Saracens, Demons, & Jews: Making Monsters in Medieval Art 0691057192, 9780691057194

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Making Monsters ,

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MedievalArt Debra Higgs Strickland

Princeton University Press Princeton and Oxford

N 5950 . S685 200 3

Strickland, Debra Higgs Saracens, Demons, and Jews - Making Monsters i

IN i\ IEl\\ O RI Ai\ t

NAT H A N H A SS I G

Contents

32355 003484086

Front cover: Giant, Sciopod, Pygmy, Bragmann i, c. 1270-90 (fig. 57) Back cover: Devils po uring molten lead down the throats of the da mned, c. 1450- 70 (fig. 19) Frontispiece: de rai l of fig. 20; Preface: fig. 55/plare 1; C hapter 1: derail of fig. 5; C hapter 2: dera il of fig. 21; C hapter 3: detail of fig. 42; C hapter 4: derail of fig. 94; Chapter 5: derail of fig. 122; C hapter 6: dera il of fig. 133 Publ ished by Prin ceton Un iversity Press, 4 1 William Street, Princeto n, New Jersey 08540. In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 3 Ma rker P lace, Woodstock, O xfordshire OX20 1SY www.pupress.pri nceton.edu Copyright © 2003 Pri nceto n University Press. All righ ts reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical m eans, including information sto rage or retrieval systems, without permissio n in writing from the publ ishe rs, except by a reviewe r who may quote brief passages in a review. Publication of th is book has bee n made possible in part by a gra nt fro m Fu rthe rmore, a program of the ]. M. Kaplan Fund. Designed by Sa rah Henry Co mposed by T ina Thompson Printed by South C hina Printing Manufactu red in C hina IO 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

7

Preface

21

Plares

Making Men Known by Sight: Classical Theories, Mon.5trous Races, &:. Sin Demons, Darkness, &:. Ethiopians

61

2

95

3 Chri.5tians Imagine Jews

157

4

Saracens, Tartars,&:. Other Crusader Fantasies

2 Il

5 Escharnlogical Cons piracies

2 41

6 Conclusions : What ls a Mo n,5ter?

ISBN - 13 : 978-0-691 -05 7 19-4 (clorh)

Notes

1sg '- I 0 : 0-69 1-057 19-2 (clorh )

Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Strickland , Debra Higgs, 19 58Saracens, d emons, and Jews : maki ng monsters in Med ieval arr I Debra Higgs Strickland . p. cm. Includes bi bliographical references and index. ISBN 0-69 1-05 719-2 (alk. paper) 1. Art, Medieval-Themes, motives. 2. Mino rities in art. 3. C hristianity and other rel igions. I. Ti tle. N5950 .S685 200 3 700'. 45229 '0902- dc2 1

3°3

Acknowledgments Bibliography Index

336

Photography C redits

Prefac e

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Because of the 111osl noble 111atter which everwas or will be, it is 111y pleasure to li11111 and u11cover a subject that serves as a11 exa111ple aflertlte11at11reof111e11/ivi11gtoclay. . .. Inforeign nations they are not a bit lilw tit~)' are here. Yo11 lmow trnly that the Oriental is quite otherwise tlian we are. -Cieri~ of Enghien, La 111aniere et /es failures des 111onstres des /10111111es

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ud}tm~~--.- 11;11. G1a1wti ii:·µ.,µ: .1do \\Ure 111l> erXjio mu duo 111'0. G1iif"gnnufdo rrium ctomnn nli nlu :\'jif.. fn11~,vuob1 • 111111m.aud1c11m fictnn1uam nirpii lh1( «ct11cmonm. .111.1111 tMbmfmo11111CffoofJ\tt' fp panel. Trn)'C5, c. 11 70-80. Th e Vicwria and Alben

associated wirh vari ous animals m ay also be found

i\tu;>cum, London

in the rh irreen rh-ce nrury Parisia n Bibles moralisees. For exam ple, in rhe Vie nna Bible, the ape signi fies chea ting, rh e h eron signifi es gluttony, rh e road a nd raven symbol ize usury,

the D evil the appearance of a m enac ing M e rcury. Details suc h as ou t-of- place wings are a bas ic way of conveying de mo nic perve rsity, o f using an attribute whi ch in other contexts has positive conno tations in order to und ersco re wha t d em o ns are not. Like the M o nstrous Races, dem o ns are usua lly d epicted nude o r w ith a minimum

rhe cocarrice symbolizes rhefr, and rhe tench stands fo r lusr.11 Asi de from bestial references, so me of the h uma n physiognomical distortions integrated into portrai ts of demons were probably influen ced by rhe d escriptio n in rhe Old Testament o f human physical defo rmities a nd t he ir m o ral mea nings. In additio n ro

o f clothing, usually only a loincloth, and fo r two of the sa m e reasons: as a sign of b ar-

rhe u nclean beasts, rhe Boo k of Levitic us also discusses human phys ical imperfectio ns

b ari ty a nd so that th eir p hys ical deform ities are m o re readily appare nt (figs. 20/fronris-

for bidden to the priesthood , and subsequent C hristian interpretatio ns of these were

piece, 25, 27 / pla te 8) .8 N akedness is also a long-standing sign of sin , m os t notably in

included and illustrated in religio us m anuscripts a nd d evo tional books, including the

images o f Ad am a nd Eve but also in po rtrayals of gene ric sinne rs.9 The scanty clothing of

Bibles moralisees a nd books o f ho urs, suc h as rh e fi free nth-cenrury Ro han H o urs.'J Such

demons furth er alludes ro their sexu ali ty, especia lly in sce nes of sexu al assault as observa-

im agery em p has izes rhe co nte mpo rary connection between physical d eformity and sin

ble in the fifteenth -century Livre de la Vigne de Nostre Seigneur (Book of th e Vineyard of

wh ich resulted from the C hrisria n izatio n of C lassical p hys iognom ical rheory.

our Lo rd) in rhe Bo d leia n Libra ry o r in Luca S igno relli's disturb ing fresco d ep icting rhe

In the Vienna Bible, a series of paired rounde ls depict Moses cursing individu als

fare of rhe damned in the Last Judgme n t seri es of the Ca ppe lla della M ado nna di San

with various ph ys ical defor mi ties a nd C hrist cursing their co n temporary co u nterparrs.'4

Brizio in Orviero Cath edral.'° A group portrait of twelve devils fro m rhe Livre de fa Vigne

The cursed incl ude the blind , th ose with noses too large or too sm all o r crooked , th ose

shows an especially imag inative blurring o f rhe nude/clothed oppositi o n by consrruc ring

with runny eyes or a spot in the ir eye, the hum p- backed , th e lam e, the wo rmy, the

66

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For rhey were ferocious in appea rance, terrible in shape with great long necks, thin faces, yellow complexions, filthy beards, Iieads, shaggy ears, wild foreheads, fierce eyes, fo~d m~uths, l~ orses' te.eth , throats vo miting Aames, twisted jaws, th ick lips, smdent voices, singed hair, fat cheeks, pigeon breasts, scabby thighs, knot ty knees, crooked legs, swollen an kles, splay feet, spreading mouths, raucous cries. For they grew so terrible to hear with their mighty shriekings that they filled almost the whole intervening space between earth and heaven with their discordant bellowings.'7 The demons in Life ofSaint Guthlac exhibi t another characteristic that is quite revealing, if it is considered in relation to the definition of the barbarian discussed in the lase chapter. The author-mo nk Felix, who in his earlier days had been a Mercian warrior fighting the British on the borders of Wales, ascribes to the devi ls a "sibilant speech" which Saint Guthlac identifies as the British language!' 8 The Saine Guthlac ro ll text and images are good reminders that demons are not

l~ ig.

u. I\ Iuse:; cursin g the deformed; Christ cursing personification:; of :;in. Hifile 111ornlisfr. Paris, 122.0s.

Ostcrn.:ie hi:;che Nacionalbibl iothck, Vienna, ,\ \S 255-1, fo l. 29 (detail)

which rhey are engaged; hence the hideous demons gleefully toss about the hapless saint

swollen, hern ia sufferers, and the insane. For example, one roundel depicts Moses admon-

(fig. 18). Still, it is also true that certain physical features, such as long, sharp claws and ferocious fangs, would have been fearful in themselves. Demons are most frequently depicted either tempting a good person into damnation, or more viscerally, of tortu ring

ishing a blind man guided by a sighted person in the upper level of an openwork arcade, and in the lower arcade, a man turned in profi le to reveal his very large nose stands to the

the damned in hell in various gruesome ways. The most impressive, public contexts for

left of another man wi th a very small nose, also turned in profile (fig. 22). In the roundel

this type of imagery during the twelfth century are church portals whose decorations

immediately below, Christ admonishes the blind man's contemporary counterpart in the upper arcade. H e is a cleric holding a book, one of the wicked theologians who can neither taste nor see divin ity. In the lower part of the arcade stands another cleric with a

include monumental Last Judgment scenes featuring graphic images of the torments of hell. From the tympanum of Sain t-Lazare in Au run , to the fri eze on the west front of Lincoln Cathedral, co the tympanum of Sainte-Foy in Conques, grotesque, bestial

goat, representing the heretic or miscrean t identifiable by his large nose. Standing under the adjacent arch is a generally dismayed-looking individual, the contemporary corollary

demons engaged in capturing and torturing the souls of the damned were visceral warnings to their viewers of the wages of sin.

of the small-nosed man , who cannot sense the sweet odor of God.' 1

In a more intimate and private context, an extensive variety of remarkably detailed demonic tortures form a contemplative pictorial sequence in the Livre de la Vigne, an

Physiognomical distortion is thus the key to the expression of evil and perversity in devil portrayals, achieved through a combination of hyb rid animal forms and deformed human physical fea tures. The success of the imagery lies in well-entrenched associations between physical abno rmality and sin. In fact, the Devil and his minions are

illustrated compendium of teachings on the end of the world and the fare of human ity in the next.' 9 These scenes include demons burning in a furn ace those who break the co m-

excellent example occurs in Fel ix's eighth-century Life of Saint Guthlac that was illus-

mandments, a demo n turning the crank of the wheel th at is breaking the bodies of the proud and the vainglorious, and devils pouring molten metal down the throats of the damned (fig. 19). O n subsequent folios, devils bite and scratch the damned; scourge and

trated in a th irteenth-century manuscript roll probably produced at Crowland Abbey (fig. J 8).' 6 In one especially harrowing episode in the journey toward sainthood, menacing demons kidnap Guthlac and attempt to carry him all the way down to hell. T he

bear them with hammers, whips, and clubs; and hang thieves, sometimes upside-down, over licking Aames. 10 In all cases, the dam ned are pictured naked as a sign of their sin, vulnerability, and utter powerlessness in the face of their demonic torturers, as well as ro

demons are less than attractive:

heighten the visceral effects of the tortures for the viewers. Ul tima tely, the effecti veness

frequently descri bed in negative physiognomical terms in contemporary so urces. An

I

only evil and perverse, they are also terrorists. Artistically, this is accomplished not so much through the physical form of the demons themselves as th rough the activities in

1

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' li·achtenberg, Josh ua. 7/Je Devil 11nd the jl'los: 'l'lH'

Appre he nsiveness: F.m icho of r:lon hcim and th/11ces, 33-34, 37, 258n.26 Alan of Lille, 189 Alben the Great, 30, 34, 236, 27on .89 Albigcnsians. See Cathars Alexander, legends of, 41, 4 6, 18486, 229-32, 235-36, 299n.87. Sec also Ky11g Alisr11111der;

Ro111r111u ofAlexmuler Alexander's Gate, 229-3 1, 232, 237,

ants, gianr, 206

College Apocalypse; Gulbenkian Apocalypse; Lambeth Apocalypse; Tanner Apocalypse; Wcllcome Apocalypse Apocalypse, Alexander's commen1ary on. See Cambridge Apocalypse Apollo, 166, 179 apostasy, 282n.227 App le-Sniffers, 44, 53, 54, 200, 203 Aquinas, Thomas, 37, 122 Aquitaine, 160 Arabs, 177, 179 archery, 57- 58, 87-88, 137, 195 Argoille, 160 Arisrorle, 30, 36, 37 Arius, 165 ark, Noah's, 49, 113; of the covenant, 146, 171-72 armor, 179- 81, 186, 188, 195- 97, 208, 237, 2881l.75, 289n.110 arms. See weapons Arribarirae, 187 Ashendcn, John, 31 as1rology, 31-33, 258n.24 auirudcs, C hrisrian: toward nonChrisrians, 12-13, 20, 41, 200, 211-12, 23 1, 239, 241; roward Erhiopians, 84; rowa rd Jews, 97, 101, 109, 114, IJ2, 155, 158, 162, 184, 200, 211- 12, 232, 239; roward Mongols, 194, 200, 204-7, 211; roward Musl ims, 159. 165, 174, 184, 200, 204-6, 211, 226 audience, medieval, 13, 105, 107, 115- 16 Augustine of H ippo, 33, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 99, 109, 138, 168, 239, 252. Sec also City ofCod Augusrinians, 139-40, 188, 212 Aureol, Perer, 237 Autun, Sr-L1Zare: 55, 67, 68, 72-73, 93, 124, 26511.146

lhbylon, 187, 213

bla,phemy, 128. 140. 162. 213, 2 17

C:ual.1ni, Jordan, 85

C loister> Cross, 13, 102 4, 105,

Dariu;, 160

llaw11, Roger, JO badgc.Jcwi;h, 110, 133. 2 15 Baliga1u, King, 182

Blemmyai, 4·1· •17-,18, 56, 82, 137, 148, 186, 20J. 219-20, 227. 2J6. 265n.lj.I blood-leuing, JI

C:11hars, 102, 172-73, 179

275n.39 club, as all rib utc, 74, 89, 11 3, 120,

da rkness vs. ligh1ness, 69-7 1, 73, 74,

Douce 88: 52, 265n. 148 Douglas, Mar)', 48

8,1, 93. IJ7, 169 David, 97, 147, 172, 252, 265n. 141 deb:ucs, C hristian-Jewish , 101-4.

blood libel, 1 1 ~). 138

dragon, 90-93. 118- 19 . 128- 30, 177, 181, 184, 206, 208, 251 . 265 n. 142, 27211.145; apocalyp1ic,

Cerberus, 24J, 30111.5

159, 169, 18J, 206, 2 15. 219, 248 Cluniacs, 165-66, 190 cock, 149-51, 28J11.220

blue, pictorial sign ifil~1ncc of, 75, 83, 178, 268n.73, 27211.142 boar, 45, 181, 289n.llJ

rh1111somrlegme. 159, 166, 168, 173.

code, pictorial, 16, 30. 59, 7 1-72,

Baltha>sar. 249 bap1i>111, 56, 144, 148, 204, 26511.156 barbarians. 157, 183, 239; C la.sical dcfini1ions of. 17, 39-41, 42-.15, I 3J

harbari1y, J9-40, 42- 46, 48, 55, 64, 88- 89, 11 3, 133, 134, 136, 159. 187- 88, 194, 203, 227. 242-43, 25 1. See also Erhiopians; Jew;;

Muhammed; Saracens; ' J:tnar~ Banholomcw rhe Englishman, 30, 31, 38-39 lhnlcu, Roberr, 16, 42 basilisk, 56 baulcs, pic1orial, 179-86, 188, 19598, 204- 6, 208-9 Ba1u Khan, 193, 196 beard, 77-78, 161, 164, 180, 250; of' Devil, 75; of Jews, 98, 102, 108, 110, 111, 114, 12), 134, 138, 14546, 148, 163, 187, 213-15, 221, 235; of Saracens, 184, 186, 18788, 192; ofTarrars, 194. 203, 207 bca>1>. apocalyptic, 130, 211, 214- 15, 220, 222-24, 297 n.57 llca1us of 1.iebana, 158 Beaulieu abbey, 160-61, 164, 187

Bodley 264: 202-3, 108-9, l9Jnn. 188, 19 0 llodley 764: 136 body. See beard; cars; eyes; faces, multiple; form. physical; genirals; gcsrurcs; grimace; hair;

head; heads, multiple; hean; horns; lips; mouth; nose; nu-

diry; skin ; 1ail; 1eed1; tongue;

wings !look of Kells, 80, 244 llosch , l-lieronynH", 238, 30 111.18 Bourdichon, Jean, 247-48 Breviary of Margueri1c de Bar, 152-53 Bridport, Gib de, 100 Britons, 37 brown, pictorial ;ignific:tncc of, 83, 27on.8J l3urton-on-'li·en1, 151 Bury Bible, 106 Bury St. Edmunds, 102-4, 276nn.

Bcrcngaudus. gloss of. 1oo, 130-31, 149-51, 220-2 1, 275n .23 lkrnard of'Clairvaux, 101, 159, 161, 162, 285n.27

IJl'Slir1irt', 147-48, 296n.37 bcs1iary. 52, 65, 78, 120, 137, 14748, 149, 151, 153-54, 163-64, 201, 27on.89, 27211.145. 289n .11J, 296n.37; and Mons1rous Races. 55-57. 265n.148. ~i·1· also llmit1ire; Bodley 764; Cambridge Bestiary; Douce 88; Geuy Bestiary; Harley 4 75 1; Wesnninstcr Abbey l3cs1iary

of!Mr111d Ch:lll 1icleer, 28Jn. 220 Charlemagne, 169-7 1, 207, 28711.73 Charle; V, 169-71, 179 Chanrcs, Notre Dame, 161 C:hn1n, Roben, t58 children: climatic cffcc1s on, 34; in medicine, 269n.69; of W ild Folk. 248 Chorozaim, 213 C hrisi: and i\n1ichrist, 13; and Devil, 74-77; betrayal of; 11316, 142, 251-52; crucifix ion of. 99, 104, 107, 108. 110-13, 120, 149, 163. 167. 277n.86; Aighr into Egyp1 of, 168; physical form of: J9, 72, 74-77, 78, 252; resurrec1ion of. 120, 147; Second Coming of: 99-10 1, 2 12; symbols of, 164, 2,16-47; tempra-

110, 158, 173, 14 1-54. Sretilso color, meanings

or; conAarion,

picwrial; gestures; opposirion, visual; posi1 io ning; si1,c Codex Gislc, 120-22, 151 coin-clipping, 143, 28211.196 Coleman, Jonathan, 4 2 Cologne Cuhedral, 28911.97

/Jeo'/'/11111 Cm1ir111i, 288n.92 D1· genem1io11e Mndm111e1, 190 dtmon i ac~, Gadarcnc,

104, 105, 107, 115, 128, 154,

81

demons, 59, 6 1-78, 80-84; darkness of; 68-7 1, 73, 74, 173; and Eth iopians, 80-84, 85-86, 87, 179, 219; in hcraldr)'. 82; and Jews,

172, t77, 243, 150-51, 269n.73.

77-78, 93, 109, 123-26, 154, 213, 217, 219; nudity of, 64-65, 67, 128; physical form or. 61-73,

See also 1111111rs ofi11di111(/11al l'olors

67, 75, 77-78, 170, 219, 146, 27on.8J; and Saracens, 122,

color, meanings

or, 75, 77, 83-86,

conAatio n , pictorial. 108-12, 11 722, 126, 146- 48, 170-73, 18486, 202-J Conques, S1e.-Fo)'. 67, 124 conspiracy, Christian accusations of. 192, 211, 233, 236, 138, 199n.91 Constanrinc the Grea1, 269n.69 Consran1i nople, 186 Constan1ius, 226 conrcxr, art istic, 106, 242

169-72, 177, 191, 215- 16;

130, 216-17, 218, 222, 225-26, 2J7. 29611.40. 297 n.63 drama, medieval, 12, 68, 83, 102,

SCXll-

ali1y of: 64, 7 1, 72, 73, 78; and l anars, 192, 198, 202; as torturers, 67, 68; u11erances of; 68, 72. See 1ilso Angingnarr; Beelzebub; imp'; Ragnell desen, iconographical significance of. 44 Devi l, 61-64, 66, 72, 77, 238, 2J9; and A n1 ichrist, 82, 2 13, 2 17,

275n .34, 296n.45; Chester cycle, 210, 296nn. 4 1, 42, 45; Covenrry cycle, 11 5; Crox1on Play, 117, 27811.96;}011r du }11ge111e111, 21J, 217; and medieval art, 11 7, 122, 2 18, 220, 167n.39, 278n.88, 295n.18; N-Town cycle, 105, 267n.24; l'l11y of !1111ichris1, 10 1, 2 14, 220, 278n.88, 29511.18; York cycle, 74, 115, 267nn. l'" 39, 176n. 67, 277n.86. See also masks dress, 40, 42, 72, 105, IJJ, 248; of Jews, 105, 109-10, 116-20. 133; of Saracens, 89, 174-77, 17981, 183-84, 288n.75, 28911.11 1; oflarrars, 194, 195, 198-200, 202-3, 207. See fllso headgear Dressler, Rachel, 165 Durcndal, 180

conversion, 158; of' E1hiopians,

275n .38, 277n.85 Cain , 49-50, 85, 114- 15, 14 1, 162, 2 11- 11, 222, 2J I, 2J2 Caius, 28on.1 29

C liriMian iLation: of Monstrous

186; physical form of. 74-77, 80-8 1, 166n.8. 26811 .42; and Saracens, 168-70, 171-72, 178, 242: symbols of, 134-J6, 181,

Caleb, 56, 148- 49. 265n.1 56 Calf, Golden. St'r Colden Calf Cambridge i\pocalypse, 126-27,

C h ris1opher, Saini, 245-46. 30111.7 Chro11im 111ajom, 190, 191, 19J-94, 195-96, 200, 236, 28Jn.203, 2911rn. 15 1, 158; JOOn.108

204, 138 Corbie Epistles, 90-93, 27211.1 4 2 crane, 51, 90, 265nn. 140, 146 crow, 84, 27on.89 c rucifix ion. Sr'e Chris1

226, 289 n.1 13; and ·ranars, 195;

graph ic.11 significance of: 75, 86; and mor:tl character, JS, 85; symbolic significance of, 47-,18 F.cclcsia, 98, 106, IJ6, 16J, 172, 220-21, 226

crusad ers, 11- 12, 8J, 159, 172-73, 238. 239; :llld Jews, 161-65, 221, 285nn. 27, JO: and Muslims, 161-6J, 166, 169, 182-84, 188-

and Wild Folk, 7+ See t1lso Lucifer; Satan

Edward I, 252-54 Edward Il l , 170

47, 48, 27811.96 Caedmon Manuscrip1, 69 Caiaphas, 102- 4, 111, 114- 15,

tJl-JJ, 140, 164-65, 223-24, 246-47, 28onn. 129, 130, 144, 197n.57 Cambridge Besiiary. 163-64 Cam ille, Michael, 16, 56, 168, 18 2, 265 n.154, 269 11.73 Canaan, 56. 126, 14 8, 184 c:mdlesticks, 90-9 3

/Jib/es 111omlisees, 53, 65-66, 77, 109,

cannibalism, IJ, 40, 45. 94, 159,

126, 140- 43, 146- 4 7, 148-49. 154. 17 1-73, 215-18, 222, 296nn. 28, J2, 40 liiblir1 pr111pem111, 265n.1 56 black, Chri; tian meanings of; 68-

t93-94, 198-200, 204, 229, 230-3t, 232. 145-46 Canterbury Psal1er, 80-81 Carmclircs, 2 12

69. 83-86. 88; pictorial signilic tnce of, 172, 249-50 Black Dca1 h, 233 Blacks. See Africans, black

179, 182, 183, 188-89, 237, 289n.11 1, 29111.145. See also Song

139-40, 145, 151-52, 154, 15 5 De 13r:tiles Psalter, 69- 7 1

1ion of: 63-64, 74-77. 26811.40; lOrmenlS of, 82-8J, 111- 14, 146, 277n.85, 286n.32, 289n.97. Se1• 1dso Pa55ion , images of Chris/ r111d Srt1r111, 6J, 68

Beelzebub, 171, 220 Benedictines, 84, 104, 151 l3cncdic1 1hc Pole, 293n.181 lieo11111/f. 49, 88

cave, iconographical sig nific31KC of. •14, 159. 200, 247, 248, 251 centaur;, 7- 8, 42, 219

Cr1m1m 11d ho11orm1 !111g1mi, 80 Carrhage, 26011.72 Carrmcl Priory, 2 1J, 2 18. 220, 296n .33 Cassiodorus. q8, 266n.160

Races 1rad i1ion, 52-59; of physiog11omical 1heory, 52-53, 65, 108; of zod iac, 33

Chrysos1om, John, 95, 99. 108. 122, 128, 132, 17411.13 circumcision , IJJ, 165 C i>tercian>, 277n.69 ciiy: iconographical sign ifica nce o f,

87; of Jews, 99-101, 104, 124, 143-51, 161, 164, 168, 226, 238, 284n.227; of Muslims, 87, 161, 168, 226, 238; of' Mongob, 87,

89, 207, 208, 222, 187n.68; and Mongols, 207. 208, 242 crusades, 9, 17, 14J, 157-65, 16973, 180-86, 188-89; chronicles of; 166-68, 169, 182-84, 188-

44, 45, 2J4-35, 247, 248; ideological sign ilicance of, 40, 42, 133, 195; suitable sire for, J7 Ci1y ofGod, 48, 139, 26011.72 civilization, signs of. 39-40, 42, 44,

Third Crusade; Fifih Crusade Ctmor M1111di, 2J7

72 C leop:ur a, 85

Cyclopes, 186, lOJ Cynoccphali. See Doghcads

cleric,, 56. 66, 139, 142, 149-51, 173 C lerk of Enghicn. 7-8 C lermon 1. Council of, 167, 177

Cynom olgi, 15J

89, 198, 226, 19on .1JO. Seen/so First Crusade; Second Crusade;

clima1e. 1heory of; 30-3 1, 33-J7,

Dagon, 17 1-72 Daniel. Norman. 286n.4 1

41-42. 8s, 177-79, 195. 23 1

Dante. See Di11i11r Comedy

220, 251; and Chris1 , 74-77; d isguises of. 73, 80; and E1hiopians, 58, So, BJ; and Jews, 115, 122-23, 127-28, 136, 14t, 154, 169, 218; and Monstrous Races,

devils. Sre demons; imps Devissc, Jean, 16, 79, 227-28

dwellings, 40. 42-44, 1J3. Seer1/so cavei ciry; dcscn; forest; moun-

tains cars: bags of, 196, 292n.t70; icono-

Egypt, 87, 168, 172, 188, 125,

/Jitlt1smlia llpolosrom111, 11 9

287n.57 Egyptians, JS, 82, 88

Didyrnus the Blind, 80, 84

clcmems, four, JO

dic1, barbaric, 40, 42, IJJ, 19 5 Diviiw Ci1111tdy, 165, 189

elephant, 45> 16J-64 El ias, 1 14, 220 El isha , 146 Elucidnrius, 26211 .107

Docg, 252-54 Doghcads, 7, 42-43, 44, 48, 51, 52, 5J. 54, 1 19, 145-46. 297n.57, J0111.7; and Saracens, 159-60, 19J, 200, 20J-6, 215, 22J-l4 dogs, 159-60, 191, 204-6, 223-24, 285nn. 15, 21. Seen/so Cerberus Dominican;, 51, 86-87, 100, 128, 144, 195. 2 12, 29111.14J Dom it ian, 127

Domw ro1111t'1>om111, 144, 283 n.203 Done>1re, 46

End of Time. See eschatology English (people), 36-J7 Enoch, 214, 220 Epiphagi, 47-48, 5J, 54

Epistle of Brmlflbus, 8J epi5dcs, Pauline, 90-9J, 14), 27211.142 cscharology, 17 , 82, 209-39 ; and Jews, 99-10 1, 130-J 1, 143-44, 160-6 1. 164. 109:

T 33°

33 1 eschatology (,-0111i1111etl) and Mongols, 238; and Muslims, 160-61, 221-22, 238; and Saracens, 209, 211, 215-16, 221 -

26, 2J7-J8; and Tartars, 198-99, 20 7, 209, 211, 236-J7, 2J8, JOOn .I08 Espina, Alfonso de, 236 Esscdones, 200, 2J I Estoire d'ti'flcles, 167 Ethiopia, 41, 86- 87, 27 11111. 111, 120; Prester John in, 87, 209, 249-50 Ethiopians, 79-9J; and Antichrist, 82, 227-28, 2J6, 2J8; barbariry of, 88, 89- 90; blameless, 12, 87, 242; in C lassical arr, 79; C lassical views of, 79, 8J, 85, 87-88, 9J; climaric effecrs on, J6, 45, 46, 17 8; conversion of, 87; and demons, 80-84, 85-86, 87, 179, 219; and Devil, 58, 80, 8J; dual view of, 12, 87-88, 242; eschawlogical roles of, 226-27; in her:1ldry, 82, 179, 180-82, 218-19, 228; and Jews, 9J; in marginalia, 57, 58, 81- 82; and Melancholia, J5-J6, 84, 250; and Monsrrous Races, 8-9, 45, 57-58, 87-9J, 227-28, 27211.127; non -black, 88-89, 25 1; nud ity of, 82, 85, 88, 89- 9J, 25 1; physical form of, J8, 45, 79, 82-8J, 85-86, 88-93, 169, 173, 250-5 1, 26811.59, 269n.73, 27on.89; and Saracens, 89, 169, 173, 182-83, 225-26;as torrurers, 68, 82-8J, llJ, 176; and Wild Folk, 89-90, 183. Su also attitudes, Christian Ethiopians, Four-Eyed, 53, 87-88 ed111ici1y, 26on.64 ethnocenrricity, 39-41 Eron College Apocalypse, 21 J Eucharist, d octrine of, 102, 116-17, 155; symbols of, 132, 1JS, 148, 246-47 Eulogius of Cordoba, 159, 169, 285n.15 evangclisrs, 244-45, 255 Eve, 64, 238, 26 1n.87, 277n,77 evil, signs of; 59-60, 73, 74, 7 8, 8J, 90-93, 18J, 192, 200, 226, 24647, 277n .80 Exchequer, Ro ll of (1233), 78, 154 executioner; Erhiopian , 82; Saracen, 1 74

rxempln, 12, 52, 54- 55, 73, 80, 104, 116, 124, 28111.154 exoticism, SJ, 89-92, 180, 200, 20 1, 249-50

cxpul,ion. See Jew' eyes: bulging, 234; large, 79, 83, 85-86, t 34, 170, 21J; and moral character, J8, 85, 86; symbo lic significa nce of, 47-48 faces, multiple, 4 2, 61, 71, 74, 7577, 134, 137, 213, 218-20, 296n.J2 Felix, 67. See also Life oj'Sfli111

G111h!flc Fe11ernear 13anner, 108, 143 Fiemhms, 159 Fifth Crusad e, 165, 207, 222 First C rusade, 162, 166, 167, 169, 287n.68 neur-dcs-lis, 170, 22 1, 288n.76 fools, 134, 138-40, 28211.176 forest, iconographical significance of, J9• 44, I J6 form, physical: change of, 68-69, 75-77, 87, 169, 209, 249-50, JOtn.19; cli matic effeccs on, 34, J5-37• 42, 85; and moral character, 7-8, 17, 20, 29-59, 65-66, 77, 85, 194, 24J- 45, 25 1, 254; as sig n of sin, 49-50, 52-53, 5459, 215; as sig n o f vin ue, 53, 72, 248; symbolic meanings of, 4648. See fllso Antichrist; Chrisr; demons; Devil; Ethiopians; Jews; Monst ro11s Races; Saracens; ' !:mars

Four Co11ditiom a/Society, 247-48 fox, 149-5 1, 232, 28J nn. 220, 221 Francis, Saint, 226 Franciscans, 86, 100, 116, 144, 151, 194. 211, 212, 224, 226, 2J8 Frederick Barbarossa, 294n.208 Freedman, Paul, 84-85 Friedman, John Block, 16 Fulcher of C ha m es, 166, 169 Gabriel, 285n,15 Galen, JO, 33 Gascony, 252, 30211.26 Gates, Caspian. See Alexander's Gate genirals, iconographical sig nificance of. 71, 80, 149 Gerald o f Wales, 16-37, 178-79, 29 1n.14 5 Germans, J6-J7

Gim" 1v111fl11om111, 52-53, 55, 88, 90, 187 gestu res, 139, 145, 173, 174; insulting, 120-22, 177, 26811.53 Gctry Bestiary. 265n.148 Ghengh is Kha n, 207, 208 Ghent. Joo' van. JOlll.18

Giants, 42, 52, 55, 134, 159, 186, 219, 230, 231-32, 246, 26on.72, 26211.106, 265n.141. Srefllso Og; Ysorc Gifford , D. J., 28211. 176 Gislebertus, 55 Glaber, Raoul, 299n.9 1 G'lom1 01dil/(1rifl, 148-49 Gloucester Candlestick, 90-93, 27211.1 46 goat, 66, 78, 134-36 , tJ7, 227, 265n. 140 Godfrey of Bou illon, 288n.79 Gog and Magog, 225, 228-J9, 299n.87, 3oonn, ll J, 11 7 gold (color), pictorial sig nificance o f, I II

Golden Calf, 106, 108, 109- 10, 147-48, 166, 202, 204, 235 Goltlen Legmtl, 80, 152, 246, 269n.6J Golgorha, 207 Gosman, Manin , 203 Gospel o/Nirode11111s, 104 Gow, Andrew, 16, 212, 218, 2J2-JJ

G'm11des chm11iqrm de l·im1ce, 169-7 1, 179-80, 288nn. 79,95 Grass-Earcrs, 5J Gratian . Sec Drcre111111 G'mti1111i Grear Bookham Church, 28911.97 Greek, )9- 40, 26on.62, 27511.38 green, pictorial sign iflc:1nce or, 75, 8J, 27on.8J Gregory the Great, 80, 84, 90 Gregory IX, 140, 198 griffin, 206, 208 grimace, as sign of barbarity, 62, 68, 72, 74, 75, I II, llJ, 11 9, 12J, 136, 164, 171, 179, 192, 194, 2JO, 252 Grosseres1c, Robert, J3 Grunberg, Conrad, 218 g rylli , 56, 89, tJ7, 148, 184 Guillaume le C lerc. See Bestirrire Gulbcnkian Apocalypse, 130, 213 Guth lac, Saint. Sec Lift' o/Sai111

G111h/11c G Uy. 113; and Saracens, 89-90, 183-84; and Tartars, 200 w ildness, 44, 85, 89-90, 247-49 William, Saint. 104, 136 William of 1'vlal mesbury, 177- 78 William or Newburgh, 188. 189,

28w.1 83 Wi lliam or Orange, 28811.95 William of Rubruck, 159, 200, 201, 207,208 William of Tripoli, 291 11.14 3 William of'l)•re, 169, 180 William,, David, 255 \Xlinchei.ter Psalter, 82, 1t3 Windmill Psalter, 25 t-54 win ds: C hristianizarion of, J3; and phy,ical form, 34 wings, iconographical signi ficance or, 6 1- 64, 72, 75, 8t , 244, 268n"12 witness, doctrine or, 99, 252 \X-' oman , Bearded , 7, 42 women: dimaric effecLs on, J4i and

Jew>. 153, 277 11.7 7 , 281n. 154; as p.11ro ns, 136, 281 n .160; and Saracen>, 1Go, 174; as symbols, 2l6; and ·1:1l'tars, 194, 29211. 165 yel low, pictorial signi ficance of, 98, I tO, 17 2, 2 t5, 2J4- 35 York, 107, 140, 282n.t83 Ysore, 28811.95 Zanzibar. inhabita nts of: 86 zod iac, 3t- 33, 53 i'..odiac Man, 3 1- 33 zo ne~. clima1ic1 30

i'..orn von Plobsheim (family of). 183

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I /11111111111e S11/11111io11is: Volls1ii11dige 1'11ksimile-ll11sgr1br des Codex Ciw1iji111msis 243 des /Jenedikti111•rstijis !