Sandy Soils (Progress in Soil Science) 3031502841, 9783031502842

Citation preview

Progress in Soil Science

Alfred E. Hartemink Jingyi Huang  Editors

Sandy Soils

Progress in Soil Science Series Editors Alfred E. Hartemink, Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA Alex B. McBratney, Sydney Institute of Agriculture School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney,  Sydney, NSW, Australia

Progress in Soil Science series publishes books that contain novel approaches in soil science in its broadest sense – books in the series should focus on true progress in a particular area of the soil science discipline. The scope of the series is to publish books that enhance the understanding of the functioning and diversity of soils in all parts of the globe. The series includes multidisciplinary approaches to soil studies and welcomes contributions of all soil science subdisciplines. Key themes: soil science - soil genesis, geography and classification - soil chemistry, soil physics, soil biology, soil mineralogy  - soil fertility and plant nutrition  - soil and water conservation - pedometrics - digital soil mapping - proximal soil sensing - soils and land use change - global soil change - natural resources and the environment. Submit a proposal: Proposals for the series will be considered by the Series Editors. An initial author/editor questionnaire and instructions for authors can be obtained from the Publisher, Dr. Robert K. Doe ([email protected]).

Alfred E. Hartemink  •  Jingyi Huang Editors

Sandy Soils

Editors Alfred E. Hartemink Department of Soil Science University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA

Jingyi Huang Department of Soil Science University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA

ISSN 2352-4774     ISSN 2352-4782 (electronic) Progress in Soil Science ISBN 978-3-031-50284-2    ISBN 978-3-031-50285-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50285-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Foreword

This Global Conference on sandy soils fills a real “niche” when considering activities in the international soil research arena, where sandy soils receive relatively little attention. Referring to the fairy tale of Hans Christian Andersen, in science-land sands seem to perform the role of the “ugly little duck” that has a hard time while growing up in duck society. In his general introduction to the conference, Bockheim paints a somewhat dark, depressive picture by mentioning that sands are usually low in carbon, have a low buffering and cation exchange capacity as well as a low base saturation, while porosities are also low, bulk densities are high and the water holding capacity is low. Potentially high infiltration rates of water are often strongly reduced by water repellency. Setting the scene this way turned out to be quite effective in the end as it allowed a clear distinction between common thinking and what is happening right now in the real world. Considering this becomes enlightening as contributions to this conference demonstrate that modern technology and increased understanding of interrelated physical, chemical and biological processes in sandy soils can turn this all too often dark image into a multi-colored picture focusing on unique aspects and opportunities of these soils. As in the fairy tale, the “ugly little duck” (as judged by the duck community) turns out to be a beautiful swan when grown up, thereby transcending the duck environment and facing the world beyond, filled with confidence. The analogy with the story of sands is fascinating and intriguing when reading the various contributions to this conference. Several authors refer to their attempts to contribute to sustainable development but they don’t define it. In that context, the various contributions during this conference fit well within the scope of the UN-Sustainable Development Goals (the SDGs), approved by 193 countries in 2015 with the intention to be reached by 2030. In fact, most aspects are covered by the contributions to this conference, be it in scattered form. Linking the work with the SDGs will broaden its impact only because of the SDG connection with the policy and societal arenas.

v

vi

Foreword

Without referring to specific contributions, as this is not a detailed review, let me attempt to frame the results in the context of the SDGs. Sustainable Development considers economic, social and environmental aspects. All SDGs are relevant for soils but some have a rather socio-economic character with a more indirect relation to soils. At least four have a direct relation, covering environmental aspects, and they are defined by considering indicators and thresholds of so-called: “ecosystem services”, services provided to mankind by the environment. SDG2 (“zero hunger”) is important as it contains the important element of food production which is a key: “ecosystem service” contributing to this SDG. Optimal plant growth is assured (with no pests and diseases) when water and nutrients are supplied at the right time and place which is only possible with precision techniques in sands because sands react most rapidly of all soils. Presented studies show that water repellancy in sands can be measured and removed by chemical treatment and that subsurface drip irrigation is particularly effective to increase water-use efficiency. Increasing the organic matter content by adding plant residues or compost increases the water holding capacity while reduced soil traffic can combat compaction. History of land use is important as indicated by lasting effects of “slash-and-burn” practices in the past. Sandy soils near rivers with high water tables may have high organic matter contents, favorable for agriculture, as shown for Poland. Of particular interest are long-duration studies on increasing the organic matter content in Thailand and in sustainability studies in northern China as processes are slow and cannot be characterized in short periods. The same applies to long duration studies on soil compaction in the United States. Wind erosion can have a devastating effect on nutrient availability in surface soil, and the fallow-band system, developed for Sahalian conditions to reduce wind erosion, is a nice example of innovative research performed in close association with farmers. SDG6 (“clean water and sanitation”) is a particular challenge for sandy soils as surface runoff due to water repellancy resulting in surface water pollution and groundwater pollution due to leaching of excessive nutrients present clear challenges that can be tackled as discussed for SDG2. Providing clean water is an important ecosystem service. SDG13 (“climate action”) refers to carbon capture by soil (an ecosystem service) as a form of climate mitigation, and by limiting greenhouse-gas emissions (another service). As the carbon content of sandy soils increases, so does the emission of greenhouse gasses and the two aspects will have to be balanced. But in general, the proportionality principle applies here: greenhouse gas emissions of sandy soils are relatively low certainly when compared with emissions of, for example, industry and traffic and that’s why carbon capture is more important, certainly for sandy soils if only because it will increase soil health, as is demonstrated in some studies. SDG15 (“life on land”) refers to biodiversity in a landscape context and to soil health, both providing ecosystem services. Reforestation of sandy soils can improve biodiversity as was demonstrated in several studies. Soil health has a number of indicators (carbon content, soil structure, nutrients, biodiversity, water regimes, pollution) and is clearly a function of management where sandy soils present a relatively big challenge. Carbon contents decrease rapidly by oxidation, and compaction

Foreword

vii

is a problem but can easily return after plowing unless management is changed and growing roots can add stability. Nutrients leach rapidly, biodiversity is vulnerable, water table levels, as part of soil water regimes, are important to deliver water to the rootzone by capillary rise if the distance is not too large while soil pollution depends on external factors but may be limited because pollutants may leach more rapidly than in clayey soils, unless organic matter contents are relatively high. In the SDG context, a contribution to sustainable development is achieved when all indicators for the various environmental ecosystem services meet their thresholds, following the “one-out/all-out” principle. Sustainable development is achieved when also the socio-economic indicators meet their thresholds. Defining thresholds is still a major challenge for future research, but the large number of field studies, presented in this conference, provide a solid basis to define such thresholds that will often have a regional character. Overall, the introduction of innovative techniques has changed the research environment for the better as is well demonstrated by many contributions in this conference applying electromagnetic induction, vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy, gamma radiometrics and SENTINEL satellite data. Getting back to our focus on sandy soils (she really qualifies as the prima-donna among soils, requiring instant and continuous attention!), we must realize that when just-in-time management is achieved, impressive results can be obtained. Jie et al. presented an intriguing example from China where growing morels (edible mushrooms) increased farmers’ income sevenfold. Comparable examples can be found in the Netherlands where growing tulip bulbs in sands (where bulbs stay clean and not muddy during the production process, while addition of water and agrochemicals can be easily fine-tuned) is highly profitable. These two examples illustrate a key feature of sands: if management does not provide just-in-time precision approaches, environmental effects can be quite negative. But if realized, the sandy soils react much more rapidly than other soils to management of water and nutrients and success can be exceptional, as is beautifully expressed by the metaphor of the swan taking off in the fairy tale! Em. Prof. Soil Science Wageningen University Wageningen, The Netherlands

Johan Bouma

Preface

Sandy soils are common throughout the world, and many are in arid and semiarid regions like the Saharan and Kalahari Desert, Gobi Desert, Middle East, Australia, Patagonia, and the northern parts of Central Europe. In the USA, Florida, Wisconsin, Nebraska, northern Michigan and Minnesota, and the deserts in the west have sandy soils. In total, sandy soils cover approximately 900 million ha worldwide and there are extensive areas of sandy soils under cultivation. Most sandy soils have high water permeability, low water-holding capacity, low ability to retain and exchange nutrients, weakly developed soil structure, and they may be prone to erosion by wind. As irrigation is required for obtaining crop yields, there is an inherent risk of substantial leaching of nutrients and pesticides, and groundwater depletion. In 2005, an International Symposium on Tropical Sandy Soils was held in Thailand. The symposium focused on the global extent of tropical sandy soils and their pedogenesis, socio-economic imperatives, physical and chemical properties, the role of organic matter and biological activity, and soil management. Due to global pressure on land resources, marginal soils such as sandy soils are taken into intensified agricultural production and managed for potential soil carbon sequestration. Sandy soils – as a group of soils with specific characteristics and ecological limitations – have received limited research attention. As a follow-up to the 2005 Symposium, we organized the Global Conference on Sandy Soils which was held in June 2023 in Madison, USA. The conference was held 1 day after the 14-year-old Dev Shah won the US National Spelling Bee with the final word of Psammophile – a more appropriate word could not have been chosen. The conference consisted of 2.5 days of presentations and discussions, and a 1-day field trip to the Wisconsin Central Sands Plain. There were 60 participants from 17 countries. This book contains selected papers presented at the Global Conference on Sandy Soils that focus on novel and exciting research on sandy soils. The conference papers are grouped into three sections: Distribution and Assessment, Soil Carbon and Soil Health, and Water and the Environment. This book is not the ultimate review on what is known about sandy soils, but we believe it presents a global glimpse on what recent progress has been in the study of sandy soil and their properties and management. ix

x

Preface

We are greatly indebted to all conference participants, and authors who helped shape the conference and made excellent contributions to discussions and papers in this book. We acknowledge the assistance and support from the Department of Soil Science at the University of Wisconsin—Madison. Special thanks go to Hannah Scott, Troy Fishler, Paul Systma, Andy Diercks, Mattie Urrutia, Yakun Zhang, and Annalisa Stevenson for assistance in the organization of this global conference. Madison, WI, USA

Alfred E. Hartemink

Madison, WI, USA

Jingyi Huang

Contents

Part I Distribution and Assessment 1

Sandy Soils of the World: Taxonomy, Geography, and Soil Conditions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    3 James G. Bockheim

2

Origin and Properties of Deep Sands of Southeastern Cambodia: Some Preliminary Findings������������������������������������������������   11 S. Hin, R. W. Bell, D. Newsome, W. Vance, and V. Seng

3

 Sandy Soils in the United States: Properties and Use��������������������������   25 Robert R. Dobos, Suzann Kinast-Brown, Stephen Roecker, and David L. Lindbo

4

Molic and Umbric Horizons of Alluvial Sandy Soils of River Valleys in SW Poland����������������������������������������������������������������   39 Beata Labaz and Cezary Kabala

5

Properties and Mid-infrared Spectral Signatures of Sandy Soils in Ghana��������������������������������������������������������������������������   51 Stephen Owusu, Erika Michéli, Edward Yeboah, Caleb M. Ocansey, and Ádám Csorba

6

Spectroscopy Supported Definition and Classification of Sandy Soils in Hungary����������������������������������������������������������������������   63 Erika Michéli, Márta Fuchs, Yuri Gelsleichter, Mohammed Zein, and Ádám Csorba

7

Proximal Sensing in Soil Water Repellency Management: A Review��������������������������������������������������������������������������   75 Maria Then, Craig Lobsey, David Henry, Stan Sochacki, and Richard Harper

xi

xii

Contents

8

Comparing Sand Content Measurements by the Pipette, Hydrometer, and Vis-NIR and MIR Spectroscopy ������������������������������   89 Annalisa Stevenson, Alfred E. Hartemink, and Yakun Zhang

9

Aeolian Desertification Monitoring in the Sandy Areas of Northern China������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  101 Liu Shulin, Wang Tao, Song Xiang, and Kang Wenping

10 Some  Characteristics of Sandy Plaggen Soils����������������������������������������  113 Jenifer L. Yost and Alfred E. Hartemink Part II Soil Carbon and Soil Health 11 Enhanced  Weathering to Enhance Carbon Sequestration in Sandy Soils�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  125 Ryan E. Champiny and Yang Lin 12 Soil  Carbon in Sandy Soils Under Forest and Agriculture in Wisconsin, USA������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  133 Annalisa Stevenson, Yakun Zhang, Jingyi Huang, Jie Hu, and Alfred E. Hartemink 13 Fallow  Band System for Improving Crop Production on Sandy Soils in the Sahel����������������������������������������������������������������������  149 Kenta Ikazaki, Hitoshi Shinjo, Yuko Sasaki, Ueru Tanaka, Satoshi Tobita, Dougbedji Fatondji, Shinya Funakawa, and Takashi Kosaki 14 A  Simple Way to Illustrate Health of Soils in Sandy Golf Course Greens������������������������������������������������������������������  157 Jason Eberhard, Barry Stewart, John P. Brooks, and James D. McCurdy 15 Agricultural  Use of Sandy Soils in Brazilian Cerrado (Brazilian Savanna)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  165 Flávia Cristina dos Santos, João Herbert Moreira Viana, Marcelo Augusto Batista, Álvaro Vilela de Resende, and Manoel Ricardo de Albuquerque Filho 16 Leaf  Litter Decomposition and Nutrient Release Dynamics in a Sandy Tropical Paleudults of the Enugu Area, Southeast Nigeria ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  179 M. A. N. Anikwe, I. J. Chidobem, and I. E. Eze 17 Reforestation  of Sandy Soils in the Tohoku Sea Coast of Japan ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  191 Masayuki Kawahigashi and Takuto Kajiwara

Contents

xiii

18 Soil  Management Practices to Reduce Hardpans and Compaction in Sandy Soils of North Carolina, USA��������������������  201 Alam Ramirez Reyes, Josh Heitman, Michael Vepraskas, and Ekrem Ozlu 19 Ameliorating  Sandy Soil Constraints for Sustainable Gains in Productivity in Southern Australia ����������������������������������������  211 Therese McBeath, Murray Unkovich, Jackie Ouzman, Rodrigo C. da Silva, Michael Moodie, Melissa Fraser, Chris Saunders, and Jack Desbiolles 20 Compost  Application Leads to Higher Nitrification Rates and N2O Emissions in Sandy Soils����������������������������������������������������������  221 Xia Zhu-Barker 21 Characterization  of Phosphorus Sorption of Some Sandy Soils in Florida with Microscopy and Computer Vision����������  233 Perseverança Mungofa, Laura Waldo, and Arnold Schumann Part III Water and the Environment 22 Localized  Dry Spot Recovery and Water Repellency in a Sand Golf Green ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  245 Cale A. Bigelow, Jada S. Powlen, and Stanley J. Kostka 23 Irrigation  Practices for Enhanced Water Management of Citrus on Sandy Soils in Florida��������������������������������������������������������  255 Alisheikh A. Atta, Kelly T. Morgan, Said A. Hamido, and Davie M. Kadyampakeni 24 Soil  Water Repellency in Sandy Soils: A Review����������������������������������  265 Mai T. T. Dao, Bernard Dell, David J. Henry, and Richard J. Harper 25 Soil  Water Repellency in Reforested Sandy Soils����������������������������������  277 Edyta Hewelke, Jerzy Weber, Lilla Mielnik, Ewa B. Górska, Dariusz Gozdowski, Piotr T. Zaniewski, and Piotr Hewelke 26 High-Resolution  Soil Moisture Mapping Using Sentinel-1 and Moisture Probes in Cultivated Sands ��������������������������������������������  289 Jingyi Huang, Alfred E. Hartemink, Francisco Arriaga, and Nathaniel W. Chaney 27 Some  Current and Emerging Environmental Issues in Sandy Soils�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  307 Jingyi Huang and Alfred E. Hartemink

xiv

Contents

Part IV Epilogue 28 Sandy  Soils: Do We Know Enough?������������������������������������������������������  325 Yakun Zhang, Jingyi Huang, and Alfred E. Hartemink 29 Sandy  Soil Proverbs and Names in the Netherlands����������������������������  331 Alfred E. Hartemink

Part I

Distribution and Assessment

Chapter 1

Sandy Soils of the World: Taxonomy, Geography, and Soil Conditions James G. Bockheim

In every outthrust headland, in every curving beach, in every grain of sand there is a story of the earth. —Rachel Carson

Abstract  The definition of a sandy soil is contingent on the particle-size classification system, proportion of sand in the soil (commonly 50–70%), and allowable thickness of any fine-textured layers. Sandy soils generally have a high water repellency, water infiltration rate, bulk density, and leaching rate and low total porosity and water-holding capacity. Common chemical properties include low soil organic C, cation-exchange capacity, base saturation, and buffering capacity and high salinity-­alkalinity and primary minerals. Common taxonomic names for sandy soils include Psamments in Soil Taxonomy and Arenosols in the World Reference Base. However, soils in other taxonomic categories may be sandy but show development. Sandy soils comprise 5–14 million km2, with Africa containing the largest area of sandy soils (6.4  million km2), followed by Australia (2.0  million km2), China (1.7 million km2), Central Asia (1.36 million km2), and the Middle East (1.28 million km2). Sandy soils account for 600,000  km2 (8.2%) of the USA and 21% of Wisconsin. Food production on world sandy soils is limited to 325,000 km2, most commonly for irrigated crops such as maize-corn, wheat, potatoes, and vegetables. Sandy soils are commonly ameliorated with biochar, clay or other hydro-absorbent materials, animal wastes, organic/green manures, and slow-release, balanced fertilizers. Sandy soils benefit from irrigation, maintenance of soil organic matter, windbreaks, controlled grazing, minimum tillage, and agroforestry. Socioeconomic issues associated with management of sandy soils include SOC sequestration, land-­use pressure, nutrient and pesticide leaching to groundwater, wind erosion, irrigation water rights, development of specialized conservation practices, and sand mining. J. G. Bockheim (*) Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. E. Hartemink, J. Huang (eds.), Sandy Soils, Progress in Soil Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50285-9_1

3

4

J. G. Bockheim

Keywords  Sandy soils · Arenosols · Psamments · World distribution

1.1 Introduction The identification and management of sandy soils have become important global issues. The number of papers on sandy soils and Arenosols has increased exponentially since 1980; over the past 10 years, there have been from 1000 to 1800 publications per year on sandy soils (Yost and Hartemink 2019). Key topics, which were the focus of the Global Conference on Sandy Soils, have been (i) distribution and formation; (ii) monitoring, mapping, and sensors; (iii) soil carbon; (iv) nutrient management and soil health; (v) soil and water conservation; and (vi) environmental issues. This paper deals with some of the key issues regarding sandy soils, particularly what defines a sandy soil and where sandy soils are located in the world.

1.2 What Is a Sandy Soil? The definition of a sandy soil is dependent on the particle-size classification system that is used, the proportion of sand in the soil, the depth of soil, the thickness of finer-textured layers allowable, and whether or not soil taxa besides Arenosols or Psamments are included. Most particle-size classification systems used by soil scientists consider sand to have a diameter ranging between 0.05 and 2.0 mm (USDA) or 0.063 and 2.0 mm (WRB). Engineering classifications may use 0.074 mm as the minimum size for sand. The proportion of sand allowed in order for the soil to be sandy commonly ranges between 50% and 70%. In Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2022), the sandy particle-size class includes only soils classed as loamy sand or sand, and soils classified as Psamments must have less than 35% coarse fragments (>2  mm) and a loamy fine sand or coarser texture. The WRB (IUSS Working Group WRB 2022) requires Arenosols to have a loamy sand or sandy texture. By definition, sandy soils in the two systems have ≥70% sand and ≤15% clay. However, many publications dealing with sandy soils include soils with ≥50% sand, which mean that soils with a sandy loam, sandy clay loam, and sandy clay texture will be included. These soils have different properties and management options than soils with ≥70% sand. The control section is important to the definition of sandy soils. For example, the commonly used remotely sensed Earthdata from NASA considers sand in the upper 30 cm. The control section for particle-size classes in ST and the WRB usually is the upper 100  cm from the mineral soil surface. Most systems allow for a limited amount of finer-textured material to be included in the sandy soil delineation. WRB allows ≤15% fine-textured layers and ST ≤50%. Bockheim et al. (2020) provided a conceptual model identifying four classes of sandy soils in ST. These classes include soils that (i) are sandy throughout the upper 100 cm, (ii) contain a sandy layer which

1  Sandy Soils of the World: Taxonomy, Geography, and Soil Conditions

5

is 50 cm or more thick over a finer-textured layer, (iii) have a fine-textured layer 50 cm or less in thickness over a sandy layer, and (iv) are sandy throughout but are underlain by bedrock at a depth of 50 cm or less. Arenosols/Psamments are sandy with minimum development. However, there are sandy soils that show development. In the USA, 40% of the sandy soils are in soil orders other than Entisols, including 28% of the Spodosols, 10% of the Ultisols, and 4% of the Alfisols (Bockheim et al. 2020).

1.3 Taxonomic Names for Sandy Soils In Soil Taxonomy, most of the sandy soils (60%) are in the Psamments suborder and Psammaquents great group (Bockheim et al. 2020). The Psammments cover 3.4% of the global land mass. In the WRB (2022) and in some national systems, such as Australia (Isbell et al. 2021), the Psamments are identified as Arenosols. Russian soil taxonomic systems recognize sandy soils as “poorly developed soils,” Psammozems, or in other soil classes. In Canada, sandy soils may occur in the Podzolic, Brunisolic, and Regosolic orders. In China, Sandic and Alluvic Primesols are equivalent to Arenosols/Psamments.

1.4 Key Properties of Many Sandy Soils Huang and Hartemink (2020) reviewed the properties of sandy soils so that they will be only briefly considered here. Sandy soils may have a high water repellency, infiltration rate (unless there is a crust), bulk density, and leaching rate. They often have a low total porosity and water-holding capacity and poor structure. Many sandy soils have low soil organic carbon, CEC, base saturation, and buffering capacity and high salinity and alkalinity. Sandy soils often contain mainly primary minerals, particularly quartz.

1.5 World Distribution of Sandy Soils We do not have a clear idea of the area of sandy soils worldwide, partly because of inconsistent definitions of sandy soils and partly because of the lack of inventories based on particle-size class. According to the ISRIC  – World Soil Information (2023), there are around 9 million km2 of Arenosols, which constitute 7% of the global land area. The map of global soil regions by the USDA-NRCS suggests that Entisols comprise 21 million km2, or 16% of the world area. However, Psamments and Psammaquents account for about 31% of the Entisol area in the USA, which would yield an area of approximately 7 million km2 worldwide. However, these data

6

J. G. Bockheim

do not account for sandy soils in soil taxa other than Arenosols/Entisols, which constitutes 40% of the sandy soils in the USA (Bockheim et al. 2020). By including sandy soils in other taxa, the world sandy soil inventory would be closer to 14 million km2. Based on soil maps for various regions and countries, the distribution of sandy soils likely exceeds 14 million km2 (Table 1.1). We were unable to find reliable data for sandy soil areas of the two largest countries in the world—Russia and Canada. Both countries likely have large areas of sandy soils along major rivers and in areas of sand dunes and sandy glacial sediments.

1.6 Geography of Sandy Soils At 6.4 million km2 (22% of the land area), Africa contains the largest continental area of Arenosols (Dewitte et al. 2013) (Table 1.1). In the Saharan region, there are extensive areas of sandy soils in Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Algeria, and Egypt. In the sub-Saharan region, large tracts of sandy soils are present in Namibia, Angola, and the Republic of Congo (Hartemink and Huting 2008). Australia is the sixth largest country in the world but has the second largest area of sandy soils, with Arenosols comprising 2.0 million km2, or 26% of the country (Isbell et al. 2021) (Table 1.1). Arenosols are dominant in six deserts on the Australian Shield in West Australia, including the Great Victoria Desert, the Great Sandy Desert, the Tanami Desert, the Gibson Desert, the Little Sandy Desert, and the Gibson Desert. China is the third largest country in the world and has the third largest area of sandy soils. According to Shi et  al. (2021), Arenosols occur on 1.7  million km2, which constitutes 18% of the country. Sandy soils occur primarily in nine desert regions of northern China, including from west to east the Taklimakan (Tarim Basin), Gurbantunggut, Kumutage, Qaidam, Badain Jaran, Tengger, Ulan Buh, Table 1.1  Estimated distribution of sandy soils Region Africa Australia China Central Asia2 Middle East1 Brazil USA Canada Russia Antarctica Subtotal World

Area (103 km2) 6400 2000 1720 1360 1275 680 600 ~500 56 50 14,141 9000

% Area 22 26 18 34 18 14 7 6 0.3 0.4

Taxa Arenosols Arenosols Arenosols All Arenosols Arenosols All All Arenosols All

Reference Dewitte et al. (2013) Isbell et al. (2021) Shi et al. (2021) Zhengu et al. (2007) Ostovari et al. (2022) Donagemma et al. (2016) Bockheim et al. (2020) Slaymaker et al. (2023) Stolbovoi (1998) Bockheim et al. (2015)

7

Arenosols

ISRIC (2023)

1  Sandy Soils of the World: Taxonomy, Geography, and Soil Conditions

7

Kubuqi, and Otindag. The Central Asian deserts account for 1.4 million km2, 34% of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. The Middle East contains 1.28 million km2 of Arenosols (Ostovari et al. 2022), with the largest portion of Arenosols occurring in Saudi Arabia. Egypt contains a large area of Arenosols, but it was included previously as part of Africa. Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world and contains 680,000  km2 of Arenosols (Donagemma et  al. 2016). Most of the Arenosols are in the Cerrado (tropical savanna) but they also occur in Amazonia. Canada is the second largest country in the world, but we were unable to find a map of sandy soils. Sandy soils appear to be common in the Podzolic, Brunisolic, and Regosolic orders. The Athabasca oil sands near Fort McMurray, Alberta, are comprised of 141,000 km2. At over 17 million km2, Russia has the world’s largest land base, which is nearly twice that as the next largest country, Canada. However, according to the map of reference soil groups by Stolbovoi (1998), there are only 56,000 km2 of Arenosols (0.3% of country) in Russia. The continent of Antarctica has an area of 14.2 million km2, but only 0.44% (50,000 km2) is ice-free (Bockheim et al. 2015). Nearly 100% of the soils in Antarctica are sandy-skeletal or sandy. The USA is the fifth largest country in the world, but has a comparably small area (600,000 km2) of sandy soils, most (60%) of which are Entisols. The other 40% are mainly in the Spodosol, Mollisol, Ultisol, and Alfisol orders. Sandy soils in the USA are located mainly in the Nebraska Sand Hills, in the Florida “flatwoods,” and in the western Great Lakes region. In Wisconsin, 21% of the soils are sandy, largely in the Central Sands region, the Northern Sandy Uplands, the Western Sandstone Uplands, and along some larger rivers. Thorson et al. (2022) developed a numerical scheme for identifying dominant processes in a region from the taxonomic distribution of soils. Figure 1.1 shows the key soil-forming processes in soils of Wisconsin for the four primary Dominant soil-forming Processes in Wisconsin Soil Series by Particle-size Class 500 450

446

400 358

350 300

258

250

251

200

165

150 100 50 0

67

97 24

51

Argilluviation Clayey (f, v-f)

65

110 79

77 25

Gleization

37

Humification

Silty (f-si, co-si)

109 70 18 21

0

Glossification

109 57 48 1 3 Podzolization

Loamy (f-1,co-1, 1, 1-sk)

8463 1 11 9 None (weak)

Sandy (s, s-sk)

3 5

3352 11

Cambisoliztion Total pts.

Fig. 1.1  Dominant soil-forming processes in Wisconsin soil series by generalized particle-­ size class

8

J. G. Bockheim

particle-size classes: clayey (fine and very-fine), silty (fine-silt and coarse-silt), loamy (fine-loamy, coarse-loamy, loamy, and loamy-skeletal), and sandy (sandy and sandy-skeletal). Whereas argilluviation, gleization, and humification are dominant in clayey, silty, and loamy soils, weak undefinable processes, gleization, and podzolization are dominant in sandy soils.

1.7 Sandy Soils for World Food Production The FAO initiated global conferences on management of sandy soils in 1973 and 2005, but other than the present conference (Global Conference on Sandy Soils; Madison, WI; 2023), there appears to have been minimal effort to address the future role of sandy soils in world food production. According to Huang and Hartemink (2020), 35% of the global sandy soils is barren, 21% is grassland/grazing land, 21% is shrubland, 6.2% is forest, and only 3.6% is used for cropland. An examination of case studies from countries with sandy soils revealed that the dominant land uses are forage and forests. The major irrigated crops are corn-maize, potatoes, wheat, millet, rice, sugarcane, and vegetables.

1.8 Amelioration and Protection of Sandy Soils There are several ways for the amelioration of sandy soils, including the use of clay or other hydro-absorbent materials, biochar, slow-release and balanced fertilizers, organic or green manures, and mulches. Sandy soils most effectively managed with water-conserving irrigation, maintenance of SOM, windbreaks or shelterbelts, rotational grazing, minimum tillage, fallow-band planting, and agroforestry. There is technology, such as the use of electromagnetic (EM) induction to measure drainage class; vis-NIR (near-infrared) and MIR (mild-infrared) spectroscopy and gamma radiometrics to measure sand content and soil-water repellency; rapid photocatalysis and C-isotope signatures to measure SOC; and the SOLUS model for relating sand content to other physical properties.

1.9 Socioeconomic Issues with Sandy Soils There are at least seven issues of socioeconomic concern to policymakers and managers of sandy soils: 1. How can SOC levels be maintained without negatively affecting the global C cycle? 2. How will farmers, communities, and policymakers react to the increased pressure to develop more on sandy soils?

1  Sandy Soils of the World: Taxonomy, Geography, and Soil Conditions

9

3. Can agricultural use of sandy soils be justified in view of the potential for nutrient and pesticide leaching to groundwater? 4. Will increased cropping in sandy regions lead to increased wind erosion and declines in air quality? 5. In view that irrigation likely will be necessary to utilize sandy soils for agriculture, will irrigation water availability and water rights become problems? 6. What type of specialized conservation practices will be necessary to develop sandy soils for agricultural or other uses? 7. How can sand mining be controlled?

1.10 Final Thoughts A few final thoughts pertaining to current issues in managing sandy soils of the world are given: • A more deliberate definition of sandy soils is needed for teaching, research, and extension activities. • Sandy soils have the potential for increasing the land base as world population increases and use of existing agricultural soils intensifies. • Management practices will depend on the four sandy classes described earlier in this chapter. • Amelioration of sandy soils will require use of hydro-absorbents, slow-release fertilizers, and good quality irrigation water. • Maintenance of sandy soils already used for forestry, forage, and food will be challenged by water conservation, SOC sequestration vs. C footprint, and use of windbreaks. • Sand mining legislation is desperately needed before the sand supplies are depleted.

References Bockheim JG, Lupachev AV, Blume H-P, Bölter M, Simas FNB, McLeod M (2015) Distribution of soil taxa in Antarctica: a preliminary analysis. Geoderma 245–246:104–111 Bockheim JG, Hartemink AE, Huang J (2020) Distribution and properties of sandy soils, in the conterminous USA – a conceptual model, and taxonomic analysis. Catena 195:014746 Dewitte O, Jones A, Spaargaren O, Breuning-Madsen, Brossard M et al (2013) Harmonisation of the soil map of Africa at the continental scale. Geoderma 211-212:138–153 Donagemma GK, de Freitas PL, Beliero F d C, Fontana A et al (2016) Characterization, agricultural potential, and perspectives for the management of light soils in Brazil. Pesq Agropec Bras 51:1003–1020 Hartemink AE, Huting J (2008) Land cover, extent and properties of Arenosols in Southern Africa. Arid Land Res Manag 22:134–147 Huang J, Hartemink AE (2020) Soil and environmental issues in sandy soils. Earth-Sci Rev 208:103295

10

J. G. Bockheim

International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC) (2023) Arenosols (AR). www.isric. org/sites/default/files/major_soils_of_the_world/set3/ar/arenosol.pdf. Accessed 23 May 2023 Isbell RF, Australia National Committee on Soil and Terrain (2021) The Australian soil classification, 3rd edn. CSIRO Publishing, Clayton South IUSS Working Group WRB (2022) World reference base for soil resources: international soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. In: International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), 4th edn, Vienna Ostovari Y, Moosavi AA, Mozaffari H, Poppiel RR, Tayebi M, Dematte JAM (2022) Soil erodibility and its influential factors in the Middle East. In: Computers in earth and environmental sciences; artificial intelligence and advanced technologies in hazards and risk management. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp 441–454 Shi Y-F, Huang F-F, Shi S-H, Jiang Y-S, Huang X-M (2021) Research trends and focus on the deserts of northern China: a bibliometric analysis during 1986–2020. Front Earth Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.777626 Slaymaker O, Acton DF, Brooks IA, French H, Ryder JM (2023) Physiographic regions. The Canadian Encyclopedia, 05 Apr 2023, Historica Canada. www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/ en/article/physiographic-­regions. Accessed 23 May 2023 Soil Survey Staff (2022) Keys to soil taxonomy, 13th edn. USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. Stolbovoi V (1998) Soils of Russia: correlated with the revised legend of the FAO soil map of the world and World Reference Base for Soil Resources. Working Papers rr00013, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Thorson T, McGrath C, Moberg D, Fillmore M, Campbell S, Lammers D, Bockheim JG (2022) The soils of Oregon, World soils book series. Springer Nature, Cham Yost JL, Hartemink AE (2019) Soil organic carbon in sandy soils: a review. Adv Agron 158:217–310 Zhengu D, Honglang X, Zhibao D, Gang W, Drake S (2007) Morphological, physical and chemical properties of Aeolian sandy soils in northern China. J Arid Environ 68:66–76

Chapter 2

Origin and Properties of Deep Sands of Southeastern Cambodia: Some Preliminary Findings S. Hin, R. W. Bell, D. Newsome, W. Vance, and V. Seng

Abstract  Deep sandy soils are a feature of many landscapes in Southeast Asia but the explanations for their origin are not always known. Deep sand and sand on clay profiles cover a large proportion of Cambodia. These soils are commonly used for rainfed rice production, but increasing attention is turning to their potential for crop diversification in the uplands of Cambodia. We examined the origin of 19 sand profiles in southeastern Cambodia particularly to differentiate them in terms of properties that pose constraints for the management of upland crops. From texture analysis along four toposequences including Kampot, Tram Kak, Ponhea Kraek, and Rolea Bíer/Tuek Phos (Kampong Chhnang Province) districts, the sand fractions ranging from 63 to 200 μm and 200 to 600 μm were predominant in most profiles, except for Kampot 4, where sand grains were predominantly from 200 to 600  μm and five profiles from Kampong Chhnang Province, where the three coarse sand fractions (63–200, 200–600, and 600–2000  μm) were equally prevalent. Clay content was generally 10% 158

25

39

225

145

80

160

Depth to clay >18% –

Table 2.1  Summary of landform and key pedological properties of profiles described in Kampot, Tram Kak, Ponhea Kraek, and Kampong Chhnang in south-­ east Cambodia

16 S. Hin et al.

Slope

Plain

Plain

36

22

17

10

18

117

16

Ponhea Kraek1

Ponhea Kraek2

Ponhea Kraek3

Ponhea Kraek4

Ponhea Kraek5

Kampong Chhnang1

Kampong Chhnang2

Plain

Plateau

Plain

Plain

Landform element Terrace

Elevation Site (m asl) Tram Kak5 18

Soil type Prey Khmer Prateah Lang, loamy subsoil Prey Khmer, fine sandy Prey Khmer, fine sandy Prateah Lang, clayey subsoil Prey Khmer, fine sandy Prey Khmer, coarse sandy Prey Khmer, coarse sandy Fine sand

Loamy fine sand Loamy fine sand Loamy fine sand

Fine sand

Coarse sand

Coarse sand

220+

240+

170+

250+

250+

250+

Coarse sand

Sandy clay

Fine sand

Sandy clay

Loamy fine sand

Sandy clay

Field texture B horizon Sand

Field texture A Effective depth (cm) horizon 250+ Loamy sand 250+ Loamy sand

Dark reddish gray

Dark reddish gray

Pinkish gray

Dark reddish gray Dark reddish gray Dark reddish gray

A horizon color Pinkish gray Reddish gray

180 Iron-manganese Absent 120 quartz gravel

Absent 110 quartz gravel

Pink

Pinkish yellow

Pink

150

69

148

30

94

185 Iron-manganese 50 Iron-manganese?

–

170 Iron-manganese

Light reddish brown Pink

Reddish gray

15

Absent

150

86

148

85

185

–

15

Depth to clay >18% –

(continued)

Depth to clay >10% 130

Pinkish gray

B horizon color Pink

Depth to segregations/coarse fragments (cm) (type) 165 ferruginous 2  Origin and Properties of Deep Sands of Southeastern Cambodia: Some Preliminary… 17

15

42

Kampong Chhnang4

Kampong Chhnang5

Site Kampong Chhnang3

Elevation (m asl) 33

Table 2.1 (continued)

Mid slope

Plain

Landform element Plain

Soil type Prey Khmer, coarse sandy Prey Khmer, coarse sandy Prey Khmer, coarse sandy Coarse sand

Coarse sand

Coarse sand

250+

250+

Coarse sand

Field texture B horizon Coarse sand

Field texture A Effective depth (cm) horizon 235+ Coarse sand

Pinkish gray

Dark reddish gray Pinkish gray

Pink

A horizon B horizon color color Pink Dark reddish gray

185

185 185 Iron-manganese; 82 quartz gravel

Depth to clay >18% 145

155

Depth to clay >10% 145

127

Absent 34 quartz gravel

Depth to segregations/coarse fragments (cm) (type) Absent 112 quartz gravel

18 S. Hin et al.

2  Origin and Properties of Deep Sands of Southeastern Cambodia: Some Preliminary…

19

not the case for the profiles in Tram Kak. Further investigation may be needed to verify the dominant geology of the eastern slopes of the Damrei Romeal Mountain to establish the relative proportions of sandstone and quartzite that are the probable source for sands described in profiles Tram Kak 1–3. As discussed above, there would be merit in drilling cores to bedrock at the profile sites of Tram Kak 1 and 2, and higher on the slopes of Damrei Romeal Mountain. Coarse-grained granite rocks of Oral Mountain located in the west of Kampong Chhnang Province and additional hilly outcrops in the province (Workman 1972) had a strong influence on the properties of sandy soils in this area. The greater abundance of coarse sand fractions at all five sites in this area (Kampong Chhnang 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) is consistent with the granitic influence on soil parent materials. The granites observed at Kampong Chhnang were coarse-grained as were the soils derived from granite. The rice soils mapped for this area also belong to the coarse sandy phase of the Prey Khmer Soil Group (Oberthür et  al. 2000). Hence, there appears to be a clear textural distinction between the sands derived from coarse-­ grained granite of the Oral Mountain and the more prevalent sands derived from sandstone in southeastern Cambodia. Granite outcrops are quite common elsewhere in Cambodia, in particular in the Southeast Kampot fold belt (Workman 1972). Weathered granites may contribute to the sands found elsewhere in soils of south-­ east Cambodia especially in proximity to rock outcrops, although these granite outcrops will not necessarily have the same coarse texture as in the Oral Mountains. Variation in sedimentary rock composition needs to be accounted for in understanding the range of variation in sand profiles in Cambodia. In Kong Pisei District, immediately north of Tram Kak District, the Phnum S’Rang mountains are sedimentary in origin but comprise a mix of marl, shale, and siltstone with sandstone (Hin et al. 2007). Elsewhere among sandstone outcrops in Cambodia, micro-breccia and breccia have been identified (Amir Farhand, personal communication). Thanachit et al. (2006) also attribute textural differences in deep sand profiles along a catena on sandstone at Nam Phong, Northeast Thailand, to compositional differences in the sandstone with elevation. Hence, there are likely to be variations in sand profiles depending on local variations in sandstone composition and the amount of admixture with related finer sediments such as shale and siltstone. 2.3.1.2 Colluviation Increasing proportions of fine sands (sorting) were evident in the particle size distributions along the soil toposequences in Kampot suggesting colluvial transport processes may influence particle size distribution of sands depending on the distance from an outcrop source of sands. Earlier authors have emphasized the role of colluvial/alluvial processes during the Pleistocene in the formation of old terraces on which much of the wetland rice of Cambodia is grown (White et  al. 1997). The profiles described in the lower elevations of the Tram Kak (Tram Kak 3–5) and the Ponhea Kraek transects (Ponhea Kraek 2–5) broadly correspond to the Pleistocene terrace and also were the sites where wetland rice was the main land use.

20

S. Hin et al.

The Kampot 1 profile, closest to the base of the sandstone Bokor mountain, and sandstone outcrop, had the greatest abundance of 200–600  μm particles, and a reduced abundance in the 20–63 μm size range relative to the levels in Kampot 2 and 3. By contrast, Kampot 3 had a higher abundance of silt and clay below 1 m depth than Kampot 1. There were more angular grains in Kampot 1 than in Kampot 3 (Hin 2019) which would generally indicate shorter-range transport (ArmstrongAltrin and Natalhy-Pineda 2014). For example, previous grain morphology work revealed that Kampot 1 had 15% angular sand grains, while the remaining Kampot sands had none. Nevertheless, 75% of sand grains were poorly to moderately spherical, and 85–95% were subangular to subrounded and 90% of the sand grains had an angular outline. Compared with the remaining sites in the Kampot area, microtexture of quartz grains of Kampot 1 had none or low frequencies of transported features, such as edge abrasion (0%), meandering ridges (0%), striations (15%), curved grooved (20%), straight grooves (35%), and mechanical V-shaped pits (55%), whereas at Kampot 2, the frequencies of these features were 20, 10, 35, 55, 55, and 70%, respectively (Hin 2019). The shifts in particle size distribution, grain shape, and microtexture collectively indicate a colluvial transport influence on sands in this coastal zone of Kampot and not long-range or high-energy transport of the sand grains. However, these conclusions could be further strengthened by analysis of the sand grains in the underlying sandstone bedrock, especially those from sites close to Bokor mountain. In the Tram Kak area, the transect between Tram Kak 1 closest to the mountain and Tram Kak 3 on the plain also suggests sorting of particle sizes. There was a greater abundance of 63–200 and 200–600 μm in Tram Kak 1 than in Tram Kak 3, and conversely, Tram Kak 3 had a higher abundance of clay and silt fractions (Fig. 2.1). By contrast, there was no clear association between texture and elevation in Ponhea Kraek where the parent material is old alluvium (Workman 1972) rather than sandstone or granite, or in Kampong Chhnang where granite is the parent material. 2.3.1.3 Coastal Influences Particle size distribution of Kampot 4 was distinctly different from the other three profiles in the coastal area of Kampot Province indicating a different source of sand parent materials. In particular, there was a lower abundance in 20–63 and 63–200 μm and a higher proportion of 200–600 μm sand grains in Kampot 4 (Fig. 2.1). Based on their proximity to the base of Bokor mountain, Kampot 1, 2, and 3 were most likely formed under in situ weathering with additional colluvial redistribution of sediments, derived from the weathering and erosional products of the Mesozoic sandstone. By contrast, Kampot 4, located close to the beach with low elevation (10 m asl), may have been formed under marine influences or from marine sediments. Given that there is a higher abundance of heavier sand grains in Kampot 4, it is unlikely that this arose from colluvial processes. Moreover, an aeolian origin is not likely for Kampot 4; otherwise, there should have been a greater predominance of fine sand due to the selective transport of fine sand by saltation processes.

2  Origin and Properties of Deep Sands of Southeastern Cambodia: Some Preliminary…

21

The sands in Kampot 4 comprised 5% round grains, while other Kampot profiles had zero round grains, but otherwise, there was limited difference in roundness or sphericity (Hin 2019). Hence, there is limited evidence based on greater roundness that Kampot 4 sands have undergone substantially more transport than the other sands in Kampot. The Kampot 4 profile had reddish brown color in the A horizon and dark red below 145 cm depth (Table 2.1). Moreover, XRD analysis of Kampot 4 for samples collected near the base of the profile indicated moderate amounts of goethite, more than any other profile, and a little hematite, whereas the other profiles had none (Hin 2019). However, since profile excavation did not reach the underlying bedrock, it is not clear if this reflects the mineralogy of the sand parent material, the weathering environment, or possibly Fe oxide enrichment by precipitates formed from Fe-rich groundwater. However, the segregations in Kampot 4 at 150 cm depth were described as iron-manganese in appearance unlike those in Kampot 2 and Kampot 3 which were iron-rich in appearance. The last major sea level rise in the nearby Mekong Delta (4200 years ago) was about 5 m higher relative to the current sea level (Sathiamurthy and Voris 2006). Hence, it is unlikely that Kampot sites were inundated by seawater during that incursion. Nevertheless, a seawater influence may explain the greater abundance of limited silica precipitation on sand grains in Kampot 2 and Kampot 4 than in Kampot 1, but none of the other chemical surface microtexture features showed a consistent or substantial difference between the sites that might have been explained by a seawater weathering of the sand grains. Carbonnel (1972) reported that a marine terrace 10–15 m above the present sea level occurred along coastal Cambodia that was dated as Quaternary. Evidence of this terrace was observed by the authors west of the Kampot transect near Kampong Som. Hence, it is possible that the distinctive particle size distribution and Fe mineralogy of Kampot 4 may represent a relict marine terrace. Subsequent reworking of this material may have caused mixing with sand grains from inland land surfaces (e.g., Kampot 2 and Kampot 3 profiles), both of which have current elevations at or below 15 m above sea level. Further clarity about the origin of the sands at Kampot 4 could be obtained from coring to bedrock or some other diagnostic layer.

2.3.2 Regional Context Sands cover significant portions of Northeast Thailand, central and southern Laos, and Cambodia (Bell and Seng 2004), and there is considerable interest in regional processes such as loess deposition that might help to explain the distribution of sand cover (Nichol and Nichol 2015). The sands that occupy some 330,000  ha in the central coastal region of Vietnam are related to granite outcrops in the Ninh Thuan and Binh Dinh provinces (Pham et al. 2007). While these sand profiles are in proximity to granite outcrops and have coarse sandy texture, particle size has not been categorized in the same detail as in southeastern Cambodia (Bell et  al. 2015). Furthermore, only some of the granite sands in south-central coastal Vietnam have

22

S. Hin et al.

increased clay content with depth, unlike the profiles assessed in Kampong Chhnang which all had a substantial increase in clay content with depth. Most of the other sands in the central coastal region of Vietnam are of aeolian and marine origin (Pham et  al. 2007). Their origin can be traced to several periods of aeolian sand accretion from as recently as 500–700  years ago up to 290,000  years ago (Quang-­Minh et  al. 2010). The major barrier dunes in this region date to 6000–8000 years ago, the last major sea level high in this coastal region. There are no equivalent dunal landforms in southeastern Cambodia along the Kampot coastal region studied. Explanations for the origin of the deep sands of Northeast Thailand have been contested. Loffler and Kubiniok (1996) proposed that the deep sands of Northeast Thailand were derived from in situ weathering of the underlying sandstone and related sediments (siltstone and claystone), but that the weathering is partly biogenic due to the activities of termites that increase clay accumulation in profiles toward the soil surface. From a geochemical analysis of profiles along a catena on sandstone parent rock, Thanachit et al. (2006) conclude that the profile properties could be attributed mostly to weathering in situ of the sandstone. Soils on the summit, shoulder, mid-slope, and foot-slope of a catena with underlying sandstone geology were very similar in chemical properties and profile form. Previous chemical and mineralogical analysis revealed that the most distinctive difference was in the soil of the toe-slope where differences in the Si and Ca affinity group of elements and increased illite content suggested that either parent material was different or that authigenesis led to the formation of illite minerals where leached ions accumulate. Moreover, the sands of Northeast Thailand are relatively poorly sorted which suggests that outcrop within the Khorat Basin as a local source of the sand is more plausible than a remote source (Nichol and Nichol 2015).

2.4 Conclusion The sand profiles sampled along four toposequences in southeastern Cambodia showed a dominant influence of the different parent materials and a lesser influence of colluvial transport on the soil properties of the profiles. This suggests that in situ weathering accounts for many of the characteristics of the profiles, particularly those related to particle size distribution. There was no evidence of long-range transport of the sand grains or aeolian processes in the sands. The variation in clay content of the sand profiles and of sand grain coarseness along with the uniformly low pH (Hin 2019) are likely to limit plant growth and agricultural production on these sands. Acknowledgments  The authors acknowledge support for the work conducted by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research through ACIAR Project No. LWR/2001/005 and for a John Allwright Fellowship to the senior author.

2  Origin and Properties of Deep Sands of Southeastern Cambodia: Some Preliminary…

23

References Armstrong-Altrin JS, Natalhy-Pineda O (2014) Microtextures of detrital sand grains from the Tecolutla, Nautla, and Veracruz beaches, Western Gulf of Mexico, Mexico: implications for depositional environment and palaeoclimate. Arab J Geosci 7(10):4321–4333 Bell RW, Seng V (2004) Rainfed lowland rice-growing soils of Cambodia, Laos, and Northeast Thailand. In: Seng V, Craswell E, Fukai S, Fischer K (eds) Water in agriculture, ACIAR Proceedings 116, pp 161–173 Bell RW, Chon NQ, Cong PT (2015) Soil types, properties and limiting factors in south-central coastal Vietnam. In: Mann S, Webb MC, Bell RW (eds) Sustainable and profitable crop and livestock systems for south-central coastal Vietnam-proceedings, ACIAR Proceedings No. 143, pp 42–60 Bell RW, Seng S, Vance WH, Philp JMN, Hin S, Touch V, Denton MD (2022) Managing sands of the lower Mekong Basin to limit land degradation: a review of properties and limitations for crop and forage production. Soil Syst 6:58. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6030058 Carbonnel J-P (1972) Le Quarternaire Cambodgien. Structure et Stratigraphie. ORSTOM, Paris FAO-CSIC (2002) Multilingual soil profile database for use in soil monitoring and evaluation systems. CSIC/IRNAS, Sevilla and FAO/AGLL, Rome FAO-ISRIC (1990) Guidelines for soil profile description. FAO-ISRIC, Rome Hin S (2019) Acid sands of South-Eastern Cambodia their origin, properties and management for upland crops. PhD thesis. Murdoch University, Perth, Australia Hin S, Schoknecht N, Vance W, Bell R, Seng V (2006) Soil and landscapes of Sandy Terrain of Tram Kak District, Takeo Province, Kingdom of Cambodia. Soil and Water Science Division, CARDI. Technical Note No. 7, Phnom Penh Hin S, Bell R, Seng V, Schoknecht N, Vance W (2007) Soil and landscapes of Sandy Terrain in Kong Pisei District, Kampong Speu Province, Kingdom of Cambodia. Soil and Water Science Division, CARDI. Technical Note No. 15, Phnom Penh Loffler E, Kubiniok J (1996) Landform development and bioturbation on the Khorat plateau, northeast Thailand. Nat Hist Bull Siam Soc 44:199–216 Mekong River Commission (2002) Land Resource Inventory for Agricultural Development (Basinwide) Project. Part III soil database final report June 2002. Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh Michael P (1982) The landforms of Thailand: ideas about their genesis and influence on soil property distribution. In: Nutalaya P, Karasudhi P, Tanasuthipitak T, Kheoruenromme I, Sudhiprakarn A (eds) First international symposium on soil, geology and landforms: impact on land use planning in developing countries. Association of Geoscientists for International Development, Bangkok (Thailand), pp C10.1–C10.14 Newsome D (2000) Origin of sandplains in Western Australia: a review of the debate and some recent findings. Aust J Earth Sci 47:695–706 Nichol JE, Nichol DW (2015) Character and provenance of aeolian sediments in northeast Thailand. Aeolian Res 19:5–14 Oberthür T, Ros C, White PF (2000) Soil map of the main rice growing area of Cambodia. Phnom Penh, Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project Pham QH, Bui HH, Hoang TTH, Pham KT, Hoang TN, Bui TPL et al (2007) Overview of sandy soils management in Vietnam. In: Management of tropical sandy soils for sustainable development: proceedings of the international conference on the management of tropical sandy soils, Khon Kaen, Thailand, 28 November – 2 December 2005. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, pp 348–352 Purdie BR (1999) Code and data definitions. Description of the data recorded in the Western Australia soils database. Resource Management Technical Report 171. Agriculture Western Australia, South Perth

24

S. Hin et al.

Quang-Minh D, Frechen M, Nghi T, Harff J (2010) Timing of Holocene sand accumulation along the coast of central and SE Vietnam. Int J Earth Sci 99(8):1731–1740. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00531-­009-­0476-­7 Rayment GE, Higginson FR (1992) Australian laboratory handbook of soil and water chemical methods. Inkata Press, Melbourne Sathiamurthy E, Voris HK (2006) Maps of Holocene sea level transgression and submerged lakes on the Sunda Shelf. The Nat Hist J Chulalongkorn Univ Suppl 2:1–44 Thanachit S, Suddhiprakarn A, Kheoruenromne I, Gilkes RJ (2006) The geochemistry of soils on a catena on sedimentary rock at Nam Phong, north-east Thailand. Aust J Soil Res 44:143–154 Vance W, Griffin T, Schoknecht N (eds) (2004) Dataset and code definitions for the soil survey of Cambodia. Version 5. CARDI, Phnom Penh, p 45 White PF, Oberthür T, Pheav S (1997) The soils used for rice production in Cambodia, a manual for their recognition and management. Manila, International Rice Research Institute Workman DR (1972) Geology of Laos, Cambodia, South Vietnam and the Eastern part of Thailand. A review. Institute of Geological Sciences, London

Chapter 3

Sandy Soils in the United States: Properties and Use Robert R. Dobos, Suzann Kinast-Brown, Stephen Roecker, and David L. Lindbo

Abstract  Sandy soils are derived from a variety of parent materials and are found on a variety of landscapes. The high sand content causes these soils to have low water storage, good internal drainage, and low cation exchange capacity. Soils that are sandy, for the purposes of this study, contain a weighted average of greater than 50% sand-sized particles and less than 20% clay from the surface to 200  cm. Roughly 29% of the area of the conterminous United States fits this classification. Sandy soils have formed in eolian, till, outwash, or marine deposits or have formed in situ from the weathering of the underlying rock. Sandy soils are generally suited for road building, are deeply penetrated by ground-penetrating radar, and are of moderate to low inherent productivity. Irrigation is often needed for successful crop production. The typically low water and nutrient availability of sandy soils can give rise to ecologic niches, such as the relationship between sandy soils, longleaf pine, and the gopher tortoise or wild lupine, and the Karner blue butterfly. Keywords  Productivity · Interpretation · Ecology · United States

3.1 Introduction Sandy soils are widely distributed in the Unites States and around the world. In the Eastern United States, starting at the lowest elevations, such as the Outer Banks in North Carolina, moving up to the highest ridges of Appalachia, sandy soils occupy a niche in the overall geography. Sandy soils were left behind by glaciers and glacial meltwater in the Northern United States and occur as stabilized eolian deposits in the west. Most sandy soils tend to be well or excessively drained, since water moves R. R. Dobos (*) · S. Kinast-Brown · S. Roecker · D. L. Lindbo USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil and Plant Sciences Division, Washington, DC, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. E. Hartemink, J. Huang (eds.), Sandy Soils, Progress in Soil Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50285-9_3

25

26

R. R. Dobos et al.

freely through them. Low available water storage and low cation exchange generally limit these soils for crop production, especially where irrigation water is not available. However, sandy soils are desirable for root crops. In this paper, first, a definition of sand will be reviewed and a characterization of a sandy soil. Next, the distribution of sandy soils and their kind and origin of the parent materials is discussed, followed by the key properties and interpretation of sandy soils. Finally, some of the unique ecological niches that exist in sandy soils will be presented.

3.2 Definition The size fraction “sand” needs to have a precise definition in the context of this paper. Roderick (1972) reports 32 systems that have been used by agriculturalists, engineers, and geologists, each with subtly different size ranges proposed for each size class (Fig. 3.1). This paper will use the USDA classification system, which classifies sand as those particles between 0.05 and 2.0 mm. Sandy soils are those soils having, from the mineral surface to a depth of 200 cm (or to bedrock), a weighted average over 50% sand and less than 20% clay (Huang and Hartemink 2020). Deepening the frame of reference to 200 cm allows better characterization of the rooting zone of perennial plants for these soils and allows a more accurate assessment for engineering purposes. Figure 3.2 shows, on the textural triangle, the textures that classify as “sandy.”

Fig. 3.1  Comparison of four commonly used particle size classification systems, highlighting the sand separates class. (Source: Soil Science Division (2017))

3  Sandy Soils in the United States: Properties and Use

27

Fig. 3.2  USDA textural triangle showing the textures included in the “sandy” definition. (Modified from Soil Science Staff 2017)

3.3 Distribution Huang and Hartemink (2020) have reviewed the distribution, nature, and properties of sandy soils worldwide. The scope of this paper is confined to the conterminous United States (CONUS); the remaining states and territories should be considered in the future. Soils that meet the definition of a sandy soil can be mapped using the Gridded National Soil Survey Geographic Database (gNATSGO) product that provides complete coverage of the conterminous United States (CONUS). This raster data layer uses the available soil information including raster soil survey, traditional soil survey, and in some places the Digital General Soil Map of the United States (STATSGO2) (Soil Survey Staff 2023b) (Fig. 3.3). The soils considered here are classified according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1999).  Of a total soil area of 7.87 million km2 of CONUS, about 2.28 million km2, or about 29%, fall into the sandy soil class examining the weighted average of the size separates from 0 to 200 cm or bedrock. Sandy soils are weathered from a variety of parent material origins (sandstone, granite, etc.) or from sediments including eolian, alluvium, glacial outwash, glacial till, and marine. Figure 3.4 displays the extent of windblown sandy soils in the CONUS. Strikingly different from the surrounding areas, the Nebraska Sand Hills are a large area of eolian sands in western Nebraska that were blown from an extensive

28

R. R. Dobos et al.

Fig. 3.3  Distribution of sandy soils in the conterminous United States. (Source: 2023 gNATSGO)

Fig. 3.4  The distribution of sandy soils developed in eolian sediments

3  Sandy Soils in the United States: Properties and Use

29

outwash plain to the west and deposited after the late-Wisconsin-aged glaciers retreated (Flint 1971). Figure 3.5 illustrates the dune landforms that are characteristic of the Sand Hills. The High Plains Aquifer is near the surface and provides water for plants and animals (Shrestha et  al. 2021). The dominant soil series in the Nebraska Sand Hills is Valentine (mixed, mesic Typic Udipsamments). Second, the White Sands in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico are comprised of gypsum and thus are white. During the Pleistocene, New Mexico received much more precipitation than it does today and the Tularosa Basin was a lake. When the climate changed, the lake evaporated and left an enormous amount of gypsum which eventually formed the dunes seen today (Weber and Kottlowski 1959). A portion of the dune complex is contained by the White Sands National Park and open to the public. Common soil series of the White Sands area are Lark (hypergypsic, thermic Typic Torripsamments) and Yesum (coarse-gypseous, hypergypsic, thermic Leptic Haplogypsids). Figure 3.6 indicates the distribution of sandy till in CONUS. According to Flint (1971), in the northwest, the Cordilleran glacier complex covered northern Washington, Idaho, and western Montana. The Laurentide ice sheet covered from eastern Montana to Maine. The tills in the Rockies, Cascades, and the Sierras were deposited by alpine glaciation during late-Wisconsin or perhaps earlier glaciation (Flint 1971). Gillespie and Zehfuss (2004) surmise that the Sierra Nevada has been glaciated several times during the Quaternary. Soil series that are found in California sandy till include Canisrocks (sandy-skeletal, isotic Typic Cryorthents) and Siberian (Sandy-skeletal, isotic Vitrandic Cryorthents).

Fig. 3.5  A simulated natural color satellite image of a portion of the Nebraska Sand Hills showing the stabilized dunes. (Image Credit: NASA/GSFC/METI/ ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team. From A to B is 52 km)

30

R. R. Dobos et al.

Fig. 3.6  The distribution of sandy soils developed in glacial till

Sandy till soils are prevalent in New England due to the extensive areas of granites and schists. The sandy till soils are largely Spodosols in Upstate New  York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. In Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, they are mostly Entisols (Ciolkosz et al. 1989). Typical Spodosols soil series in this area are Becket (coarse-loamy, isotic, frigid Oxyaquic Haplorthods) and Tunbridge (coarse-loamy, isotic, frigid Typic Haplorthods). Common Entisols include Paxton (coarse-loamy, mixed, active, mesic Oxyaquic Dystrudepts) and Canton (coarse-loamy over sandy or sandy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Dystrudepts). Although the parent materials are similar, the frigid till soils are Spodosols, while the mesic soils are Inceptisols. According to Ciolkosz et al. (1989), the relationship between frigid and Spodosols holds even south of the glacial border. Figure 3.7 displays the distribution of sandy glaciofluvial deposits in CONUS. Outwash and glaciofluvial are considered together as sand and gravels that have been transported and deposited from the glacier (Flint 1971). While the vast majority of the deposits are associated with continental glaciation, some outwash from alpine glaciation is reported in California, Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. The Illinois River carried outwash southward as the Laurentide ice sheet melted. Soil series that are found in this part of Illinois include Marshan (fine-loamy over sandy or sandy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Endoaquolls) and Onarga (coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Argiudolls). The state of Michigan is covered mainly by sandy soils that have been formed in sandy outwash. In the northern part of the state, Kalkaska soils (sandy, isotic, frigid

3  Sandy Soils in the United States: Properties and Use

31

Fig. 3.7  The extent of glaciofluvial deposits in CONUS

Typic Haplorthods), while in the southern part of the state, the Spinks series (sandy, mixed, mesic Lamellic Hapludalfs) are common. The vegetation and climate drive the divergent genesis of the sandy outwash toward Spodosols in the north and Mollisols in the south. Figure 3.8 illustrates the distribution of sandy marine sediments; whereas some marine sediments are found in Washington state and California, the largest area of marine sediments occurs in the coastal plain stretching from New Jersey to Texas. According to Fenneman (1938), the Atlantic coastal plain consists of a series of terraces from the Fall Line in the west to the present shoreline. The earliest and highest in elevation are Pliocene deposits and later Pleistocene deposits which have been exposed by successive uplift and subsidence which produced a series of terraces (Cooke 1938; Cronin et al. 1984). In the Florida panhandle, the soils are sandy and have a high groundwater table. The Wabasso series (sandy, siliceous, hyperthermic Alfic Alaquods) are found in this area, and also the Myakka series (sandy, siliceous, hyperthermic Aeric Alaquods) are common. Both of these hyperthermic series are Spodosols and Alaquods. These wet Spodosols are the main exception to the frigid Spodosol theory of Ciolkosz et al. (1989). In eastern Georgia, some sandy marine soils are in the Carolina and Georgia Sandhills. Common soil series in this area are the Lakeland (thermic, coated Typic Quartzipsamments) and Troup (loamy, kaolinitic, thermic Grossarenic Kandiudults) series. The last class of sandy soils to be presented are the residual soils (Fig. 3.9).

32

Fig. 3.8  The distribution of sandy marine sediments in CONUS

Fig. 3.9  The distribution of sandy residual soils in CONUS

R. R. Dobos et al.

3  Sandy Soils in the United States: Properties and Use

33

Sandy residual soils are found mainly in mountainous areas, such as the Rockies and Appalachia. In the Valley and Ridge of Pennsylvania, sandy residual soils such as the Hazleton series (loamy-skeletal, siliceous, active, mesic Typic Dystrudepts) occupy the ridge tops, and soils of the Morrison series (fine-loamy, mixed, active, mesic Ultic Hapludalfs) are found on low ridges within the limestone valleys. In central Texas, outcroppings of Precambian granites and schists produce sandy residual soils. The Keese series (loamy, mixed, active, thermic, shallow Typic Haplustepts) is a shallow soil over granite in the Llano uplift region of central Texas, which is a unique geologic feature.

3.4 Properties Some key properties of the main sandy soils series are given in Table 3.1. Available water storage (AWS) is reported in centimeters of plant available water held in the soil between the surface and 200 cm or to a root restricting layer. Organic matter content, adjusted for bulk density and rock fragment content, is calculated from the surface to 200 cm or bedrock. The cation exchange capacity is calculated in terms of the milliequivalents of cation exchange based on the layer CEC but Table 3.1  Chemical and physical properties of the selected soils (extracted from the NASIS Client database) Series? Morrison Keese Marshan Troup Hazleton Wabasso Onarga Yesum Paxton Spinks Lakeland Tunbridge Valentine Canton Becket Siberian Myakka Canisrocks Kalkaska Lark

% Clay 17.3 14.4 13.9 11.2 11.2 10.7 10.6 9.1 7.0 6.5 4.8 4.7 3.5 3.3 3.0 2.9 2.4 2.1 1.5 1.0

% Sand 66.3 68.6 63.3 87.6 63.5 90.7 69.8 69.0 62.2 88.0 92.4 60.0 94.8 73.9 70.9 87.1 95.7 86.0 96.5 97.7

AWS (cm) 17.4 3.2 18.4 12.6 12.6 14.7 20.5 14.6 10.1 11.4 8.9 10.6 10.7 8.5 12.1 3.7 12.4 5.8 10.2 11.9

OM (kg/m2) 11.8 3.2 34.8 12.1 9.0 27.0 20.1 5.2 31.8 12.5 11.5 49.0 9.7 24.5 45.1 12.7 37.9 27.3 20.0 4.9

MEQ Ksat (μm/s) 12.5 23.3 3.8 28.0 28.0 93.2 8.4 66.8 7.8 71.7 17.8 53.7 20.3 52.0 15.1 17.3 3.2 4.3 9.0 66.1 9.0 89.0 9.9 14.5 8.6 91.9 4.9 56.3 12.0 6.2 3.8 98.9 4.4 77.7 5.6 131.8 4.4 84.1 17.8 287.2

Bulk EC (ds/m) 0.285 0.197 0.368 0.138 0.199 0.196 0.279 7.400 0.131 0.146 0.119 0.160 0.110 0.099 0.146 0.074 0.351 0.080 0.058 3.905

34

R. R. Dobos et al.

adjusted for rock fragment content and the soil bulk density and summed by the layers. Bulk electrical conductivity is an estimate of the ability of the soil, in the absence of soluble salts, to conduct electricity. The calculated results are meant to approximate the conductivity of a saturated paste. Increasing sand has a strong effect on the ability of soils to transmit water. The ability of the Paxton (4.3 μm/s) and Becket (6.2 μm/s) series is limited by a dense layer in the subsoil. The presence of a spodic horizon may also slow water transmission, comparing soils of similar sand content, such as Kalkaska (84 μm/s) compared to Lark (287 μm/s). Deep Psamments, such as Lakeland (89 μm/s) and Valentine (91.9 μm/s), have excellent internal drainage. Plant available water is often low in sandy soils. While a very deep loess soil may hold 30 cm of water from 0 to 150 cm, very deep sandy soils range from 20.5 cm for the Onarga series to 8.9 cm for the Lakeland series. The amount of plant available water a soil can store is also affected by root-limiting layers and excess soluble salts. The ability of a soil to retain basic cations is decreased by an increasing sand content or lower silt and clay content. Organic matter content affects the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soil. The milliequivalents of exchange (MEQ) calculation used here is also dependent on the rooting depth of the soil, since it is attempting to quantify the exchange capacity of the rooting volume. The lower CEC of sandy soils along with generally rapid water movement implies a potential leaching of nutrients and pesticides.

3.5 Interpretation of Sandy Soils In USDA, interpretations are models that examine the attributes and location of the soil to predict how the soil will support any given land use. These include horizon attributes, like sand content, clay content, organic matter content, bulk density, pH, cation exchange, and many more. Site characteristics, such as slope, stoniness, flooding, precipitation, and temperature, are also important. Features of the whole profile, including available water storage, rooting depth, and water table depth, are also considered (Soil Science Division Staff 2017). Interpretive results for 114 national interpretations are available on Web Soil Survey. Some states and regions publish results on Web Soil Survey also (Soil Survey Staff 2023a). A small sampling of interpretations is given in Table 3.2. The National Commodity Crop Productivity Index (NCCPI) is a model used to evaluate the soils of the United States based on their inherent ability for crop growth  Albers et  al. (2022). This model uses the soil properties presented in Table 3.1. Site factors, including slope, precipitation, and growing season length, also are accounted for in the model. The sandy soils generally have moderately low to low productivity, even in climates that are suitable for crop production. The two Mollisols (Onarga and Marshan) have favorable soil and site properties and rate as highly productive.

Series Morrison Keese Marshan Troup Hazleton Wabasso Onarga Yesum Paxton Spinks Lakeland Tunbridge Valentine Canton Becket Siberian Myakka Canisrocks Kalkaska Lark

Soil order Alfisol Inceptisol Mollisol Ultisol Inceptisol Spodosol Mollisol Aridisol Entisol Alfisol Entisol Spodosol Entisol Inceptisol Spodosol Entisol Spodosol Entisol Spodosol Entisol

Inherent productivity (NCCPI) Moderate Low High Moderately low Moderately low Moderately low High Low Moderate Moderate Moderately low Moderately low Moderately low Moderate Moderate Low Moderately low Low Moderately low Low

GPR penetration Moderate High Moderate High Very high Moderate High Unsuited Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Unsuited

Table 3.2  Select interpretations for some sandy soil series Leaching Not limited Not limited Very limited Very limited Very limited Very limited Somewhat limited Somewhat limited Somewhat limited Very limited Very limited Not limited Very limited Somewhat limited Not limited Very limited Very limited Very limited Very limited Very limited

Roads Very well suited Well suited Poorly suited Very well suited Moderately suited Poorly suited Poorly suited Very well suited Moderately suited Very well suited Very well suited Moderately suited Very well suited Very well suited Well suited Poorly suited Poorly suited Poorly suited Very well suited Well suited

Drought vulnerability Moderately vulnerable Severely vulnerable Slightly vulnerable Moderately vulnerable Vulnerable Slightly vulnerable Somewhat vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Slightly vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Slightly vulnerable Slightly vulnerable Slightly vulnerable Moderately vulnerable Somewhat vulnerable

PFAS attenuation Moderate Low Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderately low Moderate Moderate Moderately high Moderate Moderate Moderately high Moderate Moderate Moderately high Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderately low

3  Sandy Soils in the United States: Properties and Use 35

36

R. R. Dobos et al.

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) penetration is a function of the amount and type of clay and the presence of excessive soluble salts. These two characteristics affect the electrical conductivity of the soil. Soils having high electrical conductivity (>4 ds/m) are unsuited for GPR use because of low penetration. Sandy soils can be evaluated using GPR, except when they have high salt content such as the Yesum and Lark soil series (see Table 3.1). Pesticide leaching (Table 3.2) is a potential for many sandy soils because of their high saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat). The Tunbridge and Beckett soil series are less limited because the Ksat is lower. Sandy soils are generally drought vulnerable, which is driven by the low available water storage (AWS). Precipitation and potential evapotranspiration are factors in drought vulnerability, so even though the AWS for Canisrocks (Cryorthents) is only 5.8 cm, since the temperature is low, the vulnerability is less than for a thermic soil like Keese. The interpretation for PFAS attenuation is being developed and is not ready for publication. PFAS attenuation is a function of organic matter and sesquioxide content and is influenced by the volume of unsaturated soil. Isotic soils and Spodosols are more able to bind PFAS than soils that do not have amorphous materials.

3.6 Ecologic Considerations Some plants and animals have uniquely adapted to survive in sandy soils. For example, the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), according to Enge et al. (2006), prefers to burrow in well-drained, sandy soils in South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The vegetation is generally longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) in the overstory and herbaceous plants on the forest floor. Under natural circumstances, due to periodic burning, the understory lacks woody shrubs. The preponderance of herbaceous vegetation provides food for the gopher tortoise. The gopher tortoise excavates burrows that average 4.5 m long and 2 m deep. These burrows provide shelter from extreme heat and from predators. Abandoned gopher tortoise burrows provide shelter for at least 360 other species of animals. The gopher tortoise is a keystone species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance. The species play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the community. (Enge et al. 2006). Another sandy soil-plant-animal dependency is exemplified by the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa Samuelis) which is found from Wisconsin to Maine. While the adult butterfly can cover a 2.4 km range, their caterpillars are constrained to feed only on wild lupine (Lupinus perennis L.) leaves (Mensing 2023). Wild lupine is found in pine barrens and sandy prairies (Anderson 2001; Meyer 2006) which have been maintained by periodic burning. The soils are typically well drained and sandy. Soil pH can range from 4.2 to 5.6 and in some places up to 80% sand (Meyer 2006).

3  Sandy Soils in the United States: Properties and Use

37

3.7 Conclusion Sandy soils have formed in eolian, till, glaciofluvial, or marine deposits and have formed in situ. In frigid temperature regimes and in thermic wet soils, Spodosols are frequently found. Sandy soils can also be Alfisols, Ultisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, and occasionally Mollisols. High sand content is associated with low cation exchange capacity, high hydraulic conductivity, and low available water storage. These characteristics can limit crop production. For some engineering purposes, the high sand content is not limiting. Sandy soils can provide some significant ecologic niches.

References Albers MA, Dobos RR, Robotham MP (2022) User guide for the National Commodity Crop Productivity Index (NCCPI) Version 3.0. USDA, NRCS, Soil and Plant Science Division Anderson MK (2001) Plant guide  – sundial Lupinus perennis L.  The Plants Database. https:// plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_lupe3.pdf. Accessed 3 Aug 2023 Ciolkosz EJ, Waltman WJ, Simpson TW, Dobos RR (1989) Distribution and genesis of soils of the north-eastern United States. In: T. W. Garder and W. D. Sevon (Editors). Appalachian geomorphology. Geomorphology 2:285–302 Cooke CW (1938) Geology of the coastal plain of South Carolina, US Geologic Survey Bulletin 867. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 196pp Cronin TM, Bybell LM, Poore RZ, Blackwelder BW, Liddicoat JC, Hazel JE (1984) Age and correlation of emerged Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits, U.  S. coastal plain. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 47:21–51. Elsevier Enge KM, Berish JE, Bolt R, Dziergowski A, Mushinsky HR (2006) Biological status report – gopher tortoise. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Committee. https://myfwc.com/ media/19511/gt-­biostatreport.pdf Fenneman NM (1938) Physiography of the eastern United States. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York Flint RF (1971) Glacial and quaternary geology. Wiley, New York Gillespie AR, Zehfuss PH (2004) Glaciations of the Sierra Nevada, California, USA. In: Ehlers SJ, Gibbard PL (eds) Quatemary glaciations – extent and chronology, Part II. Elsevier, Amsterdam Huang J, Hartemink AE (2020) Soil and environmental issues in sandy soils. Earth-Science Reviews 208:103295. Elsevier Mensing C (2023) Karner blue butterfly. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. https://www.fws.gov/species/karner-­blue-­butterfly-­lycaeides-­melissa-­samuelis. Accessed 3 Aug 2023 Meyer R (2006) Lupinus perennis. In: Fire effects information system [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/forb/lupper/all.html. 3 Aug 2023 Roderick GL (1972) Review of particle-size classification of soils. 41st annual meeting of the highway research board. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/hrr/1972/405/405-­009.pdf Shrestha N, Mittelstet AR, Young AR, Gilmore TE, Gosselin DC, Qi Y, Zeyrek C (2021) Groundwater level assessment and prediction in the Nebraska Sand Hills using LIDAR-derived lake water level. J Hydrol 600:126582 Soil Science Division Staff (2017) Soil survey manual. In: Ditzler C, Scheffe K, Monger HC (eds) USDA handbook 18. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

38

R. R. Dobos et al.

Soil Survey Staff (1999) Soil taxonomy: a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys, USDA-NRCS Agric. Handb. 436. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC Soil Survey Staff (2023a) Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Web Soil Survey. Available online at the following link: http://websoilsurvey. sc.egov.usda.gov/. Accessed. 16 Aug 2023 Soil Survey Staff (2023b) Gridded National Soil Survey Geographic (gNATSGO) database for the conterminous United States. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Available online at https://nrcs.app.box.com/v/soils. 18 July 2023 (FY23 official release) Weber RH, Kottlowski FE (1959) Gypsum resources of New Mexico. N M Bur Mines Miner Resour Bull 68:68

Chapter 4

Molic and Umbric Horizons of Alluvial Sandy Soils of River Valleys in SW Poland Beata Labaz and Cezary Kabala

Abstract  The sandy soils of river valleys in Poland and other European countries were subjected to the transformation since the seventeenth century following hydrotechnical engineering works. Regulation of river channels and expansion of drainage infrastructure were intended to protect residential areas from flooding, increase agricultural land, and improve inland navigation. It reduced natural alluvial sedimentation and led to the degradation or disappearance of natural muds, swamps, and bogs habitats. It led to disappearance of shelterbelts and herbaceous vegetation and a decline in landscape diversity and biodiversity. Floodplains are anthropogenically altered and endangered ecosystems in Europe. The lowering of the groundwater table causes the increase of the soil biological activity and intensification of the soil-forming processes, and it leads to the gradual disappearance of the original stratification of sediments (fluvial materials) and the development of horizons. Mollic or umbric horizons are regularly found in river valleys. The purpose of this study was to verify anthropogenic influence on the formation of deep organic matter-­rich horizons in sandy soils. It was found that the original organic swamp-­ alluvial or marsh-alluvial soils, with histic horizons, periodically flooded or located in former oxbow lakes, gradually changed into mineral soils with thick, black, and structured mollic or umbric horizons with an abrupt boundary to subsoil horizons with anthric properties. Although drainage caused a decrease in organic matter content, SOC concentrations remain high despite the sandy texture. These soils are suitable for hay or pasture meadows, for arable land, or as forested areas. Keywords  Alluvial soils · Drainage · Gleysols · Humaquepts · Endoaquolls

B. Labaz (*) · C. Kabala Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Institute of Soil Science, Plant Nutrition and Environmental Protection, Wroclaw, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. E. Hartemink, J. Huang (eds.), Sandy Soils, Progress in Soil Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50285-9_4

39

40

B. Labaz and C. Kabala

4.1 Introduction Anthropogenic transformation of soils in river valleys began in the Central Europe at the beginning of the Neolithic period, around 5500–5000 BP with the arrival of the first human tribes. River valleys were natural migration corridors, providing people with water, fish, hunting grounds, and fertile soils, where they began the first crops of grain and legumes. In periodically wet meadows and wooded areas along river beds, people bred cattle, gradually transforming dense forest areas into open grazing forests of the park/grazing type (Eckmeier et al. 2007). In addition, people cut down or burned forests to obtain land for cultivation, but also used wood for heating and for building purposes. The loss of forested land in river valleys has intensified the rise in groundwater table and caused the water stagnation on the land surface for longer periods of the year. The transformation of the environment in the river valleys by the Neolithic Linien Bandkeramik tribes had the first significant impact on these areas (Kalis et  al. 2003). The unregulated, meandering rivers of lowland areas lost their course during floods, abandon their channels, and spilled over a considerable area, creating large-scale floodplains. In the past, swamps in river and stream valleys covered large areas of Poland and other European countries (Wójcicki et  al. 2020). Rapid population growth since the seventeenth century across Europe has resulted in intensive deforestation of valleys. Humans aimed to predominantly occupy moist and productive areas in valleys but frequent floods disturbed arable land use and intensive pasturing (Brazdil et al. 1999). In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, intensive drainage of river valleys and regulation of river channels began in Poland and many European countries in order to extend arable space in valleys and protect urban areas from flooding. The expansion of canals and ditches was intended to accelerate both the runoff of spring waters and from heavy summer precipitation, as well as to drain agricultural land (Kawalko et al. 2021). The drainage often lowered the water level in the lakes, in many cases leading to their complete disappearance, exposing then organic-rich sediments to decomposition and subsequent transformation into mineral soils. The river regulation and construction of dikes, dams, and drainage ditches to drain wetlands have brought tangible economic benefits and enabled intensive agricultural development of river valleys, but created the threat of degradation or even complete disappearance of natural wetland and marsh habitats (Kabala et al. 2011; Labaz and Kabala 2016;  Kabała 2022). Inappropriate management of the river valley’s resources, especially the withdrawal from the patchwork of fields, incorrect land consolidation, and intensification of agricultural production, has resulted in unwanted phenomena in the natural landscape, such as the disappearance of mid-field trees and herbaceous areas, a decline in landscape diversity and biodiversity, and a reduction in the capacity of ecosystems. Currently, floodplains are considered to be the most anthropogenically altered and endangered ecosystems in Europe (Tokarczyk-­ Dorociak et al. 2016).

4  Molic and Umbric Horizons of Alluvial Sandy Soils of River Valleys in SW Poland

41

The purpose of this study was to verify the hypothesis of the prevailing anthropogenic influence on the formation of deep humus horizons in sandy soils, as a result of the strong transformation of river valleys and native swamp-alluvial soils and bog-alluvial soils. The subject of the research was the Barycz Valley in SW Poland, whose regulation and agricultural development began in the seventeenth century.

4.2 Investigated Area and Methods The Barycz Valley area is one of the most heavily anthropogenically transformed regions of Lower Silesia (SE of Poland). The Barycz River is a right tributary of the Odra/Oder and has the lowest gradient among Polish rivers (about 0.035%). Intense fluvial processes that followed after the recession of the Warta ice sheet (Riss2/ Illinoian) filled the valley with sandy sediments. Also, the Holocene alluvial sediments were in majority sandy, reflecting the dominant texture of surrounding soils (Kabała et al. 2015). The low river gradient and common floods led to the development of seasonal fluctuations of water level favored the development of bog iron, those exploitation left common shallow lakes, then turned into fish ponds (Labaz et al. 2014; Labaz and Bogacz 2014). The first breeding fish ponds were probably established as early as the thirteenth century. The common construction of fish ponds was also connected with large-scale drainage projects in the Barycz Valley. The Barycz River was regulated in significant sections; its streambed was deepened; additional canals, sluices, dikes, and weirs were built; and the water was dammed up and used to fill up more and more ponds. These works fundamentally changed the original system of the river network. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, flood protection of intensively developed human settlements and increased demand for agricultural land were of particular importance. Amelioration works led to the drainage of large areas of the Barycz River valley and the elimination of a significant number of fish ponds (Duś 2009). Five soil profiles, located on Holocene floodplain terraces (1.5–3 m above the river level), were selected for the study, varying in degree of drainage (Table 4.1). For comparison, one soil (profile 1) was selected in the area with little signs of anthropogenic transformation. On the maps from the nineteenth century, the study area was designated as swamp-alluvial and bog-alluvial soils, while it is currently used as meadows (profiles 2–3), woodland (profiles 1 and 4), and arable fields (profile 5). Field studies included a description of vegetation, water status, and morphology of the soil profiles. The particular attention was paid to the depth at which stratification of the parent material occurs, the thickness of humus horizons and their humus horizons’ boundary, and the presence and depth of redoximorphic features. The following properties were determined in the fine earths (50%). The soils show some subsoil development, indicated with the “w” and “t” designations for B horizons but not sufficient for the cambic or argic diagnostic horizons. All the soil fertility indicators are below the threshold limits required by a range of field crops (Table 5.1). Generally, soil organic matter (SOM)