Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A study in ecclesiastical geology 9781407310985, 9781407322575

Citation preview

BAR 578 2013

Searching for Early Welsh Churches A study in ecclesiastical geology

POTTER

John F. Potter

SEARCHING FOR EARLY WELSH CHURCHES

B A R

BAR British Series 578 2013

Searching for Early Welsh Churches A study in ecclesiastical geology

John F. Potter

BAR British Series 578 2013

ISBN 9781407310985 paperback ISBN 9781407322575 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407310985 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Frontispiece A simplified geological map of Britain and Ireland after the British Geological Survey. Published here by kind permission of the Natural Environmental Research Council.

ABSTRACT

This work follows the study of the ecclesiastical geology of almost all Anglo-Saxon religious sites throughout England. There, it proved possible to both understand and distinguish clearly obvious patterns in the use of stonework, to determine the use and value of specific rock types, and to illustrate diagnostic features which could be used to identify building of that period. Subsequent studies of ecclesiastical sites, in Scotland and the Scottish Islands, the Isle of Man and Ireland expanded the value of the English studies by revealing closely analogous examples of the same indicative features. Beyond the domain of the Anglo-Saxons but of the same age, they were shown to follow a fashion; to this fashion the name ‘Patterned’ was applied. Chapters 1 and 2 introduce and summarize this work giving brief details of the specific features that prove diagnostic to the period. That Welsh ecclesiastical geology remained unstudied, provided a challenge to follow. Interpreted by church historians and archaeologists as a region without any real standing evidence of pre-Romanesque buildings; surely those same geologically influenced ornamental building styles of the Patterned period, seen elsewhere in the British Isles, would be immediately apparent? Chapter 3, therefore, describes the methods adopted to substantiate this belief. This substantiation proved far more difficult to attain than expected, resulting in over 400 churches requiring examination. From this unwieldy number, possibly over 30 churches and ecclesiastical sites revealed indications of Patterned style fabric and structural features, and these buildings or remains are described in Chapters 4 and 5. The reasons for this comparatively low positive return, as compared with England, when consequent to the Reformation both were controlled by the Church of England, are discussed in Chapter 7. One subsidiary benefit resulting from this extensive numerical study of church buildings in Wales, was that the external building fabrics of many ecclesiastical structures were viewed in a geological sense for possibly the first time. Chapter 6 provides short accounts of 70 ecclesiastical buildings in which certain features of interest are described. That building fashions changed in the past as they do today was confirmed by the discovery, as in Scotland in particular, of church quoins at the end of the 16th C. being constructed in a style similar to, but not the same as, that in the Patterned period. Consequential to this far-reaching study of Welsh ecclesiastical buildings a variety of additional supplementary aspects of their construction are examined. These include diverse topics such as: the dating implications and purposes of the wide variety of wall batters that are so evident in Wales; the important relationships regarding church towers and their stair turrets; and the fascinating topic, as with Irish churches, of church security. Still in its infancy, ecclesiastical geology as a study remains in its formative years. This particular work, which for reasons discussed, examined church structures of all ages, emphasized ecclesiastical geology’s potential to expand significantly our knowledge and understanding of church structures of any period.

ii

CONTENTS

List of Tables...................................................................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures................................................................................................................................................................... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................................... xxxvii IMPORTANT NOTE AND A RESULTING APOLOGY........................................................................................... xxxviii CHAPTER ONE. NEW APPROACHES TO THE STUDY AND THE DETERMINATION OF AGE AND STRUCTURAL HISTORY OF ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE...................................................1 1.1 Long-established procedures in the study of ecclesiastical buildings...........................................................................1 1.1.1 The formative years.............................................................................................................................................1 1.1.2 Currently recognised techniques for determining the historical background of churches...................................1 1.1.3 Ecclesiastical Geology – a new approach to ecclesiastical historical dating.......................................................2 1.2 Ecclesiastical Geology – rock identification and source...............................................................................................5 1.3 Ecclesiastical Geology – converting rocks to stones suitable for architectural building requirements: orientations, patterns and masonry details..............................................................................................7 1.3.1 Fundamental Geology..........................................................................................................................................7 1.3.2 Identification of ecclesiastical stone types and stone characteristics...................................................................8 1.4 The fashion for lime-based external renders; do they provide any protection?...........................................................11 1.5 Was there render on early churches?............................................................................................................................13 1.6 The need for a name and fashions in building.............................................................................................................14 CHAPTER TWO. MASONRY DETAIL AND STONEWORK IN EARLY ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE BRITISH ISLES....................................................................................................................16 2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................18 2.2 Available rock types in Wales......................................................................................................................................18 2.3 Variety in Welsh rock types and potential stone choice...............................................................................................18 2.4 Rock identification – words of caution........................................................................................................................26 2.4.1 Identifying sources or localities from which rocks may have been originally derived.....................................26 2.4.2 Rock bedding orientation identification difficulties..........................................................................................27 2.5 The use of rocks with bedding laminations, lineation or layering to create patterns...................................................28 2.5.1 Employing rock planar structures......................................................................................................................28 2.5.2 Patterns in early stonework................................................................................................................................28 2.5.3 The new stone nomenclature applied to arch jambs and pilasters.....................................................................30 2.6 Geological controls on the occurrence of architectural and stonework features which may be observed in churches constructed during the Anglo-Saxon period or in comparable times outside of England..............................................................................................................................................32 2.6.1 Long recognised Anglo-Saxon features.............................................................................................................33 a. Double-splayed windows..................................................................................................................................33 b. Long and short quoins and Escomb style arches..............................................................................................34 c. Pilasters and pilaster-strips................................................................................................................................34 d. Megalithic quoins..............................................................................................................................................34 e. Plinths and string courses..................................................................................................................................34 f. Wall thickness....................................................................................................................................................34 g. Other structures.................................................................................................................................................35 2.6.2 Recently recognised Anglo-Saxon features.......................................................................................................35 a. Anglo-Saxon stone cut backs............................................................................................................................36 b. Polychrome banding.........................................................................................................................................36 c. Decoration in face-bedded stonework...............................................................................................................38 2.7 But what of Irish antae?...............................................................................................................................................40

iii

CHAPTER THREE. BACKGROUND AND PROCEDURES..........................................................................................42 3.1 Previous country-wide reviews of the stonework of early churches...........................................................................42 3.2 The study of early ecclesiastical geology in Wales......................................................................................................42 3.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................42 3.2.2 The CADW funded study..................................................................................................................................43 3.2.3 Procedures used in the Welsh study...................................................................................................................44 3.2.4 Vertical orientations repeated: a ‘Celtic Revival’..............................................................................................44 3.3 The identification of ‘Victorian’ stonework and its terminology.................................................................................46 3.4 The churches reviewed................................................................................................................................................47 CHAPTER FOUR. CHURCHES DISPLAYING SOME EVIDENCE OF PATTERNED WORKMANSHIP.....................................................................................................................................194 4.1 Llanbabo, St Pabo (SH 378 868)...............................................................................................................................194 4.2 Llandysilio, St Tysilio (SH 552 717).........................................................................................................................198 4.3 Llanfairnghornwy, St Mary (SH 327 908).................................................................................................................203 4.4 Llangwyfan, St Cwyfan (SH 336 683)......................................................................................................................205 4.5 Llanbeblig, St Peblig (SH 487 623)...........................................................................................................................207 4.6 Llanfair-is-Gaer, St Mary (SH 502 660)....................................................................................................................211 4.7 Llandeilo Fawr, St Teilo (SN 628 223)......................................................................................................................212 4.8 Llangadog, St Cadog (SN 706 285)...........................................................................................................................213 4.9 Llantwit Major (Llanilltud Fawr), St Illtwd (SS 966 687).........................................................................................215 4.10 Tywyn (Towyn), St Cadfan (SH 588 009)...............................................................................................................219 4.11 Llandrinio, Sts Trinio, Peter and Paul (SJ 295 171).................................................................................................224 4.12 Begelly, St Mary (SN 118 074)................................................................................................................................228 4.13 Gumfreston, St Lawrence (SN 109 011)..................................................................................................................230 4.14 Martletwy, St Marcellus (SN 033 105)....................................................................................................................232 4.15 Porth Clew Chapel, St Mary? (SS 020 985) -ruin...................................................................................................237 4.16 St Non, Chapel, (SM 753 243) -ruin........................................................................................................................242 4.17 Presteign(e), St Andrew (SO 314 646)....................................................................................................................245 CHAPTER FIVE. CHURCES DISPLAYIG POSSIBLE EVIDENCE OF PATTERNED WORKMASHIP..................................................................................................................................251 5.1 Llanwenllwyfo, old parish church of St Gwenllwyfo (SH 485 901) -ruin................................................................251 5.2 Llangenny, St Cen(n)au (St Cenen) (SO 240 182)....................................................................................................253 5.3 Capel Curig, St Julitta (St Juliet) (SH 718 580).........................................................................................................255 5.4 Llanengan, St Engan (and St Einion) (SH 294 270)..................................................................................................256 5.5 Llaniestyn, St Iestyn (SH 270 337)............................................................................................................................258 5.6 Bigawdin (Begewdin) Chapel (SN 512 147) -ruin....................................................................................................261 5.7 Capel Erbach (Hirbach) (SN 529 147) -ruin..............................................................................................................263 5.8 Llandawke, St Margaret Odoceus (St Margaret Marlos) (SN 283 113)....................................................................265 5.9 Llandeilo Abercywyn, St Teilo (SN 308 131) -ruin...................................................................................................267 5.10 Llanllwch, St Mary (SN 385 187)............................................................................................................................267 5.11 St Clears, St Mary Magdalene (SN 281 156)...........................................................................................................271 5.12 Llanelian-yn-Rhos, St Elian (SH 864 764)..............................................................................................................274 5.13 St Pierre, St Peter (ST 515 905)...............................................................................................................................278 5.14 Herbrandston, St Mary (SM 871 077).....................................................................................................................281 5.15 Llandysilo (Llandissilio), St Tysilio (SN 119 217)..................................................................................................283 5.16 Rudbaxton, St Michael (SM 960 205).....................................................................................................................285 5.17 St Govan, Chapel (SR 967 929) -ruin......................................................................................................................287 5.18 Michaelchurch-on-Arrow, St Michael (SO 247 507)..............................................................................................287 CHAPTER SIX. SHORT ACCOUNTS OF CERTAIN OTHER WELSH CHURCHES................................................292 6.1 Aberffraw, St Beuno (SH 353 687)............................................................................................................................292 6.2 Llanbadrig, St Patrick (SH 376 946) .........................................................................................................................294 6.3 Llanbeulan, St Peulan (more recently St Mary) (SH 373 755)..................................................................................295 6.4 Llanfihangel-yn-Nhowyn, St Mihangel (St Michael) (SH 322 774).........................................................................298 6.5 Llangristiolus, St Christiolus (SH 450 736)...............................................................................................................300 6.6 Llaniestyn, St Iestyn (SH 585 796)............................................................................................................................302 6.7 Llanrhwydru(y)s, St Rhwydrw(y)s (SH 322 932).....................................................................................................302

iv

6.8 Penmon, St Seiriol’s Cell (SH 631 808) –ruin...........................................................................................................306 6.9 Brecon (Aberhonndhu) Cathedral, St John the Evangelist (SO 044 290).................................................................307 6.10 Builth Wells, St Mary (SO 039 510)........................................................................................................................308 6.11 Llandd(th)etty(i), St Tetta(i) (St Detiu) (SO 128 202).............................................................................................309 6.12 Llanddew, St David (Holy Trinity) (SO 054 307)...................................................................................................312 6.13 Llanigon, St Eigo(e)n (SO 213 399)........................................................................................................................312 6.14 Caerhun, St Mary (SH 777 704)..............................................................................................................................315 6.15 Llandegai, St Tegai (SH 601 710)............................................................................................................................317 6.16 Bedgellert, St Mary (SH 591 480)...........................................................................................................................317 6.17 Capel Galltgoed, (SH 471 403) –ruin......................................................................................................................320 6.18 Cric(c)ieth, St Catherine (SH 501 383)....................................................................................................................322 6.19 Llanaelhaearn, St Aelhaearn (SH 387 448)..............................................................................................................322 6.20 Llanfaglan, St Baglan (SH 455 607)........................................................................................................................323 6.21 Llanllyfni, St Rhedyw (SH 470 521).......................................................................................................................328 6.22 Bryncroes, St Mary (SH 226 315)...........................................................................................................................329 6.23 Llandudwen, St Tudwen (SH 274 369)...................................................................................................................331 6.24 Llangwnnadl, St Gwynhoe(y)dl (SH 208 333)........................................................................................................331 6.25 Pistyll, St Beuno (SH 328 423)................................................................................................................................333 6.26 Capel Bettws, (Trelech a’r Betws) (SN 278 282) –ruin...........................................................................................336 6.27 Llanarthne(y), St David (St Arthneu) (SN 534 203)................................................................................................336 6.28 Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn, St Mary on the Hill (SN 770 352)............................................................................................341 6.29 Marros, St Lawrence (SN 207 089).........................................................................................................................343 6.30 Llanddewi Brefi, St David (SN 664 554)................................................................................................................345 6.31 Llanfair Clydogau, St Mary (SN 624 512)..............................................................................................................348 6.32 Llanfihangel-y-Creuddyn, St Michael (SN 665 760)..............................................................................................349 6.33 Llanilar, St Hilary (St Ilar) (SN 624 751)................................................................................................................351 6.34 Penbryn, St Michael (SN 294 521)..........................................................................................................................351 6.35 Efenechtyd, St Michael (and All Angels) (SJ 112 558)...........................................................................................352 6.36 Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd, St Peter (SJ 145 598) –ruin............................................................................................356 6.37 Rhuddlan, St Mary (SJ 021 781).............................................................................................................................358 6.38 Gwaenysgor, St Mary Magdalene (SJ 075 810)......................................................................................................360 6.39 Llan Elen Chapel, (SS 511 934) –ruin.....................................................................................................................362 6.40 Llanilid, St Ilid and St Curig (SS 978 813)..............................................................................................................363 6.41 Llysworney, St Tydfil (SS 961 741).........................................................................................................................363 6.42 Llanfihangel-y-Pennant, St Michael (SH 671 089).................................................................................................365 6.43 Llanfihangel-y-Traethau, St Michael (SH 595 353)................................................................................................368 6.44 Llangelyn(n)in, St Celyn(n)in (SH 571 072)...........................................................................................................371 6.45 Bishton, St Cadwaladr (ST 386 873).......................................................................................................................373 6.46 Llanvaches, St Dubritius (ST 434 917)....................................................................................................................375 6.47 Portskewett, St Mary (ST 499 881).........................................................................................................................377 6.48 St Arvans, St Arvan (ST 516 965)...........................................................................................................................378 6.49 Garthbeibio, St Tydecho (SH 985 119)....................................................................................................................379 6.50 Guilsfield (Cegidfa), St Aelhaiarn (SJ 219 116)......................................................................................................379 6.51 Llangynog, St Cynog (SJ 053 261)..........................................................................................................................382 6.52 Llansilin, St Silin (St Giles) (SJ 209 282)...............................................................................................................382 6.53 Meifod, Sts Tysilio and Mary (SJ 155 132).............................................................................................................387 6.54 Pennant Melangell, St Melangell (SJ 024 265).......................................................................................................391 6.55 Amroth, St Elidyr (SN 163 078)..............................................................................................................................393 6.56 Castlemartin, St Michael (and All Angels) (SR 911 988)........................................................................................395 6.57 Dinas, Cwm-yr-Eglwys, St Brynach (SN 015 402) –ruin.......................................................................................396 6.58 Llanddeiniol, St Deiniol (St Daniel) (SM 982 004).................................................................................................396 6.59 Llanddewi Velfry, St David (SN 145 159)...............................................................................................................397 6.60 Llanrhian, St Rhian (St Rheamus) (SM 819 315)....................................................................................................400 6.61 Llanstinian, St Justinian (SM 954 338)...................................................................................................................401 6.62 Llanwnda, St Gwyndaf (SM 933 396).....................................................................................................................401 6.63 Llawhaden, St Aidan (St Aeddan) (SN 075 175).....................................................................................................401 6.64 Nevern, St Brynach (SN 084 400)...........................................................................................................................407 6.65 Penally, St Nicholas and St Teilo (SS 117 992).......................................................................................................407 6.66 St Bride’s, St Bridget (SM 803 107)........................................................................................................................409

v

6.67 6.68 6.69 6.70

St Florence, St Florentius (SN 082 012)..................................................................................................................411 St Is(h)mael, St Ismael (SM 830 067).....................................................................................................................412 Chirk, St Mary (SJ 291 376)....................................................................................................................................412 Gresford, All Saints (SJ 346 550)............................................................................................................................418

CHAPTER SEVEN. ANALYSES, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS....................................................................420 7.1 The limited presence of early church structures in Wales..........................................................................................420 7.1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................420 7.1.2 Early churches in Wales: absent, wood or stone?............................................................................................420 7.1.3 Church alterations: reconstruction and destruction..........................................................................................421 7.2 Elements of Patterned Style stonework observed in Wales.......................................................................................422 7.2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................422 7.2.2 Analytical detail of Welsh Patterned churches.................................................................................................422 7.2.3 Quoin stone elaboration in the British Isles through the centuries..................................................................424 7.2.4 Some critical points with regard to stone working..........................................................................................428 7.3 Two further non-Patterned structures.........................................................................................................................428 7.3.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................428 7.3.2 The occurrence and types of batter..................................................................................................................428 7.3.3 Welsh church wall batters................................................................................................................................433 7.3.4 Stair turrets to church towers...........................................................................................................................434 7.4 Church Security.........................................................................................................................................................434 7.5 Further Geological aspects of Welsh church stonework............................................................................................438 7.5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................438 7.5.2 Discovering aspects of Geology from Welsh church stonework.....................................................................438 7.6 Summary....................................................................................................................................................................438 GLOSSARY......................................................................................................................................................................440 APPENDICES..................................................................................................................................................................443 Appendix 1. The geological column: to show the occurrence of stratigraphical terms specifically used in this work. Reference should also be made to Figure 2.1................................................443 Appendix 2. The Welsh Historic Churches Project (WHCP) and the source of some of the references related to this project...............................................................................................................446 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................................447

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3 Table 1.4

The principal methods of determining the history and background of churches and church sites. Aspects of stone use in the region of north Kent by the Romans. Aspects of stone use in the region of north Kent by the Anglo-Saxons. Aspects of stone use in the region of north Kent by the Normans.

Table 2.1 Variation and improvements in the methods of working one stone type, the hard silcretes referred to as sarsens, for use in church walls over time. Table 3.1 A list of those churches in Wales studied in this work. This list is inclusive of both ruins and sites visited. Table 7.1 Those ecclesiastical sites in which Patterned style features have been discovered in Wales and the features identified in each site. Table 7.2 Those ecclesiastical sites in Wales in which Patterned style features may have been discovered but prove impossible to verify. The different features identified are listed for each site. Table 7.3 ‘Foot of wall’ batters recorded in those churches examined in Wales. See text for full details. Table 7.4 Ecclesiastical sites examined in Wales in which security bar lock evidence can be observed. APPENDIX 1 Table A Chrono-Stratigrahic Table for stratigraphical terms used in the descriptions of English Churches in this work and for imported (English and Welsh) rocks referred to in connection with the descriptions of Welsh churches. Table B Chrono-stratigraphic Table for statigraphical terms used in the church descriptions used in this work involving Welsh rocks. Notes referring to Tables A and B.

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Cover. St Edwen, Llanedwen in Anglesey (SH 517 682) represents one of the large number of churches in Wales visited by the author but not discussed in this work. Like the vast majority of Welsh churches it was rebuilt in the Victorian era and in this instance was provided with a very English steeple. It is built of Carboniferous Limestone and Lower Carboniferous coarse sandstones, both rocks obtained from the immediate church vicinity. Note that the south face of the tower has acquired a protective covering of Welsh slates.

Frontispiece A simplified geological map of Britain and Ireland after the British Geological Survey. Published here by kind permission of the Natural Environmental Research Council. Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7 Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10 Figure 1.11 Figure 1.12 Figure 1.13 Figure 1.14

The north face of the tower of St Peter, Barton-on-Humber (TA 035 219) displays both a triangular-headed doorway and pilaster-strips. The pilasters caused Rickman (1817) to attribute this church to the preConquest period. By 1836, Rickman had identified 20 Anglo-Saxon churches in England. The west face of the tower at St Michael by the Gate, in Oxford (SP 513 063) he observed possessed distinctive long and short quoins St Nicholas, Shereford (TF 886 295) is one of Norfolk’s many round tower churches built mainly of flints. Briefly reviewed, the church once had an Early English north aisle added to the nave. When this was removed the arcade arches were infilled with flints. Subsequently, windows, a door and the buttresses were to follow. Part of the south wall of the chancel of All Saints, Messing (TL 897 189). A 13th C., Upper Greensand window to the west (left), has been infilled, but is partly cut by a Tudor brick door (also infilled), which in turn is cut by the window. Inside the church the most recent window is surrounded by Jacobean woodwork which can be dated to 1634. In 1905, a new, or more probably a renovated, porch was erected over the south door to the nave of St Ellyw, Llanelieu, in Brecknockshire (SO 185 342). The porch partially covers two earlier south doors, the earliest revealing only its irregular voussoirs constructed in Devonian red sandstone, the second door preserves jamb stones in green Devonian arkose (note that the arch stones of the second door cut the voussoirs of the first door). An early mass dial, at St Jerome, Llangwym, in Denbighshire (SH 997 446) has been partially covered by a more recent porch. But the dial is inverted, indicating that this is not in its original position. Kemsing Church, Kent (TQ 556 588) viewed from the south west. The south porch of St Mary the Virgin, Kemsing, covers the original south door to the nave, the stonework of which, beneath years of grime, proves to be a stone, much used by the Anglo-Saxon masons, from Pulborough in Sussex. Although St Padarn, Llanbadarn Fawr Church, Radnorshire (SO 087 643) has been rebuilt its Norman south doorway is preserved. The carved tympanum has been broken but the original portion is carved on the bedding plane of a slab of Devonian red sandstone. The church of St Bridget, Llansantffraid-yn-Elvel, Radnorshire (SO 099 549) although rebuilt in 1895, includes some re-used stones especially in its north wall, such as this beautiful rock that was a lava, recognised as a flow-banded rhyolite. St Padarn, Llanbadarn Trefeglwys, in Ceredigion (SN 508 632) is one of numerous churches in Wales covered with thick lime-based render, in this instance evenly applied just prior to the photograph. All church structural and fabric detail is currently obliterated. The church is viewed from the south-east. St Matthew, Llandefalle, Brecknockshire (SO 107 355) is viewed here from the north-east. Its white coat of render was applied a few months before the photograph date and shows evidence of wear. At Llanbadarn-y-Garreg, Radnorshire (SO 112 488), the lime-based render coat on the east face of the church of St Padarn displays severe deterioration. St Sadwrn, Llansadwrn, Carmarthenshire (SN 695 315), once lime rendered, viewed from the south-west, shows the impact of a few years of weathering.

viii

Figure 1.15 The Denbighshire church of St Garmon, Llanarmon-yn-Ial (SJ 191 562) viewed here from the north-east is constructed of twin equal length aisles typical of the region. Internally, however, the church is unusual in possessing wooden pillars to support the aisle roofs. Figure 1.16 Many churches in Pembrokeshire tend to possess bold towers as this church tower of St Tudwal at Llanstadwell (SM 955 050) viewed from the north-east. In this instance the tower has a blocked arch on its east face which presumably led to the roof space of an earlier nave. Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.13 Figure 2.14 Figure 2.15 Figure 2.16

Figure 2.17

Figure 2.18 Figure 2.19

A photographic copy of the 1: 625,000 scale Bedrock Geological Map of Wales, produced by the British Geological Survey CP12062. Long established St Peris Church (SH 606 583), nestles in the Llanberis Pass in Snowdonia, some distance to the south-east of the more modern town. Although the church dressings are of sedimentary rocks, the walls are built principally of local volcanic rocks. This very irregular block of unworked stone, inscribed with a cross, stands in the churchyard of St Digain, Llangernyw, Denbighshire (SH 875 674). No attempt has been made to shape the stone suggesting it was put to a very early Christian use. The inscribed cross has been variously proposed as being of 6th to 9th C. date. The large font at St Gwenog, Llanwenog (SN 494 455) required significant skill and a lathe to carefully work the stone into its particular circular shape. Such workmanship is likely to be at the earliest of 12th C. date, although the heads tend to be rather crudely inscribed. Turbulent current flow over the surface of soft sediments during deposition can produce flute marks such as these, seen here (facing the viewer), on the bottom of the bed in the wall fabric of St Mary, Llanfair Talhaiarn (SH 927 701). With rapid sediment accumulation sediments may slide or slump into deeper water areas to produce slump structures, such as these visible in the fabric of the tower wall of St Collen, Llangollen (SJ 217 420). The central, vertically orientated stone in this south-west nave quoin of Tywyn Church (SH 588 009), is a volcanic rock known as an ignimbrite, created by molten lava droplets being involved in flow. When created this forms rather irregular nearly horizontal bands. The rock has, therefore, in its present position been re-orientated. A spherulitic rhyolite set into the north wall of Llansantffraed-in-Elvel Church (SO 100 548). Moulds of Lower Palaeozoic brachiopods (mainly Orthids), preserved in the nave wall of St David (St Arthneu), Llanarthne (SN 534 203). (Black and white rule in 10mm. divisions). The mould of a pygidium (‘tail’ portion) of a trilobite indicated by biro head, in the fabric of the north aisle wall in St Aelhaiarn Church, Guilsfield (SJ 219 116). Partially covered by render, this block of Carboniferous Limestone reveals fossil Productid brachiopods and sections of the coral Dibunophyllum. The block occurs in the west wall of St Mary, Llanfair-is-Gaer Church (SH 502 660). At the entrance to the south porch to St Illtyd Church, Llantwit Major (SS 966 687), part of an ammonite indicates that this limestone is of Lower Jurassic (Southerndown Stone) age. Part of a boulder from the local beach incorporated into the fabric of the ruined Llanwenllwyfo Church (SH 485 901) in Anglesey. The holes were created by the modern boring bivalve Pholas and in some instances the shell is still visible in the holes. The south-west nave quoin of St Mildred with St Mary de Castro, Canterbury (TR 145 575), described by Brown (1925) as an Anglo-Saxon ‘big stone quoin’. The quoin stones are of re-used Roman material with the pale coloured rocks being Marquise oolite from France. The quoin illustrated displays all possible orientations in which a stone may be positioned within the structure and the annotation first proposed (Potter, 2005b) to describe them. The notation (BVFR-BHBVFL) refers to the bedding orientation within each stone and not to the stone shape. Using an identical display of stones as seen in Figure 2.15, these quoin stones are classified according to their shape as proposed by Gilbert (1946). This classification can only be applied to stones which approximate to a rectangular block in shape. His term ‘clasping’ referred to a stone that was of no great vertical thickness and square in horizontal cross section (which without removing the stone from the wall is impossible to assess. The seventh quoin stone above the ground in the north-east nave quoin of St Mary, Llanfair-is-Gaer (SH 502 660) is of a local Carboniferous sandstone with quartz pebble stringers. Viewed here from the north, the stringers run vertically through the sandstone to provide evidence that the stone is placed with its bedding face to the left, or BVFL. Long and short work in the south-west quoin of the tower of St Swithun, Wickham, in Berkshire (SU 394 715). Much of the wall fabric of the church is created in flints. Typical stone settings for arch jambs with the stones notated in accordance with that first proposed by the present author (Potter, 2005b). This notation (BVFIA-BH-BVEIA) permits the bedding of the individual

ix

Figure 2.20 Figure 2.21 Figure 2.22 Figure 2.23 Figure 2.24 Figure 2.25

Figure 2.26

Figure 2.27

Figure 2.28 Figure 2.29

Figure 2.30 Figure 2.31

Figure 2.32 Figure 2.33 Figure 2.34 Figure 2.35

Figure 3.1

stones to be distinguished. Anglo-Saxon stonemasons appear to have used only the orientations Bedding Vertical Face Into the Arch (BVFIA) and Bedding Horizontal (BH). Norman masons typically used BVEIA and BH and not BVFIA. The Anglo-Saxon blocked doorway at All Saints Church, Bracebridge, Lincoln (SK 968 676), although reset, clearly displays its Escomb character, with jambs of long and short stones. The processes of extracting a stone, the bedding plane (BP) and bedding traces. The Bedding Plane tends to produce the best surface for carving, other block faces will generally provide uneven surfaces of varying strength. Typical stone settings for a pilaster-strip and the notation proposed (Potter, 2005b) and used by the present author. This notation (BVFB-BH-BVEB) permits the bedding orientation within the stones to be distinguished. The west nave wall of St Peter, Stanton Lacy, in Shropshire (SO 495 788) displays five pilaster-strips. For a full description of the stonework of this church see Potter (2000f). The double-splayed window in the north wall of the tower of St Laurence, Caversfield, in Oxfordshire (SP 581 252) is created in a wall of Middle Jurassic shelly oolite rubble. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 153) give a good description of the window details. The ruined Llawhaden Hospital Chapel (St Mary, St Thomas and St Edmund), in Pembrokeshire (SN 066 173) is here viewed from the north-west. The outer wall above the doorway has fallen to display typical Norman wall construction (erected c. 1287). The tufa and small stalactites probable relate to the weathering of modern lime mortar and render repairs. Sketch of part of a typical Anglo-Saxon pilaster-strip in which the stones have been cut back to improve their decorative appearance, annotated with the terms proposed (Potter, 2005b) to describe the feature and used by the present author. The amount of cut back (on the right of the pilaster) of overlarge stones, has been determined by the proud face width of the narrowest stone (in this instance the lowest stone shown). Part of the north face of the north-west nave quoin of Holy Cross, Daglingworth, Gloucestershire (SO 994 050), to show the various amounts of cut back on different stones to produce a definitive line to the east edge of the quoin. In Potter (2006c) the case is made that the cut backs were undertaken after the quoin had been constructed and the stones were set firmly in the wall. The chisel marks related to this work are clearly evident. The south nave wall of St Botolph, Hadstock, Essex (TL 558 447) viewed from the south-west. High in the wall constructed of flints a band of Bunter cobbles passes through both the double-splayed windows The walls of the nave of the church of Marks Tey, Essex (TL 912 238) are here viewed from the north-east. The quoin is largely built of Roman tiles and the walls of flint cobble gravel. Two continuous bands of ferruginously-cemented gravel have been built into both the walls and the quoins. Breaks in the bands mark old window insertion and repairs. The south wall of the ruined Capel Erbach (Hirbach), Carmarthenshire (SN 529 147) viewed from the south-east. This wall displays at least five equidistant courses of grey Carboniferous Limestone in an otherwise Old Red Sandstone wall to provide distinct colour banding. Diagrammatic sketch of an Anglo-Saxon or Patterned wall illustrating the use of stones orientated with their bedding vertical to create patterns. FB = Face Bedded, BH = Bedded Horizontally, EB = Edge Bedded. In this wall a doorway (where BVFIA = Bedding Vertical Face Into the Arch) of the same period illustrates the use of cut backs to improve the appearance of an arch. The plan of an early, simple unicameral Irish church with antae is shown. Typically, there is a lack of apparent bonding between the gables and the adjoining walls and often this takes the form as illustrated. This figure portrays the nomenclature for the possible dispositions of stones which might be placed in an anta. The west face of St Brendan, Clonfert, in Galway (M 962 212) showing the magnificent Romanesque doorway and the north-west anta. The stonework in the anta shows little originality and individual stones are now placed BH. The ruined smaller church at Leighmore (Liathmore) in South Tipperary (S 225 576) from the north-west to show the two simple doorway and antae. Again this Irish church is built of Carboniferous Limestone and the antae have been rebuilt. The ruined Abbey at Monaincha, North Tipperary (S 170 884) at one time occupied an island site in a lake. It is here viewed from the south with the high cross to the right. Interpretations differ as to the periods of construction of the various parts of the church which is normally regarded as Romanesque. The present author believes that some portions of this Romanesque detail were modified from earlier Patterned style work.

x

Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 Figure 3.9 Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11 Figure 3.12 Figure 3.13 Figure 3.14 Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16

Figure 3.17 Figure 3.18 Figure 3.19

Figure 3.20

Figure 3.21 Figure 3.22

Llanfihangel-Glyn-Myfir Church in East Conwy (SH 989 494) is viewed here from the south-west. In 1781 the chancel of the church was largely swept away when the adjoining river flooded. The east wall of the church in Figure 3.2 was rebuilt following the 1781 flood and the larger stones in particular were re-used particularly in the lower part of the wall. The earlier quoin stones were also re-used but not re-installed in a position comparable to that occupied in the earlier quoin. Rotary drill holes created in order to break what are two different igneous rock types (from which it might be inferred that they were introduced into the wall at different times) which occur as blocks in the south nave wall of the church of The Holy Cross, Llannor, Caernarfonshire (SH 354 372). In Ceredigion, in the area of Penbryn, certain more elaborate grave markers, following a local fashion, were surrounded with sawn blocks of sandstone which possess sharp arrises, as shown in this example. This gravestone is dated 1780. As St Carannog Church, Llangrannog, Ceredigion (SN 316 540) is approached it is clear that much of its wall fabric is relatively modern. The stonework has a rusticated appearance, that is, individual stones have been chiselled to create irregular protuberances and a ‘shadow effect’. The south wall of Holy Trinity, Bettws Clyro, Radnorshire (SO 228 473) rebuilt in 1878 is, like Llangrannog Church, relatively modern and rusticated. The stonework is also ‘half-snecked’ with larger ‘jumper’ stones inserted at intervals into the courses. A further form of individual stone rustication is illustrated here from Bettws Clyro Church (Figure 3.7). The face of the sandstone has been tooled and a chiselled ‘feathered’ edge added to the right side of the block. The face of a buttress at St Silin Church, Llansilin, Montgomery (SJ 209 282) has the stones ornamented with one chisel and given a feathered edge with another. Note that except where one stone has had to be broken (and has no feathered edge) the arrises are sharp. On the south wall of the south aisle of the church of St Mary, Chirk, near Wrexham (SJ 291 376) this buttress displays features of relatively recent construction, with dimension-stones showing tooled faces and feathered edges. The appearance of the south face of St Illog Church, Hirnant, Montgomery (SJ 020 229) indicates from the stonework that it was rebuilt in late Victorian times. The west end of Hirnant Church (Figure 3.11) was, however, rebuilt again in 1996. It provides a good example of snecked stonework. The show of tufa reflects the weathering of the lime mortar used (possibly also reacting with the chemistry of the stonework). Sketch map of Wales to illustrate the pre-1974 counties and their boundaries. All that remain of the Parish Church of the Holy Rood, Ceirchiog, Anglesey (SH 361 768) are these large boulders of local chlorite schist. That the unicelled structure was of early date can be inferred from both the use of boulders and the thin remnant walls (0.68m. and 0.73m.). The marker stone is dated 1857. St Llwydian, Heneglwys Church, Anglesey (SH 423 762) was rebuilt in 1845. Viewed from the south-east the walls contain numerous boulders from the earlier structure with occasional included fragments of early carved stones. The west nave doorway to the Chapel of St Mary (Tal-y-llyn Chapel), Llanbeulan, Anglesey (SH 366 729) although constructed of Carboniferous sandstone proved impossible to read. The jamb stones have been reset with levelling pieces of schist and slate and the detail above the doorway does not appear to be relieving arch, but an earlier doorway constructed of broken boulders. The south-east quoin of the Tal-y-llyn Chapel is created in large blocks of Carboniferous sandstone (the lowest four stones BH). A small later, possibly 17th C. chapel abuts the south chancel wall but like the chancel is built of large re-used boulders mainly of schist. Tal-y-llyn Chapel chamfered chancel arch, viewed from the nave, exhibits both distortion and modification. Llanddwyn Church ruins occur on the tidal island at the south-west end of Newborough Warren, Anglesey (SH 386 627). The rubble walls are principally constructed from the very mixed Gwna Group rocks of the island but include Carboniferous sandstones probably from the Menai Strait (also used in the single remaining quoin). Interestingly, the dressings for the two windows that remain are of Lower Devonian red sandstones, brought by sea from a more distant source. The lime rendered west tower of St Eilian Church, Llaneilian, Anglesey (SH 470 929) is probably the earliest portion of this church, but the rood screen and the Capel y Bedd (St Eilian Chapel) are popular visitor attractions. This view from the south-west shows the 14th C. chapel connected by a passage built in 1614. The wooden rood screen and loft at Llaneilian Church, on which centrally is painted a skeleton. Viewed here from the north-west, the early nave of St Eugrad, Llaneugrad, Anglesey (SH 495 842) is on the right. When the north chapel was built, possibly in the 16th C., the north wall of the chancel was destroyed. Pebble-dashed walls prevent wall detail being examined.

xi

Figure 3.23 All four quoins in this small church of St Mary, Llanfair-yn-Neubwll, Anglesey (SH 297 778) are created in stones of local schist set in standard BH style. This style relates well to the suggested 14th C. character of the earlier windows. The church is viewed towards the north-west quoin. Figure 3.24 When visited the walls of St Mechall, Llanfechell, Anglesey (SH 369 913) had only recently been covered in lime-based render. The west end of the south wall of the chancel (which had been extended to the east) exhibits a priest’s doorway exhibiting a ‘Tredington arch’ (Taylor and Taylor, 1965). The plaster unfortunately prevented the jambs being examined to confirm an ‘Anglo-Saxon’ construction. Beneath the stain caused by faulty guttering there is a trace of a further arch. Originally the church appears to have been unicelled. Figure 3.25 The walls and quoins of the unicelled, St Figael Church, Llanfigael, Anglesey (SH 328 828) are rebuilt entirely of local chloritic schist as viewed here in the south-west quoin where all stones are set BH. Figure 3.26 Viewed from the south, the contrasting styles of rebuilding of St Cadwaladr, Llangadwaladr, Anglesey (SH 384 693) are very evident. The south chapel was built (in Perpendicular style) onto the chancel in 1661 and the nave south wall modified with semi-snecked Carboniferous sandstone coursing in the Victorian period. Figure 3.27 St Ceinwen, Llangeinwen, Anglesey (SH 439 658) has been ‘protected’ with cement render and pebble dash. The blocked north doorway to the nave has BH stonework in its remnant jambs and, therefore, is not particularly early. The ‘Victorian’ angle buttress is created in Carboniferous sandstone (with an added early grave slab) and the tower wall render inscribed to create the appearance of dimension-stone (sawn ashlar) blocks. Figure 3.28 Until 1844, St Nidan Church, Llanidan, Anglesey (SH 495 668) was a large structure consisting of two aisles and a central arcade. The eastern two-thirds of the building were removed and in that year a new east wall was constructed. This view from the south-east of the wooded churchyard shows the south porch and the new south-east quoin which from its structure was probably created from re-used quoin stones. Figure 3.29 Rebuilt in 1881, St Sadwrn, Llansadwrn, Anglesey (SH 555 759) is viewed here from the north. In the rebuild it appears some of the quoin stones were re-used and those of BVFR/BVFL orientation are typically of Carboniferous sandstone and used in the lower portion of the quoins in the main body of the church. Other quoin stones are of the variable local schist common in the walls. Figure 3.30 The Priory church of St Seiriol, Penmon, Anglesey (SH 630 807) seen here from the south-west, mainly displays in this view its Norman characteristics (built about 1140). Figure 3.31 This Norman tower arch, as seen from the nave at Penmon is thought to have been built around 1165. Figure 3.32 The Norman south doorway to the nave at Penmon preserves a typical Norman carved tympanum. Figure 3.33 Preserved in the Abbey Church, and used as a font in the nave, is this interesting Anglo-Saxon cross base, from its ornament dated to about 1000. Figure 3.34 The church of St Michael, Penrhos-Lligwy, Anglesey (SH 481 859) was extensively restored in 1865 and the vestry (left) and north porch probably date from that time. The west wall was entirely rebuilt, and elsewhere the heavy cement pointing fails to follow the stone outlines making fabric detail difficult to interpret. Figure 3.35 The ruined Capel Lligwy, Anglesy (SH 499 864) is built of local Lower Carboniferous Limestone and coarse sandstone blocks and boulders. The ruin is viewed from the south-west and the south chapel is thought to be a 16th C. extension. Figure 3.36 In the earlier, main body of Capel Lligwy, in which all quoin stones are set BH, boulders, particularly of the more muddy Lower Carboniferous Limestone gathered from the local beach display modern marine borings. These beach derived blocks are absent from the chapel extension, where the building fabric may well have been obtained from the local Din Lligwy ‘late Roman’ Celtic site. Figure 3.37 Capel Lligwy is entered by this south door which has been both modified and variously dated. The jamb stones are principally of worked Carboniferous Limestone boulders most commonly laid BH, but Carboniferous sandstone blocks are also included. Beyond the gate the large block in the nave is of a cross base which may have once been used as a font. Figure 3.38 Wall contacts clearly show that the south chapel was a later addition to the main body of Capel Lligwy, and most authors suggest that this occurred in the 16th C. Unusually, a crypt, entered by a broad staircase, was constructed beneath the chapel floor. Figure 3.39 St Mary, Pentraeth, Anglesey (SH 523 785) has been heavily restored, in 1821, 1882, and probably on a number of other occasions. For instance, older walling may be seen low in the north wall. This view from the south shows the south wall of the chapel, clearly repaired in the gable; and the nave with its 1882 porch. Figure 3.40 The small ruined church of St Mary, Rhodo-Geidio, Anglesey (SH 399 856) viewed here from the southwest. Although the walls are constructed of boulders and partially shaped blocks of very local stone, all quoin stones are emplaced BH, indications that the church was rebuilt using original materials during the 13th-15th C.

xii

Figure 3.41 Blocks of coarse Arenig sandstones projecting from the poorly coursed south wall of the ruined RhodoGeidio Church, typically reflect the use of stones too large for the wall thickness (and about the 15th C. period). Figure 3.42 The north-west quoin of St Ceidio, Rhodwydd Geidio Church, Anglesey (SH 411 855) is constructed in Lower Carboniferous coarse sandstone and laid in BVFL/BVFR ‘Alternate’ style of about 1600. However, the stones have been re-laid (and small fillets of balancing schist exist between the stones), presumably when, in 1845, the church was rebuilt using the original materials. Figure 3.43 Viewed from the south St Peiro Church, Rhosbeiro, Anglesey (SH 391 918) is possibly too picturesque to be disused. With one stone an exception all quoin stones are set BH. Figure 3.44 The church of St Beuno, Trefdraeth, Anglesey (SH 408 704) has been described as ‘difficult to elucidate’ thanks to the various modifications. The view from the south indicates that when the later transept was built the stonework was carried for a short distance into the south wall of the main body of the church. Figure 3.45 St Mary and St Cynidr Church, Aberyscir, Brecknockshire (SO 000 296) was completely rebuilt in 1860 using Devonian, Old Red Sandstone in semi-snecked style. The church is viewed from the south-west. Note the batter at the foot of the bell cote. Figure 3.46 The church of St Mauritius, Allt Mawr, Brecknockshire (SO 073 468) was rebuilt in the ‘Victorian’ period, principally of Silurian flaggy siltstones. Figure 3.47 The tower of St Mary, Crickadarn, Brecknockshire (SO 089 422) is here viewed from the north-west. Quoin stones to the tower, in arkosic, current-bedded Devonian sandstone, are not in ‘Alternate’ style and are emplaced BH. Figure 3.48 Pristine in its lime-wash which had just been completed; St Cynog Church, Defynnog, Brecknockshire (SN 925 279) is viewed here from the south-east. Figure 3.49 St Afan, Llanafan Fawr Church, Brecknockshire (SN 969 558) seen from the south-west. This side of the church was rebuilt in 1887 and the tower (with the short batter at the base) in 1765. Figure 3.50 Early medieval carved stones built into the wall of the 1887 built porch of St Afan Church. Figure 3.51 The west end of St Peter, Llanbedr Ystrad Yw Church, Brecknockshire (SO 240 204) as seen from the south, although much older, shows much ‘Victorian’ refurbishment. The Devonian greenish sandstone quoin stones are all laid BH. Figure 3.52 The north-east quoin to Llanbedr Church looks older, but the low nave wall batter is post the chancel and probably added in 1897. Figure 3.53 Restored in 1847, the church and the tower of St David, Llanddewi’r Cwm, Brecknockshire (SO 035 486) preserve few features to distinguish or date architecturally. The stunted square tower has an early medieval character and the north porch has been recently added. Figure 3.54 Viewed from the south-east, the church of St Teilo, Llandeilo’r Fan, Brecknockshire (SN 896 346) shows the outline of an infilled early doorway in the south chancel wall. The doorway is relatively tall, only 1.18m. wide, and a low slight wall batter post-dates its presence. Jamb stones of Devonian sandstone are emplaced BH with the exception of a stone at the same height in each jamb which are BVEIA in Romanesque (Norman) style. The church was restored in 1873 when the windows were replaced. Figure 3.55 St Ellyw Church, Llanelieu, Brecknockshire (SO 185 342) is seen here from the south-west. The church is protected by the Friends of the Friendless Churches. Figure 3.56 St Ellyw Church preserves a rood screen and loft viewed here from the nave. Figure 3.57 In its new coat of lime render, St Bilo, Llanfilo, Brecknockshire (SO 119 333) displays its south elevation. The church tower is known to have been rebuilt in 1881 and the rest of the church heavily restored in 1913.. Figure 3.58 Some evidence of Romanesque origins of St Bilo Church may be observed in the lintel which occurs on a blocked, rectangular Devonian sandstone doorway (with BH jambs) at the east end of the north nave wall. Figure 3.59 The west tower of St Catwg Church, Llangattock, Brecknockshire (SO 212 179) is constructed in Devonian sandstone with all quoin stones laid BH and often placed face-alternately. Figure 3.60 In the north wall of the nave of St Catwg this ‘Victorian’ replacement window in dull-red Devonian sandstone has been associated with both wall rebuilding and the insertion of a relieving arch. Common to very many Welsh churches is the reconstruction of the top of the wall (here by some five or six courses) at the time of roof replacement. Figure 3.61 St Illtyd and St Peter, Llanhamlach, Brecnockshire (SO 089 264) possesses a bold tapering tower. The nave and chancel were heavily restored in 1887. The tower is normally dated to the 14th or 15th C., but at its base the stones show evidence of ‘Victorian’ workmanship and this too may be related to the restoration. Figure 3.62 In a large circular raised churchyard and cited as both a llan and the burial place of St Cynog; Merthyr Cynog Church, Brecknockshire (SN 984 374) possesses a large west tower. Extensive restorations in 18601861 have left the church with much evidence of this rebuilding and little of its history. The structure of the fabric in the north wall shown here suggests that the chancel has been rebuilt at some early date and that the tower is older than the nave.

xiii

Figure 3.63 The church of Merthyr Issui (St Ishow) at Patricio, or Partrishow, Brecknockshire (SO 278 224) viewed as it is approached from the WSW. Figure 3.64 Unusually, to the west of the nave and viewed here from the south-east, occurs a chapel, this possibly on the site of the original church, or Eglwys-y-Bedd, The whole site suffered extensive rebuilding in 1908 and quoin stones today throughout the site are all set BH. There is some evidence that the chapel once extended to the north. Figure 3.65 The south-west quoin of the nave of Partrishow Church clearly shows that the chapel to the west was built against the nave and its batter. This may of course reflect the complete renovation of both buildings in 1908. Figure 3.66 To the south of Partishow Church stands a cross, its lower portion thought to date from 1188, and the top created in 1918. Facing the cross the south walls of the nave and chancel preserve a stone bench. Figure 3.67 The west face of the rood loft at Partishow Church. Figure 3.68 St Mary, Ystradfellte Church, Brecknockshire (SN 931 134) is viewed here from the south-east. Church restorations occurred in both 1870 and 1882 and all quoins have stones set BH. Early in its history the chancel was probably widened to that of the nave. Figure 3.69 The only entry today to Ystradfellte Church is through the west tower. Blocked doorways to the north and south of the nave are poorly visible. That to the south, seen here, is possibly the earlier. With slightly pointed head, only 0.97m. wide and now just 1.52m. high, it is constructed of Devonian red sandstone with all readable jamb stones set BH and is likely to be of 13th C. date. Figure 3.70 St Michael, Betwys-y-Coed, Caernarfonshire (SH 796 565) is here viewed from the south-east. All four quoins have their stones, in slate, set BH. The south nave doorway (seen here) also has jamb stones set similarly, but for replacement stones, including cement, at the foot of the west jamb. Figure 3.71 The relatively large south chapel (or transept) appears on the left of this view from the south-east of St Gwyddelan, Dolwyddelan, Caernarfonshire (SH 736 523). The large lintel stone to the south chapel east window is BVEIA but the jamb stones are all BH. Figure 3.72 All the quoins of Dolwyddelan Church are created with stones set BH. However, beneath the east and west gable walls a course of foundation stones, perhaps representing the footprint of an earlier church may be seen. In both the south-west and north-east (seen here) corners the quoin stone in the foundation course is emplaced BVFR, offering some evidence of an earlier Patterned church. Figure 3.73 Below the modernised window in the south wall west window of Dolwyddelan Church is evidence of a blocked doorway. Only one long BVEIA arch jamb stone is visible on each side but possibly sufficient to suggest a doorway of Romanesque character. Figure 3.74 St Peter, Llanbedr-y-Cennin, Caernarfonshire (SH 761 696) although restored in 1842, shows the results of both soil-creep and grave soil build-up when viewed from the WNW. Figure 3.75 The setting for St Tudno, Llandudno, Caernarfonshire (SH 769 538) as viewed from the north-east. The church was extensively restored in 1855. Figure 3.76 Towards the north-west end of the nave of Llandudno Church the small partially hidden window has been dated as 12th C. The date may well be correct but the window has been altered. It is built of Triassic red sandstone but certainly one BH stone at the top of east jamb is of a different sandstone. Figure 3.77 The south side of St Celynin, Llangelynin, Caerarfonshire (SH 751 737) shows that the nave wall is largely created in boulders and broken boulders of Denbighshire Grits. However, the stones in the west nave quoins, which are the better exposed, are of the same material and are all set BH. Figure 3.78 Inside St Celynin Church, the east windows (or central window plus niches) have been replaced by a single three-light window of Carboniferous sandstone construction. Figure 3.79 This view of St Rhychwyn Church, Llanrhychwyn, Caernarfonshire (SH 775 616) from the south-west gives a false impression of its size. The church is double-aisled with the south aisle being the older of the two. All quoin stones, however, are emplaced BH, as are the jamb stones in the south doorway which has been considered as of 12th C. date. Figure 3.80 Penrhyn Chapel, Caernarfonshire (SH 816 816) seen from the south reveals itself to be a ruin restored both before, during and probably after ‘Victorian’ times. For instance, whereas the east window visible is totally ‘Victorian’, that to the west is only partially and, between the two, there is the trace of an earlier rectangular window. The two southern quoins, particularly the east, have been much repaired; those in the north have all stones BH. Figure 3.81 Above the west doorway of Penrhyn Chapel the crucifixion is probably carved in green Triassic sandstone. The doorway in red Triassic sandstone replaces an earlier one arched in voussoirs. Figure 3.82 In this view of St Mary, Trefriw, Caernarfonshire (SH 781 633) from the north-west, it is believed (on a comparison of roof structures) that the older unicelled south aisle, to the right, is the older part of the church. Unfortunately, following the Victorian rebuild, no quoins are exposed to re-affirm this view.

xiv

Figure 3.83 To the west end of the south aisle of Trefriw Church this blocked doorway of 16th C. style is covered by a Victorian buttress. Although the lintel looks massive and heavy, it is of slate placed BVEIA or face out and it is likely to be no more than 20mm. thick. Figure 3.84 A small portion of the (now demolished) eastern apse of Bangor Cathedral, Caernarfonshire (SH 580 720) built in the Romanesque period still remains visible and is figured here. The flat short buttress (rising to the plant) is of typical Norman character and the wall to include the blocked window is all thought to have been built c. 1120-1140. The buttress (0.95m. wide) shows evidence of repair and at least six blocks of travertine are included in the stonework. Figure 3.85 The church of Clynnog Fawr, together with the chapel of St Beuno, Caernarfonshire (SH 414 497) are pictured frequently. However, the unusual granite Anglo-Saxon pillar sundial in the cemetery receives less attention and is figured here. Figure 3.86 The south elevation of St Mary, Dolbenmaen, Caernarfonshire (SH 507 431) is illustrated. The church is entirely built of Upper Ordovician local volcanic rock types. Figure 3.87 In all four quoins to Dolbenmaen Church, the stones, quarried very locally, tend to be large. Certain volcanic rocks can show an element of lineation in their structure. Of those that could be read as to their lineation all but possibly two stones were probably placed BH. The lower stones in the north-east quoin are figured. Figure 3.88 The church of St Beuno, Penmorfa, Caernarfonshire (SH 541 403), here viewed from the north-east, is situated in a raised, circular and crowded churchyard. Heavily restored in 1899, large slatey slabs were frequently used for repairs, although quoin stones are typically placed BH. In 1899, or possibly more recently, the east window frame was ‘preserved’ in cement. Figure 3.89 St Michael and All Angels, Treflys, Caernarfonshire (SH 534 379), here seen from the south west, was restored in 1888-1889, when the chancel was completely rebuilt. Figure 3.90 At some time, probably prior to the late Victorian repairs, the west face of Treflys Church was repaired with large, relatively thin slabs of slatey rock. These were used to protect the wall footings, where they were placed vertically (and possibly horizontally in support for the rebuilt gable). The doorway, which appears 13th-14th C. in origin, was modified in the process. Figure 3.91 From the north-east the Victorian replaced windows in the north wall of Treflys Church mark the effects of grave build-up on the walls. Figure 3.92 The Romanesque (late Norman) doorway to the north aisle of St Hywyn, Aberdaron, Caernarfonshire (SH 173 264). Note the different fabrics in the wall and the north-west quoin related to rebuilding. Figure 3.93 The upper portion of an early blocked doorway in the north aisle of Aberdaron Church as seen from the north-east and the various wall fabrics of different periods that are present. Figure 3.94 The east end of the double-aisled Aberdaron Church as seen from the north, showing sand dune envelopment.. Figure 3.95 The double-aisled church of St Cawrdaf, Aber-erch, Caernarfonshire (SH 396 366) viewed from the northwest. At the west end of the longer south aisle limited medieval foundations are present. Figure 3.96 The site of St Merin Church, Bodferin, Caernarfonshire (SH 173 315) as seen from the east Figure 3.97 Rebuilt in Victorian times, St Ceidio Church, Ceidio, Caernarfonshire (SH 288 382) possesses windows created in Middle-Jurassic oolitic limestone. All quoins are rebuilt with slate levelling pieces between the igneous stones. Figure 3.98 St Pedrog, Llanbedrog, Caernarfonshire (SH 329 315) has been built into the valley side. Various restorations were completed in 1827, 1865 and 1895 and this view is from the north-east. Figure 3.99 The heavily cement rendered church of St Maelrhys, Llanfaelrhys, Caernarfonshire (SH 211 268) as seen from the south-west. Figure 3.100 The small blocked, north nave doorway at Llanfaelrhys Church possesses a round head but the heavy render makes interpretation as to age difficult. A similar but younger doorway exists on the south wall Figure 3.101 The church of St Michael, Llanfihangel Bachellaeth, in the Lleyn Peninsula, Caernarfonshire (SH 304 343) is seen here from the west. Restored in 1888-1889 the walls are of a rubble of large blocks of feldsparporphyry. Figure 3.102 The Holy Cross Church, Llannor, Caernarfonshire (SH 354 372) is here seen from the north-east. Restorations to the church occurred in 1855 and 1905 leaving no original quoins visible.The tower was raised in height sometime prior to these dates. Figure 3.103 Much of the south and west of St Mary, Penllech, Caernarfonshire (SH 220 344) was rebuilt in 1840 and the change in wall fabric resulting from this can be observed towards the west end of the south wall. Figure 3.104 The church of St Lucia, Abernant, Carmarthenshire (SN 339 231) seen from the north-east reveals much evidence of restorations in the mid and late 19th C. Figure 3.105 The ruined and overgrown tower of Capel Dyddgen, Carmarthenshire (SN 465 126). This chapel site was abandoned prior to 1833. Figure 3.106 Two of the four medieval tomb recesses beneath the north wall of St Peter, Carmarthen (SN 407 200).

xv

Figure 3.107 The north-west nave quoin to the church of St Peter, Carmarthen. The first seven stones are all set BH, following stones were probably emplaced to the post- late 16th C. ‘Alternate’ style but the upper portion of the quoin was too high to examine. Figure 3.108 The tower and south aisle of St Cynwyl, Cynwyl Gaeo, Carmarthenshire (SN 675 399) in which the wall fabrics are of two different styles. Figure 3.109 St Cynwyl Church was substantially restored in 1890, at which time the batter was probably added to the base of the tower. Quoin stones are apparently laid in standard side-alternate BH style. Figure 3.110 Pre-dating the south porch (possibly 15th C.) and the window (styled to the same century), the blocked round arch in the nave of St Margaret, Eglwys Cymyn, Carmarthenshire (SN 231 107) is difficult to explain for it would seem to be too low to be a door. The arch noticeably does not sit comfortably on the BH jambs. Figure 3.111 Plaster cover unfortunately covers the chancel arch (seen here from the west) of Egwlys Cymyn Church. Figure 3.112 Significantly restored in the Victorian period, St Martin of Tours, Laugharne, Carmarthenshire (SN 303 114) as seen from the north-west, provides the burial site of Dylan Thomas. Figure 3.113 The church of St Maelog, Llandyfaelog, Carmarthenshire (SN 414 119) viewed from the south. The church was extensively restored in 1870. Note the chancel roof line behind the chapel is relatively low. Figure 3.114 The low roof line to the rebuilt chapel of St Maelog Church enables the east gable of the nave to be seen. The outline of a doorway can be seen on the heavily rendered nave wall. This doorway provides, for Wales, an unusual example of a doorway at roof level between the nave and chancel. This example may have a counterpart doorway to the north of the roof line. The window in the nave gable appears to be above the earlier chancel roof line. Figure 3.115 The overgrown site of the ruin of St Michael, Llanfihangel Abercywyn, Carmarthenshire (SN 308 131) viewed from the north-east. Figure 3.116 Wall contacts show the tower was built onto the early nave of Llanfihangel Abercywyn. That the west door of the nave (seen as the tower arch) once provided an outer door is indicated by the cross-bar door security fastening. The chamfered tower arch doorway, therefore, is younger than the wall into which it has been built. Figure 3.117 One of several supposed pilgrim sepulchral slabs in St Michael’s graveyard. Figure 3.118 A view of St Michael on the Hill, Llanfihangel-ar-Arth, Carmarthenshire (SN 456 399) from the west. Figure 3.119 A closer view or the west end of the twin aisled church of Llanfihangel-ar-Arth. The northern aisle is thought to be the earlier and may date from the 13th C. The lowest four stones (rising; ?, BVFL, BH, BVFR. might well represent re-used Patterned stones). Restoration in the mid-19th C. partly rebuilt the west walls and the batter noticeably encloses the west blocked doorway. Figure 3.120 The south-west quoin of the north (earlier) aisle of St Michael on the Hill was clearly battered prior to the building of the south aisle although readable quoin stones are set BH. Figure 3.121 The west end of the twin aisles of St Cynog Church, Llangynog, Carmarthenshire (SN 340 164). The northern aisle is the older and it possesses a blocked west door but no stonework could be observed that might be earlier than the 13th C. Figure 3.122 The lime rendered, battered tower in the village centre church of St Isfael, Llansaint, Carmarthenshire (SN 384 081) is certainly stark, but all structural stones in the church are set BH. Figure 3.123 With snecked and partially rusticated walls, St Martin, Merthyr, Carmarthenshire (SN 352 208), viewed from the north-west, reflects its Victorian rebuilding of 1872-1873. Figure 3.124 Thoroughly restored in 1912, St Illtud, Penbre, Carmarthenshire (SS 428 012) has a written historic record extending back to 1107. This view from the SSW shows no evidence of such early origins. Figure 3.125 The RCAHMW (1917, 230-231) suggested that the early Romanesque (Norman) church at Penbre was replaced by the current (south aisle) nave and chancel perhaps ‘in the second half of the 13th century’. In the west wall there are, however, the jambs of a 1.67m. wide doorway and of the three visible stones two are placed BVEIA, strongly suggesting that they represent part of an early Norman doorway. Figure 3.126 Viewed from the south, St Isfael, St Isthmael, Carmarthenshire (SN 363 084), appears as an unusual mixture of buildings, largely because a later saddleback tower was built above the porch. The ground to the east end of the church was quarried away to permit the chancel to be constructed. Figure 3.127 From the south-east, All Saints, Cellan, Ceredigion (SN 613 498) displays a number of its features. A higher roof line of the chancel can be seen against the earlier nave in which the quoin stones are much larger. Relatively modern windows (1908) are created in bricks. Figure 3.128 The boldly pointed church of St David, Llanarth, Ceredigion (SN 423 577) as seen from the north-west. The tower, but not its turret, is battered. Figure 3.129 St Padarn, Llanbadarn Fawr, Ceredigion (SN 599 810) is believed to have been an important medieval cruciform church. The site was one of an early monastery. Two major Victorian restorations have destroyed much of any early fabric detail. The church is viewed here from the south-east.

xvi

Figure 3.130 In the south chancel wall of Llanbadarn Church this unusual doorway occurs. It has been described as of 15th C. construction. The paler Carboniferous sandstone which is present in the pointed arch is partly replaced in the jambs with the same greywacke stone as in the walls and the overarching voussoirs. The voussoirs would appear to represent an earlier doorway arch rather than a relieving arch. Figure 3.131 The west wall of the nave of St Padarn, Llanbadarn Odwyn, Ceredigion (SN 634 605) has been partially heavily pointed. The church has had its internal walls lined in modern times with breeze-blocks. Figure 3.132 Recently cleaned and repointed, St David, Llanddewi Aberarth, Ceredigion (SN 477 633) is viewed here from the south-east. Figure 3.133 Seen from the south-west, the nave of St Tysilio, Llandysiliogogo, Ceredigion (SN 363 575) retains little of its one-time render and lime-based coatings. However, the rebuilt quoins of greywacke which appear to retain an occasional vertically orientated stone remain difficult to read. Figure 3.134 From the south-east the church of St Tysul, Llandysul, Ceredigion (SN 419 407) has been extensively ‘Victorianised’. The easterly extension to the lean-to south aisle is reflected in its roof structure. Figure 3.135 The church of St Mary, Llanfair Treflygan, Ceredigion (SN 344 441) was described as being a ruin in 1798 (WHCP). Fragments of two opposing corners exist in which the limited remains of the quoin stones are placed BH. The single-celled site (internal measurements 11.9m. x 4.7m) reveals wall thicknesses in the range of 0.75m. to 0.85m. Figure 3.136 A view from the south-east of St Cybi, Llangybi, Ceredigion (SN 608 532). Although the roof line is continuous the join between nave and chancel is evident in the south wall. All quoin stones are set BH. The church has an excellent written guide. Figure 3.137 St Ina, Llanina, Ceredigion (SN 405 598) was rebuilt using many beach boulders in 1850, and restored in 1905. The Victorian castellated bell-cote at the west end of the nave is unusual. Figure 3.138 Rebuilt in 1852 to 1854, St Restitutus, Llanrhystud, Ceredigion (SN 537 696) is here viewed towards the south-east nave quoin. Figure 3.139 The more exposed south face of St Bridget Church, Llansantffraed, Ceredigion (SN 512 675) is clad in slates for protection. Presumably, first installed at church rebuilding in1838-1840, the slates were renewed in 1994. The lowest part of the east wall is mainly constructed of beach boulders representative of the earlier church. Figure 3.140 St Gwenog, Llanwenog, Ceredigion (SN 494 455) as seen from the north-west. All walls in the church but those on the north transept and the tower stair turret carry a batter. Figure 3.141 The tower was built into the north wall of St Gwnnws, Llanwnnws, Ceredigion (SN 684 695) at a time of late Victorian re-building. Figure 3.142 The church of St Caron, Tregaron, Ceredigion (SN 680 597) is on a mound centrally placed in a restricted settlement site. The ‘Victorian’ rebuilt nave and tower are viewed for the north-east. Figure 3.143 St Michael, Abergele, Denbighshire (SH 945 776), like Llanelian-yn-Rhos Church about 10km. to the west, possesses Carboniferous Limestone doorways created with large blocks. Of the four present at Abergele, this example in the north wall has three of its six stones laid BVEIA (tympanum and lowest jamb stones) which would be typical of Norman work. However, the whole doorway character and the manner in which the stones have been dressed indicates that the workmanship is no older than the 17th C. Figure 3.144 The south wall of the chancel of Abergele Church has two thick old wall stubs projecting from it. Some have suggested that these may represent fragments of an earlier church. However, their excessive thickness would not permit a very early date and their orientation fails to support such a view. A blocked chancel doorway, in Carboniferous sandstone can be seen between the wall stubs. Figure 3.145 Viewed from the south-east, St Tysilio, Bryneglwys. Denbighshire (SJ 144 473) displays boulders low in its walls. These are mainly of porphyritic rhyolite re-used from an earlier church. To the far right is the Yale Chapel built about 1575 which is linked to the main church by an arcade supported by timber pillars. Figure 3.146 This infilled doorway on the north side of St Mary, Derwen, Denbighshire (SJ 070 507) once provided an external entry into the rood loft. Figure 3.147 Derwen church still preserves its rood loft which RCAHMW (1914, 47) dated to about 1450. Figure 3.148 The tower and spire built in 1880 at St Beuno, Gywddel Wern, Denbighshire (SJ 075 467) were fenced off as in danger of collapse when visited. The growth of vegetation that is visible no doubt being a principal cause. Figure 3.149 The infilled north nave late medieval doorway to St Beuno Church shows a complex relationship with the wall plinth (at about 0.9m.) and thicker wall below. The wall, plinth and doorway with modified jambs must have been built at the same time. Figure 3.150 The tiny Capel Trillo, Llandrillo-yn-Rhos, Denbighshire (SH 842 812), set into the modern sea-wall, has been very much modified. It exposes its heavily buttressed north wall to the sea and is built almost entirely of beach boulders.

xvii

Figure 3.151 St Elidan, Llanelidan (SJ 109 505) is a typical Denbighshire church in being double-aisled. The north aisle is, however, longer than the south probably as a result of a westward 17th C. extension. The west wall of this extension subsequently has been partially rebuilt to create a new gable and bell-cote. Figure 3.152 St Marcellus(a), Llanfarchell, Denbighshire (SJ 071 662) viewed here from the south-west can be seen to be partially enveloped by both aisles. Although this might suggest that the tower was built later, the lime render prevents the relationships between the component parts of the church to be examined. The blocked doorway in the west wall of the south aisle has been suggested as being possibly of 14th C. construction. Figure 3.153 The church of All Saints, Llangar, Denbighshire (SJ 063 424) like so many in Denbighshire has been anointed with white lime render. The east end of the church was originally built into the hillside and subsequent soil-creep and grave build-up now cover much of the eastern walls. Figure 3.154 The tower of St Collen, Llangollen, Denbighshire (SJ 217 420) is known to have been built in the mid-18th C. On its north wall, at second floor level, it possesses a wide doorway which could well be Victorian. Although certain Anglo-Saxon towers in England have similar high-level doorways the purpose of this Llangollen opening might have been to install a bell or similar large object. Figure 3.155 Thought to have been a clas site, St Dogfaen, Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant, Montgomeryshire (SJ 124 460) is viewed here from the south-west. A chancel aisle was added (originally in the 14th C.) to both the south (visible) and the north, and the whole church has been modified by ‘Victorian’ alterations. Figure 3.156 In the cemetery to St Bridget, Dyserth, Denbighshire (SJ 056 794) are these two early 18th C. table tombs with additional hooded covers. The curved covers have been skilfully worked in the local Carboniferous Gwespyr sandstone. Figure 3.157 The site at Holywell is long established and the older, much altered church is that of St James to the east. Pictured is St Winefride Chapel, Flintshire (SJ 186 764) restored in 1976. Both churches are built of Carboniferous sandstone although the Carboniferous Limestone outcrop is extremely close. Figure 3.158 The west wall of St Melyd, Meliden, Denbighshire (SJ 063 811). All quoin stones in the church are set BH and the church was restored in 1884-1885 when local Carboniferous Gwespyr Stone was used as to create the west windows. Figure 3.159 The church of Sts Kentigern and Asa, St Asaph, Denbighshire (SJ 036 744) is double-aisled. Viewed from the south-west the older, mainly early 16th C. south aisle is largely of Triassic red sandstone whilst the later 16th C. north aisle is built of Carboniferous Limestone. Figure 3.160 The site of Burry Holms Chapel, Glamorganshire (SS 402 936) as viewed from the south-west. All quoin stones on the chapel have been lost. The walls of the nave are 0.7m. thick, those of the chancel north, east and south walls were 0.6m. thick. These thicknesses, plus the occurrence of a narrow chancel arch (1.15m.), would all be features of a Patterned style church. Possibly the most interesting feature of the church walls was the use for building purposes of some cut blocks of local cemented beach sand – material which may be seen on the beach just below the ruin today. Figure 3.161 The extensively overgrown ruin of the chapel St Peter, Caswell (or Murton), Glamorganshire (SS 591 884). The partially collapsed east wall still stands as seen here from the west. Stones in the remaining north-east quoin are all placed BH and the exterior of the east wall has a batter at its foot. Figure 3.162 Cwrt-y-Carne (or Penyrheol) Chapel or Grange site, Glamorganshire (SS 572 004) is represented by a single fallen wall. That the site is early is evident in that the wall is covered in water at high tide so that currently the site provides a residence for numerous crabs! Figure 3.163 The site of the ruined Forest Chapel, Glamorganshire (SO 082 005) from the south-east. Adjoining Upper Carboniferous micaceous sandstone outcrops apparently supplied the building stone source. Figure 3.164 The nave of St Cadoc, Llancarfan, Glamorganshire (ST 052 703) is enclosed with younger parts of the church complex (tower, south aisle, south chapel and chancel) on all sides but the north shown here. This part has, however, been covered with a lime render and the north-west quoin has been rebuilt. Figure 3.165 The church of St David, Llanddewi, Glamorganshire (SS 460 891) like the Burry Holms Chapel (about 6km. distant) incorporates a few cut blocks of cemented sandstone in both the nave and the chancel. Blocks of this material occur in this early modified window in the north nave wall (the sill being a modern replacement). Stone bedding orientations proved too difficult to read. Figure 3.166 Holy Trinity Church, Llandow, Glamorganshire (SS 943 734) possesses this unusual chancel arch here seen from the nave. The larger round arch is probably of Norman age from the evidence of a few jamb stones set BVEIA seen in the south jamb. The inner narrow pointed arch with imposts has been suggested as 13th C. with the hagioscopes and corbels being added to the infilled area at the same time. Figure 3.167 Penmaen Chapel ruin, Glamorganshire, (SS 532 883) is observed here from the north-west. Although not obvious from the immediate view, the chapel has been subsumed within blown sands so that none of the wall exteriors are visible. Figure 3.168 The overgrown ruin of St Andrew, St Andrews Minor, Glamorganshire (SS 928 735) seen from the southeast. Stones of any quality, such as from the quoins have been removed.

xviii

Figure 3.169 Close to Pennard Castle (distant), St Pennard Church ruin, St Pennard Burrows, Glamorganshire (SS 545 885), stands today in a golf course. This view is from the east. Figure 3.170 St Gw(y)nno, Vaynor old church, Glamorganshire (SO 048 103) is said to have been used until 1870. The site is now overgrown with this view being towards the tower from the position of the chancel. Figure 3.171 St Tanwg, Llandanwg, Merionethshire (SH 569 282) is partially buried in sand dunes (to the extent that it was derelict for much of the 18th C.). It is here seen from the south-west. Figure 3.172 The extent of the blown sand cover at Llandanwg can be seen by level to which the sand occurs on what was once probably the 15th C. south doorway. Infilled, the top of the doorway was subsequently converted to a now blocked window. Figure 3.173 The church of Sts Egryn and Mary, Llanegryn, Merionethshire (SH 596 058) is renowned for its magnificent 16th C. rood screen and loft. Access to the loft is internally via the small extension (of 1876), which today includes the vestry and organ chamber on the north side of the church. Figure 3.174 Within the south porch of Llanegryn Church is this difficult to date south nave doorway. Built in slate, the jambs each contain a BVEIA slab, and the two arching stones are similarly orientated. It has been suggested that the doorway might be 16th C. (Davies, 2002) but with chisel-cut chamfers the suspicion must be that it is a result of Victorian restoration. Figure 3.175 St Beuno, Llanycil, Merionethshire (SH 914 348), figured here from the north-west, is one of a small number of churches in Wales that includes fragmentary Roman tiles in its fabric. They occur particularly re-used low in the gable walls. Figure 3.176 The central area of the west wall, where boulders are common, at Llanycil Church is clearly unlike the fabric which occurs in the quoins and the higher gable portion of the wall which were probably rebuilt in 1881. A small bush grows from the change in fabric. Figure 3.177 The church of St Tydecho, Llanymawddy, Merionethshire (SH 902 189) appears to have been largely rebuilt in the 19th C. It is seen here from the south-east. Figure 3.178 Llanymawddy church has ‘Victorian’ windows, most of which are constructed in sawn and carved slate. This window which occurs in the west end of the north wall is of medieval style. It may of course be a copy of the window style which it replaced; but in this earlier style the jamb stones would not have been orientated BVFIA. Figure 3.179 The Monmouthshire church of St Basil, Bassaleg (ST 277 871) from the north-east to show the contrasting wall fabric between the more distant earlier chancel east wall and that of the later Tredegar Chapel. Both walls were created mainly in Devonian sandstones but that of the chancel is about 70 per cent boulders. Figure 3.180 There are also fabric changes in the north walls of both the nave and the tower of Basseleg Church. Below the string in both walls boulders are again present, but these also occur in the higher levels of the tower (thought to be 13th C.). Note the unusual trace of an earlier nave roof line on the tower. Figure 3.181 St Mary the Virgin, Caldicot, Monmouthshire (ST 483 886), effectively modified in both the mid-19th C. and earlier, shows nothing of an origin that was first recorded about 895. The view is from the south-east Figure 3.182 A south-east view of St Deiniol, Itton, Monmouthshire (ST 493 953) which was largely rebuilt in 1869. Note that as with a number of churches particularly in South Wales the top of the stair turret rises higher than the tower. Figure 3.183 Similar to Itton Church, the stair turret of St John the Apostle and Evangelist, Llandenny, Monmouthshire (SO 415 039) is higher than the tower. Again, none of the visible structural stonework in the church provides anything earlier than a possible 13th C. date, although a much earlier origin is recorded for the church. Figure 3.184 St Govan Church, Llangovan, Monmouthshire (SO 457 055) viewed from the south-west. The church is used as a bat roost. The bell-cote has been extended to the east presumably to make it more stable. The south porch is clearly later than the 16th C. window which it obstructs. Figure 3.185 The south porch doorway at St Govan (Figure 3.184) has jamb stones which are set BVEIA, BH, BVEIA in both jambs. The pointed arch stones (also BVEIA and of the same local Devonian coarse sandstone) do not sit well on the jambs although they have the same ornamentation. It does seem possible that the jamb stones might represent re-used and carved Norman stones. Figure 3.186 St Tysoi, Llansoy, Monmouthshire (SO 442 024) although thought to be on a pre-Norman monastic site shows the results of its 1858 restorations and no evidence of this early origin in its structural stonework. Here viewed from the south-east. Figure 3.187 St Teilo, Llantilio Pertholey, Monmouthshire (SO 311 163) is a complex church with three chapels and all quoins set BH. The church is seen here from the north-west. Figure 3.188 St Mary, Penterry, Monmouthshire (ST 519 987) is a simple unicelled church today set in a field and observed here from the south-west The earliest record of the church was in 955. Figure 3.189 Although all quoin stones to Penterry Church are set BH, this slit window (ball-point pen for scale) has some Norman characteristics with all jamb stones placed BH and the arching stone BVEIA.

xix

Figure 3.190 The ruins of Runston Chapel, Monmouthshire (ST 495 916) are here witnessed from the south-west. The village of Runston became deserted in the 18th C. and the church retains certain Norman features. Figure 3.191 St Bridget, St Bride’s Netherwent, Monmouthshire (ST 428 896) as seen from entering the churchyard from the south-east. The church has again lost its adjoining village and it displays features probably dating back to the 13th C. in its walls. Figure 3.192 St Gwynnog, Aberhafesp, Montgomeryshire (SO 073 924) seen from the south-west has been extensively re-built, in some areas in semi-snecked style. Figure 3.193 St Nicholas, Churchstoke, Montgomeryshire (SJ 271 940) at one time had a gallery extending the full length of the south wall of the nave. This was removed in 1881. Figure 3.194 At the foot of the south nave wall of St Mary and All Angels, Kerry, Montgomeryshire (SO 147 901) the bases of three Norman columns are displayed. The church was once very typically Norman, with narrow aisles on either side of a nave. Figure 3.195 Re-built in Victorian times (1864-1865), St Llonio, Llandinam, (SO 026 885) has retained its typical Montgomeryshire wooden tower belfry. The church is viewed from the south-east. Figure 3.196 The north wall of the chancel of Llandinam retains some of its pre-Victorian fabric. It is just possible that the red sandstone blocks were obtained from an earlier Roman site. Figure 3.197 St Garmon, Llanfechain, Montgomeryshire (SJ 189 204) viewed from the south. Figure 3.198 The interior of St Garmon is completely devoid of internal plaster. Here the east end of the chancel is shown. Both south doorways and these windows may represent much modified Norman craftsmanship. Internally, the south doorway to the nave has traces of having been once much taller and possibly preNorman. Figure 3.199 St Mary, Llanllugan, Montgomeryshire (SJ 058 023) has its bell-cote suspended over its windowless west wall although remains of an earlier bell-cote exist on the roof. Two medieval blocked doorways remain in the walls. Figure 3.200 The tall west tower (of 1838-1839) and church at St Llwchaiarn, Llanmerewig, Montgomeryshire (SO 158 932). Figure 3.201 This immured wall junction on the south wall of St Ffraid, Llansantffraid-ym-Mechain, Montgomeryshire (SJ 221 204) has generally been interpreted as facing west (to the left). However, this impression is false: proportionately more (smaller) quoin stones face east and the plinth passes under the east side. The early chancel was widened and subsequently lengthened (indicated by roof break). Figure 3.202 The nave at St Ffraid preserves the earliest fabric. Viewed from the inside the south nave doorway is of two distinct ages, but with jamb stones unreadable it proved difficult to determine their respective ages. Figure 3.203 The southern aspect of St Gwyddelan, Llanwyddelan, Monmouthshire (SJ 082 012), a church completely rebuilt in 1863 with snecked wall fabric. An ornamented (?9th C.) stone has been incorporated into the south-east buttress. Figure 3.204 The courses of reddish sandstone, both worked and of a regular size, found in the north wall of St Gwynnog, Llanwynnog, Montgomeryshire (SO 022 938) suggests that they were obtained possibly from the local Roman site at Caersws. Figure 3.205 The church of St Michael, Manafon, Montgomeryshire (SJ 113 025) viewed from the south-east. The south wall is mainly constructed with river boulders presumably re-used from earlier fabric and the south-east quoin has recently been rebuilt as a buttress. Figure 3.206 St Nicholas, Montgomery (SO 224 965) is a large cruciform church with a tower (built in 1816) at the end of the north transept. In this view from the north-west there are two blocked doorways: one covered partially by a buttress in the west wall of the north transept; the other the north nave doorway of 13th C. style which was blocked in 1762. Figure 3.207 Observed from the south-west, the Victorian west end of the church of St Mary the Virgin, Snead, Montgomeryshire (SO 316 919), with string and batter, terminates with the buttress. Projecting stones at the east of the south wall may have once supported monuments or were related to past buttressing. Figure 3.208 Inside Snead Church the east end of the south wall swings slightly towards the north. The voussoirs above the south-east window in the south wall are cut by the east wall which may well all be Victorian. Figure 3.209 The ‘Seamen’s Chapel’, dedicated to St Anthony, which is within the churchyard of Angle Church, Pembrokeshire (SM 866 028) and thought to have been founded in 1447. Viewed from the south-east, the visible doorway is to the crypt. Figure 3.210 The interior of the protected and disused Georgian (c.1812) church of St Andrew, Bayvil, Pembrokeshire (SN 102 406). Note the central ‘triple decker’ pulpit. Figure 3.211 Seen from the north-east, St David, Bridell, Pembrokeshire (SN 176 421) rebuilt in 1887, displays walls of cut slate blocks (possibly from Glogue Quarry) typical of the area. Figure 3.212 St Colman, Capel Colman, Pembrokeshire (SN 216 384) was rebuilt in 1833-1835. Seen from the south and with a new coating of lime-plaster it resembles something from Linderhof (Ludwig’s) Castle or Legoland!

xx

Figure 3.213 Much of this two-celled, ruined church of St Mary, Coedcanlas, Pembrokeshire (SN 014 083) has been privately patched in recent years for it resides within a garden. However, this unusual cavity inside the west nave wall, and covered in logs, requires explanation. It probably occupies the position of an original west door of which there is no trace. The owners, who have seen the bottom, suggest that it was used as a font. Figure 3.214 Hodgeston Church (SS 029 993) possesses a notable Pembrokeshire tower seen here from the south-west. Figure 3.215 The church at Hodgeston contains some fine early 14th C. carving, including this three-seat sedilia in the chancel. Figure 3.216 Many of the walls at Hodgeston Church have been provided with a batter, probably when the building was restored in1856. On the south wall of the nave the batter thins towards the upper levels of the wall, and high in the position viewed, the outline of a circular arch (possibly related to a past transept) is visible. Elsewhere in the church, as in the position of the blocked north nave doorway, the batter partially overlaps the jambs. Figure 3.217 The church of St Caradoc, Lawrenny, Pembrokeshire (SN 016 068) now suffers from a fairly recent lime plaster cover. In this view from the south-east a much higher nave roof line (above the clock) can be seen on the east face of the tower. This suggests that such a roof would have covered nave aisles, the hagioscopes of which remain (and now used by the lateral transepts). The tower would under such circumstances have to be earlier than the 15th C. to which it is normally attributed. Alternatively, the tower may have once been saddlebacked. Figure 3.218 The site of Llanfyrnach Chapel, Pembrokeshire (SN 213 303) observed from the north. Figure 3.219 From the west, the church of St David, Maenordeifi, Pembrokeshire (SN 228 433), although built of local Upper Ordovician slate, exhibits different periods of building. The earlier periods of work would not have obtained the slate from the Glogue Slate Quarries as they are known today. Figure 3.220 The ruins of Newton North Church, Pembrokeshire (SN 066 134) have been ringed with fencing to prevent access. The view through the chamfered, early 14th C. west doorway, includes the chancel arch (?13th C.) and to its right a squint from the south transept. Figure 3.221 This view of St Decumen, Rhoscrowther, Pembrokeshire (SM 904 023) from the south-east indicates that the tower was built in a position to the west of the south chapel in the position of the south transept. The bell-cote is erected at the east end of the nave. Figure 3.222 The Abbey at St Dogmaels, Pembrokeshire (SN 164 458) was dissolved in 1536 and today it is in ruins. One of the better preserved parts of the Abbey church is the north nave doorway shown here from the outside. It has evidence that the door was locked by a thick cross-bar (see section 7.4). The external ballflower ornament has been described as of late 13th C. date. Figure 3.223 The Church of St Thomas is situated on the St Dogmaels’ site. The evidence of its partial rebuilding is reflected in the snecked and rusticated Victorian stonework seen here in the south chancel wall. Figure 3.224 St Justinian Chapel, near St Davids, Pembrokeshire (SM 123 253) viewed here from the north-west has been constructed on the site of a much smaller chapel. The building is unusual. At the south-west corner was a bell tower and an early description the church walls were described as battlemented. Figure 3.225 Internally the walls of St Justinian Chapel tend to be lined with semi-blind arcading. This view is of the easternmost bay in the south wall and it contains both a doorway and a window. A number of the flaggy sandstones used in the walls tend to be placed BVFIA and BVEIA, but with no pattern. A range of features, such as externally the clasping battered corners, tend to support the historic date for the building which is believed to be early 16th C. Figure 3.226 The porch at St Cewydd, Aberedw, Radnorshire (SO 080 473) is thought to be of 15th C. date. Figure 3.227 Even the medieval priest’s doorway in the chancel has been coated with plaster in this view of Aberedw Church from the south-east. Figure 3.228 Viewed from the north-east, St Mary Magdalene, Bleddfa, Radnorshire (SO 207 684) shows something of its complexity. From east to west; the chancel (wider than the nave) and the nave which is built into the ruins of an older tower. It would be most unusual for a tower to be wider than the nave, from which it might be inferred that the nave may have been completely rebuilt or alternatively the tower may have once stood alone. Figure 3.229 Visible are the south-west corner of the nave and its relationship with the ruined west tower at Bleddfa. The upper portion of the nave, its west gable, as well as parts of the old tower, were each rebuilt possibly in 1907. The tower stonework probably dates to the 13th – 14th C. The lancet window in the nave south wall has been described as 13th C. but it too has been much altered and may not be in its original position. Figure 3.230 Part of the south chancel wall of St Michael, Bryngwyn, Radnorshire (SO 187 495). In this, the oldest architectural feature normally featured from this church is the 13th C. double lancet. The window has partially been created from abnormally large stones (the lowest in the east jamb BVEIA) which might possibly be re-used. Also present are the traces of the south chancel doorway.

xxi

Figure 3.231 In the south-east quoin of the chancel of Bryngwyn Church the two external faces of one stone have been carved, respectively with a female and male figure. The general opinion appears to be that this carving is post the 17th C. Figure 3.232 From the south the church of St David, Colva, Radnorshire (SO 200 531) clearly shows the extent of relatively recent rebuilding (varying from 0.5m. to 2m. up the wall). Internally, the wall leans out and this has been modified externally to make the wall vertical. Figure 3.233 St Cewydd, Disserth, Radnorshire (SO 034 584) observed from the south. Figure 3.234 St Mary the Virgin, Gladestry, Radnorshire (SO 231 551) is seen here from the south-west. Figure 3.235 Yet again an example of damp and peeling lime-plaster, seen here on the north walls of St David, Glascwm, Radnorshire (SO 156 532). Figure 3.236 The church of St Cynllo, Llanbister, Radnorshire (SO 110 733) has its tower at the east end and this view is from the south-west. The hillside was quarried away to provide space for the tower possibly in the 16th C. Figure 3.237 St David, Llanddewi Fach, Radnorshire (SO 146 454) seen from the south-east, was entirely rebuilt in 1860. However, foundation stones that are visible indicate that the church was not then enlarged. The site must in the past have been quarried and levelled, therefore, to accommodate a building of the current shape. Figure 3.238 St David, Llanddewi Ystradenni, Radnorshire (SO 108 686) retains a blocked Norman doorway in its south wall. Although some stones have been replaced the original jamb stones that could be read are placed BVEIA. Figure 3.239 From the north-east the rebuilt (1876) nave wall of St Tecla, Llandegley, Radnorshire (SO 139 629) can be seen. The tower, built of the same greywackes and sandstones, fell in 1947 and was rebuilt in 1953 using the same material. The post-1876 buttresses are of igneous vesicular lavas. Below the eastern four-light window some pre-1876 nave walling is visible. Figure 3.240 On top of a small hill, Llandrindod old church (Holy Trinity), Radnorshire (SO 065 601) is here viewed from the south-east. The church was rebuilt in 1894-1895 and traces of the earlier foundations (or possibly built wall support) can be observed below the east wall. Figure 3.241 As can be seen from the south-east, St Mary, Llanfaredd, Radnorshire (SO 069 507) has been extensively restored (1891). Figure 3.242 In the west wall of Llanfaredd Church this unusually inscribed relatively large block of mudstone occurs (pen top length c. 35mm.). Figure 3.243 The barn-like church of St Michael in the Willow, Llanfihangel Helygen, Radnorshire (SO 046 644) seen from the north-west. Figure 3.244 The church of St Stephen, Llanstephan, Radnorshire (SO 120 422) as observed from the north-east. According to their contacts the nave is the oldest of the three major church parts. Figure 3.245 St Stephen, Old Radnor, Radnorshire (SO 250 591) as seen from the south-east. The nave and tower were restored in 1856. Figure 3.246 The font at Old Radnor Church is quite remarkable for it is made out of one block of rock. Initially the block appears to have been a boulder, quite possibly a glacial erratic. The many washes make the composition difficult to determine but this might be that of an igneous gabbro – a relatively difficult rock to work. Figure 3.247 The church of St Mary, Pilleth, Radnorshire (SO 256 682) has suffered various past disasters including the collapse of an earlier tower and more recently, a fire which removed the roof in 1894. From the south-east the old roof line against the rebuilt tower (possibly of 14th C. date) is evident, as is the string course on the tower which omits the stair turret (probably built as an addition). Figure 3.248 The base of the north side of an earlier tower to Pilleth Church has not been plastered as has the north wall of the present tower. It appears to have had an angle buttress and its stonework would indicate a date no earlier than the 13th C. Figure 3.249 This view of the lime-plastered church of St David, Rhulen, Radnorshire (SO 138 498) is from the southeast. Figure 3.250 From the north-east corner of Rhulen Church the upward thinning batter that has been applied to the north wall is evident. This was added to counter an outward lean of the wall seen internally. Figure 3.251 Rebuilt in 1874, the church of St David, Whitton, Radnorshire (SO 271 673) is seen here from the northeast. Figure 3.252 In places the pre-1874 foundations of Whitton church can be clearly seen. They are evident here at the early north-west quoin (the chancel having been extended in 1903) over the lowest 0.3m. Their BH attitude suggests that they may date from the 13th or 14th C. Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

The early church of St Pabo, Llanbabo, Anglesey (SH 378 868) viewed here from the south-west. The east gable of St Pabo preserves faint traces of two old roof lines. These regrettably are only clearly evident in certain conditions of light; one only may be visible in this view. The lower roof line supports the view that the chancel was once narrower.

xxii

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Figure 4.17

Figure 4.18 Figure 4.19

Figure 4.20 Figure 4.21 Figure 4.22 Figure 4.23 Figure 4.24 Figure 4.25 Figure 4.26 Figure 4.27 Figure 4.28 Figure 4.29 Figure 4.30 Figure 4.31 Figure 4.32

On the north wall of St Pabo, here viewed from the north-east, a change of wall fabric occurs in the position of the most westerly window, (near the drainpipe), marking an early nave/chancel junction. The central window marks the position of a doorway (thought to be 18th C.), subsequently partially infilled. Only the original nave portion of the church displays Patterned characteristics. These are demonstrated in the south-west quoin, where Arenig sandy conglomerate blocks, and stones 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 are set to the appropriate style. The folder is 0.31m. in length. In contrast, the north-west quoin at St Pabo Church has been much altered, with only three stones remaining of the original Arenig conglomerate, remaining stones (but not the plinth) are of local schist placed BH. The south wall of the nave to St Pabo Church to show the relationship of the early doorway and window. Detail of the re-used and modified Romanesque features on the south doorway. The south wall window to the nave of St Pabo although modified, retains its double-splay; this together with other characteristics, suggests that it may have been originally constructed during the Patterned period. St Tysilio, Llandysilio, Anglesey (SH 552 717) is situated on an island location in the Menai Strait as may be appreciated from the view of the distant Menai bridge. The south-west quoin of St Tysilio Church is constructed of local Lower Carboniferous sandstone apart from the foundation stone of distinctive schist. The Patterned emplacement in this north-west quoin of St Tysilio is again difficult to photograph. Only by means of detailed photographs of individual stones is it possible to illustrate the true bedding orientation of most quoin stones. In this figure the detail of Carboniferous coarse sandstones 3 (BVFL) and 4 (BH) from the north-west quoin (Figure 4.11) are shown. The north-east quoin of St Tysilio Church. The south-east quoin of St Tysilio, Llandysilio Church. The north door to the nave of St Tysilio Church has clearly been placed into the north wall, for the frame is outlined in shaped, Carboniferous coarse sandstone blocks. These blocks are all set into the wall in standard BH format. Visible in the base of the wall in the previous Figure, wall foundation stonework low in the nave north wall at St Tysilio is better observed when viewed along the wall from the north-west quoin. Built substantially of local schist, St Mary, Llanfairynghornwy, Anglsey (SH 327 908) has been substantially altered over many years. This view from the south-west shows the west tower, nave and chancel in line, with later additions of south porch (now vestry) and large south chapel. Evidence shows that only the relatively enclosed nave reveals evidence of an early origin. Viewed in the opposite direction, that is from the north east, much of the church of Llanfairynghornwy is heavily cement rendered or pebble-dashed. The north-east nave quoin is, however, visible. With the west nave quoins being rebuilt (with stones placed BH) at the time of the erection of the 17th C. Llanfairynghornwy tower and the south face of the nave/chancel being covered by the later 16th C. chapel, only this north-east nave quoin could possibly reveal early origins. All but the top metre (with BH stones) of the quoin proves on scrutiny to be of schists emplaced to a Patterned style. The view of St Cwyfan, Llangwyfan, Anglesey (SH 336 683) as it is approached by means of the rough causeway from the east. Stones 7 to 9 of the south-west quoin of Llangwyfan Church are difficult to read thanks to the lime- wash coating but can be interpreted as BVFR (oblique), BVFL, BVFR. The south nave doorway and the broad string course running for a short distance east from it may be observed in this view of St Cwyfan Church. St Peblig, Llanbeblig, Caernarfonshire (SH 487 623) viewed from the south-east. Although not very evident in this figure, for the stone colouring is a reflection of weathering, the southwest quoin of the nave of Llanbeblig Church is largely set in Patterned style. Squared Roman petit appareil stones re-used in the early south nave wall of Llanbeblig Church. The north elevation of St Mary, Llanfair-is-Gaer, Caernarfonshire (SH 502 660). An element of detail of the north-west quoin of Llanfair-is-Gaer Church. The south-west nave quoin at Llanfair-is-Gaer Church. Llanfair-is-Gaer Church viewed from the north-east. The south-east nave quoin of Llanfair-is-Gaer Church. From the west St Teilo Church, Llandeilo Fawr, Carmarthenshire (SN 628 223) gives every appearance of having been rebuilt in the mid-19th C, which it was. A view of St Teilo Church tower from the west, shows that the stair turret north-west quoin is constructed in a brownish stone (Upper Silurian conglomerates) rather than red stone (Devonian red sandstones). The turret quoin is built to a Patterned style approximately up to the height of the nave quoins.

xxiii

Figure 4.33 St Cadog, Llangadog, Carmarthenshire (SN 706 285) is here viewed from the south. Although much of the church wall fabric is influenced by Victorian rebuilding the nave walls, particularly low, remain constructed of a variety of local River Sawdde mixed river boulders. Figure 4.34 The western quoins of the nave of Llangadog Church display their Patterned early origin. Here, the northwest nave quoin is displayed. The 15th-16th C. tower is later than the west nave wall and the tower (built largely from fossiliferous, local Upper Silurian fine-grained sandstones) cuts across a blocked window which itself was possibly of 13th C. origin and set into an earlier wall. Figure 4.35 St Illtwd, Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire (SS 966 687) has an established history traceable back to the early 6th C. The earliest visible church fabric is normally regarded to be the Norman south doorway (seen here) to what is known as the ‘West Church’. Figure 4.36 Viewed from the south-west towards the 13th C. south porch of the ‘West Church’ (in which, is the Norman doorway) of St Illtwd Church site, the tower and ‘East Church’ make up an obvious integral unit. Figure 4.37 The central tower and the ‘East Church’ nave of St Illtwd, together with the south aisle, are here seen from the south. Figure 4.38 Early roof lines of the nave mark the east wall of the tower of St Illtwd. Poor traces of the quoins of the east wall of the tower are also visible beneath the wall plaster. Viewing their stone shape only, the quoins exhibit Patterned characteristics. Figure 4.39 The outlines on the south chancel wall of the ‘East Church’ of St Illtwd clearly reveal the past presence of a 13th C. two bay arcade. Probably in the 15th C. a doorway, with a travertine head, was cut into the already infilled arcade arches. Figure 4.40 A more detailed examination of the south chancel wall shown in Figure 4.39 reveals that the 13th C. arcade was cut into a wall that already possessed an infilled window. The jamb stones of that window show preRomanesque Patterned orientations. Figure 4.41 A view from the nave of the ‘East Church’ of St Illtwd towards the chancel. To be noted are the hagioscopes to the north and south of the chancel arch (below the arcades), which are at the incorrect height to be of current use. The nave floor has been lowered since the time of their use and hence two steps upwards now give access to the chancel. Figure 4.42 Part of the south porch, the nave and the south aisle of St Cadfan, Tywyn, Merionethshire (SH 588 009). Note the four equally spaced clerestory windows. Figure 4.43 The clerestory windows in the north wall of St Cadfan as seen from the inside of the church. The north wall is noticeably thinner than the Norman pillars in the arcade supporting the wall. Figure 4.44 The same north clerestory windows seen in Figure 4.43 but from the outside. All the windows have been modified. An earlier lean-to aisle roof was slightly higher. Figure 4.45 This early painting executed prior to 1881 and the removal of the St Cadfan Church west tower, hangs inside the church. Although rather dirty inside its glass frame, it shows four clerestory windows on the south wall of the church as they exist today. Figure 4.46 The reconstructed west wall of the nave of St Cadfan. The nave quoins where they meet the aisles are evident. Figure 4.47 The south-west Romanesque column in the arcade at St Cadfan viewed from the north is said to show the beginnings of an arch ‘springer’. It noticeably rises from the western edge of the column and the author presents evidence that it could not have served such a role. Figure 4.48 The tower and the stair turret of St Cadfan church as seen from the south-east. Both built in the late Victorian period they are intentionally constructed of contrasting stone type and colour. Figure 4.49 A general view of the church of Sts Trinio, Peter and Paul, Llandrinio, Montgomeryshire (SJ 295 171) as seen from the north-west. Figure 4.50 Central to the rebuilt (in 1829) west wall of Llandrinio Church is the trace of this slit window. The original jamb stones appear to have been lost and the sill and lintel stones possibly reversed. Figure 4.51 Detail of the Norman arcade arch as it appears at the west end of the north wall of.Llandrinio Church. The wall in which the arch is constructed is obviously pre-Norman. Figure 4.52 Viewed from the north-west, towards the east end of the north nave and chancel walls of Llandrinio Church, the chancel wall is off-set to the north. Its quoin shows Patterned characteristics. Figure 4.53 Three interesting features displayed on the north chancel wall of Llandrinio Church: from right to left, a piscina, a possible corbel and a round-headed slit window; none of which can be dated, because of modifications, with certainty. Figure 4.54 In the south wall of Llandrinio Church nave a Victorian, Carboniferous Sandstone window now replaces the upper part of an infilled doorway. The remaining jamb stones are all set BH and a number were once used for knife sharpening. Figure 4.55 The typical tapering tall Pembrokeshire style tower of St Mary, Begelly (SN 118 074) which has many of its lower quoin stones set in ‘Alternate’ style of the period of around 1600.

xxiv

Figure 4.56 The south porch (now vestry) of Begelly Church shows the presence of a one-time doorway in which the lower two jamb stones, to west and east, are placed with their bedding orientation BVFIA, BH in Patterned style. It is suggested that the doorway was re-used from the south nave wall. Figure 4.57 The church of St Lawrence, Gumfreston, Pembrokeshire (SN 109 011) as seen from the south-east. Figure 4.58 Thanks to the thick plaster cover this early chancel arch at Gumfreston is difficult to date. Figure 4.59 The early infilled south nave doorway at Gumfreston unfortunately possesses no readable jamb stones, furthermore it is covered in part by a flying buttress (and seen to the left of this buttress). Figure 4.60 The jamb stones in the west doorway of Gumfreston Church are emplaced in Patterned style. The two stones making the pointed arch are clearly set to 13th C. style, but they probably replace the original arch stones. Figure 4.61 When the present author first visited St Marcellus, Martletwy, Pembrokeshire (SN 033 105) in September 2010, this was the view from the nave towards the chancel. Note that the east window and altar are not central to the chancel arch; this being due to the widening of the chancel only to the north. Figure 4.62 Both west windows were reconstructed at Martletwy Church in 1848-1850. It is interesting that the bellcote has been built on the west end of the north aisle. Figure 4.63 The north-west nave quoin at Martletwy, viewed along the north wall shows some relatively recent modification at its base. Figure 4.64 The early Martletwy chancel arch viewed from the chancel. Figure 4.65 The south porch at Martletwy Church proved difficult to date. The large voussoirs have been interpreted as 17th C. and one bears a sun-dial. Few of the jamb stones could be read. Figure 4.66 In the south wall of the chancel of Martletwy Church this small window was uncovered in the second half of the 19th C. It has certainly been modified at some time in its early history. Figure 4.67 The font at Martletwy has been described as ‘late-Norman’ but this can only apply to the bowl. Figure 4.68 The interior of Porth Clew Chapel, Pembrokeshire (SS 020 985), viewed towards the interior of the east wall. A glacial erratic may be observed to the north side (left) of the chapel. The north doorway is marked by the file and camera case. Figure 4.69 The lower stones beside the north doorway to Porth Clew, by their spotted nature clearly exhibit their conglomeratic character. Figure 4.70 The south-east quoin at Porth Clew Chapel, viewed here from the east, lacks quoin stones but has clearly been rebuilt (the folder is 0.31m. long). Figure 4.71 Porth Clew has a single window in the south wall, seen here from the outside. Notice the ground level is here up to the base of the window, the wall being partially buried by blown sand. Figure 4.72 The window in the south wall (Figure 4.71) at Porth Clew, viewed from the inside. Note the east jamb is splayed more than the west. A small square aumbry occurs immediately to the east. Figure 4.73 The door revolving pin-hole in the west jamb of the rebuilt portion of the Porth Clew north doorway (see also Figure 4.75). Figure 4.74 The east window at Porth Clew Chapel seen from the west. Figure 4.75 The north wall and doorway of Porth Clew (seen from the south), at the time of the recent excavations. (Photograph kindly provided by Duncan Schlee and copyright with Dyfed Archaeological Trust). The horizontal staff marks the base of the more recent doorway and rests directly upon the stone with the pin-hole; the width of this doorway being marked by the vertical staff. Note that the early doorway was much narrower. Just outside the wall the excavation revealed a cist burial subsequently dated AD 530-650 (Schlee, 2009b). Figure 4.76 In Figure 4.75 the excavation inside the north wall revealed the presence of an early posthole shown more clearly here. This possible relates to the wooden church that pre-dated the foundations seen at Porth Clew. Note the shallow foundations and two face bedded stones. (Photograph copyright Dyfed Archaeological Trust). Figure 4.77 The inside walls of the ruined chapel of St Non, Pembrokeshire (SM 753 243) are viewed here from the north-east, towards the nave. Figure 4.78 The west wall of the chapel of St Non illustrates something of part of its structure. Beyond the doorway to the nave, the (typically Romanesque) rubble construction between the external and internal wall facings is visible. Figure 4.79 As seen from the south-west, the south end of the nave of St Non is visible. (Had the orientation been standard this would have been in the west). Following the three levels of different stonework from the south-west quoin across the wall, the middle level disappears, to leave only two levels at the south-east quoin. Figure 4.80 Detail of the south-west quoin at St Non. The lowest stone is of dolerite, the next a thin sandstone (upon which the folder, 0.31m. rests) and the third stone is a quartzitic conglomerate block set BVFL; higher stones can be associated with the ‘Romanesque’, ‘middle’ building phase.

xxv

Figure 4.81 The chapel’s south-east quoin, with the nave’s west end wall seen to the left (the folder in the same position as Figure 4.79). The single dolerite at the base is followed by conglomerates. Figure 4.82 St Andrew, Presteigne, Radnorshire (SO 314 646) was the only church in Wales prior to this study which had been regarded as exhibiting evidence of Anglo-Saxon workmanship. This north aisle wall, showing two distinct types of construction had been regarded as being in part of Anglo-Saxon character. The wall shows evidence of two early blocked windows. Figure 4.83 The jambs and arching stone of the infilled eastern window in the north aisle wall of Presteigne Church. These stones are of travertine and the window might originally have been Anglo-Saxon or Norman in age. Tentatively, the western jamb stones (right side) of this window might be orientated BVFIA, BH, BVFIA which would, if correctly identified, make the window Anglo-Saxon. Figure 4.84 The arching stones of the early chancel arch at Presteigne are preserved in travertine on the east wall of the north aisle. From the shape of the arch it is possible to determine the width of the original Anglo-Saxon church. Figure 4.85 Behind the north aisle altar table the north jamb stones of the early chancel arch at Presteigne can be scrutinised. The lowest four stones can be read BVFIA, BH, BH, BVFIA in Anglo-Saxon pattern. Figure 4.86 Internal view of the west travertine blocked window in the north aisle of north wall of Presteigne Church Figure 4.87 Towards the east end of the north aisle north wall of Presteigne Church there is a complete change in the stonework (as shown here) and the north-east quoin (perhaps a metre further to the left) has been completely rebuilt. Figure 4.88 The early nave’s western door is still evident on the west wall of the north aisle at Presteigne. It is now constructed of a mixture of stone types and its original age cannot be determined. Externally, its position is covered with a buttress. Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11 Figure 5.12 Figure 5.13

Figure 5.14 Figure 5.15 Figure 5.16 Figure 5.17

The south wall of the ruined church of St Gwenllwyfo, Llanwenllwyfo, Anglesey (SH 485 901). In the south wall of St Gwenllwyfo old church boulders such as this have clearly been gathered from the local sea-shore as may be observed by the modern marine borings. A closer view of this same boulder is shown in Figure 2.13. A small early cross base also included in the fabric in the south wall of St Gwenllwyfo old church. The south elevation of the St Cenau Church, Llangenny, Brecknockshire (SO 240 182) which essentially relates to the newer south aisle to the church. The small reset Romanesque window now situated on the south wall of the south aisle of St Cenau Church. Note the BVEIA stone settings. The west elevation of Llangenny church shows the older nave on the left (north). Traces are present of two old roof lines probably from an original porch. The small, original unicelled portion of St Julitta Church, Capel Curig, Caernarfonshire (SH 718 580) is viewed here from the north-west. The large quoin stones of cleaved volcanic rocks rise above a BH plinth, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BH. They possibly represent evidence of Patterned workmanship. The west side of St Engan Church, Llanengan, Caernarfonshire (SH 294 270) displays in particular the west tower which is believed to have been built in 1534. The west face of the north-west nave quoin of Llanengan Church. With the tower to the right and a shallow buttress to the left, the lowest four stones, which are difficult to read, may show a Patterned style. That Llanengan Church original north aisle had been extended to the east prior to the building of the south aisle can be shown by the contact at the original south-east chancel quoin where the south aisle stones have been cut into this quoin. The north aisle of St Iestyn, Llaniestyn, Caernarfonshire (SH 270 337) seen here from the north-west is thought to be earlier than the south aisle. On the south side of the north aisle at Llaniestyn this small round-headed window with voussoirs possesses difficult to read jambs – but possibly Romanesque. Geological sketch map of the Lleyn Pennisula, West Caernarfonshire. Churches within the area of the map are marked with a star and asterisked in Table 3.1. (This map is partially based on one produced by Cattermole and Romano {1981} and in turn the copyright is initially held by the British Geological Survey). The west wall of the ruined Bigawdin Chapel, Carmarthenshire (SN 512 147) from the SSW. The chamfered west doorway of Bigawdin Chapel seen from the exterior; spring water runs out via the doorway. The interior of the west wall of Bigawdin Chapel showing the west doorway, a possible blocked gallery doorway, relatively modern two-light window and bellcote. The north-west quoin to the Bigawdin Chapel is built in red Devonian sandstone.

xxvi

Figure 5.18 Capel Erbach, Carmarthenshire (SN 529 147) has many similarities with Bigawdin Chapel as may be seen from this view of the west wall and doorway. Figure 5.19 The west wall of Capel Hirbach as seen from the inside and east. Figure 5.20 The south-west quoin of Capel Hirbach has its stones of Devonian red pebbly sandstone set to the Patterned style. Figure 5.21 St Odoceus Church, Llandawke, Carmarthenshire (SN 283 113) is shown here from the south-east. Figure 5.22 The chancel arch and part of the rood screen stairs at Llandawke Church seen from the chancel. Figure 5.23 Preserved in Llandawke Church is this stone inscribed in both Latin and Ogham. Figure 5.24 The ruined St Teilo, Llandeilo Abercywyn. Carmarthenshire (SN 308 131) viewed from the south-west. Figure 5.25 The chancel of St Teilo Church would appear to have been extended in the late 16th or early 17th C. The south-east chancel shows ‘Alternate’ style quoin stones displaying excellent fossil ripple marks indicative of their vertical emplacement. Figure 5.26 The junction between the earlier chancel of St Teilo Church and its easterly extension is here observed in the north wall. Figure 5.27 The nave north wall of St Teilo viewed from the north-west displays a wall constructed with boulders at its base. These could well be of part of the fabric of a Patterned church. Figure 5.28 St Mary, Llanllwch, Carmarthenshire (SN 385 187) is observed here from the west. The north aisle was added in 1869-1870. Figure 5.29 The north jamb to the west doorway of the tower of Llanllwch Church to show the relatively recently added batter. Figure 5.30 The south-west nave quoin of Llanllwch Church in which the stones rise in the quoin: BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, either in Patterned or ‘Alternate’ style. Higher stones are placed in later sidealternate format. Figure 5.31 St Mary Magdalene, St Clears, Carmarthenshire (SN 281 156) as seen from the south-west. Figure 5.32 The thick Victorian batter applied to the north wall of St Clears Church as seen from the north-west nave quoin. Figure 5.33 This relatively wide doorway (1.79m.) in the south wall of St Clears includes BVFIA stones but has been moved and extensively modified as may be seen from the arch. Figure 5.34 The jamb stones in this second nave doorway in the south wall of St Clears could not be read (length of folder 0.31m.). Figure 5.35 Certain jamb stones of the west tower doorway of St Clears show BVEIA stone orientations suggesting that they are probably re-used from an earlier Romanesque west nave doorway. Figure 5.36 The western aspect of St Elian, Llanelian-yn-Rhos, Denbighshire (SH 864 764). The original nave is represented by the north aisle with the bell-cote. Figure 5.37 Stones in the north-east chancel quoin of St Eilian Church are all set BH. Compare with Figure 5.38. Figure 5.38 The lower portion of the north-west quoin of St Eilian church nave includes some stones which are set with a vertical orientation as well as evidence of re-building. Figure 5.39 Inside the south porch of St Eilian Church this ‘cyclopean’ doorway is still in use. None of its stones are worked in an early fashion. Figure 5.40 The inserted ‘cyclopean’ doorway in the north nave wall of St Eilian Church, is again built of Carboniferous Limestone. Figure 5.41 The north-west aspect of St Peter, St Pierre, Monmouthshire (ST 515 905). Figure 5.42 This ‘Norman style’ window in the north nave wall of the church at St Pierre clearly pre-dates the porch Figure 5.43 The north-east nave quoin to St Pierre Church has three different component parts; the top and bottom being different rebuilds but stones 7 to 12 centrally, based on their stone type and working, probably of Norman style. Figure 5.44 The much modified west doorway to St Pierre in which the jambs inside and out contain a small number of BVFIA stones in Sudbrook Stone. Figure 5.45 This view of St Mary, Herbrandston Church, Pembrokeshire (SM 871 077) is from the south-west. Figure 5.46 The blocked north doorway in the one-time north porch of Herbrandston Church in which the jamb stones are set to Patterned style. Figure 5.47 This plant pot outside the south porch of Herbrandston Church could once have served as an early portable font (the scale is marked in 10mm. divisions). Figure 5.48 The church of St Tysilio, Llandysilio, Pembrokeshire (SN 119 217) observed from the north-east. Victorian rebuilding has altered the chancel into two separate units to create a north aisle. Figure 5.49 In this portion of the south nave wall of St Tysilio, one of several Roman inscribed stones has been included during Victorian rebuilding. However, note the heavy render which has been followed by a variety of ‘pointing’; this fails to follow stone outlines but is random in its application. Such relatively modern ‘pointing’ is disappointingly present in a number of churches.

xxvii

Figure 5.50 The south wall of St Tysilio again including a Roman inscribed stone. Figure 5.51 St Michael, Rudbaxton, Pembrokeshire (SM 960 205) viewed from the south-east. Figure 5.52 The north-east quoin of the early nave (foundation stones) at Rudbaxton Church (with spectacles case length 0.15m.). Figure 5.53 The arcade separating the south aisle from the chancel, and in the distance the nave, of Rudbaxton Church Figure 5.54 At the east end of the south aisle (the Lady Chapel) of Rudbaxton Church is this unusual 17th C. monument to the Howard family. Figure 5.55 The chapel of St Govan, Pembrokeshire (SR 967 929) is built into the Carboniferous Limestone cliffs below Trevallen Downs. Figure 5.56 The doorway at St Govan to the north of the altar in which the lowest jamb stones are set BVFIA. Figure 5.57 The rebuilt well below the church at St Govan. Figure 5.58 The chapel’s south wall possesses a relatively modern batter and has probably been largely rebuilt. Figure 5.59 St Michael, Michaelchurch-on-Arrow, Radnorshire (SO 247 507) as it appears from the south-east. Figure 5.60 The church of St Michael viewed from the south-west displays the unusual saddleback tower. Although there are fabric changes over the height of the tower these are here too distant to observe. Figure 5.61 Detail of the south-west tower quoin at Michaelchurch-on-Arrow shows stones 5, 6 and 7 (displayed here) are placed BVFR, BVFL, BH; possible evidence that the base of the tower might retain Patterned stonework. Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3

The south aisle of St Beuno, Aberffraw, Anglesey (SH 353 687) viewed from the SSW. From the NNW the younger of the two aisles, the north aisle, at Aberffraw can be viewed. The Romanesque Carboniferous sandstone arch preserved on the west wall of the south aisle (nave) of Aberffraw Church. Figure 6.4 Above the central arcade of Aberffraw Church, viewed here from the nave towards the first supporting column from the west, a squared string course in Carboniferous sandstone is present. Above this the wall has been raised presumably to support a new roof. The most westerly arcade arch is circular and differs from the other slightly pointed, later arches. Figure 6.5 St Patrick, Llanbadrig, Anglesey (SH 376 946) is viewed here from the north-west. Figure 6.6 The north-east nave quoin of Llanbadrig Church is off-set against the rebuilt chancel. Figure 6.7 St Peulan Church, Llanbeulan, Anglesey (SH 373 755) possesses an interesting Romanesque font.. Figure 6.8 The view from the south towards Llanbeulan Church and its approach. Figure 6.9 Part of the north-east quoin of the nave of Llanbeulan Church. Both, the pink quartzite (below the spectacles case) and the highest stone visible, pass behind the rebuilt, possibly 14th C. chancel wall. Figure 6.10 In the north chancel wall of Llanbeulan Church this small infilled window has been described as 14th C. There are suggestions that the window has been in part rebuilt. Figure 6.11 This cross base is present at the base of the east wall of the south transept at Llanbeulan Church. The transept is thought to have been built initially in the 14th C. The rule is marked in 10 mm. units. Figure 6.12 The Llanbeulan south transept carries this date stone of 1637, suggested as representing a date of a rebuilding or partial modification. Figure 6.13 Now used for RAF Church of England services, St Michael, Llanfihangel-yn-Nhowyn, Anglesey (SH 322 774) is viewed here from the south-east. Figure 6.14 The south wall of the chancel of St Michael showing both an infilled window and the south-east quoin Figure 6.15 Detail of the lowest three stones (set BVFR, BH, BVFR) in the south-east quoin of Llanfihangel-ynNhowyn Church. Figure 6.16 The south wall of the nave of St Christiolus, Llangristiolus, Anglesey (SH 450 736). The church was largely rebuilt in 1852 but the nave shows traces of an earlier building. The stonework low in the nave south wall is larger in size and of different character, and a blocked door can be discerned in the position of the central buttress. Figure 6.17 A view from the south-east of St Iestyn Church, Llaniestyn, Anglesey (SH 585 796). The south transept is central to the view. Figure 6.18 The 14th C. memorial slab to St Iestyn that is preserved in the church transept. Figure 6.19 The 12th C. font that occurs in the church at Llaniestyn. Figure 6.20 The west wall of Llaniestyn church carries a thick cement render but a blocked west doorway was discovered in 1954. The round arch is fabricated from three pieces of travertine, and the imposts are of the same material. These may have been part of an early pre-Romanesque structure. The jamb stones are all set BH and created almost entirely of Carboniferous sandstone and be no earlier in construction than late 12th C. Figure 6.21 Llanrhwydrys Church, Anglesey (SH 322 932) is dedicated to St Rhwydrys, and seen here from the southwest. Figure 6.22 The south doorway to the nave of St Rhwydrys has an early character but the jamb stonework suggests that it is no earlier than 12th C..

xxviii

Figure 6.23 Viewed from the chancel, the chancel arch at Llanrhwydrys is tall and narrow, with imposts, but its twocentred arch indicates that this part at least is 13th C. Figure 6.24 An exposed cruck helps to support the roof of St Rhwydrys where the north chapel has been created. Figure 6.25 The site at Penmon, Anglesey (SH 631 808) where both St Seiriol Cell (left) and well (right) occur. Both are present beneath a cliff of Carboniferous Limestone which is continuous with a quarry in the same material Figure 6.26 The Penmon St Seriol Cell site. Note that many of the stones outlining the cell are face-bedded. A full and unusual explanation is given in the text. Figure 6.27 The east wall to the Romanesque chancel of Brecon Cathedral (St John the Evangelist) displays the traces of two doorways and the jamb stones of these are partially set in BVEIA style. The doorways are likely to have served a crypt. Figure 6.28 The tower of St Mary, Builth Wells, Brecknockshire (SO 039 510) is all that remains of an earlier church. The east face of the tower preserves traces of both successive tower arches and early nave roof lines. Figure 6.29 A view of St Tetta church, Llanddetty, Brecknockshire (SO 128 202) from the south. Figure 6.30 Small stones around the periphery of this 15th C. Devonian red sandstone suggest that the window (central to the south wall) has been fitted into the wall. Figure 6.31 Heavy lichen growth and grime on greyish Devonian arkosic sandstone make the outline of this blocked west doorway at Llandetty Church difficult to distinguish. The folder is 0.31m. long (and relates to the south jamb), the doorway 1.35m. wide and the sill 2.04m. long. The jamb stone orientations (two on the left, that is north; and three on the south) indicate that the doorway was probably Romanesque in origin. Figure 6.32 The trace of the pointed arch of a 13th C. blocked Priest’s door in the south wall of Llanddetty Church. Figure 6.33 The south porch to Llanddetty Church is younger than the south nave wall to which it abuts, and the quoin stones to the porch appear to be emplaced in ‘Alternate’ style, giving a possible late 16th C. date to the porch. Figure 6.34 A view of the cruciform church of St David, Llanddew, Brecknockshire (SO 054 307) from the south (with the nave to the left). Figure 6.35 The junction between the west wall of the north transept and the nave of Llanddew Church with the nave on the right. Note the infilled gap between the two walls indicating that the transept at one time fell away from the nave wall. Figure 6.36 The east wall of the north transept of Llanddew Church has also moved in relation with the chancel (left). Since the occasion of the wall infills the transept has fortunately stabilized. Figure 6.37 The arch between the chancel and the tower of Llanddew Church can be seen to be off-centre probably largely due to the rebuilt tower (in 1629) being set slightly too far to the south. Figure 6.38 St Eigon Church, Llanigon, Brecknockshire (SO 213 399) is unusual in having its bell-chamber within the south porch, as seen in this view from the south-east. Figure 6.39 Within the porch is a relatively small font, which with four carrying handles resembles a portable font (folder 0.31m. long). Figure 6.40 The earlier portion of the church of St Mary, Caerhun, Caernarfonshire (SH 777 704), the nave and chancel seen from the north-west, exhibits a mottled collection of stones in its walls. Figure 6.41 Caerhun Church viewed from the south-east displays the 1591 south chapel to the right. Figure 6.42 Detail of what might simply be described as a poorly cleaved, porphyritic dolerite as used in the quoins of the south chapel at Caerhun Church. Figure 6.43 The south-east quoin to the south chapel at Caerhun, where the stones are placed in ‘Alternate’ style. Note the stones are capable of being broken into relatively thin blocks because of their poor cleavage. The folder is 0.31m. long. Figure 6.44 The south-east quoin of the south transept of the church of St Tegai, Llandegai, Caernarfonshire (SH 601 710). Sandstone quoin stones are emplaced in a side-alternate BH style rising to the battlements constructed in 1853. Several stones in slightly finer sandstone in the quoin, unfortunately indistinguishable in the photograph, are probably Victorian replacements. Figure 6.45 The south nave wall of St Mary, Bedgellert, Caernarfonshire (SH 591 480) is thought to have been rebuilt in 1830. The visible batter was added at this time or somewhat later. Figure 6.46 A portion of the arcade that may be viewed from the north transept in Bedgellert Church. Built of conglomeratic sandstone the arcade has been dated to c. 1230. Figure 6.47 The west face of Bedgellert Church displays above the modern porch a modern window cutting an earlier window with voussoirs which, had the jambs been present, might have been shown to be of pre-Romanesque origin. Figure 6.48 In the north wall of Bedgellert Church this blocked and partially re-opened doorway with a pointed arch probably occupies the position of an earlier doorway in the north nave wall. Figure 6.49 The south door jamb of the west door of the Romanesque north aisle that once existed at Bedgellert Church.

xxix

Figure 6.50 Cleaved andesitic blocks of lava and tuff in the south-west quoin of Bedgellert Church are laid, or more probably re-laid, to the ‘Alternate’ style. Figure 6.51 The setting of Capel Galltgoed, Caernarfonshire (SH 471 403) as seen from the north. Figure 6.52 Only visible on the inside of the east wall of Capel Galltgoed is a difficult to explain, lower gable building line which is significantly off-centre. It is possible it was created when a small temporary building was erected within the ruin. Figure 6.53 The west walls of the church of St Catherine, Cricieth Caernarfonshire (SH 501 383), viewed from the south-west. Closest is the south aisle and most distant a modern extension. Figure 6.54 The blocked nave south door to St Aelhaearn, Llanaelhaearn, Caernarfonshire (SH 387 448). Figure 6.55 The south-east quoin to the south transept of Llanaelhaearn Church (taken at dusk) has a dated wall stone nearby indicating that the wall construction might have been in 1622. Figure 6.56 Viewed from the south-east St Baglan Church, Llanfaglan, Caernarfonshire (SH 455 607) displays dissimilar wall fabrics between the chancel and the nave. Figure 6.57 The inscribed late 5th-early 6th C. stone over the north doorway of Llanfaglan Church. Figure 6.58 Viewed from the south-east, the south chancel wall (right) at Llanfaglan Church is largely constructed of boulders or broken boulders of igneous rocks, and the east wall has further fabric differences. Figure 6.59 The east window in Llanfaglan church appears to have been reset. Most of the black stones are of gabbro… Figure 6.60 Viewed from the west the stonework, principally of gabbro, in the nave and the west wall of the south transept of St Baglan is very similar and unlike stonework seen in other walls of the church. Figure 6.61 Little has changed in the interior of St Baglan since Victorian times as may be seen from the chancel towards the west. Figure 6.62 St Baglan possesses an unusual heptagonal font. Figure 6.63 The north nave doorway of St Rhedyw Church, Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire (SH 470 521) would appear to have voussoirs that are more modern than the jambs. Figure 6.64 The south-west nave quoin as Llanllyfni Church has its lowest four stones in schistose rock set BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH and immediately appears to be of Patterned style. However, the stones have been partially sawn and are of ‘Victorian’ insertion. Figure 6.65 The junction between the nave and chancel walls on the north side of Llanllyfni Church. With the north transept west wall to the left, the north-west quoin of the chancel occurs beneath the three roof kneelers. The vertical space fillers on the nave side and the regularity of the chancel quoin BH stones suggests the walls have been rebuilt in the ‘Victorian’ restorations. Figure 6.66 The north-east chancel quoin at Llanllyfni Church roof kneelers have had additional stones placed above them to provide a level base for a new roof (the south-east corner is similarly treated). Figure 6.67 The north-west quoin of St Mary, Bryncroes, Caernarfonshire (SH 226 315) is created in igneous rocks in large blocks which face alternately to right and left over the lowest four stones. If the blocks are assumed to have been broken according to incipient weaknesses these stones might be considered as following the ‘Alternate’ style of stone insertion which became common late in the 16th C. Figure 6.68 In the north-east chancel quoin at Bryncroes Church the igneous rocks in the quoin proceed to its full height in an ‘Alternate style’; but this again based on incipient breakage directions in the rock. Figure 6.69 From the west of St Tudwen, Llandudwen, Caernarfonshire (SH 274 369) both the west nave wall and the west wall of the south transept are visible. Figure 6.70 The trace of a door in the west wall of Llandudwen Church became visible with cleaning and re-pointing (seen beneath scaffolding). The stonework also became much easier to identify. Figure 6.71 On a north aisle pillar to St Gwynhoedl Church, Llangwynnadl, Caernarfonshire (SH 208 333) is an inscription carrying this date. Although interpreted by a variety of authors as reading 1520, but not all, it seems likely that it was not inscribed until the mid-19th C.. Figure 6.72 The font at St Beuno Church, Pistyll, Caernarfonshire (SH 328 423). Figure 6.73 The north wall of Pistyll Church displays a number of different periods of stonework. These are referred to in the church description. Figure 6.74 The west wall of Pistyll Church. The two buttresses are modern and the four-centred arch to the voussoirs of the west door tends to suggest that it is of 15th C. date. Figure 6.75 The south-west quoin to the nave of Pistyll Church commences with four large stones probably of felsite. From the evidence available it proved impossible to determine whether a Patterned or ‘Alternate’ period would have been the most likely time for their emplacement. Figure 6.76 Capel Bettws, Carmarthenshire (SN 278 282) ruin and site as it appears from the south-east. Figure 6.77 The nave of Capel Bettws towards the west doorway from the east. Figure 6.78 The chancel arch of Capel Bettws as seen from the west. The inside portion of the arch has been rebuilt Figure 6.79 View if the two arcade arches (the furthest having fallen) related to the narrow aisle to the north of the nave at Capel Bettws.

xxx

Figure 6.80 The narrow hagioscope seen from the south-east where it enters the chancel of Capel Bettws, with the north chapel wall to the right. Figure 6.81 St David, Llanarthne, Carmarthenshire as seen from the ENE. Figure 6.82 The outline of the windows that preceded the Victorian windows of Jurassic oolitic limestone remain evident on the north wall of the nave of Llanarthne Church. Figure 6.83 The west end of the south aisle of Llanarthne Church in which the doorway has been rebuilt, possibly from an earlier position. Figure 6.84 The south end of the south aisle of Llanarthne Church which has suffered alterations in relatively modern times. Figure 6.85 The church of St Mary on the Hill, Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn, Carmarthenshire (SN 770 352) as it appears from the south-east. Figure 6.86 The tower, with a batter at the base, of Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn viewed from the north-east. Figure 6.87 The north wall of the chancel of Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn Church which includes a small slit window and many boulders in the wall fabric. Figure 6.88 A view of St Lawrence, Marros, Carmarthenshire (SN 207 089) where the tall tower dominates the church. Figure 6.89 Two of the three quoin stones in the east jamb of the south porch entrance to Marros Church. These (and others) are set BVFIA and their characteristics suggest that they were once part of a Patterned doorway, possibly transferred from the south nave wall. Figure 6.90 Part of the broken inscribed stone on the west face of the north-west quoin of the nave of St David, Llanddewi Brefi, Ceredigion (SN 664 554). Figure 6.91 The north face of the tower of Llanddewi Brefi Church showing the traces of the previous north transept. A former north transept appears to have existed prior to the building of the stair turret to the tower. Figure 6.92 The south face of Llanddewi Brefi Church tower with the traces of the previous transept in evidence. Figure 6.93 Above the position of the south transept the Llanddewi Brefi tower south wall shows evidence of various windows. Figure 6.94 The church of St Mary, Llanfair Clydogau, Ceredigion (SN 624 512) as seen from the south-east. Figure 6.95 The south-west nave quoin at Llanfair Clydogau Church includes a thick 1829 gravestone as the lowest stone in the batter (face west). The west porch (left) has been built subsequently to the batter. Figure 6.96 Three large blocks above the batter (and below the string course) in Llanfair Clydogau Church south-east nave quoin display bottom structures which clearly determine that the stones have been placed BVFR, BVFL, BVFR (folder 0.31m. in length). Below the string course the east wall is slightly thicker and at the foot of the wall there is a batter. Figure 6.97 The large cruciform church of St Michael, Llanfihangel-y-Creuddyn, Ceredigion (SN 665 760) here viewed from the south-east. Figure 6.98 The orientations of stones forming the north-west quoin of St Michael’s Church are difficult to interpret. However, that they have been emplaced in modern times as may be observed from the inserted slate fillets between the stones. Figure 6.99 St Hilary, Llanilar, Ceredigion (SN 624 751) as seen from the north. A blocked doorway can be seen in the centre of the nave wall. Figure 6.100 In the south wall of Llanilar Church is a blocked doorway, similar to that in the north wall, but partially covered by the ‘Victorian’ porch. Figure 6.101 The base of the north-west quoin to the stair turret of Llanilar Church and its relationships with the tower batter are partly evident in this limited view, which also shows a large BVFR stone beneath a BH stone forming the turret plinth. Figure 6.102 The church of St Michael, Penbryn, Ceredigion (SN 294 521) is here viewed from the north-west. Figure 6.103 To the east of the east window in the south wall of the nave of Penbryn Church the trace of an earlier (possibly 15th C.) window can be observed. Figure 6.104 A view from the nave towards the chancel of Penbryn Church shows a marked weep of the chancel towards the north (left). The nave north and south walls also lean outwards. The presence of an aumbry on the south wall of the east end of the nave could also add to the suggestion that the church was once unicelled. Figure 6.105 The south-east aspect of Penbryn Church which shows the manner in which the south wall of the nave has been in part thickened towards the base to off-set the wall’s outward lean and to permit the ‘Victorian’ windows to be set vertically. Figure 6.106 The west aspect of the church of St Michael, Efenechtyd, Denbighshire (SJ 112 558). In 1873 both the bellcote and the porch were added. Figure 6.107 The unusual oak font at Efenechtyd church. Figure 6.108 With four carrying handles this Carboniferous Limestone bowl at Efenechtyd church is likely to have once been a portable font.

xxxi

Figure 6.109 The internal view from the east end of the ruined old church of St Peter, Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd, Denbighshire (SJ 145 598). The north and south walls change abruptly in building material 8.67m. from the west end of the church. Figure 6.110 The west aspect of Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd church which is largely of local red Triassic sandstone. Repairs and replacements are mainly in Carboniferous Limestone – in the bell-cote as Victorian squared dressed blocks. Some pieces of ‘Denbighshire Grit’ are also added. Figure 6.111 The internal view of the north dooway to Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd church. The doorway is constructed of red Triassic sandstone and displays two holes for cross-bar door locking purposes. To the east the north wall can be seen to change to a ‘Denbighshire Grit’ fabric. Figure 6.112 A view north along the exterior of the west wall of Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd church indicates that relatively thin pieces of Carboniferous Limestone and ‘Denbighshire Grit’ have been added to the west wall surface presumably for protective purposes rather than decoration. Figure 6.113 This view from the north-east of St Mary, Rhuddlan, Denbighshire (SJ 021 781) shows the Conwy Mausoleum (built in 1820 of cut blocks of Carboniferous sandstone), the north aisle, and the east wall of the tower marked by a higher north aisle roof line. Figure 6.114 The north doorway to the north aisle of St Mary, Rhuddlan, seen, with the help of flash photography, from the exterior. Figure 6.115 The interior of the north doorway to the north aisle at St Mary. Flash photography tends to mask the crossbar hole which occurs midway up the jamb. Figure 6.116 The west face of the tower of St Mary, Rhuddlan displays certain building traces which are unfortunately difficult to interpret because of the lime render coating. Figure 6.117 St Mary Magdalene, Gwaenysgor, Flintshire (SJ 075 810), largely constructed with Carboniferous Limestone, is viewed here from the south. Figure 6.118 Gwaenysgor Church east Perpendicular window and the line in the Carboniferous Limestone gable created by the raising of the roof. Figure 6.119 The partially blocked doorway in the north wall of the nave of Gwaenysgor Church. The voussoirs and some of the jamb stones are constructed with Carboniferous yellow Gwespyr sandstone. The infilling and the wall are of Carboniferous Limestone. Figure 6.120 Viewed from the nave towards the east, the ruined Llan Elen Chapel, Glamorganshire (SS 511 934) preserves little of its original fabric. However, wall thicknesses differ and the folder and paper mark the approximate width of the very narrow chancel arch. Figure 6.121 St Ilid and St Curig Church, Llanilid, Glamorganshire (SS 978 813) observed from the south-east. Figure 6.122 The fragmentary window in the south wall of the nave of Llanilid Church may well have a Pattered origin Figure 6.123 The contact between the central tower (left) and the nave of St Tydfil, Llysworney, Glamorganshire (SS 961 741), despite being obscured by the lightning conductor, shows that the tower was built first. The lower stones in the north-west tower quoin visible are probably set in a Patterned style. Figure 6.124 The south face of the tower of Llysworney Church shows various phases of building (which are not at identical levels to those in the north face), The two windows of 15th C. style are of different stone construction; the lower of Middle Jurassic oolite, the upper probably of Carboniferous sandstone. Figure 6.125 The south wall of St Michael, Llanfihangel-y-Pennant, Merionnydd (SH 671 089) taken from the southeast. This figure adjoins Figure 6.126. Figure 6.126 The east end of the church at Llanfihangel-y-Pennant taken from the south. Both this figure and Figure 6.125 illustrate the use of slate in the construction of the windows probably about 1850. Figure 6.127 The south-west quoin and west wall of Llanfihangel-y-Pennant Church. The rebuilt quoins are constructed of thick blocks of slate and the west wall has a thicker protective ‘plinth’ built at its base. Figure 6.128 This window in the east wall of the north chapel to Llanfihangel-y-Pennant Church is thought to be constructed of Egryn Stone, a local sandstone from the Cambrian. Figure 6.129 The inscribed pillar stone at St Michael, Llanfihangel-y-Traethau, Merionnydd (SH 595 353) recording the construction of the church in the 12th C. Figure 6.130 The southern aspect of Llanfhaingel-y-Traethau Church. Note the wall at the east end is created in larger stone blocks. Figure 6.131 The evidence of the wall break between the nave and the chancel in the south wall of Llanfihangel-yTraethau Church. Figure 6.132 A view of from the north-west of Llanfihangel-y-Traethau Church. The north-west quoin is constructed of BH set stones. Figure 6.133 A few early window voussoirs may be seen to the west of the Victorian, Triassic sandstone central window in the south wall of Llanfihangel-y-Traethau Church. Figure 6.134 Seen from the south-west, this figure shows the church of St Celynnin, Llangelynnin, Merionnydd (SH 571 072). Note the bell-cote above the south porch.

xxxii

Figure 6.135 The west wall batter as observed from the south-west quoin of St Ceynnin Church. Figure 6.136 The north-east quoin to St Celynnin Church with stones 8 and 10 placed BVFR. Figure 6.137 At the east end of the north wall of St Celynnin there is both externally (and also internally) evidence of an early infilled window, the lower BVFIA jamb stones of which are seen here. Figure 6.138 St Cadwaladr, Bishton, Monmouthshire (ST 386 873) as observed from the ESE. The stonework of the tower walls (of Blue Lias) is particularly distinctive. Figure 6.139 The south-west quoin of Bishton Church with its different patterns of stonework. Figure 6.140 The north-west tower quoin at Bishton is very similar in structure to that at the south-west displayed in Figure 6.139. Figure 6.141 In the nave north wall of Bishton Church this, perhaps 14th or 15th C. window, is built in Sudbrook sandstone. Could there be the trace of a round-headed window just to the right, partially infilled with ‘herringbone’ work? Figure 6.142 St Dubritius, Llanvaches, Monmouthshire (ST 434 917) figured here from the south-west. Figure 6.143 The west face of Llanvaches Church tower shows three different phases of stonework and there are corresponding changes in the styles of the quoins. Figure 6.144 The north-west quoin to the Llanvaches tower is shown in greater detail with the first six stones above the plinth in ‘Alternate’ style of about 1600. Figure 6.145 The cream coated church of St Mary, Portskewett, Monmouthshire (ST 499 881) viewed from the southeast. Figure 6.146 In the north wall of the nave of Portskewett Church this unusual doorway with an ornamented ‘tympanum’ could possibly be Norman, although the jamb stones and other features give no support to this possibility. Figure 6.147 In the south chancel wall of St Arvan, St Arvans, Monmouthshire (ST 516 965), a church that otherwise was almost completely rebuilt in 1883, is this unusual blocked doorway. Figure 6.148 St Tydecko, Garthbeibio, Montgomeryshire (SH 985 119) as viewed towards the south-west quoin. Figure 6.149 The north-west nave quoin at Garthbeibio to show the three quoin stones immediately above the ledge which occurs only in the west wall (right): these rise BVFL, BVFR, BVFR (the folder is 0.31m. long). Figure 6.150 As seen from the south-east, the nave of St Aelhaiarn Church, Guilsfield, Montgomeryshire (SJ 219 116) is off-set to the tower and its roof is later than the tower’s belfry window. Figure 6.151 From the south Guilsfield Church tower is earlier than the double-storey porch which in turn is earlier than the lean-to building for the hearse built in 1739. Figure 6.152 The lowest three quoin stones in the south-east chancel quoin of Guilsfield Church in which their bedding orientations are BVFL, BH (in this view), BVFL. Figure 6.153 A view from the south-east of St Cynog, Llangynog, Montgomeryshire (SJ 053 261). Figure 6.154 The trace of an infilled, round-arched doorway and west jamb stones in the south wall of Llangynog Church. Figure 6.155 The east wall of St Silin, Llansilin, Montgomeryshire (SJ 209 282), showing the north aisle (right) and its batter which terminates at the south-east quoin (represented by only a few stones) of the north aisle before turning to the west. Note also the large yew tree just to the east of the church wall. Figure 6.156 The south wall of the south aisle of Llansilin Church viewed from the south- west. Figure 6.157 The ‘stiff-leaf foliage’ which occurs on the west respond capital of the arcade of Llansilin Church. Figure 6.158 On the eastern respond of the arcade of Llansilin Church two distinct types of ornamentation are preserved on the capitals. Figure 6.159 At the west end of the north aisle of Llansilin Church, remnants of an early doorway are preserved beneath the west window. Figure 6.160 The church of St Tysilio and St Mary, Meifod, Montgomeryshire (SJ 155 132) as seen from the north-west Figure 6.161 The Norman arcade as seen in the south aisle of the church at Meifod. Note the supporting pillar is created in Lower Palaeozoic grey sandstones and siltstones. Figure 6.162 The pillars to the Norman north arcade discovered when the south side of the north aisle to Meifod Church was modified. The pillars are of different stonework and the arcade arches have been rebuilt in Triassic sandstone. Figure 6.163 Meifod tower arch observed from the east. The columns are of Devonian sandstone but the pointed arch is of Carboniferous sandstone. Figure 6.164 The south column of the tower arch at Meifod some stones in which show relatively recent working. Figure 6.165 Detail of certain stones in the south column of the tower arch at Meifod show relatively modern rustication. Figure 6.166 The Silurian fossil Leptaena rhomboidalis, one of many Lower Palaeozoic fossils that could be identified in the walls of Meifod Church. The measure is marked in 10mm. divisions. Figure 6.167 The southern aspect of St Melangell, Pennant Melangell. Montgomeryshire (SJ 024 265). Figure 6.168 The north wall of St Melangell Church, although rebuilt in the past, preserves rather more evidence of the antiquity of the church with included river boulders evident in the fabric.

xxxiii

Figure 6.169 St Elidyr, Amroth (SN 163 078) possesses a typical Pembrokeshire tower which is situated at the western end of the north chapel (aisle). The stair turret is at the near corner and the modern vestry to the left. Figure 6.170 The north-east quoin of the north chapel of Amroth Church exhibits stones placed BVFL – BVFR, but with an absence of BH quoin stones. This work is typical of the late 16th C ‘Alternate’ style. The modern vestry is to the right. Figure 6.171 One of the lower stones in the quoin shown in Figure 6.170 is Carboniferous sandstone with numerous moulds of fossil bivalves. Figure 6.172 The contact at Amroth Church between the east faces of the north chapel and the chancel where it remains clearly shows the chapel to be the older. This proved confusing until the chancel (from evidence in its south wall) was shown to have been extended - and only this extension is younger than the chapel. Figure 6.173 St Michael, Castlemartin, Pembrokeshire (SR 911 988) has a tower on the south side. The chancel, having been built into a quarried area was probably originally much shorter but no evidence of such an extension exists in the present fabric. Figure 6.174 The tower at Castlemartin Church was built over the south transept and at one time had a south chapel to its east. On its west (seen here) and east walls the outlines of its earlier saddleback roof are present. Figure 6.175 Destroyed by successive storms and waves, the west end of St Brynach Church at Dinas, Pembrokeshire (SN 015 402) has fairly recently been reconstructed. Figure 6.176 The west tower and spire of St Deiniol, Llandeiniol, Pembrokeshire (SM 982 004), which on the south side is heavily covered in ivy. The ivy obscures the unusual internal access staircase which rises within a curved west nave wall to the first floor of the turret. Figure 6.177 St David, Llanddewi Velfry, Pembrokeshire (SN 145 159) is observed here from the south-west. Figure 6.178 Between the chancel and the north chapel at Llanddewi Velfry this arcade is present (seen here from the north-east). The pillar with the cable moulding is constructed of sandstone unlike the arcade (and the majority of the church) which is of Carboniferous Limestone, suggesting that the pillar is likely to be of a different age. Figure 6.179 On the north side of the arcade at Llanddewi Velfry and over the pillar, these two figure heads are also created in sandstone. Their composition, appearance and position offer the suggestion that they might once have overlooked a narrow Norman aisle used for perambulation. Figure 6.180 The chancel arch at Llanddewi Velfry seen here from the nave was apparently once higher and with a round arch. Figure 6.181 From the south, the west tower of St Rhian, Llanrhian, Pembrokeshire (SM 819 315), thought to be of late 14th C. construction, is both of saddleback form and with crow-stepped parapets to the gables. It has also been grossly over-pointed. Figure 6.182 Stones 2 (BH) and 3 (BVFL) in the north-west quoin of the nave of Llanrhian Church. Figure 6.183 The lowest stone in the same north-west quoin at Llanrhian has been inscribed and has been suggested as of 7th to 9th C. in date. Figure 6.184 St Gwyndaf, Llanwnda, Pembrokeshire (SM 933 396) was rebuilt in 1881 often with cut blocks of doleritic rock. Occasionally, as here in the south wall of the chancel, including an early inscribed stone (this with lichen cover). Figure 6.185 The west portion of the north nave wall of Llanwnda Church is constructed of blocks of both dolerite and slate and is far less modified than the chancel. The west quoin stones appear to have been re-used. Figure 6.186 The tower within a tower, seen from the west at St Aiden, Llawhaden, Pembrokeshire (SN 075 175). Figure 6.187 A plan of the church at Llawhaden. A full description of the church is given under the appropriate church description. An addendum to the note on the plan is that the vestry has also been described as the chancel aisle. Figure 6.188 The lower portion of the Llawhaden Church vestry quoin ‘B’, where the BH stones all appear to be placed side-alternately. Figure 6.189 In the south wall of the Llawhaden chancel is a blocked window the frame of which is partly covered by the later east wall of the vestry. Much of this east vestry wall (and the upper portion of the vestry as a whole) appears to have been rebuilt in the late Victorian period. Figure 6.190 The font at Llawhaden Church photographed here has been considered as Norman. It appears to be made in Jurassic oolite from England. Figure 6.191 This stone in the east wall of the exterior of the chancel is incised with a cross which has been considered as 10th C. Figure 6.192 The church of St Brynach, Nevern, Pembrokeshire SN 084 400) possesses a well-preserved High Celtic Cross which has been dated to the 10th or 11th C. in its churchyard. It is viewed here from the east. Figure 6.193 Photographed with difficulty from the south-west, the tower in particular of the church of St Nicholas and St Teilo, Penally Pembrokeshire (SS 117 992). Figure 6.194 Like Nevern, Penally Church possesses a High Wheel Cross thought to date from the 10th C.

xxxiv

Figure 6.195 The north-east quoin of Penally chancel has vertically orientated stones present over much of its lower portion. Although it proves impossible to photograph this detail the higher BH stones commencing just below the east window sill height (left) are distinguishable from those below (the folder is 0.31m. long) Figure 6.196 St Briget, St Bride’s, Pembrokeshire (SM 803 107) is viewed here from the north-west. Figure 6.197 In the south wall of the nave of St Bride’s Church the trace of a round-headed entry to a small chapel or transept (not opposite that in the north) occurs. Figure 6.198 The church of St Florentius, St Florence, Pembrokshire (SN 082 012) is viewed here from the north towards the north transept. Figure 6.199 The remnants of a Romanesque window, created in Carboniferous Limestone in the north chapel aisle of the church of St Florence, possibly indicative of a once Norman perambulatory longer north aisle. Figure 6.200 St Ishmael, St Ishmaels, Pembrokeshire (SM 830 067) is situated in a small wooded valley which descends to the sea, and it can be observed here from the south. Figure 6.201 A view of the north-east skew-passage from the north transept to the chancel at St Ishmael Church. Figure 6.202 External traces of the north nave doorway visible in St Ishmael Church. Figure 6.203 Beneath the north transept of St Ishmael this unusual arch on the south wall, and another under the east wall opposite, may have at one time transmitted a small stream. Figure 6.204 This view of St Mary, Chirk, Wrexham (SJ 291 376) is from the south-west. The west door to the nave portion of the south aisle is on the right and the west door to the tower and north aisle on the right. Figure 6.205 The south wall of the south aisle of Chirk Church has been greatly modified. Inverted batters have been added to support the wall in its outward lean, walls between these batters have been rebuilt and short buttresses placed below the windows. These modifications were probably undertaken in the latter part of the 18th or earlier half of the 19th C. Figure 6.206 The actions described briefly in Figure 6.205 at Chirk were later probably considered insufficient and this more substantial type of buttressing was added to support the wall possibly in 1853. This buttress covers what is thought to be part of a 17th C. reset doorway. Figure 6.207 In the Chirk Church south aisle rebuilt wall, part of this reset Norman window is present. It is not in its original position. Figure 6.208 This consecration cross centrally above the rebuilt south wall of the south aisle at Chirk, appears to remain too precisely cut in this relatively soft Carboniferous sandstone to be anything other than of ‘Victorian’ creation. Figure 6.209 In the east end of Chirk Church the buttress position suggests that the north aisle is the older, in that the south aisle abuts onto the north. However, the very low string/drip course on both the wall of the buttress and the north aisle adds complexity to the relationship. Is the buttress only built against the north aisle south wall in which the arcade was created? Figure 6.210 This view of All Saints, Gresford, Wrexham (SJ 346 550) is taken from the south-west. Figure 6.211 A closer look at the lower portion of the Gresford Church tower and in particular its south-west corner. Figure 6.212 The evidence of the earlier and newer buttresses at the south-west corner of Gresford Church. Note particularly the difference in the style of the two low string/drip courses on the old and new buttresses. Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4 Figure 7.5 Figure 7.6 Figure 7.7 Figure 7.8

Styles of stone emplacement in quoins and their changes over time. The figure illustrates the visual differences between quoins erected in Patterned style and ‘Alternate’ style. It also shows the stone shape differences in quoins set to side-alternate and face- alternate patterns. The east quoins of the trapezoidal shaped chancel of Alltmawr Church, Brecknockshire (SO 073 468) must have been built during the ‘Victorian’ period. The walls are constructed of stones which have a rusticated appearance and this is also true of the fine-grained greywacke stones in the quoins which are placed to a mainly side-alternate style. The bedding orientation on only a few quoin stones could be read but they could well follow the earlier ‘Alternate’ style. The vestry to the church of Llansantffraid-ym-Mechain, Montgomeryshire (SJ 221 204) has over the last decade or so been covered in cement render. The quoins, created in cement follow a side-alternate style which from a distance resembles an ‘Alternate’ pattern – but of course no bedding is present. The Irish round tower at Ardmore, Waterford (X 118 774) exhibits both a batter over its height and string courses. As now seen it is thought to be of 12th C. date. The Norfolk church of Gayton Thorpe (TF 745 185) possesses a limited full height batter in its round tower. The west tower of Earls Barton Church (SP 852 638) viewed from the south to show the declining crosssection with height achieved by reducing the tower’s cross-section at each string course. Cabourne Church tower in Lincolnshire (TA 139 018) rises with a full height batter and lacks string courses. Llanddowror Church in Carmarthenshire (SN 256 145) possesses a west tower, normally described as medieval, which has a full height batter.

xxxv

Figure 7.9

The tower at Talgarth Church, Brecknockshire (SO 157 338), normally thought to be of 15th C. date, reduces cross-sectional area at string courses, normally a feature of English churches. Figure 7.10 This short, foot of the wall batter on the south wall of the south-west quoin of Llanfair Clydogau, Ceredigion, (SN 624 512) includes an 1829 inscribed gravestone in its structure. The batter was probably added in the 1886-1888 church rebuilding period. Figure 7.11 This supplementary, foot of the wall batter, occurs at the base of the tower of Taughmon Church, Westmeath (N 514 600). Such batters are not common in Ireland. Figure 7.12 The south doorway of Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd ruined church in Denbighshire (SJ 145 598) to show the detail of an aperture which would have taken the door cross-bar into the west jamb. Figure 7.13 When this doorway served as the west nave doorway to Llanfihangel Abercynwyn Church in Carmarthenshire (SN 303 134) no tower existed. At the time of the erection of the tower the requirements for a cross-bar locking system for the church were deemed to be no longer necessary. The south jamb is viewed here. Figure 7.14 The interior view of the north doorway to the ruined church at St Dogmael, Pembrokshire (SN 164 458) to show the west jamb and its cross-bar cavity. Figure 7.15 In the instance of Capel Dyddgen, Carmarthenshire (SJ 145 126) the west nave wall initially carried the cross-bar locking system. When the west tower was built to cover the west nave doorway, the east side of the tower doorway became the point of security to make the tower the place of sanctuary. The wall has been thickened and the two cross-bar holes are visible.

xxxvi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study builds upon knowledge gained throughout the British Isles and accumulated over nearly 40 years. In these islands, until this work commenced, Wales remained the only extensive area in which the practices of ecclesiastical geology had not been applied successfully to the study of early churches. This author’s first acknowledgements must, rightfully go to the very many friends, associates and professional archaeologists and geologists who have supported the author through their useful discussions, guidance and assistance over the years. Many could be named, but in a list some of those who rightfully should be included will surely be unintentionally overlooked. In limiting the record, therefore, to just one from the many persons in those early formative years, the friendship, understanding and encouragement offered by the late Dr Harold M. Taylor must not go unrecorded. With regard to this particular study, involving visits to remote churches in all corners of Wales, the author wishes to express his grateful appreciation to The British Academy. The generous financial assistance received over two years from The British Academy Research Grant helped to alleviate a considerable proportion of the expenditure related to the costs of both travel and subsistence. Library staffs appear to always be most generous in giving their assistance, and on this occasion those at both the Bodleian and Jesus College Library in the University of Oxford, and in addition the University of Reading, deserve my grateful thanks. In work of this nature the author is indebted to both the Ordnance and the Geological Surveys; for the quality and availability their maps proved invaluable. For their encouragement and support, the publishers and staff of BAR, the publishers of British Archaeological Reports, must be thanked profusely – again they have done much to simplify and ease the progress of this publication. In Wales and Welsh churches, many of those who kindly gave of their time and ideas were unknown by name. There were those who provided help in locating the more remote, ruined and overgrown church sites, farmers who moved animals to provide access, key holders and others. Inside ecclesiastical buildings, priests, church wardens, cleaners and church attendees were all keen to learn more and to provide information about their building, sometimes related to original research and ideas. The senior representatives of the four Welsh Archaeological Trusts, and particularly A. Davidson, E. Evans and N. Ludlow (now retired), provided much help and guidance both in the identification of churches and in offering their recommendations as to the churches that might benefit from examination. Similar valuable assistance was kindly offered by N. Edwards and H. James. Amongst professional associates, discussions and correspondence with Professors J.R.L. Allen, FRS, M. Bell, G. Astill and W. Rodwell were always of significance and value. Never to be forgotten is the support kindly provided by my loved ones; my always patient wife, my children and grandchildren, together with my friends. It is they that suffered the long intervals of my absence and lack of attention during the protracted periods of researching and compiling this work. SO MUCH ALWAYS IN MY THOUGHTS

xxxvii

IMPORTANT NOTE AND A RESULTING APOLOGY

Much of this study relies on the ability to interpret geological features with which many readers will possibly be unfamiliar. Building stones throughout the British Isles are most commonly quarried or obtained from rocks which were originally deposited as sediments in water, and in particular, the sea. Such sedimentary rocks, as sands, sandstones, mudstones, limestones, etc; when deposited, are frequently layered, preserving slight variations in their composition and character. This layering, typically described as bedding or stratification, although generally visible in a cliff or quarry on a macroscopic scale, is normally present also on a microscopic scale. It may, therefore, be visible in a block of rock incorporated as a building stone within, for instance, an early church. In the fabric of long-standing buildings, bedding of this nature is often most clearly observed by means of a magnifying glass. Although at the time of first emplacement in a building, bedding may have been unmistakably evident, lichen and grime tend to eventually obscure its presence. In certain rock types other than sediments a similar lineation or planar development may be created by processes such as heat or pressure. These processes will be referred to in more detail within this work. The orientation of rock bedding or lamination within church wall fabrics and structures appears to have been significant to the fraternity of early stonemasons and its interpretation provides evidence of past building styles. Unfortunately, it proves difficult to portray stone bedding orientations by means of photographs – each stone would have to be seen in its magnified image as originally interpreted by the author. To illustrate different, adjoining stone, bedding orientations which might portray a pattern, requiring a necessity to display a number of stone blocks in a single photograph proves difficult. An apology, is, therefore, offered. While figure captions in this work may detail the presence of certain stone orientations they may not always be very clearly apparent within the limiting size of the photograph. It is hoped that readers will recognise that were it possible to view many of the photographs of building structures in colour their detail would be more evident. Indeed, the most productive way to observe many of the features would be to visit the locality in person. John F. Potter, Foxwood, Heath Lane, Ewshott, Farnham, Surrey, GU10 5AW (E-mail: [email protected])

xxxviii

CHAPTER ONE NEW APPROACHES TO THE STUDY AND THE DETERMINATION OF AGE AND STRUCTURAL HISTORY OF ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE

1.1 Long-established procedures in the study of ecclesiastical buildings 1.1.1 The formative years In 1817, Rickman made what was possibly the first attempt to discriminate some of the earliest styles of church architecture present in the British Isles. He distinguished particular architectural features in the towers of Barton-onHumber (TA 035 219) (Figure 1.1) and Clapham (TL 035 525) churches which he believed to be distinctive of Anglo-Saxon workmanship. Subsequently (Rickman, 1836, 26), he suggested that as many as 20 churches in England illustrated this early architectural style and believed all to have been built ‘prior to the year 1000’. He noted that certain architectural features were characteristic of this early building period. He observed, for example, the occasional presence of ‘triangular-headed’ windows and the existence of ‘rude balustres’ (mid-wall shafts) in double-belfry windows, as well as the absence of buttresses. In particular, he drew attention to an aspect of the stonework which was distinctive in each of the 20 churches: ‘…there is a peculiar sort of quoining…consisting of a long stone set at the corner and a short one laying on it, and bonding one way or both into the wall…’ Rickman (1836, 28-29) This type of stonework, which he perceived might occur in both quoins and arch jambs, he described as ‘long and short work’. One of his 20 churches, that at St Michael, Oxford (SP 513 063), exhibits such workmanship in the north-west quoin of its tower (Figure 1.2). Although strictly, long and short work is a unique style of masonry and comparable to a term such as ‘Flemish bond’ in brickwork, the significance of its recognition is such that it is often referred to as a distinct form of architecture.

Figure 1.1 The north face of the tower of St Peter, Bartonon-Humber (TA 035 219) displays both a triangular-headed doorway and pilaster-strips. The pilasters caused Rickman (1817) to attribute this church to the pre-Conquest period.

Many authors have subsequently contributed to the gradually increasing range of knowledge which now enables most aspects of architectural detail and building fashion change in ecclesiastical buildings to be distinguished and, in turn, allotted to various periods. Those who have provided detail and assisted in determining the characteristic features of Anglo-Saxon architecture have included Micklethwaite (1896; 1898); Brown (1903; 1925) and Clapham (1930). More recently, the extensive works of Taylor and Taylor (1965) and Taylor (1978) have analysed comprehensively those characteristics which could be observed as being distinctive of Anglo-Saxon architecture in all the then recognised churches of the period in England. This detailed information was both summarized in Volume I (1965, pp.1-15) and analytically examined in Volume III (1978) of these important works.

1.1.2 Currently recognised techniques for determining the historical background of churches Although our churches and other ecclesiastical buildings have been intensively studied for close on 200 years, customarily their historical background has been determined by relying on relatively few long-recognised techniques. Indeed, the same procedures have been followed for all standing buildings. Foremost amongst these practices has been the reliance on the interpretation of available architectural evidence. Long accumulated information permits us to readily identify the heavy round piers of the Norman period or the vertical ornamentation of the Perpendicular window. The work of Taylor and Taylor (1965) is significant in this respect with regard to Anglo-Saxon structures. 1

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Table 1.1 The principal methods of determining the history and background of churches and church sites. For many persons, these three techniques have been predominant in studying churches and establishing reasonably sound case histories. This applies particularly to the studies in England. There can, however, be problems; particularly in the use of architectural evidence where, for instance, an early building style is copied in a later period and a mistaken identity can ensue. An important fourth technique, that of utilising more effectively the structural and cross-cutting relationships that may occur in the walls of a church has become increasingly employed. It was extensively developed and promoted by Taylor and Taylor (1965) in reviewing Anglo-Saxon churches. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 provide examples of simple occasions where work of this nature occurring in England may be applied. Figures 1.5 and 1.6 are examples from Wales.

Figure 1.2 By 1836, Rickman had identified 20 AngloSaxon churches in England. The west face of the tower at St Michael by the Gate, in Oxford (SP 513 063) he observed possessed distinctive long and short quoins. Two other methods have also been employed widely to determine the history and developmental background of buildings (Table 1.1). Archaeological site investigation can provide substantial and valuable evidence, in particular, from the recovery of datable objects. Such investigation is easier to apply to ruined ecclesiastical sites; otherwise excavation tends to be somewhat restricted in occupied premises. Edwards (2009, 5), however, considering Wales, wrote that ‘comparatively few excavations’ had occurred, ‘…mainly because most church sites of likely early medieval origin are still in use’. Nondisruptive techniques, such as ground penetrating radar, are increasingly now applied in such circumstances to investigate hidden earlier structures such as walls.

1.1.3 Ecclesiastical Geology – a new approach to ecclesiastical historical dating This relatively new approach to the dating of church walls and structures was first described by the current author as recently as 2002-2005. The outline of precisely how the techniques involved were gradually appreciated is fully outlined in Potter (2009c). It has further been summarized in Potter (2011a). These works briefly review a large number of papers which cover the two principal aspects of Ecclesiastical Geology. These are:

In many instances, aspects of the early history of ecclesiastical sites may be gleaned from the study of historical documentation. Invaluable historical detail may be found in writings such as those of Bede in Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, or in Wales, in texts such as The Book of Llandaf(f). Some documentation may provide more restricted information and possibly only the existence of a church at a specific date: information found for instance in the Domesday records and tax related records (Taxatio) are limited, but of value, in this way. Caution must apply in determining the accuracy of early texts which record events in historical terms particularly where the time gap between the supposed event and the written record is substantial. Edwards (2009, 13) also referred to a further Welsh difficulty with the comment ‘… historical sources are also very limited’.

A. The correct identification of the stone employed and its likely source, and B. The recognition of the different methods of stone working used by various stone masons in the building of churches and insertion of the stone in church walls and structures. Both of these features show significant variations through time and their correct distinction permits the identification of different periods of church building or modification.

2

Chapter One

Figure 1.3 St Nicholas, Shereford (TF 886 295) is one of Norfolk’s many round tower churches built mainly of flints. Briefly reviewed, the church once had an Early English north aisle added to the nave. When this was removed the arcade arches were infilled with flints. Subsequently, windows, a door and the buttresses were to follow.

Figure 1.4 Part of the south wall of the chancel of All Saints, Messing (TL 897 189). A 13th C., Upper Greensand window to the west (left), has been infilled, but is partly cut by a Tudor brick door (also infilled), which in turn is cut by the window. Inside the church the most recent window is surrounded by Jacobean woodwork which can be dated to 1634. 3

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 1.5 In 1905, a new, or more probably a renovated, porch was erected over the south door to the nave of St Ellyw, Llanelieu, in Brecknockshire (SO 185 342). The porch partially covers two earlier south doors, the earliest revealing only its irregular voussoirs constructed in Devonian red sandstone, the second door preserves jamb stones in green Devonian arkose (note that the arch stones of the second door cut the voussoirs of the first door).

Figure 1.6 An early mass dial, at St Jerome, Llangwym, in Denbighshire (SH 997 446) has been partially covered by a more recent porch. But the dial is inverted, indicating that this is not in its original position. 4

Chapter One 1.2 Ecclesiastical Geology – rock identification and source

early churches of south-east England’s Chalk areas, where, for instance, local field-picked flints are incorporated in the walls. Even as recently as 1890-1891, for the added north aisle of Kemsing Church (TQ 556 588) (Figure 1.7), in Kent, locals were employed to harvest flints from the nearby North Downs, and these were knapped in the churchyard before being used in the new walls. Some of the churches described in the present work in Wales have been built or extended using rocks which outcropped immediately beside the church. Early transportation for larger and possibly more distant blocks of potential building stone must have involved conveyances such as carts. Salzman (1967, 119), however, argued that during the medieval period the cost of transport overland would have exceeded the cost of the stone itself for distances in excess of 12 miles (19.3 km). Water, therefore, provided the primary means of moving heavy or bulky materials over longer distances and even minor streams would have been utilized where necessary with carriage in small, flatbottomed boats (Clifton-Taylor, 1972, 80; Pearson and Potter, 2002, 107).

Different rock types possess very marked dissimilarities in their properties, factors clearly appreciated by the various stone masons through the ages, but unfortunately not always fully understood by church historians or archaeologists. These variations provide marked differences in factors like strength, durability, ease of working, susceptibility to weathering, hardness, chemical reaction, colour and colour variation with time, likely size of worked block, appearance, potential wall structure, ability to resist or attract lichen and similar growth, etc. Historically, there have been countless changes in the manner in which bulk commodities like stone have been moved from source to the site of ultimate use. Although the Romans, with a reasonable network of constructed roads, were capable of selecting and transporting building stone, on occasions, from a moderate distance (as described by Selwood, 1984): generally improvements over time in methods of transport have permitted the stone types used in the external fabrics of churches to be drawn from sources which have been increasingly more distant. Certainly manual collection and carriage of stone provided the building materials for the fabric of a considerable number of early churches. This is well exemplified in many of the

In more recent centuries canals, railways, roads, ship and air transportation have successively and greatly, influenced the selection of various rock types that could be used for ecclesiastical buildings. A Scottish granite identified in a church wall in the south of England immediately reflects

Figure 1.7 Kemsing Church, Kent (TQ 556 588) viewed from the south west.

5

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology an introduction in very recent centuries. Welsh Upper Carboniferous Pennant Stone brought over the majority of its journey by rail figured prominently in the late 19th century churches studied by Allen (2007) in Berkshire. Its use clearly reveals this stone’s availability and the existence of a suitable means of transport. Additionally, this example emphasizes the importance of fashion in stone use.

is in coursed, partly herringbone style; in the south wall the work is random with the stones well-spaced in mortar (the plinth presumably being of later origin). Within the porch the remnant round arch of an early, now partially hidden, doorway exists (Figure 1.8). It proved essential to discover the identity of the weathered and dirt covered voussoirs: if of Upper Greensand or Chalk the original doorway would not be Anglo-Saxon (see Table 1.3). Using a ladder for access, it proved possible to clean a small portion of a voussoir; the stone was unlike anything seen elsewhere in the church! It was of Cretaceous, Hythe Beds, of a lithology seen typically in Sussex and similar to Pulborough Stone, a rock type commonly used as a structural stone in late Anglo-Saxon churches (Potter, 2007b) in that Sussex area. The stone was not thought

The earliest builders in stone tended to use cobbles and boulders for building purposes if they were locally readily available. This restricted the amount of shaping and working of stone required but when placed in walls, often involved the use of rather more mortar. Sources for such stones were typically river courses inland and, in coastal areas, beaches and sea cliffs. Examples of such use from beach areas are described in Potter (2005d: 2005e). The subject is discussed more extensively in Potter (2009c) where instances of cobbles obtained from both superficial and fluvioglacial deposits are also considered. Certain other aspects of stone use are also referred to in the first two chapters of Potter (2009c), these include; the importance of church site consecration, superficial deposits, re-use of stone, the identification of burnt stone and the evidence of stone origin revealed by marine animals and their markings. Geologically, it must be recognised that the careful recognition of rock types emplaced in church walls or structures can enable those features to be readily dated to certain building periods. The present author was able to show that within the London Basin ferruginouslycemented gravels and sands from superficial deposits was to have proved an important building stone during the Anglo-Saxon period (Potter, 2001a). Similar examples are numerous and certainly not confined to south-east England, although geologically, because rock types are limited to specific geographical areas, it is necessary to possess familiarity with each rock type and its distribution. Tables 1.2 to 1.4 for instance, the basics of which were given in a lecture to the Kent Archaeological Society in 2003, really only apply precisely for many of their observations to the northern parts of Kent and Surrey and the southern portion of East Anglia.

Table 1.2 Aspects of stone use in the region of north Kent by the Romans

The complexity and regional geological and archaeological knowledge required to fully utilize rock type recognition can be illustrated by reference to a church referred to above (Figure 1.7) in this region, upon which the present author was very recently asked to deliberate. In brief, the early walls of the nave of St Mary the Virgin, Kemsing Church (TQ 556 588) are visible only on the west and south sides. The south-west quoin is covered by a relatively modern buttress but the south-east quoin has its stones placed in side-alternate style and composed of exfoliated Cretaceous, Chalk. Chalk also occurs as the original stone, now much replaced, in certain nave and chancel windows and in the south wall chamfered plinth where it has been replaced partially by Upper Greensand, which is observed also in the upper portion of the chancel priest’s doorway. Stonework in the west wall of the nave

Table 1.3 Aspects of stone use in the region of north Kent by the Anglo-Saxons.

6

Chapter One The Kemsing Church example, concerning the importance of rock identification, highlights that the statement made earlier in this section that, the earliest church builders, lacking suitable means of transport used only very local stone, had exceptions. The Anglo-Saxon masons undoubtedly had a very shrewd understanding of the various properties and qualities of different rocks. Therefore, for structural work, as for quoins, windows and arches, they frequently selected stone from more distant sources; because that stone had the necessary properties which were required for the purpose (see Potter, 2009c, Fig. 2.3). If a local stone possessed appropriate characteristics for the structural features concerned it was, of course, utilized.

Table 1.4 Aspects of stone use in the region of north Kent by the Normans

1.3 Ecclesiastical Geology – converting rocks to stones suitable for architectural building requirements: orientations, patterns and masonry details 1.3.1 Fundamental Geology

to be local to north Kent but had probably been obtained some 50 to 60 km. away to the south where its structural properties had already been recognised. It, therefore, proved possible to provide support for the early origins of this church. Similar examples of the value of stone identification can be demonstrated in churches elsewhere in the British Isles, and, as will be shown in this volume, this is inclusive of Wales.

For those with but limited training in Geology it is necessary to briefly explain why rock types are extremely diverse and differ greatly in both characteristics and properties. The rocks of the Earth’s crust are of three broad types; igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic and their relative distribution at the surface where they can be exploited varies enormously.

Figure 1.8 The south porch of St Mary the Virgin, Kemsing, covers the original south door to the nave, the stonework of which, beneath years of grime, proves to be a stone, much used by the Anglo-Saxon masons, from Pulborough in Sussex. 7

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Igneous rocks: have consolidated from a molten state, they can be like glass if they cooled very quickly or with a coarse crystalline composition when the cooling was slow. Differences in the initial chemical composition at formation will influence a range of characteristics such as colour, strength, hardness and susceptibility to weathering.

from the churches concerned that this rock type may have been worked out in the 14th C. Builders and masons have used, according to availability, virtually every rock variety that is known. The less suitable and inferior rock types may only be found in the dry stone walls of field boundaries whereas rocks of superior value are more widely used in accordance with their qualities.

Sedimentary rocks: have been derived directly or indirectly from the weathering products of other rocks (including previous sedimentary rocks); transported from their source by water, ice, gravity or wind they are subsequently created as a detrital, chemical or organic deposit; again providing an enormous variety of form and character. Further modifications can occur with deep burial over time or differences in the rate at which a sediment has accumulated.

1.3.2 Identification of ecclesiastical stone types and stone characteristics All rocks show degrees of weathering and this takes many forms. Geological collections of rocks in nearly all instances tend to exhibit these as freshly broken samples, for geologists seek to identify the mineral content of each rock specimen in order to confirm the rock’s identification. There is, in this author’s opinion, a need for an easily accessible and viewable national collection of weathered rock samples to assist those seeking to identify the rocks in this state – the hammering of buildings or monuments to remove rock fragments, however tempting, being very much taboo.

Metamorphic rocks: result from any previous rock type being subjected to intense pressure (as by earth movements), or temperature (as from proximate igneous molten rock), or both pressure and temperature combined. Although igneous rocks are commonly the strongest of the three rock varieties, sedimentary rocks afford the easiest rock types to use for building purposes for they can more readily be broken into a desired shape. In the British Isles sedimentary rocks are additionally more abundant at the surface and more readily available and, therefore, the most frequently used. It is important to note that the character or lithology of many sedimentary rocks can vary within remarkably short distances; often as little as a kilometre laterally and vertically in less than a metre.

In an external church wall, the identification of both particular stones and their characteristics are fraught with difficulties. For higher wall levels, quality binoculars provide some assistance but only with the support of suitable ladders and scaffolding can more precise identifications be made. Apart from natural weathering, all but a few rock types provide highly suitable surfaces for a growth of different lichens. This is, particularly evident in the wet and cleaner climate of Wales. It is often so luxuriant that, even viewed through a high powered lens, all rock is obliterated from view. In some wall faces this occurs to the extent that no genuine rock anywhere is visible. Thick lichen growth also tends to encourage the presence of moss and other life forms. In certain conditions the stones become hidden beneath a build-up of soot and grime and without extensive cleaning it proves impossible to ascertain the character or composition of the stone. Churches may both internally or externally possess walls that are covered with a range of applied finishes which unfortunately cover and hide all evidence of the stonework. Internally, access to the walls may prove difficult and illumination insufficient to enable stones to be properly examined. Natural sunlight, rather than artificial light tends to be a requirement for precise rock identification.

There is a tendency for those identifying rock types in long-erected buildings like early churches to assume that the extraction point for the stone can be related to exposures or quarries which can be identified today. Rarely, however, can the precise site from which a stone has been extracted be distinguished. Both natural exposures and quarries are apt to disappear relatively speedily. In the instances of quarries this may be due to cessation of use, possibly relating to suitable stone being worked out; other exposures may be covered by vegetation growth or lost as a result of natural erosion, such as at a sea cliff. An example that can be cited from this study relates to churches in Monmouthshire to the west of Chepstow. Exposures of the Triassic, Mercia Mudstone Group, Sudbrook Sandstone are currently exposed on the western shore of the Severn Estuary near to the foot of the M4 road bridge. The rock is a yellowish sandstone which is sometimes conglomeratic with included pebbles of quartz. Sandstones very similar to this may be found in the wall fabrics of Portskewett, and the ruined Sudbrook, churches. However, in churches slightly further afield, such as St Pierre, Bishton, Llanvaches and St Brides Netherwent, the sandstone is again yellowish but contains fragmented pieces of finer sandstone and occasionally calcareous rock fragments – interpreted as a facies of rock of the same age. To the author’s knowledge this variety of Sudbrook Sandstone is no longer exposed. There are suggestions

Many rocks display in their structures features which indicate details as to how they were formed. This is particularly true of sedimentary rocks. Sediments may include fossils which help to determine when they were deposited and their environment of deposition. Additionally, common structures in water-borne sediments may reveal likely current strengths and directions, and possible water depth at the time of deposition. The processes of deposition impose stratigraphical layering or bedding on most sediments. Such planar surfaces, representing changes or pauses in the sedimentation

8

Chapter One The author’s initiation into the study of church stonework has been summarized in Potter (2009c). Initially, the studies involved analyses of individual stone types, such as those in Potter (1987; 1998; 1999; 2000a; 2000b; 2001a; 2001b; 2002; 2003a; 2003b; 2004a; 2008a ). Because of the nature of these studies, each involving different rock types, nearly all were published in geological or landscape history journals. In the course of this work the author gradually noted the distinctive practices of past masons related to their use of stones for ornamental purposes. Ultimately, the evidence was such that it became clear that Anglo-Saxon stone masons, in particular, chose to orientate stones in specific wall structures so that the bedding on each stone could be used to establish, together with others, distinctive patterns (Hinton, 2002; Potter, 2003a; 2005b). Successive papers since that time have illustrated the significance regionally of these patterns, both in England (Potter, 2004b; 2005a; 2005d; 2005f; 2006a; 2006b; 2007a; 2007b; 2008b; 2009a; 2009b; 2010a; 2010b; 2010c; 2011a; 2011b; 2012), and in pre-Romanesque periods in Scotland (2006d; 2008c) and throughout Ireland (2009c; 2011d).

pattern, tend to be approximately horizontal at the time of deposition. They can be used by geologists to provide evidence of features like current direction, but to the stone mason and archaeologist they offer a means of determining the orientation of each collected or hewn block of stone. To masons the information is critical for it determines the direction or plane (the bedding plane) along which a stone can best be split. It is important additionally to those persons intent on carving rocks for; each bedding plane generally marks a surface of equal rock quality. The Norman tympanum is noticeably placed with its bedding planes vertical with the face that is carved facing the visitor to the doorway (Figure 1.9). Some, but far from all, igneous and metamorphic rocks also exhibit a layered structure. When distinct this too was used to create patterns by the Anglo-Saxon masons. In igneous rocks the layering may be imposed by flow in the molten rock causing crystal orientation (Figure 1.10), prior to final cooling. In metamorphic rocks the pressures exerted during metamorphism can generate layering which in geological terms is known as cleavage to distinguish it from bedding. More intense metamorphism may create a crenulated foliation described as schistosity.

As a result of closely scrutinizing and interpreting the walls of the earliest church buildings in the British Isles and the

Figure 1.9 Although St Padarn, Llanbadarn Fawr Church, Radnorshire (SO 087 643) has been rebuilt its Norman south doorway is preserved. The carved tympanum has been broken but the original portion is carved on the bedding plane of a slab of Devonian red sandstone.

9

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 1.10 The church of St Bridget, Llansantffraid-yn-Elvel, Radnorshire (SO 099 549) although rebuilt in 1895, includes some re-used stones especially in its north wall, such as this beautiful rock that was a lava, recognised as a flow-banded rhyolite. manner in which distinctive stone bedding orientations have been exploited to establish obvious patterns, certain ancillary features of masonry have been discovered. In this Anglo-Saxon period, for example, stones were on occasions cut back in a characteristic style in order to enhance the patterned appearance (Potter, 2006c). Where suitable rock types had existed, additional decorative horizontal stone banding could be witnessed that had been introduced into the church walls (Potter, 2009d). These stylistic features will be discussed more fully in Chapter Two (particularly section 2.6.2).

justified to firmly pronounce stonework styles for any post ‘Anglo-Saxon’ architectural period. To explain by example; stonework in England in Norman or 13th century ecclesiastical quoins is quite unlike that in Anglo-Saxon quoins; but whereas the author has examined virtually every church of Anglo-Saxon age in the British Isles to confirm their quoin styles, this is not true for the churches of any later architectural style. Indeed it seems possible that some changes in the later stonework emplacement styles do not necessarily coincide with the commonly recognised architectural changes. The studies of the detail of the later stonework styles provide tasks for those that follow.

In restricting studies to the earliest ecclesiastical stone buildings in the British Isles the present author has been able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the patterns and styles of stonework emplacement used by the masons of the Anglo-Saxon (pre-Romanesque) period. Nearly all of the church examinations additionally revealed stonework of later styles (‘Norman’, ‘Early English’, etc.). These exhibited marked differences to those seen in the Anglo-Saxon built walls and structures. Some attempt will be made to enumerate these stonework differences and changes when they are confronted and mentioned in this work but the author does not feel sufficiently

As might be expected it was discovered that the stonework practices of pre-Romanesque masons were controlled by the availability of various rock types and their suitability for the purpose. This applied even to long recognised Anglo-Saxon architectural features critically reliant on stone as, for example, pilasters. Pilasters were found to be created from just a few rock types, all of closely comparable physical character. Where rock with this character is absent, as in Ireland, and as it will be observed in Wales, pilasters are absent. 10

Chapter One 1.4 The fashion for lime-based external renders; do they provide any protection?

Covering external stone walls with such sand-lime mixtures is a slightly improved option to that of the bland cement renders or pebble-dash techniques that were employed perhaps a century ago, for they permit the walls to breathe with slightly greater ease. However, they do little to prevent water penetration. Unless the wall fabric is subjected in the first instance to very extensive cleaning, the layers of lichen so clearly visible under a strong hand lens remain as a damp living bacteria-rich layer beneath the lime plaster. In most Welsh instances examined the limebased render is applied directly to the walls, thus enclosing a thick layer of lichen and extraneous life forms, so that the walls resemble a coat of blotting paper, and within the year the render exhibits damp patches and has started to peel away from the walls (Figures 1.13 and 1.14).

As a result of the lack of continuous and effective maintenance of ecclesiastical buildings, many display areas of water penetration on internal walls. Church buildings are generally old and correct weather protection can be expensive. Supervised maintenance for many churches tends to be minimal. A particular disappointment in this study relates to the large number of churches in Wales which when visited proved to be coated in a thick layer of supposedly protective lime-plaster. In most instances this had been applied in the last few years (Figures 1.11 and 1.12). In general, if persons were encountered, neither the local population or church attendees approved of the coating; it was in every case expensive and ephemeral, it always showed signs of weathering and erosion, and it prevented any detailed examination of the church fabric. Instances existed where it had been daubed over the top of certain and significantly important, re-used inscribed stones. The present author has written briefly on the subject of its application and tried to draw attention to more suitable and generally far less expensive methods of church fabric protection (Potter, 2000c), and it is essential that the lobby to stop this unfortunate practice should grow.

It is regrettable that there remains a belief that early churches were coated in a similar external lime-rich plaster. An important element concerning church protection is to understand that virtually all wall stones used from earliest times to the present day are impervious. Statements such as that by Fletcher and Jackson (1945, 18), that many Anglo-Saxon churches were built of Chalk which made the walls ‘…susceptible to penetration by rain…’ are simply untrue. There are a small amount of occasions, particularly in Norman churches, where pieces of Chalk may be included in

Figure 1.11 St Padarn, Llanbadarn Trefeglwys, in Ceredigion (SN 508 632) is one of numerous churches in Wales covered with thick lime-based render, in this instance evenly applied just prior to the photograph. All church structural and fabric detail is currently obliterated. The church is viewed from the south-east. 11

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 1.12 St Matthew, Llandefalle, Brecknockshire (SO 107 355) is viewed here from the north-east. Its white coat of render was applied a few months before the photograph date and shows evidence of wear.

Figure 1.13 At Llanbadarn-y-Garreg, Radnorshire (SO 112 488), the lime-based render coat on the east face of the church of St Padarn displays severe deterioration.

12

Chapter One

Figure 1.14 St Sadwrn, Llansadwrn, Carmarthenshire (SN 695 315), once lime rendered, viewed from the south-west, shows the impact of a few years of weathering. In reality, much greater analysis of the individual requirements of water-proofing should be undertaken for each building and in most instances external rendering or washes of any type are both inapplicable and quite unnecessary.’ Potter (2000c, 87-88)

the internal wall rubble, and a few later churches with walls built of impermeable varieties of Chalk (much Chalk is naturally impermeable), but none known where the walls directly permit water entry and passage through the stones used. Water penetration, therefore, must result from ingress via the roof, the ground, joins between built structures, or hair-line cracks in the mortar used to cement the wall stones. The subject is clearly important and a great deal has been written on topics regarding the protection of churches and other buildings (for example; Schaffer, 1932; Rodwell and Rodwell, 1976; Hughes, 1993; Potter, 2000c). The subject is raised here only because it has become fashionable in recent years to apply, at some expense, an external lime-based render to church walls, it appears in the belief that this provides some sort of cure-all. In Wales, this has become a recent and increasingly frequent unfortunate practice.

Prevention is preferable to protection, particularly as limewashes and renders offer no protection (Schaffer, 1932, 85). Time and again, visits to churches reveal simple and obvious causes for the water ingress even within churches that have recently been lime-rendered. Overflowing gutters, rain hoppers and drains; cracks in walls; breaks or changes in fabric due to patching (possibly as the result of the infill of a door or window); vegetation, and in particular ivy, rooted into walls and roofs (there are churches where ivy has actually grown through a wall to the interior); earth piled high against external walls (accidentally, or as a result of grave build-up); deficiencies in the wall render; poor wall footings and abutments: etc.; all take their toll. All are features of church destruction which could be removed by regular maintenance.

‘Over the years, styles of protection have varied. Regrettably, many have been but ephemerally effective. Over a century ago, the advent of modern cements led to buildings being applied with a mackintosh of cement render. The bland appearance that resulted was in later years only slightly improved aesthetically when coatings of cement pebble-dash were utilized instead. Neither technique did much more than contain the water beneath an impervious coat….fashion today is to replace the use of cement/sand mixes with a lime-based render or wash… and the mackintosh becomes a multi-coloured overcoat….

1.5 Was there render on early churches? The belief that early churches were covered in lime-wash persists when authors such as Evans (1990, 82) write in reference to Gruffudd ap Cynan (died 1137) ‘Gwynedd glittered then with lime-washed churches, like the firmament with stars.’ The authenticity of this description 13

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 1.6 The need for a name and fashions in building

was subsequently questioned by Russell (2005, 86-87) who indicated that there was no mention of lime-washed churches in the original Latin text (Pritchard, 2009, 245).

The discovery that the Anglo-Saxons in England, given a suitable array of rock types, ornamented the walls of their ecclesiastical buildings by placing these rocks in various patterns (Potter, 2005b) presented no problems with regard to a name for the work – it was Anglo-Saxon. That there might have been stone churches in both Scotland and Ireland during the Anglo-Saxon period of dominance in England, despite extensive monumental evidence in the form of early Christian inscriptions and stone crosses in these countries, was discredited by many (Cruden, 1986, 24; Hare and Hamlin, 1986, 131; Fawcett, 2002). Both countries were areas of varied Celtic dominance.

As early as 1836, Rickman (p. 28) on observing cut back quoin stones on Anglo-Saxon churches suggested that this was ‘to allow for the thickness of the plaster’. This view has with certain enhancement persisted until recent times. As early plasters were lime-based, for cement is a relatively modern invention, the idea that the Anglo-Saxon church was externally lime-rendered tends to remain as a motivating argument for the application of modern limebased renders. In 1925 (p. 58), Brown, supporting the presence of external wall plaster, cited a small number of localities where, supposedly, this occurred. The localities were examined by the present author (Potter, 2000c) and found to refer only to internal walls or floors. The existence of Anglo-Saxon external use of plaster has yet to be revealed (Potter, 2008d), although certain examples of external coatings by Norman craftsmen do exist (as Rodwell, 1998).

The reasons why the present author chose to view an array of old churches, first in Scotland (Potter, 2006d; 2008c) and then Ireland (Potter, 2009c), are described in these cited references. In both countries aspects of the AngloSaxon styles of stonework, although influenced by the lack of availability of the English rock types, were clearly present. These styles were not then necessarily the result of Anglo-Saxon stimuli, but rather following a fashion in stonework: where and possibly when this fashion originated being as of yet unknown (see Potter, 2009c, 182). It was, therefore, inappropriate to describe work in Scotland, Ireland, or indeed Wales, as Anglo-Saxon; a term for the common stonework fashion was required and ‘Patterned’ was selected (Potter, 2009c; 2009d).

The issue as to whether or not the Anglo-Saxons covered external walls with plaster remains important, for if this did occur the, often complex, patterning of their walls would have been futile as it would have been invisible. The subject has been discussed in detail in Potter (2009c; 2009d) and will be referred to again in section 2.5.3.

Figure 1.15 The Denbighshire church of St Garmon, Llanarmon-yn-Ial (SJ 191 562) viewed here from the north-east is constructed of twin equal length aisles typical of the region. Internally, however, the church is unusual in possessing wooden pillars to support the aisle roofs. 14

Chapter One The Patterned style or fashion has then been used to describe those walls or churches, irrespective of size or status, where, in particular, the external faces or structures display or resemble the Anglo-Saxon features of stonework of England, especially in terms of the stone bedding or lineation exhibiting selected vertical orientation. This loose definition purposefully fails to restrict the fashion to a specific geographical region or currently define any precise period of time over which it may be recorded. Future studies can possibly more accurately delineate these parameters.

Europe commenced well before 1066, and it might well be, that detailed study of the styles in mainland Europe, could reveal that the Normans were only partial carriers of a fashion in building. With known fixed building dates virtually absent, the present author (Potter, 2009c, 43; 2009d, 49) has suggested that the change from Patterned to the subsequent (Romanesque) style in the British Isles may have taken no more than 50 years. There can be no doubt that fashion played an enormous part in the construction, erection and repair of churches in the past. It remains an enormous influence in all design and building works today. Fashions in different stone use in my own lifetime enable buildings to be dated to quite separate decades. Viewing churches throughout the British Isles, groupings of like features are everywhere apparent. These groupings may be recorded in just a small number of neighbouring churches or over moderately extensive areas, the Denbighshire double-aisled churches (Figure 1.15) or the distinctive Pembrokeshire church towers (Figure 1.16) in Wales providing but two examples.

The Patterned style is succeeded in each country by work that is often described as ‘Norman’ or ‘Romanesque’. This creates additional problems, for both terms lack precise definition (see Potter, 2009c, pp. 42 et seq.). Although the Norman arrival in England possesses a fixed date (the Conquest of 1066) some believe that the colonisation was a protracted process (Rowley, 1977, 11). The presence of the Normans in number in both Scotland and Ireland was later than in England (in Ireland as late as 1169). Again, the ‘Romanesque’ architectural style in mainland

Figure 1.16 Many churches in Pembrokeshire tend to possess bold towers as this church tower of St Tudwal at Llanstadwell (SM 955 050) viewed from the north-east. In this instance the tower has a blocked arch on its east face which presumably led to the roof space of an earlier nave. 15

CHAPTER TWO MASONRY DETAIL AND STONEWORK IN EARLY ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE BRITISH ISLES

00

50

2

00

2

50

3

3

C5

T1

Etf X

E-O S

X

G

Elv

C4

G C5

C2

OS

X

Elv

X

X

G C8

E1

X

Elv

133

X

135

134

O2

OS

E1

E2

S3

S2

E1

E1

E3

O4

T2 Otf C2

Otf

T1

S2

OS O2 O1

150

O4

O5

S1

O4

O3

S2

S2

O4

Otf

S1

O5

S3

OS

S2

Otf

195

193

50

OS

OS O3

E3

E3

Xtf

X

E1

X

O3 Otf

Xtf

X

S4

228

X

S1

Xlv

S4 S3

Xlv

D1

S4

O3

D3

P

C8

S4

D1

O1 T1

T1

D1

C4

D3

Xtf X

S2 S1

S3

215

214

213

S2 S3

S1

S2

D1

S1

S3

C4

C6

O5 O4

S4

229

Xtf

E3

S2

E1

C4

C5 C2 D1

C2

232 S4

C7 S3

249

S4

246 S4

C4 C2

D1 S2

248 C5 T2

C6

S4

T2

250

S

S2 T1

S1 C5

T2

J1

C7

BRISTOL D1

C2

S2

T2

S3

264

D1

D3

263

T1

J1

262 & 261 The red overprint shows the sheet lines of the One Inch and 1:50 000 Geological series with the special district sheets accentuated

T1

50

00

2

O1

S3

C4

T1

00

2

J1

S4

D3 D1

C6

C5

247

00

C7

S3

S2

245

2

233 C2

C2

D3 C2

D3

D3 D1

C2

S4 C4

C2

231

C6

230

C5 C6

D1 S3 O3

C2

244

X

O3

O3 S4

C5

D1

50

2

S2

O1

S2

00

S2 S1

S4

D1

S1

O4

O2

O4

O5

S

2

S3

198

D1

S1

X

212

O3

C5

S1

D1

S4

O5

210

Olv Otf

O

OS Xtf C6

227 & 226

X

197

S1

211

O4

OS

X

E1

S1 OS

Otf Otf

E1

O3 E2

S3

S3

S1

Otf OS

OS

X

O2 E2 Otf OS

D1

C8

S2

O2

OS

Otf OS

C4

Otf

Olv

209

194

C6

Otf

OS

O4

O5

181

D1

D1 S3

S2

OS

Otf

O4

CP S3

CP

C8

CP

O1

X

O3

S1

196

C5

C8

C6

D3

C2 C4

S4

S3

O5 S1

S4

S2

S2

180

S1

S1

2

D1 S3

O4

S1

C6 D1

CP

S2

OS

178

166

S2 S3

S4

177

00

3

S2

O4

S4

179

P

S4

Xlv

165

S1

C1

O1

X

X

OS

164

O5

O5

X

S1

X

X Otf

163

O2

P1

C8

Xtf

O1

S2

C8

C5

X

E1 X

152

X

151

S3

149

O5

G5

C6

X

S3

Otf

00

C8

T1

OS

3

T1

P

G

S2

Otf

Olv

C8

138

137

OS

S2

Otf Olv

C8

T1

J1

Otf

136

OS

OS Otf

C8

OS

OS

OS

OS

E1

C5

C7

Otf

OS

O5

Olv

E1

G

C6

122

C8

OS

Otf

E3

OS

50

3

C8

121

O5 O4

OS

OS

C4

C1

OS

OS

OS

OS

O3

Otf

OS

O5 E2

C5

O5

O1

OS

Otf

T1

C6

C2

120

O4

Olv

S3

C1

S1

OS

Otf

OS

E-O

109

P

P

119

Otf

OS

O5

Otf

Otf

O3

OS Elv

S2

OS Otf

OS OS

108

S2 O5

Otf

C8

OS

OS

118

50

P

107

OS OS O4

T2

C2

S3 Olv OS

Olv

E3

Xtf

O5

Olv

OS

98

P

C2

C1

Otf

E3

97

S2

O3 E1

96

C8

OS

OS C8

E1

3

106

C4

C3

Olv OS

E1

Xtf

C8

C5

95

C5

OS

O2-3

OS E-O G

Etf

E-O

105

Elv

Elv

X

G

C2

94 O1-3

C2

X

X

OS

OS

C1 C2

E-O

G

T1 T2

D1

OS

O2-3

Elv

C8

X

OS Etf OS

P

C8

ANGLESEY

3

INNER BRISTOL CHANNEL AND SEVERN ESTUARY

C6 C7

T1 D3 C7 J2

C2

J1

J1 C8

50

3

Derived from BGS 1:625,000 scale Bedrock Geology. CP12/062 British Geological Survey © NERC. All rights reserved

Figure 2.1 A photographic copy of the 1: 625,000 scale Bedrock Geological Map of Wales, produced by the British Geological Survey CP12/062

16

Chapter Two

PALAEOGENE to NEOGENE

Miocene Oligocene

G

BEDROCK MAP OF WALES AND ADJACENT AREA

Mochras alluvial sediments

(Adapted from BGS 1:625 000 scale Bedrock Geology, UK South, 2007) Mid

J2

INFERIOR OOLITE GROUP

Early

J1

LIAS GROUP

0

JURASSIC

PENARTH GROUP T2

50 km

Topographic base map © HarperCollins Publishers Ltd 2005 www.collinsmaps.com

MERCIA MUDSTONE GROUP

TRIASSIC SHERWOOD SANDSTONE GROUP

T1

Derived from BGS 1:625,000 scale Bedrock Geology. CP12/062 British Geological Survey © NERC. All rights reserved

MANCHESTER MARLS

PERMIAN

KINNERTON (BRIDGNORTH in east) SANDSTONE FORMATION

P

Variscan unconformity

? STEPHANIAN

C8

C8

C7 C7

WESTPHALIAN

SALOP FORMATION HALESOWEN FORMATION ETRURIA FORMATION GROVESEND FORMATION (S) PENNANT SANDSTONE (S)

WARWICKSHIRE GROUP

UPPER COAL MEASURES SOUTH WALES COAL MEASURES GROUP (PENNINE COAL MEASURES GROUP in north)

C6

MIDDLE COAL MEASURES

C5

LOWER COAL MEASURES

C4

MILLSTONE GRIT GROUP (N) and MARROS GROUP (S)

C3

CRAVEN GROUP (N)

C2

CLWYD LIMESTONE GROUP (N) PEMBROKE LIMESTONE GROUP (S)

CARBONIFEROUS NAMURIAN

VISEAN

TOURNAISIAN

C1

Late

CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE SUPERGROUP

AVON GROUP (S) Basal beds including LLIGWY SANDSTONE FORMATION (N) SKRINKLE SANDSTONE GROUP (Pembrokeshire) PLATEAU BEDS FORMATION, QUARTZ CONGLOMERATE GROUP ( TINTERN SANDSTONE FORMATION in east)

D3

UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE

Mid

DEVONIAN

Acadian unconformity

D1

BROWNSTONES FORMATION SENNI FORMATION ST MAUGHANS FORMATION

S4

RAGLAN MUDSTONE FORMATION TEMESIDE FORMATION

D1

Early PRIDOLI

Pembrokeshire RIDGEWAY CONGLOMERATE FORMATION COSHESTON GROUP

D1

LUDLOW

S3

SILURIAN WENLOCK

S2 S2

LLANDOVERY

S1

LOWER OLD RED SANDSTONE

MILFORD HAVEN GROUP

S4

DOWNTON CASTLE SANDSTONE FORMATION AYMESTRY LIMESTONE FORMATION (E)

S4

Siltstone, mudstone, slumps including ELWY GROUP (N) and NANTGLYN FLAGS GROUP (Upper) MUCH WENLOCK LIMESTONE FORMATION (E) Siltstone, mudstone, slumps including COALBROOKDALE and BUILTH MUDSTONES FORMATIONS, NANTGLYN FLAGS GROUP (Lower) DENBIGH GRITS and PENSTROWED GRITS FORMATIONS CWMYSTWYTH GRITS GROUP (Hughley Shales and Pentamerus Beds in E) ABERYSTWYTH GRITS GROUP Sandstone, mudstone, slumps

ASHGILL CARADOC LLANVIRN

ORDOVICIAN

O5

Mudstone - siltstone, slumps including YR ALLT, NANTMEL and CONWY MUDSTONE FORMATIONS NOD GLAS FORMATION SNOWDON VOLCANIC GROUP LLEWELYN VOLCANIC GROUP NANT FFRANCON SUBGROUP

Olv Otf O4 Otf

Otf O3 Olv Otf

ARENIG

ARAN VOLCANIC GROUP

Pembrokeshire OGWEN GROUP

ALLT LWYD FORMATION (SHELVE GROUP in east)

O2

O1

MERIONETH (Late)

Olv

Otf

Etf

Dol-cyn-afon Member DOLGELLAU FORMATION FFESTINIOG FLAGS FORMATION MAENTWROG FORMATION

E3

ST DAVID’S (Mid)

CLOGAU FORMATION Siltstone, mudstone, wacke, manganese shale near base RHINOG FORMATION LLANBEDR FORMATION DOLWEN FORMATION

E2

E1

LONGMYNDIAN SUPERGROUP

X

PRECAMBRIAN (NEOPROTEROZOIC)

Olv

Olv RHOBELL VOLCANIC GROUP

TREMADOC

COMLEY (Early)

O3

Xlv Xtf

URICONIAN VOLCANIC GROUP

INTRUSIVE ROCKS

Builth Wells CAERHYS SHALE FORMATION FISHGUARD VOLCANIC GROUP

MAWDDACH GROUP

E-O

GWNA GROUP NEW HARBOUR GROUP HOLY ISLAND GROUP

HARLECH GRITS GROUP

X

X

Coedana and Sarn complexes

EXTRUSIVE ROCKS

CP

Mafic sills and dykes

Mainly mafic

OS

Felsic plutons, sills and dykes

OS

Mafic plutons, sills and dykes

OS

Ultramafic sills and dykes

Abbreviations:lv Mainly lava tf Mainly tuff

N, S, E, W

Units developed in north, south, east or west of the outcrop shown on the map

Map codes consist of a capital letter or letters to denote the period or a range of periods. Most periods are further subdivided by number.

Solid boundary, bedrock

X

St David’s Carnedd y Filiast Member MARCHLYN FORMATION

LLANBERIS SLATE FORMATION FACHWEN AND MINFFORD FORMATIONS

Xtf

CARBONIFEROUS to PERMIAN

Mafic plutons, sills and dykes

Bangor E3

Blueschist Terrane

Mainly felsic

Fault

PRECAMBRIAN (NEOPROTEROZOIC)

CAMNANT MUDSTONE FORMATION

E1

Mafic sills and dykes

Felsic plutons, sills and dykes

LLANFAWR MUDSTONE FORMATION BUILTH VOLCANIC GROUP

O3

E3

LINGULA FLAGS FORMATION

E2

MENEVIAN GROUP SOLVA GROUP

E1

CAERFAI GROUP

BRONLLWYD GRITS FORMATION

G

X

MONIAN SUPERGROUP

Elv

PALAEOGENE

ORDOVICIAN to SILURIAN

O3 Otf

Anglesey and Llyn

Basal Arenig unconformity

CAMBRIAN

Olv

Thrust fault, barbs on hanging wall side

17

PADARN TUFF FORMATION

ARFON GROUP

Tuff and lava

X Xtf Xlv

PEBIDIAN VOLCANIC COMPLEX

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 2.1 Introduction

which the early church builder in Wales could use were plentiful but very unlike those available to the builders of the same period in England.

As explained in Chapter 1, although studies of the different applications of geology to the structure and period of construction of buildings, in general, are relatively new; their historical development, particularly with reference to early ecclesiastical buildings has already been described in some detail. Those wishing to learn more should examine the appropriate Chapters in BAR 496 (Potter, 2009c) and the references included in that monograph.

In Wales, there are no quality Mesozoic limestones, such as the oolites and other rock types which could be readily worked as in England. The hard, irregular and intractable stones of Wales meant that many of the fashions in stone popular in Anglo-Saxon England were not possible; there could be no pilasters, neat rectangular string courses or plinths, cut back stonework, or even regular long and short quoins of England. There is an absence, in Wales, of rocks capable of being broken easily into rectangular blocks.

In this chapter the conclusions which have been reached regarding the stonework and masonry detail in the earliest stone churches will be summarized and explained: otherwise constant referral to BAR 496 would be necessary. All currently known Anglo-Saxon and equivalently dated churches, with but a few exceptions, have been examined in England, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Ireland.

In certain areas in England, similar, often siliceous, hard rock types were the only local materials available to the Anglo-Saxon mason. In these circumstances, where materials like flints, quartzites or silcretes had to be used, fashion had to be neglected and the stones were left unaltered, or at best, only roughly broken (Potter, 1998; 2002). Styles of architecture or fashion could not be followed. Not until more recent times, with much more superior tools were such non-compliant rocks used to follow such styles: as indicated, for example, in the flint flushwork of East Anglia. In England, detailed studies of one of these rock-types covering churches of all architectural periods (such as Potter, 1998) revealed that with better-quality tools and improving stone working capability, different sequential architectural periods of church building could be identified (see Table 2.1). No doubt improvements in stone working in Wales over time could similarly be identified by following the developments made in the use of individual rock types through successive architectural periods.

2.2 Available rock types in Wales As with all early workers intent in building with stone, the early church builders in Wales would be reliant, as far as possible, on local stone. Tools for effectively working rocks to shape would have been limited and all material used would have to have been to a great extent transported and moved manually. In the London Basin, where only sand, clay and gravel are visually available, Anglo-Saxon ingenuity eventually discovered suitable materials with which to create churches. Wales, however, displays a wide and complex variety of hard and competent rock types (see Frontispiece and Figure 2.1). Many of the Welsh rock types prove difficult to work and few are easy to distinguish in hand specimen. Geology and the underlying rocks spectacularly influence the features of the Welsh landscape and natural rock exposures are relatively abundant. The rugged scenery throughout Snowdonia is a direct reflection of the thick accumulations of widely variable Ordovician volcanic lavas and other igneous rocks, together with their recent Pleistocene glacial modification (Figure 2.2). Remarkably, elements of all major geological systems (major rock divisions) are to be found in Wales, but Palaeozoic rocks predominate. They must cover in excess of 90 per cent of the land surface, with the more complex Lower Palaeozoic rocks making up more than half of this amount. These relatively old rocks (245 to 540 million years old) have, as in Ireland, suffered the effects of two main periods of major earth movements, the Caledonian and Variscan orogenies, when the rocks were both deformed and displaced in the creation of mountains. Most of the rock types, as a result, have been subjected to elements of alteration and change, including low levels of metamorphism (see Merriman, 2006, for details) and, in the finer-grained rocks particularly, the development of structural cleavage. The rock types

2.3 Variety in Welsh rock types and potential stone choice The difficulties involved in working many Welsh rock types has rightly been emphasised in section 2.2. Indeed, as well as using the details and styles of the inscriptions on the stones themselves, clues as to the age of the numerous early Welsh inscribed and sculptured stones might well be revealed by examining the quality of the working to shape of the stone itself (Figures 2.3 and 2.4). Churches in Wales, in incorporating local rocks in their fabric probably include the majority of known rock types in Wales. The rock types available to the early mason should, therefore, be briefly considered. The oldest Welsh rocks, the Pre-Cambrian, are confined to Anglesey, and otherwise small areas, principally in the Lleyn Peninsula, between Bangor and Caernarfon, and in Pembrokeshire. Although included in rubble walls, the complex variety of rocks, which are principally igneous and metamorphic in origin, rarely provide a stone suitable for structural purposes. As an example of Pre-Cambrian metamorphic

18

Chapter Two

Figure 2.2 Long established St Peris Church (SH 606 583), nestles in the Llanberis Pass in Snowdonia, some distance to the south-east of the more modern town. Although the church dressings are of sedimentary rocks, the walls are built principally of local volcanic rocks. rock use, Llandysilio Church in the Menai Straits, is built on an island of an uncommon rock type, glaucophane schist and includes blocks of this rock in certain quoins. The rock possesses a marked metamorphic lineation but is really not suitable for structural purposes.

appear to have been used for levelling purposes in walls, and slate has been used more extensively for roofing since earliest times, only a few of the coarse sandstones can be readily identified. One of these, Egryn Stone, Palmer (2007) was able to identify in a number of Meirionneydd churches, this stone possibly being used in the 15th to 16th centuries.

The Lower Palaeozoic rocks, the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian, underlie more than 50 per cent of the Welsh landscape and provide the most rugged scenery of Wales. Many of the rocks involved are difficult to identify in detail because they are too fine-grained for their composition to be determined using no more than a magnifying lens. Broad identifications are of course possible based on distinctions in lithology resulting from, differences in mode of deposition and modifications resulting from deep burial, earth movements and the processes of uplift. Cambrian deposits, particularly present in the Harlech Dome and to the north-west of the Snowdon range, therefore include, coarse sandstones (often referred to as ‘grits’), siltstones, mudstones, shales, and slates (such as the Llanberis Slates). With the exception of slate, rocks used for church building fabric that can be easily distinguished in church walls are rare. Although small fragments of slate

The Ordovician rocks of Wales also include many finegrained rocks which are difficult to identify when they are in church walls. In addition to a variety of sedimentary rocks, however, in the upper levels of the Ordovician, in particular, vast accumulations of lavas and consolidated volcanic ashes (tuffs) are present, especially in Snowdonia. In church walls these can often be indistinguishable from each other and also from the harder and finer-grained, more siliceous sediments. Many of the sediments in Ordovician and Lower Silurian times were deposited as turbidites, that is, sediments laid by turbidity currents, which create a rock with very variable and mixed grain size often referred to as greywacke in this work. The rapid deposition and accumulation of these rock types may preserve readily identifiable structures in large blocks of rock from these deposits (Figures 2.5 and 2.6).

19

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Table 2.1 Variation and improvements in the methods of working one stone type, the hard silcretes referred to as sarsens, for use in church walls over time At the base of the Ordovician, particularly in North Wales and Anglesey, an interesting Arenig sandy-conglomerate provides a sufficiently distinctive rock to be readily identified in church wall fabrics. Two varieties of relatively rapidly-cooled igneous rock, flow-banded rhyolites (Fig. 1.10) and ignimbrites (Fig. 2.7), thanks to their distinctive lineation can also be normally easily identified when they occur in churches. Spherulitic rhyolite (Fig. 2.8) is a further variety of volcanic lava that may be distinguished by means of the evidence of its unusual cooling process.

Figure 2.3 This very irregular block of unworked stone, inscribed with a cross, stands in the churchyard of St Digain, Llangernyw, Denbighshire (SH 875 674). No attempt has been made to shape the stone suggesting it was put to a very early Christian use. The inscribed cross has been variously proposed as being of 6th to 9th C. date.

Both Silurian and Ordovician rocks tend to preserve evidence of fossils (usually as moulds) fairly frequently in exposed church walls in lumps of mudstones and shales (Figures 2.9 and 2.10). If identifiable these may assist in

Figure 2.4 The large font at St Gwenog, Llanwenog (SN 494 455) required significant skill and a lathe to carefully work the stone into its particular circular shape. Such workmanship is likely to be at the earliest of 12th C. date, although the heads tend to be rather crudely inscribed. 20

Chapter Two

Figure 2.5 Turbulent current flow over the surface of soft sediments during deposition can produce flute marks such as these, seen here (facing the viewer), on the bottom of the bed in the wall fabric of St Mary, Llanfair Talhaiarn (SH 927 701).

Figure 2.6 With rapid sediment accumulation sediments may slide or slump into deeper water areas to produce slump structures, such as these visible in the fabric of the tower wall of St Collen, Llangollen (SJ 217 420). 21

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 2.7 The central, vertically orientated stone in this south-west nave quoin of Tywyn Church (SH 588 009), is a volcanic rock known as an ignimbrite, created by molten lava droplets being involved in flow. When created this forms rather irregular nearly horizontal bands. The rock has, therefore, in its present position been re-orientated.

Figure 2.8 A spherulitic rhyolite set into the north wall of Llansantffraed-in-Elvel Church (SO 100 548).

22

Chapter Two

Figure 2.9 Moulds of Lower Palaeozoic brachiopods (mainly Orthids), preserved in the nave wall of St David (St Arthneu), Llanarthne (SN 534 203). (Black and white rule in 10mm. divisions).

Figure 2.10 The mould of a pygidium (‘tail’ portion) of a trilobite indicated by biro head, in the fabric of the north aisle wall in St Aelhaiarn Church, Guilsfield (SJ 219 116). 23

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 2.11 Partially covered by render, this block of Carboniferous Limestone reveals fossil Productid brachiopods and sections of the coral Dibunophyllum. The block occurs in the west wall of St Mary, Llanfair-is-Gaer Church (SH 502 660). determining the geological age of the stone with greater precision. Lower Silurian rock types, particularly evident in Ceredigion, closely resemble those in the Ordovician sedimentary areas; but higher Silurian deposits contain coarser materials some of which, like the Trichrûg Beds, seen for example at Llangadog Church (SN 706 285), permit the area of stone origin to be more closely traced.

Carboniferous rocks in Wales provide three main lithological groupings as the succession is ascended. The lowest, the Carboniferous Limestone, providing various limestones, sometimes containing obvious fossils (Fig. 2.11), extensively used in church walls; followed by the Millstone Grit, often deltaic sandstones and mudstones, from which the sandstones provide building stones; and capped by the Coal Measures, some of the sandstones from which frequently provide important stones used for structural purposes in church buildings. This last feature is more commonly evident in North Wales, such as in the hill ranges flanking either side of the Vale of Clwyd, where the Carboniferous rocks are well represented. The Upper Carboniferous sandstones, although difficult to distinguish from each other, were widely used for quoins and other structures in the absence of other suitable rocks in the area (examples being the Aqueduct Grit in Denbighshire and the Gwespyr Sandstone in North Flintshire). This use of Upper Carboniferous sandstones for structural purposes is particularly evident in early church buildings (and Caernarfon Castle) both in Anglesey and northern Caernarfonshire. There, the stone appears to have been mainly worked along the southern shore of Anglesey where it borders the Menai Straits. In South Wales, the Carboniferous rocks are again well exposed and Carboniferous Limestone, and more especially sandstone

With the exception of north Pembrokeshire, where older rocks occur, Upper Palaeozoic rocks, particularly from the lower two major divisions of rock, the Devonian and Carboniferous Systems, provide the bedrocks over the greater part of South Wales. Much of the Devonian succession of rocks was deposited in terrestrial conditions, mainly in alluvial fans and flats, providing reddish mudstones and sandstones, with a smaller amount of, green, less oxidised sandstones; all collectively referred to as the Old Red Sandstone. They were deposited whilst the Caledonian mountain building period (orogeny) created the final stages of south-west to north-east trending mountains to the north. The sandstones were commonly used in church fabrics, as too were the coarser, less common, often very distinctive, thick conglomerates such as the Ridgeway Conglomerate in south Pembrokeshire, or the Upper Devonian Plateau Beds on the north side of the Carmarthenshire Fans and the Brecon Beacons. 24

Chapter Two

Figure 2.12 At the entrance to the south porch to St Illtyd Church, Llantwit Major (SS 966 687), part of an ammonite indicates that this limestone is of Lower Jurassic (Southerndown Stone) age. from both the Millstone Grit and the Coal Measures (as the Pennant Stone), are utilised in the building of the churches.

various sandstones are used fairly commonly for both general building and structural purposes in churches in the north-east areas of Wales, particularly in constructions broadly of ‘Victorian’ age. In these instances much of the stone was imported from quarries in the Dee Valley or even from Shropshire.

The Upper Palaeozoic rocks terminate with the Permian division and the occurrence of these rocks which were laid in semi-desert conditions is limited possibly to areas like the Vale of Clwyd with deposits like wind- blown (aeolian), unfossiliferous sandstones. Their natural exposure is poor. Rocks present in church walls are likely to have been defined as Triassic for often, without fossils, the rocks are impossible to distinguish. Only with off-shore drilling has evidence become available that the ‘Triassic’ of the Vale of Clwyd (or some of it) might possibly be of Permian age.

Bordering the Severn Valley in both Glamorgan and Monmouthshire both local Triassic and Lowest Jurassic deposits are present. The rocks are often of unusual facies for they are frequently composed of materials derived from the Lower Palaeozoic, typically Carboniferous rocks, which they abut. A Triassic example is the Dolomitic Conglomerate. In the Lower Liassic, the Sutton Stone and the overlying Southerndown Stone, for instance, both closely resemble the Carboniferous Limestone from which they were derived, and can occasionally include Liassic ammonites, as can be observed in Llantwit Major church (Fig. 2.12). Elsewhere, the Lower Lias sediments are typical shallow sea deposits of mudstones and limestones.

The Mesozoic rocks in Wales are present in limited areas and only consist of rocks representing, the two lowest divisions, the Triassic and the lowest rocks in the Jurassic; Cretaceous rocks not being present. The earliest Mesozoic rocks were deposited about 250 million years ago, the Triassic deposits again providing red sandstones and mudstones in conditions not unlike the Permian. The

25

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 2.13 Part of a boulder from the local beach incorporated into the fabric of the ruined Llanwenllwyfo Church (SH 485 901) in Anglesey. The holes were created by the modern boring bivalve Pholas and in some instances the shell is still visible in the holes.

2.4 Rock identification – words of caution

Superficial deposits play a significant role in the fabric of many early churches. In particular, any rocks that would have been at the time readily visible at the surface tend to be incorporated into the fabric of early buildings. Near the coastlines of Wales beach cobbles and boulders have often been utilised. In Wales, such rocks are always hard and extensively worn so that evidence of marine life, either in the form of encrustations or borings (as frequently present in the beach rocks of southern England, see Potter, 2009c, Figs. 2.14 to 2.17), are nearly always absent. Rare examples do occur such as the single boulder seen in the fabric of the ruined church seen at Llanwenllwyo (SH 485 901), in Anglesey (Figure 2.13). Again in Anglesey, marine-bored beach boulders in Capel Lligwy (SH 499 864) enable the main body of the chapel to be distinguished from a later extension (see Figure 3.36). River boulders and cobbles are also relatively common in early churches, their composition reflecting the catchment area of local rivers at the time they were incorporated, Finally, the presence of included glacially derived erratics in early church walls, clearly are a reflection of the widespread glaciation of Wales.

2.4.1 Identifying sources or localities from which rocks may have been originally derived There is a tendency for those identifying rock types in long-erected buildings such as early churches to assume that the extraction point for the stone can be related to exposures or quarries which can be identified today. This is rarely the case, and both natural exposures and quarries are apt to disappear over time relatively speedily. In the instances of quarries this may be due to cessation of use, possibly relating to suitable stone being worked out; other exposures may be covered by vegetation growth or lost as a result of natural erosion, such as at a sea cliff. An example that can be cited from the present study relates to churches in Monmouthshire to the west of Chepstow. Exposures of the Triassic, Mercia Mudstone Group, Sudbrook Sandstone are currently exposed on the western shore of the Severn Estuary near to the foot of the M4 road bridge. The rock is a yellowish sandstone which is sometimes conglomeratic with included pebbles of quartz. 26

Chapter Two Sandstones very similar to this may be found in the wall fabrics of Portskewett, and the ruined Sudbrook, churches. However, in churches slightly further afield, such as St Pierre, Bishton, Llanvaches and St Brides Netherwent, the sandstone is again yellowish but contains fragmented pieces of finer sandstone and occasionally calcareous rock fragments – interpreted as a facies of rock of the same age. To the author’s knowledge this variety of Sudbrook Sandstone is no longer exposed. There are suggestions from the churches concerned that this rock type may have been worked out in the 14th C. for the rock type has not been observed in later walls.

The rocks in extensive areas of Wales prove more difficult to orientate with regard to their possible bedding or lineation, than in any other part of the British Isles. Many of the rocks in the country are particularly fine-grained, and in their hardness they are resistant to weathering. This is critical for weathering over time generally emphasises the appearance of any rock structures. In Wales, as certain rock types are widespread in occurrence and provide significant orientation identification problems it is important that these areas should be recorded. They are in particular follows: A). Over much of Central Wales (and involving the whole of Ceredigion), Ordovician and Lower Silurian, relatively deep water greywackes occur. These are rapidly deposited and texturally immature sedimentary deposits and in the finer-grained varieties their complex mixed character often makes stratification difficult to identify.

2.4.2 Rock bedding orientation identification difficulties Rock age, composition and character critically effect how readily a rock’s bedding, stratification or banding orientation can be identified. This is particularly significant when the rocks are being examined in a church wall where only magnifying facilities can be used. Were it feasible to remove fresh samples and, where necessary, prepare thin sections of the rocks for microscopic examination there would be no difficulties.

B). In Snowdonia and in the region of Lake Bala as well as elsewhere, areas of Ordovician volcanic rocks occur. These are again fine-grained and, particularly if basaltic in composition, lack any visible form of internal lineation. Although in macro form, as in the field or when being quarried, layering as created in their formation may be evident; in hand specimen such orientation would not be discernible. Under such circumstances the stone mason using such rock types would be unable to ascertain the rock orientation (but see sections 6.22, 6.23 and more especially 7.2.4), and therefore, the mason would be unable to work to any specific style that might utilise the orientation. There are suggestions, particularly in the volcanic rock areas, that some early masons may have tried to create quoins that reflected from their block shape a face left/face right pattern (which may be of strictly a mixed, face-alternate and/or side-alternate pattern; see section 2.5.2 and Figure 2.16) but without any evidence of a stone lineation this cannot be proved. It is clear, from English examples in well-bedded rocks that the Anglo-Saxon fashion or style was only established on the presence of lineation or bedding in the rocks; rock shape was often incidental to the pattern established. This is very evident in the ‘big stone quoins’ first distinguished by Brown (1925, 24-25), where Brown, although failing to observe the different stone bedding orientations, described what he believed was Anglo-Saxon workmanship in the use of very large unwieldy and irregularly shaped quoin stones. Brown figured stones from the south-west nave quoin of St Mildred with St Mary de Castro, Canterbury (TR 145 575) as his exemplar, these having been first described by Hussey (1858) as being megalithic in character. The same quoin stones were illustrated in Potter (2009c, Fig. 2.23) and a different perspective of this quoin is depicted here (Figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14 The south-west nave quoin of St Mildred with St Mary de Castro, Canterbury (TR 145 575), described by Brown (1925) as an Anglo-Saxon ‘big stone quoin’. The quoin stones are of re-used Roman material with the pale coloured rocks being Marquise oolite from France. 27

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 2.5 The use of rocks with bedding laminations, lineation, or layering to create patterns

rock built structures including those built today. It is, therefore, important to realise that if wall features show evidence of having been built with the rock planar surfaces vertical there must have been some motivation for the use of this unusual rock attitude.

2.5.1 Employing rock planar structures With experience, those first working and using stone for building purposes, must have acquired the knowledge that very many rock types varied in strength in different directions. This variability would have been observed as the rock was first hewn or worked to shape. Any planar layering in the rock would be noted and employed to assist in breaking or splitting the rock. The rock would be stronger in a direction normal to (perpendicular to) any layering. Where stone was used for building purposes, to carry the weight of the building, the stones would be placed to best carry this weight, that is, with the planar surface horizontal. Thus, in walls built by the Romans, stones were always placed in this situation. Subsequently, builders would have come to appreciate that the stonework was also less susceptible to weathering in this same horizontal attitude. This knowledge is reflected in most

The present author should perhaps remind the nongeological reader that sedimentary rocks develop a planar structure, generally spoken of as bedding, in the processes of deposition as has been explained. In igneous rocks the same layering may be less obvious, but developed as a result of crystal formation during cooling and flow; and in metamorphic rocks a lineation, foliation or cleavage is frequently the result of pressure and new, sub-parallel, crystal growth. 2.5.2 Patterns in early stonework With the discovery (Potter, 2005b) that nearly all churches in England that had normally been regarded as possessing evidence of Anglo-Saxon architectural features or

Figure 2.15 The quoin illustrated displays all possible orientations in which a stone may be positioned within the structure and the annotation first proposed (Potter, 2005b) to describe them. The notation (BVFR-BH-BVFL) refers to the bedding orientation within each stone and not to the stone shape.

Figure 2.16 Using an identical display of stones as seen in Figure 2.15, these quoin stones are classified according to their shape as proposed by Gilbert (1946). This classification can only be applied to stones which approximate to a rectangular block in shape. His term ‘clasping’ referred to a stone that was of no great vertical thickness and square in horizontal cross section (which without removing the stone from the wall is impossible to assess. 28

Chapter Two workmanship (as described by Taylor and Taylor, 1965) also had many structural stones emplaced with vertical planar structures or lineation, came the realisation that this was clearly undertaken for a reason. Exceptions to this rule of vertical stone emplacement did occur in south-east England. The exceptions were, however, only where the available stone preserved no evidence of an internal planar structure, as in the instances of flint or Bunter cobble rubble quoins, or where, with a shortfall of usable natural stone, a material like re-used Roman tile was incorporated into the quoin. It was evident that the quoins with vertical orientations provided a new means of distinguishing church structures of the Anglo-Saxon period. If this was to be utilised as a method of recognition, a new simple means of description would be required to readily identify and describe the numerous individual quoin stones involved.

bedding planes vertical, a technique apparently valued by the Anglo-Saxons in quoins for decorative reasons. In this case, when the quoin is viewed, the face of the bedding (the bedding plane) will be directed to the right (Bedding Vertical Face Right, or BVFR), or to the left (Bedding Vertical Face Left, or BVFL), as illustrated in Figure 2.15. This nomenclature can be applied to quoin stones of any age or shape subject to the stones preserving a visible lamination. It is also unlike a nomenclature first proposed by Gilbert (1946) who described stone shapes (Figure 2.16) rather than the internal rock structural orientation. In order to use rocks in an unorthodox manner the AngloSaxon masons, presumably as a result of experience, discovered rock types which tended to remain strong and resilient even when inserted with their bedding vertical. In southern England they found the compacted shelly rock types like Quarr Stone from the Isle of Wight, and Barnack Stone from near Peterborough particularly suitable. Interestingly, both these important quarrying sites became monastically controlled and the rocks, thanks to their included fossil shells, provided a very visible lineation. Where these two rock types were too distant for use, stone choice remained selective and typically limited to certain sandstones, travertine and rare limestones (Potter, 2005b). Beyond England, studies by the present author in Scotland, Ireland and elsewhere, revealed that masons of

Excluding instances of stones being inverted or showing reversion, there are just three ways or orientations in which the bedding planes of a sediment (or the lamination or lineation of other rocks) may be placed in a wall or quoin. Typically, the rock is placed with its bedding horizontal, BH. In this position, as described above, the rock is best able to withstand either the pressures in the wall or the processes of water penetration and weathering. The sediment then lies in the same attitude as it was originally deposited. Stones may be instead orientated to place the

Figure 2.17 The seventh quoin stone above the ground in the north-east nave quoin of St Mary, Llanfair-isGaer (SH 502 660) is of a local Carboniferous sandstone with quartz pebble stringers. Viewed here from the north, the stringers run vertically through the sandstone to provide evidence that the stone is placed with its bedding face to the left, or BVFL. 29

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 2.19 Typical stone settings for arch jambs with the stones notated in accordance with that first proposed by the present author (Potter, 2005b). This notation (BVFIABH-BVEIA) permits the bedding of the individual stones to be distinguished. Anglo-Saxon stonemasons appear to have used only the orientations Bedding Vertical Face Into the Arch (BVFIA) and Bedding Horizontal (BH). Norman masons typically used BVEIA and BH and not BVFIA.

Figure 2.18 Long and short work in the south-west quoin of the tower of St Swithun, Wickham, in Berkshire (SU 394 715). Much of the wall fabric of the church is created in flints. the same period used rocks of much the same lithologies wherever possible. In this present study in Wales, the practices have proved to be similar; quoin stones of the period are normally selected from relatively clean quartzrich sandstones, as occur in the Carboniferous, as long as such rocks were available from a reasonably proximate locality. If pebbly stringers were evident in the sandstones they appeared to be especially popular, for these stringers would have helped to display the rock orientation (Figure 2.17).

vertical stone emplacement styles. This enables Norman (Romanesque) stone use to be differentiated from AngloSaxon for instance (see Potter, 2009c, 2009d and Figure 2.19). At other times (as for instance in the 13th C.) it appears masons held strictly to the orthodox BH use of stone. This topic will be discussed in greater depth in sections 2.5.3 and 7.2.3.

In England, where rocks like Jurassic bioclastic oolites and certain Cretaceous sandstones, could be easily worked into elongate rectangular blocks, the BH-BVFR-BVFL pattern was particularly exaggerated into a readily obvious spectacle. This provided one of the first features to become recognised (in 1836, by Rickman) as representative of Anglo-Saxon architecture. It became known as long and short work (see section 1.1.1 and Figure 1.2), and a further typical English example is illustrated in Figure 2.18.

In England, it became immediately evident that in AngloSaxon workmanship vertical stone emplacement was present in all vertical structures and not confined to wall junction quoins. With vertically bedded stones playing an important role in the jambs for Anglo-Saxon doorways (in what Brown, 1925, was to describe as an Escomb arch), a modified nomenclature was necessary (Figures 2.19 and 2.20). Horizontally bedded stones (BH) helped to tie the structure of the doorway into the adjoining walls, just as those BH stones in a wall corner quoin assisted in linking the quoin to the walls. The vertically bedded stones in an arch jamb could be emplaced either with the bedding plane or face into the arch (Bedding Vertical Face Into the Arch or BVFIA), or with the bedding laminations parallel to the vertical joints on the inside of the jamb wall (Bedding

2.5.3 The new stone nomenclature applied to arch jambs and pilasters

In viewing such an extensive number of churches, the masonry styles covering all building periods have been viewed, if not examined in detail. Certainly, in periods subsequent to that of the Anglo-Saxons in England other stonemasons adopted different elements of the 30

Chapter Two Vertical Edge Into the Arch or BVEIA). The BVEIA option has yet to be seen in arch jambs of Anglo-Saxon or equivalent age and wider studies in Scotland and particularly Ireland confirm why this option should not be present. The process of carving stone is simplified by undertaking the carving on a uniform, equally resistant surface. A bedding plane provides such a surface, whereas at an angle to the bedding plane the edges of different qualities or hardnesses of surfaces will be encountered (Figure 2.21). Carvings and inscriptions on standing and similar stones are likely to be created on bedding plane surfaces. Similarly, this same practice tends to occur in churches. The Anglo-Saxon west doorway of Monkwearmouth church, Sunderland (NZ 402 577) displays carvings appropriately and principally on the BVFIA stones of the jambs, and a number of Irish churches of about the same age also exhibit carvings on BVFIA stones. Interestingly, immediately the Anglo-Saxon styles give way to those of the following Romanesque period, stone carving is created on BVEIA stones (such as the Norman tympanum) and, together with BH stones, BVEIA may occur in arch jambs. While evidence exists that the Norman church builders (or rebuilders) tended to cover their external church walls with lime-render (Rodwell, 1998), the present author, despite pursuing every cited supposed example, has found no evidence that the Anglo-Saxon masons did the same (Potter, 2009d). Indeed, it would be unexpected where

Figure 2.20 The Anglo-Saxon blocked doorway at All Saints Church, Bracebridge, Lincoln (SK 968 676), although reset, clearly displays its Escomb character, with jambs of long and short stones.

Figure 2.21 The processes of extracting a stone, the bedding plane (BP) and bedding traces. The Bedding Plane tends to produce the best surface for carving, other block faces will generally provide uneven surfaces of varying strength. 31

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology plaster and interior lighting is often too poor to enable identification. Window arches are also customarily too high for close examination. Only time and opportunity will confirm the full authenticity of the statement. Outside of southern and middle England pilaster-strips or pilasters of Anglo-Saxon or comparable age are unknown in the British Isles. These long columns of stone, normally of rectangular cross-section which stand proud of the walls of Anglo-Saxon churches again display vertically orientated bedding as a feature of their construction. Normally, BH (bedding horizontal) stones alternate through the column with vertically bedded stones which can again be placed in one of two ways (Figure 2.22). A long and short style generally results. The vertically orientated stones may be placed either BVFB (Bedding Vertical Face Bedded) or BVEB (Bedded Vertical Edge Bedded). The terms face bedded and edge bedded are used in the parlance of the modern stonemason, where face bedded stones have their bedding planes parallel to the face of a wall and edge bedded stones have their bedding parallel to the vertical joints in that wall. On occasions in England pilaster-strips are placed to border arches, sometimes continuing to surround the head of the arch to form a hoodmoulding, their stonework then following the BH and BVFIA pattern of the arch jambs which they adjoin. The vertically bedded stones in pilasters can be shown to be remarkably difficult to fashion (see Potter, 2009c, 2933). The individual stones are remarkably long and thin and they required rock types with special characteristics to have been created. In well over half of the churches which display pilasters these structures are built in either Quarr or Barnack type stone. Two recognised AngloSaxon churches close to the borders of Wales, at Barrow (SJ 657 000) and Stanton Lacy (SO 495 788) (Figure 2.23), however, do preserve a presence of pilaster-strips (in different sandstones) on external walls (Potter, 2005f) and it seems likely that in South Wales in particular, where similar Carboniferous and Lower Old Red Sandstones exist, at one time some churches may have once preserved pilasters which have now been destroyed. Pilasters are, therefore, referred to in this monograph.

Figure 2.22 Typical stone settings for a pilaster-strip and the notation proposed (Potter, 2005b) and used by the present author. This notation (BVFB-BH-BVEB) permits the bedding orientation within the stones to be distinguished. wall fabric patterns were being created for display and some of this decoration, such as face-bedded stones (see section 2.6.2c) would tend to prevent the adhesion of a render. No doubt, wishing to rapidly exert their authority, the Normans built swiftly and errors could be covered in render, so that careful Anglo-Saxon stone selection for decorative purposes was no longer necessary.

2.6 Geological controls on the occurrence of architectural and stonework features which may be observed in churches constructed during the AngloSaxon period or in comparable times outside of England Rickman (1836), Brown (1925) and Clapham (1930) each described a wide range of features in English churches which they claimed typified the Anglo-Saxon period of construction. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 1-15) further supplemented these lists. A few of these structures appear to be independent of local geology and rock variety. The absence of buttresses, the existence of tall, relatively narrow, doorways, the relative thinness of walls (implying quality cementing plaster) and the occasional unusual presence in a line of multiple churches may be considered as examples. Virtually all other features might be regarded

Instead, specifically obvious features like doors and arches could be ornamented to be viewed as approached, this generally being more readily executed on the bedding faces of stones set BVEIA, as the tympanum. Although it seems that without exception craftsmen of the Anglo-Saxon period only used BH and BVFIA stones in their arch jambs it has proved impossible to scrutinize in detail the stonework of all arches that are possibly of this period. Many arches inside churches are coated in

32

Chapter Two

Figure 2.23 The west nave wall of St Peter, Stanton Lacy, in Shropshire (SO 495 788) displays five pilaster-strips. For a full description of the stonework of this church see Potter (2000f). as ‘rock dependent’. Their distribution was reliant on the presence of rocks of the correct lithology, hardness, and character and, therefore, the features were only regional in distribution. Taylor (1978) was certainly partially aware of the influence of geology when he constructed distribution maps of features like double-splayed windows (p. 841) or long and short quoins (p. 945). But like many church historians today (as Ó Carragáin, 2005) he hankered after a human influence also being the cause of the dramatic changes in the distribution of different constructional features (but see also Potter, 2009c). There is no doubt that the younger rocks of southern England provide the most compliant and easily worked rocks in the British Isles. Palaeogene (Lower Tertiary) Quarr and Jurassic Barnack Stones have already been extolled for their excellent qualities. Potter (2009c, Table 2.1) tabulated the regional occurrence of a number of Anglo-Saxon (or Patterned period) stonework features that can be attributed in their distribution directly to geology. Although this Table could be reproduced here the tabulated format is somewhat restricting in the provision of detailed information. The principal characteristics of Anglo-Saxon (Patterned) churches are, therefore examined in turn in the following text. 2.6.1 Long recognised Anglo-Saxon features a. Double-splayed windows Figure 2.24 The double-splayed window in the north wall of the tower of St Laurence, Caversfield, in Oxfordshire (SP 581 252) is created in a wall of Middle Jurassic shelly oolite rubble. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 153) give a good description of the window details.

Taylor (1978, 759) was in no doubt that double-splayed windows could be regarded as ‘the most reliable indication of Anglo-Saxon workmanship’ and that typically ‘the fabric is of rubble or of irregular large stones’. The distribution

33

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 2.22 and 2.23) than the vertical stones in long and short quoins and the same rock types have been used to construct them, as described in section 2.5.3.

of these distinctive windows (Taylor, 1978, 841; Potter, 2009c, Fig. 2.74) in England is virtually confined to those geographical areas, as East Anglia and south-east England, where cobbles such as flints or Bunter quartzites can be readily field-picked. It is noticeable that even the natural flint cobble distribution (close to the Chalk exposures from which the flints are derived) influences the occurrence of these windows, so that in the central Weald the windows are absent. The complexity of the window construction tended to require either easily worked to shape rubble (Figure 2.24), or with hard materials (such as siliceous flints), a wide range of available sizes and shapes to assist in the construction. In those instances beyond the natural area of distribution of where the windows occur, worked ashlar stone is typically used only for the window arch or the where this stone may be applied more easily to the inner splays. There are, however, very rare exceptions to the rubble construction (Potter, 2008c), as may be seen in the Carboniferous sandstone windows in the chancel of St Rule, St Andrews (NO 515 167). Although rubble walls to early churches are extremely common in Scotland, Ireland and Wales, the fragments in the walls tend to be elongate, angular, broken pieces of rock unsuitable in their shape to create double-splayed windows. However, the window style was evidently popular and generally sought after during the period. Very rarely, poorly executed examples may be observed in Wales (as at Llanbabo, in Anglesey [SH 378 868]).

d. Megalithic quoins Brown (1925) probably first applied the term ‘megalithic’ (meaning, with no precise definition, either ‘large’ or ‘very large’ in size), to the big stones in certain quoins which he regarded as distinctively Anglo-Saxon in southeast England. Many of the stones showed evidence of mechanical lifting points (‘lewis holes’), indicating that they were of Roman re-used origin. It has been shown (Potter, 2006b) that some of these large stones were originally imported from massively bedded rock units in northern France. In the south of England massive bedding in rock units is relatively rare. Megalithic stones are widely used in the north of England, Scotland and especially Ireland in churches covering a wide range of ages to complete quoins and doorways. They occur also in Wales. Other than massive bedding, a secondary requirement is that the rock should be strong (which often also means hard and difficult to work), particularly if the stone is used to span a space as in doorways. Frequently, homogeneous igneous rocks, such as ancient thick lava flows, best fulfil these requirements. Thick blocks of Carboniferous Limestone free from joints are also used. It is very apparent that far from all megalithic stones were worked and used in Anglo-Saxon or Patterned times. It proves necessary to examine the stone bedding or other planar orientation to determine if this likely. Unfortunately, the very meaning of ‘massively bedded’ infers an absence of clearly obvious bedding planes or lineation.

b. Long and short quoins and Escomb style arches These structures both involve the use of long thin blocks of stone particularly for their vertical component. To create such shapes, with the limited facilities of only hammer and chisel, the rock has to be relatively massive, but easy to split along clear sharp bedding planes, in a relatively soft rock that is strong enough not to break in its length (see Figures 2.18 and 2.20). All such requirements are rarely evident in rocks and in the British Isles only Quarr Stone and Barnack Stone, and closely allied rocks from the Barnack area, really proved suitable for the purpose (Taylor, 1978, 945; Potter. 2009c, Fig. 2.71). Certain clean sandstones, particularly of Carboniferous age, complied with the requirements; especially if they had marked bedding planes (created by changes in the type and rate of deposition) to assist breakage to shape, and were also somewhat silicified to provide the necessary strength. Some of the characteristics required are found in metamorphosed mudstones such as the cleaved slates of Wales. However, slates at the surface are weathered and highly cleaved and blocks of suitable thickness can only be found in quarries created in the ‘Victorian’ period, where the blocks have been sawn for removal. A number of Welsh churches, such as Llanllyfni, in Caernarfonshire (SH 470 521) reveal such blocks.

e. Plinths and string courses ‘A plinth of plain square section may be accepted as giving a good indication of Anglo-Saxon workmanship, particularly if it be constructed of large flat stones.’ Taylor and Taylor (1965, 13) The same authors indicated that likewise the string courses of Anglo-Saxon towers were often of plain square section. In either role the stone must have considerable strength and be of moderate thickness, of the order of 0.06 to 0.1m. being typical in buildings thought to be of AngloSaxon age. This typically implies the use of a rock such as a consolidated Palaeozoic siltstone or fine sandstone as may be found in parts of northern England as well as elsewhere, such as in parts of the Carboniferous succession in Ireland. In Wales, a relatively high proportion of plinths investigated were constructed of fragmentary and irregular small blocks of volcanic or Palaeozoic stone and their age remained uncertain.

c. Pilasters and Pilaster-strips

f. Wall thickness

The requisites for the creation of the vertical stones in the pilaster-strip or pilaster are even more demanding (Figures

Although others, such as Brown (1925, 23), had drawn attention to the tendency for Anglo-Saxon walls in England 34

Chapter Two

Figure 2.25 The ruined Llawhaden Hospital Chapel (St Mary, St Thomas and St Edmund), in Pembrokeshire (SN 066 173) is here viewed from the north-west. The outer wall above the doorway has fallen to display typical Norman wall construction (erected c. 1287). The tufa and small stalactites probable relate to the weathering of modern lime mortar and render repairs.

in a wall much less than 3ft (0. 91m.) thick is a fairly reliable indication that the arcade has been cut through a pre-existing Anglo-Saxon wall.’ A number of instances of this occurrence arise in the following studies of Welsh churches.

to be relatively thin, it was Taylor and Taylor (1965, 12) and Taylor (1979, 959) that observed this phenomenon more widely, commenting that: ‘Pre-Conquest walls are seldom as much as 3ft (0.91m.) in thickness, and more often nearer to 2ft 6in. (0.76m.); whereas Norman walls are seldom less than 3 ft thick.’

g. Other structures This analysis could continue to include many other AngloSaxon structures that are not necessarily geographically widespread. The circular apses, principally found in the region of eastern England where round towers are present, and both believed to be related to the difficulties of building sharp corners with rounded cobbles. Other structures, such as the double belfry window with mid-wall shaft and supported through-stone, all requiring ashlar quality stone, have proved impossible to as yet fully examine, because of the altitude of their situation.

Taylor and Taylor (1965, 12) Taylor and Taylor drew attention also to a number of exceptions to these differences in thickness. In the present author’s more widespread studies it is evident that Norman stonemasons inevitably built thicker walls because their method of construction frequently involved the use of both an inner and outer facing of stones with a rubble (often without mortar) between. This aspect of Romanesque construction has been observed (Potter, 2005b; 2009c) both in Scotland and in Ireland (such as at Agha Church in Carlow [S 730 654]). It may also be observed in Wales (Figure 2.25). Where they are relevant, wall thickness measurements are given in the present study of Welsh churches, and again it would appear they can be applied to help to make the distinction between the two periods of church building. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 12) made an important comment with reference to walls with arcades and wrote; ‘… as a rule, a Norman arcade

2.6.2 Recently recognised Anglo-Saxon features During the course of studying the majority of Anglo-Saxon and Patterned churches, the author, having first observed the importance of vertically orientated bedding and lineations, subsequently described a number of further features indicative of Patterned period craftsmanship (see section 1.6) . Each of these features can be perceived to enhance the patterning on the walls of the Anglo-Saxon church. 35

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology a. Anglo-Saxon stone cut backs In the course of these studies it became clear that in order to enhance the appearance of both the quoins and arch jamb stones which had vertically bedded stone orientations, as well as pilaster-strips, the Anglo-Saxon masons chose to cut back stones to make them appear to be of equal and constant width (Potter, 2006c). It can be shown that this was most frequently done after the structure had been built, and in vertical stone columns with the aid of a chisel and plumbbob. The width of the column has always been cut back to the width of the narrowest stone in the column (Figures 2.26 and 2.27). Work of this nature requires rocks with the same qualities as those used for creating pilaster-strips. Outside of England, cut backs of this type have been observed at sites such as St Peter, Restenneth (NO 482 516) in Scotland, where they were created in Lower Devonian sandstone (Potter, 2008c) and again in Ireland in various west doorways typically created again in Carboniferous or Devonian sandstones (Potter, 2009c).

Figure 2.27 Part of the north face of the north-west nave quoin of Holy Cross, Daglingworth, Gloucestershire (SO 994 050), to show the various amounts of cut back on different stones to produce a definitive line to the east edge of the quoin. In Potter (2006c) the case is made that the cut backs were undertaken after the quoin had been constructed and the stones were set firmly in the wall. The chisel marks related to this work are clearly evident.

b. Polychrome banding The use of differently coloured rock types in walls can introduce an element of colour banding in church walls. There is evidence that this type of patterning was moderately popular in churches of Anglo-Saxon/Patterned construction, where suitable rock types were local to the church (Potter, 2009d). This has been illustrated both in south-east England and in East Anglia in rubble church walls of this period in particular where the superficial deposits offered a suitably contrasting colour. Typical examples are Bunter quartzites contrasting with flints (Figure 2.28) or grey flints contrasting with brown ferruginous gravel (Figure 2.29). In the majority of churches only one rock type and colour may be found locally so that banding in most stone walls is unusual. Furthermore, with no other evidence, it may prove impossible to date a colour band in a wall. A case in Wales

Figure 2.26 Sketch of part of a typical Anglo-Saxon pilaster-strip in which the stones have been cut back to improve their decorative appearance, annotated with the terms proposed (Potter, 2005b) to describe the feature and used by the present author. The amount of cut back (on the right of the pilaster) of overlarge stones, has been determined by the proud face width of the narrowest stone (in this instance the lowest stone shown).

36

Chapter Two

Figure 2.28 The south nave wall of St Botolph, Hadstock, Essex (TL 558 447) viewed from the south-west. High in the wall constructed of flints a band of Bunter cobbles passes through both the double-splayed windows.

Figure 2.29 The walls of the nave of the church of Marks Tey, Essex (TL 912 238) are here viewed from the north-east. The quoin is largely built of Roman tiles and the walls of flint cobble gravel. Two continuous bands of ferruginously-cemented gravel have been built into both the walls and the quoins. Breaks in the bands mark old window insertion and repairs. 37

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 2.30 The south wall of the ruined Capel Erbach (Hirbach), Carmarthenshire (SN 529 147) viewed from the south-east. This wall displays at least five equidistant courses of grey Carboniferous Limestone in an otherwise Old Red Sandstone wall to provide distinct colour banding. illustrates such dating issues. The ruined chapel of Erbach (SN 529 147) in Carmarthenshire, is situated on the spring line between the Lower Carboniferous and the underlying Devonian sandstones, and utilizes both rocks in its walls, on occasions the limestone making bands in the sandstone in an external wall (Figure 2.30). With other features in the ruin indicating a variety of ages from Patterned period to 14th C it proves impossible to confirm a date to this colour banding.

face, FB), or edge bedded (bedded vertically with bedding plane perpendicular to the wall face, EB). In this instance the individual courses largely used EB and FB stones to regular patterns. If these stones were in fact of re-used Roman origin, no similar vertically bedded Roman use of stones had ever been observed, meaning that each stone had been revolved to introduce a purposeful pattern. Attempts to photograph the pattern failed, for lichen obliterated the detail of many. Certainly, when first completed, and perhaps for the first century, the pattern would have been distinctive. With the knowledge that this pattern might have been created at the whim of an individual mason, the present author chose to look for similar evidence of patterns of this nature elsewhere.

c. Decoration in face-bedded stonework Eight or nine years ago, when the present author was reviewing the walls of the long-recognised Anglo-Saxon church at Escomb (NZ 189 301), close scrutiny plus illuminating strong, oblique sunlight revealed that, more especially in the south chancel wall (where the lighting was superior), the stones were emplaced in an element of pattern. The blocks of well-squared stone, Carboniferous Millstone Grit, are thought to have been originally used in the Roman fort at Binchester (Vinovia), although for the lower easily visible chancel wall this is impossible to confirm. Stone blocks were laid in three ways, with stones, using modern stonemason’s terms (Figure 2.31) bedded normally and horizontally (BH), face bedded (bedded vertically with bedding plane parallel to the wall

Over the ensuing years similar patterns have been observed in recognised Anglo-Saxon/Patterned period churches in the north of England, Scotland, Ireland (Potter, 2009c) and more recently Wales (Potter, 2011c). In all instances the rock type preserving the pattern is similar, a hard, siliceous Palaeozoic stone which has marked flat (smooth) bedding planes. In some instances the pattern is established entirely in face-bedded stones, providing a smooth surface to the wall where the courses occur (supportive evidence that such walls were never plastered externally).

38

Chapter Two

Figure 2.31 Diagrammatic sketch of an Anglo-Saxon or Patterned wall illustrating the use of stones orientated with their bedding vertical to create patterns. FB = Face Bedded, BH = Bedded Horizontally, EB = Edge Bedded. In this wall a doorway (where BVFIA = Bedding Vertical Face Into the Arch) of the same period illustrates the use of cut backs to improve the appearance of an arch.

Figure 2.32 The plan of an early, simple unicameral Irish church with antae is shown. Typically, there is a lack of apparent bonding between the gables and the adjoining walls and often this takes the form as illustrated.

39

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 2.7 But what of Irish antae? Antae consist of projections of stone constructed at the corners of certain early Irish stone churches. They occur as prolongations of the north and south walls, and their purpose remains a matter of extensive controversy (Figure 2.32). Portrayed in Figure 2.33 are the notations for the stone orientations possible in the antae. It proved to be the case that the orientations in the antae followed those in quoins in pattern, so that Anglo-Saxon (Patterned) quoins could be differentiated in the author’s belief from those of Romanesque or rebuilt origin. A review of the various reasons for the origin of antae that have been proposed is provided by Potter (2009c, 162 et seq.). The present author added to the controversy by proposing that the antae were built to strengthen the most vulnerable part of the church, the corners. Particularly, when stones are emplaced in quoins in the BVFR and BVFL style they are simple to prise away from the quoin: when a third dimension is added to the corner it is very much strengthened. In the studies of Irish churches many of the antae proved to have been rebuilt (Figures 2.34 and 2.35), although it seems likely all were originally constructed either in Patterned or Romanesque times. If the idea of constructing antae to strengthen corners is correct it reflects the early Irish history of numerous foraging

Figure 2.33 This figure portrays the nomenclature for the possible dispositions of stones which might be placed in an anta.

Figure 2.34 The west face of St Brendan, Clonfert, in Galway (M 962 212) showing the magnificent Romanesque doorway and the north-west anta. The stonework in the anta shows little originality and individual stones are now placed BH.

40

Chapter Two

Figure 2.35 The ruined smaller church at Leighmore (Liathmore) in South Tipperary (S 225 576) from the north-west to show the two simple doorway and antae. Again this Irish church is built of Carboniferous Limestone and the antae have been rebuilt.

attacks by Vikings and others and, in Potter (2009c, Figure 6.5) a map of Ireland shows the vulnerability of the antae churches to the sea (see also section 7.4).

give evidence for Irish settlements. In Ireland the record of early Irish church sites being subjected to Viking attack are historically numerous, the record (as far as is known) for Wales is far less (Price, 1992, 25). Could the absence of antae (and possibly round towers) be nothing more than a reflection of the lack of susceptibility of Wales (and possibly England) to such attacks? There is some evidence that both England and Wales were stronger and better organised in a military sense during this period and more able to defend places of vulnerability.

In Wales, as in England, churches with antae are absent and remain unknown. The Celtic associations and proximity of Wales with Ireland call for a remark as to their absence, particularly in Wales. Place names with Irish connotations, as for example, along the Welsh coast ‘between Strumble Head and Aberystwyth’ (Lewis, 1976, 178) are thought to

41

CHAPTER THREE BACKGROUND AND PROCEDURES

3.1 Previous country-wide reviews of the stonework of early churches

general, ruined sites had been less extensively studied and the earlier stonework was less likely to be obliterated with more modern repairs. Thus, the study in Scotland was preceded by both a paper review and a detailed examination of all Ordnance Survey maps of Scotland to determine known ruined ecclesiastical sites. The results of this Scottish study, therefore, are almost entirely related to ruined rather than functional churches. They also tend to reflect areas in which the local geology was able to provide distinctively bedded sedimentary rocks suitable for emplacing in a vertical orientation in church structures.

The experience gained from three major country-wide reviews of early church stonework and fabric, in England, Scotland and Ireland, was invaluable in determining the procedures which were to be adopted in this study. In the study of England (Potter, 2005b) the churches thought to be of Anglo-Saxon initial construction had already been precisely described by Taylor and Taylor (1965). Each of these sites was examined and, with certain explained and rare specific exceptions, each one revealed features of vertically orientated bedding in its stonework, appropriately enhancing the Taylors’ conclusions. Subsequently, with experience and increased knowledge gained over time, it has proved possible to supplement the number of churches of Anglo-Saxon original construction in England by scrutiny of their stonework.

The study in Ireland (Potter, 2009c, 2011d) tended to follow a similar pattern to that in Scotland. Again, it relied on utilizing both knowledge of the identity and character of the stone as well as the identification of the manner in which the stone had been used. There had also been those who had doubted the existence of early stone churches prior to the ‘Romanesque’ period (such as Harbison, 1982; Hare and Hamlin, 1986); this despite the extensive evidence afforded, in the form of inscribed Christian artefacts, such as stone cross slabs, which clearly extended the origins of Christianity in Ireland to very much earlier times. In Ireland, the architecture of the principal ruined churches had been studied and described by previous authors, usually in some detail. Unfortunately, on some occasions these earlier conclusions, as at Monaincha Abbey (S 170 884) (Figure 3.1), were unlike those offered by the both the detail of the church fabric and the structural stonework observed by the present author. This discrepancy was defended by one very senior Irish author as being the result of an Irish desire at the time to be unlike the English! Such an argument could not be refuted. However, when, in the vast majority of instances, the Irish, Scottish and English styles of stonework for the period were identical, it failed to be very plausible.

The subsequent study of Scotland included the Inner and Outer Hebrides and the Orkney Islands (Potter, 2006d). It had no previous prescriptive study as in the case of England. In what was possibly the most comprehensive recent review of Scottish churches, Fawcett (2002) was unable to describe any ecclesiastical structures which preserved work of a date prior to the Conquest of England (1066). In Scotland, the majority of authors believed that most, or possibly all, existing ecclesiastical buildings in the country were, at the earliest, of Romanesque age. Cruden (1986, 24), for instance, wrote as follows of AngloSaxon influences: ‘…it would be unwise to think that there was any appreciable appearance of them in Scotland generally’; and ‘Until the end of the eleventh century Scotland was a disunited Celtic and tribal country’. Such unfortunate criticism can, of course, be countered and an alternative view appears in Potter (2006d). Experience in England had revealed two features that enhanced the likelihood of identifying church buildings that might reveal Anglo-Saxon patterned stonework. There was an obvious necessity that the local geology should be in a position to provide stone from which suitably bedded stonework could be obtained and, that it was generally easier and more enlightening to access and scrutinize ruined church sites. With the proviso that sufficient church walls should be still standing and available for examination, ruined buildings could be viewed both inside and out, for they were not locked to prevent internal access. In ruined churches, the requirements for the stonework to be well illuminated and free from superficial cover or coating (such as more recently applied plasters or renders) were more readily met; any surface coatings to the stonework having been removed at least in part by weathering. In

With extensive Norman presence in Ireland not commencing until 1169 (and no precise date for the Norman entry into Scotland) a descriptive word was required for those countries where an Anglo-Saxon stonework style was evident but these peoples were absent. As described in section 1.6, the word ‘Patterned’ was selected for the style (Potter, 2009c; 2009d). 3.2 The study of early ecclesiastical geology in Wales 3.2.1 Introduction The geology of Wales has numerous similarities to that of Scotland (see sections 2.2 and 2.3). In many areas the local rock is unsuitable for creating structures like quoins which might display certain rocks with vertical or other 42

Chapter Three

Figure 3.1 The ruined Abbey at Monaincha, North Tipperary (S 170 884) at one time occupied an island site in a lake. It is here viewed from the south with the high cross to the right. Interpretations differ as to the periods of construction of the various parts of the church which is normally regarded as Romanesque. The present author believes that some portions of this Romanesque detail were modified from earlier Patterned style work.

‘… to provide a database of all pre-19th-century churches in Wales still in ecclesiastical use or ownership.’

specific orientations. In the study of the early churches of Wales an important essential, therefore, was the correct identification of the various rock types involved and an understanding of their individual characteristics. This task proved to be particularly difficult (see section 2.4). As in Scotland (and Ireland) detailed Ordnance Survey maps were viewed to determine the presence of ruined sites. Regrettably these were less common in Wales than in either of the other countries. The only reason that can be suggested for this shortfall is, that as many sites fell into disuse, the stone of the churches was ‘quarried’ for use elsewhere; which in turn reflects a local shortage of quality building stone.

(Evans, et al., 2000, 5). The work commenced with a pilot study in Gwynedd during 1993-1994, which was extended to the rest of Wales in 1995 and completed in 2000. The surveys were designed ‘to be a management tool, providing information on which practical decisions relating to the upkeep of individual buildings could be based’. Unfortunately, in one respect of this it is weak, for in the identification of rock types, critical if wall fabrics are to be repaired, it is poor. It provides, however, for research purposes a truly excellent overall analysis of the pre-19th century church buildings of Wales. Very little of this work was published in paper format and most is available only in digital format by means of a variety of different web sites. Although extensively accessed by the present author it proved difficult to offer clear and succinct references, because the page numbers, year of compilation, and particulars of author(s) were absent and web site details varied. Throughout the present study the work has been referenced only as WHCP (Welsh Historic Churches Project). Information provided in Appendix I may then be used as a guide to determine the origin of the material to which the citation refers.

3.2.2 The CADW funded study Over the twenty years previous to the current study, an important funded programme was supported by CADW, the Welsh Government’s historic environmental service. This was to undertake an extensive Welsh Historic Monuments study of the historic churches of Wales. The four Welsh Archaeological Trusts (Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust, Dyfed Archaeological Trust, Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust and Gwynedd Archaeological Trust) have in this period each provided a full analysis of the churches in their respective regions. The aim of the work was: 43

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology The available modern information afforded by the WHCP, permitted the present author to assess from the descriptions which churches might possibly provide traces or evidence of a pre-Romanesque origin in the stonework. In the WHCP records, only the church at Presteigne, in Radnorshire was considered to clearly exhibit some evidence of AngloSaxon fabric. Nevertheless, churches in which comments like ‘the church was rebuilt on earlier foundations in …’ were, for example, invariably examined, in the hope that sufficient of the foundation stonework remained to provide the period in which the earlier church structure might have been constructed. The information was typically compared with that from other earlier sources such as those provided by the Royal Commission monographs (RCAHMW) or the early visits to the church in question by Sir S. R. Glynne.

scattered through some 20 stones in a quoin). As far as the author is aware, in all instances, the vertically orientated stone(s) contained in the structure appear to be re-used. They may have been re-used because they formed a pattern in an earlier structure, because the mason concerned failed to note their orientation, or simply because they fitted the purpose or size required. The church of LlanfihangelGlyn-Myfir, in East Conwy, Denbighshire (SH 989 494) illustrates this well (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). The east wall of this church is just a few metres from the Afon Alwen which in 1781 flooded to wash away much of the chancel (a plaque shows the waters rose to more than 2.5m. inside the church). Although the western nave quoin stones are all placed BH, the four quoins of the replacement chancel (which is unusually wider than the nave) contain from one to three vertically orientated stones, each differently scattered through the quoin height.

WHCP information, it should be noted, excluded all churches in use which were thought to have been erected after the commencement of the 19th century and all ruined churches or churches that had passed out of the Church in Wales (or Church of England) use. Resulting from the information provided by the WHCP, a large number of sites where the church remained in use were examined in this present study, so that together with the ruined sites, the stonework in excess of 400 localities was scrutinized. The inclusion of numerous operational churches in the present study was encouraged verbally also by most of those with regional ecclesiastical experience who had been requested to advise which churches might possibly reveal early remnants. As a result, certain churches were viewed in areas where the local geology would have failed to be able to provide rocks suitable for working in a Patterned style (i.e. where Patterned workmanship would be unexpected).

Noticeably, island based church sites are omitted from this study. This followed a scrutiny of available photographs of churches or ruins on islands such as Bardsey, Caldey, St Tudwals and Puffin Island (Ynys Seiriol). In all instances examined, the quoin stones, assessed according to their shape, appeared to be probably set BH and, therefore, probably not worthy of further attention. The details from an initial visit to the church were written up and, if of sufficient interest, the church was re-visited and viewed afresh to check the initial information. A third and even a fourth visit were sometimes necessary. During this process the features revealed determined into which of the following four categories a church should be placed:a). Church exhibiting characteristics thought to be indicative of typical Anglo-Saxon, Patterned style (Chapter 4).

3.2.3 Procedures used in the Welsh study

b). Church exhibiting possible, but indefinite features of Anglo-Saxon, Patterned style (Chapter 5).

All churches listed and tabulated in section 3.3, Table 3.1, were obviously visited. The examination of the churches, in particular, sought answers to the two principal facets of this work. They were the records of any fabric structures exhibiting Patterned styles and, the rock types used both in the general wall fabric and more especially in structural features like quoins, and window and arch jambs. Structural features that were no longer in use were especially scrutinized. Frequently, changes in rock type in the stones of a structure, such as in a quoin, indicated different periods of construction. A further typical feature related to re-use of stones was, that at the time of re-use, stones were often difficult to adjust to their new position so that small thin fillets of stone would be used to balance and correctly settle the stone. If such inserted fillets were of an identifiable material (as for instance, roof tile) an approximate date of the modification could sometimes be determined.

c). Church exhibiting features that were not of Anglo-Saxon, Patterned style; but the features had not been described (or in some instances, interpreted in the same way) and thought to be of sufficient significance to record (Chapter 6). d). Other churches; as for example, those where it was felt previous descriptions elsewhere covered the salient visible features (Listed only in Table 3.1). In making records of the churches, each was accepted as being orientated magnetic east-west, although in many instances the ecclesiological east-west, chancel, nave, (tower) line, was some degrees different from the current magnetic orientation. Where sites varied significantly this was mentioned.

In this work, all observed instances of churches in Wales, in which the vertically orientated bedding in quoins or arch jambs displays some semblance of a pattern, have been recorded. It must be noted that in reconstructed and modern quoins in particular, occasions exist where a small number (generally one or two, a maximum of three) stones have been identified exhibiting vertical orientation (perhaps

3.2.4 Vertical orientations repeated: a ‘Celtic Revival’ In the study of early Scottish churches, and initially causing the present author a level of confusion, a relatively small number of principal quoins, apparently constructed in the 17th to 19th centuries, tended to resemble the Patterned style.

44

Chapter Three

Figure 3.2 Llanfihangel-Glyn-Myfir Church in East Conwy (SH 989 494) is viewed here from the south-west. In 1781 the chancel of the church was largely swept away when the adjoining river flooded.

Figure 3.3 The east wall of the church in Figure 3.2 was rebuilt following the 1781 flood and the larger stones in particular were re-used particularly in the lower part of the wall. The earlier quoin stones were also re-used but not reinstalled in a position comparable to that occupied in the earlier quoin. 45

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology later ‘Alternate’ quoin proved to be relatively common. Again, it was applied over much the same period as in Scotland although possibly it was also employed slightly earlier. Very occasionally, BH stones were inserted and face-alternate stones were interposed in the quoin stone sequence. Each observed example is discussed on its individual merits in the following Chapters and the topic of their occurrence is discussed further in section 7.2.4 and Figure 7.1.

The quoin stones were emplaced in side-alternate fashion with their bedding planes vertically orientated (Potter, 2006d, 231-232). The style was similar, but not identical to, the earlier Patterned style; for there was a noticeable absence of customary, horizontally bedded (BH) tie stones in the more recent version (see sections 7.2.3 and 7.2.4 and Figure 7.1). As this later style of vertically bedded sidealternate quoins requires a distinctive name it has decided to call it in this work ‘Alternate’. Fortunately, the time gap between the Patterned style of emplacement and the later ‘copy’ was sufficient for the two periods of workmanship to generally be distinguished. In Scotland, the earliest occurrence of the ‘copy’ was thought to be about 1650, with the style being at its most prevalent between 1730 and 1870.

3.3 The identification of ‘Victorian’ stonework and its terminology If long standing ruins are excluded, all the Welsh churches examined in this work, without exception, have been extensively restored or rebuilt on one or more occasions during the period 1750 to 1920. The principal reasons for such a boom in rebuilding are explained elsewhere (see section 7.1.3). Over the ‘Victorian’ period, improved mechanization permitted the procedures in stone working to improve significantly. The techniques used in quarrying stone and preparing it for use in walls, during ‘Victorian’ and more recent times, have often been distinctive. Despite lichen growth on much of this stonework since its introduction into the restored or rebuilt walls, and its frequent association with re-used stone from the walls that have been superseded, the evidence of these techniques can frequently be recognised.

The study of Irish churches was essentially one of examining ruins most of which appeared to wholly or mainly pre-date the 17th C. Very few 17th C. or later churches were examined and it remains, therefore, unknown as to how much the later Patterned ‘copy’ was used. The north-east quoin at Kilgarvan Church, Kerry (W 013 734), however, might in part be in this later style (Potter, 2009c, 107-108). It is a style which is very common in modern buildings in Ireland. In the present Welsh study, with many of the churches studied in use, walls and quoins of a significant range of dates were examined. The predominantly side-alternate,

Figure 3.4 Rotary drill holes created in order to break what are two different igneous rock types (from which it might be inferred that they were introduced into the wall at different times) which occur as blocks in the south nave wall of the church of The Holy Cross, Llannor, Caernarfonshire (SH 354 372). 46

Chapter Three Rustication is a term which has been widely applied to certain styles of stone and other masonry created since the beginning of the 19th C. Basically meaning ‘created with a rustic appearance’, it generally applies to blocks of stone which are worked to develop wide margins at their edges. This tends to produce shadows when the stones are set into a wall. The terms ‘heshing’ or ‘heshling’ are used regionally. Quoin ‘stones’ with similar wide margins typically set face-alternately, and in modern walls often of materials other than stone, are often described as ‘rusticated’ (Brunskill, 1978, 41f). Because the faces of stone blocks can be hammered or chiselled to permit the centre of the face to protrude irregularly, this too will produce a ‘shadow effect’ in a wall fabric, which is also described as ‘rustication’. Some aspects of the different processes of rustication and other forms of individual stone decoration are illustrated in Figures 3.6 to 3.12. Feathered edges are very much a ‘Victorian’ feature of rusticated stones. Numerous, sub-parallel lines are evident, created with a small chisel or instrument when the edge of the stone blocks were worked to create a rusticated margin (Figures 3.8 and 3.9). Hammered stones in Wales tend to have irregular roughly equal-sized pits and projections over the whole stone face (Figure 3.12), although certain stones also may have rusticated edges. In Ireland, granite blocks were once hammered extensively to produce well-rounded equal sized blocks resembling boulders (Potter, 2009c, 111 et seq., Fig.4.55).

Figure 3.5 In Ceredigion, in the area of Penbryn, certain more elaborate grave markers, following a local fashion, were surrounded with sawn blocks of sandstone which possess sharp arrises, as shown in this example. This gravestone is dated 1780.

Tooled stones have been modified utilising a range of different tools (Allen, 2007, 13), typically either punches or chisels, in ‘Victorian’ work. Chiselled surfaces may be created to a wide variety of patterns (Figures 3.8 and 3.9).

In the quarrying and breaking of fresh stone, for instance, various (initially water or steam-driven) percussion, or powered rotary and sawing techniques, became available in the 18th- 19th C. Evidence of rock drilling, for example, may occasionally be preserved in stonework (Figure 3.4), when the drill-holes created in the stones can be used to distinguish them from earlier extracted stone. As procedures for sawing blocks of stone improved, the stonework created tended to be of a markedly improved rectangular form and the blocks created possess sharp arrises and on occasions marks of the sawing process (Figure 3.5). These are features which especially apply to sawn blocks. (Although as early as in the Roman period with appropriate selection of readily workable rock, perfectly shaped blocks could be produced). Over the 19th century particularly, masons introduced a range of stone face ornamentation. Similar, but not identical, ornamentation may also be identified on Roman workmanship (Blagg, 1976) and over the centuries since that time the faces of hewn stone blocks have been variously ornamented with axes, hammers or chisels. Terminology related to the varieties of rock face ornamentation produced for use in walls and quoins since the mid-18th C is both confused and, on occasions, contradictory (Clifton-Taylor, 1972; Brunskill, 1978). Many of the terms used for descriptive purposes are used only regionally. Terms used in the present work are as follows:

The manner in which rocks can be laid within a wall may vary enormously but will differ according to the character of the rock as well as any fashion applied by the mason. The rock character may, for instance, determine why some walls are created with an irregular ‘rubble’ finish, or built into imperfect or perfect courses. The mason may adjust the coursing to meet certain fashions. One particular type of partial coursing proved particularly popular in more recent centuries as it proved simpler to create sawn blocks to specific sizes; that providing a wall described as Snecked (Figures 3.7 and 3.12). Such walling possesses regular vertical joints at intervals within its courses introduced by means of larger blocks of stone (Brunskill, 1978, 39f). 3.4 The churches reviewed Table 3.1 provides a list of every church in Wales which was examined in this work. Information given in the Table for those churches not reviewed in Chapters 4 to 6 is restricted to limited detail only regarding some of the rock types used in the construction of the churches. This is provided because in many instances the identifications in archaeological records are incorrect or absent. In some 47

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.6 As St Carannog Church, Llangrannog, Ceredigion (SN 316 540) is approached it is clear that much of its wall fabric is relatively modern. The stonework has a rusticated appearance, that is, individual stones have been chiselled to create irregular protuberances and a ‘shadow effect’.

Figure 3.7 The south wall of Holy Trinity, Bettws Clyro, Radnorshire (SO 228 473) rebuilt in 1878 is, like Llangrannog Church, relatively modern and rusticated. The stonework is also ‘half-snecked’ with larger ‘jumper’ stones inserted at intervals into the courses.

48

Chapter Three

Figure 3.8 A further form of individual stone rustication is illustrated here from Bettws Clyro Church (Figure 3.7). The face of the sandstone has been tooled and a chiselled ‘feathered’ edge added to the right side of the block.

Figure 3.9 The face of a buttress at St Silin Church, Llansilin, Montgomery (SJ 209 282) has the stones ornamented with one chisel and given a feathered edge with another. Note that except where one stone has had to be broken (and has no feathered edge) the arrises are sharp. 49

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.10 On the south wall of the south aisle of the church of St Mary, Chirk, near Wrexham (SJ 291 376) this buttress displays features of relatively recent construction, with dimension-stones showing tooled faces and feathered edges.

Figure 3.11 The appearance of the south face of St Illog Church, Hirnant, Montgomery (SJ 020 229) indicates from the stonework that it was rebuilt in late Victorian times.

50

Chapter Three

Figure 3.12 The west end of Hirnant Church (Figure 3.11) was, however, rebuilt again in 1996. It provides a good example of snecked stonework. The show of tufa reflects the weathering of the lime mortar used (possibly also reacting with the chemistry of the stonework). instances where the rocks remain poorly displayed or are very fine-grained, without the removal of samples the identification may remain inaccurate. Certain sandstones also prove to be difficult to accurately differentiate without more extensive analysis. Originally the intention had been to include more detailed information on the stone types involved in each church, listing both the rock types found in the wall fabrics and those in the window and similar dressings. This material to be really meaningful, however, often proved to occupy many lines of information, so that ultimately it may have exceeded in length the main objectives of the work and the analysis of the early churches. The complexity of the task becomes clear when some of the church studies of WHCP are viewed. On many occasions these suggested up to as many as seven or eight different fabric patterns in an individual church and many of these, on the present author’s examination, revealed different ranges of rock types.

that is, the locality in which they were first excavated, could in almost all instances have been no more than a few kilometres distant. Exceptions occur only where water transport was readily available or in modern instances where road or rail transport were used. The precise place in which a long quarried rock was first hewn is almost always impossible to determine. To cite just one example: the gabbro at Aber-Erch Church, Caernarfonshire (SH 396 366) closely resembles in character that which can be seen today at Gimblet Rock (SH 387 343), near Pwllheli, about 3km away; but other more distant gabbros could well have provided the source. Throughout this work and also in Table 3.1, the historic (pre-1974) counties have been used to classify the areas in which the churches are situated. The sketch map of the Welsh counties pre-1974 (Figure 3.13) is provided for those outside Wales who can no longer recall the early county locations. The use of the pre-1974 county areas makes reference to earlier works much simpler and enables duplicated place names to be more readily distinguished. As far as possible, the Table provides the most recent Welsh spellings for localities with certain alternative versions of lettering in brackets, although larger well known towns and cities may be listed in English.

The ‘General Notes’ section in Table 3.1, therefore, limits the information related to the rock types seen to the more common varieties that are evident. The names selected attempt to limit the geological jargon as much as possible and a brief explanation of all the terms used should appear in the Glossary. The geographical source of the stones,

51

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Worn rocks that have been picked up from superficial deposits, fields, rivers or beaches were used wherever possible in the building of early churches as long as they were deemed suitable for building purposes. Wentworth (1922) broadly classified such rocks according to size and this classification is universally used and followed within this work. This scale defines ‘boulders’ with an intermediate axis length of greater than 256mm., ‘cobbles’ in the range of 64 to 256mm., and ‘pebbles’ smaller than 64mm. intermediate axis length.

After much personal indecision, but encouragement gratefully received from the publisher, the author has chosen to include immediately after Table 3.1 a range of figures illustrating some of the characteristics of the churches listed but not described in Chapters 4, 5, and 6. Any Figures applicable to churches examined and not described in these three Chapters are itemised under the ‘General Notes’ section of Table 3.1.

Figure 3.13 Sketch map of Wales to illustrate the pre-1974 counties and their boundaries.

52

Chapter Three ANGLESEY

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

General Notes (Figures if Applicable)

Aberffraw Beaumaris Castle Ceirchiog

St Beuno Chapel The Holy Rood St Llwddian

SH 353 687 SH 606 763 SH 361 768

St Cybi & Eglwys-y-Bedd Towyn-y-Capel St B(P)abo St Patrick St Peulan Chapel of St Mary

SH 247 826

Llanddwyn (Newborough) Llandysilio Llaneilian

St Dwynwen

SH 386 627

St Tysilio St Eilian

SH 552 717 SH 470 929

Llaneugrad

St Eugrad

SH 495 842

Llanfairynghornwy

St Mary

SH 327 908

See Chapter 6 Castle mainly built of Carboniferous Limestone (Ruin). Chlorite schist mainly visible, some granite. (Fig. 3.14) Rebuilt in Carboniferous sandstone and sandy conglomerate. Some mica schist. (Fig. 3.15) Carboniferous pebbly sandstone, but some schists especially chloritic. Some herringbone (Site). Nothing visible See Chapter 4 See Chapter 6 See Chapter 6 Rebuild of mixed boulders, schist, quartzite and igneous. Carboniferous sandstone as some quoin stones (Figs 3.16 – 3.18) (Ruin) Rubble of varied local stone with Devonian and Carboniferous sandstones. (Fig. 3.19) See Chapter 4 Carboniferous sandstone and conglomeratic sandstone, Schists (which built on). (Figs 3.20, 3.21) Much pebble dashed, covering walls of early character. Carboniferous quoin. (Fig. 3.22) See Chapter 4

Llanfairynghornwy

Bryn-yr-Eglwys

SH 297 927

(Site). Site not traced.

Llanfair-yn-Neubwll

St Mary

SH 297 778

Llanfechell

St Mechell

SH 369 913

Llanfigael Llanfihangel-

St Figael St Michael

SH 328 828 SH 478 735

Quartzitic schist and schist. Window dressing Carboniferous sandstone. (Fig. 3.23) Thick lime wash. Chancel doorway of schist has Tredington arch, jambs unreadable. (Fig. 3.24) Chloritic schists. (Fig. 3.25) (Ruin). Carboniferous sandstone, some pebbly, newer in Carboniferous Limestone

St Michael

SH 322 774

See Chapter 6

St Cadwaladr

SH 384 693

Llangaffo Llangefni

St Caffo St Cyngar

SH 446 685 SH 458 759

Llangeinwen Llangoed Llangristiolus Llangwyfan

St Ceinwen St Cawrdaf St Christiolus St Cwyfan

SH 439 658 SH 612 806 SH 450 736 SH 336 683

Rebuilds in Carboniferous sandstone and Limestone but schists earlier. (Fig. 3.26) Built 1846 of quartz-veined schist Rebuilt early 19th C., all of same stone but heavy rain prevented identification Pebble dashed and cement render. (Fig. 3.27) Carboniferous Limestone See Chapter 6 See Chapter 4

Heneglwys Holyhead Holyhead Rural Llanbabo Llanbadrig Llanbeulan Llanbeulan (Tal-y-llyn)

Esgeifiog Llanfihangel-ynNhowyn Llangadwaladr

SH 422 761

SH 26 79 SH 378 868 SH 376 946 SH 373 755 SH 366 729

53

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Llanidan

St Nidan

SH 495 668

Llaniestyn Llanrhwydru(y)s Llansadwrn

St Iestyn St Rhwydru(y)s St Sadwrn

SH 585 796 SH 322 932 SH 554 759

Llanwenllwflo

St Gwenllwflo

SH 485 901

Llechcynfarwy

St Cynfarwy

SH 381 811

Penmon

St Seiriol Priory

SH 630 807

Penmon Penrhos-Lligwy

St Seiriol’s Well St Michael

SH 631 808 SH 481 859

Penrhos-Lligwy

Capel Lligwy

SH 499 864

Pentraeth

St Mary

SH 523 785

Rhodo-Geido

St Mary

SH 399 856

Rhodwydd Geidio

St Ceidio

SH 411 855

Rhosbeiro

St Peiro

SH 392 918

Tal y Llyn (Llanbeulan)

Chapel of St Mary

SH 366 729

Trefdraeth

St Beuno

SH 408 704

(Part Ruin). Lower Carboniferous sandstone and conglomerate. (Fig. 3.28) See Chapter 6 See Chapter 6 Mixed schists, quartzite, Carboniferous conglomerate and sandstone, pebble dashed. (Fig. 3.29) (Ruin). See Chapter 5

Schists and later Ordovician, Arenig coarse sandstones. Doleritic igneous. Part rendered Carboniferous Limestone with dressings of Carboniferous sandstone and conglomerate. (Figs 3.303.33) (Ruin). See Chapter 6 Carboniferous sandy conglomerate and Limestone with finer sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.34) (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone, Lower Carboniferous conglomeratic sandstone. (Figs 3.35-3.38) Carboniferous Limestone, pebbly sandstone; schist, Devonian sandstone. (Fig. 3.39) (Ruin). Lower Ordovician, Arenig sandy conglomerate, some as boulders; pyroxenite. (Figs 3.40 and 3.41) Carboniferous conglomerates and sandstone, schist, dolerite, augite pegmatite. (Fig. 3.42) Quartzitic, chloritic schists, some slatey. Some Carboniferous Limestone dressings Some boulders, mainly in basaltic to gabbroic igneous. Carboniferous sandstone and conglomerate and various schists Carboniferous coarse sandstone some well-coursed; boulders of schist, quartzite, etc. (Fig. 3.44)

Note:- The rocks of Anglesey are very varied and complicated and not yet fully understood. Nearly every rock type is represented in the church fabrics. One of the popular types of building stone have been the Carboniferous sandstones/ sandy conglomerates/conglomerates and these have not generally been differentiated. They occur: along the shores of the Menai Strait, in the Lligwy Bay area (to the north-east of the island) and at the north-east end of the Maldraeth Valley. In these localities they are considered to be of Lower Carboniferous, Visean age. Similar rock types occur on the northern slopes of the Maldraeth Valley in the Upper Carboniferous, Millstone Grit with the finer-grained varieties possibly from the Coal Measures in the Valley. It seems probable that the rock was mainly extracted from the northern shores of the Menai Strait, where the sandstones occur within the D2 zone of the Carboniferous Limestone as ‘shoestring sandbodies’ (Howells, 2007, 125). This note regarding Carboniferous sandstones is applicable to all counties listed below in which they occur.

54

Chapter Three

BRECKNOCKNSHIRE

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

General Notes (Figures if Applicable)

Abergwesyn Aberyscir Allt Mawr Brecon

St David St Mary & St Cynidr St Mauritius

Brecon Builth Wells Crickadarn

St John the Evangelist St Mary St Mary St Mary

Defynnog Erwood (Erwyd)

St Cynog Baptist Chapel

Garthbrengy

St David

Glasbury

St Cynidar and St Peter St Afan

Llanafan Fawr Llanbedr (Ystrad Yw) Llanddetty (Llanthetty) Llanddew Llanddewi’r Cwm LlandefaelogTre’r-Graig Llandefalle(y)

St Peter St Tetti

St David (Holy Trinity) St David St Maelog

Llandeilo’r Fan

St Maelog (St Matthew) St Teilo

Llanelieu

St Ellyw

Llanfihangel Brynpabuam Llanfilo

St Michael & All Angels St Bilo

Llanganten

St Cannen

Llangattock

St Catwg

SN 854 527 (Ruin- demolished 1886). Silurian quartzitic sandstone SO 000 296 Devonian red sandstones and dressings. Some rusticated stones and Mid-Jurassic. (Fig. 3.45) SO 073 468 Silurian flaggy siltstones, some greywackes. (Figs. 3.46 and 7.2) SO 044 290 Cathedral. See Chapter 6 SO 045 285 Detail not recorded SO 039 510 See Chapter 6 SO 089 422 Devonian red and green sandstone, Silurian siltstones and sandstone. (Fig. 3.47) SN 925 279 Recent lime render cover. (Fig.3.48) SO 097 429 West wall cement rendered, remainder lime rendered, probably over Silurian siltstones SO 045 335 Dull red and grey-green Devonian sandstones, also for dressings SO 177 386 Mound, site of earlier church only SN 969 558 Ordovician and Llandovery greywackes and sandstones (some boulders). (Figs 3.49 and 3.50) SO 240 204 Devonian red and ‘green’ sandstone, some Victorian and hammered. (Figs 3.51 and 3.52) SO 128 202 See Chapter 6

SO 054 307 See Chapter 6 SO 035 486 Silurian flaggy mudstones, siltstones, some Devonian sandstone. (Fig. 3.53) SO 126 299 (Private residence) Devonian sandstones SO 107 355 White lime render cover, probably over Devonian red sandstone. (Fig. 1.12) SN 896 346 Devonian red sandstone. Some Mid-Jurassic oolitic limestone dressings. Victorian restoration. (Fig. 3.54) SO 185 342 Devonian and Silurian sandstones. (Figs 1.5, 3.55 and 3.56) SN 984 567 Lower Palaeozoic, Devonian and, for modern quoins Carboniferous sandstones SO 119 332 White lime render cover (not tower). Tower in Devonian grey-green sandstone. (Figs 3.57 and 3.58) SO 009 518 Silurian sandstone, siltstones and greywacke, Devonian red and green sandstones SO 212 179 Devonian red sandstone, some quartzitic sandstone boulders (probably Carboniferous). (Figs 3.59 and 3.60) 55

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Llangenny Llangynidr Llanhamlach Llanigon Llansantffraed juxta Usk Llanspyddid Merthyr Cynog Partrishow (Patricio) Talgarth Ystradfellte

St Cennau SO 240 182 (St Cennen) St Mary and St SO 153 202 Cynidr St Peter & St Illtyd SO 089 264 St Eigon St Bridget St Cattwg (St Cadog) St Cynog St Issui (St Ishow) St Gwendoline St Mary

See Chapter 5

Victorian rebuilt. Devonian red and green sandstones, Carboniferous sandstone Devonian sandstones, interior use of red Permo-Triassic sandstone. (Fig. 3.61) SO 213 399 See Chapter 6 SO 123 235 Devonian red sandstone. Extended eastwards into ‘quarried’ area SO 011 282 Devonian red and green sandstones (some rusticated) SN 984 374 Devonian red sandstone (some rusticated), Mid-Jurassic oolite dressings. (Fig. 3.62) SO 278 224 Lower Devonian red and, brown flaggy sandstone. (Figs 3.63-3.67) SO 157 338 Victorian. Devonian and Silurian sandstones. (Fig. 7.9) SN 931 134 Devonian red sandstone (some boulders), Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone. (Figs 3.68 and 3.69)

CAERNARFONSHIRE (EAST)

Locality

Dedication

Betws-y-Coed

St Michael

Caerhun Capel Curig

St Mary St Julitta

Dolwyddelan

(St Curig) St Gwyddelen

Llanbedr-yCennin Llandegai Llandudno

St Peter

Llangelyn(n)in

St Celynin

Llanrhychwyn

St Rhychwyn

Penrhyn

Chapel

Trefriw Trewydir

St Mary St Mary Chapel

(Gwydir-uchaf)

St Tegai St Tudno

Grid Ref.

General Notes

(Figures if Applicable) SH 796 565 Upper Ordovician slates and sandstones, some rhyolites and other volcanic rocks. (Fig. 3.70) SH 777 704 See Chapter 6 SH 718 580 See Chapter 5

SH 736 523 White lime rendered. Upper Ordovician slatey siltstone and sandstones. A few volcanic rocks. (Figs 3.71- 3.73) SH 761 696 Rendered. Lower Palaeozoic flaggy siltstones (some boulders), Carboniferous sandstone. (Fig. 3.74). SH 601 710 See Chapter 6 SH 770 838 Local Carboniferous Limestone, some Triassic sandstone, travertine. Slate and pebbles patch. (Figs 3.75 and 3.76) SH 751 737 Some boulders. Silurian, Wenlock, Denbighshire Grits. (Figs 3.77 and 3.78) SH 775 616 Ordovician flaggy siltstones and shales. Rare igneous. (Fig. 3.79) SH 816 816 (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone and Triassic sandstone. (Figs 3.80 and 3.81) SH 781 633 Upper Ordovician slatey flags. (Figs 3.82 and 3.83) SH 795 609 Upper Ordovician slates and sandstones often as cut blocks

56

Chapter Three CAERNARFONSHIRE (CENTRAL)

Locality

Bangor

Dedication

Grid Ref.

SH 580 720

Cricieth Dolbenmaen

St Deiniol Cathedral St Mary St Beuno & Chapel St Catherine St Mary

*Llanaelhaearn *Llanarmon

St Aelhaearn St Garmon

SH 387 448 SH 423 393

Llanbeblig

St Peblig (Eglwys y Plwyf) St Peris

SH 487 623

Beddgelert *Capel Galltgoed *Clynnog-Fawr

Llanberis Lanfaglan Lanfair-is-Gaer *Llangybi *Llangybi *Llanllyfni Llanrug *Llanystumdwy Penmorpha Pentir Treflys

SH 591 480 SH 471 403 SH 414 497 SH 501 383 SH 507 431

General Notes (Figures if Applicable) 12 Century portion only examined of Carboniferous sandstones (some coarse). (Fig. 3.84) See Chapter 5 (Ruin). See Chapter 6 Ordovician rhyolites, porphyries. Passage of re-used boulders. Carboniferous sandstone. (Fig. 3.85) See Chapter 6 Upper Ordovician rhyolites, rhyolitic tuff, ignimbrite. (Figs 3.86 and 3.87) See Chapter 6 Ordovician igneous, rhyolites, porphyries - some boulders, slate. Carboniferous sandstone See Chapter 4 th

SH 606 583 Ordovician shaley sandstone, grit, tuff. Carboniferous sandstone dressings. (Fig. 2.2) St Baglan SH 455 607 See Chapter 6 St Mary SH 502 660 See Chapter 4 St Cybi SH 429 412 Rhyolite, microgranite, basalt (some boulders) cement. Dressings Carboniferous sandstone St Cybi (Well) SH 427 413 Local rocks (mainly boulders) – no detail St Rhedyw SH 470 521 See Chapter 6 St Michael & All SH 527 632 Heavy pebble dashed render and cement Angels St John the SH474 386 Ordovician igneous as micro-gabbro, dolerite (a few Baptist boulders). Slate ‘fillers’. Conglomerate St Beuno SH 541 403 Late Cambrian and Upper Ordovician shales-slates. Ordovician rhyolites. Cement renders. (Fig. 3.88) St Cedol SH 574 671 (Ruin). One possible wall only of Ordovician boulders of (old church) quartzite, tuff, grit, and less lavas St Michael & all SH 534 379 Ordovician rhyolites and lavas, slates and shales. Angels Carboniferous sandstone dressings, (Figs 3.89-3.91)

* Those churches marked with an asterisk in Caernarfonshire Central and West are also marked by position on a Map (Figure 5.13). This map was produced to provide an order of the complexity of the geology in Wales in just one particular region. It explains why many different rock types can be proximate to a particular church in many parts of Wales and to some extent the difficulties of identification.

57

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology CAERNARFONSHIRE (WEST)

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

General Notes (Figures if Applicable) Dolerite, gabbro; quartzite some as boulders. Ordovician shale. Dressings sandstone. (Figs 3.92-3.94) Porphyritic gabbro, micro-gabbro, rhyolite some as broken boulders; felsite. (Fig. 3.95) (Ruin). Various igneous blocks. (Fig 3.96) See Chapter 6 Feldspar porphyry, rhyolite. ‘Victorian’ dressings Middle Jurassic shelly oolite. (Fig 3.97) ‘Victorian’ granodiorite blocks. Older of basalt, microgabbro, dolerite Feldspar porphyry, porphyritic rhyolite, recent gabbro. Dressings Carboniferous sandstone. (Fig 3.98)

*Aberdaron

St Hywyn

SH 173 264

*Aber-erch

St Cawrdaf

SH 396 366

*Bodferin *Bryncroes *Ceidio

St Merin St Mary St Ceidio

SH 173 315 SH 226 315 SH 288 382

*Edern

St Edeyrn

SH 279 396

*Llanbedrog

St Pedrog

SH 329 315

*Llandudwen *Llanengan *Llanfaelrhys

(St Iestyn) St Tudwen St Engan St Maelrhys

*Llanfihangel

St Michael

SH 274 369 See Chapter 6 SH 294 270 See Chapter 5 SH 211 268 Pebble dashed. Some gabbro and other igneous. (Figs 3.99 and 3.100) SH 304 343 Feldspar porphyry rubble. Local slate quoins.

Bachellaeth *Llangian *Llangynnadl

St Cian St Gwyn

(Fig. 3.101) SH 295 289 Felspathic gabbro, felsite with quartz crystals SH 208 333 See Chapter 6

*Llaniestyn *Llannor

hoe(y)dl St Iestyn The Holy Cross

*Nefyn *Penllech

St Mary St Mary

*Pistyll *Rhiw with Llanfaelrhys

St Beuno St Aelrhiw

SH 270 337 See Chapter 5 SH 354 372 Micro-gabbro, porphyritic rhyolite: older boulders. Much ‘Victorian’. (Figs. 3.4 and 3.102) SH 309 406 (Disused). Rubble of local igneous. SH 220 344 Micro-dolerite, dolerite, some schist, quartzite, rare rhyolite, ignimbrite, conglomerate. (Fig. 3.103) SH 328 423 See Chapter 5 SH 234 287 Heavy cement pointing. 99 per cent igneous, microgabbro, basalt; boulders low

58

Chapter Three CARMARTHENSHIRE

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

General Notes (Figures if Applicable)

Abergwili Abernant

St David St Lucia

Bettws (Trelech a’r Betws) Biga(e)wdin Capel Dewi Capel Dyddgen

Chapel

Capel Erbach

Chapel

(Hirbach) Carmarthen

St Peter

Cenarth Cynghordy

St Llawd(d)og St Mary

SN 407 200 Ordovician sandstones and silty sandstones, Devonian sandstones and rare conglomerates. (Figs 3.106 and 107) SN 271 414 Victorian, of local Upper Ordovician Glogue Slates SN 809 398 Victorian church built just in Brecknockshire.

St Cynwyl

Muddy siltstone blocks. Mid-Jurassic dressing SN 675 399 Llandovery flags, sandstones and greywacke,

Cynwyl Gaeo

Chapel Chapel Chapel (Llyddgen)

SN 440 208 No record made SN 339 231 Upper Ordovician or Llandovery greywackes; MidJurassic bioclastic oolite. (Fig. 3.104) SN 278 282 (Ruin). See Chapter 6 SN 512 147 (Ruin). See Chapter 5 SN 658 178 (Site). A few Carboniferous Limestone boulders SN 465 126 (Overgrown ruin). Carboniferous Limestone, Ordovician flaggy sandstone, some Devonian red sandstone wall infill. (Fig. 3.105 and 7.15) SN 529 147 (Ruin). See Chapter 5

(St Conwil)

Devonian sandstone, Mid-Jurassic oolite. (Figs 3.108 and 3.109) Devonian red sandstone, Carboniferous Limestone. (Figs. 3.110 and 3.111) (Ruin). Worn lime rendered. Ordovician shaley mudstones , dolerite Lower Palaeozoic flaggy sandstones. A little Devonian sandstone Carboniferous Limestone, Devonian red sandstone; MidJurassic limestone dressings. (Fig.3.112) See Chapter 6

Eglwys Cymyn

St Margaret

SN 231 107

Eglwys Fair a Churig

St Mary and St Curig St Mary

SN 202 263

SN 303 114

Llandawke Llanddowror Llandeilo

St Martin of Tours St David (St Arthneu) St Margaret St Teilo St Teilo

Abercywyn Llandeilo Fawr Llandyfaelog

St Teilo St Maelog

SN 628 223 See Chapter 4 SN 414 119 Devonian green and red sandstone, a little conglomerate. Some Carboniferous Limestone. (Figs 3.113 and 3.114) SN 770 352 See Chapter 6

Kidwelly Laugharne Llanarthne(y)

Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn Llanfihangel Abercywyn

St Mary on the Hill St Michael

SN 408 067

SN 534 203

SN 283 113 See Chapter 5 SN 256 145 Carboniferous sandstone and Limestone. (Fig. 7.8) SN 308 131 See Chapter 5

SN 303 134 (Ruin). Part externally rendered. Sandstones including Devonian. (Figs 3.115-3.117 and Fig. 7.13)

59

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Llanfihangel-ar-Arth Llangadog Llangan

St Michael on the Hill St Cadog St Canna

Llangynog

St Cynog

Llanllwch Llansadurnen

St Mary St Sadwrnen

Llansadwrn

St Sadwrn

SN 456 399 Upper Ordovician or Llandovery fine sandstones and greywacke. Mid-Jurassic oolite. (Figs 3.118- 3.120) SN 706 285 See Chapter 4 SN 177 187 Ordovician, but Victorian, with no fabric evidence of earlier foundations SN 340 164 Local Cambrian red sandstones, Ordovician coarse grey sandstones, andesite. (Fig. 3.121) SN 385 187 See Chapter 5 SN 282 104 Dark red Devonian sandstone. Dressings Carboniferous sandstone and Limestone SN 695 315 Worn lime rendered. Ordovician sandstones.

Llansaint

St Isfael

SN 384 081

Llanstef(p)fan

SN 350 107

Llanwinio

St Stephen & St Ystyffan St Gwinio

Llanybri(e)

St Mary

SN 334 124

Marros Meidrim Merthyr

SN 207 089 SN 289 208 SN 352 208

Penbre(y)

St Lawrence St David St Martin (St Enfael) St Illtu(y)d

Pendine

St Margaret

SN 228 087

St Clears

SN 281 156

St Isthmael

St Mary Magdalene St Isfael

Talley

Abbey

Whitland

Abbey

SN 261 265

SS 428 012

(Fig.1.14) Carboniferous grey micaceous sandstone, Devonian red and green sandstones. (Fig. 3.122) Heavy lime render coat. Dressings Mid-Jurassic Limestone. Some visible Devonian sandstones (Site only). Lower Palaeozoic flaggy sandstone fragments? (Ruin). Foundation - Devonian conglomeratic boulders. Rest Ordovician fine sandstones See Chapter 6 Local Ordovician sandstone some flaggy or silty Snecked, Ordovician greywackes and sandstones. MidJurassic oolite dressings. (Fig. 3.123) Various, fine grained, Carboniferous, Coal Measure sandstones. (Figs 3.124 and 3.125) Carboniferous Limestone (cut), dressings Devonian (cut) and Carboniferous sandstones See Chapter 5

SN 363 084 Carboniferous fine grained sandstone and some Devonian red sandstone. (Fig. 3.126) SN 633 628 Lower Palaeozoic, Llandovery greywackes and sandstones SN 207 183 (Ruin). Not recorded

60

Chapter Three CEREDIGION

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

Brongwyn

St Mary

SN 287 437

Capel Cynon (Capel Kenor) Cellan

St Cynon

SN 383 494

All Saints

SN 613 498

(St Cellan) St. Afan

SN 685 721

Llanafan-yTrawscoed Llanarth

General Notes (Figures if Applicable) Ordovician-Silurian sandstones, greywackes, and a few shales (some boulders) Ordovician, fine muddy sandstones (tooled at west end). Mid-Jurassic Oolite dressings Silurian, Llandovery greywackes and sandstones. (Fig. 3.127) Llandovery greywackes. Mid-Jurassic shelly oolite dressings Silurian, Llandovery greywackes and fine sandstones. Carboniferous sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.128)

SN 423 577

Llanbadarn Fawr

St David (St Meilig) (St Maelog) St Padarn

Llanbadarn Odwyn

St Padarn

SN 634 605

Llanbadarn St Padarn Trefeglwys Llanddewi Aberarth St David

SN 508 632

Llanddewi Brefi Llandysiliogogo

St David St Tysilio

SN 664 554 SN 363 575

Llandysul

St Tysul

SN 419 407

Llanfair Clydogau Llanfair Treflygan

St Mary St Mary

SN 362 512 SN 344 441

Llanfair Orllwyn Llanfihangel-yCreuddyn Llangeitho

St Mary St Michael

SN 367 410 SN 665 760

Silurian greywackes. Carboniferous sandstone and MidJurassic oolite dressings. (Figs 3.129 and 3.130) Silurian, Llandovery greywackes (some as boulders). Breeze blocks internally. (Fig. 3.131) Cream lime rendered. Llandovery cut greywackes. MidJurassic limestone dressings. (Fig. 1.11) Silurian, Llandovery, mainly greywackes, rare sandstones (a few boulders). (Fig.3.132) See Chapter 6 Silurian, Llandovery fairly coarse greywackes. Some slate. (Fig. 3.133) Ordovician-Silurian sandstones, greywackes. Carboniferous sandstone, Mid-Jurassic oolite. (Fig. 3.134) See Chapter 6 (Ruin). Ordovician siltstones, sandstones, some greywackes; and quartz blocks. (Fig. 3.135) Victorian church, redundant and overgrown. No record See Chapter 6

St Ceitho

SN 620 601

Silurian, Llandovery greywacke, sandstones.

Llangoedmor Llangrannog

St Cynllo St Carannog

SN 199 457 SN 316 540

Mid-Jurassic bioclastic oolite dressings Ordovician slate and sandstone Ordovician-Silurian greywackes, sandstones; Carboniferous sandstone. Mid-Jurassic oolite.

SN 599 810

SN 477 633

Llangybi

St Cybi

SN 608 532

Llangynfelyn

St Cynfelyn

SN645 922

Llanilar

St Hilary

SN 624 751

(Fig. 3.6) Silurian, Llandovery greywacke, sandstone, flaggy sandstone (some boulders). (Fig. 3.136) Llandovery fine-grained greywackes and sandstones, siltstone and shale See Chapter 6

(St Ilar)

61

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Llanina

St Ina

SN 405 598

Llanllwchai(e)arn

St Llwchaiarn

SN 385 599

Llanrhystud

SN 537 696

Llanwenog

St Restitutus (St Rhystyd) St Bridget (St Ffraid) St Gwenog

Llanwnnws

St Gwnnws

SN 684 695

Mwnt Nantcwnlle

SN 194 520 SN 576 586

Penbryn Trefilan

Holy Cross St Cynllo (St Gwynneu) St Michael St Hilary

Tregaron

St Caron

SN 680 597

Llansantffraed

SN 512 675 SN 494 455

SN 294 521 SN 550 572

Silurian, Llandovery greywackes, generally fine-grained, and many as boulders. (Fig. 3.137) Victorian. Silurian, Llandovery cut greywackes. MidJurassic oolite dressings Victorian. Mid-Jurassic bioclastic oolite dressings. (Fig. 3.138) South wall slate cladded. Rest Llandovery greywackes (East wall boulders). Other rocks. (Fig. 3.139) Lime rendered. Ordovician-Silurian sandstone, greywacke, tower. Carboniferous sandstone. (Figs 2.4 and 3.140) Llandovery fine-grained greywackes. Some cement render. Triassic? sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.141) White lime rendered. No record (Private residence). Some Mid-Jurassic bioclastic limestone dressings See Chapter 6 Silurian, Llandovery greywackes and flaggy sandstones. Some Mid-Jurassic shelly oolite Silurian, Llandovery greywackes, sandstones, flags. Carboniferous sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.142)

DENBIGHSHIRE

Locality

Abergele Brynegwlys Corwen Derwen

Efenecht(d)yd Gwyddel Wern Llanarmon-yn-Ial Llanbedr Dyffryn Clywd Llandrillo-yn-Rhos Llaneilian-yn-Rhos

Dedication

Grid Ref.

General Notes

(Figures if Applicable) St Michael SH 945 776 Carboniferous Limestone, sandstone, Silurian greywacke boulders, Triassic sandstone. (Figs 3.143 and 3.144) St Tysilio SJ 144 473 Lower Palaeozoic flaggy shales, sandstones, rhyolites (boulders); Carboniferous Limestone. (Fig 3.145) St Mael and St SJ 079 434 Lower Palaeozoic sandstones, greywackes, shales. Sulien Carboniferous sandstone dressings St Mary SJ 070 507 Ordovician-Silurian sandstones, dressings of Carboniferous and Permo-Triassic sandstones. (Figs 3.146 and 3.147) St Michael SJ 112 558 See Chapter 6 St Beuno SJ 075 467 Lower Palaeozoic slatey shales, sandstones, Carboniferous sandstone. (Figs 3.148 and 3.149) St Garmon SJ 191 562 Carboniferous Limestone, minor Carboniferous sandstone. (Fig. 1.15) St Peter SJ 145 598 (Ruin). See Chapter 6 St Trillo chapel St Eilian

SH 842 812 Mainly variety of beach boulders: various sandstones, Carboniferous Limestone, slate, etc. (Fig. 3.150) SH 864 764 See Chapter 5

62

Chapter Three Llanelidan

St Elidan

Llanfair Talhaiarn

St Mary

Llanfarchell

St Marcellus(a)

Llanfihangel-GlynMyfyr Llangar

St Michael

Llangernyw

St Digain

Llangollen

St Collen

Llangwym

St Jerome

Llannefydd

St Mary

Llanrhaeder-ymMochnant Llanynys

St Dogfan

All Saints

Llysfaen

St Saetan (St Saeran) St Cynfran

Rhuddlan

St Mary

SJ 110 505

Carboniferous Limestone, sandstone; Lower Palaeozoic sandstone, shale; dressings other. (Fig. 3.151) SH 927 701 Silurian, Denbighshire ‘Grits’, greywackes, siltstones. A Carboniferous Limestone quoin. (Fig. 2.5) SJ 071 662 Recent lime render, covering some sandstone. Triassic red sandstone. (Fig. 3.152) SH 989 494 Ordovician-Silurian sandstones, greywackes (some as boulders), siltstones. (Figs 3.2 and 3.3) SJ 063 White lime rendered. Ordovician-Silurian slatey siltstone. (Fig. 3.153) 424 SH 875 674 White lime rendered. Covering in part Denbighshire ‘Grit’. Carboniferous Limestone. (Fig. 2.3) SJ 217 Silurian greywackes, sandstones, slatey mudstone; ‘Victorian’ Carboniferous sandstone. (Figs 2.6 and 3.154) 420 SH 997 446 Lower Palaeozoic sandstone, siltstone and slate. Some Carboniferous sandstone dressings. (Fig. 1.6) SH 982 706 Carboniferous Limestone. Carboniferous sandstone dressings. A little slate SJ 124 260 Carboniferous sandstones. Boulders of Ordovician greywacke, sandstone, siltstone. (Fig. 3.155) SJ 103 627 White lime render covered. Some Carboniferous sandstone dressings SH 893 774 Heavy render, Carboniferous Limestone. (Transferred to Denbighshire in 1923) SJ 021 781 See Chapter 6

Notes:- The boundaries of the County of Denbighshire have varied significantly in the past. The list provided here mainly follows the ancient boundaries of Denbighshire and not those established under the 1974 local government reorganisation. Within Denbighshire and particularly the Vale of Clwyd many churches include bright red sandstone as a building stone. Until very recently this stone was geological described as of Triassic age (or more generally referred to as PermoTriassic or New Red Sandstone). This terminology is continued in this work although there is some evidence that the sandstone in the Vale of Clwyd may wholly or in part be of Permian age (see section 2.3).

FLINTSHIRE

Locality

Basingwerk Dy(i)serth Gwaenysgor Holywell Meliden

Dedication

Abbey St Bridget (St Ffraid) St Mary Magdalene St James and St Winefride St Melyd

Grid Ref.

SJ 196 774 SJ 056 794 SJ 075 810 SJ 186 764 SJ 063 811

General Notes (Figures if Applicable) (Ruin). Carboniferous sandstone Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone, Triassic sandstone; some boulders. (Fig. 3.156) See Chapter 6 (Two sites). Carboniferous sandstone. (Fig. 3.157) Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone (the latter also as dressings), A little Triassic sandstone. (Fig. 3.158)

63

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology St Asaph Tremeirchion

St Kentigern & St SJ 036 744 Asa Corpus Christie SJ 083 731

Carboniferous limestone and sandstone (some boulders), Triassic sandstone. (Fig. 3.159) Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone, buttresses Silurian flaggy sandstone

Note:_Of the churches listed here as being in Flintshire only Basingwerk Abbey, Gwaenysgor, and Holywell remain so at the present time.

GLAMORGANSHIRE

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

Backingston(e) (Pyle) Barry Island Burry Holms

Chapel

SS 576 882

St Barruch (St Kenydd)

ST 120 666 SS 402 936

Caswell (Murton) Crymlyn Cwmfelinfach Cwrt-y-Carn(au)e Forest

St Peter Chapel St Margaret Babel Chapel Chapel/Grange Chapel

SS 591 884 SS 705 940 SO 185 915 SN 572 004 SO 082 005

Hen Eglwys Chapel (Cryke) Highlight (Colcot) Church Llanbad Llanc(g)arfan

St Peter (Peterston super Montem) St Cadoc

Llanddewi

St David

Llandow

Holy Trinity

Llanelen Llanilid Llantwit Major (Llanilltud Fawr) Llysworney Margam

Chapel St Ilid and St Curig St Illtwd

SS 802 865

General Notes (Figures if Applicable) (Overgrown Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone, rare Upper Devonian conglomerate (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone (Ruin) Carboniferous Limestone, Devonian sandstone boulders, cut hard beach sandstone. (Fig. 3.160) (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone. (Fig. 3.161) (Ruin). Carboniferous sandstone Built 1827. No record taken (Ruin). Devonian red flaggy sandstone. (Fig. 3.162) (Ruin). Carboniferous, Coal Measures sandstone. (Fig 3.163) (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone

ST 097 699 (Ruin). Probably Lower Liassic, Southerndown Stone Limestone SS 994 893 (Ruin). Carboniferous flaggy sandstone ST 052 703 White lime render. Tower of Carboniferous Limestone (could include Southerndown). (Fig. 3.164) SS 460 Carboniferous Limestone, cut blocks beach sandstone, Devonian sandstone, Mid-Jurassic limestone. (Fig. 891 3.165) SS 943 734 Carboniferous Limestone, some Lower Liassic Southerndown Beds limestone. (Fig. 3.166) SS 511 934 (Ruin). See Chapter 6 SS 977 813 See Chapter 6 SS 966 687 See Chapter 4 SS 962 741 SS 802 864

See Chapter 6 Carboniferous Limestone

Merthyr Mawr

St Tydfil Abbey, St Mary the Virgin St Roque Chapel

SS 888 781

Penmaen

St John

SS 532 887

Penmaen

Chapel

SS 532 883

(Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone (might include Lower Liassic Southerndown Stone) Upper Devonian conglomerate, Carboniferous Limestone (Ruin). Upper Devonian conglomerate. (Fig. 3.167)

64

Chapter Three Rhossili

St Mary

Rhossili Burrows St Andrews Minor

?St Sili St Andrew

St Pennard Burrows Trinity Well Vaynor

St Pennard Baptist Chapel St Gwnnno (Old Church)

SS 416 881

Devonian red sandstones, later Carboniferous limestone, Upper Devonian conglomerate SS 415 884 (Ruin - site only) Nothing visible SS 928 735 (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone may include Lower Liassic Southerndown limestone. (Fig. 3.168) SS 545 885 (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone. Wall core contains some Devonian lithologies. (Fig. 3.169) SS 553 895 (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone SO 048 103 (Ruin). Carboniferous sandstone. (Fig. 3.170)

MERIONNYDD

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

SH 569 282

General Notes (Figures if Applicable) Lower Cambrian beach boulders. Slates and greywackesome cut. Carboniferous sandstone. (Figs 3.171 and 3.172) Ordovician slate, rhyolites, porphyries, dolerites. Carboniferous sandstone, and earlier slate, dressings. (Figs 3.173 and 3.174) Upper Ordovician rhyolites, porphyry, lavas; greywacke; Carboniferous sandstone; concrete Worked Cambrian slates (Site). Not traced See Chapter 6

Llandanwg

St Tanwg

Llanegryn

Sts Egryn and Mary SH 596 058

Llanfor

St Deiniol

SH 938 367

Llanffestiniog Llanffestiniog Llanfihangel-yPennant Llanfihangel-yTraethau Llangelynnin Llanycil

St Michael Old Church St Michael

SH 699 419 SH 690 417 SH 671 089

St Michael

SH 595 353 See Chapter 6

St Celynnin St Beuno

Llanymawddy

St Tydecho

Tywyn

St Cadfan

SH 571 072 See Chapter 6 SH 914 348 Ordovician sandstone, slate, rhyolite, lavas. Carboniferous sandstone. Roman tiles. (Figs 3.175 and 3.176) SH 902 189 Silurian, Llandovery greywackes (some boulders), Lower Palaeozoic worked slates. (Figs 3.177 and 3.178) SH 588 009 See Chapter 4

65

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology MONMOUTHSHIRE

Locality

Bassaleg

Dedication

St Basil

Grid Ref.

ST 277 871

Bertholey

St Bartholomew

ST 393 948

Bishton Caerleon

St Cadwaladr St Cadoc

ST 386 873 ST 339 906

Caldicot

St Mary the Virgin

ST 483 886

Crick

St Nyvern Chapel

ST 491 903

Itton

St Deiniol

ST 493 953

Kemeys Inferior

All Saints

ST 381 927

Llandenni(y)

SO 415 039

Llangovan

St John the Apostle and Evangelist St Govan

Llansoy

St Tysoi

SO 442 024

Llantilio (Llandeilo) Pertholey Llanvaches Penterry

St Teilo

SO 311 163

St Dubritius St Mary

ST 434 916 ST 519 987

Portskewett Rockfield (Llanoronwy) Runston

St Mary St Cenedlon

St Arvans

St Arvan

St Bride’s Netherwent St Pierre Sudbrook

St Bridget

Chapel

St Peter Chapel

SO 457 055

General Notes (Figures if Applicable) Devonian red sandstone, some conglomerate (boulders). Mid-Jurassic shelly oolite dressings. (Figs 3.179 and 3.180) (Ruin). Overgrown. Lower Devonian silty sandstone. Carboniferous sandstone door jamb See Chapter 6 Devonian dull red sandstone, patched with Mid-Jurassic oolite. Roman tile and stones Carboniferous Limestone, sandstone; Triassic and Devonian sandstone, Mid-Jurassic oolite. (Fig. 3.181) (Converted for domestic use). Carboniferous sandstone but difficult to determine originality Devonian sandstone and conglomerate, Carboniferous Limestone, Mid-Jurassic oolite. (Fig. 3.182) (Ruin). Lower Devonian sandstone and Carboniferous sandstone Lower Devonian sandstone. Some Mid-Jurassic oolite recent dressings (Fig. 3.183) Mainly Lower, Devonian sandstones and conglomerates. Mid-Jurassic limestone. (Figs 3.184 and 3.185) Lower Devonian sandstones, Mid-Jurassic oolitic limestone dressings. (Fig. 3.186) Devonian red sandstone. (Fig. 3.187)

See Chapter 6 Devonian red sandstone, Carboniferous sandstone, MidJurassic oolite dressings. (Figs 3.188 and 3.189) ST 499 881 See Chapter 6 SO 482 148 Lower Devonian sandstone, travertine, Mid-Jurassic bioclastic oolite (some rustication) ST 495 916 (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone. (Fig. 3.190) ST 516 See Chapter 6 965 ST 428 896 Carboniferous Limestone, Devonian and Triassic sandstone, Mid-Jurassic Oolite. (Fig. 3.191) ST 515 905 See Chapter 5 ST 507 874 (Overgrown Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone, Triassic local Sudbrook sandstone

66

Chapter Three MONTGOMERYSHIRE

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

General Notes

Aberhafesp

St Gwyn(n)og

Churchstoke

St Nicholas

Garthbeibio Guilsfield

St Tydecho St Aelhaiarn

(Figures if Applicable) SO 073 924 Lower Silurian greywackes and sandstones, breeze, brick. Carboniferous sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.192) SJ 271 Lower Palaeozoic sandstones, siltstone, shale. A few basalt blocks in tower. (Fig. 3.193) 940 SH 985 119 See Chapter 6 SN 219 116 See Chapter 6

(Cegidfa) Hirnant

St Illog

SJ 050

Hyssington

St Etheldreda

Kerry (Ceri)

St Mary and All Angels St Llonio

Llandinam

Llandrinio Llanfair Caereinion Llanfechain

SJ 295 171

Triassic sandstone. (Figs 3.195 and 3.196) See Chapter 4

SJ 104 065

Green-grey Triassic sandstone, dressings in red

St Garmon

SJ 189 204

St Cadwaladr

Llangurig

St Curig

Llanmerewig

229 SO 314 946 Ordovician/ Silurian sandstones, mudstones, some basalt. Middle Jurassic Oolite SO 147 901 Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone, Silurian mudstones and sandstones. (Fig. 3.194) SO 026 885 Lower Silurian coarse and fine greywackes.

Sts Trinio, Peter and Paul St Mary

Llangad- waladr

Llangynog Llanllugan

Lower Palaeozoic greywackes and sandstones, dolerite. Carboniferous sandstone dressings. (Figs 3.11 and 3.12)

St Cynog St Mary

St Llwchaiarn

L l a n s a n t ff r a i d - St Ffraid ym-Mechain Llansilin St Silin Llanwyddelan St Gwyddelan Llanwyn(n)og

St Gwyn(n)og

Manafon

St Michael

Upper Ordovician sandstones, siltstones with fossils, Triassic sandstones. (Figs 3.197 and 3.198) SJ 182 303 1883 in Lower Palaeozoic greywackes, Carboniferous sandstones. On boulders SN 908 799 Lower Palaeozoic greywackes and sandstones.

SJ 053 261 SJ 058 023

Triassic sandstone dressings See Chapter 6 Lower Palaeozoic sandstones and greywackes.

Triassic sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.199) SO 158 932 Lower Palaeozoic sandstones and siltstones- a few river cobbles/boulders. Carboniferous sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.200) SJ 221 204 Upper Ordovician siltstones (fossils), Carboniferous and Triassic sandstones. (Figs 3.201, 3.202 and 7.3) SJ 209 282 See Chapter 6 SJ 082 012 Lower Palaeozoic greywackes and sandstones. Slate hung west wall (Fig. 3.203) SO 022 938 Lower Palaeozoic greywackes and sandstones, Triassic red sandstone. (Fig. 3.204) SJ 113 025 Mainly boulders of Silurian sandstones; sandy flags, Triassic sandstone. (Fig. 3.205)

67

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Meifod Montgomery

Sts Tysilio and Mary St Nicholas

SJ 155 132

See Chapter 6

SO 224 965 Dolerites; Silurian sandstones, sandstone. (Fig. 3.206) SJ 024 265 See Chapter 6

Pennant Melangell St Melangell

Snead

St Mary the Virgin

Tregynon

St Cynon

Welshpool

St Mary

siltstones;

Triassic

SO 316 919 Triassic sandstones and mudstones; gabbro and dolerite. (Figs. 3.207 and 3.208) SO 096 987 Lower Palaeozoic greywackes and sandstones; Triassic sandstone SJ 225 076 Lower Palaeozoic fine sandstones, Triassic sandstone; quartz dolerite

PEMBROKESHIRE

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

General Notes (Figures if Applicable)

Amroth Angle Bayvil

St Elidyr St Mary and Chapel St Andrew

Begelly Bridell

St Mary St David

Capel Colman

St Colman

Castlemartin Cilgerran

St Michael St Llawddog

Cilrhedyn Clydai (Clydau) Coedcanlas

St Teilo? St Clydai

Croes-Goch

Chapel

Dinas (Cwm-yrEglwys) Gumfreston Haverfordwest

St Brynach

Haverfordwest

St Thomas Becket

St Mary

St Lawrence Priory

SN 163 078 See Chapter 6 SM 866 028 Carboniferous Limestone, Devonian red sandstone; dressings Mid-Jurassic limestone. (Fig. 3.209) SN 102 406 Georgian, cut Lower Palaeozoic cleaved siltstone, with a few dolerite and vein quartz blocks. (Fig. 3.210) SN 118 074 See Chapter 4 SN 176 421 Victorian, Upper Ordovician, squared, chiselled ‘slate’ blocks. Mid-Jurassic bioclastic limestone dressings. (Fig. 3.211) SN 216 384 Victorian, Lime rendered; cut slate (Upper Ordovician, Glogue Slate) dressings. (Fig. 3.112) SR 911 988 See Chapter 6 SN 191 432 Upper Ordovician local Glogue cut slates. Dressings Mid-Jurassic oolite SN 278 349 (Ruin). Overgrown. Lower Palaeozoic slate/shale SN 251 355 Ordovician shales, mudstones and sandstones. MidJurassic oolite dressings SN 014 083 (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone and quartzites. Much patched. (Fig. 3.113) SM 828 304 Built 1816, re-built 1858. Newly painted. Non-Conformist chapel SN 015 402 (Ruin). See Chapter 6 SN 109 011 See Chapter 4 SM 956 153 (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone and local Carboniferous sandstone a SM 954 154 Carboniferous Limestone (older) and sandstones. Llandovery. Dressings Jurassic

68

Chapter Three Herbrandston Hodgeston

St Mary Not known

Is(h)mael Lamphey

St Is(h)mael St Tyfai

Lawrenny Llanddeiniol Llandewi Velfrey Lland(e)ilo (Llwydarth) Llandissilio Llanedron Llanfyrnach Llanfyrnach Llanrhian Llanstadwell

(St Faith) St Caradoc St Daniel (Chapel) St David St Teilo St Tgsilio St Edren Chapel St Brynach St Rheamus St Tudwal

SM 871 077 See Chapter 5 SS 029 993 Carboniferous Limestone. Some dressings Mid-Jurassic oolite. (Figs 3.214-3.216) SM 830 067 See Chapter 6 SN 016 004 Carboniferous Limestone and rare Devonian red sandstone SN 016 068 SM 982 004 SN 145 159 SN 099 269

Part lime rendered. Carboniferous Limestone. (Fig. 3.217) (Private Use). See Chapter 6 See Chapter 6 (Ruin). Too overgrown

SN 119 217 SM 894 283 SN 213 303 SN 220 313

See Chapter 5 (Private Residence). Ordovician slate and sandstone (Ruin). Fragmentary boulders only. (Fig. 3.218) Victorian, Upper Ordovician cut slate probably from Glogue Slate Quarry SM 819 315 See Chapter 6 SM 955 030 Carboniferous Limestone mainly Victorian. (Fig. 1.16) See Chapter 6 See Chapter 6 Lower Palaeozoic and Carboniferous sandstones. Carboniferous Limestone and Mid-Jurassic dressings (Private Residence). Cut blocks of sandstone with Jurassic limestone dressings (Ruin). Carboniferous coarse sandstone, fragments of Devonian sandstone. (Fig. 2.25) See Chapter 6 Local Ordovician flaggy sandstones Upper Ordovician ‘Glogue type’ Slate, including dressings. (Fig. 3.219) See Chapter 4 Victorian built on early site but no foundations visible, a few Cambrian and Ordovician blocks re-used in walls Carboniferous Limestone, fragments of Devonian red sandstone and shale (Ruin). No immediate access. Sandstones, possibly Carboniferous See Chapter 6 (Ruin). No close access, probably Carboniferous sandstone. (Fig. 3.220) (Ruin). Remains monastic, chapel doubtful. Carboniferous Limestone, brick repairs

Llanstinian Llanwnda Llanychaer

St Justinian St Gwyndaf St David

SM 954 338 SM 933 396 SM 992 345

Llanychlwydog

-

SN 012 344

Llawhaden

Hospital Chapel

SN 066 173

Llawhaden Maenclochog Manordeifi

St Aiden St Mary St David

SN 075 175 SN 083 274 SN 228 433

Martletwy Mathry

St Marcellus The Seven Saints (Holy Martyrs) St Nicholas & St John Chapel

SN 033 105 SM 878 318

Nevern Newton North

St Brynach

SN 084 400 SN 066 134

Penally

St Deiniol Chapel

SS 117 993

Penally

St Nicholas & St SS 177 See Chapter 5 Teilo 992 Chapel (St Mary) SS 020 985 (Ruin). See Chapter 4 St Decumen SM 904 023 Devonian ‘brown’ sandstone, other rock types; Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone. (Fig. 3.221)

Monkton Mounton

Porth Clew Rhoscrowther

SN 979 014 SN 081 133

69

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Rudbaxton Slebech St Brides St Dogmael’s

St Florence St Govan’s St Justinian St Non’s

St Michael SM 960 205 See Chapter 5 St John the Baptist SN 032 138 (Ruin). Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone, slate fillets; Mid-Jurassic Oolite St Bridget SM 803 107 See Chapter 6 Abbey and St SN 164 458 (Part ruin). Upper Ordovician greywackes, sandstones, Thomas slates. Church snecked, rusticated. (Figs 3.222, 3.223 and 7.14) St Florence SN 082 012 See Chapter 5 Chapel SR 967 929 See Chapter 5 Chapel SM 723 253 (Ruin). Fine, moderately flaggy sandstone and cobbles of Cambrian sandstone at E. end. (Figs 3.224 and 3.225) Chapel SM 753 243 (Ruin). See Chapter 4

RADNORSHIRE

Locality

Dedication

Grid Ref.

Aberedw

St Cewydd

SO 080 473

Bettws Clyro

Holy Trinity

SO 228 473

Bleddfa Bryngwyn

St Mary SO207 684 Magdalene St Michael SO 187 495

Cefnllys

St Michael

SO 085 615

Colva

St David

SO 200 531

Discoed

St Michael

SO 277 647

Disserth

St Cewydd

SO 034 584

Ednol

Chapel (Ruin)

SO 233 647

Gladestry

SO 231 551

Glascwm

St Mary (the Virgin) St David

Heyop Llanbadarn Fawr

St David St Padarn

SO 240 746 SO 087 643

Llanbadarn-yGarreg

St Padarn

SO 112 488

SO 156 532

General Notes (Figures if Applicable) Lime-plastered nave/chancel. Silurian silty- mudstone. Devonian and Triassic sandstone dressings. (Figs 3.226 and 3.227) Rebuilt in 1878-1879 with grey, possibly Carboniferous sandstone. (Figs 3.7 and 3.8) Upper Silurian muddy siltstones and sandstones. Coarse Carboniferous? Sandstones. (Figs 3.228 and 3.229) Upper Silurian sandstones and siltstones. Chancel arch Mid-Jurassic oolite. (Figs 3.230 and 3.231) Local Ordovician volcanics (as rhyolites and agglomerates) and greywackes. Carboniferous sandstone dressings Silurian, muddy sandstone (old walls), sandstone and calcareous mudstone (new). (Fig. 3.232) Upper Silurian shaley-mudstones (some calcareous) to fine sandstones Ordovician variable greywackes, coarse igneous agglomerates. Some boulders. Part lime-plastered. (Fig. 3.233) (Ruin). Upper Silurian shaley-mudstone – only fragments seen. Upper Silurian micaceous sandstone. Dressings Devonian (and later Triassic) red sandstone. (Fig. 3.234) Peeling lime-plaster cover probably over Silurian muddy sandstone. (Fig. 3.235) Upper Silurian muddy siltstones some flaggy Rebuilt 1879, Lower Palaeozoic sandstones/ greywacke. Dressings Carboniferous sandstone. Inside Triassic sandstone. (Fig. 1.9) Recent lime-plaster cover, in places over cement render. Probably Silurian muddy-siltstones. (Fig. 1.13)

70

Chapter Three

Llanbister

St Cynllo

SO 110 733 Part cement rendered. Lower Palaeozoic, greywackes, sandstones, shaley-mudstones. Dressings Devonian sandstones. (Fig. 3.236) Llanddewi Fach St David SO 146 454 Upper Silurian fine sandstone and siltstone. Dressings Triassic sandstone. (Fig. 3.237) Llanddewi St David SO 108 686 Upper Silurian fine grey sandstone, rare Carboniferous Ystradenni sandstone replacements. (Fig. 3.238) Llandegley St Tecla SO 139 629 Different periods of use of Lower Palaeozoic greywackes/ sandstones. Vesicular rhyolitic lavas. Other sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.239) Llandrindod (Old Church) SO 065 601 Ordovician mixed greywackes and pieces of volcanic lava. Triassic sandstone. (Fig. 3.240) Llanfaredd St Mary SO 069 507 Lower Palaeozoic shaley-siltstones, west wall with rhyolitic type lavas. Triassic sandstone dressings. (Figs 3.241 and 3.242) Llanfihangel St Michael in the SO 046 644 Lower Palaeozoic fine-grained sandstones and some Willow volcanics. Occasional boulders or broken. ‘Victorian’ Helygen Bricks. (Fig. 3.243) Llansantffraed-in- St Bridget SO 100 548 Lower Palaeozoic volcanic rocks, especially rhyolites, Elvel greywackes, siltstones. Triassic sandstone dressings (Figs. 1.10 and 2.8) Llanstephan St Stephen SO 120 422 Upper Silurian fine-grained sandstone. Red Devonian sandstone dressings. (Fig. 3.244) (St Ystyffan) MichaelchurchSt Michael SO 247 507 See Chapter 5 On-Arrow Norton St Andrew SO 304 673 Rebuilt 1868. Upper Silurian fine-grained micaceous sandstone. Devonian red sandstone Old Radnor St Stephen SO 250 591 Upper Silurian micaceous sandstone. East wall brecciated fossil limestone infill. (Figs 3.245 and 3.246) Pilleth St Mary SO 256 682 Lime-plastered. Upper Silurian flaggy, sandy- mudstones, sandstones. Mid-Jurassic oolite dressings. (Figs 3.247 and 3.248) Presteigne St Andrew SO 316 646 See Chapter 4 Rhulen St David SO 138 498 Lime-plastered. Upper Silurian muddy-siltstone. (Figs 3.249 and 3.250) Whitton St David SO 271 673 Upper Silurian flaggy muddy siltstones. More sandy flags for roof. (Figs 3.251 and 3.252)

71

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology WREXHAM

Locality

Chirk Gresford

Dedication

Grid Ref.

General Notes

St Mary All Saints

SJ 291 376 SJ 345 550

See Chapter 6 See Chapter 6

Note:- In the General Notes column rocks may be described as ‘Lower Palaeozoic’. (This particularly applies in the instance of Montgomeryshire, but occasionally in Brecknockshire, Caernarfonshire East, Carmarthenshire, Denbighshire, Pembrokeshire and Radnorshire). In use the term could normally have been written ‘Ordovician and Lower Silurian’ but for space restrictions. This range of rocks is often indistinguishable in church walls and in some instances; no doubt rocks from both Periods of deposition are mixed. Cambrian rocks are excluded from the term unless specifically mentioned.

Table 3.1 A list of those churches in Wales studied in this work. This list is inclusive of both ruins and sites visited

72

Chapter Three

THE FIGURES THAT FOLLOW

ILLUSTRATE

LOCALITIES DETAILED

IN

TABLE 3.1

73

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.14 All that remain of the Parish Church of the Holy Rood, Ceirchiog, Anglesey (SH 361 768) are these large boulders of local chlorite schist. That the unicelled structure was of early date can be inferred from both the use of boulders and the thin remnant walls (0.68m. and 0.73m.). The marker stone is dated 1857.

Figure 3.15 St Llwydian, Heneglwys Church, Anglesey (SH 423 762) was rebuilt in 1845. Viewed from the south-east the walls contain numerous boulders from the earlier structure with occasional included fragments of early carved stones.

74

Chapter Three

Figure 3.16 The west nave doorway to the Chapel of St Mary (Tal-y-llyn Chapel), Llanbeulan, Anglesey (SH 366 729) although constructed of Carboniferous sandstone proved impossible to read. The jamb stones have been reset with levelling pieces of schist and slate and the detail above the doorway does not appear to be relieving arch, but an earlier doorway constructed of broken boulders.

Figure 3.17 The south-east quoin of the Tal-y-llyn Chapel is created in large blocks of Carboniferous sandstone (the lowest four stones BH). A small later, possibly 17th C. chapel abuts the south chancel wall but like the chancel is built of large re-used boulders mainly of schist. 75

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.18 Tal-y-llyn Chapel chamfered chancel arch, viewed from the nave, exhibits both distortion and modification.

Figure 3.19 Llanddwyn Church ruins occur on the tidal island at the south-west end of Newborough Warren, Anglesey (SH 386 627). The rubble walls are principally constructed from the very mixed Gwna Group rocks of the island but include Carboniferous sandstones probably from the Menai Strait (also used in the single remaining quoin). Interestingly, the dressings for the two windows that remain are of Lower Devonian red sandstones, brought by sea from a more distant source.

76

Chapter Three

Figure 3.20 The lime rendered west tower of St Eilian Church, Llaneilian, Anglesey (SH 470 929) is probably the earliest portion of this church, but the rood screen and the Capel y Bedd (St Eilian Chapel) are popular visitor attractions. This view from the south-west shows the 14th C. chapel connected by a passage built in 1614.

Figure 3.21 The wooden rood screen and loft at Llaneilian Church, on which centrally is painted a skeleton.

77

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.22 Viewed here from the north-west, the early nave of St Eugrad, Llaneugrad, Anglesey (SH 495 842) is on the right. When the north chapel was built, possibly in the 16th C., the north wall of the chancel was destroyed. Pebble-dashed walls prevent wall detail being examined.

Figure 3.23 All four quoins in this small church of St Mary, Llanfair-yn-Neubwll, Anglesey (SH 297 778) are created in stones of local schist set in standard BH style. This style relates well to the suggested 14th C. character of the earlier windows. The church is viewed towards the north-west quoin.

78

Chapter Three

Figure 3.24 When visited the walls of St Mechall, Llanfechell, Anglesey (SH 369 913) had only recently been covered in lime-based render. The west end of the south wall of the chancel (which had been extended to the east) exhibits a priest’s doorway exhibiting a ‘Tredington arch’ (Taylor and Taylor, 1965). The plaster unfortunately prevented the jambs being examined to confirm an ‘Anglo-Saxon’ construction. Beneath the stain caused by faulty guttering there is a trace of a further arch. Originally the church appears to have been unicelled.

Figure 3.25 The walls and quoins of the unicelled, St Figael Church, Llanfigael, Anglesey (SH 328 828) are rebuilt entirely of local chloritic schist as viewed here in the south-west quoin where all stones are set BH.

79

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.26 Viewed from the south, the contrasting styles of rebuilding of St Cadwaladr, Llangadwaladr, Anglesey (SH 384 693) are very evident. The south chapel was built (in Perpendicular style) onto the chancel in 1661 and the nave south wall modified with semi-snecked Carboniferous sandstone coursing in the Victorian period.

Figure 3.27 St Ceinwen, Llangeinwen, Anglesey (SH 439 658) has been ‘protected’ with cement render and pebble dash. The blocked north doorway to the nave has BH stonework in its remnant jambs and, therefore, is not particularly early. The ‘Victorian’ angle buttress is created in Carboniferous sandstone (with an added early grave slab) and the tower wall render inscribed to create the appearance of dimension-stone (sawn ashlar) blocks. 80

Chapter Three

Figure 3.28 Until 1844, St Nidan Church, Llanidan, Anglesey (SH 495 668) was a large structure consisting of two aisles and a central arcade. The eastern two-thirds of the building were removed and in that year a new east wall was constructed. This view from the south-east of the wooded churchyard shows the south porch and the new south-east quoin which from its structure was probably created from re-used quoin stones.

Figure 3.29 Rebuilt in 1881, St Sadwrn, Llansadwrn, Anglesey (SH 555 759) is viewed here from the north. In the rebuild it appears some of the quoin stones were re-used and those of BVFR/BVFL orientation are typically of Carboniferous sandstone and used in the lower portion of the quoins in the main body of the church. Other quoin stones are of the variable local schist common in the walls. 81

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.30 The Priory church of St Seiriol, Penmon, Anglesey (SH 630 807) seen here from the south-west, mainly displays in this view its Norman characteristics (built about 1140).

Figure 3.31 This Norman tower arch, as seen from the nave at Penmon is thought to have been built around 1165 82

Chapter Three

Figure 3.32 The Norman south doorway to the nave at Penmon preserves a typical Norman carved tympanum.

Figure 3.33 Preserved in the Abbey Church, and used as a font in the nave, is this interesting Anglo-Saxon cross base, from its ornament dated to about 1000.

83

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.34 The church of St Michael, Penrhos-Lligwy, Anglesey (SH 481 859) was extensively restored in 1865 and the vestry (left) and north porch probably date from that time. The west wall was entirely rebuilt, and elsewhere the heavy cement pointing fails to follow the stone outlines making fabric detail difficult to interpret.

Figure 3.35 The ruined Capel Lligwy, Anglesy (SH 499 864) is built of local Lower Carboniferous Limestone and coarse sandstone blocks and boulders. The ruin is viewed from the south-west and the south chapel is thought to be a 16th C. extension.

84

Chapter Three

Figure 3.36 In the earlier, main body of Capel Lligwy, in which all quoin stones are set BH, boulders, particularly of the more muddy Lower Carboniferous Limestone gathered from the local beach display modern marine borings. These beach derived blocks are absent from the chapel extension, where the building fabric may well have been obtained from the local Din Lligwy ‘late Roman’ Celtic site.

Figure 3.37 Capel Lligwy is entered by this south door which has been both modified and variously dated. The jamb stones are principally of worked Carboniferous Limestone boulders most commonly laid BH, but Carboniferous sandstone blocks are also included. Beyond the gate the large block in the nave is of a cross base which may have once been used as a font. 85

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.38 Wall contacts clearly show that the south chapel was a later addition to the main body of Capel Lligwy, and most authors suggest that this occurred in the 16th C. Unusually, a crypt, entered by a broad staircase, was constructed beneath the chapel floor.

Figure 3.39 St Mary, Pentraeth, Anglesey (SH 523 785) has been heavily restored, in 1821, 1882, and probably on a number of other occasions. For instance, older walling may be seen low in the north wall. This view from the south shows the south wall of the chapel, clearly repaired in the gable; and the nave with its 1882 porch. 86

Chapter Three

Figure 3.40 The small ruined church of St Mary, Rhodo-Geidio, Anglesey (SH 399 856) viewed here from the south-west. Although the walls are constructed of boulders and partially shaped blocks of very local stone, all quoin stones are emplaced BH, indications that the church was rebuilt using original materials during the 13th-15th C.

Figure 3.41 Blocks of coarse Arenig sandstones projecting from the poorly coursed south wall of the ruined Rhodo-Geidio Church, typically reflect the use of stones too large for the wall thickness (and about the 15th C. period). 87

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.42 The north-west quoin of St Ceidio, Rhodwydd Geidio Church, Anglesey (SH 411 855) is constructed in Lower Carboniferous coarse sandstone and laid in BVFL/BVFR ‘Alternate’ style of about 1600. However, the stones have been re-laid (and small fillets of balancing schist exist between the stones), presumably when, in 1845, the church was rebuilt using the original materials.

Figure 3.43 Viewed from the south St Peiro Church, Rhosbeiro, Anglesey (SH 391 918) is possibly too picturesque to be disused. With one stone an exception all quoin stones are set BH.

88

Chapter Three

Figure 3.44 The church of St Beuno, Trefdraeth, Anglesey (SH 408 704) has been described as ‘difficult to elucidate’ thanks to the various modifications. The view from the south indicates that when the later transept was built the stonework was carried for a short distance into the south wall of the main body of the church.

Figure 3.45 St Mary and St Cynidr Church, Aberyscir, Brecknockshire (SO 000 296) was completely rebuilt in 1860 using Devonian, Old Red Sandstone in semi-snecked style. The church is viewed from the south-west. Note the batter at the foot of the bell cote. 89

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.46 The church of St Mauritius, Allt Mawr, Brecknockshire (SO 073 468) was rebuilt in the ‘Victorian’ period, principally of Silurian flaggy siltstones.

Figure 3.47 The tower of St Mary, Crickadarn, Brecknockshire (SO 089 422) is here viewed from the north-west. Quoin stones to the tower, in arkosic, current-bedded Devonian sandstone, are not in ‘Alternate’ style and are emplaced BH. 90

Chapter Three

Figure 3.48 Pristine in its lime-wash which had just been completed; St Cynog Church, Defynnog, Brecknockshire (SN 925 279) is viewed here from the south-east.

Figure 3.49 St Afan, Llanafan Fawr Church, Brecknockshire (SN 969 558) seen from the south-west. This side of the church was rebuilt in 1887 and the tower (with the short batter at the base) in 1765.

91

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.50 Early medieval carved stones built into the wall of the 1887 built porch of St Afan Church.

Figure 3.51 The west end of St Peter, Llanbedr Ystrad Yw Church, Brecknockshire (SO 240 204) as seen from the south, although much older, shows much ‘Victorian’ refurbishment. The Devonian greenish sandstone quoin stones are all laid BH.

92

Chapter Three

Figure 3.52 The north-east quoin to Llanbedr Church looks older, but the low nave wall batter is post the chancel and probably added in 1897.

Figure 3.53 Restored in 1847, the church and the tower of St David, Llanddewi’r Cwm, Brecknockshire (SO 035 486) preserve few features to distinguish or date architecturally. The stunted square tower has an early medieval character and the north porch has been recently added. 93

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.54 Viewed from the south-east, the church of St Teilo, Llandeilo’r Fan, Brecknockshire (SN 896 346) shows the outline of an infilled early doorway in the south chancel wall. The doorway is relatively tall, only 1.18m. wide, and a low slight wall batter post-dates its presence. Jamb stones of Devonian sandstone are emplaced BH with the exception of a stone at the same height in each jamb which are BVEIA in Romanesque (Norman) style. The church was restored in 1873 when the windows were replaced.

Figure 3.55 St Ellyw Church, Llanelieu, Brecknockshire (SO 185 342) is seen here from the southwest. The church is protected by the Friends of the Friendless Churches.

94

Chapter Three

Figure 3.56 St Ellyw Church preserves a rood screen and loft viewed here from the nave.

Figure 3.57 In its new coat of lime render, St Bilo, Llanfilo, Brecknockshire (SO 119 333) displays its south elevation. The church tower is known to have been rebuilt in 1881 and the rest of the church heavily restored in 1913. 95

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.58 Some evidence of Romanesque origins of St Bilo Church may be observed in the lintel which occurs on a blocked, rectangular Devonian sandstone doorway (with BH jambs) at the east end of the north nave wall.

Figure 3.59 The west tower of St Catwg Church, Llangattock, Brecknockshire (SO 212 179) is constructed in Devonian sandstone with all quoin stones laid BH and often placed face-alternately.

96

Chapter Three

Figure 3.60 In the north wall of the nave of St Catwg this ‘Victorian’ replacement window in dull-red Devonian sandstone has been associated with both wall rebuilding and the insertion of a relieving arch. Common to very many Welsh churches is the reconstruction of the top of the wall (here by some five or six courses) at the time of roof replacement.

Figure 3.61 St Illtyd and St Peter, Llanhamlach, Brecnockshire (SO 089 264) possesses a bold tapering tower. The nave and chancel were heavily restored in 1887. The tower is normally dated to the 14th or 15th C., but at its base the stones show evidence of ‘Victorian’ workmanship and this too may be related to the restoration. 97

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.62 In a large circular raised churchyard and cited as both a llan and the burial place of St Cynog; Merthyr Cynog Church, Brecknockshire (SN 984 374) possesses a large west tower. Extensive restorations in 1860-1861 have left the church with much evidence of this rebuilding and little of its history. The structure of the fabric in the north wall shown here suggests that the chancel has been rebuilt at some early date and that the tower is older than the nave.

Figure 3.63 The church of Merthyr Issui (St Ishow) at Patricio, or Partrishow, Brecknockshire (SO 278 224) viewed as it is approached from the WSW.

98

Chapter Three

Figure 3.64 Unusually, to the west of the nave and viewed here from the south-east, occurs a chapel, this possibly on the site of the original church, or Eglwys-y-Bedd, The whole site suffered extensive rebuilding in 1908 and quoin stones today throughout the site are all set BH. There is some evidence that the chapel once extended to the north.

Figure 3.65 The south-west quoin of the nave of Partrishow Church clearly shows that the chapel to the west was built against the nave and its batter. This may of course reflect the complete renovation of both buildings in 1908.

99

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.66 To the south of Partishow Church stands a cross, its lower portion thought to date from 1188, and the top created in 1918. Facing the cross the south walls of the nave and chancel preserve a stone bench.

Figure 3.67 The west face of the rood loft at Partishow Church.

100

Chapter Three

Figure 3.68 St Mary, Ystradfellte Church, Brecknockshire (SN 931 134) is viewed here from the southeast. Church restorations occurred in both 1870 and 1882 and all quoins have stones set BH. Early in its history the chancel was probably widened to that of the nave.

Figure 3.69 The only entry today to Ystradfellte Church is through the west tower. Blocked doorways to the north and south of the nave are poorly visible. That to the south, seen here, is possibly the earlier. With a slightly pointed head, that doorway is only 0.97m. wide and now just 1.52m. high, it is constructed of Devonian red sandstone with all readable jamb stones set BH and is likely to be of 13th C. date. 101

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.70 St Michael, Betwys-y-Coed, Caernarfonshire (SH 796 565) is here viewed from the southeast. All four quoins have their stones, in slate, set BH. The south nave doorway (seen here) also has jamb stones set similarly, but for replacement stones, including cement, at the foot of the west jamb.

Figure 3.71 The relatively large south chapel (or transept) appears on the left of this view from the southeast of St Gwyddelan, Dolwyddelan, Caernarfonshire (SH 736 523). The large lintel stone to the south chapel east window is BVEIA but the jamb stones are all BH. 102

Chapter Three

Figure 3.72 All the quoins of Dolwyddelan Church are created with stones set BH. However, beneath the east and west gable walls a course of foundation stones, perhaps representing the footprint of an earlier church may be seen. In both the south-west and north-east (seen here) corners the quoin stone in the foundation course is emplaced BVFR, offering some evidence of an earlier Patterned church.

Figure 3.73 Below the modernised window in the south wall west window of Dolwyddelan Church is evidence of a blocked doorway. Only one long BVEIA arch jamb stone is visible on each side but possibly sufficient to suggest a doorway of Romanesque character.

103

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.74 St Peter, Llanbedr-y-Cennin, Caernarfonshire (SH 761 696) although restored in 1842, shows the results of both soil-creep and grave soil build-up when viewed from the WNW.

Figure 3.75 The setting for St Tudno, Llandudno, Caernarfonshire (SH 769 538) as viewed from the north-east. The church was extensively restored in 1855.

104

Chapter Three

Figure 3.76 Towards the north-west end of the nave of Llandudno Church the small partially hidden window has been dated as 12th C. The date may well be correct but the window has been altered. It is built of Triassic red sandstone but certainly one BH stone at the top of east jamb is of a different sandstone.

Figure 3.77 The south side of St Celynin, Llangelynin, Caerarfonshire (SH 751 737) shows that the nave wall is largely created in boulders and broken boulders of Denbighshire Grits. However, the stones in the west nave quoins, which are the better exposed, are of the same material and are all set BH.

105

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.78 Inside St Celynin Church, the east windows (or central window plus niches) have been replaced by a single three-light window of Carboniferous sandstone construction.

Figure 3.79 This view of St Rhychwyn Church, Llanrhychwyn, Caernarfonshire (SH 775 616) from the south-west gives a false impression of its size. The church is double-aisled with the south aisle being the older of the two. All quoin stones, however, are emplaced BH, as are the jamb stones in the south doorway which has been considered as of 12th C. date.

106

Chapter Three

Figure 3.80 Penrhyn Chapel, Caernarfonshire (SH 816 816) seen from the south reveals itself to be a ruin restored both before, during and probably after ‘Victorian’ times. For instance, whereas the east window visible is totally ‘Victorian’, that to the west is only partially and, between the two, there is the trace of an earlier rectangular window. The two southern quoins, particularly the east, have been much repaired; those in the north have all stones BH.

Figure 3.81 Above the west doorway of Penrhyn Chapel the crucifixion is probably carved in green Triassic sandstone. The doorway in red Triassic sandstone replaces an earlier one arched in voussoirs. 107

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.82 In this view of St Mary, Trefriw, Caernarfonshire (SH 781 633) from the north-west, it is believed (on a comparison of roof structures) that the older unicelled south aisle, to the right, is the older part of the church. Unfortunately, following the Victorian rebuild, no quoins are exposed to re-affirm this view.

Figure 3.83 To the west end of the south aisle of Trefriw Church this blocked doorway of 16th C. style is covered by a Victorian buttress. Although the lintel looks massive and heavy, it is of slate placed BVEIA or face out and it is likely to be no more than 20mm. thick. 108

Chapter Three

Figure 3.84 A small portion of the (now demolished) eastern apse of Bangor Cathedral, Caernarfonshire (SH 580 720) built in the Romanesque period still remains visible and is figured here. The flat short buttress (rising to the plant) is of typical Norman character and the wall to include the blocked window is all thought to have been built c. 1120-1140. The buttress (0.95m. wide) shows evidence of repair and at least six blocks of travertine are included in the stonework.

Figure 3.85 The church of Clynnog Fawr, together with the chapel of St Beuno, Caernarfonshire (SH 414 497) are pictured frequently. However, the unusual granite Anglo-Saxon pillar sundial in the cemetery receives less attention and is figured here. 109

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.86 The south elevation of St Mary, Dolbenmaen, Caernarfonshire (SH 507 431) is illustrated. The church is entirely built of Upper Ordovician local volcanic rock types.

Figure 3.87 In all four quoins to Dolbenmaen Church, the stones, quarried very locally, tend to be large. Certain volcanic rocks can show an element of lineation in their structure. Of those that could be read as to their lineation all but possibly two stones were probably placed BH. The lower stones in the north-east quoin are figured.

110

Chapter Three

Figure 3.88 The church of St Beuno, Penmorfa, Caernarfonshire (SH 541 403), here viewed from the north-east, is situated in a raised, circular and crowded churchyard. Heavily restored in 1899, large slatey slabs were frequently used for repairs, although quoin stones are typically placed BH. In 1899, or possibly more recently, the east window frame was ‘preserved’ in cement.

Figure 3.89 St Michael and All Angels, Treflys, Caernarfonshire (SH 534 379), here seen from the south west, was restored in 1888-1889, when the chancel was completely rebuilt. 111

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.90 At some time, probably prior to the late Victorian repairs, the west face of Treflys Church was repaired with large, relatively thin slabs of slatey rock. These were used to protect the wall footings, where they were placed vertically (and possibly horizontally in support for the rebuilt gable). The doorway, which appears 13th-14th C. in origin, was modified in the process.

Figure 3.91 From the north-east the Victorian replaced windows in the north wall of Treflys Church mark the effects of grave build-up on the walls. 112

Chapter Three

Figure 3.92 The Romanesque (late Norman) doorway to the north aisle of St Hywyn, Aberdaron, Caernarfonshire (SH 173 264). Note the different fabrics in the wall and the north-west quoin related to rebuilding.

Figure 3.93 The upper portion of an early blocked doorway in the north aisle of Aberdaron Church as seen from the north-east and the various wall fabrics of different periods that are present.

113

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.94 The east end of the double-aisled Aberdaron Church as seen from the north, showing sand dune envelopment.

Figure 3.95 The double-aisled church of St Cawrdaf, Aber-erch, Caernarfonshire (SH 396 366) viewed from the north-west. At the west end of the longer south aisle limited medieval foundations are present.

114

Chapter Three

Figure 3.96 The site of St Merin Church, Bodferin, Caernarfonshire (SH 173 315) as seen from the east.

Figure 3.97 Rebuilt in Victorian times, St Ceidio Church, Ceidio, Caernarfonshire (SH 288 382) possesses windows created in Middle-Jurassic oolitic limestone. All quoins are rebuilt with slate levelling pieces between the igneous stones.

115

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.98 St Pedrog, Llanbedrog, Caernarfonshire (SH 329 315) has been built into the valley side. Various restorations were completed in 1827, 1865 and 1895 and this view is from the north-east.

Figure 3.99 The heavily cement rendered church of St Maelrhys, Llanfaelrhys, Caernarfonshire (SH 211 268) as seen from the south-west.

116

Chapter Three

Figure 3.100 The small blocked, north nave doorway at Llanfaelrhys Church possesses a round head but the heavy render makes interpretation as to age difficult. A similar but younger doorway exists on the south wall.

Figure 3.101 The church of St Michael, Llanfihangel Bachellaeth, in the Lleyn Peninsula, Caernarfonshire (SH 304 343) is seen here from the west. Restored in 1888-1889 the walls are of a rubble of large blocks of feldspar-porphyry.

117

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.102 The Holy Cross Church, Llannor, Caernarfonshire (SH 354 372) is here seen from the northeast. Restorations to the church occurred in 1855 and 1905 leaving no original quoins visible. The tower was raised in height sometime prior to these dates.

Figure 3.103 Much of the south and west of St Mary, Penllech, Caernarfonshire (SH 220 344) was rebuilt in 1840 and the change in wall fabric resulting from this can be observed towards the west end of the south wall.

118

Chapter Three

Figure 3.104 The church of St Lucia, Abernant, Carmarthenshire (SN 339 231) seen from the north-east reveals much evidence of restorations in the mid and late 19th C.

Figure 3.105 The ruined and overgrown tower of Capel Dyddgen, Carmarthenshire (SN 465 126). This chapel site was abandoned prior to 1833. 119

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.106 Two of the four medieval tomb recesses beneath the north wall of St Peter, Carmarthen (SN 407 200).

Figure 3.107 The north-west nave quoin to the church of St Peter, Carmarthen. The first seven stones are all set BH, following stones were probably emplaced to the post- late 16th C. ‘Alternate’ style but the upper portion of the quoin was too high to examine. 120

Chapter Three

Figure 3.108 The tower and south aisle of St Cynwyl, Cynwyl Gaeo, Carmarthenshire (SN 675 399) in which the wall fabrics are of two different styles.

Figure 3.109 St Cynwyl Church was substantially restored in 1890, at which time the batter was probably added to the base of the tower. Quoin stones are apparently laid in standard side-alternate BH style. 121

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.110 Pre-dating the south porch (possibly 15th C.) and the window (styled to the same century), the blocked round arch in the nave of St Margaret, Eglwys Cymyn, Carmarthenshire (SN 231 107) is difficult to explain for it would seem to be too low to be a door. The arch noticeably does not sit comfortably on the BH jambs.

Figure 3.111 Plaster cover unfortunately covers the chancel arch (seen here from the west) of Egwlys Cymyn Church. 122

Chapter Three

Figure 3.112 Significantly restored in the Victorian period, St Martin of Tours, Laugharne, Carmarthenshire (SN 303 114) as seen from the north-west, provides the burial site of Dylan Thomas.

Figure 3.113 The church of St Maelog, Llandyfaelog, Carmarthenshire (SN 414 119) viewed from the south. The church was extensively restored in 1870. Note the chancel roof line behind the chapel is relatively low.

123

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.114 The low roof line to the rebuilt chapel of St Maelog Church enables the east gable of the nave to be seen. The outline of a doorway can be seen on the heavily rendered nave wall. This doorway provides, for Wales, an unusual example of a doorway at roof level between the nave and chancel. This example may have a counterpart doorway to the north of the roof line. The window in the nave gable appears to be above the earlier chancel roof line.

Figure 3.115 The overgrown site of the ruin of St Michael, Llanfihangel Abercywyn, Carmarthenshire (SN 308 131) viewed from the north-east. 124

Chapter Three

Figure 3.116 Wall contacts show the tower was built onto the early nave of Llanfihangel Abercywyn. That the west door of the nave (seen as the tower arch) once provided an outer door is indicated by the cross-bar door security fastening. The chamfered tower arch doorway, therefore, is younger than the wall into which it has been built.

Figure 3.117 One of several supposed pilgrim sepulchral slabs in St Michael’s graveyard.

125

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.118 A view of St Michael on the Hill, Llanfihangel-ar-Arth, Carmarthenshire (SN 456 399) from the west.

Figure 3.119 A closer view or the west end of the twin aisled church of Llanfihangel-ar-Arth. The northern aisle is thought to be the earlier and may date from the 13th C. The lowest four stones (rising; ?, BVFL, BH, BVFR might well represent re-used Patterned stones). Restoration in the mid-19th C. partly rebuilt the west walls and the batter noticeably encloses the west blocked doorway. 126

Chapter Three

Figure 3.120 The south-west quoin of the north (earlier) aisle of St Michael on the Hill was clearly battered prior to the building of the south aisle although readable quoin stones are set BH.

Figure 3.121 The west end of the twin aisles of St Cynog Church, Llangynog, Carmarthenshire (SN 340 164). The northern aisle is the older and it possesses a blocked west door but no stonework could be observed that might be earlier than the 13th C. 127

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.122 The lime rendered, battered tower in the village centre church of St Isfael, Llansaint, Carmarthenshire (SN 384 081) is certainly stark, but all structural stones in the church are set BH.

Figure 3.123 With snecked and partially rusticated walls, St Martin, Merthyr, Carmarthenshire (SN 352 208), viewed from the north-west, reflects its Victorian rebuilding of 1872-1873.

128

Chapter Three

Figure 3.124 Thoroughly restored in 1912, St Illtud, Penbre, Carmarthenshire (SS 428 012) has a written historic record extending back to 1107. This view from the SSW shows no evidence of such early origins.

Figure 3.125 The RCAHMW (1917, 230-231) suggested that the early Romanesque (Norman) church at Penbre was replaced by the current (south aisle) nave and chancel perhaps ‘in the second half of the 13th century’. In the west wall there are, however, the jambs of a 1.67m. wide doorway and of the three visible stones two are placed BVEIA, strongly suggesting that they represent part of an early Norman doorway.

129

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.126 Viewed from the south, St Isfael, St Isthmael, Carmarthenshire (SN 363 084), appears as an unusual mixture of buildings, largely because a later saddleback tower was built above the porch. The ground to the east end of the church was quarried away to permit the chancel to be constructed.

Figure 3.127 From the south-east, All Saints, Cellan, Ceredigion (SN 613 498) displays a number of its features. A higher roof line of the chancel can be seen against the earlier nave in which the quoin stones are much larger. Relatively modern windows (1908) are created in bricks.

130

Chapter Three

Figure 3.128 The boldly pointed church of St David, Llanarth, Ceredigion (SN 423 577) as seen from the north-west. The tower, but not its turret, is battered.

Figure 3.129 St Padarn, Llanbadarn Fawr, Ceredigion (SN 599 810) is believed to have been an important medieval cruciform church. The site was one of an early monastery. Two major Victorian restorations have destroyed much of any early fabric detail. The church is viewed here from the south-east.

131

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.130 In the south chancel wall of Llanbadarn Church this unusual doorway occurs. It has been described as of 15th C. construction. The paler Carboniferous sandstone which is present in the pointed arch is partly replaced in the jambs with the same greywacke stone as in the walls and the overarching voussoirs. The voussoirs would appear to represent an earlier doorway arch rather than a relieving arch.

Figure 3.131 The west wall of the nave of St Padarn, Llanbadarn Odwyn, Ceredigion (SN 634 605) has been partially heavily pointed. The church has had its internal walls lined in modern times with breeze-blocks.

132

Chapter Three

Figure 3.132 Recently cleaned and repointed, St David, Llanddewi Aberarth, Ceredigion (SN 477 633) is viewed here from the south-east.

Figure 3.133 Seen from the south-west, the nave of St Tysilio, Llandysiliogogo, Ceredigion (SN 363 575) retains little of its one-time render and lime-based coatings. However, the rebuilt quoins of greywacke which appear to retain an occasional vertically orientated stone remain difficult to read.

133

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.134 From the south-east the church of St Tysul, Llandysul, Ceredigion (SN 419 407) has been extensively ‘Victorianised’. The easterly extension to the lean-to south aisle is reflected in its roof structure.

Figure 3.135 The church of St Mary, Llanfair Treflygan, Ceredigion (SN 344 441) was described as being a ruin in 1798 (WHCP). Fragments of two opposing corners exist in which the limited remains of the quoin stones are placed BH. The single-celled site (internal measurements 11.9m. x 4.7m) reveals wall thicknesses in the range of 0.75m. to 0.85m. 134

Chapter Three

Figure 3.136 A view from the south-east of St Cybi, Llangybi, Ceredigion (SN 608 532). Although the roof line is continuous the join between nave and chancel is evident in the south wall. All quoin stones are set BH. The church has an excellent written guide.

Figure 3.137 St Ina, Llanina, Ceredigion (SN 405 598) was rebuilt using many beach boulders in 1850, and restored in 1905. The Victorian castellated bell-cote at the west end of the nave is unusual.

135

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.138 Rebuilt in 1852 to 1854, St Restitutus, Llanrhystud, Ceredigion (SN 537 696) is here viewed towards the south-east nave quoin.

Figure 3.139 The more exposed south face of St Bridget Church, Llansantffraed, Ceredigion (SN 512 675) is clad in slates for protection. Presumably, first installed at church rebuilding in1838-1840, the slates were renewed in 1994. The lowest part of the east wall is mainly constructed of beach boulders representative of the earlier church. 136

Chapter Three

Figure 3.140 St Gwenog, Llanwenog, Ceredigion (SN 494 455) as seen from the north-west. All walls in the church but those on the north transept and the tower stair turret carry a batter.

Figure 3.141 The tower was built into the north wall of St Gwnnws, Llanwnnws, Ceredigion (SN 684 695) at a time of late Victorian re-building.

137

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.142 The church of St Caron, Tregaron, Ceredigion (SN 680 597) is on a mound centrally placed in a restricted settlement site. The ‘Victorian’ rebuilt nave and tower are viewed for the north-east.

Figure 3.143 St Michael, Abergele, Denbighshire (SH 945 776), like Llanelian-yn-Rhos Church about 10km. to the west, possesses Carboniferous Limestone doorways created with large blocks. Of the four present at Abergele, this example in the north wall has three of its six stones laid BVEIA (tympanum and lowest jamb stones) which would be typical of Norman work. However, the whole doorway character and the manner in which the stones have been dressed indicates that the workmanship is no older than the 17th C. 138

Chapter Three

Figure 3.144 The south wall of the chancel of Abergele Church has two thick old wall stubs projecting from it. Some have suggested that these may represent fragments of an earlier church. However, their excessive thickness would not permit a very early date and their orientation fails to support such a view. A blocked chancel doorway, in Carboniferous sandstone can be seen between the wall stubs.

Figure 3.145 Viewed from the south-east, St Tysilio, Bryneglwys. Denbighshire (SJ 144 473) displays boulders low in its walls. These are mainly of porphyritic rhyolite re-used from an earlier church. To the far right is the Yale Chapel built about 1575 which is linked to the main church by an arcade supported by timber pillars. 139

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.146 This infilled doorway on the north side of St Mary, Derwen, Denbighshire (SJ 070 507) once provided an external entry into the rood loft.

Figure 3.147 Derwen church still preserves its rood loft which RCAHMW (1914, 47) dated to about 1450.

140

Chapter Three

Figure 3.148 The tower and spire built in 1880 at St Beuno, Gywddel Wern, Denbighshire (SJ 075 467) were fenced off as in danger of collapse when visited. The growth of vegetation that is visible no doubt being a principal cause.

Figure 3.149 The infilled north nave late medieval doorway to St Beuno Church shows a complex relationship with the wall plinth (at about 0.9m.) and thicker wall below. The wall, plinth and doorway with modified jambs must have been built at the same time. 141

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.150 The tiny Capel Trillo, Llandrillo-yn-Rhos, Denbighshire (SH 842 812), set into the modern sea-wall, has been very much modified. It exposes its heavily buttressed north wall to the sea and is built almost entirely of beach boulders.

Figure 3.151 St Elidan, Llanelidan (SJ 109 505) is a typical Denbighshire church in being double-aisled. The north aisle is, however, longer than the south probably as a result of a westward 17th C. extension. The west wall of this extension subsequently has been partially rebuilt to create a new gable and bell-cote. 142

Chapter Three

Figure 3.152 St Marcellus(a), Llanfarchell, Denbighshire (SJ 071 662) viewed here from the southwest can be seen to be partially enveloped by both aisles. Although this might suggest that the tower was built later, the lime render prevents the relationships between the component parts of the church to be examined. The blocked doorway in the west wall of the south aisle has been suggested as being possibly of 14th C. construction.

Figure 3.153 The church of All Saints, Llangar, Denbighshire (SJ 063 424) like so many in Denbighshire has been anointed with white lime render. The east end of the church was originally built into the hillside and subsequent soil-creep and grave build-up now cover much of the eastern walls. 143

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.154 The tower of St Collen, Llangollen, Denbighshire (SJ 217 420) is known to have been built in the mid-18th C. On its north wall, at second floor level, it possesses a wide doorway which could well be Victorian. Although certain Anglo-Saxon towers in England have similar high-level doorways the purpose of this Llangollen opening might have been to install a bell or similar large object.

Figure 3.155 Thought to have been a clas site, St Dogfaen, Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant, Montgomeryshire (SJ 124 460) is viewed here from the south-west. A chancel aisle was added (originally in the 14th C.) to both the south (visible) and the north, and the whole church has been modified by ‘Victorian’ alterations. 144

Chapter Three

Figure 3.156 In the cemetery to St Bridget, Dyserth, Denbighshire (SJ 056 794) are these two early 18th C. table tombs with additional hooded covers. The curved covers have been skilfully worked in the local Carboniferous Gwespyr sandstone.

Figure 3.157 The site at Holywell is long established and the older, much altered church is that of St James to the east. Pictured is St Winefride Chapel, Flintshire (SJ 186 764) restored in 1976. Both churches are built of Carboniferous sandstone although the Carboniferous Limestone outcrop is extremely close.

145

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.158 The west wall of St Melyd, Meliden, Denbighshire (SJ 063 811). All quoin stones in the church are set BH and the church was restored in 1884-1885 when local Carboniferous Gwespyr Stone was used to create the west windows.

Figure 3.159 The church of Sts Kentigern and Asa, St Asaph, Denbighshire (SJ 036 744) is doubleaisled. Viewed from the south-west the older, mainly early 16th C. south aisle is largely of Triassic red sandstone whilst the later 16th C. north aisle is built of Carboniferous Limestone.

146

Chapter Three

Figure 3.160 The site of Burry Holms Chapel, Glamorganshire (SS 402 936) as viewed from the south-west. All quoin stones on the chapel have been lost. The walls of the nave are 0.7m. thick, those of the chancel north, east and south walls were 0.6m. thick. These thicknesses, plus the occurrence of a narrow chancel arch (1.15m.), would all be features of a Patterned style church. Possibly the most interesting feature of the church walls was the use for building purposes of some cut blocks of local cemented beach sand – material which may be seen on the beach just below the ruin today.

Figure 3.161 The extensively overgrown ruin of the chapel St Peter, Caswell (or Murton), Glamorganshire (SS 591 884). The partially collapsed east wall still stands as seen here from the west. Stones in the remaining north-east quoin are all placed BH and the exterior of the east wall has a batter at its foot. 147

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.162 Cwrt-y-Carne (or Penyrheol) Chapel or Grange site, Glamorganshire (SS 572 004) is represented by a single fallen wall. That the site is early is evident in that the wall is covered in water at high tide so that currently the site provides a residence for numerous crabs!

Figure 3.163 The site of the ruined Forest Chapel, Glamorganshire (SO 082 005) from the south-east. Adjoining Upper Carboniferous micaceous sandstone outcrops apparently supplied the building stone source. 148

Chapter Three

Figure 3.164 The nave of St Cadoc, Llancarfan, Glamorganshire (ST 052 703) is enclosed with younger parts of the church complex (tower, south aisle, south chapel and chancel) on all sides but the north shown here. This part has, however, been covered with a lime render and the northwest quoin has been rebuilt.

Figure 3.165 The church of St David, Llanddewi, Glamorganshire (SS 460 891) like the Burry Holms Chapel (about 6km. distant) incorporates a few cut blocks of cemented sandstone in both the nave and the chancel. Blocks of this material occur in this early modified window in the north nave wall (the sill being a modern replacement). Stone bedding orientations proved too difficult to read. 149

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.166 Holy Trinity Church, Llandow, Glamorganshire (SS 943 734) possesses this unusual chancel arch here seen from the nave. The larger round arch is probably of Norman age from the evidence of a few jamb stones set BVEIA seen in the south jamb. The inner narrow pointed arch with imposts has been suggested as 13th C. with the hagioscopes and corbels being added to the infilled area at the same time.

Figure 3.167 Penmaen Chapel ruin, Glamorganshire, (SS 532 883) is observed here from the north-west. Although not obvious from the immediate view, the chapel has been subsumed within blown sands so that none of the wall exteriors are visible.

150

Chapter Three

Figure 3.168 The overgrown ruin of St Andrew, St Andrews Minor, Glamorganshire (SS 928 735) seen from the south-east. Stones of any quality, such as from the quoins have been removed.

Figure 3.169 Close to Pennard Castle (distant), St Pennard Church ruin, St Pennard Burrows, Glamorganshire (SS 545 885), stands today in a golf course. This view is from the east.

151

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.170 St Gw(y)nno, Vaynor old church, Glamorganshire (SO 048 103) is said to have been used until 1870. The site is now overgrown with this view being towards the tower from the position of the chancel.

Figure 3.171 St Tanwg, Llandanwg, Merionethshire (SH 569 282) is partially buried in sand dunes (to the extent that it was derelict for much of the 18th C.). It is here seen from the south-west.

152

Chapter Three

Figure 3.172 The extent of the blown sand cover at Llandanwg can be seen by level to which the sand occurs on what was once probably the 15th C. south doorway. Infilled, the top of the doorway was subsequently converted to a now blocked window.

Figure 3.173 The church of Sts Egryn and Mary, Llanegryn, Merionethshire (SH 596 058) is renowned for its magnificent 16th C. rood screen and loft. Access to the loft is internally via the small extension (of 1876), which today includes the vestry and organ chamber on the north side of the church.

153

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.174 Within the south porch of Llanegryn Church is this difficult to date south nave doorway. Built in slate, the jambs each contain a BVEIA slab, and the two arching stones are similarly orientated. It has been suggested that the doorway might be 16th C. (Davies, 2002) but with chisel-cut chamfers the suspicion must be that it is a result of Victorian restoration.

Figure 3.175 St Beuno, Llanycil, Merionethshire (SH 914 348), figured here from the north-west, is one of a small number of churches in Wales that includes fragmentary Roman tiles in its fabric. They occur particularly re-used low in the gable walls. 154

Chapter Three

Figure 3.176 The central area of the west wall, where boulders are common, at Llanycil Church is clearly unlike the fabric which occurs in the quoins and the higher gable portion of the wall which were probably rebuilt in 1881. A small bush grows from the change in fabric.

Figure 3.177 The church of St Tydecho, Llanymawddy, Merionethshire (SH 902 189) appears to have been largely rebuilt in the 19th C. It is seen here from the south-east. 155

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.178 Llanymawddy church has ‘Victorian’ windows, most of which are constructed in sawn and carved slate. This window which occurs in the west end of the north wall is of medieval style. It may of course be a copy of the window style which it replaced; but in this earlier style the jamb stones would not have been orientated BVFIA.

Figure 3.179 The Monmouthshire church of St Basil, Bassaleg (ST 277 871) from the north-east to show the contrasting wall fabric between the more distant earlier chancel east wall and that of the later Tredegar Chapel. Both walls were created mainly in Devonian sandstones but that of the chancel is about 70 per cent boulders. 156

Chapter Three

Figure 3.180 There are also fabric changes in the north walls of both the nave and the tower of Basseleg Church. Below the string in both walls boulders are again present, but these also occur in the higher levels of the tower (thought to be 13th C.). Note the unusual trace of an earlier nave roof line on the tower.

Figure 3.181 St Mary the Virgin, Caldicot, Monmouthshire (ST 483 886), effectively modified in both the mid-19th C. and earlier, shows nothing of an origin that was first recorded about 895. The view is from the south-east. 157

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.182 A south-east view of St Deiniol, Itton, Monmouthshire (ST 493 953) which was largely rebuilt in 1869. Note that as with a number of churches particularly in South Wales the top of the stair turret rises higher than the tower.

Figure 3.183 Similar to Itton Church, the stair turret of St John the Apostle and Evangelist, Llandenny, Monmouthshire (SO 415 039) is higher than the tower. Again, none of the visible structural stonework in the church provides anything earlier than a possible 13th C. date, although a much earlier origin is recorded for the church. 158

Chapter Three

Figure 3.184 St Govan Church, Llangovan, Monmouthshire (SO 457 055) viewed from the south-west. The church is used as a bat roost. The bell-cote has been extended to the east presumably to make it more stable. The south porch is clearly later than the 16th C. window which it obstructs.

Figure 3.185 The south porch doorway at St Govan (Figure 3.184) has jamb stones which are set BVEIA, BH, BVEIA in both jambs. The pointed arch stones (also BVEIA and of the same local Devonian coarse sandstone) do not sit well on the jambs although they have the same ornamentation. It does seem possible that the jamb stones might represent re-used and carved Norman stones. 159

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.186 St Tysoi, Llansoy, Monmouthshire (SO 442 024) although thought to be on a pre-Norman monastic site shows the results of its 1858 restorations and no evidence of this early origin in its structural stonework. Here viewed from the south-east.

Figure 3.187 St Teilo, Llantilio Pertholey, Monmouthshire (SO 311 163) is a complex church with three chapels and all quoins set BH. The church is seen here from the north-west.

160

Chapter Three

Figure 3.188 St Mary, Penterry, Monmouthshire (ST 519 987) is a simple unicelled church today set in a field and observed here from the south-west The earliest record of the church was in 955.

Figure 3.189 Although all quoin stones to Penterry Church are set BH, this slit window (ball-point pen for scale) has some Norman characteristics with all jamb stones placed BH and the arching stone BVEIA.

161

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.190 The ruins of Runston Chapel, Monmouthshire (ST 495 916) are here witnessed from the southwest. The village of Runston became deserted in the 18th C. and the church retains certain Norman features.

Figure 3.191 St Bridget, St Bride’s Netherwent, Monmouthshire (ST 428 896) as seen from entering the churchyard from the south-east. The church has again lost its adjoining village and it displays features probably dating back to the 13th C. in its walls. 162

Chapter Three

Figure 3.192 St Gwynnog, Aberhafesp, Montgomeryshire (SO 073 924) seen from the south-west has been extensively re-built, in some areas in semi-snecked style.

Figure 3.193 St Nicholas, Churchstoke, Montgomeryshire (SJ 271 940) at one time had a gallery extending the full length of the south wall of the nave. This was removed in 1881.

163

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.194 At the foot of the south nave wall of St Mary and All Angels, Kerry, Montgomeryshire (SO 147 901) the bases of three Norman columns are displayed. The church was once very typically Norman, with narrow aisles on either side of a nave.

Figure 3.195 Re-built in Victorian times (1864-1865), St Llonio, Llandinam, (SO 026 885) has retained its typical Montgomeryshire wooden tower belfry. The church is viewed from the south-east.

164

Chapter Three

Figure 3.196 The north wall of the chancel of Llandinam retains some of its pre-Victorian fabric. It is just possible that the red sandstone blocks were obtained from an earlier Roman site.

Figure 3.197 St Garmon, Llanfechain, Montgomeryshire (SJ 189 204) viewed from the south.

165

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.198 The interior of St Garmon is completely devoid of internal plaster. Here the east end of the chancel is shown. Both south doorways and these windows may represent much modified Norman craftsmanship. Internally, the south doorway to the nave has traces of having been once much taller and possibly pre-Norman.

Figure 3.199 St Mary, Llanllugan, Montgomeryshire (SJ 058 023) has its bell-cote suspended over its windowless west wall although remains of an earlier bell-cote exist on the roof. Two medieval blocked doorways remain in the walls. 166

Chapter Three

Figure 3.200 The tall west tower (of 1838-1839) and church at St Llwchaiarn, Llanmerewig, Montgomeryshire (SO 158 932).

Figure 3.201 This immured wall junction on the south wall of St Ffraid, Llansantffraid-ym-Mechain, Montgomeryshire (SJ 221 204) has generally been interpreted as facing west (to the left). However, this impression is false: proportionately more (smaller) quoin stones face east and the plinth passes under the east side. The early chancel was widened and subsequently lengthened (indicated by roof break). 167

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.202 The nave at St Ffraid preserves the earliest fabric. Viewed from the inside the south nave doorway is of two distinct ages, but with jamb stones unreadable it proved difficult to determine their respective ages.

Figure 3.203 The southern aspect of St Gwyddelan, Llanwyddelan, Monmouthshire (SJ 082 012), a church completely rebuilt in 1863 with snecked wall fabric. An ornamented (?9th C.) stone has been incorporated into the south-east buttress. 168

Chapter Three

Figure 3.204 The courses of reddish sandstone, both worked and of a regular size, found in the north wall of St Gwynnog, Llanwynnog, Montgomeryshire (SO 022 938) suggests that they were obtained possibly from the local Roman site at Caersws.

Figure 3.205 The church of St Michael, Manafon, Montgomeryshire (SJ 113 025) viewed from the southeast. The south wall is mainly constructed with river boulders presumably re-used from earlier fabric and the south-east quoin has recently been rebuilt as a buttress. 169

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.206 St Nicholas, Montgomery (SO 224 965) is a large cruciform church with a tower (built in 1816) at the end of the north transept. In this view from the north-west there are two blocked doorways: one covered partially by a buttress in the west wall of the north transept; the other the north nave doorway of 13th C. style which was blocked in 1762.

Figure 3.207 Observed from the south-west, the Victorian west end of the church of St Mary the Virgin, Snead, Montgomeryshire (SO 316 919), with string and batter, terminates with the buttress. Projecting stones at the east of the south wall may have once supported monuments or were related to past buttressing. 170

Chapter Three

Figure 3.208 Inside Snead Church the east end of the south wall swings slightly towards the north. The voussoirs above the south-east window in the south wall are cut by the east wall which may well all be Victorian.

Figure 3.209 The ‘Seamen’s Chapel’, dedicated to St Anthony, which is within the churchyard of Angle Church, Pembrokeshire (SM 866 028) and thought to have been founded in 1447. Viewed from the southeast, the visible doorway is to the crypt. 171

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.210 The interior of the protected and disused Georgian (c.1812) church of St Andrew, Bayvil, Pembrokeshire (SN 102 406). Note the central ‘triple decker’ pulpit.

Figure 3.211 Seen from the north-east, St David, Bridell, Pembrokeshire (SN 176 421) rebuilt in 1887, displays walls of cut slate blocks (possibly from Glogue Quarry) typical of the area.

172

Chapter Three

Figure 3.212 St Colman, Capel Colman, Pembrokeshire (SN 216 384) was rebuilt in 1833-1835. Seen from the south and with a new coating of lime-plaster it resembles something from Linderhof (Ludwig’s) Castle or Legoland!

Figure 3.213 Much of this two-celled, ruined church of St Mary, Coedcanlas, Pembrokeshire (SN 014 083) has been privately patched in recent years for it resides within a garden. However, this unusual cavity inside the west nave wall, and covered in logs, requires explanation. It probably occupies the position of an original west door of which there is no trace. The owners, who have seen the bottom, suggest that it was used as a font. 173

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.214 Hodgeston Church (SS 029 993) possesses a notable Pembrokeshire tower seen here from the south-west.

Figure 3.215 The church at Hodgeston contains some fine early 14th C. carving, including this three-seat sedilia in the chancel. 174

Chapter Three

Figure 3.216 Many of the walls at Hodgeston Church have been provided with a batter, probably when the building was restored in1856. On the south wall of the nave the batter thins towards the upper levels of the wall, and high in the position viewed, the outline of a circular arch (possibly related to a past transept) is visible. Elsewhere in the church, as in the position of the blocked north nave doorway, the batter partially overlaps the jambs.

Figure 3.217 The church of St Caradoc, Lawrenny, Pembrokeshire (SN 016 068) now suffers from a fairly recent lime plaster cover. In this view from the south-east a much higher nave roof line (above the clock) can be seen on the east face of the tower. This suggests that such a roof would have covered nave aisles, the hagioscopes of which remain (and now used by the lateral transepts). The tower would under such circumstances have to be earlier than the 15th C. to which it is normally attributed. Alternatively, the tower may have once been saddlebacked. 175

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.218 The site of Llanfyrnach Chapel, Pembrokeshire (SN 213 303) observed from the north.

Figure 3.219 From the west, the church of St David, Maenordeifi, Pembrokeshire (SN 228 433), although built of local Upper Ordovician slate, exhibits different periods of building. The earlier periods of work would not have obtained the slate from the Glogue Slate Quarries as they are known today.

176

Chapter Three

Figure 3.220 The ruins of Newton North Church, Pembrokeshire (SN 066 134) have been ringed with fencing to prevent access. The view through the chamfered, early 14th C. west doorway, includes the chancel arch (?13th C.) and to its right a squint from the south transept.

Figure 3.221 This view of St Decumen, Rhoscrowther, Pembrokeshire (SM 904 023) from the southeast indicates that the tower was built in a position to the west of the south chapel in the position of the south transept. The bell-cote is erected at the east end of the nave.

177

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.222 The Abbey at St Dogmaels, Pembrokeshire (SN 164 458) was dissolved in 1536 and today it is in ruins. One of the better preserved parts of the Abbey church is the north nave doorway shown here from the outside. It has evidence that the door was locked by a thick cross-bar (see section 7.4). The external ball-flower ornament has been described as of late 13th C. date.

Figure 3.223 The Church of St Thomas is situated on the St Dogmaels’ site. The evidence of its partial rebuilding is reflected in the snecked and rusticated Victorian stonework seen here in the south chancel wall.

178

Chapter Three

Figure 3.224 St Justinian Chapel, near St Davids, Pembrokeshire (SM 123 253) viewed here from the north-west has been constructed on the site of a much smaller chapel. The building is unusual. At the south-west corner was a bell tower and an early description the church walls were described as battlemented.

Figure 3.225 Internally the walls of St Justinian Chapel tend to be lined with semi-blind arcading. This view is of the easternmost bay in the south wall and it contains both a doorway and a window. A number of the flaggy sandstones used in the walls tend to be placed BVFIA and BVEIA, but with no pattern. A range of features, such as externally the clasping battered corners, tend to support the historic date for the building which is believed to be early 16th C. 179

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.226 The porch at St Cewydd, Aberedw, Radnorshire (SO 080 473) is thought to be of 15th C. date.

Figure 3.227 Even the medieval priest’s doorway in the chancel has been coated with plaster in this view of Aberedw Church from the south-east.

180

Chapter Three

Figure 3.228 Viewed from the north-east, St Mary Magdalene, Bleddfa, Radnorshire (SO 207 684) shows something of its complexity. From east to west; the chancel (wider than the nave) and the nave which is built into the ruins of an older tower. It would be most unusual for a tower to be wider than the nave, from which it might be inferred that the nave may have been completely rebuilt or alternatively the tower may have once stood alone.

Figure 3.229 Visible are the south-west corner of the nave and its relationship with the ruined west tower at Bleddfa. The upper portion of the nave, its west gable, as well as parts of the old tower, were each rebuilt possibly in 1907. The tower stonework probably dates to the 13th – 14th C. The lancet window in the nave south wall has been described as 13th C. but it too has been much altered and may not be in its original position. 181

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.230 Part of the south chancel wall of St Michael, Bryngwyn, Radnorshire (SO 187 495). In this, the oldest architectural feature normally featured from this church is the 13th C. double lancet. The window has partially been created from abnormally large stones (the lowest in the east jamb BVEIA) which might possibly be re-used. Also present are the traces of the south chancel doorway.

Figure 3.231 In the south-east quoin of the chancel of Bryngwyn Church the two external faces of one stone have been carved, respectively with a female and male figure. The general opinion appears to be that this carving is post the 17th C. 182

Chapter Three

Figure 3.232 From the south the church of St David, Colva, Radnorshire (SO 200 531) clearly shows the extent of relatively recent rebuilding (varying from 0.5m. to 2m. up the wall). Internally, the wall leans out and this has been modified externally to make the wall vertical.

Figure 3.233 St Cewydd, Disserth, Radnorshire (SO 034 584) observed from the south.

183

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.234 St Mary the Virgin, Gladestry, Radnorshire (SO 231 551) is seen here from the south-west.

Figure 3.235 Yet again an example of damp and peeling lime-plaster, seen here on the north walls of St David, Glascwm, Radnorshire (SO 156 532). 184

Chapter Three

Figure 3.236 The church of St Cynllo, Llanbister, Radnorshire (SO 110 733) has its tower at the east end and this view is from the south-west. The hillside was quarried away to provide space for the tower possibly in the 16th C.

Figure 3.237 St David, Llanddewi Fach, Radnorshire (SO 146 454) seen from the south-east, was entirely rebuilt in 1860. However, foundation stones that are visible indicate that the church was not then enlarged. The site must in the past have been quarried and levelled, therefore, to accommodate a building of the current shape. 185

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.238 St David, Llanddewi Ystradenni, Radnorshire (SO 108 686) retains a blocked Norman doorway in its south wall. Although some stones have been replaced the original jamb stones that could be read are placed BVEIA.

Figure 3.239 From the north-east the rebuilt (1876) nave wall of St Tecla, Llandegley, Radnorshire (SO 139 629) can be seen. The tower, built of the same greywackes and sandstones, fell in 1947 and was rebuilt in 1953 using the same material. The post-1876 buttresses are of igneous vesicular lavas. Below the eastern four-light window some pre-1876 nave walling is visible. 186

Chapter Three

Figure 3.240 On top of a small hill, Llandrindod old church (Holy Trinity), Radnorshire (SO 065 601) is here viewed from the south-east. The church was rebuilt in 1894-1895 and traces of the earlier foundations (or possibly built wall support) can be observed below the east wall.

Figure 3.241 As can be seen from the south-east, St Mary, Llanfaredd, Radnorshire (SO 069 507) has been extensively restored (1891).

187

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.242 In the west wall of Llanfaredd Church this unusually inscribed relatively large block of mudstone occurs (pen top length c. 35mm.).

Figure 3.243 The barn-like church of St Michael in the Willow, Llanfihangel Helygen, Radnorshire (SO 046 644) seen from the north-west.

188

Chapter Three

Figure 3.244 The church of St Stephen, Llanstephan, Radnorshire (SO 120 422) as observed from the north-east. According to their contacts the nave is the oldest of the three major church parts.

Figure 3.245 St Stephen, Old Radnor, Radnorshire (SO 250 591) as seen from the south-east. The nave and tower were restored in 1856.

189

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.246 The font at Old Radnor Church is quite remarkable for it is made out of one block of rock. Initially the block appears to have been a boulder, quite possibly a glacial erratic. The many washes make the composition difficult to determine but this might be that of an igneous gabbro – a relatively difficult rock to work.

Figure 3.247 The church of St Mary, Pilleth, Radnorshire (SO 256 682) has suffered various past disasters including the collapse of an earlier tower and more recently, a fire which removed the roof in 1894. From the south-east the old roof line against the rebuilt tower (possibly of 14th C. date) is evident, as is the string course on the tower which omits the stair turret (probably built as an addition). 190

Chapter Three

Figure 3.248 The base of the north side of an earlier tower to Pilleth Church has not been plastered as has the north wall of the present tower. It appears to have had an angle buttress and its stonework would indicate a date no earlier than the 13th C.

Figure 3.249 This view of the lime-plastered church of St David, Rhulen, Radnorshire (SO 138 498) is from the south-east.

191

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 3.250 From the north-east corner of Rhulen Church the upward thinning batter that has been applied to the north wall is evident. This was added to counter an outward lean of the wall seen internally.

Figure 3.251 Rebuilt in 1874, the church of St David, Whitton, Radnorshire (SO 271 673) is seen here from the north-east.

192

Chapter Three

Figure 3.252 In places the pre-1874 foundations of Whitton church can be clearly seen. They are evident here at the early north-west quoin (the chancel having been extended in 1903) over the lowest 0.3m. Their BH attitude suggests that they may date from the 13th or 14th C.

193

CHAPTER FOUR CHURCHES DISPLAYING SOME EVIDENCE OF PATTERNED WORKMANSHIP ANGLESEY 4.1 Llanbabo, St Pabo (SH 378 868) Descriptions of, and references to, the single-celled church at Llanbabo (Figure 4.1) have been provided by Lewis (1845a, 477); Jones (1861, 298-300); Hughes (1923, 64-67; 1930, 249; 1932b, 57-59); Pryce (1929, 172); RCAHMW (1937, 34-35); Hulbert-Powell (1944, Figs 3-5); Gresham (1968, 233-235); WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 6940); and Haslam et al. (2009. 139-140). The church was listed in the Norwich valuation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 196) and it stands in a relatively circular churchyard. Extensive restorations were carried out over the period 1906-9 (WHCP, Gwynedd). Local metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, as well as a few igneous boulders, are used both in the walls, as poorly coursed rubble, and in the various dressings. In particular, metamorphic, often chloritic, schists are common. Unfortunately, entry to this church has proved impossible but the internal elevations, viewed through the windows, can be described as totally hidden by plaster.

The masonry variations in the gable walls to the church reveal significant rebuilding, the east gable displaying two earlier, lower roof lines (Figure 4.2). The lowest of these, particularly indicating that at an early date the south chancel wall was inset from the line of the nave, suggesting that an earlier church was two-celled. This interpretation is supported further by the presence of a schist plinth at the base of the south wall of the nave, signifying that the original nave was externally 8.27m. in length. This same length on the north wall (Figure 4.3) is represented by a visible break in the masonry. The earliest east wall fabric clearly pre-dates the 14th C. east window to the church which has been built into the wall. The eastern quoins have both been rebuilt and of the rocks in them that could be identified, two types predominate, schists and, probably Ordovician, conglomerate, with all readable stones set BH. The south-east quoin interestingly also included a Carboniferous Limestone boulder, and both quoins were built to place the largest faces of successive stone to left and right (in mixed face- and side-alternate pattern). These eastern quoins would, therefore, appear to have been rebuilt perhaps as late as the 17th C.

Figure 4.1 The early church of St Pabo, Llanbabo, Anglesey (SH 378 868) viewed here from the south-west.

194

Chapter Four

Figure 4.2 The east gable of St Pabo preserves faint traces of two old roof lines. These regrettably are only clearly evident in certain conditions of light; one only may be visible in this view. The lower roof line supports the view that the chancel was once narrower.

Figure 4.3 On the north wall of St Pabo, here viewed from the north-east, a change of wall fabric occurs in the position of the most westerly window, (near the drainpipe), marking an early nave/chancel junction. The central window marks the position of a doorway (thought to be 18th C.), subsequently partially infilled.

195

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.4 Only the original nave portion of the church displays Patterned characteristics. These are demonstrated in the south-west quoin, where Arenig sandy conglomerate blocks, and stones 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 are set to the appropriate style. The folder is 0.31m. in length.

Figure 4.5 In contrast, the north-west quoin at St Pabo Church has been much altered, with only three stones remaining of the original Arenig conglomerate, remaining stones (but not the plinth) are of local schist placed BH. 196

Chapter Four

Figure 4.6 The south wall of the nave to St Pabo Church to show the relationship of the early doorway and window.

Figure 4.7 Detail of the re-used and modified Romanesque features on the south doorway.

197

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.8 The south wall window to the nave of St Pabo although modified, retains its double-splay; this together with other characteristics, suggests that it may have been originally constructed during the Patterned period. The south-west quoin (Figure 4.4) offers suggestions as to something of the dressings of the early church. In this quoin the stones are emplaced as follows: BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFR, in Patterned style. Higher stones (7 to the eaves) are all placed BH and are of schists, set from the limited evidence, possibly in the 12th, but more typically of the style of the 13th to 15th C. Stones 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 are all of conglomerate. This rather sandy conglomerate is very distinctive for it contains angular pebbles of schist and igneous rocks. The rock is of basal Arenig age and it may be viewed in situ in a 19th- 20th C. overgrown quarry at SH 356 799 (this quarry being far too modern to have supplied the rock for the church). The same conglomerate occurs throughout the church, in most instances, as in the other three quoins, in a re-used state. Stone 4 is a schist, rich in quartz and hornblende, and being face-alternate, represents a later insertion. Indeed there are suggestions that the whole quoin may have been partially or wholly rebuilt above stone 3. This is certainly true for the northwest quoin (Figure 4.5), where above the plinth only stones 1, 3, and 5 are of conglomerate. The face of the north wall of the nave tends to reflect a level of Patterned originality in consisting of largish, well-spaced, blocks of schist and Arenig conglomerate. In the south wall of the nave of the church there are both a doorway and a window of interest (Figure 4.6). The doorway (Figure 4.7), with reset Norman (Romanesque) chevron ornament, has been completely modernised as

noted by RCAHMW (1937, 34), with cement being very much in evidence. The simple unchamfered window (Figure 4.8) might readily be identified as of Patterned style for it is double-splayed, the window being inset 0.2m. from the outer wall face. Although the sill is of chlorite schist, the arch is cut from a single stone of Arenig conglomerate (set BVEIA) and three of the four jamb stones are of the same material (the other stone being covered in render). The jamb stones on the eastern side are placed BH, BH, and the lower stone in the western jamb is also probably similarly set. The evidence suggests that this window may originally have been constructed in the Patterned period, but was subsequently altered. More recent restoration is also evident for there is, for instance, a slate levelling insert at the top of the east jamb. 4.2 Llandysilio, St Tysilio (SH 552 717) Llandysilio church is situated on an island in the Menai Strait (Figure 4.9) and is reached now by a causeway from near to the Menai Bridge. Brief descriptions of the church appeared in the following works; Jones (1847a, 168-170); Glynne (1900, 93-94); Holme (1926, 184); RCAHMW (1937, 52); Crossley (1944, 69); Clarke (1961a, 60), WHCP (Gwynedd, 49-50, PRN 2173); and Haslam et al. (2009, 197). Most suggested the present church building is of 15th C date but WHCP (49) noted possible remnant foundation stones at the north-west corner and Haslam et al. (2009, 197) stated that the church was rebuilt in the

198

Chapter Four

Figure 4.9 St Tysilio, Llandysilio, Anglesey (SH 552 717) is situated on an island location in the Menai Strait as may be appreciated from the view of the distant Menai bridge.

Figure 4.10 The south-west quoin of St Tysilio Church is constructed of local Lower Carboniferous sandstone apart from the foundation stone of distinctive schist. 199

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.11 The Patterned emplacement in this north-west quoin of St Tysilio is again difficult to photograph.

Figure 4.12 Only by means of detailed photographs of individual stones is it possible to illustrate the true bedding orientation of most quoin stones. In this figure the detail of Carboniferous coarse sandstones 3 (BVFL) and 4 (BH) from the north-west quoin (Figure 4.11) are shown. 200

Chapter Four

Figure 4.13 The north-east quoin of St Tysilio Church.

Figure 4.14 The south-east quoin of St Tysilio, Llandysilio Church.

201

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.15 The north door to the nave of St Tysilio Church has clearly been placed into the north wall, for the frame is outlined in shaped, Carboniferous coarse sandstone blocks. These blocks are all set into the wall in standard BH format.

Figure 4.16 Visible in the base of the wall in the previous Figure, wall foundation stonework low in the nave north wall at St Tysilio is better observed when viewed along the wall from the north-west quoin. 202

Chapter Four 13th C. Two types of stone predominate both in the walls and the quoins. These are Lower Carboniferous sandstones and conglomeratic sandstones and very local, glaucophane schists. A few other additional rock types may be observed in the wall fabric including igneous greenstones, quartz schist, green schist and vein quartz; but limestone said to be present in abundance by some of the aforementioned authors, is noticeably absent apart from a single piece seen in the church west wall. The window dressings are of Upper Carboniferous sandstone. The four major quoins of this single-celled church are principally constructed of the Carboniferous sandstone and sandy conglomerate. The manner in which these stones are set provides evidence of their probable age. Quoin details are as follows: South-west quoin (Figure 4.10): the foundation stone of glaucophane schist projects to the south and its orientation is BH; all remaining stones are of Lower Carboniferous sandy conglomerate and these are emplaced; BVFL, BH, BVFR, BVFL, BH, BH, BH, BH, BVFL. North-west quoin (Figures 4.11 and 4.12): the quoin stones are again sandy conglomerates but for a glaucophane schist where the quoin has been repaired at stone 2, these read; probably BH, minor repairs, BH (the schist), BVFL, BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL, BH, BH. North-east quoin (Figure 4.13): obscured by render, BH (oblique, a glaucophane schist), BVFL, BVFR, BH, obscure but possibly BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFR, (a possible added fillet or render), BH. South-east quoin (Figure 4.14): BH (schist), BH, ?BVFL (schist), BVFR, BH, BH (oblique), BH, levelling stone fillets, BVFL. All stones in these quoins are of sandy conglomerate unless declared otherwise. The Carboniferous sandy conglomerate and other sandstones, throughout Anglesey, tend to be used in the earlier structures, and the orientation of the quoin stones would imply that this church is of Patterned style. The quoin stones, irrespective of their orientation, tend to be set into wall courses, and the schists are used in the main for foundation stones. The pointing of the walls covers much of the stonework and in parts the walls are rendered. This makes the wall structure difficult to interpret. All the windows and the door appear to be later, for around them the walls have been much disturbed. In the instance of the north doorway (Figure 4.15), the construction is of more precisely cut blocks of Lower Carboniferous sandstone in which none of the jamb stones are through stones and most are laid BH. There is also some evidence of rebuilding in its structure. The doorway includes a wooden frame enclosing a pointed

door which WHCP (Gwynedd, 49) indicate is ‘probably not older than the 16th C.’ The stones projecting at the foot of the north wall at the north-west corner of the church (Figure 4.16) are mainly of the local schist and they could well have been part of the original north wall. The wall above these foundation stones is more irregularly constructed than much of the wall fabric elsewhere in the church. 4.3 Llanfairynghornwy, St Mary (SH 327 908) The round-headed chancel arch at Llanfairynghornwy was considered by RCAHMW (1937, 74-75) to be ‘of 11th or 12th century’ date. Unfortunately, detailed scrutiny of its stonework is restricted by the thick internal plaster to the church. Certainly, 13th C. origins were confirmed by Lunt (1926, 196) in his record of the church in the Norwich taxation details of 1254. The church (Figure 4.17) was restored both in the 19th C. (Clarke, 1961a, 62) and again in the early years of the 1930’s (Hughes, 1931, 392-393). Other descriptions of, or observations relating to, the church have been provided by Lewis (1845b, 126-127); Jones (1862, 50-51); Glynne (1900, 97-98); Pryce (1929, 176); WHCP (Gwynedd, 74-75, PRN 3522); and Haslam et al. (2009, 172). Over much of the external wall surface a pebble-dash surface remains (Figure 4.18) but it would appear that the predominant building stone is of local schist. Window dressings are of greyish fine-grained sandstone which has probably been imported into Anglesey and the quoins occasionally introduce other varieties of Anglesey rocks other than schist. A west tower, partially created in Carboniferous Limestone, was added to the church in the 17th C. (WHCP, Gwynedd, 74). Evidence that the chancel pre-dates the south chapel may be noted at their eastern walls where quoin stones of schist (set BH) of the chancel abut against the chapel. Prior to this date the chancel had apparently been enlarged to the width of the nave and no doubt also increased in length for it is now longer than the nave. This enlargement is thought to have been undertaken in the late 15th C. (RCAHMW, 1937, 75) based principally on the evidence of the chancel roof. Probably the most interesting feature of the stonework in the church is the north-east quoin to the nave, where the north wall of the enlarged chancel fails to perfectly align with the nave. The structure of the quoin is as follows (Figure 4.19): first visible stone probably BVFR (large); followed by BH, BVFR, BVFR, BH, uncertain, BVFR, BVFR, small area of render, remainder all set BH. All the stones in the quoin may be regarded as of local lowgrade, frequently chloritic and often quartz-veined schist, with two exceptions. Stone 5 is clearly a replacement of red slate, and the lowest stone which is quartzite and possibly a boulder, is probably of sufficient size to have been specially selected to provide a wall foundation. The higher BH stones may be readily considered to have been added in the 12th to 15th C. clearly suggesting that the lowest stonework is probably of Patterned origin.

203

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.17 Built substantially of local schist, St Mary, Llanfairynghornwy, Anglsey (SH 327 908) has been substantially altered over many years. This view from the south-west shows the west tower, nave and chancel in line, with later additions of south porch (now vestry) and large south chapel. Evidence shows that only the relatively enclosed nave reveals evidence of an early origin.

Figure 4.18 Viewed in the opposite direction, that is from the north east, much of the church of Llanfairynghornwy is heavily cement rendered or pebble-dashed. The north-east nave quoin is, however, visible.

204

Chapter Four

Figure 4.19 With the west nave quoins being rebuilt (with stones placed BH) at the time of the erection of the 17th C. Llanfairynghornwy tower, and the south face of the nave/chancel being covered by the later 16th C. chapel, only this north-east nave quoin could possibly reveal early origins. All but the top metre (with BH stones) of the quoin proves on scrutiny to be of schists emplaced to a Patterned style. Both nave western quoins are of a later period. At the northwest corner of those stones which were readable, all were schists being set BH, with the exception of a larger, single stone (BVFL) which is possibly re-used. In the remnant, south-west quoin, very few stones were clean enough to examine in detail but some were quartzites and a single block of schist is placed BH. Stones in all other quoins were apparently set BH; the large foundation stone at the south-east corner of the chapel being of Carboniferous Limestone. It was noticeable that many of the schist slabs visible in the north nave wall were face-bedded providing a suggestion that some of this wall was of Patterned age. 4.4 Llangwyfan, St Cwyfan (SH 336 683) Dramatically situated on a small island surrounded by a crudely circular, protective stone wall and reached by a rough tidal causeway, this rarely used, single-celled church (Figure 4.20) has been described as possessing 12th C. features by most of the following authors (Pennant, 1784, 358; Lewis, 1845b, 55-56; Jones, 1846b, 156-158; Hughes, 1897, 58-65; Glynne, 1900, 102-103; Skinner, 1908; RCAHMW, 1937, 97; Clarke, 1961a; WHCP, Gwynedd, 101-102, PRN 7020, PRN 3001; Longley, 2005, 77-88; Schӓrer, 2007; and Haslam et al., 2009, 188189). The church was referred to in the Norwich taxation

of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 194). The description of the church by Schӓrer, 2007, identifies the stone types used as Upper Carboniferous coarse sandstone and local Monian schists. He further argued that the sandstone provided the earliest building stone, a statement which is probably correct only for the dressings, for much of the fabric of the walls, some of it certainly later, is of local beach boulders of the local variable schists. The present author was unable to visit the church interior. When WHCP (Gwynedd, 101) visited this church in 1994-95 all external features of interest were obliterated by a thick render, this was subsequently removed, and the paper by Schӓrer (2007) actually discusses the difficulties involved in its unfortunate replacement with a thick limewash. The church had acquired a north aisle in the latter part of the 15th C. (Schӓrer, 2007) or the 16th C. (WHCP, Gwynedd, 101), and this was visible in 1802 (Skinner, 1908, 43). Shortly after this last date the aisle was removed and its arcade was blocked. The arcade consists of three broad arches extending nearly the full length of the north wall. In the centre arch a re-used 15th C. window has been inserted into the 19th C. infilled area. In 1995, from the building’s exterior the arcade was invisible; today it is discernable, but as over the entire church, fabric detail now proves difficult to determine. The south-west quoin

205

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.20 The view of St Cwyfan, Llangwyfan, Anglesey (SH 336 683) as it is approached by means of the rough causeway from the east.

Figure 4.21 Stones 7 to 9 of the south-west quoin of Llangwyfan Church are difficult to read thanks to the lime-wash coating but can be interpreted as BVFR (oblique), BVFL, BVFR.

206

Chapter Four

Figure 4.22 The south nave doorway and the broad string course running for a short distance east from it may be observed in this view of St Cwyfan Church. provides limited evidence of an original Patterned origin, for where the lime-wash has worn away stones 7 to 9 can be observed to be emplaced (Figure 4.21); BVFR (oblique), BVFL, BVFR; in a quoin where the stones may all be of sandstone. In contrast, the two eastern quoins which are thought to be constructed of stones set BH (mainly of sandstone but including some schists) are likely to be dated possibly 12th , but more probably, 13th to 14th C. A broad string course of Carboniferous sandstone placed 1.75m. above ground level may be traced along the west end of the south wall (Figure 4.22). It terminates where there is a wall fabric change, with mainly boulders to the east. The suspicion must be that this change may represent a modified and widened chancel, where an earlier, possibly Patterned, chancel was narrower than the nave. The south nave doorway is clearly much later than ‘the earlier doorway with its distinctive semi-circular arched head’ into which Schӓrer (2007) was able to observe it had been fitted (see also, figure in Hughes, 1897, 60). BRECKNOCKSHIRE (BRECONSHIRE) No churches listed CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (EAST) No churches listed

CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (CENTRAL) 4.5 Llanbeblig, St Peblig (SH 487 623) This large cruciform church (Figure 4.23) is built close to the Roman fort of Segontium and Roman burials are recorded within its fairly circular shaped churchyard. The church and the associated Vaynol chapel have been described by authors such as; Pennant (1784, 228); Lewis (1845a, 482); Hughes (1894, 85-91; 1935, 297-298); Glynne (1900, 184); Hughes and North (1924, 230-236); Crossley (1944, 93); Davies, A. (1959); RCAHMW (1960, 119-122); Clarke (1961b, 29; 1962, 57-58, 60, 62, 65); WHCP (Gwynedd, 174-176, PRN 6942, PRN 3108); and Haslam et al. (2009, 281 and 283-285). The earliest written record of the church relates to the 13th C. Much of the workmanship in the building has been related to the 14th to the 16th centuries and more recent restorations are recorded in WHCP (Gwynedd, 175). Carboniferous rocks, both sandstone and limestone, are used within the church wall fabrics. Hughes (1894, 85-91) was the first author to suggest that the south wall of the nave pre-dated the remainder of the buildings and he proposed a pre-14th C. date for this work, a Roman altar having been discovered in the wall footings. The wall is almost entirely constructed of sandstone and conglomerate blocks. The associated south-west quoin of 207

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.23 St Peblig, Llanbeblig, Caernarfonshire (SH 487 623) viewed from the south-east.

Figure 4.24 Although not very evident in this figure, for the stone colouring is a reflection of weathering, the south-west quoin of the nave of Llanbeblig Church is largely set in Patterned style. 208

Chapter Four

Figure 4.25 Squared Roman petit appareil stones re-used in the early south nave wall of Llanbeblig Church.

Figure 4.26 The north elevation of St Mary, Llanfair-is-Gaer, Caernarfonshire (SH 502 660).

209

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.27 An element of detail of the north-west quoin of Llanfair-is-Gaer Church.

Figure 4.28 The south-west nave quoin at Llanfair-isGaer Church.

Figure 4.29 Llanfair-is-Gaer Church viewed from the north-east.

210

Chapter Four

Figure 4.30 The south-east nave quoin of Llanfair-is-Gaer Church.

the church interestingly is differently structured to others (Figure 4.24). It is built of the Lower Carboniferous pebbly sandstone/conglomerate which outcrops along the shores of the Menai Strait and from the base the stones are emplaced as follows: BH, BH, BH, BVFR, BH, two replacement stones in quartzitic white sandstone, BVFR, BVFL, BH, similar replacement stone as below, BVFR, last three stones to the corbel set later BH. This quoin, although replaced in part, would appear to reflect a Patterned style of building, and thus is earlier than the date envisaged for the wall by Hughes (1894). Several aspects of the church reflect its proximity to the influence of the adjacent Roman fort. The south nave wall, for instance, incorporates some re-used Roman petit appareil squared facing stones in its fabric (Figure 4.25). 4.6 Llanfair-is-Gaer, St Mary (SH 502 660) On a low hill beside the Menai Strait, St Mary (Figure 4.26) stands in what was once a reasonably circular graveyard. The only written evidence to the date of the church is to ‘the middle of the 14th C.’ (RCAHMW, 1960, 200, endnote), the Commission choosing to propose that the church might be 13th C. (Fig. 137, 220). All ancient architectural features were apparently destroyed in an 1865 ‘restoration’. Descriptions, other than that of the Commission have been offered by Lewis (1845b, 121-122); Glynne (1900, 313);

Hughes and North (1924, 208-209); Clarke (1961b, 26, 29-30; 1962, 65); WHCP (Gwynedd, 197-198, PRN 6986, PRN 3681); and Haslam et al. (2009, 440-441). The wall fabric of this church of nave and chancel, is of enormous diversity and is almost entirely of boulders, these include igneous rocks such as granites, gabbros, rhyolites, basalts, dolerites (some vesicular) and ignimbrites as well as quartzites, conglomerates, a variety of sandstones, Carboniferous Limestone (some identifiable from fossils, as D Zone) (Figure 2.11), mudstones, etc. Such a variety is likely to have been collected from the adjoining beach and the boulders derived from their original source by both ice and water. In contrast, the quoins are largely constructed of the Lower Carboniferous conglomeratic sandstone (Figure 2.17) which outcrops beside the Menai Strait. The nave – chancel relationship in St Mary, where the chancel is narrower than the nave approximately by the thicknesses of the north and south walls, is typical of very many small Anglo-Saxon churches in England. The church has six quoins all of which have some similarity: North-west nave quoin (Figure 4.27): 1, Basal foundation stones of rhyolite and conglomerate boulders; 2, BVFR, conglomerate; 3, BH, sandstone; 4, BH, conglomerate (oblique on north side); 5, BH, sandstone, 6, BVFL, conglomeratic sandstone; 7 to 14, all BH, fine-grained sandstone. It is possible that this quoin has been rebuilt.

211

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology South-west nave quoin (Figure 4.28): 1, Old Red Sandstone, orientation uncertain, covered in thick render; 2, BH, Carboniferous Limestone; 3, BVFL, conglomeratic sandstone; 4, BV (direction uncertain), conglomeratic sandy quartzite (? not Carboniferous); 5, BVFL, conglomeratic sandy quartzite (? not Carboniferous); all higher stones, BH, of pebbly sandstone (grey, weathers red). North-east nave quoin (Figure 4.29): 1, Unknown, lichen covered; 2, BH, Small fragment of Carboniferous Limestone as repair; 3, BVFR, conglomerate; 4, BH, D Zone Carboniferous Limestone used in repair: 5, BH (diagonal), conglomerate; 6, uncertain, fine sandstone; 7, BVFL, sandstone with pebble stringers (Figure 2.17); 8, uncertain, sandstone; higher stones, all BH, sandstone. South-east nave quoin (Figure 4.30): 1, Uncertain, could be cement or sandstone set BH; 2, BH, conglomeratic sandy quartzite (? not Carboniferous); 3, inclined, rhyolite, flow banded; 4, BH, probably Old Red Sandstone; thin infill; 5, BVFR, Old Red Sandstone conglomerate; 6, BH, beach boulder, sandstone; 7 to 9, uncertain, sandstone, beach boulders; 10 and 11, BH, sandstone, weathered red. North-east chancel quoin (Figure 4.29): first 0.35m. repaired, variable with cement; 2 and 3, BH, conglomerate; 4, uncertain, sandstone; then fillets and render; 5, uncertain, fine sandstone; 6, BVFL, Sandy conglomerate; 7, BVFL, conglomerate; 8 to 10, BH, sandstone. South-east chancel quoin: 1, BVFL, conglomerate; 0.40m. of repair and render; 2 and 3, BH, sandstone; 4, BVFL, conglomerate; higher stones, BH, of white, fine clean sandstone.

Note: all sedimentary stones that have not been otherwise prefixed are of Carboniferous origin. The evidence would suggest that all but the south-east nave quoin preserve elements of the Patterned style of workmanship in their lower portion. The upper portion preserves in contrast BH set stonework which is probably of the 13th C. In the walling between the quoins, other than where new windows have been inserted, fabric alterations are difficult to identify, probably because of their complex composition. It is known that in the 1865 ‘restoration’, the porch, all openings into the nave and the east window were all added or altered. There is a dated stone of 1644 in the south wall of the chancel which must refer to an additional earlier period of modification. CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (WEST) No churches listed CARMARTHENSHIRE 4.7 Llandeilo Fawr, St Teilo (SN 628 223) The Book of Llandaff records the presence of a church on this Llandeilo site as early as the 6th C (Davies, 1979) and the establishment has close links with, and is referred to in, the Lichfield Gospels. Although the early church (Figure 4.31) is recognised as possessing such early origins the current building is typically considered to be no older than its tower which is normally dated to about 1600 (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 912, PRN 888). The church was extensively

Figure 4.31 From the west St Teilo Church, Llandeilo Fawr, Carmarthenshire (SN 628 223) gives every appearance of having been rebuilt in the mid-19th C, which it was. 212

Chapter Four

Figure 4.32 A view of St Teilo Church tower from the west, shows that the stair turret north-west quoin is constructed in a brownish stone (Upper Silurian conglomerates) rather than red stone (Devonian red sandstones). The turret quoin is built to a Patterned style approximately up to the height of the nave quoins. rebuilt over the period 1848-1851. Of the many references to the building the following may be mentioned: Lewis (1845a, 524); Jones (1915a); RCAHMW (1917, 91); Yates (1973, 53-81); Soulsby (1983, 160-162); Salter (1994, 33); and WHCP (Dyfed). The Victorian church wall fabric is principally of Carboniferous Limestone and sandstones.

construction of the turret tower additionally supports the probability that it remains as a limited presence of the Patterned earlier church, the north-west quoin of that early church having been preserved. Inside the turret the stairs spiral about an Old Red Sandstone column, presumably inserted when the turret was constructed to its full height.

The west tower, which Yates and Little (1974, 71) described as 13th C, is created with Devonian, Old Red Sandstone blocks unlike the body of the church. The tower’s western quoins are built, with rare exceptions, of the same material. They rise predominantly in standard side-alternate style. A string course at about 2 to 2.5m. has below it a batter, both the string and batter probably added in Victorian times.

4.8 Llangadog, St Cadog (SN 706 285)

The stair turret to the tower rises at the tower’s north-east corner (Figure 4.32). Over the turret’s lower levels the fabric is totally unlike that seen elsewhere in the church and both the fabric and the visible quoins are constructed of a slightly more local Silurian, Ludlovian, Trichrûg Beds, typically quartzitic conglomerates. It appears that the turret has actually been created from the north-west corner of an earlier nave. The north-west quoin of this turret rises with stones set: top only of buried stone, orientation uncertain; BH; BVFL; BVFL; BVFR; BVFR; BH; BH; BVFR; ?BVFR; BVFR; BVFL; with higher stones possibly all set BH and of Old Red Sandstone. The change in both rock type and stone bedding orientation occurs at what was presumably the early eaves height of the nave. The unusual

Llangadog Church (Figure 4.33) is built within a circular churchyard, although (Lloyd, et al., 2006, 302) stated that the church displays ‘Nothing datably old except for a blocked Tudor’ north doorway, visible inside. Others contributing to the description of the church include; Lewis (1845b, 19-21); Glynne (1898, 361-362; who visited the church when it had a west gallery, in August 1850); Jones (1915a, 330); RCAHMW (1917, 146); Yates (1973, 58); Soulsby (1983, 168-169); Salter (1994, 37); and WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 4049, PRN 8330). Yates and Little (1974, 73) described the church as having been rebuilt, with the exception of the 15th C. tower, in 1889. The nave walls are undoubtedly older than the remainder of the church being constructed of local river boulders, whereas many of the more recent walls are of hewn or more recently shaped rocks of similar materials. The boulders are mainly derived from upstream areas of the River Sawdde to the south and include distinctive Upper Silurian sandstones, quartzites and conglomerates from the Trichrûg Beds as well as sandstones from the Old Red Sandstone. Just the

213

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.33 St Cadog, Llangadog, Carmarthenshire (SN 706 285) is here viewed from the south. Although much of the church wall fabric is influenced by Victorian rebuilding the nave walls, particularly low, remain constructed of a variety of local River Sawdde mixed river boulders.

Figure 4.34 The western quoins of the nave of Llangadog Church display their Patterned early origin. Here, the northwest nave quoin is displayed. The 15th-16th C. tower is later than the west nave wall and the tower (built largely from fossiliferous, local Upper Silurian fine-grained sandstones) cuts across a blocked window which itself was possibly of 13th C. origin and set into an earlier wall. 214

Chapter Four west nave quoins now exist (the east end of the nave is enveloped in transepts and buttresses). The lower portion of the south-west quoin is built of blocks of yellow, possibly Carboniferous, coarse sandstone (Figure 4.34) as follows: Not determined, BH (west face with Bench Mark), BV (direction uncertain), BVFL, BVFL, BVFL, not determined (possibly BH), BVFL, others too high to determine. The north-west quoin reads: orientation uncertain (red sandstone), BVFR, BVFL, possibly BH, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BH, stones 9 to 11 not readable, stones 12 to 14 BH. The higher BH stones in this quoin represent later workmanship and the two quoins otherwise generally appear to denote Patterned style insertion. The tower which is probably of 15th or 16th C. date cuts an infilled west-facing window which could well be interpreted as of 13th C. age. The boulders in this west nave wall here pre-date this window (Figure 4.34). CEREDIGION (CARDIGANSHIRE) No churches listed DENBIGHSHIRE No churches listed FLINTSHIRE No churches listed

GLAMORGAN 4.9 Llantwit Major (Llanilltud Fawr), St Illtwd (SS 966 687) Much has been written about this important ecclesiastical site in South Glamorgan. The Book of Llandaff (Davies, 1979; Evans, 2003, 8) provides evidence of its monastic presence in about 650 and its origins can possibly be traced back to the early 6th C. (RCAHMW, 1976, 1617). A church was listed in the Norwich taxation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 324). Descriptions of, and references to the site, a linear and multiple, linked complex involving three churches, are numerous and include those of Freeman et al. (1858, 31-47); Halliday (1900, 129-156; 1903; 1905, 242-250); Rodger (1915, 141-156); Crossley and Ridgway (1958, 97-98); Soulsby (1983, 175-177); Knight (1984, 375-376); Savory (1984,433); Soden (1984, 101); Orrin (1988, 239-258); and WHCP (Glamorgan-Gwent, PRN 00426s). The site is noteworthy for both its preserved early stone monuments (Allen {1889a, 118-126; 1889b}; Nash-Williams {1950, 142-144}; Redknap and Lewis {2007, 369-396}) and its recorded early graveyard burials. Radford (1973, 49) referred to the site as one of a clasau. Most of the existing buildings on the site have been dated to having been built in the period of the 13th to the 16th C. Halliday (1905) reported on excavations undertaken generally in the vicinity of the tower, and immediately to its east and west, which revealed foundations of a preNorman date.

Figure 4.35 St Illtwd, Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire (SS 966 687) has an established history traceable back to the early 6th C. The earliest visible church fabric is normally regarded to be the Norman south doorway (seen here) to what is known as the ‘West Church’. 215

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.36 Viewed from the south-west towards the 13th C. south porch of the ‘West Church’ (in which, is the Norman doorway) of St Illtwd Church site, the tower and ‘East Church’ make up an obvious integral unit.

Figure 4.37 The central tower and the ‘East Church’ nave of St Illtwd, together with the south aisle, are here seen from the south.

216

Chapter Four

Figure 4.38 Early roof lines of the nave mark the east wall of the tower of St Illtwd. Poor traces of the quoins of the east wall of the tower are also visible beneath the wall plaster. Viewing their stone shape only, the quoins exhibit Patterned characteristics.

Figure 4.39 The outlines on the south chancel wall of the ‘East Church’ of St Illtwd clearly reveal the past presence of a 13th C. two bay arcade. Probably in the 15th C. a doorway, with a travertine head, was cut into the already infilled arcade arches. 217

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.40 A more detailed examination of the south chancel wall shown in Figure 4.39 reveals that the 13th C. arcade was cut into a wall that already possessed an infilled window. The jamb stones of that window show pre-Romanesque Patterned orientations.

Figure 4.41 A view from the nave of the ‘East Church’ of St Illtwd towards the chancel. To be noted are the hagioscopes to the north and south of the chancel arch (below the arcades), which are at the incorrect height to be of current use. The nave floor has been lowered since the time of their use and hence two steps upwards now give access to the chancel. 218

Chapter Four Of the line of connected buildings, the ‘West Church’ is normally regarded as the oldest of the structures now visible in that it still possesses a simple, Norman south doorway (Figure 4.35). This doorway is constructed of Middle Jurassic, Dundry Stone, quarried close to Bristol (Halliday, 1905). To the east of the West Church (Figure 4.36) is the tower of the adjoining ‘East Church’. To the west of the West Church stands the ruined Galilee Chapel (Raglan Chantry); the most recent of the buildings. All portions of the Llantwit Major structures are principally created in an external fabric of local Lower Jurassic, Liassic, Southerndown Stone (Figure 2.12) (see also Cantrill, 1915, 134-156), although certain added areas display Carboniferous Limestone. In this brief account attention will be drawn only to the East Church (Figure 4.37) for in this portion there is some evidence of early medieval (pre-Norman) fabric. Certain age relationships can be concluded from the earlier roof lines visible on the east wall of the tower. From the church interior two earlier roof lines of the nave have left their trace (Figure 4.38). The lowest of these would appear to pre-date both the clerestory walls and top of the north and south arcades. As should be expected this confirms that the tower (or its lower portion) and the nave, pre-date the arcades. The north arcade preserves a mural which has been dated 1400, making the arcades of earlier construction, and normally from their style the arcade arches are dated to the 13th C. with the nave walls, therefore, earlier. It is evident, particularly externally, that although the north chancel wall has been rebuilt, and from its windows is probably 15th C. in construction, the wall to the south is at least partly original. Externally, this south wall reveals some interesting cross-cutting relationships (Figure 4.39). It displays the outline of a two bay arcade (probably a continuation to that in the nave) which from its style would appear to be 13th C. Both arches have been blocked and subsequently partially reopened with a window (each window displaying different age dates internally, and external rebuilding in ‘Victorian’ times). A chamfered door with a head constructed of two blocks of travertine and jambs principally of local Lower Liassic, Sutton Stone has also been cut through the eastern arcade infill. These relationships are, however, all incidental to that of a blocked window cut by the arches of the arcade (Figure 4.40). The arching ‘voussoirs’ to this window possibly post-date and do not match the jambs. Each jamb is cut at its base by the arcade arch-work. In the west jamb, five stones appear present at least in part and all but the fourth are set BVFIA. In the east jamb, the fourth stone is BH and all others appear to again be placed BVFIA. The Patterned style seen in these jambs is supported when the south-east chancel quoin is examined. In this quoin the first eight stones only appear to be original. They are of Southerndown Stone and difficult to read, with only stones 4 (BVFL), 5 (BVFR), and 6 (BVFR), clearly displaying orientated bedding. Stones above eight are apparently set BH and of more recent structure.

The south nave (arcade) and chancel wall thicknesses (respectively 0.87m. and 0.89m.), are compatible with a Patterned period construction although in each case only a limited amount of original walling remains. The east nave floor has apparently been lowered for the squints, built shortly after the present arcades, are perhaps nearly as much as 0.4m. too high to be of standard use, and two steps now rise up to the chancel (Figure 4.41). The central tower reveals evidence of significant modifications, with traces of its early quoins just visible beneath thick internal plaster on its east wall (Figure 4.38); the string course below the lowest roof line presumably being a 13th C. addition. The tower arches, their supporting columns and their capitals all show details of change and replacement: Dundry Stone replacing local Liassic, Sutton Stone conglomerate in the instance of the more ornamental stonework. MEIRIONNYDD (MERIONETH) 4.10 Tywyn (Towyn), St Cadfan (SH 588 009) Regarded as the site of an early Clas church, St Cadfan has been considered by some to have its origin in the 6th C. (see church guide). The church was itemized in the Norwich valuation lists of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 196). Certainly the nave possesses early characteristics although the remainder of the cruciform structure was largely rebuilt in 1884. The church has been described or referred to by the following authors: Pennant (1784, 102-103); Lewis (1845b, 399400); Glynne, who visited the church in August 1839 (1901, 141); RCAHMW (1921, 170-175); Crossley and Ridgway (1945, 182); Radford (1962, 22); Soulsby (1983, 259261); Soden (1984, 108); Davidson (2001, 368-370, 374); Eisel (2005, 315-316); Palmer (2007); WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 7078); and Haslam et al. (2009, 718-720); whilst its interesting inscribed stones have been discussed by Westwood and Williams (1850, 90-100); Nash-Williams (1950, 172); Bowen and Greshan (1967, 275); Gresham (1968, 164-193); and others. In general, the earlier walls of the church are built of volcanic rhyolites, rhyolitic tuffs and ignimbrites, often levelled with local shaley-siltstones; while the Victorian walls are more predominantly igneous basalts, andesites and dolerites, with sedimentary rocks present more rarely. All these rock types occur in the local Ordovician succession. Victorian dressings are completed in a yellowish, fine sandstone from very much more distant, probably Carboniferous sources. Remarkably the church (Figure 4.42) has many of the characteristics closely similar to English Anglo-Saxon cruciform churches such as Hadstock, Essex (TL 558 447) and Stow, Lincolnshire (SL 882 819). A further similarity is that a great number of English churches (such as St Peter, Bywell, Northumberland {NZ 049 614}) characteristically possess Norman arcades with Anglo-Saxon single-splayed windows in the older clerestory walls which are supported by the arcades. The plain circular pillars all authors accept are of 12th C. date. But why the round headed windows with 219

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.42 Part of the south porch, the nave and the south aisle of St Cadfan, Tywyn, Merionethshire (SH 588 009). Note the four equally spaced clerestory windows.

Figure 4.43 The clerestory windows in the north wall of St Cadfan as seen from the inside of the church. The north wall is noticeably thinner than the Norman pillars in the arcade supporting the wall. 220

Chapter Four

Figure 4.44 The same north clerestory windows seen in Figure 4.43 but from the outside. All the windows have been modified. An earlier lean-to aisle roof was slightly higher.

Figure 4.45 This early painting executed prior to 1881 and the removal of the St Cadfan Church west tower, hangs inside the church. Although rather dirty inside its glass frame, it shows four clerestory windows on the south wall of the church as they exist today. 221

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.46 The reconstructed west wall of the nave of St Cadfan. The nave quoins where they meet the aisles are evident.

Figure 4.47 The south-west Romanesque column in the arcade at St Cadfan viewed from the north is said to show the beginnings of an arch ‘springer’. It noticeably rises from the western edge of the column and the author presents evidence that it could not have served such a role. 222

Chapter Four

Figure 4.48 The tower and the stair turret of St Cadfan church as seen from the south-east. Both built in the late Victorian period they are intentionally constructed of contrasting stone type and colour. the deep splays in the clerestory should also be referred to this date is not clear (Figure 4.43). Each of the windows has been modified over time in its external setting (Figure 4.44), but the equality and position of spacing is typically Anglo-Saxon (Patterned) in style. There are unfortunately no original window jambs present to confirm such an origin. Although the 12th C. pillars are approximately one metre in diameter, the nave/clerestory walls above the pillars are noticeably much thinner (by some 0.2m.) and more representative of earlier walling (Figure 4.43). The recognised more recent history of the alterations and development of the church is typically presented as follows: ‘In 1693 the original central low tower collapsed and it was not until 1736 that another tower was built, this time over the west bay of the nave. This was removed during the extensive….restoration of the church in 1881-1884 and a new central tower built.’ (WHCP, Gwynedd) At the time of the demolition of the west tower it has been suggested that the western bay of both of the nave and aisles was removed. Figure 4.45 shows a painting of the church from the west illustrating the west tower (i.e. prior to its demolition). The photograph of the painting clearly

shows that the west tower was narrower than the nave and that the four clerestory windows were almost identically placed and spaced in relation to the nave quoins as they are today. A photograph taken about the same time also shows this relationship. This can only mean that there was no additional fourth west bay to the nave and aisles at the time when the west tower was built. Rather, the evidence from the photograph would suggest that the 1736 tower, narrower than the nave, was attached to the west end of the nave. The west wall of the nave was certainly rebuilt during the church restoration, and no trace of the west tower is now apparent. The west nave wall quoins although rebuilt are still partially represented (Figure 4.46). A batter constructed (in 1881-1884) below a ledge (at about 2.5m.) which runs across the west wall of the nave (Figure 4.46) re-uses early Patterned period stonework some of which was probably from the original nave quoins (as illustrated in Figure 2.7). These quoin stones now incorporated in the batter are orientated as follows: South-west batter quoin; stone 1, stone type and orientation uncertain; 2, probably BH, ignimbrite; 3, BVFR, ignimbrite; 4, probably BH, quartz-rich rock; 5, BVFL, ignimbrite; 6 and possibly 7, ignimbrites, BH; with higher stones above the ledge uncertain. Between all but one of the successive stones small levelling pieces of siltstone had been inserted to assist in the re-building. 223

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology MONMOUTHSHIRE

North-west batter quoin; stone 1, BH; 2, BH; 3, BVFR; 4, BVFL; 5 to 8, BH, to ledge, and BH stones where readable above. All rocks were of rhyolitic or ignimbrite material and again fillets of siltstone existed between nearly all stones.

No churches listed MONTGOMERYSHIRE

These two re-built quoins appear to show evidence of having been once part of a Patterned period structure – the nave.

4.11 Llandrinio, Sts Trinio, Peter and Paul (SJ 295 171)

Typically, arguments are made for the 1736 west tower to have been built over or within an additional west nave bay. The two Romanesque columns at the west end of the north and south arcades are currently differently adjoined to the west nave wall. They are not detached (see Davidson, 2001, 374). In both instances the wall between the column and the west wall must have been constructed at the time of the Victorian restoration. The south column interestingly shows the apparent presence of the springer of an arch to its west (Figure 4.47). It is principally this springer that has led other authors to interpret the existence of a further western nave bay. The ‘springer’, unlike all others in the church, would appear to rise from a position close to the edge of the column. Evidence for the same ‘springer’ is absent from the south side of the same column and there is no comparable structure on the corresponding northern column. With the late Victorian photograph (and Figure 4.45) showing that the west tower was about the same width as the nave without the additional Romanesque aisles, this west tower’s north and south walls are unlikely to have been built upon arcaded walls for there were no aisles. In turn, it becomes difficult to explain the feature shown in Figure 4.47 as a springer to an arch.

The early history of this church is regarded as complex and its complexities according to different authors have been briefly reviewed by WHCP (Clwyd-Pows, PRN 7570, PRN 6418). The earliest workmanship has been regarded as Norman. Contributing to these views the works of Lewis (1845a, 537); Glynne (1885, 40-41); Thomas (1894; 1913, 153); Haslam (1979, 123); Salter (1991, 14); and Silvester (1992, 78) should be mentioned. The church (Figure 4.49) is recorded in the 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 469) and 1291 taxation records. A gallery and porch were added in 1729 when possibly the rood loft was removed (WHCP, Clwyd-Powys). Together with other restorations, a new bell-tower was constructed in 1859 and further alterations were completed at intervals throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Rock types used in the church fabric include igneous dolerite and gabbro, Devonian Old Red Sandstone, some Silurian sandstones, and in dressings Upper Carboniferous sandstone; all of these rock types being exposed within reasonably close distance from the church. From a rather more distant source, and therefore, probably of more modern use, Carboniferous Limestone and, of course, the roofing slate are also present. Remnant render cover occurs on all main external walls.

Both of the north and south lean-to aisles have been reroofed at some time in the past and it should be noted that the earliest roof on either side was established as high as the earlier windows would permit (Figure 4.44). In the north aisle the more recent roofing support took the form of arched flying buttresses and the westernmost one of these is placed against the west aisle wall giving an impression that a further bay had originally occurred to the west. On the exterior of the west wall it can be seen, however, that this arched structure gave support to the head of a long blocked, west doorway to the aisle.

It proved impossible to obtain entry to this church and the detail offered here has only been related to the exterior of the building. The west wall was built in 1829 of coarse sandstone in a well-coursed style and to this the 19th C. buttresses have been added more recently. Centrally in this wall is a blocked slit window, which appears to have been reset (?upside-down) (Figure 4.50). The east wall is much as described by (WHCP, Clwyd-Powys) and it is mainly of igneous rock. It has in addition, Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone (used in repair?) in the lower part of the wall. There is also Old Red Sandstone around the window (which may represent in part earlier window structure) and some New Red Sandstone (Triassic) replacements within the window frame. The diagonal corner buttresses are of Victorian build in Carboniferous Limestone but capped in Carboniferous sandstone.

Where they had not been subsequently repaired both the 12th C. aisles were built of a mixture of lumps of rhyolitic and basaltic/andesitic darker coloured lavas with some shaleysiltstone levelling blocks. It is possible that the lighter coloured rhyolites represented re-used material from the earlier nave, as for example, from the original arcade arches. Those parts of the church to the east of the nave were almost entirely rebuilt during the late Victorian restorations - and in them the darker basaltic/andesitic lava blocks prevail. In the north transept siltstones are more evident. The stair turret, built in 1884 possibly two years after the tower, has been constructed to contrast with the tower in darker, fine and medium grained, igneous rocks (Figure 4.48). The south porch (see Figure 4.41), built about 1920, as a war memorial, is constructed of dolerite.

The north wall provides the greatest amount of information. The north-west quoin is mainly built in stones set BH. The lowest three stones emplaced at the time of the building of the west wall are of coarse sandstone rising to a chamfered ledge which continues across the west wall. Stones above are emplaced: 4, BVFR; 5, BVFL; all higher stones BH. They are all probably of Old Red Sandstone but not from the same source as that in the Norman arcade immediately to the east. This visible arch, which leans towards the west (Figure 4.51), appears to be built with all stones set BH. The west side of the arch is clearly a respond suggesting 224

Chapter Four

Figure 4.49 A general view of the church of Sts Trinio, Peter and Paul, Llandrinio, Montgomeryshire (SJ 295 171) as seen from the north-west.

Figure 4.50 Central to the rebuilt (in 1829) west wall of Llandrinio Church is the trace of this slit window. The original jamb stones appear to have been lost and the sill and lintel stones possibly reversed.

225

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.51 Detail of the Norman arcade arch as it appears at the west end of the north wall of Llandrinio Church. The wall in which the arch is constructed is obviously pre-Norman.

Figure 4.52 Viewed from the north-west, towards the east end of the north nave and chancel walls of Llandrinio Church, the chancel wall is off-set to the north. Its quoin shows Patterned characteristics. 226

Chapter Four

Figure 4.53 Three interesting features displayed on the north chancel wall of Llandrinio Church: from right to left, a piscina, a possible corbel and a round-headed slit window; none of which can be dated, because of modifications, with certainty.

Figure 4.54 In the south wall of Llandrinio Church nave a Victorian, Carboniferous Sandstone window now replaces the upper part of an infilled doorway. The remaining jamb stones are all set BH and a number were once used for knife sharpening. 227

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology that the aisle did not extend beyond the west nave wall. The arch has been infilled with dolerite blocks. To the east of the arch the early walling may have been completely removed together with the Norman aisle as far as the chancel (WHCP suggest possibly in the 15th C.). The wall is rebuilt in squared blocks of Old Red Sandstone, rising (above about 1.75m.) mainly to more irregular lumps of igneous rock, except surrounding the Carboniferous sandstone Victorian windows where Old Red Sandstone settings occur. The chancel quoin (Figure 4.52) is set out from the nave and is constructed in Old Red Sandstone blocks many of which are set in Patterned style. The quoin stones rise: BH (diagonal), BH, BVFR,?BVFR, BVFR, BVFR, BH, BVFR, ?BH (a yellowish stone), ?not determined but appears tied into nave, BVFL, and others too high to assess orientations. Stones 1 to 8 could well be of Patterned period insertion. The lowest 2m. approximately of the chancel wall to the east of the quoin is of Carboniferous Limestone, above this it is of igneous blocks. The wall has three features of interest (Figure 4.53). A piscina, constructed in Carboniferous sandstone: this has been described by WHCP, but they offered no period of possible construction or for the projecting corbel of dolerite to its east. Their presence probably persuaded Thomas (1894, 181) that a chantry chapel replaced the Norman aisle over this stretch of wall. Further east, an unchamfered window in Old Red Sandstone with jamb stones BH appears to be Norman, although the sill has been replaced with a length of dolerite. The south wall shows no evidence of Patterned workmanship. The south-west quoin, in which one stone has been used for knife sharpening, has all stones placed BH. The two buttresses, one rebuilt, are of dolerite. The Norman door in the porch proved inaccessible and the windows are Victorian and of more recent date. Of interest are the jambs of an Old Red Sandstone doorway (possibly reset and infilled with the same sandstone) below the third window from the east end (Figure 4.54), in which the jamb stones are all BH (and in which some stones exhibit the effects of knife sharpening). The south-east nave quoin is visible where the chancel is slightly variably inset. The quoin appears to have been modified, all but one (?) of the quoin stones seem to be placed BH and several stones are thought to be tied to the opposing wall. Both nave and chancel have suffered movement at this juncture and lean out. In summary, the north wall chancel north-west quoin appears to show Patterned characteristics despite the fact that the same chancel wall includes a probable Norman window. The north-west nave quoin may contain two lower stones from this period. PEMBROKESHIRE 4.12 Begelly, St Mary (SN 118 074) Begelly Church was repaired in 1845 and more extensively restored in 1886 (WHCP, Dyfed). The earliest known record of this church relates to the Taxatio of 1291 (Green, 1910-1911, 241-244) and no evidence has been presented for the church having a pre-Conquest existence (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 3641).

The church was described by Lewis (1845a, 79, under the name Bugeli) and Glynne (1886, 68-69) provided an account of the church as seen when he visited the site in 1847. Rees (1932) indicated that in the 14th C. the church advowson belonged to the Lord of the Manor. The church was also referred to by Owen (1906, 308); and Salter (1994, 47). The church stands within a relatively large area of Pembrokeshire where the exposed rocks are of Upper Carboniferous, Coal Measures age, and rocks, mainly sandstones, from these deposits are used extensively in the church fabric. Carboniferous Limestone is also utilized as a replacement stone and for the same purpose within quoins. The slightly tapering, characteristic Pembrokeshire tower (Figure 4.55) has been described as of ‘mid-late 16th century’ date (WHCP, Dyfed) and its quoins have sandstone blocks placed partly in side-alternate style (with BH stones absent except where replaced), typical of the 1550-1650 ‘Alternate’ style of workmanship in Wales. Carboniferous Limestone blocks have been used for repair purposes and these are particularly evident high in each quoin, where most have been set BH. A string course set 1 to 1.5m. from the base of the tower is built of mixed sandstone and limestone blocks and below it the tower walls have a batter constructed mainly of Carboniferous Limestone, indicative of a fairly recent (possibly Victorian) origin. The nave and chancel stonework styles differ slightly, with the chancel having probably been rebuilt the more recently. Beneath the nave north wall a few sandstone foundation blocks are visible but no early nave or chancel quoins are clearly revealed. The various openings, past and present, have been described by others (RCHAMW, 1925, 16; WHCP, Dyfed; Lloyd, et al., 2004, 128). The church vestry, previously the south porch, does, however, provide possible evidence of a pre-Romanesque origin to the church. Although the porch has been extensively rebuilt (in 1886) and the original entrance blocked prior to the installation of a window; the original doorway (Figure 4.56) preserves two large sandstones to north and south and, the stones in each jamb are clearly both set BVFIA and BH, very much in Anglo-Saxon ‘Escomb style’. The suspicion must be that these once served as part of the original south nave doorway, re-used at the time when this was replaced. (WHCP, Dyfed) proposed that this was in the 13th C, but it might possibly have been moved earlier. Unfortunately, the priest-in-charge of this church would only permit entry by prior fixed appointment and from a distance this proved difficult to achieve. It is understood that internally, the church is plastered so that the stonework is hidden from view. Laws and Owen (1908) described the building as ‘interesting’ and that it preserved ‘a low squint’. The chancel communicates with a north chapel through an arcade of two arches similar to others in Pembrokeshire (as Martletwy and Llawhaden). The archwork has been dated to mid-14th C. style (WHCP, Dyfed). The round pillar upon which the arches rest could well be 12th C, although much would depend on the respective dimensions of the pillar’s diameter and the thickness of the supported wall. 228

Chapter Four

Figure 4.55 The typical tapering tall Pembrokeshire style tower of St Mary, Begelly (SN 118 074) which has many of its lower quoin stones set in ‘Alternate’ style of the period of around 1600.

Figure 4.56 The south porch (now vestry) of Begelly Church shows the presence of a one-time doorway in which the lower two jamb stones, to west and east, are placed with their bedding orientation BVFIA, BH in Patterned style. It is suggested that the doorway was re-used from the south nave wall. 229

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 4.13 Gumfreston, St Lawrence (SN 109 011) The Taxatio of 1291 provides the earliest church record (Green {1910-1911, 305-307}; RCHAMW {1925, 102, footnote}; WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 3687). Gumfreston Church (Figure 4.57) was described also by Lewis (1845a, 385); Jones (1849b, 194-197); Barnwell (1881, 160); Glynne (1886, 59-60); Owen (1906, 309); Laws and Owen (1908); Vaughan (1938, 297); Thomas (1964, 28); Salter (1994, 52); Scourfield (2002, 588-591); and Treharne (2006, 210-212). Reference to the church name was made by Willis-Bund (1893, 198) and Rees (1932) indicated that the church advowson belonged to the Lord of the Manor during the 14th C. The narrow chancel arch which possesses simple but damaged, through stone, square imposts, has attracted considerable interest (Figure 4.58). It is set in a wall 0.80m. thick and the arch spans a width of 1.48m. Unfortunately, its stonework details are hidden by thick plaster. It has been variously dated, but typically as ‘probably’12th C. (WHCP, Dyfed) or ‘possibly’ 13th C. (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 198-9). The visible detail could equally provide a pre-Romanesque date. Both a well and a stream are present close to the south of the church and the churchyard was probably originally sub-circular. The principal church building stones are of local origin, mainly of Carboniferous Limestone, but also sandstone (some of which is fine grained and from higher in the Carboniferous succession) and some Devonian sandstones. The church was repaired in 1867-9 when the flying buttresses were added to the leaning south nave wall.

The north transept which carries the tower (Figure 4.57) is considered to be 14th C. and the small south chapel to the chancel 16th C (WHCP, Dyfed). The east wall of the chancel and its north-east quoin appear to have been rebuilt. The nave, however, possibly preserves the earliest features. Both west quoins are constructed of Carboniferous Limestone with their stones set BH, an indication of 12th-13th C. or later, and there are signs that the top of the western end of the north wall has been rebuilt. In the area of the south-west nave quoin the walls have been battered, probably at the time when the flying buttresses were added. The central flying buttress partially covers an earlier round, voussoir headed, south door (Figure 4.59) which is probably of 13th C. date, in which the jambs were regrettably not visible. A vaulted west porch exhibits a number of archaeological features detailing a 14th C. date (WHCP, Dyfed). It covers the west door of the nave and this doorway has certain ‘Patterned’ characteristics (Figure 4.60). Brief inspection of the doorway indicates a number of 13th C. features and it has a pointed arch created of just two stones. These two stones fail to ‘sit’ precisely onto the jambs. As at Begelly, the jambs are, however, revealing and it should be noted that the south jamb has not been chamfered as has one stone in the north jamb. Despite being heavily cement rendered the pattern of the jamb stones (of Carboniferous sandstone) may be observed to be set in ‘Escomb style’. The three south jamb stones have been emplaced BVFIA, BH, BVFIA whilst the north jamb stones rise; orientation

Figure 4.57 The church of St Lawrence, Gumfreston, Pembrokeshire (SN 109 011) as seen from the south-east.

230

Chapter Four

Figure 4.58 Thanks to the thick plaster cover this early chancel arch at Gumfreston is difficult to date.

Figure 4.59 The early infilled south nave doorway at Gumfreston unfortunately possesses no readable jamb stones, furthermore it is covered in part by a flying buttress (and seen to the left of this buttress).

231

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.60 The jamb stones in the west doorway of Gumfreston Church are emplaced in Patterned style. The two stones making the pointed arch are clearly set to 13th C. style, but they probably replace the original arch stones. uncertain, BH, BVFIA, BH. There are suggestions that the jambs may have been cut back in Patterned style but unfortunately pointing runs along the line of cut back in all but the instance of one stone. The west wall of the nave is only 0.78m. thick at the doorway. Within the porch, a small early font serves as a stoup. 4.14 Martletwy, St Marcellus (SN 033 105) The parish name Martletwy is thought to have its origins in the Welsh term ‘merthyr’, Owen, (1897, 294); and (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 3598, PRN 46834). This term equates to ‘martyr’ and more particularly to a martyr’s burial site (Roberts, 1992). An early origin for the church, which is situated also within a nearly circular churchyard, has been suggested as possible. Others referring to the church include Owen (1906, 309); Thomas (1964, 28) and Scourfield (2002, 590). With this background the church is listed here more for its potential than its current stonework characteristics. When the church was first visited (in September, 2010), the author was advised use was to be discontinued at the year’s termination when the building was to be knocked down. Currently, all internal stonework detail is masked by a thick plaster (Figure 4.61); if removed, it is suspected much of the early history of the church will be revealed. WHCP (Dyfed) stated that ‘Traces of a squint and possibly a piscina’ were claimed to be visible on the south side of the chancel arch in 1896.

Some restoration work was completed in 1842 (WHCP, Dyfed). Existing plans reveal that the church was extensively rebuilt both in 1848-50, when both west windows were reconstructed (Figure 4.62). Subsequently more extensive work occurred; particularly in 1897 (see also Morgan, 2005, 41-42). On the last occasion, further windows were added to the north aisle (with in addition the provision of a door), the south porch, and the chancel. It also appears that the north-east quoin of the north aisle was then rebuilt. Additional walling may have been added to the area of the north-west nave quoin at this time (Figure 4.63). The earliest records of the church are dated to 1231 (Green, 1911-1912, 294-296; WHCP, Dyfed). Salter (1994, 63) stated that both nave and chancel were Norman. Romanesque origins for the present building were not noted, however, by Lewis (1845b, 198-199), or either the Royal Commission (RCAHMW, 1925, 218) or Lloyd, et al. (2004, 281); nor were they confirmed by WHCP (Dyfed). The nave-aisle arcade (Figure 4.61) resembles those arcades seen at other Pembrokeshire churches like Llawhaden and Rudbaxton, where the pillar could also be Norman in origin; although at Martletwy the diameter of the pillars is, at 0.91m., virtually the same as the thickness of the wall which it supports. The north-east chancel quoin aligns with the nave, whereas the south-east quoin is inset which, although it has been rebuilt, more closely relates to its probable original 232

Chapter Four

Figure 4.61 When the present author first visited St Marcellus, Martletwy, Pembrokeshire (SN 033 105) in September 2010, this was the view from the nave towards the chancel. Note that the east window and altar are not central to the chancel arch; this being due to the widening of the chancel only to the north.

Figure 4.62 Both west windows were reconstructed at Martletwy Church in 1848-1850. It is interesting that the bell-cote has been built on the west end of the north aisle.

233

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.63 The north-west nave quoin at Martletwy, viewed along the north wall shows some relatively recent modification at its base.

Figure 4.64 The early Martletwy chancel arch viewed from the chancel.

234

Chapter Four

Figure 4.65 The south porch at Martletwy Church proved difficult to date. The large voussoirs have been interpreted as 17th C. and one bears a sun-dial. Few of the jamb stones could be read.

Figure 4.66 In the south wall of the chancel of Martletwy Church this small window was uncovered in the second half of the 19th C. It has certainly been modified at some time in its early history. 235

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.67 The font at Martletwy has been described as ‘late-Norman’ but this can only apply to the bowl. position. The north wall of the chancel has, therefore, at some time been moved to the north. Regrettably, due to more recent modifications it is currently difficult to determine precisely when this might have been done. The most recent possibility would have been at the time of the erection of the north chancel arcade in its present form (for which the 15th C. has been proposed, WHCP, Dyfed). However, the round-headed chancel arch (Figure 4.64) with its imposts is of early style (Thomas, 1964, 28), is also central to the nave wall if not to the chancel, and therefore, it pre-dates the move of the north chancel wall. It seems more probable that the north chancel wall was moved at some earlier stage, possibly to accommodate a narrow Norman style aisle. Unfortunately, the chancel arch stonework is currently covered in thick plaster, if or when that stonework was revealed, the arch could be dated more precisely. The external church walls are constructed of Carboniferous rocks. These are either of limestone or sandstone/ silty sandstone and most commonly the Carboniferous Limestone represents the more recently used rock type. The quoins typically have their stones emplaced BH and all have been rebuilt at some stage: the south-east chancel quoin for instance consists of a mixture of the two principal rock types. The south porch, described as being of 16th or 17th C. date (Lloyd, et al., 2004) possesses an interesting roundarched doorway (Figure 4.65). The existence of at least

two through stones in each jamb, the lack of chamfer, its construction in Carboniferous sandstone, etc, all tend to suggest that it may originally have served as the nave doorway. One of the voussoirs possesses a sundial. The jamb stone orientations could be read very rarely (although two of the larger through stones were placed BVFIA), and it was impossible to confirm the age more precisely. A low window in the south wall of the chancel is not displayed on the 1850 plan, it was presumably uncovered subsequently. This window (Figure 4.66), constructed of sandstone, was described as 16th -17th C. by WHCP (Dyfed). Both jambs contain a BVFIA stone but it has certainly been altered and its original structure remains difficult to date. The coffin lid which is now affixed to the west wall of the chancel had previously blocked this same window (RCHAMW, 1925, 219). The Norman, or more probably early 13th C, font (Figure 4.67) was moved to its present position in the nave at the time of the 1848-50 rebuilding. It is in three parts. The square basin was made from a coarse (?Carboniferous) sandstone and this is probably earlier in age than the Carboniferous Limestone base (said to have been rediscovered in 1897 [Lloyd, et al., 2004, 281]), which in turn pre-dates the pedestal apparently constructed in concrete. There is some evidence from the stonework that the walls throughout the church have been raised by possibly as much as a metre, presumably at times of re-roofing.

236

Chapter Four 4.15 Porth Clew Chapel, St Mary? (SS 020 985) – ruin The chapel (also referred to as Port Clew or Porth Lliw) is situated in the Parish of Lamphey and on the outskirts of Freshwater East. Rees (1932) details the chapel as Porthllu with the possible name of St Mary. Lloyd, et al. (2004, 193) described this ruined site very briefly as the ‘Very ruined and overgrown remains of a small medieval chapel’. Salter (1994, 51) suggested that the chapel was ‘probably 13th C’ and the site has also been described by Ings, et al. (20102011). RCHAMW (1925, 134) provided little more than the internal lateral dimensions, these being recorded as ‘28ft (8.53m.) x 14ft (4.27m.)’. As measured by the present author these were 9.90m. x 4.62m. (4.63m. at the western end). The dedication given here is that provided also by people living locally. The ruin today has lost any exposed visible evidence of its west wall. The three remaining walls are all relatively thin (south, 0.70m.; east, 0.65m.; north, 0.73m.) with the east wall being preserved to the greatest height (Figure 4.68). The chapel walls are built of locally quarried Lower Devonian (Old Red Sandstone), variably micaceous, grey to red sandstones (possibly from what is now represented as a small depression c. 170m. southsouth-west of the ruin). In contrast, in the foundations and up to 0.5m from the ground level internally, the walls are constructed of boulders of grey coarse sandstone and quartzitic conglomerate (Figure 4.69). These rocks were obtained from the Lower Devonian, Freshwater East

Formation (more recently classified as Upper Silurian) and gathered probably from the beach in the vicinity of Trewent Point. The nature of the stone use within the lower portion of the wall is indicative of Patterned workmanship (Potter, 2011c). Unfortunately, little remains of the eastern wall quoins. One stone only is preserved in the north-east quoin; this being a very quartzitic sandstone probably orientated BVFR. At the base of the south-east corner earlier walling projects 0.24m. beyond the south wall (Figure 4.70). At this corner, however, the ground level is considerably higher (by about one metre) outside the church than inside (Figure 4.71), so that this wall rebuilding cannot be related to the earliest stage of the chapel walling. Generally, the walls internally are covered in thick plaster, but sufficient has fallen away at the foot of both the north and south walls to observe that in the lowest course(s) the more readily apparent boulders of sandstone and conglomerate are all set in a face bedded fashion typical of the Patterned style. Apart from the presence of putlog holes, the remaining walls in the ruin rise sufficiently to preserve evidence also of a window in each surviving wall (only the sill being evident in the north wall), a north doorway and an aumbry in the south wall (Figure 4.72). A corbel projects inside the chapel east wall, to the south of the window and within the higher, newer fabric. Wind-blown sand, which has now consolidated, has built up, in particular, on the outside of the south wall.

Figure 4.68 The interior of Porth Clew Chapel, Pembrokeshire (SS 020 985), viewed towards the interior of the east wall. A glacial erratic may be observed to the north side (left) of the chapel. The north doorway is marked by the file and camera case.

237

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.69 The lower stones beside the north doorway to Porth Clew, by their spotted nature clearly exhibit their conglomeratic character.

Figure 4.70 The south-east quoin at Porth Clew Chapel, viewed here from the east, lacks quoin stones but has clearly been rebuilt (the folder is 0.31m. long). 238

Chapter Four

Figure 4.71 Porth Clew has a single window in the south wall, seen here from the outside. Notice the ground level is here up to the base of the window, the wall being partially buried by blown sand.

Figure 4.72 The window in the south wall (Figure 4.71) at Porth Clew, viewed from the inside. Note the east jamb is splayed more than the west. A small square aumbry occurs immediately to the east. 239

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.73 The door revolving pin-hole in the west jamb of the rebuilt portion of the Porth Clew north doorway (see also Figure 4.75).

Figure 4.74 The east window at Porth Clew Chapel seen from the west

240

Chapter Four

Figure 4.75 The north wall and doorway of Porth Clew (seen from the south), at the time of the recent excavations. (Photograph kindly provided by Duncan Schlee and copyright with Dyfed Archaeological Trust). The horizontal staff marks the base of the more recent doorway and rests directly upon the stone with the pin-hole; the width of this doorway being marked by the vertical staff. Note that the early doorway was much narrower. Just outside the wall the excavation revealed a cist burial subsequently dated AD 530-650 (Schlee, 2009b).

Figure 4.76 In Figure 4.75 the excavation inside the north wall revealed the presence of an early posthole shown more clearly here. This possible relates to the wooden church that pre-dated the foundations seen at Porth Clew. Note the shallow foundations and two face bedded stones. (Photograph copyright Dyfed Archaeological Trust). 241

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Although there are suggestions that the building once possessed a west doorway, the only visible doorway (originally 0.86m. wide) is set in the north wall, with its east jamb internally 5.10m. from the east wall. It retains only a face bedded, conglomerate sill or step, a west jamb (a single boulder of sandstone of uncertain orientation) and a more revealing east jamb of two stones (Figure 4.69); the lowest stone set BVFIA of conglomerate and the upper set BH of coarse sandstone. Subsequently, the doorway was altered, widened (to 1.08m.) and raised; and the later doorway preserves the hole (noted by E. Stock in Laws and Owen, 1908) in which the pin of the door revolved (Figure 4.73). The square aumbry (Figure 4.72) is heavily plastered but has sandstones at its sides set BVFIA. The evidence for an early medieval origin for the lower portion of the chapel’s fabric is, as with so many Welsh churches, limited. However, nothing of the remaining fabric would indicate that it should be dated otherwise. The relatively small east window (internally approximately 0.89m. wide) possesses a round arch created with voussoirs of flaggy sandstone and a flat sill (Figure 4.74), but its jamb stones are no longer present. For this window only an indeterminate date of early 13th C. or before can be suggested. The small rectangular window in the south wall (Figures 4.71 and 4.72) also possesses a flat sill. Its east jamb is splayed more significantly to permit light to fall on the altar, and for this window one might hazard a more recent date. The window in the north wall is placed close to the east wall of the chapel but little is preserved. In the upper flaggy sandstone walls the fabric includes occasional weathered partly calcreted sandstones (again from the Lower Old Red Sandstones) and in the matrix of the walls uncommon pieces of Carboniferous Limestone and rare pieces of igneous dolerite. Although there is no surface evidence, a geophysical survey had shown that the chapel stands in a circular double-ditched enclosure (Schlee, 2009a). Subsequent excavations to the north of the chapel revealed long cist burials, radiocarbon dated to the period AD550 to AD1010 (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 4914, PRN 44001). In the nearest excavation to the chapel the cist burial was aligned at an angle of about 30o to the north wall of the chapel (Figure 4.75; Schlee, 2009b) and was subsequently dated AD 530-650. It seems probable that the earliest stone built chapel on this site, as present in the lower walls, is likely to post-date this burial. There is currently very slight evidence that the early stone chapel may have been preceded by an earlier timber structure, for a post hole was revealed in the recent excavation just inside the north wall (Figure 4.76). The early stone chapel may well have been rebuilt when Lamphey became a favoured residence for the bishops of St Davids in the early 13th C, when probably the earlier walls would have been reduced in height almost to the foundations prior to rebuilding. Possibly, the chapel was then used until the 15th or early 16th C, over much the same period as the neighbouring palace. A glacial erratic boulder, preserving glacial striae, of a very fine-grained rock (Figure 4.68) has recently been placed outside and close to the chapel’s north door (it was discovered in a ditch on the site).

4.16 St Non, Chapel (SM 753 243) - ruin In a field adjoining a holy well of the same name, this ruined chapel has a history that can be traced back to 1335. The single-celled ruin has been described by a number of authors, the earliest of these being Browne Willis (1716) who was citing from an early memorandum of a century prior to this date. Baring Gould (1898, 345) decided that two or possibly three periods of building had in his opinion been involved, and reading his text it is clear that there have been significant alterations since the time of that description. Customarily, the orientation of this chapel is considered to have been north-south, the north equating to the chancel portion of the majority of churches (Figure 4.77). The chapel is neither rectangular; nor are the standing walls of equal or regular thickness. The measurements for the thicknesses of the north and south walls are c. 4.80m. and 4.95m., respectively. The internal measurement between these walls is 10.00m. Three rock types are used abundantly in the chapel walls: i) large boulders of dolerite/micro-gabbro (noticeably, the same igneous material is also used in standing stones in the immediate area); ii) quartz- rich conglomerate (containing jaspers), probably from the local Lower Cambrian, Caerfai Group; and iii) red, micaceous, silty sandstone from higher in the Caerfai Group, frequently used for levelling and used also in the higher levels of some walls. Later additions to the wall are inserts of local, grey, micaceous, fairly flaggy fine sandstone. In the uppermost layers of walls a few pieces of, again local, green-grey micaceous shale have been more recently used. Internal walls of the chapel remain partially plastered. The structure of the west wall is illustrated in Figure 4.78. The lower portion of this wall is clearly internally and externally faced, but the interior is constructed with rubble, this in typical Romanesque (or sometimes later) style. Above, later more flaggy, walling, described by Baring Gould (1898) as ‘medieval’, occurs. The south wall and quoins of the chapel are particularly interesting (Figure 4.79). At its western end the wall consists of three levels of building as the two west wall fabrics are continued over a third and older style. Progressing eastwards along the south wall the intermediate, possibly Romanesque, fabric, disappears to permit the upper flaggy ‘medieval’ walling to overlap onto the lowest and earliest wall. The highest level of walling (at 0.73m. thick) is much thinner than the lowest level (1.33m.) and in this form it continues into the southern portion of the east wall. (The foregoing description tends to oversimplify the wall relationships for it has to be remembered that successive building periods are rarely displayed as distinctive horizontal breaks). There is limited evidence from the above description that the base of the wall at the west end of the chapel might be of pre-Romanesque age. As such, this would appear to only involve only the two lowest courses. These are created from large boulders of diorite and specially selected large blocks of conglomerate. Laws (1888, 378-379) described these as ‘cyclopean’. Many of the conglomerate blocks 242

Chapter Four

Figure 4.77 The inside walls of the ruined chapel of St Non, Pembrokeshire (SM 753 243) are viewed here from the north-east, towards the nave.

Figure 4.78 The west wall of the chapel of St Non illustrates something of part of its structure. Beyond the doorway to the nave, the (typically Romanesque) rubble construction between the external and internal wall facings is visible. 243

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.79 As seen from the south-west, the south end of the nave of St Non is visible. (Had the orientation been standard this would have been in the west). Following the three levels of different stonework from the south-west quoin across the wall, the middle level disappears, to leave only two levels at the south-east quoin.

Figure 4.80 Detail of the south-west quoin at St Non. The lowest stone is of dolerite, the next a thin sandstone (upon which the folder, 0.31m. rests) and the third stone is a quartzitic conglomerate block set BVFL; higher stones can be associated with the ‘Romanesque’, ‘middle’ building phase. 244

Chapter Four

Figure 4.81 The chapel’s south-east quoin, with the nave’s west end wall seen to the left (the folder in the same position as Figure 4.79). The single dolerite at the base is followed by conglomerates. have slickensided surfaces specially selected to offer a flat face to the exterior of the wall. In the south-west quoin (Figure 4.80) the lowest part of the wall is represented by: at the base a very large dolerite boulder placed with its longest axes in the horizontal plane, a thin, micaceous fine sandstone acting as a levelling stone, a similarly large conglomerate block set BVFL with slickensided face. The south-east quoin (Figure 4.81) possesses a similar structure at its base, the conglomerate instead being set BH. The chapel preserves no north-east quoin and at the north-west corner only one stone remains, a conglomerate emplaced BVFR. In summary, the limited evidence from the earlier southern walls of the chapel indicates that the foundations of Patterned walls might be present. Difficulties do, however, exist. It is unusual for masons of this period to utilize two different stone types (in this instance, conglomerate and igneous dolerite) within a wall, and to employ smaller stones of a third type (sandstone) to help to level the larger blocks. In this instance, however, all stone types used in the chapel were probably available from within a distance of less than 200m. One of the stone types used (the dolerite) requires an important note regarding its source. Although, the chapel is built upon an area of Pre-Cambrian, volcanic rocks, the rocks upon which the chapel rests are not of dolerite or similar composition. The nearest occurrence of rocks of doleritic composition is in the region of St David’s Head, some 5km. to the north-west. Examination of rocks in the field boundaries and boulders present in the area of St

Non’s reveals that dolerite boulders remain plentiful. It is clear that these boulders have been transported by ice and are glacially deposited. As in the instance of many early archaeological sites, the situation of an early chapel on this site has probably been influenced by the abundance of readily available building stone. RADNORSHIRE 4.17 Presteign(e), St Andrew (SO 314 646) Close to the River Lugg, which forms the local boundary with England, Presteigne Church was the only church that Taylor and Taylor (1965, 497-499) determined as displaying Anglo-Saxon workmanship in Wales. Even in reaching this conclusion they advised that it was conjectural. The presence of Norman workmanship has been recognised by most if not all authors. When the Royal Commission reviewed the church (RCAHMW, 1913, 136-137) they made no reference to any part of the church being of pre-Conquest origin. Other authors include: Lewis (1845b, 331-332); Davies, E. (1905, 202-206); Crossley and Ridgway (1949); Howse (1949, 248-249, 262); Haslam (1979, 267-270); Soulsby (1983, 219-221); Soden (1984, 15, 138); Salter (1991, 36-37); Parker (2001); and WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 16939, PRN 16307)); the last of these possibly providing the most comprehensive account. WHCP suggested that there were seven different fabric types to be observed in the church walls, six of which were sandstones. Certainly, there are both Silurian and Devonian sandstones present.

245

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.82 St Andrew, Presteigne, Radnorshire (SO 314 646) was the only church in Wales prior to this study which had been regarded as exhibiting evidence of Anglo-Saxon workmanship. This north aisle wall, showing two distinct types of construction had been regarded as being in part of AngloSaxon character. The wall shows evidence of two early blocked windows.

Figure 4.83 The jambs and arching stone of the infilled eastern window in the north aisle wall of Presteigne Church. These stones are of travertine and the window might originally have been Anglo-Saxon or Norman in age. Tentatively, the western jamb stones (right side) of this window might be orientated BVFIA, BH, BVFIA which would, if correctly identified, make the window Anglo-Saxon. 246

Chapter Four

Figure 4.84 The arching stones of the early chancel arch at Presteigne are preserved in travertine on the east wall of the north aisle. From the shape of the arch it is possible to determine the width of the original Anglo-Saxon church.

Figure 4.85 Behind the north aisle altar table the north jamb stones of the early chancel arch at Presteigne can be scrutinised. The lowest four stones can be read BVFIA, BH, BH, BVFIA in Anglo-Saxon pattern. 247

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 4.86 Internal view of the west travertine blocked window in the north aisle of north wall of Presteigne Church.

Figure 4.87 Towards the east end of the north aisle north wall of Presteigne Church there is a complete change in the stonework (as shown here) and the north-east quoin (perhaps a metre further to the left) has been completely rebuilt. 248

Chapter Four

Figure 4.88 The early nave’s western door is still evident on the west wall of the north aisle at Presteigne. It is now constructed of a mixture of stone types and its original age cannot be determined. Externally, its position is covered with a buttress. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 497) argued that the north aisle wall represented the north nave wall of an early church and that internally the chancel arch to this nave could be partially observed, outlined in the nave east wall. Traces of two infilled, round-headed, single-splayed windows are evident in the upper portion of the east end of the north wall of the present north aisle (Figure 4.82). In the west wall of the westward extension of the early north nave area there is a blocked doorway. The two windows and the west doorway were identified by Taylor and Taylor, from their architecture, as being of Norman character. The western end of the early nave was suggested as having been extended in Norman times. Externally, the lower and upper portions of the eastern end of the original north nave wall fabric are distinctly unlike (Figure 4.82). The lowest 1.5 to 1.6m. of the wall consists of moderately well coursed, angular lumps of polygenetic conglomerate which contain intraformational pellets, and mixed cobbles and small boulders of Lower and Upper Old Red Sandstone; separated by layers of micaceous flaggy siltstone pieces (possibly from the Brownstones). A sudden change higher takes the wall into larger but similar composition material, where the boulders are often slightly squared but with rather more quartzitic sandstone and Upper Old Red Sandstone quartz-rich conglomerate. The separating layers here contain more river transported flat

pebbles. In this upper wall level the two windows (Figure 4.83), described by the Taylors as Norman, are present (a third was probably replaced at the time of the insertion of one of the sets of much later windows). The stone blocks creating both the windows (externally the west window is more extensively modified) are of travertine. The same material also occurs also in parts of the arch of the west doorway. Unfortunately, travertine, deposited originally as tufa, does not always display distinctive bedding and if it does, its identification requires very close scrutiny. If the orientation of the bedding in the jambs in the windows were possible to read, a Norman jamb stone would be expected to read BH or BVEIA and that in an Anglo-Saxon window, BH or BVFIA. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 497-499), using their extensive experience, concluded that only the lower portion (below about 1.5m.) of the early nave wall was likely to be AngloSaxon; with the upper wall and the travertine structures being early Norman. As already stated, the Taylors then proposed that the west doorway was constructed in a somewhat later Norman extended nave. The arching stones in the early chancel arch are also of travertine (Figure 4.84). Sufficient of the arch is preserved to determine that its width was about 2.46m. and its height about 6m., a shape more indicative of Anglo-Saxon than 249

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Norman build. (The Taylor’s recorded a somewhat wider and squatter shape). Behind the altar table in the north aisle and normally hidden from view, the north jamb of the chancel arch is revealed. The orientations of the lowest four stones can be unmistakably read as: BVFIA, BH, BH, BVFIA (Figure 4.85). This provides sufficient evidence for the present author to confirm an Anglo-Saxon or Patterned origin. Confirmation that the chancel arch was constructed in the Anglo-Saxon period strengthens the possibility that the windows might also be of the same age. Internally, the two north wall windows differ in their state of preservation; that to the west being moderately well preserved (Figure 4.86). It proved impossible, however, to determine the orientation of any of the stones. Externally, the window to the east is the better preserved and there are three travertine blocks in each jamb (Figure 4.83). Tentatively the western jamb stones might be orientated BVFIA, BH, BVFIA but the evidence must remain very doubtful. The inability to distinguish unmistakably the orientation of any of the stones without close hand lens scrutiny and bright light makes it impossible to confirm the Anglo-Saxon or Norman origin to these windows. When any of these stones were first emplaced, bedding orientation, if present, would have been clearly visible (and possibly remained so for perhaps the first century of exposure). It should be stated that in the studies of the London Basin early churches (Potter,

2000), travertine blocks showed evidence of having been worked and used originally by the Romans, and generally first re-used in the Anglo-Saxon period. Additionally, in Welsh Borderland early churches, such as Bredwardine (SO 334 444) and Tedstone Delamere (SO 695 585) where travertine windows occur, their occurrence was considered to be Anglo-Saxon (Potter, 2005). The windows are set into the higher portion of the north wall of the early nave. Taylor and Taylor (1965) regarded the change in style of stonework at 1.5m. as representative of two distinct periods of workmanship, they could equally represent Patterned horizontal wall banding. The north-east quoin of the north aisle might have conveyed some indication of Anglo-Saxon followed by Norman workmanship in its height, or defined the differences or similarity in the wall building period(s) and structure. Unfortunately, it has been completely reconstructed (Figure 4.87). Inside the church, the early nave western door (Figure 4.88) is now only partially of travertine, and some of the stones are additionally of sandstone, and one is a late replacement conglomerate. WREXHAM No churches listed

250

CHAPTER FIVE CHURCHES DISPLAYING POSSIBLE EVIDENCE OF PATTERNED WORKMANSHIP ANGLESEY 5.1 Llanwenllwyfo, old parish church St Gwenllwyfo (SH 485 901) - ruin Although St Gwenllwyfo old church was restored in the 18th C, when all original details were destroyed (RCAHMW, 1937, 114-115), a new church was built to replace it about one kilometre to the south-west in 1856 (Clarke, 1961a, 66). Others, such as, Lewis (1845b, 158); Jones (1859, 170-171); and Baynes (1930, 50-53) referred to the church before that date. With the loss of the roof in 1950 (Haslam et al. 2009, 123) the building is now a shell of low walls (Figure 5.1), although it has clearly been repaired at intervals. The west face is obscured with a pebble dash render and the insides of the walls retain much of their plaster. The church is built mainly of a mixture of local schists and Ordovician silicified conglomerates and sandstones. Much of the conglomerate and sandstone/ quartzite material especially, takes the form of boulders probably gathered from the local sea shore (Figures 2.13 and 5.2) and these are evident in all but the west wall. Slate has been used throughout to level these boulders. The north wall is 0.88m. and the south wall 0.92m. thick.

The single-celled building had opposing doorways in the north and south walls of the nave. The north doorway was blocked at some stage and re-opened as a window. Jamb stones in the south doorway are of schist and conglomerate all set BH in post-Patterned style. In the south wall, a Lower Carboniferous coarse pebbly sandstone, early rectangular cross base, has been placed vertically into the wall (Figure 5.3). The four quoins, although probably less than half their original height, remain with stones as follows: North-east quoin: stone 1, BH (schist); 2, BH (grey schist); 3, ?BVFR (quartzitic conglomerate); 4, BH (brownish Old Red Sandstone); 5, BH (green schist); 6, BH (green schist); 7, ? (quartzite); 8, ? (quartzitic conglomerate): the whole clearly rebuilt with levelling fillets of grey schist/ slate between most quoin stones. South-east quoin: 1, BVFL (conglomerate); 2, BH (Lower Carboniferous quartz conglomerate); 3, BH (Lower Carboniferous quartz conglomerate); 4, BH (green schist); 5,? (quartzitic sandstone boulder); 6, ? (quartzitic pebbly sandstone); 7, BH (Carboniferous quartz conglomerate); 8, BVFL (Carboniferous quartz conglomerate): again rebuilt.

Figure 5.1 The south wall of the ruined church of St Gwenllwyfo, Llanwenllwyfo, Anglesey (SH 485 901).

251

Figure 5.2 In the south wall of St Gwenllwyfo old church boulders such as this have clearly been gathered from the local sea-shore as may be observed by the modern marine borings. A closer view of this same boulder is shown in Figure 2.13.

Figure 5.3 A small early cross base also included in the fabric in the south wall of St Gwenllwyfo old church.

252

Chapter Five North-west quoin: stones 1 to 3; BH (conglomerate); stone 4, BH (green schist); 5, BVFR (conglomeratic sandstone): all rebuilt. South-west quoin: 1, BVFR (brownish Old Red Sandstone); the remainder BH, in turn of; 2, Carboniferous quartz conglomerate; 3, quartzitic sandstone; 4, Carboniferous quartz conglomerate; 5, Carboniferous quartz conglomerate: all rebuilt. The predominance of Lower Carboniferous quartz-rich conglomerates in the quoins in particular (a few blocks also occur in the walls), suggests that these may have made up much of the earlier quoins to the current building’s predecessor The earlier building was probably constructed of many of the same wall boulders, but on that occasion levelling fillets would not have been used to support these boulders. BRECKNOCKSHIRE (BRECONSHIRE) 5.2 Llangenny, St Cen(n)au (St Cenen) SO 240 182 Described as ‘a medieval church extended in the late 15th C’ by WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 15925, PRN 168678); Llangenny Church has also been referred to by Lewis (1845b, 36-37, as Llan-Geneu); Glynne (1886, 280, as Llangenen, when he visited the church in 1864); Poole (1886, 232); Dawson (1909, 146); Haslam (1979, 347348); and Silvester and Dorling (1993). The church was

listed in the 1291 Taxatio, and the churchyard is thought to have originally represented the site of a small curvilinear ‘llan’.The church was restored over the period 1861-64 as revealed in a plan held in Lambeth Palace Library (ICBS 05853). The church (Figure 5.4) is built of a local Old Red Sandstone which is moderately micaceous, the same material being used in the dressings. The principal quoin stones tend to be fairly large but unfortunately the whole church has been given a thin lime-wash within the last two years so that stone bedding orientations and detail are almost completely obscured. The large, full-length, south aisle to the church (now recognised as the nave and chancel) was, as stated, and portrayed by the architectural style of features such as windows, probably added in the 15th C. Despite this, the dimensions of the earlier church of simple nave and narrower chancel remain preserved to the north. A modified and reset, now infilled, window (Figure 5.5), probably removed from the south wall of the earlier church (to act possibly as a light for a rood loft), has been placed in the south aisle wall. This chamfered window preserves a jamb stone set vertically on either side, in each instance capped with a BH impost: the head is cut out of a single BVEIA stone, and the whole window apparently is originally of pre-15th C. (and probably pre-12th C.) date. Within the earlier church (the northern aisle), a squint has been cut on either side of the chancel arch. Their arrangement probably indicates that this church nave had been widened

Figure 5.4 The south elevation of the St Cenau Church, Llangenny, Brecknockshire (SO 240 182) which essentially relates to the newer south aisle to the church. 253

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.5 The small reset Romanesque window now situated on the south wall of the south aisle of St Cenau Church. Note the BVEIA stone settings.

Figure 5.6 The west elevation of Llangenny church shows the older nave on the left (north). Traces are present of two old roof lines probably from an original porch. 254

Chapter Five from a previous nave of limited width to one with relatively narrow aisles. Typically, such narrow aisles were a feature of Norman modification in English churches, to provide a facility for more effective religious processionals. If correct, the original narrow nave would almost certainly have been built in the Patterned period. Preserved on the northern, west gable (Figure 5.6), there are the traces of two roof lines presumably of earlier west porches. The lower and narrower of these would relate well to an original narrow nave (i.e. pre-Norman aisles); the upper, which is capped with a short string course, possibly associated with the wider nave which included the narrow aisles. No trace of a western doorway is currently discernable. CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (EAST) 5.3 Capel Curig, St Julitta (St Juliet) (SH 718 580) An earlier dedication of this small church was to St Curig Lwyd, and until 1848 it formed a chapelry in the parish of Llandegai. References to this church have been made by Lewis (1845a, 154); Hughes and North (1924, 135139); RCAHMW (1956, 105); Clarke (1961b, 26, 29-31); WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 6918, PRN 3757); and Haslam et al. (2009, 311-312). The church was restored in 1837 and

few datable architectural features remain. The building was replaced by a newer church in 1883. The church is built of local, often large blocks of, generally cleaved, Carodocian volcanic rocks, which include rhyolites, andesites and tuffs. The nave and chancel are in one unit and the south chapel (dated to about 1500 by RCAHMW, 1956) is clearly later than the remainder of the church. This may be noted at the position of the chapel’s junction with the south-east chancel quoin where all the chancel quoin cleaved stones are set BH. This chancel quoin, together with those at the north-east and south-west of the early unicelled church are all set BH in face-alternate style and all possibly date from no earlier than the 1550 period (thus, suggesting that the south chapel is somewhat younger than 1500). In contrast, the north-west nave quoin consists of just a few very large cleaved stones (Figure 5.7). The lowest plinth squared stone is BH, with just three stones above, emplaced BVFR, BH (with its west face 2.6m. in length), BVFR. This quoin appears to reflect earlier Patterned workmanship. In the west end of the north nave wall an infilled doorway possesses a cyclopean head (length, 2.46m.) and BH jambs of (face out) cleaved andesitic basalt. The doorway is generally thought to date from the 13th C. and the jamb stone orientations agree with this conclusion.

Figure 5.7 The small, original unicelled portion of St Julitta Church, Capel Curig, Caernarfonshire (SH 718 580) is viewed here from the north-west. The large quoin stones of cleaved volcanic rocks rise above a BH plinth, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BH. They possibly represent evidence of Patterned workmanship. 255

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Various portions of the nave-chancel walls appear to show significant changes in stonework styles. The west wall of the nave reflects this well. The current west doorway is known to have been inserted in 1837 (WHCP, Gwynedd, PRN 6918). Above the doorway the gable has been rebuilt. The two wall corners have already been referred to above as indicating two different periods of construction. The squared plinth beneath the north-west quoin is replaced by wall foundation boulders below the south-west quoin. The building stones in the chancel portion of the original unicelled church are generally smaller than those in the nave portion. The south window in the south chapel has been infilled. CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (CENTRAL) No churches listed CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (WEST) 5.4 Llanengan, St Engan (and St Einion) (SH 294 270) WCHP (Gwynedd, 191-192, PRN 6975) wrote that in this church, ‘…there are no features that pre-date 16th century’. No reference to this church could be found in Lunt (1926). A full description of the church was given by RCAHMW (1965, 43-48). Other descriptions have been provided by Lewis (1845b, 15, as Llan-Eingion); Anon. (1846, 295); Jones (1848, 216-221); Glynne (1900, 312-313); Crossley

(1944,103-107); Hague (1956b, 158); Clarke (1962, 57); and Haslam et al. (2009, 432-433). Pryce (1929, 175) gave related particulars. The church (Figure 5.8) was restored in 1847-1848 (when the church was also known as St Simon) and again in 1937-1938 and 1992-1995. The rock types used in the church are moderately coursed but are very variable and all from local sources. In the south aisle large well-coursed blocks of igneous rocks like dolerite prevail but quartzites are additionally present. Over the height of the tower there are at least three fabric variants. At the lowest level silty sandstones and blocks of porphyritic dolerite occur. Above buttress height elongated boulders predominate and in the top third these give way to hewn elongate blocks of coarse sandstone. All the rock types used are probably of Ordovician age. A significant amount of information about periods of use of different stone types would no doubt be revealed following a detailed analysis of the church stonework. An inscription on the west wall of the tower, above the west doorway, provides an important fixed date for the tower’s erection in 1534 (but see Hemp, 1942, 58-63 and Wade-Evans, 1947, 284-285). This date suggests that the practice of building quoins to an ‘Alternate’ pattern had, in 1534, yet to be adopted at Llanengan, for the quoin stones are continuously emplaced BH throughout the visible portion of each quoin. Because the date occurs in the lowest portion of the tower, where the later buttresses cover the quoins and the tower’s string course, it cannot necessarily, however, be applied to the whole tower.

Figure 5.8 The west side of St Engan Church, Llanengan, Caernarfonshire (SH 294 270) displays in particular the west tower which is believed to have been built in 1534

256

Chapter Five

Figure 5.9 The west face of the north-west nave quoin of Llanengan Church. With the tower to the right and a shallow buttress to the left, the lowest four stones, which are difficult to read, may show a Patterned style.

Figure 5.10 That Llanengan Church original north aisle had been extended to the east prior to the building of the south aisle can be shown by the contact at the original south-east chancel quoin where the south aisle stones have been cut into this quoin. 257

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology The nave clearly pre-dates the tower. At its north-west corner the west face of the lowest four stones of the nave quoin are visible (Figure 5.9), they are unfortunately difficult to read and require cleaning. They revealed the following information and a record that could possibly represent the foundation stone and the lowest stones of a Patterned style quoin: Stone 1, partly behind buttress, very large worked boulder of quartz-veined, fine-grained, quartzite, orientation uncertain; 2, Lower Ordovician, Arenig, slightly micaceous, impure sandstone, BVFR; 3, As 2, BVFR; 4, Uncertain. Higher stones all appear to be set BH and be of coarse sandstone. The lower portion of each of the two eastern chancel quoins reveals limited information. An inscription and other information referred to by the Royal Commission (RCHAMW, 1965, 43) suggest that the church may have been lengthened in the early half of the 16th C. At the northeast corner, the lowest seven stones pre-date the rest of the quoin and stones 2 and 7 are orientated BVFR and BVFL respectively. The seven stones were all possibly obtained from the lowest Ordovician sediments and some apparently re-used from the earlier chancel quoin. This portion of the quoin and the adjoining walls show evidence of rebuilding. The chancel south-east quoin is only partially visible in its contact with the later south aisle for it has been cut into to secure the south aisle’s east wall (Figure 5.10). Those stones remaining are of similar lithology to the stones in the north-east quoin. 5.5 Llaniestyn, St Iestyn (SH 270 337) St Iestyn Church was recorded in the Norwich valuation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 195) where, as noted by WHCP (Gwynedd. 208-209, PRN 7025), it received a particularly high valuation. Descriptions of, or related to, the church are provided by Lewis (1845b, 70); Glynne (1900, 316); Pryce (1929, 177); Crossley (1944, 107); Hague (1956a, 157); Clarke (1962, 63, 65); RCAHMW (1964, 67-68); WHCP (Gwynedd, 208-209); and Haslam et al. (2009, 446). The earliest traceable structures are thought to be the early nave and chancel (Figure 5.11) which RCAHMW (1964) regarded as early 13th C. and WHCP (Gwynedd, 208 ) as late 12th or early 13th C. These authors believe that the chancel was extended to the east in the 13th C. and a south aisle added in the late 15th or early 16th C. The church was restored in 1858. The wall fabric shows courses of variable degrees of quality and stones in certain areas are placed randomly; throughout the fabric, local igneous rocks prevail, typically of microgabbro, dolerite and doleritic and rhyolitic feldspar porphyry. The problems related to determining the age of quoins and similar structures where the rocks available for building purposes are from an igneous domain in which individual rock types reveal no structural orientation are discussed in full in sections 6.22 and 7.2.4. Llaniestyn Church provides a typical example. The nave preserves two early small round-headed and voussoir constructed windows towards its west end. That in the north wall has been repaired and is difficult to date,

that in the south wall (Figure 5.12) has been infilled, but is otherwise unaltered. This south window is not chamfered. It is too high to examine closely but the largest jamb stone on the east side is apparently face bedded (or BVEIA if some fabric orientation was present within the stone) and the window may be of Norman, Romanesque build. If this assessment is correct, the western nave quoins at their base probably preserve earlier stonework. In the southwest quoin such work may be attributed to the lowest four large worked boulders, each of a dark gabbroic feldspar porphyry in which no fabric orientation can be observed. Below these four stones there is a plinth. Stone 1, has its largest face to the right; stone 2, has large faces to left and right but is proportionately thin (looking as if it was BH); Stone 3 again has its largest face to the right; and stone 4, to the left. Higher stones are relatively thin and small. The lowest five large shaped boulders in the north-west quoin present a similar but not identical pattern. Detailed scrutiny of the south-west quoin indicates that thin slate slivers exist between stones two and three, and three and four. The slivers, however, appear to have been inserted with the pointing rather than being present for the purposes of levelling. The quoin is, therefore, probably original. The partial detail of these quoins has been presented here because of the inherent difficulties of interpretation. If the masons in the Patterned period were unable to readily obtain suitable stones with visible structural orientation, such as bedding or cleavage, did they instead select those stones, as elongated boulders, which on insertion into a quoin resembled the standard BVFR-BVFL-BH pattern? In areas of Wales where the suitable rock source for building purposes was locally only one of relatively homogenous igneous rock this certainly does appear to be the case. In such areas, one or two large, and often worked, boulders occur at the base of quoins, or in some occurrences walls. In most instances, they have been re-used or reset but they remain in their first used attitude, that being the easiest to employ. See also geological sketch map of the Lleyn peninsula, Figure 5.13. The north-east quoin to the nave is revealed at a vertical join in the north wall with the later chancel. Stones in this quoin tend to be small and laid in 13th C. style, but heavy pointing and lichen growth prevents any detail being observed. The west doorway to the nave is regarded as of 13th C. date (WHCP, Gwynedd, 208). Its two-centred arch is built of voussoirs of porphyritic rhyolite. It has clearly been constructed into an earlier west wall. The higher portion of this same wall, including the windows, is of a later date. There is a similar south, round-headed, infilled doorway (only 0.77m. wide) with an arch of comparable voussoirs built into the south aisle. It lacks imposts, but is likely to have been rebuilt and been present originally in the south wall of the earlier church (the north aisle). There are a number of large stones present at the foot of the south aisle wall which could likewise have been used from the south wall of the earlier church. 258

Chapter Five

Figure 5.11 The north aisle of St Iestyn, Llaniestyn, Caernarfonshire (SH 270 337) seen here from the north-west is thought to be earlier than the south aisle.

Figure 5.12 On the south side of the north aisle at Llaniestyn this small round-headed window with voussoirs possesses difficult to read jambs – but possibly Romanesque. 259

Figure 5.13 Geological sketch map of the Lleyn Pennisula, West Caernarfonshire. Churches within the area of the map are marked with a star and asterisked in Table 3.1. (This map is partially based on one produced by Cattermole and Romano {1981} and in turn the copyright is initially held by the British Geological Survey).

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

260

Chapter Five CARMARTHENSHIRE 5.6 Bigawdin (Begewdin) Chapel (SN 512 147) – ruin This ruined chapel is situated in the parish of Llanddarog and has been described briefly by Lloyd, et al. (2006, 245) as a ‘medieval well chapel’. Built of quarried, roughly ‘shaped’ blocks of Devonian red sandstone laid in courses of variable thickness (Figure 5.14), these authors suggest a ‘probably 14th C’ date on the appearance of this stonework. It is, however, a style determined by suitable rock availability (Potter, 2009, 155 et seq.) and may be seen in walls of post-Roman through to 17th C. age (although relatively infrequently in Wales). Others referring to the ruin include Tierney (1892, 166-167; 1894, 19-24); RCAHMW (1917, 79); Jones and Morris (1971, 48-57); Salter (194, 26); and WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 638). The earliest visible architectural feature is the west doorway, in which all stones are set BH (Figure 5.15); this would appear to be of 14th C. (or conceivably 13th C.) structure. Although a well is stated as being present, today water issues near the inside of the east wall of the chapel as a spring. A stream also runs parallel to the north wall and into this the spring water discharges.

Tierney made a number of observations which are perhaps worthy of repetition. In 1892 he stated that ‘people call it the Catholic chapel, and no one seems to suppose it has ever been used in post-Reformation times’. In 1894, he provided a number of measurements and indicated that internally the building was 8.5m. x 4.7m. The east window was then identifiably rectangular and a large niche existed on the inside of the east wall. The chapel was plastered internally. It had a west single bell-cote and, a west gallery which is today indicated by once-supporting corbels and a west external doorway now blocked (Figure 5.16). Soil creep has covered the south wall completely and the south-west quoin has been destroyed. The stonework below the east window inside the church has fallen away and has been temporarily repaired. Like so many other Welsh ecclesiastical buildings the evidence from the orientation of stonework from the three remaining quoins proved difficult to decipher. In this instance the lighting is poor as the chapel is in an overgrown wood. The lowest four large stones in the north-west quoin (Figure 5.17) read BH, BH, BH, BVFL; and the large stone at the lowest visible point in the south-east quoin, BVFL. The north-west quoin stones might well be reset for there is

Figure 5.14 The west wall of the ruined Bigawdin Chapel, Carmarthenshire (SN 512 147) from the SSW.

261

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.15 The chamfered west doorway of Bigawdin Chapel seen from the exterior; spring water runs out via the doorway.

Figure 5.16 The interior of the west wall of Bigawdin Chapel showing the west doorway, a possible blocked gallery doorway, relatively modern two-light window and bellcote. 262

Chapter Five

Figure 5.17 The north-west quoin to the Bigawdin Chapel is built in red Devonian sandstone. some evidence of balancing fillets of small stone between the quoin stones. With no further stones readable and no evident breaks or style changes in the quoins present, there remains insufficient visible information to confirm or provide a date for the building from the stonework. The chapel is, however, closely similar to the neighbouring Capel Erbach. 5.7 Capel Erbach (Hirbach) (SN 529 147) – ruin This single-celled chapel (Figure 5.18), which is situated in the parish of Llanarthne, possesses a similarity of form of to that of Bigawdin (see section 5.6), and this resemblance was referred to by Lloyd, et al. (2006, 233). Others describing this site include Tierney (1892, 166-167; 1894, 19-24); RCAHMW (1917, 70-71); Jones and Morris (1971, 48-57); WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 646); and Ings, et al. (2010-2011). Both ruins are now overgrown in woodland and they are less than 2km. apart. Lloyd et al. thought Capel Erbach to be ‘possibly 14th C’ in date and noted the similarity in the double-chamfered west doorways (Figure 5.19). A spring, again like that at Bigawdin, originates within the church, at Erbach the water passing beneath the west wall to join a stream which flows westwards to the south of the chapel. Both chapels occur approximately at the junction of the Devonian, Old Red Sandstone and the overlying escarpment of the Lower Carboniferous and in geomorphological terms would be described as situated on scarp-foot springs.

Tierney (1894, 19-24) gave the internal measurements of the chapel as 11.43m. x 4.88m. Capel Erbach is interesting in that both the east and north walls are built into two faces of a quarry. This quarry appears to be situated in coarse alluvial sediments from the adjoining stream, although consolidated rock types may have been covered since the time of the chapel’s construction. The building stone in the chapel is principally of Carboniferous Limestone with Devonian sandstone mainly used in the dressings. Only the two west quoins are visible at Capel Erbach. The south-west quoin (Figure 5.20), which has at least in part been rebuilt, is constructed of large Devonian sandstone blocks containing pebbly stringers, these are set; BH, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BH, possibly BVFL, possibly BVFR, higher not determined. The second stone, in the largely destroyed, north-west quoin, which is of similar composition, is emplaced BVFR, but others could not be deciphered. These quoins suggest a ‘Patterned’ origin. Internally, the best preserved south and west walls appear to have been rebuilt above about 2m. These walls are externally also of interest. The south wall is built with thin decorative courses of Carboniferous Limestone set into well-squared sandstone blocks (Figure 5.20). Towards the south-west quoin rebuilding causes these distinctive courses to disappear. Such wall patterning (although, for instance, also seen in modern buildings) is a distinctive

263

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.18 Capel Erbach, Carmarthenshire (SN 529 147) has many similarities with Bigawdin Chapel as may be seen from this view of the west wall and doorway.

Figure 5.19 The west wall of Capel Hirbach as seen from the inside and east.

264

Chapter Five

Figure 5.20 The south-west quoin of Capel Hirbach has its stones of Devonian red pebbly sandstone set to the Patterned style. feature of the pre-Romanesque Patterned building style. The west wall fails to show any similar evidence but approximately up to the top of the doorway (i.e. at about 2m.) is built in well coursed and squared blocks of Carboniferous Limestone. The doorway, probably of 14th C. age, appears to have been set into this lower wall. Higher in the wall, smaller stonework completes the gable and includes a window (Figure 5.18). 5.8 Llandawke, St Odoceus (St Margaret Marlos) (SN 283 113) Llandawke Church (Figure 5.21) is set in a circular churchyard and its oldest surviving features are normally regarded as being of 13th C. date (RCAHMW {1917, 7778}; Lloyd, et al. {2006, 243-44}). The tower is said to have been in a ruinous state in 1710, but some restoration occurred in 1882. Other references to the church include those by Lewis (1845a, 501); Treherne (1907); Jones (1915, 401); Yates (1972, 54-55); Yates and Little (1974, 71); Salter (1994, 32-33); Treharne (2006, 97-100); WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 3905, PRN 49264); and Saunders (2010, 5051). Rees (1932) displayed this church, as Llandethawk, as one in which during the 14th C. the advowson was held by the Lord of the Manor. The building stone is from the local Devonian, red and, generally slightly coarser green, sandstones, some of which are pebbly. Most of the

quoin stones throughout the church, with rare, perhaps re-used, exceptions are set BH in 13th C. (or later) style. The two western quoins to the nave, however, display in their lowest stones some evidence that they represent earlier workmanship in Patterned style. In the south-west quoin the red sandstones are placed: uncertain orientation, BVFL, BH, uncertain, BVFL, probably BH, BVFR (greygreen sandstone); these are followed with stones all of which are set BH. Stones in the north-west quoin are, in general, later, with many of the stones set BH, hammered and displaying worked (often described as ‘rusticated’) edges. Stones 2, 4 and 5 are grey-green sandstones. They may be re-used, for 2 and 4 are placed BVFL and 5, with quartz veining is set with its bedding orientation diagonal. In the south wall of the nave the doorway is of three different stone types, it is chamfered and architecturally would appear to be 13th C. in style. The chancel has a slight weep to the south. The heavily plastered wall carrying the chancel arch includes evidence of both rood stairs and the support for a rood screen (Figure 5.22): these have been described by others. The arch itself is circular-headed and early, but no stonework is visible to assess its date of construction. Impressions of wall fabric changes in the plaster (seen on the west face) tend to suggest the wall has been rebuilt above the head of the arch. A stone, inscribed both in Latin and Ogham, is preserved in the church (Figure 5.23). 265

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.21 St Odoceus Church, Llandawke, Carmarthenshire (SN 283 113) is shown here from the south-east.

Figure 5.22 The chancel arch and part of the rood screen stairs at Llandawke Church seen from the chancel.

266

Chapter Five

Figure 5.23 Preserved in Llandawke Church is this stone inscribed in both Latin and Ogham.

5.9 Llandeilo Abercywyn, St Teilo (SN 308 131) – ruin This neglected single-celled church (Figure 5.24) is thought to have served past pilgrims in their passage to St Davids. It is built within a sub-circular churchyard (Lloyd, et al., 2006, 254-55). The earliest record appears to relate to a building on the site of around 1270 (RCAHMW, 1917, 83); but WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 2160) make reference to a 12th C. citation which may relate to this site. Others commenting on the church include Lewis (1845a, 522); Davies (1907, 216-223); Jones (1915a, 327 and 329); Eyre-Evans (1919b, 63); Salter (1994, 33); and Ings, et al. (2010-2011). The church walls are built of local Ordovician flaggy sandstone and these sometimes preserve original ripple-mark structures seen well in the ‘Alternate’ style quoins of the late 16th C. – 17th C. chancel extension (Figure 5. 25). The extent of this chancel lengthening (of about 4.5m.) can be observed in both the north (Figure 5.26) and south walls from joins with the original walls. It is possible that the two eastern quoins have been rebuilt since about 1600 for thin levelling stones are present between all quoin blocks. In the west wall, in keeping with the 13th C. west door, the quoin stones are set BH but for a few later Devonian green sandstone replacement blocks. The earlier church on the site is represented by the lowest 2m. of the western end of the north wall which is made up of mixed boulders, mainly of green, grey and red sandstones and occasional fine conglomerates (Figure

5.27). This fabric is overlain by a layer of flags and then by material which contains very few boulders, this upper wall portion clearly predating the late 16th C. east extension. There is a similar, but less obvious, lower boulder area at the base of the opposing southern nave wall. As the higher nave north and south walls appear to be identical in fabric structure to the 13th C. west wall there is a high probability that the lower boulder areas are of pre-Romanesque age. 5.10 Llanllwch, St Mary (SN 385 187) Rebuilding and restoration of Llanllwch Church (Figure 5.28) is known to have occurred shortly after 1710 when the nave was rebuilt. Further renovation occurred in 182729, and again in 1869-70 when the Victorian north aisle was added. References regarding this church include; Jones (1915b, 400-401); RCAHMW (1917, 260); Yates (1972, 49-62); Salter (1994, 39); Treharne (2006, 18-21); and WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 5241). The 15th C. tower (Yates and Little, 1974. 73) (Figure 5.29) possesses a fairly recently added (?Victorian) batter below its string course (which occurs at about 2.5m.). Lower Palaeozoic, probably Lower Ordovician, fine-grained sandstones were used in most of the structures erected. In the three visible nave quoins the stone differs in being more massive and quartzitic, and of coarser and more angular grains, although still grey and of Lower Ordovician origin. The lower portion of each of these three quoins may be of ‘Patterned’ character. The south-west quoin stones (Figure 5.30) are placed:

267

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.24 The ruined St Teilo, Llandeilo Abercywyn. Carmarthenshire (SN 308 131) viewed from the south-west.

Figure 5.25 The chancel of St Teilo Church would appear to have been extended in the late 16th or early 17th C. The south-east chancel shows ‘Alternate’ style quoin stones displaying excellent fossil ripple marks indicative of their vertical emplacement. 268

Chapter Five

Figure 5.26 The junction between the earlier chancel of St Teilo Church and its easterly extension is here observed in the north wall.

Figure 5.27 The nave north wall of St Teilo viewed from the north-west displays a wall constructed with boulders at its base. These could well be of part of the fabric of a Patterned church.

269

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.28 St Mary, Llanllwch, Carmarthenshire (SN 385 187) is observed here from the west. The north aisle was added in 1869-1870.

Figure 5.29 The north jamb to the west doorway of the tower of Llanllwch Church to show the relatively recently added batter.

270

Chapter Five

Figure 5.30 The south-west nave quoin of Llanllwch Church in which the stones rise in the quoin: BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, either in Patterned or ‘Alternate’ style. Higher stones are placed in later side-alternate format.

BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR with all higher stones replaced. Of these quoin stones the third (BVFR) is of replaced Devonian, red sandstone. In itself, this portion of the quoin could well be interpreted as of typical post c. 1550 ‘Alternate’ style execution. At course levels adjoining quoin stones 5 and 8, however, on the west wall of the nave, the courses of stone tend to be placed in face-bedded and of Patterned style. The north-west quoin protrudes slightly beyond the west wall of the north aisle and its lower stones were clearly disturbed when this was built and evidence for its originality is weak. Stones are now emplaced: Uncertain, BV (direction uncertain), BVFR, possibly BVFR, replacement tie for aisle stone, BVFR, BH (possibly replaced). Higher stonework is later and generally of different origin to the coarse-grained quoin stones below. Only a trace of the north-east quoin is apparent and just four distinctive coarse-grained stones are visible of which two are probably laid BVFR. 5.11 St Clears, St Mary Magdalene (SN 281 156) The history of St Clears Church is unique, for following its foundation (stated as being c. 1100, Lloyd, et al., 2006, 372-73), it was granted to the Cluniac Priory in Paris about the mid-12th C. The church (Figure 5.31) is recognised for the preservation of its chancel arch described as ‘the most significant piece of Norman architecture in the county’

(Lloyd, et al., 2006). On the 14th C. map prepared by Rees (1932) the church is named St Clare. References relating to the church include; Lewis (1845a, 248); Glynne (1898, 364-365; who visited the church in October 1845); Lhwyd (1911, 52-62 {with reference to the early 18th C}); Jones (1915a); RCAHMW (1917, 238-240); Eyre-Evans (19181919, 43-44; 1919a, 67); Lloyd (1935, 344-345, 353); Yates and Little (1974, 74); Soulsby (1983, 237-238); Soden (1984, 78); Evans (1991); Salter (1994, 44); Benson (1999); Treharne (2006, 88-93); and WHCP (Dyfedd, PRN 3880, PRN 49317). The nave of the church was restored in 1853-55 and the chancel in 1883-84. The building stones utilized in the church were obtained from both Devonian and Carboniferous (particularly sandstone) horizons and the buildings exhibit a complex history of building and repairs. The nave north and south walls have both been thickened by providing an unequal and remarkable batter to each (Figure 5.32), that in the south wall being as much as 0.3m. thicker. The walls must have gradually splayed with the weight of the roof until this collapsed in 1680-81. The batter was added post this date and apparently in Victorian times to provide additional support for a new roof, for when the church was visited by Glynne (1898, 364-365) in October 1845, the walls were described as leaning outwards.

271

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.31 St Mary Magdalene, St Clears, Carmarthenshire (SN 281 156) as seen from the south-west.

Figure 5.32 The thick Victorian batter applied to the north wall of St Clears Church as seen from the north-west nave quoin.

272

Chapter Five

Figure 5.33 This relatively wide doorway (1.79m.) in the south wall of St Clears includes BVFIA stones but has been moved and extensively modified as may be seen from the arch.

Figure 5.34 The jamb stones in this second nave doorway in the south wall of St Clears could not be read (length of folder 0.31m.). 273

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.35 Certain jamb stones of the west tower doorway of St Clears show BVEIA stone orientations suggesting that they are probably re-used from an earlier Romanesque west nave doorway. Two aspects of the church stonework provide suggestions of an origin to the church of prior to 1100. In the south nave wall two, one-time doorways have been both infilled and subsequently partially cut into by later windows. The external width of the more central doorway (at 1.79m.) would typically be too wide to support a pre-Romanesque age (Figure 5.33). The jambs are difficult to read because of render cover but the east jamb is the better preserved and exhibits stones placed: BVFIA (of Carboniferous Limestone), BH (probably render upon Carboniferous Limestone), orientation uncertain (probably Carboniferous Limestone), BVFIA (Carboniferous Limestone), impost stone, BH, cut to commence arch (of Carboniferous sandstone). Only the lowest stone in the west jamb is preserved and this appears to be emplaced BVFIA but is of Carboniferous sandstone. It seems likely that the stones may in part originally have served in the jambs of a Patterned doorway, possibly even in a different position. The stones were used to build this doorway which was then subsequently blocked. The second blocked doorway (Figure 5.34) occurs below the window further to the west in this south nave wall.

that the west doorway to the tower (Figure 5.35) has a flat circular arch with jambs containing stones set BVEIA and BH in typical Norman style (some of the stones again being replaced), and it would seem possible that the jamb stones once served in a west doorway to the nave.

The south-west nave quoin may be considered to preserve an element of Patterned stonework in its lowest stones. They may be described as: BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR (but of a replacement Devonian, green, micaceous sandstone), BH, with all higher stones uncertain but possibly BH. In this instance, there again remains evidence of rebuilding for between two pairs of the four lowest stones thin infilling levelling stones have been inserted. It is of interest to note

5.12 Llanelian-yn-Rhos, St Elian (SH 864 764)

The tower exhibits a number of stages of (re)building; these are partially displayed in the western quoins. A batter, which rises to about a metre above ground level, is the most recent addition: this passes upwards into a few quoin stones of Carboniferous sandstone laid in the ‘Alternate’ post 16th C. style. Above this, the quoins appear to be of greenish-grey (probably Devonian) sandstone most of which appear to be set BH. CEREDIGION (CARDIGANSHIRE) No churches listed DENBIGHSHIRE

Now situated in East Conwy, the church, remarkable for its three cyclopean doorways, has been identified in the Norwich Taxation records of 1254. The church is now built to the typical Denbighshire double-aisled structure. It has been referred to in the writings of Lewis (1845b, 8-9); Lloyd Williams and Underwood (1872, pl. 53); Glynne (1884, 100); Thomas (1913, 215); RCAHMW (1914, 97); 274

Chapter Five

Figure 5.36 The western aspect of St Elian, Llanelian-yn-Rhos, Denbighshire (SH 864 764). The original nave is represented by the north aisle with the bell-cote.

Figure 5.37 Stones in the north-east chancel quoin of St Eilian Church are all set BH. Compare with Figure 5.38.

275

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.38 The lower portion of the north-west quoin of St Eilian church nave includes some stones which are set with a vertical orientation as well as evidence of re-building.

Figure 5.39 Inside the south porch of St Eilian Church this ‘cyclopean’ doorway is still in use. None of its stones are worked in an early fashion. 276

Chapter Five

Figure 5.40 The inserted ‘cyclopean’ doorway in the north nave wall of St Eilian Church, is again built of Carboniferous Limestone. Crossley (1946, 26-27); Hubbard (1986, 202); and WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 100461). The church was restored both in 1859 and 1903. Most windows appear to have been repaired (or replaced) during these restorations: those now constructed of Carboniferous Limestone in Victorian times and those in Triassic sandstone possibly in the early Edwardian era. Although the two aisles are of the same length they are in age clearly of different periods. The older aisle and the original church is that to the north (Figure 5.36). It supports the single bell-cote above its west gable. The contact between its original nave and a narrower inset chancel occurs on its north wall and traces of the aisle’s southern quoins may be observed against the newer full length aisle. The two aisles are constructed of quite unlike stonework; that to the north of Silurian, local, ‘Denbighshire Grits’ - a mixture of siltstones, sandstones and greywackes – these as irregular lumps, or less commonly in boulder form, uncoursed and spaced. The south aisle, south wall is, in contrast, constructed of Carboniferous Limestone squared blocks in moderate courses, but includes about 45 per cent of material like the north wall fabric presumably reused from the south wall of the earlier nave and chancel. The octagonal piers between the aisles are, as might be expected, also created in Carboniferous Limestone. Resulting from the proposal that the original nave extended only to the point where the inset north wall occurs, it is necessary to account for the unusually long chancel. The chancel must have been extended at some time prior to the

building of the south aisle. The existence of such an extension is supported when the quoins are examined. Three original nave quoins are visible (South-west against the aisle, north-west and north-east), each somewhat modified (and unfortunately partially covered with render) but sufficiently unlike the two at the east end of the extended chancel (Figure 5.37; where all visible stones appear to be set BH) to be deemed of a different style. As an exemplar, the north-west nave quoin (Figure 5.38) may be detailed as follows: 1, BH, siltstone?; large BH, Carboniferous Limestone; large, uncertain orientation, fine sandstone; large BH, fine sandstone; BVFL, sandstone; BH, broken, current bedded sandstone; BVFR, fine sandstone; 8 and 9, BH, fine sandstone; BVFL, fine sandstone; 11 and 12, BH, fine sandstone; 13 to 16, BH, all probably Carboniferous Limestone; eaves. The presence of limestone blocks, as well as stabilizing fillets between many of the stones, provides evidence of the quoin having been rebuilt. However, this quoin, with included vertically orientated sandstone blocks, would have initially been constructed both prior to the chancel modifications and the building of the later aisle, and was probably originally of Patterned period construction. The point of extension for the chancel on the north wall is not visible, but it probably occurred at the position of the flying buttress (of Carboniferous Limestone) set in that position to oppose the wall stress created by the rood loft. The fabric in the chancel is somewhat better coursed than in the nave. In the east wall of the north aisle the gable has been rebuilt and includes some Carboniferous Limestone

277

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology blocks, possibly indicating that this rebuild occurred at the time of construction of the south aisle. Below the gable the extended chancel wall is constructed in moderately coursed ‘Denbighshire Grits’. The west gable of the north aisle also shows evidence of having been rebuilt. Cyclopean doorways are present in a small number of churches in Denbighshire; they were discussed and figured by the Royal Commission (RCAHMW, 1914, introduction, Fig. 2). None have the typical head of those evident in Ireland and all are in some way in possession of a pointed arch. The Royal Commission suggested they were of 17th C. construction or reconstruction. Llanelian Church is in the possession of three such doorways. Of these, that in the south aisle is still in use. It has a slight chamfer and all stones have been provided with a hammered ornamental surface (Figure 5.39) and are unlikely, therefore, to be older than the 17th C. Evidence provided by the south aisle (regarded as 15th C. from its east window) certainly supports such a post-15th C. date. The blocked west door (which does not possess a cyclopean head {Figure 5.36}) to the early nave has been inserted well off centre into this wall and with the exception of one jamb stone (of fine greywacke) is of Carboniferous Limestone. The stones, with the exception of the greywacke, are again hammered, and the doorway is likely from its position to post-date the south aisle. The blocked north door in the north wall (Figure 5.40) is also a later insertion and again of Carboniferous Limestone. The suspicion must be that all three doorways must have been created within a century or so of each other. The trace of a further blocked doorway (with normal sized jamb stones) occurs in the east wall of the south aisle, to the south of the east window. FLINTSHIRE GLAMORGAN and MEIRIONNYDD (MERIONETH) No churches listed MONMOUTHSHIRE 5.13 St Pierre, St Peter (ST 515 905) St Pierre Church (Figure 5.41) is unusual in that it almost adjoins the early 16th century gatehouse of the associated mansion which has now been converted into an hotel. The immediate inference suggests that the two buildings, church and mansion, are likely to be of the same date. Close inspection reveals that the church includes certain Romanesque features. Furthermore the earliest record of the church is in 1254 (WHCP, Glamorgan-Gwent, PRN 01219g, PRN 08256g), and this reference, together with others, such as Bradney (1929, 89-92); Evans (1953,

478-480); Newman (2000, 525-6); and Anon, (2008), give a comprehensive account of the church structure and its contents. Brook (1985-1988, 84) recorded that the churchyard was quadrangular, but the shape must have been subject to alteration caused by the proximity of the late erection of adjoining buildings. The earliest church walls appear to have been erected in a rubble of Carboniferous Limestone, probably from exposures in the very proximate Drybrook Limestone, but supplemented extensively with river boulders of Carboniferous sandstone. Part of the north wall of the nave (externally and internally) and a small portion of the adjoining east wall of the north porch are constructed in herringbone style. The south wall of the nave was rebuilt in 1874, this in a similar mixture of stone, and therefore, almost certainly of partially re-used material. Pieces of Old Red Sandstone, a Carboniferous (sometimes oolitic) limestone, and an unusual yellow, calcareous sandstone which is occasionally conglomeratic with fragmented finer grey sandstone inclusions, are additionally included. This interesting yellow sandstone is found in small quantities also at Bishton, Caldicot, Llanvaches and St Brides Netherwent Churches close by. It is probably from the Lower Triassic, Sudbrook Sandstone, although not precisely the same as the facies seen at Sudbrook and Porthskewett Churches. It is generally of relatively early use, perhaps used originally only for quoins and dressings up to the 14th C. At St Pierre, it provides material for the 13th C. doorways in the north wall and porch, but also the difficult to date porch seating, and blocks in the north-west nave buttress which, unless re-used, are unlikely to be of such an early period. An altered ‘Norman style’ window is present just to the east of the porch and its west jamb is covered by the porch, as well as cement, indicating that the porch is post-Norman in date (Figure 5.42). Three of the four visible stones are thought to be built of Middle Jurassic shelly oolite; the sill’s identity could not be determined. The orientation of the lower jamb stone remains uncertain, but the upper jamb stone is placed BH (but diagonal) and the single arching stone BVEIA. It should be noted that the church guide (Anon, 2008) describes the window as ‘Saxon’. The position of the early north-east nave quoin is evident to the east of the porch, with between this and the porch the trace of an impossible to date, early infilled window or door. The quoin (Figure 5.43) reflects three periods of building in its construction and difficulties in interpretation. Stones 1 to 6 are thought to be of Carboniferous Limestone and 7 to 12 of ‘Victorian’ Middle Jurassic shelly oolite, probably all set BH, but they are all partly hidden beneath render. Stones 13 to the eaves clearly relate to a re-roofing and rebuilding stage. Stones 1 to 6 in the quoin probably represent a portion of the quoin that has been rebuilt, for between stones 2 and 3 a smaller inserted fragment of stone tends to give support to this view. Middle Jurassic stones 7 to 12, of the same rock type as the window to the north, are likely to represent Norman build. The other nave quoins are no longer visible for comparison purposes. 278

Chapter Five

Figure 5.41 The north-west aspect of St Peter, St Pierre, Monmouthshire (ST 515 905).

Figure 5.42 This ‘Norman style’ window in the north nave wall of the church at St Pierre clearly pre-dates the porch. 279

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.43 The north-east nave quoin to St Pierre Church has three different component parts; the top and bottom being different rebuilds but stones 7 to 12 centrally, based on their stone type and working, probably of Norman style.

Figure 5.44 The much modified west doorway to St Pierre in which the jambs inside and out contain a small number of BVFIA stones in Sudbrook Stone. 280

Chapter Five There are varying views as to whether the church was originally built with a chancel. WHCP (GlamorganGwent) suggest that the chancel was built originally at the beginning of the 14th C. This would have entailed moving the 13th C. tombs from an original position in the church (somewhere in what is now the nave) to the new chancel. It is somewhat simpler to suggest that an early chancel was rebuilt and widened, for the north and south walls to then correspond with those of the nave, a practice which occurred in many churches. The west doorway to the church has suffered a chequered history; in turn, having been blocked, re-opened partially as a window, blocked again and eventually converted into a cupboard. Not all of the jamb stones can be fully examined. Low down in the jambs there is certainly one large stone internally set BVFIA on the south side, and on the outside one similarly set on the north jamb (Figure 5.44). Much of the doorway visibly reflects re-building, for at least three different rock types can be observed. Most commonly, the stones, including the two which show BVFIA, Patterned style orientation, are of the yellow Sudbrook Sandstone, and the doorway must have originally been constructed in this stone. Repairs have been completed in Carboniferous Limestone and sandstone and Old Red Sandstone. Above the one-time west door there is an early window but from ground level it proves impossible to examine its stonework in detail.

MONTGOMERYSHIRE No churches listed PEMBROKESHIRE 5.14 Herbrandston, St Mary (SM 871 077) There is no record or evidence of any pre-Conquest religious use of this site and the earliest record relates to the 1291 Taxatio (Green, 1911-1912, 201). Further references to Herbrandston Church (Figure 5.45) have been made by Fenton (1811, 178); Lewis (1845a, 412); Freeman (1852, 161-202); and Laws and Owen (1908, who described the church as ‘very plain’). Based on the presence of an early round-headed doorway in the north nave wall the nave has been described as early 13th C. (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 3021). The north porch, once serving this doorway, has been converted into a vestry, probably in the restorations of 1904 (WHCP, Dyfed), and its north entrance blocked and replaced by a smaller window (Figure 5.46). The porch is much altered, for instance, the north wall above the infilled entrance has been replaced with coursed stonework. WHCP (Dyfed) have suggested that the porch was built in the 16th C. However, the porch’s antiquity is reflected in its pointed barrel roof (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 227). Indeed, it is possible that the original round-headed entrance/doorway to the porch/vestry could be of pre-Conquest origin. It is

Figure 5.45 This view of St Mary, Herbrandston Church, Pembrokeshire (SM 871 077) is from the south-west.

281

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.46 The blocked north doorway in the one-time north porch of Herbrandston Church in which the jamb stones are set to Patterned style.

Figure 5.47 This plant pot outside the south porch of Herbrandston Church could once have served as an early portable font (the scale is marked in 10mm. divisions).

282

Chapter Five constructed of a fine, greenish-grey sandstone, probably of Carboniferous age, each jamb is built of four stones and there are ten voussoirs of different sizes. In the west jamb the stones are placed (from the base in ascending order), BVFIA, BH, BVFIA, BH; and in the east jamb, BVFIA, orientation uncertain, BVFIA, BH; all apparently reflecting a Patterned style. There are, however, aspects of detail that create reservations in this conclusion. The doorway cannot be in its original position, although it may have originally served as the north entrance to the nave, imposts are absent (but could have been removed), and at 1.46m. the width of the doorway would be exceptional. WHCP (Dyfed) regarded this doorway as ‘of late medieval date’. About a metre to the east of the north porch/vestry east wall there is evidence of an infilled, narrow slit window in the north wall. This window would further suggest that the north nave wall may preserve pre-Romanesque traces. Both this wall and the chancel walls are mainly built of Lower Devonian, Old Red Sandstone, both in the form of red sandy-siltstones but including some green sandstones and a few quartzitic conglomerates, as well as some Carboniferous Limestone. As with many Welsh churches, the uppermost 0.75m. of these walls has been rebuilt at the time of re-roofing (possibly in the change from thatch to stone). The quartzitic conglomerates noticeably form a basal foundation course to the chancel and occur in the lowest stones of certain quoins and it is possible they are re-used from an earlier building.

Outside the south porch doorway an early mortar or font is used as a plant pot (Figure 5.47). 5.15 Llandysilio, (Llandissilio), St Tysilio (SN 119 217) Built within a circular graveyard, St Tysilio may have an early medieval origin (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 918). The church is mainly built of local Preseli rock types like dolerite in which any obvious lineation is absent. The offset relationship between the wide nave and the chancel probably reflects the rebuilding of the nave to incorporate a northern aisle (Figure 5.48). This rebuilding occurred in 1838-40 (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 249). Much of the earlier church was then ‘havoked’ (Evans, 1898, 242-247). Other authors, including Lewis (1845a, 528-529); Owen (1906, 310); Laws and Owen (1908); Jones (1915, 329); EyreEvans (1935, 299-300); Lewis (1964); and James (1997, 5-26) have also contributed to the historical background of the church. Green (1911-1912, 239-240) recorded that the church was assessed in the 1291 Taxatio and that it had served in the past as a collegiate church. The church was restored in 1838 and again in 1896-99. The lowest 1.2 to 2m. approximately of the west wall possesses a slight batter which might well have been added during the 19th C. but interpretation is not assisted by the style of the pointing (Figure 5.49). The lower courses of the south nave wall, which include a number of early inscribed stones (Figure 5.50), are principally of the local dolerite, and blocks of quartz, these

Figure 5.48 The church of St Tysilio, Llandysilio, Pembrokeshire (SN 119 217) observed from the north-east. Victorian rebuilding has altered the chancel into two separate units to create a north aisle.

283

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.49 In this portion of the south nave wall of St Tysilio, one of several Roman inscribed stones has been included during Victorian rebuilding. However, note the heavy render which has been followed by a variety of ‘pointing’; this fails to follow stone outlines but is random in its application. Such relatively modern ‘pointing’ is disappointingly present in a number of churches.

Figure 5.50 The south wall of St Tysilio again including a Roman inscribed stone.

284

Chapter Five materials almost certainly being re-used from the earlier church. The lower part of the south-west quoin of the nave could well remain from an early ‘Patterned’ church: the lowest two large stones are, of quartz and greenish rhyolite respectively, they are followed by four stones which are now covered with a thick cement render, with stone 7 and higher, laid in a style of the 12th-13th C. and later. The only other possible early quoin, at the south-east corner of the nave, is now covered by a recent buttress. The Royal Commission (RCAHMW, 1925, 160) identified a font ‘of Norman type’ in the churchyard. This was identified by local church personnel as the dolerite block standing near the porch. On examination and cleaning the block proves to be very irregular, particularly within the ‘basin’ and it is thought to be far from being sufficiently worked into shape to have served as a font. 5.16 Rudbaxton, St Michael (SM 960 205) This church was listed in the Taxatio of 1291 (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 2455) and was known to have been in existence in 1152 (Rees, 1897). Details of the church are also recorded in Fenton (1811, 327); Lewis (1845b, 365); Glynne (1888, 132-134; who visited the church in June 1869); Allen (1889c, 270); Rees (1897, 206); Owen (1906, 311); Laws and Edwards (1912, 31-32); Green (19121913, 269-272); Baker-Jones (1963, 121); Soden (1984, 128); Salter (1994, 51); and Treharne (2006, 224-230). Restorations at Rubaxton occurred in 1845 and again in

1892 (RCHAMW {1925, 315-16}; Lloyd, et al. {2004, 380-81}). The church (Figure 5.51) is principally built of local, mixed arenaceous rocks from the Ordovician and Lowest Silurian; and the tower is unfortunately rendered. Lloyd, et al. state ‘the nave appears to be the earliest medieval fabric’. An element of trenching round the nave reveals that below the present north wall, the lowest two stones of the earlier north-east quoin are revealed (Figure 5.52). These are slightly larger blocks of Devonian, red sandstone set BVFR, BVFL. A slate levelling fillet exists between these two stones and the higher wall. The adjoining foundation wall is also constructed of Devonian sandstones, and includes one conglomeratic block. The Devonian sandstones were probably all brought specifically to the church, from the south by boat via the River Cleddau. In other visible quoins in the building, the stones are believed to be of local origin and are set BH. The south porch possesses a pointed doorway and vaulted barrel roof and has been variously dated. The voussoirs and jamb stones of the doorway are constructed of Carboniferous Limestone, again brought to the church from a distance. The jamb stones are placed BVEIA and BH in a style suggesting that the structure was built in the late 12th C. Internally, arcades exist between the nave and chancel and the later south aisle (Figure 5.53), the flat, depressed arches closely resembling others in Pembrokeshire, such as at Martletwy. Regrettably, the arches and round pillars are covered in plaster so that their composition cannot be

Figure 5.51 St Michael, Rudbaxton, Pembrokeshire (SM 960 205) viewed from the south-east.

285

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.52 The north-east quoin of the early nave (foundation stones) at Rudbaxton Church (with spectacles case length 0.15m.).

Figure 5.53 The arcade separating the south aisle from the chancel, and in the distance the nave, of Rudbaxton Church.

286

Chapter Five

Figure 5.54 At the east end of the south aisle (the Lady Chapel) of Rudbaxton Church is this unusual 17th C. monument to the Howard family. determined. It is possible that the pillars may be earlier than their capitals and the arches, particularly in the nave area where they appear to be thicker than the overlying wall (0.62m.) which they support. The church is renowned for its remarkable 17th C. Howard family monument which occupies the east wall of the south aisle Lady Chapel (Figure 5.54). 5.17 St Govan, Chapel (SR 967 929) – ruin Within the Parish of Bosherston, and built into the cliffs below Trevallen Downs, the Chapel of St Govan remains in a reasonable state of preservation for it has clearly been frequently restored. Although it possesses in its situation, its character, its dedication and its adjoining well, features which could suggest an early origin, most authors propose that it is ‘unlikely to ante-date’ the 13th C. (Lloyd, et al.. 2004, 131-32). A description of the site was given by Fenton (1811, 414-415) and referred to by Lewis (1845b, 303); Laws and Owen, (1908); and Salter (1994, 69). With the exception of the modern roof, the structure is entirely built of Carboniferous Limestone, all of which no doubt was extracted from the adjoining cliffs (Figure 5.55). The detail of the single-celled chapel has been well described (RCAHMW, 1925, 21-22). The chapel possesses an internal, two-centred, barrel vaulted roof which has probably been rebuilt for it cuts the east window. There are three doorways. The principal entrance in the north

wall now appears to be of modern construction; that to the north of the altar in the east wall (Figure 5.56), leading to a natural rock chamber, is in places heavily coated in plaster. In both north and south jambs, the bottom stones, of Carboniferous Limestone, can be seen to be set BVFIA. In the west wall a doorway leads to the well, which has been rebuilt and is present below the chapel (Figure 5.57). This west doorway has some evidence of reconstruction but its jamb stones could reflect a pre-Romanesque origin. The stone orientations are: south jamb; BH, BH, BH, BVFIA (at a slight angle), BH; and the north jamb; BVFIA, BVFIA, BVFIA. Externally, the window jamb stones, where readable, are placed BH; as are the readable limestone blocks in the chapel’s south-west quoin. The south wall has a relatively modern external batter below 1.5 to 2m., and the southeast corner rises through this batter and its quoin is created in side-alternately placed limestone blocks (Figure 5.58). RADNORSHIRE 5.18 Michaelchurch-on-Arrow, St Michael (SO 247 507) Briefly described by RCAHMW (1913, 115), Michaelchurch was termed ‘sadly restored’ with nothing preserved older than 15th C. The restoration providing concern was completed in 1869 (Crossley and Ridgeway,

287

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.55 The chapel of St Govan, Pembrokeshire (SR 967 929) is built into the Carboniferous Limestone cliffs below Trevallen Downs.

Figure 5.56 The doorway at St Govan to the north of the altar in which the lowest jamb stones are set BVFIA.

288

Chapter Five

Figure 5.57 The rebuilt well below the church at St Govan.

Figure 5.58 The chapel’s south wall possesses a relatively modern batter and has probably been largely rebuilt.

289

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 5.59 St Michael, Michaelchurch-on-Arrow, Radnorshire (SO 247 507) as it appears from the south-east.

Figure 5.60 The church of St Michael viewed from the south-west displays the unusual saddleback tower. Although there are fabric changes over the height of the tower these are here too distant to observe.

290

Chapter Five

Figure 5.61 Detail of the south-west tower quoin at Michaelchurch-on-Arrow shows stones 5, 6 and 7 (displayed here) are placed BVFR, BVFL, BH; possible evidence that the base of the tower might retain Patterned stonework. 1949, 241-244). Others describing the church (Figure 5.59) include Lewis (1845b, 219-220); Davies (1905, 263); Howse (1949, 246, 261); Salter (1991, 6, 33); Haslam (1979, 257); and WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 19011, PRN 16040). A small lancet window in the south wall of the tower now normally offers a 13th C. date for the earliest part of the church (Haslam, 1979). In the west wall (Figure 5.60), however, a blocked slit window (which the lancet probably replaced) appears to pre-date the lancet, for it contains some vertical jamb stones. Most of the windows in the church were restored in 1869 in Middle Jurassic oolite. The tower is saddleback roofed and of the same width as the nave. There are no visible joins at the tower/ nave contact. Despite this lack of definition of the tower’s eastern quoins, the tower fabric changes at a fairly low level. This is best observed in the north wall to a height of between 0.5m. to 1m., in other walls rising to 2m. Below this level the fabric consists mainly of small, flaggy fine sandstone pieces, typically showing evidence of having been water (river) transported. Probably of Upper Silurian derivation, these are gradually replaced at higher levels in the tower with roughly squared blocks of moderately coursed, Silurian sandstone. A less obvious change in the two western quoins of the tower occurs at much the same height.

fine pebbles; BVFR (with Bench Mark), of similar rock type; BH, micaceous sandstone; BH, arkosic sandstone; BH, as first two stones; higher all BH, of micaceous sandstone. Probably all these rock types are from the local Old Red Sandstone, but only stones 1, 2, and 5 represent the original quoin. In the north-west quoin: stones 1 to 4 are small BH replacements; stone 5, BVFR and stone 6, BVFL are of the grey coarse sandstone; 7 is a BH micaceous sandstone; stone 8, BVFL is of coarse sandstone; this is followed by a small fillet and then stone 9, BVFR (possibly reset); before the remainder of the quoin rises BH (with one exception about a metre above stone 9, BVFR of coarse sandstone). Stones 5, 6, and 7 appear in Figure 5.61. No more than the lowest 0.5m. of the north and south walls of the nave also differ in composition from their higher walls. This difference is not, however, continued into the eastern nave quoins where all the stones are set BH. Much of the remainder of the church was rebuilt or extensively restored in Victorian times. The evidence for pre-Conquest, Patterned workmanship rests in this case on just a few distinctly orientated stones. WREXHAM No churches listed

In the south-west quoin of the tower the lowest stones rise as follows: BH, a coarse, light grey sandstone, containing

291

CHAPTER SIX SHORT ACCOUNTS OF CERTAIN OTHER WELSH CHURCHES ANGLESEY 6.1 Aberffraw, St Beuno (SH 353 687) Aberffraw Church provides one of the best examples of a site preserving Norman structures in Anglesey and, as a result, it has been studied more extensively (such as by, Lewis {1845a, 16}; Jones {1846b, 61-63}; Glynne {1900, 85-86}; Skinner {1908, 42}; Hughes {1920, 28-30; 1930, 248}; Pryce {1929, 168}; Holme {1926, 185}; RCAHMW {1937,1}; Hulbert-Powell {1944, Fig. 11}; Clarke {1961a, 55}; WHCP, Gwynedd, PRN 6903; and Haslam et al. {2009, 91-92}). It is also close to the ruined site, regarded as a medieval Llys, which is reputed to represent the principal seat of the early kingdom of Gwynedd and, therefore, possibly has a very early history. Lunt (1926, 193) lists Aberffraw in the Norwich valuation of 1254. The church possesses two, similar length aisles (Figures 6.1 and 6.2), of which that on the south side is the earlier. In this south aisle, the south wall is of reduced thickness in the eastern chancel section and the older portion of the visible church is thought to be confined to the south-west portion, that is, the nave. Comments here will be confined mainly to the stonework.

Two rock types tend to predominate in the walls, local green schist and Carboniferous sandstone. The external walls were once rendered, the west wall having been rendered again, more recently, and this leaves the western church quoins difficult to interpret. Externally, the south wall of the nave area retains a sandstone Romanesque string course above which the wall is only of sandstone, revealing that even this wall is probably of two architectural periods. Inside the church a well preserved sandstone Norman arch is evident in the west wall (Figure 6.3). Views vary as to whether this arch/doorway is in its original position. Four principal views have been proposed: that it was once ‘the chief entrance’ to the church, having been ‘totally concealed, and ‘judiciously uncovered’ (Lewis, 1845a, 16); that it once served as a chancel arch to a demolished western nave (Glynne, 1900, 85-86; Hughes, 1920), having been reversed (thus retaining the situation of the ornamentation greeting those in the nave); or, thirdly, that it once occupied an earlier position as chancel arch at the eastern end of the nave of the current church (RCAHMW, 1937,1; WHCP, Gwynedd, 1): again requiring removal and reversal). The arch is possibly too grand in scale to have been considered as a one-time west doorway but it could possibly have served as the tower arch to a tower that is no

Figure 6.1 The south aisle of St Beuno, Aberffraw, Anglesey (SH 353 687) viewed from the SSW.

292

Chapter Six

Figure 6.2 From the NNW the younger of the two aisles, the north aisle, at Aberffraw can be viewed.

Figure 6.3 The Romanesque Carboniferous sandstone arch preserved on the west wall of the south aisle (nave) of Aberffraw Church.

293

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.4 Above the central arcade of Aberffraw Church, viewed here from the nave towards the first supporting column from the west, a squared string course in Carboniferous sandstone is present. Above this the wall has been raised presumably to support a new roof. The most westerly arcade arch is circular and differs from the other slightly pointed, later arches. longer evident (Haslam et al., 2009, 91-92). Examination of the arch stonework reveals that the inner order jamb stones are all set precisely, BH; and the outer column stones BVEIA, in Norman style. There is a limited amount of evidence supporting the reorientation of the chancel arch from its original position. At least one piece of North Wales slate has relatively recently been inserted between two stones (the piece seen occurs below the lowest arch stone on the north side). On this same side certain stones could possibly be Victorian replacements. Subsequent to the arch being blocked it was re-opened centrally for a rectangular window, this in turn, was subsequently infilled. Above, and on both sides of the central arcade to the aisles is an internal string course which is continuous for all but the extreme western end (Figure 6.4). The wall above the string courses, for about 0.5m., is of different stonework and was apparently created when the aisle roofs were jointly raised. Externally, the south-east quoin to the chancel has been rebuilt on more than one occasion with many slate levelling stones inserted between mixed quoin stones of schist and sandstone. One large sandstone block, set BVFR, could represent a remnant from an early Patterned church. The northern aisle, which is considered to be 16th C. (RCAHMW, 1937), also preserves in its north-east quoin, in its lowest four stones of schist, possible early stones. They are certainly re-used and contain slate levelling pieces between each stone. Higher stones are of sandstone.

6.2 Llanbadrig, St Patrick (SH 376 946) The cliff-top, church at Llanbadrig (Figure 6.5) was listed in the Norwich taxation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 196) and it is generally stated that the nave contains 12th C. masonry (WHCP, Gwynedd, 29, PRN 6941), whilst the font is normally also considered to be of that date (Hughes, 1923, 57-59, Fig. 71; RCAHMW, 1937, 36-37). The church is listed here because the chancel has been enlarged (to be longer than the nave) and this enlargement has been accomplished by means of an extension and quarrying. Brief reviews of the church have been given by Lewis (1845a, 481-482); Jones (1862, 43-44); Glynne, who visited the church in 1849 (1900, 90-91); Pryce (1929, 172); Clarke (1961a, 58); and Haslam et al. (2009, 140141). The church was restored in 1840, 1884, and again after fire in 1985 (WHCP, Gwynedd, 29). The church external walls have been covered in roughcast render (RCAHMW, 1937) and fabric identification is somewhat obscured, but the walls are composed of a rubble and boulders of the local Gwna Mélange and are a mixture of schists, quartzites and limestones. The window dressings are mainly of Upper Carboniferous coarse sandstones. The enlarged rebuilt chancel, which from the evidence of the east window might have been constructed in the 16th C., although Haslam et al. (2009, 140-141) suggested about 1840, is slightly off-set to the nave and this enables the north-east quoin of the nave (Figure 6.6) to be examined more clearly than that at the south-east corner where the

294

Chapter Six

Figure 6.5 St Patrick, Llanbadrig, Anglesey (SH 376 946) is viewed here from the north-west. south-west quoin of the chancel projects south beyond the nave wall. On the north wall of the building the difference in the wall fabric between the nave and the newer chancel is clearly marked. The chancel wall contains numerous fillets of slate and schist within its rubble walls. The nave, rising to about 2m., has none of these. Above about 2m., however, the nave wall has much the same later structure as the chancel, presumably reflecting re-roofing throughout. Examination of the nave quoins revealed that of those stones that could be seen clearly all were set BH. On this evidence the quoins may be provided with a possible 12th to 14th C. date. Three stones of conglomerate in the south-west quoin, set BH, may have been re-used from the quoin of an earlier structure. 6.3 Llanbeulan, St Peulan (more recently St Mary) (SH 373 755)

Figure 6.6 The north-east nave quoin of Llanbadrig Church is off-set against the rebuilt chancel.

Llanbeulan Church was listed in the Norwich valuation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 193), and the nave of the church, in particular, has been referred to the 12th C. (RCAHMW, 1937, 40; WHCP, Gwynedd, 33-34, PRN 3507). There is also an interesting Norman font within the church (Hughes, 1922a, 65-67) (Figure 6.7). Others referring to the church include Hulbert-Powell (1944, Fig. 7) and Saunders (2010, 45-46). Lewis (1845a, 491) described parts of the church as bearing ‘evidence of great antiquity’. The building is approached by a short wide raised track across what was no doubt a very damp field (Figure 6.8). Jones (1846b, 6770), in describing the church, referred to an entrance in the west wall of the nave which was circular headed; this wall has now been modified and rendered, and no stonework is

295

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.7 St Peulan Church, Llanbeulan, Anglesey (SH 373 755) possesses an interesting Romanesque font.

Figure 6.8 The view from the south towards Llanbeulan Church and its approach.

296

Chapter Six

Figure 6.9 Part of the north-east quoin of the nave of Llanbeulan Church. Both, the pink quartzite (below the spectacles case) and the highest stone visible, pass behind the rebuilt, possibly 14th C. chancel wall.

Figure 6.10 In the north chancel wall of Llanbeulan Church this small infilled window has been described as 14th C. There are suggestions that the window has been in part rebuilt.

Figure 6.11 This cross base is present at the base of the east wall of the south transept at Llanbeulan Church. The transept is thought to have been built initially in the 14th C. The rule is marked in 10 mm. units. 297

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.12 The Llanbeulan south transept carries this date stone of 1637, suggested as representing a date of a rebuilding or partial modification. visible internally because of plaster cover. The walling is much covered with lichen and render but appears mainly to consist of a rubble of very local sandstones, schists and hornfels. Other stone types are also present in the quoins. The west wall has been completely rendered. Three of the four nave quoins are mainly constructed of Upper Carboniferous coarse sandstones in which all stones are emplaced BH. In the two western quoins several, partially visible, schists occur at the base as representative of an earlier construction. The north-east quoin is more revealing and is built as follows: Stone 1, Plinth, BH of well-cut Carboniferous sandstone, probably recently shaped and inserted for backing for the adjoining drain; 2, Large boulder of microgabbro, no orientation but largest face to north (1.61m. in length); 3, Large boulder of pink quartzite, no orientation decipherable; 4, Boulder of very quartz rich schist, no visible orientation; higher stones (above 2m.) much smaller and mainly of Carboniferous sandstone. At least two of the higher stones as well as Stone 3 pass behind the chancel wall (Figure 6.9). With some of the south-east nave quoin stones presenting similar evidence it is clear that the present chancel is later than the nave. Architectural evidence has been given by both RCAHMW (1937) and WHCP (Gwynedd, 33) for the chancel being built in the 14th C. from which it can be inferred that the rebuilt Carboniferous, BH portions of the nave quoins must be earlier. Projecting from beneath the south chancel wall there are the possible foundations of an earlier, probably shorter chancel.

An infilled, small rectangular window in the north wall of the chancel was described by RCAHMW (1937) as ‘probably 14th century’ (Figure 6.10). It has probably been rebuilt for the lintel stone sits ‘uncomfortably’ on its jambs. The south chapel is normally regarded as being of the same age as the chancel. In the chapel’s east wall there is a further chamfered round-headed rebuilt window. The stonework is again of Carboniferous sandstone, and the stonework that is readable, would support its appearance as being originally of Norman age. To the south of this window a cross base (Figure 6.11), in coarse Lower Carboniferous pebbly sandstone, has been inserted vertically in the wall. That the south chapel has been rebuilt itself (Figure 6.12), at least in part, is conveyed by a date stone of 1637 (which Haslam et al. {2009, 142143} suggested might be ex-situ or apply solely to the adjoining window), and evidence of some foundations protruding from beneath the south wall. 6.4 Llanfihangel-yn-Nhowyn, St Mihangel (St Michael) (SH 322 774) This much altered and restored church (Figure 6.13) is recorded in the Norwich taxation lists of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 193). It is now used by the Royal Air Force and associated with the Church of England. Prior to the addition of a large annexe in 1924 (WHCP, Gwynedd, 86, PRN 2204), the church was small and single-celled, and this earlier building was briefly described by Lewis (1845b, 147) and Jones (1847a, 46-47). Further brief accounts appear in RCAHMW (1937, 85); Hulbert-Powell (1944, 43, 298

Chapter Six

Figure 6.13 Now used for RAF Church of England services, St Michael, Llanfihangel-yn-Nhowyn, Anglesey (SH 322 774) is viewed here from the south-east.

Figure 6.14 The south wall of the chancel of St Michael showing both an infilled window and the south-east quoin.

299

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology in Anglesey, and on occasions elsewhere in Wales, would unusually permit masons of this period to utilize more than one rock type for building structures like quoins. This practice of lack of rigid stone selection certainly occurred in the ‘Alternate’ building style observed at its peak in the late 16th and17th C., so that without further evidence of a different nature the two styles here become difficult to distinguish. Had the schist been inserted in the wall with its crenulation set vertically, which would have been with no BH key stone, a possible Patterned setting would certainly not have been considered. Figure 6.15 indicates that small infills occur together with these lower quoin stones so that is also possible that some rebuilding has also transpired. Stones in all other quoins in the church are placed BH. In the south wall close to the south-east quoin is the base of ‘an earlier window of uncertain date’ (RCAHMW, 1937, 85) (Figure 6.14). The window is constructed of Carboniferous conglomeratic sandstone. Unfortunately, the orientation of none of the three remaining jamb stones could be determined. 6.5 Llangristiolus, St Christiolus (SH 450 736)

Figure 6.15 Detail of the lowest three stones (set BVFR, BH, BVFR) in the south-east quoin of Llanfihangel-ynNhowyn Church.

Fig. 76); Clarke (1961a, 63); WHCP (Gwynedd, 86); and Haslam et al. (2009, 177). The earlier church wall fabric is mainly of local schists and Ordovician, basal Arenig conglomerate, with supplementary quartzite, and a few pieces of Carboniferous sandy conglomerate, and igneous dolerite and augite gabbro. There are significant variations in the quantities of the different stone types in the walls related to dissimilar periods of rebuilding. Only the south-east quoin (Figures 6.14 and 6.15) to the early church includes stones that are set other than BH. In this quoin the lowest complete visible stone (above a boulder of augite-pyroxenite) is a large block of Arenig conglomerate, set BVFR, which occupies 1.48m. of the east wall; this is followed by a green crenulated schist, BH (oblique); and then a large boulder of Arenig conglomerate, again placed BVFR, which occupies 1.36m. of the east wall. All higher stones, mainly of schist, are emplaced BH, and these show evidence of re-building. The lowest three stones in this quoin could be described as displaying Patterned workmanship; they are, however, of two distinctly different rock types, both of which can be obtained in very close proximity to the church site. The present author is fairly assured that where an easy selection of rocks for building purposes was available, the Patterned building practice

Situated in a raised and partially circular early churchyard, St Christiolus was considered by RCAHMW (1937, 95) and WHCP (Gwynedd, 99-100, PRN 2735, PRN 7017) originally, to have been built ‘probably in the 12th C’. These descriptions propose that the chancel was first enlarged in the 13th C. for the chancel arch appears to be of this date. Further descriptions of, or references to, the church have appeared in Lewis (1845b, 49); Jones (1846b, 63-64); Glynne (1900, 102); Pryce (1929, 176); Clarke (1961a, 64); Soden (1984, 53); and Haslam et al. (2009, 186-187). The font received mentions in TyrrellGreen (1920; 1928, 53). The church was extensively rebuilt in 1852. Only the nave (Figure 6.16), which is now smaller than the chancel, preserves in its fabric anything of the early church. Over the lowest 1.10m., the north and south walls of the nave, display stonework, made up of Carboniferous (probably Millstone Grit), moderately large blocks of coarse sandstone and conglomerate, unlike that higher in the walls. Higher in these walls the blocks are somewhat smaller and include Carboniferous Limestone. Jones (1846b) described the nave as possessing north and south opposing doors, and a trace of the blocked north door remains partially hidden behind a modern buttress in the lower early portion of the wall. The lowest three stones of the north-west quoin and a small portion of the nave west wall also preserve these early features. In the quoin, stone 1 is of sandy conglomerate of uncertain orientation, stone 2, a large conglomerate block, BVFR, and stone 3, a conglomerate, BH. All higher stones are of coarse sandstones and placed BH. The south-west nave area has been rebuilt. It is impossible to determine if this lower early wall represents work of the Patterned period or is of late 16th C style, for the evidence is far too restricted. 300

Chapter Six 6.6 Llaniestyn, St Iestyn (SH 585 796) Llaniestyn Church (Figure 6.17), in Llaniestyn Rural Parish, is set in a sub-circular graveyard. Its 13th C. presence is confirmed in the taxation records (Lunt, 1926, 191). The church and the older monuments have been described, amongst others, by Pennant (1784, 249); Lewis (1845b, 69-70); Jones (1847a 323-325); Glynne, 1900, 316); Skinner (1908, 84-86); Holme (1926, 181-183); Hughes (1930, 250); RCAHMW (1937, 107); Clarke (1961a, 65); Gresham (1968, 230-233); Soden (1984, 53); WHCP (Gwynedd, 105-106, PRN 2659, PRN 7024); and Haslam et al. (2009, 145-146). The church was restored in recent years, both in 1865 and 1954. The walls are roughly to poorly coursed, particularly in Carboniferous Limestone and metamorphic schists; the west wall having been recently completely rendered. Apart from the preserved 14th C. monumental slab of St Iestyn (Figure 6.18) and the 12th C. font (Figure 6.19), both of which have been described and figured by others; the infilled west doorway, uncovered in 1954, is of considerable interest. The west doorway to the nave (Figure 6.20) is of interest because its round head is constructed of three elongated pieces of travertine, two further pieces occurring as imposts. The use of travertine as a church building stone appears to have been restricted to Norman and earlier structures

(Potter, 2000a; 2005f). The doorway has undoubtedly been altered and although the jamb stones are all set BH, they involve both Upper Carboniferous sandstone and at least one piece of schist. A further piece of travertine may be present in the south-west quoin, the remainder of which is constructed of Carboniferous Limestone set BH and quite probably rebuilt in the Victorian restoration. 6.7 Llanrhwydru(y)s, St Rhwydrw(y)s (SH 322 932) St Rhwydrws or St Rhwydrys Church (Figure 6.21) is situated on private farmland in an area of complex rock types of the Anglesey Mona Series. The church was included in the Norwich taxation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 196), and its oldest part, the nave, is normally regarded as being of 12th C. date (Jones, 1862, 49-50; RCAHMW, 1937, 108; WHCP, Gwynedd, 107-108, PRN 3524; Haslam et al., 2009, 122). Lewis (1845b, 87) referred to the church as a ‘small ancient edifice’. The rubble walls are typically constructed of metamorphic rocks and particularly of chlorite and hornblende schists, and slates, of relatively small size laid in irregular courses. Rare blocks of Old Red Sandstone also occur and a number of boulders are present throughout. Window dressings are obscured by cement. The church has been restored in very recent years. This clearly included complete re-pointing and repainting. How much further modification was undertaken is unknown.

Figure 6.16 The south wall of the nave of St Christiolus, Llangristiolus, Anglesey (SH 450 736). The church was largely rebuilt in 1852 but the nave shows traces of an earlier building. The stonework low in the nave south wall is larger in size and of different character, and a blocked door can be discerned in the position of the central buttress.

301

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.17 A view from the south-east of St Iestyn Church, Llaniestyn, Anglesey (SH 585 796). The south transept is central to the view.

Figure 6.18 The 14th C. memorial slab to St Iestyn that is preserved in the church transept.

302

Chapter Six

Figure 6.19 The 12th C. font that occurs in the church at Llaniestyn.

Figure 6.20 The west wall of Llaniestyn church carries a thick cement render but a blocked west doorway was discovered in 1954. The round arch is fabricated from three pieces of travertine, and the imposts are of the same material. These may have been part of an early pre-Romanesque structure. The jamb stones are all set BH and created almost entirely of Carboniferous sandstone and be no earlier in construction than late 12th C. 303

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.21 Llanrhwydrys Church, Anglesey (SH 322 932) is dedicated to St Rhwydrys, and seen here from the south-west.

Figure 6.22 The south doorway to the nave of St Rhwydrys has an early character but the jamb stonework suggests that it is no earlier than 12th C.

304

Chapter Six

Figure 6.23 Viewed from the chancel, the chancel arch at Llanrhwydrys is tall and narrow, with imposts, but its two-centred arch indicates that this part at least is 13th C.

Figure 6.24 An exposed cruck helps to support the roof of St Rhwydrys where the north chapel has been created.

305

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology The four nave quoins are moderately well exposed but all appear to have been reconstructed (possibly several times), with levelling slate fillets frequently used between stones. There is some evidence that some of the blocks may have been re-used from the Patterned period for very occasionally they are placed either BVFR or BVFL. The south doorway (Figure 6.22), with a circular arch constructed of thin irregular voussoirs and simple imposts, has been described as 12th C. (RCAHMW, 1937, 108). The imposts are of cleaved chloritic schist and are through stones so that the doorway reflects a Patterned character. No other stones, however, are through stones and they are typically fragmentary with the vast majority set BH. The stones are again of mixed composition, in the main chloritic schist and chloritic slate but some of hornblende schist. In the west jamb stones 2 and 7 are placed BVEIA and in the east jamb stone 7 has the same orientation, very slight evidence not of a Patterned, but of a 12th C. style. The chancel arch (Figure 6.23) is relatively narrow with a two-centred pointed arch and with imposts, but completely obscured by thick plaster. The roof is unusually partially supported by crucks, one being fully exposed where the wall has been removed to create the north chapel (Figure 6.24).

6.8 Penmon, St Seiriol’s Cell (SH 631 808) - ruin Very close to the Norman church at Penmon is the site of a holy well (Jones, 1849a, 134) and an adjoining cell (Figure 6.25). The cell (Figure 6.26) is thought to mark the site where St Seiriol, the founder of the initial religious community at Penmon, first established his dwelling (Richards, 1952, 2). Haslam et al. (2009, 207) described the ruins as ‘the footings of an oval house for the early community’. This site has been variously dated with the earliest proposed date being in the 6th C. The church is listed in the 1254 Norwich Taxatio (Lunt, 1926, 195) and Carr (1986, 18) indicates that the site was ‘raided by Norsemen’ in 971. However, the majority of authors consider the cell to be no earlier than medieval. The well and the oval-shaped cell or hut are tucked close into the foot of a Carboniferous Limestone cliff. However, this cliff is continuous with the quarry face immediately to the west. From this quarry the stone for the church and probably other later, local buildings was almost certainly extracted. The cell and well, therefore, are unlikely to predate the church for they are almost certainly built on the floor of an old quarry.

Figure 6.25 The site at Penmon, Anglesey (SH 631 808) where both St Seiriol Cell (left) and well (right) occur. Both are present beneath a cliff of Carboniferous Limestone which is continuous with a quarry in the same material.

306

Chapter Six

Figure 6.26 The Penmon St Seriol Cell site. Note that many of the stones outlining the cell are face-bedded. A full and unusual explanation is given in the text.

Remarkably, when the stones of the cell are examined they prove to be set mainly BVFB, or face bedded, both on the external and internal surfaces, in what at first appearance might be considered as in Patterned style. There are, however, unusually few BH stones and there is no sign of any pattern between courses or stones within a course. Furthermore, although the generally large stones in the lowest course of the building are in most instances of the local limestone, where the walling is slightly higher (and on the east side it rises to three courses) a Lower Carboniferous pebbly sandstone from further afield is used. An explanation for the presence of the face bedded rocks is fortunately provided when reference to the description by RCAHMW (1937, 123) is made. The Royal Commission described the site of the cell as ‘overgrown’ and provided a detailed plan of the buildings. Assuming that the detail is correct, the stones have been altered significantly in their position since the date of this plan. It would appear that at a time of rebuilding subsequent to the Commission’s plan (?1937), the masons responsible decided to reconstruct the cell building to include and adopt a recognised practice (of vertical face-bedded stones) which may have been recognised to exist in many early buildings. Possibly, at the same time, the pebbly sandstone rocks were introduced to extensively rebuild the upper levels of the ruin.

BRECKNOCKSHIRE (BRECONSHIRE) 6.9 Brecon (Aberhonndhu) Cathedral, St John the Evangelist (SO 044 290) Glynne (1887, 274) visited this site in 1836 and commented, ‘The Early English style greatly predominates’. Particulars of this Cathedral have been described or referred to elsewhere (as Poole, 1886, 3856; Dawson, 1909, 12-22; Haslam, 1979, 283-292; Soden, 1984, 10 and 55-56; and Salter, 1991, 39). The ‘short stretches of blank walling west of the crossing’ (Haslam, p. 287), described as representing part of the original Norman nave, however, fail to preserve any evidence of this early date. The chancel is known to have been constructed between 1200 and 1207 and on the exterior of the east wall, what appear to be the grey Old Red Sandstone jamb stones of two separate openings may be deciphered (Figure 6.27). These openings may have provided access in some way to a crypt. In each of the four jambs some BVEIA stones are present, apparently confirming a Romanesque date of construction. Access was gained to a chancel crypt which proved unfortunately to be modern and in an unrelated position.

307

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.27 The east wall to the Romanesque chancel of Brecon Cathedral (St John the Evangelist) displays the traces of two doorways and the jamb stones of these are partially set in BVEIA style. The doorways are likely to have served a crypt. 6.10 Builth Wells, St Mary (SO 039 510) Only the tower of Builth Wells Church remains of a church of early origin. The particulars of this church as far as they are known and the details of the construction of the new church in 1873-1875 are well described in the writings of Poole (1886, 170-171); Dawson (1909, 7-8); Haslam (1979, 304); Salter (1991, 40); and WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 20160). Lewis (1845a, 140) commented on the earlier structure. The tower now occurs towards the south-east end of the overall church complex and preserved on its east wall are traces of its early relationships with the now demolished nave(s). The tower (Figure 6.28) principally built of sandstones from the Old Red Sandstone but including some Lower Palaeozoic sandstones in its wall fabric, is generally thought to be of 13th C. construction, although real evidence is lacking. The readily visible south quoins to the tower (as well as the batter) are created in relatively modern, hammered and dressed stonework. Details displayed on the east face of the tower include the outlines of successive tower arches, the smaller and later arch being set into an infilled, earlier and larger, pointed arch constructed with red sandstone voussoirs. The jamb stones to the earlier arch are not wholly original and in many instances the orientations cannot be determined but in each jamb one or two BVEIA/BVFIA stones are present, doubtfully suggestive of a 1550-1600 style. Higher on this east wall are the traces of two (possibly three) early nave roof lines. Interestingly, these are off-set and tend to peak to the south of the central line of the tower.

Figure 6.28 The tower of St Mary, Builth Wells, Brecknockshire (SO 039 510) is all that remains of an earlier church. The east face of the tower preserves traces of both successive tower arches and early nave roof lines. 308

Chapter Six 6.11 Llandd(th)etty(i), St Tetta(i) (St Detiu) (SO 128 202) Close to the River Usk, Llanddetty Church is situated in a circular churchyard. References to the church have been made by Lewis (1845b, 105-106); Glynne (1886, 280281); Poole (1886, 135); Dawson (1909, 95-96); Haslam (1979, 328); Salter (1991, 45); WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 20173); and Redknap and Lewis (2007, 172-176). The church is said to have been recorded in the Taxatio of 1291, and restored both in 1878 and 1934. Rees (1932) recorded that the advowson for the church in the 14th C belonged to the Lord of the Manor. The church (Figure 6.29) and its four principal quoins are constructed of both red (often micaceous) and coarser grey sandstones from the Old Red Sandstone. There are no obvious fabric variations to indicate that the church was ever been anything other than unicelled. The stones in the major quoins are all set BH suggesting a 13th C. (to perhaps mid-16th C.) period of construction. Partially repaired windows of 15th-16th C. style (Figure 6.30) have been set into the south wall indicating that the wall was constructed before their original insertion. The west wall displays the jambs of an early doorway (Figure 6.31). This is relatively broad, at 1.35m., and the jamb

stones are set on a longer sill (2.04m.). The stone employed for the jambs is of an arkosic grey sandstone/arkose from the Old Red Sandstone which proves to be one popular for important structural features in early church building throughout the Breconshire region. The north jamb consists of only two stones, a long upright stone BVEIA, upon which rests a BH stone; and the south jamb three stones, BVEIA (or BH), BH, not determined. The stone orientations indicate a probable Norman Romanesque structure. A further blocked doorway occurs at the east end of the south wall of the church (Figure 6.32). The south porch was added to the church structure at some time post the 15th C. (Figure 6.33). The quoins in the south porch are constructed of micaceous red sandstone and the stones placed: west quoin; BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BH, three small BH stones to the eaves; east quoin; BH, ?BH, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, small BH stones to eaves. In the east quoin the basal stone projects as a plinth. These stone orientations are typical of the Welsh ‘Alternate’ (about 1550-1600) period. However, the arrises to the quoin stones are sharp, raising the reservation that the stones may possibly represent later Victorian repair work. The top portion (about 0.5m.) of the building fabric in the principal church walls has been replaced at a time of past re-roofing.

Figure 6.29 A view of St Tetta church, Llanddetty, Brecknockshire (SO 128 202) from the south.

309

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.30 Small stones around the periphery of this 15th C. Devonian red sandstone suggest that the window (central to the south wall) has been fitted into the wall.

Figure 6.31 Heavy lichen growth and grime on greyish Devonian arkosic sandstone make the outline of this blocked west doorway at Llandetty Church difficult to distinguish. The folder is 0.31m. long (and relates to the south jamb), the doorway 1.35m. wide and the sill 2.04m. long. The jamb stone orientations (two on the left, that is north; and three on the south) indicate that the doorway was probably Romanesque in origin. 310

Chapter Six

Figure 6.32 The trace of the pointed arch of a 13th C. blocked Priest’s door in the south wall of Llanddetty Church.

Figure 6.33 The south porch to Llanddetty Church is younger than the south nave wall to which it abuts, and the quoin stones to the porch appear to be emplaced in ‘Alternate’ style, giving a possible late 16th C. date to the porch.

311

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 6.12 Llanddew, St David (Holy Trinity) (SO 054 307) Set in a slightly curvilinear graveyard, Llanddew Church (Figure 6.34) is recognised as a clas site. The adjoining building was the Bishop’s Palace, first occupied in 1175 and now in ruins. The church is recorded in a Taxatio of 1291; the central tower was rebuilt (with BH, largely facealternate, quoin stone orientation) in 1629, and building restorations were recorded in 1884 and 1900. Descriptions of, or references to, the church occur in Lewis (1845a, 503); Freeman (1856, 224); Davies (1873, 277-284); Glynne (1886, 270); Poole (1886, 126-127); Dawson (1909, 90-94); Crossley and Ridgway (1953, 62); Haslam (1979, 329); Soden (1984, 58); Salter (1991, 45); WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 2663, PRN 16819); Redknap and Lewis (2007, 179-181); and CPAT (2011). Typically for Breconshire, the building fabrics throughout the church are of sandstones from the Old Red Sandstone. The west quoins to the nave are placed BH (with some replacement stones) supporting a generally accepted 13th C. construction. The north transept again possesses BH quoins and from its partially rebuilt east lancet window is also considered to be 13th C. The return between the nave and north transept, however, reveals that the nave is of earlier build (Figure 6.35), furthermore, that there has been some movement of the transept, tilting towards the north. The chancel-north transept return, where the chancel is the younger, also reveals that the transept movement has

been additionally towards the west (Figure 6.36). Since the gaps in the respective joins have been filled, the transept’s rotation appears to have stabilized. The chancel has a slight weep towards the north (Figure 3.37), and the tower which according to Davies (1873) was rebuilt in 1623 was set slightly south of the correct church alignment. The chancel’s eastern sandstone quoins, like those built in the south wall of the south transept, are mainly of modern (Victorian?) construction. 6.13 Llanigon, St Eigo(e)n (SO 213 399) Llanigon Church has been extensively described by WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 15932, PRN 20192). Further details have been provided by Lewis (1845b, 70-71); Dawson (1909, 139-142); Haslam (1979, 350-351); Soden (1984, 62); and Salter (1991, 52). The church was referred to in the Taxatio of 1254, and more recently restored in 1857 and following 1941 war damage. The principal building stones are grey-green sandstones and supplementary red sandstones from the Old Red Sandstone. A 13th or 14th C. south porch (Figure 6.38) possesses an upper storey (once possibly a priest’s living quarters) which is thought to have been modified in 1670 to provide an unusual bellchamber. A relatively small font bowl in the porch (Figure 6.39), described by Haslam as 13th C., has four ‘carrying’? handles, and in shape, resembles early portable fonts described by Potter (2004c; 2010d).

Figure 6.34 A view of the cruciform church of St David, Llanddew, Brecknockshire (SO 054 307) from the south (with the nave to the left). 312

Chapter Six

Figure 6.35 The junction between the west wall of the north transept and the nave of Llanddew Church with the nave on the right. Note the infilled gap between the two walls indicating that the transept at one time fell away from the nave wall.

Figure 6.36 The east wall of the north transept of Llanddew Church has also moved in relation with the chancel (left). Since the occasion of the wall infills the transept has fortunately stabilized.

Figure 6.37 The arch between the chancel and the tower of Llanddew Church can be seen to be offcentre probably largely due to the rebuilt tower (in 1629) being set slightly too far to the south. 313

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.38 St Eigon Church, Llanigon, Brecknockshire (SO 213 399) is unusual in having its bellchamber within the south porch, as seen in this view from the south-east.

Figure 6.39 Within the porch is a relatively small font, which with four carrying handles resembles a portable font (folder 0.31m. long).

314

Chapter Six The east end of the chancel was rebuilt in 1856-1857 (Lambeth Palace Library, ICBS 04900). In the nave, three quoins at the south-east and western corners may be examined. These quoins are constructed of greygreen arkose from the Old Red Sandstone (with a few replacements) and in each a few BVFR/BVFL stones tend to occur within the higher levels. The nave has from its window styles been regarded as of 13th C. date and the quoins appear, therefore, to exhibit some late 16th C. quoin repairs. In the west end of the south chancel wall is a blocked priest’s doorway preserving three only of its west jamb stones, all of which are laid BH. CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (EAST) 6.14 Caerhun, St Mary (SH 777 704) Caerhun Church is situated in the north-east corner of the Roman fort Kanovium in the Conwy valley. The church was listed in the Norwich valuation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 192). Like the many other churches in Britain found in the proximity of Roman remains it should be expected to preserve evidence of an early origin and many stones of obvious Roman source. Unfortunately, this proves not to be the case and all early detail above ground, except for the few stones that are re-used, has been lost. The church is referred to in this brief account not for its older walls but for its south chapel which is known to have been added in 1591.

Accounts of the church have been given by Lewis (1845a, 145); Glynne (1900, 172); Hughes and North (1924, 8693); Crossley (1944); RCAHMW (1956, 21-23); Clarke (1962, 59); WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 2478); and Haslam et al. (2009, 279). In its poorly coursed walls the main body of the church (Figure 6.40) incorporates a wide variety of rock types, these obtained both via the Roman site, such as coarse Carboniferous and finer, relatively uncommon, Triassic sandstones; and non-Roman, locally gathered rock types, often as boulders, such as Lower Palaeozoic greywackes, sandstones and grits, as well as igneous rocks like basalt. The body of the church has been much altered and has been described by others. Although degrees of repair with other rock types vary, each of its three visible quoins (western nave and north-east chancel) is similar and largely constructed of coarse Carboniferous sandstone with all stones set BH. The junction between the nave and the chancel is poorly exhibited externally on the south wall. At the same position on the north wall an arch is partially visible and this may represent a position of access to an early rood loft or north chapel. The south chapel (Figure 6.41), which is thought to be later than the adjoining south-east chancel, possesses a building date, seen on its east wall, of 1591. No visible join can be observed between the chapel and chancel on the east wall. The southern quoins (Figures 6.42- 6.43) of the chapel are constructed of local, cleaved porphyritic dolerite

Figure 6.40 The earlier portion of the church of St Mary, Caerhun, Caernarfonshire (SH 777 704), the nave and chancel seen from the north-west, exhibits a mottled collection of stones in its walls.

315

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.41 Caerhun Church viewed from the south-east displays the 1591 south chapel to the right.

Figure 6.42 Detail of what might simply be described as a poorly cleaved, porphyritic dolerite as used in the quoins of the south chapel at Caerhun Church.

316

Chapter Six

Figure 6.43 The south-east quoin to the south chapel at Caerhun, where the stones are placed in ‘Alternate’ style. Note the stones are capable of being broken into relatively thin blocks because of their poor cleavage. The folder is 0.31m. long.

Figure 6.44 The south-east quoin of the south transept of the church of St Tegai, Llandegai, Caernarfonshire (SH 601 710). Sandstone quoin stones are emplaced in a sidealternate BH style rising to the battlements constructed in 1853. Several stones in slightly finer sandstone in the quoin, unfortunately indistinguishable in the photograph, are probably Victorian replacements.

(Figure 6.42), their stones emplaced in side-alternate, BVFR-BVFL fashion throughout their height (although it is necessary to use the poor igneous rock cleavage rather than bedding to determine the rock orientation). It should be noticed that these quoins include no BH stones. They do, however, provide an important fixed date for the use of ‘Alternate’ style quoin work.

The window styles in the north and south transepts provided RCAHMW (1956, 104) with a proposed date for the building of the transepts of 16th C. The transept quoins, created in Upper Carboniferous conglomeratic sandstone blocks, are partially set to a BH side-alternate style (Figure 6 44), although there are visible repairs in a finer sandstone. There is no clear evidence of the quoins being set to the ‘Alternate style’ of the late 16th C. The eastern chancel quoins are completed in a BH face-alternate style.

6.15 Llandegai, St Tegai (SH 601 710) The church stands on a relatively small circular mound which might represent the earliest churchyard and its existence is recorded in the Norwich valuation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 191). Extensively restored in 1853, the church has been described by Pennant (1784, 308); Lewis (1845a, 509); Glynne (1900, 187); Hand (1924, 169-178); Hughes and North (1924, 139-143); Crossley (1944, 102); RCAHMW (1956, 103-106); Clarke (1961b, 29-30; 1962, 57); Soden (1984, 68); WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 2319); and Haslam et al. (2009, 397). Small areas of ‘earlier’ walling remain in the nave, best observed on the south wall to the east of the central buttress. The wall here consists of a wide composition mixture, mainly of boulders, including, basalt, porphyritic basalt, sandstones, coarse greywacke, quartzite, and slate.

CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (CENTRAL) 6.16 Bedgellert, St Mary (SH 591 480) Bedgellert Church is recognised as being all that now remains of a former Augustinian medieval priory (Richards, 1952, 6-7), which in turn had once occupied an important monastic site (RCAHMW, 1960, 16-18; WHCP, Gwynedd, 143-145, PRN 6906). Other works referring to the church include Pennant (1784, 184-185); Lewis (1845a, 82); Jones (1847b, 153-166); Glynne (1900, 171); Hughes and North (1924, 220-227); Pryce (1929, 169); Crossley (1944, 87); Clarke (1961b, 29); Soden (1984, 65); and Pennant (1991, 184-185). The south walls of the nave and 317

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.45 The south nave wall of St Mary, Bedgellert, Caernarfonshire (SH 591 480) is thought to have been rebuilt in 1830. The visible batter was added at this time or somewhat later.

Figure 6.46 A portion of the arcade that may be viewed from the north transept in Bedgellert Church. Built of conglomeratic sandstone the arcade has been dated to c. 1230.

318

Chapter Six

Figure 6.47 The west face of Bedgellert Church displays above the modern porch a modern window cutting an earlier window with voussoirs which, had the jambs been present, might have been shown to be of pre-Romanesque origin.

Figure 6.48 In the north wall of Bedgellert Church this blocked and partially re-opened doorway with a pointed arch probably occupies the position of an earlier doorway in the north nave wall.

Figure 6.49 The south door jamb of the west door of the Romanesque north aisle that once existed at Bedgellert Church.

319

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Above the modern west porch the top of an early roundheaded window (Figure 6.47) has been cut from below by a relatively modern window to unfortunately remove the early window jambs. In the north wall the pointed arch of a narrow blocked doorway has been partially reopened as a window (Figure 6.48). This doorway occupies the position of an earlier nave doorway. The west wall of the north aisle remains in part and includes the southern chamfered jamb of a doorway (Figure 6.49) created in conglomeratic sandstone. Part of the east wall of the north aisle is also preserved and this carries the trace of an early slit window. Walls built in the 1230 period are of much the same composition as those thought to be prior to that date, but the c. 1230 fabric stones are consistently laid BH.

Figure 6.50 Cleaved andesitic blocks of lava and tuff in the south-west quoin of Bedgellert Church are laid, or more probably re-laid, to the ‘Alternate’ style.

The south nave and possibly part of the chancel walls are said to have been rebuilt in 1830. These walls are supported by three buttresses which appear to be of the same age. Between the western and central buttresses the batter appears to have been renewed at much the same time (Figure 6.45). The uppermost portion of both the walls and the west gable appear to have been rebuilt subsequently, presumably at a time of re-roofing. The orientation of the cleavage in the andesite (and possibly andesitic tuff) blocks in the south-west quoin (Figure 6.50) is placed vertically and alternately to left and right (BVFL/ BVFR) for the first eight stones in the quoin. This is in the ‘Alternate’ style mainly of the late 16th- early17th C. and possibly the stones were rebuilt in their original position at the time of modifications in 1830. 6.17 Capel Galltgoed, (SH 471 403) - ruin

chancel (Figure 6.45) were rebuilt in 1830 (Jones, 1847b). Of the many additional alterations, of importance was the destruction of an early extensive north aisle. This was demolished and subsequently replaced with the present north transept about 1880. The church is built with local volcanic rocks and in particular with lavas of andesitic composition. Older dressings are limited in quantity but created with Lower Carboniferous coarse sandstone. This course sandstone was probably conveyed from Anglesey, in part upstream via the River Glaslyn, from Porthmadoc. The RCAHMW (1960, 17) provided an early fixed date of c. 1230 for the dismantled north aisle based on the architectural detail of the portion of its arcade which still remains and can be viewed from within the church (Figure 6.46). The pillars of the arcade that remain are created in Lower Carboniferous conglomeratic sandstone and show evidence of having been affected by fire. From its presence, it may be inferred that the north nave wall above the arcade, the whole of the same wall to the west (where the arcade is believed not to have been present) and possibly parts of the west wall must be earlier. In these walls, where they remain visible, cleaved tuffs become the more predominant rock type (sometimes laid face-out) and any andesitic type rocks occur as boulders. There exist in the same walls two structural features which could have possibly provided dateable evidence.

This ruined chapel (Figure 6.51) is situated in the Parish of Llanystumdwy. The ruin stands in a small rectangular enclosure and a low bank. The building was described, with included photographs, by Morris (1916, 85-94). He advised that the last recorded burial was in 1816. RCAHMW (1960, 232) provided a brief description in which they stated that architecturally the building ‘seems to be of the 16th or 17th century, but is probably the successor to an earlier building’. The Commission also stated that the chapel was ‘in tolerable repair’ in 1811, but was converted to a cottage shortly after that date. The building was described as being in ruins in 1821 (Anon., 1915, 436). It is aligned with its east gable nearly towards the north-east. The walls are of mixed igneous rocks, mainly of boulders and of gabbro, with some dolerites, diorites, basalts, rhyolites and possible picrites. Dressings, now only evident in what remains of the original south doorway, and the east window, are of a coarse yellow sandstone. What remain of the only quoins at the eastern end include infill or levelling stones, the original stones being boulders. The chapel is referred to briefly here because when the east gable is viewed from the west it shows two distinct periods of building (these not being visible when viewed from the east) (Figure 6.52). The more modern roof and gable apex is well to the south of the east window. An 320

Chapter Six

Figure 6.51 The setting of Capel Galltgoed, Caernarfonshire (SH 471 403) as seen from the north.

Figure 6.52 Only visible on the inside of the east wall of Capel Galltgoed is a difficult to explain, lower gable building line which is significantly off-centre. It is possible it was created when a small temporary building was erected within the ruin. 321

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology earlier roof apex aligns better with the east window, it is significantly lower and in this instance the side walls were very much lower. The old south wall of which there is no other evidence, in particular, had then been very much inside the present south wall. There are numerous large boulders on the site which presumably came from both the church and its enclosing site (there are no visible gravestones). The site might be worth much more attention. 6.18 Cric(c)ieth, St Catherine (SH 501 383) Studies concerning Cricieth Church, which is double-aisled and situated in a partly circular, raised churchyard, include those of Lewis (1845a, 262); Glynne (1900, 180-181); RCAHMW (1960, 57-58); Clarke (1961b, 27-30; 1962, 63); Soulsby (1983, 117-119); GAT (1993); Ward (1997, 7-34); WCHP (Gwynedd, 160-161, PRN 3407); and Haslam et al., (2009, 349-350). GAT (Gwynedd Archaeological Trust) undertook a fabric study of the church and resulting from this concluded that the south aisle (which possesses a bell-cote) was of 13th C. date; the west end early and the east end late. The north aisle and arcade (subsequently rebuilt) was dated c.1500, the arcade between the two aisles having been rebuilt about 1872. The earliest record of the church is believed to be 1344 (Pryce, 1929, 171). There certainly are significant fabric changes in the walls of the church with probably many of the local rock types involved, these including igneous rocks like dolerite, microgabbro, and rhyolite but additionally local Lower Ordovician, slates and occasional sandstones. With all windows renewed in the 19th C., and all original or early structures obliterated or altered, there is little opportunity for customary architectural dating. A brief comment may, however, be made concerning the lowest quoin stones of the north aisle. The northern quoins of this aisle over the lowest three or four large stones, although much render covered, appear to be placed in an ‘Alternate’ style. This suggests to the present author from the dates seen in other churches in which this style occurs, that c. 1550 is probably nearer to the earliest date at which this aisle could have been erected. This date is slightly more recent than the dates offered by others (which range between late 15th C. and early 16th C.). The boulders which are evident particularly beneath the west end of the north aisle (Figure 6.53), and as a result of the 1993 extension on its north side, more recently manifested below part of the aisle’s north wall, suggest that this aisle was built on earlier foundations, or if the c. 1550 quoin date is correct earlier stones from elsewhere were re-used to create a foundation. All authors consider the south aisle to occupy more closely the position of the original church. If the foundation stones for the north aisle were obtained from the church site, possibly the lower stones of the earlier chancel provided the source, and the date for the east end of the south aisle more closely relates to that offered by RCAHMW. Graffiti on a sandstone block at the east end of the north aisle give an earliest date for the block of 1621.

Figure 6.53 The west walls of the church of St Catherine, Cricieth Caernarfonshire (SH 501 383), viewed from the south-west. Closest is the south aisle and most distant a modern extension. 6.19 Llanaelhaearn, St Aelhaearn (SH 387 448) This cruciform church was extensively restored in 1892, but it preserves what is generally thought to be a 12th C. nave as well as a collection of 6th C. inscribed stones (Heath, 2006, 224-226). Considerable repair work has been carried out in the last few years. The church has been described, or referred to, by Pennant (1784, 217); Lewis (1845b, 6-7); Glynne (1900, 183); Hughes and North (1924, 279-281; 1926, 433-4); Pryce (1929, 172); Crossley (1944, 96-98); Clarke (1962, 60, 65); RCAHMW (1964, 97-98); Soden (1984, 67); WHCP (Gwynedd, 170-171, PRN 6937); and Haslam et al. (2009, 385), as well as others. The church is constructed mainly of local acid igneous rocks, particularly felsites, rhyolites and feldspar porphyries. A blocked (WHCP, suggested in 1930), south doorway to the nave (Figure 6.54) has provided the principal evidence for the proposed early date for the nave. The round-headed doorway has a sill of feldspar porphyry, now well above ground level, but resting upon earlier foundations. It has no imposts, but beneath recent heavy pointing the doorway can be seen to be crudely constructed. All jamb stones and voussoirs are of igneous rocks and they reveal no orientation, furthermore they are of a variety acid igneous rock types. From these particulars, a Patterned origin would seem unlikely, unless repairs have been very extensive. The roof of the nave would appear to have been lowered since the doorway was constructed in its present form. 322

Chapter Six

Figure 6.54 The blocked nave south door to St Aelhaearn, Llanaelhaearn, Caernarfonshire (SH 387 448).

Figure 6.55 The south-east quoin to the south transept of Llanaelhaearn Church (taken at dusk) has a dated wall stone nearby indicating that the wall construction might have been in 1622.

The western nave quoins are mainly built of feldspar porphyry, these placed almost entirely in face-alternate pattern. The lower part of the north-west quoin has been rebuilt. The style of stone insertion again tends to reflect more modern construction than 12th C. and it closely resembles that seen in the quoins of the south transept (Figure 6.55) where a date stone of 1622 has been set.

6.20 Llanfaglan, St Baglan (SH 455 607)

The chancel was extended, and possibly completely rebuilt (for there is no evidence of the points of extension), in 1892, for it was figured (Hughes and North, 1924, 281) before that date in much shorter form. The west nave doorway is again constructed of igneous rocks revealing no orientation, but its architectural style is said to be 14th C., and it seems possible that apart from the foundations beneath the south nave wall, this doorway may represent perhaps the earliest diagnostic date for what originally may have been a church with pre-Romanesque origins. It is customary for early churches to have had a west doorway prior to those possibly inserted in the south and north nave walls. In this instance the south doorway looks the earlier for it is 0.25m. narrower. Regrettably, neither nave doorway possesses stonework which might reveal their date of construction.

The early history of the Llanfaglan site is unknown but the church resides in what originally was a roughly circular churchyard. Details of the church have been recorded by Lewis (1845b, 118); Palmer (1886); Hughes and North (1924, 246-250); Hughes (1932c); RCAHMW (1960, 198-199); Clarke (1961b, 25; 1962, 61-62, 64); Gresham (1968, 102-104); WHCP (Gwynedd, 195-196, PRN 6984); and Saunders (2010, 57-59). From these works the nave is recognised as the oldest part of the church (Figure 6.56) and has been dated to the 13th C., on the not very convincing evidence of the north doorway which is now within a porch. WHCP (Gwynedd) giving no reason, presented concern that ‘The nave may have earlier origins than that suggested by the 13th century north door’ but continued ‘although there are no dateable features to support this’. Internally, forming the rear-arch of the same north doorway, a large inscribed late 5th or early 6th C. stone (Nash-Williams, 1950, 88) has been inserted (Figure 6.57). This was probably set in place at the time of rebuilding of the roof, for it provides some support for the roof through an arched-braced collar-beam. Driver and Davison (2005, 104) and RCAHMW (2005, Coflein, NPRN 403370)

323

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.56 Viewed from the south-east St Baglan Church, Llanfaglan, Caernarfonshire (SH 455 607) displays dissimilar wall fabrics between the chancel and the nave.

Figure 6.57 The inscribed late 5th-early 6th C. stone over the north doorway of Llanfaglan Church.

324

Chapter Six

Figure 6.58 Viewed from the south-east, the south chancel wall (right) at Llanfaglan Church is largely constructed of boulders or broken boulders of igneous rocks, and the east wall has further fabric differences.

Figure 6.59 The east window in Llanfaglan church appears to have been reset. Most of the black stones are of gabbro. 325

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.60 Viewed from the west the stonework, principally of gabbro, in the nave and the west wall of the south transept of St Baglan is very similar and unlike stonework seen in other walls of the church

Figure 6.61 Little has changed in the interior of St Baglan since Victorian times as may be seen from the chancel towards the west.

326

Chapter Six

Figure 6.62 St Baglan possesses an unusual heptagonal font.

recently undertook an aerial survey of the site to reveal crop-mark traces of a polygonal early enclosure complex in close proximity to the church. Wall fabric composition differs greatly with different walls. In the chancel, in the north wall, squared blocks of coursed, Carboniferous, conglomerates and sandstones predominate, but these include at least two, partial ornamental bands of igneous rocks. In the east wall (Figure 6.58), the sandstones and conglomerates occur at the middle level of the wall: below, the lowest metre of the wall consists mainly of igneous rocks, many being boulders (probably from the local beach); whereas in the gable above, the sandstones and conglomerates are better squared. In the north wall of the church the chancel displays a clear contact with the earlier north nave wall (Figure 6.56). The north nave wall is about 0.8m. thick, whilst the chancel north wall is slightly thinner. The east window (Figure 6.59), probably of 14th century date (RCAHMW, 1960, 199), has clearly been reset into the east wall. The Royal Commission also recorded that in 1776 the chancel was shorter and narrower, and they suggested that it was rebuilt to the current dimensions c. 1800. Local historian, I. Williams (pers.comm.) suggests 1801. The numerous fabric styles make a full rebuilding of the chancel at this date difficult to ascertain.

In the chancel south wall (Figure 6.58), frequently broken, igneous boulders of microgabbro, dolerite and porphyries form most of the wall. These igneous rocks are likely to have made up much of the original chancel fabric; whereas the higher portion of the east gable and the north chancel walls may well reflect building since the early 19th C. The eastern chancel quoins are created in Carboniferous, quartz-rich conglomerates and some are set to the ‘Alternate’ BVFR/BVFL style, except where replaced, as at the eaves; despite, as proposed, having been being built as late as about 1800. The walls of the nave and south chapel (Figure 6.60) are of similar fabric and quite unlike those of the chancel, being constructed of largish, broken angular blocks of gabbro. The three visible quoins of the nave are distinctly different to those in the chancel; in each fairly large gabbro boulders are principally involved, being set to no particular style. Occasionally, as in the base of the southwest quoin, Carboniferous conglomerates have been reused (preserving slate fillets between the stones), possibly in repair work to the quoin. The rebuilt western bell-cote is also constructed of similar conglomeratic sandstone. The chapel south window has been rebuilt to smaller than original dimensions. The church possesses a simple interior (Figure 6.61) and a heptagonal font (Figure 6.62) said to be the only one of its kind in Wales.

327

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 6.21 Llanllyfni, St Rhedyw (SH 470 521) Llanllyfni Church is cruciform in plan and it is believed that different parts were constructed between the 14th and the 17th C. The oldest portion is said to be the nave, which has been dated on the form of the north doorway to the 14th C. (RCAHMW, 1960, 206-207; WHCP, Gwynedd, 211212, PRN 7028). Others describing, or referring to, the church were Lewis (1845b, 78-79); Glynne (1900, 316317); Hughes and North (1924, 256-261); Pryce (1029, 177); Crossley (1944, 108); and Clarke (1962, 61). The church is recorded as being restored both in 1839 and 1879. Prior to the 1839, there were three narrow blocked windows present in the nave walls (WHCP, Gwynedd). At least one of these is still traceable on the internal walls. Much of the church stonework is of rhyolites and cleaved rhyolitic tuff from the Pre-Cambrian, Padarn volcanic local rocks immediately north of the church. The dating of the north nave doorway (Figure 6.63) could clearly be critical to the understanding of the church construction. The present author might suggest that the two-centred arch created with thin voussoirs is of a later

Figure 6.63 The north nave doorway of St Rhedyw Church, Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire (SH 470 521) would appear to have voussoirs that are more modern than the jambs.

date than the jamb stones. The jambs, on first appearance, are possibly set in early Romanesque (Norman) style. The east jamb is only of two stones set BVEIA and BH. The west jamb is the same but for a small stone of porphyry between the other two stones and this fails to confirm such an early origin. The four principal jamb stones are of slightly schistose rhyolitic tuff and the stone orientation is determined by cleavage rather than bedding. In contrast, the thin voussoirs are created from at least five different rock types, a number of voussoirs only being of schistose tuff. The western nave quoins are created with large, partly sawn blocks at their base. The south-west quoin (Figure 6.64) rises: BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH, each of the schistose rhyolitic tuff. The rocks above are small and thin, many having been replaced. In the north-west quoin the lowest stone is set BH and is of the same material, but it is followed by an igneous block of gabbro, with more BH schistose tuffs above before giving way to more recent work in smaller stones. The wall abutting the chancel quoin which is directly beneath a kneeler in the north nave wall appears to be rebuilt (Figure 6.65) and does not appear to represent the early nave quoin.

Figure 6.64 The south-west nave quoin as Llanllyfni Church has its lowest four stones in schistose rock set BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH and immediately appears to be of Patterned style. However, the stones have been partially sawn and are of ‘Victorian’ insertion.

328

Chapter Six

Figure 6.65 The junction between the nave and chancel walls on the north side of Llanllyfni Church. With the north transept west wall to the left, the north-west quoin of the chancel occurs beneath the three roof kneelers. The vertical space fillers on the nave side and the regularity of the chancel quoin BH stones suggests the walls have been rebuilt in the ‘Victorian’ restorations.

Figure 6.66 The north-east chancel quoin at Llanllyfni Church roof kneelers have had additional stones placed above them to provide a level base for a new roof (the south-east corner is similarly treated).

At each corner of the chancel, facing to north and south, there are kneelers created of three stones; from their presence RCAHMW (1960) argue a case for a chancel that was originally shorter and narrower. Those at the eastern end of the chancel (Figure 6.66) had to be raised when the roof was elevated and restored by inserting material above the kneeler, implying that an earlier roof was not horizontal. The visible quoins of the chancel are constructed of small stones set BH, typically representative of the period 12th to 15th C. In contrast, the later transept quoins, although somewhat altered, are set to an ‘Alternate’ style. They include a greater mix of rock types and in some instances show clear evidence of having been worked.

CAERNARFONSHIRE (CAERNARVONSHIRE) (WEST)

In the moderate time devoted to the study of this church the author concluded that no Patterned workmanship was visible. Rather, that the occasional use of large blocks of cut schistose tuff (and in some instances slate), in both quoins and jambs in vertical orientation, represent work of the 17th C. and later date. The use of sawn stones, irregular styles of rock insertion, and the great variability of stone types used, each contributed to this view.

6.22 Bryncroes, St Mary (SH 226 315) Bryncroes Church certainly existed in 1254 for it is recorded in the Norwich valuation of that year (Lunt, 1926, 190). In 1535, it is recorded as a chapel of the abbey on the island of Bardsey (RCAHAMW, 1964, 45, endnote). The single-celled church was extensively restored in 1905-1906 and it is typically thought that no fabric that is in place remains from a date prior to the 14th C. Lewis (1845a, 136) described the building as it stood in the mid-19th C. The present church was briefly reviewed by Haslam et el. (2009, 275-276), and its memorial tablets by Hughes (1914, 411-413). The church structure and more recent history were well described in WHCP (Gwynedd, 151-152, PRN 6914). Bryncroes is listed here to provide an example of how the detailed examination of the stonework, particularly in this instance in the quoins, enables some of the 20th C. rebuilding to be distinguished from that possibly created at the period when the church was associated with Bardsey Abbey.

329

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.67 The north-west quoin of St Mary, Bryncroes, Caernarfonshire (SH 226 315) is created in igneous rocks in large blocks which face alternately to right and left over the lowest four stones. If the blocks are assumed to have been broken according to incipient weaknesses these stones might be considered as following the ‘Alternate’ style of stone insertion which became common late in the 16th C.

Figure 6.68 In the north-east chancel quoin at Bryncroes Church the igneous rocks in the quoin proceed to its full height in an ‘Alternate style’; but this again based on incipient breakage directions in the rock.

Stones throughout the building fabric are of very local microgabbro/dolerite with the occasional even finergrained basalt. These stones exhibit no clearly visible orientation in their composition. Quarrymen, working igneous rocks in particular, are aware that stones frequently break with different ease in unlike directions. In creating rectangular blocks they use a terminology: ‘rift’, for the easiest direction; ‘grain’, for the more difficult direction at right angles to the ‘rift’, and ‘hardway’ for the most difficult direction required to make a rectangular block (see also section 7.2.4). The directions of dissimilar capabilities of breakage are related to features like flow orientation in the molten rock, minute bubbles in the rock, or cracks within crystals; none of which may be discernible by eye.

into the description of either face- or side- alternate. The stones tend to be placed with their longest axis vertically. Successive rocks are of igneous composition like, ?dolerite, microgabbro, basalt, and porphyritic dolerite. Above this portion of the quoin, much smaller blocks of similar igneous material are placed to emphasize their horizontal dimensions and to relate with the wall coursing. Much the same structure occurs in the south-west quoin, where the largest faces of big stones are successively placed left, right, left, right, left; to be followed by smaller stones set much as in the north-west quoin. At the eastern end of the building the quoins follow the ‘Alternate’ face style to the eaves (Figure 6.68). The change in style in the western quoins is believed to be the result of re-building of the upper portion of each quoin in 1905-1906, this supplanting work possibly created in the late 16th or 17th C.

The four major quoins show interesting differences in their respective stone emplacement styles. Following the style that was avidly followed in Wales over the late 16th and 17th C., the lowest four large stones in the north-west quoin (Figure 6.67) have their largest faces alternately placed to the right and to the left. This portion of the quoin might be termed ‘Alternate’ for the rocks do not fall precisely

The west porch, the west nave doorway, and the bell-cote fail to align. The west porch is thought to have been built in the 1905-1906 period of alterations (WHCP, Gwynedd), and the nave round-headed doorway appears to be the oldest of these three structures.

330

Chapter Six 6.23 Llandudwen, St Tudwen (SH 274 369) There is written evidence for the rebuilding of this church in 1595 (RCAHMW, 1965, 41). The early churchyard is curvilinear around the church, this area now being set in a more modern graveyard. Both RCAHMW and WHCP (Gwynedd, 185-186, PRN 6962) offer well-reasoned accounts of the church and its structure, and Lewis (1845a, 539); Glynne (1900, 311-312); Clarke (1961b, 20; 1962, 65); and Haslam et al. (2009, 424) have provided descriptions. The evidence suggests that a double-celled church existed prior to the 16th C. but that the chancel was lost to become a crossing only, as chapels were added to its north and south. The style of the windows in the south chapel suggested that it should be dated c. 1625, but the north chapel proved difficult to date and was considered ‘probably’ 16th C. (RCAHMW, 1965, 41). The stonework of the church (Figure 6.69) both in the walls and the quoins is confined to the local igneous rocks of microgabbro, dolerite and porphyritic dolerite, none of which provide evidence of orientation from their structure. The church has recently been renovated (Figure 6.70). Llandudwen Church is referred to briefly here because in some of the present six quoins the stones are erected to the ‘Alternate’ style, with large faces placed vertically, alternately to right and left as at Bryncroes (section 6.22). For such quoin

stones the possibility is that the construction was within a few tens of years of 1595. Large boulders occupy the lowest position in some quoins and these may of course have been re-used from much earlier quoins. Elsewhere, as in the southeast quoin of the south chapel (Figure 6.70), the stones are emplaced in the much more difficult to precisely date facealternate style. It should be noted that both the west doorway to the nave and the bell-cote are off-set to the north, both differing in amount from the ridge of the nave. 6.24 Llangwnnadl, St Gwynhoe(y)dl (SH 208 333) St Gwynhoedl is one of three churches to be described in this work from the Lleyn peninsula which supports quoins, created in igneous rocks, with an ‘Alternate’ stone structure, to which a date can possibly be applied. Commencing from a single-celled structure of nave and chancel, the church has had aisles built to the north and the south over the full length of the church. The church has been described by RCAHMW (1965, 65-67) and WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 7018) as well as by others (such as Lewis, 1845b, 55; Glynne, 1900, 315-316; Hemp, 1918, 320-322; 1956, 147-149; Clarke, 1962, 57, 59-61, 64; Soden, 1984, 68-69; Haslam et al., 2009, 443-444; and Redknap, 2009, 361 and 367-368). The stone fabric within all the walls appears to be much the same and is particularly of igneous rocks such as basalts and dolerites.

Figure 6.69 From the west of St Tudwen, Llandudwen, Caernarfonshire (SH 274 369) both the west nave wall and the west wall of the south transept are visible.

331

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.70 The trace of a door in the west wall of Llandudwen Church became visible with cleaning and re-pointing (seen beneath scaffolding). The stonework also became much easier to identify.

There remains little evidence of the early church to which the aisles were later attached. The west nave door has been infilled and only poor traces of it are now in evidence. There are some early foundations visible externally below the west and east walls of the early church and their dimensions illustrate that the early church was unicelled. If the north and south arcade walls were built into the corresponding early church walls, the original walls were relatively thin, being just 0.78m. and 0.63m. respectively; typically too thin to be Norman Romanesque work, but more probably of Patterned or 13th C. date. All hints of the eastern chancel quoins and the north-west nave quoin have been lost, and heavy render and pointing covers the possible trace of the south-west nave quoin. The northern aisle has been dated to 1520 on the evidence of a dated inscription (Figure 6.71) on a pier of the arcade (RCAHMW, 1965, 67). A copy of this figure was sent to various experts on the script of the period for examination, but no fixed conclusion as to the date that has been inscribed was obtained, most opting for ‘uncertain’. If the north aisle and arcade were built at the same time the date is important, for the visible aisle quoins (including the

two quoins on the south aisle) are constructed with stones placed alternately. In the instance of the Llangwynnadl aisle quoins, vertically emplaced side-alternate (which might be representative of the ‘Alternate’ style) stones are commonplace. Only in the north-west aisle above about stone six are they replaced with face-alternate use. As there is no reason to doubt the originality of the sidealternately placed fine-grained igneous stones, when compared with evidence from other local churches, such as Llandudwen (possibly around 1595) and Llanengan (not occurring in 1534), 1520 would appear to be too early for the construction of the side-alternate quoins. A literature search provided a valuable clue to this discrepancy. In a paper of 1848, Parry Jones described the inscriptions which ‘were about to be restored’. He continued; ‘a date described as once present could not be read “if it ever existed”.’ Parry Jones (1848) If a date had ever existed it seems that 1620 might be more nearly representative of the date of construction of the aisles. 332

Chapter Six

Figure 6.71 On a north aisle pillar to St Gwynhoedl Church, Llangwynnadl, Caernarfonshire (SH 208 333) is an inscription carrying this date. Although interpreted by a variety of authors as reading 1520, but not all, it seems likely that it was not inscribed until the mid-19th C.

6.25 Pistyll, St Beuno (SH 328 423) Described as a church that ‘is probably of 12th century origin’ (WHCP, Gwynedd, 224-225, PRN 2227), St Beuno, Pistyll is recorded in the Norwich valuations of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 190). The church possesses a font basin (Figure 6.72) that has been described as 12th C. (RCAHMW, 1964, 89-90). The church was described by Lewis (1845b, 327) and later by Glynne (1900, 319-320, at the time of a visit in 1850). Haslam et al. (2009, 497) also provided a review of the church. As with so many Lleyn peninsular churches, the rocks used in the construction of the church are of local igneous rocks. On this occasion they are a mixture of microgranites, feldspar porpheries and felsites, none of which exhibit any obvious structural lineation or orientation. The extent of rebuilding associated with this singlecelled church can be observed in an overall view of the north wall (Figure 6.73). This wall can be divided in its height into three approximately equal portions: at the base the stonework is random; over much of the middle portion, the wall is well and evenly coursed; and at the top it has obviously been rebuilt, presumably at

the time of the installation of a new roof. At the western end of the wall, the whole has been rebuilt. Two heavy buttresses have been constructed to support what remains of the west wall and between these is a simple medieval west door (Figure 6.74), described by both RCAHMW (1964, 89-90) and WHCP (Gwynedd, 224) as ‘probably 15th century’. At the base of the south-west quoin (Figure 6.75), four large, externally weathered, stones probably of felsite occur. Above them the quoin stones are small and relatively thin and placed in a stable horizontal attitude, reminiscent of work constructed within the 12th to early 16th century interval but also possibly more modern. Stone 1, a boulder with a west face of about a metre in length, projected out from the remainder of the wall; stone 2, with its largest face towards the west; stone 3, with its largest face to the south; stone 4, with the height smaller than the lengths of either face (giving a BH appearance). The appearance created by these four stones is not unlike the late 16th-17th C. ‘Alternate’ style. Dating the work as Patterned in this case would largely be dependent on the assessment that the west end of the church is of 12th C. date, for which no evidence appears to remain. 333

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.72 The font at St Beuno Church, Pistyll, Caernarfonshire (SH 328 423).

Figure 6.73 The north wall of Pistyll Church displays a number of different periods of stonework. These are referred to in the church description. 334

Chapter Six

Figure 6.74 The west wall of Pistyll Church. The two buttresses are modern and the four-centred arch to the voussoirs of the west door tends to suggest that it is of 15th C. date.

Figure 6.75 The south-west quoin to the nave of Pistyll Church commences with four large stones probably of felsite. From the evidence available it proved impossible to determine whether a Patterned or ‘Alternate’ period would have been the most likely time for their emplacement. 335

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology CARMARTHENSHIRE

6.27 Llanarthne(y), St David (St Arthneu) (SN 534 203)

6.26 Capel Bettws, (Trelech a’r Betws) (SN 278 282) - ruin

A relatively complex church (Figure 6.81), Llanarthne is thought to have been restored in 1682 (as inscribed on an inset stone on the north wall), 1826, and late in the 19th C. (probably 1873 according to the dated drainpipes). References to the church are made in the following documents: Lewis (1845a, 474); Jones (1915a, 328); RCAHMW (1917, 70); Eyre-Evans (1913, 56, 65-66; 1919b, 63); Yates (1973, 58); Salter (1994, 32); Treharne (2006, 41-51); and WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 728, PRN 49262). No entry could be gained to the church. In structure, the building consists of a west tower, nave, south aisle, chancel and south chapel to the chancel. The nave and south aisle are roofed in one with its ridge adjoining the tower near its south-east corner. The tower, which Yates and Little (1974, 71) described as of 15th C. construction, still preserves something of a recent thick lime render making its stonework difficult to decipher but at about half height the walls change from being vertical to possessing, in the lower portion, a slight batter (with a slight bulge on the south wall). This suggests that the tower may be of two building periods. A string course exists on the tower at about 2m. and below this there is a pronounced batter. The string rises over the west doorway which is constructed in Old Red Sandstone. The wall contacts with the nave provided no visible information as to which of the two structures was the earlier.

Situated in a rectangular graveyard in which gravestones are absent, Capel Bettws (Figure 6.76) fails to be mentioned in the early 13th C. Taxatio and appears to have received no recognition until represented on the Saxton map of 1578. WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 3946) recorded that the chapel was in poor repair in 1684 and, that services had been discontinued by 1710. Descriptions of the ruin have been offered also by Lewis (1845b, 321); Jones (1915); RCAHMW (1917, 267); and Salter (1994, 26). External walling to the chapel is now only rarely evident and the interior was once internally plastered. Rocks used in building the chapel are of local origin and apparently of Upper Ordovician sandstones, siltstones, shale, and include some conglomerates. Evidence from occasional pieces of fallen material suggests that the final roof was constructed in a hard, thin flaggy siltstone. The ruin was originally built with just a nave (internally 9.0m. long by 4.81m. wide) (Figure 6.77) and an adjoining chancel (internally about 5.5m. long by 3.6m. wide). The external walls were of the order of 0.85 to 0.9m. thick. The pointed, intervening chancel arch (2.13m. wide) has had the interior of the arch rebuilt with flaggy shale (Figure 6.78) To this simple building a narrow north aisle (only 1.25m. wide) was subsequently added (Figure 6.79). This remarkable aisle was separated by an arcade of two, unequal length, shallow arches created with voussoirs, with a chamfered central pier. The aisle does not extend to the west end of the nave (Figure 6.77) and it is possible, but not visible, that the nave has been extended in this direction. That the aisle was largely intended for perambulation is evident from the presence of a walk-through hagioscope (Figure 6.80) which enters the chancel immediately east of the chancel arch. Narrow aisles of this nature were typically created during the period of Norman influence; at Capel Bettws, however, no other features of construction from this period are obviously evident. Roberts (in Edwards and Lane, 1992, 44) suggests the term ‘betws’ (from the Old English) was not used in Wales until the 13th C. The doorway to the chapel appears to have been through the west wall of the nave. The doorway, which has recently fallen, when originally viewed in 2010 was apparently locked by means of a wooden bar (see section 7.4). This would seem to indicate that the doorway was of early 13th C. origin. In the fallen outer walls of the chapel there is a mixture of moderately squared blocks together with 20-30 per cent of river worn boulders which are frequently conglomeratic (the latter may have been used of course in the wall cores). From the limited internal stonework visible it proves impossible to determine with certainty the age of the chapel but an early 13th C. date seems possible.

The church nave is constructed of Lower Palaeozoic greywackes, sandstones and a few conglomerates but additionally contains some fossiliferous Silurian sandstones containing Orthids and other brachiopods (Figure 2.9).The north wall (Figure 6.82) was rendered in the post-1682 and the pre-Victorian window modification (with Middle Jurassic bioclastic oolite) interval. The wall appears to show evidence of earlier structure at its east end where a ledge at (at 0.3 - 0.4m.) decreases in evidence to the west. The earlier wall below contains similar greywacke rock types but often as boulders. The north-east nave quoin stones are all set BH and have been rebuilt at height. In establishing a new roof to encompass both the nave and south aisle it proved necessary to rebuild much of the east nave wall. What appears to be a short length of early nave wall is visible in the west wall to the south of the tower and at its base is a low batter (which is not visible to the north of the tower). The equality of west nave wall length on either side of the tower may indicate that the tower was once central to the nave roof ridge – a feature that could have been confirmed internally. The south aisle appears more recently constructed than the nave, and although built of similar local greywackes these are better coursed and boulders are absent. The windows were modified at the same period as those in the nave. The south-west quoin is constructed of cut blocks of Devonian conglomeratic sandstone all set BH. The south-east quoin appears to have been replaced fairly

336

Chapter Six

Figure 6.76 Capel Bettws, Carmarthenshire (SN 278 282) ruin and site as it appears from the south-east.

Figure 6.77 The nave of Capel Bettws towards the west doorway from the east.

337

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.78 The chancel arch of Capel Bettws as seen from the west. The inside portion of the arch has been rebuilt.

Figure 6.79 View if the two arcade arches (the furthest having fallen) related to the narrow aisle to the north of the nave at Capel Bettws. 338

Chapter Six

Figure 6.80 The narrow hagioscope seen from the south-east where it enters the chancel of Capel Bettws, with the north chapel wall to the right.

Figure 6.81 St David, Llanarthne, Carmarthenshire as seen from the ENE.

339

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.82 The outline of the windows that preceded the Victorian windows of Jurassic oolitic limestone remain evident on the north wall of the nave of Llanarthne Church.

Figure 6.83 The west end of the south aisle of Llanarthne Church in which the doorway has been rebuilt, possibly from an earlier position. 340

Chapter Six

Figure 6.84 The south end of the south aisle of Llanarthne Church which has suffered alterations in relatively modern times.

recently, it includes blocks of Carboniferous Limestone and two stones set BV. The aisle has a puzzling Old Red Sandstone west doorway which, externally, is not central. It is set back from the west wall and is apparently wholly rebuilt (Figure 6.83). Although of 13th C. style with chamfered jambs it has been placed in the wall haphazardly with jamb stones showing no clear orientation pattern. The two lowest chamfered stones (north jamb, ?BV; south jamb, BVEIA) which terminate the chamfer base suggest the 1600, ‘Alternate’ period might be an appropriate date for the original doorway prior to its re-construction. The east end of the church, of the same rock types as the west, has been extensively altered during the Victorian era (Figure 6.84). A boiler-house built ‘late in the 19th C’ (WHCP, Dyfed), and now removed, necessitated a window in the south wall of the chancel to be blocked and wall rebuilding in the east of the chapel. A greywacke-sandstone string and batter surrounds the whole of the east end except at or near the quoins where Old Red Sandstone (and a few pieces of Carboniferous limestone) have been introduced and in these three stones have been set without pattern with orientations vertically.

6.28 Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn, St Mary on the Hill (SN 770 352) Today, Llanfair-ar-y-bryn is the principal church in the town of Llandovery. The church (Figures 6.85 and 6.86) has suffered numerous modifications in its history and many of the more recent changes are better shown in the church interior. The church occupies a site within the Roman fort of Alabum and was possibly a cell of Great Malvern Priory in 1127 (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 3856, PRN 49281). Within the external nave and chancel walls, which are mainly constructed of local Ordovician and Lower Silurian greywackes, sandstones and grits; occasional fragments of Roman tiles are evident, and in certain areas regular, well-shaped blocks in these walls are probably of re-used Roman stone. The church was referred to by both Lewis (1845b, 119-120) and Glynne (1898, 361, following his visit in May, 1851), and more recently mentioned in the writings of Jones (1915b, 397); Eyre-Evans (1911-12; 1917); Evans (1913); Caroë (1917); RCAHMW (1917, 9798); Jones (1937, 49); Yates (1972, 49-62); Yates and Little (1974, 63-75); Soulsby (1983, 162-164); Soden (1984, 75-76); Salter (1994, 35); Treharne (2006, 252-256) and others. The church was restored in 1880 and some of the windows date to this period.

341

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.85 The church of St Mary on the Hill, Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn, Carmarthenshire (SN 770 352) as it appears from the south-east.

Figure 6.86 The tower, with a batter at the base, of Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn viewed from the north-east.

342

Chapter Six

Figure 6.87 The north wall of the chancel of Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn Church which includes a small slit window and many boulders in the wall fabric.

Possibly the oldest non-Roman re-used material occurs in the north wall of the chancel (Figure 6.87) where up to 20 per cent of the wall consists of boulders of Lower Palaeozoic and occasional Old Red Sandstone rocks. A small modified slit window in this wall possesses jambs of boulders of Old Red Sandstone. In the south wall of the nave is a very extensively altered window which has been claimed to be Saxo-Norman, but its jambs exhibit no evidence of such an early origin. The principal navechancel quoins have all suffered several degrees of repair, and although the re-used materials reflect an early origin for the body of the church, no structures provide evidence of anything prior to the 13th C. The south wall of the chancel displays a blocked arch to a chapel which is thought to have been of this date (Figure 6.85). The chapel was removed in the 19th C. but its lateral dimensions are represented by the wall plaster which still adheres to the external surface of the chancel wall. The earliest dressings to windows and doorways are of Old Red Sandstone sandy conglomerates; in the Victorian period replaced by Middle Jurassic bioclastic limestone (with limited ooliths) and more recently with Triassic red sandstone. Unusually, the early font bowl is constructed of a coarse Upper Old Red Sandstone conglomerate. The church preserves evidence of a past rood screen and staircase.

The tower of 13th C. date (Church Guide; Anon., undated) possesses a string course at about three metres from the ground (Figure 6.86). Both this string and the wall batter below it appear to have been subsequently added. This batter and string do not envelop the tower turret suggesting that the turret might be a later addition to the tower. 6.29 Marros, St Lawrence (SN 207 089) Thought to have been a chapel-of-ease, under the name Marcross, during the early medieval period (Rees, 1932), there is evidence of pre-Romanesque religious use on the Marros site in the form of a Bronze Age cemetery (Tricker, undated; WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 3833). The church was restored in 1844 (RCAHMW, 1917, 212) and again in 1895-98 (WHCP, Dyfedd). Others who have contributed to the history of the church are Lewis (1845b, 198); Jones (1915); Treherne (1926-1927, 13); Eyre-Evans (1927-1929, 6-7); Matthews (1926, 13; 1927-1929, 6); Yates (1972, 49-62); and Salter (1994, 42). The church tower (Figure 6.88), of hammered Carboniferous Limestone blocks is clearly later than the body of the church with which it does not align. Its age has been variously described as 13th C. (Tricker, undated, 8), 15th C. (Lloyd, et al., 2006, 346) and 15th –mid 16th C.

343

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.88 A view of St Lawrence, Marros, Carmarthenshire (SN 207 089) where the tall tower dominates the church.

Figure 6.89 Two of the three quoin stones in the east jamb of the south porch entrance to Marros Church. These (and others) are set BVFIA and their characteristics suggest that they were once part of a Patterned doorway, possibly transferred from the south nave wall. 344

Chapter Six (WHCP). The tower has been extensively restored and re-faced, for its side-alternate quoins would indicate a date post the mid-17th C. (the hammered stones make them difficult to read, particularly at higher levels). The tower would appear to have also been increased in height since its first construction. The church is situated on the Carboniferous, Middle Coal Measures, and sandstones and quartzites from these deposits provide the older stone in the variously restored walls of the nave/chancel. These are mainly in the form of broken and whole beach cobbles. Carboniferous Limestone deposits are present about 400m. to the north of the church and Lower Devonian sandstones about 700m. in the same direction. Much of the nave/chancel walling was refaced in Carboniferous Limestone rubble in 1895-98 (WHCP), and the chancel’s eastern quoins and east face are constructed entirely of cut blocks of Carboniferous Limestone. The south porch provides possibly the greatest evidence of antiquity. It is barrel-vaulted and again variously dated: 14th C. (Tricker, undated, 14), 15th C. (Lloyd, et al., 2006), 14th or 15th C. (WHCP); and contains a simple early stoup. The doorway to the nave from the porch is of Middle Jurassic limestone and of relatively recent insertion. The entrance doorway to the porch is constructed of both red and grey Devonian coarse sandstone. Each of the jambs is constructed of large stones (two in the west and three in the east) and all are set BVFIA. In the east jamb all are through stones (Figure 6.89) and in the west jamb this is true only for the lowest stone. The stones have been modified and some preserve an angle-roll at their edge. The appearance of these stones suggests that they originally served in the position of a Patterned south nave doorway. They were probably provided with a decorative edge (in the 13th C.) prior to the porch being built. The stones would have then been subsequently re-used in the porch entrance. The history of the church, in summary, may be suggested, therefore, as follows. An early church was constructed largely of local beach boulders and cobbles of sandstones and quartzites from the Coal Measures. This church possessed a Patterned style narrow doorway built of local Devonian conglomeratic sandstones with through jamb stones set BVFIA. Angle-rolls, now very weathered, were added to the doorway possibly in the 13th C. when the doorway may also have been widened and a new pointed arch provided. The whole doorway was subsequently transferred to the entrance of a new porch a century or so later.

CEREDIGION (CARDIGANSHIRE) 6.30 Llanddewi Brefi, St David (SN 664 554) This early, once cruciform church is regarded as a possible clas site and reference to the church was made in the late 11th C. ‘Life of St David’ (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 5135, PRN 5138). Parts of an inscribed stone, variously dated from 6th (NashWilliams, 1950, 98) to the 9th C., referring to St David, are built into the nave wall near to the north-west quoin (Figure 6.90). The church has received mention in numerous works and these include: Meyrick (1808, 268-273); when the church was described as a ‘handsome Gothic structure’ but the north transept was in ruins (Figure 6.91); Lewis (1845a, 521); Anon. (1861, 310); Willis-Bund (1888, 317); Glynne (1897, 306), who visited the site in July, 1872; Eyre-Evans (1918a, 139-141); Bowen (1950, 15-17; 1953); Knowles and Haddock (1953); Williams, D. (1960-1963, 118); Williams, G. (1960-1963, 336-352); Lewis (1964, 166); Ó Riain (1994, 390); Salter (1994, 19); Kirby (1994, 365-377); Thomas (1994, 412, 415); WHCP (Dyfed); and others. Both the main church fabric and the quoins are built of Lower Silurian, fairly fine-grained greywacke and stone orientation is difficult to interpret. Of the relatively early church only the central tower is thought to remain. The tower has an upward taper (batter) towards belfry height and despite a small portion of herringbone work on the south face must be of late 12th or early 13th C. period (Figure 6.92). The tower quoins are of mixed BH face-alternate stones, with some side-alternate/face-alternate stretches in which rarely the side-alternate stones weather to exhibit BH orientation. The south transept is said to have fallen prior to 1832 (Lewis, 2001) and its blocked 13th C. style arch possesses jambs with stones set BH. Two transept roof lines are displayed partially on the tower south wall. Unusually, in the higher of these, the eastern roof passes beyond the transept east wall to extend to the south-east tower quoin. Above the transept roof the tower’s south wall displays two original slit windows (Figure 6.93), in neither of which did it prove possible to determine the jamb stone orientations. Between the slit windows a larger now blocked window had been created just above the crest of the transept roof, readable stones in its east jamb are orientated BH. According to Lewis (2001), the north transept fell somewhat earlier than the south, between 1785 and 1805. Similar to that in the south, it too illustrates two distinct roof lines and again the transept was narrower than the tower. The two transepts appear to have been built at the same time. The nave, which at one time had a south aisle, was demolished in1832, as was the chancel. The current nave was built in 1874 and the chancel in 1886.

345

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.90 Part of the broken inscribed stone on the west face of the north-west quoin of the nave of St David, Llanddewi Brefi, Ceredigion (SN 664 554).

Figure 6.91 The north face of the tower of Llanddewi Brefi Church showing the traces of the previous north transept. A former north transept appears to have existed prior to the building of the stair turret to the tower.

346

Chapter Six

Figure 6.92 The south face of Llanddewi Brefi Church tower with the traces of the previous transept in evidence.

Figure 6.93 Above the position of the south transept the Llanddewi Brefi tower south wall shows evidence of various windows.

347

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 6.31 Llanfair Clydogau, St Mary (SN 624 512) Much of Llanfair Clydogau Church (Figure 6.94) was rebuilt in 1886-1888. It is a unicelled small church with a relatively simple Victorian interior. Those providing information on the church include Meyrick (1808, 221); Lewis (1845b, 120); Anon. (1861, 310); Willis-Bund (1888, 317); Eyre-Evans, 1918a, 150-154); Rees (1932, when the church was titled Llanfair); Salter (1994, 21); and WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 17326, PRN 50139). The church is constructed of Lower Silurian greywackes and fine sandstones with ‘Victorian’ windows built in Middle Jurassic oolitic limestone to Perpendicular style. Rarely, as in the east wall, coarser-grained greywackes occur in the fabric. Both the west and the east walls, including their respective north and south corners, are enclosed in a low batter which is present over the lowest metre. This batter, and much of the east and west walls above the batter (including the Middle Jurassic oolitic limestone string course at about 3m. at the east end), show evidence of having been constructed during the period of the 1886-1888 rebuilding. This can be determined both from the manner in which the stones have been dressed prior to use, and unusually, the re-use of an 1829 gravestone incorporated in the batter at the south-west corner. Although the time interval might be small, the west porch was actually built more recently than the west batter (Figure 6.95).

The lowest stones, including the batter stones, in each of the four church corners are placed side-alternately and, because of the manner in which some stones have been quarried, structures preserved on the bottom of individual sedimentary units related to water flow at the time of deposition can be used to determine the bedding orientation of these stones (Figure 6.96). In each quoin the higher stones are placed in face-alternate style – in the southwest quoin for instance stones 9 to 18 are placed in this way. Such stones are likely to be set BH, but this cannot be confirmed without very close scrutiny. The details of the lowest stones in each quoin are tabulated below: South-west quoin (Figure 6.95 and see also Figure 7.10); bottom batter stone, BVFL, re-used 1829 gravestone; stone 2, BH, greywacke; stones 3 and 4 (top of batter), orientation uncertain, greywacke; 5, probably BVFL, sandstone; 6, probably BVFR, greywacke; 7, BVFL, greywacke with bottom structure; 8, BVFR, greywacke with bottom structure. North-west quoin; lowest 6 stones constitute the wall batter, all are probably BH although stone 3 could possibly be BVFR, all of greywacke: 7, BVFR, greywacke; 8, BVFL, greywacke. North-east quoin; lowest 4 stones make up the wall batter, all probably BH; 5, BVFR; 6, probably BVFL; 7, orientation uncertain; 8, BVFL, of coarse greywacke; 9 and 10, Victorian dressed stones; string course. All stones, but the string, are of greywacke.

Figure 6.94 The church of St Mary, Llanfair Clydogau, Ceredigion (SN 624 512) as seen from the south-east.

348

Chapter Six

Figure 6.95 The south-west nave quoin at Llanfair Clydogau Church includes a thick 1829 gravestone as the lowest stone in the batter (face west). The west porch (left) has been built subsequently to the batter.

Figure 6.96 Three large blocks above the batter (and below the string course) in Llanfair Clydogau Church south-east nave quoin display bottom structures which clearly determine that the stones have been placed BVFR, BVFL, BVFR (folder 0.31m. in length). Below the string course the east wall is slightly thicker and at the foot of the wall there is a batter.

South-east quoin (Figure 6.96); lowest 4 stones form the wall batter and probably BH; Stone 5, BVFR; 6, BVFL; 7, BVFR; string course. Again, all stones, but the string course, are of greywacke.

6.32 Llanfihangel-y-Creuddyn, St Michael (SN 665 760)

All higher stones in each quoin appear to be placed BH. Some of these higher stones exhibit evidence of Victorian dressing before use (such as ‘rustication’). The present author concludes that each quoin was probably constructed during the 1886-1888 period of rebuilding. The lower stones were principally those re-used from an earlier period of building and the higher face-alternate stones were specifically quarried for the purpose. Thin stone fillets, well exhibited in the northeast quoin, occur in the lower portions of each quoin to assist in the re-construction and some of the lower stones have certainly been modified prior to re-use. Whether the lower reused stones were initially of ‘Patterned’ period origin or the later 1550-1600 ‘Alternate’ period is impossible to determine. Certain other churches in Ceredigion have a similar sidealternate rising to face-alternate relationship in their quoins. For example, the nave quoins at All Saints, Cellan (SN 613 498) display this change in pattern, but rarely can any of the bedding orientations be read in the fine-grained greywackes involved.

Described as ‘one of the best preserved medieval churches in Ceredigion’ (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 5176, PRN 50140), a church is known to have been in existence on the site since 1254. It is a large cruciform structure (Figure 6.97) and has been described, or made reference to, by a variety of authors including; Meyrick (1808, 346); Lewis (1845b, 146); Glynne (1897, 305-306); Rees (1932, who noted the church as Llanfihangel Kilvireth); Eyre-Evans (1918b, 329-335); Chater (1976; 1977); Soden (1984, 73); Salter (1994, 22); and WHCP (Dyfed). The fabric and quoins of this church are of Lower Silurian, fine-grained greywackes with ‘Victorian’ window dressings in Triassic sandstone, or more recently, as in the 1905 vestry, Middle Jurassic oolitic limestone. Most of the major quoins, as those terminating the chancel, the north transept and that at the south-west corner of the nave, are constructed of ‘Victorian’, mixed side and face-alternate, hammered greywacke blocks, these frequently displaying their originally worked ‘feathered’ edges. The north-west quoin to the nave differs. With significant interpretation difficulties, the 349

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.97 The large cruciform church of St Michael, Llanfihangel-y-Creuddyn, Ceredigion (SN 665 760) here viewed from the south-east.

Figure 6.98 The orientations of stones forming the north-west quoin of St Michael’s Church are difficult to interpret. However, that they have been emplaced in modern times as may be observed from the inserted slate fillets between the stones. 350

Chapter Six orientation of the stones in this quoin were determined as: stone 1, a boulder, possibly set BVFR; 2, ?BVFL; 3, BVFR; 4,?BV; 5, ?BH; 6, BH; 7, ?BVFL. Above stones 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7, however, levelling fillets of what in most instances were of roofing slate had been inserted (Figure 6.98): determining that even if the quoin stones were old and re-used, the quoin was of relatively modern creation. 6.33 Llanilar, St Hilary (St Ilar) (SN 624 751) Situated in a circular churchyard, Llanilar Church (Figure 6.99) has been referred to or described by a range of authors including, Meyrick (1808, 339-343); Lewis (1845b, 71-72); Glynne (1897, 304-305); Chater (1977); Lewis (1964, 166); Soden (1984, 73); Ó Riain (1994, 392); Salter (1994, 22); and WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 5171, PRN 50149). The church is constructed of Lower Silurian, fine grained greywackes and sandstones, with ‘Victorian’ dressings in Carboniferous sandstone. Much of the building reveals evidence only of relatively recent restoration. The building prior to restoration is figured in Glynne (1897, 304-305). However, the unicelled nave/chancel includes some reused river boulders in its fabric, and it possesses a 12th/13th C. unchamfered slit window with BH jambs near to the north-east quoin. Blocked doorways, probably of 15th C. construction (but possibly earlier) exist in both the north and south nave walls: that in the south wall (Figure 6.100) being partially covered by the porch to the ‘Victorian’ south doorway. Also present in the south chancel wall is a 13th but more probably 15th C., priest’s infilled doorway.

A recently dug trench around the tower has partially exposed foundation stones. At the north-west corner of the tower turret, a large stone of BVFR orientated somewhat coarser greywacke overlain by a BH Lower Palaeozoic sandstone could suggest that this part of the stair turret was originally built around the 1600 ‘Alternate’ style date. The tower itself is probably older with all readable quoin stones set BH. The tower, but not the tower turret (Figure 6.101), is encompassed with a low batter (rising to about 1.5m.). The batter post-dates both the tower and the turret which itself post-dates the tower. The tower’s west doorway has been modified in more recent times and possesses Middle Jurassic Inferior Oolite voussoirs. 6.34 Penbryn, St Michael (SN 294 521) Listed in the Taxatio of 1291, WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 5397) described Penbryn Church as ‘largely unrestored’. Notes on the church appear in Meyrick (1808, 180-182); Lewis (1845b, 307-308); Glynne (1898, 355); Prys-Williams (1905, 153160); Chater (1976; 1977); Salter (1994, 25); Thomas (1994, 414); and WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 5397, PRN 50157). The church resides in a moderately rounded churchyard and is built as far as can be determined of Lower Silurian, fine-grained greywackes and sandstones, with Victorian dressings, as the east window, in Middle Jurassic shelly oolite. The church (Figure 6.102) has recently been coated with a fashionable and unfortunately illapplied lime plaster cover (although, it was similarly coated when visited by Glynne {1898} in 1850), so that the fabric can only be observed where this has already fallen.

Figure 6.99 St Hilary, Llanilar, Ceredigion (SN 624 751) as seen from the north. A blocked doorway can be seen in the centre of the nave wall.

351

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.100 In the south wall of Llanilar Church is a blocked doorway, similar to that in the north wall, but partially covered by the ‘Victorian’ porch.

Figure 6.101 The base of the north-west quoin to the stair turret of Llanilar Church and its relationships with the tower batter are partly evident in this limited view, which also shows a large BVFR stone beneath a BH stone forming the turret plinth.

The three component parts of the church (nave, chancel and west porch) are of different ages. The nave appears to be the oldest and possesses evidence of three unchamfered slit windows, one at the west end of the south wall appearing only as a trace. Readable jamb stones, as well as nave quoin stones on the south wall, appear to be set BH: suggesting a possible 13th C. building period. Two further blocked windows in the south wall are each of different periods of construction (Figure 6.103). A medieval, low batter is present on the west and north-west nave walls, and this passes inside the west porch which has been regarded as having been constructed in the 17th C. (WHCP). A protective short, horizontal string exists above the current porch suggesting that this structure was not the first.

differ. There is some evidence that the church once possessed a rood screen.

Inside the nave the lateral walls visibly lean outwards as they rise (Figure 6.104). Much of the south wall in particular has been refaced and provided with a tapering upwards, thickened base (Figure 6.105). This has permitted newer windows to be placed vertically within the wall (a feature also noted at St Clears, Carmarthenshire). In the north wall only the lowest portion of the wall has been thickened.

6.35 Efenechtyd, St Michael (and All Angels) (SJ 112 558)

The chancel is certainly younger than the nave; it weeps to the north (Figure 6.104) and is off-set to the north from the line of the nave. Its fabric differs in structure from that of the nave and the north and south wall fabric structures

In Penbryn churchyard, and other churchyards nearby, an interesting local fashion in the style of gravestones and their protection that was in existence around the end of the 18th C. is evident (Figure 3.5). The rock used to surround the gravestone appears to be made of Carboniferous sandstone, which would entail the stone being carried to a local stonemason by sea, possibly from Anglesey. The local stonemason presumably had the means to mechanically saw the sandstone into blocks ready for use. DENBIGHSHIRE

The church is set in a moderately curvilinear churchyard. No evidence of this church could be found in the 1254 Taxatio (Lunt, 1926). Unfortunately, little can be seen of the church structure or fabric because unfortunately the church has recently been coated in a thick lime render (Figure 6.106). Where this is already falling off, the wall fabric appears to consist of Carboniferous Limestone, and where structures like windows have more recently been repaired, Triassic sandstone has been used. The church is known to have been restored in 1873 (Lambeth Palace Library, ICBS 07508), 352

Chapter Six

Figure 6.102 The church of St Michael, Penbryn, Ceredigion (SN 294 521) is here viewed from the north-west.

Figure 6.103 To the east of the east window in the south wall of the nave of Penbryn Church the trace of an earlier (possibly 15th C.) window can be observed.

353

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.104 A view from the nave towards the chancel of Penbryn Church shows a marked weep of the chancel towards the north (left). The nave north and south walls also lean outwards. The presence of an aumbry on the south wall of the east end of the nave could also add to the suggestion that the church was once unicelled.

Figure 6.105 The south-east aspect of Penbryn Church which shows the manner in which the south wall of the nave has been in part thickened towards the base to off-set the wall’s outward lean and to permit the ‘Victorian’ windows to be set vertically. 354

Chapter Six

Figure 6.106 The west aspect of the church of St Michael, Efenechtyd, Denbighshire (SJ 112 558). In 1873 both the bell-cote and the porch were added.

Figure 6.107 The unusual oak font at Efenechtyd church.

Figure 6.108 With four carrying handles this Carboniferous Limestone bowl at Efenechtyd church is likely to have once been a portable font. 355

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology when the bell-cote and west door were added. Details of the church have been recorded by Lewis (1845a, 326); LloydWilliams and Underwood (1872, pl. 34); Gwynne (1884, 170); Thomas (1911, 75); RCAHMW (1914, 49-50); Soden (1984, 42, 79); Hubbard (1986, 157); Fletcher and Williams (1986); and WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 16774, PRN 100877). There is a definite break in the walls between the nave and the chancel which WHCP suggested was where the chancel ‘was added’. (From the, now repaired, Decorated east window, they suggested the addition was in the 14th C.). It seems more likely that the original chancel was widened to the width of the nave at rebuilding following the common practice at the time. The church possesses two remarkable font bowls; that in use is made of oak (Barnwell, 1872, 257-261; Tyrrell-Green, 1928, 139-140; Brook, 1985-1988) (Figure 6.107). The second is smaller and has been cemented to a stand to create a pillar stoup (Figure 6.108). Fletcher and Williams (1986) recorded that a Ms. M. Jones (in 1897) stated, the bowl’s ‘… last recorded use was as a drinking trough for the dogs of farmers attending divine service with their masters…’. The bowl is of Carboniferous Limestone; at its widest external diameter 0.30 x 0.31m. and 0.13m. high. Internally the bowl is curved, only 0.20 x 0.21m. in diameter and 0.13m. deep. The bowl has four lug-shaped, carrying handles. Other bowls of this structure the author has described as portable fonts (Potter, 2004c; 2010d), and certainly in England some appear to be from the Anglo-Saxon period.

6.36 Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd, St Peter (SJ 145 598) - ruin This ruined church has been described briefly by Lewis (1845a, 485); RCAHMW (1914, 89); Neaverson (1949, 54); and Hubbard (1986, 188); but the most precise description occurs in WHCP (Clwyd-Powys) and in particular in PRN 16815. It is referred to here because of its unusual use of stone. The earliest building in the small unicelled structure must have been created in Silurian, ‘Denbighshire Grits’, mixed, grey to black, greywackes, sandstones and siltstones. These are more evident at the east end of the church in the north and south walls; they give way abruptly to Triassic red sandstone about 10m. from the west end of the church (Figure 6.109), which Neaverson (1953-1954, 9) suggested was probably obtained from a quarry just under 300m. to the south of the church. The ‘Denbighshire Grits’ noticeably include up to 10 per cent of fabric in the form of river boulders suggesting use in an early period. Unfortunately, the chancel quoins to the church which might have provided evidence of this period have been repaired, probably in the early 19th C., with Carboniferous Limestone blocks set BH. The south-eastern corner had previously been supported with ‘Denbighshire Grit’ buttresses that on the south wall being battered. Only the Carboniferous sandstone sill of the east window remains, but the lower walling indicates that this window was itself a replacement.

Figure 6.109 The internal view from the east end of the ruined old church of St Peter, Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd, Denbighshire (SJ 145 598). The north and south walls change abruptly in building material 8.67m. from the west end of the church. 356

Chapter Six

Figure 6.110 The west aspect of Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd church which is largely of local red Triassic sandstone. Repairs and replacements are mainly in Carboniferous Limestone – in the bell-cote as Victorian squared dressed blocks. Some pieces of ‘Denbighshire Grit’ are also added.

Figure 6.111 The internal view of the north dooway to Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd church. The doorway is constructed of red Triassic sandstone and displays two holes for cross-bar door locking purposes. To the east the north wall can be seen to change to a ‘Denbighshire Grit’ fabric. 357

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Carboniferous Limestone blocks are extensively used throughout the church, probably in early Victorian repairs, as in this bell-cote. The west wall has also been thickened for it has been faced externally with relatively thin pieces of a variety of stone types (Figure 6.112). Occasionally the areas of re-facing include pieces of ‘Denbighshire Grit’. The north doorway, created in red sandstone, has been blocked with early Victorian brickwork. 6.37 Rhuddlan, St Mary (SJ 021 781)

Figure 6.112 A view north along the exterior of the west wall of Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd church indicates that relatively thin pieces of Carboniferous Limestone and ‘Denbighshire Grit’ have been added to the west wall surface presumably for protective purposes rather than decoration. Triassic bright red sandstone was used to build the west end of the church (Figure 6.110); possibly as an extension. Internally, the junction in the walling occurs 8.67m. from the current west wall. The change in rock types shows that the western Triassic wall was added, but the quoins to both the north and south sides have been rebuilt/repaired. All walls, both externally and internally, were at one time rendered. Hubbard (1986, 188) refers to the presence of a blocked lancet window, regrettably of this window no evidence remains, but presumably it was present in the eastern, older end of the church. The west, north and south doorways are each constructed in the Triassic sandstone. Most interesting of these is that in the south wall (Figure 6.111), described only as ‘simple’ in PRN 16815. This doorway retains evidence of its early crossbar locking system – a sliding, bulky wooden bar, which when not in use slid into a cavity in the wall, and possibly of 13th C. construction (see section 7.4 and Figure 7.12). On the inner order jambs the stones are placed BH, but with one stone in the east jamb BVEIA. The two western quoins to the church are constructed with BH stones. The south wall is about 0.87m. thick at the doorway but the west wall, which supports the bell-cote, is thicker at 1.26m.

At the time of the Royal Commission study (RCAHMW, 1912), Rhuddlan was in the County of Flint, but was subsequently moved to Denbighshire. Some of the history of the current church is known, for Edward I appropriated land around 1300, with the possibility of establishing a cathedral, a site upon which the church is now thought to be situated. A church, probably on this same site, was recorded in the Domesday Book and this early church was recorded in the Norwich Taxation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 470). By 1291, a later Taxation more than doubled the value, suggesting ‘rebuilding’ between the two dates. Those contributing to the existing knowledge with regard to the church include Pennant (1784, 17); Lewis (1845b, 358); Glynne (1884, 87, providing information from a visit in 1829); Thomas (1908, 412); RCAHMW (1912, 82-83); Crossley and Ridgway (1945, 194); Neaverson (1949, 51; 1953-4, 5); Gresham (1968); Soulsby (1983, 226-231); Hubbard (1986, 425); James, J.W. (1991); and WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 16449, PRN 16943). In the last two centuries extensive restorations and modifications have occurred to the church, these occurring in particular in 1812, 1820, 1868 and 1981. The church is double-aisled, and current interpretation places the south aisle as being earlier than the north. The church has recently been coated in an unfortunate thick white coat of lime render which makes analyses of building relationships difficult and of the wall fabrics impossible (Figure 6.113). Of the rock types that have been used in the church only Carboniferous Limestone and Triassic sandstone can be patchily observed beneath areas of peeling render. It is claimed that a sketch of the church was made in 1782 which shows the south aisle as of two unequal portions constituting the nave and chancel (James, 1991). This has not been seen by the current author. The south aisle chancel was rebuilt in 1812 to be of the same width as the nave of that aisle. The rebuilding appears to have involved additionally the eastern end of the intervening arcade, for this portion of the arcade is constructed of red Triassic sandstone rather than Carboniferous Limestone. It has been argued that the nave in this south aisle was once a single-chamber constituting the original church (WHCP). However, the frequency of early two-celled churches throughout the British Isles makes this two-celled type of structure the more likely in the original form – with style differences (as the piscina) related to modifications. Without supporting evidence from the wall fabrics it is difficult to date the age of the south aisle, but it is normally referred to about 1300.

358

Chapter Six

Figure 6.113 This view from the north-east of St Mary, Rhuddlan, Denbighshire (SJ 021 781) shows the Conwy Mausoleum (built in 1820 of cut blocks of Carboniferous sandstone), the north aisle, and the east wall of the tower marked by a higher north aisle roof line.

Figure 6.114 The north doorway to the north aisle of St Mary, Rhuddlan, seen, with the help of flash photography, from the exterior.

Figure 6.115 The interior of the north doorway to the north aisle at St Mary. Flash photography tends to mask the cross-bar hole which occurs midway up the jamb. 359

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology remains visible below that of the roof line of the south aisle. The tower is thought to have been erected about 1500 (WHCP) and for this situation to exist the south aisle roof has to have been subsequently significantly raised, by as much as about 0.5m. FLINTSHIRE 6.38 Gwaenysgor, St Mary Magdalene (SJ 075 810)

Figure 6.116 The west face of the tower of St Mary, Rhuddlan displays certain building traces which are unfortunately difficult to interpret because of the lime render coating.

The north aisle and the adjoining arcade have been regarded as having been constructed ‘perhaps in the 15th C’ (WHCP, Clwyd-Powys). However, in the north aisle, a doorway in the north wall, unblocked when the kitchen/toilet extension was built in 1981, has been described from its style as of 13th or 14th C. period (Figure 6.114). Tentatively, it has been suggested that this door was possibly moved from the south aisle. The doorway has been modified internally, but it has not been moved unless the wall in which it stands was also moved. The doorway reveals that it was once secured by means of a sliding crossbar of thick wood which slid into the adjoining walls when not in use (Figure 6.115). This is thought to be a form of security only found in the earliest form of medieval buildings (see section 7.4). This evidence, therefore, must support both aisles as being somewhat older than suggested in other analyses. There appears to have been no attempt to thicken either the nave or the arcade walls when the tower was added to the west end of the north aisle: the only additional support being provided by the two buttresses (and the infilling of an arcade arch). The various roof line impressions on the tower (Figure 6.116) are now only faintly visible on the tower walls, and the thick lime render coat makes their analysis uncertain. The record suggested by WHCP (Clwyd-Powys) fails to reflect wholly what now appears to be perceptible: for instance, the south-west tower quoin

Referred to in the Domesday records, Gwaenysor Church appears also in the Norwich Taxatio of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 470) and that of Lincoln in 1291. The church was visited in 1854 by Glynne (1884, 86) and recorded in descriptions of Lewis (1845a, 386, as Gwannysgor); Owen (1892, 340341); Thomas (1908, 403); RCAHMW (1912, 31); Hughes (1932a, 166-178); Crossley and Ridgway (1945, 188189); Neaverson (1949, 51; 1953-4, 12 and 14); Gresham (1968, 73, 118-119, 124, 129-131); Hubbard (1986, 356); WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 102248, PRN 16467), and others. The wall fabric of this unicelled church (Figure 6.117) is essentially of local Carboniferous Limestone and the limestone occasionally includes cherts. A few pieces of sandstone are also included in the walls. The church is known to have been restored in 1845/46 and 1931 and re-roofed in both 1892 and 1931. The present author was unable to gain entry to the building. Possibly the most distinctive feature of the fabric of the church is the evidence of the roof having been raised (Figure 6.118), well described by WCHP (Clwydd-Powys). The porch roof has similarly been raised (Figure 6.117). In the four principal quoins the stones are, with one exception, laid BH, and were originally constructed of cream-yellow, coarse Carboniferous sandstone (described by Neaverson, 1953-4, 14, as Talacre Stone) which is stated by WHCP as having been extracted from Gwespyr, a few kilometres towards the north-east, but actually obtained from Talacre, slightly further in the same direction. There is a significant geological difference between the sandstones obtained from the two localities, that from Talacre being from the Upper Carboniferous, Lower Coal Measures. The eastern quoins have, however, been rebuilt and include many stones of Carboniferous Limestone with the north-east quoin having one of its sandstone blocks re-orientated BVFR. The blocked doorway in the north wall (Figure 6.119), described as ‘of rustic appearance and uncertain age’ is of a different, finer, ripple-drifted, cleaner and softer Carboniferous sandstone, with again all stones in the jambs set BH. The inference is that neither the doorway nor the quoins are likely to be much older than 13th C. Certain dressings, of this finer and softer sandstone, as may be seen in the central window in the south wall, are probably of 19th C. use, and are geologically of the somewhat earlier Carboniferous Gwespyr Stone. The Gwespyr sandstone was much more extensively used in the region as a building stone and may be seen in the walls of Edward the First’s 13th C. Rhuddlan Castle. 360

Chapter Six

Figure 6.117 St Mary Magdalene, Gwaenysgor, Flintshire (SJ 075 810), largely constructed with Carboniferous Limestone, is viewed here from the south

Figure 6.118 Gwaenysgor Church east Perpendicular window and the line in the Carboniferous Limestone gable created by the raising of the roof.

361

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.119 The partially blocked doorway in the north wall of the nave of Gwaenysgor Church. The voussoirs and some of the jamb stones are constructed with Carboniferous yellow Gwespyr sandstone. The infilling and the wall are of Carboniferous Limestone. GLAMORGAN

Although a scheduled ancient monument, and now in West Glamorgan, very little of the remains of this site are visible, the walls rising to a maximum of four courses (Figure 6.120). WHCP (Glamorgan-Gwent, PRN 00234w) provided a documented history and brief details of the excavations of the chapel and surrounding settlement buildings, which have taken place sporadically since 1973. The stone involved in the building is quartzitic sandstone from the Carboniferous, with a few loose mudstone pieces as replacement stones.

As now observed there is a significant difference in the thicknesses of the nave walls as compared with those in the chancel. The chancel walls (0.78m., 0.78m., 0.81m.) are thin and of comparable thickness to those typically constructed in pre-Romanesque times. The nave walls are more variable and thicker (west wall 1.06m., east wall 1.09m. and 0.98.m, north wall 1.01m. thinning to the east to 0.94m., and south wall 1.06m changing abruptly to the east to 1.01m.). The nave wall information, which suggests repair and a more recent construction, could also be interpreted as a more recent origin for the nave. That, as seen, the chancel and nave are probable of different ages is revealed in the unequal quantities of east nave wall exhibited to the north (0.71m.) and south (1.01m.) of the chancel.

The comments provided here relate, of course, to the remains of the chapel (little more than an outline) and their interpretation. They are indicated here because they are not precisely the same as those offered by those responsible for the excavations and provided initially. The excavations indicated that the chapel was abandoned for religious practices towards the beginning of the 13th C. and may have subsequently used for domestic purposes. What is now apparent may reflect alterations that occurred to the structure subsequent to its religious use. It emphasizes the difficulties in interpretation which may result from changes with time. In terms of the limited stonework and its orientations, it may be added, however recently those changes may have been made.

The narrow width displayed for the chancel arch (0.95m.) and the presence of the west doorway, both support a preRomanesque age for the chapel. Neither opening reveals sufficient (or any) jamb stones to provide stone bedding orientations. The chapel’s six corner quoins display the following information: north-west nave (two stones); ?BVFR, BH: south-west nave (one loose stone); BVFR: south-east nave (four stones); ?BH, BVFR (large), BH, BH: northeast chancel quoin (three stones); all BH: south-east chancel quoin; one stone uncertain. The relatively high proportion of vertical stones from such a small total number advises that a pre-Romanesque (Patterned) date for the building is possible (or should those responsible for the excavations be credited with the unusual stone orientations?).

6.39 Llan Elen Chapel (SS 511 934) - ruin

362

Chapter Six

Figure 6.120 Viewed from the nave towards the east, the ruined Llan Elen Chapel, Glamorganshire (SS 511 934) preserves little of its original fabric. However, wall thicknesses differ and the folder and paper mark the approximate width of the very narrow chancel arch. 6.40 Llanilid, St Ilid and St Curig (SS 978 813)

6.41 Llysworney, St Tydfil (SS 961 741)

Crouch (1988, 28-31) records that Llanilid Church in Mid Glamorgan was first recorded in 1173 when it was in the possession of Tewkesbury Abbey. It was also listed in the 1254 Norwich taxation records (Lunt, 1926, 323). Rees (1932) displayed the site, as that of a chapel in the 14th C. Lewis (1845b, 72) described the church as ‘an ancient edifice’ just to the south of the remains of an encampment. The church (Figure 6.121), is situated on a partially curvilinear, slightly raised site, and built principally of Carboniferous Limestone (as in the west tower), with extensive additional use in the nave and chancel of Carboniferous sandstone river boulders. The older dressings include both of these rock types plus some Lower Lias, Sutton Stone, for they are typically much repaired. Restoration in 1882-83 replaced various earlier window and doorway dressings with Middle Jurassic oolite. Despite a number of visits it has proved impossible to examine the church interior, although WHCP (Glamorgan-Gwent, PRN 00387m, PRN 04632m) stated that the longer nave walls showed evidence of some internal batter.

Llysworney Church in South Glamorgan was first recorded in 1173 when it was described as a possession of Tewkesbury Abbey (Crouch, 1988, 28-31). That it may have had a pre-Norman foundation and been the centre of a cantref is suggested by WHCP (GlamorganGwent, PRN 00295s). Other descriptions include those of Lewis (1845b, 179-180); Radford, (1973); (RCAHMW, 1976); Savory (1984, 434); and Merrick (1993).

To the west of the porch in the south nave wall, the partially disrupted four stones of an infilled small simple, possibly Patterned, window (Figure 6.122) may be observed. The stones are of grey Carboniferous sandstone and the two jamb stones are both set BVFIA: the off-set sill is BH, and the single lintel stone orientation remains uncertain.

The church is built of local Carboniferous Limestone with Carboniferous sandstone and ‘Victorian’, Middle Jurassic oolite dressings. The older components of the current buildings are the nave, a central tower and a chancel. These do not form a perfect linear arrangement, for the nave and the chancel are off-set slightly as compared with the tower. Contacts between the nave and the tower indicate that at its base the tower is the older (Figure 6.123). An ornamented Norman stone is included in the south nave wall near to the contact with the tower. The fabric of the tower, which lacks any low batter, seems to reflect work of at least three phases in which the uppermost is probably Victorian (Figure 6.124). The base of the tower is possibly of Patterned style and this is displayed in the north-west tower quoin with the following

363

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.121 St Ilid and St Curig Church, Llanilid, Glamorganshire (SS 978 813) observed from the south-east.

Figure 6.122 The fragmentary window in the south wall of the nave of Llanilid Church may well have a Pattered origin.

Figure 6.123 The contact between the central tower (left) and the nave of St Tydfil, Llysworney, Glamorganshire (SS 961 741), despite being obscured by the lightning conductor, shows that the tower was built first. The lower stones in the north-west tower quoin visible are probably set in a Patterned style. 364

Chapter Six the east wall tower arch there is a hagioscope suggesting the base of the current tower might once have been the whole or part of the church nave. The current nave presents further problems in its relationship with the tower, which might be explained by proposing that the nave’s south wall was, rebuilt at some stage (and prior to re-roofing) on a line several metres to the south of its original position. Externally, traces of the lower stones of a one-time west doorway are possibly evident, and this, if it is present centrally, tends to refute such an idea. In the north nave wall, the stones of a doorway (specifically its east jamb) and also the possible trace of the head of a round-headed window occur. MEIRIONNYDD (MERIONETH) 6.42 Llanfihangel-y-Pennant, St Michael (SH 671 089)

Figure 6.124 The south face of the tower of Llysworney Church shows various phases of building (which are not at identical levels to those in the north face), The two windows of 15th C. style are of different stone construction; the lower of Middle Jurassic oolite, the upper probably of Carboniferous sandstone. stone emplacement (Figure 6.123): stone 1, BH; 2, BH; 3, BVFL (bench mark on north face); 4, BVFR; 5, BV probably FL; 6, BH; 7, BVFL, 8 and 9, ?. Above this, the quoin stones, all of which are of Carboniferous Limestone, appear to be BH to coincide with the introduction of the second phase of building in the wall fabric. At the northeast corner of the tower, the stair turret appears to be more modern than the first two tower fabric stages and in the lowest part of the tower it partly covers the east jamb of what appears to be a Victorian window in Middle Jurassic oolite. Plans held at Lambeth Palace Library (ICBS 09624) confirm that the stair turret was built together with the vestry during extensive restorations in 1892-94. The south-east tower quoin, which is also exposed over its full height, appears to include, over stones 6 to 10, some which may be inserted to the Patterned style but lack of detailed clarity make this impossible to confirm from ground level. The irregular internal arrangement to the tower leads to uncertainty regarding the age and possibly even the shape of the original base of the tower. Both east and west tower arches are off-set to the north and themselves are not perfectly aligned with each other. To the south of

Llanfihangel-y-Pennant church was described or referred to by Pennant (1784, 104); Lewis (1845b, 147-148); Glynne (1901, 138); RCAHMW (1921, 113114); Crossley and Ridgeway (1945, 174); Davidson (2001, 360-361, 373); Eisel (2005, 309); WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 7001); and Haslam et al. (2009, 649). The church was possibly recorded in the Norwich Taxatio in 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 196), although Lunt was unable to differentiate between this church and that at Llanfihangel-y-Traethau. The church (Figures 6.125 and 6.126) is built of largish blocks of Upper Ordovician local rhyolite, feldspar porphyry and similar volcanic rocks and more limited quantities of sandstone and these rocks probably represent the material from earlier walls. To this, in more modern times, thick elongate blocks of slate have been added at times of rebuilding. The manner in which some of the slate has been worked suggests that this was in the 19th C. A decision to rebuild the church was made in 1850 (Lambeth Palace Library, ICBS 03891). Windows in the south wall are all created in slate, probably about 1850, with lumps in the jambs in part placed BVFIA. The chancel east window, although also of Victorian build, is created in Carboniferous sandstone. Quoins to the building are generally created with thick slate blocks (Figure 6.127), set BH, and both the west and east walls have to some extent been rebuilt with this material. The lowest two courses in the east wall preserve volcanic blocks and terminate with a single quoin stone set in an upright position. The foot of the west wall is protected with a high plinth or ledge and a thicker wall, which must also be relatively modern (Figure 6.127). Palmer (2007) recorded Cambrian, Egryn Stone, in the east window of the north chapel (Figure 6.128), which is probably of 15th-16th C. build. The stone has interestingly been used for knife sharpening. A few further pieces of this stone occur, probably re-used, in the relatively modern south porch.

365

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.125 The south wall of St Michael, Llanfihangel-y-Pennant, Merionnydd (SH 671 089) taken from the south-east. This figure adjoins Figure 6.126

Figure 6.126 The east end of the church at Llanfihangel-y-Pennant taken from the south. Both this figure and Figure 6.125 illustrate the use of slate in the construction of the windows probably about 1850.

366

Chapter Six

Figure 6.127 The south-west quoin and west wall of Llanfihangel-y-Pennant Church. The rebuilt quoins are constructed of thick blocks of slate and the west wall has a thicker protective ‘plinth’ built at its base.

Figure 6.128 This window in the east wall of the north chapel to Llanfihangel-y-Pennant Church is thought to be constructed of Egryn Stone, a local sandstone from the Cambrian.

367

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology 6.43 Llanfihangel-y-Traethau, St Michael (SH 595 353) In possessing near the west door an inscribed pillar stone (Figure 6.129), which records the construction of the church during the reign of Owain Gwynedd in the 12th C., St Michael’s church is unusual (Nash-Williams, 1950, 169-170). The church (or possibly Llanfihangal-yPennant) is recorded in the 1254 Norwich Taxatio (Lunt, 1926, 196). 19th C. restorations took place prior 1861 and in 1884, as described by WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 7003). Others providing descriptions of the church include Pennant (1784, 103); Lewis (1845b, 149-150); Westwood and Parry Jones (1848, 224-228); Glynne (1901, 138); RCAHMW (1921, 162-163); Crossley and Ridgeway (1945, 178); Lloyd (1958); Davison (2001, 356, 373); and Haslam et al., (2009, 649). Lhwyd (1910, 101) provides interesting references to the church in the early 18th C. When the earliest church (Figure 6.130) was erected on this site it was probably on an island. WHCP (Gwynedd) describe the church masonry as ‘essentially medieval in date’, and it is made up of pale grey sandstones, siltstones and shaley siltstones which were probably quarried locally from rocks of Upper Cambrian age. Church-warden style existing windows, clearly built into the masonry, were added in 1884 and built of red Triassic sandstone. On occasions a trace of the window replaced may be seen. A break in the masonry in the south wall, 6.92 m. from the east end of the church (Figure 6.131), was noted by

WHCP. It is believed to represent the nave-chancel contact and from it, and the manner in which four of the stones are keyed, WHCP argued that the nave was the older. The uppermost 1 to 1.5m. of the wall is younger than the line of the contact (Figure 6.131). From the join it seems probable that an earlier chancel has been widened to the same width as the nave. Of the lower, stonework in the south wall masonry, that representing the chancel is of larger and better coursed sandstone blocks. On the north wall, the nave-chancel join might be represented only at the very foot of the wall. Stones in the western quoins of the church are all placed BH (Figure 6.132). The chancel eastern quoin stones have certainly been reset but show limited evidence of stones with difficult to read vertical bedding orientation as follows: North east quoin: BVFR, sandstone; two small BH fillet stones; BVFL, fine sandstone; BH, fissile siltstone; BVFL, fissile siltstone; and higher stones all probably BH. South-east quoin: sandstone, orientation uncertain; slate fillet; BH, quartzitic sandstone; slate fillet; BVFR, quartzitic sandstone; higher stones probably BH. This limited detail in re-used stones is impossible to date; if it represented evidence of rebuilt earlier Patterned period workmanship the claim made on the pillar stone inscription was one of rebuilding, not building.

Figure 6.129 The inscribed pillar stone at St Michael, Llanfihangel-y-Traethau, Merionnydd (SH 595 353) recording the construction of the church in the 12th C. 368

Chapter Six

Figure 6.130 The southern aspect of Llanfhaingel-y-Traethau Church. Note the wall at the east end is created in larger stone blocks.

Figure 6.131 The evidence of the wall break between the nave and the chancel in the south wall of Llanfihangel-yTraethau Church.

369

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.132 A view of from the north-west of Llanfihangel-y-Traethau Church. The north-west quoin is constructed of BH set stones.

Figure 6.133 A few early window voussoirs may be seen to the west of the Victorian, Triassic sandstone central window in the south wall of Llanfihangel-y-Traethau Church. 370

Chapter Six At the west end of the south wall there is evidence of an early 1.25m. wide south doorway (with its west jamb 1.16m. from the south-west quoin). To the west side of both the current central (Figure 6.133) and eastern windows in the south wall, upper jamb and voussoir stones remain of the western springing of earlier windows. The voussoirs which remain in these windows appear to rise towards what would have been a pointed arch and with the jamb stones all apparently placed BH these earlier windows probably date from the 13th or 14th C. The present chancel was, therefore, widened or built prior to this date. 6.44 Llangelyn(n)in, St Celyn(n)in (SH 571 072) The church guide suggests that St Celynnin (Figure 6.134) was built in the 13th C. and rebuilt late in the 15th C. or early 16th C., when the walls were thought to have been raised in height. Others contributing to the church history include Lewis (1845b, 35-36); Owen (1867, 57-61); Glynne (1901, 139), who visited the church in August 1850; RCAHMW (1921, 129); Pryce (1929, 176); Crossley and Ridgway (1945, 180-181); Soden (1984, 106); Longley (2003, 133); Eisel (2005, 310-311); Palmer (2007); WHCP (Gwynedd, PRN 7013); and Haslem et al., (2009, 661663). The principal building stones are of local Ordovican, laminated, micaceous siltstones and greywackes, some of which are somewhat slatey. Some smaller pieces of local volcanic rocks are also incorporated. These, as well as larger pieces, occur especially in the west wall where

many were probably originally beach boulders. A finegrained dolerite beach boulder is used to create a stoup in the porch. Mixed igneous rocks have been used to form the north doorway. A metre high batter, surmounted by a horizontal ledge of slatey greywacke, has been created at the west end of the church (Figure 6.135) and this is probably of relatively modern build. The two western quoins are constructed entirely of BH stones. At the eastern quoins there has been some reconstruction. The north-east quoin is again of slatey rocks but with numerous fillets: above the seventh stone from the ground (Figure 6.136), the quoin reads BVFR, BH, BVFR, with remaining stones BH. The southeast quoin has one BVFL stone at much the same level from the ground. At this chancel end of the church the gable fabric is differently constructed. Palmer (2007) noted that the 15th-16th C. east window in the south wall of the chancel is built of Egryn Stone (much supported currently with cement). The opposing window in the north wall was once probably identical but little Egryn Stone now remains. To the west of the north window the trace of an infilled slit window just 0.12m. wide (Figure 6.137) is present low in the wall. Jambs to this window read: east jamb, BVFIA (oblique), BH; west jamb, BVFIA, BH, BH, BH. The window is arched by cutting a single BH stone on either side to a roughly shaped apex although heavy pointing makes this difficult to read. Internally, this

Figure 6.134 Seen from the south-west, this figure shows the church of St Celynnin, Llangelynnin, Merionnydd (SH 571 072). Note the bell-cote above the south porch. 371

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.135 The west wall batter as observed from the south-west quoin of St Ceynnin Church.

Figure 6.136 The north-east quoin to St Celynnin Church with stones 8 and 10 placed BVFR.

372

Chapter Six

Figure 6.137 At the east end of the north wall of St Celynnin there is both externally (and also internally) evidence of an early infilled window, the lower BVFIA jamb stones of which are seen here. same blocked window is visible approximately 2.3m. west of the east wall, where there is a step up onto the chancel floor from the nave. The window is noticeably more widely splayed to the west. Such a splay would typically be to cast light onto the altar. A complex range of features, therefore, provide the possibility that the chancel was extended to the east, at the time of the insertion of the Egryn Stone windows, although no evidence appears to exist for such an extension in the external masonry. MONMOUTHSHIRE 6.45 Bishton, St Cadwaladr (ST 386 873) The church at Bishton (Figure 6.138) is thought to be set on an early site and Brook (1985-1988, 72, 77), following Davies (1979, Charter LL180b) states that it was first referred to about 712. Others describing the church include Freeman (1851a, 99-113); Bradney (1932, 258-259); Evans (1953, 229-230); and WHCP (Glamorgan-Gwent, PRN 00243g). The church is constructed of Lower Lias, Blue Lias calcareous mudstones set in moderate courses. Four rock types are used in the dressings, Old Red Sandstone, Blue Lias, a yellow sandstone with included fragments of finer sandstone, thought to be a facies of the local Lower Triassic, Sudbrook Sandstone, and in the Victorian work, Middle Jurassic oolite. A Victorian restoration occurred in 1887.

The west tower has been suggested as of 15th to 16th C. from the appearance of its belfry windows (WHCP). The western tower quoins are similar to each other (Figures 6.139 and 6.140) and constructed of Old Red Sandstone, with the exception of two stones of Sudbrook Sandstone, beneath the lower string, in each case emplaced BH, which are built on an Old Red Sandstone plinth. Above the string three large stones are placed in side-alternate (‘Alternate’) style initiated in the 1550-1600 period; but the red sandstones above these are smaller and set BH and placed in later face-alternate style. This style continues to the battlements which are of more modern build. WHCP (Glamorgan-Gwent) regarded the chancel arch, which is of Middle Jurassic oolite (?and possibly rebuilt), and certain windows in the nave and chancel, some of which have been rebuilt in oolite, as of 13th-14th C. build. The older windows appear to have originally been created in Lower Triassic, Sudbrook Sandstone (Figure 6.141). The east chancel quoins (Figure 6.138) have their stones set BH and are constructed in the same yellow calcareous sandstone except for various replaced stones in the northeast quoin. Apart from the lowest two replacement stones (one the plinth), the same rock makes up the north-east nave quoin, but stones 3 to 7 inclusive are set (BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL) in ‘Alternate’ style, with newer build above stone 10. Such a setting might be considered of Patterned style, but the stone appearance 373

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.138 St Cadwaladr, Bishton, Monmouthshire (ST 386 873) as observed from the ESE. The stonework of the tower walls (of Blue Lias) is particularly distinctive.

Figure 6.139 The south-west quoin of Bishton Church with its different patterns of stonework.

Figure 6.140 The north-west tower quoin at Bishton is very similar in structure to that at the south-west displayed in Figure 6.139. 374

Chapter Six

Figure 6.141 In the nave north wall of Bishton Church this, perhaps 14th or 15th C. window, is built in Sudbrook sandstone. Could there be the trace of a round-headed window just to the right, partially infilled with ‘herringbone’ work? and regularity, and comparison with the other nave quoins, tends to favour the later style inserted in a period of quoin repair. The two final visible quoins on the south side of the nave have both been extensively repaired, with Old Red Sandstone and occasionally Blue Lias replacing what was probably originally BH yellow Sudbrook Sandstone. 6.46 Llanvaches, St Dubritius (ST 434 917) There is a record in the Book of Llandaff (Liber Landavendsis) (Brook, 1985-1988, 69, 81; Knight, 2011, 38) of a reference to Llanvaches, under the early medieval name Merthir Maches, made as early as about 860. Evans, E. (2003, 7), following Davies (1979, Charter LL211b), reported an earlier date of c. 775. The church is listed in the Norwich taxation of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 321). According to Rees (1932), in the 14th C. when the church was known as Llanmaches, the advowson was held by the Lord of the Manor. The churchyard is polygonal except where enclosed in a curved embankment on the south side. Others describing the church include Bradney (1932, 188-189); Evans, C.J.O. (1953, 372-374); Newman (2000, 360-361); and WHCP (Glamorgan-Gwent, PRN 00990g). The chancel to Llanvaches was rebuilt in 1850 (although the south-east corner has suffered subsequent repointing), and the church (Figure 6.142) was extensively restored in 1862-63 and 1907-1908. WHCP suggested that the tower

was of 15th or 16th C. origin, indicating that the earliest remaining portion of the church must relate to the nave. Newman (2000, 360) noted that this age relationship was visible where the south wall of the nave joins the tower turret with a straight junction, although this relationship today is far from convincing and a sketch plan of 1863 held in The Lambeth Palace Library (ICBS 06001) indicates that the turret then failed to exist. Both Carboniferous and Devonian rocks have been used in the church structure, with Middle Jurassic oolitic limestone in Victorian dressings. The eastern corners of the nave are projected respectively to north and south giving the impression that the stonework of much of the north and south walls has been rebuilt. These projections, however, are not indicated on the 1863 plan; on which the chancel arch is also absent. It must be assumed that they were created as buttresses to give support to the walls at the time of the building of this arch; although the northern buttress rests on a large block of Upper Old Red Sandstone, quartz-rich conglomerate set BH, which must surely have once been part of an early foundation. The eastern quoin to the northern buttress contains a small number of blocks of a facies of the yellow Sudbrook Sandstone, two of which are set BVFL and all possibly borrowed from the original north-east nave quoin. The higher stones are placed BH. At the nave south-

375

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.142 St Dubritius, Llanvaches, Monmouthshire (ST 434 917) figured here from the south-west.

Figure 6.143 The west face of Llanvaches Church tower shows three different phases of stonework and there are corresponding changes in the styles of the quoins.

Figure 6.144 The north-west quoin to the Llanvaches tower is shown in greater detail with the first six stones above the plinth in ‘Alternate’ style of about 1600.

376

Chapter Six east corner buttress, all stones are set BH, with both Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous rocks involved. The north-west nave quoin resembles the quoins of the tower and is constructed entirely of Old Red Sandstone arkosic sandstone, a few orientated vertically. The western quoins of the tower (Figure 6.143) are of the same Old Red, coarse arkosic sandstone. At the quoin bases the stones alternate in the manner in which they face. Over the lowest 1.25m., the tower walls preserve a batter and an elaborate string-course immediately above the batter. Both the batter and the string course continue round the tower turret and must have been added, therefore, in Victorian times. Above the string, the north-west quoin (Figure 6.144) rises: BVFL (with bench mark); BVFR; BVFL; BH (inverted and current-bedded); BVFL; BVFR; with all higher stones (bar one) probably BH and smaller. The south-west quoin is similar: BH; BH; BVFL; Diagonal; BVFL; and followed by higher smaller stones. All stones in the lower part of the quoins are well-squared and some still preserve their hammered surface; their setting and form being typical of the ‘Alternate’ style which first became popular around 1550 to 1600. If the tower faces are viewed the wall fabric also changes in character (the stonework is less well squared) at about the same level as the quoins, and one must infer that this relates to later rebuilding.

WHCP (Glamorgan-Gwent) correctly note that the bowl in the porch is not a stoup and suggest that it may have served as a mortar. As an alternative view, with four carrying handles, it may have also served originally as a portable font. The outline of a blocked, round-headed doorway, which WHCP judged to be Norman, may be observed on the exterior of the north nave wall. The jamb stones are, however, all set BH, and the chamfer proves to retain an element of ornamentation on its east jamb, providing a late medieval date. 6.47 Portskewett, St Mary (ST 499 881) According to Brook (1985-1988, 83), Portskewett Church was first recorded in 1254, for it is listed in the Norwich taxation figures of that year (Lunt, 1926, 321). Descriptions of the church have been given by Bradney (1929, 100102); Evans, C.J.O. (1953, 451-454); WHCP (GlamorganGwent, PRN 00506g); and others. In very recent years the church (Figure 6.145) has been coated externally unfortunately in a thick limewash plaster which is now progressively flaking off. No evidence of the stonework, therefore, can be properly observed except where the plaster was not applied. The blocked north nave doorway has been saved from this treatment (Figure 6.146). It is described by WHCP and suggested as ‘probably Norman’. The rectangular ornamented ‘tympanum’, which is of

Figure 6.145 The cream coated church of St Mary, Portskewett, Monmouthshire (ST 499 881) viewed from the south-east.

377

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology the churchyard is shown to be circular. In 1883, virtually the whole church was rebuilt and only the tower and the south and east walls of the earlier church were permitted to remain in their earlier state (Lambeth Palace Library, ICBS 08860). The older chancel walls can be readily distinguished from the Victorian workmanship for they are constructed in rubble, largely of boulders of sandstones from the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous. In the south chancel wall, in the position of a priest’s doorway (Figure 6.147), are the remnants of what has been described as an early Norman (Freeman, 1851, 100; Glynne, 1902, 107; Bradney, 1929, 42-44) or Anglo-Saxon blocked doorway. With regret, only the voussoirs of the circular arch (0.79m.in diameter) might be regarded as original. In early style only about half of these display any taper; but none are through stones and the arch may well be a relatively modern copy. A large Norman ornamented impost made in Middle Jurassic bioclastic oolite surmounts the west jamb and the shape of a modern eastern impost in sandstone has been created to match. The sandstone jamb stones are all modern and set BH, as too are the south-east quoin stones.

Figure 6.146 In the north wall of the nave of Portskewett Church this unusual doorway with an ornamented ‘tympanum’ could possibly be Norman, although the jamb stones and other features give no support to this possibility.

megalithic proportions, is not unlike that seen in many early Irish Patterned churches. It rests on jamb stones, however, which are all emplaced BH and more suggestive of 13th C. construction, so that the doorway may well be rebuilt. Consecration crosses were stated as once being visible (Anon, 1885, 334-335), but these might possibly have related to the rebuilding period. It proved impossible to examine either the south doorway or the inside of the church on the occasion of the church examination. A scrutiny of the walls of the church where the external plaster had partially fallen revealed the probable presence of a facies of the yellow Sudbrook Sandstone: a stone also noted in other local churches. 6.48 St Arvans, St Arvan (ST 516 965) A monastic site which is thought from the Llandaff charters to date back to before c. 955 is believed to have once existed on or near the St Arvan Church location (Davies, 1979, Charter LL218; Evans, C.J.O. 1953, 472473; Brook, 1985-1988, 137; Evans, E. 2003, 8; WHCP, Glamorgan-Gwent, PRN 00774g). Lunt (1926, 321) lists St Arvan in the Norwich valuations of 1254. On early maps

Figure 6.147 In the south chancel wall of St Arvan, St Arvans, Monmouthshire (ST 516 965), a church that otherwise was almost completely rebuilt in 1883, is this unusual blocked doorway. 378

Chapter Six MONTGOMERYSHIRE 6.49 Garthbeibio, St Tydecho (SH 985 119) Garthbeibio Church is thought to be of early medieval foundation and it is referred to in the taxation records of both 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 469) and 1291. A small unicelled church, it is built on a natural mound and probably originally on a sub-circular site. Descriptions of the church have been given by Lewis (1845a, 352); Edwards (1873); Glynne (1885, 37); Thomas (1908, 467); RCAHMW (1911); Haslam (1979, 102); WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 7580, PRN 16368); as well as others. The church (Figure 6.148) was very extensively restored (rebuilt) in 1862, with the walls in local Lower Palaeozoic greywackes and fine sandstones, and with the Victorian windows in wood or Triassic sandstone. It proved impossible to view the church interior. In certain wall areas earlier medieval stones have been re-incorporated into the walls. In particular, this re-used material occurs in the west and the lower part of the south walls, where courses are far more irregular and include cobbles and small boulders of similar rock types. The west wall supports a ledge (or high plinth) at a level of 0.5 to 0.6m. with no real change in wall character above or below

the ledge. Although elsewhere in the church all readable stones appear to be set BH, three large, fine sandstone, blocks immediately above the ledge in the north-west quoin (Figure 6.149) rise side-alternately; BVFL, BVFR (with west face 1.5m long), BVFR. Fillets in this quoin indicate that all stones are re-used, even if derived from a once possibly Patterned church. 6.50 Guilsfield (Cegidfa), St Aelhaiarn (SJ 219 116) St Aelhaiarn was recorded in the Norwich taxation lists of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 469) as a chapel dependent on Llandrinio; in the lists of 1291 it appears to have become independent. Some modifications are reported from 1739 and a more extensive restoration occurred in 1877-1879. The tower has been claimed to be 12th C., but WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 5769, PRN 32984) proposed that it was subsequently re-cased and raised in height, in the 15th C., possibly at a time when many modifications to the church occurred. Haslam (1979, 105), however, suggested that the tower was built about 1300. Ramage assessed the age of the churchyard yew trees in 1871 (443-445) and a visit to the church by Glynne in September, 1858 was reported in 1885 (37-39). Other reports involving the history and structure of the church include Lewis (1845a, 384-385); Simpson and Millard (1904, 57-94); RCAHMW (1911); Thomas

Figure 6.148 St Tydecko, Garthbeibio, Montgomeryshire (SH 985 119) as viewed towards the southwest quoin.

379

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.149 The north-west nave quoin at Garthbeibio to show the three quoin stones immediately above the ledge which occurs only in the west wall (right): these rise BVFL, BVFR, BVFR (the folder is 0.31m. long).

Figure 6.150 As seen from the south-east, the nave of St Aelhaiarn Church, Guilsfield, Montgomeryshire (SJ 219 116) is off-set to the tower and its roof is later than the tower’s belfry window.

380

Chapter Six

Figure 6.151 From the south Guilsfield Church tower is earlier than the double-storey porch which in turn is earlier than the lean-to building for the hearse built in 1739.

Figure 6.152 The lowest three quoin stones in the south-east chancel quoin of Guilsfield Church in which their bedding orientations are BVFL, BH (in this view), BVFL.

381

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology (1913, 144); Haslam (1979, 105-107); Lloyd (1979, 16, footnote); Soden (1984, 14, 117); Salter (1991, 12); and WHCP (Clwyd-Powys). Rock types in the fabric of the church are varied, including Devonian, Old Red Sandstone (some conglomeratic), Triassic, Bunter grey sandstone, and certain Lower Palaeozoic, Upper Ordovician and Silurian, conglomerates, greywackes, sandstones, and sometimes fossiliferous, muddy sandstones (Figure 2.10). The church (Figure 6.150) is built on Upper Ordovician rocks but sources of all other rock types are close, apart from the Old Red Sandstone and the Triassic sandstone which are both more than 10 km. distant. Unfortunately, dates currently offered for the development of the various parts of this church vary dramatically with different authors. Much depends on the interpretation of the architectural features and the fenestration and the level of acceptance of unsubstantiated traditions. The west tower to the church is off-set to the nave. This suggests that an earlier nave was widened towards the north at some time in the past. In general, the difficult to view contacts between the tower and the nave, as seen from the ground, suggest the tower is the older. As the south-west nave quoin is no longer visible, having been covered by the later porch and a 1739 lean-to building created to hold the hearse (Figure 6.151), only the south-east quoin (of the chancel) is aligned to a possible early south wall. No fabric breaks exist to confirm that the chancel was extended possibly in the 15th C. as offered by Haslam (1979, 105), and WHCP (ClwydPowys) argue that an extension cannot be demonstrated. The lower quoin stones in this south-east quoin are in grey Triassic sandstone (Figure 6.152) and they provide stone orientations which may be determined as follows: BVFL, BH (diagonal), BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFR, with stones 7 and above difficult to elucidate, but 10 to 12 BH. Such orientations tend to be akin to those in the Patterned period, but the distinctive sandstone, with ribbons of blebs of silicified white sandstone, suggests otherwise. The same sandstone is found in quoins elsewhere in the church, as in the porch (Figure 6.151), where it pre-dates the 1739 leanto building but post-dates lower Old Red Sandstone quoin stones. More critically, it occurs in the rebuilt portion of the north-east chancel quoin and to a limited extent in quoins in both aisles. In all of these cases it reflects an ‘Alternate’ date probably no earlier than 1550. Furthermore, there is some evidence that the lower portion of the chancel east wall, including the south-east quoin, may have once been reconstructed. The evidence for an original Patterned nave and chancel cannot, therefore, be validated unless it can be shown that the south-east quoin was rebuilt to match other later quoins or that the sandstone was worked and used at different periods. The sandstone is also used in a number of other local churches, from which a better date of its use might be obtained. There is no doubt that with a more extensive examination of the stonework and structural detail of the Guilsfield Church than that briefly undertaken, more of the age relationships should be possible to determine. For instance, the rock presently identified as Triassic sandstone is

particularly distinctive; and its geological provenance might reveal likely periods of working. Similarly, the Lower Palaeozoic muddy sandstones, which are chiefly evident in the fabric of the north aisle, contain fossils. The pygidium of a trilobite (Figure 2.10) and rhynchonellids were noted and still further scrutiny should indicate the source of their enclosing rock. 6.51 Llangynog, St Cynog (SJ 053 261) Llangynog Church (Figure 6.153) was rebuilt in Georgian style in 1791-1792 and extensively restored in 1894. Little is known of its early history other than of it being detailed in the tax records of 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 470) and 1291. References to the church have appeared in Lewis (1845b, 61-62); Thomas (1911, 238); RCAHMW (1911); Haslam (1979, 138); Humphreys (1990, 180-181); Salter (1991, 16); and WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 7628, PRN 7629). The church stands in a small raised circular churchyard and is built of Silurian greywackes some of which are moderately coarse-grained, with window dressings in Carboniferous sandstone. Just a few aspects of this church will only be mentioned: the wide and high, blocked, priest’s voussoir-arched doorway (1.24m. wide) in the south wall (Figure 6.154), where all readable jamb stones were orientated BH; a faintly visible round-arched window above the lean-to boiler room in the north wall, and the recently trenched and exposed northwest quoin. The lowest visible foundation stone (below ground level) in this quoin is orientated BVFR, although higher, late 18th C. stones are placed BH. This stone appears to be the only visible in situ stone representing the early medieval church, although there is no doubt a large number of stones from the earlier church occur re-used in the wall fabric. 6.52 Llansilin, St Silin (St Giles) (SJ 209 282) Llansilin Church is known to have been a clas site in 1210-1215 and was recorded in the Taxatio of both 1254 (Lunt, 1926, 470) and 1291. Glynne (1884, 190) visited the church in 1853 and those contributing to knowledge of the church and its history include Lewis (1845b, 101102); Lloyd Williams and Underwood (1872, pl. 46); Thomas (1913, 17); RCAHMW (1914, 156); Radford (1966, 128-133); Jones (1990); and WHCP (ClwydPowys, PRN 101080, PRN 19795). The church tower was rebuilt in 1832 (see Figure 3.9) following a fire and the church extensively restored in 1890 (Lambeth Palace Library, ICBS 09345). Much of the church fabric is of the moderately local Carboniferous sandstone and Lower Palaeozoic sandstones and greywackes. The churchyard is approximately oval in shape. Radford (1996) appeared to describe the early form of this church from the pre-conceived idea that as a clas church in the early 13th C. it was large and cruciform in structure. WHCP (Clwyd-Powys) found some difficulties with this interpretation. Radford’s 13th C. church extends beyond the 382

Chapter Six

Figure 6.153 A view from the south-east of St Cynog, Llangynog, Montgomeryshire (SJ 053 261).

Figure 6.154 The trace of an infilled, round-arched doorway and west jamb stones in the south wall of Llangynog Church.

383

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.155 The east wall of St Silin, Llansilin, Montgomeryshire (SJ 209 282), showing the north aisle (right) and its batter which terminates at the south-east quoin (represented by only a few stones) of the north aisle before turning to the west. Note also the large yew tree just to the east of the church wall.

Figure 6.156 The south wall of the south aisle of Llansilin Church viewed from the south- west.

384

Chapter Six

Figure 6.157 The ‘stiff-leaf foliage’ which occurs on the west respond capital of the arcade of Llansilin Church.

Figure 6.158 On the eastern respond of the arcade of Llansilin Church two distinct types of ornamentation are preserved on the capitals.

385

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.159 At the west end of the north aisle of Llansilin Church, remnants of an early doorway are preserved beneath the west window.

present church in plan and its eastern arm, the chancel, to ‘well beyond the present east wall’, where ‘the ground drops away noticeably’ and no ‘sign of a building platform’ remains (WHCP). Possibly the most significant problem to the Radford version, however, is the large yew tree (surely well over 1000 years old), which would have stood in the middle of Radford’s chancel (Figure 6.155)! In 2003, an evaluation trench was made immediately to the north of the present church (Evans, P., 2003; Blockely, 2005) and this failed to reveal any trace of Radford’s more extensive building. WHCP (Clwyd-Powys) referred to the early batter which at one time occurred on the west, north and east walls of the north aisle. The batter in the east wall of the north aisle stops 0.88m. short of the east (chancel) wall of the south aisle with a limited south-east quoin of just five stones of Carboniferous sandstone, all placed BH, and rising above the batter (poorly shown in Figure 6.155). The quoin is made particularly visible because the east walls of the two aisles, being of different building periods, do not align. Similar stones in the north-east quoin of the north aisle are also set BH. The batter, which is present on no more than the lowest 0.8m. of the east wall, may be observed to turn the corner to the north wall at this north-east quoin; it fails, however, to provide evidence of turning at the south-east quoin onto the south wall of the north aisle. An

attempt to determine the age relationship between the two aisles becomes both complex and interesting. Although more authors regard the south as the earlier of the two aisles (based possibly on the complexity of the south wall of the south nave, and the position of the tower) (Figure 6.156), the honour should probably be given to the north aisle. The south-east quoin of the north aisle was certainly present prior to the east wall of the south aisle. From the BH attitude of the quoin stones this quoin might well have been built in the 13th C. The north aisle in possession of a batter, whether the batter was built at the same time as, or somewhat later than its walls (see below), together with the batter’s absence from south aisle walls, tends to support the south aisle being of more recent build. When the south aisle was built, the south wall of the north aisle seems to have provided, at least in part the joint arcade, between the aisles. This arcade has subsequently been rebuilt, (probably at the time when the south aisle roof was raised by about 0.5m. as seen externally), for the ornamentation on its responds are of two distinct forms. The fragments of ‘roughly carved stiff-leaf foliage’ (WHCP) which occur on the capital of the western respond (Figure 6.157) and at the rear of the capital of the eastern respond (Figure 6.158), are of different decorative detail to the otherwise Perpendicular arcade.

386

Chapter Six Reference to two further aspects of the north aisle structure should be made. The Perpendicular style east window is not central to the east wall and it is situated 0.28m. closer to the arcade. This may in part be due to encroachment at the rebuilding stage of the east end of the wall arcade. In the west wall of the north aisle the window is central. Beneath this window and visible from the exterior is the trace of the lower part of a blocked doorway, 0.97m. wide between the jambs and again central to the wall. The orientations which can be deduced, of the Carboniferous sandstone jamb stones in this blocked west doorway, fail to give a clear indication of its building period (Figure 6.159). In the south jamb, rising from the sill which is at about current ground level, three stones only occur; a reddish stone BH, BVFIA, and a smaller stone in which the bedding orientation is unreadable. Four, possibly five, stones occur in the north jamb, the third below the window appears to be BVFIA but the orientation of others could not be determined. In certain circumstances this level of stone orientation detail would have been sufficient for the present author to declare that the doorway was of Patterned style. The north-west aisle quoin has all its readable Carboniferous sandstone stones BH, which would relate to Radford’s belief that the aisle was 13th C. As such this would be acceptable, for there are many examples of walls with quoins of a younger age (due to rebuilding) than the included wall structures. The present author is, however unaware of any Anglo-Saxon (Patterned) wall with included batter. Indeed, throughout the British Isles, he is unaware of any pre-13th C. wall possessing original batter. Only if the batter was subsequently added to the foot of the wall might the doorway be regarded as of Patterned style. The batter on this west wall may well be in this category: it occurs below the sill of the doorway (and current ground level) and is poorly constructed with an apparent line indicating its later application. The south wall to the south aisle provides a complex mixture of fabrics and structures (Figure 6.156), which immediately attract attention and have been well described by WHCP (Clwyd-Powys). At the east end of this wall, which relates to the current chancel, the wall has been rebuilt and reflecting this, the south-east corner to the south aisle includes Victorian worked stones. The wall stretch between two wall joins which include the possibly reset lancet window (in which the west internal splay is greater than the east) appears to have been thickened (both internally and externally) to counter wall inclination. To the west other joins reflect the positions of a one-time door and south porch, a heating chimney and at the extreme west rebuilding probably related to the 1813 fire or the position or removal of the one-time gallery. 6.53 Meifod, Sts Tysilio and Mary (SJ 155 132) The traditional history of Meifod Church was described in some detail by WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 75, PRN 7662) and this is somewhat confused by a true indication of the number of churches which may have once been on the site. The church (Figure 6.160) was recorded in the

Norwich Taxatio of 1254 and again in that of Lincoln in 1291. In 1265 it was acknowledged as a mother church. Glynne (1885, 47) visited the church in 1855, whilst in addition to WHCP (Clwyd-Powys), others referring to the church include Pennant (1784, 365-366); Lewis (1845b, 200-202); Hancock (1877); Thomas (1908, 492); RCAHMW (1911); Haslam (1979, 159); Soden (1984, 120); Salter (1991, 3, 20); Silvester (1992, 129); and recently Ward (2011). The church received an extensive restoration in 1871, the north aisle having been previously modified between 1795 and 1855. The church contains an interesting mixture of Palaeozoic rocks (in particular) in its fabric. These are described at the relevant place in the description of the church walls. In the 1871 restoration, the gallery was removed from the west end of the nave and a Norman arch was discovered in the south wall of the nave (Figure 6.161), and again, when the north aisle was enlarged at the aisle’s western end (Figure 6.162). These discoveries (Wynne-Edwards, 1871, xxiii-xxv) have provided an opportunity for several interpretations to be offered for the plan of the earlier Romanesque church. This clearly possessed a nave of much the same width as that now preserved, and presumably typical narrow aisles of the period to north and south. The two Norman pillars creating the northern aisle arcade which are preserved are of quite unlike fabric; that to the west is constructed in Devonian Old Red Sandstone and that to the east of grey, fine sandstones and siltstones from the Silurian rocks of the region. The visible arches remaining (Figure 6.162) were clearly created, as repair work in Victorian times, in Triassic red sandstones. The pillar in the south wall, although in the western position, is of the same fabric as the northern aisle eastern pillar. Only the exposure of further portions of the aisles will determine whether the pillars alternated down the aisles not as pairs but in opposition of colour to each other; or the Devonian pillar was exceptional (and possibly of later build). Two further, much thicker, columns of Old Red Sandstone serve to support the tower arch (Figure 6.163), and the majority of authors appear to have considered these to be of re-used Romanesque origin, possibly having once served in an early crossing in a church of cruciform plan. That these columns are less than the nave width apart, and the church is believed to have been a clas site, tend to lend support to such a view. However, the west tower is thought to be of 15th C. date, the arch to the tower is of Carboniferous sandstone and the working on the pillars is certainly not of Norman origin (Figures 6.164 and 6.165). The pillars are certainly no older than of 15th C. date and they have possibly been reworked since the 17th C. The south nave wall now remains visible where the Romanesque south aisle once stood and a chamfered pointed doorway, described as 14th C. (WHCP, ClwydPowys), passes though the blocked arcade (Figure 6.161), providing the current south main doorway to the nave. The south-west nave quoin has largely been rebuilt and it contains several blocks of the same Triassic white, 387

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.160 The church of St Tysilio and St Mary, Meifod, Montgomeryshire (SJ 155 132) as seen from the north-west.

Figure 6.161 The Norman arcade as seen in the south aisle of the church at Meifod. Note the supporting pillar is created in Lower Palaeozoic grey sandstones and siltstones 388

Chapter Six

Figure 6.162 The pillars to the Norman north arcade discovered when the south side of the north aisle to Meifod Church was modified. The pillars are of different stonework and the arcade arches have been rebuilt in Triassic sandstone.

Figure 6.163 Meifod tower arch observed from the east. The columns are of Devonian sandstone but the pointed arch is of Carboniferous sandstone. 389

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.164 The south column of the tower arch at Meifod some stones in which show relatively recent working.

Figure 6.165 Detail of certain stones in the south column of the tower arch at Meifod show relatively modern rustication.

390

Chapter Six

Figure 6.166 The Silurian fossil Leptaena rhomboidalis, one of many Lower Palaeozoic fossils that could be identified in the walls of Meifod Church. The measure is marked in 10mm. divisions. partially silicified, sandstone as seen at Guilsfield. The east wall of the present church externally preserves some detail of a north-east quoin immured in the wall. It reflects the possible position of the Norman aisle and the present contact with the north aisle, and therefore, could equate to the early nave or chancel quoin of a unicelled church. In support of this, the central portion of the current east face of this possible unicelled church, below the later east window, contains a moderate number of quartzitic boulders in its fabric; the boulders possibly used in a pre-Romanesque church. Interestingly, at an early date, Lewis (1845, 201) had stated that ‘the present chancel is Norman’. In this immured quoin the stones, with the exception of stone 8 (set BVFR), all appear to be orientated BH. Such orientations do not support a construction date for the quoin of anything prior to the Romanesque period. Some stones, however, tie the quoin to the north aisle and the quoin could equally have been created as recently as when the north aisle was rebuilt in the early Victorian period. The north aisle, which abuts against this quoin, still preserves its earlier possible fabric (see lowest 8 courses), and these may provide an indication of the earlier width of the aisle, for the lowest courses are not present towards the north-east end of the north aisle east wall. The south, north and east walls of the main body of the church are mainly constructed of fine sandstones and siltstones from the local fossiliferous Upper Ordovician and Silurian deposits.

These may be seen in the older more weathered walls especially. In a rapid survey of the south wall some of the fossils could be loosely identified. In the south wall of the nave for instance the head shield of an Ordovician trilobite, Trinucleus sp. could be observed and in the wall of the shorter south aisle, Upper Silurian fossils such as bryozoan, crinoid columnals, corals and brachiopods (including Leptaena rhomboidalis (Figure 6.166), and Protochonetes ludloviensis) were noted. WHCP (Clwyd-Powys) correctly observed that although a low string and beneath it a batter continued around the foot of the tower the batter was absent from the foot of the stair turret. They conceded ‘the tower is of 15th C date’ but that it was conceivable that the stair turret had been ‘added to an earlier structure at this date’. Subtle differences between the fabric of towers and their stair turrets can be observed in very many Welsh churches all intimating a slightly later date for the turret. 6.54 Pennant Melangell, St Melangell (SJ 024 265) Possibly one of the most frequently cited and thoroughly studied early churches in Wales, Pennant Melangell is both remotely situated and of relatively simple structure. Typical contributions to the church’s study are those of Pennant (1784, 361); Lewis (1845b, 319-320); Glynne (1885, 120-121), who visited the site in 1848; Radford and Hemp (1959, 81-113), Gresham (1968, 176-178, 244); and

391

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.167 The southern aspect of St Melangell, Pennant Melangell. Montgomeryshire (SJ 024 265).

Figure 6.168 The north wall of St Melangell Church, although rebuilt in the past, preserves rather more evidence of the antiquity of the church with included river boulders evident in the fabric.

392

Chapter Six Britnell et al. (1994). The church is thought to possibly be of 12th C. build, and it preserves one of the earliest shrines in northern Europe. The church has been extensively rebuilt (Figure 6.167). Much of the early history of the church, and more particularly the apse, has been confirmed by archaeological excavation. Regrettably, the present stonework reveals but little additional information related to the church history. WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 14) provide a useful summary of the structural and rebuilding history of the church. The oldest visible stonework is created in Lower Palaeozoic greywackes and grey sandstones, on occasions preserved as river boulders (Figure 6.168). The tower is said to have been rebuilt in about 1630, but its quoins display stones exhibiting evidence of ‘Victorian’ rustication, probably having been replaced in a rebuilding period of 1876-1877. The west doorway to the nave which adjoins the tower would appear to pre-date it, but a cover of white plaster prevents detailed study.

Figure 6.169 St Elidyr, Amroth (SN 163 078) possesses a typical Pembrokeshire tower which is situated at the western end of the north chapel (aisle). The stair turret is at the near corner and the modern vestry to the left.

PEMBROKESHIRE 6.55 Amroth, St Elidyr (SN 163 078) WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 3663, PRN 46767) have completed a very thorough and detailed examination of Amroth church (Figure 6.169) in very recent years. Others making reference to the church, unless noted below, were; Lewis (1845a, 32, who described the church as ‘ancient’); Owen (1906, 307); Laws and Owen (1908); Green (1910-1911, 232-234); RCAHMW (1925, 7); and Salter (1994, 46). The churchyard may have been formed out of the northern part of a large irregular circular enclosure, possibly the site of a former llan. The chancel arch was rebuilt in 1899. Glynne (1886, 67-68) described an earlier appearance of the chancel arch, which he had observed in 1845, as depressed and with imposts. With the exception of the Middle Jurassic oolitic limestone dressings inserted in the two periods of extensive Victorian rebuilding (1851-55 {when the nave was extended westwards}, and 1899), the stonework at Amroth would appear to have been quarried locally. Both Carboniferous Limestone and sandstones are used, with the quoins of sandstone. Some Devonian sandstone has been used in the modern vestry.

Figure 6.170 The north-east quoin of the north chapel of Amroth Church exhibits stones placed BVFL – BVFR, but with an absence of BH quoin stones. This work is typical of the late 16th C ‘Alternate’ style. The modern vestry is to the right.

393

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.171 One of the lower stones in the quoin shown in Figure 6.170 is Carboniferous sandstone with numerous moulds of fossil bivalves.

Figure 6.172 The contact at Amroth Church between the east faces of the north chapel and the chancel where it remains clearly shows the chapel to be the older. This proved confusing until the chancel (from evidence in its south wall) was shown to have been extended - and only this extension is younger than the chapel. 394

Chapter Six At initial brief inspection the emplacement of many of the quoin stones at Amroth provided an element of confusion and complexity. This applied particularly to the earlier quoins at the eastern end of the north chapel, and to the tower stair turret. In each of these quoins, side-alternate sandstones placed BVFR – BVFL (Figures 6.170 and 6.171), with occasional obvious modifications (as re-used or replacement stones) occurred. A ‘Patterned’ date for the quoins could be discounted because of the absence (with very rare exceptions) of BH orientated stones. Initially, the contact between the north chapel or aisle and the east chancel wall added further to the difficulties of interpretation for, from the evidence of the contact in the east walls, the north chapel was clearly the earlier (Figure 6.172). However, the true relationship was resolved with the realisation that the west bay of the earlier chancel once determined its eastern limit, and that the chancel had been extended to the same length as the north chapel possibly about 1600 (WHCP, Dyfed), as revealed in the south wall of the chancel. The unusually broad arch to the arcade must, therefore, relate to this chancel extension. Butler (2003) suggested that the north chapel was built by the incumbent of Amroth Castle in the early 16th C. WHCP, however, on architectural evidence, placed the date as mid to late 16th C; one more in keeping with that provided by the ‘Alternate’ style eastern quoins. With the quoin styles of both the lower portion of the tower turret and the chapel being similar they might be considered to be of the same age, those in the turret representing repair work. WHCP proposed that the present

chapel might have been preceded by an earlier chapel/skewpassage. This does not, however, relate architecturally to the evidence seen in the current tower. There is some evidence of earlier wall foundations below the north and west walls of the tower. In terms of the stonework fabric, only the north-west quoin to the original, pre-1851-55, nave, where all stones are orientated BH, appears to preserve 13th or 14th century origins. One small supplement to the work of WHCP (Dyfed) can be made. The tower stair turret reveals the trace of a string course on its east face and above this height the tower appears to have been involved in some rebuilding. 6.56 Castlemartin, St Michael (and All Angels) (SR 911 988) This interesting, extensively altered church (RCHAMW, 1925, 64; Lloyd, et al., 2004, 162-3) set in a moderately curvilinear graveyard (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 46779), reveals nothing visibly of building fabric earlier than 13th C. (Figures 6.173 and 6.174). The church is said to have been restored in 1858. It has been further described by the following authors: Fenton (1811, 406-407); Lewis (1845a, 234); Glynne (1886, 62-63; 1888); Laws (1888, 377; 1909, 179, 195, 199); Owen (1906, 304); Laws and Owen (1908, where Laws stated ‘no church in Pembrokeshire is of greater interest’); Green (19101911, 267-272); Thomas (1977, 175); and Salter (1994, 50).

Figure 6.173 St Michael, Castlemartin, Pembrokeshire (SR 911 988) has a tower on the south side. The chancel, having been built into a quarried area was probably originally much shorter but no evidence of such an extension exists in the present fabric. 395

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.174 The tower at Castlemartin Church was built over the south transept and at one time had a south chapel to its east. On its west (seen here) and east walls the outlines of its earlier saddleback roof are present.

Figure 6.175 Destroyed by successive storms and waves, the west end of St Brynach Church at Dinas, Pembrokeshire (SN 015 402) has fairly recently been reconstructed.

The church is listed here because the chancel, and in particular its eastward extension, has been built into a Lower Devonian, Old Red Sandstone quarry: indicating that the church has been extended to the east significantly since its first inception, the quarried stone no doubt being used in the church. The chancel is unusually slightly wider than the nave and it also weeps significantly: both further pointers to its early rebuilding. This rebuilding would appear to have been prior to the 13th C. Kissock (1997, 133-4) considered that the village of Castlemartin to exhibit a pre-Conquest characteristic plan.

A protective sea wall built in 1882 (Laws and Owen, 1908) was in turn breached in 1978, causing further damage particularly to the graveyard. The west end of the church was reconstructed (Figure 6.175 ) and includes a chamfered monolithic door, the jamb stones of local Ordovician ashy agglomerate, are placed BVEIA and BH, in post-Patterned style. Salter (1994), however, described this doorway as 15th C. An interesting appeal was presented by the parishioners in 1684 (Eyre-Evans, 1927, 393), with the request ‘We want a pulpit’.

6.57 Dinas, Cwm-yr-Eglwys, St Brynach (SN 015 402) - ruin

6.58 Llanddeiniol, St Deiniol (St Daniel) (SM 982 004)

Briefly described by RCHAMW (1925, 91) as of ‘fairly early work’, the church was ultimately destroyed in a storm in 1859 (Green, 1910-1911, 289-292). In 1833, Lewis wrote; ‘at spring tides the walls of the church-yard are washed by the sea: but it is probable that this was not the site of the original structure, as a place called Bryn Hȇnllan, “old church hill,” is in the vicinity.’ Lewis (1845a, 303)

Considered by RCHAMW (1925, 287-88) under the parish of Pembroke, St Mary; the chapel’s chequered history has been appropriately described. The building is stated as being single-chambered with a later, ‘possibly’ early 14th C. tower and spire. According to the Royal Commission the tower and spire were largely rebuilt in the early 20th C. (Figure 6.176). When Fenton (1811, 375) described the church it was said to be in non-conformist use. WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 3279, PRN 46845) recorded that the church was (re)built in 1835, and others contributing to its history include Salter (1994, 69) and Ings, et al. (2010-2011). Situated on Lower Devonian sandstones it is only c. 100m. 396

Chapter Six

Figure 6.176 The west tower and spire of St Deiniol, Llandeiniol, Pembrokeshire (SM 982 004), which on the south side is heavily covered in ivy. The ivy obscures the unusual internal access staircase which rises within a curved west nave wall to the first floor of the turret. from the Ridgeway Conglomerate and both rock types are found in the building. For instance, the lowest 2 – 2.5m. of the tower is battered with blocks of the conglomerate (placed BH) which appear to be supplementary to the wall fabric and of relatively recent origin. It has proved impossible to gain entry to this church which is now in private hands. The south wall of the main block of the church possesses a vertical fabric join at about 8.98m. from the east end of the church. This could not be observed in the north wall of the church because of thick ivy growth. The join, associated with a change in the roof cover, suggests that the chancel may have once been narrower than the nave. At about 2.3m., from the chancel east end, on north and south walls, similar joins indicate that the present chancel has been extended. The present east chancel wall has been rebuilt with Carboniferous Limestone and the southeast quoin subsequently buttressed. Beneath the earlier south wall and extending west for a short distance from the position of the earlier south-east quoin, foundation stones of Devonian conglomerate may be seen, with a particularly large block beneath the quoin. Of the quoins only that on north-west corner of the nave may preserve any detail of an earlier church and this is built of brown, flaggy Devonian sandstone, all stones being laid BH with just two exceptions (BVFR and BVFL), which might represent stone re-use.

6.59 Llanddewi Velfry, St David (SN 145 159) Principally constructed of Carboniferous Limestone this church (Figure 6.177) contains in its fabric occasional blocks of possibly re-used Carboniferous sandstone and conglomeratic sandstone. Early authors contributing information on this site included Lewis (1845a, 519); Laws (1888); Owen (1906, 309); Laws and Owen (1908); Green (1911-1912, 232-235); Jones (1915a, 327); and Salter (1994, 57). RCAHMW (1925, 154) recorded that the church was rebuilt on earlier foundations. Rees (1932) indicated that in the 14th C. the church advowson belonged to the Lord of the Manor. Restoration is supposed to have occurred in 1860. The limited visible traces of these foundations, such as those across the full width of the chancel and north chapel at the east end of the church do not appear to be of early medieval structure. The church is built within an early rectilinear enclosure and thought to be of a ‘high-probability’ early medieval origin site (WHCP, Dwyfed, PRN 3728, PRN 46803). Although (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 246) suggested the chancel was rebuilt in 1757, they described the chancel’s north wall as being of a ‘crude and archaic’ 16th C. two-bay arcade. The arcade arches are depressed, four-centred and slightly pointed. Although the arcade is constructed of limestone, its central round pillar is of sandstone with a plain, cable moulded capital, and this pier could well be of Norman

397

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.177 St David, Llanddewi Velfry, Pembrokeshire (SN 145 159) is observed here from the south-west.

Figure 6.178 Between the chancel and the north chapel at Llanddewi Velfry this arcade is present (seen here from the north-east). The pillar with the cable moulding is constructed of sandstone unlike the arcade (and the majority of the church) which is of Carboniferous Limestone, suggesting that the pillar is likely to be of a different age. 398

Chapter Six

Figure 6.179 On the north side of the arcade at Llanddewi Velfry and over the pillar, these two figure heads are also created in sandstone. Their composition, appearance and position offer the suggestion that they might once have overlooked a narrow Norman aisle used for perambulation.

Figure 6.180 The chancel arch at Llanddewi Velfry seen here from the nave was apparently once higher and with a round arch.

399

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology construction (Figure 6.178). Above the round pillar there are two grotesque figure heads created in fine-grained sandstone (Figure 6.179); these separating the pillar from two higher depressed circular arches occupying only about half the wall thickness, again these are of Norman appearance. The north chancel wall is only 0.85m. in thickness and it is inset from that of the nave, which is 1.03m. thick. Internal walls are generally obscured by plaster, but the pointed chancel arch appears to have been built into a slightly taller and narrower round arch (Figure 6.180). 6.60 Llanrhian, St Rhian (St Rheamus) (SM 819 315) Llanrhian church was extensively rebuilt both in 1836 and again in 1891 (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 2837, PRN 46818); Lloyd, et al., 2004, 256). There is documentary evidence for a former aisle to the south of the nave (Fenton, 1811, 34-35; Lewis, 1845b, 89), but this was removed in 1836 when the north and south transepts were added. The chancel was in such a dilapidated state that it was excluded from this rebuild but included later in the century (RCAHMW, 1925, 177; WHCP, Dyfed). Green (19111912, 252-254) referred to the church as being recorded in the 1291 Taxatio and WHCP presented evidence to suggest that there was pre-Conquest use of the site. The

ten-sided (‘decagon’) font bowl was described by TyrrellGreen (1928, 32-33). In composition it appears to be created in Caen Stone from Normandy but many applied washes makes this identification uncertain. The main building stones in elements of the church are local Lower Ordovician ashy siltstones and moderately cleaved shales, but the tower, described as late 14th C. (Figure 6.181), incorporates variable quantities of dolerite as blocks and boulders, and flaggy slate and sandstones are also used in the more modern transepts. All four corners of the nave, which might include the earliest fabric of the present church, are preserved, but close examination reveals each has suffered degrees of rebuilding. Superficial inspection suggests that the north-west quoin may preserve some originality for it appears to read from the base: Orientation uncertain, large stone with incised cross (?) on the north face; BH; BVFL (large stone {Figure 6.182}); BH; BH; BH; BVFL; BVFR, BVFL; remainder to eaves BH (all later). The ornamentation on the lowest stone in the quoin (Figure 6.183) has been considered to date from the 7th to 9th C. Careful scrutiny reveals, however, that all the stones have been reset, for small local slate levelling fillets apparently exist between each stone to at least course nine. The early incised stone at the foot of the quoin is probably of calcareous sandstone possibly of Jurassic origin, and therefore, not quarried in Pembrokeshire.

Figure 6.181 From the south, the west tower of St Rhian, Llanrhian, Pembrokeshire (SM 819 315), thought to be of late 14th C. construction, is both of saddleback form and with crow-stepped parapets to the gables. It has also been grossly over-pointed.

Figure 6.182 Stones 2 (BH) and 3 (BVFL) in the northwest quoin of the nave of Llanrhian Church.

400

Chapter Six

Figure 6.183 The lowest stone in the same north-west quoin at Llanrhian has been inscribed and has been suggested as of 7th to 9th C. in date. 6.61 Llanstinian, St Justinian (SM 954 338) Remotely situated, this church has been described by Lewis (1845b, 105); Laws and Owen (1908, where the church was described as ‘dilapidated’); and Green (1911-1912, 258-259). Rebuilt in the 19th C., it is set in a curvilinear graveyard and enclosure (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 2602, PRN 46821). The church has fairly recently had a drainage ditch constructed around its walls. Below the 19th C. structure the walls can be seen to be of boulders representative of an early church. Being mainly of local dolerite they unfortunately reveal no lineation or orientation to ascertain their age of use. 6.62 Llanwnda, St Gwyndaf (SM 933 396) Described as ‘the best of the simple medieval churches of north Pembrokeshire’ (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 259), the church was rebuilt in 1881-1882 (RCAHMW, 1925, 189 and WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 2523). Fenton (1811, 19); Lewis (1845b, 160-161); Laws and Owen (1908); and Thomas (1964, 28) referred to the church, and a report on a visit by Glynne, prior to the church rebuilding, appeared in 1897 (47-50). In 1911-1912, Green (260-263) recorded that the church appeared in the records of the 1291 Taxatio and that once the church had two subordinate chapels. Eastham (2004, 70) identified St Gwyndaf as an early pilgrimage chapel. Eyre-Evans (1935, 300-301) listed interesting parish presentments for 1688.

The church chancel has been built of cut blocks of local, dolerite/doleritic gabbro, but includes the occasional, inscribed stone. That in Figure 6.184 being described by Nash-Williams (1950, 190) as being of 7th -9th C. Elsewhere in the church, generally only in the irregularly shaped, larger, lowest, re-used stones of the same material, such as in the west quoins and the western nave walls (Figure 6.185) is there evidence in the fabric of an earlier origin for the walls. 6.63 Llawhaden, St Aidan (St Aeddan) (SN 075 175) Llawhaden Church is known to have been restored in 1834 (CADW, 1997) and again in 1861-62 (Lambeth Palace Library, ICBS 05748). The tower was renovated in 1930 and more recent renovations to the main body of the church occurred in 1993 and 1995 (WHCP). References to the church have been made by Fenton (1811, 317-319, when the church location was Llewhaden); Lewis (1845a, 466, who referred to the building as ‘an ancient and venerable edifice, with a handsome tower’); Green (1911-1912, 270274); RCAHMW (1925, 141-143); Soulsby (1983, 177179); Salter (1994, 60); Treharne (2006, 231-234); and others. From such information WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 3582, PRN 46827) described Llawhaden as being a documented, pre-Conquest site established in an early (?) rectangular churchyard. Local stone provides the majority of the church fabric; the sandstones, flaggy sandstones and siltstones being obtained from the Upper Ordovician and the coarse conglomerate from Silurian, Llandovery sediments. 401

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.184 St Gwyndaf, Llanwnda, Pembrokeshire (SM 933 396) was rebuilt in 1881 often with cut blocks of doleritic rock. Occasionally, as here in the south wall of the chancel, including an early inscribed stone (this with lichen cover).

Figure 6.185 The west portion of the north nave wall of Llanwnda Church is constructed of blocks of both dolerite and slate and is far less modified than the chancel. The west quoin stones appear to have been re-used. 402

Chapter Six

Figure 6.186 The tower within a tower, seen from the west at St Aiden, Llawhaden, Pembrokeshire (SN 075 175).

Figure 6.187 A plan of the church at Llawhaden. A full description of the church is given under the appropriate church description. An addendum to the note on the plan is that the vestry has also been described as the chancel aisle.

403

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.188 The lower portion of the Llawhaden Church vestry quoin ‘B’, where the BH stones all appear to be placed side-alternately.

Figure 6.189 In the south wall of the Llawhaden chancel is a blocked window the frame of which is partly covered by the later east wall of the vestry. Much of this east vestry wall (and the upper portion of the vestry as a whole) appears to have been rebuilt in the late Victorian period. 404

Chapter Six

Figure 6.190 The font at Llawhaden Church photographed here has been considered as Norman. It appears to be made in Jurassic oolite from England.

Figure 6.191 This stone in the east wall of the exterior of the chancel is incised with a cross which has been considered as 10th C. 405

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Beside the East Cleddau River, it is remarkable that this church has not suffered regular flooding. The unusual incorporation of one tower into another larger, later tower provides an interesting appearance (Figure 6.186) and problems of interpretation which provided the plausible view that the: ‘…earlier church (like the later) had a tower on its south side, which was permitted to remain when the nave was removed. The chancel of the earlier church was also retained...when the nave and walls…were taken down, probably in the late 14th century, a space intervened… into which the new tower was fitted.’ RCHAMW (1925, 141-3) This explanation required the ‘original chancel’ to be present to the south of a later larger chancel. Quoins ‘A’ and ‘B’ (Figure 6.187) should in this detail exhibit relatively early stonework. At ‘A’ the newer tower batter rests on a large, coarse conglomerate boulder set BH, and, in turn, the smaller ‘chancel’ rests upon the tower batter. At ‘B’, the quoin is constructed of sandstones and from above stone 8 these appear to be flaggier. Up to and including stone 8 the quoin stones appear to be set side-alternately (Figure 6.188), however, their orientation was difficult to determine and those stones that could be read appeared to be BH. Adding to the difficulties of interpretation, the frame of an infilled perpendicular style window in the larger chancel south wall is slightly covered by the east wall involving quoin ‘B’ (Figure 6.189), and there are suggestions that the smaller chancel (now the vestry), recently described as a chancel aisle (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 265-6) or the south chapel (WHCP, Dyfed) has been extensively rebuilt. It would appear that the rebuilding probably took place in the 1861-62 restoration when the eastern gable was constructed and the vestry re-roofed. Of the external walls to this portion of the church only the lower south wall may be original. Examining the structure internally, the south transept in its original form apparently adjoined the smaller tower, for the barrel vaulted tower is connected to the transept by a ?13th C. pointed arch and the stair turret for the tower commences in the south-west corner of the transept. From this relationship, it is possible to conclude that the south transept is the same age as, or earlier than, the smaller tower. The second and taller tower is built over the south transept and is, therefore, of more recent construction. A squint passage (now used as the entry to the larger tower) once existed between the transept and the chancel aisle. This would indicate that this aisle pre-dates the transept and both towers in age. The chancel aisle in its early form must be of 13th C. construction or earlier and not of the later dates assessed by others.

An arcade between the chancel and the chancel aisle, of two, chamfered four-centred arches, is similar to those observed at Llanddewi Velfry, Martletwy and elsewhere in Pembrokeshire. WHCP (Dyfed) have suggested that this arcade ‘is unusual, probably late in a “debased” gothic style suggestive of the early 17th century’. The arches rest, as in the other instances, on a round column which could well be Norman (Laws and Owen, 1908). Caroë (1922, 473) regarded the capital to this column as ‘probably an inverted base’. Carved beasts on the column appear to be created in a Jurassic oolite. Interestingly, the font in the church (Figure 6.190), which is regarded as of 12th C. form is constructed in the same oolite. Referring to Figure 6.187 the history of the church may be briefly reconstructed possibly as follows: a. A nave (and possibly later) a chancel built. b. A south aisle created probably extending as far as (and including) the present vestry (most probably under Norman influence). c. The west portion of the aisle and arcade removed and replaced with a south transept (?13th C.) which extended south as far as west-east line CD. Beyond that a tower erected (possibly later), approximately CDXY in shape. Hagioscope built. d. As 13th C. is early for a spiral staircase turret it is possible that this was built later with its entry on the west side of the transept. e. New, thicker-walled, taller tower built over the transept (perhaps 15th C.; dimensions PQRS). This used the existing stair turret and then moved into the new build to the north for the higher floors. Later, transept blocked to strengthen tower and arcade arches modified. No doubt, this tentative history could be modified and improved with opportunity to view the interior of the tower in better light. It should be noted that when viewed externally from the west (Figure 6.186), neither the original tower nor its stair turret, possess the later tower’s string course. That string course has what appear to be gargoyles at intervals along its length on the tower’s almost invisible north face. Apart from the incised 10th C. cross (Figure 6.191) built into the outside of the east wall of the chancel (NashWilliams, 1950, 193), the extensive re-building phases may well have obliterated anything from the fixed fabric of earlier origin than the possible Norman pier, representing the likelihood that the church had originally a Norman south aisle.

406

Chapter Six 6.64 Nevern, St Brynach, (SN 084 400) A range of persons have contributed to the history of the Nevern site and these include Fenton (1811, 541542); Lewis (1845b, 257-258); Barnwell (1873, 370374); Glynne (1898, 358-359, following a visit in August 1850); Laws and Owen (1908); Hughes (1922b, 392-394); Eyre-Evans (1922, 498-503; 1935, 302-303); Lewis (1964, 168); Soden (1984, 126); Salter (1994, 64); Poucher (2004); and Treharne (2006, 202-207). The site has been considered to be one of a clas church, and is generally thought to be of great antiquity (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 307-8; WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 1603, PRN 1604). Price (1992) detailed the church to have been ‘founded before 1100’ and Green (1912-1913, 217-220) stated that the church was referred to in the 1291 Taxatio. A significant restoration of the building occurred in 1864, but the walls reveal many variations in stonework and age. A variety of local Ordovician sediments have been utilized in these walls including flaggy sandstones, fossiliferous shales, conglomerates and decalcified sandstones. The stonework in the south-west quoin to the west turret of the south chapel, exhibits this mixture well, with the conglomerates (stones, 6, 7 and 10) possibly being re-used from the earliest stone church. Above stone 11 this quoin has been rebuilt.

The church graveyard has a well-preserved Celtic High Cross which has been suggested as being of 10th or 11th C. date (Figure 6.192). 6.65 Penally, St Nicholas and St Teilo (SS 117 992) The Royal Commission (RCHAMW, 1925, 292-93), described Penally church as ‘probably entirely of the same period – the latter part of the 13th century’. The stonework clearly reveals otherwise. The church (Figure 6.193) is built of Devonian, Ridgeway Conglomerate and the higher Skrinkle Sandstone, both rock types occurring within 300m. of the church. From somewhat further distances, and probably all at a later date, Carboniferous Limestone and a little sandstone has, however, been incorporated. This is illustrated in the upper portion (about 40 per cent) of the tower which is built of Carboniferous Limestone. The church site is thought to be that of an early Celtic monastery or clas, (WHCP, Dyfed, PRN 3442, PRN 4235; Lloyd, et al., 2004, 352-3) and the church preserves a number of early Christian monuments (Figure 6.194). Documented history further supports an origin possibly as early as c. 675 (WHCP, Dyfed). A number of authors have contributed to the church history, these including Fenton (1811, 443-444); Lewis (1845b, 305); Westwood (1847,

Figure 6.192 The church of St Brynach, Nevern, Pembrokeshire SN 084 400) possesses a well-preserved High Celtic Cross which has been dated to the 10th or 11th C. in its churchyard. It is viewed here from the east.

407

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.193 Photographed with difficulty from the south-west, the tower in particular of the church of St Nicholas and St Teilo, Penally Pembrokeshire (SS 117 992).

Figure 6.194 Like Nevern, Penally Church possesses a High Wheel Cross thought to date from the 10th C.

408

Chapter Six

Figure 6.195 The north-east quoin of Penally chancel has vertically orientated stones present over much of its lower portion. Although it proves impossible to photograph this detail the higher BH stones commencing just below the east window sill height (left) are distinguishable from those below (the folder is 0.31m. long). 321); Laws (1888, 382; 1909); Owen (1906, 305); Laws and Owen (1908); Green (1912-1913, 240-242); Lewis (1964, 168); Radford (1977, 173); Soden (1984, 126); Salter (1994, 66-67); and Treharne (2006, 217-218). The nave and chancel pre-date the dissimilar north and south transepts each of which has a squint passage to the chancel. The western nave quoins were probably rebuilt at the earliest in the 13th C. for all but one of the stones are set BH, and are of various Devonian sandstones. Somewhat different is a Devonian conglomeratic sandstone set BVFL in the south-west quoin, which could be re-used from an earlier period. In contrast, the chancel north-east quoin although entirely of Devonian red-cream sandstones in its upper portion, has its lowest seven quoin stones of Carboniferous sandstone emplaced; BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL (Figure 6.195). Higher stones are orientated, with one exception, BH (with some rebuilding towards the eaves). The bottom stones could be considered to be in Patterned style, but the evidence is restricted. They were more possibly positioned with rebuilding in the later ‘Alternate’ period which commenced about 1550 to 1600. This is proposed because the stones exhibit remnant evidence of tooling and the other quoins display a more mixed composition of stones. The south-east chancel quoin has lower stones that are very heavily rendered so that their orientation is difficult to determine and it carries at least three stones of Carboniferous Limestone, although stones seven and above are BH and of Devonian sandstone. Other

visible quoins to the church are of mixed stones and these include Carboniferous Limestone, and occasionally, slate levelling late inserts. 6.66 St Bride’s, St Bridget (SM 803 107) Glynne (1885, 209) visited this church (Figure 6.196) in 1856 when the church outline and detail was much as today. Others who have made references to the church include, Fenton (1811, 174-175); Owen (1906, 302); Laws and Owen (1908); Green (1912-1913, 272-275); RCAHMW (1925, 318-19); Thomas (1963, 28); Salter (1994, 69); WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 3131, PRN 27990); and Lloyd, et al. (2004). The church site is believed to be that of a pre-Conquest church (WHCP, Dyfed) and Green (19121913) indicated its presence in the 1291 Taxatio. The early foundations of the south and north chancel walls are just visible below the 1869 restoration (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 382). In the north-east chancel quoin modified remnants of the foundation stones occur as: stone 1 (projecting to the east and the north), BH, Old Red Sandstone conglomerate; Stones 2 to 5 (project only to the north) set; 2, BVFL, Old Red Sandstone conglomerate, stones 3 and 4, thin rebuilding fillets, 5, BH, Old Red Sandstone conglomerate; stone 6 (in line with the present church walls), Devonian green sandstone set BVFL. With the exception of the fillets, these quoin stones are likely to have been re-used from an earlier ‘Patterned’ style church. There are other uncertain pieces of evidence in the fabric (Figure 6.197). 409

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.196 St Briget, St Bride’s, Pembrokeshire (SM 803 107) is viewed here from the north-west.

Figure 6.197 In the south wall of the nave of St Bride’s Church the trace of a round-headed entry to a small chapel or transept (not opposite that in the north) occurs.

410

Chapter Six 6.67 St Florence, St Florentius (SN 082 012) WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 3539) record that St Florence was listed in the Taxatio of 1291 and first mentioned in 1248. The church (Figure 6.198) is situated on a raised, fairly circular site surrounded by roads. The church is built of Carboniferous Limestone with the inclusion of occasional blocks of quartzite. Rees (1932) displayed this church as one in which in the 14th C. the advowson was held by the Lord of the Manor. Glynne (1886, 57-58) provided a short description of the church and the site was also referred to by Fenton (1811, 440-442); Laws (1888, 376, 382; 1909, 194); Owen (1906,305); Laws and Owen (1908); Green (1912-1913, 290-294); Bushell (1916, 335 {footnote}); Salter (1994, 69); Scourfield (2002, 598-599); and Treharne (2006, 218-219). The west end of the nave of St Florence church is considered to be of 12th C. construction as revealed by the south-west window (Lloyd, et al., 2004, 439-440). The chancel was restored in 1870 (RCHAMW, 1925, 370) but could well be of much the same age (see reset, now partially infilled and modified window in present vaulted entrance to north chapel). Chapels to the north and south of the chancel are considered to be of 15th C. date and at one time both were arcaded. That to the south chapel remains;

it has been described as late 15th or 16th C. on the form of its arches: however, these rest on a round pier and the arches differ. The eastern arch possesses a depressed semicircular head, that to the west a four-centered pointed head presumably of later date. The eastern arch is very similar to those in other churches in south-west Wales (such as, Llandewi Velfry, Martletwy and Rudbraxton), where the pier(s) could be 12th C. The blocked window in the north chapel supports such a view (Figure 6.199). This would follow the English pattern of narrow Norman aisles to the north and south of the main body of the church (in these instances converted later to chapels). Following this view, in the instance of St Florence, implies the blocking of the north arcade to create the pointed doorway (which is also now blocked). Externally, the east wall of the chancel reveals that the chancel existed before the chapels. The north-east and south-east chancel quoins are set BH suggesting a 12th C. or later construction. Below the east wall the remnants of the foundation courses of an earlier chancel appear to be present. At the west end of the church the west nave wall has been modified with a low Victorian batter. The church was recently restored in the period 1995-1998.

Figure 6.198 The church of St Florentius, St Florence, Pembrokshire (SN 082 012) is viewed here from the north towards the north transept.

411

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.199 The remnants of a Romanesque window, created in Carboniferous Limestone in the north chapel aisle of the church of St Florence, possibly indicative of a once Norman perambulatory longer north aisle. 6.68 St Is(h)mael, St Ismael (SM 830 067)

RADNORSHIRE

Glynne, (1885, 210-211) referred to this church (Figure 6.200) as being of ‘wholly’ South Pembrokeshire type, and James (1992, 73) that the church had a ‘most convincing’ early rectilinear enclosure. Lloyd, et al., (2004, 441) stated that it was constructed of ‘Medieval fabric, but little of it is datable’. From the two transeptal chapels of different ages, squint passages of dissimilar sizes give access to the chancel (Figure 6.201), this discrepancy in size being due to the chancel’s slight weep and off-set relationship to the nave; probably features indicative of rebuilding of the chancel. Documentary evidence for a pre-Conquest age is given by WHCP (Dyfed, PRN 2999) and Green (1912-1913, 294296) indicated that the church was listed in the 1291 Taxatio.

No churches listed

The church is built of local Lower Devonian red sandstone and silty-sandstone. Windows are typically dressed in Victorian Mid-Jurassic oolite with older remnants probably in Carboniferous sandstone. The lowest stone in the northwest nave quoin is a large block of conglomerate emplaced BVFR, above it rests a green sandstone of uncertain orientation, with higher stones all of Devonian red siltysandstone set BH. Just the lowest stone might be interpreted as evidence of a pre-Romanesque origin for this church. Otherwise, evidence of the north nave doorway (Figure 6.202), possibly of 13th C. age and several undatable window traces occur in the church walls. Beneath the north transept, two arches (Figure 6.203) on opposing sides, low in the lateral walls may have been built to transmit a small stream.

WREXHAM 6.69 Chirk, St Mary (SJ 291 376) It has been claimed that Chirk Church may have had an early link with the Cistercian Valle Crucis Abbey, and a Taxatio record related to the church exists for 1291 (WCHP, ClwydPowys, PRN 101108, PRN 16745). The church consists of a double-aisled building with a west tower attached to, and as an integral part of, the north aisle. Elements of rebuilding occurred in 1804, 1829, and 1853 following a fire in the east end of the south aisle. A number of authors have described aspects of the church including Pennant (1784, 283-285); Lewis (1845a, 244); Lloyd-Williams and Underwood (1872, pl. 48); Glynne (1884, 187); Thomas (1911, 271-274); RCAHMW (1912, 35-36); Pritchard (1973); Hubbard (1986, 128-129); Hurdsman (1996); plus the extensive report by WHCP (Clwyd-Powys). The last authors suggested that there were as many as six different fabric styles in the church walls. Rock types observed were probably all from the local Upper Carboniferous involving a range of variably coloured, fairly coarse sandstones to finegrained silty sandstones.

412

Chapter Six

Figure 6.200 St Ishmael, St Ishmaels, Pembrokeshire (SM 830 067) is situated in a small wooded valley which descends to the sea, and it can be observed here from the south.

Figure 6.201 A view of the north-east skew-passage from the north transept to the chancel at St Ishmael Church.

413

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.202 External traces of the north nave doorway visible in St Ishmael Church.

Figure 6.203 Beneath the north transept of St Ishmael this unusual arch on the south wall, and another under the east wall opposite, may have at one time transmitted a small stream.

414

Chapter Six The dating of the various parts of this church has largely been determined on the style of the fenestration, most of which is Perpendicular, or more modern and, in particular, Victorian. The south aisle, south wall, however, includes remnants of a Norman window. The tower and the north aisle (Figure 6.204) are considered by most authors to be later additions, described by WHCP (Clwyd-Powys) as dating from ‘a Late Perpendicular (16th C) remodelling’. The tower is clearly of two principal contrasting periods with a division at the third string course which includes a slight change in fabric. The church guide (Rees, 2004, 19) suggests that the lower portion of the tower together with the north aisle date from about 1475. Although there is nothing to visibly support such an early date, the tower was certainly in existence when the Perpendicular window was inserted into its west wall. Both the south wall and much of the east wall of the south aisle have been extensively altered over time. In particular most of the south wall was rebuilt to combat an outward lean (by the wall being made thicker at the base {Figure 6.205}). The east wall was probably re-faced at this time, and short flat buttresses were inserted below two of the three sets of Perpendicular windows (i.e. the west set in the south wall and that in the east wall). More substantial buttresses, in a rock resembling Upper Carboniferous grey Pennant Sandstone (Figure 3.10) were subsequently added in Victorian times (possibly in 1853).

An infilled round-headed doorway has been partially covered by one of these buttresses on the south wall (Figure 6.206). No jambs now remain for this doorway and, although remnant imposts are preserved, it is difficult to determine the age of the doorway. The doorway, probably once served as the south entrance, but it was reset into a thickened portion of the south wall and continued to be used in this position until it was subsequently infilled. Close to the doorway, a Norman window in the south wall of the south aisle (Figure 6.207), possesses only two of its jamb stones both typically BVEIA, and it has more obviously been reset. Both the window and the remnant doorway are constructed of a relatively soft but partly recrystallised sandstone offering the possibility that both may be of the same age. It cannot be assumed that the south wall of the south aisle served as the original site for these two structures (the doorway and the Norman window), although most authors do accept this to conclude that the south is the older aisle. A stone inscribed with a consecration cross also occurs high in the south aisle wall (Figure 6.208). It too has been suggested as being of possible Norman age. The sharp arrises of the cross, preserved as it is in the relatively soft sandstone, would tend to indicate a much more recent origin. The buttress set against the east wall (Figure 6.209) of the church aisles receives the thrust from their joint arcade, and from its position to the south of the current roof drainage gutter, supports the view that the north aisle is the older. The

Figure 6.204 This view of St Mary, Chirk, Wrexham (SJ 291 376) is from the south-west. The west door to the nave portion of the south aisle is on the right and the west door to the tower and north aisle on the right.

415

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 6.205 The south wall of the south aisle of Chirk Church has been greatly modified. Inverted batters have been added to support the wall in its outward lean, walls between these batters have been rebuilt and short buttresses placed below the windows. These modifications were probably undertaken in the latter part of the 18th or earlier half of the 19th C.

Figure 6.206 The actions described briefly in Figure 6.205 at Chirk were later probably considered insufficient and this more substantial type of buttressing was added to support the wall possibly in 1853. This buttress covers what is thought to be part of a 17th C. reset doorway. 416

Chapter Six

Figure 6.207 In the Chirk Church south aisle rebuilt wall, part of this reset Norman window is present. It is not in its original position

Figure 6.208 This consecration cross centrally above the rebuilt south wall of the south aisle at Chirk, appears to remain too precisely cut in this relatively soft Carboniferous sandstone to be anything other than of ‘Victorian’ creation.

Figure 6.209 In the east end of Chirk Church the buttress position suggests that the north aisle is the older, in that the south aisle abuts onto the north. However, the very low string/drip course on both the wall of the buttress and the north aisle adds complexity to the relationship. Is the buttress only built against the north aisle south wall in which the arcade was created? 417

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology low string/drip course on this buttress continues around the north aisle but not the south. The relationship of this drip course and the buttress to the two aisles appears to provide the only obvious means of determining which is the older of the two aisles. The east wall of the south aisle looks the younger for it has been re-faced (perhaps excluding the gable) up to the buttress. The re-facing would remove any evidence of the string course from the south aisle had it existed. The buttress would normally have been built to support both aisles. Had the south wall of the north aisle, however, provided the arcade, the buttress may have been placed only opposing this arcade wall, and probably been built at the same time as the arcade. Only careful measurements inside and out would determine the action taken in the past. An opportunity to undertake such measurements proved to not be available to the present author. In accepting the south aisle Norman window as having been originally constructed in that wall most authors have acknowledged that the church tower was probably awkwardly built to the north of the body of the original church. A much more orthodox, original church plan would have been to have had the tower, nave and chancel in line. The small Norman window (and the remnant doorway if of the same age) could have as readily been reset from an original position in the north aisle. Such an interpretation more readily permits a 15th C. date for the lower tower walls and the north aisle. WRCP (Clwyd-Powys) accept that the roof of the north aisle may possibly be of such a date.

Whether any Norman (or earlier) fabric (other than the reset window, and possibly the remnant doorway) still remain in the walls of the church, is difficult to ascertain. It would seem likely; and in a re-used capacity a Norman fabric may be represented by the squared blocks of sandstone (Fabric ‘A’ of WHCP) seen in the north aisle and lower portion of the tower. 6.70 Gresford, All Saints (SJ 346 550) Referred to in the Domesday records, Gresford Church (Figure 6.210) is an attractive building largely completed in the Perpendicular style. Nothing of an earlier building survives and most authors propose that the existing features of the building which remain are no earlier than the 13th C. Descriptions of, and references to, the church have been provided by Pennant (1784, 319-321); Lewis (1845a, 382-383); Freeman (1856, 224); Lloyd-Williams and Underwood (1872, pl. 12-18); Glynne (1885, 122-124); Lhwyd (1909, 142-144 {with reference to1699}); Thomas (1913, 243); Crossley (1943, 152; 1946, 17); RCAHMW (1912, 60-62); Neaverson (1953-54, 18); Gresham (1968); Pratt (1984, 1-25); Soden (1984, 18, 79); Hubbard, 1986, 168-173); Ridgway (1997, 84); WHCP (Clwyd-Powys, PRN 100383); and others. Carboniferous sandstone is used throughout the church for building purposes.

Figure 6.210 This view of All Saints, Gresford, Wrexham (SJ 346 550) is taken from the south-west.

418

Chapter Six One interesting and complex aspect of the fabric of the church is perhaps worthy of further mention. WHCP (Clwyd-Powys) write that the lowest stage of the tower is ‘attributed to the 14th C on the basis of the tower arch and the west doorway’, and that ‘higher stages are early 16th C’. They also note without explanation that the basal plinth of the 14th C. tower ‘stops short of the present south-west buttress’ and that ‘a change of masonry is visible close to the south-west angle for the whole of the first stage’ (Figure 6.211). The south-west buttress has clearly been rebuilt (Figure 6.212) and the lowest ornamented string or drip course of the new buttress is the same as that seen on the west faces of the north and south aisles, thought by the Royal Commission (RCAHMW, 60-62, Fig. 20) to be of late 15th C. construction. It would appear that the internal stairs to the tower were in the lowest stage installed at this time and that this required the buttress to be rebuilt. The staircase must have been extended for the later upper stages in the 16th C. and internally some change of fabric should be visible to confirm the addition. (Unfortunately, access was not available to the author). The external doorway to this staircase is thought to have been added in 1731 (WHCP, Clwyd-Powys).

Figure 6.211 A closer look at the lower portion of the Gresford Church tower and in particular its south-west corner.

Figure 6.212 The evidence of the earlier and newer buttresses at the south-west corner of Gresford Church. Note particularly the difference in the style of the two low string/drip courses on the old and new buttresses. 419

CHAPTER SEVEN ANALYSES, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

7.1 The limited presence of early church structures in Wales 7.1.1 Introduction In this work 410 early church sites in Wales were examined and recorded. A number of other sites (see Cover) were thought to be unworthy of recording following a brief visit, typically because all aspects of the church site were clearly modern. Of the 410 churches, just 17 revealed probable evidence of some Patterned characteristics in their stonework (Chapter 3). As a percentage of those viewed (4.1 per cent), this is significantly less than the figure for either Scotland or Ireland. Where a somewhat smaller number of church sites were examined, the comparative percentage figures for Scotland and Ireland were 7.2 per cent and 15.6 per cent, respectively. In Scotland and Ireland a number of the church sites possessed multiple Patterned style features, whereas in Wales the Patterned style was restricted to a few (or even a single) preserved characteristics. From the known history of each country in the British Isles for the period, Anglo-Saxon influence was greatest, after England, in Wales. Lloyd (1935, 121) wrote, for instance, ‘About 890 the whole of Wales became obedient to the English king Alfred.’ If this statement is correct and church construction had been influenced by the presence of Anglo-Saxons, more, not less, Anglo-Saxon churches should be evident in Wales. To explain the presence of ‘Anglo-Saxon’ styles in both Scotland and Ireland, the present author, however, has argued that the changes in the styles of stonework in ecclesiastical buildings have, through time, been ‘fashion led’ (Potter, 2006d, 235; 2009d, 49). This means that changes in stonework or architectural fashion were not extensively controlled by race or creed, an argument very evident for all periods of church architecture when considered over a much larger area such as the European continent. Other reasons must be considered for the relative absence of Anglo-Saxon, Patterned stonework styles in the churches of Wales. The first and most obvious was touched upon in section 3.2.2, the selection of churches viewed in Wales included proportionately less ruined churches and more churches that remained in use. As many other church historians have noted and deliberated upon various reasons for the absence of early stone churches in Wales, the topic is considered briefly in section 7.1.2 below.

7.1.2 Early churches in Wales: absent, wood or stone? The present author had been warned by senior and well-known church historians and archaeologists, whom he consulted prior to the commencement of this study, and who were familiar with many of the Welsh sites, that there were no traces of any AngloSaxon architecture present in Wales. At best, the advice was that there might be ‘a few traces’, as for instance in Anglesey. The literature was equally lacking in encouragement. Referring to the 10th century a respected author wrote: ‘In Wales, despite the almost total lack of evidence, one might expect the advent of stone churches on the most important foundations at about this time …’’Earliest surviving examples…are 12th century.’ Edwards (2009, 9-10) And in the same theme: ‘… historical sources are also very limited and, with the exception of stone sculpture, the archaeological evidence, other than cemeteries, has remained remarkably elusive. This has contributed to a continuing emphasis on site recognition and assessment rather than more detailed (and costly) archaeological investigation.’ Edwards (2009, 13-14) In the various county-wide, more detailed church analyses, the conclusion that pre-Romanesque stone churches were absent has been frequently repeated. Referring to the history of Carmarthenshire, Lloyd (1935, 119), for instance, wrote. ‘No vestige remains of any ecclesiastical building erected during this period’. To explain this absence, a number of authors, such as, Radford (1963, 355-256) and Butler (1996), have proposed that early churches in Wales were built of wood and only in the 12th century were stone churches first constructed. This view has received much support: ‘The evidence for the structural remains of early churches in Wales is extremely limited. Unlike England and Ireland, there are no examples of standing, pre-Romanesque structures . . . It was not until the eleventh century that the practice of building ecclesiastical structures in stone started to become common in Wales.’ Petts (2009, 53)

420

Chapter Seven ‘Although the existence of early stone churches certainly cannot be ruled out, especially on some of the more important ecclesiastical sites, wooden churches are likely to have been the norm.’

most extensive period of change was undoubtedly during broadly the ‘Victorian’ era. Some of the reasons for the sweeping changes which took place at this time have now been documented:

and commented further:

‘The century between 1750 and 1850 had been a very traumatic one for the established church in Wales. The potential congregations had been syphoned off by a spectacular growth in non-conformity, especially in Calvanistic Methodism. . .’

‘. . . are we witnessing material poverty, piety, later destruction, or some aspect of Welsh social structure or attitudes, which strongly militated against preRomanesque stone churches?’ Edwards and Lane (1992, 7) In the last two decades the search for the existence and the nature of the buildings on early ecclesiastical sites has intensified. In addition to different reviews of past documentation, features such as graveyard shape and church situation, and the use of aerial photography and archaeological excavations, have all been applied in the search. The historically recorded existence of Viking raids on Welsh church sites, as in the instances of those at Tywyn (963), Penmon (971) and Bangor (1073) (Davidson, 2009, 46), provides one form of evidence as to church presence at the time. It fails, however, to determine whether the churches were of wood or stone. Pritchard (2009) provided a very full analysis of the evidence available that might indicate the origins of stone churches in Wales, but was unaware of the opportunities that might be afforded by examination of the church stonework. She concluded; ‘…there is no direct evidence for stone churches in Wales prior to the 12th century, other than at Presteigne and the surviving description of Llandaff. . .There is limited evidence for wooden churches in the documentary and archaeological records, but not enough confidently to support the idea of a wood to stone development. Pritchard (2009, 260) Petts (2009, 44) excuses the paucity in the Welsh documentary evidence advising of its limitations as compared with that of Anglo-Saxon England and opining that most Welsh material stems only from the 9th century or later. 7.1.3 Church alterations: reconstruction and destruction In Dyfed (Ludlow, 2009, 62, Fig. 4.1) recently distinguished 25 ‘well-evidenced’ documented early church sites. Examination of the stonework of the churches available on these sites revealed that only three exhibited any sign of this documented early origin. Details such as this tend to indicate that although the early churches were once present, reconstruction or complete destruction has taken place over the last millennium or more. This view is now entertained by most authors. Many of the standing churches which remain in use in Wales provide indications of alteration in the 14th and 15th centuries. Such changes, after 500 or more years in use are understandable. But the

‘The religious census of 1851 showed that less than a quarter of those that attended places of worship in Wales on Sunday 30 March were still Anglicans. . .’ (Yates, 1984, 3) Or in the words of another author: ‘. . . many Welshmen had deserted the church and found spiritual solace amongst the non conformists, to the extent that by 1851 almost 80% of the worshipping population attended chapel as opposed to the Church.’ Price (1990, 2) In respect of North Wales, further details of this interesting and enlightening survey are given in Seabourne (1990). From the time of Henry VIII, the Church in Wales had been a part of the Church of England and, until 1920 the Welsh dioceses were part of the Province of Canterbury. The established Church in Wales over the period was the Church of England. With the rise in the popularity of the non-conformists, the Welsh Church Act of 1914 was passed by parliament and this led to the disestablishment of the Welsh Church in 1920. The Church was at the same time disendowed and it lost its early endowments on the grounds that the money was for the populace as a whole. The money was therefore directed to bodies like local authorities. Only as the Welsh Church lost its popularity were attempts made by the controlling Church of England to rebalance the situation. It is clear that with the decreasing attendees prior to the 19th C. many churches had been permitted to deteriorate. ‘After a period of nearly three centuries of fatal inactivity, the Ecclesiastical Authorities of Wales, painfully affected by the results of their predecessors’ neglect, are shewing the most energetic and praiseworthy desire to restore the church to her original state . . .’ A. E. (1846, 364) Over the last years of the 18th C. and into the 19th C. church restorations and rebuilding continued apace. Both the Oxford Movement and the Ecclesiologists of the 1830’s and 1840’s pursued a course for change. Churches in Wales

421

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology were demolished with little or no attempt to preserve earlier structures or evidence of antiquity. Subsidiary influences as to this wholesale destruction may well have included the relative poverty of those attending the churches. It is evident that few of the country churches contained lavish and expensive monuments to ancestors as in England: there were few persons seeking to preserve their family’s ancestral heritage. Furthermore, wealthy English, having moved to the benefits of the Welsh countryside, were in a position to support the building of a new edifice in the ‘Victorian’ style of the period. As possible benefactors these persons had no ancestral memorials or records in the churches to cherish. By 1846, recognition by some that a valuable part of Welsh heritage was being lost led an enlightened few to protest. Just as the paper by the unknown A.E. (1846), in its continuation, supported the case for the preservation of Welsh church antiquities in the first volume of Archaeologia Cambrensis, so did that of the Rev. Henry Longueville Jones who did much to support this first edition. ‘Our fathers pulled down the churches and castles of their ancestors, because forsooth, they were not sufficiently conformable to their own degenerate and distorted taste . . . They condescended to judge a thing worthy of preservation if it savoured of Greek or Roman times, because their own system of aesthetics was founded on a puny and bastard imitation of Greek and Roman art.’ Jones (1846, 4) Other authors were equally concerned: ‘The regret is that so many restorations are injudicious and not according to knowledge: and from the antiquary’s point of view, at any rate, are by no means an unmixed good.’ Robinson (1886, 121) Expressed with far less feeling in more recent times, when most of the church antiquities had been lost, the situation was summarized as; ‘By the 1860s, when they were being universally implemented, the new buildings they produced were too often stereotypes, and the restorations frequently involved the destruction of genuine medieval features. . .’ Yates (1991, 158) In 1846, Jones (p. 16) called for the establishment of an ‘Ecclesiasticon’, a compilation of complete and accurate surveys of all churches, chapels and ecclesiastical buildings in Wales. It took about 150 years before this was to be undertaken recently by WHCP. However, it is evident that the lack of Anglo-Saxon, or equivalent Patterned, style stonework in the churches can be accredited to the period of wholesale destruction of Welsh churches in the late 18th and 19th centuries. The most significant presence of

ancient features and early stonework tends to be preserved in ruined chapels and churches that, being in ruin prior to the ‘Victorian’ period of alteration, remained untouched. Nevertheless, as previously stated, unless these were in areas of limited population, many were used to provide stone for new purposes. 7.2 Elements of Patterned Style stonework observed in Wales 7.2.1 Introduction With just 17 ecclesiastical sites exhibiting limited components of Anglo-Saxon/ Patterned stonework, it proves impossible to offer a very informative analytical study of the extent to which the Anglo-Saxon elements of stone use in either England or Ireland were employed in Wales. With the geology of Wales more closely resembling that of Scotland certain aspects which are characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon work of England, such as either pilaster-strips (see Figure 2.23) , and cut backs (see Figure 2.27) - each requiring stone that may be easily worked, or colour banding (see Figures 2.28 and 2.29), would be unexpected. As discussed in Chapter 3, rocks, such as finegrained volcanic rocks, so prominent in North Wales, do not lend themselves to the fundamentals of Anglo-Saxon stonemason workmanship. The analysis that follows tends, therefore, to be both disappointing in content and limited in variety. 7.2.2 Analytical detail of Welsh Patterned churches Those Welsh churches in which elements of Patterned workmanship were successfully identified and displayed in this study (Chapter 4) are presented in Table 7.1. The most common diagnostic feature by far, as in other countries in the British Isles, proves to be the presence of quoins created in the typical style of vertically orientated (BVFLBH-BVFR) stones. In Wales, however, it proved rare for all stones in a particular quoin to display this structure and in many instances the upper portion of the quoin in question would have a more modern (13th C. and later) rebuilt stone sequence where the stones were all emplaced in the orthodox BH style. Where so many churches, to a large extent, had been rebuilt and only early quoin remnants of just a few stones remained, the ability to date correctly the higher stones in the quoin proved valuable in the correct identity of the lower early quoin. Had these circumstances been available for very many of the church quoins referred to in Chapters 5 and 6 the identity of Patterned quoins in many more churches would have been possible. The reason for this difficulty is explained in section 7.2.3. In only six churches did it prove possible to identify Patterned (BVFL-BH-BVFR) craftsmanship in doorway, window, or chancel arch jambs. Supplementary to the effects of church rebuilding which swept away most early features, the lack of suitable building stone and the difficulties of identification of the style provide significant reasons for this rare incidence. The same paucity of 422

Chapter Seven

Table 7.1 Those ecclesiastical sites in which Patterned style features have been discovered in Wales and the features identified in each site

423

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology suitable rock types would undoubtedly be the cause for the near absence of ‘long’ stones, created so readily with Barnack Stone in England to provide long and short quoins and Escomb style jambs. The poor examples of Escomb jambs at Begelly and Gumfreston Churches in Pembrokeshire were the only instances distinguished in Wales. Gumfreston Church did, however, provide some suggestion of the stone framework to the west doorway offering evidence for stone cut backs. The existence of a double-splayed window at Llanbabo Church, if partially rebuilt and with only a moderately deep external splay, was unexpected: for Wales has no Bunter cobbles or septarian or flint nodules of southern England with which to more readily create these windows. Square faced plinths too would have been difficult for an early stonemason to create in Wales with limited tools and unsuitable Welsh rock types. Much as in Scotland, the foundations of early Welsh churches were created typically with flat-shaped lumps of rock or boulders. The Patterned technique of laying rocks which break or cleave into smooth flat surfaces on their side to provide BVFO (Bedding Vertical Face Out) ornamentation is extraordinarily difficult to distinguish for it is lost on any weathered or rendered wall surface. It is probably much more common than in just the three instances cited. The last column in Table 7.1 refers to the rock type used in the creation of quoin or jamb stones within a particular church. In 13 of the 17 (76 per cent) churches the rock utilized was a coarse sandstone or a sandstone with pebbles from the well-bedded rocks available locally. Such a rock has clear bedding planes, visibly marked by the orientation of the coarser grains or pebbles. It would tend to break fairly readily along these planes to produce reasonably rectangular blocks of stone. The same properties are in part true for the other four rock types selected: many of the rhyolitic lavas at Tywyn Church, for instance, have obvious, banded internal structures (see section 4.10). Table 7.2 provides a similar tabulated display for the 18 churches in which the Patterned features are thought to only be possibly exhibited (Chapter 5). They are not included within Table 7.1 because in most instances the quoins, doorways and a window listed have in most instances been rebuilt or modified. In some cases the vertically orientated stones identified are few in number: at the ruined Capel Erbach, for example, on one of the two quoins listed, only one vertically orientated stone could be identified because much of the quoin had been destroyed. Again, the rock types which were used in preference for structures, such as quoins, were local sandy conglomerates. 13 (72 per cent) were in this category. In both tables the penultimate column gives an indication of the presence (or possible presence) of Norman (Romanesque) influence. This is provided because in architectural terms it is often more easily identified than work of Anglo-Saxon or Patterned style. If Norman architectural features can be established, any work which it supersedes may be more readily confirmed as of Patterned construction.

Reviewing the results displayed in both Tables, it is clear that early church builders relied heavily on the use of boulders, or cobbles, in the erection of their church walls. This is more evidently so than in England, again, because many of their potential or possible local building stones were difficult to work. The Tables considered together, reveal that the old counties of Anglesey, Caernarfonshire, Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire preserve rather more early churches than any of the remaining counties. An inference that might be concluded from this distribution is that this might be related to the proximity of these counties to Ireland. This view seems unlikely, for the church styles generally relate more closely to England and as Yates (1984) indicates: ‘It has now been clearly established that the Welsh Church, even in the tenth and eleventh centuries had far more contact, and more in common with the contemporary English than the contemporary Irish church’ Yates (1984, 5) The distribution of these one-time Church of England churches may perhaps more readily be attributed to their greater distance from England and the resultant increased difficulty in obtaining financial support for rebuilding. Short accounts of a further 70 Welsh churches were presented in Chapter 6. In many of these churches their description relates to one (or uncommonly more) early preserved quoin in which the lowest few stones at the foot of the quoin display vertically orientated rocks, below a more recently, such as ‘Victorian’, constructed portion of the quoin. These rocks alternate with their faces to the left and to the right. It proves impossible to distinguish the age of this earlier type of rock structure when only as few as two, three or four stones, are present. With so much church rebuilding in Wales this problem has arisen very frequently. The recognised styles of rock or stone insertion into quoins will be discussed more extensively, therefore, in the next section. 7.2.3 Quoin stone elaboration in the British Isles through the centuries With significantly more churches being examined in Wales than in either Scotland or Ireland a much more comprehensive understanding of the various quoin stone elaboration techniques through the ages was gradually acquired. The fact that the majority of the churches in Wales which were scrutinized had extensive, relatively modern modifications, assisted with the acquisition of this information. Following the studies of known Anglo-Saxon churches in England (Potter, 2005b) it proved possible to describe the forms of quoin structure favoured in the period of Anglo-Saxon dominance (section 2.5). During the Scottish studies, a style similar to, but not the same as, the Anglo-Saxon BVFL-BH- BVFR stone insertion was observed in certain relatively modern church quoins. The style, where the stones are almost always placed BVFLBVFR (that is with no BH stones), was described as follows: 424

Chapter Seven

Table 7.2 Those ecclesiastical sites in Wales in which Patterned style features may have been discovered but prove impossible to verify. The different features identified are listed for each site

425

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology ‘In Scotland, . . . about the mid-17th century, and apparently particularly prevalent in the 1730-1870 period, some masons chose to insert these contrasting stones in side-alternate fashion with . . . the bedding planes set vertically . . .’ Potter (2006d, 231) Studies in Ireland were largely on early ruined churches, but in the north-east quoin of Kilgarvan Church in Kerry (W 013 734), which became a ruin in the early 19th C, a recurrence of this late ‘Scottish’ practice was probably present (Potter, 2009c, 107-108). Very occasional examples of this same practice of BVFL-BVFR insertion have been observed in new buildings other than churches in all three countries. In Wales, where so much church rebuilding has taken place, the occurrence of this 17th C. style appears to be evident far more frequently. It also appears to have commenced somewhat earlier and an attempt was made to try to date the extent of its use. Work of this possible style was present in 23 out of all the Welsh churches about which details have been briefly written. Although it is similar in style to that of the Anglo-Saxon or Patterned quoin form it can be readily distinguished if a sufficient number of representative stones are present in the quoin, for BH stones are typically absent or extremely rare (and possibly

occur only as replacements). The structure of the quoin is that of a continuous alternation, BVFR-BVFL, and there are no true BH tie stones. The stones are normally laid in a side-alternate manner but long vertical stones of the AngloSaxon period are absent. As with the name ‘Patterned’, a name was required for this new style and ‘Alternate’ has been used throughout this work: being regarded as more appropriate than a recurrent long descriptive statement. In an attempt to date accurately the commencement of the occurrence of ‘Alternate’ style quoins several churches or portions of churches with known building dates were examined. At Llanengan Church (section 5.4) the tower carried a building date of 1534 but no evidence of ‘Alternate’ style quoins. However, the south chapel at Caerhun Church (section 6.14) recorded as being erected in 1591, possessed such quoins. With other dates falling outside the range of 1534 to 1591, limited architectural evidence would seem to indicate that the style started about 1550 and reached greatest popularity in the early 17th C. Figure 7.1 indicates something of the ‘evolution’ and status of different quoin stone styles over time. Figure 7.2 illustrates an example of a more modern application of the BVFLBVFR ‘Alternate’ style. Figure 7.3 shows an attempt to copy this style in modern cement render.

Figure 7.1 Styles of stone emplacement in quoins and their changes over time. The figure illustrates the visual differences between quoins erected in Patterned style and ‘Alternate’ style. It also shows the stone shape differences in quoins set to side-alternate and face- alternate patterns. 426

Chapter Seven

Figure 7.2 The east quoins of the trapezoidal shaped chancel of Alltmawr Church, Brecknockshire (SO 073 468) must have been built during the ‘Victorian’ period. The walls are constructed of stones which have a rusticated appearance and this is also true of the fine-grained greywacke stones in the quoins which are placed to a mainly side-alternate style. The bedding orientation on only a few quoin stones could be read but they could well follow the earlier ‘Alternate’ style.

Figure 7.3 The vestry to the church of Llansantffraid-ym-Mechain, Montgomeryshire (SJ 221 204) has over the last decade or so been covered in cement render. The quoins, created in cement follow a side-alternate style which from a distance resembles an ‘Alternate’ pattern – but of course no bedding is present. 427

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Figure 7.1 does not of course display all varieties of quoin that may be observed. BH stones are most commonly set into mixtures of side- and face- alternate stones and stone shapes are often nowhere near so regularly shaped. Norman, Romanesque quoins for wall corners tend to be constructed of BH stones unless the intention was that they should be constructed in the more elaborate clasping quoin style far more common in England. This style of more elaborate quoin typically required rock types that could be easily modified to create cut backs where necessary, and might then include some vertically bedded rocks. 7.2.4 Some critical points with regard to stone working Descriptive literature regarding the stonemason’s art is scarce. Several points made in the description of the individual churches are, therefore, probably worth reiterating as they are particularly applicable to the working of the difficult rocks, such as the fine-grained volcanic rocks of Wales. As igneous rocks cool or sedimentary rocks lose their water content they tend to shrink. These factors, together with the movement or folding related to earth movements, leave all rocks with either incipient or visible cracks known as joints. Joints are of course not necessarily in planes at right angles to each other. However, in using stone for building purposes masons tend to seek stone in which the joints are as nearly as possible set at right angles. This is particularly the case where the stone is to be used for structural work and such stone is always used if possible in features like quoins. If natural jointing fails to provide perfectly squared blocks they have to be sawn or chiselled to shape, possibly cutting across the natural joint pattern. Thus, whenever a building falls into disuse, structural blocks like quoin stones are the first to be removed for use elsewhere. Similarly, in rebuilding a church, quoin stones and complex features like doorways or windows, are frequently re-used. In this work, there are many instances where this re-use of old material is advocated. The forgoing paragraph may help archaeologists to understand why re-use of structural material in churches is so common. In the instances where a structural feature like a doorway is re-used, the re-use often occurs several hundred years after the doorway’s original creation and it no longer meets the fashion requirements of the day. Thus, an AngloSaxon doorway may have to be modified to meet 13th C. requirements. This might involve discarding the arch stones and chamfering the jamb stones. In a number of doorways referred to in this work such modifications are suggested. The jamb stones would, however, remain in their AngloSaxon (Patterned) orientation. In the author’s work on early Irish churches, one very senior Irish archaeologist would not accept that masons would re-use, and more particularly work, stones in this way. Although the stones could, for instance, have been chamfered individually (i.e. resting in something like a sand bed) there is plenty of evidence that ornamentation with chisels could (subject to stone quality)

be accomplished equally as well with the structure firmly in place in the wall, Certainly, Anglo-Saxon stonemasons in creating cut backs on arched and quoin structures undertook this work after it had been built (Potter 2006c). Stonemasons (not rock-carvers) of the present day would equally find this procedure acceptable. In many parts of Wales, stone with good weathering potential, is locally restricted to igneous, and in particular, volcanic rocks. Fine-grained volcanic rocks will possess some elements of jointing, and as explained in section 6.22 also planar weaknesses caused by features like crystal orientation created at the time of cooling. Both of these types of structure may be invisible to the naked eye. As the rock is worked in the quarry those breaking the stone quickly become acquainted with the strengths and weaknesses of the rock in different directions caused by such planar features. Quarry masons describe the planes as the ‘rift’ (the easiest plane along which the rock may be parted), the ‘grain’, and the ‘hardway’ (the most difficult). The rock will be broken into building blocks using these directions, but no rock grain or internal pattern will be visible when the rock is used in, for example, a church quoin. Block shape, however, will be controlled by rift, grain and hardway. The church at Bryncroes (section 6.22) is one of several in the Lleyn peninsula where all the principal building stone is local igneous, mainly volcanic material. Wall quoin stones have obviously been created into rectangular form using the incipient weakness directions (just described) in the rock. Blocks created in this way tend to be longer in the ‘rift ’direction. At Bryncroes these blocks are placed in some portions of the quoins alternately to right and left and they have been suggested as possibly representative of the ‘Alternate’ style of quoin structure. 7.3 Two further non-Patterned structures 7.3.1 Introduction In the course of reviewing long-established churches from the whole of Wales two different aspects of the churches related to their structure were noted. As both fell outside the principal theme of this study only a commentary on each will be presented here. Any conclusions reached must be regarded as tentative until such time as they are committed to serious study. They concern the purpose and existence of batters on many church walls and, the relationship between the churches with towers and their stair turrets. 7.3.2 The occurrence and types of batter The reasons for, and the occurrence of, batters on/in church walls requires a full and comprehensive study. The term ‘batter’ as applied to walls has been variously defined, with an Oxford English Dictionary definition providing, ‘of walls narrower at the top’ the ‘resulting slope from ground upwards’. Pevsner defines batter as an ‘intentional inward inclination of a wall face’. The term may be used, therefore, when a wall face instead of being vertical has been built to incline, 428

Chapter Seven with increasing height, slightly away from the viewer. In modern parlance, many retaining walls are built with a batter to slightly increase their strength. Undoubtedly the different styles of batter as used on churches, if fully understood, would provide a most useful tool for the identification of distinct periods of workmanship. ‘Batter’ has been applied to church walls, more especially in Wales, in two quite distinct ways. It is in some instances a feature of the full height of a wall or structure, but in many instances it is applied only to the foot of a wall. Inclined walls (that is, walls with a batter), have been used over full wall height, probably since the time of erection of some of the first stone buildings. By permitting a broad base to tall structures like towers, their presence can provide additional stability. In Anglo-Saxon (Patterned) period towers, batter was particularly applied to those with a base of limited area, like round towers. This may be well observed in Irish round towers (Figure 7.4), although only a proportion of these, such as Glendalough (T 123 968), are believed to have been constructed in the ‘Patterned’ period (see Potter, 2009c, 176 et seq.). In England, with round towers, such as Gayton Thorpe, Norfolk (TF 745 185) (Figure 7.5), which was constructed largely of flint cobbles very late in this period, slight batters may exist. Rectangular or square cross-sectioned towers of

Figure 7.4 The Irish round tower at Ardmore, Waterford (X 118 774) exhibits both a batter over its height and string courses. As now seen it is thought to be of 12th C. date.

this period in England rarely exhibit a batter; any widening or tapering towards the base to increase the area of crosssection being achieved by stages at string courses; this being well illustrated (Figure 7.6) at Earls Barton Church (SP 852 638). The rule is not, however, universal, Cabourne Church tower (TA 139 018) in Lincolnshire (Figure 7.7) displays a distinct batter, although authors differ as to the precise age of the church (see Potter, 2005b, 198; 2009c, 42-43). Aside from towers, across the British Isles, it is rare for Anglo-Saxon or Patterned period walls to have been anything other than originally built with vertical faces. Uncertainties will remain in many instances because the age of many walls has yet to be determined and is currently unreliable. By the 16th C. the application of batter through the full height of walls of towers of any cross-section was probably well established and this is particularly evident in a number of the towers of Welsh churches (such as Figure 7.8). There does not, however, appear to be any fixed rules to the shape and form of Welsh church towers, and in Figure 7.9, Talgarth Church, Brecknockshire (SO 157 338), reduces in cross-section area at string courses in the manner of many English churches. Many Welsh church towers have been modified over time with portions lost

Figure 7.5 The Norfolk church of Gayton Thorpe (TF 745 185) possesses a limited full height batter in its round tower.

429

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 7.7 Cabourne Church tower in Lincolnshire (TA 139 018) rises with a full height batter and lacks string courses.

Figure 7.6 The west tower of Earls Barton Church (SP 852 638) viewed from the south to show the declining cross-section with height achieved by reducing the tower’s cross-section at each string course.

or added, so that an original full height batter if it once may have existed no longer remains. The detailed structure of most early Welsh towers is unknown and the stone bedding orientations in most tower quoins, which might assist in dating the towers, are not sufficiently visible to be determined above a certain height. Possibly, the tower at Llantwit Major in Glamorganshire is the oldest in Wales, preserved between the east and west churches as it is, and the internal visible quoins if removed of plaster might well reveal its true pre-13th C. date of construction.

‘Victorian’ instances may be more frequently observed, as at Llanllwch (SN 385 187), or Llanfair Clydogau (SN 624 512) where in the south-west quoin an 1829 dated gravestone has been used to help create the batter (see Figures 5.29, 6.95 and 7.10). Churches in Ireland have rather less examples of supplementary batter at the foot of walls, an instance being that at Taughmon, in Westmeath (N 514 600) (Figure 7.11) where it might be dated to the 15th C. Elsewhere in the British Isles, such as in England, this form of batter is virtually unknown.

The presence of a batter applied only to the lower part of walls is a feature that is particularly prevalent in Welsh churches. Although this type of batter was probably developed in medieval English castle and town walls, supposedly to deflect gun or canon shot and to possibly protect the lower levels of a defensive wall, the addition of batter to the lower portion of church walls requires a different explanation. The batter applied to lower church walls in Wales appears to have been built either with the wall or, particularly about the Victorian period, subsequently added to the wall. An example of medieval application may possibly be seen at the west end of the nave at Partrishow, in Brecknockshire (SO 278 224), where it pre-dates the later 13th/14th C chapel (see Figure 3.65).

Why such batter is added to the foot of walls is not wholly certain. ‘Victorian’ instances frequently appear to be used to add stability, for they are often about the base of towers or at the foot of walls where the ground falls away from the wall. In this role their value must be restricted and less than would have been provided by buttresses. In older walls they could have assisted in carrying water away from the bottom of the walls (and the prevention of water penetration). This would have been particularly critical in the period before gutters and in the instance of a straw roof. However, the foot of wall batter in very many instances tends to have been constructed at the base only of gable walls and not below roofs with a pitch from which water might more directly fall.

430

Chapter Seven

Figure 7.8 Llanddowror Church in Carmarthenshire (SN 256 145) possesses a west tower, normally described as medieval, which has a full height batter.

Figure 7.9 The tower at Talgarth Church, Brecknockshire (SO 157 338), normally thought to be of 15th C. date, reduces cross-sectional area at string courses, normally a feature of English churches.

431

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 7.10 This short, foot of the wall batter on the south wall of the south-west quoin of Llanfair Clydogau, Ceredigion, (SN 624 512) includes an 1829 inscribed gravestone in its structure. The batter was probably added in the 1886-1888 church rebuilding period.

Figure 7.11 This supplementary, foot of the wall batter, occurs at the base of the tower of Taughmon Church, Westmeath (N 514 600). Such batters are not common in Ireland.

432

Chapter Seven 7.3.3 Welsh church wall batters Interest in Welsh batters was aroused when it became obvious that some batters at the foot of church walls had been built into/onto much earlier walls. Because church wall batters of this type are far more common in Wales than elsewhere in the British Isles, some attempt has been made to understand the reasons for their occurrence and their periods of popularity. The evidence regarding batters was not part of a specific detailed study and churches were not viewed explicitly for their batters. Full height batters in walls or structures (such as tapered towers) have been excluded from this brief analysis, their detail generally being too complex to analyse simply. Table 7.3 attempts to portray certain facts about the various, ‘foot of wall’ batters, viewed during the present examination of the early Welsh church stonework. It has to be stressed that the Table is not intended to provide a perfectly accurate mathematical analysis, and the content of each column must be explained. In the first column, groups of certain ‘original’ Welsh northern counties are linked in order to make the ‘county’ comparisons possess a moderately useful relationship when making percentage comparisons for column three. To illustrate the importance of this requirement, in the County of Wrexham only two churches were examined, and neither possessed this type

of batter. Using relatively comparable numbers the Table demonstrates the greater importance of the ‘foot of wall’ batters in South, than in North Wales. Their regional presence shows that their occurrence, as with most features of church buildings, was related to a fashion. Columns three to six were completed in an attempt to illustrate something of the general positions in which ‘foot of wall’ batters were found. The figures can only be regarded as representative for, of course, they only relate to a small proportion of the total number of churches in each county ‘area’. The columns, however, tend to support the statement made in the section above; that ‘foot of wall’ batters were not designed so much as to keep out water penetration but rather to strengthen the base of walls. It suggests that the intention was for a batter at the foot of a wall to serve much the same strengthening purpose as a low string or ledge with thicker wall beneath. These structures are commonly present in gable walls, especially in Welsh churches. Such features seen low in walls have also been described as ‘high plinths’. Ledge or high plinth structures of this type may be seen, for instance, at the Denbighshire church of Gwyddelwern (SJ 075 467) (see Figure 3.149), where it is completed with a chamfer and may of late 16th C date; or as a complex variant at the Ceredigion church of Llanfair Clydogau (SN 362 512) (see Figure 6.96), where this structure was probably completed in the 1880s.

Table 7.3 ‘Foot of wall’ batters recorded in those churches examined in Wales. See text for full details.

433

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Attempts to provide dates for the construction of ‘foot of wall’ batters are fraught with difficulty, but of those many examples viewed, 11 might be described as medieval (and Post-Romanesque) and 27 as ‘Victorian-Modern’. The remainder require further study to determine their period of origin. In a few instances this broad classification can be readily applied. At Bedgellert Church (see section 6.16), for example, the batter on the south walls must be of the same date or post-date the walls, built in 1830, to which it has been added. Support for the belief that the primary purpose of ‘foot of wall’ batters was to strengthen walls may be derived from an internal batter within the nave of the church of Penmorpha (SH 541 403), (RCAHMW, Gwynedd, 66). Unfortunately, it proved impossible to gain access to the interior of this church. In a small number of instances an upward thinning ‘vertical batter’ of full wall height has been added to the lateral walls of a church where the weight of an earlier roof has caused these walls to lean outwards. This may be observed at the church of St Michael, at Penbryn (SN 294 521) (see Figure 6.105), at St Mary, Chirk (SJ 291 376) (see Figure 6.205), and again, at St Mary Magdalene, St Clears (SN 281 156). The example at St Clears is described in detail in section 5.11. These unusual ‘batters’, not observed outside of Wales, again help to strengthen the walls onto which they have been built. 7.3.4 Stair turrets to church towers Access to the upper floors of towers (by foot) may usually be achieved in a number of ways: a) The simplest and cheapest provision being by means of ladders from floor to floor inside the tower, b) By constructing a stone staircase within the tower’s walls at the time of the erection of the tower, c) By building a stone staircase inside the tower at some time subsequent to the building of the tower (replacing ladder access), d) By building a stone staircase outside the tower (a stair turret) at the same time as the tower is erected, or, e) at some time after this date. Church historians in seeking to date a church tower, for in many instances the tower is a subsequent addition to the church, largely rely on determining the architectural style of the tower’s door, windows and arch form to the nave. Additionally they may use characteristics like the presence or absence of buttresses, the characteristics of features like string courses and the broad shape of the whole structure. Only very rarely is the character of the means of access to the upper floors considered. Indeed from the point of view of dating the age of the tower, it was not considered in a single instance in all the texts relating to the Welsh churches referred to in this work.

In utilizing the characteristics of different types of stone insertion in the walls of towers most revealed that their construction or rebuilding covered a range of dates. In a number of instances the external stair turret of the church proved to be younger than the tower. This relationship was illustrated to varying degrees of clarity. Churches in which this was more obviously displayed included Llanfair-ar-yBryn (section 6.28), Llanilar (section 6.33), Llysworney (section 6.41), Llanvaches (section 6.46), Meifod (section 6.53) and Llawhaden (section 6.63). In instances where staircases were added externally it must be assumed that the tower previously relied on internal ladders. The external stair not only permits easier access but additionally the full use of each floor. In other instances, as at Llandeilo Fawr (section 4.7) the lower stonework of the turret proved to be earlier than the tower, and a range of other variants in the turret to tower age relationships exist in the written accounts. 7.4 Church security In the study of early Irish churches, many of which (like the towers) had just one point of entry, an understandable problem existed in ensuring security from the exterior if the evidence of obvious door locking devices were absent. This matter was discussed, therefore, by the author (Potter, 2009c, 179-180). The unusual solution to the problem appears to be confined to Ireland. In Wales, an early simple internal locking device was evident on a small number of church doors or doorways where they had been preserved (Table 7.4). This consisted of a bulky, long length of wood more than sufficient to cover the full width of the doorway aperture. The dimensions would be of the order of 1.5m. long by 0.1 x 0.08m. in cross section. This slid into a long cavity within the wall on the hinge side of the door when not in use, and across behind the door (through appropriate attachments in the back of the door) into a shorter cavity, about 0.2m. deep, leaving a similar length in the storage cavity, when in use. The style of this closing device suggests that it was built at the same time as the church wall enclosing the doorway. In trying to learn more about this style of door locking and the dates of its use, the author contacted Dr Raine Borg in Sweden, possibly the world expert on locks, who completed his Ph.D. on aspects of early churches in Southern Sweden (Borg, 2002). He described the presence of similar cross bar locking devices, and in three instances the original wooden bar was preserved. In Sweden, Borg discovered 16 ecclesiastical buildings still preserving evidence of cross bar locked entrances, 12 of these in Gotland County. In many examples in Southern Sweden, two, three or even four doorways (but generally all the doorways in an individual church) carried evidence of cross-bar locking. The churches involved, were given building dates mainly within the early 13th C., but in the range of 1086 (Lӓrbro, Gotland) to 1400 (Sjösås, Kronoberg County). The work is to be published in the www.historicallocks.com web site. Although a few examples have been observed of evidence of cross bar locking elsewhere in the British Isles, in none 434

Chapter Seven

Table 7.4 Ecclesiastical sites examined in Wales in which security bar lock evidence can be observed.

has the original cross bar been preserved. A suggested date for the construction of those seen in Wales has been proposed by the present author in Table 7.4. Of the six observed instances in Wales, only in the case of two can the doorway concerned be confirmed as the only entrance to the building. The building could only have been locked when it was occupied, creating much the same problem as discussed in Potter (2009c) in the instance of the Irish churches. Illustrations of the Welsh cross bar examples are given in Figures 6.111 and 7.12 (for Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd, see section 6.36); Figures 3.116 and 7.13 (for Llanfihangel Abercynwyn); Figure 6.115 (for Rhuddlan, see section 6.37) and Figures 3.222 and 7.14 (for St Dogmael). Capel Dyddgen certainly provides the most interesting of the Welsh examples, for it has two cross bar secured doorways on opposing sides of the same, but much modified wall. The earliest occurs at the west end of the nave, when as the chapel was small, the west doorway was probably the only point of entry. A tower was subsequently built onto the west end of the chapel and the intervening wall thickened to enable the tower to become the secure stronghold by placing a further cross bar doorway at the tower’s eastern entrance (Figure 7.15).

In Ireland especially (see also Potter, 2009c), when round towers were considered, authors used to consider that their structure and doorway position, related to obtaining a means of security, in particular for valuables. This view has been opposed from the time when it was suggested that a tower would behave like a chimney, and the view is no longer fashionable. That it is most unlikely that the Irish tower would act as a chimney, if it possessed a thick sealing doorway of wood at height, appears to have been overlooked. Borg, in his analysis of internally secured churches is confident that Swedish early churches were internally fortified to offer sanctity and security to the local inhabitants. He describes early small churches in Sweden as similar to those evident in Ireland with small high windows and BVFO external walls (he uses the term ‘paving slabs’) all designed for security. Sweden he describes at the time as plagued by constant internal wars, as well as visits from neighbouring armies. Without being fully aware of the date of use of the Welsh cross bar locked doors, it is difficult to ascertain for certain those marauding persons or bodies of people who might have created the inherent dangers of potential attack for the different local church communities. It seems likely that the period of uncertainty and potential danger coincided with that of the ‘Welsh Princes’. 435

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

Figure 7.12 The south doorway of Llanbedr Dyffryn Clwyd ruined church in Denbighshire (SJ 145 598) to show the detail of an aperture which would have taken the door cross-bar into the west jamb

Figure 7.13 When this doorway served as the west nave doorway to Llanfihangel Abercynwyn Church in Carmarthenshire (SN 303 134) no tower existed. At the time of the erection of the tower the requirements for a cross-bar locking system for the church were deemed to be no longer necessary. The south jamb is viewed here.

436

Chapter Seven

Figure 7.14 The interior view of the north doorway to the ruined church at St Dogmael, Pembrokshire (SN 164 458) to show the west jamb and its cross-bar cavity.

Figure 7.15 In the instance of Capel Dyddgen, Carmarthenshire (SJ 145 126) the west nave wall initially carried the cross-bar locking system. When the west tower was built to cover the west nave doorway, the east side of the tower doorway became the point of security to make the tower the place of sanctuary. The wall has been thickened and the two cross-bar holes are visible. 437

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology It should be noted that in Wales occasionally half cross bars were used to secure doorways. In these instances the length of the wooden bar is shorter than the door width so that the bar slides in and out of an aperture in the wall, only on the door’s opening side. One such door security system remains in use at Llansantffraid-ym-Mechain Church in Montgomeryshire (SJ 221 224) and is illustrated in Figure 3.202. 7.5 Further Geological aspects of Welsh church stonework 7.5.1 Introduction Although the motivation to undertake the countrywide studies of early stonework in churches has been for the author to support both archaeologists and church historians in providing new approaches to the historical background of a wide range of churches; to date its success has been limited. Many church historians, particularly those with long experience, remain doubtful as to this geological approach. It is conceivable that those who possess doubts are not prepared to take up the complexities of a new discipline and in this respect this monograph is written to simplify and explain the geological treatment and terminology as much as possible. The Glossary tries to provide brief details with regard to the geological terminology that is used. The work has an important omission. It had been intended to include photographs of many of the rocks used in the Welsh churches as they might appear through a microscope. This would have provided some visual information as to the structure and variation of the different rocks involved. Samples were collected wherever possible; not of course from the church but from fragments, when present, that had fallen from walls. The process of preparing a thin-section for a rock (to a standard thickness of 0.3mm.) is, however, both timeconsuming and expensive. Furthermore the results might well have doubled the size of this volume – and they must await another occasion. Present experience has shown that geologists tend to approach the topic of ecclesiastical geology more easily than long-standing archaeologists. For the benefit of geologically minded readers a few mainly geological topics will be referred to in section 7.5.2. 7.5.2 Discovering aspects of Geology from Welsh church stonework It is important to understand that wherever early stone churches are studied they can provide indications of the rocks that are immediately associated with the position of the church. In the south-east of England the present author (Potter, 2000) was able to plot the extent of glacial till created by the Anglian glaciation from a study of church stonework. In North Kent it proved possible to map the presence of a thin geological unit from the information afforded by pieces of its distinctive lithology in a chain of churches (Potter, 2005c). The rocks (if they can be identified) and the early churches of Wales provide the same facility. An example from the geologically complex

region of Anglesey may be cited. In the examination of wall fabric of the ruined church of Rhodo-Geidio (SH 399 856) in an area of recognised Lower Ordovician sediments, several lumps of coarse-grained (pegmatitic) pyroxenite were observed. Subsequently, the examination of nearby Rhodwydd Geidio Church (SH 411 855) revealed the same unusual rock type, and in turn, a natural exposure of the rock was discovered. A further similar example to this has already been referred to in section 1.3.1, but in that instance the geological origin of the facies of the Triassic rock concerned could not be found. Geological fabric studies of any early building constructed in the era before water or mechanised transport (including walls {Potter 2008a} and castles {Potter, 2005e}) can be particularly rewarding to those geologists who have very local geological expertise in the vicinity of the site being studied. Again, in England it proved possible to examine one particular stone used for very specific purposes, as in the example of Viviparus limestone (Potter, 2004a). From this study it was possible to infer something of the relative past wealth of different churches. Opportunities for several similar studies are available in Wales. For instance, the occurrence of, the French, Caen Stone for specific uses which involved carving, was noted in a number of churches in the present work. The origins of the rock types that have been used for gravestones provide a significant, and virtually unstudied, wide range of potential geological topics for scholarship throughout the British Isles. In Wales, the cut sandstone blocks used in the very distinctive range of gravestones in the Penbryn area (Figure 3.5) could be examined and provide historic information as to source, period of excavation and working, and decline in use, of this material. 7.6 Summary In meeting its initially determined aims, this project proved far more wide-ranging in execution than originally had been anticipated. At outset, the examination of some 200 ecclesiastical sites was planned. From these, it had been expected to find some clear evidence of Patterned workmanship in 20 or so sites. Welsh archaeologists proved more accurate than those in other parts of the British Isles, in their estimates of the possibility of successfully finding pre-Romanesque (Anglo-Saxon equivalent) workmanship. Ultimately, twice the number of sites was visited. However, Patterned style workmanship was present, and it was very evident that this style had once been common prior to ‘Victorian’ church rebuilding and restoration. An extensive range of additional information with regard to the history and development of in excess of a hundred Welsh churches has been revealed in these studies. As elsewhere in the British Isles, geological studies of ecclesiastical sites in Wales are in their infancy. This work and others by the author elsewhere, have attempted to understand the complexities of stonework fashions for some of the earliest religious structures. It is clear that stonework and building styles have changed over time and that there is an extensive range of information yet to be acquired. 438

Chapter Seven As indicated in 2009 (Potter, 2009c, 182), the ground rules for study have yet to be established. The techniques and methods employed for the repair and protection of structures in need of repair should be standardized: ‘A strong case clearly exists for standard procedures across the whole of the British Isles. The subjects of conservation and rebuilding of ecclesiastical sites should be debated in full prior to any decision as to which procedures should be followed.’ Potter (2009c, 182)

Studies of Anglo-Saxon church stonework in England initiated the case for the examination of the same or similar styles elsewhere in the British Isles. From where did the style of Patterned stonework arise? In the examination of the early churches of Scotland, Ireland and now Wales, none appear to reveal remnants of church fabric that predate those identified in England, such as Bradwell-on-Sea (TM 031 082), Monkwearmouth (NZ 402 577) or Reculver (TR 228 694), which are thought to show evidence of work completed as early as the latter half of the 7th C. It may be necessary to search further afield, and towards the home of Christianity in the Middle-East to discover the earliest traces of Patterned stone emplacement.

439

GLOSSARY

Largely intended for use by archaeologists and church historians, this glossary almost entirely consists of simple definitions of geological words. Included also, are a few terms which are less commonly used within their own professions. Geological terms used in this work which relate to units of rock are placed according to their age in the stratigraphical column provided at the end of this glossary. Some terms are given supplementary longer descriptions in section 1.3.1 (and see Figure 2.1).

AGGLOMERATE: a coarse-grained volcanic rock resulting from a volcanic eruption, with fragment size that of a pebble or greater.

CALCRETE: a sediment, typically sandstone, which has been cemented and indurated by percolating calcium carbonate rich waters, normally under past arid conditions.

AMMONITE: the ammonites were a, now extinct, fossil group of molluscs, typified by a planar coiled chambered shell. They were abundant especially in the Jurassic seas.

CHERT: microcrystalline silica; in sedimentary rocks it may be chemically precipitated to form thin seams or nodules. Flint is a distinctive variety of chert which occurs in the Chalk.

ANDESITE (andesitic): a volcanic rock similar to basalt in appearance, but containing rather more silica, therefore, generally containing a little free quartz and K feldspar. ANTA (E): short wall projections of the north and south walls beyond the gable walls, found in certain early churches in Ireland. The purpose of these antae has been much debated (see Potter, 2009c for a full discussion). ARKOSE (arkosic): a sandstone containing more than 25 per cent of feldspar, arkosic with a lower percentage. ARRIS: the sharp, generally straight, edge between two planar worked stone surfaces; and a term used particularly when working stone. ASHLAR: squared hewn stone or stones, or masonry constructed of such stones. The shape of such blocks is often determined by its jointing or incipient jointing. It should be noted that rock that has been sawn into blocks is better called dimension-stone. Definitions for ‘Ashlar’ are very varied; Salter (1994) for instance offered ‘Masonry of blocks with even faces and square edges.’ AUGITE: A common dark, ferro-magnesian silicate in the pyroxene group (that is where the atoms make up single chains) of minerals, abundant in igneous rocks like basalts and gabbros. BASALT (basaltic): a volcanic (or extrusive) igneous rock or lava, which is fine-grained and dark in colour. With only about 50 per cent by weight of their composition as silica, basalt lavas are as a result less viscous than many other volcanic rocks. Basalt is chemically the equivalent to the more slowly cooled gabbro. BEDROCK: the solid rock underlying the much more recently formed, and typically unconsolidated, superficial deposits.

CHLORITE (chloritic): a relatively common Fe, Mg, Al hydrated silicate of green colour particularly found in metamorphic rocks where metamorphism has been only moderately intense. CLEAVAGE: in rocks. Cleavage in a rock creates a tendency for the rock to break along thin, parallel, and closely spaced, layers. The layers, known as the cleavage, are generally imparted as a result of pressure during metamorphism and normally involve some degree of mineral recrystallisation. CROW-STEPPED: squared stones set like steps up the edge of a gable or gateway. DIMENSION STONE: stonework cut into neat rectangular blocks by means of a saw. DIORITE: cooled at depth, coarse-grained igneous rock, intermediate in composition between granite and gabbro, containing up to 10 per cent quartz. DOLERITE (doleritic): the medium-grained, chemically equivalent igneous rock to the basalt - gabbro composition range. ERRATIC: a rock carried by ice from its original source, hence glacial erratic. FACIES: the features that sum up the environmental conditions and formation of a particular rock. In sedimentary rocks, for instance, at the same time at a coastal margin; beach, shallow water, and deeper water deposits might be created – each a different facies. FELDSPAR (also written feldspar): the most common mineral group found in igneous rocks. Variable in composition, feldspars occur in different varieties from K,

440

Glossary Al silicate (found in granites) to Ca, Al silicate (found in basalts). There are other varieties such as Na, Al silicate.

IGNEOUS: a rock solidified from a molten, or partially molten, state.

FELSITE: a pale coloured igneous rock of fine-grain size similar in composition to rhyolite.

IGNIMBRITE: literally fire and rain. A poorly sorted pyroclastic rock, often banded with molten indications of lava flow, which are generally of rhyolitic composition.

FERRUGINOUS: iron rich, as applied to sediments probably inclusive of iron oxides and hydrated iron oxides. FISSILE (fissility): easily broken or split into thin layers. In a rock this is normally due to the rock possessing a marked cleavage. FLUVIOGLACIAL: created by melt waters from glaciers. GABBRO (gabbroic): An igneous rock which cooled at depth in the manner of granite, but of relatively low silica content and a chemical composition like basalt. GLAUCONITE (glauconitic): a greenish complex silicate mineral that is often found in sedimentary rocks that have been deposited in shallow marine conditions. The mineral tends to impart a green colour on the sediment. GLAUCOPHANE: a complex Na, Mg, Al rich silicate of bluish colour, typically created in high pressure and relatively low temperature metamorphic conditions. Not common in the British Isles. GNEISS: a coarse grained, generally banded, metamorphic rock formed as a result of very extensive heat and pressure. GRANITE (granitic): A common coarse-grained igneous rock cooled at depth of light colour. Rich in siliceous minerals it possesses at least 20 per cent of free quartz. GRANODIORITE: A course-grained igneous rock similar to granite but containing less free quartz. GREENSTONE: A rock of approximately basaltic composition altered by low-grade metamorphism and weathering, and greenish in colour (which is the result of certain minerals). GREYWACKE: an unsorted, rapidly deposited, sedimentary rock of mixed mineralogical and textural composition. HAEMATITE: also spelt hematite, iron oxide, Fe2 O3. HORNBLENDE: a common ferro-magnesian silicate in the amphibole group (that is where the atoms make up double chains) of minerals. Not unlike augite to the naked eye, it is more prevalent in igneous rocks like granodiorite. HORNFELS: a very fine-grained, splintery rock created largely by the metamorphic alteration of heat on finegrained sediments.

JOGGLED: stones fitted into a wall and partially interlocked in such a way (joggled joints) as to prevent them sliding at least in one direction. LITHOLOGY: the appearance, grain size and composition of a particular rock; generally with reference only to sedimentary rocks. LONDON BASIN: the downfolded (that is, synclinal) structure created between the Chalk of the Chilterns and the North Downs. Rocks inside and lining the Basin are all more recent in age geologically than the Chalk. MASSIVE bedding: where the beds in a sedimentary rock remain homogeneous over a considerable thickness (typically several metres) and stratification or bedding is apparently absent. As opposed to thinly bedded. MÉLANGE: generally a large (geologically mappable) area of very mixed rock types created by very extensive earth movements in the past. METAMORPHIC: a rock formed under the influence of a considerable amount of heat and/or pressure, typically with some resultant mineral recrystallisation. MICA (micaceous): a common platey mineral found in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. In the last two rock types it normally occurs as white mica, a K, Al silicate. MICA SCHIST: a relatively medium grained metamorphic rock in which the intense heat and pressures involved have developed the sheet structured mineral mica; the abundance of this mineral imposes a foliation (or schistosity) on the rock. OOLITIC: a rock composed of millions of ooliths (literally, ‘egg’ ‘stone’); such as an oolitic limestone, where the ooliths are largely composed of calcium carbonate. Ooliths in a limestone are created by the deposition Ca CO3 on wave disturbed, and therefore moving, minute particles in a shallow sea. An oolite being a rock consisting of ooliths. PAN: (in particular iron pan) a layer of hydrated iron oxides/iron oxides which may develop approximately at the level of the surface of the water table in permeable rocks like gravel or sand due to a degree of evaporation PERPENS: a masons’ term for the vertical mortar or cement joints between bricks or stones in a wall. The horizontal joints are referred to as the beds.

441

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology PICRITE: an igneous rock similar to a basalt, containing large crystals of iron and magnesium rich silicates. PHYLLITE: a fine grained, low grade metamorphic rock with a well-developed fine schistosity (which tends to give the flat surfaces of the rock a smooth silky sheen). POLYGENETIC: of many origins: thus a polygenetic conglomerate contains of pebbles from a number of sources.

SLICKENSIDES: sub-parallel grooves and polishing of rock surfaces created by rocks moving in relation to each other under pressure. SLUMP STRUCTURE: a structure that is produced by down-slope movement of freshly deposited sediment beneath water (as the ocean). This movement, particularly in fine-grained sediments, produces structures that may subsequently be identifiable both within and at the bottom of the sediment.

PORPHYRY (porphyritic): an igneous rock containing larger crystals (often called phenocrysts) in a finer-grained matrix. If the larger crystals can be easily identified they may be named (thus; quartz-porphyry or feldsparporphyry).

SPECULAR: of flat, tabular flakes, resembling mica.

PYROCLASTIC: rock fragments deposited after volcanic eruptions, which tend to vary in size according to the violence and their proximity to the source of the eruption.

STRIAE: sub-parallel striations created on rock surfaces when rocks grind passed others when they are held within a moving glacier. These are typically seen on glacial erratics or the bedrocks once beneath a glacier.

QUARTZITE (quartzitic): a sandstone with a silica cement. A sarsen is a variety of quartzite. Quartzites may be formed by the metamorphism of sandstone. RHYOLITE (rhyolitic): an igneous volcanic rock with a composition comparable to that of granite and containing about 70 per cent of siliceous minerals. The high silica content helps to make the lava viscous so that rhyolites tend to create explosive and violent eruptions. SARSEN: a silicified sand or silcrete, probably formed at the surface or slightly below the surface, of sand deposits, under certain climatic conditions. Following extensive weathering these may be found as large irregular boulders (sarsens) in superficial deposits. SCHIST: a relatively medium grained metamorphic rock in which the intense heat and pressure develops a mineral foliation or schistosity. See mica schist. SCORIACEOUS: a term applied to frothy, gas rich, basaltic lavas, which tend when cold to display numerous small holes or vesicles. SEPTARIA (septarian nodules): in certain clay deposits (such as the London Clay), calcium carbonate (sometimes iron rich) concretions may have been formed, normally of cobble size, but occasionally up to 2m. across. In these concretions irregular polygonal dehydration cracks (septaria) may be present. SILCRETE: surface or very near to surface deposit rich in silica particularly formed in warm to subtropical climates. See also sarsen.

SPHERULITIC: small spherical silicious radiating crystalline concretions found normally in rocks of rhyolitic composition.

SUPERFICIAL: typically unconsolidated, surface deposits of recent geological age, such as river gravel or blown sand. THINLY BEDDED: as opposed to massively bedded. Sedimentary rocks which exhibit frequent minor changes in lithology, typically displayed as layers of bedding. TRAVERTINE: see Tufa. TREDINGTON ARCH: a round archway in which the voussoirs are not regularly placed but wedged in irregularly at the top. This type of archway, as seen at Tredington, Warwickshire, has been regarded by many authors as being of Anglo-Saxon origin. TUFA: a rock of cavernous, precipitated calcium carbonate. Tufa is relatively light in weight, and normally soft when first precipitated so that it can be readily be cut or sawn into blocks. In England it was worked extensively by the Romans as a building stone. The rock hardens on exposure, when it is better described as travertine. TUFF: a consolidated and hardened volcanic ash. TURBIDITE: a sediment laid by turbidity currents: typically the uneven flow of such currents creates minor irregularities in the depositional layers of a sediment. VESICLES (vesicular): small holes created and preserved in lava by the presence of excessive gases during cooling. See also scoriaceous.

SKEUOMORPH (skeuomorphic): an object which in its shape and decoration is thought to resemble or copy a form or technique made in or of another different material.

442

APPENDIX 1

443

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology

444

Appendix 1

NOTES:Neither part of Tables A nor B should be regarded as representing a complete stratigraphical column. Both are intended to give an approximate geological age of stratigraphical terms used in this work, many of which are of minor importance except locally as building stones. Terms in Table A represent those that may occur only in England AND those that have been worked in England (or France, in terms of Caen Stone) but are recorded as in use in Welsh churches (i.e. those rocks older than the Cretaceous, but excluding Barnack Stone). Over the last 25 years in particular stratigraphical terms have been in a great state of flux. Many geological rock units have been re-named and in these Tables the better recognised terms have been used as far as possible. Some points worthy of mention are: - Permian-Triassic, or Permo-Trias, also known as the New Red Sandstone. In Wales the discovery of fossil spores in an off-shore borehole has caused the Geological Survey to indicate the rocks until recently described as Triassic in North Wales to be illustrated as Permian (Figure 2.1); although ‘not positively proved’. - The lower portion of what was for very many years recognised as the Old Red Sandstone has recently been re-classified to the Upper Silurian. Of the rocks listed here this has altered the position of the Freshwater East Formation. - In the present work, and especially in relation to the Figure descriptions related to Chapter 3, reference is made to the ‘Lower Palaeozoic’ greywackes and sandstones. Had space permitted this should have read ‘particularly Lower Silurian and Ordovician’ greywackes and sandstones. Such rock types and many others have been omitted from Table B. - Pre-Cambrian is now often written Precambrian. Some authors believe that certain rocks in the Mona Super Group that are not listed in Table B should be placed in the Cambrian.

445

APPENDIX 2 WELSH HISTORIC CHURCHES PROJECT (WHCP)

In this work the following sources were used to access the information available from the CADW funded Welsh Historic Churches Survey. Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust (CPAT) (for Brecknockshire, Denbighshire, East Conway, Flintshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, and Wrexham) www.clwyd-powys archaeological trust (www.cpat.demon.co.uk/projects/longer/churches/idxall.htm) www.archwilio.org.uk (use of the primary reference number [PRN] may then speed access)* Dyfed Archaeological Trust (Dyfed AT) (for Carmarthenshire, Ceredigion and Pembrokeshire) www.archwilio.org.uk (use of the primary reference number [PRN] may then speed access)* Ludlow, N.D. 1998. The Cadw Historic Churches Project: Pembrokeshire (Camarthenshire, or Ceredigion) – unpublished reports held by Dyfed Archaeological Trust, Llandeilo. Holland and Ludlow (1997) Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust (GGAT) (for Glamorgan and Monmouthshire) www.archwilio.org.uk (use of primary reference number [PRN] may then speed access) Evans, E. 2003. GGAT 73. Early-medieval ecclesiastical sites project. (Desk-based assessment). GGAT unpublished report no. 2003/030. Certain limited copyright information held by the GGAT HER Charitable Trust. Gwynedd Archaeological Trust (GAT) (for Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Meirioneth) www.archwilio.org.uk (use of the primary reference number [PRN] may then speed access) Certain limited copyright information held by GAT: ‘Gazetteer of Churches’ for which the page numbers are indicated. *Primary Reference Number - Throughout Wales archaeological sites are given a reference number. This number (or numbers) is given where WRCP is first referred to in each section. Two numbers are offered where the information may differ.

446

REFERENCES

A.E., 1846. A few words to church repairers and church builders. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 1, 364-368. Allen, J.R. 1889a. The inscribed and sculptured stones at Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 44, 118-126. Allen, J.R. 1889b. The cylindrical pillar at Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 44, 317326. Allen, J.R. 1889c. The Howard tomb at Rudbaxton, Pembrokeshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 44, 270. Allen, J.R.L. 2007. Late Churches and Chapels in Berkshire: a geological perspective from the late eighteenth century to the First World War. British Archaeological Reports, British Series No. 432, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Anon. 1846. Miscellaneous Antiquarian notices: Llanengan Church – Caernarvonshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 1, 295. Anon. 1861. Cardiganshire Antiquities. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 16, 308-313. Anon. 1915. Miscellanea: Capel Galltgoed. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 70, 436. Anon. 2008. The History of Saint Peter’s Church at St Pierre in Monmouthshire. A guided tour. Mathern Grouped Parish Publications. Baker-Jones, D.L. 1963. Christian sepulchral monuments in and around Carmarthenshire. The Carmarthen Antiquary, 4, (3 and 4), 116-123. Baring Gould, S. 1898. Exploration of St. Non’s Chapel, near St. Davids. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 53, 345348. Barnwell, E.L. 1872. Wooden font. Efenechtyd Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 27, 257-261. Barnwell, E.L. 1873. The Nevern rock-cross. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 28, 370-374. Barnwell, E.L. 1881. Mediaeval Pembrokeshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 36, 158-164. Baynes, E.N. 1930. Llanwenllwfo Old Church. The Transactions of the Anglesey Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 1930, 50-53. Benson, D.G. 1999. The priory church of St Mary Magdalene, St Clears (Church Guide). Blagg, T.F.C. 1976. Tools and techniques of the Roman stonemason in Britain. Britannia, 7, 152-172. Blair. J. and Pyrah. C. (eds) 1996. Church archaeology: research directions for the future. CBA Research Report 104, York. Blockely, K. 2005. St. Selin’s Church, Llansilin, Powys. Evaluation Trench 2003. CAP Report No. 362. Cambrian Archaeological Projects Ltd. Boon, G.C. and Lewis, J. M. (eds) 1976. Welsh Antiquity; essays mainly on Prehistoric topics. Presented to H.N.

Savory upon his retirement as Keeper of Archaeology, National Museum of Wales. A. McLay and Co. Ltd., Cardiff. Borg, R. 2002. Medieval Baptismal Fonts in the Swedish province of Smolandica. An inventory in the light of comparison. Doctoral Thesis, University of Göteborg (In Swedish, with an Enlish abstract) ISBN 91-7346439-2. Bowen, E.G. 1950. The Celtic Saints in Cardiganshire. Ceredigion: Journal of the Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society, 1, 3-17. Bowen, E.G. 1953. The cult of Dewi Sant at Llanddewibrefi. Ceredigion: Journal of the Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society, 2, 61-65. Bowen, E.G. and Gresham, E.C. 1967. History of Merioneth, I. From the earliest times to the Age of the Native Princes. The Merioneth Historical and Record Society, Dolgellau, Wales. Bradney, J. 1929. A History of Monmouthshire: from the coming of the Normans into Wales down to the present time, IV, Pt I – The Hundred of Caldicot. M. Hughes and Clarke, London. Bradney, J. 1932. A History of Monmouthshire: from the coming of the Normans down to the present time, IV, Pt II – The Hundred of Caldicot. M. Hughes and Clarke, London. Britnell, W.J. (and various authors and others). 1994. Pennant Melangell. Montgomeryshire Collections, 82. Brook, D. 1985-1988. The early Christian Church in Gwent. The Monmouthshire Antiquary, 5, (3), 67-84. Brown, G.B. 1903. The Arts in early England: Ecclesiastical Architecture in England from the conversion of the Saxons to the Norman Conquest. John Murray, London. Brown, G.B. 1925. The Arts in early England: AngloSaxon Architecture. John Murray, London. Browne Willis, 1716. Survey of the Cathedral Church of St. David’s and edifices belonging to it as they stood in the year 1715. London. (Note: There are suggestions that the publication year was 1717) Brunskill, R.W. 1978. Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture. Faber and Faber Ltd., London. Bushell, W.D. 1916. The Lady Margaret Beaufort and King Henry VII. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 71, 301340. Butler, L. 1996. ‘A landscape white with churches’: Wales AD 1200-1600. In; J. Blair and C. Pyrah (eds), Church archaeology: research directions for the future. CBA Research Report 104, York. Butler, M. 2003. A guide to Amroth Parish Church (Church Guide).

447

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Cantrill, T.C. 1915. Geological notes on the excavations at the gatehouse, Llantwit Major. July to August 1913. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 70, 134-156. Caroë, W.D. 1917. The church at Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn, Carmarthenshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 72, 1538. Caroë, W.D. 1922. Llawhaden Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 77, 472-475. Carr, A.D. 1986. The Priory of Penmon. The Journal of Welsh Ecclesiastical History, 3, 18-30. Cattermole, P.J. and Romano, M. 1981. Lleyn Peninsula. Geologists’ Association Guide 39, 20-21. Chater, A.O. 1976. Early Cardiganshire Gravestones: Part I. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 131, 140-161. Chater, A.O. 1977. Early Cardiganshire Gravestones: Part II. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 132 , 116-138. Clapham, A.W. 1930. English Romanesque architecture before the Conquest. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Clarke, M.L. 1961a. Anglesey Churches in the nineteenth century. The Transactions of the Anglesey Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 1961, 53-68. Clarke, M.L. 1961b. Church building and church restoration in Caernarvonshire during the nineteenth century. Transactions of the Caernarvonshire Historical Society, 22, 20-31. Clarke, M.L. 1962. Caernarvonshire churches at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Transactions of the Caernarvonshire Historical Society, 23, 57-66. Clifton-Taylor, A. 1972. The Pattern of English Building. Faber and Faber Ltd., London. CPAT, 2011. Historic Settlements Survey- Breckockshire. Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust: Llanddew. Crossley, F.H. 1943. An introduction to the study of screens and lofts in Wales and Monmouthshire, with especial reference to their design, provenance and influence. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 98, 135-160. Crossley, F.H. 1944. Screens, lofts and stalls situated in Wales and Monmouthshire II. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 99, 64-112. Crossley, F.H. 1946. Screens, lofts and stalls situated in Wales and Monmouthshire IV. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 101, 1-56. Crossley, F.H. and Ridgway, M.H. 1945. Screens, lofts and stalls situated in Wales and Monmouthshire III. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 100, 153-198. Crossley, F.H. and Ridgway, M.H. 1947. Screens, lofts and stalls situated in Wales and Monmouthshire V. Archaeologia Cambrensis,102, 179-230. Crossley, F.H. and Ridgway, M.H. 1949. Screens, lofts and stalls situated in Wales and Monmouthshire VI. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 104, 207-251. Crossley, F.H. and Ridgway, M.H. 1952. Screens, lofts and stalls situated in Wales and Monmouthshire VII. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 107, 48-82. Crossley, F.H. and Ridgway, M.H. 1958. Screens, lofts and stalls situated in Wales and Monmouthshire Part Nine. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 113, 72-108. Crouch, D. 1988. Llandaff Episcopal Acta 1140-1287. South Wales Record Society, Cardiff.

Cruden, S. 1986. Scottish medieval architecture. J. Donald, Edinburgh. Davidson, A. 2001. Parish Churches. In: J.B. Smith and L.B. Smith (eds) History of Merioneth, II, The Middle Ages. Merioneth Historical and Record Society, Cardiff. Davies, A. 1905. Llanbeblig Parish Church. Transactions of the Caernarvonshire Historical Society, 20. Davies, E. (ed.) 1905. A general history of the County of Radnor. Compiled from the Manuscript of the late Rev, J. Williams. Davies and Co., Brecknock. Davies, J.L. 1873. Notes on the parish and church of Llanddew, Brecknockshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 28, 277-284. Davies, J.L. and Kirby, D.P. (eds) 1994. Cardiganshire County History I: from the earliest times to the coming of the Normans. Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society with RCAHMW, Cardiff. Davies, W. 1907. The pilgrims’church at Llandeilo Abercowin. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 62, 216-224. Davies, W. 1979. The Llandaff Charters. National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth. Davies, W. 2002. A history of the Parish of Llanegryn. E.G.Owen, Peniarth. Dawson, D.H. 1909. The Churches of Brecknockshire. A.W. Way, Swansea. Driver, T. and Davidson, A. 2005. New discoveries at St. Baglan’s Church, Llanfaglan (Brontnewydd), Gwynedd. Archaeology in Wales, 45, 104. Eastham, M. 2004. Pilgrimage chapels in northern Spain and West Wales. Journal of the Pembrokeshire Historical Society, 13, 69-74. Edwards, G. 1873. The history of the parish of Garthbeibio. Montgomery Collections, 6. 1-28. Edwards, N. (ed.) 1997. Landscape and Settlement in Medieval Wales. Oxbow Monograph 81. Oxbow books, Oxford. Edwards, N. (ed.) 2009. The Archaeology of the Early Medieval Celtic Churches. Maney Publishing, Leeds. Edwards, N. and Lane, A. (eds) 1992. The Early Churches in Wales and the West: recent work in Early Christian Archaeology, History and Place-names. Oxbow Monograph, 16, Oxford. Eisel, J.C. 2005. The church bells of Merioneth. Journal of the Merionethshire Historical and Record Society, 14 (4), 291-318. Evans, C.J.O. 1953. Monmouthshire – its history and topography. W. Lewis, Cardiff. Evans, D.P. 1898. Llandissilio Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 53, 242-247. Evans, D.S. 2009 (ed. and trans.). A medieval Prince of Wales, the life of Gruffud ap Cynan. Llanerch, Felinfach. Evans, E. 2003. Early medieval ecclesiastical sites in southeast Wales. GGAT project 73 database (deskbased study). Evans, E., Davidson, A., Ludlow, N. and Silvester, R. 2000. Medieval Churches in Wales: the Welsh Historic Churches Project and its results. Church Archaeology, 4, 5-26. 448

References Evans, G. 1913. The story of the ancient churches of Llandovery. The Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, London. Evans, J.W. 1991. Aspects of the early church in Carmarthenshire, 239-254. In: H. James (ed.) Studies in Carmarthenshire History. The Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society, Carmarthen. Evans, P. 2003. St. Silin’s Church, Llansilin: archaeological evaluation. CAP Report No. 248. Cambrian Archaeological Projects Ltd. Eyre-Evans. G. 1913. Llanartney: Parish Vestry Book, 1913, 56; Churchwarden’s Book, 1913, 65-66. The Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club. Eyre-Evans, G. 1918a. Cardiganshire: its plate, records and registers. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 73, 133-156. Eyre-Evans, G. 1918b. Cardiganshire: its plate, records and registers. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 73, 323-339. Eyre-Evans, G. 1918-1919. St. Clears Parish: A.D. 1674, 1678, 1717. The early chalice. The Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 13, (34-35), 43-43. Eyre-Evans, G. 1919a. St Clears Presentment 1672. Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 13, (36), 67. Eyre-Evans, G. 1919b. Llandeilo Abercywyn (Presentment) 15 April 1672. Llanarthney (Presentment) 9 April 1678. Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 13, (38), 63. Eyre-Evans, G. 1922. Nevern Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 77, 498-503. Eyre-Evans, G. 1927. Pembrokeshire Church presentments. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 82, 392-397. Eyre-Evans, G. 1927-1929. Visit to Church, Marros. Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 21, (51-52), 6-7. Eyre-Evans, G. 1935. Eleven Pembrokeshire Parishes’ presentments. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 90, 298-304. Fawcett, R. 2002. Scottish medieval architecture: architecture and furnishings. Tempus, Stroud. Fenton, R. 1811. A historical tour through Pembrokeshire. London. Fletcher, A. and Williams, D. 1986. A history of the Church of St Michael: All Angels, Efenectyd, Clwyd. Coelion Publications, Ruthin. Fletcher, E.G.M. and Jackson, E.D.C. 1945. ‘Long and short’ quoins and pilaster strips in Saxon churches. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 3rd Ser., 9, 12-29. Foster, I.L. and Alcock, L. (eds.) 1963. Culture and environment: essays in honour of Sir Cyril Fox. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. Freeman, E.A. 1851. On architectural antiquities in Monmouthshire No. 1. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 6, 99-113. Freeman, E.A. 1852. On the architectural antiquities of South Pembrokeshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 7, 161-202.

Freeman, E.A. 1856. The ecclesiastical architecture of Wales and the Marches. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 11, 218—248. Freeman, E.A., Parker, J.H. and Longueville Jones, H. 1858. Architectural antiquities in Glamorganshire III: Llantwit Major. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 13, 31-47. GAT (Gwynedd Archaeological Trust), 1993. St Catherine’s Church, Criccieth (Church Guide). Gilbert, E. 1946. New views on Warden, Bywell and Heddon-on-the-wall churches. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser., 24, 157-162. Glynne, S.R. 1884. Notes on the older churches in the four Welsh Dioceses. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 39, 81-104; 169-192. (Note:- The reports of the churches given under Glynne were published posthumously approximately 25 to 55 years after his visit to the respective churches. Glynne, S.R. 1885. Notes on the older churches in the four Welsh Dioceses (continued). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 40, 33-48, 120-131, 208-219. Glynne, S.R. 1886. Notes on the older churches in the four Welsh Dioceses (continued). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 41, 55-80, 270-281. Glynne, S.R. 1887. Notes on the older churches in the four Welsh Dioceses (continued). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 42, 274-284. Glynne, S.R. 1888. Notes on the older churches of the four Welsh Dioceses (continued) Archaeologia Cambrensis, 43, 122-137. Glynne, S.R. 1897. Notes on the older churches in the four Welsh Dioceses (continued). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 52, 45-57, 293-307. Glynne, S.R, 1898. Notes on the older churches of the four Welsh Dioceses (continued). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 53, 351-369. Glynn(e), S.R. 1900. Notes on the older churches of the four Welsh Dioceses (continued). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 55, 85-109, 169-188, 311-320. Glynne, S.R. 1901. Notes on the older churches of the four Welsh Dioceses (continued). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 56, 133-147, (245-278). Glynne, S.R. 1902. Notes on the older churches of the four Welsh Dioceses (continued). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 57, 81-114. Gould, S.B. 1898. Exploration of St. Non’s Chapel, near St. David’s. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 53, 345. Green, F. 1910-1911. West Wales Historical Records, Vol. I: the annual magazine of the Historical Society of West Wales. W. Spurrell & Son. (Published 1912). Green, F. 1911-1912. West Wales Historical Records, Vol. II: the annual magazine of the Historical Society of West Wales. W. Spurrell & Son. (Published 1913). Green, F. 1912-1913. West Wales Historical Records, Vol. III: the annual magazine of the Historical Society of West Wales. W. Spurrell & Son, Carmarthen. (Note:The three volumes edited by F. Green above are often entitled ‘Pembrokeshire Parsons’ in bibliographies,

449

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology for the sections in each referring to churches are so entitled). Green, T. 1912. Evening meeting at the church of Llanddewi-Brefi. Transactions and Archaeological Record: Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society, 1 (2), 1719. Gresham, C.A. 1968. Medieval stone carving in North Wales. University of Wales Press, Cardiff. Hague, D.B. 1956a. Llaniestyn Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 111, 157. Hague, D.B. 1956b. Llanengan Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 111, 158. Halliday, G.E. 1900. Llantwit Major Church, Glamorganshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 55, 129156. Halliday, G.E. 1903. The removal of the cross of Iltyd at Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 58, 56-64. Halliday, G.E. 1905. Llantwit Major Church, Glamorgan. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 60, 242-250. Hand, C.R. 1924. Llanfaes Friary and its mystery monuments. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 79, 125-188. Harbison, P. 1992. Guide to national and historical monuments of Ireland. Gill and Macmillan, Dublin. Hare, M. and Hamlin, A. 1986. The study of early church architecture in Ireland: an Anglo-Saxon viewpoint, 131-145. In: L.A.S. Butler and R.K. Morris (eds), The Anglo-Saxon church: Papers on history, architecture and archaeology in honour of Dr H M Taylor. CBA Research Report 60. Haslam, R. 1979. The Buildings of Wales: Powys. Penguin Books, London. Haslam, R., Orbach, J. and Voelcker, A. 2009. The Buildings of Wales: Gwynedd. Yale University Press, New Haven and London. Heath, J. 2006. Ancient Echoes: the early history of a Welsh peninsula. Gwasg Carreg Gwalch, Llanrwst, Wales. Hemp, W.J. 1918. A sixteenth century inscription in Llangwnadl Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 73, 320-322. Hemp, W.J. 1942. The Llanengan inscription. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 97, 58-63. Hemp, W.J. 1956. Llangwnadl Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 111, 147-149. Hinton, D.A. 2002. Debate: the dating of ferruginouslycemented gravel as building material. Landscape History, 24, 121-122. Holland, E. and Ludlow, 1997. Welsh Churches Project. Church Archaeology, 1, 48-50. Holme, G.G. 1926. Peculiar east windows in some Anglesey churches. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 81, 181-185. Howells, M.F. 2007. Wales: British Regional Geology. British Geological Survey (NERC), Nottingham. Howse, W.H. 1949. Radnorshire. E.J.Thurston, Hereford. Hubbard, E. 1986. The Buildings of Wales: Clwyd. Penguin Books, London.

Hughes, H. 1894. The architecture of Llanbeblig Church, Caernarvonshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 49, 8591. Hughes, H. 1897. Llangwyfan Church, Anglesey. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 52, 58-65. Hughes, H. 1914. Memorial tablets in Bryncroes Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 69, 411-413. Hughes, H.H. 1920. Early Christian decorative art in Anglesey. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 75, 1-30. Hughes, H.H. 1922a. Early Christian decorative art in Anglesey. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 77, 61-67. Hughes, H.H. 1922b. Cross-slab at Nevern. Archaologia Cambrensis, 77, 392-394. Hughes, H.H. 1923. Early Christian Decorative art in Anglesey. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 78, 53-69. Hughes, H.H. 1930. The ancient churches of Anglesey (Presidential Address). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 85, 237-266. Hughes, H.H. 1931. Inscription on arcade-respond in Llanfarynghornwy Church, Anglesey. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 86, 392-393. Hughes, H.H. 1932a. Church of St Mary Magdalene, Gwaenysgor, Flintshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 87, 166-178. Hughes, H.H. 1932b. Notes on Llanbabo Church, Llanol, Llanfechell Church. The Transactions of the Anglesey Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 1932, 57-59. Hughes, H.H. 1932c. Notes on Llanfaglan Church; Llandrog Church; Dinas Dinlle. The Transactions of the Anglesey Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 1932, 61-62. Hughes, H.H. 1935. Roman burial on site of modern cemetery at Llanbeblig. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 90, 297-298. Hughes, H.H. and North, H.L. 1924. The old churches of Snowdonia. Jarvis and Foster, Bangor. Hughes, H.H. and North, H.L. 1926. Llanaelhaiarn. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 81, 433-434. Hughes, P. 1993. The need for old buildings to ‘breathe’, Society for the protection of Ancient Buildings: Information Sheet 4. Reprinted from SPAB News, Spring, 1986. Hulbert-Powell, C.L. 1944. Carved corbels, brackets and label stops in Anglesey Churches. The Transactions of the Anglesey Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 1944, 19-48. Humphreys, M. 1990. Estimate of the expense to build a new church in the parish of Llangynog. Montgomeryshire Collections, 78, 180-181. Hurdsman, C.N. 1996. A history of the parish of Chirk, Wrexham (Church Guide). Hussey, R. 1858. St. Mildred’s, Canterbury. Archaeologia Cantiana, 1, 143-149. Ings, M., Davis, O., Murphy, K. and Page, M. 20102011. Medieval and early post-medieval churches and chapels. A threat-related assessment. Dyfed Archaeological Trust.

450

References James, H. (ed.) 1991. Studies in Carmarthenshire History. The Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society, Carmarthen. James, H. 1997. Llandysilio Church and Parish 500 – 1543: from heartland to Borderland. The Carmarthen Antiquary, 33, 5-26. James, J.W. 1991. Rhuddlan and its Church. Rhuddlan. James, T.A. 1992. Air photography of ecclesiastical sites in South Wales, 62-76. In: N. Edwards and A. Lane (eds), The Early Church in Wales and the West: recent work in Early Christian Archaeology, History and Place-Names. Oxbow Monograph, 16, Oxford. Jones, G.R. and Morris, W.H. 1971. Capel Erbach, Carmarthenshire: a medieval well chapel. The Carmarthen Antiquary, 7, 48-57. Jones, H.L. 1846a. On the study and preservation of national antiquities. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 1, 3-16. Jones, H.L. 1846b. Mona Mediaeva. An account of the medieval buildings and monuments of the Isle of Anglesey. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 1, 61-70. Also: Mona Mediaeva II. 155-169: III. 297-305: IV. 425-436. Jones, H.L. 1847a. Mona Mediaeva V. 41-50: VI. 166177: VII. 257-260: VIII. 321-327. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 2. Jones, H.L. 1847b. Arvona Mediaeva No. II. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 2, 153-166. Jones, H.L. 1848a. Mona Mediaeva IX. 44-46: X. 143146. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 3. Jones, H.L. 1848b. Arvona Mediaeva No. IV. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 3, 216-221. Jones, H.L. 1849a. Mona Mediaeva XIII. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 4, 128-134. Jones, H.L. 1849b. Gumfreston Church, near Tenby, Pembrokeshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 4, 194-197. Jones, H.L. 1859. Mona Mediaeva XXIII. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 14, 169-176. Jones, H.L. 1861. Mona Mediaeva XXV. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 16, 294-300. Jones, H.L. 1862. Mona Mediaeva XXVI. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 17, 43-51. Jones, J.F. 1937. Llanfair-ar-y-Bryn: Llwynhywel Chapel. The Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 1937, 49. Jones, K.E. 1990. Llansilin parish church. A short guide and history. Oswestry. Jones, M.H. 1915a.The ecclesiastical place-names of Carmarthenshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 70, 321332. Jones, M.H. 1915b. The ecclesiastical place-names of Carmarthenshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 70, 395404. Kirby, D. 1994. The political development of Ceredigion c. 400-1981. In: J.L. Davies and D.P. Kirby (eds), Cardiganshire County History I, from the earliest times to the coming of the Normans. University of Wales, Cardiff. Kissock, J. 1997. ‘God made nature and men made towns’: Post-Conquest and pre-Conquest villages in Pembrokeshire. In: N. Edwards (ed.), Landscape and

Settlement in Medieval Wales. Oxbow Monograph, 81. Oxbow Books, Oxford. Knight, J.K. 1984. Sources of the Early History of Morgannwg, 365-409. In: H.N. Savory (ed,) Glamorgan County History, II. Early Glamorgan PreHistory and Early History. Glamorgan County History Trust Ltd, Cardiff. Knight, J.K. 2011. Gwent Churches in the Book of Llandaff. The Monmouthshire Antiquary, 27, 35-42. Knowles, D. and Haddock, R.N. 1953. Medieval Religious Houses in England and Wales. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Laws, E, 1888. The history of Little England beyond Wales. G. Bell and Sons, London. Laws, E. 1909. Notes on the alien Benedictine Priory of St. Nicholas and St. John the Evangelist in Monkton, Pembrokeshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 64, 165202. Laws, E. and Edwards, E.H. 1912. Howard family monument (Rudbaxton). Archaeologia Cambrensis, 67, 31-32. Laws, E. and Owen, H. 1908. Pembrokeshire (Archaeological) Survey Notes. M.W. Williams, Solva and Fishguard. (Note:- These notes refer to the Ordnance Survey maps of the region and are based on contributions from the cited authors as well as many others). Lewis, J.M. 1964. Early Christian stones in Wales. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 119, 166-168. Lewis, J.M. 1976. A survey of early Christian monuments of Dyfed, west of the Taf. In: G.C. Boon and J.M. Lewis (eds) Welsh Antiquity: essays mainly on Prehistoric topics Presented to H.M. Savory upon his retirement as Keeper of Archaeology, National Museum of Wales. A. McLay and Co. Ltd., Cardiff. Lewis, S. 1845a. A topographical dictionary of Wales. I . (3rd ed.), S. Lewis and Co., London. Lewis, S. 1845b. A topographical dictionary of Wales. II. (3rd ed.), S. Lewis and Co., London. Lhwyd, E. 1909-1911. Parochialia: being a summary of the answers to parochial queries. R.H.Morris (ed.) being first published in 1707. Archaeologia Cambrensis, Supplements, Parts 1, 2 and 3. (generally bound as one volume). Lloyd, J.D.K. 1979. Montgomery Church. Montgomery Collections, 67, 7-44. Lloyd, J.E. 1935. A History of Carmarthenshire, I. From prehistoric times to the Act of the Union (1536). W. Lewis, Cardiff. Lloyd, T., Orbach, J. and Scourfield, R. 2004. The Buildings of Wales: Pembrokeshire. Yale University Press, London. Lloyd, T., Orbach. J. and Scourfield, R. 2006. The Buildings of Wales: Carmarthenshire and Ceredigion. Yale University Press, London. Lloyd-Williams, R. and Underwood, M. 1872. The architectural antiquities and village churches of Denbighshire. Lloyd-Williams and Underwood, Denbigh.

451

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Longley, D. 2003. Llangelynnin Church. Archaeology in Wales, 43, 133. Longley, D. 2005. Llangwyfan: the church in the sea. The Transactions of the Anglesey Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 77-88. Lunt, W.E. (ed.). 1926. The Valuation of Norwich. The Clarendon Press, Oxford. (Note regarding Lunt 1926:With reference to the records of the Norwich Taxatio of 1254 the following detail should be noted. The records for Wales refer to three dioceses only; these being Bangor (pp. 190-196), Llandaff (pp. 314-325) and St Asaph (pp. 467-473). Lunt referred to the original manuscript of the Bangor Diocese (p. 169) which strictly can only be dated to between 1199 and 1276; and to that of St Asaph (p.184) which can only be firmly dated to between 1229 and 1276. Nevertheless, these manuscipts were thought to be true copies). Matthews, A.W. 1926. Marros - Church and Cross. The Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 20, (49), 13. Matthews, A.W. 1927-1929. Sketch of Marros Church. The Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 21, (51-52), 6. Merrick, R. 1993. Morganiae Archaiographia: a book of the antiquities of Glamorganshire. B.L. James (ed.). South Wales Record Society, I, Barry Island, South Glamorgan. Merriman, R.J. 2006. Clay mineral assemblages in British Lower Palaeozoic mudrocks. Clay Minerals, 41, 473512. Meyrick, S.R. 1810. The History and Antiquities of the County of Cardiganshire. Collected from the few remaining documents which have escaped the destructive ravages of time, as well as from actual observation. Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme, London. (Note: Some versions dated 1808). Micklethwaite, J.T. 1896. Something about Saxon church building. Archaeological Journal, 53, 293-351. Micklethwaite, J.T. 1898. Some further notes on Saxon churches; being the Address at the opening of the Architectural Section of the Lancaster Meeting. Archaeological Journal, 55, 340-349. Moore, D. 1964. The land of Dyfed in early times. Cambrian Archaeological Association, Cardiff. Morgan, E. 2005. The church building of nineteenthcentury Pembrokeshire: the impact of liturgical and architectural changes within the Church of England. The Journal of the Pembrokeshire Historical Society, 14, 31-55. Morris, T.E. 1916. Capel Galltgoed. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 71, 85-94. Nash-Williams, V.E. 1950. The Early Christian Monuments of Wales. National Museum of Wales, University of Cardiff Press, Cardiff. Neaverson, E. 1949. The building stones of the churches in the Vale of Clwyd. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 104, 45-55. Neaverson, E. 1953-54. Medieval quarrying in northeastern Wales. Flintshire Historical Society Publications, 14, 1-21.

Newman, J. 1995. The Buildings of Wales: Glamorgan (Mid Glamorgan, South Glamorgan and West Glamorgan). Penguin Books, London. Newman, J. 2000. The Buildings of Wales: Gwent / Monmouthshire. Penguin Books, London. Ó Carragáin, T. 2005. Habitual masonry styles and the local organisation of church building in early medieval Ireland. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 105C, 99-149. Ó Raian, P. 1994. The Saints of Cardiganshire, 378-396. In: J.L. Davies and D.P. Kirby (eds), Cardiganshire County History I: from the earliest times to the coming of the Normans. Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society with RCAHMW, Cardiff. Orrin, G.R. 1988. Medieval churches of the Vale of Glamorgan. D. Brown and Sons, Cowbridge. Owen, E. 1867. Llangelynin old church, Caernarvonshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 22, 57-61. Owen, E. 1892. Gwaunysgor Church: partial restoration. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 47, 340-341. Owen, H. (ed.) 1897. The Description of Penbrokeshire by G. Owen. Part II. Bedford Press, London. Owen, H. (ed.) 1906. The Description of Penbrokeshire by G. Owen. Part III. Bedford Press, London. Palmer, T. 2007. Egryn Stone: a forgotten Welsh freestone. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 162, 149-160. Parker, K. 2001. A guide to the Church of St. Andrew’s Presteigne. Friends of St. Andrew’s, Presteigne (Church Guide). Parry Jones, T.L.D. 1848. ‘Arvona Mediaeva No. III’. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 3, 146-150. Pearson, A. and Potter, J.F. 2002. Church building fabrics on Romney Marsh and the marshland fringe: a geological perspective. Landscape History, 24, 89110. Pennant, T. 1784. A tour in Wales. Vols. I and II. Benjamin White, London. (Version by R.P. Evans (ed.), 1991. Bridge Books, Wrexham). (Page numbers may be at variance with original). Petts, D. 2009. The Early Medieval Church in Wales. The History Press, Stroud. Poole, E. 1886. The illustrated history and biography of Brecknockshire from earliest times to the present day. E. Poole, Brecknock. Potter, J.F. 1987. Geological traces of Saxon churches in the London Basin. Geology Today, SeptemberOctober, 164-168. Potter, J.F. 1998. The distribution of silcretes in the churches of the London Basin. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 109, 289-304. Potter, J.F. 1999. The geology of London Basin churches: the Palaeogene rocks. Tertiary Research, 19, 117-138. Potter, J.F. 2000a. The occurrence of travertine in the churches of the London Basin. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 111, 55-70. Potter, J.F. 2000b. More about Tertiary churches: the London Clay septaria. Tertiary Research, 20, 59-63. Potter, J.F. 2000c. Protecting the last millennium. The Environmentalist, 20, 87-91.

452

References Potter, J.F. 2001a. The London basin’s gravel churches: indications of geology, medieval history and geographical distribution. Landscape History, 23, 5-26. Potter, J.F. 2001b. The occurrence of Roman brick and tile in churches of the London Basin. Britannia, 32, 119142. Potter, J.F. 2002. The distribution of Bunter quartzites in the London Basin as portrayed by their abundance in church fabrics. Tertiary Research, 21, 155-170. Potter, J.F. 2003a. Continuing the debate on ferruginouslycemented gravel churches. Landscape History, 25, 7982. Potter, J.F. 2003b. Geology of Essex churches – All Saints, Messing visited on a GA field meeting. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 2 (3), 6. Potter, J.F. 2004a. Viviparus limestone (‘Purbeck Marble’) – a key to financially well-endowed churches in the London Basin. Church Archaeology, 5-6, 80-91 and 2005, 7, 8 and 9, 192. Potter, J.F. 2004b. Suffolk’s Crag churches: with observations on other Crag building structures. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and History, 40, 399-413. Potter, J.F. 2004c. The London Basin, three early Christian fonts. Church Archaeology, 4 and 5, 124-125. Potter, J.F. 2005a. A geological review of some early Essex church quoins. Essex Archaeology and History, 36, 99109. Potter, J.F. 2005b. No stone unturned – a re-assessment of Anglo-Saxon long-and-short quoins and associated structures. Archaeological Journal, 162, 177-214. Potter, J.F. 2005c. Ecclesiastical Geology: a return to Victorian field standards. Geoscientist, 15 (10), 4-7. Potter, J.F. 2005d. Field Meeting: Romney Marsh – its churches and geology, 22 May 2004. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 116, 161-175. Potter, J.F. 2005e. Some observations on Orford Castle. Orford & District Local History Bulletin, 4, 4-8. Potter, J.F. 2005f. A geological review of some early Borderland churches. Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Historical Society, 80, 1-16. Potter, J.F. 2006a. A geological review of some Hampshire Anglo-Saxon churches. Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club and Archaeological Society, 61, 134-152. Potter, J.F. 2006b. Anglo-Saxon building techniques: quoins of twelve Kentish churches reviewed. Archaeologia Cantiana, 126, 185-218. Potter, J.F. 2006c. An analysis of ecclesiastical stone cut backs. Church Archaeology, 10, 57-80. Potter, J.F. 2006d. Stone emplacement in early Scottish churches: evidence of Early Christian craftsmanship. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 136, 227-236. Potter, J.F. 2007a. A day visiting churches: the geology of some West Surrey churches: 12th May 2007. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 6 (3), 14-15.

Potter, J.F. 2007b. A review of some early West Sussex churches. Sussex Archaeological Collections, 145, 8196. Potter, J.F. 2008a. The medieval town wall of Great Yarmouth, Norfolk: a geological perlustration. British Archaeological Reports, British Series No. 461, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Potter, J.F. 2008b. Looking at Jurassic churches – Saturday June 7 2008 (Part 1). Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 7 (4), 16-17. Potter, J.F. 2008c. Early stone emplacement in three Scottish ecclesiastical monuments, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 138, 1-17. Potter, J.F. 2009a. Looking at Jurassic churches – Saturday June 7 2008 (Part 2). Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 8 (1), 15-16. Potter, J. F. 2009b. A famous village cross, five churches and ‘Hills and Holes’, Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 8 (4), 7-8. Potter, J. F. 2009c. Patterns in Stonework: The Early Church in Britain and Ireland; an Introduction to Ecclesiastical Geology. British Archaeological Reports, British Series No. 496, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Potter, J.F. 2009d. Decorative Anglo-Saxon wall fabrics: a pattern in stonework, Church Archaeology, 13, 41-51. Potter, J.F. 2010a. Early churches and fossils of the Welsh Borderland, 8th and 9th May 2010, Part I, Magazine of the Geologists’ Asssociation, 9 (3), 15-16. Potter, J.F. 2010b. A geological review of some early churches in the Northamptonshire area. Northamptonshire Archaeology, 36, 113-131. Potter, J.F. 2010c. Early churches and fossils of the Welsh Borderland, 8th and 9th May 2010, Part II, Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 9 (4), 11-12. Potter, J.F. 2010d. St Peter, Titchfield – an early granite font. Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club and Archaeological Society, 65, 240-242. Potter, J.F. 2011a. Ecclesiastical Geology (Learning about churches from their stonework), Monkwearmouth Lecture, 23rd July 2011. Potter, J.F. 2011b. Geology of churches in NE England, 28th- 31st May 2011, Part I. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 10 (4), 28-29. Potter, J.F. 2011c. Porth Clew Chapel, Freshwater East, Pembrokeshire: traces of pre-Romanesque (Patterned) origin. Archaeology in Wales, 50, 45-50. Potter, J.F. 2011d. Patterns in Stonework and Early Irish Churches. Journal of Medieval Archaeology. Web Site. Potter, J.F. 2012. Geology and churches in North-east England. 28th to the 31st May 2011, Part 2. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 11 (1), 24-25. Poucher, P. 2004. Nevern, Pembrokeshire: Settlement, morphology, topography and Archaeology (Church Guide). Pratt, D. 1984. Some sidelights on the early history of Gresford Church. Denbighshire Historical Society Transactions, 33, 1-25. Price, D.T.W. 1990. A history of the Church in Wales in the twentieth century. Church in Wales Publications.

453

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Price, H. 1992. Ecclesiastical Wealth in Early Medieval Wales. In: N. Edwards and A.Lane (eds), The Early Church in Wales and the West: recent work in Early Christian Archaeology, History and Place-Names. Oxbow Monograph, 16, Oxford. Pritchard, A. 2009. The origins of ecclesiastical stone architecture in Wales, 245-264. In: N. Edwards (ed.), The Archaeology of the Early Medieval Celtic Churches. Maney Publishing, Leeds. Pritchard, T.W. 1973. The parish church of St Mary, Chirk (Church Guide). Pryce, A.I. 1929. The Diocese of Bangor during three centuries. Being a digest of the Registers of the Bishops. W. Lewis, Cardiff. Prys-Williams, D. 1905. The church of Penbryn and its connections and associations. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 60, 153-160. Radford, C.A.R. 1962. The Celtic Monastery in Britain. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 117, 1-24. Radford, C.A.R. 1963. The native ecclesiastical architecture of Wales c. 1100-1285, 355-372. In: I.L. Foster and L. Alcock (eds), Culture and environment: essays in honour of Sir Cyril Fox. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. Radford C.A.R. 1966. The church of St. Giles, Llansilin, Denbighshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 121, 128133. Radford, C.A.R. 1973. Early Christianity and the emergence of Wales, 47-57. In: H.N.Savory, et al., An illustrated guide to the ancient monuments of Wales. HMSO, London. Radford, C.A.R. 1977. Report of the Annual Summer Meeting, 1976. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 132, 173. Radford, C.A.R. and Hemp, W.J. 1959. Pennant Melangell: the church and the shrine. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 114, 81-113. Ramage, C.T. 1871. The calculate age of yew-trees in Guilsfield churchyard. Montgomeryshire Collections, 4, 443-445. RCAHMW (Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire). 1911. First Report: County of Montgomery. HMSO, London. RCAHMW, 1912. Second Report: County of Flint, HMSO, London. RCAHMW, 1913. Third Report: An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in the County of Radnor. HMSO, London. RCAHMW, 1914. An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in the County of Denbigh, IV. HMSO, London. RCAHMW, 1917. An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in the County of Carmarthen, V. HMSO, London. RCAHMW, 1921. An Inventoryof the Ancient Monuments in the County of Merioneth,VI. HMSO, London RCAHMW, 1925. Seventh Report: An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in the County of Pembrokeshire. HMSO, London. RCAHMW, I937. An Inventory of the Ancient monuments in the County of Anglesey. HMSO, London.

RCAHMW, 1956. An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Caernarvonshire, Vol. 1: East. HMSO, London. RCAHMW, 1960. An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Caernarvonshire, Vol. II: Central. HMSO, London. RCAHMW, 1964. An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Caernarvonshire, Vol. III: West. HMSO, London. RCAHMW, 1976. An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Glamorgan, Vol. 1, pt iii: The Early Christian period. HMSO, Cardiff. Redknap, M. 2009. Early Medieval metalwork and Christianity: a Welsh perspective. In: N. Edwards (ed.), The Archaeology of the Early Medieval Celtic Churches. Maney Publishing, Leeds. Redknap, M. and Lewis, J.M. 2007. A corpus of early medieval inscribed stones and stone sculpture in Wales. I. South-east Wales and the English Border. University of Wales Press, Cardiff. Rees, J.R. 1897. Slebech Commandery and the Knights of St. John. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 52, (85-107), 197228, (262 284). Rees, W. 1932. South Wales and Border in 14th century. (Note: This refers to a series of maps detailing all the known churches of the period. It is accompanied by a booklet by the same author printed in 1933 entitled Handbook to the historical map of South Wales and the Border in the fourteenth century. Western Mail and Echo Ltd., Cardiff.) Rickman, T. 1817. An attempt to discriminate the styles of English Architecture from The Conquest to the Reformation. Longman, London. Rickman, T. 1836. Further observations on the ecclesiastical architecture of France and England. Archaeologia, 26, 26-46. Richards, R. 1952. The vestiges of early Christianity in Gwynedd. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 107, 1-8. Ridgway, M.H. 1997. Church plate of the Diocese of St. Asaph. Gwasg Gee, Denbigh. Roberts, T. 1992. Welsh ecclesiastical place-names and archaeology, 41-44. In: N. Edwards and A. Lane (eds), The Early Church in Wales and the West: recent work in Early Christian Archaeology, History and PlaceNames. Oxbow Monograph, 16, Oxford. Robinson, G.E. 1886. Unrestored Churches. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 41, 121-127. Rodger, J.W. 1915. Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire, excavations. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 70, 140-156. Rodwell, W.J. 1998. Holy Trinity Church, Bradwell-juxtaCoggeshall: a survey of the fabric and appraisal of the Norman brickwork. Essex Archaeology and History, 29, 59-114. Rodwell, K.A. and Rodwell, W.J. 1976. The investigation of churches in use: a problem in rescue archaeology, 13. In: Addyman, P. and Morris, R. (eds), The archaeological study of churches. The Council for British Archaeology Research Report. Rowley, T. 1977. English Heritage book of Norman England. Batsford, London.

454

References Russell, P. (ed. and trans.) 2005. Vita Griffini Filii Conani: the Medieval Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan. University of Wales Press, Cardiff. Salter, M. 1991. The old Parish Churches of Mid-Wales. Folly Publications, Malvern. Salter, M. 1994. The old Parish Churches of south-west Wales. Folley Publications, Malvern. Salzman, L.F. 1967. Building in England down to 1540. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Saunders, M. 2010, Saving Churches. The Friends of the Friendless Churches: the first 50 years. Frances Lincoln Ltd, London. Savory, H.N. (ed.) 1984. Glamorgan County History, II. Early Glamorgan Pre-History and Early History. Glamorgan County History Trust Ltd, Cardiff. (Note: the Volume includes an Appendix I, (Inventory, by old ecclesiastical Parishes, of sites and finds of preNorman date in Glamogan), 411-455, compiled by H.N. Savory). Savory, H.N., Boon, G.C., Radford, C.A.R., Williams, G. and Rees, D.M. 1973. An illustrated guide to the ancient monuments of Wales. HMSO, London. Schaffer, R.J. 1932. The weathering of natural building stones. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Building Research Special Report No. 18. HMSO, London. Schӓrer, N. 2007. Limework at St Cwyfan’s Church-in-theSea. Historic Churches. Cathedral Communications Ltd. Schlee, D. 2009a. The Pembrokeshire Cemeteries Project; Excavations at Porthclew Chapel, Freshwater East, Pembrokeshire, 2008. Interim Report. Dyfed Archaeological Trust, Llandeilo. Schlee, D. 2009b. The Pembrokeshire Cemeteries Project: Excavations at Porthclew Chapel, Freshwater East, Pembrokeshire, 2009, Second Interim Report. Dyfed Archaeological Trust, Llandeilo. Scourfield, R. 2002. Medieval church building in Pembrokeshire, 587-611. In: R.F.Walker (ed.) Pembrokeshire County History, II. Medieval Pembrokeshire. Pembrokeshire Historical Society, Haverfordwest. Seabourne, M.V. J. 1990. The religious census of 1851 and early chapel-building in North Wales: a sample survey. National Library of Wales Journal, 26, (3). Sellwood, B.W. 1984. The rock types represented in the town wall of Silchester, 224-231. In: Silchester. Excavations on the defences 1974-80. Britannia Monograph Series, 5, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, London. Silvester, R.J. 1992. Montgomeryshire Historic Settlements. Report 40, Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust, Welshpool. Silvester, R.J. and Dorling, P.J. 1993. Report 44, Historic Settlements in the Brecon Beacons National Park. Simpson, T. and Millard, W. 1904. A history of the parish of Guilsfield (Cegidva): ecclesiastical, the church. Montgomeryshire Collections, 33, 57-94.

Skinner, J. 1908. Ten days’ tour through the Isle of Anglesea: December 1802. Archaeologia Cambrensis, Supplement. Smith, J.B. and Smith, L.B. (eds) 2001. The History of Merioneth, II, The Middle Ages. Merioneth Historical and Record Society, Cardiff. Soden, R.W. 1984. A guide to Welsh Parish Churches. Gomer Press, Llandysul, Wales. Soulsby, I. 1983. The towns of medieval Wales: a study of their history, archaeology and early topography. Phillimore, Chichester. Taylor, H.M. 1978. Anglo-Saxon architecture. Vol. III. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Taylor, H.M. and Taylor, J. 1965. Anglo-Saxon Architecture, Vols. 1 and 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Thomas, C. 1951. The early Christian Archaeology of North Britain. Oxford University Press, London. Thomas, D.R. (Archdeacon), 1889. The Norwich Taxation and the Diocese of Llandaff. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 44, 106-117. Thomas, D.R. (Archdeacon), 1894. History of the parish of Llandrinio. Collections Historical and Archaeological relating to Montgomeryshire and its Borders (Montgomeryshire Collections), 28, 17-80, 177-205. Thomas, D.R. 1908. History of the diocese of St Asaph, Vol. 1. Caxton Press, Oswestry. Thomas, D.R. 1911. History of the diocese of St Asaph, Vol. 2. Caxton Press, Oswestry. Thomas, D.R. 1913. History of the diocese of St Asaph, Vol. 3. Caxton Press, Oswestry. Thomas, W.G. 1964. Medieval Church building in Dyfed, 27-30. In: D. Moore (ed.) The land of Dyfed in early times. Cambrian Archaeological Association, Cardiff. Thomas, W.G. 1977. Report of the Annual Summer Meeting, 1976. Castlemartin Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 132, 175. Thomas, W.G. 1994. The Early Christian Monuments, 407-420. In: J.L. Davies and D.P. Kirby (eds), Cardiganshire County History I: from the earliest times to the coming of the Normans. Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society with RCAHMW, Cardiff. Tierney, H.C. 1892. Ruined Chapels in Carmarthenshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 47, 166-167. Tierney, H.C. 1894. Unexplored ecclesiastical ruins in Carmarthenshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 49, 1924. Treharne, C. 2006. Around God’s Acre in south-western Wales. Gwasg Carreg Gwalch, Llanwrst, Wales. Treherne, G.G.T. 1907. Notes on Eglwys Cynmyn, parcy-Ceryg Sanctaidd and Llandawke. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 62, 257-280. Treherne, G.G.T. 1926-1927. Marros – Church and Cross. Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club, 20, (49), 13. Tricker, R. Undated. A brief guide to our churches: St Lawrence, Marros.

455

Searching for Early Welsh Churches: A Study in Ecclesiastical Geology Tyrrell-Green, E. 1920. Types of Baptismal Fonts as illustrated by Welsh examples. Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, London. Tyrrell-Green, E. 1928. Baptismal Fonts: Classified and illustrated. London Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. MacMillan, London. Vaughan, H.M. 1938. Gumfreston Church. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 93, 297. Wade-Evans, A.W. 1947. Miscellanea: St. Einion of Llanegan. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 102, 284-285. Walker, R.F. (ed.) 2002. Pembrokeshire County History, II. Medieval Pembrokeshire. Pembrokeshire Historical Society, Haverfordwest. Ward, M.A. 1997. St. Catherine’s Church, Cricieth. Transactions of the Caernarvonshire Historical Society, 58, 7-34. Wentworth, C.K. 1922. A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. The Journal of Geology, 30, 279-284. Westwood, J.O. 1847. On certain peculiarities observable in some of the early monumental effigies in Wales. Part II. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 2, 314-321. Westwood, J.O. and Parry Jones, T.L.D. 1848. Inscribed stone at Llanfihangel y Traethau, Merionethshire. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 3, 224-228. Westwood, J.O. and Williams, J. 1850. Observations on the stone of St. Cadfan at Towyn, and on some other inscribed and carved stones Archaeologia Cambrensis, 5, 90-100. WHCP (Welsh Historic Churches Project) Refer to Appendix 2.

Williams, D. 1960-1963. The censuses of religious worship of 1851 in Cardiganshire. Ceredigion: Journal of the Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society, 4, (1-4), 113-128. Williams, G. 1960-1963. The Collegiate Church of Llandewibrefi. Ceredigion: Journal of the Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society, 4, (1-4), 336-352. Willis-Bund, J.W. 1888. Reports on Lanio and on church restoration. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 43, 297319. (Reprinted from Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries, 1887). Willis-Bund, J.W. 1893. The Teilo Churches. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 48, 193-217. Wynne-Edwards, R. 1871. Norman column and arch discovered in Meifod Church in September, 1871. Montgomeryshire Collections, 4, xxiii-xxv. Yates, N. 1984. The Welsh Church and Celtic Nationalism. The Journal of Welsh Ecclesiastical History, 1, 1-16. Yates, N. 1991. Buildings, faith and worship. The liturgical arrangement of Anglican Churches 16001900. Oxford. Yates, N. and Little, J. 1974. Carmarthenshire Churches. The Carmarthen Antiquary, 10, 63-75. Yates, W.N. 1972. Non-Celtic Pre-Reformation church dedications in Carmarthenshire. The Carmarthen Antiquary, 8, 49-62. Yates, W.N. 1973. The ‘Age of the Saints’ in Carmarthenshire: a study of church dedications. The Carmarthen Antiquary, 9, 53-81.

456

References Notes:A). Note with reference to the Journal Archaeologia Cambrensis and its Volume numbering:Original Volume Numbering Volume as Listed in this Work as First issued 1846 as Vol. 1 1 Issues for 1846-1849 numbered Vol.1 to 4 1 to 4 Issues for 1850-1854 described as New Series Vols.1 to 5 5 to 9 Issues for 1855-1869 described as 3rd Series Vols. 1 to 17 10 to 24 Issues for 1870-1883 described as 4th Series Vols. 1 to 14 25 to 38 Issues for 1884-1900 described as 5th Series Vols. 1 to 20 39 to 55 Issues for 1901-1920 described as 6th Series Vols. 1 to 20 56 to 75 Issues for 1921-1928 described as 7th Series Vols. 1 to 8 or 76 to 83 Issues from 1929 described as Vol. 84 and onward 84 and then consecutively Libraries differ in which of these numbering systems they follow. B). Note with reference to Journal title for the County of Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society:Years Title 1905-1939 The Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society and Field Club 1941-1977 The Carmarthen Antiquary Vols. 1-13. Henceforward, but for: 1970 The Carmarthenshire Antiquary Vol. 6. 1975 The Transactions of the Carmarthenshire Antiquarian Society Vol. 11. C). Note with reference to Journal title for the Ceredigion Historical Society:Years Title 1911-1938 Transactions and archaeological record, Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society Until 2001 Ceredigion: Journal of the Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society Subsequently Ceredigion: Journal of Ceredigion Historical Society.

457