Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment: Theories and Applications (Enhanced New Edition) 9789629375218, 9789629372361

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This exceptional book about Feng Shui explains in clear terms the complexity and depth of the powerful ancient science. Dr. Mak and Dr. So capture the essence of the different Schools with their various concepts, and communicate this scientific knowledge in an intelligent and comprehensible style. Taking Feng Shui into the 21st century by discussing contemporary applications, the authors offer the reader unique insights into the working dynamics Feng Shui. This book offers a remarkable in-depth view of Feng Shui by integrating the historical theories with scientific data and examples of applications. Although it is written for professionals, the authors’ concise and articulate writing style appeals to anyone interested in Feng Shui. Dr. Dominique SUREL Dean of Faculty, Director – Remote Viewing Research Institute, Energy Medicine University, Sausalito, California, USA Vice President, World Institute for Scientific Exploration The parallels between Chinese conceptual frameworks for arranging physical space and those of indigenous people’s of the Pacific are obvious, even though their physical environments are so different. As Mak and So suggest, there are dimensions of reality yet to be understood and explained within the confines of western scientific thought. The inclusion here of Qi as a scientific term, the metric of Feng Shui, introduces readers to a myriad of new possibilities and opportunities not discussed elsewhere in scientific literature. The quantitative tools shared in this text reposition the ancient Chinese art of Feng Shui demonstrating its contemporary relevance. Tihei Mauri Ora! This enhanced new edition of Scientific Feng Shui is welcomed into the world of light! Dr. Ing Te Kipa Kepa Brian MORGAN Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Auckland, New Zealand This book is a continuation of Michael and Albert’s concerted and diligent attempt to bring an understanding of the architectural aspects of the traditional originally observation-based Chinese knowledge system into a realm of science. Such a broader conception of the roots and branches of science, transcending the blinkered view that science is merely a Western construct, is necessary if we are to sustain ourselves as a species into the future. Dr. Michael PATON Honorary Associate, School of Economics, The University of Sydney, Australia I read with great interest on the chapters on researches in scientific Feng Shui and enhanced case studies. These aptly reflect the title that highlights the focus on theorization and applications. The efforts of Dr. Michael Mak and Dr. Albert So in extending the boundary of Feng Shui studies scientifically are highly commended. Prof. Sai On CHEUNG Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment Theories and Applications Enhanced New Edition

Michael Y. MAK Albert T. SO

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The images below are reproduced with kind permission of the following copyright holders: Chapter opening images: Ch 1 (Kurt Vansteelant/iStock/Thinkstock); Part A (Purestock/Thinkstock); Ch 2–5 (solarseven/iStock/Thinkstock); Part B (Shinelu/iStock/Thinkstock); Ch 6–12 (cosmin4000/iStock/Thinkstock); Part C (chpua/iStock/Thinkstock); Ch 13–20 (Andrea Danti/Hemera/Thinkstock); Ch 21 (m-gucci/iStock/Thinkstock); Appendix (chinginging/iStock/Thinkstock). Figures 6.1, 6.2, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6 , 6.7, 6.8, 16.7 (iStock/Thinkstock); Figure 6.3 (Charles E. Rotkin/Corbis); Figure 6.9 (Bertrand Rieger/Hemis/Corbis); Figure 6.10 (Lau Wai Chun); Figure 6.16 (Alexandra Boulat/VII/Corbis); Figure 6.17 (View Stock/Thinkstock); Figure 6.18 (Jose Fuste Raga/Corbis); Figure 7.8 (Dorling Kindersley/Thinkstock); Figure 18.13 (Thinkstock.com); Figure 19.4 (Uden Graham/Redlink/Corbis). Figures 10.2, 10.6, 10.18, 10.19, 10.20, 10.21, 10.22, 10.28, 10.35, 10.36, 10.37, 10.38, 10.39. The above maps reproduced with permission of the Director of Lands. © The Government of Hong Kong SAR. Licence No. 45/2010. Figure 10.25 © Antiquities and Monuments Office, The Government of Hong Kong SAR. Figures 11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11.10 © Buildcorp Contracting NSW, Australia. Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of material reproduced in this book. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publisher will be pleased to make restitution at the earliest opportunity.

©2015 City University of Hong Kong Originally published in 2011 as Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment— Fundamentals and Case Studies. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, internet or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the City University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN: 978-962-937-236-1 Published by City University of Hong Kong Press Tat Chee Avenue Kowloon, Hong Kong Website: www.cityu.edu.hk/upress E-mail: [email protected] Printed in Hong Kong

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Table of Contents

Detailed Chapter Contents



ix

Foreword by Derek WALTERS



xxi

Foreword by Professor Sritawat KITIPORNCHAI



xxv

Preface

xxvii

About the Authors

xxxi

List of Illustrations

xxxiii

List of Classical Feng Shui Terms



1

Introduction

xlv



1

PART A SCIENTIFIC FENG SHUI 2

Science and Feng Shui

11

3

Scientific Methods and Feng Shui Study

19

4

Studying Feng Shui

29

5

The Development of Feng Shui

39

PART B FORM SCHOOL APPROACH 6

Culture and Architecture

59

7

Theories of the Form School

77

8 Form School Practice in the Built Environment

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

9 Conceptual Framework for the Form School Approach

99

10 Case Studies: Feng Shui Villages in Hong Kong

117

11 Case Studies: Sustainable Design and Feng Shui

143

12 Case Studies: Feng Shui Integrated Applications for Built Environment Analysis

165

PART C COMPASS SCHOOL APPROACH 13 Numerology and the Compass School

179

14 The Luo Shu and the Modern Linear Algebra

191

15 Modern Physics and the Compass School

207

16 Theories of the Compass School

219

17 The Method of Eight Mansions

231

18 The Method of Flying Stars

241

19 Case Studies: Applications of the Compass School

255

20 Case Studies: Applications of Shared Guas

271

21 Conclusion

283

Appendix: Research Activities and Publications in Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment

291

References

309

Index

319

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Detailed Chapter Contents

1

Introduction Popular Feng Shui

2

Scientific Feng Shui

2

Structure of This Book

3

Part A—Scientific Feng Shui

4

Part B—Form School Approach

4

Part C—Compass School Approach

6

PART A SCIENTIFIC FENG SHUI 2

3

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Science and Feng Shui Philosophy of Science

12

New Direction of Science

12

Chinese Wisdom

13

New Science and Chinese Wisdom

13

Feng Shui Knowledge

16

Western Acceptance of Feng Shui Knowledge

17

Scientific Methods and Feng Shui Study A Scientific Approach to Feng Shui Study

20

Empirical Science

20

Scientific Theory

21

The Logical Approach

21

Scientific Method

24

Experimental Method

25

Correlation

26

Naturalistic Observation

26

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4

Surveys

27

Case Study

27

Studying Feng Shui General Issues in Studying Feng Shui Terminology

30

Translation

30

Transliteration

31

The Western Study of Feng Shui

5

30

31

Western Criticism in the Late Nineteenth Century

31

Western Recognition in the Mid-Twentieth Century

32

Feng Shui Study in Hong Kong

32

Feng Shui Study in Mainland China

33

Research in Feng Shui

34

The Anthropological Approach

34

The Ecological Approach

35

The Architectural Approach

36

The Development of Feng Shui Chinese History

40

The Ancient Period: 2000–200 BC

40

The Medieval Period: 200 BC–AD 900

40

The Modern Period: 900–Present

41

The Development of Feng Shui

41

The Early Stages of Feng Shui Concepts and Practices

41

Origins of Feng Shui Concepts

43

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Detailed Chapter Contents

House Divination

44

House Examination

44

Basic Theories of Feng Shui Principles

45

The Theory of Qi

45

Theory of Yin and Yang

45

The Theory of the Five Elements

47

The Formation of Feng Shui Knowledge

48

The Chinese Calendar System

49

Classification of Four Emblems

49

The Invention of the Compass

50

Early Feng Shui Literature

51

Two Schools of Thought

52

The Form School

52

The Compass School

54

Characteristics and Comparisons of the Two Schools

54

A Mixture of the Two Schools

55

PART B FORM SCHOOL APPROACH 6

Culture and Architecture Eastern and Western Cultures

60

Language Systems

60

Differences in Expressions

61

Expressions of Numbers

61

Expressions of Tense

61

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7

Expressions of Gender

62

Expressions of Vocabulary

62

Eastern and Western Philosophy

62

Architecture and Culture

64

Western Architecture

64

Eastern Architecture

68

Comparison of Eastern and Western Architecture

72

Eastern and Western Attitudes to Architecture

73

Concepts of Architecture

73

Attitudes to the Design of Palaces

74

Attitudes to Landscape Design

75

Chinese Architectural Philosophy: Feng Shui

76

Theories of the Form School Introduction

78

Five Geographical Secrets

78

The Dragon

78

The Sand

78

The Water

80

The Cave

80

The Direction

81

The Feng Shui Model

82

Macrocosm and Microcosm

85

Outer and Inner Form

85

Outer Form

85

Inner Form

87

Four Design Modules

88

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Detailed Chapter Contents

8

9

Form School Practice in the Built Environment Contemporary Form School Practice

92

Three Basic Criteria

92

Site Selection

92

House Location within the Site and Its Orientation

92

Internal Arrangement of Architectural Objects and Elements

92

Site Selection Procedures

92

Major Criteria for the Best Location

93

Design Rules of Thumb

93

Design Criteria Checklist

95

Interior Design Diagrams

95

Site Design Tool

97

Site Analysis Framework

98

Conceptual Framework for the Form School Approach Introduction

100

Theories of the Form School Approach

100

Four Fundamental Concepts of the Form School Approach

100

Concept of the Feng Shui Model

100

Concept of Parallelism

101

Concept of Four Design Modules

101

Concept of Feng Shui Design Criteria

101

Structure of Feng Shui Knowledge

106

Organization of the Form School Approach

106

Concept Hierarchy Approach

106

Skeletal Hierarchical Structure

107

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Overall Hierarchical Structure of Feng Shui Knowledge

107

Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria

110

Conceptual Framework

110

10 Case Studies: Feng Shui Villages in Hong Kong Feng Shui in Hong Kong

118

Feng Shui Villages in Hong Kong

118

Case 1:Tai Fu Tai Mansion, San Tin

119

Introduction to the San Tin Region

119

Background of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

120

Architecture of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

120

Feng Shui Analysis of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

126

Case 2: Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall, Lung Yeuk Tau

132

Introduction to the Lung Yeuk Tau Region

132

The Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall

133

Feng Shui Analysis of the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall

136

Comparison of Feng Shui Villages in Hong Kong

139

11 Case Studies: Sustainable Design and Feng Shui Introduction

144

Sustainable Design

144

Feng Shui and Ecological Sustainable Development

146

Comparison of Sustainable Design and Feng Shui

147

Sustainable Design Concepts

148

Feng Shui Concepts

148

The Comparison of Sustainable Design with Feng Shui Concepts

151

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Case Study

152

Case 1: Workplace6—A Six-Star Office Building in Sydney

152

Analysis and Discussion

156

Modern Sustainable Buildings

158

Case 1: Commonwealth Bank Place

158

Case 2: No. 1 Bligh Street Office Building

160

Sustainable Design and Feng Shui

161

12 Case Studies: Feng Shui Integrated Approach for Built Environment Analysis Introduction

166

Feng Shui Concepts and Practice for Built Environment Analysis

166

Contemporary Western Approaches to Built Environment Analysis

166

Comparisons between Feng Shui and Contemporary Western Models

167

Case Studies: Three Residential Apartments in Chatswood, Sydney

168

Case Study Analysis

170

The Built Environment Analysis

174

PART C COMPASS SCHOOL APPROACH 13 Numerology and the Compass School Introduction

180

The Origin of Chinese Metaphysics

180

The Philosophy of Pythagoras

181

The Mathematics of Pythagoras

184

Coincidence in the Far East

188

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14 The Luo Shu and the Modern Linear Algebra Introduction

192

Discovery of the Luo Shu

192

Applications of the Luo Shu

195

The Luo Shu in Matrix Operations

196

Introduction to Determinants

197

Introduction to Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues

197

Revisiting Luo Shu’s 36 Standard Charts

198

Generating 17 Standard Charts from One Luo Shu’s Original Chart

198

Determinants of the Luo Shu’s 36 Standard Charts

199

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of the Luo Shu Charts

200

Final Remark

206

15 Modern Physics and the Compass School Introduction

208

The Way and Qi of Daoism

208

Classical Physics

209

Relativity and Cosmology

209

Quantum Physics

212

Kirlian Effect

213

String Theory

214

Particle Physics

216

Impact on the Understanding of Feng Shui

217

16 Theories of the Compass School Introduction

220

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Detailed Chapter Contents

The Eight Trigrams

220

Numerology and Trigrams

222

The Five Elements

223

The Ten Heavenly Stems

224

The Twelve Earthly Branches

225

The Compass

227

The Sitting and Facing Directions of a House

229

17 The Method of Eight Mansions Introduction

232

Three Yuans

232

Fate Gua Number

232

Compliance Between Property Gua and Fate Gua

236

The Four Auspicious and Four Inauspicious Directions

237

A Deeper Consideration on Eight Mansions

239

18 The Method of Flying Stars Introduction

242

Fundamentals of the “Flying Stars” Method

242

Yuans and Fortune Cycles

243

Earth and Heaven Charts of Flying Stars

243

Mountain Chart and Facing Chart

244

Terminology

244

Time, Mountain and Facing Charts

245

The Facing and Sitting Direction Numbers

246

Direction of Motion of the Stars

246

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Completing the Mountain and Facing Stars

247

Review of the Flying Stars Chart Procedure

248

Using the Flying Stars Chart—Case 1

248

Using the Flying Stars Chart—Case 2

249

Using the Flying Stars Chart—Less Favorable Combinations

250

A Deeper Consideration of the Flying Stars

250

A Note about Shared Guas

254

19 Case Studies: Applications of the Compass School Introduction

256

Cases in Old Shanghai

256

Case 1: A Dyeing Mill

256

Case 2: A Countryman Club

256

Case 3: A Pharmacy

257

Case in Hong Kong

259

Case 4: The Elements Shopping Mall on Kowloon Station

Case in Australia Case 5: Development History of Canberra

259 263 263

Southern Hemisphere

266

Remarks on Case 5

268

Final Remark

269

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20 Case Studies: Applications of Shared Guas What are Shared Guas?

272

Why are Shared Guas needed?

272

Flying Stars Charts of Shared Guas

273

Example

274

Case 1: The Cheung Kong Center

275

Case 2: The Tian Tan Buddha and Ling Shan Buddha

278

21 Conclusion Overview

284

The Correct Attitude towards Feng Shui

286

Possible Scientific Research Methods to Study Feng Shui

287

What’s Next?

289

Appendix: Research Activities and Publications in Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment

291

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Foreword by Derek WALTERS

I see to my astonishment that it is exactly three years since I wrote the Foreword to the First Edition of this valuable contribution to modern Feng Shui literature. Despite the brevity of the interval, during this time there have been significant developments both in Feng Shui research and mainstream science which the present authors have aimed to address in this enhanced new edition. The past few years have seen some welcome changes in the way that Feng Shui is perceived. Thankfully the craze for wind-chimes, goldfish, magic mirrors and the like seems to have waned, but as always, the commonest questions are still “What is Feng Shui?” and “Does it work?” One of the primary aims of the authors has been to provide answers to what are quite reasonable questions. The paradox is that if an answer is scientifically reasonable, then Feng Shui loses its innate mystique; whereas if the answers lack analytical logic, then Feng Shui is dismissed as a pseudo-science. For example, all manner of geological and topographical explanations support “Form School” theory; even as I write, in February, traditionally the wettest month of the calendar, vast swathes of my home country (England) are under water, inundated with unprecedented flooding; thousands of homes have been ruined by the deluge, and a whole county, Cornwall, has been cut off from the rest of the country because the main railway line, which used to run along the coast, has been swept into the sea. Yet any Feng Shui master would have cautioned at the very start that the locations where the houses were sited were inauspicious, although the technical terms used would not have included expressions as “flood plain” but the glossary of Feng Shui, such as “Water Dragon” or “Lack of vital Qi.” The search for the elusive Qi continues. It is almost impossible to describe the Feng Shui characteristics of an environment, built or natural, without reference to Qi. Is there an actual force called Qi, or is it a general concept of ambience? So much of the “grammar” of Feng Shui is mirrored by western science; for example, the re-discovery of the Eight Trigrams laid the foundation of the binary system on which on all present-day digital technology is founded. As another example, it is my belief that even the order of the Five Elements appears to be the result of inspired thought; not just the repetition of simple mantras along the lines of “Wood burns, producing Fire.” And here I offer an observation which is truly remarkable: ancient Chinese astronomers used the names of the Five Elements for the planets: the planet closest to the Sun, and the swiftest moving through the sky, is the Water planet, Mercury. Next is Venus, the Metal planet, then the Earth itself, followed by Mars, the Fire planet, and Jupiter, the Wood planet: in other words, the conventional order of the Five Elements—Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water—actually represents the distances of the planets from the Sun. Thus even the most basic tool of Feng Shui was the product of scientific observation.

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

As for the billions spent on the search for the elusive universal particle, could Qi be the solution to the many enigmas which still elude scientific explanation? The chapters which follow will provide the reader with much to ponder. In my Foreword to the earlier edition of this volume, I paid tribute to the work and enthusiasm of the authors Dr. Michael MAK and Dr. Albert SO in producing a work of such dedicated scholarship. As true scientists, they have not rested after their labours, but have continued to expand and develop their research, reflected not only in the descriptions of the new case studies presented here, but also in the additional facets of supplementary material encompassing both Feng Shui techniques and mathematics. This enhanced new edition endorses the foresight and courage shown by the City University of Hong Kong Press in having the courage to champion the controversial decision to inaugurate a series of conferences on Scientific Feng Shui and the Built Environment, and latterly for its support in the production of this valuable work of reference. Reader, follow the advice of the authors. Neither accept without question, nor reject out of hand, the fascinating information laid out in these pages, but through your own experiences form your own judgement regarding Feng Shui in its many guises. Derek WALTERS Morecambe, UK

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Foreword by Derek Walters

Mr. Derek WALTERS was born in industrial Manchester in 1936, but now lives in the town of Morecambe, the name of which is ancient Celtic for “Sea and Mountains.” Although a classical musician who is presently active as the conductor of a male voice choir, for the past thirty years, he has been immersed in research in Chinese astrology and Feng Shui. He was one of the first people to introduce Feng Shui to Europe, popularizing the subject in a number of television interviews, and leading several series of seminars in England, Germany and Russia. He is the author of more than twenty books, many of which have been translated into the principal languages of Europe, as well as Hebrew and Japanese, his principal works being Chinese Astrology, first published in 1984 and the Feng Shui Handbook, which has had universal appeal as an essential teaching manual, and went into 15 editions. Recently he has been investigating the correspondence between Feng Shui and musical sounds, and has collaborated with one of the present authors, Dr. Albert So, on the unique qualities of Cantonese opera.

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Foreword by Professor Sritawat KITIPORNCHAI

Unmistakably, the ancient Chinese practice of Feng Shui is now widely acknowledged around the world. When I typed the keywords “Feng Shui” into an Internet search, I found tens of thousands of websites related to this topic. However, to my dismay, most of these sites seem to promote superstition. This can give a bad name to Feng Shui and a bad impression of scientists, architects, and academics in the field. While it is true that there are, from time to time, phenomena that cannot be explained by known theories in science, such instances should not be used to advocate theories that insult our common sense and logical reasoning. I personally believe that many genuine Feng Shui theories and applications will eventually be proved using scientific approaches, and the concept of harmonizing the natural and built environments should itself be scientific. The efforts taken by the authors will no doubt contribute to the implementation of this concept. When I was the Head of Department of Building and Construction at the City University of Hong Kong, the same insight was shared with Dr. Albert So and Dr. Michael Mak. We created and pioneered an unconventional course called “Natural/Built Environmental Harmony” as part of the Masters of Science in Building Engineering Degree. The aim was to bring the study of Feng Shui into tertiary education, so that it can be studied seriously and conscientiously, and removed from the realm of superstition. We must be brave enough to declare war on superstition but at the same time bring Feng Shui back to its correct path, and hope that one day it can become a discipline in universities. With this view in mind, I strongly promote the idea of establishing an international platform for us to exchange research results on Feng Shui using a scientific approach. I am delighted to see Dr. Michael Mak and Dr. Albert So’s series of “Scientific Feng Shui” books that constitute a big step towards this goal. In this enhanced new edition, you will find discussions on relationships between science and Feng Shui, scientific bases of Feng Shui theories, and contemporary applications to the built environment that are illustrated with case studies. I honestly believe that with all their efforts and those of likeminded scientists and academics, eventually Feng Shui knowledge will serve as the foundation for a new field of science in the built environment. Sritawat KITIPORNCHAI Brisbane, Australia

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Professor Sritawat KITIPORNCHAI is the TMR Chair and Professor of Structural Engineering at the School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Australia. He was appointed a Chair Professor at the City University of Hong Kong in 2001 and was the Head of the Department of Building and Construction from 2005–2011. In 2009, he was elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE). Sritawat is currently the Chairman of the EASEC International Steering Committee; a member of the Engineering Panel of the Hong Kong Research Grant Committee (RGC); a member of the ARC’s College of Experts Panel; and a member of the Singapore NRF’s CRP Expert Panel on Computer and Engineering Sciences. He is the Regional Editor (Asia-Pacific) of Engineering Structures Journal (since 1993), and a member of editorial boards of many other structural engineering and engineering mechanics journals. He has extensive research publications (2 patents, 8 books, 7 book chapters, 306 journal papers and numerous conference papers) and has an SCI personal h-index of 8. Several of his portal frame design books are widely used by students and practising engineers in Australia.

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Preface

Readers may have read in our book, Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment: Fundamentals and Case Studies, published four years ago, that both Chinese and western cultures have always contemplated the harmony between the mankind and our surrounding environment; the natural environment in ancient times, and the built/natural environment today. Modern architecture has become increasingly concerned about the integration and harmony between the natural and built environments as “green living” seems to be the hottest contemporary topic. Terms like environmental protection and management, energy conservation, renewable energy, sustainability and ecology etc. have been pouring into our ears on a daily basis. In fact, all these concepts are not new from an ancient Chinese point of view; this study in the past was called Feng Shui or Kan Yu more academically, a traditional Chinese wisdom aimed at creating harmony between the environment (both referring to the sky and the earth), buildings and people. It is a philosophy which has influenced traditional building design in China for thousands of years. In the western world, the popular conception of Chinese Feng Shui is the practice of doing the right thing at the right place, at the right time and with the right style. As mentioned before, the original ancient Chinese term for this study was Kan Yu; the term Feng Shui is (in Chinese historical terms) a relatively recent nomenclature. “Kan” refers to the observations of sky and climate and “Yu” refers to investigations of the landscape and geography. The expression “Feng Shui” was first used in the classic text The Book of Burial published in the Jin Dynasty, some 1,700 years ago. In direct translation, “Feng” simply means wind while “Shui” means water. Our books could certainly tell you the scope of Feng Shui is much broader, in terms of dimensions of consideration, detailed contents and the methodology. Traditionally, Feng Shui comprises of two schools, namely the Form School and the Compass School. However, the principles and practices of such important schools of thought are complicated, leading to considerable misunderstanding and confusion. To bring Feng Shui out of the shadow of superstition, it is essential to use a scientific approach to the study of this controversial subject. Basically, the notion of “Scientific Feng Shui” has two implications: the verification of Feng Shui principles scientifically, or the study of Feng Shui logically in a scientific way and by using scientific methods. Since 2005, a series of international conferences on Scientific Feng Shui and the Built Environment had been organized at the City University of Hong Kong and it was moved to Humboldt-University, Berlin, Germany from 2010 onward. The history of development of this series is detailed in this book and you may be surprised that the origin of this series could date back to September of the year 1997 when a Feng Shui workshop was held in Brisbane organized by both of us.

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

The aim of the conference series is to provide an international platform for exchanging research findings between scholars in scientific Feng Shui for the benefits of the built environment. In order to reach the worldwide research communities, thirteen high-quality articles selected from the first three years’ conference proceedings were compiled into Research in Scientific Feng Shui and the Built Environment, edited by both of us with additional annotations, and published by City University of Hong Kong Press in 2009. Immediately right after publication, we received concerns from readers that such book is a collection of research articles, and demanding a publication that explains Scientific Feng Shui from basic concepts. Such encouraging feedback led to the writing of Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment: Fundamentals and Case Studies, also published by City University of Hong Kong Press in 2011 to explain fundamental terms, concepts and theories of different schools of Feng Shui, and to explore the nature of a scientific approach to Feng Shui study, illustrated by numerous case studies. Over the past four years, the authors have got some new research findings that could help to strengthen the interest and knowledge of readers. In this enhanced new edition, besides the philosophy and characteristics of science and scientific methods, comparisons of different cultural and architectural styles, case studies, numerology, modern physics, fundamentals of the Form and Compass Schools, there are enhancements and new inputs in theories and applications. In this book, the emphasis is placed on two themes, sustainability and science. New case studies regarding sustainable design as viewed from a Feng Shui perspective have been added and elaborated. Integrated applications of different architectural models and their associations with Feng Shui concepts, illustrated by case studies, are included. On science, something new on recent development of particle physics, e.g., the discovery of Higgs particles, has been added. And a totally new approach to numerology and Luo Shu study based on modern linear algebra may bring readers more insight into the possibility of researching Feng Shui mathematically in a new way, in addition to the use of spherical trigonometry. Something new related to the use of Flying Stars method is also added. It is difficult to prove or verify so many rules and principles in the two schools of thought. Some can obviously be explained by theories of modern environmental science, while others, not so obviously explainable, have to be approached and studied in a logical and consistent manner. Questions on inconsistencies must be raised from time to time and testing must be continuously conducted to get convinced. We wish this new book could once again demonstrate that Feng Shui can be studied scientifically, and eventually scientific Feng Shui may become a new field

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Preface

of science in the academic world as well as a professional and orthodox discipline of architectural design for the built environment. We would like to thank Dr. Xin Janet GE who supported our works with her expertise in property research and co-authored two chapters of this enhanced new edition. Also thanks are given to Dr. Dominique SUREL, Dr. Kepa MORGAN, Dr. Michael PATON and Prof. Sai On CHEUNG, who patiently read through the draft version of this book and provided their valuable first-hand reviews. Special thanks are due to Prof. Sritawat KITIPORNCHAI who has encouraged our works for many years and provided his insightful foreword for this book. Finally, we have to express our greatest honor to have Mr. Derek WALTERS, a globally renowned Feng Shui researcher and practitioner, write a new foreword and also co-author one chapter of this enhanced new edition. In addition, once again, Derek, certainly as the third author behind, did spend hours and hours of his valuable time and effort, in between his busy schedule of concert performances in England and lectures in Russia, tendering his constructive comments and suggestions, and kindly proof-read the whole manuscript of this enhanced new edition.

Michael MAK and Albert SO January 2015

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About the Authors

Dr. Michael MAK is a Senior Lecturer and Program Convenor for the postgraduate property programs at the School of Architecture and Built Environment, the University of Newcastle, Australia. He has been teaching in architecture, building, construction management and property courses in Australia, Singapore and Hong Kong. Michael was also a Visiting Lecturer with the Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, City University of Hong Kong from 2005 to 2013. He is a pioneer in developing and teaching a course on scientific Feng Shui in the Master of Science programme. Dr. Mak is the co-founder of the International Conferences on Scientific Feng Shui and Built Environment, and was the Chair of the Technical Committee of the Conference from 2005 to 2009. Recently in 2013, Michael is the founding editor of the Academic Journal of Feng Shui (www.AJoFengShui.co.nf), which is a peerreviewed open-access online journal that publishes original research articles in all aspects of Feng Shui. His PhD focused on the application of Feng Shui knowledge to building design and the built environment using artificial intelligent technique — knowledge-based expert systems approach. Michael’s research interests are focused on Chinese philosophy, Chinese culture and scientific Feng Shui applications to the built environment, particularly in knowledge management representation, artificial intelligent applications, knowledge-based expert systems, computer modeling; applications to architectural management, sustainable design, urban resilience, building evaluation and property market. He is the author of Scientific Feng Shui: Application of Feng Shui Knowledge to Preliminary Building Design Evaluation Using Knowledge-Based Expert Systems Approach (2009) and with Dr. Albert So published Research in Scientific Feng Shui and the Built Environment (2009) and Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment: Fundamentals and Case Studies (2011). Dr. Albert SO, CEng, FCIBSE, FIMechE, FSOE, FIPlantE, SMIEEE, SCME, is the founder and was the Chairman of Organizing Committee of the International Conference series on Scientific Feng Shui and the Built Environment conducted at the City University of Hong Kong from 2005 to 2009. He is an electrical and building services engineer by profession and had been Lecturer/Associate Professor/Adjunct Professor of the City University of Hong Kong. He is now Honorary Visiting Professor of the University of Northampton in England and Honorary Associate Professor of the University of Hong Kong. Currently, he is Vice President of Asian Institute of Intelligent Buildings and Director of Asian Institute of Built Environment promoting education and research related to the built environment. Together with Dr. Michael Mak, he published Research in Scientific Feng Shui and the Built

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Environment, as a collection of selected papers with high academic value from previous conferences in 2009 and Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment: Fundamentals and Case Studies in 2011 through the City University of Hong Kong Press. Besides Feng Shui, Dr. So has also been studying other branches of Chinese culture, such as classical Chinese literature, Cantonese operas, paranormal activities, ufology, afterlife and various traditional religions.

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List of Illustrations

Tables Table 2.1

A Brief History of the Western View of the World

14

Table 2.2

Differences between Western and Eastern Approaches to Knowledge

15

Table 2.3

Parallels between Western and Eastern Philosophy

16

Table 3.1

Truth Table—A / B

22

Table 3.2

Truth Table—C / D / E

23

Table 6.1

Expressions of Singular and Plural

61

Table 6.2

Expressions of Tense

62

Table 6.3

Expressions of Genders

62

Table 6.4

Expressions of Vocabularies

63

Table 6.5

Expressions of Name, Address and Date

63

Table 8.1

Major Criteria for the Selection of the Best Feng Shui Location 94

Table 8.2

Comparison of Feng Shui and Contemporary Assessment Categories

97

Table 8.3

Site Analysis Criteria for Variables in Five Categories

98

Table 9.1

24 Key Feng Shui Criteria

104

Table 9.2

Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria in Surrounding Environment Module

111





Table 9.3

Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria in External Layout Module 112

Table 9.4

Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria in Internal Layout Module 113

Table 9.5

Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria in Interior Arrangement Module

114

Facing Directions of Buildings in Famous Villages in Hong Kong

141

Table 11.1

Green Star Rating in Australia

146

Table 11.2

Comparison of Sustainable Design and Feng Shui Concepts 152

Table 10.1

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Table 11.3 Table 11.4

Analysis of the Features in Workplace6 according to Sustainable Design Concepts

157

Analysis of the Features in Workplace6 according to Feng Shui Concepts

157

Table 12.1

Comparisons between Feng Shui and Contemporary Models 168

Table 12.2

Brief Description of the Three Selected Case Studies

Table 12.3

Analysis of the Features in Case Studies according to Contemporary and Feng Shui Models 175

Table 14.1

Determinants of 36 Standard Charts

199

Table 14.2

Determinants of Nine Standard Charts Rotated by 45º Clockwise

199

Table 14.3a

Geometrical Behavior of FS(x+,0º)-5

201

Table 14.3b

Geometrical Behavior of FS(x–,0º)-5

202

Table 14.3c

Geometrical Behavior of FS(x+,90º)-5

203

Table 14.3d

Geometrical Behavior of FS(x+,270º)-5

204

Table 14.3e

Geometrical Behavior of 9 Randomly Generated Matrice

205

Table 16.1

The Ten Heavenly Stems in Relation to a Ten-day Week

225

Table 16.2

The Twelve Earthly Branches in Relation to the Twelve Animal Signs

225

The Twelve Earthly Branches in Relation to Season, Time of Day and Direction

226

Table 16.4

Elements Associated with the Twelve Earthly Branches

226

Table 16.5

Gan-Zhi Sexagenary Cycle

227





Table 16.3

169

Table 17.1a Reference Chart to Find Out Fate Gua Number (1924–1943) 233 Table 17.1b Reference Chart to Find Out Fate Gua Number (1944–1963) 233 Table 17.1c Reference Chart to Find Out Fate Gua Number (1964–1983) 234 Table 17.1d Reference Chart to Find Out Fate Gua Number (1984–2003) 234 Table 17.1e Reference Chart to Find Out Fate Gua Number (2004–2023) 235

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List of Illustrations

Table 17.2

Rules to Find out Four Auspicious and Four Inauspicious Directions

237

Distribution of Fate Gua between East and West House Classes within a Sexagenary Cycle

240

Table 18.1

Table of Direction—Angle Conversion

245

Table 18.2

Early (Earth), Middle (Heaven) and Late (Man) Sections of the Eight Directions

247

Table 18.3

Forward and Reverse Star Sequences

247

Table 19.1

Determinants of 18 Matrices

268

Table 20.1

13 Special Cases of Replaced Guas

273

Table 20.2

Mathematical Calculations to Verify the Directions of the Two Buddha Statues

281

Table 17.3





Figures Figure 5.1

Brief Outline of the Historical Development of Feng Shui

42

Figure 5.2 The Layout of Banpo Settlement

43

Figure 5.3 Tai Chi and the Eight Diagrams

46

Figure 5.4 Productive and Destructive Cycle of the Five Elements

47

Figure 5.5 Orientation of the Five Elements

48

Figure 5.6 Four Emblems in the Celestial Sphere

49

Figure 5.7 A Model of Shi (Basic Compass)

50

Figure 5.8

Luopan (Feng Shui Compass)

53

Figure 6.1

Parthenon (440 BC) in Athens

65

Figure 6.2

The Colosseum (AD 70) in Rome

66

Figure 6.3

The Pantheon (AD 125) in Rome

66

Figure 6.4

Exterior of Hagia Sophia of Istanbul (AD 548)

67

Figure 6.5

Hagia Sophia Interior

67

Figure 6.6

Cologne Cathedral (1248), Germany

68

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications



Figure 6.7

Dome of the Rock (AD 691) in Jerusalem

69

Figure 6.8

Imam Mosque Isfahan (1611), Iran

70

Figure 6.9

Brihadeeswara Temple (1010) in India

71

Figure 6.10 Taj Mahal (1653) in India

71

Figure 6.11 Forbidden City (1420) in Beijing

72

Figure 6.12 Western Architecture Structure

73

Figure 6.13 Eastern Architecture Structure

73

Figure 6.14 Tower of Babel

73

Figure 6.15 Efang Gong, Palace of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)

74

Figure 6.16 Palace of Versailles, Paris

74

Figure 6.17 The Central North-south Axis of the Forbidden City as the Central Axis of Beijing

75

Figure 6.18 Gardens of the Palace of Versailles

76

Figure 6.19 Imperial Gardens, Beijing

76

Figure 7.1 Dragon Vein

79

Figure 7.2 The Four Emblems of Sand

79

Figure 7.3 The Inner Bend of a River

80

Figure 7.4 Location of the Cave

81

Figure 7.5 Directions of the Four Emblems

82

Figure 7.6

83

Diagram of Auspicious Spatial Organization

Figure 7.7 The Ideal Feng Shui Model

83

Figure 7.8 An Illustration Showing Typical Chinese Courtyard House

86

Figure 7.9 Feng Shui Situations Related to Human, House, Tomb and City 86



Figure 7.10 Various Patterns of Outer Forms

87

Figure 7.11 Homogeneous Relationships of Entrance to House, Human and Landscape

88

Figure 7.12 Outer & Inner Form and Four Design Modules

89

Figure 8.1 Procedures of Feng Shui Model for Forms of Land

93

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List of Illustrations



Figure 8.2 Interior Design Diagrams for Furniture Placement of a Living Room Figure 9.1

Hierarchy of the Feng Shui Model

102

Figure 9.2

Correspondence of the Four Emblems in Nature and Architecture

103

Figure 9.3

Hierarchy of Four Design Modules

103

Figure 9.4

Criteria for Feng Shui Design Evaluation

105





96

Figure 9.5 Organization of the Form School Approach

106

Figure 9.6 Skeletal Hierarchical Structure of Feng Shui Knowledge

108

Figure 9.7 Overall Hierarchical Structure of Feng Shui Knowledge

109

Figure 9.8

Conceptual Framework for Feng Shui Application

115

Figure 10.1

Front Elevation of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

119

Figure 10.2

Location Map of San Tin

120

Figure 10.3

Portrait of Man Chung-luen

121

Figure 10.4

Title of Tai Fu Tai

121

Figure 10.5

Open space in front of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

122

Figure 10.6

Aerial View of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

122

Figure 10.7

Inward-facing Houses on Four Sides Formed the Quadrangle 123

Figure 10.8

Courtyard of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

123

Figure 10.9

Three Golden Characters of Tai Fu Tai above the Entrance Door

124

Figure 10.10 Mouldings and Figurines at the Top of Entrance Hall

124

Figure 10.11 Floor Plan of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

125

Figure 10.12 Wood Carvings

125

Figure 10.13 Traditional Murals

126

Figure 10.14 Honorific Boards and Title Tablet

127

Figure 10.15 Portraits and Furniture in the Main Hall

127

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Figure 10.16 Leafy Plaster Mouldings above the Arched Doorways

128

Figure 10.17 Painted Glass Panes and Ceramic Decoration

128



Figure 10.18 Feng Shui Analysis for the Tai Fu Tai Mansion in San Tin Region

128



Figure 10.19 Aerial Photo of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion amongst Villages in San Tin Area

129



Figure 10.20 Feng Shui Analysis for the Tai Fu Tai Mansion in San Tin Area

130

Figure 10.21 Aerial Photo of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion in Wing Ping Tsuen

130

Figure 10.22 Feng Shui Analysis of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion in Wing Ping Tsuen

131

Figure 10.23 Feng Shui Model of the Tai Fu Tai Mansion

131

Figure 10.24 The Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall

132

Figure 10.25 Location Map of the Lung Yeuk Tau Region

133

Figure 10.26 Front Hall of the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall

134

Figure 10.27 Middle Hall of the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall

134

Figure 10.28 Aerial View Showing the Kitchen in the Annex

135

Figure 10.29 Central Chamber of Rear Hall

135

Figure 10.30 Soul Tablets of the Ancestors of the Clan

135

Figure 10.31 Soul Tablets of the Left Chamber

136

Figure 10.32 Soul Tablets of the Right Chamber

136

Figure 10.33 Ceramic Figurines

137

Figure 10.34 Traditional Murals

137



Figure 10.35 Feng Shui Analysis of the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall in the Lung Yeuk Tau Region

137



Figure 10.36 Aerial Photo of the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall in the Lung Yeuk Tau Area

138



Figure 10.37 Feng Shui Model for the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall in the Lung Yeuk Tau Area

138



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List of Illustrations



Figure 10.38 Aerial Photo of the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall next to Lo Wai Walled Village

139



Figure 10.39 Feng Shui Analysis of the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall next to Lo Wai Walled Village

140

Figure 10.40 Feng Shui Model of the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall

140

Figure 10.41 The Ideal Feng Shui Model

141

Figure 11.1

Elements of Environmental Sustainability

145

Figure 11.2

Productive and Destructive Cycles of the Five Elements

149

Figure 11.3

Simplified Feng Shui Model

150

Figure 11.4

Four Design Modules (Mak, 2009)

151

Figure 11.5

Comparison of the Principles of Green Design with Feng Shui 151

Figure 11.6

Front Elevation of Workplace6

153

Figure 11.7

Location of Workplace6

154

Figure 11.8

Typical Floor Plan

154

Figure 11.9

Grey Water Distribution

155

Figure 11.10 View of Central Atrium

156

Figure 11.11 Family Playground in front of Commonwealth Bank Place

159

Figure 11.12 Commonwealth Bank Place Central Atrium

159

Figure 11.13 Commonwealth Bank Place Activity-Based Working Environment

159

Figure 11.14 Front Elevation of No.1 Bligh Street Office Building

160

Figure 11.15 Lobby Hall of No.1 Bligh Street Office Building

161

Figure 11.16 Central Atrium of No.1 Bligh Street Office Building

162

Figure 12.1

The Chatswood Built Environment (Google Maps, 2014)

170

Figure 12.2

Positive Features of the Regency Apartment

171

Figure 12.3

Negative Features of the Regency Apartment

171

Figure 12.4

Positive Features of the Altura Apartment

172





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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Figure 12.5

Negative Features of the Altura Apartment

173

Figure 12.6

Positive Features of the Cambridge Apartment

173

Figure 12.7

Negative Features of the Cambridge Apartment

174

Figure 13.1

Platonic Solids

183

Figure 13.2

The Pythagorean Theorem

185

Figure 13.3

Gou Gu Theorem in The Book of Calculation of Zhou Bi

185

Figure 13.4

Vortex Patterns of Marko Rodin

186

Figure 13.5

The Number Chart of Luo Shu

188

Figure 14.1a Original Luo Shu

193

Figure 14.1b Nine Numbers of Luo Shu in a Magic Square

193

Figure 14.2

Divination Pan of the Supreme Unity Moving Around Nine Palaces (太一行九宮占盤)

194

Figure 14.3a Original “Forward Flying” Chart

196

Figure 14.3b “Forward Flying” Chart +90º

196

Figure 14.3c “Forward Flying” Chart –90º

196

Figure 15.1

Tai Chi Diagram

209

Figure 15.2

Illustration of Casimir Effect

213

Figure 16.1

Nine-Palace Diagram

220

Figure 16.2

Evolution of Trigrams

221

Figure 16.3a Early Sequence

222

Figure 16.3b Later Sequence

222

Figure 16.4

He Tu Diagram

223

Figure 16.5

Luo Shu Diagram

223

Figure 16.6

The Complete Luo Shu

224

Figure 16.7

Standard Feng Shui Compass

228

Figure 16.8

24 Mountains on Compass—Luopan

228

Figure 16.9

To Determine the Facing of a House

230

Figure 17.1

East House Group

236

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List of Illustrations



Figure 17.2 West House Group

236

Figure 17.3

Eight Mansions of a Kan House

238

Figure 17.4 Eight Mansions of a Dui House

239

Figure 18.1

Earth Chart of Flying Stars

243

Figure 18.2

Sequence of Placement of Numbers in the Nine-Palace Chart 243

Figure 18.3

Heaven Chart of the Sixth Fortune

244

Figure 18.4

Heaven Chart of the Seventh Fortune

244

Figure 18.5

Heaven Chart of the Eighth Fortune

244

Figure 18.6

A Complete Flying Star Chart

245

Figure 18.7

Transitional Nine-palace Chart

246

Figure 18.8 Transitional Nine-palace Chart with Central Palace for M (Mountain) and F (Facing) Positions Placed Figure 18.9



Final Flying Stars Chart of House Facing 75o (east) Built within the Seventh Fortune

246 248



Figure 18.10 Flying Stars Chart of Southeast Sitting and Northwest Facing House Built within the Seventh Fortune

249



Figure 18.11 Flying Stars Chart of Northeast Sitting and Southwest Facing House Built within the Eighth Fortune

249

Figure 18.12 Magnetic Declination in 2000

252

Figure 18.13 Magnetic Declination (degrees west) at Washington, D.C. of the United States from 1750 to 2005

252

Figure 18.14 Three Plates on a Luopan

253



Figure 19.1 Figure 19.2 Figure 19.3 Figure 19.4

Layout Plan and Flying Star Nine-palace Chart of a Dyeing Mill

256

Layout Plan and Flying Star Nine-palace Chart of Countryman Club

257

Layout Plan and Flying Stars Nine-palace Charts of a Pharmacy

258

The Main Facing Direction of Elements where Qi is Received

259 xli

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Figure 19.5 Figure 19.6



Geographical Location of Elements on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong

260

Layout Plan of 1/F of Elements Showing the Five Zones

261

Figure 19.6a Fire Zone

261

Figure 19.6b Earth Zone

261

Figure 19.6c Metal Zone

262

Figure 19.6d Water Zone

262

Figure 19.6e Wood Zone

262

Figure 19.7

262

Nine-palace Chart of Eighth Fortune Cycle of Elements

Figure 19.8 Canberra: Axis from the Australian War Memorial to Parliament House, from Mt Ainslie

263

Figure 19.9 Two Maps of Canberra, Original Design and Modern Scene 264







Figure 19.10 Flying Stars Nine-palace Charts of Canberra for Third and Fourth Fortunes

265

Figure 19.11a Luo Shu for the Southern Hemisphere

267

Figure 19.11b Distribution of the Eight Trigrams for the Southern Hemisphere

267

Figure 19.11c Distribution of 24 Mountains for the Southern Hemisphere

267

Figure 19.12 Nine-palace Flying Stars Charts of Third and Fourth Fortune for Canberra using Mirror Postulate 267 Figure 19.13a Example of a Set of Matrices for the Southern Hemisphere

268

Figure 19.13b General Formulae Applicable to the Matrices

268

Figure 20.1a 3 Stars of Central Palace without Shared Guas

274

Figure 20.1b 3 Stars of Central Palace with Shared Guas

274

Figure 20.2 Resultant Flying Stars Chart of Eighth Fortune Cycle Zi Sitting Sharing Gui, and Wu Facing Sharing Ding

274

Figure 20.3

275

Cheung Kong Center

Figure 20.4 Cheung Kong Center at Central, Hong Kong

276

Figure 20.5 Main Entrance of Cheung Kong Center

276

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List of Illustrations



Figure 20.6 Flying Stars Nine-palace Charts of Cheung Kong Center in Two Different Fortune Cycles Involving Shared Guas

277

Figure 20.7 The Tian Tan Buddha Statue

278

Figure 20.8 The Ling Shan Buddha Statue

279

Figure 20.9

Top—Satellite Image of Ling Shan Buddha at Wuxi Facing Southeast; Bottom—Satellite Image of Tian Tan Buddha at Hong Kong Facing Northeast

280



Figure 20.10 Seventh Fortune Cycle Flying Stars Chart of Ling Shan Buddha Statue, the same whether for Si or Xun Facing

280



Figure 20.11 Flying Stars Charts of Seventh and Eighth Fortune Cycles by Using Shared Guas

282



Figure 20.12 Flying Stars Charts of Seventh Fortune Cycle of Tian Tan Buddha Statue

282

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List of Classical Feng Shui Terms

Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Anhui

安徽

An Hui

A province in south-eastern China

Ba Gua

八卦

Pa Kua

Eight Trigrams (see p. l)

Ba Zhai

八宅

Pa Chai

Eight Mansions/Eight Houses (see p. l)

Ba Zhai Zao Fu Zhou Shu

八宅造褔周書

Pa Chai Tsao Fu Chou Shu

The Complete Guide to Creating Good Luck from All Directions in the House, author and date unknown

Banpo

半坡

Pan p’o

An archaeology site near Xian

Chun Gua (Xia Gua)

純卦（下卦）

Ch’un Kua (Hsia Kua)

Pure Gua. An orientation within the central 7 degrees span of a mountain of 15 degrees out of 24 mountains

Ch’un Ch’iu (Lü Shih Ch’un Ch’iu)

The Spring and Autumn Annals, written by Master Lü [Zhou (ca. 900–500 BC)]

Chun Qiu (Lüshi Chunqiu)

春秋 （呂氏春秋）

Dao

道

Tao

The “Way”

Dao De Jing

道德經

Tao Te Ching

Classic of the Way and Power (The Book of Way and Virtue), written by Lao Zi [Zhou (ca. 600–500 BC)]

Di Li

地理

Ti Li

Geography

Di Li Wu Jue

地理五訣

Ti Li Wu Chüeh

The Five Feng Shui Geographical Secrets, written by Zhao Jou Feng [Qing (1786)]

Di Zhi

地支

Ti Chih

Earthly Branches (see p. li)

Fei Xing

飛星

Fei Hsing

Flying Stars

Fen Jin

分金

Fen Chin

Divisions of metal (Golden Divisions)

Feng Shui

風水

Feng Shui

“Wind” and “Water”

Fu Xi

伏羲

Fu Hsi

The father of mankind, designer of the Early Heaven sequence of the Trigrams

Fujian

褔建

Fu Chien

A province in south-eastern China

Gong Zhai Di Xing

宮宅地形

Kung Chai Ti Hsing

Topography for palaces and houses or terrestrial conformations of palaces and houses, author unknown [Han (207 BC–AD 220)]

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Gou Gu

勾股

Kou Ku

Right-angled Triangle Theorem

Gua

卦

Kua

Trigram

Guo Pu

郭璞

Kuo P’u

Author of The Book of Burial

Han Dynasty

漢朝

Han

206 BC–AD 221

Han Long Jing

撼龍經

Han Lung Ching

Classic of Moving Dragons, written by Yang Yun Song [Tang (618–907)]

He Tu

河圖

Ho T’u

The River He Diagram

Huang Di

黃帝

Huang Ti

The Yellow Emperor

Huang He

黃河

Huang Ho

Yellow River

Huang Tu

黃土

Huang T’u

Loess Plateau in the middle of Yellow River

Jian Gua (Ti Gua)

兼卦（替卦）

Chien Kua (T’i Kua)

Shared Gua. An orientation outside the central 7 degrees of a mountain of 15 degrees, thus sharing the Qi with the neighboring mountain

Jiangxi

江西

Chiang Hsi

A province in south-eastern China

Jin Dynasty

晉朝

Chin

265–420

Jin Shui, Shan Yang

近水向陽

Chin Shui Shan Yang

Facing the sun and near the water

Kan Yu

堪輿

K’an Yü

Observe the heaven and investigate the earth

Kan Yu Jia

堪輿家

K’an Yü Chia

Master of Kan Yu

Kan Yu Jin Kui

堪輿金匱

K’an Yü Chin K’uei

The Golden Treasury of Kan Yu or Golden Box of Geomancy, author unknown [Han (207 BC–AD 220)]

Lao Zi

老子

Lao Tzu

Founder of Daoism

Li Fa

理法

Li Fa

Compass School

Li Ji

禮記

Li Chi

Book of Rites, author unknown [Zhou (ca. 900–500 BC)]

Long

龍

Lung

Dragon

Lu Ban Jing

魯班經

Lu Pan Ching

The Manual of Master Luban, author and date unknown

Luan Tou

巒頭

Luan T’ou

“Mountain Head,” another name of Form School

Luo Shu

洛書

Lo Shu

The Diagram of the Luo River

Luopan

羅盤

Lo P’an

Feng Shui Compass

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List of Classical Feng Shui Terms

Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Ming Dynasty

明朝

Ming

1368–1644

Ming Gua

命卦

Ming Kua

Fate Number (Life Number)

Ming Tang

明堂

Ming T’ang

Bright court

Pu Zhai

卜宅

P’u Chai

House divination

Qi

氣

Ch’i

Natural breath or energy

Qi Men Dun Jia

奇門遁甲

Ch’i Men Tun Chia

An Ancient Form of Divination in China

Qian Han Shu

前漢書

Ch’ian Han Shu

The History of the Former Han Dynasty, written by Ban Gu [ca. AD 65–100]

Qin Dynasty

秦朝

Ch’in

221 BC–206 BC

Qing Dynasty

清朝

Ch’ing

1644–1911

Qing Nang

青囊

Ch’ing Nang

Former alternative name of Feng Shui

Qing Nang Ao Zhi

青囊奧旨

Ch’ing Nang Ao Chih

Mysterious Principles of the Blue Bag, written by Yang Yun Song [Tang (618–907)]

Qing Wu

青烏

Ch’ing Wu

Former alternative name of Feng Shui

San He

三合

San Ho

Three Harmonies

San Qing

三清

San Ch’ing

Three Pure Ones (Three Pure Pellucid Ones)

San Shi Liu Long Jing

三十六龍經

San Shih Liu Lung Ching

The Book of Thirty-six Dragons, written by Yang Yun Song [Tang (618–907)]

San Yuan

三元

San Yüen

Three sexagenary cycles (3 x 60-years’ great fortune cycles)

San Yuan Di Li

三元地理

San Yüen Ti Li

The Three Types of Geography, author and date unknown

Sha

砂

Sha

Sand

Sha Qi

殺氣

Sha Ch’i

Deadly energy

Shan

山

Shan

Mountain (Directional Mountain)

Shang Dynasty

商朝

Shang

ca. 16th–11th Century BC

Sheng Qi

生氣

Sheng Chi

Living energy

Shi

勢

Shih

Extent

Shi

式

Shih

Origin of Luopan

Shi Er Zhang Fa

十二杖法

Shih Erh Chang Fa

Method of the Twelve Lines, written by Yang Yun Song [Tang (618–907)] xlvii

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Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Shi Ji

史記

Shih Chi

Historical Records, written by Sima Tan and Sima Qian [ca. 145–90 BC]

Shi Jing

詩經

Shih Ching

The Book of Odes, author unknown [Zhou (ca. 900– 500 BC)]

Shu Jing

書經

Shu Ching

The Book of Documents, author unknown [Zhou (ca. 900–500 BC)]

Shu Shu

術數

Shu Shu

Numerology from Ancient China

Shui

水

Shui

Water

Shui Long Jing

水龍經

Shui Lung Ching

Water Dragon Classic, author and date unknown

Si Nan

司南

Szu Nan

Early format of Luopan

Si Nan Che

司南車

Szu Nan Ch’e

Ancient vehicle fitted with compass

Song Dynasty

宋朝

Sung

960–1127

Sui Dynasty

隋朝

Sui

589–618

Tai Ji

太極

T’ai Chi

“Great Absolute” or “Great Ultimate”

Tang Dynasty

唐朝

T’ang

618–907

Tian Gan

天干

T’ien Kan

Heavenly Stems (see p. li)

Tu Gui Fa

土圭法

T’u Kuei Fa

Method to determine the cardinal orientations based on the observation of the sun’s movement

Tu Hui Fa

土會法

T’u Hui Fa

Method to identify five types of land which are derived from five elements

Tu Yi Fa

土宜法

T’u Yi Fa

Method to identify twelve terrestrial districts which are counterparts of twelve celestial constellations

Wang Ji

王伋

Wang Chi

The pioneer of the Compass School

Wen Wang

文王

Wen Wang

First Emperor of Zhou Dynasty, designer of the Later Heaven sequence of the Trigrams

Wu Ji

無極

Wu Chi

“Infinite” or “boundless”

Wu Xing

五行

Wu Hsing

Five Elements

Xia Dynasty

夏朝

Hsia

ca. 21th–17th Century BC

Xiang

向

Hsiang

Direction

Xiang Zhai

相宅

Hsiang Chai

House examination

Xing

形

Hsing

Form

Xing Fa

形法

Hsing Fa

Form School

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List of Classical Feng Shui Terms

Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Xiu

宿

Hsiu

Mansion (Constellations)

Xuan Kong

玄空

Hsüan Kung

A School of Flying Stars

Xuan Kong Da Gua

玄空大卦

Hsüan K’ung Ta Kua

Space Time Great Hexagram method based on 64 sectors and 384 directions

Xue

穴

Hsüeh

Cave

Yang

陽

Yang

Positive or male

Yang Shao

仰韶

Yang Shao

Prehistoric period in China (ca. 5000–3000 BC)

Yang Yun Song

楊筠松

Yang Yün Sung

The pioneer of the Form School

Yang Zhai

陽宅

Yang Chai

Dwelling for the living

Yang Zhai Ji Cheng

陽宅集成

Yang Chai Chi Ch’eng

The Collection of Dwellings of Living, author and date unknown

Yang Zhai Liu Shi

陽宅六事

Yang Chai Liu Shih

The Six Things of Dwellings of Living, author and date unknown

Yang Zhai San Yao

陽宅三要

Yang Chai San Yao

The Three Elements of Dwellings of Living, author and date unknown

Yang Zhai Shi Shu

陽宅十書

Yang Chai Shih Shu

Ten Books on Dwellings of Living, author unknown [Qing (1644–1912)]

Yangzi River

長江

Yang Tzu River

Longest river in China

Yi Jing

易經

I Ching

The Book of Changes, author unknown [Zhou (ca. 900–500 BC)].

Yi Long Jing

疑龍經

Yi Lung Ching

The Canon for the Approximation of Dragons, written by Yang Yun Song [Tang (618–907)]

Yin

陰

Yin

Negative or female

Yin Yang

陰陽

Yin Yang

Theory of the positive and negative

Yin Zhai

陰宅

Yin Chai

Dwelling for the death

Yuan Dynasty

元朝

Yüan

1280–1368

Yue Ling

月令

Yüeh Ling

Monthly Commands, author and date unknown

Zang Shu

葬書

Tsang Shu

The Book of Burial, written by Gou Pu [Jin (276– 420)]

Zhai Jing

宅經

Chai Ching

The Canon of Dwellings, written by Huang Di (The Yellow Emperor), date unknown

Zhejiang

浙江

Che Chiang

A province in south-eastern China

Zhou Dynasty

周朝

Chou

11th Century BC–770 BC xlix

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Ba Gua (八卦 Eight Trigrams)





Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Dui

兌

Tui

Lake (swamp) or youngest daughter

Gen

艮

Ken

Mountain or youngest son

Kan

坎

K’an

Water or middle son

Kun

坤

K’un

Earth or Mother

Li

离

Li

Fire or middle daughter

Qian

乾

Ch’ien

Heaven or Father

Xun

巽

Hsün

Wind or eldest daughter

Zhen

震

Chen

Thunder or eldest son



Ba Zhai (八宅 Eight Mansions/Houses) Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Fu Wei

伏位

Fu Wei

Facing the Throne

Huo Hai

禍害

Huo Hai

Accident and Mishap

Jue Ming

絕命

Chüeh Ming

Severed Fate (Disaster)

Liu Sha

六煞

Liu Sha

Six Curses (Six Killings)

Sheng Qi

生氣

Sheng Chi

Generating Breath

Tian Yi

天醫

T’ien Yi

Celestial Doctor

Wu Gui

五鬼

Wu Kuei

Five Ghosts

Yan Nian

延年

Yen Nien

Lengthened Years

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List of Classical Feng Shui Terms

Tian Gan (天干 Heavenly Stems) Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Jia

甲

Chia

1

Yi

乙

I

2

Bing

丙

Ping

3

Ding

丁

Ting

4

Wu

戊

Wu

5

Ji

己

Chi

6

Geng

庚

Keng

7

Xin

辛

Hsin

8

Ren

壬

Jen

9

Gui

癸

Kuei

10



Di Zhi (地支 Earthly Branch)



Pinyin

Chinese

Wade-Giles

English Explanation

Zi

子

Tzu

I

Chou

丑

Ch’ou

II

Yin

寅

Yin

III

Mao

卯

Mao

IV

Chen

辰

Ch’en

V

Si

巳

Szu

VI

Wu

午

Wu

VII

Wei

未

Wei

VIII

Shen

申

Shen

IX

You

酉

Yu

X

Xu

戌

Hsü

XI

Hai

亥

Hai

XII



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1

INTRODUCTION

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Popular Feng Shui

Scientific Feng Shui

Feng Shui, the ancient Chinese principles and practices which for thousands of years have been the cornerstone of the Chinese built environment, has actually become one of the most popular subjects in the modern world. There are more than ten thousand websites related to this discipline, and many Feng Shui topics have been covered in books, magazines and different media. For instance, Sarah Rossbach (1987) published her book Interior Design with Feng Shui in 1987 which brought Feng Shui immediately into interior design circles, and its popularity has grown ever since in America. In 1996, Lillian Too’s Complete Illustrated Guide to Feng Shui was the first international best seller on the subject of Feng Shui. Other than popularizing Eight Mansions Feng Shui, she has also incorporated a lot of Chinese beliefs in her book, which were not strictly originated from Feng Shui (Skinner, 2005). The magazine Feng Shui for Modern Living edited by Skinner, first published in 1998, tried to bridge the gap between popular and serious Chinese Feng Shui by including a mixture of “soft interior decorating Feng Shui” together with traditional technical articles.

Feng Shui is a body of ancient Chinese wisdom encompassing knowledge and experience related to the built environment that has been accumulated for more than three thousand years. It is founded on the earliest and greatest Chinese philosophical document, Yi Jing (The Book of Changes) that was compiled ca. 800 BC. According to Professor Stephan Feuchtwang’s early publication “An anthropological analysis of Chinese geomancy” (1974), the primitive knowledge of Feng Shui was based on the observation from three sources: astronomical phenomena, natural phenomena and human behavior.

Although Feng Shui is built on ancient Chinese philosophy, it has always been treated as a branch of metaphysics, being viewed by most people as something superstitious. This is because there are so many different schools and techniques in the principles and practices of Feng Shui. In the past, different Feng Shui Masters were specialized in one or more techniques while they normally ignored those not in their own school or not taught by their teachers. Nowadays, Feng Shui Masters usually practise different schools and techniques, but they normally apply one single technique on one specific situation instead of cross-comparing the effectiveness of different techniques on the same case. It is then difficult to judge or verify which technique is correct and which is wrong. Very often, masters are tended to criticize other masters for using techniques which they consider to be not applicable or even fake.

In Professor Sang Hae Lee’s PhD thesis “Feng Shui: Its context and meaning” (1986), he recognized that the principles and practices of Feng Shui aimed at creating a harmonized built environment for people to live in, and it represents a traditional Chinese architectural theory for selecting favorable sites as well as a theory for designing cities and buildings. Since the late 1960s the impact of Western civilization and technology has grown to global proportions. More Western scholars became aware of the limitations of the modern scientific paradigms which failed to explain the whole realm of natural phenomena, and began to recognize that there were similarities between modern science and Eastern philosophy (Capra, 1975). They have sought deeper understandings of the relationships between people and their surrounding environment. Lee (1986) recognized that traditional interpretations based on the formal, spatial and technical data of architecture cannot adequately explain the context and meaning of Feng Shui architecture. He suggested that interpreting Feng Shui would enable the development of architecture theories from this Chinese architectural discipline. Hwangbo (1999) suggested that the aim of Feng Shui is to provide a harmonious and auspicious existence in the built environment. He explained

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1. Introduction

that the practice of Feng Shui is an intuitive matter involving site selection and spatial organization, and it has strong parallels with the Western concept of geometry in architecture. Since 1970s, research on Feng Shui has been initiated (Wheatley, 1971; Yeh, 1978; Knapp, 1986; Lee, 1986) and momentum has increased starting from 1990s (Xu, 1990; Han, 1995; Tam et al., 1999). The term “Scientific Feng Shui” was first introduced in the International Symposium on Scientific Feng Shui and Built Environment in 2005 by the authors. Scientific research in Feng Shui can be classified into two different directions: (a) the verification of Feng Shui principles scientifically and (b) the study of Feng Shui logically in a scientific way (Mak and So, 2009). Hwangbo (2002, p. 126) also suggested that “Feng Shui would be invaluable in the way it nourishes and enriches the later modernity, critically assesses modern science, shapes the image of the universe and our place, and contributes to modern architecture.” Recently, a number of investigation have been conducted into the scientific applications of Feng Shui knowledge for the built environment. Mak and Ng (2008) established a Feng Shui framework for the complexity in design, and Mak (2009) applied Feng Shui knowledge to preliminary building design evaluation using a knowledge-based expert systems approach. Chen and Wu (2009) established a conceptual framework for a sustainable Chinese landscape architecture based on a key Feng Shui philosophy of “Unity of Man with Nature.” Chang et al. (2009), using a fuzzy algorithm, provided an empirical study to evaluate an office-layout design incorporating consideration of Feng Shui criteria. Juan, Chien and Li (2010) created a customer focused system for dwelling customization design using case-based reasoning which incorporated Feng Shui theory. Wu, Yau and Lu (2012) provided empirical studies using an analytic hierarchy process to verify consumers’ decision-making processes in residential housing selection based on Feng Shui principles and practices. Low, Deng and Quek (2012) found that there are common

denominators between Chinese Feng Shui principles and Total Building Performance mandates in terms of the psychological, physiological, sociological and economic aspects. These diverse examples provided clear evidence of the usefulness and applicability of Feng Shui principles in building design and built environments. The aims of this book are to explore theories of Feng Shui scientifically and study its applications to the built environment.

Structure of This Book Feng Shui represented the most significant set of architectural theory and practice in Chinese history. Feng Shui knowledge reflected the traditional Chinese attitudes towards the natural and built environments. There was, however, a lack of scientific research in this area, and most of the investigations in Feng Shui were predominately focused on its influence on the historical development of Chinese Architecture. As Feng Shui knowledge represents a holistic view in creating a harmonized built environment, research into the applications of Feng Shui to the built environment needs to be addressed in a scientific manner. This book therefore aims to examine the scientific aspects of Feng Shui knowledge in relation to different disciplines of building and construction. Firstly, the relationships between science and Feng Shui will be explored. Secondly, the theories of the Form and Compass Schools are explained, and finally the applications of these two schools of thought to the built envrironment will be discussed with illustrated case studies. This book is organized into three main parts: (A) scientific Feng Shui, (B) Form School Approach, and (C) Compass School Approach. There are 21 chapters in total and one appendix. The outline structure of this book is briefly explained hereunder.

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

Part A — Scientific Feng Shui What are the similarities between the philosophical background of East and West? Since the emergence of the new scientific paradigm and the beginning of westerners accepting the view of Eastern philosophy, scientists have found that all known theories of natural science could never fully explain the whole realm of natural phenomena, and have begun to recognize the interdependency and holistic nature of the world. Since the 1970s, Western scientists’ perceptions have shifted to accept the development of a new complexity paradigm, and acknowledge that there are similarities between modern science and Eastern philosophy. Westerners sought a deeper understanding of the relationships between the human and natural environments. As a consequence, westerners have also changed their attitude towards this ancient Chinese’s view of nature and the environment, and have realized that the principles and practices of Feng Shui could contribute to the effectiveness of the built environment. The interaction between science and Feng Shui will be discussed in Chapter 2. Scientific methods are the objective ways and systems of gaining, organizing, analyzing, summarizing and keeping data or information in the form of knowledge that can be passed down through history. There are stringent requirements for such methods and for different schools to practise them. What do we need to understand science, more precisely empirical science in order to study Feng Shui? Without any approach in terms of scientific methods, the study would easily fall prey to superstition. The basic philosophy of science, the definition of scientific theories, different types of scientific methods as well as the main concerns of science are highlighted in Chapter 3. When studying Feng Shui, one should always bear in mind the essence of science, and ever keep an open mind to analyze any rules or theories pertaining in different schools of Feng Shui. The relationships between scientific methods and Feng Shui will also be addressed in Chapter 3. Since the development of a new paradigm in complexity science, Western scientists recognized

that Feng Shui knowledge provides a holistic approach to the built environment. Their interests in Feng Shui lie mainly in its historical development and its employment in traditional Chinese architecture, and researches in Feng Shui are mainly focused on three major areas: anthropological, ecological and architectural approaches. In fact, there are many difficulties ahead when studying Feng Shui. Three general issues, namely terminology, translation and transliteration, will be discussed in Chapter 4. The development of social and cultural tradition in Chinese history has had a close relation with the origin concepts of Feng Shui since the Zhou Dynasty (1110 BC–770 BC). Basic Feng Shui principles, including theories of Qi, Yin and Yang, and the five elements, were firmly established in China more than three thousand years ago. During the formation stage of Feng Shui knowledge in the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 221), four major scientific developments had great impact on the development of Feng Shui principles. In the Tang Dynasty (618–907), the most important stage was the separation of two schools of thought—Form and Compass School. Since the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the nature, characteristics and eventually amalgamation of these two schools have had a great impact on the current status of Feng Shui practice. Chapter 5 will outline the historical development of Feng Shui.

Part B — Form School Approach Eastern and Western cultures have fundamental differences that may reflect in their language structure. Eastern culture is characterized by its simplicity, while the Western culture is marked by its complexity. Architecture first evolved from society’s basic needs for shelter, security, and worship. Nowadays, architectural monuments are perceived as cultural symbols, and historical architectures provide crucial links in understanding Eastern and Western cultures. The Western concept of architecture tends towards the “top of heaven” approach. In contrast, the Chinese architectural

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1. Introduction

concept tends towards the harmonization of the built and natural environment, and these traditional Chinese approaches to architecture were originated from the Feng Shui knowledge. In Chapter 6, the relationship between Eastern and Western culture and architecture will be discussed. Since ancient times in China, Feng Shui principles and practice have been applied to select the location of sites and to design the built environments. The fundamental principle of the Form School concerned the physical form of the site under consideration and its surrounding environment to detect the subtle flow of Qi. The practice of the Form School first observed the land formation and terrain, based on which the location and orientation of buildings were determined. In Chapter 7, four fundamental concepts of Form School approach are derived, namely, the concept of the Feng Shui model, the concept of parallelism, the concept of design module, and the concept of design criteria. When considering architectural design and the built environment in present day, practitioners tend to adhere to the established principles of Form School techniques, which as expected, are expressed through various forms. Feng Shui scholars and researchers tried to use different analytical models to interpret the Form School principles and practice, such as proposing basic criteria for architectural design, establishing site selection procedures, identifying major criteria for the selection of the best location, creating design rules-of-thumb, providing criteria checklists for property selection, illustrating diagrams for interior design, building site design tool to assess conditions of human comforts, conceptualizing site analysis framework for environmental design principles. These contemporary Form School practices for the built environment are discussed in Chapter 8. The Form School approach is the most important part of Feng Shui knowledge and four fundamental concepts are discussed in Chapter 9. The Feng Shui model was constructed primarily from the physical configurations of the five geographical secrets and the four emblems, and the concept of parallelism established that the Feng

Shui model applies to both the outer form and inner form of dwellings. The four design modules help categorizing the design of dwellings into four modules: the surrounding environment, the external layout, the internal layout and the interior arrangement. Finally, 24 key Feng Shui criteria for design evaluation have been identified based on the recommendations of contemporary Feng Shui scholars. The hierarchical structure of Feng Shui knowledge is established to provide a detailed understanding of the Form School approach and to create a structured framework for architectural design and the built environment. In Chapter 10, Feng Shui villages in Hong Kong will be examined according to the applications of the Form School Feng Shui. Two case studies in the Northern part of New Territories, the Tai Fu Tai Mansion in San Tin, and the Tang Chung Ling Ancestral Hall in Lung Yeuk Tau, are examined in detail using the Feng Shui model. Both case studies demonstrated how the Form School principles and practice are applied in village layouts and designs. From the site analysis, it is suggested that the Feng Shui model of the five geographical secrets and four emblems theory are applicable in both case studies but not always facing the south. This indicated that the physical configurations of the surrounding environment are considered more important than the factor of Facing direction in isolation. The interaction between humans and the environment is an everyday process. In Western contemporary architecture, these interactions with the natural and man-made environment are called Sustainable or Green Design. In the East, the ancient Chinese knowledge of Feng Shui aims at creating a harmony between environment, buildings and people. Chapter 11 analyzes and compares the concepts of sustainable design and Feng Shui. A case study of a well recognized sustainable design office building, Workplace6 in Sydney is used to illustrate the similarities and differences between concepts of sustainable design and Feng Shui in terms of environmental design. More recent examples also demonstrated that modern sustainable buildings follow a similar pattern. 5

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

In the traditional Western approach to the built environment analysis, the prime considerations for dwellings are climatic factors and human comfort. Contemporarily, greater emphasis is placed on ecologically sustainable development. The concepts of Feng Shui has been gradually adopted and accepted in the Western world. It has been found that, in many perspectives, there are similarities between the concept of traditional Chinese Feng Shui, where harmony between the environment, buildings and people are created, and the contemporary Western style of bioclimatic and sustainable design models. Chapter 12 reviews the Feng Shui elements considered by Chinese families and explores the main features considered by the Western families when purchasing a residential apartment. Through three case studies in Sydney, the integrated applications of Western contemporary bioclimatic, sustainable design and Chinese Feng Shui models for the built environment are illustrated.

Part C— Compass School Approach The Compass School focuses on the study on directions and time. Several ancient texts, including the He Tu, Luo Shu, Yi Jing as well as other Daoist scriptures, together shed useful light on the formation and development of the Compass School. Coincidentally, the veneration of numbers was not a unique characteristic of ancient Chinese philosophy and metaphysics; similar practices and beliefs were held in the West during the same historical period, called the philosophy and mathematics of Pythagoras. The Pythagoreans reduced all higher numbers to the original ten numerals by successively adding the digits together until a single digit was reached. It is a surprising coincidence between the two cultural schools of thought at almost the same period of time at around 500 BC. Recently, “Vortex based Mathematics” also claims that all higher mathematics can be reduced to discrete-number mathematics. In Chapter 13, similarities of the numerology and the Compass School will be discussed.

The Luo Shu is the foundation of several major schools of Compass Feng Shui, in particular, the Flying Stars method and Qi Men Dun Jia. It is a predominant calculation employed by Feng Shui masters in a wide variety of applications. Some newly discovered secrets of the Luo Shu are revealed from a modern linear algebraic point of view. In Chapter 14, the Luo Shu is treated not just as a magic square anymore but a matrix in algebra, where observations of similarity between different Charts in terms of determinants, eigenvalues and eigenvectors are found. The roots of such similarities may be found in the ancient literature of the Compass School. The major concept of influence to the daily life of mankind claimed by Feng Shui theories is Qi which originated from the “Way” of Daoism. Qi is believed to be part of every living thing that exists, as a kind of “life force” or “spiritual energy.” The study of Feng Shui is to bring harmony between the built environment and the natural environment so as to manipulate Qi appropriately for the betterment of the mankind. The existence of Qi is disputed by most scientists, but what if Qi really exists? Could it be somehow revealed in some way by modern physics, cosmology or astronomical observation? Chapter 15 investigates recent developments in relevant areas of modern physics, to see whether it is possible to relate Qi to some phenomena despite the fact that there is still not enough evidence to prove its existence. The fundamental theories or basic principles underlying the Compass School are explained in Chapter 16. In ancient China, the Compass School was termed the art of mathematics. In essence, the trigrams can be viewed as an octal system of binary numbers while Yin and Yang are the basic units of one bit, either zero or one. Then, the five elements, heavenly stems and earthly branches were developed, which integrated with the trigrams to form the most important symbols manipulated in the Compass School. The Feng Shui compass, Luopan is the most important instrument in the Compass School, and its key components and basic applications are discussed.

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1. Introduction

Eight Mansions Feng Shui, is one of the simpler and more popular methods learnt by laymen to determine the good and bad locations of a dwelling, to analyze whether the occupant, or mainly the homeowner, is compatible with the house and ultimately discover the favorable and unfavorable personal directions that promote productivity at work, foster good relationships, ensure good health and assure academic success. However, when one wants to delve deeper into this method, it is not so simple. In Chapter 17, the method of Eight Mansions is explained step by step, and deeper considerations of this method are discussed. A more precise and popular method of the Compass School, dealing with both space and time of a house or property is called the method of Flying Stars. Some people confused it with astrology, while others think of it as numerology, but it is actually neither of these. According to classic Feng Shui textbooks, the method of Flying Stars was based on mathematics and logic, utilizing specific formulae to unlock the secrets of the patterns of Qi. In Chapter 18, the method of Flying Stars is illustrated step by step, and followed by the discussions of deeper considerations of this method, including magnetic declination and Shared Guas. The theories of Compass School are focused on directions and time. In Chapter 19, case studies are used to illustrate the applications of the Compass School. These include three buildings in old shanghai, the Elements shopping mall in West Kowloon Hong Kong, and the planning of the capital city in Canberra Australia. Furthermore, issues on dealing with the differences between northern and southern hemispheres using “Mirror Postulate” method are discussed. o

The Luopan’s full circle of 360 is divided into 24 “shan” (meaning “mountains”) and thus each o Mountain occupies a sector of 15 . Each of the 24 Mountains bears the name of a particular “Gua.” According to the Flying Stars method, the Facing and Sitting directions are indicated by two Guas or o Mountains, 180 apart. It is believed that the “Qi” of a particular Gua only applies within the central o o 7 of that Gua, spanning -3.5 anticlockwise and

o

+3.5 clockwise of the center-line. If the Facing or Sitting direction falls within this narrow subsector of a Mountain, it is called Regular Gua or o Pure Gua. The two “shoulders” sub-sectors, 4.0 on each side, though belonging to the same Gua, apparently share the “Qi” with the two neighboring Mountains, and that’s called Shared Guas. When Shared Guas are involved, the results from the Flying Stars calculation are complicated. An example is provided in Chapter 20 to demonstrate how it applies to certain situation. Case studies of the Cheung Kong Center office building in Central Hong Kong and the Tian Tan Buddha in Ngong Ping Lantau Island of Hong Kong are used to illustrate the applications of Shared Guas. In Chapter 21, an overview is provided on science, scientific methods and research in relation to Feng Shui. Theories and applications of the Form and Compass Schools to a number of case studies are summarized. The appropriate attitude towards Feng Shui and possible scientific research methods in studying Feng Shui are also proposed. And finally, what is the future of scientific Feng Shui? This is the question which the authors hope to address in the conclusion. Feng Shui, the ancient Chinese wisdom, nowadays is well-received around the world. However, there is much misunderstanding and confusion regarding Feng Shui. The aim of this book is to explore the nature of a scientific approach to the study of Feng Shui. The concept of scientific study of Feng Shui has been initialized since 1997 at a Feng Shui workshop in the annual conference of the Australia and New Zealand Architectural Science Association in Brisbane. It was evolved to a series of international symposia and conferences bearing the name “Scientific Feng Shui and the built environment” held at the City University of Hong Kong from 2005 to 2009, followed by a couple of books in scientific Feng Shui for the built environment publishing in 2009 and 2011 by the authors. Subsequently, two international symposium and conferences in Feng Shui and architecture were held at the Humboldt University of Berlin in Germany in 2010 and 2012. More recently, a website an online open-access

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journal, The Academic Journal of Feng Shui was established in 2013 to promote research in scientific Feng Shui globally. A list of research activities and publications for this discipline of scientific Feng Shui for the built environment is outlined in the Appendix of this book.

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PART A SCIENTIFIC FENG SHUI

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SCIENCE AND FENG SHUI

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Philosophy of Science Western philosophy has its roots in the sixth century BC in Greece, with two opposite directions led by Heraclitus on one side and Parmenides on the other. Briefly, Heraclitus believed in a world of perpetual change and eternal becoming, and that all changes in the world arose from the dynamic and cyclic interplay of opposites, with any pair of opposites representing a unity—the concept of “Logos” (Kahn, 1979). Parmenides however, maintained that “being” was manifested in certain invariable substances and the concept of indestructible substance was derived—the concept of “matter.” Since the fifth century BC, Greek philosophers had drawn a clear line between spirit and matter, and these twin concepts became the essential elements of the Western thought of “dualism” (Descartes, 1989). The spiritual world developed into religious thought, while the material one into scientific knowledge. The evolution of Western science is said to be the Renaissance (literally the “rebirth”) of scientific thought. Galileo’s astronomical discoveries revealed the astounding truth that without experiment and observation the accepted knowledge of the world was incomplete. This evolution of Western science was based on empirical knowledge through mathematics and experiments. The approach led to the resulting successful development in science and technology. The philosophy of science also had a tremendous influence on Western thinking. Descartes’ famous sentence “Cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I exist) led to the concept of isolated egos existing inside bodies, mind separated from body, and an individual separated into compartments. Capra (1975, p. 22) suggested, “This inner fragmentation of man mirrors his view of the outside world as a multitude of separate objects and events.”

New Direction of Science Western scientific philosophy is the realm of rational knowledge which measures, quantifies,

classifies and analyzes the smallest separable particles of matter in isolation. This scientific approach originated from the work of Galileo, Descartes, Newton, and Einstein. During the period of scientific revolution, among the many great new theories discovered in physics were Newton’s equation of motion, Einstein’s theory of relativity of mass and energy, and quantum theory of nucleus. However, Russell (1927) warned that while these theories in physics are all mathematical, this is not because so much about it is known, but because so little is known. An example is the extension of the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to the inclusion of gamma rays, cosmic rays and many other hitherto undiscovered frequencies. Furthermore, in the realm of sub-atomic physics, there have been ever-increasing discoveries of both the particles with mass, such as protons, neutrons, and the lightest of all, electrons, and the infinitesimal massless particles such as photons and neutrinos, and a whole galaxy of lesser particles mesons such including muons, pions, kaons, and baryons; all of which have their “antiparticles,” leading to a never-ending list of yet undiscovered particles. Capra (1975) recognized that modern scientists know that their methods of analysis and logical reasoning could never explain the whole realm of natural phenomena, because all theories have limitations and approximations that are valid only under a certain assumption of phenomena. Cooper-Marcus (1987) pointed out that it is now a critical period in human evolution, because this old paradigm dominated by Cartesian logic and Newtonian physics no longer encompasses what society values. He noted that it is not that the science and technology are wrong, but rather that scientific thought has been dominated by a biased paradigm or patterned way of thinking. Over the past 30 years, the more that scientists discovered smaller and smaller particles of matter in the atom and the sub-atomic nucleus, the more they found that the world cannot be decomposed into independently existing units. As a result, the development of scientific thinking, theories and concepts has progressed to identify the emergence

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of a new scientific paradigm (Kuhn, 1970). Prigogine and Stengers (1984) suggested that all systems contain subsystems which are continually “fluctuating,” and consequently the system will either disintegrate into “chaos” or leap to a higher level of “order” or organization; more importantly, order and organization can actually arise “spontaneously” out of disorder and chaos through a process of “self-organization.” Capra (1996) also suggested that the natural phenomena appear as a complicated “web” of relations between various parts of the whole. This new scientific paradigm has been labelled by a number of authors as “dynamic non-linear systems chaos” (Gleick, 1988), “the science of emergence” (Waldrop, 1992), “the new sciences of chaos, self-organization and complexity” (Prigogine & Stengers, 1984; Merry, 1995), “a deep ecological system” (Capra, 1996), and “complexity theory and complexity science” (Cohen & Stewart, 1994; Parker & Stacey, 1995; Mainzer, 1996; Chen, 2000). A brief historical summary of the Western view of the world is shown in Table 2.1.

Chinese Wisdom In ancient China, Zhou Dynasty (ca. 500–221 B C) was b es t k n o wn a s t h e g o l de n a g e of Chinese philosophy which encompassed two complementary aspects: life in society and a higher plane of consciousness. These two aspects of Chinese philosophy are developed into two distinct philosophical schools: Confucianism and Daoism (or Taoism). Confucianism is the philosophy of social organization, of common sense and practical knowledge. Daoism is developed from Yi Jing (The Book of Changes) (ca. 800 BC), in which the theory of Yin-Yang is the foundation of this earliest and greatest Chinese philosophical document. Daoism concerned the observation of nature and the discovery of its “Dao” (or “Tao,” the way of human life, the way of nature, the way of ultimate reality). This referred not only to the ways of the nature of the whole world, but also signified an

Science and Feng Shui

undifferentiated reality from which the universe has evolved (Blakeney & Lin, 1992). The originator of Daoism was Lao Zi (ca. 600–500 BC) who wrote Dao De Jing (The Classic of the Way and Power). He described Dao (the way) as the ultimate and undefinable reality in the original cosmic sense. It was the cosmic process in which all things were involved, and the world was seen as a continuous flow and change. It was believed that flow and change were not only the essential features of nature, but that there were also constant patterns in these changes. The principle characteristic of Dao was the cyclic nature of its ceaseless motion and change. This idea of cyclic change patterns in the motion of Dao was given a definite structure by the introduction of the polar opposites “Yin” (negative) and “Yang” (positive). The dynamic character of Yin and Yang was illustrated by the ancient Chinese symbol called Tai Chi (or Tai Ji), and it became the fundamental concept of Chinese thought (Cheng, 1991).

New Science and Chinese Wisdom The philosophy of science is the realm of rational knowledge. It is a system composed of abstract concepts and symbols that have been developed through the empirical process of reasoning, logic and mathematics; this is called the scientific method because it can be proved by repeatable experiments and observations by anybody. However, the world of reality is one of infinite varieties and complexities, and it is clear that this abstract system of conceptual thinking can never describe reality completely (Capra, 1975). Most scientists admit that their methods of analysis and logical reasoning can never explain the whole realm of natural phenomena. Therefore all scientific models are qualified with assumptions and limitations, using statistical and probability approximations to confine the validity of the model to a certain range of phenomena.

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Table 2.1 A Brief History of the Western View of the World

Western View of the World

Pre-Scientific (pre–1600s)

Scientific (1600s–ca. 1960)

New-Scientific (ca.1960–current)

Cosmology

• Earth is stationary, at the centre of the universe. • The sun and planets orbit around the earth

• The earth orbits around the sun, as do all the rest of the planets in the solar system

• There are many suns and many galaxies in the observable universe

Ontology

• The World is made of four elements: Earth, Air, Fire and Water. • Objects are made of these elements

• The world is made of space and matter in motion • Matter is made of atoms • Everything can be explained in terms of the Laws of Nature

• The world functions as a system (different to the sum of its parts): – Systems theory – Chaos and Complexity – Ecology – Quantum mechanics

Epistemology

• Empiricism • Induction—drawing generalisations from specific examples

• Laws of Nature—from observation and draw a generalized theory • Experimentation— hypothetical–deductive method

• Methodology still under construction—based on elements: – Experience – Intuition – Reflective thought

Universe

• Organic—nature is alive • Anthropomorphic— viewing nature as human beings “Organic Universe”

• Knowledge of nature—to control natural and social worlds • Materialistic—matter • Reductionistic— understanding by finding the smallest components “Laws of Universe”

• Everything is interconnected—systems too complex • Complexity systems—to understand the nature “Holistic Universe”

Leaders and Theories

• Plato (Greece; 428 BC– 348 BC)—Philosophy • Aristotle (Greece; 384 BC– 322 BC)—study of logic, physics, metaphysics

• Galilei, Galileo (1564– 1642)—astronomy & physics • Descartes, René (1596–1650)—Scientific revolution, rationalism • Newton, Isaac (1643– 1727)—Laws of gravity and momentum • Einstein (1879–1955)— Quantum theory, law of relativity, mass/energy

• Capra, Fritjof (1975)— Complexity theory • Heisenberg, Weiner (1901–1976)—Quantum mechanics • Bateson, Gregory (1904– 1980)—Ecology of mind

Source: Choy and Mak (2007)

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Science and Feng Shui

Table 2.2 Differences between Western and Eastern Approaches to Knowledge Western Approach

Eastern Approach

Nature of Knowledge

• Linear—quantifies • Rational—Scientific knowledge

• Organic—intuitive • Absolute knowledge

Limitation of Language

• Experiment—model • Theory—prediction • Express in language

• Intuitive—language • Symbols—myth

Empirical Attitude

• Scientific experiment • Repeatable—anytime–anybody

• Mystical experience • A few individuals—at special occasion

Limitations

• Models—approximation & limitations

• Verbal—inaccurate & incomplete

Chinese philosophy on the other hand is based on direct insights into the nature of reality, rather than through rational knowledge (Capra, 1975). Siu (1957, p. 74) further commented, “Rational knowledge is rational only because it is obtainable through reason. The others obtainable through means other than reason are not irrational, they are ‘extra-rational’.” Capra (1975) agreed that this process is also empirical through numerous observations and experiences of reality by a few individuals on special occasions. Chinese philosophers insisted that the ultimate reality could never be an object of reasoning and never be adequately described by words, because it is beyond the realms of senses and the intellect of the human world. They were well aware of the limitations of language that all verbal descriptions of reality are inaccurate and incomplete. Instead, they expressed their thoughts in a language that could be short and inarticulate, but rich in symbols and suggestive images of myth. For instance, the famous text from Dao De Jing has been translated as “The Dao (way) that can be told is not the eternal Dao; the name that can be named is not the eternal name” (Feng & English, 1972). The differences between Western and Eastern approaches to knowledge are shown in Table 2.2. Capra (1975), in his book The Tao of Physics, proposed that there is a very important parallel between the concept of modern physics and the

Eastern view of philosophy. He pointed out that after the development of relativity theory and quantum theory, modern scientists are aware of the nature of the unity and mutual interrelation of all phenomena; and they came to recognize that all things are seen as interdependent and inseparable parts of the cosmic whole. He further recognized that the whole realm of natural phenomena is a dynamic interconnections and continuous changes in cyclic patterns with space and time, and believed that these theories in modern physics follow the philosophy of Heraclitus in ancient Greece. The Heraclitus’ concept of Logos emphasized that “everything flows” and that all changes are in cyclic patterns, which in turn lead to the discovery that all opposites are polar and thus united. Capra (1975) was surprised that this great similarity between the concept of Dao and Heraclitus’ concept of Logos arose at about the same time during the sixth century BC, and concluded that modern science’s view of the world share close similarities with some ancient Eastern philosophical views (See Table 2.3). C o o p e r- M a r c u s ( 1 9 8 7 , p . 1 0 ) f u r t h e r pointed out that as a number of holistic and interdisciplinary scholars have been pushing for a new paradigm of science, there are requirements “to balance masculine and feminine values, rational knowing with intuitive wisdom, action

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Table 2.3 Parallels between Western and Eastern Philosophy New Science

Heraclitus

Eastern Philosophy

• Interdependent

• Everything flows

• World of continuous flow

• Inseparable

• All changes in cyclic patterns

• Cyclic nature and pattern of changes

• Interrelation

• Polar opposite and united

• Polar opposite and Tai Chi

• Continuous change in pattern • Nature and unity

with contemplation, competition with cooperation.” She believed that “the mysteries of Chinese wisdom might be close to truth beyond the ken of academic disciplines and current scientific logic.”

Feng Shui Knowledge Feng Shui is a realm of knowledge and practice that has been developing throughout the existence of Chinese history and civilization, and has evolved from Chinese philosophy. It is founded from the earliest and greatest philosophy document Yi Jing (The Book of Changes) that developed in ca. 800 BC. By the end of the Zhou Dynasty, when Daoism was established, the Yin-Yang theory and Qi theory had a distinct significance in the philosophy of Feng Shui. At an early stage, Feng Shui was used to determine the locations of houses or graves. The primitive knowledge of Feng Shui was based on observations from three sources: astronomical phenomena, natural phenomena and human behavior (Feuchtwang, 1974); it is an ancient Chinese wisdom which related to architecture and built environment. The philosophy of Feng Shui is to achieve harmonization amongst heaven, earth and human beings by providing equilibrium amongst nature, buildings and people (Lee, 1986).

The most significant development of Feng Shui since the late Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties has been the evolution of two distinct schools of practice: Compass and Form School. The Compass School is based primarily on the use of the Luopan (Feng Shui compass), and is composed of elements of time in space. The Compass School emphasizes metaphysical speculations of cosmology that originated from Yi Jing (The Book of Changes). In particular, this school analyzes the directional aspects of a given site in terms of the relationships amongst the Five Elements, Eight Trigrams, Heavenly Stems, Earthly Branches and Constellations (Lee, 1986). Direct reference to various astrological and other symbols is of utmost importance in the Compass School and its practice is highly formulaic (Skinner, 1982). The Form school is concerned with the physical form of the site and its surrounding environment in order to detect the subtle flow of Qi. Form School practice first observed the land formation and terrain, and then determined the location and orientation of buildings. The Form School placed less emphasis on compass and cosmic symbology; instead, it concentrated on the analysis of sites, seeing the shapes and imagery discerned in the landforms as the primary importance (Mills, 1992). Its analysis was based on the Five Secret Geographical factors, namely dragon, sand, water, cave and direction (Lip, 1979). The development of the Form School has been widely accepted by the

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upper class of ancient Chinese society and attracted scholars and intellectuals to join its practice. The principles of the Form School have been applied to the design and construction of castles, palaces and towns in China since ancient times (He & Luo, 1995). Lee (1986, p. 367) concluded that the principles and practices of the Form School approach represent “a compendium of Chinese architectural theory.” After the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), these two schools of thought were not exclusively attached to their own methods for the practice of Feng Shui, but rather combined and integrated ideas with each other (Lee, 1986). However, the Form School approach remained the primary consideration in Feng Shui practice (Xu, 1990; Too, 1996).

Western Acceptance of Feng Shui Knowledge In the nineteenth century, the concept of Feng Shui was first introduced to the West by some missionaries to China, with Rev. Yates (1868) being the first to write an English article on the subject. In 1873, the Rev. E. J. Eitel published the first Western book about Feng Shui and was followed by J. J. M. de Groot (1897). All these Western writers described Feng Shui as a system which is half science and half superstition. Eitel (1984, p. 2) described Feng Shui as “a thing like wind, which you cannot comprehend, and like water, which you cannot grasp,” and Feng Shui was considered mysterious because it is abstract, invisible, untouchable and intangible. Western world’s first real interest in Feng Shui began to develop in the late 1950s and early 1960s as evidenced by Needham’s study of traditional Chinese science (Needham, 1956, 1959). Being a Western-trained scientist himself, he recognized that Feng Shui explained the Chinese system of natural science and hence defined Feng Shui as “Pseudo-

Science and Feng Shui

Science” (Needham, 1959, vol. 2, Section 14). Freedman (1968, p. 5) began to make connections between Feng Shui and the physical environment and described Feng Shui as “mystical ecology” concerned with “the ritual aspect of the interaction between men and their physical environment.” Under the influence of deeper understandings of the relationships between people and their surrounding environment in Eastern philosophy, Kevin Lynch’s book The Image of the City (1960, p. 139) realized that Feng Shui is “an opened analysis of the environment and the relationship amongst heaven, earth and human.” More explicitly, John Michell said in his commentary to Eitel’s book Feng Shui: The science of sacred landscape in old China (Eitel, 1984, p. 72), “Chinese ‘natural science’ . . . is now becoming recognized as a model for the reformed code of science which the circumstances of our time are demanding.” Recently, Feng Shui knowledge in particular the Form School approach has been recognized as comprising scientific basis in the analysis of the built environment (He, 1990; Wang, 1992a; Cheng & Kong, 1993). One of the most important research investigations, carried out by Xu (1990), has compared the Feng Shui concepts using the Form School approach and the Hendler model, a well-known Western model of site analysis. The results indicated that Feng Shui has proved to be a more powerful tool in site analysis than the Hendler model. Also, Mills (1992) investigated the spiritual landscapes of burial mound sites in the Upper Mississippi river basin and Feng Shui practice in tomb siting with particular reference to the Form School approach. The results suggested that there are many similarities between these approaches even though they spring from very different cultural backgrounds. As a consequence, westerners have changed their attitude towards the ancient Chinese’s view of nature and the environment, realizing that the principles and practices of Feng Shui could contribute to the built environment.

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3

SCIENTIFIC METHODS AND FENG SHUI STUDY

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A Scientific Approach to Feng Shui Study Scientific method is not something tangible; it cannot be seen nor grasped in your hands. It refers to the objective ways and systems of gaining, organizing, analyzing, summarizing and keeping data or information in the form of knowledge that can be passed down through history. There are stringent requirements for such methods and for different schools to practise them. What do we need to understand science, more precisely empirical science, in order to study Feng Shui? Without any approach in terms of scientific methods, the study would soon fall prey to superstition. This chapter highlights the basic philosophy of science, the definition of scientific theories, and the recognition of different types of scientific methods as well as the main concerns of science. It is hoped that readers will always bear in mind the essence of scientific method when studying Feng Shui in order to avoid blindly accepting or rejecting it. We must always keep an open mind to analyze any rules or theories proffered by different schools of Feng Shui. Only in this way will the study of Feng Shui be able to gain favor from the world of academia, scientists, and eventually, the sceptics. An important part of this chapter was extracted from a lecture and handout by Dr. Kwok Chun Wong of the University of Hong Kong. The authors would like to acknowledge his contribution to the book.

Empirical Science Wikipedia.com reveals that “science” (from Latin scientia, meaning “knowledge”), in the broadest sense, refers to any systematic knowledge or practice (Webster, 2007). Examples include the expressions like “political science” and “computer science,” which are named according to the older and more general use of the word. In a more restricted sense, “science” refers to a system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific methods,

as well as to the organized body of knowledge gained through such research (Popper, 1959). Different fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines, namely natural sciences which study natural phenomena (including biological life), and social sciences which study human behavior and societies. These groupings are “empirical sciences,” which means that the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena capable of being tested for validity by other researchers working under the same conditions. There are three generally-held principles of empirical science. Firstly, viewing a natural phenomenon or activity is based on subjective human judgments, but such judgments must be agreed among those viewing the same phenomenon or activity. Here, “phenomena” usually refer to those studied in natural sciences, while “activities” in social sciences. Scientifically, the concepts of phenomena, facts, behavior, activities and observations are quite similar. Secondly, all phenomena or activities confirmed in a scientific way must be objective and have regular patterns, i.e., they are not entirely random in the normal sense. Although quantum physics may seem to be an exception in the sense that it deals with the probability of occurrence of phenomena, such probability does follow a pattern as phenomena seen in our daily life due to a quantum effect are normally predictable. Finally, any phenomenon or activity must have one or more corresponding causes. Such cause(s) can be described and explained, and the subsequent occurrence of the phenomenon or activity can be conjectured or speculated. According to empirical science, a fact which is observable cannot be explained by another fact, and the regular pattern of a fact must be described or explained by abstract concepts built upon facts. For example, raining and the formation of clouds are two different facts. One cannot explain the phenomenon of raining by the formation of clouds. The tiny water molecules inside clouds have to be imagined to form clusters together, become

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heavy and finally fall in the form of rain. Without description or explanation based on abstract reasoning, nobody can learn anything or formulate any knowledge merely from the observable facts. Scientific method seeks to explain the events of nature in a reproducible way, and to use these reproductions for useful predictions. It is done through an observation of natural phenomena and/or through experimentation. It provides an objective process to find solutions to problems. Scientists use models to refer to a description or depiction of something, specifically one which can be used to make predictions that can be tested by experiments or observations. Scientists use three special terms, namely hypothesis, theory and physical law, to describe the nature of the conclusions which are reached after experiments or observations. A hypothesis is a contention that is neither well supported nor ruled out by experiments. A theory is a logically self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena, which normally describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis. A physical law or law of nature is a scientific generalization based on a sufficiently large number of empirical observations taken as fully verified.

Scientific Theory All hypotheses, theories, and laws of science that can describe or explain a phenomenon must be refutable by facts. In other words, scientific statements are those that could be wrong but are not yet proven wrong. Scientists never claim absolute knowledge of nature or the behavior of the subject under study. Unlike a mathematical proof, a scientific theory is empirical, and is always subject to modification or complete rejection if new evidence is found. Even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be imperfect if new observations are inconsistent with them. One critical process is to make every relevant

Scientific Methods and Feng Shui Study

aspect of research publicly available, which allows peer review of published results, ongoing reviews and repeated experiments and observations by multiple independent researchers. Only by fulfilling these expectations can a concept be proven reliable for potential use by others. Sometimes ad hoc theories are proposed but they may have too many assumptions. Any theory that has been refuted can very often be saved by adding more criteria but the price may be too high. A good theory is one that can explain more but is simple enough. The Occam’s razor (sometimes called Ockham’s razor) is a principle attributed to the fourteenth century English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, William of Ockham. The principle states that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible, eliminating those that make no difference in the observable predictions of the explanatory hypothesis or theory. That is why modern scientists look for “beauty” in the law of physics. Here, “beauty” refers to the simplicity and perfection of the theory. As a result, scientists may tend to believe in a theory (e.g., the string theory) before they can get an observable proof if the theory is “beautiful enough.”

The Logical Approach Karl Popper discussed the logic of scientific discovery from the viewpoint of refutation. An objection, also known as a refutation, is a reason arguing against a premise, lemma, or main contention; an objection to an objection is called a rebuttal. In Chinese literature, we have an idiom saying that “All crows on Earth are ubiquitously black in color,” which means that people of the same class or the same type are all bad. Let us say, for example, that a zoologist found 10,000 crows or ravens that were all black. He might then conclude that “all crows are black.” However, this theory may not be absolutely true as there is every possibility that the 10,001st crow is in white. 21

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Table 3.1 Truth Table—A / B A

B

Not A

Not B

A and B

(A and B) or (Not A) or (Not B)

T

T

F

F

T

T

T

F

F

T

F

T

F

T

T

F

F

T

F

F

T

T

F

T

This is what we mean that the statement could be wrong. As a matter of fact, albino crows exist, destroying the validity of the idiom if it is treated as a scientific theory. A theory incapable of being wrong can hardly be used to predict something, for example, all bachelors are unmarried men. This statement can never be wrong and it is called a tautology. Tautologies are analytic statements; the truth value of which depends purely on logic. For example, (A and B) or (Not A) or (Not B) is a tautology because whatever A or B is, the entire statement is still true. We can check this by using a truth table as shown in Table 3.1. As shown from Table 3.1, A and B can either be “true” (T) or “false” (F). “A and B” can only be true when both A and B is true. For an “or” operation, the final result is true if either one of the many variables is true. So, no matter what truth value does A or B take, the resultant statement is always true. This is called tautology. The negation of a tautology is a contradiction, a sentence that is false regardless of the truth values of its propositional variables, i.e., the A and B in the previous example, and the negation of a contradiction is simply a tautology. An example of a contradiction is the statement: “A cat is not a cat.” A statement that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is logically contingent. For example, the statement, “The sun rises in the east” is logically contingent because it can be false. One day, if the

Earth’s self rotation is in reverse due to an impact of a big meteor, we shall find that the sun rises from the West. Such a statement can be made either true or false by choosing an appropriate interpretation of its propositional variables. Only such statements are meaningful in science. It is often difficult to determine whether a very long and complicated statement is a tautology. This field of study is known as “automated theorem proving.” When substitution is implemented, it is far more difficult to judge a statement. For example, if A is replaced by (C or D) and B is replaced by (if C then E), we shall have the new statement: X = ((C or D) and (if C then E)) or ((not C and not D) or (not (if C then E))) which is still a tautology although difficult to identify. Let us refer to another truth table (see Table 3.2). In order to simplify the table, certain mathematical symbols have been used. “And” is represented by and “Or” is represented by and “if – then” is represented by . A statement of is true whenever the “then” part is true. So, from the truth table, we can see that though the statement X is so complicated, it is still a tautology. Readers may imagine that if all such C, D and E are sentences describing something happening in our daily life, it is very difficult for us to judge that it is a tautology. In metaphysics, readers must be careful about encountering tautologies put forward by the masters or authoritative literature. For example, when a boy says “I’ll love you forever!” to a girl, it is not as impressive as saying

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Scientific Methods and Feng Shui Study

Table 3.2 Truth Table—C / D / E C

D

E

C

D

T

T

T

T

T

F

F

T

T

T

T

F

T

F

F

T

F

T

T

F

T

T

T

F

F

T

T

T

F

F

T

F

F

T

F

T

F

T

T

T

T

F

F

T

T

F

T

F

T

F

F

T

F

T

F

F

T

F

T

T

F

F

T

F

F

F

F

F

T

T

F

T

C→E

“no matter the sky will collapse or not, the sea will dry up or not, I’ll love you forever!” The first two parts of the latter statement are merely tautologies. It is because the sky can either collapse or not collapse while the sea can either dry up or not dry up; so the first two parts simply always return true value, i.e., meaningless. Only by using a truth table are we able to tell if a statement is a tautology or not. However, with the increasing number of propositional variables, it is extremely difficult, though not impossible, to draw out the truth table as the number of valuations that must be checked increases as 2k, where k is the number of variables in the statement. Besides tautology, there are four other situations in which a theory cannot be turned down by evidence. Firstly, a vague theory that is not well defined can never be proven wrong. For example, a good guy will also achieve good results. The “good” here is not well defined and it is impossible to prove that this statement is wrong. Secondly, a contradictory theory can never be proven wrong, e.g., a pure white sheet with black spots. When there are black spots on a pure white sheet, it is not white any more. Thirdly, a theory that cannot explain anything due to the non-existence of elements inside the

∼C

∼D

∼(C → E)

((C

D)

( C → E))

X

theory, e.g., the statement “pipi can lead to didi” can never be falsified because there is nothing called “pipi” or “didi” in the world. Finally, a theory that can explain anything due to the unlimited phenomena to be deduced, e.g., “A can lead to B, C, D, E, . . . or anything” can always be verified. Contrary to an analytic statement, the validity of a synthetic statement cannot be decided on pure logic. One needs to check facts and observable phenomena of the empirical world to judge whether a synthetic statement is true or false. These statements are therefore testable hypotheses or refutable implications. All existing laws in natural sciences belong to this category. For example, the force applied to an object is proportional to the linear acceleration of it if the mass of the object is constant. This is the second Newton’s law of motion. Throughout the centuries, many experiments have been performed to verify this law. Therefore, deriving testable hypotheses is to stick one’s neck out, taking the chance of being rejected or refuted. The process will be ongoing until one’s theory is rejected by evidence. That’s why Karl Popper argued that scientific discoveries are achieved by refutations, not by induction. Readers are reminded to bear this in mind

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

whenever they come across any theories or rules in Feng Shui. This approach to study Feng Shui is then known as “Scientific Feng Shui” as suggested by the authors. However, Popper’s logic carries one drawback. What if counter examples exist? If the zoologist found one white crow while the next 100,000 found by him were all black, should the theory, “all crows are black” be turned down immediately based on Popper’s logic of refutation? Obviously, the theory of “all crows are white” is incorrect because the zoologist could find only one white crow, i.e., the albino one. At this stage, Popper’s logic is incapable of distinguishing one theory from another although he once addressed this issue by proposing the concept of “degree of corroboration” which increases with the degree of testability of a hypothesis but that is still loose and unclear. Corroborated evidence is evidence that tends to support a proposition already supported by some previous evidence. Hans Reichenbach, a leading philosopher of science, an educator and proponent of logical empiricism (Reichenbach, 1951), proposed that scientists advance their theories by observations and posits, i.e., axioms. The more the number of observations a scientist makes, the closer is the convergence to the scientist’s posit. Posits are by definition inductives as they involve the proposal of general rules based on limited, known and particular facts. When a counter example is discovered to attack an established theory, this theory is not rejected immediately, but initiates a search for a better theory to explain existing known facts as well as the counter example. Nevertheless, before the new, more appropriate and comprehensive theory is found, the existing theory continues to be used. Compared to Popper’s degree of corroboration and testability, Reichenbach’s inductive probability may be much more practical and provide a better guide to the advancement of science. Having said that, Popper’s principle of refutation is still important. Finding a crow which is not black tells us more about the biological world regarding

DNA mutation. So, Popper’s logic is still useful in explaining our empirical world.

Scientific Method Scientific method is a process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate, reliable, consistent, and non-arbitrary representation of the real world. Recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs heavily influence both our perceptions and interpretations of natural phenomena, scientists aim, through the use of standard procedures and criteria, to minimize those influences when developing a theory. It is because if we do not have a conscientious set of protocols to develop a theory and eventually a law, smart people—as a famous scientist once said—can always come up with very good explanations for mistaken points of view. Overall, a scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice of the experimenter when testing a hypothesis or a new theory. There are in general four steps that must be followed in studying phenomena by a scientific method:

(1) observing and describing a phenomenon or activity or a group of phenomena;



(2) formulating a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon; (an abstract one; recall that a fact cannot be used to explain a fact). In physics, such a hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation;



(3) using the hypothesis to predict the existence or occurrence of other phenomena, or to quantitatively predict the result of any new observations;



(4) performing experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly regulated experiments.

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If the experiments bear out the hypothesis, it may come to be regarded as a theory or ultimately a law of nature. If the hypothesis is not borne out by experiment, it must either be rejected or modified. However, the modification must not involve too many assumptions as the Occam’s Razor principle advises that a theory built on too many assumptions is usually an incorrect one. There are quite a number of common mistakes related to scientific methods:

(1) It is easy for a scientist to be influenced by his/her own culture and preference, in particular in areas of social sciences.



(2) Sometimes “common sense” and “obvious logic” tempt a scientist into believing that no test or experiment is needed to verify a hypothesis.



(3) Certain data not supporting a hypothesis can easily be ignored or ruled out as errors or noise.



(4) C o n v e r s e l y, s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s c a n sometimes override useful data, causing a scientist to miss something important. There are many examples of alleged “new discoveries” which are later proven to be prone to systematic errors not accounted for by the “discoverers.”



(5) A phenomenon may be due to several causes, while one cause has to be isolated from other confounding factors to be verified to be genuine. This process is extremely difficult when the study is not confined to a controlled environment.



(6) There are circumstances where the scientist cannot isolate a phenomenon or cannot make the measurement repeatedly. Statistical analysis on the history of occurrence of the phenomenon has to be relied on, in which case it may sometimes be misleading as correlation of limited data may not reveal the truth.

Five common scientific research methods are briefly discussed below. They can be used in the study of Feng Shui with great care.

Scientific Methods and Feng Shui Study

Experimental Method Experimental method is practised by a scientist who manipulates a variable (anything that can change) under highly controlled conditions to investigate if such a variable produces or causes any changes to a second variable. For example, the second Newton’s law of motion is used again. This variable, or variables, that the researcher manipulates is called the independent variable(s) (sometimes referred to as antecedent conditions) while the second variable, one measured for changes, is called the dependent variable. Here, the external force on an object is then the independent variable while the linear acceleration produced is the dependent variable. Most disciplines of natural sciences rely on this method because scientists are interested in understanding the cause-and-effect relationship of phenomena in nature. In order to see this relationship, the researcher must make sure that the manipulations of the independent variables are the only variables having an effect on the dependent variables. All other variables that may have an effect on the dependent variables must be kept constant. In our example, the mass, one variable as well, of the object must be kept constant. As a matter of fact, the second Newton’s law of motion does take care of the variation in mass but its discussion is beyond the scope of this book. Performing such experiment is difficult in two respects. First, it is sometimes impossible to single out one independent variable from the variables. Second, the scientist does not actually know how many variables in nature are affecting the dependent variables. The major limitation of this method is practicality. It can only be used when it is ethical, economical and possible for the researcher to manipulate the antecedent conditions. At the same time, the effect must be observable within a reasonable time duration. With regards to this, although it would be highly desirable, it is very often not entirely feasible to conduct experiments along these lines in the study of Feng Shui. First, the researcher is not allowed to change the landscape

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of an auspicious site in order to test whether something disastrous may otherwise happen. Second, it is believed that the effect of Feng Shui engineering can only be observable in decades or even centuries.

Correlation Correlation is classified as a non-experimental and descriptive method which is used when variables cannot be directly or freely manipulated by the scientist. Though it is a type of research method in its own right, it is more of a mathematical technique for summarizing data as a statistical tool. A correlative study is designed to determine the degree and direction of relationship between two or more variables or measures of behavior. Quantitatively, a coefficient of correlation is a numerical index of this relationship. A positive correlation, indicated by a positive sign, implies a direct relationship, meaning that a high score on one variable is associated with that on the second variable, while of course the reverse applies for a negative correlation. The magnitude of the coefficient indicates the strength of relationship, varying from –1.00 to 0.00 for a negative correlation and from 0.00 to +1.00 for a positive one. When two variables are strongly related, and the stronger the better, it is possible to predict the performance of one from the other. For example, psychologists and educators in the United States know that there is a fairly strong relationship (about +0.50 to +0.60) between scores on the SAT or ACT results and GPAs in college. So, most universities in the US rely on these test results for admission requirements. The strength of correlation can be used when it is impractical or unethical to manipulate the variables. However, the greatest limitation is that it cannot tell whether the relationship is causal. It only shows that two variables, with the provision of limited data, are apparently related in a systematic way. Sometimes, the stock market

can be correlated to results of soccer games when the availability of data is limited and focused. Of course, the coefficient becomes smaller and smaller, with relationship being weaker and weaker, as more data is available. Having said that, correlation remains a promising method to study Feng Shui. Provided that historical data can show us the prosperity of cities as well as some descriptive evaluations based on well established Feng Shui theories, we may be able to find out the correlation between Feng Shui and the built environment.

Naturalistic Observation This is classified under the broader category of field studies, a type of non-experimental approach which is mainly used in real-life settings. The scientist carefully observes and records a particular behavior or phenomenon, sometimes over a prolonged period, in its natural setting. The subjects under investigation are not directly interfered with in any sense, such as studies in social sciences involving the observation of humans or animals as they go about their activities in real-life settings, or in natural sciences, observing the eruption of a volcano. The major strength of naturalistic observation is that it allows researchers to observe behavior in the setting in which it naturally occurs, rather than in the artificial and limited setting in a laboratory. Further applications of the naturalistic observation approach may include studying nature for its own sake, or using nature to validate some laboratory findings or theoretical concepts. Nonetheless, this method has quite a number of limitations. Firstly, it is descriptive, not explanatory. The cause-andeffect relationship between variables cannot be drawn. Secondly, this method is both time and labor consuming. Finally, since it is not permissible to disrupt nature, it is difficult to codify results in a manner appropriate for statistical analysis. Naturalistic observation has been used for millennia by Feng Shui masters to uncover the relationship

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between the harmony of nature, mankind and good fortune, but it has never been done in a systematic and consistent manner. Traditionally, Feng Shui masters observed the circumstances of people at interesting sites, such as those where the mountains and rivers were of special patterns, and also took into account the orientation of the cities which were to be built. It is the obligation of modern Feng Shui researchers to improve this approach to make Feng Shui study more scientific.

Surveys The survey method does not involve direct observation by a researcher. Inferences about behavior are made from data collected via interviews or questionnaires which commonly include an assortment of forced-choice questions (e.g., true or false, or one out of five ranks etc.) or opened-ended questions (e.g., essays in short answers) to which subjects are asked to respond. This mode of data collection is sometimes referred to as a self-report. Surveys are particularly useful when researchers are interested in collecting data on aspects of behavior that are difficult to observe directly, mainly related to the thinking and opinion of individuals when it is desirable to obtain a large sample of subjects. The major limitation is that it is based on opinion of people instead of on actual fact. For example, when people were asked about the shape of the Earth some six hundred years ago, everybody would reply it was a flat table. Intentional deception, poor memory, poor knowledge or a misunderstanding of the question may all contribute to inaccuracy in the data. This method is also descriptive, not explanatory, and is not able to tell the cause-andeffect relationship between variables.

Scientific Methods and Feng Shui Study

out the impact of Feng Shui on citizens as a study in social science, but such surveys may have limited use for verifying Feng Shui hypotheses.

Case Study Case study is also a non-experimental and desc riptiv e met hod, i nvolv ing an in-depth descriptive record kept by an outside observer of an individual or group of individuals. In social sciences, this often involves collecting and examining various observations and records of an individual’s experiences and/or behaviors. Typical data collected may include biographical data, medical records, family history, observations, interviews, and the results of various psychological tests. In natural science, it may involve in-depth study of a particular animal or group of animals or some detailed investigation of a particular physical phenomenon. Case studies are particularly useful when researchers want to get a detailed contextual view of an individual’s life or of a particular phenomenon and when it is not practical or ethical to do experiments. Again, this method cannot give us the cause-and-effect relationship. Much of the information collected is retrospective, i.e., recollections of past events, and hence its accuracy is very sensitive to problems inherent to memory. In Feng Shui, interesting cases can be looked into more details. However, the results cannot be universally applicable to other situations. Case study can be used in Feng Shui when cases can be treated as illustrative examples for reference by researchers and readers. In this book, Chapters 10 to 12 are case studies related to Form School approach, while Chapters 19 and 20 provides case studies according to Compass School methods.

S i n c e s u p e r s t i t i o n a r i s e s f r o m p e o p l e ’s misunderstanding and ignorance, it is unfortunate that such surveys can wholly reflect the blind faith of people towards some irrational Feng Shui theories or rules. Of course, it is possible to use surveys to find

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STUDYING FENG SHUI

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General Issues in Studying Feng Shui Westerners face many difficulties when studying Feng Shui. In most cases, there are three general issues that should be discussed prior to the study of Feng Shui, namely terminology, translation and transliteration.

Terminology The development of Feng Shui has a long history. One of the most difficult things in discussing Feng Shui is simply to define it (Mills, 1992). It has been known through the ages under a number of different names, such as Feng Shui, Kan Yu, Xing Fa, Di Li, Qing Nang, Qing Wu, Bu Zhai, Xiang Zhai, Tu Zhai, Yin Yang, etc. (Shi, 1992). Amongst these names, Kan Yu and Feng Shui are the most widely used, which represent the Chinese scope of knowledge in the built environment. K a n Yu w a s a n o l d t e r m . “ K a n ” m e a n s observing the way of heaven, and “Yu” means investigating the way of earth. The term Kan Yu therefore implies the field of knowledge that deals with the phenomena related to astronomical and geographical studies as a basis from which to predict good and bad omens for forthcoming events (Lip, 1979). Fundamentally, Kan Yu describes the application of astronomical, chronological, geographical, topographical, climatological and environmental studies in the built environment. Cheng and Kong (1993) recognized that the term Kan Yu represents the basic components of the scientific approach to the built environment. Today, “Feng Shui” is the most common colloquial Chinese name to describe the theory and practice of harmonization amongst heaven, earth and humanity with respect to the built environment. “Feng Shui” literally means “wind” and “water,” but these simple terms refer to a vast spread of knowledge and complex phenomena. Feng Shui has been variously described as a body of knowledge, a superstition, an art, a science,

and a way of perceiving the environment (Mills, 1992). Feng Shui involves the careful observation and analysis of the built environment so as to achieve equilibrium between nature, buildings and people. The term “Feng Shui” is used in this book to present this set of ancient Chinese principles and practices in relation to the built environment.

Translation In Western countries, the process of translation from Chinese to English has complicated the definition and multiplied the confusion of Feng Shui studies (Mills, 1992). Skinner (1982) recognized that the word “Geomancy” was adopted by Western writers of the mid-nineteenth century (ca. 1870) as the translation of Feng Shui. Therefore, Feng Shui was generally translated into English as a type of “Geomancy” (Feuchtwang, 1974; Lip, 1979). According to the Macquarie Dictionary the definition of Geomancy is: Divination by means of the figure made by a handful of earth thrown down at random, or, by figures or lines formed by a number of dots made at random.

Some commentators doubted it, and among them, Lee (1986) argued that “Geomancy” is not an appropriate translation, because the practice of Feng Shui in China differs from a conventional understanding of Geomancy in English. Divination was certainly involved in the early stage of Feng Shui, but the practice was very different from looking at cracks in dried mud, as there is a large body of theory involved in this practice. The practice of Feng Shui interprets the built environment, and considers pre-existing patterns, rather than seeking answers from freshly created random patterns. Lee (1986) recognized that Feng Shui is concerned not only with future events, but with a range of other aspects, including architecture, landscape esthetics, a feeling of being in harmony with the universe and proper social relations.

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In the opinion of the authors, Feng Shui is much more than simple divination or geomancy. Since Feng Shui is based on traditional Chinese systems of thought which bear little relation to Western concepts of science and philosophy, additional difficulties are encountered when translating established texts into English. On top of these ambiguities, the principles of Feng Shui are often expressed poetically and kept secret within written texts that are subject to various interpretations. These exceedingly flexible practices of Feng Shui cannot be categorized and verified according to Western concepts. Xu (1990) recognized that there are many conflicts and literary debates that also complicated the process of translation.

Transliteration Many of the terms used in Chinese cultural traditions have such complex and specific meaning that no English equivalents exist (Chan, 1963). Feng Shui terminologies in particular are extremely difficult to translate precisely. In addition, most Chinese dictionaries and encyclopedias are mainly intended for the study of Chinese literature, not Feng Shui. As a result, most Feng Shui terms remained unexplained in English. When discussing Feng Shui, specialist terms have to remain in Chinese, using an approximate rendering of the sound of the Chinese word to transcribe into the Roman alphabet, a process called “transliteration.” Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century there was no standard convention for transliteration, with different spoken languages of China each having their own preferred way of rendering Chinese sounds, adding that each European language then transcribed Chinese sounds to suit their own orthography. For example, the Feng Shui concept of the “aether” (now rendered as “Qi”) might be written Ch’I or Chi (WadeGiles), Chhi (Needham), Tchi (French), Tschi, (German), Tsi (Italian) or even Ki (in works of Japanese origin). Over the last century, the most widely adopted convention was the Wade-Giles system, and most publications originating from

Studying Feng Shui

Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States, such as Feuchtwang (1974), Skinner (1982), Walters (1989), followed this standard. Curiously, for reasons which we shall never know, the great classic masterpiece Science and Civilization in China used Professor Needham’s own version of the Wade-Giles system. Then in the 1950s the new “Pinyin” system was introduced by the People’s Republic of China as the standard form of transliteration in China, a standardized romanization system familiar to all Western languages has since then almost become universally employed. Thus, it seems logical to transfer all Chinese Romanizations into the Pinyin system, although occasionally some familiar names not always readily recognisable (Lip, 1979; Walters, 1989). For instance, in the Pinyin system, Peking appears as “Beijing” but Hong Kong appears as “Xianggang” which is unrecognizable and misleading. In this book, most of the Romanization of Chinese terms followed the Pinyin system. However, some references to popular terms that are familiar to Western readers still follow the Wade-Giles transliteration system. To clarify this situation, classical Feng Shui terms and texts mentioned in this book are listed in the Glossary with their Chinese equivalents. (see pages xlv–li)

The Western Study of Feng Shui Western Criticism in the Late Nineteenth Century The concept of Feng Shui was first introduced to the West in the late nineteenth century by some missionaries to China. The Rev. M. T. Yates was one of the first to write in English on the subject in an article “Ancestor worship and Feng-shui” (Yates, 1868, p. 41). He described Feng Shui as “an important part of ancestral worship” which is constituted half by science and half by superstition. His remarks were followed by those of the Rev.

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Dr. Joseph Edkins (1872, p. 274) who criticized Feng Shui as “the wind and water superstition of the Chinese . . . one of the great obstacles to the progress of civilization.” Then in 1873, the Rev. E. J. Eitel published the first Western book on Feng Shui titled Feng-shui or the Rudiments of Natural Science in China. He provided a very superficial definition of Feng Shui, calling it the “wind and water, because it’s a thing like wind, which you cannot comprehend, and like water, which you cannot grasp” (Eitel, 1873, p. 3). Although he recognized that Feng Shui explained the Chinese system of natural science he criticized the superstitious elements of Feng Shui theory. Eitel (1873, p. 1, p. 78, p. 83) concluded that Feng Shui is “a complete amalgamation of religion and science,” and “based on a materialistic schema of philosophy . . . yet in a very superficial and grossly superstition manner.” When the Dutch sinologist J. J. M. De Groot (1897, p. 935, p. 938) published Religious System of China, he characterized Feng Shui as “a quasi-scientific system” and “a ridiculous caricature of science.” Most of these publications from the late nineteenth century criticized Feng Shui but provided little information about its theoretical basis and metaphysical ideas, and its relationship to Chinese culture (Lee, 1986). These writers were constrained by their limitations of their conceptual background of Western culture and the “Western” model of logic based on the emergence of modern science. He Xiaoxin (1998) believed that these Western constraints hindered any serious consideration of the theoretical basis of Feng Shui, and its “Eastern” nature and purpose.

Western Recognition in the Mid-Twentieth Century During the early twentieth century, Chinese began migrating to America and Europe; the influence of Feng Shui has spread beyond the Asian community and affected Western cultures. But it was not

until 1956 when Needham published Science and Civilization in China that Western readers began to appreciate the scientific context in which Feng Shui flourished. Needham tried to identify relevant aspects of Western science and it applications to traditional Chinese counterparts. He began to appreciate the scientific context of Feng Shui and defined Feng Shui as “Pseudo-Science” (Needham, 1959, Vol. 2, Section 14). According to Needham (1959, p. 361) Feng Shui “embodied . . . a marked esthetic component, which accounts for the great beauty of the siting of so many farms, houses and villages throughout China.” He Xiaoxin (1998) recognized that this is particularly significant because Needham demonstrated a clear awareness that the central aim of Feng Shui was not simply a concern of the ancestors, but also grew out of a concern for esthetics, social status and social hierarchy, which was such a significant feature of ancient Chinese life. Because Needham’s work on Chinese science was so influential in China, this view of Feng Shui spread very widely within China as well as in the West. He Xiaoxin (1998) believed that Needham’s discussion of Feng Shui generated interest in a new era of “popular” Feng Shui, which has occurred since the sixties. Following the increasing Chinese migration to America, Europe and Australia, Feng Shui practice has become widely spread to the rest of the world in spite of the rapid advancement of these communities into the age of industrialization and urbanization.

Feng Shui Study in Hong Kong After the overturning of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, China became a republic but experienced a period of turmoil in the early twentieth century, including the Chinese Civil War, the Japanese invasion and the Second World War. Furthermore, the practice of Feng Shui had been condemned as superstition and prohibited for a few decades since the arrival of Communist China in 1949. Nevertheless, families and business in Chinese communities still eagerly seek Feng Shui practitioners. Feng Shui

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practice has continued without interruption and has become very popular in Chinese communities in Asian countries such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore (Lip, 1979). In 1897, Hong Kong became a small British colony on the southeast coast of China. As most of the residents in Hong Kong were Chinese, Feng Shui practice continued to grow there. King (1996) described Hong Kong as very rich in this Chinese folk tradition, and Chan and Lee (1995) believed that contemporary residents of Hong Kong adhere to a belief system that is underpinned by a strong consciousness of Feng Shui practice. Beginning in the late 1960s, a number of studies observed the practice of Feng Shui in Hong Kong (Aijmer, 1968; Boxer, 1968; Anderson & Anderson, 1973; Hase & Lee, 1992). He Xiaoxin (1998) explained that these investigations in Hong Kong were carried out from a variety of different perspectives of Feng Shui practice. For instance, Aijmer (1968) described two villagers exchanging their homes in Hong Kong in accordance with Feng Shui principles and concluded that Feng Shui could be viewed as a medium of ecological adjustment to social and economic conditions. Boxer (1968) recorded how Feng Shui was used between administrative officials and villagers in the transformation of Tsuen Wan from a rural to an urban site. The administrative officials used Feng Shui principles to argue for the rearrangement of land use patterns, while at the same time, the villagers also responded according to Feng Shui theories and practice. Hase and Lee (1992) provided a detailed analysis of the Sheung Wo Hang Village in Hong Kong’s New Territories and discovered that the local topography of this village was designed with great care according to various Feng Shui elements. More importantly, Anderson and Anderson (1973) comprehended how Feng Shui emerged as a unique science of site planning, land use and the management of human and natural resources, which has its origins in the relationships between people and natural ecology in Hong Kong. They stated that:

Studying Feng Shui

A well-sited village is protected from the elements. Typhoons, heat waves, storms and the like are broken in their force by the hills, spurs and groves. Erosion is limited by trees and terraces. Floods do not affect the sites for they are on elevated spots. The flowing streams assure a constant water supply, and with the frequent rains flush salt form the fields . . . The village does not take up the best farmland, which lies below it in the valley . . . Wealth flows into the village as the streams do, according to popular belief, and grows there like the lush vegetation. If the village were sited near a large rapid current, according to this theory, the wealth would flow away. The professional geomancer has other concerns: the spirit dragons, tigers and suchlike in the hills, the exact paths of evil influence and the location of temples to block them, but he too is basically concerned with the view, the farming and the weather . . . Each village in the traditional days was a small selfsufficient world—its closed, self-sufficient agricultural pattern dependent on principles of harmony and adjustment that ran through its dealings with towns, merchants, and spirits as well as with the land. The net result of the system was to prevent unnecessary weather damage, misuse of land and land exhaustion (Andersons & Andersons, 1973, pp. 45–50).

Feng Shui Study in Mainland China In the 1960s, the Chinese government focused on modernization and attempted to eliminate Feng Shui practice. Nevertheless, these efforts failed (Teather & Chow, 2000). Since the late 1970s, the Chinese have gradually revised their orthodox views of

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socialism and have adopted more open policies and economic reforms. The Chinese government has at the same time relaxed their restrictions over Feng Shui and other cultural activities. In the late 1980s, the principles and applications of Feng Shui were heatedly discussed again. Most of the Chinese scholars working in this area began to research the influence of Feng Shui on Chinese architecture; they have overwhelmingly interests in the historical development of Feng Shui and its application in traditional Chinese architecture (He, 1990; Cheng & Kong, 1993; Wang, 1992a). In 1990, He Xiaoxin’s book The Source of Feng Shui pioneered research in the origins of Feng Shui and analyzed Feng Shui’s influence on the architectural designs of villages, cities and religious temples in Southeast China. She concluded that Feng Shui was a demonstration of ancient Chinese philosophy, science and esthetics. Cheng and Kong (1993), in their book Feng Shui and Architecture studied in details the way Feng Shui rules were employed in the construction of traditional Chinese architecture. Wang (1992a) edited a book Research of Feng Shui Theory which was a comprehensive collection of research papers on Feng Shui in China, ranging from theoretical analyses and applications of Feng Shui to ancient Chinese cities. In particular, Wang (1992b) investigated the application of Feng Shui in the royal tombs of the Qing Dynasty in Beijing. He examined the site selection, tomb construction and spatial composition, and concluded that Feng Shui principles represented ancient Chinese’ environmental, landscaping and architectural theories. At the twenty-first century, Lin (2007) summarized the principles and practice of Feng Shui in China and provided a comprehensive review of scholars and researchers in Feng Shui study.

Research in Feng Shui Since the late 1960s the impact of Western civilization and technology has grown to global

proportions. More Western scholars became aware of the limitations of the modern scientific paradigms that failed to explain the whole realm of natural phenomena and began to recognize that there are similarities between modern science and Eastern philosophy (Capra, 1975). They have sought deeper understandings of the relationships between people and their surrounding environment. Research into Feng Shui has been initiated and scientific research in Feng Shui can be classified into two different directions: (a) the verification of Feng Shui principles scientifically and (b) the study of Feng Shui logically in a scientific way (Mak & So, 2009), and so far, mainly taking anthropological, ecological and architectural approaches to its study.

The Anthropological Approach Feuchtwang (1974) published an influential book on the study of Feng Shui, titled An Anthropological Analysis of Chinese Geomancy, focusing on interpretations of Feng Shui from Chinese philosophy, culture and religions. He distinguished Feng Shui from “religion” and viewed it as a system of divination based on an ideology that stemmed direct from Chinese philosophy. Furthermore, Freedman (1979) first treated Feng Shui as a standard system of metaphysics and a form of divination as part of Chinese religion. Hence Freedman suggested the connection between the geomancy of tombs and ancestor worship and argued that they together form a system associated with the benefit of a family’s descendants. Pennick (1979) published a book The Ancient Science of Geomancy, Man in Harmony with the Earth; it was the first attempt to study the connections of geomancy to ancient history and to compare British geomancy and Chinese Feng Shui. He Xiaoxin (1998), in her doctoral dissertation “Fengshui: Chinese tradition in a Manchester context” examined how the Chinese community of Manchester, UK, demonstrated the deeply-rooted beliefs of Feng Shui and the

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continuation of this traditional Chinese practice in a very different Western urban environment. Bruun (2003) published a book Fengshui in China: Geomantic Divination between State Orthodoxy and Popular Religion. It provided a comprehensive anthropological analysis of Chinese Feng Shui particularly related to the practices and policies in modern China. The connections of Feng Shui and the Chinese landscape figure powerfully in some publications. Skinner (1982, p. 1) writes that Feng Shui “lies behind the whole pattern of the Chinese landscape.” He observed that Feng Shui is “an attitude to life on the land that has enabled China to feed one of the densest populations in the world without doing great violence to the earth.” Yoon (1992) suggested that topographic mapping skills employed in Chinese geomantic maps are probably the most elaborate form of presenting the relief of the land in the history of traditional Chinese cartography. He concluded that the expression of geomantic concepts and ideas on the land was one of the most important phenomena in the evolution of East Asian cultural landscapes (Yoon, 1980, 2006).

The Ecological Approach Kevin Lynch, a pioneer of environmental behavior research, paid great attention to Chinese geomancy. In his book The Image of the City, he concluded that Feng Shui has two major features: first, it is an open-ended analysis of the environment where new meanings, new poetry, and further developments are always possible; second, it leads to the use and control of outside forms and their influences where it emphasizes that man’s foresight and energy rule the universe and can change it (Lynch, 1960). Anderson and Anderson (1973) interpreted village-level siting of Feng Shui configurations with modern planning viewpoints on site planning, land use and natural resources, especially those of ecology. They noted that Feng Shui as “basically a very practical system whereby a village is situated

Studying Feng Shui

such that it does not take up farmland or lay itself open to floods and typhoons . . . based on sound pragmatism.” (Anderson & Anderson, 1973, pp. 45–50) Freedman (1979) recognized that Feng Shui is based on self-evident propositions and the expertise of scientific men and called it “mystical ecology.” He argued that science is a study with experiments, but that complicated situations cannot be tested by one factor where possible outcomes are numerous. Therefore, science can hardly conclude the study of a particular social phenomenon that is filled with numerous variables. Similarly, Feng Shui did not tend to make exact predictions on matters involving hundreds of variables, which would be beyond manipulation by science. The authors agree that the study of Feng Shui is complicated due to the existence of so many confounding factors. But we firmly believe that it is possible to study Feng Shui thoroughly by using scientific methods. The difficulty should not prevent scientists from giving a trial. Nemeth (1993) searched further for crosscultural understanding through the interpretation of geomancy maps. He recognized that “cosmographic interpretations of geomancy maps can both teach western people and remind East Asians that in the organization of human activities in physical space, principles that engender productive economic, ecological, and ethical relationships may be governed by a natural law.” (Nemeth, 1993, p. 94) Bruun (1995) argued that Feng Shui is a system of statements on the man–nature relationship in an environment of holistic thought. He explained that according to Feng Shui, man and landscape are linked together in a system of “immanent order.” Nature consists of balanced forces, reacts to any interference imposed on it, and this reaction immediately resounds in man. As in a large organism, everything is interdependent and pulsating with energy, penetrating and embracing every single part. Although Bruun (2003 & 2008) agreed in theory that Feng Shui may harmonize humanity and the environment, he doubted that the ecological benefits of contemporary practice

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of Feng Shui are effective due to the industrial revolution and economic development in modern China.

The Architectural Approach The architecture and the built environment became the major area of Feng Shui research during the 1970s and 1980s. For instance, Wheatley (1971) studied the planning of ancient Chinese cities as a cosmological symbol. Yeh (1978) treated the planning aspect of Feng Shui theory as a Chinese theory of site planning and environment planning. In the late 1980s and 1990s, the significance of Feng Shui in landscape and architectural areas were discussed concerning with place and spatial arrangement (Knapp, 1986, 1992; Lawrence, 1994; Kalland, 1996). Most of the research focused particularly on Feng Shui theory and its relation to traditional Chinese architecture. For instance, Wang (1981) explained the influence of Feng Shui on the design of Chinese traditional domestic architecture. Lee (1986) researched classical Feng Shui texts for principles to explain the logic and regularity of Chinese domestic architectural planning. He emphasized that interpretations based on the formal, spatial and technical data of architecture cannot adequately explain the context and meaning of Chinese architecture. He suggested that interpreting traditional Chinese domestic architecture with Feng Shui will enable future studies to develop evaluation theories from China’s own architectural disciplines. Lee (1986) concluded that Feng Shui is a Chinese traditional architectural theory for selecting a favorable site for dwellings and provides a theory of building layout and design associated with domestic architecture. From a scientific perspective, Xu (1990) built a Feng Shui model for landscape analysis of a village in Colorado, primarily based on the Form School approach. He concluded that Feng Shui models could contribute to contemporary conditions and

this proved to be a more powerful tool than a wellknown Western landscape model, the Hendler model. Han (1995) compared the Form School’s major criteria in landscape with contemporary environmental psychology and found out that there are many similarities. Tam et al. (1999) used a simplified Form School model to analyze the impact of Feng Shui on the economic values of properties in villages in Hong Kong and concluded that they are highly correlated. So and Lu (2001) used a scientific method of computational fluid dynamics technique to demonstrate that the natural ventilation of bathroom design of high-rise apartments in Hong Kong could reasonable explained according to the Feng Shui principles and practice. Lynch (2003) examined Feng Shui as a site design tool that provides a different spectrum of criteria in the observation and assessment of a site comparing with the contemporary site design approach. His study assessed a variety of existing urban places in United States and the results indicated that well designed places from a Feng Shui standpoint were also perceived as well-designed from a contemporary site design vantagepoint. Xu (2003) in his doctoral study examined various site analysis approaches, including Feng Shui models, environmental models, social-cultural models, economic models and infrastructure models, and organized into an integrated framework to provide a better understanding of the relationships between humankind and the natural environment. Jun (2003) constructed a framework for site analysis that emphasized on Feng Shui and contemporary environmental design principles. Mak (2004) built a prototype model of Feng Shui to evaluate building design using the knowledge-based expert systems approach. This model was evaluated by architects in Sydney and Hong Kong using a quantitative method (Mak & Ng, 2005; Mak, 2009). Furthermore, Hwangbo (1999) suggested that the aim of Feng Shui is to pursue a harmonious and auspicious existence in architectural design. He explained that the practice of Feng Shui, as an intuitive matter combined with cosmography, has strong parallels with Western concepts of geometry

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in architecture, though geometry is traditionally a rational science as opposed to an intuitive art of architecture. Hwangbo (2002, p. 126) concluded that Feng Shui would be “invaluable in the way that it can nourish and enrich the late modernity, critically assess modern science, shape the image of the universe and our place, and contribute to modern architecture.” When studying Feng Shui, its historical development and its employment in traditional Chinese architecture have aroused overwhelming interest among Western researchers. Next chapter provides a detail account of the development of Feng Shui from ancient China.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF FENG SHUI

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Chinese History The emergence of Feng Shui is closely bound up with Chinese social and cultural traditions and is inextricably linked with Chinese history and philosophy. As Feng Shui developed, it absorbed accepted concepts from the realms of ancient Chinese astrology, geography, cosmographic thought and various religious beliefs, not excluding magic and popular superstition. The history of the Chinese over the past 4000 years can be broadly divided into three periods: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern (Chan, 1963).

The Ancient Period: 2000–200 BC

In 221 BC, the First Emperor united China under the Qin Dynasty. It was he who built the Great Wall to protect his empire from the northern nomads, and standardized Chinese script, coins, weights and measures. The First Emperor united China so firmly that thereafter the Chinese people regarded imperial rule as the only form of government (He, 1998).

The Medieval Period: 200 BC–AD 900 Han Dynasty

206 BC–AD 220

Wei Dynasty

220–265

Jin Dynasty

265–420

Xia Dynasty

ca. 2183–1752 BC

Southern and Northern Dynasties

420–589

Shang Dynasty

ca. 1751–1112 BC

Sui Dynasty

581–618

Zhou Dynasty

1111–722 BC

Tang Dynasty

618–907

Spring and Autumn Period

722–481 BC

Warring States

403–222 BC

Qin Dynasty

221–206 BC

The Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties in Chinese history are the period when China moved into the Bronze Age, marked by agriculture in rural areas, and the creation of towns and cities. Yi Jing (The Book of Changes), dating from the Zhou Dynasty, is one of the major sources of Chinese philosophy and had a great influence on the development of Feng Shui. The name of the “Spring and Autumn” period is derived from the Spring and Autumn Annals, the great chronicle which recorded the events of each year during the era. The name of the “Warring States” period is self-evident. Despite China’s instability during this tumultuous period, two great Chinese philosophers, Confucius (551–479 BC) and Lao Zi (born ca. 604 BC), created two most influential Chinese philosophies, Confucianism and Daoism (also spelled Taoism).

The Han Dynasty was one of the most creative periods in the history of China, seeing the manufacture of all kinds of goods and inventions, with extraordinary developments in literature and art. China had its first contact with Buddhism from the Indian sub-continent, which in those days was referred to as “the West.” Following the Han Dynasty, China was divided into a large number of short-lived states and dynasties, the Wei, Jin, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties. Most parts of northern China were invaded and ruled by different groups of nonChinese Tatar peoples, while Buddhism developed widely in this period of instability. The Sui Dynasty reunited China again but with a short life of 30 years. The Tang Dynasty flourished during the time of prosperity and cultural renaissance. The Chinese empire expanded to become a great world power, while extravagant palaces and the Grand Canal were constructed in this period.

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The Modern Period: 900–Present Five Dynasties

907–960

Song Dynasty

960–1279

Yuan Dynasty

1271–1368

Ming Dynasty

1368–1644

Qing Dynasty

1644–1912

Republic of China

Established from 1911

People’s Republic of China

Established from 1949

The Five Dynasties era saw China once again splintered into numerous small states, continually at war until the empire was re-united under the Song Dynasty. At that time, China reached a new height of civilization with advancement in science and technology. In the Yuan Dynasty, China was ruled by the Mongols and its empire extended the territories across the Eurasian continent. Silk road was opened up to trade to Europe. The Ming Dynasty succeeded in driving the Mongols out of China and restoring Chinese rule. Since then China has had a stable environment for the solid development in science and arts. The Ming emperors set up a new capital in Beijing, strengthened the Great Wall and improved the Grand Canal. The dominant thinking then was Neo-Confucianism which was a combination of Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism, with the latter two religious concepts having the greatest influence at the time. The Ming empire eventually collapsed, followed with non-ethnic Chinese, Manchu, ruled over China for nearly 300 years. The Qing Dynasty suppressed indigenous Chinese culture, and consequently hindered the development of technology and scientific knowledge. After a series of wars against the weakened government in the late Qing period, European countries demanded many unfair trade concessions until 1911 when Chinese revolutionaries overthrew the ineffectual ruling Qing and formed a nationalist republic. After the Second World War against Japanese invasion (1931–1945), the Communist Party took over

The Development of Feng Shui

China in 1949 and established People’s Republic of China.

The Development of Feng Shui As was mentioned earlier, Feng Shui theories and principles evolved in parallel with the historical development of Chinese philosophy and discoveries made from observations of astronomical and natural phenomena. The development of Feng Shui can be classified into four major stages. The first stage concerns the origins of fundamental Feng Shui concepts, including the basic ideas applying to the choice of location for early settlements, and the emergence of the arts of house divination and house examination. The second stage reveals the development of Chinese philosophy and basic theories of Feng Shui principles, including the theory of Qi, the theory of Yin and Yang, and the theory of the Five Elements. The third stage involves the formation of Feng Shui knowledge, including the development of science and technology in China, such as the Calendar system, the astronomical system, the invention of compass, and the emergence of standard texts and Feng Shui literature. The fourth stage concerns the divergence of the two schools of thoughts, the Form and Compass schools, their characteristics, comparisons, differences and similarities. A brief outline of the historical development of Feng Shui is shown in Figure 5.1, with a rudimentary explanation and discussion provided later in this chapter.

The Early Stages of Feng Shui Concepts and Practices The origin of Feng Shui is obscure and its founders have become legendary characters. Although

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Figure 5.1 Brief Outline of the Historical Development of Feng Shui

Basic Concepts from Early Settlement [Yang Shao Period ca. 50th–30th C. BC ]

Pu Zhai (House Divination)

Xiang Zhai (House Examination)

[Shang Dynasty ca. 16th–11th C. BC]

[Zhou Dynasty 11th C.–770 BC]

Kan Yu [Han Dynasty 207 BC–AD 220]

Science and Technology • Chinese Calendar system • Classification of Four Emblems • Invention of Compass • Early Feng Shui Literature

Philosophy • Theory of Qi • Theory of Yin and Yang • Theory of Five Elements Feng Shui [Jin Dynasty 276–420]

Form School

Compass School

[Tang Dynasty 618–907]

[Song Dynasty 960–1279]

Mixture of Two Schools [Ming & Qing Dynasties 1368–1912]

Yin Zhai (Dwellings for the Dead)

Location of Graves

Yang Zhai (Dwellings for the Living)

Location of Sites

Design of Building

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The Development of Feng Shui

Figure 5.2 The Layout of Banpo Settlement Public Tombs Defensive Ditch Pottery Kilns

公墓 溝

陶窑

宅居

Settlements Leader’s House or Ceremonial Building

河

Inward Bend River

Source: Adapted from Kang and Kang (1999)

no specific dates can be identified, it seems that the practice emerged slowly over the course of centuries. At least, there was little doubt that the concept of Feng Shui originated in prehistoric China during the Yang Shao period (ca. 5000–3000 BC) (Yoon, 1976; Mills, 1992). The early stages of Feng Shui practice began to appear in the ancient period, the Shang Dynasty (ca. 16th–11th century BC) and the Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC–770 BC) when magical divination activities (Pu Zhai—House Divination) became associated with scientifically based observation (Xiang Zhai— House Examination). Most Feng Shui scholars believed these two primitive activities together represented the antecedents of Feng Shui practice (Wang, 1991; Cheng & Kong, 1993; He, 1998).

Origins of Feng Shui Concepts Archaeological evidence from the early periods demonstrated that early Chinese settlement planning revealed consistency with the environmental quality, particularly in terms of soil condition, site orientation, water sources, and site planning

of settlement space. In a notable example of the Banpo settlements in the Yang Shao period, a habitation settlement had been selected near the banks of a river. The soil was fertile and suitable for cultivation. The landscape generally was of high altitude with gentle slopes, and therefore faced no danger from occasional high tides or flooding from the rivers. The Banpo settlements were enclosed within defensive ditches beyond which public tombs were situated. Most parts of the settlements had a southern or easterly orientation facing the sun as shown in Figure 5.2. Liu (1980) explained that the largest building in the layout, perhaps the leader’s house or a ceremonial building, was in the center of the settlement facing east; while almost all the surrounding buildings, probably the houses of the tribal members, faced south. Based on the observations of the natural environment, the ancient Chinese developed a two-directional concept: “Left” or “Right.” “Left” represented East and South, while “Right” r e p r e s e n t e d We s t a n d N o r t h . C o n s i d e r i n g China’s topography, the south-eastern region was cultivable while the north-western part was desert. Climatically, solar access from the south and

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summer breezes from the east were appreciated, while hot winds from the west and cold winds from the north were harmful. Wong (1985) believed that these reasons produced the concept of “Left” being favorable and “Right” as unfavorable. The setting of the door openings in Banpo settlements matched the original expression: “prefer the south and east, avoid the north and west” which was found in early Chinese beliefs that constituted an important Feng Shui principle. Wang (1991) concluded from the layout of this early settlement that the ancient Chinese would select a dwelling site based on the following criteria: close to a river course which would supply fresh clean water; built on a raised platform or on high ground; protected from the cold northerly winds using mountains, hills and trees; with houses usually located on the northern side of a river bend, and their backs towards the north and facing the south. He Xiaoxing (1998) suggested that when choosing a settlement site, the ancient Chinese were aware of different environmental needs and that their choices could be summarized in a well-known Feng Shui phrase “Jin Shui, Shan Yang” (Near Water, Facing Sunlight).

which can be translated as “House Divination.” The first recorded sources of Pu Zhai, taken from the records of bone oracles, referred to the consultations made by Shang emperors seeking advice on sites for the founding of settlements (Chang, 1980; Wen & Yuan, 1983). Pu is a method of divination using the art of reading signs taken from the observation of the cracks produced by a heated rod touching an animal’s bone or tortoise shell. Pu Zhai (House Divination) can be explained as an architecturally related activity of divination involving a foretelling method to determine the space, select a location and area to build, and determine the time to construct. Most of the Feng Shui manuals mentioned that this method of examining dwellings had existed during Shang and Zhou Dynasties, and recognized that the capitals of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties were selected following this method (Lee, 1986).

House Examination

Despite there being no evidence to prove the origin of the Feng Shui practice, the first recorded textual sources of the early Chinese period suggested that the earliest use of Feng Shui can be traced back to a kind of divination practice during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties (He, 1990; Gao, 1992).

During the Zhou Dynasty, scientific bases were added, and the art of site selection was transformed from Pu Zhai (House Divination) to Xiang Zhai (House Examination). It was first mentioned in the Li Ji (Book of the Rites) of the Zhou Dynasty. It appears that Xiang Zhai evolved with the Chinese invention of various methods of astronomical and terrestrial observation, such as the Tu Gui Fa (Method of Cardinal Orientation), Tu Hui Fa (Method of Earth Quality) and Tu Yi Fa (Method of Earth Suitability) (He, 1998).

Archaeological findings of the Shang Dynasty and sources of Chinese antiquity in Chinese classics, Shu Jing (The book of Documents) and Shi Jing (The Book of Odes), revealed the practices of site selection and fundamental architectural ideas of the early Chinese (Lee, 1986). According to these sources, the establishment of settlements was preceded by careful examination of the topography of the proposed site. Final decisions were made by a kind of divination practice called Pu Zhai,

Most Feng Shui scholars (Feuchtwang, 1974; Lee, 1986; He, 1998) recognized that the wellknown reference to Xiang Zhai was in the Ode of “Duke Liu” from the Shi Jing (The Book of Odes). This poem described three basic steps of the House Examination surveying technique. First, the entire landscape was observed and the natural environment was investigated, including the mountains, the watercourses, and the forests, in order to get an impression of the topography

House Divination

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and geology of the area. Secondly, a suitable site was determined and the boundaries of the site were measured. Finally the orientation and direction of the building was established by measuring the sun’s shadow. Pu Zhai (House Divination) was a magical divination of a mystical tradition, and Xiang Zhai (House Examination) was a practical survey of scientific observation. These approaches were firmly linked and existed together in the ancient China. Matters such as the choice of an appropriate date and time to begin the construction of a building could be preceded by a combination of a careful examination of the topography of the site and simple astronomical observations. Feng Shui scholars (Wang, 1991; Cheng & Kong, 1993; He, 1998) suggested that the elaboration of these two methods have developed into important principles of later Feng Shui practices.

Basic Theories of Feng Shui Principles Since the Warring States (480–221 BC), Chinese philosophy has evolved through speculation about the nature and doctrine of Daoism. Three basic Feng Shui philosophies: the theory of Qi, the theory of Yin and Yang, and the theory of Five Elements were established in this period.

The Theory of Qi Daoism was established towards the end of Zhou Dynasty and the theory of Qi is the essence of the Daoism. Literally, Qi means “breath,” but the Chinese described Qi as the cosmic spirit that vitalizes and infuses all things, giving energy to human beings, life to nature, movement to water, and growth to plants (Skinner, 1982). Qi is a special Chinese term and has no equivalent

The Development of Feng Shui

in western terminology. Qi can be translated as the “breath of nature,” or as vital energy; Qi can be explained as the breath of life, or the active energy that flows through the forms (Xu, 1990). Skinner (1982) believed that Qi is responsible for the changes in form, which is a characteristic of all living beings and the earth itself. Feuchtwang, (1974) recognized that Qi acts at every level of existence: on the human level, it is the energy flowing through the acupuncture meridians of the body; at the agricultural level, it is the force which brings fertile crops; and at the climatic level it is the energy carried on the winds and by the waters. The ancient Chinese thought the earth to be a living organism like the human body, where mountains represented bones, water was blood, and vegetation was hair. They imagined that the flow of Qi on the earth was similar to the flow of Qi through the human body. When Qi is accumulated, the space benefits those who are living there, and therefore, the accumulation of Qi is an essential condition for the good location of housing. According to Zang Shu (The Book of Burial), one of the oldest books on Feng Shui, by Guo Pu, when Qi rises to the sky, it will become cloud. This is called Yang Qi, which can be moved by the wind. Qi can also fall again to the earth as rain, and called Yin Qi. The Yin and Yang Qi produce all things on earth. Qi is also divided into Sheng Qi (living Qi), and Sha Qi (dead Qi). “Living Qi” infuses life with energy that is warm and moving while “dead Qi” ends life and is cold and still. Xu (1990) believed this interpretation of Qi is very similar to the western scientific description of water vapor and the circulation of air, and suggested that the ancient Chinese had a scientific understanding of their environment.

Theory of Yin and Yang Based on observations of the phenomena of the nature (such as, sun and moon, light and dark, day and night, woman and man), the ancient Chinese believed that in everything there are two opposing

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Figure 5.3 Tai Chi and the Eight Diagrams

太極 Tai Chi 陽 yang

Greater Yang

Lesser Yang

陰 yin

Lesser Yin

Greater Yin

乾

兌

離

震

巽

坎

艮

坤

Qian

Dui

Li

Zhen

Xun

Kan

Gen

Kun

(Heaven)

(Lake)

(Fire)

(Thunder)

(Wind)

parts: Yin and Yang. Yi Jing (The Book of Changes) developed in the Zhou Dynasty was the earliest and greatest philosophical document in Chinese history. The theory of Yin and Yang was the foundation of the Yi Jing that formed the basic philosophy for ancient Chinese. Yi Jing described the universe as being created by Yin (negative) and Yang (positive). Literally, Yin means shade and Yang means light. Yin symbolizes negative and represents the female, the dark, the dead, and the still; while Yang symbolizes positive and represents the male, the light, the living and the moving. Yin and Yang combined together and formed a unity. The law of universe is that everything is produced by change which results from the reaction of Yin and Yang, and that there must be a balance between Yin and Yang (Feuchtwang, 1974). According to Yi Jing, the interaction of one Yin and one Yang is called Dao, and the resulting

(Water) (Mountain) (Earth)

constant generative processes is called “Yi” (Change). The theory of Yin and Yang claimed that all phenomena in the universe are the results of endless interactions between the two opposing natures of Yin and Yang which are manifested in their opposition. This means that many different phenomena are unified under a single, allembracing cosmology. The Tai Chi (Tai Ji) symbol represented a cosmogonic genesis of Yin and Yang. This concept has long served as the core principle of Chinese metaphysics (Lee, 1986). According to the observation of nature and Yin-Yang theory, the ancient Chinese created the Tai Chi and derived eight diagrams using the combination of whole bar “—” as the symbol of Yang and the broken bar “– –” as the symbol of Yin. The eight diagrams represented Heaven, Lake, Fire, Thunder, Wind, Water, Mountain and Earth, as shown in Figure 5.3. The teachers of ancient

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Figure 5.4 Productive and Destructive Cycle of the Five Elements

EARTH

EARTH

FIRE

METAL

WOOD

FIRE

WATER

METAL

WOOD

Productive cycle

WATER

Destructive cycle Source: Adapted from Walters (1989)

China used these eight diagrams to describe the phenomena of nature, the changes of society, and human life. The Ba Gua (Eight Trigrams) system, derived from the eight diagrams, became one of the basic theories of Feng Shui, especially in the Compass School (Xu, 1990).

The Theory of the Five Elements The theory of the Five Elements is another basic concept of ancient Chinese philosophy. Ancient Chinese believed that in the universe, including heaven, earth and human beings, everything has an attribute according to the five fundamental groups of substances. These five elements (called Wu Xing in Chinese) are: metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Needham (1959) pointed out that the names of the five elements are related to the names of the five major planets in ancient astronomy: Jupiter (star of wood), Mars (star of fire), Venus (star of metal), Mercury (star of water) and Saturn (star of earth).

Indeed, Chinese astronomy still retains these names for the five major planets of the solar system. It reflects the fact that the ancient Chinese considered all things on earth to be influenced by, and related to, celestial phenomena. The characteristics of each of these five elements and their mutual relationships were based on observed natural phenomena, and their relationships were identified as a productive and a destructive cycle as shown in Figure 5.4. Walters (1989) recognized that the phenomenal experiences support these ideas clearly. In the productive cycle, ancient Chinese found that wood lights fire, fire burns into ashes (earth), earth contains minerals (metal), metal melts into liquid (water), and water grows plants (wood). In the destructive cycle, ancient Chinese observed that earth absorbs water, water extinguishes fire, fire melts metal, metal cuts plant (wood), and wood retains earth. According to an ancient Chinese source, Yue Ling (The Monthly Commands), the structure of the universe was developed as a space-time model

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Figure 5.5 Orientation of the Five Elements South Summer Fire (Red)

East Spring

Wood (Green)

Earth (Yellow)

Metal (White)

West Autumn

Water (Black)

North Winter

described in terms of five elements (Hwangbo, 2002). The Yue Ling first appeared in the classic Li Ji (The Book of Rites), written in the late third century BC, and later in extended form in the Lüshi Chunqiu (The Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Lü). In The Monthly Commands, fire was attributed to the south and summer, for heat came from the sun in the south. Water was attributed to the north and winter, as water was another form of ice and snow, and cold wind blew from the north. Wood was attributed to the east and spring, for seeds and plants began to grow with the sun, which rose from the east. Metal was attributed to the west and autumn, because it was a bleak time of the year, and metal was rough and hard, and the sun set in the west. Earth was attributed to the center. Yoon (2006) explained that “Earth” represents the Huangtu (Loess) Plateau (means dusty soil of yellowish color) in the middle section of Yellow River where the Chinese civilization was

first settled and developed the concept of this area called “the center of the district.” When the correlation of the five elements with four seasons and four cardinal points is understood, the theory of Five Elements can be seen as a classification of orientation as shown in Figure 5.5. It is noted that in the classical Feng Shui texts, the north was positioned at the bottom while the south was placed at the top.

The Formation of Feng Shui Knowledge The Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 221) was the golden age of Chinese civilization. It supported vast achievements in philosophy, astronomy, medicine,

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Figure 5.6 Four Emblems in the Celestial Sphere 角 亢 氏 房

奎 胃

昴

心 箕 尾

婁

畢

觜 參

Azure Dragon—East

鬼

White Tiger—West

井

壁

柳 張

室

星

危

虛 女

軫

翼

牛 斗

Black Tortoise—North

Red Bird—South Source: Ai (1998)

science, architecture, technology, culture, art, music, and literature. There were four major scientific developments that generated Feng Shui knowledge: the structure of the Chinese calendar system, the classification of Four Emblems, the invention of compass, and the early literature of Feng Shui.

The Chinese Calendar System In the Chinese calendar system, the ten Tian Gan (Heavenly Stems or Celestial Stems) and twelve Di Zhi (Earthly Branches or Terrestrial Branches) were terms introduced by Chinese before the Xia Dynasty (ca. 21st century BC–16th century BC). By combining the Ten Heavenly Stems with the Twelve Earthly Branches, the 60-year sexagenary cycles were invented and applied to the Chinese calendar around 300 BC in the Zhou Dynasty (Lip, 1979). This calendar system was based on

the lunar cycle and called the Imperial Calendar. In the Han Dynasty, this Chinese imperial lunar calendar system was completed by dividing the day into 12 double-hours, and the division of the solar year into 24 equal parts. This division of the year into 24 solar periods was established for the practical use of the agricultural cycle according to the “real” solar calendar. Conversely, the lunar calendar system provided the basis for astrological calculations and space-time relationships. This gave significance to one particular direction at a particular time of the year, and ultimately evolved into one of the fundamental principles of the Compass School in Feng Shui practices.

Classification of Four Emblems Chinese astronomy has a very long history. In the Han Dynasty, many concepts concerning celestial

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spheres were well established. The most significant astronomical recognition was the naming of the 28 Xiu (mansions or constellations) to identify 28 unevenly sized constellations that divided the sky.

Figure 5.7 A Model of Shi (Basic Compass)

The identification of the Xiu was first made about 2400 BC; traditionally they formed a rough belt round the equator (Skinner, 1982). These 28 Xiu were then grouped into four “emblems,” with each containing seven mansions according to their shapes and directions in the sky (Gao, 1933). They were named the Azure Dragon(青龍)1, Red Bird (朱雀) , White Tiger (白虎) and Black Tortoise (玄武), representing the cardinal orientations of East, South, West and North according to their directions in the sky as shown in Figure 5.6. These four emblems were mentioned extensively in later Feng Shui literature.

The Invention of the Compass By the end of the Zhou Dynasty, the discovery of magnetism by the ancient Chinese provided a scientific foundation for the development of Feng Shui. The origin of the compass was based on the discovery of the magnetic directive property of lodestone with its ability to orientate itself in a particular direction (Lee, 1986). During the period of Warring States, the “Si Nan Che” (south-pointing vehicle) was first invented by the utilization of lodestone in a form of mechanical device to identify direction in periods of war. During the Han Dynasty, astronomers and diviners used an instrument called the Shi, a forerunner of the present-day astronomer’s planisphere. Like the modern instrument, it consisted of an upper plate which revolved on a lower base plate. The upper (or Heaven) plate was engraved with the seven stars of the constellation Bei Dou, the Northern Ladle, whose “marker stars” always point to the Pole Star. It is from this constellation that navigators and geographers are able to identify the direction of true North. If the constellation is observed at the same time every evening, it will appear to have rotated round the

Source: Walters (2002, p. 249)

sky by about one degree every evening. But as the Earth rotates each day, Bei Dou also appears to be rotating throughout the evening. Thus given the direction of the Pole Star and knowing the time of the year, by rotating the central disc one can discover the time of a day; or conversely, by knowing the time of a day, one can calculate the time of the year. Early texts referred to the Shi, and mentioned that the “spoon” in the center was used to point to the south. When, in the late 1950s, an example of the base plate of a Shi was found, archaeologists jumped to the conclusion that this was the plate on which a magnetic spoon rotated. However, within a few years, further archaeological excavations uncovered more examples of the base and upper plates of other Shi, and the true nature of the “spoon,” Bei Dou, was revealed (Figure 5.7). The Han Dynasty base plates and upper plates were always marked with the 28 Xiu on the outer edge and together with 24 directional signs to mark the 24 divisions of the solar year. These directional signs, now known as the 24 “Shan” or “mountains”

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are comprised of the 12 Zhi (Branches) to mark the hours and solar months, together with eight of the ten Gan (Stems), and four of the eight Gua (Trigrams) at the corners. Mills (1992) suggested that this basic compass symbolizes a “micro-cosmos”—a diagram of heaven and earth that demonstrates the developed philosophy of unification amongst heaven, earth, time and space. The Shi is, of course, a forerunner of the familiar Feng Shui Luopan compass, which still traditionally bears the names of the 28 Xiu on the perimeter of the rotating plate.

Early Feng Shui Literature The first mention of Feng Shui in Chinese written text can be found in Qian Han Shu (The History of the Former Han Dynasty). This book referred to two earlier books entitled Kan Yu Jin Kui (The Golden Treasury of Kan Yu) and Gong Zhai Di Xing (Topography for Palaces and Houses), which were supposedly written during the Han Dynasty (Feuchtwang, 1974). Kan Yu Jin Kui was regarded as a treatise on the Wu Xing (Five Elements), and Gong Zhai Di Xing was one of the original books on the Xing Fa (The Form method). He (1998) suggested that these two books may be the origin of the distinction between the two schools of Feng Shui, which later became known as the Compass School and the Form School. However these two books have not survived to modern times. Qian Han Shu (The History of the Former Han Dynasty), in which the term “Kan Yu” first mentioned, provided documentation for the practice of Kan Yu during the Han Dynasty. “Kan” was interpreted as the observation of the principles of Heaven, and “Yu” as the investigation of the principles of Earth. The extended concept of Kan Yu was the establishment of harmony between Heaven, Earth and Humanity. The Shi Ji (Historical Records) was the oldest surviving book, which named Kan Yu experts “Kan

The Development of Feng Shui

Yu Jia” (Kan Yu master). According to Shi Ji, Kan Yu Jia paid considerable attention to architectural aspects, which made Kan Yu terminology become the core and substantial parts of Feng Shui practices later. The earliest important surviving written source of Feng Shui was a manual called Zang Shu (The Book of Burial), written by Guo Pu (276–324) in the Jin Dynasty (276–420). Although the date and authorship of Zang Shu remained uncertain and debatable (Needham, 1956; Han, 1983; He, 1995; Ai, 1998), it was almost certain that this book was finished by the time of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (ca. 389–589) (He, 1998). The Book of Burial is believed to be the first instance where the term “Feng Shui” is used to describe its fundamental theories and principles. As a result, Guo Pu is often considered to be the founder of Feng Shui principles that are known today. The most famous paragraph frequently quoted from this book was translated by Liu (1989) as follows: Concerning the tomb, let it ride upon the living breath. The Classics say: “Qi [The breath] is dispersed when it rides on the wind [Feng]. And is halted when it is bounded by a water course [Shui].” The ancients were able to accumulate it and prevent it from dispersing. They could channel it and keep it in one place. And so it was called Feng Shui.

According to Zang Shu, when Qi is blown by the wind, it will be scattered; when Qi is accumulated by surrounding protective mountains, the site will be warm and productive. Qi can be kept and accumulated in water, especially in an appropriately oriented meandering river or in a peaceful lake. Therefore, the basic goal of Qi theory is finding a place for human habitation to

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avoid wind and to find water. Qi relates closely to wind and water, which are the two very important elements in Feng Shui. He (1998) recognized that there were three important messages which arise from this quotation. Firstly, the use of the term “Feng Shui” originated from this book and began to be adopted as a term which represented a popular definition of the related specific knowledge. Secondly, Feng Shui practice was first referred to as dealing with the tomb and in connection with burial customs. Thirdly, the principles of Feng Shui included dealing with the Yang Zhai (Houses of the living) as well as Yin Zhai (Dwellings of the dead). Although Zang Shu was written in a classical literary style in less than 2,000 words, the context of this book became the foundation of Feng Shui principles, which were frequently quoted in later Feng Shui texts. He (1998) further suggested that there were six major philosophical Feng Shui concepts documented from Zang Shu: Qi theory, ancestral theory, wind-water theory, form theory, four emblems theory and direction theory:

(1) Qi theory: Qi was one of the guiding principles that formed the core of the whole book. Qi was the source of all living and growing natural phenomena. In essence, an auspicious site was identified by observing the Qi of the landscape.



(2) Ancestral theory: The fates of ancestors and descendants were linked. A favorable tomb of the ancestors would bring good fortune to descendants. This is a well known concept of “ancestral benefit” that links the Feng Shui of the Yin Zhai (Dwellings of the dead) and Yang Zhai (Houses of the living).



(3) Wind and water theory: The critical role of water in the development of all settlements was identified. Water was seen as a source to accumulate living breath and protects living breath from being dispersed by strong winds.



(4) Form theory: A good site was determined by Shi (Extent) and Xing (Form). Shi related to the general configuration and horizontal magnitudes while Xing was the

detailed form and vertical dimensions. The proportion of the Extent and Form should be appropriately related to obtain the Qi (living breath).

(5) Four emblems theory: The configuration of landscapes should be balanced according to the four emblems, with the Azure dragon, the White tiger, the Red bird and the Black tortoise corresponding to left, right, front and back. These four directions of a site should be characterized by requirements in configuration with the natural environment.



(6) Direction theory: The orientation of a site has to be determined by means of a sundial—the Tu Gui Fa (The method of cardinal orientation). Subsequently, the Yin Yang, the Five Elements, the Eight Trigrams, Ten Heavenly Stems and the Twelve Earthly Branches were recommended techniques to survey the orientation of potential sites and buildings.

Two Schools of Thought In the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Chinese culture reached a high peak under a stable society and a strong government. It was a period of prosperity and cultural richness that provided a solid foundation for the development of Feng Shui. During the late Tang Dynasty and early Song Dynasty (960–1279), there was two major yet distinct Feng Shui schools of thought: the Form School (Xing Fa) and the Compass School (Li Fa), emerged amongst many other minor schools of thought. The formation of these two schools developed from different social, geographical, scientific and religious influences.

The Form School Based on the theories in Zang Shu (The Book of Burial), the Form School was derived from

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Figure 5.8 Luopan (Feng Shui Compass)

Source: Walters (1989)

the teachings of Yang Yun Song of the late Tang Dynasty. Later, it flourished in the provinces of Jiangxi and Anhui; therefore, it was also called the Jiangxi School. The Form School (Xing Fa) was primarily based on the verification of the physical configuration of mountains and watercourses surrounding sites and buildings. Its theory was based on an understanding of the landscape: the profiles of the land, the sources of rivers and the terrain. It was also called Luan Tou, which means to locate the “beautiful head of dragon,” where dragon means the situation and configuration of mountains and watercourses.

Approximation of Dragons), Shi Er Zhang Fa (Method of the Twelve Lines) and Qin Nang Ao Zhi (Mysterious Principles of the Blue Bag). He developed the common methodology of the Form School, which is focused on the shape of mountains and hills, the direction of water and the relationship between hills and water (Xu, 1990).

Yang Yun Song wrote many famous books on Feng Shui and the most representative of his writings were: Han Long Jing (Classic of Moving Dragons), San Shi Liu Long Jing (The Book of Thirty-six Dragons), Yi Long Jing (Canon for the



(1) Dragon: means the mountain ridges to be traced, and represents the topography,



(2) Sand: means the enfolding hills and soil condition, and represents the surrounding environment,

The practices of the Form School concentrated their analyses of sites, seeing the shapes and visualization of the landforms as of primary importance (Mills, 1992). Its analysis was based on Five Geographical Secrets, namely dragon, sand, water, cave and direction (Lip, 1979):

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(3) Water: means the flow of water through or by-passing the site,



(4) Cave: or “Feng Shui Spot” means the niche position, and represents the best location,



(5) Direction: means the facing direction of the site and building, and represents the orientation.

Detailed explanations of these Five Geographical Secrets will be given in Chapter 7.

The Compass School The Compass School was based on metaphysical speculations of cosmology. It was also called the Directions School or Classical School. In particular, this school analyzes the directional aspects in terms of the relationship between the Five Elements, Eight Trigrams, Heavenly Stems, Earthly Branches and constellations. It was developed by Wang Ji of the Song Dynasty and was practiced in the provinces of Fujian and Zhejiang (Lee, 1986), and was therefore also called the Fujian School. The Compass School was based primarily on the use of the Luopan (Feng Shui compass) and the composed elements of time in space. Skinner (1982) recognized that direct references to various astrological and other symbols were important in the Compass School approach and the practices were highly formulaic. At the end of the Tang Dynasty, the Luopan was developed from an advanced version of the basic compass. A simple Luopan has as few as five concentric circles of Chinese characters while a complicated one has as many as 38 circles as shown in Figure 5.8. The basic rings were categorized in multiples of twelve, for instance, 12 earthly branches, 24 directional points, 60 sexagenary characters, 72 dragons, 120 Fen Jin and 360 degrees in a circle, and even 720 divisions. Various rings also showed combinations of the five elements, the ten stems, the 28 Xiu and at the heart of the compass, the eight trigrams. There was only one physical needle in a compass, but three possible rings referred to the “correct needle” (or

Earth plate), the “seam needle” (Outer Heaven plate) or the “central needle” (Inner Heaven plate). Skinner (1982) recognized that the idea of creating new plates 7.5 degrees out of phase with the original configurations was to compensate exactly half of one of the 24 direction points that form the basis of the ring system, and that the three plates system was instituted to “improve accuracy of measurement.” Skinner believed that each of the three rings has its own function. The most popular and representative manual used by the Compass School was called Zhai Jing (The Canon of Dwellings). Although the Zhai Jing was claimed to be written by Huang Di (The Yellow Emperor) of the twenty-seventh century BC, this manual first appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The doctrines of this manual were based upon some concepts concerning the universe and its influence on the fate of man during antiquity (Wang, 1991). Many techniques of the Compass School evolved into popular methods, such as “Fei Xing” (Flying Stars method), “Ba Zhai” (Eight Mansions method), “San Yuan” (Triple Combination method) and “Ming Gua” (Destiny Number method) (Too, 1996). More detailed explanations of two of these methods will be discussed in Chapter 17 and 18.

Characteristics and Comparisons of the Two Schools By the end of the Tang Dynasty, the principles and practices of Feng Shui had been extensively developed. More than a hundred titles were recorded that deal with Feng Shui, and it was confusing to identify which Feng Shui books were orthodox and of real practical value (He, 1998). Gao (1992) recognized that Feng Shui had suffered serious criticism in that period which led to the transformation of both Form School and Compass School in order to survive. The Form School was an older and more basic of the two schools, and focused on the analysis of landscapes and shapes. The newer Compass School emphasized astronomical factors and calculations using the

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Luopan (Feng Shui compass); and began to absorb other analytical tools, such as Yin-Yang, Ba Gua (Eight Trigrams), He Tu (The River He Diagram), Luo Shu (Book of the River Luo), Tian Gan (Heavenly Stems) and Di Zhi (Earthly Branches). The Form School approach maintained the traditional methods of examination, such as dragon forms, watercourses, and features of the surrounding four quadrants (Lee, 1986). It emphasized the application of the Five Geographical Secrets of dragon, sand, water, cave and direction. The Form School placed less emphasis on the compass and cosmic symbolism, and appealed to scholars and intellectuals. As a result, the Form School approach was widely accepted in the upper classes of Chinese society, and applied to the design and construction of castles, palaces and towns (Skinner, 1982). By contrast, the Compass School interpreted Feng Shui in terms of the Eight Trigrams, Heavenly Stems, Earthly Branches and Sexagenary Cycles. It imposed the use of Luopan because the Feng Shui compass is the only instrument used in the Compass School. With the use of the Luopan, the Compass School popularized a new approach in using Feng Shui methods of examination. Skinner (1982) suggested that the development of the Compass School attracted laypeople and civilians, because the application of the Compass School was simple and relied only on the use of the Luopan. Gao (1992) believed that the Compass School was particularly suitable for the lower classes of the society who have had little education and inhabited the flat areas where prominent geographical features were not found. Skinner (1982) concluded that the Form School utilized a greater degree of intuitive insight while the Compass School was more complex in its theory, but was more subjective and mechanical in its application. An astute comment made by Chao Fang cited in Skinner (1982, p. 10), “In the Form School, the principles are clear but the practice is difficult. With the Compass School, the principles are obscure but the practice is easy.”

The Development of Feng Shui

A Mixture of the Two Schools After the Song Dynasty, China was invaded by Mongols from the North and the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) was established. Throughout the Mongol rule, Chinese scholars were banned from the civil services and Chinese traditions were suppressed. The practice of Feng Shui was officially prohibited for nearly a century. When the Emperor of Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) eventually drove the Mongols out of China, Chinese culture was restored with the widespread religious influence of Daoism and Buddhism. The practice of Feng Shui was resumed and rose to new heights. Not only flourished among the common populace, it also found favor with some of the Ming emperors, officials and renowned scholars. Feng Shui principles and practices were used to set up the new capital in Beijing. Also, the tombs of all the Ming emperors were constructed strictly according to Feng Shui rules. At the time of the Ming Dynasty, the distinction between the two schools became apparent. Primarily, the Form School was based on the interpretation of the forms and outlines of physical objects. However, in response to challenges from the Compass School and to widen its consideration of Feng Shui factors, the Form School began to incorporate methods used by the Compass School. In due course, the two schools did not exclusively employ their own methods for the practice of Feng Shui. Indeed, most of the Feng Shui texts after the Ming Dynasty do not subscribe exclusively to a single school, but combined ideas from the two schools (Lee, 1986). By the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), the two schools of thought were almost indistinguishable. The practices of the two schools become blended together as each was seen to be complementary to the other (He, 1998). Their nature, characteristics and eventually the mutual assimilation of these two schools have had a great impact on the current status of Feng Shui practice. Feng Shui practitioners always used elements from both schools (Mills, 1992). Unfortunately, the development of different

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theoretical bases created both confusion and conflict in Feng Shui practice. This historical debate between the Form School and the Compass School has focused on the relative importance of the Luopan (Feng Shui Compass). Today, it is generally accepted by Feng Shui masters that both approaches are necessary, although ultimately, the dealing with forms of land is the most fundamental consideration (Xu, 1990). The contemporary Feng Shui master, Too (1996) also supported this argument and claimed that Form School considerations override Compass School indications. Feng Shui scholars (He, 1990; Wang, 1992a; Cheng and Kong, 1993) recognized that the Form School approach comprised a scientific basis for the analysis of the built environment. The principles and practices of the Form School in relation to the built environment will be explained and discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. But in this book, the authors disclose some new research findings on Luo Shu, the fundamental diagram of the Compass School, based on modern linear algebra revealing that the Compass School may conceal some hidden secret which is yet to be unveiled in the near future.

expensive pigment ultramarine, widely used during the Renaissance period in frescoes and oil painting.

“青” (Qing) in Chinese means the color of light green (spring green) or clear blue sky (青天). However, from the Compass School point of view (see Chapter 16 – Theories of the Compass School), Qing represents the east and the color of the east is definitely “green,” not “blue” due to the nature of the “Wood Element” belonging to the east. Wood Element occupies two Guas in the Eight Trigrams, namely the Xun Gua and the Zhen Gua. And the colored description of the Xun Gua in Chinese is “綠” (Green) and Zhen Gua is “碧” (Jade Green). Both refer to green, not blue.



As most of the English literature uses “Azure Dragon”, we will keep using this conventional translation in this book just to avoid confusion to readers who are familiar with the term. However, readers should be aware that the actual meaning should be “Green Dragon” or “Light-Green Dragon.”



Similarly, for the term “Red Bird” ( 朱雀), “朱” (Chu) in Chinese means the color of orangey-red, originated from “Vermilion” which is the color of powdered mineral cinnabar, often called “Chinese Red.”



Also, for the term “Black Tortoise” ( 玄武 ), “ 玄武 ” (Xuan Wu) in Chinese means an imaginative animal combined of tortoise and snake. Also, Xuan Wu described the color of “Basalt,” a common extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at the surface, which is darkgrey in color. In general, the Chinese word “玄” (Xuan) means dark or black in color.

Endnote 1. The term “Azure Dragon” is frequently found in English literature of Feng Shui to describe the Eastern constellations of the four Emblems in ancient Chinese astronomy. However, the translation of “ 青龍 ” into “Azure Dragon” may be misleading.

“Azure” means the color of sky blue, halfway between blue and cyan. “Azure” is a very old-fashioned poetic word. In 1740, the British patriotic song Rule Britannia! contained the words “azure main” to mean the sea. The English word “azure,” French azur, the Italian azzurro, the Portuguese and Spanish azul, are all originated from the Arabic word “azul” to describe a semi-precious stone mined from Afghanistan called “Lapis lazuli,” which is deep blue in color. It has been exported to the Mediterranean world to make into jewelry, carvings, boxes, mosaics, ornaments, and vases. It was also ground and processed to make the most

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CULTURE AND ARCHITECTURE

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Eastern and Western Cultures At around 4,000 BC to 2,000 BC, there were four ancient civilizations: the Chinese, the Indian, the Babylonian and the Egyptian, and many ethnic groups, such as Black Africans and Polynesians. During the last 4000 years, they have evolved into more than 200 distinct countries. However, nowadays it is very often that “White” Western European and “Oriental” East Asian are compared and contrasted with the two ethnic divisions, that is, the Mongols and the Caucasians. The Mongols originated around the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers of China and mainly developed on the eastern side of the Eurasian continent, in the area where China, Japan, Korea, and those of the Indo-Chinese peninsula are located. On the western side of the Eurasian continent, the Caucasians evolved in the lands around the Mediterranean, and now occupied mainly the continents of Europe and America. The Mongols and the Caucasians have very different cultural backgrounds, but it has been suggested that the basic difference in the language structure between the two languages is the main cause of their cultural differences (Huang, 1995).

Language Systems On the eastern side of the Eurasian continent, the Mongolic languages have evolved into two types of language structure: isolating and agglutinative. Isolating languages are those in which the root words (morphemes) remain unchanged, and do not take additional particles which are not words themselves. In isolating languages the morphemes are fixed modifications, such as those denoting gender (e.g., mayoress), diminutiveness (e.g., kitchenette), past tense (e.g., received), or plural form (e.g., cows). Chinese, Burmese, Thai and Vietnamese are examples of isolating languages. Agglutination is the morphological process of adding “affixes” to the base of a word. An

agglutinative language is a form of “synthetic” language. Qualifying ideas (such as gender, diminutiveness, tense, plural form) are expressed by affixes, not by internal changes of the root of the word. Most importantly, affixes do not fuse together, nor change form to express several simultaneous conditions. Instead, each “affix” typically represents one unit of meaning. For example, the Turkish word for “a book” is “kitap;” the plural affix is “lar,” so “books” becomes “kitaplar;” “your books” “kitaplarinizi;” and “from your books” “kitaplarinizidan.” Complete ideas, which in many inflectional languages will use several words in a sentence, can be expressed in a single word. Mongolian, Japanese and Korean are examples of East-Asian agglutinative languages. On the western side of Eurasian continent, the Caucasian languages have developed an “inflectional” language structure. The system is also called “fusional” since it is distinguished from the agglutinative languages by its tendency to “fuse” several distinct concepts into a single additional particle. For example, in the Latin word bonus (good), the ending -us denotes masculine gender, nominative case, and singular number. Changing any of these features requires replacement of the suffix “-us” with something else. For example, if it were the accusative case, bonus would become bonum if masculine, but bonam if feminine, and if plural, bonos and bonas respectively. In many European languages the end of a noun changes according to whether it is singular, or plural, and in some languages also depending on its position in a sentence (to, from, of, etc.). Latin, German, and Russian have very complex rules to determine the ending of a noun (its inflection). Italian and Spanish have different plural endings according to gender (signor, a man; signori, men; signora, a lady; signore, ladies), although for nouns, French usually just adds a “s,” (hommes, femmes) as in English. Inflection is much more noticeable with regards to adjectives. In nearly all European languages except English, adjectives change to match the noun, for example, in French, the word for “good-looking” can be beau (beau garçon, beautiful boy), belle (belle fille, beautiful girl), bel (bel ami, beautiful

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Table 6.1 Expressions of Singular and Plural Number Expressions

Chinese

English

Singular

這是一本書

This is a book

Plural

這是兩本書

These are two books

friend), belles (belles filles, beautiful girls) or beaux (beaux garçons, beautiful boys). But in English the only change made to a noun is the use of the bound morpheme “s” (a suffix) to indicate plural (cat, cats) or possession (cat, cat’s) while English adjectives never change at all.

Differences in Expressions Some linguists may argue that isolating and inflectional languages are quite similar in terms of sentence and grammatical structure, and their differences in expression in numbers, tenses, genders and vocabularies are only modest. Instead, the real differences are found between the agglutinative and inflectional language systems, like Japanese and English. However, Huang (1995) suggested that these differences in expressions between isolating and inflectional language systems may be the main cause of cultural differences between East and West. Even though English is not a perfect example of the inflectional language system, in this section, the Chinese and English languages are contrasted to show these four major differences in expressions:

(1) Quantity (Singular or plural)



(2) Tenses (Past, present, future)



(3) Genders (Masculine, feminine, neuter)



(4) Vocabularies

Expressions of Numbers The relationship between singular and plural expressions indicates a clear difference between isolating and inflectional language systems. In Chinese, as the morphemes are isolated, the expression of plural form only requires changing one word from its singular structure. However, in English, as the morphemes are synthetic, the expression of plural form requires changing all words which have a singular structure. From the example above (Table 6.1), even a very simple expression in English requires changing all words (in this case, four words) within its sentence structure when changing from singular to plural expression. On the other hand, Chinese requires only changing one single word from “一” (one) to “兩” (two), and other words of the sentence remain unchanged.

Expressions of Tense In inflectional language system, tense is one of the important components in its grammatical structure. In English, the four basic forms of tenses are present, past, perfect and continuous tense. The rules and expressions in these tenses are very strictly applied in English language structure. However, in Chinese, there is no clear grammatical structure for tenses and no strict rules and expressions equivalent to tenses in English.

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Table 6.2 Expressions of Tense

Table 6.3 Expressions of Genders

Time Expressions

Chinese

English

Male

Female

Present tense

走

Go

Bull（公牛）

Cow（母牛）

Past tense

走（了）

Went

Master（主人）

Mistress（女主人）

Perfect tense

（已）走

Gone

God（神）

Goddess（女神）

Continuous tense

（正在）走

Going

He（他）

She（她）

Table 6.2 shows the four individual words, go, went, gone and going expressing the four basic tenses in English. These words have different suffixes or even a completely different spelling to represent various tenses. However, in Chinese, there are no equivalent words to represent these tenses. In order to represent various tenses in Chinese language structure, another word is added in combination of the basic element “走.” Therefore, in each form of tense, the same morpheme “走” has appeared.

Expressions of Gender In inflectional language system, different words are used to describe different genders. In English, sometimes the suffixes are changed and in some cases, the entire words are changed to express different genders. In isolating language system, the basic element for most words is the same for both genders. In most cases, Chinese words of feminine expression are added to the basic element to represent the female. In Table 6.3, bull and cow represent the two genders in English. It is required to understand these words to identify what genders they represent. However, in Chinese, the basic element “牛” appears in both genders, and hence the words which indicate feminine, “母” (mother) and “女” (female) are added to the basic element.

Expressions of Vocabulary In the vocabularies of isolating languages, a single word (“morpheme”) nearly always remains unchanged for all members within the same class of vocabulary. In inflected languages, however, totally different words are often used to describe related members within the same class of vocabulary. In Table 6.4, there are eight simple descriptions of various terms of “ 牛 ” in the same class of vocabulary in both Chinese and English. In Chinese, the basic element “ 牛 ” appeared in all descriptions in the same class of vocabulary, for instance, the words for “ 耕” and “水” are added to the basic element “牛” to describe the various terms, in this case “耕牛” (Ox) and “水牛” (Buffalo). In English, all the class members are represented by totally different words, such as Ox and Buffalo. It is necessary to understand all these words in order to identify what expressions they represent even within the same class of vocabulary.

Eastern and Western Philosophy The contrast in the expressions of isolating and inflectional language systems, such as quantity, tense, gender, and vocabulary, has been explained above. In each case, it is noticeable that expressions in Chinese are much simpler than those in English.

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Table 6.4 Expressions of Vocabularies Chinese

English

公牛

Bull

母牛

Cow

耕牛

Ox

水牛

Buffalo

野牛

Bison

牛畜

Cattle

小牛

Veal

牛肉

Beef

In the expressions of quantity, Chinese only requires the changing of a single word from singular to plural while English requires changing all the words even in a very simple expression. In the expressions of tense, Chinese will add other words to the basic element to describe different tenses, so that the same morpheme will appear in each tense structure. In English, different words have different suffixes or even a complete different spelling to represent various tenses. In Chinese, the basic element appears in both genders, and hence the words for feminine are merely added to the basic elements to represent female; in English, completely different words will be used to present different genders. In the expressions of vocabularies, the basic element in Chinese appears in all descriptions in the same class of vocabulary,

Culture and Architecture

and additional words are added-on to the basic elements to describe various terms; while in English, terms within the same class of vocabulary are represented by completely different words. It is difficult to demonstrate whether the language system of a community influences its culture or vice versa. However, there are definitely close relationships between the language structure of a community and its culture. From the above analysis of the differences between Chinese and English expressions, it is obvious that the Chinese language system is simple and the English one is complex. Furthermore, the Chinese language system describes things from general to specific while English, on the contrary, starts from specific to general, as shown in such simple matters as expressing names, addresses, and the date in Table 6.5. Based on the above observations of the differences in the language expressions, it can be projected that Eastern culture is simple and holistic, while Western culture is complex and analytic. Thus we could infer that the holistic language structure of Chinese tends towards synthetic philosophy whereas the complex language structure of English tends towards an analytic philosophy. Synthesis is an integration of two or more preexisting elements which results in a new creation. The broad meaning of synthetic philosophy is to describe the final result of attempts to reconcile the inherent. Along with the similar concept of integration, synthesis is generally considered to

Table 6.5 Expressions of Name, Address and Date

Name

Address

Date

Chinese

English

Family, Given name

First, Middle, Family name

孫逸仙

John Fitzgerald Kennedy

Country, City, Street, No.

No. Street, City, Country

中國，香港，皇后大道，132 號

132 Queens Road, Hong Kong, China

Year, Month, Day

Day, Month, Year

二零壹壹年三月八日

8th March 2011

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be an important element of Eastern philosophy, particularly in the various emerging ideas often considered to be holistic. Holism is the idea that all the properties of a given system cannot be determined or explained by the sum of its component parts alone. Instead, the system as a whole significantly determines how the parts behave. The general principle of holism was concisely summarized by Aristotle’s Metaphysics (translated, 1998) “The whole is more than the sum of its parts.” The converse of holism is reductionism. In science, reductionism means that a complex system can be explained by reducing to its fundamental parts. Reductionism is generally associated with analytic philosophy which is the logical clarification of thoughts. It stresses on clarity and argument, often achieved via modern formal logic and analysis of language, and a respect for the natural sciences. It investigates the fundamental reasons and principles of everything and in favor of close attention to detail. As a result, analytic philosophers have often considered their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to, those of the natural sciences. Analytic philosophy is a generic term for the philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the twentieth century.

Architecture and Culture Architecture, the art and science of designing buildings, often includes the design of the total built environment from town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the construction details, interior design and even sometimes including furniture design and placement. Architectural design is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of mass, space, volume, texture, light, shadow, materials, program, and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction and technology, in order to achieve an end product which is esthetic, functional and often artistic.

Architectural monuments are perceived as cultural and political symbols and works of art. Historical civilizations are often known primarily through their architectural achievements, such as the pyramids of Egypt, the Roman Colosseum and the Chinese Forbidden City of Beijing, all of which are important cultural symbols. Historical architectural developments provide crucial links to understand Eastern and Western cultures.

Western Architecture Architecture first evolved from basic needs for shelter, security, and worship. The architecture of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals, religious and empirical ones, and their architectural styles developed. In this section, four major ancient and medieval western architectural styles are reviewed, namely Greek, Roman, Byzantine and Gothic architecture.

Greek Architecture Ancient buildings of Greek architecture had wooden columns to support roof and beams. Around 600 BC, the wooden columns of the old Temple of Hera at Olympia underwent a material transformation, known as “petrification,” in which they were replaced by stone columns. With the spread of this process to other sanctuaries, Greek temples and significant buildings from the sixth century BC onwards were built largely from stone. The standard form of Greek architecture was rectangular in structure with limestone as construction material. The basic rectangular plan was surrounded by a colonnaded portico of columns on all four sides, notable examples being the Parthenon (440 BC) (Figure 6.1). In general, ancient Greek architecture employed four distinctive styles (technically known as the “order”)

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Figure 6.1 Parthenon (440 BC) in Athens

of column: the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Caryatid orders.

Roman Architecture Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture with its own discovery of new architectural solutions. The development of Roman architecture and its application to a wider range of functions in civic life called for the new technical and engineering skills. In particular, the use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials and mortar enabled the Romans to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction

of imposing structures for public use. Examples include the multiple arches and large spans Pontdu-Gard Aqueducts, the renowned multiple arches and multi-storey construction of the Colosseum (AD 70) (Figure 6.2), and the largest single span dome and open spaces of Pantheon (AD 125) (Figure 6.3).

Byzantine Architecture The Byzantine empire gradually emerged as a distinct entity after AD 330, when Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium (later known as Constantinople, and now called Istanbul). Early Byzantine architecture is essentially a continuation of Roman architecture,

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Figure 6.2 The Colosseum (AD 70) in Rome

Figure 6.3 The Pantheon (AD 125) in Rome

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Figure 6.4 Exterior of Hagia Sophia of Istanbul (AD 548)

Figure 6.5 Hagia Sophia Interior

but gradually a distinctive style emerged, influenced both by the Middle East and the Greek cross plan church architecture. Brick was replaced by stone; classical orders were used more freely; mosaics were replaced by carved decoration, and complex domes were erected. The prime example of early Byzantine architecture is Hagia Sophia of Istanbul (AD 548) (Figure 6.4 and 6.5). A great breakthrough in the history of Western architecture occurred when Emperor Justinian’s architects invented a complex system to provide a smooth transition from a square plan to a circular dome by a series of squinches, sections of vaulting which are diagonally across the interior angle between two walls.

Gothic Architecture Gothic architecture originated in the twelfth century France and lasted into the sixteenth century. In Gothic architecture, the innovative

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Figure 6.6 Cologne Cathedral (1248), Germany

technology that stands behind the new building style was the pointed arch. The Gothic style emphasizes verticality and features almost skeletal stone structures with great expanses of glass, ribbed vaults, clustered columns, sharply pointed spires, flying buttresses and inventive sculptural detail. Gothic architecture is the most familiar as it is the architecture of many of the great cathedrals, abbeys and parish churches of Europe. A Gothic cathedral was generally the landmark building in its town, often surmounted by one or more towers and spires, and rising high above all the domestic and civic structures. The Gothic architecture of Cologne

Cathedral, built in 1248, represents the extreme of verticality (Figure 6.6).

Eastern Architecture Although the development of architecture in Asia was widely diversified, Eastern architecture can be classified into three major ancient architectural styles according to their locations: Western Asia, Southern Asia and Eastern Asia. Western Asian

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Figure 6.7 Dome of the Rock (AD 691) in Jerusalem

architecture has its origins in the Islamic countries of Middle East, Southern Asian was dominated by Indian architectural style, while Eastern Asian architecture has its roots in Chinese architecture.

Western Asian Architecture In the seventh century, Muslim armies invaded and conquered a huge expanse of land in the Middle East. Once the Muslims took control of a region, their first need was a place of worship, i.e., a mosque. Islamic architecture began in the seventh century, mainly developing from the architectural

forms of the ancient Middle East countries, with its own unique features to suit the religious and social needs of the developing society. A recognizable Islamic architectural style developed soon after the time of the Prophet Muhammad, with influences from Roman, Egyptian, Byzantine, and Persian architecture. An early example is the completion of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem in AD 691 (Figure 6.7). It featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative patterns. Islamic architecture also borrowed heavily from Persian architecture with tapered brick pillars, large arcades, and arches each supported by several pillars, as may be seen in the Imam Mosque in

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Figure 6.8 Imam Mosque Isfahan (1611), Iran

Southern Asian Architecture

a curved profile, of which a typical construction is the magnificent Brihadeeswara Temple (Figure 6.9). Indian style Hindu temples were constructed further afield in South East Asia; the most famous examples of this style are at Angkor Wat, Cambodia and Prambanan, Java.

Indian architecture encompasses a wide range of structures, both geographically and historically, being transformed by the long history of the entire South Asian subcontinent. The defining architecture of Hindu temples began in the fifth century BC. Later, there were increasing distinct architectural differences, notably in the shape of the roof structure. The southern style is distinguished by a stepped pyramid while the northern style has

With the arrival of Muslim invaders, Indian architecture was adapted to accommodate the traditions of the new religion, but remained strongly Indian at its heart and character. Over time, there was a blending between the Hindu and Islamic architectures, renowned for its proportions, its use of white marble, its intricate engravings, its minarets and even its background setting, such as that of the most famous Taj Mahal (Figure 6.10).

Isfahan, which is one of the great masterpieces of Islamic architecture in Iran (Figure 6.8).

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Figure 6.9 Brihadeeswara Temple (1010) in India

Culture and Architecture

Eastern Asian Architecture The style of Chinese architecture has evolved over many millennia. The architecture of China is as old as Chinese civilization itself. There is strong evidence that the Chinese have always employed an indigenous system of construction that has retained its principal characteristics from prehistoric times to the present day. For more than 4000 years, the structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged. Since the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Japan, Korea and Vietnam. There are certain features common to all Chinese architecture, regardless of specific region or purpose. The most important is the emphasis on the horizontal axis, in particular the construction of a heavy platform and a large roof that floats over this base, with the vertical walls not as well emphasized. A notable example is the Forbidden City in Beijing built during Ming Dynasty (1368–

Figure 6.10 Taj Mahal (1653) in India

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Figure 6.11 Forbidden City (1420) in Beijing

1644) (Figure 6.11). Another important feature is its emphasis on symmetry, which expresses a sense of grandeur; this applies to every type of building in China from palaces and temples to villages and houses. Chinese buildings may be built of brick, either red or grey bricks, but wooden structures are the most common. The roof of a typical Chinese building is curved and there are strict classifications of gable types.

Comparison of Eastern and Western Architecture The different styles of Eastern and Western architecture are briefly described in the above section. However, Liu (2005) argued that in the classification of Eastern architecture, the West Asian (represented by Islamic architecture) and

South Asian (represented by Indian architecture) architectural styles actually originated and developed from the Byzantine architectural tradition, and therefore belonged to the category of Western architecture. A comparison between Eastern and Western architecture therefore is mainly represented by the Chinese architecture in the East Asian architecture, and the classical Western architecture. The most obvious differences between Eastern and Western architecture are their structural properties. In Western architecture, whether in Greek, Roman, Byzantine or Gothic architectures, most buildings were constructed using stone, brick or mortar to form the load-bearing structural system. This structural system used the techniques of constructing arches or dome to create the large spans and spaces. As a result, the external appearances of Western architecture put emphasis on the height and depth of the buildings, and the structures are usually heavy and rigid (Figure 6.12).

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Figure 6.12 Western Architecture Structure

This contrasts the traditional structural system of Chinese architecture which stresses the column and beam skeletal frame structure (Figure 6.13). The most common structural building material used is timber. As a result, the Chinese architectural style is light-weight and flexible. Chinese architecture stresses the visual impact of the width of the buildings. For instance, regarding the buildings in the Forbidden City in Beijing, the emphasis is on their external appearances in order to suggest the all-embracing nature of imperial China. Further examples are given in the following section to demonstrate the key differences between Eastern and Western approaches to architecture.

Culture and Architecture

Figure 6.13 Eastern Architecture Structure

designed for a united humanity with all speaking a single language. The Tower of Babel has often been identified with known architectural structures, in particular the Etemenanki, the Babylonian ziggurat or temple tower, whose name means “House of the foundation of heaven on earth.” In Chinese architecture, the most famous and extravagant Efang Gong, a palace of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC) was designed and constructed by the first emperor of Qin Dynasty Figure 6.14 Tower of Babel

Eastern and Western Attitudes to Architecture Concepts of Architecture The story of the Tower of Babel, as told in the Biblical book of Genesis Ch. 11, is one of the world’s most celebrated legends of architecture of mankind. According to the legend, the Tower of Babel, with “its top may reach unto Heaven,” (Figure 6.14) was to be the focal point of a city

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but never completed. At that time, the emperor had just unified China after it had been divided by the Warring States for more than 200 years. This palace was designed to blend in harmony with the natural environment of the beautiful Li Mountain near the capital of Qin. The concept was for the palace to be situated amongst the mountains, water courses, and trees so as to become part of the natural environment (Figure 6.15). This palace became a classical model of the concept of Chinese architecture. Yu (1998) suggested that Chinese architecture aims to incorporate buildings into the natural environment, whereas Western architecture aims to conquer the natural environment. Figure 6.15 Efang Gong, Palace of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)

Attitudes to the Design of Palaces The Palace of Versailles in Paris was the official residence of the Kings of France from 1682 until 1790. It was originally a hunting lodge, built in 1624 by Louis XIII and was expanded by Louis XIV beginning in 1669. The Palace of Versailles is a masterpiece of French classical architecture. It is surrounded by spacious and luxurious extensive gardens filled with fountains and sculptures. The main palace was constructed as one single building, more than 1,000 m in length, while the interior housed many lavishly decorated salons (Figure 6.16). The most extravagant features of the Palace are Hall of Mirrors, the State Apartments and the Queen’s Apartments. The Forbidden City in Beijing is the world’s largest surviving palace complex. Built in Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), it covers 72 hectares. The complex originally consisted of 980 buildings with more than 20,000 rooms, of which 8,700 are still preserved. The Forbidden City was designed to be the center of the ancient walled city of Beijing. Indeed, the central north-south axis of the Forbidden City is also the central axis of Beijing (Figure 6.17). This axis extends to the south through the Tiananmen gate to Tiananmen Square, while northward it extends through the Bell and Drum Towers to Yongdingmen. This palace

Figure 6.16 Palace of Versailles, Paris

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Figure 6.17 The Central North-south Axis of the Forbidden City as the Central Axis of Beijing

complex truly exemplifies traditional Chinese architectural style, and has had a significant influence on the cultural and architectural developments in East Asia.

Attitudes to Landscape Design Versailles is the most famous garden in the Western world. The scale is monumental and there is little sense of enclosure. Avenues project from Louis XIV’s palace towards distant horizons, enfolding town, palace, garden and forest. There are immaculate parterres, great basins, an orangery, a vast collection of outdoor sculptures, and some of the grandest fountains which have ever been made. This garden was designed by Andre Le Nôtre in 1661. He brought to full development the Frenchstyle spacious formal garden characterized by

extensive unbroken vistas (Figure 6.18). These principles in garden design dominated throughout Europe until the rise of the English school of informal and naturalistic gardens. In China, the Imperial Gardens, originally called Yuan Ming Yuan was a complex of palaces and gardens located northwest of Beijing. It has been built in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century as the summer residence of the emperors of Qing Dynasty. It was also called the “Garden of Gardens” because of its extensive collection of garden and building architectures and other works of art. The Imperial Gardens were made up of three gardens: the Garden of Perfect Brightness proper, the Garden of Eternal Spring and the Elegant Spring Garden. Together they covered an area of 3.5 square kilometers which were almost five times the size of the Forbidden City. They had hundreds of halls, pavilions, temples, galleries, gardens, lakes, and other features. Several famous landscapes

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Figure 6.18 Gardens of the Palace of Versailles

of southern China had been reproduced in the Imperial Gardens. The key feature of the Imperial Gardens was the creation of gardens to form part of the natural environment, amongst the mountains and water courses which are naturally asymmetrical (Figure 6.19). The principle underlying the garden’s composition is to create enduring flow and also to emulate nature.

Figure 6.19 Imperial Gardens, Beijing

Chinese Architectural Philosophy: Feng Shui The Western concept of architecture tends towards the “reaching up to heaven” approach, which was originally represented by the design of the Tower of Babel. For example, the Parthenon Temple of Greece was built on the top of hill, the Colosseum of Rome built with multi-storeyed arches, and the towers and spires of Gothic Cathedral. Furthermore, the Western architectural attitudes to palaces and landscapes emphasize the rigid structure in height and depth, and its man-made environment in gardens as well. In contrast, the Chinese architectural concept tends towards the harmonization of the built and natural environment, which represented by the design of Efang Gong (an ideal palace of the Qin Dynasty but never completed). The Chinese architecture approaches to palaces and landscapes stress the spatial relationship to incorporate into the natural environment. These traditional Chinese approaches to architecture were originated from the Feng Shui knowledge, in particular the Form School. The theories of the Form School approach will be discussed in the next chapter.

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THEORIES OF THE FORM SCHOOL

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Introduction The fundamental principle of the Form School is concerned with the physical form of a site and its surrounding environment in order to detect the subtle flow of Qi. Form School practice observes the land formation and terrain first before determining the location and orientation of buildings. In general, contemporary Feng Shui scholars and researchers agree that the Form School is the most dominant approach in Feng Shui practice for the analysis of the built environment (Lip, 1986; He, 1990; Xu, 1990; Wang, 1992a; Cheng & Kong, 1993; Too, 1996). This chapter examines the basic theories of the Form School approach in relation to the built environment.

Five Geographical Secrets He (1998) recognized that the basic idea of Feng Shui lies in the principle of “induction” and the belief that human events and natural processes (terrestrial and celestial) interact with each other. In order to induce the beneficial Qi into human dwellings, the first rule is to find a place where Qi is most accumulated. According to Feng Shui concepts, the form of land is one of the fundamental factors that influences living things (Xu, 1990). The Form School approach takes into consideration mountain ridges, surrounding hills, watercourses, locations and orientations as the most important terrestrial and celestial elements for human dwellings because these elements represent both terrestrial and celestial Qi. These elements comprised the basic terms of the Form School approach and were known as the “Five Feng Shui Geographical Secrets” or even merely the “Five Secrets.” In the book Di Li Wu Jue (The Five Feng Shui Geographical Secrets), they are named Long (Dragon), Sha (Sand), Shui (Water), Xue (Cave), and Xiang (Direction).

The Dragon The first of these “Five Secrets” is called Dragon (Long) or “Seeking the Dragon.” In general, mountains ridges are referred as “dragons” or “dragon veins.” These are the most auspicious symbols in traditional Chinese minds. Mountains are given the first priority consideration and receive special attention since they symbolize the forces of nature (Fuechtwang, 1974). Yang Yun Song, the founder of the Form School approach, claimed that finding the peak is the first significant step in recognizing where the dragon begins and ends. Take, for example, a mountain ridge which begins at a peak and then forms a long range including at least three major mountains. The peak is regarded as the ancestor, and the lesser prominences the forefather, great grandfather and grandfather (Xu, 1990). The dragon, or the mountain ridge ends at the parents hill, and descends to the location of “Cave.” The higher the peak and the longer the ridge, the more favorable the site is. According to Zang Shu (The Book of Burial), the living Qi flows with the vein of the dragon as shown in Figure 7.1. Xu (1990) believed that Qi is accumulated at a flat place where the dragon stops and where watercourses meet; mountains and water may interact positively to ensure prosperity.

The Sand The second secret is called Sand (Sha) or “Observing the sands.” Sha, literally means earth or soil, but in terms of Feng Shui, it means the enfolding hills which symbolizes the surrounding environment of the site that protects the “Cave” from strong and cold winds. The four categories of “Sand” which identify the distinguishing characteristics of the surrounding environment are known as Four Emblems, namely Azure (or Green) Dragon, Red Bird, White Tiger, and Black Tortoise as shown in Figure 7.2. (Note: Some older Feng Shui authors refer to the Black Tortoise as the Black Warrior). The ideal Feng Shui location, “Cave,” is described

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Figure 7.1 Dragon Vein

The Great Grandfather Mountain The Grandfather Mountain The Parent Hill

太祖山 少祖山

The Cave (Feng Shui Spot) 父母山 結穴

Flow of Qi

Source: Adapted from Yi et al. (1996)

Figure 7.2 The Four Emblems of Sand

BLACK TORTOISE

AZURE DRAGON

WHITE TIGER

RED BIRD

ROAD

Source: Adapted from Lee (1986)

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Figure 7.3 The Inner Bend of a River

Eroded river bank Existing river bank Erosion will proceed towards outer bend of the river Location of the inner bend of the river, where deposition will enlarge the land available for settlement and cultivation Location of the outer bend of the river, where erosion will proceed towards the dwelling

Source: Adapted from Liu (1995)

as the protective “armchair” hill formation with the Azure Dragon on the left (East), White Tiger on the right (West), and Black Tortoise at the back (North). Yang Yun Song described the Azure Dragon and White Tiger as a close couple embracing and mating with joy, securely protected. The Red Bird is located in the front (South) of the “Cave.” “Red Bird” is classified into two kinds: Front Hill (or called Table Hill) and Facing Mountain. Table Hill is small in shape and close to the Cave, while Facing Mountain is higher, bigger and farther away (as shown in Figure 7.7).

The Water The third secret is called Water (Shui) or “looking at the water.” Water represents all watercourses near the site, including streams, rivers, lakes or seas. Water is the most preferable feature in the practice of the Form School. Yang Yun Song said that before one looks to the mountains one should first find water. A watercourse represents the physical and visible flow of Qi. As in the Windwater Theory, Qi comes with and accumulates

by water. A curved shape of meandering water is one of the best signs of Qi accumulation. Yang Yun Song said that meandering water is always favorable no matter its direction, whether flowing toward, from side to side, or flowing away from a site. It is also favorable when waters meet together, for example when a lake is formed or where rivers join. However, water flowing fast or in straight lines is considered to be “evil” as the “secret arrows” disperse or destroy the living Qi. Feng Shui scholars (Xu, 1990; Liu, 1995; He, 1998) believed the best site should also be in the inner bank of the bend of a watercourse meander, thus ensuring site enlargement by deposition. When located in the outer bank of the bend a site may be threatened by site erosion as shown in Figure 7.3.

The Cave The fourth secret is called Cave (Xue) or “pointing out the Feng Shui spot.” Xue, literally means “pit” or “spot,” and in Feng Shui term the cave indicates the Feng Shui spot of the site,

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Figure 7.4 Location of the Cave Black Tortoise at the back White Tiger on the right Green Dragon on the left Location of Cave Bright Court in front of the Cave Inner Bend River Red Bird in the front Source: Adapted from Shang (1992)

which is the final goal and the best selected location. Most Feng Shui texts suggest that the ideal site to be a “mountain ridge which runs protectively around a site with a watercourse which embraces a smooth curve” (Lee, 1986, p. 177). As mentioned above, “seeking the dragon” is to find a general area for a site where Qi is supported by a dragon vein; “observing the sands” is to find an open space where Qi can be protected by the surrounding hills; and “looking at the water” is a key point to evaluate the Qi accumulation from water courses. The Cave or the Feng Shui spot is located in the center of the open space bounded by the dragon, sands and watercourses as shown in Figure 7.4. There are open spaces in front of the Cave which are called Ming Tang (translated to “Bright Court,” although the Chinese term is now regularly used by western practitioners). These open spaces are enclosed by the Four Emblems of “Sand” and contribute to an important part of the “Cave” formation. There are further classifications of Ming Tang, that is, the Inner Bright Court enfolded by Table Hill, and the Outer Bright Court that is enclosed by Facing Mountain.

The Direction The fifth secret is called Direction (Xiang) or “deciding the orientation.” Xiang, literally means determining the orientation of buildings of a site (He, 1998). The direction of a dwelling was of paramount importance in ancient Chinese society, and the best direction was seen to be South. From the practice of the Form School, the four cardinal directions of east, west, south and north are correspondingly referred to as left, right, front and back (Lee, 1986). When combined with the ancient Chinese cosmological concept of the four orientations (Four Emblems Theory), the directions of a building are expressed as: “the left is the green dragon (East), the right is the white tiger (West), the back is the black tortoise (North), and the front is the red bird (South)” as shown in Figure 7.5. In traditional China, site selection is always conducted through these Five Feng Shui Geographical Secret factors. He (1998) recognized that no one “secret” is ever considered individually. Together, these five factors form an integrated process and are always in some kind of relationship to each other. He and Luo (1995) demonstrated

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Figure 7.5 Directions of the Four Emblems

SOUTH Red Bird/Phoenix EAST Azure Dragon

WEST White Tiger

NORTH Dark Warrior/Tortoise

Source: Skinner (1997)

from historical records of many ancient Chinese cities, villages and temples that these Five Geographical Secret factors of the Form School approach were widely used for the selection of building sites.

The Feng Shui Model T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e F i v e Fe n g S h u i Geographical Secrets of the Form School approach produced a classical Feng Shui model. This model has been interpreted in diagrams of spatial organization of auspicious mountains and watercourses as shown in ancient classical Feng Shui literature and an example is shown in Figure 7.6. Contemporary Feng Shui researchers have commonly distilled these diagrams into a simplified

sketch of a Feng Shui model (Shang, 1992; Cheng & Kong, 1993; Han, 1995; Yi et al., 1996; He, 1998) as shown in Figure 7.7. This sketch showed the relationships between the key elements of the Five Feng Shui Geographical Secrets and demonstrated how the dragon vein, four emblems in sand, water feature, cave, bright court, and their directions are integrated into an ideal Feng Shui model. He (1998) recognized that the analysis of this ideal Feng Shui model indicates its reasonableness, and reinforces the argument that Feng Shui is not just based on superstition but has absorbed numerous pragmatic and scientific values. This Feng Shui model satisfied the physical needs for a dwelling, and the setting of the site can receive maximum insulation while being sheltered from cold winds. He (1998) also believed that the meaning of this model extends beyond natural physical satisfaction as it also satisfied the needs for security with the dragon hills provided a

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Figure 7.6

Theories of the Form School

Diagram of Auspicious Spatial Organization

mountain ridges foothills watercourse 1. Geomancy Cave 2. Bright Yard 3. Entrance Slope 4. Inner Azure Dragon 5. Outer Azure Dragon 6. Inner White Tiger 7. Outer White Tiger 8. Inner Water Discharge 9. Outer Water Discharge 10. Main Mountain 11. Oncoming Dragon 12. Peace Mountain (Front Hill or Table Hill) 13. Facing Mountain

Source: Yoon (1980)

Figure 7.7 The Ideal Feng Shui Model

Peak of Ancestor

Mountain of Forefather

Dragon Mountain Ridge

Mountain of Grandfather

Hill of Parents

Sand – Black Tortoise Back Hill

Cave Best Location

Sand – Azure Dragon Left Hill

Sand – White Tiger Right Hill Sand – Red Bird Front Hill

Bright Court Front Space Water Flow of Water

Back

Right

Left Front

Sand – Red Bird Facing Mountain Source: Yi et al. (1996)

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defence for the whole village while the smaller hills guarded the site from the left and right. The river meandering and embracing the site also added to it a general sense of security and enclosure. Anderson and Anderson (1973, p. 50) also advocated this ideal Feng Shui model of the Form School as “basically a very practical system whereby a village is situated such that it does not take up farmland or lay itself open to floods and typhoons . . . based on sound pragmatism.” They agreed that the “Dragon” features ensure the sites are on elevated spots; the formation of “Sand” with surrounding hills protects the “Cave” from strong winds; the “Water” features of flowing streams provide a constant clean water supply; the “Direction” examines correct solar access; and the “Bright Court” facilitates farmland in front of villages laid out in this manner. Most of the ancient cities in China conformed to the pattern of this ideal Feng Shui model. For instance, the city of Beijing was described as the most favorable Feng Shui city, as it met all the criteria of the ideal Feng Shui model (Yi et al., 1996). Many other cities and towns in China, such as Nanjing, Xian, Luoyang, Suzhou, were also described and documented as favorable Feng Shui cities (He & Luo, 1995; Yi et al., 1996). This model not only applied to cities in China, but cities in the western world, for example, Los Angeles and London are also conformed to the Feng Shui model (Mak, 1998). Proudfoot (1994) believed that the planning of the Australian capital city, Canberra, also followed the pattern of this Feng Shui model. This concept of the Feng Shui model applied to Yin Zhai (Dwellings for the Dead) as well as to Yang Zhai (Houses for the Living) (Lee, 1986). Xu (1990) has surveyed and analyzed 56 sites of famous ancient graves collected from ancient Chinese Feng Shui texts and concluded that they generally conformed the setting of the Feng Shui model according to the concepts of the Five Geographical Secrets. Groves (1991) pointed out that these characteristics of the ideal Feng Shui model as embodied in site selection, are similar to those

embodied in the architectural theories of the West. For example, the famous Roman architect Vitruvius (1960, p. 17), who lived in the first century BC, described a Roman system in The Ten Books on Architecture: First comes the choice of a very healthy site (for a town). Such a site will be high, neither misty nor frosty, and in a climate neither hot nor cold, but temperate: further, without marshes in the neighborhood. For when the morning breezes blow toward the town at sunrise, if they bring with them mists from marshes and, mingled with the mist, the poisonous breath of the creatures of the marshes to be wafted into the bodies of the inhabitants, they will make the site unhealthy.

Groves (1991) recognized that Feng Shui masters in China would agree with Vitruvius and would probably said “a site with good Feng Shui” instead of “a very healthy site,” and “Sha Qi” instead of “the poisonous breath of the creatures of the marshes.” Norberg-Schulz (1971, p. 28), in his book Existence, Space and Architecture, described the notion of a nested hierarchy of dwelling places as “we talk about landscape space and think of a house, the mountains are walls, the fields floors, the rivers paths, the coasts are edges and the lowest point in the mountain range the door.” He (1998) suggested that the Feng Shui model is not only unique to Chinese culture but is also important to architecture anywhere. However, in the Southern Hemisphere, Feng Shui scholars (Brown, 1997; Essen, 2000) proposed that the directions of the Feng Shui model should be modified because of the geographical and climatic differences from the location of China in the Northern Hemisphere. Essen (2000) explained that in the Northern Hemisphere, the warm direction has a southerly orientation and the cold direction a northerly. However, in the Southern Hemisphere the opposite applied. He also pointed out that the movement of the sun in the Northern Hemisphere is clockwise, i.e., rising in the east, traveling

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through south and setting in the west; whereas in the Southern Hemisphere it is anti-clockwise, i.e., rising in the east, traveling through north and setting in the west. As a result, Brown (1997) and Essen (2000) suggested that in the Southern Hemisphere, the north and south directions of the Feng Shui model should be reversed, but that the east and west directions remain the same.

Macrocosm and Microcosm Most Feng Shui scholars (Skinner, 1982; Lee, 1986; Xu, 1990) recognized that the theories and practices of Feng Shui work in both macrocosm and microcosm as well. Lee (1986) explained that Chinese consider the celestial sphere to consist of 28 constellations. This structure, in turn, brought an imaged correlation of the celestial sphere to inhabitants on earth. The ancient Chinese considered that the 28 constellations are grouped into four heavenly quadrants, or “palaces,” with seven constellations in each quadrant. These four quadrants are called Azure Dragon, Red Bird, White Tiger and Black Tortoise, and are commonly known as the “Four Emblems” as discussed in Chapter 5. Each of these heavenly quadrants is identified with the regions of East, South, West and North respectively. In terms of Feng Shui, a building is considered an architectural and a cosmic structure as well (Lee, 1986). Territory on earth is organizationally analogous with the four quadrants in the celestial sphere. These constructs on earth are identified with both natural and architectural structures. The ideal Feng Shui model is defined by various kinds of surroundings. In the landscape situation, the model is bounded by surrounding mountains and watercourses. In an open field, the model will be defined by roads, streams, and ponds etc. In other cases, man-made objects or structures may constitute the model. For example, in the case of a courtyard house, the two quarters on the left and right of the courtyard facing the front will be the

Theories of the Form School

Azure Dragon and the White Tiger respectively. The front quarter facing the main quarter across the courtyard, which is located in the front of a house, will be the Red Bird (Figure 7.8). Contemporary Feng Shui master Too (1996) suggested that these ancient Feng Shui features should be translated into relevant terms and are analogous in different physical settings. For instance, buildings have been substituted for mountains and roads for rivers in urban house settings. Therefore, the relationships between urban houses and their surroundings are similar to that between rural houses and their natural surroundings, as well as villages and their environments. Lee (1986) and Xu (1990) recognized this relationship between the macrocosm and microcosm is the concept of parallelism in Feng Shui. Lee (1986) believed that this concept of parallelism produced a homogeneous relationship amongst a whole settlement (city or village), an individual building (palace or house) and the human body as shown in Figure 7.9.

Outer and Inner Form When describing the site conditions and the design of dwellings, most of the Feng Shui texts, such as Yang Zhai Shi Shu (Ten Books on Dwellings of Living) categorized these aspects into Outer Form and Inner Form. Outer Form included the physical setting of a site, its shape, and the location of physical objects within the site. Inner Form comprised the internal structure of a house plan in relation to the plan and elevation of the house.

Outer Form The Outer Form of a house is assessed using land forms, soil quality, the shape and quality of watercourses, other buildings and objects, roads, and vegetation around the foundations. The methods of looking at land forms, soil quality and

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Figure 7.8 An Illustration Showing Typical Chinese Courtyard House

Black Tortoise

Azure Dragon

Courtyard Red Bird White Tiger

Front Gate

Figure 7.9 Feng Shui Situations Related to Human, House, Tomb and City

1 1

5 6 4

3

5 6 4

3 2

2

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

HOUSE

BODY

1

Black Tortoise Azure Dragon White Tiger Red Bird Cave Bright Court

1 5 3

6

2

3

5

2

palace 4

6 4

TOMB

CAPITAL Source: Adapted from Lee (1986) and Fan (1992)

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Figure 7.10 Various Patterns of Outer Forms

Source: Feuchtwang (1974) Inauspicious patterns of outer forms of a house: a. Outward bend path or road in front of the house b. A pile of earth or a heap of rocks in front of the house c. A big tree trunk in front of the house

watercourses according to the Five Secrets and the concepts of the ideal Feng Shui model are described in previous sections. He (1998) explained that many ancient Feng Shui texts, such as, Ba Zhai Zao Fu Zhou Shu (The Complete Guide to Creating Good Luck from all Directions in the House), Yang Zhai Shi Shu (Ten Books on Dwellings of Living), and Lu Ban Jing (The Manual of Master Luban) interpreted special land forms through “pure” patterns, (i.e., patterns which are not classified according to the trigrams, elements, stars of the Northern Ladle, or other aspects of the Feng Shui canon), and provide various illustrations, including the location, topographical conditions and shape of the site, that symbolize auspicious and inauspicious patterns in the Outer Forms. There were more than one hundred illustrations in those Feng Shui texts and a few examples of these illustrations are shown in Figure 7.10.

Inner Form Traditionally, several important house elements of the Inner Form received special attention. Two classic Feng Shui texts, Yang Zhai San Yao (The Three Elements of Dwellings of Living) and Yang Zhai Liu Shi (The Six Things of Dwellings of Living), demonstrated these key elements. The “Three Elements” are: the gate through which the house is approached, the principal room where the householder lives, and the cooking stove in the kitchen where food is prepared. The “Six Things” are: the gate, the stove, the courtyard, the road, the toilet, and the mill where grain is processed. Among these “Three Elements” and “Six Things,” the gate is the most important element. According to Feng Shui principles, it is through the gate that Qi flows into a house; therefore, the gate is analogous to the human mouth as shown in Figure 7.11. The consideration of the

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Figure 7.11 Homogeneous Relationships of Entrance to House, Human and Landscape

Source: He (1998)

gate has great influence not only because of its design but also because it drives the interior space. He (1998) believed that the entrance gate is the most significant doorway that is connected to the outside of a house, and must be open to the most auspicious orientation of the house.

physical elements like ponds, rivers, rocks, adjoining buildings, and main roads.





Four Design Modules

(3) Topographical Conditions of the Site Considering the topography in front, at the back, on the left and right sides, water flow and shape of hills.

(4) Shape of the Site



According to Lee (1986), illustrations of the Yang Zhai Shi Shu (Ten Books on Dwellings of Living) on Outer Form and Inner Form can be identified into the following classifications:

Considering the shape, forms and orientation of the site, such as geometry of building, open space, landscape, and plants.

Inner Form Outer Form

(1) Location of the Site





Considering the general condition of the location, such as mountain, watercourses and nearby buildings in the area.

(2) Conditions that Surround the Site



Considering the surrounding features, such as rivers, buildings, and other



(1) Layout of the Building





Considering the spatial relationships between rooms and their functions, such as layout of rooms, orientation of rooms, circulation spaces.

(2) Elevation of the Building



Considering the external appearance of the building, such as facades and shape of roofs.

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Figure 7.12 Outer & Inner Form and Four Design Modules Surrounding Environment Outer Form – Site Selection – House Location – Topographical conditions – Shape of Site

External Layout Internal Layout Interior Arrangement

Inner Form – Layouts – Elevations – Elements



Outer and Inner Form

Four Design Modules

Source: Lee (1986)

Source: Cheng & Kong (1993)

(3) Elements of Building



Considering structure and interior of the building, such as columns and beams, doors and windows, arrangement of furniture.

Feng Shui scholars, Cheng and Kong (1993) explained the application of the Form School approach to design of dwellings, and proposed a further classification of the Outer Form and the Inner Form into four design modules: (a) Surrounding Environment, (b) External Layout, (c) Internal Layout, and (d) Interior Arrangement. Lee’s (1986) identification of the Outer and Inner Form, and Cheng and Kong’s (1993) classification of four design modules are illustrated in Figure 7.12.

(1) Surrounding Environment



This aspect looks into the surrounding environment from a geographical point of view. This includes natural elements of topography, geographical features, mountains, watercourses, directions, views and man-made structures of roads and adjacent buildings.



(2) External Layout





(3) Internal Layout





The external layout deals with the external shape and exterior space of a building. This includes the shape of site, geometry of the building, open space, entrances, driveways, landscaping, and plants. The internal layout reflects the spatial management of a building. It considers the locations and functions of rooms, circulation patterns, internal elements of structure, columns and beams, staircases, ceilings, doors and window openings (Rossbach, 1987).

(4) Interior Arrangement



The interior arrangement addresses the internal room arrangement and furniture placement. It considers the size and proportion of rooms, windows and doors. Furniture placement is a major part of interior arrangement. In practice, the bed in the bedroom, the stove in the kitchen, the desk in the office, etc., have dominant effects on the functionality of a building (Rossbach, 1987).

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Since ancient times in China, Feng Shui principles and practice have been applied to select the location of sites and to design built environments. The Form School approach is the most dominant part of Feng Shui knowledge. The Feng Shui model was constructed primarily o f th e p h y s ica l co n f ig u r a t ions of the F i v e Geographical Secrets and the Four Emblems Theory. Contemporary Form School approaches for architectural design and the built environment will be discussed in the next chapter.

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Contemporary Form School Practice Contemporary Form School practice in architectural design and the built environment has been expressed through different approaches by various Feng Shui scholars. Among the methodologies used that can be found are: three basic criteria (Lee, 1986), site selection procedures (Xu, 1990), major criteria for the best location (Han, 1995), design rules-of-thumb (Lip, 1979, 1986), design criteria checklist (Choy, 1999a), interior design diagrams (Rossbach, 1984, 1987), site design tool (Lynch, 2003), and site analysis framework (Xu, 2003). These methodologies will be reviewed in this chapter.

Three Basic Criteria Lee (1986) in his PhD thesis, Feng Shui: Its content and meaning, recognized that Feng Shui covers important principles of Chinese domestic architectural theory and guides architectural practice. Based on the Form School approach, three basic criteria, including site selection, house location within the site and its orientation, and the internal arrangement of architectural objects and elements, are derived when applying Feng Shui principles to the house-building process.

be determined. It is desirable to create balance and harmony with the secret factors, such as the dragon’s direction, the direction of watercourse flows, the road near the site.

Internal Arrangement of Architectural Objects and Elements Building size and layout will be determined after decisions about the location and orientation of the building. The location and direction of the main entrance gate of the house will be decided. Thereafter, other elements of the house will be determined. The spatial organization of the house will be considered relative to the house size, site and important structural elements of the house.

Site Selection Procedures In the aspects of landscaping and site selection for a house, Xu (1990) in her Feng Shui landscape model, derived the procedures for dealing with land formations into four steps as shown in Figure 8.1:

(1) Location of the Dragon



Site Selection The selection of an appropriate site for a house will be determined through the interpretation of particular landforms and objects around the site. The surrounding landforms and water flows will be first observed. The location of the Cave will be verified with the concepts of the Five Secrets in the Form School approach.

House Location within the Site and Its Orientation After the selection of a suitable site, the location and orientation of the house within the site will



(2) Location of a favorable Feng Shui area





To look for containment enfolded by tiger and dragon hills, and to find water which meanders through open space.

(3) Location of favorable areas within the containments





To look for a peak and the contour of the mountain range.

To find views of mountain peaks, to find land bounded by water and inside curves of a river, and to look for areas protected from winter winds and flows of water.

(4) Identification of areas with “evil” Feng Shui conditions



To identify non-productive rocky land, wet and low land, land under shadow, land

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Figure 8.1 Procedures of Feng Shui Model for Forms of Land

To find the “true dragon” To look at the character of mountains in large scale

To find containments along dragon vein:

To find possible best and good Feng Shui spaces

• A meandering water passes through

To eliminate the areas to find the best, good, and OK Feng Shui area with respect to forms of land

• In leeward

Find evil areas: Have a view to mountain peaks

Land inside curve of a river

• Exposed to wind • Shot by water • Having the dead Qi • Non-productive • Near a “fire hill”

Source: Xu (1990)

bounded by outside curves of a river, and areas exposed to cold and strong winds.

Major Criteria for the Best Location Han (1995) in his study of Feng Shui as a Chinese concept of the environmental studies, suggested 24 major criteria for the selection of the best Feng Shui location. These criteria followed the concept of the Feng Shui model in the Form School approach and can be categorized according to the Five Secrets as shown in Table 8.1.

assessment of Feng Shui in terms of modern architectural design. These rules include:

(1) A building should be constructed on high ground instead of in a valley.



(2) A house standing on the triangular lot at a “Y” junction will suffer.



(3) Trees on the northwest side of the site protect the house.



(4) A big tree planted in front of the main door is unfavorable.



(5) A building located at the end of a narrow street will be an “unfortunate” dwelling.



(6) A desirable position will be obtained if the main road is on the west side of the building.



(7) An open field or garden to the south of the building is ideal. Windows and doors facing the north and south sides are desirable.



(8) The most important area of a building should be centrally located to reduce circulation space.

Design Rules of Thumb Lip (1979) in her book, Chinese Geomancy, published a set of “standard rules-of-thumb” in order to provide a practical guide for the

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Table 8.1 Major Criteria for the Selection of the Best Feng Shui Location Five Geographical Secrets Dragon

Major Criteria for the Selection of the Best Feng Shui Location Dragon should be traced from high mountain ridges Avoid rocky hills or cliff on Dragon Avoid top of hill and windy location

Sand

Surrounding hills should enfold the Cave Surrounding hills should protect the Cave Plants and trees in surrounding hills Front hills should not be higher than the observer Size of surrounding hills should be in balance with distances from Cave Height of surrounding hills should be in balance with height of Cave A higher surrounding hill should be farther from the Cave Height of front hills should be in balance with height of Cave

Water

Water should flow in meandering channel between Bright Court and Front Hill Water should not be polluted or rapidly flow Water should not flow straight towards Bright Court Water should flow inwards to Bright Court Incoming water should be wider than outgoing water flow Water should flow in meandering channel through front hills Water should flow slowly and in curve shape Location of water flow should be in balance with location of Cave Size of water flow should be in balance with size of Dragon

Cave

Bright Court should be level and spacious Bright Court should contain good and rich soil Yellowish is the best color of soil

Direction

Direction of Cave should face south Source: Adapted from Han (1995)

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water is in sight, artificial water features in the front and the back will do.

(9) Bedrooms located next to the kitchen are polluted and unfavorable.

(10) A house or a building must have a back door, which is not in line with the front door. These design rules-of-thumb followed the Form School approach that are based on the information obtained from ancient Feng Shui texts, such as Yang Zhai Shi Shu (Ten Books on Dwellings of Living) and Shui Long Jing (Water Dragon Classic). Lip (1986) in her book, Feng Shui for the Home, further expanded the set of design rules-ofthumb and their applications into interior elements and room arrangement. Interior elements included location and direction of doors and windows, shape and structure of rooms, and building components, such as walls, ceiling, structural beams and columns, staircases. Room arrangement included the position of the bed in the master bedroom, the placing of the stove, refrigerator and sink in the kitchen, the arrangement of lounge seats in the living room, layout in the bathroom, and similar criteria.

Design Criteria Checklist In order to provide a simplified guide of Feng Shui knowledge for residential property selection, Choy (1999a) made a ten-point checklist to express the Feng Shui design criteria.

(1) The building should be slightly elevated, i.e., on the high side of the street.



(2) The back of the building should be protected, e.g., by trees, another building or high ground behind.



(3) It should be protected slightly on the sides, i.e., by nestling into the landscape.



(4) It should have an open and uncluttered area in the front, and on the sunny side of the building.



(5) Sight of water is important. If no natural

Form School Practice in the Built Environment



(6) The front door allows the energy flow into the building, and it should be visible, welcoming, friendly and appropriate in size to the building. Avoid having a garage, a tree, a lamppost or a power pole too close to the front door, especially if it obscures or dominates the door.



(7) A transition space between the front door and the rest of the building provides a filter and softens the outside Qi and makes it suitable for inside.



(8) The living area and kitchen should look onto open space with plants and water in the background.



(9) Kitchens and bathrooms should be on the edges of the building. However, the kitchen should not be near the front door, neither should bathrooms and toilets. Kitchen and family areas can be at the heart of the home.

(10) The building should have a regular shape. In addition to the ten-point checklist, Choy (1999a) also advised that the ultimate Feng Shui principles allow the balance energy to make good design sense. His suggestions reiterate the need to prevent Sha Qi (destructive energy) and that the following situations should be avoided:

(1) T-junction or end of cul de sac.



(2) Glaring light from sun or headlights.



(3) Overshadowed or overlooked by taller buildings nearby.



(4) Close to places filled with emotion and noise.



(5) Close to pointed objects.

Interior Design Diagrams Rossbach (1984) explained in detail with illustrations how Feng Shui knowledge might be

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Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment—Theories and Applications

applied to different situations of rural, townscape, urban design, and interior architecture. Based on the concept of parallelism, the principles and practices of the Form School approach were presented from rural, townscape and urban design, to interior architecture and furniture arrangement. Rossbach (1987), in her book Interior Design with Feng Shui, used a number of interior design

diagrams to illustrate that the Inner Form in terms of contemporary design criteria, including interior elements of structure, columns and beams, doors and windows, stairs, ceilings, shape of rooms, room arrangement, furniture placement, lighting, and color etc. Examples of interior design diagrams for furniture placement of a living room are shown in Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2 Interior Design Diagrams for Furniture Placement of a Living Room

1–6. 7. 8. 9.

These are the best arrangements. The couch is too close to the door and faces away from it. This arrangement is not good because the furniture is all oriented toward the fireplace. This Ba-Gua (Eight Trigrams or Octagonal) arrangement is both auspicious and conversational. Source: Rossbach (1987)

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Site Design Tool Lynch (2003) investigated the use of Feng Shui as a site design tool to assess the conditions of human comfort in urban places in Arizona, United States. The Five Geographical Secrets: dragon mountain, hill, water, site and orientation formed the basis of its site design tool. A comparison of Feng Shui and contemporary assessment categories is tabulated in Table 8.2.

Form School Practice in the Built Environment

Lynch (2003) found that a well-designed place from a Feng Shui standpoint is also perceived as well-designed from a contemporary site design vantage. It is suggested that the value of incorporating Feng Shui as a tool in the urban place design process would be welcomed by Western designers.

Table 8.2 Comparison of Feng Shui and Contemporary Assessment Categories Feng Shui Assessment Categories

Contemporary Assessment Categories Location conducive to users (site attracts a variety of users)

Define entry

Distinct and inviting transition (visible from the street)

U shaped form (seating for power position)

Mitigation for wind

Water present (water effective)

Water feature to scale for site (noisy water close to seating)

Elements support the purpose of the space

Variety and density of elements (encourage lingering)

View of space within the space Seating to side and connected

Subspaces (lawn location, variety of seating)

Seating in sun and shade

Seating in sun and shade

Seating in power positions

Variety of seating

Energy flow

Circulation for movement and rest

Energy quality

Healthy vegetation

Energy path fits for the space (circulation unobstructed)

Circulation for movement and rest

Alignments of entry Healthy vegetation

Healthy vegetation

Sharp angles (angle mitigation) Mitigation for glare (kiosks present, site maintained) Source: Lynch (2003) Note: heavily-shaded categories are common to both assessments

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Table 8.3 Site Analysis Criteria for Variables in Five Categories Variables

Contemporary Principles

Feng Shui Methods

Integration Methods

Climate • Temperature • Relative Humidity • Wind speed & direction • Radiation

Comfort zone: 73–84℉(22.8℃–28.9℃) (summer), 58–65℉(14.4℃– 18.3℃) (winter) at