SCR 84 ......................................................318–19, 321–22 R v Lavallee [1990] 1 SCR 852...............................................................................283 R v Malik and Bagri [2005] BCSC 350..................................................................237 R v Morgentaler (No 2) [1988] 1 SCR 30 ................................................316–17, 335 Rodriguez v British Columbia (Attorney General) [1993] 3 SCR 519...................335 Suresh v Canada [2002] 1 SCR 3 ...........................................................211, 240, 245

European Court and Commission of Human Rights A v UK (1998) 27 EHRR 611.................................................................................213 Adler v Germany App no 5573/72 (1977) 20 YB 102 ...........................................334 Aksoy v Turkey (1996) 23 EHRR 553 ....................................................................195 Bivas v Germany App no 5670/72 (1977) 20 YB 102 ...........................................334 Brannigan and McBride v UK (1993) 17 EHRR 539 ....................................195, 217 Chahal v UK (1996) 23 EHRR 413................................................135, 154, 211, 213 Cyprus v Turkey (2001) 11 BHRC 45 ....................................................................334 Doorson v Netherlands (1996) 22 EHRR 330 ..................................205, 216–17, 221 East African Asians v UK (1981) EHRR 76 ...........................................................334 Edwards v UK (2002) 35 EHRR 19........................................................................341 Edwards and Lewis v UK (2005) 40 EHRR 593 ....................................................216 Heaney and McGuinness v Ireland (2000) 33 EHRR 264 .............................215, 220 Hirst v UK App no 74025/01, judgment of 6 October 2005 ................................153 Ibbotson v UK (1999) 27 EHRR CD 332 ...............................................................268

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xx Table of Cases Ireland v UK (1979-80) 2 EHRR 25 ..............................................................196, 213 Jalloh v Germany App no 54810/00.......................................................213, 220, 222 Keenan v UK (2001) EHRR 38R............................................................................341 Khan v UK (2000) 31 EHRR 1016.........................................................................222 Khudoyorov v Russia (2005) App no 6847/02.......................................................334 Kopp v Switzerland (1999) 27 EHRR 91................................................................207 Kurt v Turkey (1999) 27 EHRR 373 ......................................................................334 Murray v UK (1996) 22 EHRR 29 .........................................................................205 Oneryildiz v Turkey (2004) App no 48939/99.......................................................341 Orhan v Turkey (2002) App no 25656/94.............................................................334 Osman v UK (1998) 29 EHRR 245..........................................................338, 341–42 Pham Hoang v France (1992) 16 EHRR 53...........................................................221 Rowe and Davis v UK (2000) 30 EHRR 1 .......................................................216–17 Saidi v France (1993) 17 EHRR 251 ......................................................................215 Salabiaku v France (1988) 13 EHRR 379 ..............................................................219 Saunders v UK (1997) 27 EHRR 313.....................................................205, 215, 220 Shannon v UK (2006) 42 EHRR 660 .....................................................................220 Soering v UK (1989) 11 EHRR 439........................................................................211 Stafford v UK (2002) 35 EHRR 1121.....................................................................223 Teixeira de Castro v Portugal (1999) 28 EHRR 101..............................................215 van Mechelen v Netherlands (1997) 25 EHRR 547 ...............................................216 Weeks v UK (1988) 10 EHRR 293 .........................................................................223 Welch v UK (1995) 20 EHRR 247 .........................................................................268

European Court of Justice and Court of First of Instance Bowden v Tuffnells Parcels [2001] ECR I-7031 .....................................................321 Kadi v EU (Case T-315/01), judgment of 21 September 2005 ............................162 R v Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, ex parte BECTU [2001] ECR I-4881.........................................................................................................321

Germany BVerfGE 39, 1 .........................................................................................................343 BVerfGE 46, 160/164..............................................................................................343 BVerfGE 56, 54/80ff ...............................................................................................343 BVerfGE 65, 1 ...........................................................................................................67 BVerfGE 79, 174/202..............................................................................................343 BVerfGE 85, 191/212..............................................................................................343 BVerfGE (2006) 1 BvR 357/02, 15 February 2006 ................................................343 Lüth, BVerfGE 7, 198..............................................................................................343

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Table of Cases xxi India Challa Ramkonda Reddy v State of Andhra Pradesh (1990) ACJ 668 ..................342 Ghandi (R) v Union of India AIR (1989) Mad 205...............................................342 Hongray (M) v Union of India AIR (1984) SC 1026.............................................342 Inderpuri General Stores (M/s) v Union of India AIR (1992) J&K 11 ..................342 Manjit Singh Sawhney v Union of India (2005) Indlaw DEL 379 ........................342 National Human Rights Commission v State of Arunachal Pradesh and another AIR (1996) SC 1234..............................................................................342

International Court of Justice Case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1993) ICJ Reports 325.........................162 Case Concerning Questions of Interpretation and Application of the Montreal Convention arising out of the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Provisional Measures) (1992) ICJ Reports ...........................................................................161 Effects of Awards of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal (1954) ICJ Reports 47....................................................................................................178

International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) Prosecutor v Tadiç (Case No IT-94-1-AR72), Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, 2 October 1995 ..............................164

New Zealand Zaoui v New Zealand [2005] NZSC 38 .................................................................241

South Africa Carmichele v Minister of Safety and Security and Another 2001 (4) BCLR 938 (CC)....................................................................................338–39, 341 Christian Lawyers Association of South Africa and Others v Minister of Health and Other (Reproductive Health Alliance as Amicus Curiae) 2005 (1) SA 509 (T) ...........................................................................................337 Christian Lawyers Association of South Africa and Others v Minister of Health and Others 1998 (4) SA 1113 (T) ..........................................................337 Executive Council of the Western Cape Legislature v President of the Republic of South Africa 1995 (4) SA 877 (CC) ...................................................................170

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xxii Table of Cases Government of the Republic of South Africa v Grootboom 2000 (11) BCLR 1169 (CC)................................................................................................322 Khosa and Mahlaule v Minister for Social Development 2004 (6) BCLR 569 (CC)..........................................................................................319, 322 Minister of Safety and Security v Carmichele 2004 (2) BCLR 133 (SCA).....339, 341 Minister of Safety and Security v Duivenboden 2002 (6) SA 431 (SCA)...............339 Minister of Safety and Security v Hamilton 2001 (3) SA 50 (SCA).......................339 Port Elizabeth Municipality v Various Occupiers (2005) SA 217 (CC).........319, 322 Rail Commuters Action Group and Others v Transnet Ltd t/a Metrorail and Others 2005 (4) BCLR 301 (CC)..........................................................338–41 S v Makwanyane 1995 (6) BCLR 665 (CC) ..........................................................337 S v Niemand 2002 (3) BCLR 219 (CC) .................................................................337 State v Baloyi (Minister of Justice Intervening) 2000 (1) BCLR 86 (CC)..............338 Van Eeden v Minister of Safety and Security 2003 (1) SA 389 (SCA)...................339

United Kingdom A v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] EWCA Civ 1502; [2005] 2 WLR 87................................125, 127–28, 130, 137–38, 145–49, 154–55 A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56 ........................................45, 189, 212, 215, 217, 228, 238–41, 250, 252 A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] UKHL 71; [2005] 2 WLR 87 .............................................................189, 222, 325 Amin v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] UKHL 51 ................341 Anderson v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] 4 All ER 1089......................................................................................................223 Attorney-General’s Reference (No 4 of 2002) [2003] 2 All ER 497; [2004] UKHL 43; [2005] 1 AC 264...................................................224, 246, 325 Brown v Stott [2001] 2 WLR 817...................................................................215, 220 Clingham and McCann [2003] 1 AC 787..............................................................269 Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374 ................................................................................................................135 Dr Bonham’s Case (1610) 8 Co Rep 114 ...............................................................144 Khan (Sultan) [1997] AC 558................................................................................222 Liversidge v Anderson [1942] AC 206 ..............................................127, 135–36, 154 MB, Re [2006] EWHC 1000 (Admin) ..................................................................155 Offen (No 2) [2001] 1 Cr App R 37.......................................................................223 R v Clouden [1987] Crim LR 56 (CA)...................................................................285 R v H and C [2004] 2 WLR 335.............................................................................216 R v Halliday, ex parte Zadig [1917] AC 260..................................127, 135, 145, 154 R v Lambert [2002] 2 AC 545 ................................................................................219 R v Maguire (1992) 94 Crim App R 133 ...............................................................238 R v McIlkenny (1991) 93 Crim App R 287............................................................238

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Table of Cases xxiii R v Secretary of State, ex parte Simms [2000] 2 AC 115........................................136 R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Limbuela [2005] UKHL 66 ..........................................................................................320–22 R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Pierson [1998] AC 539 ................................................................................................................136 R v Ward (1993) 96 Crim App R 51......................................................................238 Secretary of State v JJ et al [2006] EWCA Civ 1141 ..............................................240 Secretary of State for the Home Department v Rehman [2002] 1 All ER 123 ..................................................................................127–28, 136–37, 154, 189 Sheldrake v DPP [2003] 2 All ER 497; [2005] 1 AC 264...............................246, 325 Wednesbury.....................................................................................................133, 322 Wilson v First County Trust Ltd (No 2) [2003] UKHL 40; [2004] 1 AC 816 ................................................................................................................152

United Nations Human Rights Committee Ahani v Canada UN Doc CCPR/C/80/D/105/2002 (2004) .................................241

United States of America American Civil Liberties Union v National Security Agency 438 F Supp 2d 754 (2006) .....................................................................................................325 Gratz v Bollinger 539 US 244 (2003) .......................................................................79 Grutter v Bollinger 539 US 306 (2003) ....................................................................79 Hamdi v Rumsfeld 124 SCt 2633 (2004); 524 US 507 (2004); 548 US (2006) .........................................................................................189, 206, 237, 325 Kansas v Hendricks 521 US 346 (1997) .................................................................266 Korematsu v US 323 US 214 (1944) ......................................................................191 McCleskey v Kemp 481 US 279 (1987) ....................................................................79 Rasul v Bush 124 SCt 2686 (2004).........................................................................187 Rumsfeld v Padilla 124 SCt 2711 (2004) ...............................................................206 US v Armstrong 517 US 456 (1996).........................................................................79 US v Salerno 481 US 739 (1987)............................................................................266 Washington v Davis 426 US 229 (1976) ..................................................................79 Whren v US 517 US 806 (1996)...............................................................................77

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Table of Legislation Australia Anti-terrorism Act (No 2) 2005, No 144 Pt 5.1 ...........................................................................................................228, 248 Pt 5.3 ...................................................................................................................228 Charter of the United Nations (Anti-terrorism Measures) Statutory Rule No 297 of 2001 ......................................................................................232 Criminal Code RSC 1985 s 83.01 .........................................................................................................233, 243 s 251 ....................................................................................................................335 Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002, No 65 s 100.1(2) ............................................................................................................243

Canada Anti-terrorism Act SC 2001.............................................210–11, 231, 233, 236, 242 Charter of Rights and Freedoms 1985 ......................236–37, 240, 251, 315, 335–36 s 1 ........................................................................................................................211 s 7 ....................................................................................211, 309, 314–18, 333–36 Immigration and Refugee Protection Act SC 2001 s 33 ......................................................................................................................237 s 34(1) .................................................................................................................236 s 78(g)–(h)..........................................................................................................237 UN Suppression of Terrorism Regulations, SOR/2001-360 (2 October 2001)............................................................................................232

European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000 ....................204, 321 Art 6 ....................................................................................................................315 Arts 34–35 ..........................................................................................................315 Art 49 ..................................................................................................................204 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 ..................................27, 33–34, 45, 126, 143, 152, 200, 203–7, 211–12, 214–15, 218, 222-23, 239, 251, 267–68, 278, 334 Art 2 ......................................................................................................212, 341–42

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xxvi Table of Legislation Art 2(2)(c) ..........................................................................................................290 Art 3 ........................................................................203, 207, 211–14, 222–23, 322 Art 4(1).........................................................................................................212–14 Art 5 ..................126, 154, 207, 214–15, 217, 223, 240, 263, 309, 314–15, 332–34 Art 5(3) ...............................................................................................................217 Art 5(4) ...............................................................................................................223 Art 6 ........................................................................................207, 214–17, 220–23 Art 6(1) .......................................................................................155, 216, 220, 223 Art 6(3)(b)..........................................................................................................220 Art 6(3)(c) ..........................................................................................................221 Art 6(3)(d)..................................................................................................221, 223 Art 7 ......................................................................................................209, 212–14 Art 8 ........................................................................................46, 214–15, 217, 222 Art 8(2).........................................................................................................214–15 Arts 9–11 ..............................................................................................214–15, 217 Art 13 ..................................................................................................................136 Art 14 ..................................................................................................................126 Art 15 ................126, 129, 146–47, 150, 154, 195–96, 212–13, 215, 217, 221, 223 Art 15(1) .............................................................................................126, 196, 212 Art 15(2) .............................................................................................................212 Protocol 1, Art 3.................................................................................................153 Protocol 6 ...........................................................................................................213 Protocol 7, Art 4.................................................................................................213 Protocols.............................................................................................................204 European Social Charter (ESC) ......................................................................314–15 Pt I, para 11 ........................................................................................................315 Pt I, para 14 ........................................................................................................315 Recommendations Council of Europe Recommendation R (96) 8 Crime Policy in Europe in a Time of Change........................................................................................207

Germany Aviation Security Act .............................................................................................343 Basic Law ................................................................................................................205 Art 1(1) .........................................................................................................66, 336 Art 2(1) .................................................................................................................66 Art 2(2) .........................................................................................................66, 343 Constitution ...........................................................................................................336

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Table of Legislation xxvii Hungary Constitution 1949 (as amended 1997) Art 55 ..................................................................................................................333 Art 55(1) .............................................................................................................333

India Constitution ...........................................................................................................321

International African Union Constitutive Act 2000 Art 4(h).........................................................................................................378–79 African Union Security Protocol...........................................................................359 American Convention on Human Rights 1978 Art 7(1) ...............................................................................................................332 Art 27 ..................................................................................................................213 Charter of the International Court of Justice (ICJ Statute).................................170 Art 28(1)(d)........................................................................................................180 Art 38 ..................................................................................................................178 Art 38(1)(b)........................................................................................................180 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on Their Destruction 1997............353 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1984....................................................................353 Art 3 ....................................................................................................................211 Dayton Agreements ...............................................................................................355 ‘Declaration of the Summit of the South’, Havana G77 summit (April 2000)....................................................................................................356 Economic Community of West African States’ Protocols...................................359 Genocide Convention 1948...................................................................................373 Art VIII ...............................................................................................................373 ICJ Statute. See Charter of the International Court of Justice International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism 1999 ...........................................159, 228, 232-33, 235, 244–45, 253 Art 2(1)(b)..........................................................................................................244 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights............................................77 Art 4 ......................................................................................................77, 181, 213 Art 9 ......................................................................................................309, 314–15 Art 14 ..................................................................................................................164 Art 14(2) .............................................................................................................161

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xxviii Table of Legislation International Covenant for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ....................315 Art 9 ....................................................................................................................315 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict 2000.......................................353 Organisation of African Unity Charter.................................................................378 Algiers Declaration 1999........................................................................................378 Peace of Westphalia 1648 ......................................................................................349 Refugee Convention Art 33(2) .............................................................................................................240 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court......................................353, 379 UN Charter .........................................................158, 161–62, 168–70, 175, 177–78, 180, 349, 353, 356, 363, 372–73, 378, 380 Art 1(1) ...............................................................................................................349 Art 1(3) ...............................................................................................................364 Art 2(1) .......................................................................................................349, 364 Art 2(4) ............................................................178-80, 349, 364, 368-69, 375, 377 Art 2(7) ...............................................................................349, 353, 356, 358, 364 Art 10 ..................................................................................................................177 Art 15 ..................................................................................................................177 Arts 17–19 ..........................................................................................................177 Art 23 ..................................................................................................................177 Art 25 ..................................................................................................................169 Art 39 ....................................................................................................178–80, 349 Art 51.............................................................................................................178-80 Art 53 ..................................................................................................................379 Art 62 ..................................................................................................................349 Art 68 ..................................................................................................................349 Art 103 .........................................................................................................161– 62 Ch VI ..................................................................................................................377 Ch VII ................................................................158, 160, 166, 168, 172, 179, 230, 235, 248, 353–56, 358, 371, 377–79 Ch VIII........................................................................................................378, 380 Preamble.....................................................................................................349, 364 ss I.2–I.4..............................................................................................................158 UN General Assembly Resolution 2131(XX) ‘Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States and the Protection of Their Independence and Sovereignty’ (1965) .......................349 UN General Assembly Resolution 2625 (XXV) ‘Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations’ (1970) .............................................................................................................349 UN General Assembly Resolution 53/35 (1998) ..................................................357 UN Security Council Resolution 418 on the imposition of an arms embargo against South Africa (1977) ...........................................................166

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Table of Legislation xxix UN Security Council Resolution 421 on the setting up a sanctions committee on South Africa (1977) ...............................................................166 UN Security Council Resolution 687 on the determination of national borders (1991)................................................................................................158 UN Security Council Resolution 688 on threats to international peace and security (1991) ........................................................................................354 UN Security Council Resolution 748 directing Libya to surrender the Lockerbie bombing suspects to the UK (1992) ............................................169 UN Security Council Resolution 770 on threats to international peace and security (1992) ........................................................................................355 UN Security Council Resolution 794 on creating an environment conducive to mounting humanitarian operations (1992).............................................355 UN Security Council Resolution 798 condemning the mass rape of Muslim women in Serb detention camps (1992).........................................355 UN Security Council Resolution 808 on the establishment of an International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993) ...........355 UN Security Council Resolution 814 on creating an environment conducive to mounting humanitarian operations (1993)...........................355 UN Security Council Resolution 819 on extending UN protection to the Srebrenica `safe area’ (1993)..........................................................................355 UN Security Council Resolution 824 on extending UN protection to `safe areas’ (1993) ...................................................................................................355 UN Security Council Resolution 827 setting up international criminal tribunals (1993)..............................................................................................158 UN Security Council Resolution 864 imposing sanctions against the Angolan rebel movement UNITA and its leaders (1993)............................166 UN Security Council Resolution 929 on the protection of civilians in the south of Rwanda and on the delivery of humanitarian relief (1994) .............................................................................................................356 UN Security Council Resolution 955 setting up international criminal tribunals (1994)..............................................................................................158 UN Security Council Resolution 1031 on the enforcement of the Dayton Agreements in Bosnia (1995) ........................................................................356 UN Security Council Resolution 1127 imposing sanctions against the Angolan rebel movement UNITA and its leaders (1997)............................166 UN Security Council Resolution 1173 imposing sanctions against the Angolan rebel movement UNITA and its leaders (1998)............................166 UN Security Council Resolution 1176 imposing sanctions against the Angolan rebel movement UNITA and its leaders (1998)............................166 UN Security Council Resolution 1265 on the principle of protection of civilians in armed conflict (1999) .........................................................358, 365 para 10 ........................................................................................................331, 358 UN Security Council Resolution 1267 on monitoring the compliance of states with sanctions (1999) ............................................159, 231–32, 235, 253

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xxx Table of Legislation UN Security Council Resolution 1296 on the principle of protection of civilians in armed conflict (2000) .................................................331, 358, 365 para 5 ..................................................................................................................358 para 8 ..................................................................................................................358 UN Security Council Resolution 1333 on the freezing of bin Laden’s funds and assets and those of associated individuals and entities (2000) .............232 UN Security Council Resolution 1363 (2001)......................................................159 UN Security Council Resolution 1373 on the prevention and suppression of the financing of terrorist acts etc and on setting up the Counterterrorism Committee (2001)..............................159–60, 166–67, 179, 228–35, 239, 241–42, 244–46, 248–50, 253 para 1 ............................................................................................................230–31 para 1(a) .....................................................................................................159, 230 para 1(b)–(d)......................................................................................................230 para 2 ..........................................................................................................159, 230 para 2(a)–(b) ..............................................................................................159, 230 para 2(c)–(d) ......................................................................................................230 para 2(e)–(f) .......................................................................................................231 para 2(g) .....................................................................................................231, 235 para 3 ..................................................................................................................235 para 3(d) .....................................................................................................159, 232 para 3(f) ......................................................................................................235, 240 para 3(g) .............................................................................................................235 para 6 ..................................................................................................................166 UN Security Council Resolution 1390 (2002)......................................................159 para 2(a)–(c) ......................................................................................................160 UN Security Council Resolution 1455 (2003)......................................................160 UN Security Council Resolution 1456 (2003)......................................................160 para 2(a) .............................................................................................................159 UN Security Council Resolution 1526 (2004)......................................................159 UN Security Council Resolution 1529 on Haiti (2004).......................................158 UN Security Council Resolution 1540 on monitoring the implementation of a resolution against weapons of mass destruction.....................159–60, 167 para 2(e) .............................................................................................................160 UN Security Council Resolution 1566 (2005)......................................................159 para 3 ..................................................................................................................245 UN Security Council Resolution 1624 on criminalisation of incitement to terrorism (2005).....................................17, 160, 228–29, 245–48, 250, 252–54 UN Security Council Resolution 1625 on humanitarian intervention in Africa ..........................................................................................................245 UN Security Council Resolution 1674 on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict (2006) ..................................................................................380 UN Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation of Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights...............................224

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Table of Legislation xxxi para 22 ........................................................................................................208, 225 para 69 ................................................................................................................213 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 .......................................................19 Art 1 ....................................................................................................................336 Art 3 ......................................................................................................................19 Art 11(1) .............................................................................................................161 Art 17 ..................................................................................................................161 Vienna Convention..........................................................................................368–69 Vienna Declaration 1993 ...............................................................................204, 212 para 5 ..................................................................................................................204 para 17 ................................................................................................................206

Israel Criminal Code 1977 s 34J.....................................................................................................................286 Thou Shalt Not Stand Idly by The Blood of Thy Neighbour Act 1998...............292 s 1(a) ...................................................................................................................292

South Africa Bill of Rights ...................................................................................................157, 338 Constitution 1996 ......................................................157, 315–16, 321, 335–37, 341 s 1 ........................................................................................................................336 s 7(2) ...................................................................................................................338 s 10 ......................................................................................................................336 s 12 ................................................................................................316, 336–37, 341 s 12(1)(a)–(b).....................................................................................................332 s 12(1)(c) ..............................................................................................332, 336–38 s 12(1)(d)–(e).............................................................................................332, 336 s 12(2) .........................................................................................................332, 336 s 12(2)(a) ....................................................................................................333, 337 s 12(2)(b)..............................................................................................333, 336–37 s 12(2)(c) ....................................................................................................333, 337 Interim Constitution s 11 ......................................................................................................................336 s 11(1)–(2)..........................................................................................................336 Protection of Constitutional Democracy and Related Activities Act (2004), Act 33 of 2004 s 1(xxv)(a)(vi) ....................................................................................................244

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xxxii Table of Legislation United Kingdom Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003...............................................................................34 Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 .............17, 36, 45–46, 48, 51, 60, 67, 69, 126, 208, 210, 217, 231, 233, 277 Ch 24.......................................................................................................................233 Pt IV..................................................................................................45, 147, 151, 238 s 23 ................................................................................................................126–27 ss 24–26...............................................................................................................126 s 28 ..............................................................................................................126, 195 s 29 ......................................................................................................................126 s 30 ..............................................................................................................126, 128 s 36 ........................................................................................................................49 s 92 ........................................................................................................................49 s 117 ....................................................................................................................233 Sch 2....................................................................................................................233 Bill of Rights Art 9 ....................................................................................................................153 Crime and Disorder Act 1998 .........................................................................34, 263 s 1 ........................................................................................................................266 Criminal Justice Act 2003..............................................................................221, 224 s 10 ........................................................................................................................49 Criminal Law Act 1967 s 3 ........................................................................................................................286 Defence of the Realm Consolidation Act 1914 ....................................................135 Human Rights Act 1998........................................27, 33, 46, 127, 144–45, 154, 200, 203, 206, 215, 250, 267, 315 ss 3–4...................................................................................................................144 s 14(1) .................................................................................................................126 Immigration and Asylum Act 1999 s 36 ........................................................................................................................49 Intelligence Services Act 1994 .................................................................................48 Interception of Communications Act 1985............................................................48 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 .................................................................49 Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 ............................45, 148–49, 155, 210, 240, 263 Ch 2.....................................................................................................................240 Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1989 s 18 ......................................................................................................................233 s 20(1) .................................................................................................................242 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000.................................................48, 207 Security Service Act 1989.................................................................................48, 195 ss 3–4...................................................................................................................195 Sexual Offences Act 2003.......................................................................................263 Statute establishing SIAC 1997..............................................................................136

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Table of Legislation xxxiii Terrorism Act 2000 ....................................210, 228–29, 233, 242, 244–46, 251, 253 Ch 11...........................................................................................................228, 242 s 1 ........................................................................................................................242 s 11 ......................................................................................................................246 s 19 ......................................................................................................................233 s 20(2) .................................................................................................................233 s 38B....................................................................................................................233 s 59 ......................................................................................................................246 Terrorism Act 2006 ..........................................210, 217, 228, 243, 247, 250–52, 254 Ch 11...................................................................................................................247 s 1 ................................................................................................................228, 247 s 1(2)–(3)............................................................................................................247 s 1(5)(b)..............................................................................................................247 ss 2–3...........................................................................................................228, 247 s 34 ......................................................................................................................243 Statutory Instruments Human Rights Act 1998 (Designated Derogation) Order 2001..........................126 Terrorism (United Nations Measures) Order 2001, SI 2001/3365 .....................232

United States of America Constitution First Amendment.....................................................................................................46 Fourth Amendment.................................................................................................46 Ninth Amendment ..................................................................................................46 Fourteenth Amendment..........................................................................................48 Model Penal Code § 3.04 (1985)...................................................................282, 284 National Defense Authorization Act ......................................................................93 PATRIOT Act 2001 (renewed 2006)...........17, 45–48, 51, 60, 67, 69, 236, 242, 278 s 203(d)(1)............................................................................................................47

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It is the liberals, then, who count. They are, as it might be, the canaries in the sulphurous mineshaft of modern democracy. —Tony Judt, ‘Bush’s Useful Idiots’, London Review of Books, 21 September 2006

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1 Introduction Security and Human Rights: The Search for a Language of Reconciliation LIORA LAZARUS and BENJAMIN J GOOLD

T

HE ATTAINMENT OF security and the protection of human rights are not necessarily antithetical, either as a matter of fact or principle. Nevertheless, since 9/11 the words ‘security’ and ‘human rights’ have, in the collective imagination, now come to connote an almost insuperable opposition. Anyone who engages in the debate over security and human rights is almost immediately confronted by this dichotomy, tacit in the political call for a ‘new balance’ and explicit in newspaper editorials calling for the retreat from human rights. Prompted by the urgency or supposed ‘exceptionalism’ of our times, politicians, judges and intellectuals are all addressing the central dilemma of this dichotomy: how are we to protect freedom (through security) without denying its essence (by violating human rights)? For liberals, the search for a new language of reconciliation between security and human rights has arguably become one of their most urgent intellectual challenges. Indeed, there is a growing sense in the academy internationally that the stakes of the thoughts and arguments on this question have been raised.1 The challenge of how best to safeguard freedom and democracy without squandering them is not simply a product of the threats arising out of 9/11 (or perceptions of them). It is a challenge that has always existed at the centre of the liberal democratic enterprise. It is this pursuit that animates democratic politics, and the tension that spurs its philosophical refinement. Moreover, if we are to remain squarely within the liberal democratic tradition, many would argue that security

1 This is no less the case for the contributors to this volume, who came together at the Oxford Colloquium on Security and Human Rights on 16 and 17 March 2006. Drawn from a variety of disciplinary perspectives—legal theory, criminology, criminal law, constitutional law, international law and international relations, as well as