Scaling up SDGs Implementation: Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors (Sustainable Development Goals Series) 3030332152, 9783030332150

Citation preview

Sustainable Development Goals Series Partnerships for the Goals

Godwell Nhamo Gbadebo O. A. Odularu Vuyo Mjimba  Editors

Scaling up SDGs Implementation Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors

Sustainable Development Goals Series

World leaders adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Providing in-depth knowledge, this series fosters comprehensive research on these global targets to end poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. The sustainability of our planet is currently a major concern for the global community and has been a central theme for a number of major global initiatives in recent years. Perceiving a dire need for concrete benchmarks toward sustainable development, the United Nations and world leaders formulated the targets that make up the seventeen goals. The SDGs call for action by all countries to promote prosperity while protecting Earth and its life support systems. This series on the Sustainable Development Goals aims to provide a comprehensive platform for scientific, teaching and research communities working on various global issues in the field of geography, earth sciences, environmental science, social sciences, engineering, policy, planning, and human geosciences in order to contribute knowledge towards achieving the current 17 Sustainable Development Goals. This Series is organized into eighteen subseries: one based around each of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals, and an eighteenth subseries, “Connecting the Goals,” which serves as a home for volumes addressing multiple goals or studying the SDGs as a whole. Each subseries is guided by an expert Subseries Advisor Contributions are welcome from scientists, policy makers and researchers working in fields related to any of the SDGs. If you are interested in contributing to the series, please contact the Publisher: Zachary Romano [[email protected]].

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15486

Godwell Nhamo Gbadebo O. A. Odularu  •  Vuyo Mjimba Editors

Scaling up SDGs Implementation Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors

Editors Godwell Nhamo Institute for Corporate Citizenship University of South Africa Pretoria, South Africa

Gbadebo O. A. Odularu Socio-Economic Research Applications & Projects (SERAP LLC) Washington DC, WA, USA

Vuyo Mjimba Africa Institute of South Africa, AISA Programme Human Sciences Research Council Pretoria, South Africa

ISSN 2523-3084     ISSN 2523-3092 (electronic) Sustainable Development Goals Series ISBN 978-3-030-33215-0    ISBN 978-3-030-33216-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020, Corrected Publication 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Peer-Review Process

The book underwent the process of academic blind peer review. The first part involved the screening of abstracts and the invitation to authors with accepted abstracts to submit the full draft manuscripts. The editors removed all author identifications from the manuscripts, making them anonymous before forwarding them for the double-blind peer-review process. Apart from being the international norm, this double-blind peer-review process is mandatory for South African based authors in order to fulfill the requirements of the Department of Higher Education and Training’s (DHET’s) policy for recognised research outputs for subsidy purposes. The editors presided over the incorporation of all peer review observations and comments to enhance the quality of the book product. An activity that witnessed two chapters rejected at this stage. However, authors take full responsibility for any liabilities associated with their work, including plagiarism.

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Preface

This book emerged from the inaugural Sustainability and Development Conference (SDC) that took place on 9–11 November 2018 in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and hosted by the University of Michigan in the USA. The conference was organised through the Sustainability and Development Initiative coordinated by the School for Environment and Sustainability, African Studies Centre and the International Institute at the University of Michigan. The Sustainability and Development Initiative seeks to catalyse work and partnerships around sustainable development, particularly networking into the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 indivisible Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The inaugural SDC brought together about 600 delegates from 58 countries, which included academics, students, practitioners and other interested and affected stakeholders in the field of sustainable development. The conference was organised around 13 SDG-based themes that included, among them, Water, Sanitation, and Health (SDGs 3 and 6); Education (SDG 4); Energy Provision and Access (SDG 7); Infrastructure and Industrialization (SDG 9); Development and Climate Change (SDG 13); Biodiversity and Conservation (SDG 15); and Financing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 17). Some of the chapters featured in this book were presented during the SDC, and a few more chapters were invited to complete the publication. Pretoria, South Africa Washington, DC, USA  Pretoria, South Africa 

Godwell Nhamo Gbadebo O. A. Odularu Vuyo Mjimba

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Acknowledgements

We, Prof. Godwell Nhamo (editor-in-chief), Prof. Gbadebo O.  A. Odularu (editor) and Dr. Vuyo Mjimba (editor), wish to thank all the authors and blind peer reviewers for their invaluable inputs during the writing and publishing process of this book. We thank Springer for taking on board this book project. We also wish to thank our families for their ongoing support of our work, and we would like to express our sincere thanks to Springer for a quality product. The book project was coordinated through the Exxaro Chair in Business and Climate Change at the University of South Africa. The Exxaro Chair is a research chair funded by the Exxaro Resources (Pty) Ltd Chairman’s Fund. The Exxaro Chair, established in 2008, is now in its fourth term running (2018–2022). The vision of the Exxaro Chair is to ‘create a Centre of Excellence in Business and Climate Change research, education, and advocacy-­oriented community engagement’.

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Contents

Part I Introduction and Background 1 Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030����������������������������������������������������������������������������   3 Godwell Nhamo and Vuyo Mjimba Part II Drawing Up National SDGs Baselines and Cases Involving State Actors 2 Emerging African Picture of Official Development Assistance and Education-Related SDGs Indicators��������������������������������������  23 Godwell Nhamo, Charles Nhemachena, and Senia Nhamo 3 Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels for Cooking����������������������������������������������������������  39 Godwell Nhamo, Senia Nhamo, Charles Nhemachena, and Charity Ruramai Nhemachena 4 SDG 15 and Socioecological Sustainability: Spring Waterscapes and Rural Livelihoods in the Save Catchment of Zimbabwe������  59 David Chikodzi, Daniel Tevera, and Dominic Mazvimavi 5 Auditing the Adequacy of NDCs in Addressing the Climate Action Sustainable Development Goal����������������������  73 Godwell Nhamo Part III The Business Sector and the SDGs 6 &Beyond’s Response to the Twin Challenges of Pollution and Climate Change in the Context of SDGs��������������������������������  87 Kaitano Dube, Godwell Nhamo, and Kevin Mearns 7 Major Global Aircraft Manufacturers and Emerging Responses to the SDGs Agenda ������������������������������������������������������������������������  99 Kaitano Dube and Godwell Nhamo

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8 Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe�������������������������������������������� 115 Marjorie Chaniwa, Collen Nyawenze, Ronald Mandumbu, Godfrey Mutsiveri, Christopher T. Gadzirayi, Vincent T. Munyati, and Joyful Tatenda Rugare 9 Insurance, Increasing Natural Disaster Risks and the SDGs: A Focus on Southern Africa���������������������������������� 129 Shelton Siwedza and Soul Shava Part IV Civil Society and the SDGs 10 The Contribution of Community-­Based Recycling Cooperatives to a Cluster of SDGs in Semi-arid Brazilian Peri-urban Settlements �������������������������������������������������� 141 Julia Lopes, Rafael Moraes Reis, Larisa Ho Bech Gaivizzo, Gabriela Litre, Saulo Rodrigues Filho, and Carlos Hiroo Saito 11 Critical Analysis of the Contribution of Women’s University in Africa Towards the Attainment of SDG 5 �������������� 155 Tsungai Rumbidzai Nondo and Alexio Mbereko 12 Role of SDGs in Reconceptualising the Education for Sustainable Development Curriculum in Higher Education in South Africa���������������������������������������������� 169 Soul Shava, Matlala Violet Makokotlela, and Headman Hebe Part V Conclusions and Policy Recommendations 13 Pushing Ahead with the Drive to Scaling up SDGs Implementation���������������������������������������������������������������� 183 Vuyo Mjimba and Gbadebo O. A. Odularu Correction to: Scaling up SDGs Implementation: Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors����������� C1 Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189

Contents

About the Authors

Godwell Nhamo, PhD  is a chief researcher and chair for the Exxaro Chair in Business and Climate Change hosted by the Institute for Corporate Citizenship (ICC) at the University of South Africa (UNISA). Prof. Nhamo has interest in the fields of climate change and governance, the green economy and sustainable development, and he is a National Research Foundation C3 rated scholar. Prof. Nhamo has published widely in his areas of interest and has over 20 years of work experience in the academic field. Among his offerings are six books (five edited) and over 70 journal articles. Since 2013, Prof. Nhamo has graduated 10 PhDs and hosted 10 post-doctoral fellows. Prof. Nhamo also sits on a number of both international and national boards in his research space and has also received several awards and recognition for his outstanding work both locally and internationally. Email: [email protected] Gbadebo  O.  A.  Odularu  holds a PhD degree in Regional Economic Development from the University of Sunderland, United Kingdom; an MSc (Agricultural Economics); and BSc (Economics) from the pre-eminent Nigerian tertiary education institution  – University of Ibadan. He is an enthusiastic policy researcher, with extensive experience in science, technology, innovation, youth empowerment and engagement, agricultural research for development, agribusiness, agricultural innovation, and technology dissemination and adoption. Gbadebo has worked on the EU–Africa regional cooperation programmes, USA–Africa trade relations and Korea– Africa development partnerships. He has been a visiting scholar at the Centre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford, United Kingdom; the Centre for Regional Economic Studies, Korea Institute for International Economic Policy, Seoul, South Korea; the United Nations Institute for Economic Development Planning, Dakar, Senegal; and the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, University of Oxford, United Kingdom. He was also a visiting doctoral scholar at the Economic Research and Statistical Division, World Trade Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. He is currently affiliated with Marymount University, the Centre for Research on Political Economy (CREPOL), American Heritage University of Southern California (AHUSC), the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), Socio-Economic Research Applications & Projects (SERAP) LLC, SSCG Consulting, as well as the African Agribusiness Incubator Network (AAIN). Emails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] xiii

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Vuyo Mjimba, PhD  is a chief research specialist in the Africa Institute of South Africa (AISA) hosted by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). He is a development, policy and practice scholar with research interest in sustainable development. His focus is on industrialisation, global value chains, climate change and innovation. Dr. Mjimba brings more than 12 years of commercial enterprise experience and insights to his research and academic work. In this space, Dr. Mjimba interacts with both experienced and early career researchers and practitioners, as well as master’s and doctoral students exploring a broad spectrum of sustainable development matters in Africa. Email: [email protected] Joyful  Tatenda  Rugare  is a senior lecturer and RUFORUM Post-Doctoral Fellow at the University of Zimbabwe. Dr. Rugare has published 19 peer-­ reviewed journal articles. To date, he has graduated four MSc students and is currently supervising three doctoral students and several master’s students. His research interest is mainly on the utilising of allelopathic plants to control weeds in arable fields, as well as management of parasitic angiosperms. Dr. Rugare has vast experience in cotton production, which he acquired when he was a section manager at ARDA Chisumbanje Estate, where he grew the crop commercially. Dr. Rugare has also been involved extensively in promoting the adoption of the herbicide technology and conservation agriculture in the smallholder sector through facilitating farmer training workshops. He is a member of the Crop Science Society of Zimbabwe. Email: [email protected] Alexio Mbereko  is a lecturer in the Child Sensitive Social Policy Programme at the Women’s University in Africa. He is an experienced social scientist who holds a PhD in Development Studies from the University of KwaZulu-­Natal. He has 16 years’ experience as a researcher and has served as a social scientist on three trans-disciplinary ECOHEALTH (environment, society and health) research projects, which are Malaria and Bilharzia in Southern Africa (MABISA) and Tackling Infections to Benefit Africa (TIBA), among other smaller studies. Dr. Mbereko has a sound background in humanities and social sciences, where he has successfully utilised political ecology theory to understand social differentiation, marginalising and inequalities, public health, natural resource utilising, governance and policy. He has 15 publications in peer-reviewed media and more than 22 conferences attended. His research contributes to sustainable development through interrogating the environment, society and health nexus in a differentiated political economy; he fights for social justice through equity and equality. Email: [email protected] Daniel Tevera  is a professor in the Department of Geography, Environmental Studies and Tourism at the University of the Western Cape. Previously he was Professor of Geography at the universities of Swaziland and Zimbabwe. He has extensive research experience in southern Africa (especially, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Botswana, Lesotho and Namibia) and has published many influential articles on issues relating to sustainable development, migration and development, waste management and urban spatialities, but it is the domain of food and the city that his recent work has focused on. He is a National

About the Authors

About the Authors

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Research Foundation (NRF) C-Rated researcher. Professor Tevera is the former acting deputy dean of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Zimbabwe and was the head of the Department of Geography and Environmental Science at the same university. He has been a visiting scholar at Oxford University (UK), Dartmouth College (USA), Gothenburg University (Sweden), Friedrich-Schiller Universitat (Germany), University of Botswana, University of the Witwatersrand (South Africa) and Rhodes University (South Africa). He is the inaugural programme coordinator of the Leadership for Environment and Development in Southern Programme, which was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. Email: [email protected] Senia  Nhamo  has a PhD in Economics from the University of the Witwatersrand. Prof Nhamo has expertise in econometrics, environmental economics and macroeconomics. In the past 15 years, her work has involved tuition, research and academic citizenship in various academic institutions in Africa. Prof. Nhamo’s current research efforts are focused on revealing the importance of indicators towards the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Email: [email protected] Charles Nhemachena  is an environmental/agricultural economist with more than 15 years of practical research and development skills and experience in southern Africa and other parts of Africa. His technical areas of expertise include sustainable development, green growth/economy, climate change (impact, adaptation and vulnerability), monitoring and evaluation, agricultural water management, food security, applied agricultural and environmental management and economics research and development within multi-disciplinary and multi-national teams. Email: [email protected] Charity Ruramai Nhemachena  is a post-doctoral fellow at the Department of Finance and Economics, at Graduate School of Business Leadership at the University of South Africa. She holds a PhD from the University of Pretoria. Her research focus is on biological innovations, agricultural policy in general, economics of returns to research and intellectual property rights systems in crop production. Email: [email protected] Soul Shava  holds a PhD in Environmental Education from Rhodes University, South Africa, and is currently an associate professor in Environmental Education/Education for Sustainable Development in the Department of Science and Technology Education at the University of South Africa (UNISA). Soul’s main research interests are in environmental sustainability education processes in southern Africa, indigenous knowledge (particularly their representation in knowledge generation processes at the interface of modern institutions and local communities and their application in community development contexts), indigenous epistemologies and decoloniality. He also has research interests in community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), socioecological resilience, climate change education, green economy, intangible cultural heritage, sustainable agriculture, traditional agrobiodiversity conservation and the use of traditional crops and indigenous food plants by local

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communities to achieve food security and resilience to climate change impact. Email: [email protected], [email protected] David Chikodzi  completed his PhD in Geography at the University of the Western Cape. Dr Chikodzi’s main research interests are in water resource management, climate change and dryland livelihood. He also has interests in GIS and remote-sensing applications for societal development and disaster risk reduction. Email: [email protected] Matlala Violet Makokotlela  is a lecturer at the University of South Africa (UNISA) in the Department of Science and Technology Education. Her work experience includes one year in academic field and several years lecturing at a College of Education. She holds a PhD in Environmental Education from UNISA. Dr. Makokotlela’s great research interest is in curriculum, sustainability education and climate change. Dr. Makokotlela was a member of the local organising committee for Environmental Education Association of Southern Africa in 2016. Dr Makokotlela published two proceeding papers and reviewed over 30 conference abstracts, four proceedings papers and one book chapter. Email: [email protected] Gabriela Litre, PhD  is a full researcher and a professor at the Center for Sustainable Development of the University of Brasília (CDS-UnB). A research member of the Socio-Environmental Observatory INCT Odisseia and the Brazilian Research Network on Global Climate Change (Rede CLIMA) – which reunites 16 universities and research centres across Brazil to provide cutting-edge climate change scientific knowledge for the Brazilian government’s multilateral negotiations – Doctor Litre is a social scientist and geographer with longstanding experience in international cooperation for development (including a total of six years of work with the UN peacekeeping mission in DR Congo and the UNU-IHDP in Germany). Her current research focuses on the internalising and scaling up of the SDG and on the impact of public policies and governance systems on climate change adaptation and socioenvironmental vulnerabilities (Nexus approach). Research regions include the Semiarid Northeast and the Amazonian and Atlantic forests. E-mail: [email protected] Headman Hebe  is an environmental education lecturer at the Department of Science and Technology Education, University of South Africa (UNISA). He holds a PhD (Curriculum Studies) from Stellenbosch University and a Master of Education in Environmental Education from UNISA. He has over 25 years of teaching experience, which covers both secondary school and higher ­education. His research interests include environmental education, geography education, curriculum studies, classroom practice and early childhood education. He has published articles on the teaching of environmental education for sustainability with particular focus on early childhood education. Email: [email protected]

About the Authors

About the Authors

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Julia  Lopes  is a researcher at Rede CLIMA  – the Brazilian Research Network on Global Climate Change – focused on climate change adaptation and the promotion of resilience in social and environmental systems. She has conducted her research on the contributions of community-based action to the SDG framework at Rede CLIMA and on financial resilience and the implementation of SDGs 9 and 11 in South Africa, Ghana and Malawi with the United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU IAS) in Japan. She holds an MSc in Sustainability Science by the UNU IAS, Japan; a Master in Business Administration from the University of Birmingham, UK; and a BSc in Chemical Engineering from the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. She is also currently enrolled in the postgraduate programmes at the University of Brasília (Sustainable Development). Julia has also over ten years of experience in R&D with the private sector, including having led multinational teams while working for Johnson & Johnson and Antea Group in developing sustainable consumption and production strategies and initiatives. Email: [email protected] Larisa Ho Bech Gaivizzo  has BSc degree in Agricultural Engineering from the Federal University of Pelotas (UFPEL). She obtained a Master’s and Doctoral degrees in Soil Sciences from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), focusing on Soil and Land Degradation and Rehabilitation in the broader area of Environmental Quality and Control. She has over ten years of experience working with public policy planning and management, governmental programmes and international cooperation projects in the field of environment and development. She has worked as a technical coordinator and researcher in the Hydrographic River Basins Project with the State Foundation for Agricultural Research (FEPAGRO); as a lecturer and coordinator of the Graduation Course in Bioprocesses and Biotechnological Engineering in the area of Environmental Management at the State University of Rio Grande do Sul (UERGS); and as an Environment and Development Unit Officer with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). She is currently a post-doc at the Sustainable Development Centre (CDS) at University of Brasília (UNB) working on the topic of resilience and adaptation to environmental changes in socio-ecological systems with the Climate Network (Rede Clima) and the Research Centre for Socio-Environmental Dynamics (INCT-ODISSEIA). Email: [email protected] Nyawenze Collen  is a versatile, analytical and hardworking agronomist/crop scientist, with practical hands on approach, who always preserves to achieve the best results, is able to collect and analyse information and digest figures and quickly grasps complex technical issues. He is currently the chief agronomist at The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe. Collen has much interest in agricultural science researches and has 11 years’ experience in the field of agriculture. He holds a BSc in Agricultural Science and an MSc in Crop Science (crop improvement) and is currently doing researches in Cotton. He is also studying an Executive Masters in Business Leadership. Email: [email protected]

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Carlos  Hiroo  Saito  is a senior full professor and the vice-director of the Institute of Biological at the University of Brasilia. Presently, he is also the chair of Global Water Partnership-GWP-South America. He is a biologist and system analyst, with a Master’s degree in Education and PhD in Geography. This background provides him with a knowledge base in three major areas: life sciences, earth and physical sciences and human sciences, and this can help him in achieving a critical understanding of environmental science complexity, in a systemic whole thinking. Prof. Saito has more than 90 journal articles in his 30 years of work experience, and his researches have a multi- and interdisciplinary approach issued on environmental education, integrated water resources management and water security, socio-environmental conflicts, cultural heritage, landscape and spatial analysis. Email: [email protected] Kevin  Mearns  is a full professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences at the University of South Africa (UNISA). Professor Mearns is a National Research Foundation Y2 rated researcher, who specialises in the research areas of sustainability, sustainable tourism, community-based tourism and ecotourism. Professor Mearns has supervised more than 35 postgraduate master’s and doctoral candidates to completion and published more than 50 peer-reviewed scholarly journal publications, chapters and conference proceedings. Email: [email protected] Rafael  Moraes  Reis  graduated in Public Administration, specialist in municipal public administration, Master in Sustainable Development, project manager and researcher on climate change in Brazil. Email: [email protected], [email protected] Shelton Siwedza  is an insurance and risk management practitioner who has been in the insurance industry for over 25 years. He has worked in both Zimbabwe and South Africa and has over the years gained an all-round knowledge and experience in all aspects of insurance underwriting, reinsurance, claims negotiation and client relationship management. He has an in-­ depth knowledge of and experience in the sub-Saharan Africa commercial and large corporate insurance market space, both from a client relationship and underwriting perspective, ranging from listed companies, state-owned companies (SOCs), mining, aviation, oil and energy, bonds and guarantees, liability, professional indemnity, directors and officers, contractors’ all risks, as well as political violence and terrorism risks. Shelton has great interest in the fields of enterprise risk management, business continuity planning and climate change risks. He holds a Master’s degree in Business Leadership (MBL) from UNISA, a postgraduate diploma (DipIMM) and Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) in Marketing from the Institute of Marketing Management of South Africa’s Graduate School of Marketing (IMM). He is a fellow of the Insurance Institute of South Africa (FIISA) and an associate of the Institute of Risk Management of South Africa (AIRMSA). Email: [email protected]

About the Authors

About the Authors

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Tsungai  Rumbidzai  Nondo  is a lecturer and program coordinator in the Community Development Department, Faculty of Social Sciences and Gender Transformative Studies at Women’s University in Africa. She holds a Master’s degree in Development Studies from the Midlands State University and a Bachelor of Sociology and Gender Development (Honours) from Women’s University in Africa. She has over 15 years of experience in various local and regional non-governmental organisations where she was involved in general administration, project implementation and proposal writing. Her research interests are on vulnerable children, community health and gender issues. She has worked on consultancies on promoting access to inclusive sexual reproductive health and rights and sexual-gender-based violence information and services and on the impact of harmonised social cash transfers in different household constellations in various districts in Zimbabwe. She is currently pursuing her PhD studies from the University of Johannesburg. Her PhD is on Community Responses to cholera outbreaks in urban settings. Email: [email protected] Kaitano Dube  is an ecotourism management lecturer and researcher at the Vaal University of Technology. He is also an independent research contractor with the Institute of Corporate Citizenship at the University of South Africa and an adjunct physical geography lecturer at Monash University South Africa. He is one of the few tourism geographers in the African continent researching and publishing in the area of SDG customising and climate change within the tourism sector and tourism role players, such as the aviation industry. Dr Dube has also published on agriculture and household food security. Email: [email protected] Saulo Rodrigues Filho  is the coordinator of the Regional Development subnetwork at Rede CLIMA (Brazilian Research Network on Global Climate Change) and a professor at the Center for Sustainable Development at the University of Brasília, Brazil. He is a geologist and has an MSc in Geosciences (Geochemistry). Dr. Rodrigues Filho holds a PhD in Natural Sciences from the Universitat Heidelberg, Germany, and has completed post-doctoral research in environmental studies at the University of California, in Archeology of Climate Change at the Universidad Autonoma de Mexico and in Sustainable Development at the University of Brasilia. He is an experienced researcher in climate change, paleoclimatic change, vulnerability and adaptation, land-use change, sustainable development indicators, water basin management, environmental geology, geochemistry of heavy metals, hydrogeochemistry, among other subject matters. He has led international research projects; published books, book chapters and papers in high impact factor journals; and supervised many doctoral and master students. Email: [email protected] Dominic  Mazvimavi, PhD  is a Professor of Water and Environmental Science in the Department of Earth Sciences and Director of the Institute for Water Studies. Prof. Mazvimavi obtained a PhD in Hydrology from the Wageningen University and the International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation in the Netherlands and an MSc in Hydrology

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from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium. His research interests include water resources planning and management, hydrological regionalisation, effects of land-use change on runoff, and environmental flow assessment in the Southern African Development Community region. He has previously worked at the Okavango Research Institute of the University of Botswana and at the Department of Geography and Environmental Science of the University of Zimbabwe. Email: [email protected] Ronald Mandumbu, PhD  is an Associate Professor and Chairperson in the Department of Crop Science at Bindura University of Science Education in Zimbabwe. Professor Mandumbu has great interests in the fields of climate smart agriculture, agronomy, weed science, and crop physiology. He has published more than 40 journal articles and 1 textbook. He supervises both PhD and master’s students. Email: [email protected]

About the Authors

Part I Introduction and Background

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Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030 Godwell Nhamo and Vuyo Mjimba

Abstract

As this chapter is published, the world would have moved past 4 years since the ratification of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD) in September 2015. The 2030 AfSD enshrines 17 interlinked Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which countries are to domesticate, localize and implement. Given the indications of a slow movement in SDGs implementation, the global, regional, national and local voices advocating for scaling up SDGs implementation are growing. These voices can be divided into two major groups, namely, those from the state (government) and those from non-state actors. While the Voluntary National Review (VNR) system remains the barometer upon which progress in implementing SDGs is measured, the early indication is that there has been good progress in some sectors particularly both the private and public corporate sectors and other sectors too.

G. Nhamo (*) Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] V. Mjimba AISA Programme, Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), African Institute of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

This chapter presents efforts from different stakeholders in scaling up SDGs implementation across the world. Among such stakeholders are national governments, the United Nations family, the corporate sector and civil sector including the non-governmental organizations, youth movements and higher education. The chapter concludes by profiling the contents of the chapters that make the entire book.

Keywords

SDGs · Scaling up · Stakeholders · Voluntary National Review (VNR) · Implementation

1.1

Introduction

Scaling up! This is a phrase popularized from the health sector. Power et  al. (2019) maintain that scaling up is needed to ensure universal access of effective and efficient health intervention. It is important to indicate that this process is associated with complexity as it transverses diverse systems and (local) contexts. To this end, in scaling up, one cannot use the one-size-fits-all approach. While the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD) and its interwoven 17

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_1

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G. Nhamo and V. Mjimba

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Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are global in nature, scaling up their implementation requires stakeholders to domesticate them to suit national conditions and find scalable solutions emerging at the local level (Uitto & Naidoo, 2019). This approach remains relevant because most of the challenges the SDGs seek to resolve emanate and manifest themselves at the local level. Such challenges include climate change and the loss of biodiversity, oppression of women and the girl-child, poor access to electricity and other forms of energy, urban overcrowding and poor water and sanitation services among many others. The state of progress towards the SDGs implementation is best explained by two paradoxical statements from the United Nations Secretary-General’s July 2019 progress report (United Nations, 2019a: 1): The report demonstrates that over the past four years, progress has been made in a number of Goals and targets and a wealth of action has been undertaken by Governments and other stakeholders to respond to the 2030 Agenda more broadly.

Yet there is more to come from the other side as the United Nations Secretary-General continues: The report also demonstrates, however, that progress has been slow on many Goals, that the most vulnerable people and countries continue to suffer the most, and that the global response thus far has not been ambitious enough.

The Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN), a United Nations associated entity, also picks the inherent contradiction in progress towards the SDGs as alluded to by the United Nations Secretary-General. While acknowledging the continued leadership and achievements from the Nordic countries of Denmark, Sweden and Finland that came 1st, 2nd and 3rd in the 2019 SDGs Index (SDSN, 2019), it emerged there was no country that did not face challenges in implementing one or several SDGs. To this end, major shortfalls in scaling up implementation were observed in SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production), SDG 13 (climate action), SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 15 (life on land). Additional findings from the SDSN 2019 report picked up the following: the high-­level political commitment was falling short of historic promises and the SDGs could be operationalized through six transformations,

namely, (1) education, gender and inequality; (2) health, well-being and demography; (3) energy decarbonization and sustainable industry; (4) sustainable food, land, water and oceans; (5) sustainable cities and communities; and (6) digital revolution for sustainable development (SDSN, 2019: X). However, to ‘leave no one behind’, such transformations must realize the interconnectedness between the 17 SDGs and require strong partnerships and institutional arrangements within and between governments, civil society, business and other stakeholders. While scaling up remains a noble idea, writing 10  years after the commissioning of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Gilson and Schneider (2010) picked the role of political commitment and that of strategic management as fundamental to scaling up. Consequently, strong government and political leadership cannot be sidelined in scaling up the SDGs or any other new global and national agendas for that matter. To this list, Nhamo (2013) and Spicer et  al. (2014) add several other pillars of readiness to scaling up that include high-level championing and the appointment of role models and ambassadors, supporting governments to develop appropriate policies and regulatory frameworks and financing. Other scaling-up readiness pillars include a need to adopt effective approaches to advocacy, capacity development, research and development, having projects and programmes on the ground, networking and education and awareness raising. Smith, Graft-Johnson, Zyaee, Ricca, and Fullertond (2015) and Indig, Lee, Grunseit, Milat, and Bauman (2018) highlight a few other scaling-up readiness pillars that include the simplification and standardization of interventions making the interventions cheaper, the use of data for management (including monitoring, reporting and verification, MRV) and the need to engage and empower disadvantaged groups like women, children and the elderly. These scaling-up readiness pillars remain relevant, even during the SDGs era. The World Health Organization (WHO) (2010) then devised nine steps for developing a scaling-up strategy. These have been modified and applied to the SDGs as shown in Box 1.1. What then is scaling up, one may ask? In the context of the MDGs that gave birth to the

1  Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030

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Box 1.1 Nine Steps for Developing an SDGs Scaling-Up Strategy

• Step 1. Planning actions to increase the scalability of the 2030 AfSD and its 17 SDGs. • Step 2. Increasing the capacity of governments and other interested and affected stakeholders that include organized labour, business, non-­governmental organizations, donors, etc. to implement scaling up. • Step 3. Assessing the environment and planning actions to increase the potential for scaling up success. • Step 4. Increasing the capacity of institutions, individuals and resource teams to support scaling up. • Step 5. Making strategic choices to support vertical scaling up (institutionalization) of the SDGs. • Step 6. Making strategic choices to support horizontal scaling up (expansion/replication) of SDGs. • Step 7. Determining the role of diversification. • Step 8. Planning actions to address spontaneous scaling up of the SDGs, especially across the spheres of government that may include the national, state, provincial and local governments. • Step 9. Finalizing the SDGs scaling-up strategy and identifying next steps to be followed once the SDGs have been landed into national government agenda. Source: Modified after WHO (2010: 8).

SDGs, WHO (2010: iv) puts it as ‘attracting a great deal of attention in the international health and development fields’. The interest in scaling up was excited by the observations that concluded there is usually a slow pace in achieving, especially, set global agendas like the SDGs. If such global agendas and their set goals are to be attained, efforts seeking their realization need to be multiplied. Although used in several ways, scaling up can be viewed as doing more (WHO, 2010). Given the context of this book, this simplified understanding of scaling up is adequate. When the African Development Bank (AfDB) pronounced a USD 24.7 million commitment for water and sanitation development in South Sudan (AfDB, 2019), this gesture qualifies under the scaling up of SDGs implementation in Africa. The project, to be implemented jointly by the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation and the South Sudan Urban Water Corporation, will benefit 300,000 people in the capital Juba and the nearby rural settlements in the Jubek State. As these initiatives take place, the United Nations General Assembly has put in place a Voluntary National Review (VNR) sys-

tem for SDGs. This will be discussed further in this chapter. Other scaling-up initiatives have witnessed the corporate sector putting up the SDG Campus and the United Nations family developing and regularly updating the SDGs indicators and publishing SDGs mainstreaming guides. All these initiatives will also be given some space in this chapter, starting with initiatives from the United Nations family in the next section.

1.2

Initiatives from the United Nations Family

There are several initiatives coming out of the United Nations family all aiming to fast track and scale up the implementation of SDGs. Among some of the key agencies and associations are the United Nations Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators (IAEG-SDGI), the United Nations Development Group (UNDG), United Nations Women (UN Women), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), United Nations

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Habitat (UN Habitat), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nation. Due to space limitations, a few of the initiatives will be documented herein. Given that the issues raised here require some form of baselines and/or benchmarks to be ­managed well, the United Nations put together indicators for each of the 17 SDGs. These indicators were initially established in 2016 and are regularly reviewed. The United Nations InterAgency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators (IAEG-SDGI), established in March 2015, has been given the mandate to institute and continuously review the indicators and their tiers. The IAEG-SDGI comprises 28 members (inclusive of the Chair of the UN Statistical Commission), which was Kenya1 at the time of completing this work (IAEGSDGI, 2019b). The indicators defined in this body are grouped under three tiers—Tier I– III. The three tiers are defined as follows (IAEGSDGI, 2019a: 2): • Tier 1: Indicator is conceptually clear, has an internationally established methodology, standards are available, and data are regularly produced by countries for at least 50% of countries and of the population in every region where the indicator is relevant. • Tier 2: Indicator is conceptually clear, has an internationally established methodology, stan-

The full list by subregions includes Kenya (Chair of the UN Statistical Commission); Ethiopia; Tanzania (Eastern Africa); Botswana and Cameroon (Middle and Southern Africa); Ghana and Niger (Westerns Africa); Algeria and Egypt (Northern Africa); Bahrain (Western Asia); China, India, Tajikistan and the Philippines (Central, Eastern, Southern and South-eastern Asia); Fiji and Samoa (Oceania); Grenada and Trinidad and Tobago (The Caribbean); Brazil, Colombia and Mexico (Central and South America); Belarus and the Russian Federation (Eastern Europe); and Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden (North America and Northern, Southern and Western Europe).

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G. Nhamo and V. Mjimba

dards are available, but data are not regularly produced by countries. • Tier 3: No internationally established methodology, or standards are not yet available for the indicator, but methodology/standards are being (or will be) developed or tested. As of 22 May 2019, there were 104 Tier I, 88 Tier II and 34 Tier III indicators. Furthermore, there were six indicators with multiple tiers (IAEG-SDGI, 2019a). At the time of finalizing this chapter, there had been nine sets of tier classification updates, and the details are presented in Fig. 1.1. Another United Nations agency very active in SDGs implementation has been the United Nations Development Group (UNDG). The UNDG developed the Mainstreaming, Acceleration and Policy Support (MAPS) programme and documentation framework. This framework was inaugurated in October 2015 as a common approach for supporting the 2030 AfSD and its SDGs. At the core of the MAPS was the plan-do-check model borrowed from the industry’s ISO 14000 continuous improvement philosophy. Mainstreaming would involve activities like raising public awareness on the SDGs and further localizing them into national and landing them into lower tiers of government structures. The assertion is that mainstreaming will also address budget allocation, especially domestic mobilization of resources. On acceleration, the UNDG aimed at prioritizing SDGs implementation areas, focusing on synergies and trade-offs, bottlenecks, partnerships as well as measurement, reporting and verification (MRV). Regarding policy support, the UNDG sought to ensure the skills and experts of the United Nations family are made available for SDGs implementation in a more efficient and timely manner. Ultimately, both the state and non-state actors have to decide what activities to carry in the short-, medium- and long-term horizons (Nhamo, Nhamo, & Nhemachena, 2018). A UN Women report on the progress of the world’s women 2019–2020 revealed that women were a critical piece in unlocking progress on and

1  Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030 Fig. 1.1  Tier updates 2016–2019. (Source: Authors, based on IAEG-SDGI (2019a: 3))

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21 December 2016

20 April 2017

15 December 2017

27 November 2018

15 October 2018

11 May 2018

31 December 2018

13 February 2019

4 April 2019

Source: Authors, based on IAEG-SDGI (2019a: 3)

scaling up SDGs implementation. The UN Women (2019: 2) emphasized: Ensuring that families are places of equality and are free from discrimination is essential for the achievement of the SDGs. Meeting SDG 5 demands the elimination of violence and an end to harmful practices; ensuring women have access to economic resources, including through equal inheritance rights and equality in family laws; and promoting shared responsibility for the provision of unpaid care and domestic work, which falls disproportionately on women’s shoulders.

The UN Women report goes further and states that ensuring healthy lives (SDG 3) requires women to have adequate access to reproductive healthcare and family planning. As for the attainment of quality education (SDG 4), the girl-child should not be forced by circumstances to enter marriage early, thereby providing a platform for her to complete her education (UN Women, 2019). There are many instances in which women and girls can be linked to the SDGs. However, given the limited space, many such linkages will not be considered in this book. While noting that more resources are getting into selected women’s hands, i.e. earned income and asset ownership, there are major challenges such as caregiving and domestic work that remain feminized. Moving to the 2030 AfSD, the UN Women has advocated for a family-friendly policy agenda where gov-

ernments follow eight linked steps presented in Box 1.2.

Box 1.2 Towards a Family-Friendly Policy Agenda

1. Put in place family laws based on diversity, equality and non-discrimination. 2. Ensure high-quality, accessible public services to support families and gender equality. 3. Guarantee women’s access to adequate, independent income. 4. Support families to care by providing time, money and services. 5. Prevent and respond to violence against women in families. 6. Implement policies and regulations that support migrant families and women’s rights. 7. Invest in gender-sensitive data on families and households. 8. Ensure resources are in place for family-­ friendly policies. Source: Authors, based on UN Women (2019:10).

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The UNFCCC has been given a direct mandate to oversee the implementation of SDG 13 (United Nations, 2015). This mandate has been taken up through the finalization of the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015) that enshrines several mechanisms aimed at scaling up SDG 13 implementation. Among such mechanisms are the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and national adaptation plans (NAPs). The NDCs focus mainly on the mitigation agenda of climate change, and the Paris Agreement has put in place the global stock take mechanisms that check progress in implementation. The harsh realities of climate change are slowing down the world from eradicating poverty (SDG 1), reducing inequality (SDG 10) and creating sustainable jobs and employment (SDG 8). Climate change negatively impacts agricultural systems, and this in turn causes hunger, malnutrition and starvation (SDG 2), leading to reduced budgets on both the health (SDG 3) and education (SDG 4) sectors. Cyclones, floods, droughts and other weather extremes have an unfairly negative impact on women (SDG 5) and disrupt water and sanitation services (SDG 6) leading to diseases and, at times, a loss of lives. The changing climate negatively impacts hydropower production and systems (SDG 7) and stagnates industrial growth (SDG 9). Climate change cannot be dissociated from the cities (SDG 11), sustainable consumption and production (SDG 12) and instability from climate refugees (SDG 16). It is climate change that has and will continue to affect the oceans and life in it (SDG 14) and thereof, negatively impacting on the quality of life elsewhere. The harsh realities of climate change have caused damage to biodiversity (SDG 15), and surely, something needs to be done and done yesterday! On a positive note and in the era of the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR/Industry 4.0), there is hope and windows of opportunities for innovation as global citizens harness the quest for renewable energy and smart innovations even for generations to come. This concerns smart cities, smart education, smart health, smart agriculture and smart

G. Nhamo and V. Mjimba

sanitation, the list goes on. The time to innovate and develop smart partnerships (SDG 17) is now. From a climate change perspective, both adaptation and mitigation solutions are and will be needed. Although emphasizing SDG 11, the UN Habitat has mainstreamed other SDGs and related global sustainable policy agendas into the New Urban Agenda (Habitat III) finalized in 2016 (United Nations Habitat, 2016). These positive moves are highlighted in the New Urban Agenda bullet 6: We take full account of the milestone achievements of the year 2015, in particular, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including the Sustainable Development Goals, the Addis Ababa Action Agenda … the Paris Agreement … the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, …the Beijing Platform for Action, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development and the follow-up to these conferences. (United Nations Habitat, 2016: 2–3)

To facilitate the scaling up of the SDGs through the New Urban Agenda, the UN Habitat purposed to focus on the urban dimension of the SDGs. These SDGs were due to be implemented in close collaboration with countries, the local government, major groups and other relevant stakeholders (United Nations Habitat, 2016). A variety of experts were also to be mobilized during the period of the New Urban Agenda. While the world appreciates the work of the United Nations family, there still remain questions in terms of how the United Nations agencies are engaging with the SDGs agenda. For example, there are identifiable fault lines that allocate the work of the UN Environment to some environment-related SDGs (SDGs 6, 12, 14, 15); FAO to SDG 2; World Health Organization to SDGs 3 and 6; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization to SDG 4; UN Women to SDG 5; the International Labour Organization to SDG 8; United Nations Industrial Development Organization to SDGs 9 and 12; UNFCCC to SDG 13; and UN Habitat to SDG 11. The challenge that emerges is if the UN family will be able to remain truthful to the ‘all in one and one

1  Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030

is all’ phenomenon of the SDGs agenda. In the past, the One UN approach has been adopted at the country level, but key UN agencies with visible presence at country level like the United Nations Development Programme and FAO will be viewed with ‘envy’ by fellow agencies as these have monopoly over their long existence at country level. Many other UN agencies like the United Nations Children’s Fund and UNDP are left with the need to fulfil a cross-­cutting SDGs mandate, while many others are left ‘seeking’ for SDGs mandate. The challenges being highlighted herein are likely to come out along the ministerial and portfolio lines at national and subnational levels. As preparations for the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) were at an advanced stage, the United Nations Secretary-General released the final agreed draft of the political declaration of the SDG Summit on 2 July 2019. The draft, which was due for approval by United Nations member states during the SDG Summit in September 2019, enshrines the global call to accelerate action under bullet 3. The draft political declaration acknowledged the ‘urgent need to accelerate action on all levels by all stakeholders’ if the vision and the goals of the 2030 AfSD are to be realized (United Nations, 2019b: 3). To this end, the world is challenged to do more and do it quicker—scaling up action. The world then committed, among other actions, to (1) leave no one behind; (2) mobilize adequate and welldirected financing; (3) enhance national implementation; (4) strengthen institutions for more integrated solutions; (5) bolster local action to accelerate implementation; (6) reduce disaster and build resilience; (7) harness science, technology and innovation, particularly digital transformation for sustainable development; (8) invest in data and statistics for SDGs; and (9) strengthen the HLPF. While activities at the United Nations level are a welcome development, more needs to be done at the national and other subnational levels. This is the focus of the next section.

1.3

9

 oluntary National Review V (VNR) and Voluntary Local Review (VLR)

In scaling up SDGs implementation, one cannot avoid making a stop at the reporting mechanism. The reporting mechanism is articulated under bullets 72–91 of the 2030 AfSD outcomes document ‘Transforming our world’. The document established what it terms the ‘follow-up and review’ mechanism. Such a mechanism is supposed to be systematic. The follow-up and review mechanism was meant to be ‘robust, voluntary, effective, participatory, transparent and integrated’ (United Nations, 2015: 31). The key word here being ‘voluntary’. This mechanism applies across different spatial scales from national to regional and the global levels. Nine principles that guide the follow-up and review processes were established, among them are the following: • It is country-led and voluntary, being sensitive to different realities and capabilities and the level of development in a particular state. The reporting has to further address the national policy space and priorities outlined therein. • Follow-up and review will track progress in implementing the global SDGs and their targets as well as the means of implementation from a holistic perspective that integrates the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development. • Should identify achievements, challenges, gaps and the associated critical success factors. • Should be gender-sensitive and respecting the human rights and have a bias towards the disadvantaged and poor that are likely to remain behind. • Follow-up and review will be rigorous and evidence-based, informed by disaggregated data that focus on sex, age, race, ethnicity, disability, etc. • It will require capacity development for developing countries, particularly the strengthening of national data systems.

G. Nhamo and V. Mjimba

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Fig. 1.2  Trends in VNRs (2016–2019). (Source: Author, based on United Nations, 2018, 2019a)

mentation (United Nations, 2018). The reporting takes place annually in July. Regarding the development of institutions for implementing the 2030 AfSD, the reporting countries highlighted that there remains challenges in reaching out to parliaments and working towards policy coherence for SDGs. Parliaments are pivotal as they pass laws and budgets and also have constituencies they represent. Countries highlighted that the multi-­ stakeholder engagement mechanisms were being established based on the whole-of-society approach, with structures emerging to link the national to the subnational and local government spheres. The VNRs identified the most vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, communities and individuals in line with the leaving no one behind principle of the SDGs. The new concept of reaching the furthest first, based on the action to prioritize those in most need, emerged. To this end, the VNRs identified ‘persons with disabilities, older persons, indigenous peoples, children, youth, women and persons living in poverty, especially extreme poverty’, as groups that need targeting to register notable progress under the SDGs drive (United Nations, 2018: 8). The details regarding progress towards some SDGs are addressed in the next paragraphs. On SDG 1, countries acknowledged the multidimensional perspectives of poverty and reported that children and the youth remain vul-

Number of VNRs

The follow-up and review mechanism would utilize an established global set of SDGs indicators (as discussed earlier under the three tiers) (United Nations, 2015), complemented by those at regional and national levels that will be used for reference scenarios (baselines). The establishment and refinement of the global indicators would be a mandate of the IAEG-SDGI. Given the foregone guidance, countries were urged to immediately develop ambitious and inclusive responses to scale up SDGs implementation. Similar action was encouraged for the regions. At the global level, the HLPF under auspices of the UN Economic and Social Council was mandated to oversee the follow-up and review processes. An annual progress report on the SDGs prepared by the UN Secretary-General would inform the HLPF. In addition, the HLPF would draw from the Global Sustainable Development Report and meet after every 4  years to review progress and challenges. As this chapter and book were being finalized, the HLPF was due to meet in September 2019  in New  York, and the trends in VNRs had been growing. In 2016, the HLPF received 22 VNR. These almost doubled to 43 in 2017, with the figure going up to 51 in 2019 (Fig. 1.2). The 3rd annual synthesis of VNRs 2018 indicated that great lessons emerged from the 46 reporting countries and that the VNRs were open and candid in acknowledging the challenges they were facing on SDGs imple-

2016

2017

2018

Source: Author, based on United Nations 2018 and 2019a

2019

1  Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030

nerable to living in poverty from both the developed Northern and developing Southern Hemisphere countries (United Nations, 2018). As for SDG 2, higher and persistent levels of food insecurity remain, and this was more prevalent in rural population, compared to their urban area counterparts. There was also malnutrition and obesity, particularly among children. The right to good health (SDG 3) was viewed as an asset to attaining the SDGs and as such identified as a priority in many VNRs. A number of policy measures were activated to fight the high maternal, neonatal and under-five mortality rates. The policies further seek to address the challenges around communicable and noncommunicable diseases. Concerning SDG 4, the VNRs revealed the increasing focus on access to early childhood education and vocational education. Additional focus was being placed on improving quality education for rural and students from low-income families. The need to close the ‘digital’ gap and divide by making sure all students have reliable and affordable Internet access emerges as another key focus area. As for gender (SDG 5), countries reported the persisting inequality between men and women. Women are reported to be lagging in political life and leadership roles, were paid less for equal work, hold fewer managerial and executive positions and are still exposed to gender-based violence (United Nations, 2018). Similar findings were confirmed for Africa by Nhamo et al. (2018). As for SDG 6, rural communities were challenged as they had limited access to clean drinking water and sanitation. This finding was also confirmed by Nhamo, Nhemachena, and Nhamo (2019) in a baseline study on SDG 6 for the African continent. The energy diversification measures were highlighted as one major transformation taking place across the continents to achieve SDG 7 (United Nations, 2018). This was set to be achieved through increasing the use of renewable energy, improving energy efficiency and bringing more rural households onto the national and mini grids as part of initiatives that remain on the horizon for many reporting

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countries. New policies and revisions to the legislative frameworks remain the cornerstone to the successful scaling up of SDG 7. To achieve SDG 8 (decent work), the role of small and medium enterprises was re-emphasized. The need to ease doing business through simplified licensing and permitting regulatory framework was highlighted as a persistent challenge in many developing countries. In a way, the SDGs continue to challenge us to do things differently. Measures taken to improve infrastructure (road, rail, air, maritime and ICT connectivity) were documented as the contributions towards achieving SDG 9 (United Nations, 2018). The desire to advance and enhance science, technology and innovation was also highlighted. The need for political, economic and social inclusion was viewed as building towards the attainment of SDG 10. Women, girls and people living with disabilities featured in future plans, including revamping the legal provisions for addressing such. The VNRs also narrowed down on SDG 11 implementation whose activities focused on addressing the ballooning informal settlements and increasing vulnerability to extreme weather events related to climate change. The countries also flagged the challenge of waste management, poor urban storm water drainage as well as traffic congestion and air pollution. All these aspects required the application of big data and drawing up of reliable baselines as one cannot manage what they cannot measure (Nhamo et al., 2018). Although progress was reported on SDG 12, the road ahead remains difficult, especially for high-income and developed countries (United Nations, 2018). Globally, the ever-increasing population makes it difficult to consume and produce sustainably. The circular economy was reported as one of the many pathways to attain SDG 12. Climate change (SDG 13) was viewed as cross-cutting, impacting the progress on all the other SDGs. Extreme weather events like floods, changing rainfall patterns, mudslides, heat waves, droughts, extreme snow, sea level and ocean acidification remain a reality, and building resilience and adaptation action is

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needed yesterday. On the other hand, countries reported mitigation action taking place with new policy regimes aimed at curtailing carbon emissions. Carbon taxes, emissions trading, green infrastructure and financing as well as the development and deployment of clean technology are some of the measures being implemented. South Africa, for example, witnessed the coming into effect of the Carbon Tax Act as of 1 June 2019 (Republic of South Africa, 2019). The blue economy has become a buzz word linked to scaling up SDG 14 by many countries. The blue economy is viewed as ‘deriving benefits, such as economic growth, food, and nutrition, and transport, employment and tourism opportunities, from oceans and seas’ (United Nations, 2018: 10). The VNRs further revealed how countries were progressing in the effective management of key commercial fish stocks, as well as the establishment of new marine protected areas. In fact, a lot of new policies and legal and institutional frameworks have emerged. However, the battle for illegal fishing, waste dumping at sea and marine pollution, especially plastics, remains a real challenge for many developing countries some of which may not even have coast patrol vessels of their own. As for SDG 15, many countries indicated that biodiversity loss was coming from competing land uses as urbanization and populations continue to grow (United Nations, 2018), encroaching into protected and other areas. Biodiversity and habitat losses were also as a result of climate change and the invasion from alien plant species. Activities including reforestation and war against poaching were highlighted as remedial measures by reporting countries. ‘Measures to promote good governance, implementation of human rights and the eradication of violence’ were reported as key to achieving SDG 16. Such measures go further to include the importance of upholding the rule of law and enabling access to information. Lastly, several new and existing partnerships (SDG 17) that came in the form of international, regional, bilateral, south-south and triangular cooperation were indicated as success stories. The next steps in scaling up SDGs implementation are included in Box 1.3.

G. Nhamo and V. Mjimba

Box 1.3 Nest Steps in Scaling Up SDGs Implementation from VNRs

• Ensuring that strategies and plans contain priorities. • Putting in place processes to meaningfully align national plans and budgets. • Investing in statistical offices and their capacity to produce high-quality, timely, reliable and disaggregated data. • Strengthening evaluation and monitoring systems. • More clearly identifying capacity development needs in the reviews. • Encouraging work and analysis on interlinkages between goals. • Identification of successful models for engagement with the private sector. • Continuing to institutionalize engagement with civil society and other stakeholders. Source: United Nations (2018: 12).

In as much as there has been strong movement in VNR initiatives across the world, a huge gap remains in linking such reporting to initiatives at lower tiers of government—the localization of the SDGs. The local government, particularly the municipality, remains the hub of SDGs localization and implementation. Yet, very few municipalities have hooked up with the SDGs domestication and localization agenda. Localization is defined by the Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments (GTLRG) as ‘the process of taking into account subnational contexts in the achievement of the 2030 Agenda, from the setting of goals and targets, to determining the means of implementation and using indicators to measure and monitor progress’ (GTLRG, 2016: 6). There has been slow progress towards voluntary reviews at the municipal level as is evident from the inaugural and a global first New  York City’s 2018 Voluntary Local Review (VLR) report of 2018 (New York City, 2018). Yet the municipal level remains the theatre of SDGs exe-

1  Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030

cution. The VLR for the city highlights the policy and enabling environment set in motion for SDGs localization and scaling up, including detailed reporting on the priority SDGs, namely, SDG 6 (water and sanitation), SDG 7 (energy), SDG 11 (sustainable settlements), SDG 12 (climate action) and SDG 15 (biodiversity). A city of 8.6 million people, New  York hosts the United Nations, and it deems itself uniquely positioned to influence the attainment of the SDGs through their amplification, sharing and drawing from good practices from other cities and states. Through its One New York City (OneNYC) development agenda, the city has planned to get about one million New  Yorkers out of poverty through programmes and projects aimed at ‘expanding access to nutritious and affordable food, and ensuring that those on the frontlines of climate change—often the most vulnerable New  Yorkers—are protected’ (New York City, 2018: 7). In this global first VLR submitted to the HLPF, New  York City showcased that regardless of the ambitious nature of the SDGs, it was possible to progress. New York City’s air and water became cleaner, job and wage growth rose to record highs, and the figures of children

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accessing early education were tripled since 2016. In fact, out of the 564 milestones set out from April 2015 to December 2017, a good 86% were either completed or partially completed. Following the success story of New York City’s VLR, other organizations and cities are coming on board. In March 2019, the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) launched an online platform to support and showcase lessons on how to achieve SDGs at the local government level (Wahlén, 2019). Other cities that have come forward with their VLRs include Kitakyushu City, Toyama City and Shimokawa Town all from Japan with 2018 VLR reports and Santana de Parnaíba from Brazil with a 2019 VLR report. These and future VLR reports are and will be available at https://www.iges.or.jp/ en/sdgs/vlr/index.html. Hence when one considers scaling up SDGs, the VLRs should stand out as the initiatives to have. The highlights from the other VLR reports are presented in Table 1.1. Drawing from the VLR process, it is not far-­ fetched to propose that such voluntary reviews should also take place at a company and even household levels. Hence in the future, voluntary

Table 1.1  Highlights from selected VLR reports City/Town Santana de Parnaíba

Kitakyushu City

Shimokawa Town

Toyama City

Highlights from the VLR report VLR led by a unique public-private-­institutional partnership between the municipal authorities, leading institutions in education for sustainable development (Gaia Education and UNESCO Global Action Programme) and the private sector company Artesano. The high engagement of civil servants, local business and civil society propelled the creation of an SDG Commission by public decree with the task of holding the continuity of the SDGs implementation to 2030. The ‘catalyser SDGs’ for Santana de Parnaíba are peace, justice and strong institutions (SDG 16), quality education (SDG 4) and good health and well-­being (SDG 3) The report shows that, under the three dimensions of sustainable development, there are 7 basic concepts and 17 principal actions. The city has also set priority targets based on the SDGs as follows: 5.5, 7.2, 8.2, 8.5, 9.4, 12.5, 17.7 and 17.17. The city envisions to set its related key performance indicators (KPI) soon Set the Shimokawa Vision 2030: The Shimokawa Challenge: Connecting people and nature with the future, which basically translates 17 goals into 7 different localized goals in a very inclusive, engaging process. The core activity of Shimokawa Town in pursuing sustainability is a cyclical forest management that maximizes the use of its rich forest resource The city has a framework of implementation, centred on a promotion division for the ‘FutureCity’ project, cross-arching different divisions and cooperating with industry, government and academia. It includes concrete cases of integration of the three dimensions through sustainable transport—LRT network—and others, as well as a case on universal health coverage through the Machinaka General Care Centre

Source: Authors based on https://www.iges.or.jp/en/sdgs/vlr/index.html (Accessed 27 June 2019)

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company reviews (VCRs) and voluntary household reviews (VHRs) could spring up or are supposed to spring up. The VCRs may be aligned to current sustainability and integrated reports. For organizations aligned to the UN Global Compact, Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Sustainability Standards and UN Principles for Responsible Management Education (UNPRME), there are windows of opportunities to account on how the SDGs will be cascaded to the corporate and business school levels. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) realized this opportunity in its write up that featured the business lens on the SDGs. The WBCSD (2016: 1) highlighted that ‘The SDGs can help to connect business strategies with global priorities. Companies can use the SDGs as an overarching framework to shape, steer, communicate and report on their strategies, goals and activities, allowing them to capitalize on a range of benefits such as identifying future business opportunities’. In this context, the next section narrows down to discuss some of the SDGs initiatives from the corporate sector.

1.4

Corporate Sector Initiatives

The business of scaling up SDGs in the corporate sector has grown big. The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) is of the view that the information, communication and technology (ICT) ecosystem remains at the epicentre of SDGs scaling up (ICC, 2017). Infrastructure, user management, applications and services as well as the economic, sociocultural, good governance and technical aspects support this ecosystem. However, for the ecosystem to work, civil society, government, business and the technical community should play ball (Fig. 1.3). Although the deployment of ICT is not a stand-alone SDG, there are a number of SDGs targets that expressly embed ICT in them, namely, SDGs 4, 5, 9 and 17 (United Nations, 2015). It remains difficult to identify an SDG that cannot be linked to ICT. Hence, ICT readiness at various scales from the local through regional to the global level will

be a vital cog to scaling up and mainstreaming SDGs in society. With the advent of ICT-based Industry 4.0, Google has joined the scaling up of SDGs through expanding and bringing up new global Internet cables. In June 2019, the company announced Equiano, a subsea cable that will run from Europe (Portugal) to South Africa (Google, 2019). This state-of-the-art infrastructure, expected to be completed in 2021 is based on space-division multiplexing (SDM) technology, which will enhance the handling of big data required for the SDGs. The SDM technology has up to 20 times more network capacity than its last predecessor does for the region. From linking up South Africa, the next phase of Equiano will be linking up Nigeria. In 3 years (2016–2018), Google invested US$47 billion in capital expenditure that included investments to improve the global infrastructure. Not to be outshined, Facebook (Fingas, 2019) has plans to circle Africa with another undersea data cable named Simba. This adventure is expected to increase its user base, especially to its platform WhatsApp. This move will certainly add other benefits to the SDGs arena. Many other global and national organizations have been working hard to scale up SDGs implementation. The International Standardization Organization (ISO) has mapped out how its standards address the SDGs arena. Apart from SDG 17 that recorded a nil hit, all other 16 SDGs have specific ISO standards addressing them. These range from 46 for SDG 5 to as high as 275 for SDG 3 (health). Further details are shown in Fig.  1.4. ISO views its standards as supporting the three founding pillars of sustainable development (ISO, 2018). On the economic pillar, ISO standards support this through international trade facilitation and sustainable business practices. From the social perspective, ISO standards assist society to improve the health and well-being of citizens. On the environmental front, the standards have grown good stewards through the environmental management system, which is premised on the continuous improvement cycle— the plan-­do-­check model. Of late, there has been an increased uptake of standards enforcing accountability on greenhouse gas emission

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Fig. 1.3  Leveraging ICT for scaling up SDGs implementation. (Source: ICC (2017: 2))

SDG 3 SDG 9 SDG 12 SDG 11 SDG 13 SDG 8 SDG 15 SDG 7 SDG 10 SDG 6 SDG 14 SDG 2 SDG 1 SDG 16 SDG 4 SDG 5 SDG 17 0

50

100 150 200 Number of ISO Standards

250

300

Fig. 1.4  ISO and the SDGs. (Source: Authors, based on https://www.iso.org/sdgs.html (Accessed 30 May 2019))

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reduction and transition to greener economies that use more renewable energy and that are energy efficient by companies globally. To support work from ISO, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), the United Nations Global Compact (UNGC) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) developed the SDG Campus in (2016). This campus provides a guide for business action on the SDGs. Like many others, the SDG Campus acknowledges the huge challenges the world has been and will continue to face in the three dimensions addressed by sustainable development, namely, social, economic and environmental concerns. The SDG Campus offers practical ways on how businesses (both big and small) can mainstream SDGs into their visions and missions as well as operation protocols and procedures. A five-step approach of landing the SDGs in a business is provided. It starts with the understanding of the SDGs, followed by defining business priorities, then setting the goals in step three, integration of the SDGs under step four and lastly reporting and communicating the mainstreaming and scaling up of the SDGs in the business.

Although both the ISO standards and the SDG Campus remain voluntary initiatives, these platforms are among a suite of interventions that communities are looking for. In a study focusing on transforming partnerships for the SDGs done by the UNGC in partnership with Accenture that surveyed a thousand CEOs, it emerged that business leaders were committed to stepping up partnerships for SDGs with 87% of those surveyed believing that the SDGs provided opportunities to rethink sustainable value chains, while 85% indicated that cross-sector partnerships were critical in enabling businesses to assist in the attainment of the SDGs by 2030 (UNGC, 2018). Busco, Granà, and Izzo (2018) follow up on the implementation of SDGs by the corporate world and document such in the book Sustainable Development Goals and Integrated Reporting. The authors profile several companies including City Developments Limited (Singapore), Itaú Unibanco Holdings SA (Brazil) and Cbus Fund (Australia). A summary of some of the key achievements in scaling up SDGs implementation from these companies is shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2  Scaling up SDGs implementation in the corporate sector Company City Developments Limited

Itaú Unibanco Holdings SA

The Construction and Building Unions Superannuation (Cbus) Fund

Key SDGs scaling-up activities •  2016: Initial alignment of material environment, social and governance (ESG) issues with UN SDGs •  2017: A new sustainability blueprint tracing the company direction to the 2030 AfSD—City Developments Limited (CDL) Future Value 2030 •  All the top 10 CDL material issues found to have an impact (or multiple impacts) on SDGs, especially SDG 8, 9, 7, 12 and 13 •  The global approach of the company to create value identifies four pillars: material themes, capitals, stakeholders and SDGs •  Company identified SDGs 8, 9, 16 and 17 as those to which it could scale up and contribute •  Other SDGs tagged were SDG 13 and 15 •  Acknowledges the company’s role in helping the Australian government to fulfil its responsibilities of achieving the SDGs •  A complete section dedicated to the SDGs in the 2017 integrated report titled ‘Pension funds, Cbus and the Sustainable Development Goals’ •  In 2017, the company joined the International Integrated Reporting Council’s (IIRC) Advisory Group for the SDGs •  Projects for the long-term target of net zero carbon emissions (SDG 13) have been developed at Cbus Property •  Following SDGs identified for impact by Cbus—SDGs 5, 8, 9, 11, 13 and 17

Source: Authors based on Busco et al. (2018: 92–114)

1  Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030

What emerges from the deliberations in this section is that the corporate sector has warmed up to the task of scaling up SDGs. Although the finer details of confirming the progress on the ground may still be lacking, at least the intention is clear. Of interest is the fact that three SDGs seem popular in the scaling up, namely, SDG 8 (sustainable jobs), SDG 9 (industry and infrastructure) and SDG 13 (climate action). Since no company should be left behind, there is an SDG or more for every entity on earth, and it remains the responsibility of those leading such enterprises that scaling up takes place, urgently. In fact, many multinational companies have started issuing Sustainable Development Goals bonds (HSBC, 2018) that include green, social and sustainability bonds. The next section focuses on the role of civil society.

1.5

The Role of Civil Society

This section will briefly consider the roles of civil society that includes non-governmental organizations (NGOs), youth-led movements, institutions of higher education (IHE) and trade unions in scaling up SDGs implementation. Since the Earth Summit that took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992, civil society has gained experience on how to translate global agendas into practice at the local level. With more than 6000 local agendas and 21 initiatives across 113 countries (GTLRG, 2016), civil society has shown its capabilities in education, awareness raising, advocacy and practically the implementation of Agenda 21 in several diverse communities. The academia is also viewed as a necessary pillar in educating and communicating the SDGs to all stakeholders. Through formal education, the SDGs should find a strong presence in the curriculum, teacher training as well as research, development and innovation. Informal education could bring in youth associations and set up conferences and events at libraries and online platforms all focusing on SDGs. This way, the entire world and communities will not be left behind, at least in knowing that there is a 2030 AfSD and it is every citizen’s responsibility to advance this agenda.

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Through Restless Development, a youth-led commonwealth development agency, the young people have placed themselves at the forefront of change and development (The Commonwealth, 2016). The development agency has dedicated its mission to youth-led accountability for the SDGs. Some of the focus areas include healthy and safe sexual lives and decent livelihoods. The youth-­ led accountability mechanisms draw insights from four principles, namely, inclusion, responsiveness, collaboration and transparency. Indeed, the role of the youth in scaling up SDGs implementation cannot be overemphasized. After all, the future belongs to them. Another group of key stakeholders in civil society is labour. The Trade Union Development Cooperation Network (TUDCN) realizes the value of trade unions in achieving the SDGs through their work that focuses on upholding the freedom of association, collective bargaining and the promotion of sustainable jobs and the worker’s rights (TUDCN, 2018). The involvement of trade unions in social dialogues means that they remain at the centre of national, subnational and local government policy formulation and implementation. Trade unions further hold the spheres of government and the private sector to account. Through the TUDCN, six SDGs relevant to all trade unions have been identified for prioritization to 2030, namely, Goal 1 (no poverty), Goal 5 (gender equality), Goal 8 (decent work), Goal 10 (reduced inequalities), Goal 13 (climate action) and Goal 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) (TUDCN, 2018: 4). In their model of scaling up SDGs implementation, the trade unions agreed to work on three fundamentals: (1) transparency, (2) consultation and (3) social dialogue. From the foregone discussion, it becomes obvious that to leave no one behind, the SDGs agenda needs efforts from, by and through everyone. This book examines the form and extent of such efforts. The next section presents the book outlines, following its major parts and the chapters contained in each of such parts. The reader can discover more detail of the material covered in each of the chapters from the chapters.

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1.6

Book Outline

The book comes in 5 parts comprising 13 chapters in total. Part I is made up of a single introductory and background chapter that looks at scaling up SDGs implementation down the road to the fast approaching year 2030. Part II has four chapters focusing on drawing up national SDGs baselines and other cases involving state actors. Part III is made up of three chapters that focus on the business sector and the SDGs. Part IV has three chapters that address civil society and the SDGs. The last part is another single chapter comprising the conclusions and policy recommendations. Details of these parts and chapters are the subject matter of this book.

References AfDB (African Development Bank). (2019). African Development Bank approves USD 24.7 million for Water and Sanitation Development in South Sudan. Retrieved June 26, 2019, from https://www.afdb. org/en/news-and-events/african-development-bankapproves-usd-24-7-million-for-water-and-sanitationdevelopment-in-south-sudan-19407/ Busco, C., Granà, F., & Izzo, M.  F. (2018). Sustainable Development Goals and integrated reporting. London: Routledge. Fingas, J.  (2019). Facebook wants to circle Africa with an undersea data cable. Retrieved June 30, 2019, from https://www.engadget.com/2019/04/08/ facebook-to-circle-africa-with-undersea-data-cable/ Gilson, L., & Schneider, H. (2010). Managing scaling up: what are the key issues? Health Policy and Planning, 25, 97–98. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/ czp067 Google. (2019). Introducing Equiano, a subsea cable from Portugal to South Africa. Retrieved June 30, 2019, from https://cloud.google.com/blog/products/ infrastructure/introducing-equiano-a-subsea-cablefrom-portugal-to-south-africa GRI (Global Reporting Initiative), UNGC (United Nations Global compact), & WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development). (2016). SDG Campus: The guide for business action on the SDGs. Amsterdam: GRI Secretariat. GTLRG (Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments). (2016). Roadmap for localizing the SDGs: Implementation and monitoring at subnational level. New York: GTLRG. HSBC. (2018). HSBC United Nations Sustainable Development Goals bond report 2018. London: HSBC.

IAEG-SDGs (United Nations Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators). (2019a). Tier classification for global SDG Indicators 22 May 2019. New York: IAEG-SDGs. IAEG-SDGs (United Nations Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators). (2019b). IAEG-SDG membership. Retrieved June 28, 2019, from https://unstats. un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/members/ ICC (International chamber of Commerce). (2017). ICT, policy and sustainable economic development. Paris: ICC Secretariat. Indig, D., Lee, K., Grunseit, A., Milat, A., & Bauman, A. (2018). Pathways for scaling up public health Interventions. BMC Public Health, 18, 68. https://doi. org/10.1186/s12889-017-4572-5 ISO (International Standardization Organisation). (2018). An overview of how ISO standards contribute directly to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Geneva: ISO. New York City. (2018). Voluntary local review: New York City’s implementation of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. New York: New York City Mayor’s Office for International Affairs. Nhamo, G. (2013). Green economy readiness in South Africa: A focus on the national sphere of government. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies—Multi-, Inter- and Transdisciplinarity, 8(1), 115–142. Nhamo, G., Nhamo, S., & Nhemachena, C. (2018). What gets measured gets done! Towards an Afro-barometer for tracking progress in achieving sustainable development goal 5. Agenda. https://doi.org/10.1080/1013095 0.2018.1433365 Nhamo, G., Nhemachena, C., & Nhamo, S. (2019). Is 2030 too soon for Africa to achieve the water and sanitation sustainable development goal? Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2019.03.109 Power, J., Gilmore, B., Vallières, F., Toomey, E., Mannan, H., & McAuliffe, E. (2019). Adapting health interventions for local fit when scaling-up: a realist review protocol. BMJ Open, 9, e022084. https://doi.org/10.1136/ bmjopen-2018-022084 Republic of South Africa. (2019). Carbon Tax Act 15 of 2019. Pretoria: Government Printers Republic of South Africa. SDSN (Sustainable Development Solutions Network). (2019). Sustainable development report 2019: Transformations to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. New York: SDSN Secretariat. Smith, J. M., de Graft-Johnson, J., Zyaee, P., Ricca, J. and Fullertond, J.  (2015). Scaling up high-impact interventions: How is it done? International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 130: S4–S10, doi:https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.03.010. Spicer, N., Bhattacharya, D., Dimka, R., Fanta, F., Mangham-Jefferies, L., Schellenberg, J., et al. (2014). ‘Scaling-up is a craft not a science’: Catalysing scale­up of health innovations in Ethiopia, India and Nigeria. Social Science & Medicine, 121, 30–38. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.09.046

1  Scaling Up SDGs Implementation: Down the Road to Fast Approaching 2030 The commonwealth. (2016). Youth-Led Accountability for the SDGs. London: The Commonwealth Secretariat. TUDCN (Trade Union Development Cooperation Network). (2018). A trade union take on the SDGs. Retrieved July 4, 2019, from https://www.ituc-csi.org/ IMG/pdf/tudcn_sdgs_global_report_2018_en.pdf Uitto, J.  I., & Naidoo, I.  A. (2019). Local, national, global: Evaluative evidence of scaling up the SDGs. Paper presented during the American Association of Geographers Annual Meeting, 3 April 2019, Washington D.C. UN Habitat. (2016). Habitat III: New Urban Agenda. New York: United Nations Habitat Secretariat. UN Women. (2019). Progress of the world’s women 2019-­ 2020: Executive Summary. New  York: UN Women Secretariat. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change). (2015). Paris Agreement. Bonn: UNFCCC Secretariat. UNGC (United Nations Global Compact). (2018). The UN Global Compact–Accenture Strategy CEO Study: Transforming Partnerships for the SDGs. New York: UNGC. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. New York: United Nations Secretariat.

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United Nations. (2018). Synthesis of Voluntary National Reviews 2018. New York: United Nations Secretariat. United Nations. (2019a). Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals report of the Secretary-General. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment. un.org/content/documents/22700E_2019_XXXX_ Report_of_the_SG_on_the_progress_towards_the_ SDGs_Special_Edition.pdf United Nations. (2019b). Final Agreed Draft: Political Declaration of the SDG Summit. Retrieved July 9, 2019, from https://www.un.org/pga/73/wp-content/ uploads/sites/53/2019/07/Unbroken-silence-HLPFPolitical-Declaration.pdf Wahlén, C.  B. (2019). IGES launches ‘Voluntary Local Review’ platform for sub-national SDG follow-up. Retrieved June 27, 2019, from https://sdg.iisd.org/ news/iges-launches-voluntary-local-review-platformfor-sub-national-sdg-follow-up/ WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development). (2016). Delivering on the Sustainable Development Goals: The inclusive business approach. Geneva: WBCSD. WHO (World Health Organization). (2010). Nine steps for developing a scaling-up strategy. Geneva: WHO Secretariat.

Part II Drawing Up National SDGs Baselines and Cases Involving State Actors

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Emerging African Picture of Official Development Assistance and Education-Related SDGs Indicators Godwell Nhamo, Charles Nhemachena, and Senia Nhamo

Abstract

Official development assistance (ODA) in Africa remains a contested subject, and Africa worries about the conditionalities and dwindling ODA inflows. This has led to increased attention on domestic resource mobilisation to complement ODA.  This chapter attempts to follow trends in the volume of ODA for scholarships and to establish a baseline composite index drawing on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics and the available United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2018 tier indicators for the education Sustainable Development Goal—SDG 4. In addition to analysing ODA flows for the period 2006 to 2015, two additional indicators were used to compute the composite index, namely, adjusted net enrolment rate 1  year before the official primary entry age and perG. Nhamo (*) Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] C. Nhemachena International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Southern Africa Regional Office, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] S. Nhamo Department of Economics, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

centage of trained teachers in primary education. The findings reveal huge gaps in the volume of ODA for scholarships. It emerged that achieving SDG 4 targets is going to be an uphill task without scaling up efforts towards quality education. We therefore recommend that ODA for scholarships as well as the net enrolment rate a year before official primary entry age and the percentage of trained primary teachers should be increased. We also suggest additional domestic funding and data collection to populate missing data on indicators, including the percentage of trained secondary school teachers. Keywords

ODA · Education · Composite index · Sustainable development · SDG4 · Africa

2.1

Introduction and Background

There has been a renewed global call to rally behind education. This commitment emerged during the “Financing the Future: Education 2030” event that took place on the sidelines of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in September 2017 (Kardish, Zühr, & Campe, 2017). In addition, the world leaders committed to the establishment of the International Finance Facility for

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_2

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Box 2.1 Goal 4 Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All

Targets: • 4.1: By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes. • 4.2: By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-­primary education so that they are ready for primary education. • 4.3: By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university. • 4.4 By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship. • 4.5: By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education, and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations. • 4.6: By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy. • 4.7: By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development. • 4.a: Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive, and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all. • 4.b: By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing states and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, and technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries. • 4.c: By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing states. Source: United Nations (2015: 17).

Education (IFFEd). Clearly, the ­funding for education mandate is in the hands of various stakeholders: domestic and international partners, business, civil society and donors. This paper interrogates the status of official development assistance (ODA) and the critical role it plays in the 2030 education outcomes. An estimated 90% of all official development assistance (ODA) donors come from only 14 large Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

(OECD) countries.1 Drawing from the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee, Kardish et  al. (2017) observe a disturbing downwards trend in education ODA since its 2010 peak. The ODA figures that stood at US$8.1 billion in 2010 had deceased by about 6% to US$7.6 billion in These countries are Australia, Canada, the European Union, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States.

1 

2  Emerging African Picture of Official Development Assistance and Education-Related SDGs Indicators

2015. The Global Partnership for Education (GEP) (2017) observes similar trends and calls for global spending on education to increase from the realised 2017 levels of about US$1.2 trillion annually to about US$ 3 trillion annually by 2030. The year 2015 remains significant in human history as it ushered in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD), which enshrines 17 SDGs, including SDG 4 (United Nations, 2015). Further details regarding SDG 4 are presented in Box 2.1. The SDGs became effective on the 1 January 2016, following the close of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) era in December 2015 from which there still remains the ultimate unfinished business of poverty eradication. Kardish et  al. (2017) highlight additional constraints in ODA financing in the education sector including the following: the bigger share that has gone to post-secondary education, mainly scholarships (42%), and that middle-­income countries benefit most from the share of the ODA in the education sector (52%). The GEP (2017) hints of the alarming global education crisis that is looming. The GEP is of the view that without urgent interventions, more than half of the 1.6 billion young people will have their education doors and dreams shut by 2030. This will be a direct failure to fulfil SDG 4, and some of the consequences will be dire— social and political instability, unemployment, increased poverty and inequality. These are all issues linked to other SDGs, which include “Goal 1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere, Goal 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all, Goal 10 Reduce inequality within and among countries and goal 16 Peace, justice and strong institutions” (United Nations, 2015: 14). In 2017, an estimated 260 million children and adolescents were out of school, with a mere 1 in 12 young people in low-­income countries on track to get secondary education. Girls were still denied education (GEP, 2017). Given the aforementioned, this chapter seeks to establish the flow of ODA to the African education sector. It further seeks to combine the ODA indicator with other SDG 4 indicators and

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come up with a baseline SDG composite index for African countries. Measuring remains a ­fundamental pillar in tracking progress towards meeting the 2030 AfSD and its SDGs (Nhamo, Nhamo, & Nhemachena, 2018). This requires establishing baselines that were missing during the MDGs era. The next section focuses on the literature informing this chapter.

2.2

Literature Survey

The concerns about ODA to the education sector are not new. Heyneman and Lee (2016) indicate that the education sector started benefitting from foreign aid in the early 1960s. Foreign aid is given with the understanding that education remains a principal component in the development equation. To this end, several multilateral and bilateral agencies have been established, and they have implemented a cocktail of education aid programmes. However, writing in the mid-­ 2000s, Heyneman (2006) states that gains from ODA to the education sector are modest, with development assistance agencies giving it a relatively low priority. Given this background, the percentage of ODA to education ranged from 5% to 9% annually from 1995 to 2011 (Heyneman & Lee, 2016). UNESCO (2018a) records that there was stagnation in ODA flows during the period 2010 to 2015. The agency goes further to observe that even with the marked increase in aid to education in 2016, it remained well below forecast levels necessary to cover costs to realise SDG 4. Education aid rose by US$1.5 billion (13% in real terms) to US$13.4 billion between 2015 and 2016. Of the stated increase, about 66% was accounted for by basic education that recorded figures of US$5.1 billion in 2015 to US$6 billion in 2016. As to the main challenge faced by the education sector then, Heyneman (2006) maintains that it was the development education community itself. The community adopted a simple ideology regarding basic education for all. Apart from the challenges faced by the development community, other challenges were inherent in the nature of the priorities of aid agencies (Table 2.1). Overall,

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Africa Development Bank Inter-American Development Bank World Bank

USA/USAID

Priorities •  Post-secondary education (education level unspecified) •  Basic education •  Improving student results and completion rate in education •  Financing for higher education •  Higher education •  Science, technology and vocational training •  Primary education •  Secondary education •  Quality education •  Basic education •  Higher education •  Vocational •  In-service training •  Pre-school •  Education management and policy reform •  Teacher training •  Developing and distributing textbooks and learning materials •  Improving literacy •  Participant training and workforce development. •  School construction

Source: Heyneman and Lee (Heyneman & Lee, 2016: 13) and Tarnoff (Tarnoff, 2016: 2)

a number of problems emanate from ODA setup (Heyneman & Lee, 2016), including institutional imbalance and duplication by agencies, funding shortfalls and aid volatility, growing dependency syndrome from host governments, weakened domestic institutions and having more accurate records on education residing outside the mainstream statistical realm of host countries. Such challenges have even resulted in calls to end foreign aid in general and education aid specifically (Menashy, 2016). There is a further call to understand the roles of non-state actors in education governance, especially the World Bank and other bilateral donors that seek to maintain their “… hierarchical positions through the maintenance of structures that reproduce their dominant status” (Menashy, 2018: 13). Although basic education remains on the radar, the thinking around it has started changing

over time to focus more on equity and quality of schooling with the OECD leading the way (Sellar & Lingard, 2013). This orientation is now more relevant as the education SDG places emphasis on basic education too (United Nations, 2015). Researching the effectiveness of ODA to education, Riddell and Niño-Zarazúa (2016) and Birchler and Michaelowa (2016) further concur that basic education has benefitted from ODA. In fact, Birchler and Michaelowa (Birchler & Michaelowa, 2016: 37) expand their arguments and highlight that “the most robust effect is obtained by aid for education facilities and training”. The authors have also found complementarities between aid channelled for primary and secondary education. Given the desire to be progressive, Niño-Zarazúa (Niño-Zarazúa, 2016: 1) advises that the education community should be worried about answering “the general question of how aid can better support the collective actions that seek to improve education systems in developing countries”. Although the main thrust of this chapter is not to establish how ODA could answer this question, the indicator has been applied in drawing up an SDG 4 baseline for selected African countries that had data for the three indicators finally selected. The limit to three indicators is plausible on the basis of data availability. Including more indicators would have resulted in the sample growing smaller and smaller, and ­ultimately no work would be performed on this crucial subject matter. UNESCO (2017) starts by linking the education SDG to its Incheon Declaration and the Education 2030 Framework for Action aligned to the SDGs. It realises that education remains pivotal to the attainment of the 2030 AfSD. From the 2030 AfSD, education is highlighted across five SDGs through selected targets. This picture is presented in Table  2.2. What is of interest in Table 2.2 is that it opens up the broader agenda of ODA and development. Hence previous ODA and/or ODA to be channelled to sectors that address specified targets related to education will have an overall effect on education and sustainable development. In fact, UNESCO raises interesting points on underlying principles, namely, education is a fundamental human and enabling right, edu-

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Table 2.2  Education in other SDGs SDG Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages

5

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

8

Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

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13

Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

Education target specified Target 3.7: By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare services, including family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes Target 5.6: Number of countries with laws and regulations that guarantee women aged 15–49 years access to sexual and reproductive healthcare, information and education Target 8.6: By 2020 substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training Target 12.8: By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information about and awareness of sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature Target 13.3: Improve education, awareness raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning

Source: UNESCO (2017: 7–8) and United Nations (2015: 14)

cation is a public good, and gender parity is intertwined with every global citizen’s right to education. The above reference is made to the Education 2030 Framework for Action in which UNESCO plays the leading and coordinating role (Benavot & Naidoo, 2018). From UNESCO’s (2017) perspective, the framework is a platform guiding the domestication and localisation of SDG 4. The framework documents implementation modalities, such as “governance, accountability and partnerships; coordination; monitoring and review; and financing” (Ibid.: 15). The matter of finance highlighted in the framework takes us back to ODA and other funds available for attaining SDG 4. The framework further presents global and thematic indicators for the monitoring, reporting and verifying progress of SDG 4 commitments. Some of the indicators in the framework are applied in this publication. In fact, UNESCO calls for national quantitative benchmarks to be used for tracking progress. This observation resonates with the work done by Nhamo et  al. (2018) on SDG 5, where national benchmarks are developed for this SDG.  In its follow-up work, UNESCO (2018b) has developed a quick guide to dealing with SDG 4 indicators and identified four levels on which SDG 4 targets

should be monitored (Fig.  2.1). 2 UNESCO further commits to collaboration with national governments and their central statistical offices to enhance data collection strategies. Addressing financing issues, UNESCO (2017) proposes that the implementation of SDG 4 will require higher levels of sustained finances, and this of course includes ODA. It will also require maximisation in allocation, including from domestic (national) fiscal mobilisation (Balsera, Klees, & Archer, 2018). Since domestic financing remains the main source, national governments must pledge to provide more and better financing (UNESCO, 2017). For this to happen, national governments need to do three things: (a) increase public funding, (b) increase efficiency and accountability and (c) prioritise groups and stakeholders in most need, like people living with disabilities, children, youth, women and the girl child. Balsera et al. (2018) acknowledge that governments in low- and middle-income regions are already committing to funding education through domestic resource mobilisation. However, more

UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics, TCG Technical Cooperation Group on the Indicators for SDG 4-Education 2030, UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, IAEG-SDGs Inter-Agency Expert Group on SDGs.

2 

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Fig. 2.1  Levels of monitoring SDG 4 targets. (Source: UNESCO (2018b: 10))

money could be raised by broadening their tax base. For example, these governments could reduce the prevalence of harmful tax incentives and/or tackle tax avoidance. Drawing insights from Niger, a country known to have the highest child marriage globally, Wodon (2018) adds that financial savings could result from ending child marriage and early childbirths, with such money being directed to education budgets. UNESCO (2017) addresses the implications of ODA in the attainment of SDG 4 directly. From UNESCO’s point of view, ODA should be used as a catalyst to obtain additional funding from other sources, including the public and private sectors. ODA remains one of the crucial sources of education financing and therefore needs to be increased significantly through undoing the decline in aid to education, improved aid effectiveness through harmonisation and streamlined coordination and targeted and increased aid flows to the education sector in areas of conflict and during crisis times (Ibid.). Pledges and commitments to ODA by the developed countries should be realised. This comes in the form of achieving the target of 0.7% of gross national income (GNI) for ODA channelled to developing countries as well as 0.15– 0.2% of GNI of ODA reserved for least developed

countries (UNESCO, 2017). Children and other disadvantaged people in fragile states and those impacted by conflict and climate change require ODA flows into education as part of extended humanitarian responses. UNESCO (Ibid.) highlights that a range of financing mechanisms and processes for SDGs has emerged since 2012. They include the following: Addis Ababa Action Agenda (2015), International Commission on Financing Global Education Opportunity (commonly known as the Education Commission) (2015), Global Partnership for Education (2012) and Education Cannot Wait (ECW) fund (2016). The next section focuses on the methodological underpinnings informing this work.

2.3

Methodological Underpinnings

This chapter sets twin objectives, namely, (1) to investigate the trends in the volume of ODA for scholarships into Africa and (2) to establish a baseline composite index for the education SDG drawing on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics and the available United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2018 tier indicators for SDG 4. As for the ODA objec-

2  Emerging African Picture of Official Development Assistance and Education-Related SDGs Indicators

tive (SDG 4.b.1), we use the indicator focusing on the volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships by sector and type of study. This is the indicator with data available for all 54 African countries. The data cover a decade, from 2006 to 2015. For analysis, the authors performed a cumulative ODA for scholarship trend analysis for the entire continent. In addition, further trend analyses were performed for countries in their ranks focusing on the bottom and top ten countries. In drawing up the composite index, data on the selected three indicators (adjusted net enrolment rate 1 year before the official primary entry age, percentage of trained teachers in primary education and volume of ODA for scholarships) were used. In coming up with the composite index, a decision was made to have the baseline year data as 2015 (the year when the MDGs era ended), and where data were not available for a year, data for the nearest point (2013, 2014 or 2016) were used (Table 2.3). This permitted the researchers to include 24 out of the 54 countries for further analysis. The process of computing the composite index included the following key steps: the normalisation of data sets, indicator weighting, calculation of SDG 4 composite index, aggreTable 2.3  Number of countries with data for selected indicators by year

Indicator Adjusted net enrolment rate, 1 year before the official primary entry age, both sexes (%) Volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships by sector and type of study, constant US$ Percentage of trained teachers in primary education, both sexes (%) Source: Authors

2015 (base 2016 year) 2 13

2014 2013 7 2

0

24

0

0

1

17

2

4

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gation and robustness and sensitivity analysis. The raw indicator and sub-indicator data were normalised to ensure that they are comparable across all the sample countries. The authors applied the min–max normalisation method and rescale the indicators from a score of 0 to 100, where 0 represents worst (lowest) performance and 100 is the best (highest) possible score. Computing composite indicators widely apply the min–max normalisation method. Examples of such indicators include the Human Development Index and the Gender Development Index (UNDP, 2016) and the SDG index (Sachs, Schmidt-Traub, Kroll, Durand-­Delacre, & Teksoz, 2016). Following other empirical research on computing composite indicators, such as the research of Kararach et  al. (2018) and Sachs et  al. (2016), the data were ordered from worst (lowest) to best (highest) score for each indicator. Given that the SDGs are treated equally (United Nations, 2015), the three indicators used were allocated equal weighting in computing the index. The same approach has been applied in other empirical research that computes aggregate indicators based on SDG indicators, such as the research of Schmidt-Traub, Kroll, Teksoz, Durand-Delacre, and Sachs (2017); Nhemachena et  al. (2018); and Nhamo et  al. (2018). As of October 2018, the United Nations’ Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-­ SDGs) identifies 12 indicators for SDG 4 (IAEG-­ SDGs, 2018). Of these indicators, two fell into tier I, seven into tier II and two into tier III, and one was classified as falling into any of the three tiers depending on the indices used by UNESCO-­ UIS and OECD. This indicator deals with “parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated” (SDG 4.5.1). The SDG 4 composite index for a given country (c) was calculated as a linear aggregate weighted function of N normalised indicators (yit) with weights (wi) as discussed earlier. The gen-

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eral equation for calculating the composite SDG 4 index is as follows:

important to ensure that recommendations for national decisions are not based on country rankings, which are highly sensitive to minor changes N t in the construction of the CI. To put more flesh into w y ⋅ ∑ i it  xitt − min xit t t i =1 , the findings and the ranking for countries, addiSDG 4 CI c = N , where  yit = t range x tional policy documents were sought and analysed  it wi ∑ i =1 for top performing countries to check what the governments had put in place on the ground. The next section presents key findings and discussions (2.1) from the research.

( ) ( )

where SDG 4 CI is the composite index, xitt is the indicator i for a given country (c) in time (t) and wi is the weight of each indicator (i). The authors then calculate the SDG 4 CI based on rescaled values of the indicators. Although another approach to normalise the indicators is to use the standardised values of the indicators (Kararach et  al., 2018; Nhemachena et al., 2018), there were no statistically significant variances in the CI expected from calculations based on the two methods. The results of the CI can be affected by changes in indicator weights, the selected method of normalisation, missing data imputation and indicator selection. To this end, robustness and sensitivity analysis are

2.4

Presentation of Data and Discussion of Findings

The ODA trends during the selected period (2006–2015) are presented in Figs. 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4. Trends in ODA flows for scholarships for the period 2006–2015 for the bottom ten countries are shown in Fig.  2.2a. Figure  2.2b reflects the same for the top ten countries. The ODA scholarship volumes ranged from as low as US$1.37 million (received by Eritrea between 2006 and 2015) to as high as US$94.29 million (for Morocco). Owing to the global financial meltdown, the annual continent-wide ODA flows dropped

Somalia

Eritrea

South Sudan

Equatorial Guinea

Swaziland

Gambia

Sierra Leone

Seychelles

Lesotho

Libya

1800000 1600000 1400000 ODA (US$)

1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 0

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Fig. 2.2  Trends in ODA flows for scholarships (bottom ten countries). (Source: Authors)

2014

2015

2  Emerging African Picture of Official Development Assistance and Education-Related SDGs Indicators

Tanzania

Cameroon

Rwanda

Ethiopia

Kenya

South Africa

Tunisia

Egypt

Algeria

Morocco

31

25000000

ODA (US$)

20000000

15000000

10000000

5000000

0

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2013

2014

2015

Fig. 2.3  Trends in ODA flows for scholarships (top ten countries). (Source: Authors)

250000000

ODA (US$)

200000000

150000000

100000000

50000000

0

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Fig. 2.4  Trends in ODA flows for scholarships (all 54 countries). (Source: Authors)

drastically from US$133.03 million in 2009 to US$93.61million in 2011 (Fig.  2.2). Although volumes were very low in 2011, Equatorial Guinea reported a sharp spike compared to all other countries. However, the scholarship ODA

volumes increased remarkably in 2013 before dropping slightly in 2014 and peaking in 2015. The authors were also interested in drawing up the 2015 baselines for the sampled countries, with data for the indicators discussed under the methodology section. As highlighted earlier, the

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year 2015 was significant in that it marked the end of the MDGs and the dawn of the SDGs in January 2016. From the baseline composite index, only Morocco had a weighted score of 80+ points out of a possible 100 (Table 2.4). In addition to Morocco, the other countries making up the top five included Mauritius, the Seychelles, Cabo Verde and Tanzania. There seems to be a close relationship between ODA and foreign direct investment (FDI). In a 2010 World Bank report focusing on investing across borders that looked at indicators of FDI regulations in 87 countries, Mauritius came out highly ranked. In fact, Mauritius was indicated to be among the world’s most open economies. This scenario led to the country attracting foreign ownership and consistently being the largest FDI recipient (World Bank, 2010). The bottom 5 countries whose weighted scores ranged from 14.31 to 19.75 out of a possible of Table 2.4  Ranking of performance based on the 2015 baseline composite index Country name Morocco Mauritius Seychelles Cabo Verde Tanzania Egypt Ghana Rwanda Botswana Comoros Côte d’Ivoire Zimbabwe Cameroon Guinea Liberia Djibouti Lesotho Senegal Burkina Faso Sierra Leone Niger Sao Tome and Principe Eritrea Equatorial Guinea Source: Authors

Country code MAR MUS SYC CPV TZA EGY GHA RWA BWA COM CIV ZWE CMR GIN LBR DJI LSO SEN BFA SLE NER STP ERI GNQ

SDG 4 index 81.81 67.66 58.56 57.91 57.85 53.60 53.49 47.18 44.12 42.97 42.94 41.11 40.90 36.19 35.31 34.96 34.32 29.53 27.67 19.75 18.05 17.09 15.98 14.31

100 points included Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome and Principe, Niger and Sierra Leone. A total of 17 countries scored below 50 points out of a possible 100 points, and of these 17, 11 scored below 40 points out of a possible 100 points. Overall, only 7 countries scored 50+ points out of the possible 100 points. This scenario is daring and challenges the governments of the sampled countries to do something and do it urgently if the 2030 AfSD is to be achieved overall and most importantly if national targets are to be achieved. The governments also urgently need to do something if the education SDG in particular is to be attained. There is therefore compelling evidence that the selected countries might be left behind. Further analyses of the equal weighted scores and ranking of each of the three indicators used in computing the baseline composite index and the overall baseline index are summarised in Figs. 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8. In sequence, the presented data were narrowed down to adjusted net enrolment rate 1  year before the official primary entry age (Fig.  2.5); the volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships (Fig.  2.6); the percentage of trained teachers in primary education, both sexes (Fig. 2.7); and the SDG 4 baseline composite index in spider web format (Fig. 2.8). The top five performing countries regarding adjusted net enrolment rate were Ghana, the Seychelles, Mauritius, Liberia and Cabo Verde. The bottom five countries included Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Eritrea, Senegal and Côte d’Ivoire. The surprisingly low ranking of Côte d’Ivoire could be associated with political disturbances during the period under review with President Laurent Gbagbo refusing to hand over power after the 2010 elections. The violence spread throughout 2011 resulting in an estimated 3000 deaths in the capital city Abidjan (Sowetan, 2018). Former President Gbagbo was later forced out, and his rival Alassane Ouattara was inaugurated. During times of war and other instances of instability, education systems usually suffer. As for the percentage of trained teachers in primary education, the top five countries were Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Mauritius, Rwanda and Botswana. The bottom

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GHA

35

Score out of 33,33 points

SYC

MUS LBR

30 CPV

25 20

EGY

GNQ

GIN

BWA

10

0

SLE

ZWE

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ERI

DJI

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RWA

LSO

NER

CIV

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STP

MAR

CMR COM

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33

5

10

15 Number of countries

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Fig. 2.5  Ranking for adjusted net enrolment rate (1 year before primary entry age). (Source: Authors)

MAR

35

Score out of 33,33 points

30 25

EGY

20 CMR

15

TZA

GHA 10

COM CIV

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BWA CPV

DJI

BFA 0

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ERI GNQ 10

SEN

RWA GIN MUS NER LSO STP LBR 15 Number of countries

20

ZWE SYC SLE 25

30

Fig. 2.6  Ranking volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships. (Source: Authors)

five included Sao Tome and Principe, Equatorial Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Ghana. Drawing from the literature, the findings on ODA confirm the trends in terms of small volumes, fluctuating figures, huge variances across

countries and declining trends witnessed, especially after the global financial crisis of 2008/2009. What is more worrying is that only two countries (Egypt and Morocco) scored above half in terms of the weighed scores for ODA for

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BWA

35

Score out of 33,33 points

30

CIV

CPV

MAR MUS

DJI

TZA RWA

BFA

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COM

GIN

EGY

LSO

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SEN

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ERI

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SLE

LBR

5 0

ZWE

SYC

GNQ 0

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15 Number of countries

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25

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Fig. 2.7  Ranking percentage of trained teachers in primary education, both sexes. (Source: Authors)

ZWE 90 TZA 80 70 SLE 60 50 SYC 40 30 SEN 20 10 STP 0

BWA

BFA

CPV CMR COM CIV DJI

RWA

EGY

NER

GNQ

MAR

ERI MUS

LBR

LSO

GIN

GHA

Fig. 2.8  SDG 4 baseline composite index. (Source: Authors)

the 2015 baseline. The rest fell far short, with 20 out of the 24 sample countries managing scores of 10 points and below out of the possible 33.33 points. A further analysis of weighted ODA for

the 2015 baseline reveals that of the 20 countries scoring 10 points and below out of a possible 100 points, 14 countries scored 5 points and below out of a possible 33.33 points. This low ODA

2  Emerging African Picture of Official Development Assistance and Education-Related SDGs Indicators

reality leaves the global ODA community with serious homework and the host countries with an even bigger challenge of taking up the task of improving domestic resource mobilisation seriously. The low scores reported and the related low ODA volumes recorded strengthen the Global Commission on Education’s recommendations towards better education investment. The commission advocated for improved domestic resource mobilisation for education, increase in effective international financing, multilateral development bank investment mechanisms as well as leadership and accountability (The Education Commission, 2018). However, the overall picture on the percentage of trained teachers in primary education is encouraging, with 16 out of the 24 countries recording scores of more than 16 points from a possible 33.33 points. The indicator for adjusted net enrolment rate, 1 year before the official primary entry age, both sexes (%), shows that over the years, African countries have performed badly. This could be due to many factors, among them the fact that there is also very little ODA going into this sector as highlighted by Rose and Zubairi (2016). The 2017 Ibrahim Index of African Governance by the Mo Ibrahim Foundation has further insights on both the performing and ­non-­performing countries on the computed SDG 4 baseline index. Education is one of the 14 thematic areas used in the Ibrahim Index of African Governance and is measured through twin subthemes, namely, education quality and education system management (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2017). The education quality subtheme measures the extent to which the general public is satisfied with how the government addresses educational needs, while the education system management focuses on the extent to which there are solid institutions for all education levels including basic, secondary and tertiary education as well as matters of research and development. Among the six indicators used in the education thematic focus area, human resources in primary ­education is measured by the pupils enrolled in primary school in relation to primary school teachers.

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This data is supplied by UNESCO. Other indicators closely linked to ODA include tertiary education enrolment to which the matter of scholarships is a major factor. From the overall top five countries in the current SDG 5 baseline index, the Seychelles is ranked first in the 2017 Education Ibrahim sub-­ index, while Mauritius, the Seychelles and Cabo Verde were ranked first, second and fourth in the 2016 ranking. What is also interesting is that two of the top five SDG 4 baseline index countries are also among the top five on the overall Ibrahim Index of African Governance. The two countries are the Seychelles (ranked first in 2017) and Morocco (ranked fifth in 2017). Tanzania, which is fifth on the SDG 4 baseline index comes in close at number seven in the 2017 overall Ibrahim Index of African Governance. As for Morocco, the World Bank (2016) reports that the country has put in place good policies to address quality in teaching. The policies aim, among other aspects, to: • • • • •

Set clear expectations for teachers. Attracting the best into the profession. Preparing teachers relevant training. Matching teacher skills with student needs. Monitoring teaching and learning and motivating teachers to perform.

The progress from Mauritius and the Seychelles is also noted by UNESCO (2015), which reports that between 1999 and 2012, pre-­ primary enrolment reached 100% in these two countries. UNESCO further records that while the average percentage of trained primary school teachers stood at 79% for sub-Saharan Africa in 2012, Mauritius was already at 100%. Some of the government policies implemented to improve education by the top five countries are the following: increasing access through the abolition of school fees and the introduction of school feeding programmes, promoting gender equality and improving quality of teachers and teaching material.

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2.5

Conclusions

In as much as ODA data were available for all 54 African countries, there remain huge gaps in other indicators, the result of which is that slightly less than half of the countries made it to the baseline composite index computations and sample. If Africa is to monitor progress towards the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, specifically SDG 4, a lot of urgent work is required of its central statistical offices and other like-minded organisations like UNESCO to put in place frameworks to collect the right data. It has also emerged that ODA in education remains dominated by scholarships and the levels are very low. With 17 of the 24 sampled countries scoring below half of the potential 100 points and, of these 17, 11 scoring below 40 points, the picture dictates that something urgent be done. Those governments scoring badly are likely to miss the 2030 SDG targets for the education SDG. As the SDGs are interlinked, there is a possibility that the governments concerned will also miss all the 2030 SDG targets.

References Balsera, M.  R., Klees, S.  J., & Archer, D. (2018). Financing education: Why should tax justice be part of the solution? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 48(1), 147–162. https:// doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2017.1394743 Benavot, A., & Naidoo, J. (2018). A new era for education in the global development agenda. Childhood Education, 94(3), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/000 94056.2018.1475676 Birchler, K., & Michaelowa, K. (2016). Making aid work for education in developing countries: An analysis of aid effectiveness for primary education coverage and quality. International Journal of Educational Development, 48, 37–52. GEP (Global Partnership for Education). (2017). Financing the future: Education 2030. Retrieved October 20, 2018, from https://www.globalpartnership.org/event/financing-future-education-2030 Heyneman, S. P. (2006). The effectiveness of development assistance in education: An organizational analysis. Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 9(1), 7–25. Heyneman, S. P., & Lee, B. (2016). International organizations and the future of education assistance. International Journal of Educational Development, 48, 9–22.

IAEG-SDGs (Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators). (2018). Tier classification for global SDG indicators of October 2018. New York: IAEG-SDGs. Kararach, G., Nhamo, G., Mubila, M., Nhamo, S., Nhemachena, C., & Babu, S. (2018). Reflections on the green growth index for developing countries: A focus of selected African countries. Development Policy Review, 36, O432–O454. https://doi.org/10.1111/ dpr.12265 Kardish, C., Zühr, R., & Campe, S. (2017). How do donors support global education? Retrieved October 17, 2018, from https://www.globalpartnership.org/ blog/how-do-donors-support-global-education-findings-deep-dive-education-aid Menashy, F. (2016). Understanding the roles of non-state actors in global governance: Evidence from the Global Partnership for Education. Journal of Education Policy, 31(1), 98–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680 939.2015.1093176 Menashy, F. (2018). Multi-stakeholder aid to education: Power in the context of partnership. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 16(1), 13–26. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14767724.2017.1356702 Mo Ibrahim Foundation. (2017). Ibrahim Index of African Governance 2017. London: Mo Ibrahim Foundation. Nhamo, G., Nhamo, S., & Nhemachena, C. (2018). What gets measured gets done! Towards an afro-barometer for tracking progress in achieving sustainable development goal 5. Agenda. https://doi.org/10.1080/1013095 0.2018.1433365 Nhemachena, C., Matchaya, G., Nhemachena, C.  R., Karuaihe, S., Muchara, B., & Nhlengethwa, S. (2018). Measuring Baseline Agriculture-Related Sustainable Development Goals Index for Southern Africa. Sustainability, 10(3), 849. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su10030849 Niño-Zarazúa, M. (2016). Aid, education policy, and development. International Journal of Educational Development, 48, 1–8. Riddell, A., & Niño-Zarazúa, M. (2016). The effectiveness of foreign aid to education: What can be learned? International Journal of Educational Development, 48, 23–36. Rose, P., & Zubairi, A. (2016). Bright and early: How financing pre-primary education gives everyone a fair start in life – Moving towards quality early childhood development for all. London: Theirworld. Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., DurandDelacre, D., & Teksoz, K. (2016). SDG index and dashboards  - global report. Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN): New York, NY. Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Teksoz, K., Durand-­ Delacre, D., & Sachs, J. D. (2017). National baselines for the sustainable development goals assessed in the SDG index and dashboards. Nature Geoscience, 10, 547–555. Sellar, S., & Lingard, B. (2013). The OECD and global governance in education. Journal of Education Policy,

2  Emerging African Picture of Official Development Assistance and Education-Related SDGs Indicators 28(5), 710–725. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.20 13.779791 Sowetan. (2018). Former Ivory Coast president Laurent Gbagbo named head of party’s dissident wing. Retrieved October 30, 2018, from https://www. sowetanlive.co.za/news/africa/2018-08-06-formerivory-coast-president-laurent-gbagbo-named-head-ofpartys-dissident-wing/ Tarnoff, C. (2016). Foreign aid and the education sector: Programs and priorities. New  York: USA Congressional Research Service. The Education Commission. (2018). The learning generation: Investing in education for a changing world - a report by the International Commission on Financing Global Education Opportunity. Retrieved October 30, 2018, from https://report.educationcommission.org/ downloads/ UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). (2015). Regional overview: Sub-Saharan Africa. Paris: UNESCO Secretariat. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). (2017). Unpacking Sustainable Development Goal 4 education 2030. Paris: UNESCO Secretariat.

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UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). (2018a). Policy paper 30 - aid to education: A return to growth? Paris: UNESCO Secretariat. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). (2018b). Quick guide to education indicators for SDG 4. Paris: UNESCO Secretariat. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. New York: United Nations Secretariat. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2016). Human development report 2016. Human development for everyone. New  York, NY: United Nations Development Programme. Wodon, Q. (2018). Education budget savings from ending child marriage and early childbirths: The case of Niger. Applied Economics Letters, 25(10), 649–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2016.1259743 World Bank. (2010). Investing across Borders 2010: Indicators of foreign direct investment regulation in 87 economies. World Bank: Washington D.C.. World Bank. (2016). Morocco: SABER country report 2016. World Bank: Washington D.C..

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Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels for Cooking Godwell Nhamo, Senia Nhamo, Charles Nhemachena, and Charity Ruramai Nhemachena Abstract

Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7) focuses on ensuring universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy by 2030. This chapter uses twin indicators for trend analysis and to compute a baseline composite index. The indicators are (1) the proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology and (2) the share of renewable energy in the total final energy consumption. Data is drawn from the World Development Indicators. The findings are that many African countries are still lagging behind, with a high chance that meeting the selected 2030 targets is far-fetched. In fact,

there is a declining trend in access to renewable energy, with slow growth towards access to clean fuels and technology. This is supported by opposing voices, particularly from labour unions favouring the protection of jobs sustained by the dirty sources of energy, a posture pitched against the voices worried by the ever-changing climate and associated weather extremes like floods, droughts and hailstorms. The chapter recommends, among other issues, scaling up investments in clean fuels and related technologies as well as the deployment of renewable energy through a just transition to low-carbon and greener economies. Keywords

G. Nhamo (*) Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] S. Nhamo Department of Economics, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] C. Nhemachena International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Southern Africa Regional Office, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] C. R. Nhemachena Graduate School of Business Leadership, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

Clean fuel · Renewable energy · SDG 7 · Stakeholders

3.1

Introduction and Background

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD) is highlighted as a plan of action that focuses on the planet, people and prosperity (United Nations, 2015). Supporting this agenda are 17 inseparable Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) seeking to build on the realised progress from the 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). One of the 17 SDGs—SDG 7—

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_3

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focuses on ensuring ‘access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all’ and has 5 targets supporting it, 2 of which are the focus of this publication. Target 7.1 addresses itself to ensuring ‘universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services’, while target 7.2 calls for a substantial increase in the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix (United Nations, 2015: 19). The immediate worry herein is what constitutes a substantial increase? The orientation from the United Nations comes against the background that recognises energy access and use as a prerequisite for sustainable development across both rural and urban areas (Mohammed, Mustafa, & Bashir, 2013; Giner-Reichl, 2015). In fact, Santika et al. (2019) view energy as an enabler, which should play a key role in the achievement of other SDGs, among them: ending poverty (SDG 1) and hunger (SDG 2), providing sustainable health care (SDG 3) and providing quality education (SDG 4) and water supply and sustainable sanitation (SDG 6). To this growing list of SDGs, one may add the crucial role played by access to sustainable and modern energy in the creation of sustainable jobs (SDG 8), sustainable cities (SDG 11), sustainable consumption and production (SDG 12) and mitigating climate change through the reduction of carbon emissions (SDG 13). Coupled with energy access is the issue of global warming that leads to climate change due to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Adenle, Manning, & Arbiol, 2017). Given this scenario, calls to embrace greener, low carbon and climate-­ resilient economies have been growing (Nhamo, 2013; Şener, Sharp, & Anctil, 2018). To this end, the world is fast embracing the renewable energy movement, particularly solar, wind and geothermal sources (Nguyen & Kakinaka, 2019). Gujba, Thorne, Mulugetta, Rai, and Sokona (2012) is of the view that low carbon development presents opportunities for the African continent to grow access to modern energy services, while harnessing low-emission and climate-compatible economies. In the same vein, Welsch et al. (2013) bring up the concept of ‘smart grids’, which they believe will assist in achieving universal access to electricity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The

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main benefit from smart grid systems is that these will permit SSA to leapfrog many components of traditional power systems. Brew-Hammond and Kemausuor (2009) raise the question as to whether SSA households will be able to access modern forms of energy by 2030. A conclusion is reached that for this to happen, SSA needed to integrate productive uses and income-generating activities into energy access addressing both non- and renewable energy. In a follow-up paper, Brew-Hammond (2010) realised that for Africa to attain between 50% and 100% access to modern energy by 2030, the continent needed more effective mobilisation of both external and domestic funding. Such efforts had to be accompanied by the development and implementation of innovative policies, including the institution of proper monitoring and evaluation (M&E) platforms (Hailu, 2012). Prasad (2011) also concurs with the need to increase funding but adds that governance had to be improved as well as increasing regional trade and income levels of the poor. A question may arise. For example, in a continent where there could be so many problems persisting like hunger and starvation, why will it be so crucial to analyse ‘how far the African continent is in meeting the 2030 targets on access to renewable energy and clean fuels and related technology for cooking?’ Apart from the fact that Nhemachena et al. (2018) have already attempted to address the matter of food security (SDG 2) in Southern Africa, the fact remains that all the SDGs are to be fulfilled by all the continents and countries in a systems thinking approach rather than on piece meal basis or lineally. The linear approach is one that may suggest that there are more important SDGs that require prioritisation like SDG 2. This may sound plausible. However, the framework of the SDGs is that these SDGs be treated the same. Furthermore, access to renewable energy may result in more power needed to propel the agriculture sector being available and ultimately resulting in food security and reduced hunger. In the same manner, access to clean energy may have positive impacts in terms of human health, thereby supplying the necessary healthy labour for the agriculture sector with sim-

3  Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels…

ilar positive impacts. Therefore, documenting Africa’s progress in the context of access to renewable energy and clean fuels and technology for cooking remains an important aspect in attaining the SDGs either directly or indirectly, including SDG 2 that deals with food security. This chapter, therefore, seeks to address one major question: how far is the African continent in meeting the 2030 energy targets, particularly, access to renewables as well as access to clean fuels and related technology for cooking? The rest of the chapter is set out as follows: literature review, followed by the documentation of the methodology and a section detailing the presentation of data and discussion of findings. The conclusion teases out key pointers for current policy considerations and future research.

3.2

Literature Survey

The world over, an estimated 1.5 billion people were reported to be lacking access to electricity and 3 billion lacking access to modern cooking energy alternatives (Rehman et al., 2012). From these figures, 95% of those considered ‘energy poor’ resided in Asia and Africa. It remains difficult to decouple arguments on access to energy, especially clean and renewable energy from climate change debates. With huge amounts of GHG emissions accounted for by the energy sector, SDG 7 remains on point calling for universal access to sustainable, reliable and modern energy (United Nations, 2015). To this end, renewable energy technologies should be harnessed in order to address the lack of access to energy in Africa (Barry, Steyn, & Brent, 2011; Njoh et al., 2019). However, renewable energy technologies have been proved unsustainable on the African continent in the long run. This claim is teased out based on the available data used in the computation of the clean and renewable energy composite index informing this chapter. As debates continue to unfold, the 100% renewable power system feasibility questions are gaining traction. Akuru, Onukwube, Okoro, and Obe (2017) write about ‘towards 100% renewable energy in Nigeria’. Drawing from the litera-

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ture, modelled scenarios and field experience, findings show that it is much easier for individuals to drive this transition to 100% renewables than continue to depend on unreliable government-­provided energy. Zappa, Junginger, and van den Broek (2019) ask if a 100% renewable European power system is feasible by 2050. From seven scenarios, this proposal could be possible at the same level of adequacy if Europe mobilises solid biomass and biogas resources. The cost is estimated at €530 billion per year, 30% more than a system mixed with nuclear. In addition, a 90% more generation and 240% more transmission capacity will be needed compared to existing scenarios (Zappa et al., 2019). Hansen, Mathiesen, and Skov (2019), pose the same question for 100% renewable energy in Germany by 2050. The matter arises following Germany’s ambitious policies for increasing renewable energy and decommissioning nuclear energy. The authors conclude that it is possible technically and from an economic perspective if measures are put in place to do this in a cost-effective manner. Esteban et al. (2018) look at 100% renewable energy in Japan, with a critical eye on the challenge of intermittent renewable energy sources. The authors conclude that this is possible under certain conditions. On the other hand, Aghahosseini, Bogdanov, Barbosa, and Breyer (2019) analyse the feasibility of powering the Americas with renewable energy, as well as interregional grid interconnections by 2030. The authors identify the Paris Agreement and the SDGs as the two biggest climate action initiatives forcing a shift towards sustainable energy systems. In conclusion, it emerged that the levelised cost of electricity, which was between 48.8 and €59.0/MWh (depending on the chosen scenario), could drop by 14% and 15%, respectively, in a centralised power system. Lastly, Narayanan, Mets, Strobbe, and Develder (2019) look at the feasibility of 100% renewable energy-based electricity production for cities. They also add the battery storage systems and flexibility aspects. The findings were that electricity alone will not lead to the desired result of 100% renewables.

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In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly declared the period 2014–2024 (Giner-Reichl, 2015) as the Decade for Sustainable Energy for All (Decade of SE4ALL). This declaration came after the Rio+20 conference, whose outcome document is code-named ‘The Future We Want’ (Nhamo, 2014). There are 30 focus countries in the Decade for SE4ALL initiatives (Giner-­ Reichl, 2015), and of these, 14 are from SSA.1 A range of initiatives were put in place in 2014 to support the SE4ALL including the D40 million technical assistance facility of the European Union for Africa, Norwegian Energy+, the World Bank’s Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme facility and the United Kingdom’s SE4ALL mini-grid facility. From the focus of this chapter, it will be of interest to cross-check how the said SSA countries are doing in terms of access to clean fuel for cooking and access to renewable energy. Certainly, there is a need to develop SDGs-responsive energy strategies and plans (Santika et  al. 2019). In addition, Wall, Grafakos, Gianoli, and Stavropoulos (2019) identify a number of policy instruments that attract foreign direct investment (FDI) in the renewable energy sector. Among the most preferred instruments are feed-in tariffs (FITs), followed by fiscal measures, such as tax incentives and renewable portfolio standards (Krupa & Harvey, 2017). The FITs have been adapted for remote mini-grids in Tanzania (Moner-Girona et al., 2016) although these failed in South Africa in preference for a bidding system (Nhamo and Mukonza 2016). Saadi, Miketaa, and Howells (2015) brings to fore the Africa Clean Energy Corridor (ACEC) initiative. This initiative has a goal to facilitate regional cooperation resulting in the promotion of regional electricity trade and renewable energy deployment. The ACEC has a primary focus on the East and Southern African subregions that stretch from Egypt in the north all the way to South Africa in the southern tip of the continent. The authors compare an ACEC scenario where These countries include Burkina Faso, Burundi, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania and Uganda.

1 

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there will be regional cooperation in promoting trade and renewable deployment for solar and wind technology, with a business-as-usual scenario in which more fossil-based power is deployed, with hydropower used mainly for domestic consumption. The findings reveal that there will be a decrease in the overall system costs mainly due to the shift from high-cost fossil fuel sources. This shift had an added advantage in that the region would realise a 40% carbon emission reduction with investments in hydropower in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Ethiopia as complemented by high-quality wind potential in East Africa. Surprisingly, from a study on 38 wind projects in SSA, Mukasa, Mutambatsere, Arvanitis, and Triki (2015) observed that the wind energy market remained small, concentrated and nascent. The authors estimated a mere 43 megawatts (MW) to have been installed at a cost of $122 million, with projects worth $612 million under construction adding 230 MW to the existing capacity. Renewable energy has also been gathering steam at country level, particularly in South Africa (Walwyn & Brent, 2015). South Africa averages 2500  h of sunshine annually and has 4.5–6.6 kWh/m2 of radiation level (Jain & Jain, 2017). This makes the country feature among the top three in the world concerning this potential. The country also has an estimated total wind potential of 6700 GW. The main vehicle used to attract investment in the space is the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REI4P) (Mukonza & Nhamo, 2018). The REI4P set a target to install 17.8 GW of electricity generation capacity from wind, solar, biomass, biogas and hydropower between 2012 and 2030 (Walwyn & Brent, 2015). Given that South Africa remains a high carbon-emitting economy due to about 80% of electricity generated from coal-fired power plants (Jain & Jain, 2017), the country has been forced to turn to renewables in order to ease international pressure from environmental critics. A number of key policies have since been developed, among them, the White Paper on Energy (1998), Renewable Energy White Paper (2003), Energy Act of 2008, National Climate Change Response White Paper (2011),

3  Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels…

the Integrated Resource Plan (2010, revised 2013) and Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines for Renewable Energy Projects of 2015 (Mukonza & Nhamo, 2018). In assessing readiness for renewable energy in Nigeria and Cameroon, Mas’ud et al. (2015) document that, since 2000, Nigeria identified renewable energy as an additional source of electricity. This was in contrast to Cameroon that had not done so at the time of publishing the chapter, with no defined policy in place. However, even if Nigeria had identified renewable electricity as a source, its integration onto the national grid was still on small scale. Challenges associated with bringing renewable energy onto the national grid n SSA are common. This, notwithstanding the fact that many countries in SSA do not have functional national grids. Given such, the non-governmental organisation ACRA-CCS has been experimenting with off-grid small-scale hydropower generation in Tanzania (Ahlborg & Sjöstedt, 2015). The pilot project reflects a success story as more and more community members joined the scheme. Village-level off-grid solar power is also being promoted in Kenya to accelerate access to electricity services. This is deemed to present promising potential. The results show that a closer attention is needed regarding the sociocultural context, challenges of users, operators and managers. The methodology underpinnings explain details regarding the research instruments and data analysis procedures used in this chapter.

3.3

Methodological Underpinnings

Although there are five targets and six indicators stipulated under SDG 7, due to the intended focus on renewable energy, this chapter restricted itself to addressing two targets and the resultant twin indicators focusing on access to clean fuels and technology for cooking and access to renewable energy. To this end, the chapter spells out two objectives, namely: (1) to determine African trends in access to clean fuel and technology for

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Table 3.1  Indicators used in baseline composite index Target 7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services

Indicator 7.1.2 Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology

7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix

7.2.1 Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption

Description Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking is the proportion of total population primarily using clean cooking fuels and technologies for cooking. Under World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines, kerosene is excluded from clean cooking fuels Renewable energy consumption is the share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption

Source: Authors, based on IAEG-SDGs (2018: 14) and World Bank (2018)

cooking and access to renewable energy and (2) to establish a baseline composite index (CI) from the twin indicators identified for the sampled 53 out of the 55 African countries. The two countries excluded from the CI due to lack of data are Libya and Western Sahara. The baseline CI was developed in conjunction with the tier indicators from the United Nations Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) (Table  3.1). The data sets were drawn from the World Development Indicators (WDI) for the period 1992–2016 (used for trends) and for 2015 (used for computing the CI). The use of WDI data sets as informed by the IAEG-SDGs tiers is not new, and a number of authors have applied such successfully in the past (Sachs, Schmidt-Traub, Kroll, Durand-Delacre, & Teksoz, 2016; Nhamo, Nhamo, & Nhemachena, 2018; Nhemachena et al., 2018). The first layer of analysis focused on general trends, with the top and bottom ten as well as middle of the pack countries isolated for further analysis. The second layer of analysis identified

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countries with either rapid growth or rapid declines across the sample for both the indicators under consideration. The continental trends were also plotted based on annual averages with the results discussed drawing further insights from selected literature. The third layer of data analysis involved the computation of the baseline CI. The raw data from the WDI was normalised using the min-max method. This method involves rescaling indicators from a score of 0–100, with 0 being the lowest (worst) and 100 the highest (best) possible score. This type of analysis allows between- and across-country score comparisons. As highlighted earlier, the min-max method has been used for the Afro-barometer for SDG 5 (Nhamo et al., 2018) and an agriculture-related baseline SDG 2 index (Nhemachena et al., 2018). The min-max normalisation method used to normalise input variables is given by the following equation: x ji =

n

CI i = ∑wi x ji = w1 x11 + w2 x22 +  i =1

X ji − X min,i X max,i − X min,i

more worrying was the fact that only Gabon (top ten) and Djibouti (bottom ten) maintained their presence across the three composite indices. Countries including Egypt, Mauritius, Morocco and South Africa found themselves dropping from the top 10 composite index calculated on a 50/50 points weighting to the bottom 10  in 1 of the 2 other composite indices should the expert and different weights computation be applied. To this end, the authors decided to use the equal weighting approach, reinforcing the commonly used SDGs composite index approach. The formula for weighted arithmetic mean for the composite indicator CIi (output variable) for SDG 7 indicators on renewable energy and clean fuel for cooking constructed from n indicators (input variables) xi is given by the following formula:



where Xmax,i and Xmin,i represent the maximum and minimum values for the input variable Xi. The min-max method scale allows for different means and variances. Weighting and aggregation rules are necessary in combining information from multidimensional indicators (Saisana & Saltelli, 2011). Weights usually reflect the relative importance of each selected indicator to the composite indicator (Saisana & Saltelli, 2011; Saltelli, 2007). Equal weighting was applied with each indicator getting a 50 points weighting score. The justification for equal weights was informed by the equal importance applied to the SDGs and other related empirical work on SDGs by authors such as Sachs et al. (2016). However, for robustness and sensitivity testing, the expert weighting approach on a 25/75 points and 75/25 weighting for the twin indicators used was also performed resulting in two additional baseline composite indices computed. These computations revealed high sensitivity on the data set. For example, 21 countries ended up featuring in the top 10 across the 3 composite indices (including the 50/50 points weighting) and 20 in the bottom 10 countries. What was

+ wn xnn , j = 1, 2, , n



where xji represents the normalised score for country j, wi represents the assigned weights for each ith variable Xi or xi and the summation of the weights is equal to 1 (∑wi  =  1). The following section focuses on the presentation of data and the discussion of emerging findings.

3.4

Presentation of Data and Discussion of Findings

This section is featured in two subsections. The first subsection focuses on general trends for access to renewable energy as well as access to clean fuels and technology for cooking. The second subsection magnifies the baseline CI, drawn from the two indicators discussed in detail in the methodological underpinnings section.

3.4.1 T  rends in Access to Renewable Energy The general trend in average annual access to and usage of renewable energy is shown in Fig. 3.1. What emerges, contrary to expectations, is a

3  Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels…

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% Average Annual Total Final Consumption

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Year Fig. 3.1  Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption) 1992–2015. (Source: Authors)

marked period of decline in access to and use of renewable energy from 1994. Only the first 2 years, 1992 and 1993, record a short and stable trend. Access to renewable energy declined by 10.5% between 1992 and 2015. This is an unexpected trend given the extent to which the world has been promoting access to and use of renewable energy as witnessed in the literature review section. Eight case studies conducted in Malawi, Rwanda and Tanzania (Barry et  al., 2011) confirm some factors that should be considered for renewable energy selection in Africa. These include the following: technology factors, ease of maintenance and support over the life cycle of the technology, ease of transfer of knowledge and skills to relevant people in Africa, site selection factors, local champion to continue after implementation, adoption by community, suitable sites ready for pilot studies, identification of suitable sites, economic/financial factors, economic development, availability of finance, achievability by performing organisation, project management, financial capacity and technological

capacity. In fact, finance is singled out as the most pressing challenge for attaining SDG 7 (Schwerhoff & Sy, 2017). In a paper investigating solar energy for all, with the view to determine successes and shortfalls from a comparative assessment of Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Mozambique, Sri Lanka and South Africa, Kumar et al. (2019) find two common threads. They discovered significant gaps between what solar projects are designed to achieve and what they deliver on the ground. Furthermore, it emerged that access to and use of solar and other renewables need to be continuous. The trends in access to and use of renewable energy for the top and bottom ten as well as the middle countries are shown in Figs. 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4. It comes as no surprise that apart from Somalia (discussed later under countries with increasing trends), the other nine of the bottom performing countries are known to be heavily dependent on hydropower supplies. To this end, the share of hydropower in the national grid remains very high. Drawing from discussions on carbon emissions, highlighted in the literature

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DRC

% Annual Total Final Consumption

Burundi 95

Ethiopia Chad

90

Uganda 85

Somalia Mozambique

80

Tanzania 75

Zambia Guinea-Bissau

70

Year

% Annual Total Final Consumption

Fig. 3.2  Access to renewable energy – top ten countries. (Source: Authors)

100

Namibia

90

Djibouti

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Cabo Verde

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South Africa

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Morocco

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Tunisia

30

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Seychelles

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0 Year Fig. 3.3  Access to renewable energy – bottom ten countries. (Source: Authors)

3  Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels…

section, these countries rank among the lowest as their grid emission factors (a figure central in calculating the carbon footprint) remain low ­ (Mukonza & Nhamo, 2016). From Fig.  3.3, the 2015 decline for South Africa makes some interesting reading. Over the years, the cost of renewable energy in the form of electricity has been going down globally (Griffiths, 2017) and in South Africa, particularly for solar (Nhamo & Mukonza, 2016) and wind (Mukonza & Nhamo, 2018). The cost of wind energy from the fourth bidding round in 2015 averaged R0.71c/kWh (Mukonza & Nhamo, 2018), a decline of 100% compared to the first bidding round average cost of R1.42/kWh in 2011. The falling cost for solar is associated with the global prices for panels and batteries that have been going down (Walwyn & Brent, 2015). Furthermore, the bidders in South Africa commit to creating local employment. However, the government’s drive towards renewables has faced stiff resistance from labour federations and other stakeholders that truly believe scaling up renewables in South Africa will lead to massive job losses (Mukonza & Nhamo, 2018). This was the case when Transform RSA NPC and the National

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Union of Metalworkers of South Africa took the government to court in March 2018 over the conclusion of 27 REI4P contracts. The court ruled in favour of the government. This could explain the sudden drop in the 2015 figures. There was a delay in announcing and contracting the REI4P projects from the fourth bidding round of 2015 that only materialised in 2018. Without clear policy signals, industry hesitates to invest. With such challenges, an estimated 1.5 households (16 million people) in South Africa are still using paraffin, wood fuel and coal for their daily energy needs (Baruah & Enweremadu, 2019). Figure 3.4 presents countries that form the middle pack. The trends show Angola, Benin, Congo, Mali and Sudan on the decline. In additional analysis, the research team identified all countries that were on the significant rise and those that were on the decline in terms of access to renewable energy. Only two countries showed a marked rise in access to and use of renewable energy and these are Somalia and Zimbabwe. In trying to get the reasons as to why this was the case, one possible answer was the malfunctioning of the national grids that could have resulted in consumers moving to off-grid renewable

Mali

Kenya

Gabon

Eritrea

Togo

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Sudan

Cote d'Ivoire

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Fig. 3.4  Access to renewable energy – middle of the pack countries. (Source: Authors)

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Year Fig. 3.5  Declining renewable energy consumption 1992–2015. (Source: Authors)

energy options. Somalia has been a country at war with itself for many decades, while Zimbabwe has been in the spotlight since its fast track land reform programme in 2000. In addition, ­renewable technologies have been allowed in the country duty free (or with minimal payments). Many other countries in the continent also opened up their boarders for imports of renewable energy sources. The details regarding selected countries on the decline are shown in Fig. 3.5. Although all the countries highlighted in Fig.  3.4 are on the decline, four stand out, and these include Benin, Equatorial Guinea, Mauritius and Ghana. Kemausuor, Obeng, Brew-Hammond, and Duker (2011) reviewed the trends, policies and plans on increasing energy access in Ghana. In their view, the authors agreed that the electricity and modern cooking fuels were critical for the achievement of the MDGs then. It is needless to indicate that by 2011, there were only 4  years remaining under the MDGs regime. The findings revealed that regardless of the Ghanaian government’s effort to prioritise energy services since the launch of the MDGs in 2000, the existing policies failed to deliver, especially in the rural and peri-urban areas. The authors called for a coherent national energy policy, with clear financing mechanisms if the energy access goal

was to be achieved. Acheampong et  al. (2019) further attempt to answer the question: Is Ghana ready to attain SDG 7? The authors find that while the country had made significant strides towards energy efficiency, its efforts for large-­ scale biofuel deployment hit a snag. The failure to achieve the set targets was partially due to issues surrounding ‘land grabbing’ from both local and foreign entities. Drawing from the comment of land grab herein, Shen and Power (2017: 678) cautions that ‘fragmented and decentralised state apparatuses and quasi-market actors in China are increasingly pursuing their own independent interests and agendas around renewable energy in Africa in ways often marked by conflict, inconsistency and incoherence’. Such observation should be followed through as efforts to promote renewable energy in Africa in pursuit of SDG 7 continue. Regarding electricity, Ghana aims for a 10% renewable electricity energy penetration by 2020 (Obeng-Darko, 2019) with a further 100% commitment to national electrification with renewable energy. However, there has been slow progress on meeting the targets although other options to diversify into solar, wind and small hydropower are still said to be available. In fact, as of December 2017, the country achieved a

3  Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels…

mere 0.5% penetration rate of electricity from renewable energy sources in its total generation mix (Obeng-Darko, 2019). The next subsection focuses on access to clean fuels and technology for cooking.

3.4.2 T  rends in Access to Clean Fuel and Technology for Cooking The trends on population with reliance and access to clean fuel and technology for cooking for Africa is reflected in Fig. 3.6. Although there has been some form of improvement in the percentage of population with access to clean fuel and technology for cooking from as low as 20.8% in 2000 to 27.58% in 2016, the trends remain low. The challenges regarding limited access to modern energy, inclusive of clean and renewable energy at household level in Africa, are well documented. Brew-Hammond and Kemausuor (2009) observed that a mere 30% of the total population in SSA had access to electricity, with 90% depending on traditional fuels for heating and cooking. Prasad (2011) and Gujba et  al. (2012) highlight that SSA remained with the lowest access

levels to electricity and modern cooking fuels, yet the region is endowed with rich energy resources. Prasad (2011) highlights that 80% of SSA population still cooked with wood fuel on open fires. Linked to this scenario are high levels of indoor air pollution resulting in 4.2 child deaths per 1000 population as a result of pneumonia. This figure was more than double that of South Asia, which stood at 1.8 child deaths. Prasad posits that with a population of 800 million people in 2009, SSA’s electricity generation stood at 68 gigawatt (GW), a figure comparable to Spain, which had only 45 million people. This scenario left SSA even more vulnerable, with more inhabitants excluded from electricity access by 2030 compared to 2009 figures due to high electricity cost, unreliable supply and power shortages. In additional analysis, the research team identified countries that were on the rise and those that were on the decline in terms of access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking. The details regarding the top and bottom ten and middle of the pack countries are shown in Figs. 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9. The trend from the top ten countries is generally on the rise (Fig. 3.7). South Africa, especially, has figures of 56.43% in 2000 compared to 83.64% in 2016.

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Fig. 3.6  Africa’s access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking. (Source: Authors)

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Mozambique Fig. 3.9  Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking – middle of the pack countries. (Source: Authors)

It is a mixed bag regarding the bottom ten countries. Sierra Leone shows marked improvement, having registered a 0.15% of its total population with access to clean fuel and technology for cooking in 2000 increasing sharply to 0.99% in 2016. Other countries with a rising trend include Burundi, CAR (Central African Republic) and Uganda. Further details regarding countries with overall marked rise and overall marked decline across the sample are discussed later. Regarding countries on the marked decline (not shown in any of Figs. 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9) of the percentage of total population with access to clean fuel and technology for cooking, Zimbabwe and Sao Tome and Principe stood out. For Zimbabwe, this trend could be as a result of the massive fast track land reform programmes that witnessed more and more people getting into rural areas with limited services from the year 2000. Although coming from a very low base, there is evidence of increasing trends in access to clean fuels for cooking and technology for Comoros, Burkina Faso, Congo, Eritrea, Ghana, Kenya and Zambia (Fig. 3.9). Countries with a marked rising trend are shown in Fig. 3.10. Although all the countries in Fig.  3.10 are on an increasing trend, South

Africa and Sudan reflect sharper increases. The increases in access to clean fuels for cooking and technology for South Africa should not be viewed as contradictory to the sharp decline in access to renewable energy for 2015 as this was a once-off yearly issue compared to the trend being discussed herein. In addition, access to clean energy does not only include access to renewable energy but all other sources of energy considered to be clean. The South African population with access to clean fuel and technology for cooking rose from 56.43% in 2000 to 84.75% in 2016, representing a 28.32% increase in 17  years. The reason for such efforts could be attributed to the well-articulated policies discussed earlier in this chapter and the dawn of democracy in 1994. As for Sudan, the country witnessed an increase of 27.58% for its population with access to clean fuel and technology for cooking. A mere 14.21% of the total population has access in 2000, with the figure rising to 41.29% in 2016. Although from a low base, there has been significant improvement worth documenting for Sudan. The baseline CI draws the reader’s attention to the SDG 7 CI computed from the twin indicators explained earlier.

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100

Sudan

90

Eswatini

% of Total Population

80 70

Mauritania

60

Botswana

50

Togo

40

South Africa

30

Congo, Rep.

20

Ghana

10

Kenya 2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

0

Year Fig. 3.10  Countries showing a rising trend in access to clean fuel and technology. (Source: Authors)

Fig. 3.11  Baseline CI. (Source: Authors)

3  Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels…

3.4.3 A Focus on the Baseline CI The overall reflection of the baseline CI, based on the two indicators used is shown in Fig.  3.11. Forty-one of the 53 sample countries (77.36%) score below 50 of the potential 100 basis points in terms of a mix between access to and use of renewable energy as well as access to clean fuel and technology for cooking. From the remaining 12 countries, 11 score between 50 and 59 of the potential 100 basis points. Gabon is the only country that has a score between 80 and 89 of the potential 100 basis points. The average composite score for the 53 countries stands at 43.5 points. The complete ranking of the 53 sample countries based on the baseline CI is presented in Table 3.2. Informed by the desire to witness universal access to electricity for Africa by 2030, Bazilian et  al. (2012) considered various sector

53

pathways for policy-makers and investors. The scenarios were constructed from historical trends and a range of interpretations used for universal access. The authors established that using typical long-term forecasting methods for power planning, Africa is likely to reach a threefold increase in installed generation capacity by 2030. This figure remains low, as the authors determined that more than a tenfold increase is needed to have full access even at relatively modest levels of electricity consumption. Such a scenario demands an estimated 13% average annual growth rate. This finding was linked to a historical 1.7% registered in the last two decades dating back to the 1990s. Drawing from the baseline CI, Africa is pretty much tied to a similar position as it was two or so decades ago. Sokona, Mulugetta, and Gujba (2012) also observe the widening energy access that impacts most of the poor communities of

Table 3.2  Full ranking of countries based on CI Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Code GAB SWZ ZWE TUN MAR ZMB MUS EGY COD SDN ZAF CMR BDI SOM AGO ETH CPV ERI TCD NGA BWA DZA MOZ UGA SYC GNB TZA

Source: Authors

Country Gabon Eswatini Zimbabwe Tunisia Morocco Zambia Mauritius Egypt DRC Sudan South Africa Cameroon Burundi Somalia Angola Ethiopia Cabo Verde Eritrea Chad Nigeria Botswana Algeria Mozambique Uganda Seychelles Guinea-Bissau Tanzania

Score/100 points 81.37 58.26 56.74 55.97 54.11 53.38 52.47 51.57 51.21 51.12 50.61 50.31 49.57 49.50 49.13 49.05 48.94 48.77 47.46 46.69 46.37 46.33 46.18 46.12 45.76 45.33 45.09

Rank 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 –

Code RWA MWI LSO KEN LBR COG BFA CIV NER SLE GIN CAF TGO MRT SEN MDG NAM MLI GHA STP BEN GMB COM GNQ SSD ERI –

Country Rwanda Malawi Lesotho Kenya Liberia Congo Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Niger Sierra Leone Guinea CAR Togo Mauritania Senegal Madagascar Namibia Mali Ghana Sao Tome and Principe Benin Gambia, The Comoros Equatorial Guinea South Sudan Eritrea –

Score/100 points 44.77 44.19 44.11 43.67 43.39 43.39 42.29 42.08 41.45 40.31 39.75 39.74 39.67 39.28 37.77 36.43 34.15 31.97 31.35 29.91 29.04 27.95 27.23 20.83 20.21 34.52 –

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Africa. To improve energy access, Rehman et al. (2012: 27) identify the need for ‘firm commitments, policy convergence and the implementation of “pro-poor” equitable energy policies’. In addition, the authors call for the reorientation of disruptive energy subsidy regimes and the institution of energy service delivery indicators that should be utilised in M&E programmes. A number of issues arising from the literature are of concern as this chapter ends. Given the desire to prioritise the ‘energy poor’, Welsch et  al. (2013: 336) introduces the concept of the just grid ‘to reflect the need for power systems to contribute towards equitable and inclusive economic and social development without marginalising the poor’. Furthermore, Sokona et al. (2012) argue that a one-size-fits-all approach on (renewable) energy access will not work in Africa. As such, each country is encouraged to come up with its own energy transition pathway into the future and in the context of this chapter to 2030 and beyond. The consideration of a just grid brings to fore matters regarding gender and renewable energy of which women remain at the coalface of energy use and access (Ding et al., 2019). Rahut, Beherab, and Ali (2017) looks at factors determining household use of clean and renewable energy sources for lighting in SSA through the application of econometrics. The data were drawn from the World Bank’s Living Standards Measurement Study to estimate the pattern of energy use for light in Eastern and Southern Africa (Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey 2013, Malawi Integrated Household Panel Survey 2013 and Tanzania National Panel Survey 2012– 2013). The results reveal that female-headed households were likely to adopt clean and renewable sources for cooking compared to their male-­ headed households. Furthermore, richer and more educated households tend to use electricity and solar energy for lighting, while poorer households use paraffin, batteries and wood fuel. Ethiopian households, followed by those from Malawi, were more likely to use clean sources of energy compared to households from Tanzania. Another dimension comes out of work in Kenya. Men dominate within the grid, mini-grids and

private suppliers, and this isolates a crucial potential for women’s empowerment. Such are additional matters that the continent needs to look at as it progresses towards 2030.

3.5

Implications for Policy Leading to 2030

Often findings from academic work do not cascade to the level where such deductions inform current and future policies. To this end, a number of policy implications are drawn from this work that may assist in scaling up SDGs implementation in general and SDG 7 targets under review. Firstly, the ranking done provides a quick comparative instrument for peers (the countries) in terms of how they are doing and could further be used by the donor community that includes overseas development assistance countries and philanthropists. Secondly, the baseline composite index developed has greater value in that countries do not have to compare themselves against their peers. This is so, because for each country, the baseline is comparable to the set global SDG 7 targets. Thirdly, countries can learn from their peers in terms of what have been done for certain countries to perform better. This way, good practice examples and case studies can be drawn across a number of projects and programmes on access to renewable energy and clean fuels for cooking and technology. As observed earlier by Nhamo (2013), such awareness may result in countries investigating further the readiness pillars including how political buy-ins are playing out on addressing the targets under consideration; policy framework (including regulations and incentives); individual and institutional capacity development initiatives; financing; research and development as well as dealing with intellectual property rights; programmes and projects on the ground; networks and stakeholder engagement; awareness, education and communication; and lastly monitoring, reporting and verification, now commonly shorted as MRV in the global arena. The findings of the chapter also come in handy as many countries will be reporting progress on SDGs implementation during the forthcoming

3  Africa and the 2030 Sustainable Energy Goal: A Focus on Access to Renewables and Clean Fuels…

September 2019 United Nations High-Level Panel meeting in New  York. Most importantly and finally, this work helps in informing budgeting for the coming 11 years to 2030. It will assist in giving indications on the scaling up of SDGs implementation in general and SDG 7. Many African countries remain passive in terms of localising and scaling up SDGs implementation, and no miracle can be expected in 2030 regarding the achievement of the SDGs if countries are not intentional about it.

3.6

Conclusion

Energy remains central to the attainment of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 indivisible SDGs that include SDG 7. Therefore, the call to substantially increased access to and use of renewable energy as well as access to clean energy and technology for cooking remains paramount. Whereas Africa shows a public desire to add renewable energy into its energy mix, the trends and figures since 1992 tell another story. The continent has been on a downward trend, with the percentage of total final energy consumption from renewable energy having gone down by about 10.5% between 1992 and 2015. However, there is some hope regarding access to clean fuel and technology for cooking, with the percentage of total population having access increasing by an estimated 6.68%. Challenges associated with the unpleasant emerging picture could be as a result of lack of maintenance, ageing and dirty technology being used, difficulty in transferring knowledge and skills to relevant people in Africa, failure by communities to adopt and adapt modern technologies, lack of investment capital and bad governance. Many African countries are still battling to put in place appropriate regulatory frameworks to promote renewable energy and clean fuel sources for cooking. Drawing from South Africa, although the renewable energy programme may seem to be at risk from labour unions and other stakeholders presenting the job loss argument, this finding has

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not yet influenced the country’s performance in this space. From Ghana, the renewable energy agenda hit a bottleneck when the land grab issue cropped up. With all these challenges, the targets to ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services as well as increasing, substantially, the share of renewable energy in the energy mix may be far-fetched. However, the drive towards 100% renewables, particularly in the electricity sector, is gaining momentum, and with the pressure to reduce carbon emissions under the Paris Agreement, Africa has no choice but to work its ways towards a low carbon and greener energy pathway.

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4

SDG 15 and Socioecological Sustainability: Spring Waterscapes and Rural Livelihoods in the Save Catchment of Zimbabwe David Chikodzi, Daniel Tevera, and Dominic Mazvimavi

Abstract

Ecosystem destruction has been given as the primary reason for implementing Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15). This chapter investigates the role of springs in securing rural livelihoods in the Save Catchment of Zimbabwe. It invokes SDG 15  in the debate on springs by examining rural community vulnerabilities regarding the management of spring water and other ecosystem services. Purposive sampling was utilised to select participants for the questionnaire survey and key informant interviews. In the study, springs were shown to be an important component of rural livelihoods. Access to spring waterscapes in the Save Catchment has led to an improved food security and income to rural households. However, climatic variability, weak institutional control and overutilisation have reduced the capacity for springs and their waterscapes to support sustainable livelihoods. The findings reveal that degradation of spring waterscapes is occurring and the productive capacity of springs is being diminished. In view of the D. Chikodzi (*) · D. Tevera Department of Geography, Environmental Studies & Tourism, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] D. Mazvimavi Institute of Water, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa

multiple uses of the springs in the study area, appropriate management strategies need to be instituted if the goals of SDG 15 are to be achieved. Keywords

Spring waterscapes · Sustainability · Degradation · SDG 15 · Save Catchment

4.1

Introduction

Sustainable utilisation of land-based ecosystems is crucial for community development and forms the basis for sustained rural transformation. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development set the globe on the path to sustained socio-economic progress by adopting 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets that engage both global- and local-level challenges. This then brings out the need for promoting synergies between biodiversity conservation and the application of policies aimed at improving human livelihoods (Aronson & Alexander, 2013). Several targets of SDG 15 aim to protect, repair and utilise sustainably terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services. This requires a commitment to restore degraded land, including land affected by desertification and drought. With that in mind, SDG 15 advocates for the protection, restoration and promotion of

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_4

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sustainable utilisation of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainable management of forests, fighting desertification and stopping and reversing land degradation and biodiversity loss (United Nations, 2018). Evidence-based assessments have shown the link between positive community livelihoods and successful ecosystem restoration (Wortley, Hero, & Howes, 2013). Sustainable development primarily depends on services and goods obtainable from its environment and natural resource base. Land, soil, water, forest, biodiversity, marine ecosystems and mineral resources form the basis of primary production and sustain most of the sectors that drive socio-economic progress in the rural areas of Southern Africa. The need for sustainable rural transformation and development is important in achieving the successful implementation of SDGs across the African continent. In Southern Africa most of these sustainability goals are driven at multiple organisational levels through initiatives of the United Nations (UN), African Union (AU) Commission and Southern African Development Community (SADC) which complement the SDGs and other national development efforts of member states. One of the main factors influencing land degradation in Southern Africa is poor water resource management. This calls for improved water management strategies for reversing land degradation. However, this requires user recognition that resources like water and land are finite and are needed to support ecosystem functions. Nevertheless, biodiversity loss and land degradation continue due to intensified competition for land use, undermining environmental security. In many parts of Southern Africa, reversal of these trends, through sustainable land management, is vital to improving the livelihoods and resilience of communities inhabiting spring waterscapes with unique hydrological, geological and biological features. The impact of spring waterscape utilisation in realising the achievement of SDG 15 has not been sufficiently interrogated in literature. An important question that needs to be answered is how local and poverty-stricken rural communities are grappling with how to balance livelihood strategies and sustainable utilisation of

fragile spring waterscapes. This chapter investigates the utilisation of springs as well as threats to their sustainability in an African rural setting. The main objective of the chapter is to unravel how rural communities in the Save Catchment of Zimbabwe have constructed their livelihoods around spring waterscapes and the extent to which this practice is compatible with the goals of SDG number 15.

4.2

Literature Review

Due to both natural and human factors, ecosystem degradation has been observed to be on the increase in Southern Africa during the past three decades (Mambo & Archer, 2007; Stocking, 1996; Zinhiva, Chikodzi, Mutowo, Ndlovu, & Mazambara, 2014). For example, land degradation in the region is caused by overcrowding, poor land management and overgrazing (Stocking, 1996; Mogale, Turner, & Buscher, 2010). Inadequate surface water is at the core of sustainability challenges facing rural communities in those countries in Southern Africa, such as Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa and Namibia, that have large tracks of semi-arid geographical regions. In their study of springs and groundwater diffuse zones in East Africa, Dixon and Wood (2003) concluded that while these ecosystems were highly valued by rural communities because they provide reliable water for gardening, irrigation and domestic use, they are often used unsustainably. Studies carried out in other regions of Africa confirm that springs are a valuable resource to the development of rural communities if used sustainably (Rebelo, McCartney, & Finlayson, 2009; Owen, Verbeek, Jackson, & Steenhuis, 1995; Zinhiva et al., 2014). In order to ensure water security in rural areas, it is vital to understand the livelihood strategies of rural people and the role that surface water plays in ensuring the viability of various rural livelihoods. It is essential, therefore, that more research is directed towards understanding the complex relationships between springs in water scarce areas and their impact on livelihood options available to rural communities.

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Knüppe (2011) observed that a decline in water quantity and quality together with the negative impacts of climatic variability has increased spring waterscape utilisation and often leading to their overuse and eventual degradation. The degradation of spring waterscapes impacts negatively on livelihoods and ecosystem services that they support. Ferguson and Derman (2004) provide a detailed political ecology narrative on how social, legislative, historical, political, economic and environmental factors have interacted in various ways to influence the utilisation of spring waterscapes in Zimbabwe. Similarly several scholars have highlighted how historical factors have played an important role in the utilisation of spring waterscapes by communities, especially after the attainment of independence in 1980 (McGregor, 1995; Whitlow, 1990; Zinhiva et al., 2014). Clearly knowledge on utilisation and how communities have constructed their livelihoods around spring waterscapes is a prerequisite for their informed management especially for rural communities with perennial water shortages. High demand for spring water for food production has prompted concerns regarding the effectiveness of spring management strategies to continue providing the current range of functions and benefits. This requires a good understanding of the institutional challenges that rural communities in Zimbabwe face in the utilisation and management of springs. In Zimbabwe limited information on the spring water resource system and related socio-economic data combined are key barriers to the effective management and conservation of springs in some communal areas of rural Zimbabwe where land is held in common by the community. Marambanyika and Beckedahl (2016) have argued that in some of these communal areas spring protection regulations were vague and that only larger springs were afforded some level of protection.

4.3

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Spring Utilisation, Management and Rural Livelihoods in Zimbabwe

In many communal areas of Zimbabwe, spring sites are generally small, and springs function as storage for dry season supply of water for communities. According to Svotwa, Manyanhaire, and Makombe (2008) similar ecosystems to spring waterscapes, such as wetlands, have mitigated the risk to water shortage in some communal lands of Zimbabwe. Spring water is utilised for domestic purposes, such as cooking, bathing and drinking in addition to other livelihood strategies like watering of livestock. This then underlines the need to strike a balance between conservation and the productive use of springs. Matiza (1992) observed that springs provide food security safety nets through provision of all year water supplies that can be utilised to support agricultural activities. The major crops grown on spring waterscapes are vegetables, maize, livingstone potato (Plectranthus esculentus, known locally as tsenza which is an edible tuber) and taro (Colocasia esculenta, known locally as madhumbe). Spring management in Zimbabwe is driven by several institutions which include local institutions controlled by traditional leaders, wetland committees, external institutions such as local and central government agencies and NGOs. Despite restrictive legislative provisions on spring and wetland utilisation, resource degradation continues to take place because of limited capacity to enforce the restrictive laws by central government, local communities and traditional systems. Resource degradation in Zimbabwean communal lands was noted to be influenced by the subordination of tradition institutions to the central government when dealing with localised resource use problems. Chikodzi (2018) argues that during colonial times, the authority of traditional leadership was reduced to that of implementation of centrally designed environmental laws as chiefs lost their power to native commissioners who were appointed by colonial administrators. Chikodzi (2018) further argues that contestations regarding land distribution and access to water resources in communal areas of

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Zimbabwe have become endemic, thereby leading to the further weakening of traditional authority in matters such as the management of natural resources.

4.4

Case Study: Save Catchment

Save Catchment is situated in Southeastern Zimbabwe (Fig.  4.1), and it covers an area of 48,925 km2 between latitudes 18°S–21°S and longitudes 30°E–33°E.  With an average estimated average population density of 40–70 persons per km2 in this semi-arid catchment land, degradation has long been an environmental challenge (Zimstat, 2013). Earlier studies by Campbell, Du Toit, and Attwell (1989) and Stocking (1996) have revealed that human and livestock populations in the communal area section of the catchment exceeded the carrying capacity and this has been one of the drivers of the devegetated landscapes and degraded pastures in the area. According to Campbell et al. (1989) as early as the 1980s, degradation was mostly manifested in

Fig. 4.1  Save catchment. (Source: Authors)

the catchment in the form of gullies that rendered significant expanses of land totally unusable for agriculture. The catchment is underlain mostly by granitic rock formations that are generally shallow and of secondary permeability, and this has contributed to low groundwater yield. Due to these limited yields, groundwater development in the Save Catchment is mostly used for domestic water supply in the large-scale commercial farming areas and communal areas. Rural water supply and sanitation programmes in the communal areas of the catchment rely on hand pump boreholes and large diameter wells. The survey was conducted in Nyanyadzi area (wards 5, 6 and 8) of Chimanimani district and in Maturure area (wards 13, 15 and 20) of Bikita district (Fig. 4.2). Nyanyadzi area has a predominantly sub-tropical climate with one rainy season from November to March that is often interrupted by mid-season droughts. Average annual rainfall is variable and is generally less than 450 mm, and the area is designated as being too dry for successful crop production without irrigation but is

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Fig. 4.2  Bikita and Chimanimani study sites. (Source: Authors)

suitable for cattle ranching and wildlife. Perennial surface water shortage in the area makes springs an important source of rural water in both districts (Chikodzi, 2018). The low annual rainfall in the area is reflected by the widespread cultivation of drought-resistant crops, including special varieties of maize as well as millet and sorghum. About 40% of the catchment is communal land and consists of mostly peasant farmers who cultivate maize (the staple food crop) mainly for household consumption. Save Catchment is largely degraded, but sections of it support economically significant irrigation schemes in Chisumbanje, the middle Save and Tanganda areas (Chikodzi, 2018; Mambo & Archer, 2007). Figure 4.2 shows the wards where questionnaire surveys were administered. The selected study sites are representative of the subhumid sections of the catchment in terms of climate trends, land use patterns, livelihood strategies and average population density. The study communities are based in the semi-­ arid parts of the catchment where subsistence agriculture is the main source of livelihoods for the rural population. According to Zimstat (2013), the population of Chimanimani district, where the Nyanyadzi community is found, is

134,940 of which 48% are male and 52% are female. The average rate of annual natural increase of 2.2% is close to the national average. On the other hand, the population of Bikita district where Maturure community is found is 162,356, of which 45.5% are male and 54.5% are female, with a rate of natural increase of 1.9% (Zimstat, 2013). At the study sites are found hot and cold springs, several of which have attracted both domestic and international tourists. Some of the springs in the study area are perennial, and they produce high flow rates that are capable of supporting diversified functions. Although there are several large springs in the study area, especially in Maturure area, most of the springs that were examined in this study are small and seasonal.

4.5

Methodology

In this study, households were adopted as the primary unit of analysis. Pre-fieldwork, conducted in 2016, involved introductory and familiarisation meetings with the community leadership of Nyanyadzi and Maturure areas during which contact was established with key stakeholders.

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This process, although time-consuming, created trust and backing for the household questionnaire survey from the targeted communities that took place several months later in 2016 and 2017. The target population comprised ordinary rural households and was centred on the household head, although other members of the household, especially women who were the main users of spring water, often during the interviews. The estimated total population of the study sites was 2500 households, and from this group, a total of 100 households were selected for the questionnaire interviews. A total of nine key informants were selected for in-depth interviews which were conducted at homesteads or near springs. Purposive and snowball sampling were utilised in different contexts in the selection of interview participants during the study. Purposive sampling permitted the researchers to identify a key group of participants who were deemed most suitable to take part in the study. Once key participants and study sites were identified through purposeful sampling, the research then employed snowball sampling methods, where each interviewed participant identified another key respondent appropriate for interviewing. Snowball sampling was mainly used in the study to recruit participants for the questionnaire survey. In order to get more information about the study area and the research problem, in-depth interviews and discussions with key informants were held in 2017. The in-­ depth interview participants included local traditional leaders, local water committee members and several government environmental agencies. The agencies included the Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Forestry Commission and the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) and local government officials, hot spring resort workers, ward environmental monitors, local scientists and other community-based organisations operating in the study area. These participants were chosen because they were part of institutions that directly or indirectly influenced access, utilisation and management of springs in the study area. The in-­ depth interviews were conducted using an interview guide that contained questions on the utilisation and management of spring water-

scapes and how they contributed to rural livelihoods in the study area. All responses were transcribed in order to facilitate data analysis. Before data collection commenced, ethical clearance was obtained from the University of the Western Cape to ensure that the anonymity, confidentiality and consent of the research participants were not violated. Ethics were upheld throughout the course of the study. The research ensured that the participants understood the information which detailed the aims of the study and the reason for their selection. Interviews were conducted only after the consent form was signed, and it was made clear to the participants that their involvement in the study was voluntary.

4.6

Findings

One of the key questions that this study addressed relates to the multiple uses of the various ecosystem services provided by the spring waterscapes. There is an over-reliance on spring waterscapes for agricultural production mainly through food gardens. It was observed that there has been an increased demand for spring water utilisation in Nyanyadzi over the past 10  years. Households were often forced to use spring waterscapes because they gave assurances in food production against possible droughts. The springs in the study area are an important source of domestic water for drinking, cooking, bathing and sanitation. Nyanyadzi showed high rates of spring water utilisation by livestock for both watering and grazing. Considering the importance of livestock in the local economy through provision of draught power, milk, transport and food, spring waterscapes in Nyanyadzi were therefore providing an important support system to their livelihoods. However, the role of spring waterscapes in stabilising ecosystems and biological diversity is not well regarded by the Nyanyadzi community as very few participants considered them as playing an important role in ecosystem stabilisation (Fig. 4.3). The spring waterscapes can be seen as having multidimensional meaning to the communities in

Frequency (%)

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100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Fig. 4.3  Ecosystem services supported by spring waterscapes (N = 100) (Source: Authors)

the study area. Cultivation ranks the highest on the utilisation of spring waterscapes. Other important uses included provision of water for aquaculture, provision of building material and medicinal plants. Some of the livelihoods constructed around spring waterscapes included gardening, tourism, livestock production, art and craft making and brick kilning. In Nyanyadzi some communities near the hot springs managed to harness the water flowing from springs into ponds that they use for fish farming. Nonconsumptive uses highlighted included regulation of stream flow, cultural and sentimental value, provision of bio- and geo-diversity and use as educational centres and tourism. Figure  4.3 shows that at least 80% of the participants in both Maturure and Nyanyadzi stated that they used the springscapes for cultivation, domestic water supply, tourism/visitor-related activatiies and livestock watering. On the other hand, spring waterscapes were hardly used as sources of arts and craft materials, fuelwood, regulating services and provisioning of bio- and geo-diversity (each of these were cited by 10% or less of the participants). The second major question addressed in the study focuses on the livelihood activities that have contributed to the degradation of springscapes. Figure 4.4 shows that settlement activities (clearing the vegetation, harvesting grass and

cutting trees for construction and thatching of huts) and natural environmental changes (e.g., drought and creeping desertification) were the most frequently cited springscape degrading practices in the study area. However, Fig. 4.4 also shows that livelihood activities (e.g., brick moulding, dilapidated recreational services, loss of biodiversity invasion by alien species, depletion of soil organic matter and cultural activities) all have a relatively low impact on ecosystem degradation in the study area, and each of these activities was cited by less than 20% of the participants in both Nyanyadzi and Maturure areas. A small minority of participants noted invasion by alien species close to springs and their recharge zones to be responsible for the drying up of some springs. Specifically, they observed the eucalyptus species normally used to revegetate previously deforested areas to be responsible for draining of springs in areas where they have been planted. In Nyanyadzi 62% of the participants and 82% in Maturure perceived the expansion of settlements as being responsible for the degradation of springs. A further 20% of the participants in Nyanyadzi and 46% in Maturure perceived population pressure to have a major impact on spring degradation. Participants maintain that as populations of both people and livestock increased, so too did the need for building new homesteads,

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Brick moulding Population presure Invasion by alien plants Soil erosion Depletion of soil organic matter Artificial drainage of spring Livestock grazing pressure Dilapidated recreational services Loss of biodiversity inorganic fertilizer pollution Clearing of spring natural vegetation Natural environmental changes Cultural activities Settlement 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

frequency % Maturure

Nyanyadzi

Fig. 4.4  Practices degrading springs in Nyanyadzi and Maturure (n-100) (Source: Authors)

thereby resulting in the encroachment of settlements near the springs. Land degradation processes, such as soil erosion, in the vicinity of these settlements were acknowledged by 50% and 66% of the participants in Nyanyadzi and Maturure, respectively, as one of the leading factors contributing to the degrading springs. In Maturure artificial drainage of springs through motorised pumps, canals, pipes and sinking of boreholes was noted by 72% of the participants as a major factor contributing to decline in water quantity as compared to only 34% in Nyanyadzi. In Nyanyadzi, 68% of the participants, compared to 32% in Maturure, were of the opinion that the clearing of vegetation around springs and their recharge zones was a contributing factor to the degradation of springscapes. Also, the pollution of spring water was attributed to the use of inorganic fertilisers by community members who cultivate around springs. These were the views of 40% and 12% of the participants in Nyanyadzi and Maturure, respectively. Spring degradation could also be attributed to livestock grazing pressure due to overstocking. However, livelihood activities, like brick moulding and kilning, were acknowledged by only 6% of the participants in Nyanyadzi and 12% in

Maturure, as a contributory factor to spring degradation in the study area. The other main research questions focused on what participants felt were the best practices to facilitate sustainable use of springs and their waterscapes. Figure 4.5 shows that a majority of the participants felt that fencing, tree planting and environmental education were the best practices required to protect springs and springscapes. According to the participants, fencing effectively restricted access to springs, and this explained why fenced springs were less degraded than the unfenced ones where access was unregulated. On the other hand, alternative employment, local management, law enforcement and smart agriculture were considered by the participants to be the least best practices as far as the participants was concerned. Participants viewed tree planting in the spring recharge zones as being critical to moisture retention in the largely deforested Nyanyadzi area. They felt that while smart agriculture, involving organic farming, helped to improve the  ecosystem, they lacked the technical capacity to implement it. It was on this basis that during in-depth interviews, several participants observed that improved environmental education on spring and

Frequency (%)

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45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig. 4.5  Best practices to improve ecosystem services provided (Source: Authors)

Fig. 4.6  State of some of the springs at (a) Maturure and (b) Nyanyadzi (Source: Authors)

springscape management was required in order to reverse the degradation of springs. Participants also observed that the local communities were not being consulted in the process of formulating management plans for springs in their locality. They argued that outsiders were coming to impose on them ways to conserve springs in a typically top-down approach that sometimes led them to act in ways that defeated spring conservation goals. Figure 4.6 shows the state of some of the springs at (a) Maturure and (b) Nyanyadzi.

Factors influencing the decline of springs in the study areas were noted to be interlinked and cyclic in nature. Participants attributed the decline in both water quantity and quality mostly to the increasing intensity and frequency of droughts in many parts of the catchment. Key informants, including the local traditional leadership and water committees, highlighted that water shortages were occurring annually largely due to the recurring droughts. Traditional institutions and local spring water committees were the most active and visible

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institutions controlling access to spring waterscapes. These institutions controlled up access to springs by way of authorising activities that could be done on springs, coming up with management plans for springs and formulation of a code of conduct for the authorised users. They also determine the number of people accommodated at each spring by approving new applicants in consultation with other interested government agencies, like Agritex. Water committees on their own have inadequate powers to enforce local by-laws and agreed standards; hence they needed to work together with the local RDC and traditional leadership. Water committees represent local management of local resources, through a forum whereby community members freely discuss issues to do with water, and important decisions such as rationing water use are made at such forums as a consensus reached by the resource users. This reduces conflict amongst the water users and enhances social cohesion. Government institutions like the RDCs, EMA, Agritex and Forestry Commission were observed to restrict access to springs by enforcing legal instruments that limit activities near springs. Access to and utilisation of some springs in Nyanyadzi and Maturure did not have any form of restriction. Most springs where there were no restrictions to access were generally small, in a state of degradation, and participants acknowledged the need for some restrictions to be imposed, especially through cultural practices or by the water committees, and supported by the traditional leaders, utilisation tended to be more sustainable. Access to springs in the study area varied from area to area and from time to time. In the wetter areas, there is open access to springs as is reflected by a noticeable absence of structures to control access to spring water all year round. However, in some areas, there are daily restrictions that range from accessing the springs only during the day and a complete ban during the night or utilisation only during mornings. However, the cultural norms in the study area did not allow restrictions to water for domestic use which could be harnessed for use at any time of the day. Seasonal restrictions were applicable in both Nyanyadzi and Maturure and also varied

from place to place. In some cases, the use of springs was not allowed during certain months of the year to allow for their recharge, especially during the rainfall season or when other sources of water were available. All these restrictions were meant to have productive use of water in a manner that conserved the springs from degradation. Participants highlighted that it was the responsibility of local institutions like traditional leaders and water committees to impose these restrictions on use. Some participants saw the imposition of some of these restrictions as a basis for contestations and disharmony within societies, particularly when water committees or outsiders do not consult before imposing them.

4.7

Discussion of Findings

Utilisation and management of spring waterscapes in the study area suggest that their productive use could be encouraged without compromising on their ability to provide similar or better services for future generations. The realities on the ground show that the degradation of spring waterscapes is occurring and their productive capacity is being diminished. SDG 15 advocates for the halting and reversing of such degradation trends in order to achieve sustainable utilisation of the ecosystems. Given the multiple uses of spring waterscapes, carefully planned management structures need to be instituted so that the goals of SDG 15 can be achieved. Challenges that undermine the achievement of the goals of SDG 15 in Nyanyadzi are likely to lead to the failure of other SDGs because they are ‘all for one and one for all’ meaning that they are inseparable. For example, SDG 1 which aims at ending poverty in all its forms would be difficult to achieve in the study area because the ongoing degradation of spring waterscapes constitutes a loss of livelihood option for the communities who rely on micro-irrigation to produce household food and sell surplus produce in order to earn money which they need to support other needs. SDG 2 aims to achieve food security, but sustainable agriculture and improved nutrition will not be achievable if spring waterscape

4  SDG 15 and Socioecological Sustainability: Spring Waterscapes and Rural Livelihoods in the Save…

d­ egradation continues because that would trigger reduced food production at the household level and ultimately lead to increased food insecurity. Also, SDG 6 which aims at ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all will be difficult to achieve in Nyanyadzi if the decline of spring continues. Expansion of settlements due to population pressure also led to the degradation of springs. As populations in the study areas increase, the demand for land to build houses and for agriculture expansion also increases. Construction of homesteads near spring sites was observed by participants in the study sites to impact on their state and health, and as one moves closer to homesteads, the probability of finding springs in a healthy state significantly diminishes. Worth noting is that, despite the degradation of spring waterscapes in Nyanyadzi, there is also a promising sign to possible success in achieving SDG 15 in certain places. This is shown by the participants who observed an improvement in the productivity of ecosystem services provided by spring waterscapes after community efforts had been made to rehabilitate them. The best practices used by these communities need to be improved and diffused to other places where degradation is still occurring. This is, however, not a simple task as there is a notable difference in the internal structure of communities with improving spring waterscapes when compared with those that have degrading springs. Specifically, those communities that were succeeding to reverse the degradation of spring waterscapes had strong traditional and local leadership that was working closely with both local and central government agencies to enforce conservation laws. The utilisation of springs was observed to be multidimensional, from supporting livelihood activities to nonconsumptive functions like environmental regulation and cultural purposes. The value of springs was also observed to vary from place to place, but in almost all communities, most of the springs were shown to support agricultural food production and provision of water for primary use and for livestock grazing and watering. In Nyanyadzi communities managed to harness the water flowing from springs into ponds

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for fish farming, and this has helped them diversify their sources of income and improve household nutrition. Other livelihood materials such as firewood, building materials, medicinal plants and crafts were also observed to be sourced from springs and the wetlands that they support. Chirau, Nkambule, and Mupambwa (2014) observed that springs also support ecosystems that provide services to rural communities and sustain their livelihoods. These services include provision of reeds for making craft, tourism which brings income to communities and provision of medicinal plants and other fruit plants that can be sold or help improve family nutrition. Participants also observed springs to have important ecological functions such as regulation of stream flow and provision of geo- and ecological diversity. Participants viewed these functions as being important natural livelihood assets for their well-being. However, their role in supporting their livelihoods was not highly valued. Communities seemed to have limited appreciation of the importance of springs in the ecosystem and linkages between spring health and sustainable livelihoods. Participants recommended that community environmental education could be enhanced if there were drives towards educating communities through participatory workshops on the value of springs and their wise use. Related to awareness, Dixon and Wood (2003) also observed the need for spring wetlands to be recognised as a critical element of the long-term livelihood and natural resource management strategy rather than a resource to be utilised as a quick fix answer to address food shortages. In particular there is a need to empower traditional leadership and local water management committees with spring management skills since they live closer to the resource users. Participants advocated for a participatory approach in the formulation of policies and co-management of springs, a condition which they say instils a sense of ownership of the resource. Policymaking on land use and environmental issues in Zimbabwe tend to ignore local capacity for resource management and do not make sufficient use of local environmental knowledge. Similarly,

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Marambanyika and Beckedahl (2016) have noted that the state’s policies and legislation had made local knowledge redundant and had fundamentally limited local institutions’ right to legal control and access to local resources like springs. Also, poor community organisation was blamed by some participants on lack of social cohesion which they argued is the result of interferences from political and rural elites who capture any aid meant for the community for their personal benefit. Other examples of poor community relations included vandalism of fences meant to protect springs from animals. In comparison, springs, in areas where there was solid community organisation creating structures like water committees and clubs responsible for spring management, were much healthier and supported more services than those that were free for all. Participants were in favour of the formulation of effective community based by-laws that gave springs legal protection as a means of protecting them from further degradation and also ensuring that local indigenous institutions and other knowledgeable groups were engaged. Participants also saw the need for laws that seriously punished offenders as a deterrent to would­be offenders. Improvement of water management techniques, such as proper harvesting and storage of spring water, improved organisation and efficiency in water use, were noted to help reduce unsustainable levels of water extraction from springs.

4.8

Conclusions

The findings produced insights regarding how rural communities in the Save Catchment have constructed their agro-based livelihoods around the utilisation of springs and are contributing in various ways to ecosystem destruction in the catchment. The sustainability of livelihoods supported by springs was noted to be threatened by climatic variability and unsustainable livelihood activities that have seen the decline in the ecosystem services provided by springs. Droughts and poor institutional support have reduced the capacity for springs to nurture sustainable liveli-

hoods in the catchment. The ways through which different institutions participate in spring and springscape management are influenced by their different institutional obligations, but in most cases, priorities are stuck between socio-­ economic and environmental considerations. The study has shown that institutional arrangements are key to the sustainable development of communities living around springs, and, as is evident from lessons from elsewhere in Southern Africa, robust institutions that provide complementarity between traditional and state institutions are key to successful management of spring waterscapes and ecosystem protection. A key conclusion to emerge from this study is that the current utilisation and management of springs and springscapes in the Save Catchment are struggling to support the dual challenges of community livelihood support and protection of the fragile ecosystems in the area. As a result, the attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 15, which focuses on protecting, restoring and promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems and reversing both land degradation and biodiversity loss, is unlikely to be achieved if degradation continues to occur without significant policy interventions.

References Aronson, J., & Alexander, S. (2013). Ecosystem restoration is now a global priority: Time to roll up our sleeves. Restoration Ecology, 21(3), 293–296. Campbell, B.  M., Du Toit, R.  F., & Attwell, C.  A. M. (1989). The save study: Relationships between the environment and basic needs satisfaction in the save catchment. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications. Chikodzi, D. (2018). Unusual waterscapes and precarious rural livelihoods: Occurrence, utilisation and conservation of springs in the Save Catchment, Zimbabwe. PhD Thesis, University of the Western Cape, Capetown. Chirau, T.  J., Nkambule, S., & Mupambwa, G. (2014). Rural livelihoods in Zimbabwe : Heterogeneity, diversification and vulnerability. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 5(1), 5–15. Dixon, A.  B., & Wood, A.  P. (2003). Wetland cultivation and hydrological management in eastern Africa : Matching community and hydrological needs through sustainable wetland use. Natural Resources Forum, 27, 117–129.

4  SDG 15 and Socioecological Sustainability: Spring Waterscapes and Rural Livelihoods in the Save… Ferguson, A., & Derman, B. (2004). Whose water? Political ecology of water reform in Zimbabwe. In Political ecology across spaces, scales, and social groups (pp. 61–75). Rutgers: University Press. Knüppe, K. (2011). The challenges facing sustainable and adaptive groundwater management in South Africa. Water SA, 37(1), 67–79. Mambo, J., & Archer, E. (2007). An assessment of land degradation in the save catchment of Zimbabwe. Area, 39(3), 380–391. Marambanyika, T., & Beckedahl, H. (2016). Wetland utilisation patterns in semi-arid communal areas of Zimbabwe between 1985 and 2013 and the associated benefits to livelihoods of the surrounding communities. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 71(2), 175–186. Matiza, T. (1992). The utilisation and status of dambos in Southern Africa: A Zimbabwe case study. In T. Matiza & H. N. Chabwela (Eds.), Wetlands conservation conference for Southern Africa. Proceedings of the SADC wetlands conference (pp.  91–104). Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. McGregor, J. (1995). Conservation, control and ecological change: The politics and ecology of colonial conservation in Shurugwi, Zimbabwe. Environment and History, 1(3), 253–279. Mogale, L., Turner, S., & Buscher, B. (2010). Towards an effective commons governance system in southern Africa? International Journal of the Commons, 4(2), 602–620. Owen, R., Verbeek, K., Jackson, J., & Steenhuis, T. (Eds.). (1995). Dambo farming in Zimbabwe: Water

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management, cropping and soil potentials for smallholder farming in the wetlands. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications. Rebelo, L.  M., McCartney, P.  M., & Finlayson, C.  M. (2009). Wetlands of sub-Saharan Africa: Distribution and contribution of agriculture to livelihoods, in wetlands. Ecological Management, 18(1), 557–572. Stocking, M. (1996). Soil erosion: Breaking new ground. In M. Leach & R. Meanes (Eds.), The lie of the land: Challenging revised wisdom on the African environment. London: James Currey. Svotwa, E., Manyanhaire, I. O., & Makombe, P. (2008). Sustainable gardening on wetlands in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 7(3), 2754–2760. United Nations. (2018). The sustainable development goals report 2018. New York: United Nations. Wortley, L., Hero, J. M., & Howes, M. (2013). Evaluating ecological restoration success: A review of the literature. Restoration Ecology, 21(5), 537–543. Whitlow, R. (1990). Conservation status of wetlands in Zimbabwe: Past and present. GeoJournal, 20(3), 191–202. Zimstat. (2013). Provincial report Manicaland Zimbabwe population. Harare: Zimstat. Zinhiva, H., Chikodzi, D., Mutowo, G., Ndlovu, S., & Mazambara, P. (2014). The implications for loss and degradation of wetland ecosystems on sustainable rural livelihoods  : Case of Chingombe community, Zimbabwe. Journal of Environmental Management and Public Safety, 3(2), 43–52.

5

Auditing the Adequacy of NDCs in Addressing the Climate Action Sustainable Development Goal Godwell Nhamo

Abstract

The nationally determined contributions (NDCs) of the Paris Agreement remain one of the main platforms with which the climate action Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 13) can be attained. However, not much work is emerging that reflects the extent to which the available NDCs are geared towards this mammoth task. Drawing from the set SDG 13 targets, an auditing matrix to determine the NDCs’ compliance with the climate action goal and targets was developed. Sixty countries formed the sample drawn from all the continents. The findings show that there is a huge gap in the provision of NDCs in developed countries, and this may result in failure to adequately address SDG 13. This is mainly due to the mitigation bias of the NDCs as per the mandate stipulated in Article 3 of the Paris Agreement. This paper recommends that in the next rounds of revising the NDCs in 2020, 2025 and 2030, all countries should make every effort to voluntarily have their NDCs responding to the broader climate action call presented through SDG 13 targets. This is important, given that SDG 13 is under the custodianship of the United Nations Framework G. Nhamo (*) Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

Convention on Climate Change which hosts the Paris Agreement. Keywords

NDCs · Paris agreement · Sustainable development · SDGs · UNFCCC

5.1

Introduction

Out of the 17 interlinked Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) documented in the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD), only SDG 13 that deals with climate action is known to have a footnote. The footnote gives the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) custodianship of SDG 13. In full, the footnote reads “Acknowledging that the UNFCCC is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change” (United Nations, 2015: 14). Given this response, it is imperative that the UNFCCC takes full responsibility for making sure that climate action is taken to make the world a better place through the available instruments, chief among them the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015). Enshrined in the Paris Agreement are nationally determined contributions (NDCs), which are ratified intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs). The Paris Agreement entered into force

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_5

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on 4 November 2014 (Nhamo, 2016), and there is no going back on its implementation. Worried about global warming that leads to the climate changing, in 2015, the UNFCCC invited the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to come up with a “special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways” (IPCC, 2018: 3). The report (published in 2018) had to address the issue in the context of strengthening the global response to climate change, sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty. There are a number of key findings from the IPCC special report. Anthropogenic activities could have already resulted in about 1.0 °C of global warming above pre-industrial levels (IPCC, 2018). Drawing from a high confidence level, the IPCC indicates that global warming is estimated to reach 1.5 °C between 2030 and 2052 on a business as usual global developmental pathway. The special report paints a picture where global warming from human-induced carbon emissions from the pre-industrial period to the present will continue for centuries to millennia. This phenomenon will continue to cause additional long-term changes in our climate system like sea-level rise and the resultant impacts. However, by 2100, the global mean sea-level rise could be 0.1 m lower if global warming is contained to within 1.5  °C compared to 2 °C (IPCC, 2018). The sea level will continue to rise after 2100, with the rate and magnitude of the rise being a function of future carbon emission pathways. Slower rates of sea-level rise will be preferred as it will permit greater opportunities for adaptation in both human and ecological systems, especially for small islands, low-lying coastal areas and deltas (IPCC, 2018). Virtually, the impacts associated with 1.5 °C compared to 2 °C will be lower across a range of aspects (including biodiversity and ocean temperatures), with climate-related risks to health, livelihoods, food security, water supply, human security and economic growth also projected to increase. Effectively, “avoided climate change impacts on sustainable development, eradication of poverty and reducing inequalities would be greater if global warming

were limited to 1.5 °C rather than 2 °C” (IPCC, 2018: 24). Linked directly to sustainable development and the provisions of the climate action SDG, the IPCC sees sustainable development as a supporting and enabling pillar that is assisting in minimising global warming to 1.5 °C. This act facilitates climate-resilient and climate-­ compatible development pathways leading to ambitious mitigation and adaptation interventions. With high confidence, the IPCC notes the roles of strengthening climate action capacities at national and subnational levels, within civil society and the private sector and in disadvantaged local communities that include indigenous peoples in limiting global warming to 1.5  °C.  International cooperation is also highlighted as providing an enabling environment for the 1.5 °C scenario to be attained in all countries, thereby benefiting all citizens (IPCC, 2018). Given the forgoing, linking the work of the UNFCCC under the Paris Agreement to the global AfSD has gained traction. To this end, this chapter focuses on teasing out the extent to which NDCs are addressing the climate action SDG with the view of coming up with recommendations that can feed into subsequent rounds of NDC revisions in 2020, 2025 and 2030.

5.2

Literature Survey

Sindico (2016) acknowledges that apart from the Paris Agreement, the year 2015 is also remembered for the adoption of the SDGs. As such, the author is concerned about assessing the extent to which the Paris Agreement and its outcomes embrace the SDGs and/or sustainable development concerns. The author concludes that there are both direct and indirect references to the SDGs and sustainable development in the Paris Agreement, although the former is less pronounced. In addition, the close relationship between climate law and the SDGs highlights the need to integrate the SDGs into the implementation of the Paris Agreement. Sindico maintains that the Paris Agreement does not make explicit reference to the SDGs or any other international legal instrument. Although it would have been

5  Auditing the Adequacy of NDCs in Addressing the Climate Action Sustainable Development Goal

great to witness the Paris Agreement reciprocate the reference that the AfSD makes to the UNFCCC, the absence of such a reference does not mean that the SDGs are not relevant to the Paris outcome. In fact, the Paris Agreement acknowledges in its preamble “the intrinsic relationship that climate change actions, responses and impacts have with equitable access to sustainable development and eradication of poverty” (Sindico, 2016: 132). There has, however, been some resentment regarding the way in which some NDCs have been designed. One of the main defects highlighted is the bias towards the mitigation agenda (Nhamo, 2018), notwithstanding that the commitments thereof for this mitigation agenda also fall short of what science requires, which is a trajectory of less than 1.5  °C warming (Fransen, Northrop, Mogelgaard, & Levin, 2016). De Loma-Osorio (2016) looks at the 2030 AfSD as a platform that brings climate justice to climate action. Although the Paris Agreement is necessary, it remains inadequate in advancing climate justice. As such, the 2030 AfSD is an indispensable and complementary framework to deliver climate justice, together with the Paris Agreement. Nhamo (2018) observes that in the lead-up to 2020, the year that marks the first official implementation phase of the NDCs, global leaders should take note of the fact that there are a number of global agendas that the NDCs must address, such as the 2030 Agenda’s SDG 2 and SDG 13 that deal with agriculture and food security and climate action, respectively, as well as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and Habitat III’s New Urban Agenda. Drawing from the processes leading to the adoption of both the Paris Agreement and the SDGs, De Loma-Osorio (2016: 226) highlights that there were “two separate intergovernmental processes, but one shared vision”. The author indicates that UNFCCC leader Christiana Figueres, UN special adviser for the post-2015 development planning Amina J. Mohammed and Mary Robinson showed strong leadership by disseminating a narrative that presented climate and SDG efforts as “two sides of the same coin”. This observation is supported by Obergassel,

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Mersmann, and Wang-Helmreich (2017), who see “two for one” when integrating the AfSD with international climate policy. This kind of narrative justifies a quest to check the adequacy of NDCs in addressing the climate action SDG. Antwi-Agyei, Dougill, Agyekum, and Stringer (2018) investigated the alignment between the NDCs and SDGs for West Africa, noting that both global frameworks are the most important in the twenty-first century. Their work shows that both the agriculture and energy sectors prioritised as NDCs have pledged significant commitments there, with good alignment between mitigation and adaptation actions proposed in the NDCs and the SDGs in general. Nevertheless, there were significant challenges pertaining to institutional capacity, lack of coordination among institutions and agencies and lack of resources required in the integrated implementation of national planning priorities that could result in the successful implementation of both NDC priorities and the SDGs. Matters concerning institutional capacity are also raised by Chong (2018: 43), who suggests that while the SDGs and the Paris Agreement “provide a roadmap to effective action on climate and development, they fail to clearly distribute responsibilities or drive states toward fulfilling their extraterritorial obligations”. In as much as the Paris Agreement parties are realising their collective moral obligation to protect people from the negative impacts of climate change, they have not created the mechanisms holding themselves accountable to such commitments, notwithstanding the global stock take mechanism enshrined in the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015). In developing further arguments on the two-­ way relationship between the SDGs and climate change, De Loma-Osorio (2016) indicates that the SDGs cannot be achieved and sustained if climate change is not controlled to below 1.5 °C by the year 2100, with the most vulnerable communities empowered through resilience. However, the Paris Agreement goals cannot be achieved without the success of the SDGs by 2030. This conclusion was arrived at given that many of the SDGs include global targets that affect one or more drivers of climate change, including

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a­ daptation and mitigation. An example is highlighted by De Loma-Osorio where climate change is affecting agriculture through extreme weather events like higher temperatures, droughts, floods, heat waves and extreme cold. If the world is to ensure food security for the estimated 9 billion people by 2050, producing food in a climate compatible manner becomes inevitable with climate-­ smart agricultural practices leading to reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture. Hammill (2017) narrows it down to using NDCs, national adaptation plans (NAPs) and the SDGs in advancing climate-resilient development. The author observes that it is not mandatory to include the adaptation element in NDCs. As such, reasons for including an adaptation component in NDCs by parties vary, and the same is true for the adaptation content presented that could range from a “summary of observed impacts of climate change in a country, to the identification of vulnerable sectors and priority adaptation needs, to a description of ongoing and planned adaptation actions, to the articulation of time-bound adaptation targets, or some combination thereof” Hammill (2017: 1). Adaptation’s importance is highlighted in the Paris Agreement, with specific text on parties to engage in national adaptation planning processes to attain the goals of the NAP process embedded in the 2010 Cancun Adaptation Framework of the UNFCCC.  Under the Cancun Adaptation Framework, parties are to build resilience to the impacts of climate change by mainstreaming it into all relevant policies and strategies. The NDCs therefore communicate internationally a country’s contribution to and needs for addressing climate change impacts, while NAP processes (that remain domestic) permit parties to identify, address and review their evolving adaptation needs. Given that NAPs are instruments outside NDCs, (Hammill, 2017) calls upon the global community to go beyond the UNFCCC, into the broader sustainable development agenda. Pauw et  al. (2018) highlight that researchers have been quick to identify the “headline numbers” from the NDCs given that implementing mitigation climate actions enshrined in the NDCs

would reduce carbon emissions from about 3.6– 2.7 °C global mean warming above pre-industrial levels by 2100. However, beyond these mitigation figures, NDCs are difficult to analyse and compare. The situation has not been simplified by the UNFCCC as there is limited guidance on NDC formulation. To address these challenges, NDCs should be more transparent and comparable, especially concerning the mitigation agenda, adaptation, finance and the manner in which they are aligned with national policies. For example, NDCs often lack detail about stated ambitions. With such scenarios, there is hindrance in the robust understanding of national ambitions and priorities, including the need to compare among parties. The next section deals with the methodological orientation informing this research.

5.3

Methodological Framework

The chapter sets an objective to audit the extent to which NDCs are addressing the climate action SDG.  The iterative content analysis approach was applied for the study. This approach was recently applied in researching the alignment between NDCs and the SDGs for West Africa (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2018). The content analysis approach further draws heavily on document and critical discourse analysis (DCDA), a method that has been used extensively in climate policy and SDGs work. The DCDA method was applied in the following studies: • Women’s needs in new global sustainable development policy agendas (Nhamo, Muchuru, & Nhamo, 2018). • Climate change adaptation and the African fisheries: evidence from the UNFCCC National Communications (Muchuru & Nhamo, 2018). • Gender and geographical balance: with a focus on the UN Secretariat and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Nhamo & Nhamo, 2017). • One global deal from Paris 2015: Convergence and contestations on the future climate mitigation agenda (Nhamo & Nhamo, 2016).

5  Auditing the Adequacy of NDCs in Addressing the Climate Action Sustainable Development Goal

Through the iterative content analysis approach, Antwi-Agyei et  al. (2018) started by retrieving English NDCs from West Africa, which came to 11  in total. The same approach was used in this chapter as the author was limited by the English language. For this study, the retrieved NDCs came to 33, representing 60 countries in total as the European Union (EU) NDCs represented 28 countries.1 The NDCs were retrieved from the official registry on the link http://www4.unfccc.int/ndcregistry/Pages/All. aspx. The sampling combined both systematic and purposive approaches given that it would not have been possible to study all the NDCs submitted to the UNFCCC portal, which run into hundreds. To this end, the NDCs were retrieved following the alphabetic order ending with 31 countries.2 Given the central role played by the EU and the number of EU countries in the Group of Seven developed countries, it was inevitable that the EU’s single NDCs be included in the study. It was also logical to include the United States of America (USA) NDC based on the noise surrounding its president and threats to pull out of the Paris Agreement that has become common knowledge globally. It was also important to make sure that China’s NDCs form part of the research, and this was covered naturally as it features among the 31 countries sampled alphabetically. Lastly, the author checked if all the continents were represented, including having land-locked, emerging, small island developing states and least developed countries in the sample. An auditing framework drawn from the interfacing of key terminology and words linked to The EU 28 were the following countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the UK. 2  These countries are Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Benin, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Cambodia, Canada, the Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Djibouti, Dominica and Eritrea. 1 

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the NDCs and SDG 13 was developed. Among the 12 keywords and/or terms that emerged mainly drawn from the climate action SDG were mitigation, adaptation, resilience, finance, technology, education, awareness, early warning, transparency, stock take, sustainable development and sustainable development goals/SDGs. The nature and examples of how the preliminary keywords and/or terms count analysis was done across the 31 NDCs are shown in Table 5.1. In addition to simple word and/or key concepts counts, there was the final tallying of the counts resulting in the plotting of graphs that assisted in analysing the adequacy of such NDCs in addressing the climate action SDG. There was also the recording of the actual number of pages covered by the NDCs (Fig. 5.1). What was interesting is the fact that the pages varied from as low as three for countries like Albania, Australia, Azerbaijan and the Cook Islands to as high as 51 pages for Burkina Faso. Detailed analysis of selected NDCs that included the EU 28 was done by checking what was covered in selected paragraphs of interest. In the next section, the key findings are addressed and presented in twin major parts, namely, understanding NDCs and the climate change action SDG and the audit of the adequacy of NDCs in addressing SDG 13.

5.4

Key Findings

5.4.1 Understanding NDCs and the Climate Action SDG Based on the focus of this chapter, it is inevitable that one considers the provisions of both the Paris Agreement in as far as the composition and content of the NDCs are concerned and SDG 13 in as far as addressing climate action is concerned. Article 3 of the Paris Agreement dealing with NDCs stipulates (UNFCCC, 2015: 3) that “The efforts of all Parties will represent a progression over time, while recognizing the need to support developing country Parties for the effective implementation of this Agreement”. The Paris parties accept that to attain the long-term

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78 Table 5.1  Example of preliminary keywords and/or terms search and count Country EU 28 Afghanistan Albania Algeria Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Australia Azerbaijan

Counts on some of the keywords and/or terms from the 10 used Mitigation Adaptation Resilience Finance Technology 1 0 0 0 0 5 13 6 3 10 1 0 0 0 0 12 8 3 2 5 12 22 8 2 4 12 25 2 2 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0

Education 0 1 0 2 1 3 0 0

Source: Author

60 50

Pages

40 30 20 10

Albania Australia Azerbaijan Cook Islands EU 28 Bahrain Bosnia & Herzegovina Botswana USA Afghanistan Barbados Canada Algeria Argentina Brazil Colombia Antigua & Barbuda Burundi Bangladesh Central African Republic Djibouti Cambodia Bolivia Chad Costa Rica Dominica Belize Cabo Verde Eritrea Chile China Benin Burkina Faso

0

Fig. 5.1  Number of pages in specific NDCs. (Source: Author)

t­emperature goal, the global peaking of GHG emissions should be reached as soon as possible. However, peaking from developing country parties will take longer. The GHG reductions thereafter should be done as per the best available science realising the fundamentals of equity, the 2030 AfSD and the need to eliminate poverty. Drawing from the foregoing, every country is required to prepare its NDCs, pursuing national

mitigation measures. Each nation’s successive NDCs should be progressive, reflecting the highest possible ambition and drawing from the UNFCCC’s principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and capabilities (UNFCCC, 1992) as national circumstances differ (UNFCCC, 2015). Countries from the developed north are implored to continue taking the lead in GHG reductions by undertaking economy-wide

5  Auditing the Adequacy of NDCs in Addressing the Climate Action Sustainable Development Goal

a­ bsolute GHG emission reduction targets. Countries from the developing south are tasked to achieve the same over time with financial, technological and capacity enhancement from developing countries. Reading from this provision, the movement towards economy-wide absolute GHG emission reduction by developing countries remains conditional. Mitigation cobenefits resulting from adaptation efforts and economic diversification by developing countries are also realised as contributing to mitigation outcomes under NDCs. The NDCs shall give information necessary for clarity and transparency with the intervals for NDCs set for 5  years (UNFCCC, 2015). Figure 5.2 shows the contents of SDG 13. What is of interest in this figure is the broader coverage of the climate agenda. Not only does SDG 13 address mitigation (the NDCs agenda), it also covers other pillars in climate action (including adaptation, resilience, financing and planning). The SDG 13 targets are far reaching and necessary too. Given that circumstances may change, NDCs may be adjusted with a view to enhancing levels of ambition, and this will be as per the provisions and guidance adopted by the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC serving as the meeting of the parties to the Paris Agreement. Article 4(13) stipulates fundamental accounting principles related to the NDCs that include promoting “environmental integrity, transparency,

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accuracy, completeness, comparability and consistency, and ensure the avoidance of double counting” (UNFCCC, 2015: 5). Where parties act as a regional economic group like the EU, notification should be given to the UNFCCC Secretariat, including communicating emission levels allocated to each party when they communicate their NDCs. The parties are also requested to develop and communicate long-term low GHG emission development strategies, directly addressing the mitigation actions in SDG 13.

5.4.2 T  he Adequacy of NDCs in Addressing SDG 13 To start with, an analysis was made to check if there were references by the NDCs to the concept of sustainable development in general and SDGs specifically. Slightly less than a third of the NDCs (19 out of 60) highlighted matters dealing with general sustainable development. However, only one country (Algeria) had a single direct reference to the SDGs. Algeria’s NDC addresses the SDGs in the context of mitigation based on “conditional support in terms of external finance, technology development and transfer and capacity building” to which the country aims to “operate an energy transition and an economic diversification to achieve Algeria’s sustainable development goals” (People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria, 2015: 7).

SDG 13 Climate Action

Target 13.1 Strengthen Resilience and Adaptive Capacity

Targert 13.2 Integrate Climate Change in National Policies, Strategies and Planning

Target 13.3

Target 13.a

Improve Education, Awareness Raising and Capacity on Mitigation, Adaptation and Early Warning

$100 billion annually by 2020 for mitigation, transparency on implementation and capacity for LDCs and SIDS

Fig. 5.2  Contents of SDG 13 as per the 2030 AfSD. (Source: Author)

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The pillars from which the NDCs should have drawn are well articulated in SDG 13, which focuses on taking urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts throughout the world (United Nations, 2015). Among the key pillars are strengthening resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters (target 13.1); integrating climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning (target 13.2); improving education, awareness raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning systems (target 13.3); implementing the commitment undertaken by developed countries to the goal of mobilising jointly US$100  billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries (target 13a); and promoting the mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing states, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalised communities (target 13b). It emerged from the audit (Fig. 5.3) that there is dominance of the adaptation language and agenda in the NDCs with a total of 566 hits compared to mitigation’s 423. From the history of

climate change negotiations, developing countries have persistently complained of the sidelining of the adaptation agenda (Nhamo & Nhamo, 2016). They argue that given their nations’ vulnerability to extreme weather events like droughts, floods, extreme heat and extreme cold, resulting from global warming and climate change, adaptation and adaptation planning require special attention now and in the future (Nhamo & Nhamo, 2016). There was also no mention of the word “adaptation” in the NDCs of the EU 28, the USA and Albania (Fig.  5.4). Other concepts were barely mentioned, with Sustainable Development Goals and stock take managing a single and two hits, respectively. Effectively, many countries have gone beyond the mandatory call of duty to mainly focus on the mitigation agenda of the Paris Agreement and have a broader view of how the NDCs should be like in reality—comprehensive in nature. This reality check is elevated by the fact that additional keywords/terms used in auditing the NDCs feature prominently in the NDCs (Fig. 5.5). A number of surprises emerged from the analysis. After presenting all the frequency counts on the 12 keywords and/or terms used (Fig. 5.5), the USA has the lowest score of two counts. It was

Adaptation Mitigation Technology Resilience Sustainable Development Finance Education Awareness Transparency Early Warning Stock Take Sustainable Development Goals 0

100

Fig. 5.3  Total word counts across all NDCs. (Source: Author)

200

300 400 Frequency

500

600

0

USA EU 28 Albania Azerbaijan Australia Bosnia & Herzegovina Cook Islands Botswana Bahrain Canada Brazil Burundi Barbados Algeria Afghanistan Bolivia Argentina Cabo Verde Central African Republic Chile Chad Cambodia Antigua & Barbuda Djibouti Dominica Colombia Eritrea China Costa Rica Bangladesh Belize Benin Burkina Faso

Frequency EU 28 Afghanistan Albania Algeria Antigua & Barbuda Argentina Australia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belize Benin Bolivia Bosnia & Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Burkina Faso Burundi Cabo Verde Cambodia Canada Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Cook Islands Costa Rica Djibouti Dominica Eritrea USA

Frequency

5  Auditing the Adequacy of NDCs in Addressing the Climate Action Sustainable Development Goal

Mitigation

Fig. 5.5  Frequency counts for all 12 keywords and/or concepts. (Source: Author)

81

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Adaptation

Fig. 5.4  Comparing the twin pillars of mitigation and adaptation. (Source: Author)

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

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followed by the EU 28, Albania and Azerbaijan with three points each. Australia, with five points, completes the list of the bottom five countries. At the top of the pack was Burkina Faso with 179 counts, followed by Benin and Belize with 104 hits each, Bangladesh with 100 hits and Costa Rica with 85 counts. It is of interest to note that the points accumulated respond to 8 of the 12 keyword and concept searches that draw directly from SDG 13, while the other 4 concepts dealing with transparency, stock take, sustainable development and SDGs draw from the Paris Agreement and the general 2030 AfSD framework. In fact, the two hits scored by the USA are exclusively in reference to transparency. With the unfolding scenario, it is clear that there are no clear guidelines on the formulation and the contents of the NDCs. In fact, many countries from the developing south are unequivocal that apart from the mandate of Article 3 of the Paris Agreement, the reality dictates that matters of adaptation, resilience, education, financing, etc. used in the auditing framework should be addressed through the NDCs. Likewise, this approach links directly and well with the provisions of SDG 13 from which the auditing framework was mainly drawn. Hence, there is a good chance that NDCs from many countries in the developing Southern Hemisphere are likely to address the needs of SDG 13 and by default the SDGs. Although no NDCs scored across all 12 thematic audit focus areas, there are countries that performed well, thereby having better chances of their NDCs addressing the provisions of SDG 13. These countries scored in 9 or more of the 12 thematic audit areas and are Algeria, Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, the Central African Republic, China, Colombia, Costa Rica and Dominica. Those scoring in less than half of the 12 thematic audit areas and whose NDCs are likely to fall short in meeting the requirements of SDG 13 include the EU 28, Albania, Australia, Azerbaijan, Barbados, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Burundi, Cook Islands and the USA. The remaining countries (13 in total) scored in six to eight thematic audit areas, thereby having some change of their NDCs addressing significant requirements of the climate action SDG.

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Fransen et  al. (2016) reveal that a lot has changed since countries first developed their INDCs ahead of the Paris 2015 (COP 21) climate change negotiations and their subsequent ratification into NDCs. In fact, there were minimal and no changes at all in some instances when the INDCs where ratified into NDCs. Unfortunately, the ambitions of the current mitigation targets, policies and actions in the NDCs fall short of what science demands to keep warming to well below 2  °C or 1.5  °C.  Given this finding, it is unlikely that the NDCs adequately address the targets set in SDG 13. In fact, the NDCs even fall short in addressing the long-term goals of the Paris Agreement itself (Fransen et  al., 2016). Fransen et al. offer a menu of options for national policymakers, including the desire to update and/ or elaborate the adaptation content of the NDCs and also add measures to strengthen implementation. As for strengthening mitigation ambition, the NDCs should strengthen and/or add a GHG target, a sectoral non-GHG target and policies and actions. Regarding adaptation, the NDCs should update and/or add information on climate change trends, impacts and vulnerabilities, current and near-term planning and action, national long-term goals or vision and information on gaps and barriers, as well as update and/or add monitoring, evaluation and learning plans. The timelines for enhancing ambition set out in Fig. 5.6. What is of interest in relation to the 2030 AfSD and the climate action SDG is the coinciding timelines. From Fig.  5.6, the ratification of the Paris Agreement in 2016 marked the first implementation year of the SDGs. In 2019, the United Nations will receive the first set of reports in terms of progress made in implementing the SDGs. By 2020, the Paris parties must communicate the second-generation NDCs to which lessons on the implementation of the SDGs could be fed into the revisions of NDCs. In 2025, the world will be a decade into the implementation of the SDGs, and once more, a window to address weaknesses and limitations in ambition in the NDCs will be available as the third-generation NDCs will be due. While reporting on the implementation of the SDGs will also take place, the last chance to align

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Fig. 5.6  Key steps to enhance ambition. (Source: Fransen et al. (2016: 7))

the NDCs with the SDGs agenda will be available in 2030 when the world will be expecting the fourth-generation NDCs. Hopefully, the anticipated net-zero carbon emissions and climate resilience will be realised in 2050.

5.5

Conclusions

The failure of some NDCs to adequately address the climate action SDG is significant, particularly that of the EU 28 and the USA, mainly due to the fact that the NDCs have a heavy mitigation mandate, with especially the adaptation leg and other key enabling climate action pillars overlooked. However, unlike the USA, China’s NDCs present a balanced document that can easily address the requirements of the climate action SDG.  The Chinese NDCs further address technology and the broader sustainable development agenda to which the USA NDCs remain silent. Given the intertwining between and among the 17 SDGs (the “all in one and one in all” concept), it may not be incorrect to conclude that the failure to effectively implement the climate action SDG will have negative results on the successful implementation of the entire sustainable development agenda. For example, delivering sustainable energy to all (SDG 7) will not be achieved should parties not work on ambitious mitigation measures that will witness more renewable energy and energy-effi-

cient measures in the mainstream. Similarly, women are known to be more negatively impacted by climate-related disasters than men. As such, if ambitious adaptation and resilience measures are not put in place, then SDG 5 will not be achieved. More SDGs directly linked to climate change include SDG 6 addressing water and sanitation, SDG 8 addressing decent jobs, SDG 11 focusing on cities that are now known hotbeds in terms of climate change impacts that demand stringent adaptation and mitigation measures, SDG 12 dealing with sustainable consumption and production, SDG 14 dealing with the terrestrial environment and SDG 15 dealing with biological diversity. Overall, the climate action goal remains at the centre of attaining the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Hence, the idea of broadening the scope of the NDCs to include especially adaptation and resilience (even if it remains voluntary) is a noble move for the NDCs’ review phases coming in 5-year intervals in the years 2020, 2025 and 2030.

References Antwi-Agyei, P., Dougill, A.  J., Agyekum, T.  P., & Stringer, L. C. (2018). Alignment between nationally determined contributions and the sustainable development goals for West Africa. Climate Policy, 18(10), 1296–1312. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2018.1 431199

84 Chong, D. (2018). The sustainable development goals and climate change. Social Alternatives, 37(1), 43–48. De Loma-Osorio, G. F. (2016). The 2030 agenda for sustainable development: Bringing climate justice to climate action. Development, 59, 223–228. Fransen, T., Northrop, E., Mogelgaard, K., & Levin, K. (2016). Enhancing NDCs by 2020: Achieving the goals of the Paris agreement. Washington DC: World Resources Institute. Hammill, A. (2017). Using NDCs, NAPs and the SDGs to advance climate-resilient development. London: International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). (2018). Global warming of 1.5  °C: An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. Geneva: IPCC Secretariat. Muchuru, S., & Nhamo, G. (2018). Climate change adaptation and the African fisheries: evidence from the UNFCCC National Communications. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 20, 1687–1705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-017-9960-6 Nhamo, G., & Nhamo, S. (2016). Paris (COP 21) agreement: loss and damage, adaptation and climate finance issues. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies, 11(2), 118–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/1818 6874.2016.1212479 Nhamo, G. (2018). UNFCCC decision on agriculture: Africa must continue prioritising adaptation in the Talanoa Dialogue and (I)NDCs processes. South African Journal of International Affairs, 25(3), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2018.1522275

G. Nhamo Nhamo, G., & Nhamo, S. (2017). Gender and geographical balance: With a focus on the UN Secretariat and the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Gender Question, 5(1), 1–21. https://doi. org/10.25159/2412-8457/2520 Nhamo, G., Muchuru, S., & Nhamo, S. (2018). Women's needs in new global sustainable development policy agendas. Sustainable Development. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.1717/full Obergassel, W., Mersmann, F., & Wang-Helmreich, H. (2017). Two for one: Integrating the sustainable development agenda with international climate policy. GAIA–Ecological Perspectives on Science and Society, 26(3), 249–253. Pauw, W.  P., Klein, R.  J. T., Mbeva, K., Dzebo, A., Cassanmagnago, D., & Rudloff, A. (2018). Beyond headline mitigation numbers: we need more transparent and comparable NDCs to achieve the Paris Agreement on climate change. Climatic Change, 147, 23–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-017-2122-x Sindico, F. (2016). Paris, climate change, and sustainable development. Climate Law., 6, 130–141. The People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria. (2015). Intended nationally determined contribution. Algiers: Government Publishers. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). (2015). Paris agreement. Bonn: UNFCCC Secretariat. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). (1992). United nations framework convention on climate change. Bonn: UNFCCC Secretariat. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. New York: United Nations Secretariat.

Part III The Business Sector and the SDGs

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&Beyond’s Response to the Twin Challenges of Pollution and Climate Change in the Context of SDGs Kaitano Dube, Godwell Nhamo, and Kevin Mearns

Abstract

Oceans, which cover 70% of the earth’s surface, are critical for environmental and socio-­ economic development. They are essential to global weather systems acting as regulators and critical to mitigation and adaptation with regard to climate change. Oceans are valuable to many economic sectors, particularly to the tourism industry. They form the foundation for ocean and coastal tourism, an aspect associated with the growing blue economy phenomenon. Lately, however, oceans have been at the focal point of global discourse due to the risks—caused by land and air pollution and climate change—they pose to marine life and other ecosystem services. This chapter shows The original version of this chapter was revised. The correction to this chapter is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_14 K. Dube (*) Department of Hospitality, Tourism and PR, Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa G. Nhamo Institute of Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] K. Mearns Department of Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

how a tourism company (&Beyond) is contributing to sustainably managing oceans in response to a cluster of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), amongst them SDGs 12, 13, 14 and 17. The chapter provides a model that can be used by other tourism companies and related industries to ensure ocean sustainability in the context of climate change. It recommends that the challenges faced by oceans should be dealt with urgently—to ensure continued sustenance of ocean ecosystem services and enhance the blue economy for the benefit of the global citizenry. Keywords

Tourism · Southern Africa · SDGs · Ocean economy · Climate change · Pollution

6.1

Background and Introduction

Oceans play a critical role across the world, with multiple benefits being derived from them. Bob, Swart, Ngalawa, and Nzimande (2018) pointed out that oceans are a critical source of livelihood for many communities across the world as they provide food and enhance trade in tourism-­ related goods and services. Due to their aesthetic values, oceans also boost property values for

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properties located near or facing oceans as beach front and island properties tend to fetch higher market values. Environmentally, the biodiversity of oceans is critical for sustaining life—for both onshore and offshore communities. Bahri, Barange, and Moustahfid (2019) noted that oceans are critical climate and weather determinants, which also act as essential carbon and heat sinks, thereby reducing the rate of global warming that leads to climate change. As such, given their provision of essential ecosystem services, oceans remain critical in human civilisation and development (Barbier, 2017). Regardless of this centrality to every aspect of humanity and the biophysical environment, oceans face serious challenges that threaten their sustainability in the future. These challenges include acidification, warming due to climate change, pollution and degradation resulting from expanding coastal populations amongst other factors (Anthony, 2016; Bergmann, Tekman, & Gutow, 2017; Bruno et al., 2018). Given the centrality of oceans and the levels of threats that they are facing, oceans have received considerable attention from academics and in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment reports. A dedicated section features in the recent IPCC special report on 1.5 °C. The report highlights the state of vulnerability of oceans and calls for action to protect them from deterioration as a result of climate change and pollution (IPCC, 2014, 2018). Since oceans are critical in the mitigation and adaptation of climate change, about 70% of the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) submitted by 166 countries under the Paris Agreement mention marine issues. The oceans are also covered in the Paris Agreement’s preamble itself (Gallo, Victor, & Levin, 2017). In addition, oceans found a dedicated goal in the world’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD) concluded in 2015 (UN, 2015). Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 seeks to “conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development” and has at least 7 targets that need to be met to ensure ocean and marine resources are sustainable going forward to curtail the impact of climate change (UN, 2015: 14).

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Human activities have caused the degradation of ocean ecosystems, threatening their survival and biodiversity. The accumulation of plastics in oceans has been recognised as one of the biggest challenges to marine life (Haward, 2018; Monteiro, do Sul, & Costa, 2018). In as much as oceans are important climate regulators, the advent of global warming and climate change poses a significant threat to oceans in multiple ways. Rising sea levels, coastal erosion, dwindling marine life and coral bleaching are some of these challenges that are attributed to climate change (IPCC, 2018). Oceans, which account for about 70% of the earth’s surface, are severely threatened by human activities, and there is a need to turn the tide to ensure their sustainability (Fauville, Strang, Cannady, & Chen, 2018). Available evidence suggests that there is very little that is being done to protect and save oceans from the multiple threats they face, particularly pollution and climate change. Increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions further threaten this sensitive ecosystem. While the 2030 AfSD (UN, 2015) calls for action to deal with the impact of climate change and other environmental threats on oceans, there is very little evidence that various industry sectors are taking severe and coordinated steps to attend to these concerns. One of the industries that suffer due to the impact of climate change on oceans is the tourism industry (Haward, 2018). Oceans provide ample space for ocean and marine tourism for both the developed and developing economies. Oceans are vital for island tourism where this industry is critical to national development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). In response to the AfSD and Paris Agreement, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (WTO) declared 2017 as a year for sustainable tourism. The call for action presses industry to deal with the environmental threats facing it and further contribute to a sustainable world. Hall (2019) argued that regardless of public pressure and local demands for tourism to embrace sustainability fundamentals, evidence shows that tourism was less sustainable than ever at a global scale. The tourism industry is often accused of being fixated at profits, even at the cost of the environment.

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This chapter, coming 2 years after the year of sustainable tourism, therefore seeks to evaluate the extent to which the tourism industry in Africa has embraced this crucial call. The study aims to examine how a leading international tourism safari company is tackling sustainable development for tourism under SDG14  in the south-­ eastern part of Africa in the Indian Ocean. The research further responds to calls by Scheyvens (2018: 341), to tourism geographers to utilise the “SDGs to analyse the linkages between tourism and sustainable development in a wide range of contexts and at different scales”. This was a build-up to a call made by Bramwell, Higham, Lane, and Miller (2017), who stated that for research to have a meaningful contribution there was a need to tackle challenges that were highlighted by the SDGs and the Paris Agreement. Given the challenges faced by oceans, Scheyvens (2018) argued that it was imperative for tourism geographers to research coastal and ocean areas as tourism hubs in the context of SDG14.

6.2

Literature Review

Oceans are critical in the developmental debates of many states as they provide livelihood security through the provision of food and are important vehicles of economic development and recreational tourism. The South African government, for example, has set its eyes on fostering sustainable development through a Blue Ocean Strategy that will result in the tapping of various oceanic resources to drive the economy. Rogerson, Benkenstein, and Mwongera (2018) noted that plans were afoot to leverage tourism in South Africa and other states to deal with equity issues within the coastal and maritime tourism economy. According to Dwyer (2017), ocean and maritime tourism in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is a crucial economic sector that contributes to employment, especially for women and the marginalised, streamlines local production, contributes to sustainable economic development and is a critical driver for infrastructural development that is struggling to grow. Bob et al. (2018) pointed out that through South Africa’s blue ocean economy and Operation Phakisa, the coun-

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try stood to create millions of jobs and a multibillion rand economy. As such, it can be argued that coastal and marine tourism offers to deliver several SDGs and targets. Regardless of the promises that coastal and marine tourism offer to many island states and coastal countries such as South Africa, Mozambique, Comoro Islands, Madagascar, Mauritius and Tanzania to mention but a few, recent evidence suggests that coastal and marine tourism is under severe threat from mass tourism, environmental degradation, pollution and climate change (Gössling, Hall, & Scott, 2018). Climate change is anticipated to wreak havoc on tourism infrastructure and possibly alter destinations (Dube & Nhamo, 2018). Such disruptions will be extended to coastal tourism resources, which might alter tourism traffic to many destinations dependent on coastal tourism. It is in this light that Gössling et al. (2018) called for better political consideration to improve coastal governance. Fitchett, Grant, and Hoogendoorn (2016) observed that low-lying coastal tourism areas in South Africa were under threat from rising sea levels and coastal flooding. In addition, changes to climate patterns that may result in higher temperatures and much colder conditions will likely have a negative bearing on tourist comfort. Recent extreme droughts in Cape Town and severe flooding in Durban and parts of Mozambique as a result of tropical cyclones Idai and Kenneth have shown how vulnerable coastal tourism is to extreme weather events. There is the destruction of tourism infrastructures like airports, hotels, beach resorts and water sources. However, of particular concern has been the impact of climate change on ocean resources such as mangroves, corals and marine life, which have a bearing on marine tourism (Gössling et al., 2018). Rising sea levels and severe coastal storms are the biggest challenges caused by climate change to mangroves (Wilson, 2017; Boateng, 2018). The damages to mangroves have been reported in South Africa, and this changes the flora and fauna, architecture that usually attracts tourists (Peer et  al., 2018). Since mangroves also play a central role in filtering land pollution, their destruction further worsens the problem of ocean pollution. In cases where

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­ angroves are forced to move inland in areas that m have wetlands such as the St Lucia wetlands in South Africa, it can be expected that there will be damage to inland ecosystems as well, and this can be worsened by seawater intrusion. Plastic pollution has been cited as one of the major challenges to ocean marine life. Wilcox, Mallos, Leonard, Rodriguez, and Hardesty (2016) highlighted that plastic pollution of the ocean is a growing global problem that has serious implications for marine life and coastal areas. Plastics disturb the aesthetics, with pollutants ranging from plastic bags and plastic utensils that threaten visitation as these are unsightly. It is estimated that between 67 and 87% of the marine litter is plastic litter. An estimated 320  million tonnes of plastics litter are produced annually at the global level (Barboza et  al., 2019). Plastic pollution is blamed for negatively affecting hundreds of sea birds, including some endangered species (Cartraud, Corre, Turquet, & Tourmetz, 2019). Besides affecting bird species, marine litter (Galgani, Beiras, Galgani, Panti, & Borja, 2019) impairs recreational uses and leads to the decline of the touristic value of the ocean and coastal areas. Climate change results in coral bleaching triggered by increasing oceanic thermal anomalies in areas that are popular with tourists such as the Great Barrier Reef (Cacciapaglia & Van Woesik, 2016; Hughes et al., 2017). Such resorts are under severe threat of extinction. The prospects of the destruction and/or the disappearance of the Great Barrier Reef have triggered a rush of tourists to the region (last-chance tourism) (Piggott-McKellar & McNamara, 2017; Salvatierra & Walters, 2017)—a move that is feared to further worsen the sustainability of the destination for mass tourism. Bruno et al. (2018: 499) noted that anthropogenic GHG emissions resulted in “acute and chronic perturbations including increasing storm intensity, rising sea levels, altered upwelling regimes, ocean acidification and deoxygenation”. In order for marine life to survive such changes, it must adapt to new climatic regimes. Warming and deoxygenation of oceans have a detrimental effect on ocean fishes and other aquatic life (Pörtner, Bock, & Mark, 2017). A study by Laloë,

Cozens, Renom, Taxonera, and Hays (2017) found that increasing temperature was leading to sex imbalances in turtles with the proliferation of more females than males. However, the authors also found that incubation levels were near-lethal levels, which hampers population growth as hatching mortalities are on the increase. On the other hand, plastic pollution was found to be detrimental to marine vertebrates in that it reduces food uptake and has a negative effect on energy and growth rates (Watts et al., 2014). Such loss of biodiversity will hurt the tourism industry in several ways. The tourism industry has a greater interest in responding to SDG14, which calls for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development as a central pillar of coastal and ocean tourism. Failure to deal with SDG14 because of the threats of climate change (SDG13) and pollution (SDG12) will likely adversely affect coastal and ocean tourism going forward.

6.3

Research Design

A case study research approach is utilised to investigate how &Beyond, 1 a safari and tour operating company, is localising SDG14  in its operations. The company is one of the leading tourism brands in Southern Africa. It also has a footprint in 3 continents and 23 countries. The study area is indicated in Fig.  6.1, showing the extent of the three countries, namely, South Africa, Mozambique and Tanzania. The figure illustrates a 3000  km coastline that includes several islands (&Beyond, 2019). There are about 30  million people living along the East African coastline with this figure expected to double before the dawn of 2030, which will increase pressure on coastal resources and further worsen the impact of climate change and degradation on oceans. Most of the conservation activities take place at Mnemba Island, Vamizi Island and Benguerra Island. The ‘&’ is part of the company name and branding.

1 

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Fig. 6.1  3000  km coastline and location where &Beyond have ocean conservation projects under Oceans Without Borders (Source: Adapted from &Beyond (2019)

&Beyond’s tourism operations in this area are largely dependent on a healthy ocean ecosystem (&Beyond, 2019). A case study approach was preferred because it allows the researchers to deepen and focus on the subject of research. Case study research is a widely used and accepted research design in environment and tourism studies (Molina-Azorín & Font, 2016). The prominence and use of this research design could be attributed to the fact that studies in tourism and the environment are sensitive to changes in context and the environment in which they occur, with the generalisation of findings in such studies being rather restricted. &Beyond has a strong documenting system for all its projects as it strives to keep track of its efforts for monitoring and evaluation purposes. As such, in-depth document analysis was conducted with a scrutiny of its annual reports, project reports and website. This allowed researchers to investigate the efforts being undertaken to ensure the sustainability of ocean environments where &Beyond operates. Some of the proper-

ties, which are in the majority, are in very remote areas that are only accessible by charter flights, which makes them inaccessible to the researchers. Given this scenario, document analysis became the only viable course of action. Secondary data analysis is also an acceptable research approach in environmental and tourism studies where large volumes of data are gathered daily in the form of academic literature, remotely sensed images and statistics data, collected at various tourism establishments. Johnston (2017) advocated for the use of secondary data analysis in this research by pointing out that technological advancement has led to the compilation and archiving of vast amounts of data that is accessible and can be analysed to answer research questions in empirical studies. Furthermore, content and thematic analyses were conducted on notes made from the readings of the company’s Oceans Without Borders report of 2019, the Oceans Without Borders webpage and the company’s annual reports for 2017 and 2018. Research questions were used as guidelines for notes and the

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production of codes and themes used in the ­analysis stage, which ensured the removal of bias in the research.

6.4

Presentation of Data and Results

The study found that &Beyond is conscious of the threat that climate change and pollution pose to coastal and ocean tourism in the region in which they operate. As such, the company is making efforts to remain a responsible global citizen and fully harness sustainability principles and fundamentals embedded in the SDGs. There is an acknowledgement and consciousness by &Beyond that the warming that has been experienced recently, notably between 2014 and 2017, was detrimental to marine life as it damaged about 30% of global coral reefs (&Beyond, 2019). The company, therefore, is taking remedial actions to respond directly to the provisions of SDG14 and other requirements from SDG12 that focus on sustainable consumption and production and also SDG13 (climate action) that will result in dealing with SDG14. The AfSD recognises and identifies tourism as a vehicle to reach targets 9.8 (SDG9),

Fig. 6.2 Oceans Without Borders model. (Source: Adapted from &Beyond (2019))

12b (SDG12) and 14.7 (SDG14) (UN, 2015). Drawing insights from the popular movement, Doctors Without Borders (Fox, 1995), &Beyond embarked on a project titled “Oceans Without Borders” (OWB) to tackle the challenges faced by the Indian Ocean as a result of climate change and ocean pollution to ensure sustainable tourism going forward. The company, therefore, developed an impact model, as shown in Fig.  6.2, to respond to these challenges in line with SDG14 set targets. The OWB model involves community empowerment, which entails supporting various livelihood security and developmental projects and also protecting coral reefs and other marine species with guest experience at the centre of it all. This model can be used by other industry players to achieve sustainable ocean and marine tourism and possibly maintain tourists’ destination satisfaction. The company is engaged in several activities using this model to meet the demands made under SDG14 and the six associated SDG targets, which do not apply to the organisation due to the nature of its operations. Table 6.1 highlights the main findings of what is being done by &Beyond to ensure ocean sustainability given the dual threats posed by ocean pollution and climate change.

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Table 6.1  Localising SDG14 through the Oceans Without Borders initiative 14.1

14.2

14.3

SDG14 target By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution

By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration to achieve healthy and productive oceans Minimise and deal with the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels

14.4

By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting, and end overfishing; illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing; and destructive fishing practices, and implement science-based management plans

14.5

By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information

14.6

By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fishery subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island Developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism

14.7

Activity • Provision of marine conservation lessons to staff, fishers, schools and local communities • The establishment of wildlife clubs • Educating tourists on responsible tourism practices and making them take a pledge to cut on carbon and protect oceans • Cutting back on the use of plastics and promoting recycling wherever possible • The construction of ablution facilities at schools • Initiation of a global reach project—Filming and televising ocean conservation • Investigating and monitoring boats’ pressure on coral reefs • Creation of exclusion zones; raise the conservation status of this area, and implement other protective measures in Mnemba • Partnering with several universities and the Wildlife Conservation Society for baseline monitoring and research under care of our oceans projects to document coral reefs, fish and sea urchin abundance, for example, in Vamizi • Tagging of six grey sharks • Turtle tagging and monitoring at Mnemba and Vamizi Islands • Patrolling and engagement with CCP (community fisheries patrol) on Vamizi Island to maintain the community sanctuary area on the eastern end of the island • Engagement with the government on the elevated protection of Vamizi’s Neptune’s arm and Metundo reef systems • Help the government to raise the conservation status at the Mnemba Island that is threatened due to lack of regulation • Protection of marine keystone species such as turtles, sharks, whales and dugongs N/A • Establishment of tourism ventures on the island to foster nonconsumptive use of oceans • Various income-generating projects geared at reducing the community’s dependency on coral reefs

Compiled from &Beyond (2018, 2019)

6.5

Discussion of Findings

The results show that there is enormous potential for tourism establishments to contribute to SDG14. This way, they make use of their large resource pool and global influence to ensure the protection of marine life and oceans, which are crucial for ocean tourism. The efforts by

&Beyond are remarkable as they provide critical lessons for other industry players that are contributing to the threats faced by oceans. &Beyond provides a platform and model that can be used by other companies to respond to issues of sustainability under SDG14. The company has a well-coordinated plan to take care of and ensure the protection of reefs, marine species and the

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host community. This is a commendable landmark. In line with SDG17, which calls for a global partnership for sustainable development, &Beyond has partnered with several stakeholders including research institutions, wildlife conservation societies, local communities and government institutions in ensuring a holistic approach to achieving the goal of protection of the marine ecosystems. SDG14 target 14.4 stipulates that by 2020, amongst other things, stakeholders should implement science-based marine management plans. The achievement of this target requires directed research, which is limited in Africa, as there are large knowledge gaps. The joining of &Beyond and its partners from both the developing and developed countries will help to create knowledge and will respond to knowledge gaps that will assist in informed policy position and practice. Under this project, several universities from South Africa, Mozambique and Canada have come together to do research on SDG14 and sustainability matters. Some of the universities include the University of South Africa, the University of Johannesburg, KwaZulu-Natal University, Windsor University and Universidade Lurio. In keeping with ecotourism standard operating procedures, &Beyond provides essential lessons to staff, fishers, schools and local communities where its operations are underway. This approach is likely to yield good results as all the stakeholders have a similar understanding of what needs to be done and the benefits that can be derived from working together. Tourism stakeholders, therefore, are most likely inclined to act more responsibly. It is important to note that &Beyond is also providing ocean environmental education to remote communities. Given their geographic location and information barriers, such remote communities would not have had a chance to obtain such critical education. Embedding ocean environmental education into schools using wildlife clubs is a winning formula to increase environmental consciousness and understanding for a sustainable future. This way, the learners get the messages of sustainability and the SDGs early. The approach of using envi-

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ronmental clubs such as the safari club is hailed by Smith (2019: 52) who argued that environmental clubs assist in promoting ecocentrism amongst secondary school students, which also translates to “biospheric egalitarianism, limits to growth, wildlife preservation, anti-consumerism, environmental activism and ecological identity”. Tourists who are guests of &Beyond are provided with environmental education as a way of fostering preventative measures under SDG14 target 14.1. As tourists come from all over the world, &Beyond’s message states that surely oceans do not have borders. In addition, tourists are asked to make a pledge where they commit to reduce their carbon footprint, take steps to protect oceans and cut back on plastic pollution wherever possible, amongst other things. This is a positive approach that helps to appeal to the moral and ethical conscience of the tourists and act as a social contract, which assists in ensuring that tourists act responsibly. This approach, according to Paige (2017), helps in transforming individuals who partake in such environmental education into environmental advocates. Targeting the reduction of carbon emissions in pledges is critical as GHG is the primary driver of global warming and climate change—and the negative impacts including ocean acidification, rise in sea surface temperature and damage to mangroves have already been discussed at length (Anthony, 2016; Bahri et al., 2019; Fitchett et al., 2016). The pledge further deals with SDG 13, which calls for climate change action. To this end, &Beyond has set an ambitious target of reducing the carbon footprint for tourists from the 2015 baseline of 16 kg in 2015 to 14.7 kg per head in 2020. Both the 2017 and 2018 annual reports show that the company will meet and/or even surpass the set target. The 2018 annual report shows that most of the company’s lodges had realised a water use reduction from 500 l per head per day to 419 l per head per day (&Beyond, 2018). This is an impressive record of water efficiency by global standards. According to Li (2018), the water use per tourist stood between 1050 and 1 m 200 l per tourist per day, and very few countries had a lower tourist water use per night than the one at &Beyond. In fact, in most

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countries, the average water use is well above 800 litres per person per night. &Beyond was making efforts to reduce its carbon footprint by increasing energy efficiency and making use of solar energy to replace diesel-run generators at its camps. One of the biggest challenges to oceans that have to be tackled under target 14.1 is ocean pollution. This is in the radar of &Beyond too. The organisation took a multipronged approach to this challenge by tackling it amongst all its stakeholders. Ocean plastic, for example, is one of the biggest challenges, which cause several problems amongst marine life including stunted growth in fishes (Haward, 2018), trapping of turtles, killing of sea birds and the disruptive touristic aesthetic value of coastal areas amongst others (Kühn, Rebolledo, & Franeker, 2015; Wilson, 2017). The stance on plastic pollution covers all the inland and coastal-and-inland establishments. An approach of zero plastic bottle use at &Beyond facilities has been adopted. Figure 6.3 highlights the progress the company has made in getting rid of plastic at its establishments. The company’s fight against plastic bottles led to plastic bottles being replaced with reusable glass bottles, helping &Beyond to align its operations with the dictates of SDG 12 of ensuring sustainable consumption and production in the tourism industry. The initiative also goes a long way in

Fig. 6.3  Rollout of lodge-based water bottling plants as part of the “zero plastic” initiative. (Source: &Beyond, 2018)

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cutting down the carbon footprint for water that is used at the company’s facilities and can assist in fostering the tourists’ environmental stewardship for replication at homes and places of work after the tour. Besides plastics, there are other sources of pollution that are detrimental to ocean life and other sustainable uses of coastal areas for tourism purposes. These pollution sources include human waste. The construction of ablution facilities for schools to deal with surface pollution is a critical step in dealing with marine pollution to maintain the ocean’s ecosystem services. Moynihan, Baker, and Mmochi (2012) reported that some parts of Zanzibar had significant amounts of sewerage pollution near coastal areas and along coastal reefs, which negatively impact on the use of such waters for recreational purposes for swimming, snorkelling and other water sports. Therefore, dealing with point source pollution is crucial in sustaining ocean ecosystems and their ecosystem services. Lange (2015) reported that, in 1980, tourist arrivals in Zanzibar was a paltry 19,000 visitors. However, current estimates put the figure at more than 500,000 with the exponential growth expected going forward. With such growth in the tourism industry comes the challenge of boats and cruise ships carrying tourists. Given the vulnerability of corals to climate change, there is a need

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to conduct empirical studies on the impact of such tourist traffic on the marine environment, particularly the coral reefs, which are a huge attraction for tourists. Target 14.2 requests that, for sustainable management and protection of marine and coastal areas by 2020, such action cannot be taken without proper research. Research on the impact of boats on coastal reefs is crucial in dictating policy direction with regard to managing the impact of mass tourism on reefs and coastal areas—as evidence from other parts of the world indicates that large boat cruises are detrimental to coral reefs (van Beukering, Sarkis, van der Putten, & Papyrakis, 2015). &Beyond is also calling and advocating for the creation of exclusion zones, raising of conservation status and implementing of protective measures with regard to the areas around Mnemba, which would foster the resilience of marine protected areas. Although this is a move aimed at ensuring adherence to SDG14 target 14.2, a healthy marine ecosystem is in the best interest of the tourism industry as healthy ecosystems attract more tourists—especially at a time when most areas are degraded. Under SDG14 target 14.4, there is a clarion call for effective regulation of harvesting to end overfishing and illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. As part of its contribution to this target, &Beyond is involved in a partnership with relevant authorities to provide resources for patrolling on Vamizi Island. The patrols aim to maintain the community sanctuary area on the eastern end of the island in collaboration with the Community Fisheries Patrol. Environmental compliance and enforcement have always been one of the biggest challenges, especially in Africa. There are serious challenges that are facing ocean marine life in Southern Africa such as poaching, lack of enforcement capacity and inadequate resourcing of enforcement teams. The involvement of private players goes a long way in dealing with some of these challenges. &Beyond goes a step further in fostering income-­generating projects to fend off the community’s reliance on maritime resources, which is often a challenge. The initiative by &Beyond to protect and research keystone species is applaudable as it will ensure marine biodiversity, which is critical

in maintaining a vibrant and resilient ecosystem. This is critical as recent reports are pointing to a serious decline in and extinction of animal species. Marine life is particularly affected, as earlier studies had suggested that there are large knowledge gaps as to the impact of climate change on marine life with preliminary assessment pointing to the oceanic shift of species distribution (Hoegh-Guldberg & Bruno, 2010). The introduction of tourism ventures along coastal areas by &Beyond is a welcome development as it assists in providing much-needed investment and creates sustainable jobs and employment (SDG 8) and entrepreneurial opportunities. This gives rise to some of the marginalised communities’ participation in the mainstream economy. Given the multiplier effect created by the tourism industry, the establishment of tourism businesses provides an opportunity for locals to better value their resources as they see the value and benefits of local resources.

6.6

Conclusions

The Oceans Without Borders (OWB) initiative from &Beyond remains a flagship in the manner in which a company models how it localises the SDGs, particularly SDG14. However, what makes the OWB an interesting case study worth profiling for international reading is the way it answers the framing of the 17 indivisible SDGs. From the SDGs’ architecture, no one, no government, and no company must be left behind. &Beyond has done extremely well to take along everybody. The group of stakeholders and interested parties brought to the party through &Beyond initiatives includes the tourists, communities in remote areas, research institutions, non-governmental organisations, its workers, schools and their pupils and so forth. What is also interesting is how &Beyond weaves SDG14 with other related SDGs to deal with the ocean economy. Ocean Without Borders programme addresses other crucial matters and Sustainable Development Goals such as  climate change  action  through carbon emissions ­reductions (SDG13); creation of opportunities for sustainable jobs (SDG8); working on

6  &Beyond’s Response to the Twin Challenges of Pollution and Climate Change in the Context of SDGs

sustainable consumption and production (SDG12), particularly through the banning of plastics and reducing &Beyond’s water footprint (SDG6); and the broad partnership movement (SDG17). Through the initiatives discussed in this chapter, we remain hopeful that &Beyond is setting a model in engagement with the SDGs, especially SDG14—focusing on conserving and sustaining the use of the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. Other entities are therefore encouraged to take note and embark on similar initiatives. This case study offers important lessons on how the tourism industry which is one of the contributors to plastic pollution can take a lead in tackling the challenge of plastic pollution which have become a global crisis. The research recommends the banning of single-use plastic and the use of alternatives as a measure of reducing the compounded impact of climate change and plastic pollution on oceans to ensure the sustainability of oceans. There is also a need for research and innovation to provide a wide array of alternatives to plastic and other ocean pollutions. Increased awareness is needed to shed more light on the challenges facing our oceans including climate change so as to foster positive actions that will ensure sustainable oceans going forward, given their centrality to human and environmental sustainability. This will make our world a better place to live in.

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K. Dube et al. from stone town, Zanzibar, Tanzania. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 64(7), 1348–1355. Paige, K. (2017). Educating for sustainability: Environmental pledges as part of tertiary pedagogical practice in science teacher education. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 45(3), 285–301. Peer, N., Rajkaran, A., Miranda, N.  A., Taylor, R.  H., Newman, B., Porri, F., et al. (2018). Latitudinal gradients and poleward expansion of mangrove ecosystems in South Africa: 50 years after Macnae’s first assessment. African Journal of Marine Science, 40(2), 101–120. Piggott-McKellar, A. E., & McNamara, K. E. (2017). Last chance tourism and the great barrier reef. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(3), 397–415. Pörtner, H., Bock, C., & Mark, F. C. (2017). Oxygen- and capacity-limited thermal tolerance: Bridging ecology and physiology. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 220, 2685–2696. Rogerson, C.  M., Benkenstein, A., & Mwongera, N. (2018). Coastal tourism and economic inclusion in Indian Ocean rim association states. South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA). Retrieved May 14, 2019, from https://www.africaportal.org/publications/coastal-tourism-and-economic-inclusionindian-ocean-rim-association-states/. Salvatierra, J., & Walters, G. (2017). The impact of human-induced environmental destruction on destination image perception and travel behaviour: The case of Australia’s great barrier reef. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 23(1), 73–84. Scheyvens, R. (2018). Linking tourism to the sustainable development goals: A geographical perspective. Tourism Geographies, 20(2), 341–342. Smith, W. (2019). The role of environment clubs in promoting ecocentrism in secondary schools: Student identity and relationship to the earth. The Journal of Environmental Education, 50(1), 52–71. UN. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. United Nations. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/ transformingourworld. van Beukering, P., Sarkis, S., van der Putten, L., & Papyrakis, E. (2015). Bermuda′ s balancing act: The economic dependence of cruise and air tourism on healthy coral reefs. Ecosystem Services, 11, 76–86. Watts, A. J., Lewis, C., Goodhead, R. M., Beckett, S. J., Moger, J., Tyler, C.  R., et  al. (2014). Uptake and retention of microplastics by the shore crab Carcinus maenas. Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 8823–8830. Wilcox, C., Mallos, N. J., Leonard, G. H., Rodriguez, A., & Hardesty, B. D. (2016). Using expert elicitation to estimate the impacts of plastic pollution on marine wildlife. Marine Policy, 65, 107–114. Wilson, R. (2017). Impacts of climate change on mangrove ecosystems in the coastal and marine environments of caribbean small island developing states (SIDS). Caribbean Climate Change Report Card: Science Review, 61–82.

7

Major Global Aircraft Manufacturers and Emerging Responses to the SDGs Agenda Kaitano Dube and Godwell Nhamo

Abstract

The aviation industry remains on the global radar regarding its contribution to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that lead to global warming and ultimately climate change. With the world agreeing on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD) that embeds 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs), it is inevitable that research is being done to determine how this sector is responding to the SDGs, especially aircraft manufacturing companies. Most, if not all, of the 17 SDGs challenge the aviation industry to do something to ensure sustainable development. This chapter applies critical document analysis in tracing how aircraft manufacturers are embracing SDGs. The findings are that two companies, namely, Airbus and Boeing, have localised at least 10 of the 17 SDGs including SDGs 4, 5, 9, 12, 13 and 17. The study shows that the The original version of this chapter was revised. The correction to this chapter is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_14 K. Dube (*) Department of Hospitality, Tourism and PR, Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa G. Nhamo Institute of Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

industry can still do more to add to current success stories given their resource capacity. The work recommends a streamlining of the reporting system on SDGs to allow internal and external monitoring, reporting and verification now and for future initiatives. Keywords

Aviation · Airbus · Boeing · SDGs · Climate change · Energy

7.1

Introduction

The aviation industry is a crucial vehicle central to human civilisation, development and the globalisation agenda into the twenty-first century (González and Hosoda, 2016). It also plays a central role in global trade and tourism, with figures showing that the number of travellers who use airlines is increasing from year to year. The figure reached 4.1 billion passengers in 2017 (International Air Transport Association (IATA), 2018a) before peaking at 4.3 billion passengers being transported by 5.4 million flights in 2018 (International Airport Review, 2019). It is forecast that the number of air travellers will balloon to 8.2 billion passengers in 2037 (IATA, 2018b). Apart from the centrality of the aviation sector in the movement of people, the airline industry is central to the transportation of goods and world

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_7

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trade. Given the size of the industry, it comes with a number of environmental problems that hamper the achievement of SDGs as well as the capacity to address some of the SDGs. In 2017, airlines moved 53.9 million metric tonnes of goods, which represents about 35% of global trade value (IATA, 2018a). The airline industry is, therefore, a critical world economic role player as there are substantial financial spin-­ offs from the industry. The goods transported in 2017 equated to an annual world trade value of $15.3 billion daily and $5.6 trillion annually, and this earned the airline industry more than $50 billion (IATA, 2018a). The aviation industry recorded a profit of $38 billion in 2017 with a return on investment of 9% (The World Bank, 2019). Such an economic footprint means the sector represents a potential answer to a number of SDGs, in particular SDG 1 on poverty, SDG 8 on decent work and economic growth and also SDG 10 on reduced inequality amongst other related SDGs. The growth in demand for aviation has resulted in a high demand for more aircraft. By 2037 at least 37,400 aircraft will have to be built to cope with the growing demand (Airbus, 2018a, 2018b). This growth comes with a set of environmental challenges to which the industry has to respond to ensure that the sector acts in a responsible manner and, most importantly, addresses the challenges that are raised by Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development. This chapter shall thus investigate how aircraft manufacturing companies are responding to and embracing the SDGs to ensure a sustainable future for all. The air manufacturing industry is one of the critical role players in addressing environmental challenges such as climate change which are faced by the aviation sector. According to Daley (2009), the transport industry, including aviation, is well positioned to address sustainability matters given its technical and resource capacity. To illustrate this, two leading global aviation companies, Airbus and Boeing, will be used.

7.2

Literature Review

Whilst there is a remarkable picture of the undisputable economic contribution of the aviation industry (Daley, 2009), the industry has a poor

environmental record, which dates back to the 1960s. Environmental concerns include air pollution, noise pollution and the impact on birdlife that results in bird fatalities around airports (Köhler et al., 2014). The environmental damage has at times been associated with the fact that the industry does not pay fuel tax and relies on government subsidies (Cremonez et  al., 2015). According to Dube (2018) and Dube and Nhamo (2019), South African operated airlines were forced to retrofit their aircraft, invest in green fuels and buy newer aicraft to avoid the penalities associated with the carbon tax bill. To date, the aviation industry remains one of the biggest environmental offenders. Communities living near airports are at the receiving end of aircraft noise pollution which adversely affects their health, wellbeing and quality of life. Lawton and Fujiwara (2016) have found that exposure to aviation noise is often associated with stress, anxiety and hypertension. The aviation industry and in particular aircraft manufacturers thus face the ongoing challenge of developing better and environmentally friendly aircraft that produce less noise. Aircraft manufacturing and operations produce a host of carbon emissions and particulate matter with complex atmospheric impact. Amongst the GHGs produced are carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx or NO + NO2), sulphur oxides (SOx) and non-­ volatile black carbon (BC or soot) (UNFCC, 2015; Brasseur et  al., 2016:563). The chemical and physical interaction of these GHGs has been of growing concern, with evidence that suggests that aviation pollutants are responsible for driving climate change. In light of the Paris Agreement, the aviation industry faces huge taxes for carbon emissions. Figure 7.1 shows that there is an increasing number of countries that have adopted carbon pricing initiatives through the introduction of carbon tax laws. The introduction of carbon tax laws is set to account for a total revenue of $79.62 billion for the 11 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), representing 19.5% of global GHG emissions (World Bank, 2018). Turning back to the SDGs agenda, there has been increased pressure and focus on the role of

7  Major Global Aircraft Manufacturers and Emerging Responses to the SDGs Agenda

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Fig. 7.1  Regional, national and sub-national carbon pricing initiatives. (Source: World Bank (2018:1))

aviation in tackling climate change given its contribution to GHG emissions and the potential impact of climate change on the sector. Under scrutiny has been the role that aircraft manufacturers are playing to ensure that their products are environmentally friendly and compliant with the dictates of the 2030 AfSD (United Nations, 2015) and the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015). According to the Air Transport Action Group or ATAG (2017), the aviation industry identified at least 15 out of the 17 SDGs that apply to the sector. The only two SDGs excluded are SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions). Table  7.1 shows how aviation categorised SDGs in order of importance, relevance and priority for the sector. Several milestones have already been reached that were set by the Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) since its establishment in 1983 under the United Nations’ International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The CAEP came up with several resolutions, policies, standards and four reports on guidance on how the aviation sector could address environmental burdens. The ICAO (2016a)

identified strategic objectives that responded to 13 SDGs. The CAEP/10 meeting that took place in 2016 agreed to pursue 10 of the 13 SDGs for the aviation sector. The CAEP/10 resolutions A39-1 dealt with policies and practices related to environmental protection in general, including noise and the impact of noise on air quality and on non-­volatile particulate matter (nvPM). Under resolution A39-2 the aircraft manufacturers were expected to come up with measures to ensure that their products were climate-friendly, resulting in the reduction of GHG emissions. The last resolution on the environmental agenda was resolution A39-3 which called for the industry to adopt a global market-based measure (MBM) scheme to address the challenge of climate change (ICAO, 2016b). This placed the industry at the centre of addressing many of the SDGs. The CAEP/11 that took place in 2019 proposed several other actions for adoption during the ICAO assembly in September 2019. The actions further demand innovative and responsive aircraft products that are environmentally friendly. Several proposals were made for aircraft engine standards (Box 7.1).

K. Dube and G. Nhamo

102 Table 7.1  Aviation and the SDGs relevance to global aviation matrix SDG fully relevant to

SDG broad influence

Limited direct

The industry does not always

the aviation sector

of/relevant to the actions

involvement but can

have a direct aviation element

of the sector

provide support functions or actions

SDG5.Gender Equality

SDG 3: Good Health and

SDG1: No Poverty

SDG14: Life Below Water

SDG 2: Zero Hunger

SDG16:

Wellbeing SDG7: Affordable and

SDG4: Quality Education

Clean Energy

Peace,

Justice

and

Strong Institutions

SDG8: Decent Work and

SDG 6: Clean water and

Economic Development

sanitation

SDG9: Industry,

SDG11: Sustainable Cities

Innovation and

and Communities

SDG15: Life on Land

Infrastructure SDG10: Reduced

SDG17: Partnership for

Inequalities

Goals

SDG12: Responsible Consumption and Production

SDG13:Climate Action

Source: Adapted from ATAG (2017) critical document analysis

Box 7.1  Proposed aircraft engine standards A new stringency level that will limit emissions of non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) from aircraft engines was agreed upon. This standard is expected to drive technologies to address the non-volatile particulate matter, which in the long run will minimise potential negative environmental and health impacts. • New environmental standards for the certification of aircraft and engines for noise, local air quality (NOx, HC, CO, nvPM) and climate change (CO2). The aviation industry is the only sector with environmental mandatory certification requirements at global level for the operation of its equipment. Once applicable, all new aircraft will need to be certified to those ICAO standards before operating. • New technology goals for the sector, including improvements of aircraft noise up to 15.5 dB below Chapter 14 limits for single-aisle aircraft by 2027, NOx emission by 54% relative to the latest ICAO NOx SARPs and fuel efficiency up to 1.3% per annum, can be expected for the new aircraft entering production. Source: Uniting Aviation, 2019

7  Major Global Aircraft Manufacturers and Emerging Responses to the SDGs Agenda

There is thus pressure for aircraft manufacturers to respond to environmental issues and ensure industry sustainability.

7.3

Research Design

The research adopted a case study desktop approach with a focus on the Airbus and Boeing groups. The two aircraft manufacturers were chosen because they are the most visible market dominators. Boeing is an American aerospace company and the largest in the world, with a footprint covering more than 65 countries and customers in more than 156 countries (Boeing, 2018). It is a leading manufacturer of commercial jetliners and defence, space and security systems. The company has 11 research centres around the world with over 15,600 patents worldwide with a research and development budget of $3 billion annually (Boeing, 2019). It is also a leading innovative global giant and has been nominated as top global innovator for 6 years in a row. Airbus is a European aeronautic space and defence company that is registered in the Netherlands with trading shares in France, Spain and Germany. The company has active operations in 20 countries and has 12,000 suppliers across the world. As the second largest space company and tenth largest defence company as of 2017, it has delivered 12,000 helicopters and 10,926 aircraft (Airbus, 2019a). Its research and development is funded to the tune of €3.5 billion annually and it was named the 2016 top innovator. Airbus has 37,000 patents (Airbus, 2019b). It manufactures manned and unmanned urban vehicles,as well as hybrid and electric propulsion systems for cleaner aviation. A case study approach was used where secondary data content and thematic analysis was conducted using SDGs and the associated 169 indicators (United Nations, 2015). Environmental reports, annual reports and other materials from Airbus and Boeing websites and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Sustainability Disclosure Database were reviewed for the past 5 years (2014–2018), with a particular focus on

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reports for 2016, 2017 and 2018 since the SDGs were adopted in September 2015 globally and adopted by ICAO in 2016. An intensive analysis of the annual and environmental reports was conducted to tease out various facets to find out activities that are aligned with the 17 SGDs and their targets. The initiatives were classified into their right goal category according to the SDG template document that was developed for this purpose. Moreover, Boeing and Airbus websites were searched looking for news articles and activities that related to the 17 SDGs. The approach used is justified within the field of study (Walliman, 2017). Social work research and environmental studies make use of the large data pool that is usually available, and it is a common practice especially where obtaining primary data is beyond the researcher’s ability due to economic and at times geographical constraints (Vartanian, 2010; Johnston, 2017). The major limitation of the adopted research methodology is that it is largely reliant on what is publicly available to the researcher who is usually unaware of any misconceptions under which the data was collected and any limitations that existed during the data collection process which may impact on the objectivity of the collected data (Johnston, 2017).

7.4

Presentation of Data and Findings

Tables 7.2 and 7.3 highlight some of the successes that have been achieved in addressing SDGs by Boeing and Airbus over the period under study. The study reveals that Boeing has made some significant progress in their quest to ensure sustainability within their operations. Although the term ‘sustainable development goals’ is used only once in their reports, sustainability is mentioned several times in their reports and website. One would assume that SDGs are embraced through ICAO but the company is yet to identify and report them as such. To this end, the analysis of the reports was aimed at teasing out aspects

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Table 7.2  Example of projects and activities that responds to SDGs implemented by Boeing between 2016 and 2018 SDG SDG 4: Quality education

SDG 5: Gender equality

SDG 6: Clean water and sanitation

SDG 7: Affordable and clean energy

SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth SDG 9: Industry innovation and infrastructure

SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production

Project/action taken and successes • Improve early caregivers’ preparation and drive awareness of the importance of early education • $5 million investment in Newton Europe to launch Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)-focused ‘Newton Rooms’ across nine European countries in 2018 • Provide educators with the tools and leadership skills needed to inspire students to be creative, collaborate, persist and develop problem-solving skills needed to change the world • Partner with universities in providing student scholarships to more than 1200 students and conducting collaborative research • A strong diversity and inclusion policy and multi-award winner of prizes. Boeing is a member of various societies aimed at promoting women, e.g. the Society of Women Engineers (SWE), Women in Aviation (WAI), Women of Color in STEM (WOC) and Boeing Women in Leadership • In 2018, Boeing and The Boeing Charitable Trust partnered with more than 140 STEM organisations and contributed over $19 million towards community initiatives that helped inspire an estimated 630,000 young women in STEM • Boeing contributed $36 million that helped inspire young women in STEM • In the last 7 years, Boeing invested about 140 million towards community initiatives that have had a positive impact on nearly 5 million young women and girls around the world • 95 million litres of water were saved at Huntington Beach, California, campus by irrigating with repurposed treated water • Sediment and shoreline cleanup and restoration along the Lower Duwamish Waterway at former Plant 2 site near Seattle • Reverse osmosis is used to recycle about 49 million litres of water • Elk shares the terrain with wind turbines at the Wild Horse Wind and Solar Facility in Washington State. The Puget Sound Energy facility generates electricity that helps power Boeing’s 737 factories in Renton, Washington • Two Boeing sites use 100% renewable electricity: Renton, Washington, home of the 737, and Boeing South Carolina use 16,000 solar panels on the roof of its final assembly building • Support the production of sustainable aviation fuels for aviation and ground transport with projects in six continents to integrate biofuels at airports, e.g. the Solaris Project in South Africa and desert biofuel project • Provide decent employment to 140,000 employees in the USA and 65 different countries across the world • Collaboration for the ecoDemonstrator 757 testing of several advanced technologies and improvements in blended wing body and structures. In 2015, the ecoDemonstrator programme tested more than 15 technologies on a 757 in collaboration with NASA and TUI Group. In 2016, Boeing and Embraer collaborated to test ecoDemonstrator technologies using an Embraer E170 aeroplane flying the tests in Brazil. In 2018, Boeing and FedEx worked together in testing more than 30 technologies aboard a FedEx-owned 777 freighter • Partner with research institutions, customers, nonprofits and government to develop new technology that ensures environmental development across the world (SGD 9.5) • Research collaboration into permeable pavement, a porous paving material that enables the natural filtering of stormwater (SDG 9.5) • Enhanced recycling, including composting, is introduced at major US sites; over 78% of Boeing’s solid waste is diverted from landfills • More than 50 Boeing sites globally are certified to the high standards of the ISO 14001 environmental management system • In 2016, Boeing and its suppliers saved an estimated $23 million by collecting and sending 15 million pounds of titanium scrap to mills to be melted and recycled into usable forms such as ingot, plate and sheet • Use of smart buildings to ensure resource efficiency. Boeing Sheffield is on target to achieve an ‘excellent’ BREEAM rating – the highest degree of building sustainability; the same concept of smart building is being applied to construct the new hangar at Gatwick Airport in London and the new facility at RAF Lossiemouth in Scotland (continued)

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Table 7.2 (continued) SDG SDG 13: Climate action

SDG 15: Life on land

SDG 17: Partnership for the goals

Project/action taken and successes • 30,000 employees (20% of the workforce) save money cutting emissions by choosing alternative commuting methods • The 2018 ecoDemonstrator aeroplane, a 777 freighter, was the first 100% biofuel-powered flight on a commercial jet • Boeing’s fuel dashboard improves the operational efficiency of the in-service fleet • New aircraft will be 15–20% more fuel efficient, e.g. a cleaner, quieter 737 MAX entered service in 2017 using 20% less fuel compared with the original Next-Generation 737 and is as efficient as a hybrid electric car • In 2019, an Etihad Airways 787 flew the world’s first passenger flight powered partly with biofuel made from desert plants irrigated with seawater • Boeing’s Santa Susana Field Laboratory site in Simi Valley, California, is secured as a permanent open space habitat safe for visitors, wildlife and neighbouring community right next door to Los Angeles. Santa Susana is an important animal migration corridor and an important archaeological site for Native Americans • The Wildlife Habitat Council has certified Boeing’s efforts to support sustainable ecosystems at five sites • Conduct research to help small-scale biofuel feedstock producers in sub-Saharan Africa and other parts of the world to meet economic and other standards in order to bring their crops to the biofuel market • Boeing supports environmental and other causes with $76 million in charitable donations

Source: Boeing (2017), Boeing (2018), Boeing (2019a, 2019b, 2019c), WWF (2019) Table 7.3  Example of projects and activities that respond to SDGs implemented by Airbus between 2016 and 2018 SDG and target SDG 4: Quality education

SDG 5: Gender equality

SDG 7: Affordable and clean energy

SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth SDG 9: Industry innovation and infrastructure

Project/action taken and successes • Airbus established the Leadership University, which has six campuses in various countries to accelerate the development of current and future leaders in order to better meet business targets • The Airbus Flying Challenge (AFC) and the Airbus Little Engineer (ALE) and the STEM outreach education programmes to indigenous minorities and young people in rural areas assist in meeting SDG target 4.4 for more than 9,410 young people from 5 countries • Established the research and innovation partnership through the Airbus Global University Partner Programme • Supports UN Women’s Empowerment Principles within its business unit and operations • 23% of female employees promoted to senior management positions between 2016 and 2017 • Promotion of manufacturing functions through its PROW (Production Opportunities for Women) initiative to close the gender gap • Gender balance through equal employment opportunities • Support research and partner with airlines to utilise alternative energy in aviation • Participating in sustainability pilot phases and analysis (involvement in the Roundtable Sustainability on Bio-fuels) • Migration to solar energy on its buildings to reduce reliance on conventional electricity • Provides decent work and equal pay to about 133,671 of its employees • Airbus BizLab teams’ smart farming in Africa using drone technology resulting in 7% yield increase • Signatory to Modern Slavery Statement • Sustained investment in infrastructure and innovation as crucial drivers of economic growth and development; examples include the Clean Sky Project • Skywise Technology to improve aircraft efficiency and performance • Affordable internet access to everyone through OneWeb satellites • Airbus and Rolls-Royce UltraFan engine integration collaboration agreement under Clean Sky 2 Programme to reduce carbon emissions • Racer (Rapid and Cost-Effective Rotorcraft) demonstrator project • Kenyan start-up Illuminum Greenhouses aimed at revolutionising agriculture combining solar power, remote control by mobile phone and improved operations via satellite data (continued)

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106 Table 7.3 (continued) SDG and target SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production

SDG 13: Climate action

SDG 15: Life on land

SDG 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions SDG 17: Partnership for the goals

Project/action taken and successes • Responsible management of aircraft and engines after their end of service as a member of the Aircraft Fleet Recycling Association (AFRA) • Green building development at its factories ‘Wings Campus’ headquarters in Toulouse, which meets one of the most modern environmental standards set by the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM – ‘very good’ rating certification) • Carbon dioxide emissions certification standard was established to encourage the integration of fuel-efficient technologies into aircraft design and development in line with CORSIA 2016 Agreement • They are reducing the carbon intensity of its operations through working in partnership with suppliers, industry and government stakeholders to achieve sectoral emissions reduction goals • Production of A320 that can be powered by sustainable aviation fuels in 2018 • Development of the BLADE (Breakthrough Laminar Aircraft Demonstrator in Europe) which reduces wing drag by 50% hence reducing fuel (CO2) by up to about 5% through the laminar flow on its A340 • UltraFan is a scalable jet engine design suitable for wide-body or single-aisle aircraft and offers a 25% fuel efficiency improvement over the first generation of Rolls-Royce Trent engine • Racer (Rapid and Cost-Effective Rotorcraft) demonstrator. The racer features an innovative ‘box-wing’ design, optimised for aerodynamic efficiency, and an ‘eco mode’ will be tested to demonstrate an electrically powered ‘start and stop’ of one engine in flight, generating fuel savings and increasing range • Use of solar energy to reduce GHG emissions, e.g. the helicopter facility in Marignane, which produced 2.95 gigawatt-hours per year (which is equivalent to a drop of 360 tonnes of CO2) • Monitoring deforestation through satellites in conjunction with The Forest Trust, and Netherlands-based SarVision developed Starling, which deploys satellite data and radar images • Sentinel-5 Precursor satellite built by Airbus gives the European Space Agency more data to improve understanding of atmospheric pollution. The satellite will measure atmospheric pollutants more accurately than ever before. These include ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and methane allowing for pollutant modelling and prediction • Responsibility and Sustainability (R&S) Charter Goal Number 2 is aimed at fighting corruption and bribery in line with SDG target 16.5 • Provision of emergency and food, water, sanitation and medicine to disaster-affected areas in partnership with relief organisations such as the World Health food programme • Engagement within the International Aerospace Environmental Group (IAEG) as a founding member to address various SDGs • Airbus is an active board member of the Air Transport Action Group (ATAG) which sets goals and mobilises action on strategic aviation issues such as climate change through involvement throughout the industry and its stakeholders • Commitment within ICAO to tackle with other industry stakeholders environmental problems that are born out of aviation industry activities

Source: Secondary Data Analysis Airbus (2018b); Airbus (2019a, 2019b, 2019c)

that related to the SDGs. In the analysis of financial reports from 2015 to 2018, it was found that Boeing has made progress in addressing at least 10 out of the 17 SDGs, which is 5 goals short of the 15 targeted goals set by ATAG in 2017. A strong focus was on SDG 13 regarding climate action coupled with SDG 7 on affordable and

clean energy and SDG 9 regarding industry innovation and infrastructure. Boeing managed to build aircraft that are 70% more fuel efficient and 90% quieter than the first manufactured jet. Over the past 10 years between 2007 and 2017, the company managed to reduce its carbon footprint by 29% whilst growing its

7  Major Global Aircraft Manufacturers and Emerging Responses to the SDGs Agenda

business and aircraft deliveries by 70%. This is a remarkable achievement by the company as most companies are failing to increase business and reduce their carbon footprint. The company is therefore making efforts to reduce the environmental impact of aviation on both the natural environment and communities living near airports in line with ICAO requirements. According to Peters et  al. (2018), aviation noise causes sleep disturbances and cardiovascular disturbances to populations residing near airports across the world. Such noise reduction thus benefits communities staying around airports across the world and reduces health risks associated with aviation noise thereby addressing industry concerns under SDG 3 (good health and wellbeing). Airbus has made tremendous progress in addressing the SDGs with its commitment in 2016 to address at least 8 SDGs out of the 17. Although the company claims that it is committed to eight SDGs, our analysis has found that the company is actually committed to more than ten SDGs. The SDGs which the company claims to have adopted include SDGs 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, 16 and 17. In addition to these, the study found that the initiatives also touched SDGs 7, 12 and 15. Sound environmental and sustainability practice resulted in Airbus reporting an energy reduction for stationary sources of 38%; a GHG emissions reduction of 40% (Scope 1 stationary sources and Scope 2 totals), with water being reduced by 42%; and waste reduction of 42% in 2018 (Airbus, 2018a, 2018b).

7.5

Discussion of Findings

The study shows that the aircraft manufacturing industry has made significant inroads in the past 3  years or so in responding to the SDGs. It appears much effort has been channelled towards addressing SDG 9 and SDG 13 and other related SDGs. This could be attributed to several factors which we shall examine as we discuss the most significant efforts from selected SDGs. Much work has been done to address climate change within the aviation industry by aircraft manufacturers. This could be attributed to several

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factors, which include the industry’s interest to maximise profits, global pressure from stakeholders and the issue of a carbon tax associated with GHG emissions. Climate change ceases to be just a moral obligation, but a business imperative that can affect profitability. The aviation sector contributes about 3% of global GHG emissions with the figure set to double by 2025 (Unger, 2011). Faced with that reality and the fact that several aviation companies are now seeking much cleaner aircraft as governments across the world move swiftly to introduce a carbon tax, aircraft manufacturers must innovate to address their Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions. The following measures seem to be most popular in addressing GHG emissions: 1. Production of new generations of aircraft that are efficient and cleaner and which are between 15 and 25% more fuel efficient 2. Research, innovation and use of alternative fuels 3. Development of retrofits for the older generation of aircraft to reduce their carbon footprint In order to reduce their carbon footprint, Airbus and Boeing have developed new-generation aircraft that are cleaner. This will go a long way in reducing the carbon emissions of the ever-­ growing aviation industry. Table  7.4 indicates some of the new generation aircraft and their fuel efficiency, which have either come into service and/ or are in the production pipeline. Industry innovation (SDG 9) is at the core of improvements in aircraft energy efficiency and can significantly lead to carbon emission reduction in the aviation industry (Dube and Nhamo, 2019). Lee et  al. (2018) and Dube (2018) have found that retrofits are the only viable option that can reduce carbon emissions from the old-generation aircraft that remain in service in the next two to three decades. Fleet renewal to a newer, cleaner generation of aircraft makes economic sense and cents. The aircraft manufacturers have thus far done a commendable job to assist the industry in going green, surpassing regulatory requirements set by ICAO under CAEP.

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Table 7.4  Selected aircraft and their environmental performance that came into use post SDG adoption in 2015 Aircraft type Airbus A220 (2016) A320neo (2016) A330neo (2017) Boeing 737 Max (2018)

777X (2020)

Fuel burn improvement per seat Other emissions and environmental issues

Number of orders as of 04/2019

20%

50% reduction in noise footprint and NOx emissions 50% below CAEP/6 standards Half the noise & NOx Large wingtip devices (Sharklets) Quieter cabin than competitors Advances in engine and wing design further enhance the A330’s performance

90

• 737 MAX AT winglet is the most efficient ever designed for a production aeroplane, because of the combination of advanced design and manufacturing techniques that allow for natural laminar flow • 737 MAX 8 reduces fuel use and CO2 emissions by 14% over the newest Next-Generation 737 and 20% better than the first next-generation 737s. Moreover, the 737 MAX 8 uses 8% less fuel per seat than the A320neo • 50% below CAEP/6 limits for NOx • 40% smaller community noise footprint 85-dBA take-off noise contours • 10% lower operating costs than the A350-1000 • Proven composite wing enables long span and efficient airflow • Longer wingspan results in lower fuel use • Folding wingtip for airport compatibility • Wingspan optimised for efficiency • 10% lower fuel costs vs. the -300ER • 15db noise levels within stage 4 margin • 29% emissions within CAEP/8 margin

4700

20% 25%

20–25 % is as efficient as a hybrid electric car (in terms of equivalent litres of fuel used per 100 passenger kilometres).

12% more fuel efficient than the A350-1000

14 000 1 700

Source: Airbus (2018a, 2018b); Airbus (2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2019d); Boeing (2017–2018); Boeing (2019a, 2019b, 2019c)

A reduction in carbon emissions is critical as the world is racing to avoid surpassing the tipping point of the 1.5°C threshold (IPCC, 2018). This is the point at which the world will be faced with dangerous extreme weather patterns. An increase in global GHG emissions that drives global warming and climate change has been blamed for an increase in sea surface temperatures and a slew of extreme weather events that have affected the world recently. A rise in sea surface temperatures has been blamed for increased storm activities such as Cyclone Idai and Kenneth that are estimated to have cost between $1 and $2 billion (Nhamire, 2019). As much as the efforts by the aviation industry are commendable, there is nevertheless the fear that the growth in aviation will see the industry failing to meet its target of

carbon-­neutral growth set for 2020 as there is a mismatch between reduction rates and passenger growth rates. By addressing SDG 9, Boeing and Airbus have made inroads in the use of sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) thereby addressing SDG 7 which covers affordable and clean energy. Much progress has been made particularly by Boeing in ­supporting the production of SAF in various parts of the world for aircraft and ground vehicles. This has an important impact on reducing the aviation’s carbon footprint. However, one of the biggest challenges with regard to the acceptance of sustainable aviation fuels is the lack of infrastructural capacity at airports across the world (Bardell and Ashton, 2018). It is interesting to note that Boeing, through its initiatives, has proj-

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109

Fig. 7.2  Sustainable aviation fuel activities as of April 2019. (Source: Adapted from ICAO (2019))

ects in six continents which are all aimed at addressing this challenge by partnering with airports (SDG 17) to put in place infrastructure to ensure the distribution and supply of SAF. Boeing and Airbus are both contributing towards making SAF a reality in the industry as both are contributing towards research and initiatives resulting in the design and manufacturing of engines that can run on SAF with some aircraft already being run on 100% SAF. The partnership between Boeing and Embraer (the Brazilian aircraft manufacturer), FedEx under the ecoDemonstrator Programme and the South African Airways sister company Mango on the Solaris Project in South Africa is one of the global flagship projects to ensure sustainable aviation. Airbus has also contributed significantly to the 170,000 SAF commercial flights that took place between 2011 when first SAF were certified for use and April 2019 (IATA, 2019; Airbus, 2019). The development of sustainable aviation fuels remains the most promising achievement that can result in an 80% reduction of carbon emissions from the aircraft during their life cycle (Airbus, 2019). Apart from carbon reduction, SAF also offers the opportunity for economic diversification and employment opportunities for some of the previously disadvantaged communities. Such employment opportunities can result in poverty reduction

by offering people green jobs and thereby address both SDGs 1 and 8. Additionally, SAF assists in solving other environmental challenges associated with aviation thereby addressing other SDGs by default. Inadvertently SAF may assist in boosting climate change resilience in marginalised communities and is thus a strong climate change mitigation strategy. To this end, SAF requires the support of governments, researchers and aviation stakeholders in order to be able to deliver upon the promises that SAF offers. There is evidence that there will be a greater uptake and demand for SAF-compliant aircraft as airlines are seeking to evade the cost of carbon emissions from aviation emissions (Figs. 7.1 and 7.2). Apart from making aircrafts cleaner, manufacturing companies have also been involved in reducing their Scope 1 and 2 emissions through adopting the green building concept at their offices. This has led to manufacturing facilities using solar energy and wind energy as well as constructing resource-efficient buildings. Some buildings operated by aircraft manufacturers are now operating completely off the grid. In addition, Boeing has several of its new buildings accredited as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Silver under the US Green Building Council. At least 50 buildings

K. Dube and G. Nhamo

110 Table 7.5  Some of the SDGs addressed through the adoption of BREEAM and LEED initiatives Aspects addressed by BREEAM and LEED initiatives Energy efficiency Health and wellbeing of employees and users Water efficiency Waste management Resource efficiency Land use ecology

SDG goal that addresses the initiative SDG 7 Affordable and clean energy SDG 3 Good health and wellbeing SDG 6 Clean water and sanitation SDG 12 Responsible consumption and production SDG 12 Responsible consumption and production SDG 15 Life on land

for Boeing are certified to high standards under the ISO 14001 globally. Airbus’ Wings Campus headquarters in Toulouse has a ‘very good’ rating certification under the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) (Airbus, 2018a, 2018b). Such initiatives are overarching and address several SDGs including SDGs 7, 9, 12 and 13. Table 7.5 highlights some of the aspects that are dealt with by BREEAM and LEED adopted by Airbus and Boeing, respectively. The adoption of such standards into office and factory designs is a significant step in ensuring sustainability as buildings have often been blamed for being resource-intensive establishments consuming nearly 40, 25 and 40% of the energy, water and resources, respectively (Nag, 2019). In addition, Boeing and Airbus, in compliance with SDG 12, are making aircrafts that are easy to recycle with an objective of reaching between 90 and 95% recycling under Aircraft Fleet Recycling Association (AFRA). They also reuse some spare parts from the aircraft at the end of its flight under strict regulations. They also return some of the material that is supposed to be discarded as waste to the supplier which assists in reducing the amount of materials consumed by the aviation industry. The practice under AFRA is an important example for other industries to ­follow in order to reduce global consumption levels.

The aircraft manufacturing companies are also playing an important role in advancing and promoting quality education (SDG 4) across the world through partnering with education institutions to promote early childhood development and partnering with universities. These initiatives aim at promoting innovative research and work-­ integrated learning to ensure that students are equipped with the right skills in order for them to be able to address global challenges. The funding for the STEM programme by both Airbus and Boeing supports a worthy initiative as the programme includes people from previously disadvantaged communities including youth and women and thereby assists in furthering gender equality (SDG 5). According to Halleran (2019), there is a lack of women in STEM-related industries, particularly in the aviation sector where women are underrepresented. The STEM initiative that advances women in aviation is, therefore, a welcome development. Evidence shows that the partnership is proving to be crucial in preparing the youth for the fourth industrial revolution (Airbus, 2019a). The two companies have provided a platform for early career entrance and apprenticeship positions that allows early career graduates to enter the world of work. To this end, scholars have platforms to showcase their innovative ideas, allowing them to shape science and engineering. The two companies have benefitted immensely from these innovative ideas as they hold hundreds of thousands of combined patents that add value and benefit society at large. The unique partnership with universities furthermore advances the ideals that are envisaged under SDG 17. The partnership with higher education in p­ articular is leading to the development of a responsive curriculum and addresses the challenges that are synonymous with some course offerings that currently do not meet the industry needs. Turning to SDG 5, there is a general understanding that women are grossly underrepresented in the aviation industry owing to several factors. It has been found that this is much more prevalent in aircraft engineering but extends to other sub-sectors of aviation (Newcomer et  al., 2018). There is a lack of social acceptance of

7  Major Global Aircraft Manufacturers and Emerging Responses to the SDGs Agenda

women in aircraft engineering which has promoted vast inequalities within the sector (Leonard, 2019). As a result, Boeing and Airbus have several initiatives that are aimed at addressing gender imbalances, including the ratifications of conventions and protocols aimed at addressing gender and other historical disparities in the sector. Millions of women (inside and outside Boeing and Airbus) have been beneficiaries of initiatives aimed at promoting women participation within the aviation sector and other sectors of the economy as a result of the companies investing financial resources worth hundreds of millions of dollars. Furthermore, progressive efforts are being made to promote women within the rank and file of both companies to eliminate salary disparities within the companies and conducting external work that encourages women education and mainstream economic participation. The promotion of women within the aviation sector is a catalyst for productivity and innovation and sets an example for other sectors of industry and society at large.

7.6

Conclusions and Recommendations

This study shows that the aircraft manufacturing industry is addressing the SDGS, with at least the big companies having addressed 10 SDGs with a potential ripple effect on all 17 goals. The manufacturing companies, given their sheer global size and footprint, are critical partners in driving SDGs, and other players need to follow the examples set by Boeing and Airbus in order to ensure sustainability in the sector and beyond. The efforts in driving innovation and creating a cleaner industry through tackling pollution and climate change are exemplary for other sectors. Given the industry’s carbon footprint and the role it plays in modern society, it is important to keep up the momentum with regard to carbon reduction and ensure a more resource and fuel economic industry for the benefit of a global citizen. Innovations have led to quieter aircraft and less pollution from aircraft, thereby impacting positively on communities residing near airports who

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used to suffer in the past from health problems associated with aircraft noise and particulate matter resulting from aviation activities. The latest aircraft show that ICAO standards may not be as high as they could to be in order to drive a sustainable industry and there are calls to revise the standards upwards to further reduce the environmental impact resulting from the aviation sector. Other role players need to come onboard to ensure that the momentum gained through the two aviation manufacturing companies and their sister companies is maintained. The study further shows the importance of lateral industry partnerships in achieving the set environmental standards. The collaboration between industry players and external partners sets a good example for how entities can cooperate to meet the SDGs. The study recommends that aircraft manufacturing companies extend efforts in enhancing north-south cooperation to ensure that the current global disparities are reduced or eliminated altogether. Companies may need to incorporate a dedicated section within their annual reports where they report comprehensively on their efforts in  localising the SDGs for the benefit of  both internal and external stakeholders. Reporting on this is still ad hoc, which makes it difficult to monitor the progress being made by the sector. The efforts that are being made with regard to Earth observation satellites are commendable in addressing global challenges and collecting data, but there is a need to make the data more accessible, especially to the Global South where it can be used to address some of the SDG challenges. The inroads made with regard to military helicopter aviation are also important and need to be extended to other military jet aircraft in order to cut back on military carbon emissions. This particular sector is one which is currently still unchecked due to the way the sector operates.

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7  Major Global Aircraft Manufacturers and Emerging Responses to the SDGs Agenda Köhler, J., Walz, R., Marscheder-Weidemann, F., & Thedieck, B. (2014). Lead markets in 2nd generation biofuels for aviation: A comparison of Germany, Brazil and the USA. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 10, 59–76. Lawton, R. N., & Fujiwara, D. (2016). Living with aircraft noise: Airport proximity, aviation noise and subjective wellbeing in England. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 42, 104–118. Lee, K. C., Tsai, W. H., Yang, C. H., & Lin, Y. Z. (2018). An MCDM approach for selecting green aviation fleet program management strategies under multi-resource limitations. Journal of Air Transport Management, 68, 76–85. Leonard, J.  (2019). Culturally specific pedagogy in the mathematics classroom strategies for teachers and students. In J. Leonard (Ed.), Women in aviation and space the importance of gender role models (p.  32). New York: Routledge. Nag, P. (2019). Green building and assessment systems. In P. Nag (Ed.), Office buildings. Design science and innovation. Springer: Singapore. Newcomer, J. M., Clark, P. J., Button, D. K., & Weiland, L. V. (2018). Gender diversity in aircraft maintenance: a cross-sectional triangulation of male perspectives. Journal of Gender Studies, 27(5), 509–521. Nhamire, B. (2019). Buisness Southern Africa cyclone damage cost $2 billion to repair the damage. Retrieved April 26, 2019, from https://www.bloomberg.com/ news/articles/2019-04-12/cyclone-damage-costsouthern-africa-2-billion-world-bank-says. Peters, J.  L., Zevitas, C.  D., Redline, S., Hastings, A., Sizov, N., Hart, J. E., et al. (2018). Aviation noise and cardiovascular health in the United States: a review of the evidence and recommendations for research direction. Current epidemiology reports, 5, 140–152. The World Bank. (2019). GDP growth (annual %) World Bank national accounts data, and OECD National

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accounts data files. Retrieved March 2, 2019, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP. KD.ZG. UN. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. United Nations. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/ transformingourworld. UNFCC. (2015). Paris Agreement. Paris: UNFCC. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/ cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf. Unger, N. (2011). Global climate impact of civil aviation for standard and desulfurized jet fuel. Geophysical Research Letters, 38(20). Uniting Aviation . (2019). Sustainable aviation takes significant step forward at ICAO. Retrieved March 5, 2019, from https://www.unitingaviation.com/strategic-objective/environment/sustainable-aviation-takessignificant-step-forward-at-icao/. Vartanian, T.  P. (2010). Secondary data analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. Walliman, N. (2017). Research methods: The basics. London: Routledge. World Bank . (2018). Carbon pricing dashboard. Retrieved March 2, 2019, from https://carbonpricingdashboard.worldbank.org/map_data. WWF. (2019). Taking Off: Understanding the sustainable aviation bio-fuel potential in sub-Saharan Africa. A system analysis investigation into the current and future potential for sustainable biofuel feedstock production in sub-Saharan region. Cape Town, South Africa: World Wide Fund for Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund). Retrieved June 12, 2019, from https://dtnac4dfluyw8.cloudfront.net/ downloads/sustainable_biofuel_potential_ssaf_ summaryreport_finalized_v7_2_digital_pages. pdf?26941/taking-off-understanding-the-sustainable-aviation-biofuel-potential-in-sub-saharanafrica.

8

Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe Marjorie Chaniwa, Collen Nyawenze, Ronald Mandumbu, Godfrey Mutsiveri, Christopher T. Gadzirayi, Vincent T. Munyati, and Joyful Tatenda Rugare Abstract

The private sector plays an important role in financing agricultural investments and information dissemination. In Zimbabwe, cotton is one of the major crops grown for commercial purposes by smallholder farmers. The crop is important for rural social and economic livelihoods, generating income. This resonates with sustainable development goal (SDG) number

M. Chaniwa · C. Nyawenze Cotton Company of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. Mandumbu (*) Department of Crop Science, Bindura University of Science Education, Bindura, Zimbabwe G. Mutsiveri Faculty of Commerce, Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University, Bindura, Zimbabwe C. T. Gadzirayi · V. T. Munyati Department of Agricultural Economics, Education and Extension, Bindura University of Science Education, Bindura, Zimbabwe J. T. Rugare Department of Crop Science, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe

9 target 3, which seeks to improve access of smallholder farmers to affordable credit and markets. Such is the case of the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe (Cottco). This study examined the trends in cotton production, yields and Cottco’s market share for three seasons which are 2015/2016, 2016/2017 and 2017/2018. Cottco has improved cotton production from 100,000 contracted farmers who produced 10.8 thousand tonnes in 2015/2016 to 385,000 contracted farmers who produced 127 thousand tonnes in 2017/2018. Cottco has increased its market share from 37.9% in 2015/2016 season to 74.5% in 2016/2017 season and 89.3% in 2017/2018 season. The increase has been attributed to increased investment through input credit scheme to smallholder farmers who cannot finance the crop and agronomic support to ensure production. The company invested US$26 million in  2015/2016 season, US$42 million in 2016/2017 season and US$60 million in 2017/2018 season. Keywords

Poverty · Credit scheme · Small-scale farmers · Livelihoods · Market share

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_8

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8.1

Introduction and Background

ing agricultural growth in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa including Zimbabwe. In many cotton-producing countries in the Cotton is predominantly a smallholder crop with world, the United States of America and China more than two million rural households in sub-­ included, governments play a key role in financSaharan Africa depending on it as their main ing seed cotton production through the provision source of cash income. Amongst export crops of subsidies (International Trade Centre, 2013). with substantial smallholder farmer involvement In Zimbabwe and other developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, cotton ranks second in such as Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique, seed value only after cocoa and cotton has spread cotton production is financed by private more widely across the continent (Tschirley, ­companies that have cotton ginning and cotton 2009). Sustainable development for Zimbabwe trading business interests. Smallholder seed cothinges on a robust agricultural sector. Cotton is ton farmers therefore cultivate the crop under an primarily a fibre crop but after the lint, the long input credit scheme financed by private sector twisted unicellular hairs, has been removed by companies since banks are not willing to lend to ginning, the seed can be crushed to provide veg- smallholders who do not have collateral. In the etable oil and a protein-rich animal food input credit scheme, a private company (contrac(Matthews, 1989). tor) enters into seasonal contracts with several In many countries cotton is a major cash crop farmers who are provided with funding for seed and is the basis for a national textile industry and cotton production and also guarantees a market a source of foreign currency. Zimbabwe is a for the farmers. A contractor recovers funds major cotton producer in Africa south of the invested in the production of the crop at the point Sahara (Tibugari, Mandumbu, Jowah, & of sale when the contracted farmer sells the harKaravina, 2012) and it ranks third in Africa in vested crop. terms of lint production and exports (International Contract farming is a pre-production agreed Trade Centre, 2013). About 80% of Africa’s poor supply arrangement between farmers and conpeople live in rural areas. A rural area is defined tractors. According to Clapp (1998), contractors as an area in which primary economic activities are cotton merchants who provide key inputs and are small-scale agriculture and livestock rearing, technical support to the farmer such as advance although it includes small-scale trade, service loans, seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and technical and manufacturing activities (UNESCO, 2007). advice, all of which will be charged against the It is also characterised by geographic isolation, final purchase of the supplied cotton. Mukutumira low population densities, poorly developed infra- (2014) argued that the arrangement has often led structure and under-developed markets for goods to disputes with farmers demanding a fair price and services. In 2012, Zimbabwe’s rural popula- for their produce whilst contractors challenge tion was estimated to be 8.3 million people out of farmers for their failure to maximise production 11.3 million people and they depend on from supplied inputs for better production maragriculture. gins. Clapp (1998) further outlined that the conOwing to the large size of Africa’s poor popu- tract farming arrangement is an unequal power lation living in rural areas and their dependence relationship that leads to exploitation, disguised on agriculture for food and income, enhancing proletarianisation, loss of autonomy and subordiagricultural performance and rural development nation of farmers. Stephens and Jabara (1988) are critical components of Africa’s development further confirm that there are situations where and attainment of the sustainable development negative marginal returns occur and hence goals. Gordon and Goodland (2000) noted the decreasing average product of labour exists in difficulty that rural poor farmers experience in peasant agriculture. financing seasonal input purchases for both cereGiven that cotton requires huge financial injecals and cash crops as a major problem constrain- tions, most smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe are

8  Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton…

not able to finance production of the crop on their own, hence the need for the private sector to partner with the small-scale farmers for increased production. The partnership arrangement between small-scale farmers and private sector companies is pacified by a contract farming model (Blackmore et  al., 2018) where the company specifies the type and value of s­ upport advanced to smallholder farmers. Intensification of the crop depends to a large extent on the support from both the government and the private sector. Under the contractual model Cottco pre-finances planting seed and other inputs for production such as fertilisers, pesticides, labour and sprayers. Contract farming companies like Cottco are therefore a significant source of funding for the small-scale farming sector and have a knock-on effect on rural economies. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to take stock of the history of Cottco, its contribution to access to finance by small-scale farmers in remote areas and other community social responsibilities. Secondly, the paper seeks to make an in-depth analysis of Cottco’s input credit scheme and how the scheme has impacted on Cottco’s growth and market share.

8.2

Methodology

The study is part of a larger, ongoing effort to understand the role of the private sector in cotton farming. The study used secondary data and primary data on determining the history of Cottco, input credit scheme, market share and cotton prices and finding relationships of how these have helped Cottco to be the biggest cotton company in Zimbabwe using data for the last three seasons. Key informant interviews were also done with the key personnel from Cottco and farmer representative groups on how the credit scheme has improved access to finance for cotton production in rural areas. These were done in  Mount Darwin Muzarabani districts in Mashonaland Central Province areas and the Gokwe districts in Midlands province of Zimbabwe which are the major cotton-producing regions for Zimbabwe.

8.3

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Results and Discussion

8.3.1 History of the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe In 1936, the Cotton Research and Industry Board was established with the responsibility for both cotton research and marketing (Blackie, 1983). The board operated ginneries in Bindura, Chinhoyi and Kadoma. The Cotton Marketing Board (CMB) was established in 1960. When the CMB was established, it was a non-profit retaining parastatal responsible for the delivery of production inputs to farmers, buying seed cotton and trading in lint and ginned seed. The CMB’s functions were: • The purchase and storage of all cotton seed grown in Zimbabwe. • Processing of cotton and marketing of the resultant products of lint and cotton seed. • Ensure the adequate supply of certified planting seed for all the growers in Zimbabwe. The CMB extension officers provided training, advisory and other pertinent services to meet the requirements of cotton producers on their endeavour to improve cotton production, productivity and profitability. The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe Limited (Cottco) is a successor to the CMB following implementation of the government’s economic structural adjustment programme (ESAP) in 1994. The CMB was commercialised and Cottco was privatised in October 1997 and listed on the Zimbabwe stock exchange in December of the same year, with the government retaining 25% shareholding. Government’s shareholding was later sold to employees through an employee share ownership scheme. The advent of Cottco removed the statutory monopoly of the CMB in the financing of cotton production, ginning, marketing and export of cotton in 1994. Production and marketing of seed cotton evolved from a state-controlled monopoly to a deregulated market structure that has high concentration of participants from the private sector.

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8.3.2 C  ottco’s Input Credit Scheme and SDGs Cottco’s initiative through the input credit scheme availed to smallholders is in tandem with the United Nations SDG number 9 that seeks to build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation (UN, 2015). Target number 3 seeks to increase access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit and their integration into value chains and markets (UN, 2015). Cottco as a private company has contributed immensely to this cause. The company avails credit to small-scale farmers who lack collateral through inputs such as seed, agrochemicals like fertilisers and pesticides, tillage and finance for labour. Their extension officers are widespread in all cotton-growing regions of Zimbabwe such that the cost of lending encountered through extensive travelling is reduced. In relation to target number 5, Cottco recently introduced scientific research in farmers’ fields and also participatory varietal selection by farmers. Target number 5 seeks to enhance scientific research and upgrade the technological capabilities of the small-scale farmers (UN, 2015). New pests that are invading the industry such as the white cotton mealybug require Cottco together with other responsible government departments to find solutions. In that regard, Cottco’s activities work towards achieving sustainable development goal number 9 target number 3 which seeks to increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises to financial services, including affordable credit and their integration into value chains and markets. Cottco also provides a reliable market for the crop unlike cereals whose markets have been invaded by rampant middlemen. Agricultural credit has been reported as an effective tool for sustainable agricultural development in several places in the world (Assogba et al., 2017). Access to financial services is critical to provide funds for farm investments, pro-

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ductivity and access to markets and promote better risk management. Despite the smallholder farmers’ socio-economic importance, they tend to have little or no access to credit which limits their capacity to invest in the technologies and inputs they need to increase their yields and incomes to reduce hunger and poverty. Access to credit is a powerful tool to increase farmers’ productivity and improve the standard of living. However, banks target clients with ownership of relatively high-value mortgageable property, people who possess payslips as proof of employment and collateral for loans which many poor smallholder farmers lack (Baiyegunhi & Fraser, 2014). In South Africa 53% (16 million adults) of the population are marginalised or excluded from the formal financial services and do not have bank accounts (Finscope, 2015). However, expanded access to credit has therefore been enthusiastically canvassed in the developing community for its ability and potential to generate sustainable economic growth that favours the poor. The objective of this paper is therefore to determine the value of Cottco-farmer financing and the effect of this on the contracted farmers’ production and the company’s market share. The chapter also seeks to determine the effect of cotton production on the livelihood of the small-­ scale farmers.

8.3.3 C  otton Production Areas in Zimbabwe In the subtropical areas cotton production is confined to summer months. For Zimbabwe, cotton production is concentrated on the marginal and semi-arid agro-ecological regions III, IV and V which have high temperatures and little annual rainfalls (Fig.  8.1). Despite the harsh climatic conditions in these regions, excellent cotton production is obtained once the plants have established their roots even when adjacent crops of maize and other crops with shallow roots have failed. Cottco has ginneries and transport depots in the major cotton-growing areas of Zimbabwe (Fig. 8.1).

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Fig. 8.1 Cotton-­ producing areas. (Source: Cottco (2019))

8.3.4 B  enefits from Cottco’s Input Credit Scheme The input credit scheme availed by Cottco offers immense benefits to the marginalised communities and smallholder rural farmers located in semi-arid natural farming regions that offer less opportunities for crop cultivation. Perceived benefits derived from Cottco’s input credit scheme include inter alia access to production finance, infrastructure development, employment creation, market aggregation, climate smart agri­ culture, extension services and research and innovation services.

8.3.5 Access to Production Finance Cottco’s input credit scheme is a new model of funding that is tailor-made to meet funding requirements of smallholders shunned by banks whose lending criterion has strict lending conditions. Banks and other micro-finance lenders having agriculture sector funding facilities do not target smallholder farmers as a risk mitigation measure. As a measure to mitigate risk, banks screen farmers for funding, and the general requirements are title deeds, stock orders, notarial general covering bonds (NGCBs) over farm

machinery and equipment, mortgage bonds and crop stop orders which are beyond the reach of smallholder farmers. Conversely Cottco’s input credit scheme to smallholder cotton farmers does not require collateral or charging of interest on the principal since its concern is getting uninterrupted supply of seed cotton. In that regard, the number of farmers recruited into cotton cultivation has been increasing since 2015. In 2016, the number of recruited farmers increased by 182% from the 55,000 farmers in 2015 to 155,145 farmers in 2016. In 2018 the number further increased by 148% to reach a high of 385,343 farmers accessing funding under Cottco’s input credit scheme (Fig. 8.2). The increasing number of farmers accessing credit is driven by favourable credit conditions offered by Cottco and high returns from cotton cultivation. Timeous provision of adequate and affordable credit to cotton farmers helped to improve production and productivity thereby luring more farmers into producing the crop. However, there are also criticisms to the system where other authors argue that despite the scheme being hailed as a panacea to rural agriculture and sustainable human development, cotton contract farming has not been positively helpful to longtime Gokwe farmers (Musara & Dziva, 2015). The evidence available in Fig.  8.2 shows an

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Number of farmers recruited

450000 400000 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0

2016

2017

2018

Year

Fig. 8.2  The number of farmers recruited into cotton production between 2016 and 2018. (Source: Cottco (2019))

increasing number of farmers who are joining the scheme, and hence farmers are finding the programme lucrative or the best available option. The value of funding that Cottco availed to smallholder farmers per annum has also been on an upward trend as it increased from $26 million in 2016 to $42 million in 2017 representing a 62% increase in investment. In 2018 the company’s investment in the scheme further increased by 43% to reach 60 million. The money availed in the credit scheme was used to purchase planting seed, fertiliser and chemicals with the bulk of it about 56% going towards basal and top dressing fertilisers.

8.3.6 Infrastructure Development Cottco has heavily invested in rural infrastructure as it has built six ginneries that are located in cotton-growing regions in the rural areas. The company has ginneries in Chiredzi, Gokwe, Sanyati, Kadoma, Chinhoyi and Muzarabani with a combined annual ginning capacity 143,000 metric tonnes. The ginneries are strategically located in high-volume cotton-producing areas (Table 8.1). Ginneries are an important infrastructure which apart from bringing industrialisation in the

Table 8.1  The Cottco ginneries in Zimbabwe Ginnery location Chiredzi Gokwe Sanyati Kadoma Chinhoyi Muzarabani

Province Masvingo Midlands Mashonaland West Mashonaland West Mashonaland West Mashonaland Central

Total

Capacity (MT) 23,000 27,000 18,000 20,000 32,000 23,000 143,000

Source: Cottco (2019)

context of local economic development (LED) also creates employment to the communities that cultivate the crop. In addition to ginneries Cottco invested more than 50 depots and more than 100 transit-depots distributed in all cotton-growing areas where local administration of the input credit scheme is accommodated. Each depot has administration offices and a warehouse as the key facilities for the smooth operation of the input credit scheme.

8.3.7 Employment Creation Cottco’s input credit scheme contributes a lot to employment creation in the country. The company employs both permanent and seasonal

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Table 8.2  Cottco employment structure Business unit Chiredzi Gokwe Sanyati Kadoma Chinhoyi Muzarabani Mutoko Total

Group chairman 2159 2205 1613 699 728 1612 478 9494

Area coordinators 110 68 52 25 57 85 35 432

Field assistants 17 15 16 8 2 25 1 84

Extension officers 26 28 22 8 11 19 8 122

Area manager 5 5 4 1 1 4 1 21

Business unit managers 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7

Source: Cottco (2019)

employees. Permanent employees for the company are summarised in Table  8.2, whilst seasonal employees such as buying clerks, cashiers and recovery officers are not shown in the table. When recruiting seasonal employees, the company has a deliberate policy to target local communities as a way of making sure that locals benefit from the scheme. In addition to employment levels displayed in Table  8.2, the company has head office personnel. Employment is also indirectly created by the credit scheme backward and forward linkages in the cotton value chain and attendant service providers such as transporters, inputs manufacturers and suppliers, textile industry, oil expressers and stock feeds manufacturers.

8.3.8 E  xtension Services, Research and Innovation Cottco provides training and extension service to its contracted farmers as an initiative to boost production and productivity which both have positive causality on the returns of the farmer. To that end Cottco has 122 qualified extension officers and 84 field assistants who provide training and extension services to farmers. The extension officers operate various projects in any given year with the objective of equipping farmers with sound agronomic practices and business acumen. The company has a robust programme on pragmatic training comprising demonstration plots under the farmer field schools (FFS) concept. Cottco holds field days every year in most dis-

tricts for promotion of cotton cultivation. Each technical person services 1870 farmers in their respective areas. The ratio of extension staff to farmers was 1:1870  in the 2018 season. The extension officers are also the chief negotiators and farmer recruitment personnel. As part of development of the cotton crop, Cottco has committed itself to conduct research and innovation programmes. In addition to setting up a research unit in the organisation, the company has collaborations with tertiary institutions for the purposes of conducting research and innovation. On-going field work in demonstration plots for tillage and moisture conservation, soil tests and variety trials amongst others are being carried to develop the crop. The two main areas that research and innovation seek to improve on are production and productivity.

8.3.9 Market Linkages and Aggregation According to Musara and Dziva (2015), contract farming is perceived to guarantee access to consistent reliable and nearest markets. Cottco’s input credit scheme creates market linkages between the farmers and Cottco. Cottco purchases all the seed cotton produced by the farmers so farmers are assured of a market before they even harvest their crop. In the credit scheme farmers are aggregated into groups so that their small individual hectarages are combined to a significant level for the company to operate viably. After harvesting, several farmer groups

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Extension Services Production Loans Research & Innovation Inputs & Implements Tillage

Cottco (Cotton Ginner & Merchant)

Smallholder Farmers

Seed cotton Fig. 8.3  Input credit scheme flow chart. (Source: Authors)

aggregate their seed cotton at common buying points (CBPs) where Cottco purchases small tonnages from individual farmers before transporting it to the ginnery or depot.

8.3.10 Corporate Social Responsibility Outside the confines of the input credit scheme, Cottco participates in corporate social responsibility activities that have seen communities ­benefiting from infrastructure projects such as rehabilitation and construction of bridges, road maintenance and building of classroom blocks amongst others. Cottco also supports sporting activities as a way of ploughing back into the community, and annually it holds a rugby tournament for schools.

8.3.11 Analysis of Cottco’s Input Credit Scheme The input credit scheme is a contractual agreement between Cottco and the farmers with each party fulfilling certain obligations. In that regard, contract farming arrangement requires that Cottco pre-finance the seed cotton through the provision of planting seed, fertilisers, pesticides and sprayers. Cottco also provides agricultural services through the relatively dense network of full-time extension workers who advise farmers during growing and harvesting of the crop. According to Rettzer and Rottger (2013), with such a big number of extension workers, the farmers receive regular training in effective agri-

cultural practices and harvesting techniques to improve cotton quality and to adapt to new seeds and techniques. On the other hand, the farmer undertakes to use inputs for crop production whilst at the same time ensuring that there is no side marketing of seed cotton. Side marketing occurs when a contracted farmer sells seed cotton to a non-­ contracting buyer and it results in the loss of investment by Cottco. It is important to note that the Cottco-smallholder farmer relationship is a multi-faceted relationship where the rural farmers benefit from extension services, loans, research results, inputs and tillage and in turn Cottco expects the farmers to deliver the cotton seed to the company (Fig. 8.3). The situation for the farmer is more favourable if the value of seed cotton exceeds the value of the services rendered by Cottco to the farmers. For sustainability, the situation has to be win-win partnership for both the farmer and Cottco. The excess on the side of the farmer is profit which can be converted to household assets, livestock or money for payment of services such as children’s education. This leads to the farmer being empowered which is defined by better housing, clothing, consumer goods, healthy, education, transport, communication and other public amenities.

8.3.12 Benefits of Cottco Micro-­ lending to Cotton Farmers Cottco as a company endeavours to offer steady prices to remote farmers who have no access to information. In maize and small grains markets, middlemen have infiltrated the market as they

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100% 90% Percentage Market Share

Fig. 8.4  Cotton market share of cotton seed. (Source: Authors (2018))

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80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

2016

buy from farmers and then resell to the Grain Marketing Board thereby shortchanging the farmers. Cottco maintains a good relationship with its farmers and ensures that they get maximum benefits from cultivating the crop. The stronger the bond between the farmer and the cotton company, the greater the extent to which side selling can be eliminated (Rettzer & Rottger, 2013). Cottco offers farmers access to credit; most farmers fail to utilise land which they have; hence provision of credit improves land utilisation. The company carries out training which results in skills diffusion amongst farmers and the farmers obtain skills in record keeping, efficient utilisation of resources, improved pesticide application methods, agronomic principles, pest management and pest identification. The information and skills obtained can be used beyond cotton to benefit other crops like cereals.

8.3.13 Cottco’s Market Share in the Cotton Industry In the past three seasons Cottco’s annual market share of seed cotton (Fig. 8.4) has been on a rising trajectory, a trend which correlates positively with the level of investment and the number of farmers contracted. Cottco’s market share increased from 37.9% in 2015/2016 to 74.5% in 2016/2017 and 89.3% in 2017/2018. Cottco has outperformed its

2017 Years

2018

c­ ompetitors in the last three seasons and the main reason cited is increased financing of the crop (Table 8.3). The increase in Cottco’s market share is ­attributed to the increased input support that the company availed to farmers (Fig.  8.5). This shows that smallholder farmers have potential to increase production and productivity, but they lack the pre-requisite finance to fund production. Recently, Cottco introduced tillage assistance through ripping to benefit its farmers with limited draught power. Ripping helps in deep percolation of water and increases chances of cotton survival past mid-season dry spells. The introduction of ripping tillage has an incremental effect on the yield and net income of the farmers. There was a direct relationship between the cotton tonnage that was delivered and the money invested (Fig.  8.5). A correlation coefficient of 0.99 shows a very close relationship between the two parameters. In the three seasons under review, cotton delivered to Cottco has more than doubled, and it means cotton has once again regained its status in Zimbabwe as the ‘white gold’. This illustrates the power of credit to small-scale farmers’ production. Without access to credit, they appear like they cannot contribute anything to agricultural gross domestic product and the whole economy at large. For Cottco, investment into cotton is followed by a proportional increase in the tonnage of seed cotton delivered to Cottco ginneries and depots.

M. Chaniwa et al.

124 Table 8.3  Cottco’s performance against its competitors in terms of seed cotton production Company Cottco ETG Parrogate Alliance ginneries Grafax Olam China-Africa Zunde Ramambo Sinotex2 Sinozim3 Southern cotton Total Cottco’s market share

2015/2016 (kg) 10,800,000 2,308,649 3,097,538 3,449,040 4,577,279 723,813 – 2,317,673 1,151,311

2016/2017 (kg) 54,543,635 4,792,474 4,705,395 3,804,102 3,184,507 2,008,805 – – –

28,425,303 37.9%

73,141,231 74.5%

2017/2018 (kg) 127,464,844 3,667,102 1,652,101 – – 3,390,916

6,586,178 142,761,141 89. 3%

Fig. 8.5 Relationship between seed cotton tonnage and money invested in the input credit scheme. (Source: Authors)

Cotton tonnage delivered (Million kg)

Source: AMA (2018)

140

y = 1.0266x - 18.884 R2 = 0.9995

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

0

20

8.3.14 Relationship Between Investment in Credit Scheme and Market Share There was a close relationship between market share and the money invested into cotton production (R2 = 0.98) (Fig. 8.6). The results show that, with more investments, the company increases its market share, and this can be either through recruitment of new farmers and taking farmers from other competing companies. When the company invests more money, it recruits more communal farmers, and that reduces poverty levels since cotton is one of the very few crops that can be grown in the semi-arid agro-ecological regions without irrigation. The

40 60 80 100 120 Money invested (Million dollars)

140

160

lives of communal farmers have been improved through availing of credit to farmers. The dominance of Cottco in the cotton industry stems from the high level of investments that the company is putting into the input credit scheme. Generally, cotton prices have been increasing for the past three seasons and different cotton grades command different prices. This could be one reason for the increase in farmers taking up cotton as their commercial crop. However, Mukutumira (2014) argued that the arrangement wherein the company is the one that determines prices has often led to disputes where farmers demand fair prices whilst the contractor challenges farmers for failure to maximise production using the supplied inputs. According to

8  Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton… Fig. 8.6 Money invested and market share. (Source: Authors)

100

y = 32.117ln(x) - 67.426 R2 = 0.9815

90 80 Market share (%)

125

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Cotton price (US cents/kg)

60

0

20

Grade A

40 60 80 100 120 Money Invested (Millions of dollars)

Grade B

140

160

Grade C

50 40 30 20 10 0

2016

2017 Season

2018

Fig. 8.7  Cotton prices and grades for the last three seasons. (Source: Cottco (2019))

Tschirley, Poulton, and Labaster (2009), real cotton prices have declined over the past two decades although with temporary spikes, and the reason has been due to reduced production costs resulting from technological improvements and competition from synthetic fibres. Farmers compare profitability of the various enterprises before they take up the crop, but for cotton, farmers usually know the purchase price at harvest. This has been the source of disagreements in prices. Farmers have been opting for maize although it does not perform well because of the steady price supported by the government. The trend on cotton prices has been on the increase with Grade A fetching 40 c/kg in 2016,

50 c/kg for 2017 and 55 c/kg for 2018 (Fig. 8.7). On the other hand Grade B and Grade C had prices that were slightly lower than Grade A. Differential price payments for various grades encourage farmers to produce the high-quality seed cotton that is paid a high price in Grade A. Cottco has also introduced export incentives in the last two seasons with 5% export incentive for 2017 and 10% export incentive for 2018. This increased the farmers’ disposable income. The export incentive is paid towards the start of the season and therefore assists the farmers in input purchases so that they are not entirely dependent on Cottco for all the costs. When the farmers cover a certain percentage of their production

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costs, they remain with more disposable income after loan deductions. For Zimbabwean farmers there has been no stability with currency issues, and this has been a source of disagreements with the small-scale farmers.

8.3.15 Challenges Faced by Cottco in the Input Credit Scheme One of the challenges by Cottco when lending to smallholder farmers is the risk of loan default. Recovery of invested funds is a basic requirement in the input credit scheme. Side marketing of seed cotton is not desirable because it results in the company failing to recover invested funds and also losing the contracted seed cotton. Recovery from smallholder farmers is not easy since they do not have collateral or any valuables that can be converted to match invested funds. The performance of the cotton input credit schemes in sub-Saharan Africa has been influenced by structure and behaviour of the market for seed cotton (Tschirley et al., 2009). Agricultural production just like any other business venture has risks associated with the information asymmetry, moral hazard and market failure which arise from price fluctuations, inclement weather and yield uncertainties. In the event of such risk occurring, Cottco incurs huge losses given the huge investments committed to the scheme. More than 70% of the cotton produced in Zimbabwe is exported, and with fluctuations in the international market price, both Cottco and the farmer are affected. The international market price has causality on the local producer price of seed cotton. In the same vein, there are also risks associated with agricultural production, and these include weather phenomena such as drought and floods and plant pests and diseases. Lending to smallholder farmers faces the challenge of inputs diversion to other crops and/or selling of inputs to generate cash. Generally smallholder farmers have integrated production and consumption units, and hence sometimes the

borrowed money or items are resold and the money is used to pay school fees or for h­ ousehold consumption. The inputs normally sold by farmers are fertilisers which constitute the highest percentage in the cost of production. To mitigate this risk Cottco devised a plan to manage abuse of inputs by giving them in tranches or batches based on crop stages. Furthermore, the company also designed a community integrated system whereby the chairman of the group gets reports of such activities and they are punishable by either delisting or instant recovery of issued inputs.

8.4

Conclusion

The input credit scheme avails a huge scope of sustenance of livelihoods of smallholder farmers who lack access to agriculture loans from financial intermediation by banks and micro-finance institutions. Cottco’s input credit scheme fosters an integrated value chain with backward and forward linkages to sustain and improve high production and productivity levels. This has been achieved through a win-win partnership between Cottco and the farmers. Through the input scheme, marginalised farmers in semi-arid natural regions III, IV and V with a few options in crops are afforded an opportunity to cultivate a high-return cash crop. In that regard, cotton has earned itself the name ‘white gold’ because of the immense benefits derived from the crop. Despite the small scale of operation, smallholder farmers need to approach contract farming as a business mindset where the investment plan is clear and the commitment to repay loan whilst retaining profits is inherent. On the side of Cottco, loan recovery and the ability to buy contracted volume are the best indicators of the success or failure of the input credit scheme. Continuous improvement of the input credit scheme is a necessary ingredient to keep the scheme appealing to farmers. The high risk of side marketing poses a threat to Cottco’s input credit scheme that has huge potential to drive rural development.

8  Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton…

References AMA (2018). Agricultural Marketing Authority Annual Report 2018. Harare, Zimbabwe. Assogba, P.  N., Kakoye, S.  H. E., Yegbemey, R.  N., Njenontin, J. A., Tasson, Z., Pardoe, J., et al. (2017). Determinants of credit access by smallholder farmers in north East Benin. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, 9, 210–216. Baiyegunhi, L.  J. S., & Fraser, G.  C. D. (2014). Smallholder farmers access to credit in the Amathole District municipality, eastern cape province South Africa. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, 115, 79–89. Blackie, M. J. (1983). Case study: The cotton marketing board. Harare: Department of Land Management, University of Zimbabwe. Working paper 2/83. Blackmore, E., Kabwe, S., Mujeyi, K., Muzenda, J., Vorley, B. (2018). Informal trade in cotton: under­ standing drivers and working towards solutions in Zambia and Zimbabwe. Available at www.pubs.iied. org. Accessed 5 April 2019. Clapp, R.  A. J. (1998). Representing reciprocity, reproducing domination: Ideology and labour process in Latin American contract farming. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 16, 15–39. Cottco (2019). Cotton Company of Zimbabwe Report of the year ending 2018. Harare, Zimbabwe. Finscope. (2015). Survey highlights including FSM model. Midrand: FinMark Trust. Retrieved from www. finmark.org.za Gordon, A., & Goodland, A. (2000). Production credit for African small holders: Conditions for private provisions. Savings and Development, 1, 55–83. International Trade Centre. (2013). Technical paper: Improving Africa’s cotton value chain for Asian mar­ kets. Geneva: International Trade Centre.

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Matthews G (1989). Cotton insect pests and their management. Longman scientific and technical. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. Mukutumira, J. (2014). Pricing disputes, technical effi­ ciency and oligopsonistic market power: An analysis of seed cotton pricing disputes under contract farming arrangements in Zimbabwe. Thesis submitted for the fulfilment of an Msc degree in economics. University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe. Musara, E., & Dziva, C. (2015). Exaggerating cotton contract farming as an empowerment strategy for rural Zimbabwe. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 6, 1–17. Rettzer, R. and Rottger, D. (2013). Cotton sector organ­ isation models and their impact on farmer productiv­ ity and income. German Development Institute, Bonn. Discussion paper 4/2013. Stephens, R.  D., & Jabara, C.  L. (1988). Agricultural development principles: Economic theory and empiri­ cal evidence. London: John Hopkins University Press. Tibugari, H., Mandumbu, R., Jowah, P., & Karavina, C. (2012). Farmer knowledge, attitude and practice on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) pest resistance management strategies in Zimbabwe. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 45, 2395. https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2012.727327 Tschirley, D., Poulton, C., & Labaste, P. (2009). Organi­ sation and performance of the cotton sectors in Africa; learning from reform experience. Agricultural and rural Development. Washington, DC: The World Bank. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly 25 September 2015. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_ doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&lANG=e UNESCO. (2007). Africa review report on agriculture and rural development. Economic Commission for Africa. Retrieved from www.un.org

9

Insurance, Increasing Natural Disaster Risks and the SDGs: A Focus on Southern Africa Shelton Siwedza and Soul Shava

support for low-carbon industrial development (SDG 7), climate-related weather We are living in the Anthropocene. It is an era extremes (SDG 13) and sustainable produccharacterized by the prevalence of human-­ tion and consumption (SDG 12). In this chapinduced global environmental crises resulting ter, we explore the impacts of local and global from interactions between humankind and the environmental risks on the insurance industry biophysical environment such as climate in Southern Africa and its responses as aligned change. The increasing frequency and magnito the SDGs. We also look at the insurance tude of these environmental-related risks and industry’s influence on client environmental uncertainties directly impact on the insurance protection and environmental sustainability industry and have influenced insurance conconsiderations. Lastly, we highlight the transisiderations for clients. Such risks present both tion towards increasing convergence of busiliabilities and business opportunities to the ness interests, greener lifestyle choices and insurance sector. The insurance sector has achieving environmental sustainability in the responded through the provision of environtwenty-first century. mental- and climate change-related insurance. By reducing the risks, the insurance sector Keywords contributes towards the attainment of the United Nations sustainable development goals Climate change · Insurance · Environmental (SDGs). This includes the provision of insurrisks · SDGs ance products for, amongst others, new-­ generation agricultural policies (SDG 2), the protection of people and business against environmental health risks (SDG 3), protec- 9.1 Introduction tion of industrial infrastructure (SDG 9), the Environmental risks, mainly human induced, are emerging as the major global crises of the twenty-­ S. Siwedza (*) African Reinsurance Corporation (South Africa) first century (Angus, 2016; Kolbert, 2014; Leakey Limited, Parktown, South Africa & Lewin, 1995). Such global environmental risks e-mail: [email protected] and uncertainties have negative implications on S. Shava the attainment of sustainable development goals Department of Science and Technology Education, (SDGs) put in place collectively by global govUniversity of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa ernments in September 2015 (United Nations, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_9

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2015). The Southern African climate change-­ related environmental impacts are many. These include increased frequency and intensity of extreme events such as droughts that result in reduced water availability, thereby affecting the availability and sustainable management of water resources, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). WASH is an element fully embraced under SDG 6 (Nhamo, Nhemachena, & Nhamo, 2019). Other impacts are veld fires, heatwaves, floods, extreme snow and hailstorms addressed under the climate action SDG (SDG 13) that urges the world to take urgent action to address climate change and its related impacts. Global climate change further leads to increased range and prevalence of tropical diseases, impacting negatively on efforts to address SDG 3 that encourages global leaders to ensure healthy lives and promote the wellbeing for its citizens. Seriously impacted by the changing climate is food security, an element addressed in depth under SDG 2 that focuses on ending hunger, achieving food security and the desire to improve nutrition and the promotion of sustainable agriculture (United Nations, 2015). Other SDGs impacted upon by extreme weather events with bearing on insurance are energy supply and security (SDG 7), potential job losses (SDG 8) and settlements in general (SDG 11). With all the risks becoming more visible, it is not surprising how the world has embraced the harsh realities of the changing climate in Southern Africa and other parts of the world (Shava & Nhamo, 2015). Such risks pose a significant economic liability to the insurance sector, which could amount to hundreds of billions of dollars globally (Botzen, 2013, Mahalingam et al., 2018). As this chapter was being finalized, Southern Africa was hit by two major tropical cyclones in a very short period of time. In March 2019, Tropical Cyclone Idai hit Madagascar, Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe. The negative impacts were severe including loss of properties and lives. Tropical Cyclone Idai was followed in April by another, Tropical Cyclone Kenneth, that flattened villages in Mozambique and damaged roads and other critical infrastructure.

To offset the foregoing risks, the insurance industry has developed innovative new environmental insurance products that are largely oriented towards an environmental sustainability and low-carbon economy. Such responses from the sector enable the development of climate-­ resilient societies and contribute towards achieving the SDGs. This chapter therefore explores these risks and insurance responses to such, particularly risks now associated with climate change-related extreme weather events like droughts, floods, wildfires, extreme frost, etc. The chapter comes from an angle that time has come to scale up weatherbased index insurance from a range of products and economic sectors as aligned to the SDGs framework.

9.2

Literature Review

9.2.1 G  lobal Environmental Risks and the Insurance Industry Risk is an integral part of the insurance business and it is as old as the industry could be. The insurance industry plays a key role in the functioning of our modern economies by providing a mechanism of financial contracts that transfer risks from individual risks to the financial markets, thereby allowing risk reduction by means of risk diversification and spreading. The insurance industry by its very nature is in the business of taking on risks. However, in order to properly underwrite risks, insurers need to understand what risks are insurable and how they can price and provide cover for such. This is so, especially in the dynamic environment of global change. In order for risks to be insurable, such must comply within certain criteria (Karten, 1997) that include: • There has to be a large number of homogenous risks (size). • The losses arising from such risks have to be fortuitous or accidental in nature (random). • Such losses also have to be determinable and measurable (estimable).

9  Insurance, Increasing Natural Disaster Risks and the SDGs: A Focus on Southern Africa

• The chance of such losses also has to be calculable (estimable). • Lastly, the price or premium charged has to be economically feasible (affordable).

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9.2.2 C  limate Change Risks in the Southern African Context

Africa has witnessed a drastic increase in surface Environmental risks, especially climate temperatures, at a rate of 0.4 °C/decade between change, fulfill some of the above criteria in that 1961 and 2014 (Jury, 2017; Niang et al., 2014). they usually cover large areas and are unpredict- This is two times that of the global rate. More able. However, these risks remain very difficult to specifically, Southern Africa has been warming measure, with the chances of losses resulting up significantly over the last decade (Davis-­ from them being incalculable and therefore diffi- Reddy & Vincent, 2017). There is reported cult to price. This is a result of current global decrease in late summer rainfall in the western models used to predict climate and other weather-­ part of Southern Africa, in countries such as related risks being unable to predict with the nec- Namibia and Angola (Hulme, Doherty, Ngara, essary accuracy (Muchuru & Nhamo, 2019). The New, & Lister, 2001; Niang et al., 2014; Vogel, factors affecting the sustainability of the ecosys- 2009). To this end, droughts have also become tem are unfortunately not always accidental in more widespread and intense, with the overall their nature as most are attributable to human inter-annual rainfall variability in the region interactions with their lived environment. The increasing over the years (Fauchereu, Trzarska, destruction of the ecosystem that has been expe- Roualt, & Richard, 2003). Heatwaves, warm rienced over the years has now reached global temperatures, rainfall extremes such as floods catastrophic proportions, with very far-reaching and hailstorms, prolonged droughts and overall consequences to human communities, biodiver- water scarcity have now become an annual occursity and economies. This unsustainable state of rence. The sea levels have also been rising over affairs has brought about quite a significant chal- the years, especially in the Indian Ocean around lenge to the insurance industry. Durban and the KwaZulu-Natal coastline. The challenges facing the insurance industry Countries such as South Africa and Botswana are in determining the chance of a loss of the have been experiencing severe heatwaves in the whole or part of an ecosystem, calculating the summer season over the years, which seem to commensurate premium and determining the per- intensify with each passing year, whilst the ils to be covered. Furthermore, they are also faced Western Cape Province in South Africa has been with the dilemma of quantifying the value and experiencing severe droughts. This has resulted probability of catastrophe losses caused by cli- in the now famous Day Zero, a day that was premate change. dicted for the city of Cape Town to run out of As the global population continues to grow water in 2018 (Nhamo & Agyepong, 2019). exponentially and the unsustainable use of natu- Droughts hit directly into the agricultural and ral resources and environment pollution contin- other sectors, affecting production. ues to rear its ugly head, the insurance industry Apart from droughts, Southern Africa also has the ability to play a key role in contributing experiences floods. Floods bring additional risks towards living sustainably with environmental that include homes and other movable properties risk exposures by means of a number of mea- getting washed away. The 2016 OR Tambo sures. The next section focuses on climate change International Airport and the 2019 Durban and risk in Southern Africa. Eastern Cape Provinces floods in South Africa resulted in cars, boats and other properties being swept away. These are events that authors witnessed taking place. From such calamities, it then makes sense for the insurance industry to re-think insurance products.

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Hence, climate change has now become a key developmental challenge and concern in Southern Africa and sub-Saharan Africa at large (Davis-­ Reddy & Vincent, 2017). Empirical research over the last few years has also revealed that the continent of Africa is amongst the most vulnerable and also least prepared to cope with the severe impact of climate change, as it is still grappling with basic issues such as food, health, clean drinking water and education. The challenges of poverty, inequality and unemployment remain in Southern Africa and cannot be underestimated. These make it difficult for citizens to insure themselves for various potential risks. Over the years we have seen communities being severely impacted by the effects of climate change, which has also depleted Africa’s natural resource base over time. Research has shown that Africa is bearing the brunt of climate change, even though it contributes the least to carbon emissions (IPCC, 2007). Climate change in Africa now poses a real threat to potentially reverse the several years of development gains achieved by African countries over the years. However, despite growing knowledge on climate change risks in Southern Africa, mechanisms to manage, adapt and mitigate these risks, including through insurance, still remain inadequate (Vogel, 2009). The sustainability challenges that Africa is currently faced and grappling with are: • Rapid urbanization, with the resultant increased concentration of assets in the urban areas • High government and municipalities expenditure due to emergency response costs, reconstruction of public infrastructure, providing support to the uninsured citizens and reduced revenue as a result of the damage to infrastructure due to climate change • Food security threat due to the impact of severe weather patterns, such as floods, hailstorms, drought, etc. • Drop in tourism as a result of damaged infrastructure and difficult accessibility to tourist attractions • A reduction in gross domestic product (GDP)

The insurance sector has also been severely affected by more frequent and more severe catastrophic losses from extreme weather events such as floods, storms, droughts and wildfires. Such events cost the insurance industry in South Africa over ZAR 1 billion in claims in the 2013/2014 financial year (Davis-Reddy & Vincent, 2017). Some of the cases in point include the Durban and Johannesburg storms at the end of 2017, as well as the Knysna wildfires in June 2017. The insurance industry in South Africa has paid close to ZAR 7 billion towards hail-, storm- and fire-­ related catastrophic losses between 2012 and 2017 (KPMG, 2018). The next section presents the findings and discussions.

9.3

Key Findings and Discussions

The insurance sector defines environmental risks as the potential for catastrophic consequences resulting from constant interactions between human activities and the natural environment, which are diverse and often catastrophic (OECD, 2003). These risks, which affect human and ecological health and wellbeing, range from pollution to soil contamination to natural disasters. However, environmental risks, whilst posing a challenge to the insurance sector, are also an emerging market for new and innovative environmental-­related insurance products (Mills, 2009a). The insurance sector has been developing various environmental insurance products in response to environmental risks. Providing tailored insurance products to mitigate environmental risks contributes towards minimizing risk, thereby reducing poverty from loss of property and material wealth due to impacts such as climate change effects. Such insurance products will help the region’s capacity to adapt to and be resilient to the impacts of climate change. Some of these products are discussed below. Whilst a global perspective of these products is provided, case examples are drawn from Southern Africa wherever possible.

9  Insurance, Increasing Natural Disaster Risks and the SDGs: A Focus on Southern Africa

9.3.1 I ncentive Products for Risk Reduction Most insurers are promoting risk reduction behaviour by offering lower premiums for environmental risk avoidance. At individual level, insurance companies can contribute towards responsible consumption (SDG 12) by providing incentive products. Products such as “pay as you drive” policies provide discounts to those who drive less and thus reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thereby benefiting the environment (Mills, 2009b). Some insurance companies in South Africa such as Hollard Insurance have started offering pay as you drive insurance policies (Troncosso, Danezis, Kosta, Balasch, & Preneel, 2011). Development of similar products for other “green” initiatives, such as providing lower premiums for solar- or wind-powered homes, hybrid or electric vehicles and green buildings, is another insurance alternative that can be encouraged in South Africa. Overall, such initiatives promote pro-active climate action (SDG 13) and environmentally responsible behaviours within society. In fact, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that embeds the 17 SDGs includes insurance under SDG 8. Target 8.10 advocates for the strengthening of the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to insurance and other financial services to all citizens (United Nations, 2015).

9.3.2 Information Dissemination Insurers, by virtue of them being risk takers, handlers and managers, can play a key role in addressing ecosystem damage and catastrophic events arising thereof as a result of climate change by playing an advisory role (Shava, 2014). Whilst the insurance industry in Southern Africa is “neither the polluter nor climate policy setter” (Golnaraghi, 2018), it can play a very critical role in being part of the solution, as it is well positioned to provide in-depth understanding of the risks associated with climate change and can collaborate with governments and other interested institutions. The ClimateWise insurance principles developed in

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2007, a process which included the participation of the South Africa insurer Santam, advocate that the insurance sector should lead in the analysis of and sharing of information on climate change-related risks, promotion of climate change mitigation and adaptation innovations and development of climate change investment strategies (Thistlethwaite, 2012). The insurance sector has made significant strides in climate change hazard and risk mapping (Vogel, 2009). In this regard, the industry can help by using scientific data that it has collected over the years on the nature and frequency of losses at its disposal, harmonizing its risk assessment methods, filling the data deficiency void, harmonizing the test protocols for chemicals, understanding mixtures or multiple stressors of environmental risks, improving on exposure assessments, harmonizing international assessment factors and then sharing this with industry, NGOs, authorities and governments, as well as the public at large. Most insurers are actively playing this role by disseminating information to their clients of impending risks such as hailstorms and veld fires, thereby reducing the amounts of claims whilst simultaneously protecting the clients from the effects of such impending risks. Promoting loss prevention through timeous information dissemination reduces poverty (SDG 1) by averting loss of property and protects human health (SDG 3) from the effects of environmental damage. Providing relevant climate-­related information influences consumer behaviour towards sustainability and climate change resilience (Seifert & Lindberg, 2012) by enabling them to understand climate change and its effects. The insurance sector can therefore play a pivotal role towards sustainable economies.

9.3.3 Insurance Promotion and Penetration The insurance industry can also play a critical role in influencing a paradigm shift in their clients (both corporate and domestic) as well as governments to look at climate change as a core business issue. This can be achieved through advocating for the need for mitigation of climate change effects in their operations and climate change catastrophe

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Box 9.1 Small and Medium Enterprises in the SDGs Framework

• Target 8.3 promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services. • Target 9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration into value chains and markets. Source: United Nations (2015: 19–20)

preparedness in line with SDG 13. Climate change can produce risks that significantly affect financial and operational aspects of the business sector. Climate change impacts include damage to infrastructure, ecosystems, food insecurity, negative health effects and loss of life and livelihoods. However, there is very low insurance penetration in Southern Africa to cushion people, business and the environment from losses related to these risks, with most of Southern Africa’s assets not insured or under-­insured. As a result, Southern Africa is unable to more effectively fund its recovery following damage caused by climate change and the resultant threat to lives, strain on already limited government resources and overall negative impact on growth. The insurance industry can therefore play a key role in driving insurance conscientization and take-up in Southern Africa through providing micro-insurance solutions to previously uninsured communities, thereby easing the impact of disaster recovery. It can also influence the reduction of climate risk, promotion of environmental best practices, green corporate governance and environmental risk management aspects of its business clients towards environmental sustainability. Uninsured sectors of society include smallscale agriculture, high-density housing and small and medium business enterprises. Providing access to insurance coverage through micro-insurance products for these previously uninsured sectors will contribute significantly to social protection against poverty (SDG 1), ensuring economic resilience of small and medium enterprises (SDG 8 and SDG 9) and creating enabling environments for reduced inequality (SDG10). The

small and medium enterprises are referred to in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in SDG 8 and SDG 9 twice. The exact statements of interest are presented in Box 9.1. The section that follows presents how insurance is getting into the space of promoting low-­ carbon development initiatives, directly contributing to carbon reductions.

9.3.4 Promoting Low-Carbon Initiatives The insurance sector has the capacity in both size and scope to finance innovative cleaner energy technologies that can help transform society towards a greener and low-carbon economy. The insurance industry can contribute actively to the drive to reduce global emissions and in encouraging climate-friendly corporate behaviour by playing an active role in reducing the carbon footprint in Southern Africa through supporting the drive for a gradual transition to low-carbon economies. This can be achieved through providing risk transfer solutions to renewable energy initiatives and taking a stand against insuring fossil-fueled power plants. Big insurance players such as AXA, Zurich, Allianz, Munich Re and Swiss Re have already begun taking steps towards these initiatives by de-risking on fossil-fueled power plants in favour of renewable energy (Bosshard, 2018). Similar fossil fuel de-risking trends are emerging in the South African insurance sector. Decarbonization contributes towards promoting affordable and

9  Insurance, Increasing Natural Disaster Risks and the SDGs: A Focus on Southern Africa

cleaner energy alternatives in line with SDG 8 and ultimately towards sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11). Carbon-reducing initiatives by the insurance sector are also seen in the promotion of initiatives such as replacement of grid-powered geysers with solar geysers as is the case with Santam Insurance (Shava, 2014).

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resources of the insurance industry to address catastrophe risk management, the volatility and severity of losses and economic impact of natural disasters, as well as its overall impact on SDGs (Dlugolecki & Hoekstra, 2006). The insurance industry can in this regard collaborate with governments to provide government-backed insurance for risks that would not otherwise be insurable, providing government-backed compulsory insurance schemes to communities, as 9.3.5 Weather Index-Based well as providing risk statistics and information Insurance on climate change, the impact and threat of impending natural disasters, etc. The insurance Weather index-based insurance is an innovative industry can also play a critical role in influencmicro-insurance product that protects small-scale ing government policy formulation, regulation farmers in developing countries from agricultural and legislation on climate change risk and enviproduction risks such as droughts and floods in an ronmental disasters. They can also play an imporinsurance market where such products are missing tant role in helping governments to re-prioritize or poorly developed. In response to agricultural their fiscal spending imperatives, to encompass challenges brought by drought, the government of climate change and natural disaster funding and Malawi in partnership with the World Bank devel- preparedness, as well as their access to global oped a weather index insurance scheme targeting reinsurers and risk managers for capacity support small-scale farmers in 2005 (Giné, 2009; Hess & on natural disaster insurance programmes. Syroka, 2005; Makaudze, 2018). The product pays Financial vulnerability refers to the risk that a out when extreme weather events are recorded by local, state or national government may not have a publicly observable index, such as recorded rain- sufficient funds, either from domestic or foreign fall on a local rain gauge, allowing for fast and sources, to meet its post-disaster obligations for automatic payouts to households without the need financing reconstruction investment and relief. If for them to file a claim (Giné, 2009). There are governments have a financial gap after a disaster currently other similar products in Southern Africa and therefore are unable to fully rebuild infrastrucsuch as crop insurance in South Africa (Pringle, ture, assist the poor in the wake of a disaster and Cartwright, McKenzie, & Reddy, 2018). continue with social and economic programmes, this can have a severe impact on the public and the economy of a country (i.e. roads, railways, elec9.3.6 Emerging Investment tricity lines and water suppliers). There is a direct Opportunities link between lack of infrastructure and poverty, as infrastructure is critical for economic growth and The insurance sector plays a central role in the development. Post-disaster financing gaps are capitalization process of the modern economy. quite common in developing countries (OECD, Insurance companies need to invest more in 2005). The insurance companies can help to close socio-economic resilience to extreme climate-­ the financing gap, which is the difference between related events and risks by offering pro-active a government’s loss potential and the amount of risk management and funding of research and internal financing resources at the governments’ development on natural hazards. disposal to meet their post-­disaster obligations for There is also now a dire need for private-­ financing infrastructure reconstruction and investpublic partnerships in catastrophic insurance and ment relief. The insurance industry can help come also to look at alternative designs for global cli- up with large-scale catastrophe compensation mate risk financing, using the competences and schemes in order to help alleviate this financial gap

S. Siwedza and S. Shava

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challenge (e.g. Ex Ante Funding Techniques— Catastrophe Insurance Pools). The insurance industry can also assist by providing risk financing solutions and cover against environmental pollution risk, which is associated with industrial and commercial activities that may adversely affect the environment and cause human health problems, damage to property and contamination of natural resources and affect biodiversity. The industry can assist in this regard by providing cover for liability resulting from bodily injury, property damage and economic loss caused by pollution to third parties, cost of cleanup as well as liability for ecological impairment (OECD, 2003). They can also collaborate with governments to enforce compulsory environmental liability or pollution insurance for certain environmentally high-­hazard occupancies. Insurance-related or insurance-based mechanisms can play an active role in mitigating and adapting to climate change and be an effective part of the adaptation strategies to deal with climate change threats, thereby dealing with the corresponding risks and providing solutions to help achieve SDGs. Some insurers have in this regard come up with index-based insurance cover for farmers against damage to their crops. Insurancelinked securities (ILS) are another recent innovative and effective way of providing and increasing insurance capacity, particularly for highly improbable low-frequency, high-­ severity natural catastrophe events. These come in the form of catastrophe bonds and weather derivatives. There is still however a need for the insurance industry to explore more initiatives to provide top-up cover for governments in order to make up for the resultant national low food production, thereby helping to ensure sustainable food production, which is one of the SDGs goals. According to Wesselink (2013), insurers can, for example, help in reducing flood risk by: • Assisting with identifying areas of risk • Flood catastrophe modelling • Discouraging construction in flood plains by refusing to insure such properties • Data collection on the cost of flood damage for flood management schemes

• Promoting temporary defense solutions by incentivizing such policy holders.

9.4

Conclusion

The impact of climate change can no longer be ignored and Southern Africa has been experiencing significant warming, rising sea levels, severe hailstorms and floods, wildfires and drought over the years and this is getting worse as each year goes by. This is severely impacting on the social and economic fabric. The future sustainable development of Southern Africa is very much dependent on the region’s ability and capacity to pro-actively adapt to the impacts of climate change. The insurance industry, being the major risk financier of such risks, plays a very important role in collaborating with communities and governments in helping to overcome this challenge through solutions for preventing and reducing risk. Through aligning their products and initiatives to the SDGs, insurance companies and the financial services sector at large are in a powerful position to play an important role in promoting the transition to a sustainable global future. This includes developing relevant and innovative insurance products for the local context and investing in greening and decarbonization initiatives. The role of the insurance sector towards attaining the SDGs will contribute towards a globally just, equitable, inclusive, sustainable and prosperous world.

References Angus, I. (2016). Facing the anthropocene; facing capitalism and the crisis of the earth system. New  York, NY: Motherly Review Press. Bosshard, P. (2018). Insuring coal no more: The 2018 scorecard on insurance, coal and climate change. Unfriend coal report, December 2018. Retrieved from https://unfriendcoal.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ Scorecard-2018-report-final-web-version.pdf Botzen, W.  J. W. (2013). Managing extreme climate change risks through insurance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davis-Reddy, C.  L., & Vincent, K. (2017). Climate risk and vulnerability: A handbook for Southern Africa (2nd ed.). Pretoria: CSIR.

9  Insurance, Increasing Natural Disaster Risks and the SDGs: A Focus on Southern Africa Dlugolecki, A., & Hoekstra, E. (2006). The role of the private market in catastrophe insurance. Climate Policy, 6(6), 648–657. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.200 6.968563 Fauchereu, N., Trzarska, S., Roualt, M., & Richard, Y. (2003). Rainfall variability and changes in southern Africa during the 20th century in global warming. National Hazards, 29(2), 139–154. https://doi.org/10 .1023/A:1023630924100 Giné, X. (2009). Innovations in insuring the poor: Experience with weather index-based insurance in India and Malawi. 2020 vision for food agriculture and the environment. Focus 17, Brief 7. Golnaraghi, M. (2018). Climate change and the insurance industry: Taking action as risk managers and investors. Zurich: The Geneva Association. Retrieved from https://www.genevaassociation.org/sites/default/ files/research-topics-document-type/pdf_public/climate_change_and_the_insurance_industry_-_taking_ action_as_risk_managers_and_investors.pdf Hess, U., & Syroka, J. (2005). Weather-based insurance in southern Africa: The case of Malawi. Washington DC: Agriculture and Rural Development (ARD), World Bank. Hulme, M., Doherty, R., Ngara, T., New, M., & Lister, D. (2001). African climate change: 1900-2100. Climate Research, 17, 145–168. IPCC. (2007). Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. In M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, & C. E. Hanson (Eds.), Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jury, M.  R. (2017). Climate trends across South Africa since 1980. Water SA, 43(4), 297–307. https://doi. org/10.4314/wsa.v44i2.15 KPMG. (2018). The South African insurance industry survey 2018. KPMG Inc. Retrieved from https:// home.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/za/pdf/2018/October/ Insurance%20survey-FINAL-web.pdf Karten, W. (1997). How to expand the limits of insurability. The Geneva papers on risk and insurance, 22(85), 515–522. Retrieved from https://www.jstor. org/stable/41952850 Kolbert, E. (2014). The sixth extinction: An unnatural history. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company. Leakey, R., & Lewin, R. (1995). The sixth extinction: Patterns of life and the future of humankind. New York, NY: Anchor Books. Mahalingam, A., Coburn, A., Jung, C.  J., Yeo, J.  Z., Cooper, G., & Evan, T. (2018). Impacts of severe natural catastrophes on financial markets. Cambridge Centre for Risk Studies, Cambridge. Retrieved from https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/fileadmin/user_upload/ research/centres/risk/downloads/crs-impacts-ofsevere-natural-catastrophes-on-financial-markets.pdf Makaudze, E.  M. (2018). Malawi’s experience with weather index insurance as agricultural risk mitigation strategy against extreme weather events. In P. J.

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Sallis (Ed.), Extreme weather. London: IntechOpen. Retrieved from https://www.intechopen.com/books/ extreme-weather Mills, E. (2009a). A global review of insurance industry responses to climate change. The Geneva Papers, 34, 323–359. https://doi.org/10.1057/gpp.2009.14 Mills, E. (2009b). From risk to opportunity: Insurer responses to climate change 2008. Ceres. A Ceres report. Retrieved from http://insurance.lbl.gov/opportunities/risk-to-opportunity-2008.pdf Muchuru, S., & Nhamo, G. (2019). A review of climate change adaptation measures in the African crop sector. Climate and Development. https://doi.org/10.1080/17 565529.2019.1585319 Niang, I., Ruppel, O.  C., Abdrabo, M.  A., Essel, A., Lennard, C., Padgham, J., et  al. (2014) Africa. In: Barros, V.  R., et  al. (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part B: regional aspects. Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. (pp 1199–1265). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Nhamo, G., & Agyepong, A. O. (2019). Climate change adaptation and local government: Institutional complexities surrounding Cape Town’s Day Zero. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 11(3), a717. https:// doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v11i3.717 Nhamo, G., Nhemachena, C., & Nhamo, S. (2019). Is 2030 too soon for Africa to achieve the water and sanitation sustainable development goal? Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2019.03.109 OECD. (2003). Environmental risks and insurance: A comparative analysis of the role of insurance in the management of environment-related risks. Policy issues in insurance, no. 6. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264105522-en OECD. (2005). Catastrophic risks and insurance. Policy issues in insurance, no. 8. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264009950-en Pringle, C., Cartwright, A., McKenzie, M. & Reddy, S. (2018). Greening the insurance industry: Nature’s role in managing risk. Water Research Commission (WRC) report no. 2611/1/17. http://www.wrc.org.za/ wp-content/uploads/mdocs/2611-1-17.pdf Seifert, D.  L., & Lindberg, D.  L. (2012). Managing climate change risk: Insurers can lead the way. Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy, 3(2), 1–16. https:// doi.org/10.1515/1944-4079.1109 Shava, S. (2014). Santam’s ecocentric journey: Working with the insurance industry towards a low carbon economy. In G.  Nhamo (Ed.), Breakthrough: Corporate South Africa in a green economy. Pretoria: Africa Institute of South Africa (AISA). Shava, S., & Nhamo, G. (2015). Contextualising climate change in the SADC region. In G. Nhamo & S. Shava (Eds.), Climate change education in the SADC school curriculum. (pp. 3-11) (pp. 193–206). Pretoria: Africa Institute of South Africa.

138 Thistlethwaite, J.  (2012). The ClimateWise principles: Self-regulating climate change risks in the insurance sector. Business & Society, 51(1), 121–147. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0007650311427595 Troncosso, C., Danezis, G., Kosta, E., Balasch, J., & Preneel, B. (2011). PriPAYD: Privacy-friendly pay-as-­y ou-drive insurance. IEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, 8(5), 742–755. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our World: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. New York, NY: United Nations Secretariat.

S. Siwedza and S. Shava Vogel, C. (2009). Business and climate change: Initial explorations in South Africa. Climate and Development, 1(1), 82–97. https://doi.org/10.3763/ cdev.2009.0007 Wesselink, A.  H. (2013). A comparative analysis of the role of insurance companies in flood risk management. Unpublished master of science in spatial planning thesis, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands. Retrieved from https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/123456789/3358/Wesselink%2c_A.H._%28Anne lies%29_1.pdf?sequence=1

Part IV Civil Society and the SDGs

The Contribution of Community-­ Based Recycling Cooperatives to a Cluster of SDGs in Semi-arid Brazilian Peri-urban Settlements

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Julia Lopes, Rafael Moraes Reis, Larisa Ho Bech Gaivizzo, Gabriela Litre, Saulo Rodrigues Filho, and Carlos Hiroo Saito in Brazil and, where possible, in other areas of the world leading to 2030.

Abstract

This study focuses on how community recycling cooperatives in two peri-urban climate vulnerable hotspots, Juazeiro and Petrolina, located within the São Francisco River basin are scaling up the implementation of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). From the cooperatives’ activities, there is direct contribution to a cluster of SDGs, namely, SDG 5 (gender), SDG 6 (water and sanitation), SDG 7 (sustainable energy), SDG 11 (sustainable settlements), SDG 12 (ensuring sustainable consumption and production), SDG 13 (climate action), SDG 14 (life in oceans), SDG 15 (life on land), and SDG 17 (partnerships). The main methods of data generation were interviews and field observations. It emerged that the significant contributions of community-­ based waste recycling cooperatives to scaling up SDG 12 implementation resulted in many direct and strong linkages with other SDGs as highlighted herein. This further opens up opportunities for policy cohesion and integration that may optimize positive externalities. To this end, we recommend that more of such activities be initiated J. Lopes (*) · R. M. Reis · L. H. B. Gaivizzo G. Litre · S. Rodrigues Filho · C. H. Saito Brazilian Research Network on Global Climate Change (Rede CLIMA)—Regional Development Subnetwork, Center for Sustainable Development, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil

Keywords

SDGs · Waste management · Recycling · Cooperatives · Socio-environmental security

10.1 Introduction The Brazilian Research Network on Global Climate Change (Rede CLIMA) and the INCT/ Odisseia Observatory of Socioenvironmental Dynamics investigate the vulnerability and adaptive capacity of socio-environmental systems1 in water-scarce territories of Brazil that are severely affected by climate change. To this end, the Integrative Socio-environmental Security Research Project (PI-SSA) is an initiative by Rede CLIMA that focuses on identifying knowledge gaps and public action strategies that may promote the resilience of social and environmental systems within the São Francisco River basin (SFRB). The activities of the INCT/Odisseia project, on the other hand, seek to monitor territorial changes and the adaptive strategies of comA socio-environmental system is defined as the analytical unit for sustainable development research, recognizing a natural system in which humans and ecosystems are inextricable subsystems that interact mutually (Gallopín, 2006; Lindoso, 2013).

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munities to these changes while supporting policy development. The São Francisco is a major river that crosses the semi-arid backlands of the northeast region of Brazil. The Water-Food-Energy (WEF) Nexus is the guiding framework for the PI-SSA transdisciplinary project, which integrates the knowledge of multiple research groups from different disciplines and research institutions, the civil society, and government authorities (Rasul & Sharma, 2016). The integrative approach promotes research beyond compartmentalized sectorial knowledge through the combined evaluation of the use of resources, public policies, and public investments among different domains. The project targets the identification of the optimal context that favors collective and coordinated action and the engagement of governments, the private sector, and the civil society who have stakes in the governance of different sectors related to the use of natural resources. It aims to remove market failures, reduce inequality of resources and power (Hoff, 2011), and promote socio-­environmental security. Socio-environmental security is defined as the properties of social and natural systems that favor adaptation in the presence of climate stresses (PI-SSA, 2017). Centrally, to achieve socio-­ environmental security, localized coordinated responses to environmental challenges at different territorial scales are necessary. It requires the understanding of the interconnectedness between natural and human systems, sectors, scales, and actors, as well as integrated approaches that will minimize trade-offs and maximize synergies between sectorial policy responses. In that sense, the analysis of ecosystem services2 should include the evaluation of policies that regulate the access and use of such services, as well as the mutual dependency between social and ecological systems. The PI-SSA proposed method includes social participation and environmental conservation in addition to sectorial governance as key factors for the implementation of a successful multi-stakeholder governance and regime management. Ecosystem services: benefits to humanity produced and delivered by natural functioning ecosystems (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; Cumming et  al., 2017; Costanza et al., 2017), which sustain the socio-ecological systems and human activities.

Using this approach, we conducted interviews with key stakeholders within the São Francisco River basin. While evaluating local sustainable development agendas, it became evident how community members were alienated from the discussion and the implementation of the local strategies, despite the importance of their activities. Specifically, we identified that there is very little recognition of the undisputable contribution of waste recycling cooperatives (locally organized associations of citizens, or agents, who scavenge recyclable materials). Recycling agents play a vital role in solid waste management and water conservation in the region, since waste dumping into the river is a common, although illegal, practice. This way, waste dumping slows down progress toward achieving a number of SDGs, among them SDG 5, SDG 6, SDGs 11–15, and SDG 17 (United Nations, 2015) that were highlighted in the abstract. Although waste recycling agents are not familiar with the 2030 Agenda and the United Nations’ 17 indivisible SDGs, they make important contributions to the achievement of several of these goals at the local scale. The success of the SDGs is dependent on coordinated action and social participation at the community level. In order to highlight the relevance of public participation and conservation efforts to the 2030 Agenda at the local level, the following sections review the agenda and the localization efforts in Brazil. The contributions of waste management and recycling cooperatives to SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) and their interlinkages with other goals demonstrate how public policies can build on existing action to gain momentum and minimize negative externalities such as pollution resulting from current demographic trends and lifestyles.

10.2 Literature Review and Background Information 10.2.1 The New Sustainable Development Agenda

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The commissioning of the SDGs has brought attention and agreement from countries around the world through one common framework to protect

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socio-ecological systems3 from global pressing concerns, for the equitable benefit of current and future generations (UN General Assembly, 2015). The SDGs and the 2030 Agenda pose ambitious challenges with complex interlinkages between its 17 goals and 169 targets to be met by 2030 (IAEGSDGI, 2016). The goals comprise a wide spectrum of sustainable development dimensions, such as poverty eradication, food security, health, education, gender equality, climate change, sanitation, water, and energy security. Three main aspects shaped the context of the 2030 Agenda: the results of the millennium development goals (MDGs), the changes in how sustainable development is conceptualized, and a shift in sustainable development global governance approaches. First, the lessons learned from the MDGs set the stage for the SDGs. The structure of the MDGs (eight goals set in 2000 to be met by 2015) was repeated and expanded in the SDGs (17 goals set in 2015 to be met in 2030). The simplicity of how the eight MDGs were structured facilitated the engagement of multiple stakeholders from different sectors regardless of governmental action, resulting in significant contributions (Sachs, 2012). Consequently, SDG 16 (peace, justice, and strong institutions) is a novel component to domestic goals setting, which includes governance and institutions, encouraging the participation of the private sector, local governments, and the civil society. On the other hand, the achievements of the millennium goals were marked by geographic imbalance and persistent inequality of wealth, health, and education between the rich and the poor and between the urban and the rural areas (United Nations, 2015). This understanding defined priorities for the post-2015 goals, leading to the “leave no one behind” commitment (UN General Assembly, 2015). Second, the 2030 Agenda is based on recent conceptualizations of sustainable development that include “meeting the needs of the present while safeguarding Earth’s life-support system, Socio-ecological systems: the recognition of a natural system in which humans and ecosystems are inextricable (Lindoso, 2013). 3 

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on which the welfare of current and future generations depends” (Griggs et al., 2013). This definition departs from the traditional weak sustainability trinomial (economy, environment, and social), which assumed that limitless wealth and well-being could be generated without any impacts to social and environmental systems and that natural capital could be replaced by labor and technology. The recognition of Earth’s boundaries is a novel key component of sustainable development conceptualization that shapes the SDGs, in which social, environmental, and economic aspects are approached in an integrated and indivisible manner. This definition is based on twentyfirst-century research about the interconnectedness of Earth systems and the multi-­scalar nature of the common pool of resources (Steffen et al., 2004; Duraiappah et  al., 2014), the global processes established in the Anthropocene (Steffen et  al., 2004), and the planetary boundaries and its tipping elements (Rockström et  al., 2009; Schellnhuber, 2009; Steffen et al., 2015). Due to this interconnectedness, the SDGs often address overlapping issues with both positive and negative externalities (synergies and trade-offs) that will either support or hinder the achievement of more than one target. The achievement of SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), for example, has clear and direct synergies with SDG 3 (good health and well-being), as the improvement of sanitation has direct effects on public human health. Trade-offs, on the other hand, do not have the same clear linkages. Meeting the demands for universal access to energy (SDG 7), for instance, negatively affects climate change mitigation goals (SDG 13). Although SDG 7 targets clean energy technologies, linking investments in energy efficiency to gross domestic product (GDP) inevitably falls into contradiction: a desirable increase in investments assumes an increase in GDP, which generally requires more intense use of natural resources. Third, the 2030 Agenda consolidates a change in global governance approaches in the new millennium, shifting from a rule- and norms-based to an objectives-based model. A norm-setting approach had been generally adopted in the 1990s after large conferences and conventions were spearheaded by the United Nations. The Agenda 21 for example, as

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a result of the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, provided an extensive programmatic blueprint for the implementation of sustainable development with several principles, national and international objectives, and policy recommendations (Dasandi, Hudson, & Pegram, 2015; United Nations, 1992). Other regulatory frameworks included intergovernmental panels, the Kyoto Protocol, and, relevant to this discussion, the United Nations guidelines on sustainable consumption that led to the Marrakech Process in the early 2000s (UNEP DTIE/UN DESA, 2019). These models, while pragmatic in establishing governance as a process guided by technical management, had difficulties in finding legitimacy at different levels of authority, as well as institutional capacity and political will at the national and local levels to be effectively realized (Dasandi et  al., 2015). They also involved long negotiation processes and weak implementation, such as the case of the Kyoto Protocol. The new model based on objectives brought by the MDGs and the SDGs, on the other hand, allowed for nations to select their priorities and plan for resources to be allocated into these priorities, encouraging capacity building and partnerships. The frameworks also gained popularity and facilitated agreement between member states of the UN due to the flexibility allowed by the back-casting approach and its non-legally binding objectives (Sachs, 2012; UN SDSN, 2015). In this context, we present an analysis of a case study which explores how the members of waste recycling cooperatives in the Brazilian semi-arid contribute to SDG 12. The interviews were carried out in 2018 in the cities of Juazeiro and Petrolina, in semi-arid northeastern Brazil. We identify interlinkages that can provide a pathway for policy cohesion and integration in the achievement of the SDGs at the local scale.

10.2.2 SDG Localization in Semi-arid Brazil The three novel aspects of the SDGs presented in the previous section (focus on greater inclusiveness, sustainable development limited by Earth’s capacity, and the objectives-based governance)

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highlight the key role of local governments and the civil society in meeting set targets and consequently giving legitimacy to the 2030 Agenda. Localizing the goals is a necessary step to ensure action that is inclusive at the community level and sensitive to local externalities, promotes behavioral change toward the use of resources, and engages institutions to adopt voluntary goals. It has become clear that the SDGs will only be achieved if municipal authorities and leaderships are committed and are willing to align their public policies according to the established indicators. Nonetheless, although the goals address issues that are critical to these municipalities and provide pathways for a sustainable future, the operationalization and incorporation of the goals into public policy in semi-arid Brazil, not unlike the rest of the country, is still incipient. An audit performed by the Brazilian Federal Court of Accounts (TCU) has identified alarming gaps for the institutionalization of the 2030 Agenda in Brazil. Findings show the country must still improve the adequacy of its goals and national indicators, the reporting process, as well as its awareness-raising efforts. The federal government must still initiate long-term planning, integrate the activities of monitoring and evaluation of public policies, and establish adequate mechanisms for prevention and risk management (TCU, 2017). These findings highlight the risks of discontinuity, fragmentation, and overlapping of efforts and public resources. The conclusions of the TCU regarding the federal government actions do not differ from those of state and local governments. On the contrary, the further away a city is from the national capital of Brasilia, the greater the deficit (TCU, 2017). The implementation of the 2030 Agenda and development of adequate national targets has been delayed by the political turmoil and instability that affected the country since 2015 and was only finalized in 2018. On the other hand, the National Confederation of Municipalities has supported the downscaling and localization of the framework by adapting the targets to municipal context, providing capacity training to local authorities and municipalization guidelines (UNDP, UN-Habitat, & Global Task Force, 2015).

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Recent changes implemented by the federal government that go against important environmental conservation and social inclusion practices recommended by the Agenda are additional obstacles to the achievement of the SDGs. A few examples are the weak enforcement of laws against deforestation during election periods that culminated in loss of funds for the protection of the Amazon (Observatório do Clima, 2017; Rodrigues-Filho et  al., 2015); the implementation of the recent, less strict Forestry Code (Jónsson, 2016); and the weakening of the Ministry of Environment, whose authority, conservation practices, and legal framework were undermined by central government statements and directives. More recently, the federal government issued a mandate that dissolved counsels, committees, and forums that formed the participatory mechanisms for the civil society to partake in public administration matters. Among the threatened mechanisms are the Brazilian Climate Change Forum and the National Commission for the SDGs (Brazil, 2019), major setback to the implementation process.

10.2.3 The Social, Economic, and Environmental Role of Waste Recycling Cooperatives In 2010, the Brazilian federal government introduced a new National Solid Waste Policy (NSWP), establishing a novel co-accountability principle. According to this principle, all relevant stakeholders have a shared responsibility for the waste generated by services and products: manufacturers, retailers, municipalities, and, to a lesser degree, consumers (Brazil, 2010). At the same time, the NSWP required municipalities to shut down open dumps and establish partnerships with waste recycling cooperatives (WRC), providing resources and the means for them to operate. The policy aims to promote an inclusive supply chain as it establishes waste recycling agents (also commonly called waste pickers and/ or scavengers) as structuring elements of the required reverse logistics. Although the policy

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has been in place for almost a decade now, enforcement and implementation are still lacking. These mandatory adjustments to public waste management brought priority and visibility to the undervalued role of WRCs (Martins, Mota, Segala, Santos, & Cabral, 2016), and since then, several municipalities formalized contracts with cooperatives. The NSWP, however, does not require these contracts to establish employment ties (and associated benefits like pension, health insurance, stability, or salaries) with the government. Workers continue to rely solely on their productivity and sales income, commonly well below the nationally established minimum wage (Andrade, 2017; Brazil, 2010; MNCR, 2009; Ribeiro, Nardi, & Machado, 2012). The contractual system between municipalities and cooperatives established by the NSWP is far from meeting the requirements of the current Brazilian labor regulations. However, the cooperative system still represents an improvement in these workers labor and employment history (Wirth, 2010). Waste recycling cooperatives in Brazil have traditionally been an entry point for marginalized individuals into the labor market. The flexibility imposed by the associative model, in which there are no employment ties with the cooperative or hierarchies, also facilitates new member entries. They are commonly a last resource for the unemployed, migrants, former prison inmates, street dwellers, the illiterate, and the extremely poor (Pinheiro & Francischetto, 2016). Members of WRCs come from different backgrounds, often from precarious individual waste scavenging activities on the streets or on open dumps. The environments in which they used to work can be highly unsafe and can have an impact on bodily health as well as mental health: interviewees have reported having found hazardous hospital waste, fetuses, and animal and even human dead bodies thrown illegally in open dumps. In these conditions, materials rummaged from urban waste were commonly sold to middlemen under very little bargaining power and high market uncertainty. As most of the scavengers are functionally illiterate, negotiations were

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often carried without proper knowledge of the amount of materials they were selling and at which price (Galon & Marziale, 2016). The organization of these individual workers into cooperatives allowed for them to work collectively under formal and safer conditions, protected by the Federal Constitution, the Civil Code, and the Cooperatives Law no. 5.764/1971 (Brazil, 1971, 1988, 2002; SEBRAE, 2018). In this system, members establish internal statutes and bylaws. As partners/members in the enterprise, they share the profits of the products sold. Illiterate workers can get reading and writing skills, developing a sense of belonging and partnership, and get empowered. This organization process is responsible for strengthening the notion of solidarity among the recyclers (Tremblay & Gutberlet, 2012). Cooperatives also play a role in promoting gender equality and are commonly regarded as a haven for unemployed women. The National Waste Recycling Movement in Brazil (MNCR, in Portuguese) is an empowered social movement largely led by women. The movement’s agenda, moreover, has female empowerment and productive inclusion as priorities in their national-level strategy, working to reduce the gender gap in remuneration and labor division (Martins et  al., 2016; MNCR, 2017; Ribeiro et al., 2012; Wirth, 2010).

10.3 Location of the Study Area The São Francisco River basin, located in the semi-arid northeast region of Brazil, is one of the areas among tropical regions that were most severely affected by increases in temperature and reduced precipitation in the past century (IPCC, 2013, 2014; PBMC, 2013). The region has recently gone through a severe drought that lasted from 2011 to 2017 (Seyffarth & Rodrigues, 2017), the longest since the 1960s (Silva, Santos, Queiroz, Gusmão, & Silva, 2017). São Francisco River is the only major river that starts and ends in Brazil and is divided into four physiographic regions from south to north: the upper, middle, lower-middle, and lower stretches (MMA & Cobrape-Projetec, 2017). The basin is signifi-

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cantly important to ensure water security of a sizeable area in the semi-arid region and therefore urgently requires recovery and revitalization actions after a major diversion project began in 2009, affecting ecosystems and economies (MMA & Cobrape-Projetec, 2017; Zellhuber & Siqueira, 2016). Petrolina and Juazeiro are neighboring cities separated by the São Francisco River and important settlements within the SFRB (Fig.  10.1). They are part of the lower-middle stretch of the river basin (LMSF) and are under extreme climate risk and social vulnerability (Buainam & Garcia, 2013; PBMC, 2013). This area is one of the largest urban agglomerations in the semi-arid region, with a population of over half a million people according to the last census data (IBGE, 2013). The region is historically dependent on its agribusiness for both income and employment generation. It is also characterized by a plethora of frequently conflicting socioeconomic interests. The basin attracts many organizations and social movements, as well as government programs funded by federal and state resources. Several nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that are actively working in the region have taken responsibilities in lieu of governments, assisting the population with products and services governments have failed to provide. Petrolina is governed by the state of Pernambuco (PE) while Juazeiro is under the regulations of the state of Bahia (BA). The ­different governance systems shape the dynamics of the interactions between these cities. The local and regional socio-environmental vulnerabilities result mainly from poverty and poor environmental conditions and are exacerbated by climate change and extreme events. The local human development indicators are well below the national averages. According to the Atlas of Human Development in Brazil, the municipal human development indexes (mHDI) are 0.697 and 0.677  in Petrolina and Juazeiro, respectively, versus the 0.759 national average. Vulnerability to poverty affects 45.73% and 49.09% of the population, while rates of children living in extreme poverty are as high as 10.79% and 11.14% (PNUD, IPEA, & FJP, 2016). The

Fig. 10.1 (a) Major Brazilian rivers and (b) study area within the São Francisco River basin (developed by the authors)

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expected increase in temperatures in the region, associated with low humidity levels, is beyond human physiological capacity to adapt (Chou et al., 2014). This condition is likely to reduce productivity in important economic sectors that are labor intensive such as agriculture and construction, also affecting waste management and recycling activities. Increased heat and reduced rainfall frequency are expected to intensify the incidence of water-borne diseases, among other illnesses. Urban population has grown faster than the national averages in both cities (PNUD, IPEA, & FJP, 2016), which may lead to an increase of urban dwellers (UNFPA, 2007). This increase in population is regarded as a key factor in the growth of mid-sized and small cities in developing countries, where infrastructure and institutions have yet to be developed to accommodate the population without compromising their capabilities (Anderson, Okereke, Rudd, & Parnell, 2013). Such rapid urban sprawl is commonly characterized by disorganized expansion, poverty, unemployment, frail governance, scarce human and financial resources and limited capacity to develop infrastructure (UN-DESA, 2013), as well as a significant increase in waste generation. This socio-environmental vulnerability affects the fragile governance and management of Petrolina and Juazeiro, compromising regional development.

10.4 Presentation of Data and Discussion of Findings The lower-middle São Francisco solid waste management system is influenced by many stakeholders, among which are recycling agents (individual and cooperatives), waste scavengers, local authorities, and academics. The waste recycling agents in the study area are organized into two cooperatives: Comarca in Petrolina (PE) and Cooperfitz in Juazeiro (BA). Both cooperatives are relatively new enterprises, created with the support of local NGOs and their respective municipalities. Cooperfitz and Comarca often collaborate and provide mutual assistance, sharing resources, networks, and freight, among other business and

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institutional interactions. Despite the difficulties imposed by the different state and municipal regulations, members report that these interactions have at times proved to be more advanced and sophisticated than that between the local governments, which have not established efficient communication channels nor coordinated policies. Moreover, policies in Petrolina and Juazeiro are sometimes contradictory, due to the clashes between the opposing political parties that lead each municipality, or due to illogical practices such as withdrawing water downstream from the neighbor city’s sewage discharge area (Cavalcante, 2017). Additionally, each local administration faces its own important governance problems. With changing administrations, there is a lack of continuity of already established policies and a lack of trust and open information between succeeding administrations (Araujo et al., 2019). The PI-SSA initiated a transdisciplinary process in 2017 which involved multi-scale dialogues with governmental and nongovernmental actors of the São Francisco River basin who were involved in public and collective action in the LMSF (PI-SSA, 2017). These dialogues allowed for the creation of vulnerability maps and of an inventory of policies directly or indirectly related to socio-environmental security. The resulting data was refined in conversations with in-depth interviews with representatives of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, local leaders, and members of the civil society during meetings, seminars, and workgroups. The interviews explored 12 distinct themes through semi-­structured questions: land, housing, family, water, environment, health, food, energy, work, mobility and migration, as well as the actions and decision-making processes to overcome them. Interviews were conducted with members of Cooperfitz and Comarca, authorities from both municipalities, and a CBHSF representative. It was evident from the interviews that the importance of the work performed by the cooperatives went beyond public solid waste management. Although these interviews did not reference the SDGs and were not intentionally developed to evaluate interactions with the 2030 Agenda, the

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Table 10.1  Analysis of WRC contributions to SDG 12 SDG 12—Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns Target 12.1—Implement the 10-year framework of programs on sustainable consumption and production, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries 12.2—By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources

12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water, and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse 12.7 Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities 12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature 12.c Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities

Contributions of WRC work Support to the national solid waste policy, with MNCR as a community-­ based leading force worldwide

Cooperatives as key players in recycling and reverse logistics chains reducing material footprint Reduction of domestic material consumption and use of natural and non-renewable resources Reduction of waste release to soil and water Reduction of waste impacts to the SFRB ecosystem, affecting human health and the environment Key execution in the implementation and promotion of recycling, reduction, and reuse of resources Pressure for contracts with public institutions as per the NSWP Awareness for sustainable development at national and international level Facilitation of the removal of subsidies by supporting supply-chain productivity, materials reuse, and use of energy, thereby reducing the need for fossil-fuel resources

Type of manifestation Observed/ voiced

Observed

Observed

Observed Observed

Observed

Voiced/ observed Voiced/ observed Observed

Source: Authors

contributions of their activities for the achievement of the SDGs at the municipal level became evident. More specifically, their work and routines had clear synergies with SDG 12. Changing lifestyles and supply chains toward sustainable consumption and production (SCP) patterns is possibly the most transformational and necessary goal among the SDGs. The services provided by WRCs are at the core of the best practices for recycling and upcycling and are pivotal for the establishment of reverse logistics for a circular economy. The contributions to SDG 12 were

identified in Table  10.1. They were analyzed in light of the goal, its targets, as well as the indicators defined by the UN Inter-Agency and Expert Group (IAEG-SDGI, 2016). The members of the cooperatives are most certainly not aware of the SDGs. They are not, however, oblivious to the importance of their work toward the environment and the sustainable development of the region. Most of the attributes identified were the result of the observation of WRC work, the nature of their relationship with relevant stakeholders, and the existing policies in

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Fig. 10.2  SDG interlinkage matrix—contributions from SDG 12 at target level. (Source: Authors)

the region. Some of these attributes were however clearly voiced by its members and/or authorities. The contributions to SDG 12 are mostly related to the implementation of recycling activities that reduce different forms of pollution, the public services provided, and the role of the MNCR in capacity building. Moreover, effects reverberate beyond SDG 12 and have functional and causal implications to several other SDG targets. These interlinkages are identified in Fig. 10.2. The evaluation of the degree of each interaction was adapted from the scale developed by the International Council for Science (ICSU, 2017). Synergies relate objectives that positively affect the achievement of other goals, and the strengths of these interlinkages vary from enabling to reinforcing to objectives that are inextricably interdependent on the achievement of the other goal. Trade-offs, on the other hand, represent negative interlinkages that either constrain, counteract, or cancel out the achievement of other goals (ICSU, 2017). The allocation of these interactions is the

result of lengthy iterative discussions to obtain agreement, as per the ICSU methodology. At the waste management sector level, the empowered MNCR has supported cooperatives by not only advocating for the development of proper regulations but also by expanding its reach to provide technical support, financial discipline, and best practices to cooperatives in different cities, states, and neighbor countries (Pinheiro & Francischetto, 2016). WRCs frequently establish private links for cooperation and partnerships both nationally and internationally that are stronger than those provided by their governments—supporting targets 6.5, 13.3, and 17.6 (transboundary cooperation; education, knowledge transfers, and capacity building; and ­south-­south cooperation, respectively). That is the case of Petrolina and Juazeiro, where authorities have very little interaction regarding common resources and challenges. Cooperfitz and Comarca supply recycled materials to both cities, and by reducing releases and dumping to water and soil, they preserve important ecosys-

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tem services that do not have the same boundaries as the municipal political jurisdictions. The work of the MNCR also reduces gender-based labor division through equality enabling processes and policy-­based empowerment (targets 5.1, 5.b, and 5.c). The role of the WRCs in recycling and reducing the use of resources has clear and direct co-­ benefits to other targets, notably SDG 7.3 (energy use reduction) and 11.6 and 11.9 (reduce the per capita impact of cities, as well as promote inclusion and resource efficiency). Human health and ecosystems benefit from the reduced releases to soil and into the São Francisco River, generating strong synergies with targets 14.1 (reduction of water pollution, mainly from debris and plastics), 6.6 (reduce solid waste dumping up- and downstream), and 15.2 (halt deforestation and promote recycling, reducing the use of resources). In the LMSF, some of the most important synergies for municipal sustainable development is related to SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), mainly due to the increased recycling rates. The National Solid Waste Policy establishes the shared accountability for the reverse logistics among all stakeholders in the supply chain (Brazil, 2010) but fails to determine mechanisms that integrate its costs into the productive system. The urban ecosystem services executed by recycling cooperatives are thus excluded from the accounting process, despite their importance to both the environment and the society. This exclusion is reflected in the difficulty WRC members find to achieve minimum pay and living standards. The pressure put by cooperatives and the national movement to formalize contracts with municipalities to provide such services is important for job creation and provides the opportunity to tackle current market failures: the gender gap and the inequality of income and of opportunity—important synergies with targets 5.1, 6.2, and 10.3. These contract mechanisms, however, are twofold: while they grant waste pickers some degree of stability and resources, they still allow precarious work conditions. This is a clear trade-­ off with SDG 8. It is not uncommon that mem-

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bers lack protective equipment and training, which leaves them exposed to numerous hazards (sunburns, contamination, injuries while picking or operating equipment). These trade-offs leave room for questioning the adequacy of the NSWP contractual system. The system incentivizes a relaxation of labor rights and affects the quality of the jobs created and the effectiveness of these inclusive measures. This non-binding format allows negative externalities: the creation of precarious and hazardous jobs (SDG 8.5), vulnerability to illnesses (SDG 3.9), and occupational hazards (SDG 8.8).

10.5 Conclusion The localization of the sustainable development goals is an important step toward realizing “leave no one behind” motto advocated by the 2030 Agenda. Lessons learned from previous global sustainable development efforts indicate the necessity to sensitize the population and downscale the agenda to include local sensibilities and understand context-specific externalities. Transdisciplinary processes that are inclusive of the population may give visibility to bottom-up contributions and emerging synergies. The integration of public policies into a cohesive sustainable development strategy and localization of the SDGs by incorporating bottom-up, community-based contributions gained further importance in Brazil after the dissolution of the National Commission for the SDGs. These strategies may prove to be important tools to support the fragile, non-binding global-level agendas that are threatened by national political instability. The analysis of the contributions of waste recycling cooperatives toward SDG 12 shows important interlinkages that indicate a pathway for policy cohesion and integration that may optimize positive externalities. Strong synergies with goals that address water and land ecosystems, human health, water, and sanitation for human consumption are clear direct benefits from the reduction of waste dumped in the São Francisco River. Other indirect benefits include the

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r­ eduction of gender gaps and the reduction of the impact of cities and settlements. Despite the majority of positive interactions identified and the positive changes generated by the social articulation of groups into cooperatives, action is still required to prevent poor working conditions and the deterioration of water quality and community health. These trade-offs should not be taken lightly, as they are closely related to human rights and dignity. The interviews carried in 2018 in the cities of Juazeiro and Petrolina, in semi-arid northeastern Brazil, provide evidence that there are challenges of sensitizing and engaging government agents and the civil society. Three years after the SDGs were launched, awareness and appropriation of the goals among communities and local authorities were well below what a framework of such magnitude would require. Among the interviewees (local authorities, academia, and waste recycling agents), there was an overall perception that the goals are part of a national-level agenda, but not a local priority. This observation corroborated the need to proceed with the sensitization of the main stakeholders that will influence the implementation of the SDGs in semi-arid Brazil. The study shows the impacts of weak public planning and coordination among riverside cities and suggests that public action toward supporting cooperatives has the potential to address social and environmental concerns, contributing to local socio-environmental security. The methodology, however, gives visibility to important bottom-up contributions to the achievement of the 2030 Agenda from the urban ecosystem services provided by social groups largely led by women in Brazil. Acknowledgments  Authors thank the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) of the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovation and Communication (MCTIC), Research Support Foundation of the Federal District (FAP-DF), and the Foundation for Space Science, Technology and Applications (FUNCATE). This work was supported by the Brazilian Research Network on Global Climate Change—Rede CLIMA (FINEP Grant 01.13.0353-00). The project leading to this work has received funding

from INCT/Odisseia Observatory of Socioenvironmental Dynamics (Sustainability and Adaptation to Climate, Environmental and Demographic Changes) under the National Institutes of Science and Technology Program (Call INCT—MCTI/CNPq/CAPES/FAPs n.16/2014).

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Critical Analysis of the Contribution of Women’s University in Africa Towards the Attainment of SDG 5

11

Tsungai Rumbidzai Nondo and Alexio Mbereko

Abstract

For a long time, patriarchy and capitalism have been major systems of women oppression and unfair treatment. In 2015, the United Nations adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a development framework for development for all. Women’s universities contribute towards several SDGs, but more specifically towards SDG 5 (SDG 5). This chapter examines the contribution of Women’s University in Africa (WUA) towards the attainment on gender equality and women empowerment. The paper utilised secondary and indepth-interview data as methods of data collection. The findings show that WUA contributes to SDG 5 amongst others in the following manner: student output, training of unskilled people, empowering working women, the development of relevant courses and public seminars and research. The WUA has a policy of enrolling more females (85%) than males (15%). In 2018, the university enrolment was comprised of 3144 females (83%) and 661 males (17%). In addition, the majority of women chose to do social ­sciences, T. R. Nondo (*) Department of Community Development, Women’s University in Africa, Greendale, Zimbabwe A. Mbereko Department of Child Sensitive Social Policy, Women’s University in Africa, Greendale, Zimbabwe

followed by business management and lastly agricultural sciences. It also emerged that the university faces a plethora of problems, especially the lack of financial resources and support from the state. In conclusion, the WUA contributes towards gender equality and women empowerment. As such, the institutions occupy a special sphere that complements the scaling up of SDG 5 implementation. Keywords

Women’s university · Gender empowerment · Higher education · Africa · SDGs

11.1 Introduction Gandhi’s philosophy on education was not limited to universal education, but on a discriminating aspect of gender differences that would lead to the fullest development of human beings (Thakur, 2006). He attacked the thinking that women should be confined to reproductive functions mainly around the home in the same way that Karl Marx did. According to Marx, the maintenance and reproduction of the working class remains a necessary condition for the ‘reproduction of capital’ (Cousins, Dubb, Hornby, & Mtero, 2018). However, the capitalist may safely leave the workers to regulate the household politics in determining the continued supply of labour. This logic of

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capitalism has forced women to be excluded from education by patriarchy. Unfortunately, for the larger part of contemporary society’s history, women’s role was to reproduce so as to ensure labour supply mainly to drive capitalists’ accumulation of wealth (Oksala, 2016) ignoring them as social agents that can contribute to productive activities. Women have a long history of struggling against patriarchy and capitalist exploitation. Even though the contemporary society has shown dedication to gender equality, women empowerment still lags behind. The argument that gender discrimination against women limits their potentials and utility has led to the assumption that gender inequality may compromise the attainment of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 interlinked Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Hence, this assumption forms an integral part of the SDG 5. Education has been argued by scholars as an important route to reverse gender inequality to empower women (UNDP, 2010; Vladimirova and Le Blanc, 2015), and this way, SDG 5 remains intrinsically networked to SDG 4 (quality education) (United Nations, 2015a, 2015b). We argue that the Women’s University in Africa (WUA) contributes towards the achievement of the SDGs by 2030 through its promotion of gender equality and women empowerment. To this end, the chapter assesses the contributions of the WUA to the achievement of the SDGs in general and SDG 5 in particular.

11.2 Literature Review and Background Information 11.2.1 SDG 5 and Education Under pressure, the patriarchal and capitalist systems relaxed their restrictions on admitting women into higher education and on the job markets. Critical scholars attacked such mild involvement of women in education as increasing their capacities for maternal nurturance to children and males (Walkerdine, 1992). In the modern era, activists and policy makers focus on raising equal numbers of educated women joining paid labour

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(Thakur, 2006). The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), especially MDG 3, aimed at increasing women numbers in the workplace, education and decision-making. The desired increase in women participation in these sectors was guided by ‘the question of the day’ and directed by powerful social elites. The issue at hand was in the disparities in the number of males and females in education, workplace and politics. Despite the increased numbers of women in key sectors, they remain largely excluded from leading powerful positions, which form the loci of decision-making (Stuart and Woodroffe, 2016). The development of post-structuralism resulted in the revision of most critical feminists’ positions and assumptions on gender inequality by not only identifying women as the subject of study but also considering her agency in the social structural context (Oksala, 2016; Stuart & Woodroffe, 2016). Post-structural critical feminists argue that gender norms, stereotypes and expectations are a root cause of the gendered division of labour (whether paid or unpaid work), violence against women and girls and women’s lack of decision-making power. This broader conceptualisation appreciates the complex linkage between gender inequality and other social, environmental and workplace injustices. The desire to address these gender inequalities and promote women empowerment informed the development of SDG 5 that aims to achieve gender equality and girl and women empowerment (United Nations, 2015a, 2015b). In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly set out 17 SDGs that are to ensure sustainable development for the world by 2030. According to Nhamo et  al. (2018), UN Women values the importance of SDG 5 and its cross-cutting nature across other SDGs and calls for a national and global gendered programming and reporting structure. SDG 5 commits countries to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls through nine targets that are specific. Linked to the targets are several indicators that measure the performance of different countries and at times organisations as appropriate. The United Nations (2015a, 2015b) set out the targets under SDG 5 as presented in Box 11.1.

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Box 11.1 SDG 5 Targets

• 5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere • 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation • 5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation • 5.4 Recognise and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate • 5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-­making in political, economic and public life • 5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences • 5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws • 5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women • 5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels Source: United Nations (2015a, 2015b: 18)

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We argue that tertiary education (also embracing SDG 4 on quality education) is key in meeting all targets under SDG 5 and those of related SDGs. According to Vladimirova and Le Blanc (2015), all other SDGs relate to gender and education with the exception of SDG 14 that pertains to oceans. However, a further scrutiny of the SDGs will reveal other linkages of SDG 14 to all other SDGs including SDG 5 and SDG 4. This emerging from the understanding that the SDGs are one in all and all on one (Nhamo, Nhamo, & Nhemachena 2018). It should be appreciated that the SDGs now emphasise not only on the enrolment of females but also on the completion of studies and women empowerment (Stuart & Woodroffe, 2016). A number of factors like cultural biases, parents’ favouritism of boys, early pregnancies and religion affected girls’ completion of their schooling. Furthermore, the SDGs do not only limit themselves to primary and secondary schooling of girls but also include females in tertiary education. Tertiary education is the vehicle for women to enjoy the rights bestowed in targets 5.7–5.9 that involve women in natural resources, technological transfer and use and thus empowering all women and girls at all levels. The drive towards higher education has influenced new terminology such as ‘life-long learning’ and ‘adult learning’. It is hoped that by 2030, adult education will substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship (Milana, Holford, Hodge, Waller, & Webb, 2017). However, academics are not in agreement over the relationship between adult learning and education. Private tertiary education institutions have been associated with the logic of capital and the pursuance profits as a survival and growth strategy. The capitalist market inevitably creates inequalities that are based on socio-economic status. According to Biesta (2006: 19–20), there is a: … re-description of the language of education in terms of an economic transaction, that is a transaction in which (1) the learner is the (potential) consumer, the one who has certain ‘needs’, in which (2) the teacher, the educator or the educational institution is seen as the provider and (3) education itself becomes a commodity – a ‘thing’ to be provided or delivered [at a fee].

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Such a state of affairs as described by Biesta (2006) leads to institutions accumulating wealth at the cost of the students. Deserving students, including women, might not benefit from the education because they cannot afford the fees. The contradictory side to this analysis on higher education being offered by private institutions argues that education is a critical aspect of life and the focus should not be so much on the monetary transaction, but on the skills accrued (ILO, 2018). The argument is hinged on the social benefits that are accrued by an individual woman and the community good. Researchers and policy makers argue that education expands opportunities for girls and young women and raises their aspirations for work outside the home (Vladimirova and Le Blanc, 2015). Another important link between higher education and women’s empowerment is the fact that as women acquire education they are more likely to exit the traditional reproductive duties entering the world of waged labour (Milana et  al., 2017; Thakur, 2006). According to a ILO (2018: 3): As more women enter the labour force, economies have the potential to grow faster in response to higher labour inputs. Women’s supply of labour increases household incomes, which helps families escape poverty and increase their consumption of goods and services.

Higher educational attainment expands women’s freedoms by strengthening their capacity to question, reflect and act on their condition and by increasing their access to information (UNDP, 2010). Focusing solely on the personal and common good may not be so feasible for privately run institutions such as women universities1 but for government-sponsored higher education institutions. Women empowerment through education has documented a number of positive outcomes in other SDGs. A number of studies have documented how increased education levels amongst women have increased health outcomes. According to Horton (2015: 1928): From the online data base of women universities in the world, all of them are not government institutions. Although in some cases governments might assist, they dominantly run from fees and donations. 1 

T. R. Nondo and A. Mbereko The percentage of demand satisfied for modern methods of family planning rose in Nigeria from 13% in 1990 to 31% in 2014; in Egypt from 64% in 1992 to 80% in 2014. … and the proportion of women who make decisions about their own health is rising: in Zambia, from 42% in 2001–2002 to 74% in 2013–2014.

It should be appreciated that the benefits of higher education consist of, among other things, better employment prospects, higher salaries, better health and improved quality of life, while the public benefits include enhancement of economic development through technological catch (Bloom et al., 2006).

11.2.2 Women Movements in Higher Education and Women’s Universities We argue that the traditional mixed gender universities became the vessels of capitalism in exploiting labour, worse, still, the exclusion of women from these institutions of higher learning, hence, marginalising them from an opportunity to empower themselves. Literature has demonstrated how traditional mixed gender university education has largely been enjoyed mainly by males and females from advantaged backgrounds (Odhiambo, 2011). Higher education was not regarded as a feminine space, and it ended up as an environment that reproduced gender inequalities. Consequently, it became a target for feminist movements, and the efforts resulted in either accommodation of more women in mixed sex universities or the creation of women’s universities. Traditional universities changed their approach to female students by integrating them as equal citizens (Odhiambo, 2011). Some of the universities even created an affirmative action by lowering entry points for women and providing bursaries to encourage female student enrolment (Onsongo, 2009). Makerere University in Uganda opened its doors in 1922 but only admitted its first female students in 1945, which was twentythree years later, after a long struggle (Kwesiga, 1993: 216). By 1990, the population of its female students was below 15 percent of the total enrolment (Mugagga, 2010). Similar trends were

11  Critical Analysis of the Contribution of Women’s University in Africa Towards the Attainment of SDG 5

noted by Ajayi cited in Mama (2003) who asserts that the National University of Congo was established in 1954 but only admitted its first batch of women 8 years far much later in 1962, while the National University of Côte d’Ivoire’s total number of female students constituted 6.75% of the total enrolment in 1971, seven years after its opening in 1964. In Southern Africa, the University of Zimbabwe, previously University of Rhodesia, opened its doors in 1952 but only admitted its first female student in 1957 (Machirori, 2012). By 1981, after the country attained its independence in 1980, women comprised just 13.3 percent of the total intake in arts, economics, engineering, law, pharmacy and science (Bennel & Ncube, 1994). However, high school leavers were targeted and not necessarily older women. Women were ‘presumed incompetent’ and unfit for academia, in what was popularly known in science as the womb brain dichotomy2 (Harris and Gonzalez as cited in Muhs, Niemann, Gonzalez & Harris, 2014:1), hence, their exclusion since the establishment of the first university. While men had access to higher education, women were relegated to reproduction, family and home care and were denied access to higher education. Karen argues that higher education has been a social structure for the control of advanced knowledge and technique. Unfortunately, higher education has largely been controlled through a patriarchal system that promotes gender inequality. Despite the commitment of the World Conference on Higher Education (UNESCO, 2009) to make higher education accessible to all and to ensure women’s participation, it has largely remained inaccessible to most women. Odhiambo (2011) further argues that higher education institutions are still male dominated, hierarchical and hostile to women. However, there has been a shifting cultural landscape regarding women’s education, and the seeds of progressive change are evident in a greater appreciation of their education, hence, the The womb brain argument states that women are only good as child bearers and not for anything else that requires thinking and decision making (Muhs, Niemann, Gonzalez & Harris 2014).

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interventions by women’s universities to increase gender parity (Cowan, 2010). The need to integrate all women into tertiary education led to the creation of women’s universities as a result of the gender movement of the 1970s. The creation of women’s universities by activists and private organisations was aimed at involving women more fully in the economic, political and social spheres (Nyaruwata, 2018). The few women’s universities scattered on the planet are fighting to bring gender parity in university education by empowering women. Women’s universities contribute towards Sustainable Development Goal 5 more through ensuring women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision making in political, economic and public life. Some of the policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality has been through gender mainstreaming initiatives by women’s universities’ interventions to increase gender parity. Purcell, Helms and Rumbly (2005) assert that the history of women’s colleges dates back to 1800, and there seems to be a proliferation of female universities, and women’s ratio to males in these universities was higher. The exclusion of women from higher education during the nineteenth century led women like Emma Willard, Catherine Beecher, Mary Lyon and Eliza Baylies Wheaton to establish separate institutions of learning where women would excel. Women’s universities were deemed to ‘provide a special nourishing environment, free of male rivalry and the negative societal expectations for women’ (Pampuschin, 1990; Breese, 2000) and to establish separate institutions of learning ‘where women would excel’. Pearson et al. (1989) concur that the establishment of women’s universities in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century was to provide higher education to women who were mostly excluded from the leading private and state universities and ­colleges. The increase in women’s universities globally and their ambition of emancipating marginalised and under-represented women should be contextualised in the important debate on the politics of social movements.

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In the United States, women’s colleges were established in response to the restrictions on women’s entry to the Ivy League schools such as Harvard and Yale. Full-fledged women’s colleges like Brescia University College and Ewart College were established in Canada, while United Kingdom established Lucy Cavendish College, Murray Edwards College and Newnham College. In Asia, they were established in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Japan, Korea, the Philippines and India. In other parts of the world, especially Islamic countries of Asia and northern Africa, Roudi-­ Fahimi and Moghadam (2003) observes encouraging trends of women’s access to higher education, where they were developed as an option for female degree seekers who are restricted by religion dictates which mandate the separation of men and women. This was followed by the establishment of new institutions for women in Asian countries, like the Royal University for Women in Bahrain and the Asian University for Women in Bangladesh. In other parts of the world, the development of women’s universities has been necessitated by a need to address gender disparities and foster equity in university education. In Northeast Africa, a women’s university opened in Sudan, while in East Africa and Southern Africa, women’s universities opened doors on similar mandates in Kenya and Zimbabwe, respectively (Purcell et al., 2005). The concept and movements of empowerment and giving voice to women through higher education have been praised widely amongst neoliberal feminists. However, such initiatives can be critiqued for offering only superficial forms of inclusion to essentialist group identities and that power is selectively bestowed and equality becomes a mirage for the majority. Arguably, calls of emancipation are romanticised and attached to calls of rescue and freedom, allowing under-represented, excluded and neglected groups to have their say and for their perspectives to be heard and the value of their standpoints recognised. These emancipated people’s agency will threaten the dominant groups in society which is ground for conflicts. The extension of neoliberal institutions in the universities and the state can

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arguably be a threat to the women emancipation doctrine of women’s universities as the marketing and competition for public goods create new inequalities. Neoliberalisation of the public sector involves the extension of market competition into organisations constructed around specific values of public good: education, health and social security. Issues to do with ‘returns to scale’ may become very important for women universities to become viable business entities while achieving their primary goal of women emancipation.

11.2.3 Women’s University in Africa Like other women universities globally, the Women’s University in Africa was established as a result of a movement for women empowerment, and with demonstrated reluctance for governments to support such initiatives, the institution is a private university. The university was established in 2002 by two neoliberal feminists, namely, Professor Hope Cynthia Sadza and Dr. Fay King Chung. The university’s enrolment is based on maturity entry for women who are 25 years old and above, though its doors are open to younger women and has a deliberate enrolment ratio of 85% women to 15% men, based on the existing enrolment gender inequality ratios in institutions of higher learning in Africa (Women’s University in Africa Annual Report, 2015). The establishment of WUA was a realisation that most women were not responding to positions of influence in society, in both public and private sector, for the reasons that they were less qualified to compete academically. The university was established with an aim to bridge that gap and encourage more women to participate in higher education. After the establishment of the university, it targeted women who were in influential positions but with lower qualifications. WUA took on gender studies as its mandate so as to advocate for the value of women participation in all spheres and sectors of life. The flexible mode of learning is a deliberate effort by the university towards an all-inclusive approach to women who could otherwise be

11  Critical Analysis of the Contribution of Women’s University in Africa Towards the Attainment of SDG 5

unable to access university education due to work and family commitments and distance. Besides its main campus in Harare, it has several other campuses in Mutare, Marondera and Bulawayo and also operates through open distance learning centres in Lusaka, Zambia and Lilongwe, Malawi. WUA has three faculties, namely, the Faculty of Agriculture, Management and Entrepreneurial Studies and Social and Gender Transformative Sciences. Courses offered range from certificate, diploma and degree up to doctoral level. The next section focuses on the methodology applied for generating data and its analysis.

11.3 Methodology The study utilised desk research. Secondary data was collected from the university registry’s department. These documents included annual reports, intake and graduation statistics and a tracer study report. Enrolment data was collected from the university registrar’s department. Statistics collected from the institution’s records were entered into a computer package called Statistical Programme for Social Sciences. The same programme was used to analyse the data. Both descriptive and analytical statistics were done. In addition, qualitative data was collected through in-depth interviews with key informants from WUA’s senior administration and alumni. Given that the research sought to analyse endeavours by women’s universities’ programmes to increase gender parity and women’s ­empowerment, the study employed a qualitative approach, which has been documented as good in describing study phenomenon through in-depth probing (Ryan, Coughlan, & Cronin, 2009). In-depth interviews were used to collect data on the history of the institution, market strategies, academic programs, policy issues, contributions to SDG 5, challenges and future plans. The indepth interview respondents were purposively selected because of their position in the institution and previous experiences of the institution. The study participants included six members of administration and 10 alumni. All quantitative

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data was thematically analysed using the five stages described by Dey (1993), namely, description, contexts, intentions, classification and making connections. The authors of this paper are full-time lecturers at WUA; hence, this could have affected the data collected from interviews and the interpretation. As an insider, there is possibility of respondents not fully disclosing information that might be sensitive. Hence, we also relied on reports and university publications. The power dynamics between the researchers and senior management came into play during interviews as some information was not volunteered. However, on the other side our positionality allowed easy access to interviewees and university records. In our analysis, we therefore do not critique the governance structure and political economic dynamics of the institution because we do not have enough data on the aspects.

11.4 Presentation of Data and Discussion of Key Findings About 71% of the university’s executive is female. The chancellor and the vice chancellor are both female, and these are the highest executive positions of the institution. However, 80% of the middle management level is male, while 20% are female. A review of the university’s policy shows that WUA’s mission is to provide quality tuition, research and service to the community to empower mostly female students for leadership and development roles and seeks to enhance women’s capacity through the provision of higher education to enable women to fulfil political, economic, social and leadership roles. The enrolment policy is an endeavour by the university to increase gender parity and ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, and to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. In an interview with one of the members of the senior management, she alluded to the fact that this deliberate thrust was seen as a unique niche

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that the university founders identified and thought to pursue (KI 3). All key informants interviewed agreed that the main targeted students were women from the workplace that needed to advance their careers through earning a formal qualification. A key informant boasted of the institution having hosted government ministers, prominent businesswomen, celebrities and middle-­class working class women as part of the student body (KI 1). Thus, initially the university mainly recruited working women, but this has since changed, and more school leavers are being enrolled. The students are now more diverse and come from all walks of life. Through partnerships with private organisations, WUA offers limited scholarships to deserving candidates, based on academic excellence and merit. When asked of the university’s contribution towards gender equality and women empowerment, the responses brought out five main themes (Table 11.1). The various activities that the university is engaged in contribute to SDG 5 followed by SDG 4 then other numerous SDGS in part. At inception in 2002, the WUA had a student body of 145, comprised of 124 females and 21 males (Fig.  11.1). By 2018 the student population had grown to 3805 comprised of 3144 females (83%) and 661 males (17%) (Fig. 11.1). Between 2007 and 2009, the university’s enrolment declined. These years correspond with the years when the Zimbabwean economic crisis was at its worst and disposable income was limited in most households. The situation improved after the dollarisation of the Zimbabwean economy. There is an increase in the numbers of newly enrolled students since the opening of the university up to 2018 as indicated by the curves’ gradient line. Using the trends from 2002 to 2018 (and all things being equal), it is therefore projected that a total of around 449,120 students are expected to enrol at the WUA in the year 2033. Out of the 449,120 students expected in 2033, an estimated 359,876 will be females and 89,244 males. As a percentage, females are estimated to be around 80.13% against 19.87% for males in the same year.

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Between 2015 and 2018, the Faculty of Social Science accounts for 65% of the undergraduate students enrolled at WUA (Table  11.2). Furthermore, the Faculty of Social Sciences is the only one with doctor of philosophy students out of the three. Faculty of Agriculture has the least proportion of undergraduate students enrolled in the university. The enrolment data shows that the Faculty of Agriculture has been lagging behind in meeting the recruitment policy of having 85% female at enrolment. It is only in 2018 that the faculty had more females (61%) than men (39%) (Table  11.2). Although the female enrolment in the Faculty of Management and ICT has more females than males, it is below the 85% female target. Interviews with the university management point to the factor that the low number of females in the Faculty of Agriculture is due to the entry requirements that make mathematics and at least one science subject at advanced level. Furthermore, recently the university has embarked on a mathematics bridging course so as to afford females to improve their mathematical capacity before enrolment in the agricultural courses. Recruitment of the required female and male proportions has been attained in the enrolment of the Faculty of Social Sciences. Most female students are enrolled in social sciences subjects as opposed to accounting and agricultural sciences. The WUA offers a flexible learning mode consisting of regular day classes, evening classes, weekend and holiday block release classes as well as Open and Distance Learning for students who are unable to attend face to face tuition in the available modes. According to Key Informant (KI) 3, this is an advantage that the university has enjoyed in attracting unemployed and working class women and those that stay in Zambia and Malawi (where the university has sub-campuses). KI 4 said that, “In Zimbabwe we are the pioneers in this scheduling of classes, state universities are also adopting the WUA teaching mode”. The university offers courses that range from certificate to Doctor of Philosophy programmes in the ­different faculties. It was reported that some of the certificate courses like Early Childhood Development (ECD) required GCE ordinary

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Table 11.1  Themes and deliverables that WUA is contributing towards SDGs Theme Student output

Deliverables by the WUA that contribute to SDGs •  Numbers graduating

Training of unskilled labour

• Outstanding performance by graduating students • Floor level workers taking up certificate and diploma courses

• Housewives taking up certificate and diploma courses

Empowering working women

Industry and socio-­politically relevant courses

Public seminars Research

• Women with bachelor’s degrees taking up master’s courses • Indigenous businesswomen taking up degree programmes Orthodox courses, e.g. sociology

Applied undergraduate courses, e.g. social work Applied masters courses, e.g. Department of Child Sensitive Social Policy • Hope-Fay public lectures on women empowerment issues • Child-Sensitive Social Protection issues •  Development studies issues •  Disaster and climate change issues •  Child monitor publication

• Health • Agriculture

Relevant SDGs and their target(s) • SDG 5.1 Ending discrimination against women in higher education •  SDG 4 quality education •  SDG 5.8 Access to technology and information • SDG 5.7 Women rights to progress in the workplace and control over their resources • SDG 8 Promoting of descent work and growth in a gender inclusive way • This promotes reversal of the problem being addressed by SDG 5. 4 • Promotes integration of housewives into waged labour •  SDGs 4, 5, 8, 9, 10,

•  SDG 4 Provision of quality education • SDG 5.1 Ending discrimination against women in higher education •  SDGs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 15

•  SDG 5 Gender equality and women empowerment •  SDGs 1, 4 and 5 •  SDGs 1, 2, 8 and 17 •  SDGs 4, 5 and 13 • SDG 5.2 and 5.3 Monitors violence against children, sexual exploitation, early child marriage and female genital mutilation •  SDG 3 Ensure health lives for all •  SDG 5.6 Access to reproductive health •  SDGs 2, 5 and 13

Source: Authors

level passes including English and mathematics. These accommodated women who were housewives and those who work as cleaners, shop attendants, maids and other disadvantaged women whom for one reason or another had not had the opportunity to progress to advanced level GCE and then university. From one of the alumni interviewed, she had used this course as foundation to gain access into university. She said, “After completing the diploma in ECD, I registered for a degree programmes in Sociology in

order to continue with my studies. I am now working for a child protection NGO in town”. Another student who followed a similar pathway said, “I was a housewife. When I enrolled for ECD it was as if it’s a joke and was not confident. I am happy that am a graduate with bachelors in sociology and working”. The undergraduate programs are mainly the traditional orthodox courses such as sociology, psychology and accounting. Social work and community development are the only applied

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Number of students enrolled

4000

y = 220.95x - 68.147

3500 3000 2500

y = 177.08x - 128.16

2000 1500 1000 500

y = 43.868x + 60.015

0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Year

Female

Male

Total

Linear (Female)

Linear (Male)

Linear (Total)

Fig. 11.1  WUA’s enrolment from 2002 to 2018. (Source: Authors)

courses at the undergraduate level. All the courses at undergraduate and masters have an emphasis on an appreciation of gender studies and issues in society. Mainstreaming gender in all programs was reported to be the trademark of the institution and a way of fulfilling its goal in gender equality and women empowerment. It is also hoped that the inclusion of gender will make the graduate from WUA more marketable on the job market since it is an important discourse in development (KIs 1, 3 and 4). According to KI 5, “our Masters programs draw students with first degrees from WUA and other universities. Our master’s programs are market driven”. All the key informants agreed that the masters’ degrees from WUA are highly sort after on the job market. For example, the masters in child-sensitive social policy were reported to have been funded by UNICEF to respond to the growing need for child protection in the contemporary society. One KI (4), she reported, was popular amongst students working for NGOs or those with aspirations to join them. The Masters in Education equally draws its students amongst practising teachers with the vision to re-join the secondary education sector or tertiary education sector.

The university conducts the Hope-Fay public lectures that are coordinated by the Vice Chancellor’s office. It was reported that these aim to bring women of substance to make presentations on diverse issues to do with women empowerment (KI 3). The last public lecture was held in November 2018 on issues to do with property inheritance when a spouse is deceased and was resented by a prominent lawyer3 on the subject matter from Zimbabwe. KI 4 reported that these are open ceremonies were members of the public are invited to join the university students and staff members. The lecturers, masters and doctorate students are the main drivers of the university research agenda. The research studies that are conducted in the university consider the inclusion of women and an understanding of a gendered interpretation of a phenomenon that involve society. The university administers small research projects that are funded by UNICEF.  These research projects will contribute towards the Child Monitor publication jointly hosted by UNICEF and WUA. Name withheld on confidentiality bases since consent was not sought to use her real identity

3 

Faculty of Management and ICT (undergraduate) Faculty of Management and ICT (postgraduate) Faculty of Social Sciences (undergraduate) Faculty of Social Sciences (postgraduate) Faculty of Social Sciences (doctorate)

Faculty Faculty of Agriculture

1846 (100%) –

1527 (83%) –

–

319 (17%) –

–

–

Total 142 (100%) 941 (100%) –

Enrolments by year 2015 Male Female 71 71 (50%) (50%) 310 631 (33%) (67%) – – 2016 Male 58 (56%) 240 (31%) 53 (40%) 240 (13%) 89 (35%) – Female 46 (44%) 525 (69%) 79 (60%) 1558 (87%) 164 (65%) –

Table 11.2  Counts of enrolled students by year and faculty from 2015 to 2018

Total 104 (100%) 765 (100%) 132 (100%) 1798 (100%) 253 (100%) –

2017 Male 36 (52%) 271 (34%) 26 (28%) 257 (12%) 100 (36%) 10 (43%) Female 33 (48%) 530 (66%) 68 (72%) 1926 (88%) 179 (64%) 13 (57%)

Total 69 (100%) 801 (100%) 94 (100%) 2183 (100%) 279 (100%) 23 (100%)

2018 Male 32 (39%) 179 (27%) 43 (29%) 274 (11%) 114 (27%) 17 (39%)

Female 51 (61%) 475 (73%) 103 (71%) 2181 (89%) 315 (73%) 27 (61%)

Total 83 (100%) 654 (100%) 146 (100%) 2455 (100%) 429 (100%) 44 (100%)

67

961

8282

372

3161

Grand total by faculty 398

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With all the success stories elaborated upon, there are challenges at the WUA. The major challenges faced by WUA are lack of funding to finance infrastructural development of its campus. Furthermore, there is a financial constraint to transform from the 3.0 focus of teaching, research and community development to the 5.0 focus which now includes industrialisation and innovation hubs. While WUA offers bridging courses to enable women to venture into science-­ based programs like agriculture, the development of the university towards the 5.0 focus to include industrialisation and innovation hubs is largely hindered by lack of government support for infrastructural development for the requisite facilities. Government has not been forthcoming in terms of financial support despite that WUA is involved in human capital development for the nation, but for the region. The other challenge is that WUA solely depends on students’ fees for its staff salaries, internet connectivity and other requirements. However, due to the economic crisis bedevilling the country, many students have been struggling to meet their fees obligations.

11.5 Conclusion Universities play a key role in the attainment of the SDGs by 2030, not only through teaching but through other various means such as research and engagement with communities, development practitioners and policy makers. This paper has examined WUA’s contribution to SDG 5 and other SDGs. WUA’s activities hold potential for deepening the gender equality and gender empowerment agenda. The university contributes to the attainment of SDG 5  in six major ways which are student output, training of unskilled people, empowering working women, offering relevant courses, public seminars and research. From the existing records, that quota system used to recruit female students is working well to ensure their empowerment. The institution has potential to grow in the number of programmes and so in the number of female students enrolled and graduating. The institution’s major challenge is the shortage of financial resources to incorpo-

rate more women and expanding the natural sciences. We recommend collaborative efforts between governments and stakeholders to support women’s universities since they contribute towards the building of human capital and social development.

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11  Critical Analysis of the Contribution of Women’s University in Africa Towards the Attainment of SDG 5 Mugagga, R. (2010). Makerere: Will female dominance last long? Retrieved May 16, 2018, from https:// observer.ug/component/content/article. Nhamo, G., Nhamo, S., & Nhemachena, C. (2018). What gets measured gets done! Towards an Afro-barometer for tracking progress in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 5. Agenda, 32(1), 60–75. Nyaruwata, L.  T. (2018). The dual-mode provision: Successes and challenges. A case study of Women’s University in Africa (WUA). Distance Education, 39(2), 194–208. Oanda, I. O. (2005). New frontiers of exclusion: Private higher education and women’s opportunities in Kenya. Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 3(3), 87–105. Odhiambo, G. (2011). Women and higher education leadership in Kenya: A critical analysis. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 33(6), 667–678. Oksala, J.  (2016). Affective labor and feminist politics. Signs, 41(2), 281–303. Onsongo, J. (2009). Affirmative Action, gender equity and university admissions—Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. London Review of Education, 7(1), 71–81. Pampusch, A. (1990). The fight to preserve women’s colleges. The Christian Science Monitor. Pearson, C., Shavlik, D.  L., & Touchton, J.  G. (1989). Educating the majority: Women challenge tradition in higher education. New York, NY: ACE. Purcell, F.  B., Helms, R.  M., & Rumbley, H. (2005). Women’s universities and colleges. Rotterdam: An International Handbook Sense Publishers. Reed, R.  J. (1983). Affirmative action in higher education: Is it necessary? The Journal of Negro Education Persistent and Emergent Legal Issues in Education, 52(3), 332–349. Roudi-Fahimi, F., & Moghadam, V.  M. (2003). Empowering women in developing society: Female education in the middle east and north Africa. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from www.prb.org Ryan, F., Coughlan, M., & Cronin, P. (2009). Interviewing in qualitative research: The one-to-one interview. International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, 16(6), 309–314.

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Stuart, E., & Woodroffe, J.  (2016). Leaving no-one behind: Can the sustainable development goals succeed where the millennium development goals lacked? Gender & Development, 24(1), 69–81. Thakur, B. (2006). Women in Gandhi’s mass movements. New Delhi: Deep & Deep. UN Women. (n.d.). unwomen.org UNDP. (2010). Human development report: The real wealth of nations: pathways to human development. New York, NY: UNDP. UNESCO. (2009). Review of contexts and structures for education for sustainable development. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. United Nations. (2014). The flagship United Nations publications. Retrieved April 27, 2019, from https://www. unsceb.org/flagship-publications United Nations. (2015a). Millennium development goals report 2015. New York, NY: UN. Retrieved November 11, 2018, from http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20 rev%20%28July%201%29.pdf United Nations. (2015b). Transforming our World: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. New York, NY: United Nations Secretariat. Vladimirova, K., & Le Blanc, D. (2015). How well are the links between education and other sustainable development goals covered in UN flagship reports? A contribution to the study of the science-policy interface on education in the UN system. DESA working paper no. 146ST/ESA/2015/DWP/146. Walkerdine, V. (1992). Progressive pedagogy and political struggle. In C.  Luke & J.  Gore (Eds.), Feminisms and critical pedagogy (pp.  15–24). New York: Routledge. Women’s University in Africa. (2015). Annual report. Zieglera, A., Stoegerb, H., Hardera, B., Parkc, K., Portešovád, S., & Porathe, M. (2014). Gender differences in mathematics and science: The role of the actiotope in determining individuals’ achievements and confidence in their own abilities. High Ability Studies, 25(1), 35–51.

Role of SDGs in Reconceptualising the Education for Sustainable Development Curriculum in Higher Education in South Africa

12

Soul Shava, Matlala Violet Makokotlela, and Headman Hebe

Abstract

Keywords

The global environmental crises are constantly evolving and with them, the need to revisit the Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in the higher education curricula to respond to them. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide the latest international attempt towards global sustainability. In an effort to keep our ESD curriculum current, the ESD course modules across the different levels of the University of South Africa’s College of Education are being revamped and reoriented in order to articulate these global environmental issues. This chapter reviews the recurriculation process of one of these course modules on environmental education in relation to the SDGs. A document analysis approach was employed for exploring specific aspects, namely, the inclusion of SDGs, Africanisation and contextualisation of the content. The review found that there was no coverage of SDGs in the module and that there was a limited effort towards Africanisation and contextualisation of the content. The chapter recommends how these aspects can be incorporated into the module and into similar ESD course modules under recurriculation.

Environmental education · Curriculum · Higher education · Sustainable development

S. Shava (*) · M. V. Makokotlela · H. Hebe Department of Science and Technology Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

12.1 Introduction Environmental issues, most of them human derived, have emerged as major global crises of the twenty-first century. These include biodiversity loss, climate change, (sustainable) energy provision, ecosystem degradation, food insecurity, human health problems, pollution, (human) population growth, poverty and inequality, unsustainable consumption patterns, waste generation and management and water scarcity (Harris, 2012; Kolbert, 2014; Schwägerl, 2014). The implications of these crises to current and future generations are a growing concern for the global society. These issues, resulting from human interactions with the biophysical environment, are interconnected, and addressing them requires holistic and transformative education process towards a sustainable future. Southern Africa is mostly vulnerable to global climate change related effects such as droughts, veld fires, heat waves, food scarcity, floods, hailstorms, increased range and prevalence of disease epidemics (Nhamo & Shava, 2015). Other key environmental issues in the region include environmental degradation, biodiversity loss,

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waste management, pollution, food insecurity, poverty, water scarcity and energy provision, similar to other contexts across the globe. These environmental issues are articulated in, and can be addressed through, achieving the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015), which have a focus on present and future environmental and human well-being and define the global development agenda for this and the next decade. The need for sustainable development and education for sustainability is becoming more urgent, making Education for Sustainable Development the education for the twenty-first century (Bell, 2016). It is therefore important that educational responses to environmental issues in the twenty-first century are oriented towards achieving the SDGs. This chapter explores the extent to which SDGs are represented and applied in education processes within a recurriculated environmental education module at the University of South Africa (UNISA). While we are cognizant of the SDGs as the global sustainability agenda, we posit that their attainment should be effected, not only at the global level but also through fostering their implementation at national, regional and local levels. In order to translate the SDGs from rhetoric into reality, this requires their articulation into policy and practice at these levels. Our emphasis in this chapter is therefore on the translation of the SDGS into the national, regional and local contexts, with a specific focus on the higher education arena.

12.2 L  iterature Review: SDGs and the South African Formal Education The United Nations SDGs that took effect on 1 January 2016 are an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015). Effectively, the SDGs are to be implemented from 2015 to 2030. The SDGs are a follow-up to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that took effect from 2000 to 2014. They are further indicative of the urgency towards achieving global sustainability. The background

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to the SDGs is the historical development of the international discourse of sustainable development from Our Common Future (UNGA, 1987) to Agenda 21 (United Nations, 1993) and to the United Nations Decade on Sustainable Development (UNDESD) marked by the years 2005–2014 (UNESCO, 2014), and they therefore represent the progressive trajectory in the global transition towards sustainability. Their overall focus, in line with the three pillars of sustainable development—environmental, social and economic—is on combining the attainment of economic development, social inclusion and environmental sustainability, which are in reality interconnected and interdependent aspects. The overall areas targeted by the SDGs are people (ending poverty and hunger), planet (preventing environmental degradation through sustainable environmental management and sustainable consumption and production), prosperity (economic, social and technological progress in harmony with nature), peace (fostering peaceful, just and inclusive societies) and partnership (global partnership for sustainable development) (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs (Box 12.1) provide a useful framework for driving future-oriented sustainability education processes. Education for sustainability is an essential component towards achieving the SDGs.

Box 12.1 The Sustainable Development Goals

• Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere. • Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. • Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. • Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. • Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

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12.2.1 SDGs and School Curriculum • Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. • Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. • Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. • Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation. • Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries. • Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. • Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. • Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. • Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. • Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. • Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. • Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development. Source: United Nations (2015: 14).

In line with the South African Constitution’s provision of a right to equity, social justice, inclusivity and environmental sustainability (the right to a healthy environment) in Section 24 (RSA, 1996), the South African Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) Grades R-12 embraces these aspects under its principle on human rights, inclusivity, environmental and social justice (DBE, 2011). These aspects focus on improving human and environmental well-­ being and are evident in the SDGs, particularly SDG4 whose focus is to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long learning opportunities for all” (UNESCO, 2015: 7). More specifically, Target 4.7 states that: By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and nonviolence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development”. (United Nations, 2015: 19).

Promoting the principles of human rights, inclusivity and environmental and social justice through the South African school curriculum therefore contributes towards the attainment of SDG4. Environmental and sustainability issues are cross-cutting issues that are embedded into CAPS and comprise up to 50% of the content in some subject disciplines such as Life Sciences, Natural Sciences and Geography (Lotz-Sisitka, 2011). Their coverage signifies the growing significance of environmental and sustainability concerns and the need for education for sustainability towards attaining sustainable change.

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12.2.2 Higher Education and Its Role in ESD and the Implementation of SDGs Higher education institutions, due to their high reach and potential to influence as authorised centres of knowledge production (UNESCO, 2014), are expected to respond to socio-­ecological and economic sustainability issues in a rapidly changing and uncertain world. They can achieve this through education, research and community engagement processes and through capacity building of future leaders on knowledge, skills and competences necessary for sustainable human development. They therefore play a critical role in sustainability knowledge generation and dissemination, the development of relevant green skills, the promotion of sustainability values and the development transformative agency necessary for a just and sustainable future, and in influencing sustainability policies and socio-­ economic practices. Many higher education institutions committed to the Higher Education Sustainability Initiative (HESI) that was launched at the Rio + 20 conference to incorporate sustainability plans into their institutions, integrate sustainability issues into their curricula and undertake sustainability reporting on progress attained (UNESCO, 2014). Higher education institutions are responsible for teacher professional development, and their coverage environmental sustainability issues in their curricula heavily influences what is taught in the school classroom context in basic education. They also need to re/skill and support teachers in the teaching of environment and sustainability aspects already embedded in the basic education formal school curricula such as CAPS. It is therefore important that higher education institutions address sustainability issues and the SDGs in depth from a global and local perspective to ensure their articulation in the formal school curriculum for basic education. To be the change that we seek, there is therefore need for higher education institutions to critically evaluate the competencies of their graduates and reformulate their course content, pedagogies and assessment practices towards

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sustainability where appropriate. Taking into consideration the recentness of the SDGs, it is necessary for higher education institutions to consider the need to review their courses, particularly those that specifically focus on environment sustainability education, for inclusivity, social justice, quality and relevance. The University of South Africa, like many higher education institutions in South Africa, is in the process of reformulating its course contents to address these emerging issues and the need to re-contextualise, Africanise and decolonise its curricula towards solving Africa’s sustainability issues. This is particularly important, considering that UNISA enrols a significant proportion of educators in South Africa, Africa and beyond. Developing the competencies of these educators in ESD is essential for the implementation of ESD in formal education contexts.

12.2.3 Recurriculation of Environmental Education Modules at UNISA Recurriculation entails a change in learning programmes/modules through either review or repurposing of existing programmes/modules, or the development of new learning programmes/ modules (Resane, 2019). It is necessitated by the need for genuine curriculum change that demands interrogation of the types of values, attitudes, beliefs and associated behaviour across universities (Venter & Tolmie, 2012). Curriculum recurriculation (review and/or repurposing) of environmental education/ESD modules at UNISA is being done in line with the realisation of the changing environmental reality against a background of emerging global and local environmental issues (and responses) (Fundisa for Change, 2013) and the need to Africanise and decolonise prior to Westernised Euro-­ Americentric knowledge disciplines (Dei, 1993, 2002; Shava & Manyike, 2018; Shava & Nkopodi, 2017;). These aspects are well articulated in the SDGs, making the SDGS a relevant point of reference for framing these new modules as they seek to make meaningful contributions to

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environmental sustainability. The next section looks at the methodology informing this study.

12.3 Methodology Using document analysis approach (Bowen, 2009), the authors, as environmental educators involved in the research, development and implementation processes of environmental education modules in the Department of Science and Technology Education, critically reviewed the content of one such module under development, the Higher Certificate in Education: Introduction to Environmental Education Module (UNISA, 2018), in line with the above thinking. The content of the module was covered in three units, namely, (1) the nature and purpose of environmental education, (2) environmental issues and (3) active learning about, for and in the environment. The main factors we considered in our review process were: 1. To what extent does the module incorporate the SDGs, including sustainability discourses? 2. Does the module re/contextualise environ mental issues and the SDGs in relation to the lived context of the students? 3. What attempts are made to Africanise and decolonise environmental issues and perspectives in order to make them relevant to the African context (in line with SDGs 4, 5, 8 and 10)? 4. What recommendations can we make towards the development of EE modules in line with contextualising the SDGs in our university and to course module recurriculation processes in the country, Southern African Development Community (SADC), Africa and beyond? The content and the accompanying teaching and learning activities of each unit were critically analysed in line with the above criteria. The review was motivated by the fact that the module was still in its first draft and that the review process will inform its subsequent development and

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also guide the review and development of other environmental education modules in the department.

12.4 Presentation of Data and Discussion of Findings 12.4.1 Coverage of Current Environmental and Education for Sustainability Issues The reviewed module covered current key environmental issues. It adopted a holistic view of the environment, which explored the complex interconnectedness and interrelationships between biophysical, social, economic and political issues, and these were diagrammatically represented in a model of the environment (UNISA, 2018: 6). This draws attention to the need for a systems thinking approach to engaging environmental issues. However, these issues could have been framed using the SDGs, which address global environmental issues through interrelated goals aimed at transforming our world. The module discusses current environmental issues such as pollution, biodiversity loss, climate change, food insecurity, water scarcity, disease epidemics, population growth, poverty and energy needs (UNISA, 2018: 37–48).These environmental issues are what the SDGs intend to address and can therefore be discussed in line with them, an aspect that is missing in the current module under review. In addition, these issues can be explored more holistically through analysing the interrelationships between them and through interrogating their local, regional and global aspects. Globalisation ushers forth the growing realisation of the global interconnectedness of environmental sustainability issues. For example, the interconnectedness of these environmental issues, such as the relationship between issues such as poverty and environmental degradation, or localised climate change effects (drought, floods, heatwaves, hailstorms, cyclones) and global greenhouse gas pollution, needs to be explored from a holistic, systemic and integrative perspective that inter-

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rogates the links between local issues and power relationships within the broader global geopolitical-­ economic dynamics (Dei, 1993). Such interrogation exposes the deeper underlying global environmental and social injustices and human right issues behind these environmental crises and the need for appropriate redress. This interrogative approach into the interrelatedness of environmental issues could be incorporated into the module and will enable leaners to explore issues across multiple scales (geographical, temporal and inter/ multidisciplinary). Educational responses to these interconnected environmental issues can be discussed in line with achieving the relevant SDGs and used as examples of efforts towards achieving them. It is also important to draw upon exam-

ples of localised responses to these environmental issues wherever available. A deeper exploration of these environmental issues to represent the lived realities of local communities, drawing on local case examples, is necessary. The examples should include indigenous communities’ sustainable livelihood strategies outlined in Box 12.2: It is important that the inclusion and representation of indigenous knowledges and practices in mainstream formal education discourses do not result in their appropriation into Western discourses that portray ESD as a primarily concept and practice emerging from the West. Rather, it should lead to processes of recognition and reciprocal valuation of plural knowledges in formal education contexts and processes.

Box 12.2 The Indigenous Communities’ Sustainable Livelihood Strategies

• Mixed cropping agricultural practices that emulate the species diversity in natural ecosystems—an aspect that can be integrated into sustainable agriculture discourses and practices. • Selective conservation of useful plant species (e.g. fruit trees, medicinal plants, wild leafy vegetables) on cultivated lands—an aspect that can be incorporated into agroforestry and sustainable agriculture disciplines. • The utilisation of natural indicators, for example, observation of animal behaviours (birds, insects, etc.), observation of leaf sprouting and flowering in plants and observation of temperature changes and clouds to determine seasonal cycles of human activities such as when to plant crops—an aspect that can incorporated into meteorology and disaster risks reduction processes. • Observance of environmental taboos—an aspect that can be included in biodiversity conservation discourses and practices. • Protection of totem species—an aspect that can be incorporated into biodiversity conservation knowledge and practices. • Preservation of sacred groves/forests/wetlands and conservation of sacred species—an aspect that can be integrated into biodiversity conservation knowledge and practices. • Relational indigenous community contexts characterised by an ethic of care, sharing, collaboration, reciprocity and sense of belonging and place—an aspect which should inform the transformation individuals towards responsible citizenship and of societal relationships towards community partnerships and collaboration for sustainability (SDG 17), particularly in urban contexts that are characterised by social detachment (individualism) and lack of belonging to community and place. Source: Authors.

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12.4.2 Re/Contextualisation of Environmental Issues The environmental issues covered in the module were largely not discussed from the perspective of South African, southern African or African context. Examples that were used in the text of the module were largely superficially discussed and were mainly drawn from the international context. For example, a discussion on the development of EE/ESD focused mainly on international events, with limited coverage on developments in South Africa (UNISA, 2018: 18–20). However, several activities were geared towards application of the content in real-life local contexts, thereby extending the activities beyond the knowledge content of the text. For example are the following activities: • Activity 2.5 (p44): Describe the main cause of food insecurity in South Africa. • Activity 2.5(p45): Discuss ways in which we can minimise water loss in our homes, schools and/or workplaces. While there was coverage of ESD from the UNESCO perspective, such as the Born Declaration (UNISA, 2018: 27–32), it was evident that the SDGs were not specifically mentioned. In order to be current and responsive to the global sustainability agenda, educational responses to environmental sustainability issues need to be aligned to the SDGs as shown in Table 12.1. Table 12.1  Linking environmental issues to the SDGs Environmental issue Pollution Biodiversity loss Climate change Food insecurity Water scarcity Disease epidemics Population growth Poverty Energy needs Source: Authors

SDGs responding to the issue 6, 7, 12, 13 14, 15, 12, 13 13, 12, 11, 14, 15 2, 13, 12, 14, 15 6, 13, 14, 15 3, 6, 7, 13, 11, 12 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10 1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 4, 5, 3, 11, 16 7, 9, 8,10, 12, 11

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The need to respond to the issue pollution is evident across several SDGs, namely, ensuring water quality and sanitation for all (SDG6), ensuring access to sustainable energy (SDG7), ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns (SDG 12) and combating climate change and its impacts (SDG13). Reducing and preventing biodiversity loss is attainable by conservation and sustainable use of aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity (SDGs 14 and15) as well as ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns (SDG 12) and combating climate change and its impacts (SDG13). Combating climate change requires attention to reducing its impacts (SDG13), ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns (SDG 12), making cities resilient and sustainable (SDG 11) and conserving aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystems (SDGs 14 and 15). Likewise, addressing the issues of food insecurity, water scarcity, disease epidemics, population growth and energy needs required the attainment of interrelated SDGs. The exclusion of the SDGs, which are a key aspect of current sustainability discourses, needs to be addressed by their inclusion in relevant sections in the resource material. However, in doing so, it is important to re/contextualise the SDGs to articulate the realities and priorities of the local socio-ecologicaleconomic contexts. The authors propose a re/contextualisation of environmental and sustainability issues in the rewriting of the module to embrace local socio-­ ecological-­economic realities as this will allow them to be better understood by local learners. This will enable epistemological access to otherwise abstract environmental and sustainability concepts, thereby enhancing environmental sustainability education processes through providing equal access to quality and relevant education processes. It will also provide an enabling platform for developing participatory and contextualised educational responses to these environmental sustainability issues that transform society’s ways of knowing, thinking and doing towards sustainability.

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12.4.3 Africanisation and Decolonisation Aspects in the Text Issues of Africanisation and decolonisation of the university curriculum are current national priorities for higher education that are directly related to colonially derived power relations and uneven politics of knowledge representation that favours the hegemony of Eurocentric epistemologies (Shava & Nkopodi, 2017). The SDGs focusing on inclusivity and reducing inequality (SDGs 4, 5, 10 and 16) create opportunities to respond to the need for Africanisation and decolonisation in the post-colonial era. The processes of Africanisation and decolonisation of the content and pedagogies of the higher education curriculum therefore enable transformative education processes that foster knowledge democracy, inclusivity, equality and social justice in education at both local and global scales. An effective recurriculation process should result in meaningful curriculum transformation that enables epistemic justice rather than cosmetic changes. In reviewing the text of the study module, while some local examples were used, more emphasis could be placed on the local context and on getting learners to explore and develop relevant responses to local environmental issues. Similarly, more alternative indigenous pedagogies and assessment approaches could be considered. Such examples should be discussed together with and in relation to the global context and Western epistemologies, creating a space for inter-epistemological dialogue as well as glocal (global and local) transformative learning and action. Several scholars have been critical of African universities being complicit to the processes of colonisation and in perpetuating and legitimizing the epistemological dominance of Western knowledge monocultures. Lizop (1997) depicts schools and higher education institutions as Western islands detached from the reality of African communities in which they are situated. Hoppers (2001) argues that African academic institutions serve as instruments of epistemicide even in the post-colonial era. Dei (2002) raises

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concern about the historical continuing deprivileging and marginalisation of indigenous voices in Western/Euro-American conventional knowledge production processes. Nyamnjoh (2012) refers to African academic institutions as colonial greenhouses that perpetuate cultural estrangement instead of cultural engagement in African contexts. These arguments from indigenous scholars point to the social injustices, lack of inclusivity and social justice (SDGs 10 and 16) due to the effects of Western colonisation and continued coloniality that express themselves through the hegemony of Western epistemologies in formal education contexts. In reality, in the post-colonial era, universities were decolonised in terms of racial composition of their staff complements but remained colonised in terms of the dominant epistemologies informing them and generated by them. This negative overview of African universities as being decontextualised and non-responsive to local sustainability issues is problematic, particularly for African universities that are supposed to be shaping futures of humanity. With regard to sustainability, we should be asking “for whom and for what purposes?” in order to avoid getting entrapped in “the future we don’t want”. There is a need to decolonise global sustainability discourses by redefining them to articulate the historical, socio-­ ecological and economic experiences of African people and to re/contextualise the SDGs towards addressing pertinent locally defined environmental, social and economic needs and aspirations in the everyday lives of local people in Africa. African universities should be in the forefront of driving a transformative agenda towards contextually relevant awareness, education, research and community engagement initiatives that are informed by local community inputs and that produce tangible theoretical and practical solutions and impacts for local communities towards achieving sustainable futures. We are in living in the age of the Anthropocene, an era characterised by progressive human development and its related technological achievements that have ushered us into the fourth industrial revolution (Schwab, 2016). Most of this development has been attributed to Western

12  Role of SDGs in Reconceptualising the Education for Sustainable Development Curriculum in Higher…

science and is dependent upon the continuous exploitation of human and environmental resources. However, due to the unsustainable nature of this development trajectory, the negative and concerning outcomes of the interplay of a network of socio-economic, political and environmental forces are the increasing scale, frequency and complexity of interrelated global environmental crises that impact on human livelihood and well-being and destroy the biophysical environment. These environment crises remind us of the finite nature of the Earth’s environmental resources and the need to curtail unsustainable human economic development. Higher education institutions in Africa should be aware, reflective and critical of the effects of colonisation and continuing coloniality in the academy and the negative accompanying effects of its development trajectory. There is a need for the realisation that we cannot answer the growing sustainability challenges of the world by relying on old and failed pedagogies and development trajectories. This in itself calls for a critical paradigm shift towards developing a new pedagogy of transformative education for sustainability informed by alternative and prior-to-subjugated epistemologies. Through active and engaged radical processes of Africanisation and decolonisation, African higher education institutions should work towards meaningful and appropriate transformative education processes that are inclusive, socially just and embracing of alternative environmental sustainability knowledges, indigenous pedagogies and assessment practices and possibilities for alternative futures. Decolonisation also requires the reconceptualisation of environmental sustainability education modules and education processes to make them both globally and contextually relevant and responsive. More specifically, decolonisation and Africanisation should aim to root sustainability discourses and the SDGs in holistic African sociocultural-­ economic-­ecological contexts and (indigenous) epistemological frameworks and to re-direct human development initiatives towards transition to a global sustainability paradigm and the attainment of the SDGs.

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12.5 Conclusion and Recommendations The reviewed model was found to have no coverage of the SDGS, though the content and activities could easily be adapted to align and to respond to the SDGs. There was also limited contextualisation of the content, an aspect which if adequately addressed could make the module more responsive to the call for Africanisation of the curriculum by the university. The authors believe that, in order to actualise education for sustainability towards the achievement of the SDGs, the focus of EE/ESD modules should go beyond providing content knowledge on historical, current and emerging environmental issues towards engaging students in processes of exploration of environmental interactions in real-life contexts and in developing relevant, contextualised and transformative sustainability education responses to them. This requires the contextualised framing of sustainability education and the SDGs in the module, drawing from local environmental issues and local education for sustainability responses to them. Environmental issues need to be holistically interrogated in order to expose the underlying dynamics in order to understand them and develop appropriate and transformative environmental sustainability responses to them. Against this background, the draft course module reveals shortcomings in terms of coverage of the SDGs, contextualising of the course content and adequate redress of Western ­knowledge hegemony through Africanisation and decolonisation. However, fortunately, the development of the selected course module is ongoing, and it can be reformulated to articulate these missing aspects. The findings from this review will also help to guide the development of similar ESD modules in the university and elsewhere. Drawing from our findings, we recommend that: • Environmental education/education for sustainability course modules needs to be recurriculated to articulate dynamic evolution of

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knowledge and to incorporate emerging environmental issues and responses, including the SDGs as central tenets towards a sustainable future. The reformulation of environmental sustainability curricula should take into consideration the local context inasmuch as regional and the global in discussing and responding to environmental issues. The interrelated nature of environmental issues calls for a holistic, integrated and systems-­ based approach to environmental sustainability education that cuts across knowledge disciplines. Higher education institutions must create enabling spaces for the representation of diverse cultures and plural knowledges, building possibilities for inter-epistemological dialogue and reciprocal inter-knowledge valorisation. Indigenous epistemologies, alternative pedagogies and assessment approaches need to be considered and introduced in the reformulated environmental sustainability curricula to decenter Western knowledge hegemony in discussing and responding to environmental issues. Boaventura de Sousa Santos (2007) suggests a transition from a monoculture of knowledge towards an ecology of knowledges. Higher education partnerships on ESD such as the South African Fundisa for Change programme for transformative environmental teacher education (see Fundisa for Change Programme, 2013; Lotz-Sisitka, 2011; Schudel, 2014; Sonqwaru, 2012), and the UNESCOSARUA Sustainability Starts with Teachers regional ESD programme for teacher educators (see Lotz-Sisitka, Tshiningayamwe, & Urenje, 2017) provides useful enabling platforms for networking, guidance and resources for ESD curriculum recurriculation processes.

References Bell, D.  V. J.  (2016). Twenty-first century education: Transformative education for sustainability and responsible citizenship. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 18(1), 45–86. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1112451.pdf

S. Shava et al. Bowen, G.  A. (2009). Document analysis as qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27–40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027 DBE (Department of Basic Education). (2011). Curriculum and assessment policy statement. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education. Retrieved from https://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/Curriculu mAssessmentPolicyStatements(CAPS).aspx Dei, G.  J. S. (1993). Sustainable development in the African context: Revisiting some methodological issues. African Development, 18(2), 97–110. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/43657925 Dei, G.  J. S. (2002). Rethinking the role of indigenous knowledges in the academy. NALL working paper # 58. Retrieved from https://nall.oise.utoronto.ca/ res/58GeorgeDei.pdf Fundisa for Change Programme. (2013). Fundisa for change: Introductory core text. Grahamstown: Rhodes University Environmental Learning Research Centre. Harris, F. (Ed.). (2012). Global environmental issues. Oxford: Wiley & Blackwell. Hoppers, C.  O. (2001). Indigenous knowledge systems and academic institutions in South Africa. Perspectives in Education, 19(1), 73–85. Retrieved from http://hdl. handle.net/20.500.11910/8666 Kolbert, E. (2014). The sixth extinction: An unnatural history. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Co. Lizop, E. (1997). Schools as instruments of humiliation. In M. Rahnema & V. Bawtree (Eds.), The post-­development reader (pp. 157–158). London: Zed Books. Lotz-Sisitka, H. B. (2011). National case study. Teacher professional development with an education for sustainable development focus in South Africa: Development of a network, curriculum framework and resources for teacher education. Southern African Journal of Environmental Education, 28, 30–71. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/sajee/ article/viewFile/122242/111724 Lotz-Sisitka, H.  B., Tshiningayamwe, S., & Urenje, S. (2017). Sustainability starts with teachers. An ESD Professional Development Programme for Secondary Teacher Educators. Introduction and overview. UNESCO/ SARUA, Harare/Pretoria. Version 1, May 2017. Nhamo, G., & Shava, S. (2015). Climate change education in the SADC school curriculum. Pretoria: Africa Institute of South Africa. Nyamnjoh, F. B. (2012). Potted plants in greenhouses’: A critical reflection on the resilience of colonial education in Africa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 17, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909611417240 Republic of South Africa (RSA). (1996). The constitution of the Republic of South Africa, act. No. 108 of 1996. Retrieved from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/ images/a108-96.pdf Resane, K.  T. (2019). Recurriculation: A pedagogical necessity for theological education at a post-apartheid public university. Pharos Journal of Theology, 100, 1–10. Retrieved from https://www.pharosjot.com/ uploads/7/1/6/3/7163688/article_10_vol_100_2019_ ufs.pdf

12  Role of SDGs in Reconceptualising the Education for Sustainable Development Curriculum in Higher… Santos, B. D. S. (2007). Beyond abyssal thinking: From global lines to ecologies of knowledges. Review (Fernand Braudel Center), 30(1), 45–89. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40241677 Schwägerl, C. (2014). The Anthropocene: The human era and how it shapes our planet. Santa Fe, London: Synergetic Press. Schudel, I. (2014). Exploring a knowledge-focused trajectory for researching environmental learning in the south African curriculum. Southern African Journal of Environmental Education, 30, 96–117. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/sajee/article/ view/121968/111441 Schwab, K. (2016). The fourth industrial revolution. Geneva: World Economic Forum. Shava, S. And Nkopodi, N. (2017). Indigenising the university curriculum in southern Africa. In Ngulube, P. (Ed). Handbook of research on social, cultural, and educational considerations of indigenous knowledge systems in developing countries. IGI Global, Hershey, PA, pp 80–91. Shava, S., & Manyike, T. V. (2018). The decolonial role of African indigenous languages and indigenous knowledges in formal education processes. Indilinga African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 17(1), 36–52. Sonqwaru, N.  Z. (2012). Supporting environment and sustainability knowledge in the grade 10 life sciences curriculum and assessment policy context: A case study of the Fundisa for change teacher education and development Programme pilot project. Unpublished masters in education thesis, Rhodes University,

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Part V Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

Pushing Ahead with the Drive to Scaling up SDGs Implementation

13

Vuyo Mjimba and Gbadebo O. A. Odularu

Abstract

The world is truly on the road towards the year 2030 that will (hopefully) have entrenched the ideals of sustainable development. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development accompanied by the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets is an important vehicle in this quest. To avoid the shortcomings of previous global drives, there is a need to routinely determine and quantitatively estimate all aspects that can inform the efficient and targeted use of resources that drive this agenda. This approach is the quintessence of responsible consumption and production, aspects that are closely addressed under SDG 12. In addition, there is a need to coordinate policy actions within and across national borders and continents. This is critical for delivering a critical mass of transformation that can deliver the SDGs mandate. The coordination of policy actions is the crux of contemporary research and practice revolving around the concept of policy coherence for sustainable

V. Mjimba (*) Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), Africa Institute of South, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] G. O. A. Odularu Socio-Economic Research Applications & Projects (SERAP LLC), Washington, DC, USA e-mail: [email protected]

development initiatives whose aim is to increase the effects of policy interventions. This concluding chapter reflects on how various key state and non-state actors covering the global, national and sub-national levels are contributing to the drive of scaling up the implementation of SDGs. Keywords

Scaling up · Policy perspectives · 2030 Agenda

13.1 Introduction Almost seamlessly, the world has transformed from the relatively narrow-focused but useful Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) policy framework to a broadly focused and (almost) universally accepted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD) policy framework thrust. Through the 2030 AfSD and its enshrined 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) together with the related 169 targets, the vision is to ‘… free the human race from the tyranny of poverty and want and to heal and secure our planet’ (United Nations, UN, 2015:1). This development policy framework further advances a global resolve to ‘…take the bold and transformative steps, which are urgently needed to shift the world onto a sustainable and resilient path. As we

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_13

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embark on this collective journey, we pledge that no one will be left behind’ (UN, 2015: 1). This rhetoric is good and the projected vision is commendable. What remains is the implementation of policies, programmes and related actions that collectively remove and/or lower entrenched historical barriers that have and continue to slow and sometimes completely halt progress towards noticeable, sustained and inclusive improvements in human economic, social and environmental wellbeing as well as that of all flora and fauna on Earth. Certainly, attaining the aspirations of the SDGs to diminish inequality, minimise ecological destruction and secure resilient livelihoods is a challenge for all global citizens irrespective of geographic location, profession, economic status, political persuasion and all other measures. The 13 foregoing chapters affirm this assertion through inherent and unequivocal policy and practice messages all focused on one goal: delivering on 2030 AfSD.

13.2 The Messages As one reads a book such as this one, it is prudent to ask (always) rhetoric question(s) around the main message(s) such a publication seeks to convey and why these messages are important. The messages differ between and within readers. Here we highlight three messages we consider pertinent to scaling up the implementation of the SDGs agenda. The first and perhaps a clichéd message is that delivering on the 2030 AfSD is everyone’s responsibility. This is important for the current Anthropocene epoch because it allows humans to understand their culpability in many of contemporary global challenges. More important though is that this culpability also conveys the importance of human agency as technically competent (to an extent) as well as socially aware and caring actors (hopefully) as well as agents that can intentionally reverse the adverse effects of some human-linked economic, environmental and social practices. Accepting this stylised position, the opening chapter amply sets the scene. Here, the authors

correctly note that for discernible positive outcome in 2030, there is a need to escalate the magnitude of programmes and actions seeking to deliver the 2030 AfSD together with its enshrined 17 SDGs. The projected future adverse economic, social and environmental effects of a world that does not change its praxis demand radical approaches. One such approach is an en masse adoption of desired policy and practices to deliver effective and noticeable change. This is the kernel of scaling up, which is important for discernible and, to an extent, indelible signal of desired changes. The process of scaling up inevitably varies in approach, form and definitely outcomes. However, its effects need to be distinct and desirable. In this regard, a key action is the national and sub-national domestication, localisation and implementation of programmes and initiatives that seek to deliver the stated 2030 AfSD and SDGs vision. The process of domestication is an important component of the desired urgent, bold and transformative steps that countries need to effect a global and discernible shift towards a sustainable and resilient path. The United Nations seeks this. The second message falls within the ambit of the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle concept first advanced by Deming based on the work of Walter Shewhart (Moen & Norman, 2006). This concept involves an iterative approach that propels the processes of continually improving ­products, people and services (Fig.  13.1). The United Nations Group in its work on mainstreaming SDGs national and other development

Plan

Do

Act

Check

Fig. 13.1 The Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle. (Source: Moen & Norman, 2006)

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agendas (UNDG, 2016) has embraced the Plan-Do-Check-Act. The PDCA cycle is amenable to the actions and programmes seeking to deliver on the SDGs. A caveat in applying the cycle is that, in practice, processes and procedures around initiatives such as the 2020 AfSD are not necessarily distinct as shown in Fig. 13.1. A heuristic application of the PDCA cycle concept to the messages in the preceding chapters would be to begin by selecting the planning stage of the cycle as an entry point. The UN has prepared a policy framework and member states are at liberty to implement this plan at they see fit. This liberty is important because national priorities and resources differ making the process of domesticating SDGs imperative to meet local realities. As part of this planning process, the second part of the book (Chaps. 2, 3, 4 and 5) shows cases of countries that are involved in preparatory work to deliver on the SDGs. A significant part of this work is determining present conditions, as the baseline marking the origin of journey to define the magnitude of task and the required resources to address specific objectives as articulated in the SDGs policy framework. Chapter 2 highlights the importance of education in this journey bringing to life SDG 4. Education addresses many goals. For instance, it avails access to better-paying jobs thus enhancing health issues and addressing the poverty concern (SDGs 1, 3 and 8). It is also key to technological advances that can reverse some of the deleterious present-day human economic and social practices leading to sustainable consumption and production, as well as come up with appropriate measure to address climate change (SDGs 12 and 13). Cognisant of resource constraints, financial resources in particular, the authors focus on education-­ related Official Development Assistance (ODA) and its likely impact on the agenda at hand. Here indications are a weak base in the education sector, with untrained teachers and gaps in relevant data that could assist in better addressing deficiencies. For Africa, to transform and be a knowledgebased economy as articulated in its Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want and to deliver on the

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SDGs, the education sector needs due attention. To this end, a focus that efficiently uses the available resources instead of the traditional call for more resources for the sector is critical. This, in any way, does not dismiss the need for additional resources. Chapters 3 and 5 also focus on planning a way forward by first determining the current position. Chapter 3 reveals the contradictory position of limited and perhaps overall decline in the exploitation of renewable energy sources and use of safe energy forms in domestic applications. Most concerning is the impact of retrogressive actions in larger systems, for example, the economic decline in Zimbabwe affecting progress in the energy sector. Such outcome retards progress not only in terms of the direct goal SDG 7 in this case but other goals as well. For example inadequate and unreliable energy supply retards economic growth and development by limiting industrial development (SDGs 8 and 9), and this directly impacts the poverty alleviation focus (SDG 1). This is the message carried in Chap. 5 where another initiative, the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of the Paris Agreement, has elements that address several SGDs, most notably SDG 7 because of the definite and prominent link between energy production and global warming which drives climate change. We will return to this point later. Similarly but using a different measure, Chap. 4 tacitly draws a practice baseline showing a case of a ‘solution’ that becomes a ‘problem’. Elsewhere, an example is the case of thalidomide a drug that was prescribed to treat morning sickness in pregnant women but led to a big man-made medical disaster with over 10,000 children born with a range of severe and debilitating malformations induced by this drug (Vargesson, 2015). Such and related cases show the importance of planning that accurately defines the problems and carefully considers the intended, unintended as well as possibility of unforeseen consequences of preferred policy and practice options. Proceeding from planning, the third part of the book, comprising Chaps. 6, 7, 8 and 9, shows the ‘plans’ in action. The international development community acknowledges that the SDGs

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implementation and its scaling will fail without greater participation by the private sector. Related investment needs in developing countries range from $3.3 trillion to $4.5 trillion per year (Independent Evaluation Group, 2019). Many developing countries lack the financial and technical resources to invest accordingly. Despite this being most relevant, this part of the book shows the private sector activities in the SDGs space. This is a desirable response to call for the private sector to play a role in this space. In the majority of cases, some of the present-day challenges that include global warming, which gives rise to climate change, environmental degradation and some unfair international trade practices started and are resident in private sector policies and practices. It thus becomes imperative and inevitable that the sector be part of the solution that addresses the SDGs focus. This is critical for managing risks that include reputational and legal risks amongst an increasingly aware global citizenry. In Chap. 6, an international player in the tourism sector (&Beyond) not only sees value in sustainable practices but also proceeds to effect the appropriate practices. For this firm, sustainable practices preserve a source of income—nature as a tourist attraction. This is also the storyline in Chap. 7 with the leading aviation firms, Airbus and Boeing, seeking to reduce their carbon footprint amongst other SDG-related concerns. Innovation (SDG 9) has been key particularly concerning fuel efficiency. In Chap. 8, there is a case of poverty alleviation through lowering the barriers to entry in potentially lucrative agricultural activities—the growing of cotton in this case. Agriculture is key to addressing rural poverty in Africa. In Chap. 9 the insurance angle is important to safeguard hazards that may occur as the world seeks to transform rapidly to match equally rapidly changing environmental, social and economic realities that the scaling up of SDGs may present. The highlighted cases show that delivering on the SDGs is a case of both product and process (service) innovations and there are no exceptions in terms of industry and sector. The fourth part of the book (Chaps. 10, 11 and 12) extends the role of all global citizens in the

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SDGs space by highlighting the role of the civil society. The civil society comes in various forms that include cooperatives, resident associations, universities and non-governmental organisations. Their actions are both direct, for example, the waste recycling cooperatives (WRCs) in Brazil (Chap. 10), and indirect, as is shown by the actions of universities through education that include teaching and research (Chaps. 11 and 12). Interestingly and further stretching the need for the participation of all global citizens, Chap. 11 brings to the fore the issue of gender equality. The concept of women-focused institutions is a bold and transformative step that addresses gender discrimination leading to the exclusion of an important constituency in global issues—women. This concept needs definite scaling up as part of processes that address gender concerns cognisant and respectful of culture and religious concerns. This is important to ensure that no one and absolutely no one is left behind based on gender, culture, race, caste or religion amongst other social status measures. The third and final message we highlight concerns the issue of ‘ranking’ the SDGs in order of importance, urgency or any other measure. The contributing chapters address this directly and indirectly by showing interlinks between the SDGs. This means there is no superior or inferior goal. Highlighting this point is the fact that all the chapters referred to more than one goal including those that had specified a goal and/or related policy focus in their title. The message is that there is ‘partnership’ between the SDGs. Two forms of partnership are distinguishable in this space. The first type is the leverage form of partnership, where one SDG provides the means to advance another SDG (Stibbe, Reid, & Gilbert, 2018). For example, to alleviate poverty (SDG 1) requires decent employment in growing economies (SDG 8) with competitive and innovative public and private firms (SDG 9). To be competitive and innovative, there is a need for firms to build and maintain mutual beneficial relationships with universities and research centres where the firms access research outputs and expertise and in turn the firms fund research work (SDG 17). The second type is collaborative

13  Pushing Ahead with the Drive to Scaling up SDGs Implementation

partnership, where two or more organisations combine their complementary resources to wrestle a common challenge or premeditated goal (Ibid). For example, in seeking to develop responsible production and consumption of goods (SDG 12), considerations around clean, sustainable and adequate sources of energy (SDG 7) are important, and this relates to the need to address climate change concerns (SDG 13), and this in turn requires collective global efforts and collaborations (SDG 17) amongst others. In this vein, it is essential to note that engaging the private sector as a partner, collaborator, investor, operator, innovator, financier and service provider in scaling the SDGs implementation requires responsible government, competitive and efficiently functional markets. This is because strategic partnerships and alliances for scaling SDGs implementation like all other economic and social activities will manifest in a systemically enabling ecosystem, which fosters innovation, skills enhancement and evidence-based policy formulation and reforms. Irrespective of the type of partnership and relationship between the goals, one thing remains fundamental, that is, some actions to realise the stated objectives will have rapidly discernible outcomes and others will only bear discernible fruits in the medium to long term. Political, private and public sector ‘wisdom’ will be in learning to distinguish and accept the related hard truths to ensure that policies are not maintained unnecessarily or changed unduly. For instance, in the case of WRCs, their evident effects manifest relatively rapidly through indications such as reduced sizes of waste dumps and in the environment. In contrast, the broad impacts of education (Chaps. 11, 12 and 13) may be slow to manifest but are nonetheless critical for a systemic change.

13.3 Policy Recommendations Reading through this book gives the impression of a world focused on the 2030 AfSD and its 17 SDGs. Indeed, this agenda is topical and as the end of the first 5  years of this 15-year agenda draws near, it is likely that the rhetoric will rise.

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The urgency that some issues such as poverty, inequality and climate change amongst others impose to addressing related concerns makes it vital to avoid the worsening of conditions to a point of igniting various forms of conflict. To avoid such an outcome, it is important to formulate and implement policies that address the identified concerns. The nature of related challenges makes this a global concern. From this, a number of policy recommendations are possible, but here we draw only two broad policy recommendations and posit that these can increase the magnitude and covertly the positive outcomes of work related to the SDGs. The first recommendation concerns accurately measuring the indicators that show progress or lack of it towards addressing the stated concerns. An advantage of the 2030 Agenda and its 17 SDGs is that there are also accompanying targets—169 of them in total with indicators that can be domesticated and localised from national to sub-national and at the corporate level. There has been further movement in bringing into the fore big data—statistics that is usually resident with bodies outside national statistics agencies and office. In principle, this means that there could be indicators associated with each target, and this will enable the determination of progress or lack of it along the duration of this agenda. However, there are some targets that still do not have numerical indicators, and in addition, some governments do not have the means to collect related data. This needs urgent attention and falls into the realm of the old business adage: ‘If you can’t measure it, you can’t improve it’. The second recommendation relates to the efficient utilisation of scarce resources within a specified period ensuring that stated goals are met. In this regard it is the quest for global policy coherence for sustainable development. In our view, this is the genesis of ratcheting the scaling up of SDGs initiative. Target 17.14 of the SDGs appeals to all countries to enhance policy coherence for sustainable development (PCSD) as it is critical for implementing this policy framework (UN, 2015). There is an acknowledgement that policy coherence is a difficult task within a country and even more difficult across international

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borders. Nevertheless, such coherence is critical to ensure an efficient use of resources. Where there is a need to produce, supply and use new technologies, policy coherence within and across borders allows for greater access to larger markets, which would result in firms achieving economies of scale through increased production and the lowering of related costs. This is important for scaling up the SDGs drive. In this realm, the desired and significant coherences have to manifest across policy sectors to confer horizontal coherence and between different levels of government deliver vertical coherence within and across countries. This recommendation is cognisant of the complexity of ensuring such a scenario manifests in reality under the prevailing prevalent political dispensation—globally. However, the recommendation stands on the premise that coherence is not absolute but relative. Consequently, there is space to move from the current levels of coherence to a better one and from there continue to improve. That is the core of the earlier mentioned PDCA cycle. After all, the majority of existing policy regimes have developed incrementally in an extemporised fashion over a long period and are thus a wide and varied mix of policy instruments (Evers, 2005; Wilson, 1974). A challenge for the SDGs is that sometimes the established policy regimes are replete with cases of policy instruments and programmes loaded on top of each other in a process called ‘policy drift’ or ‘layering’ (Hacker, 2005). Often this leads to increased policy complexity as well as cost of implementation policy (Beland, 2007). The policy coherence for sustainable development drive has to overcome the policy layering effects that may retard the scaling up of SDGs. In gathering information and formulating and implementing policies that deliver on the SDGs, it will always remain important to balance short-­ term priorities with long-term sustainability objectives. These will be different within and between countries but the link between and within SDGs means that all actions will contribute to the scaling up of the SDGs in one way or

the other. Notwithstanding the growing global call for gender-disaggregated data across all the SDGs and the adoption of a myriad of monitoring and evaluation methods, each with its own merits and limitations, the scaling up process needs to accelerate.

References Beland, D. (2007). Ideas and institutional change in social security: Conversion, layering and policy drift. Social Science Quarterly, 88(1), 20–38. Evers, A. (2005). Mixed welfare systems and hybrid organizations: Changes in the governance and provision of social services. International Journal of Public Administration, 28, 737–748. Hacker, J.  S. (2005). Policy drift: The hidden politics of US welfare state retrenchment. In W.  Streek & K.  Thelen (Eds.), Beyond continuity: Institutional change in advanced political economies (pp. 40–82). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Moen, R., & Norman, C. (2006). Evolution of the PDCA cycle. Retrieved July 26, 2019, from http://citeseerx. ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.470.5465 &rep=rep1&type=pdf Stibbe, D. T., Reid, S., & Gilbert, J. (2018). Maximising the impact of partnerships for the SDGs. The partnering initiative and UN DESA. Retrieved July 26, 2019, from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/2564Maximising_the_impact_of_partnerships_for_the_SDGs.pdf United Nations, UN, 2015. Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Retrieved 26 July 2019 from: https://www.un.org/ga/search/ view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E UNDG (United Nations Development Group). (2016). MAPS—A common approach to the UNDG’s policy support to the SDGs—An update on implementation March 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2019, from https://www. un.org/ecosoc/sites/www.un.org.ecosoc/files/files/en/ qcpr/doco-summary-brief-on-maps-march2016.pdf Vargesson, N. (2015). Review thalidomide-induced teratogenesis: History and mechanisms. Birth Defects Research. Part C, Embryo Today, 105(2), 140–156. World Bank. (2019). ‘Creating markets’ to leverage the private sector for sustainable development and growth: An evaluation of the World Bank Group’s experience through 16 case studies. Washington, DC: Independent Evaluation Group. World Bank. Wilson, J. Q. (1974). The politics of regulation. In J. W. McKie (Ed.), Social responsibility and the business predicament (pp.  135–168). Washington: Brookings Institute.

Correction to: Scaling up SDGs Implementation: Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors Godwell Nhamo, Gbadebo O. A. Odularu, and Vuyo Mjimba

Correction to: G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7 The original version of the Chapters 6 and 7 were inadvertently published with the corresponding author’s name as “Dube Kaitano”. The author’s name has now been corrected to “Kaitano Dube”.

The updated online version of these chapters can be found at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_6 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_7 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_14

C1

Index

A Addis Ababa Action Agenda (2015), 28 Africa, 28, 36 Africa Clean Energy Corridor (ACEC) initiative, 42 African Development Bank (AfDB), 5 Africanisation, 176, 177 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD), 3, 25, 39, 73, 88, 92, 183, 184, 187 Agriculture, 186 Air manufacturing industry, 100 Airbus carbon footprint, 107 company, 103 description, 103 environmental and annual reports, 103 environmental performance, 108 gender imbalances, 111 projects and activities, to SDGs, 105–106 research and development, 103 sound environmental and sustainability practice, 107 STEM programme, 110 websites, 103 Wings Campus, 110 Aircraft Fleet Recycling Association (AFRA), 106, 110 Aircraft manufacturing companies, 110 Airline industry, 99, 100 Anthropogenic GHG emissions, 90 Aviation aircraft engine standards, 101 aircraft manufacturing and operations, 100 ATAG, 106 environmental concerns, 100 global trade and tourism, 99 goods, 100 growth, 100 industry, 99 noise, 100 Paris Agreement, 100 SAF, 108, 109 and SDGs, 102 sustainable aviation fuel activities, 109 in tackling climate change, 101 Aviation noise, 107

B Blue Ocean Strategy, 89 Boeing AFRA, 110 aircraft, 106 BREEAM and LEED, 110 carbon footprint, 107 company, 103 description, 103 environmental and annual reports, 103 environmental performance, 108 gender imbalances, 111 projects and activities, to SDGs, 104–105 SAF, 108, 109 SDGs, 103 STEM programme, 110 websites, 103 Brazilian Research Network on Global Climate Change (Rede CLIMA), 141 Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM), 110 C Cancun Adaptation Framework, 76 Capitalism, 156 Carbon emissions, 100, 107, 108 Carbon Tax Act, 12 Case study research, 91 Chair of the UN Statistical Commission, 6 Climate change aviation industry, 107 aviation sector, 100, 101, 107–109 in coral bleaching, 90 global warming, 88 insurance products, 132–134 IPCC assessment, 88 on ocean resources, 89 risk, in Southern Africa, 131–132 tourism industry, 88 tourism infrastructure, 89 Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP), 101

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G. Nhamo et al. (eds.), Scaling up SDGs Implementation, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7

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Index

190 Composite index, 25, 28, 29, 32, 36 Contract farming, 116, 117, 121 Cooperatives in promoting gender equality, 146 recycling and reverse logistics chains, 149 social articulation, 152 WRC (see Waste recycling cooperatives (WRC)) Cottco ginneries, 120 Cottco’s input credit scheme analysis, 122 benefits, micro-lending, 122 challenges, 126 description, 119 employment creation, 120, 121 and market share, investment, 124, 125 production finance, 119–120 and SDGs, 118 Cotton cash crop, 116 and cocoa, 116 contract farming, 116, 117 producing areas, 118, 119 rural households, 116 Zimbabwe, 116 Cotton Company of Zimbabwe Limited (Cottco) annual market share, 123 benefits, input credit scheme, 119 corporate social responsibility, 122 credit scheme (see Cottco’s input credit scheme) description, 117 history, 117 infrastructure development, 120 market linkages, 121 performance vs. competitors, 124 ripping, 123 training and extension service, 121 Cotton Marketing Board (CMB), 117 Credit scheme, see Cottco’s input credit scheme Curriculum, 171, 172, 176, 177 D Decade for Sustainable Energy for All (Decade of SE4ALL), 42 Decarbonization, 134 Decolonisation, 176, 177 Degradation, 60, 61, 65, 66, 68, 70 Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), 42 Document and critical discourse analysis (DCDA), 76 E Education, 155, 156 and SDG 5, 156 language, 157 Official Development Assistance (ODA), 185 Education Cannot Wait (ECW) fund (2016), 28 Education community, 26

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) Born Declaration, 175 curriculum recurriculation, 172 higher education and SDGs, 172 higher education partnerships, 178 modules, 177 portray, 174 Education sector, 25 Energy, 106–110 Enrolment policy, 161 Environmental education modules, 173 Environmental issues, 169, 170, 173 Environmental Management Agency (EMA), 64 Environmental risks, 129, 131–133 Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey 2013, 54 F Faculty of Agriculture, 162 Faculty of Management, 162 Faculty of Social Science, 162 Feed-in tariffs (FITs), 42 Financial vulnerability, 135 Food security, 130, 132 Foreign direct investment (FDI), 32, 42 Forestry Commission and the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), 64 Future-oriented sustainability education processes, 170, 171 G Gandhi’s philosophy, 155 Gender Development Index, 29 Ginneries, 120 Global climate change, 130 Global Commission on Education’s recommendations, 35 Global Partnership for Education (GEP), 25, 28 Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), 14, 16 Global Sustainable Development Report, 10 Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments (GTLRG), 12 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 40, 76, 88, 90, 94 Airbus, 100 aviation industry, 107 H Habitat III’s New Urban Agenda, 75 Higher education Africanisation and decolonisation, 176 and women empowerment, 158 attainment, 158 in ESD, 172 gender inequality, 159 institutions, 172 and job markets, 156 partnerships, 178 private institutions, 158 Western islands, 176

Index

191

womb brain dichotomy, 159 women movements, 158–160 women’s access, 160 Higher Education Sustainability Initiative (HESI), 172 High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), 9 Human activities, 88 Human Development Index, 29 Human waste, 95 Hydropower, 45

International Finance Facility for Education (IFFEd), 23–24 International Standardization Organization (ISO), 14

I Ibrahim Index of African Governance, 35 In-depth document analysis, 91 Indigenous communities’ sustainable livelihood strategies, 174 Industrial Revolution, 8 Industrialisation, 166 Industry innovation (SDG 9), 107 Information, communication and technology (ICT), 14 Innovation (SDG 9), 186 Innovation hubs, 166 Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), 13 Institutions of higher education (IHE), 17 Insurance catastrophic, 135 climate change risks, 131 companies, 133 economic liability, 130 environmental risks, 132 financing reconstruction investment, 135 global environmental risks and insurance industry, 130–131 innovative new environmental products, 130 insurance-based mechanisms, 136 insurers, 133 low-carbon economy, 134, 135 principles, ClimateWise, 133 products, risk reduction, 133 promotion and penetration, 133–134 SDGs goals, 136 sector, 135 in Southern Africa, 133 weather index-based, 135 Insurance-linked securities (ILS), 136 Integrative Socio-environmental Security Research Project (PI-SSA), 141 Intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs), 73 Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs), 29, 43 Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators (IAEG-SDGI), 6 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 74, 88 International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), 14 International Commission on Financing Global Education Opportunity, 28

M Mainstreaming, Acceleration and Policy Support (MAPS), 6 Malawi Integrated Household Panel Survey 2013, 54 Mangroves, 89, 94 Market share Cottco’s, 123, 124 Measurement, reporting and verification (MRV), 6 Millennium development goals (MDGs), 4, 25, 39, 143, 144, 156, 183 Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, 5 Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 35 Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) platforms, 40 Multilateral and bilateral agencies, 25

K Key Informant (KI), 162, 164 L Livelihoods, smallholder farmers, 118, 126

N National adaptation plans (NAPs), 8, 76 National Solid Waste Policy (NSWP), 145, 149, 151 Nationally determined contributions (NDCs), 8 adaptation, 76, 80 agriculture and energy sectors, 75 anthropogenic activities, 74 carbon emissions, 76 climate action SDG, 77–79 climate change, 80, 82 context of mitigation, 79 direct and indirect references, 74 frequency counts, 81 human-induced carbon emissions, 74 impacts, 80 impacts of climate change, 75 implementation, 82 methodological framework DCDA method, 76 iterative content analysis approach, 76 number of pages, 78 preliminary keywords and/or terms count analysis, 77 systematic and purposive approaches, 77 mitigation, 76, 81 mitigation agenda, 75 national policymakers, 82 needs of developing countries, 80 sustainable development, 79 total word counts, 80 New Urban Agenda, 8 Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 17, 146 Non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM), 101, 102

192 O Ocean economy, 89, 93, 96 Ocean plastic, 95 Ocean pollution, 89, 95 Oceans, 87 accumulation, plastics, 88 biodiversity, 87 humanity and biophysical environment, 88 Oceans Without Borders (OWB), 92, 96 Official development assistance (ODA) adjusted net enrolment rate, 32, 33 bottom 5 countries, 32 children and adolescents, 25 community, 35 education quality, 35 education system management, 35 findings, 33 leadership and accountability, 35 literature survey, 25–28 Mauritius and Seychelles, 35 methodological underpinnings, 28–30 policies aim, 35 primary education, 32, 34 scholarships, 30–33 SDG 4 baseline composite index, 32, 34 stakeholders, 24 Official Development Assistance (ODA), 185 One New York City (OneNYC), 13 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 24 P Paris Agreement, 8, 41, 73, 74, 80, 88, 89, 101, 185 aviation industry, 100 Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle, 184, 185, 188 Plastic pollution, 90 Policy drift/layering, 188 Policy perspectives drift/layering, 188 implementation, 184 MDGs policy framework, 183 policy coherence, 187 SDGs framework, 185 2030 Agenda, 187 Policymaking, 69 Pollution and climate change, 92 human waste, 95 ocean pollution, 95 plastic pollution, 90 sources, 95 Poverty, 118, 124, 185–187 R Re/contextualisation, 175 Recycling agents, 142, 145, 148, 152 Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REI4P), 42 Risk, 130

Index S São Francisco River basin (SFRB), 141, 142, 146, 148 Save Catchment of Zimbabwe Bikita and Chimanimani study sites, 63 biodiversity invasion, 65 biodiversity loss, 60 building material and medicinal plants, 65 communities, 69 community organisation, 70 cultural norms, 68 domestic and international tourists, 63 ecosystem services, 65, 67 environment and natural resource base, 60 environmental challenge, 62 evidence-based assessments, 60 expansion of settlements, 69 food production, 61 geo- and ecological diversity, 69 global- and local-level challenges, 59 government institutions, 68 granitic rock formations, 62 human and livestock populations, 62 in-depth interviews, 66 institutional challenges, 61 land-based ecosystems, 59 land degradation, 60 local and poverty-stricken rural communities, 60 local communities, 67 management and rural livelihoods, 61 methodology, 63, 64 natural and human factors, 60 nonconsumptive uses, 65 Nyanyadzi and Maturure, 65, 66 policymaking, 69 rural communities, 60 rural water supply and sanitation programmes, 62 semi-arid geographical regions, 60 settlement activities, 65 spring utilisation, 61 spring water utilisation, 64 spring waterscape utilisation, 60 spring waterscapes, 61, 64, 68 sustainable utilisation, 60 traditional institutions and local spring water committees, 67 utilisation and management, 68 utilisation of springs, 69 water committees, 68 water management techniques, 70 water quantity and quality, 61, 67 Scaling up, 184, 186–188 climate change, 4 corporate sector, 14, 16, 17 health sector, 3 loss of biodiversity, 4 role of civil society, 17 simplification and standardization, 4 transformations, 4 Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM), 104, 105, 110

Index SDG 5 (gender equality) education, 156 in-depth interviews, 161 targets, 156 tertiary education, 157 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, 75 Side marketing, 122, 126 Small-scale farmers, 117, 118, 123, 126 Socio-environmental security, 142, 148, 152 Solar energy, 106 South Sudan Urban Water Corporation, 5 Southern Africa, 89, 90, 96, 169 Space-division multiplexing (SDM) technology, 14 Spring waterscapes, 60, 61, 64, 68–70 Stakeholders, 47, 54, 55 Statistical Programme for Social Sciences, 161 Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), 40 Sustainability, 60, 70, 103, 171–173, 175, 176 Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF), 108, 109 Sustainable development, 26, 74–77, 82, 83 and education, 170 environmental, social and economic, 170 societies, 171 and sustainable lifestyles, 171 UNDESD, 170 Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15), 59, 60, 68, 69 Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), 25–29, 35, 36 Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7) access to clean energy, 40 access to renewable energy, 41, 44, 45, 47, 48 baseline CI, 53, 54 clean fuel and technology, cooking, 49, 51 electricity, 43 framework, 40 GHG emissions, 41 implications, 54 innovative policies, 40 layer of analysis, 43 linear approach, 40 min-max normalisation method, 44 non- and renewable energy, 40 non-governmental organisation ACRA-CCS, 43 policies, 42 renewable energy, 41, 43 rural and urban areas, 40 smart grids, 40 systems thinking approach, 40 transmission capacity, 41 weighted arithmetic mean, 44 weighting and aggregation rules, 44 Sustainable development goals (SDGs) commissioning, 142 domestic goals setting, SDG 16, 143 extreme weather events, 130 future-oriented sustainability education processes, 170 global environmental risks, 129 historical development, 170 linking environmental issues, 175 localization, in semi-arid Brazil, 144–145

193 and MDGs, 144 Oceans Without Borders initiative, 93 and Paris Agreement, 89 school curriculum, 171 sustainable jobs and employment, 96 tourism industry, 90, 92 trade-offs, 143 and 2030 Agenda, 143, 183 Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN), 4 Sustainable tourism, 88 T Tanzania National Panel Survey 2012–2013, 54 Tertiary education, 157 Tourism ecotourism, 94 industry, 90 infrastructure, 89 stakeholders, 94 ventures, 96 Tourism company climate change and pollution, 92 coastline and location, 91 description, 90 environmental education, 94 ocean sustainability, 92 stakeholders, 94 sustainability under SDG14, 93 tourism ventures, 96 zero plastic bottle use, 95 Tourism infrastructures, 89 Tourism stakeholders, 94 Trade Union Development Cooperation Network (TUDCN), 17 Transport industry, 100 U UN Economic and Social Council, 10 UN Global Compact, 14 United Nations Development Group (UNDG), 6 United Nations Development Programme, 9 United Nations family agencies and associations, 5 climate change, 8 family-friendly policy agenda, 7 IAEG-SDGI, 6 UN Women report, 6, 7 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 73–76, 79 United Nations General Assembly, 5, 42 United Nations Global Compact (UNGC), 16 United Nations Secretary-General, 4 UN Principles for Responsible Management Education (UNPRME), 14 UN Secretary-General, 10 University’s enrolment, 160 Urban population, 148

Index

194 V Voluntary company reviews (VCRs), 13–14 Voluntary household reviews (VHRs), 14 Voluntary Local Review (VLR), 12, 13 Voluntary National Review (VNR), 5 biodiversity and habitat losses, 12 communicable and non-communicable diseases, 11 development of institutions, 10 economy, 11 effective management, 12 energy diversification measures, 11 follow-up and review mechanism, 9 gender, 11 infrastructure, 11 initiatives, 12 legislative frameworks, 11 malnutrition and obesity, 11 multidimensional perspectives, 10 multi-stakeholder engagement mechanisms, 10 reporting mechanism, 9 SDGs implementation, 12 traffic congestion and air pollution, 11 W Waste management, 142, 145, 148, 150 Waste recycling agents, 148

Waste recycling cooperatives (WRC), 145, 146, 149–151 Water-Food-Energy (WEF) Nexus, 142 Water resources, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), 130 Weather index-based insurance, 135 Wind energy, 47 Womb brain dichotomy, 159 Women patriarchy and capitalist exploitation, 156 presumed incompetent, 159 Women empowerment, 156–158, 160–162, 164 Women movements, 158–160 Women’s University in Africa (WUA), 156, 160–164, 166 World Bank’s Living Standards Measurement Study, 54 World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), 14, 16 World Development Indicators (WDI), 43 Y Youth-led movements, 17 Z Zero plastic bottle use, 95