Samuel Richardson’s theory of fiction 9783111342474, 9783110991178

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DE PROPRIETATIBUS LITTERARUM edenda curca C. H. VAN SCHOONEVELD Indiana University

Series Practica, 15

SAMUEL RICHARDSON'S THEORY OF FICTION

by DONALD L. BALL College of William and Mary

1971

MOUTON THE HAGUE • PARIS

© Copyright 1971 in The Netherlands. Mouton & Co. N.V., Publishers, The Hague. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission ' from the publishers.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 75-144011

Printed in Hungary

To Barbara

PREFACE

This work attempts to formulate a theory of fiction for Richardson by correlating his statements concerning fiction, by examining carefully his practice of fiction, and by determining from the relationship of his statements to his practice just what he thought fiction was and what it should do. Although there have been several excellent studies of Richardson and his work, none of them has been concerned with his theory and practice of fiction. It is hoped that this present study will provide some insight into the achievements of this important pioneer in the development of English fiction. I am indebted for the idea of this study to Professor Jerome Beaty of Emory University, who, at the time he suggested such an undertaking over twelve years ago, was my fellow instructor at Virginia Military Institute. I owe a much larger debt to Professor Harry K. Russell of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, who directed my study of Richardson's work at the University. My debt to him is impressive not only for his thoughtful and valuable help in directing my dissertation but also for his many kindly and useful advices about organization, style, and other problems concerned with the actual writing of the work. I would like to express my appreciation for their assistance to the staffs of the libraries at the University of North Carolina and Duke University, and to the Faculty Research Committee at the College of William and Mary, who provided me with precious summer time for important work on the study. I would also like to acknowledge Mrs. James Dyer, typist extraordinary of Chapel Hill, who did such an excellent job with my final dissertation copy, and my wife, who did the extensive, and laborious, preliminary typing and who provided encouragement and inspiration that can never be repaid. August, 1967

D.L.B.

CONTENTS

Preface

.>

Introduction I . Richardson's Statement of his Theory of Fiction Introduction Narrative Structure Epistolary Technique Characterization Presentation of Moral Doctrine Summary

7 11 15 15 17 23 30 41 56

I I . Narrative Structure 58 Introduction 58 The Narrative Structure of t h e Novels a n d t h e Technique Used t o Support I t 62 Richardson's Application a n d Development of t h e Technique T h a t S u p p o r t s t h e Narrative Structure in t h e Novels 66 Conclusion 110 I I I . Epistolary Technique 114 Introduction 114 Devices of Less t h a n Letter Length 115 Letter Types and L e t t e r - L e n g t h Devices 121 Letter and J o u r n a l E n t r y Lengths a n d t h e Exchange of Correspondence 121 Point of View 138 The Use of Letters to Support N a r r a t i v e Structure 149 Conclusion 161 IV. Characterization Introduction The Placing and Relating of t h e Characters in t h e Novels Individualization of t h e Characters Presentation of t h e Characters Development of t h e Characters Conclusion

164 164 166 179 192 208 227

10

CONTENTS

V. Presentation of Moral Doctrine 230 Introduction 230 Presentation of t h e Novels as Authentic Records 232 T r e a t m e n t of t h e Novels as Works Representing Moral Doctrine . . 241 Illustration of Moral Doctrine Within t h e Novels 250 Justification of Moral Doctrine Within t h e Novels 264 Conclusion ........... 273 Conclusion

277

Appendixes A. Methods a n d Devices as They Occur in t h e Novels and Sequel . . B. Means T h a t Support Epistolary Technique in t h e Novels a n d Sequel C. Means Used t o Support Characterization

285 286 295 309

Bibliography

313

Index

317

INTRODUCTION

Scholars have long been aware of Samuel Richardson's important contribution to the development of the English novel. Valuable studies have described this contribution1 in some detail and at least five books have been devoted in part to Richardson's achievement. 2 However, no one has yet described what Richardson's theory of fiction was and the extent to which he practiced this theory The purpose of this study is to describe Richardson's theory and to determine, by a careful examination of his practice of fiction, how extensively he practiced his theory. That such a study should be made is suggested by the fact t h a t comparable studies have been made for two of Richardson's contemporaries, Defoe and Fielding: A. W. Secord, Studies in the Narrative Method of Defoe (1924); and Ethel M. Thornbury, Henry Fielding's Theory of the Comic Prose Epic (1931). This present study will, it is hoped, contribute to our understanding of the rise of the English novel. So that the relationship between Richardson's theory and his practice can best be demonstrated, this study has been divided 1

Since these studies will be named as they are referred to in the following chapters, they will not be listed here. However, mention should be made at this point of what remains, after thirty-five years, the most valuable of all the studies of Richardson's contribution: Alan Dugald McKillop's Samuel Richardson-. Printer and Novelist (Chapel Hill, 1936). The debt thatall Richardson scholars owe to this important work can never be fully acknowledged. a Clara Linklater Thomson, Samuel Richardson (London, 1900); Austin Dobson, Samuel Richardson (New York, 1902); Brian W. Downs, Richardson (London, 1928); Paul Dottin, Samuel Richardson, 1689-1761, imprimeur de Londres (Paris, 1931); McKillop's work mentioned in n. 1; and Morris Golden, Richardson's Characters (Ann Arbor, 1963).

12

INTRODUCTION

into three parts. The first part, Chapter I, presents, in systematic form, Richardson's statements of his theory of fiction. The second, which is made up of Chapters II, III, IV, and V, presents a detailed analysis of Richardson's practice of fiction in his four published narrative works: Pamela, Pamela II (the term which shall be used for the two-volume sequel to Richardson's first novel), Clarissa, and Sir Charles Orandison. Finally, the third part, the Conclusion, relates Richardson's practice to his theory. The presentation of Richardson's statements of his theory has been based on a careful examination of Richardson's prefaces, postscripts, and other writings in his published narratives; his correspondence; and his miscellaneous publications, such as The Familiar Letters. In addittion the works of several scholars, three of whom have presented a number of Richardson's statements in a systematic manner,3 have been used. The analysis of Richardson's practice of fiction has been based on a thorough examination of narrative structure, epistolary technique, characterization, and presentation of moral doctrine. Each of these aspects has been treated in a separate chapter. In addition the writings of numerous scholars4 on Richardson's practice of fiction have been utilized. The relationship of Richardson's practice to his theory, described in the final section, has been based on an evaluation of Richardson's practice in the light of his theory so that the extent to which he followed, or failed to follow, his theory can be understood. Richardson's position in the large scheme of prose fiction has been taken into account by the use of such works as A. J. Tieje's The Theory of Characterization in Prose Fiction Prior to 1740 (1916), C. H. Huffman's The Eighteenth Century Novel in Theory and Practice (1923), Ian Watt's The Rise of the Novel (1957), McKillop's The Early Masters of English Fiction (1956), James R. Foster's History of the Pre-Romantic Novel in England (1949), J. B. Heidler's The History, from 1700 to 1800, of English Criticism of Prose Fiction (1928), and the chapters on the eighteenth-century novel that appear in histories of literature and the novel. Throughout this study, and in the chapters concerned with Richardson's practice in particular, the Shakespeare Head Edition 3

See nn. 1 and 2 of Chapter I. These are listed as they are referred to in the four chapters concerned with Richardson's practice. 4

INTRODUCTION

13

of Richardson's novels5 has been used. There are two important reasons why this edition was chosen over several other possible editions. The first is the fact that all of the editions of Richardson's novels represented in the Shakespeare Head Edition, which include the corrected Sixth for Pamela, the corrected Third for Pamela I I , the revised and enlarged Third for Clarissa, and the Octavo. Second for Orandison, are described in William M. Sale's important Samuel Richardson: A Bibliographical Record of His Literary Career* as valid editions which were published under Richardson's care while he was acutely aware of the effects of his works on the public. The second reason is that because of its extensive use by such an important Richardson scholar as Alan Dugald McKillop, the Shakespeare Head Edition has become the standard edition of Richardson's novels, to the extent that the use of any other editon would cause unnecessary difficulties for everyone concerned. A minor objection to the use of this edition as the standard one has been made by M. Kinkead-Weekes, who, in an excellent article,7 has demonstrated that Richardson was at his creative best in his first and second editions of Clarissa and that much of what he did in revising and enlarging this novel for the third edition, the one represented in the Shakespeare Head Edition, had a detrimental effect on his earlier work. Also affecting the problem of choosing the proper edition of Clarissa is evidence that Richardson was almost constantly changing the various editions of his masterpiece. In his abridgement of this work George Sherburn has pointed out that "a partial collation [of the various editions of Clarissa] makes it probable that no two editions, either from Richardson's time or later, are textually identical".8 However, since time and space do not allow for the extensive study necessary to investigate edition changes, this study has of necessity been limited to a thorough analysis of Richardson's practice of fiction in the texts of his works appearing in the Shakespeare Head Edition. The study is organized so that the various aspects of Richardson's practice of fiction can be related directly to his statements of theory 5

Pamela (Oxford, 1929), 4 vols; Clarissa Harlowe (Oxford, 1930), 8 vols; Sir Charles Orandison (Oxford, 1931), 6 vols. « New Haven, 1936. ' "Clarissa Restored?" Review of English Studies, new series, X (1969), 156-171. » Boston, 1962, p. xv.

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INTRODUCTION

throughout. To achieve this purpose, the statements of theory in Chapter I are divided according to the four categories which describe the four aspects of fiction in the chapters on practice t h a t follow. (1) narrative structure, (2) epistolary technique, (3) characterization, and (4) presentation of moral doctrine.These four aspects of fiction follow the order described above so t h a t the reader may see how the various techniques are related to form a larger coherent whole. Narrative structure is given first because it describes the technique b y which the story itself is established and sustained. Epistolary technique follows because it is concerned with the basic mechanical means by which the story is narrated. Characterization comes next because it is, in many respects, a product of both the ways the story is established and the means by which it is presented. The presentation of moral doctrine comes last because the techniques involved in the previous three aspects provide, to a large extent, the means b y which the moral doctrine is demonstrated in the novels. Two important points concerning the analysis of Richardson's practice of fiction should be made at this time. Special terminology has been used in connection with certain parts of the analysis, particularly in the chapter on narrative structure. I n so far as possible the use of such terminology has been kept to a minimum. Definitions and explanations of all special terms are provided at the beginning of each chapter. Because of the intention to treat Richardson's practice analytically, the presentation in the chapters on practice is, of necessity, highly detailed and somewhat repetitious. However, the reader will find that the appendixes provide convenient condensed guides to the features of Richardson's technique described in the chapters.

I RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a coherent statement of Richardson's theory of fiction that is based on an examination and correlation of all his ideas concerning fiction. Although numerous scholars1 have quoted Richardson's statements concerning fiction and four of them 2 have dealt with a representative number of these statements in a systematic manner, no one has yet correlated all of Richardson's ideas and presented them as a composite statement of the novelist's views. The sources of Richardson's statements examined in this chapter are (1) the title pages and the published and unpublished prefaces, introductions, postscripts, and concluding notes of the various editions of his major works,3 (2) his correspondence,4 (3) his minor 1

Notable among these are Clara Linklater Thomson, Samuel Richardson (London, 1900); Austin Dobson, Samuel Richardson (New York, 1902); Charles H. Huffman, The Eighteenth Century Novel in Theory and Practice (Dayton, Va., 1923); Brian W . Downs, Richardson (London, 1928); J. B. Heidler, The History, from 1700 to 1800, of English Criticism of Prose Fiction, University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature X I I I , No. 2, May, 1928; Paul Dottin, Samuel Richardson, 1689 — 1761, imprimeur de Londres (Paris, 1931); William M. Sale, Jr., Samuel Richardson: A Bibliographical Record of His Literary Career with Historical Notes (New Haven, 1936); Alan Dugald McKillop, Samuel Richardson, Printer and Novelist (Chapel Hill, 1936), and The Early Masters of English Fiction (Lawrence, Kansas, 1956); Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel (Berkeley, 1957); Bertil Romberg, Studies in the Narrative Technique of the First-Person Novel (Stockholm, 1962); Morris Golden, Richardson's Characters (Ann Arbor, 1963). 2 Huffman, Heidler, Romberg, and McKillop in his Samuel Richardson. 3 McKillop's Richardson and Sheridan W. Baker's Samuel Richardson's Introduction to Pamela (Augustan Reprint Society, Publication Number 48, 1954) have been particularly helpful in providing material from prefaces

16

RICHABDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

published works, (4) his privately printed works, (5) his unpublished notes and jottings. In every instance the examination of the source material has been as exhaustive as facilities would allow. I examined Richardson's statements and arranged major and minor ideas in relationship to each other. These ideas fall into four groups according to subject. In each of these groups, which appear in the four sections below, ideas are first presented in outline form and then they are analyzed. So that the statements behind the ideas can be seen, representative quotations from sources supporting the ideas are presented. When it is not feasible to include all of the supporting quotations in the text, sources of additional representative quotations are provided in footnotes. In every instance where it is available the date of the source is provided, and when various statements concerning one idea are presented, their order is generally chronological. It will be discovered that in a number of instances there are as many as three sources supporting Richardson's statements, and in a few instances there are four. There has been no attempt to formulate separate theories for Pamela, Pamela II, Clarissa, and Orandison; rather the aim has been to compile Richardson's theory of fiction, which may or may not apply entirely to any one of his four works and which was, in part at least, admittedly written 'after the fact'. The examination has revealed some inconsistency in Richardson's statements; this has been taken into account in the presentation of his ideas in the following sections. The problem of duplication has been minimized

that appeared in early editions of the novels. R. F. Brissenden's Samuel Richardson, Clarissa: Preface, Hints of Prefaces, and Postscript (Augustan Reprint Society, Publication Number 103, 1964) has provided the Hints of Prefaces to Clarissa, along with the Preface to the first edition of the novel. 4 Although I have not had access to the correspondence in the Forster Collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, I have examined Anna Laetitia Barbauld's The Correspondence of Samuel Richardson (London, 1804), John Carroll's Selected Letters of Samuel Richardson (London, 1964), the other sources of Richardson's correspondence listed in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 321-322, and every possible quotation from the correspondence in all articles and books by scholars who have had access to the Forster Collection. I have presented quotations of Richardson's statements as they appear in the various sources, except in a few instances where it seemed that Richardson's printing idiosyncracies, such as presenting certain words entirely in capitals, would serve no useful purpose.

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

17

by the arrangement of Richardson's ideas in four major divisions: narrative structure, epistolary technique, characterization, and presentation of moral doctrine. Unavoidable duplication is limited to such broad applications as the need for probability, which applies to moral doctrine as well as to epistolary technique, and, as it relates to events, even to narrative structure.

N A R R A T I V E STRUCTURE I. The work of fiction should be written according to a plan and should be kept within a length decided in advance by the author. II. The work of fiction should have a catastrophe that is appropriately placed in the narrative. III. The work of fiction should possess the characteristics of probability and naturalness. IV. The work of fiction should entertain the reader by means of variety, particularly in the incidents it presents. V. The work of fiction should have unity.

As one might expect, Richardson does not employ our modern term NARRATIVE STRUCTURE.5 However, he does indicate t h a t works of fiction should possess certain characteristics, the achievement of which demands not only an awareness of narrative structure, as we know the term today, but also actual skill in the handling of it. These characteristics are that a work of fiction should be written according to a plan, t h a t it should contain an appropriately placed catastrophe, t h a t its actions possess an air of probability and naturalness, that it entertain its readers by variety, and t h a t it achieve its purpose by means of unity. Richardson's concern t h a t a writer follow a plan is revealed, paradoxically, by his statements describing his difficulties in doing 5

H e uses the term NARRATIVE on several occasions to mean a contracted chronological account that is limited to general reflections. His term that most closely approximates NARRATIVE STRUCTURE is STORY, which he uses very much the w a y we do today. H e speaks, for instance, of "the Thread of the Story" (To David Graham,' May 3, 1750, Selected Letters, p. 158); "the Period of My Story" (To Thomas Edwards, October 25, 1752, Selected Letters, p. 220); and "the unfoldings of the Story" (To Lady Bradshaigh, February 14, 1754, Selected Letters, p. 289). Concerning his strain in the writing of Clarissa, he says, "Was not Story, Story, Story the continual demand upon m e " (To Edward Moore, n. d., Selected Letters, p. 118).

18

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

so. In much of his correspondence written after 1750 he complained that he was "an irregular scribbler", who was unable to follow a plan. Because of these complaints and of evidence that he did write Pamela II and Clarissa according to a plan,® it can be assumed that he firmly believed in writing according to a pre-formed plan. He further believed that a fiction writer should stay within length limits decided by himself even if doing so should demand extensive revision. Richardson had difficulty keeping within limits set for himself in the early stages of his writing, and he complained7 while writing Clarissa of running into great lengths and not being able to reduce his writing. His concern with length was so serious that before publishing his first edition of Clarissa he shortened it by at least a quarter; in his third edition of 1751, however, he restored the passages and letters omitted from the first edition.8 Richardson also had difficulty with lengthiness in Grandison, for he complained in three letters 9 about running into such lengths that he was forced "to commit acts of violence" 10 in order to shorten his work. One of Richardson's requisites for effective structure is that the narrative contain a catastrophe as a major event. His concern with the catastrophe is apparent in a number of statements in his letters as well as in the Preface and the Postscript to Clarissa. In one letter he reveals, indirectly, an awareness of the need for properly placing

6

R i c h a r d s o n m e n t i o n s h a v i n g a plan, or design, for Pamela II in t w o letters (To George Cheyne, A u g u s t 31, 1741 a n d t o S t e p h e n D u c k , n. d., Selected Letters, pp. 4 6 - 4 9 , and 53) and a " N o - P l a n " and a design for Clarissa i n t w o others (To A a r o n Hill, October 29, 1746 a n d t o S o l o m o n Lowe, J a n u a r y 21, 1748/9, Selected Letters, pp. 71 and 123). F o r bibliographical e v i d e n c e t h a t a n a c t u a l p l a n for Clarissa did exist see McKillop, Richardson, pp. 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 , and Sale, Samuel Richardson: A Bibliographical Record, pp. 4 8 - 5 0 . 7 I n three letters: t o Y o u n g , n. d., Corr., I I , 8; t o Hill, J a n u a r y 20, 1 7 4 5 - 4 6 (Forster MS, X V , 3, f. 7), in McKillop's Richardson, p. 124; and a g a i n t o Hill, October 19, 1746, Selected Letters, p. 71. 8 S a m u e l Richardson, Clarissa (Oxford, 1930), Shakespeare H e a d E d i t i o n , I, x v . U n l e s s otherwise indicated this edition of Clarissa will be u s e d for all references t o t h e n o v e l in this chapter. R i c h a r d s o n also describes t h e restoration of letters and passages in a l e t t e r t o Mr. Defreval, J a n u a r y 21, 1750 (O. S.), Corr., V, 271. 9 To L a d y Bradshaigh, A u g u s t 17, 1752, Corr., VI., 2 1 2 - 2 1 3 ; N o v e m b e r 20, 1752, Corr., V I , 2 2 2 - 2 2 3 ; and t o T h o m a s E d w a r d s , October 25, 1752, Selected Letters, p. 220. 10 Ibid., N o v e m b e r 20, 1752.

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

19

the catastrophe in Clarissa. In defending his heroine's heavenly reward, he says, 'To have given her her reward here [on earth], as in a happy marriage, would have been as if a poet had placed his catastrophe in the third act of his play, when the audience were obliged to expect two more". 11 In his Preface to Clarissa, and in another letter, 12 he complains that much of the trouble that he has had concerning the ending of Clarissa has come from publishing "a work in Parts, which left every one at liberty to form a catastrophe of their own". 13 Richardson wanted the actions in the novels to possess an air of probability and naturalness. Statements revealing this concern first appear in the Preface to Pamela where Richardson explains that he intends to achieve his purposes in his work "in so probable, so natural, so lively a manner as shall engage the Passions of every sensible Reader, and strongly interest them in the edifying story". 14 The importance he attached to probability is seen in his statement on Pamela II where he says he aimed at giving his work only such variety that "should be consistent with probability". 15 In the Postscript to Clarissa Richardson explains both the necessity for maintaining probability and the means that he used to do so: "there was frequently a necessity to be very circumstantial and minute, in order to preserve and maintain that Air of Probability, which is necessary to be maintained in a Story designed to represent real

11

T o Mrs. Belfour, n. d., Gorr., IV, 225. T o Miss E . Carter, D e c e m b e r 17, 1748, Monthly Magazine, XXXIII (1812), 535; I, x v i ; q u o t a t i o n is f r o m letter. 13 A l t h o u g h n o t substantial e n o u g h t o support h i s s t a t e m e n t of a t h e o r y of fiction, there is e v i d e n c e t h a t R i c h a r d s o n w a s aware of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of m a j o r e v e n t s other t h a n catastrophes in his narratives. Concerning Pamela II h e refers a t one p o i n t t o t h e moral effect of "one great E v e n t " (To George Cheyne, A u g u s t 31, 1741, Selected Letters, p. 46), w h i c h m u s t b e Mr. B ' s i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h t h e Countess, t h e o n l y i m p o r t a n t e v e n t in Pamela I I . W h a t h e s a y s a b o u t t h e e v e n t s i n v o l v e d in Clarissa's t r i u m p h a f t e r t h e rape is e v e n m o r e revealing: "[Shall w e ] d e n y t o ourselves t h e O p p o r t u n i t y of a d m i r i n g t h e still m o r e glorious Figure w h i c h s h e m a k e s in her I n t e r v i e w w i t h Lovelace, o n her R e c o v e r y f r o m her D e l i r i u m after t h e vile Outrage, a n d down to, a n d in, t h e P e n k n i f e - S c e n e ? " (To S o l o m o n L o w e , J a n u a r y 21, 1748/9, Selected Letters, p. 123). 12

14

Baker, p. v. T o Dr. Cheyne, n. d. (Forster MS X V I , I, f. 58), in McKillop's p. 40. 15

Richardson,

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RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION 16

Life". Richardson's concern with the probability of his characters' actions is revealed by his detailed answer to a reviewer's complaint that Clarissa's being carried to Mrs. Sinclair's vile house is improbable. In his answer Richardson explains that one part of the house was very respectable looking and that all of the circumstances were carefully planned by Lovelace, who was anxious to maintain an outward decency at all times.17 Elsewhere in his correspondence Richardson presents detailed defenses of the probability of actions in Clarissa and Orandison. He defends Lovelace's not providing an account of his remorses after his duel with Colonel Morden, and he explains that he could not conclude Orandison with the deaths and marriages of all the major characters because the story was laid so near the present time.18 Richardson's interest in naturalness is described in two different statements of purpose concerning Pamela and Clarissa. In his Preface to his first novel he lists as one of his intentions: "to raise a Distress from natural Causes, and to excite Compassion from proper Motives".19 He is more specific than this in what he says about Clarissa. In a concise statement he points out the naturalness of the relationship between the subject and the elements of the narrative structure: "Judges will see, that, long as the Work is, there is not one Digression, not one episode, not one Reflection, but what arises naturally from the Subject, and makes for it, and to carry it on".20 Variety, Richardson believed, was necessary to entertain and interest the reader. On the title page of Pamela Richardson says that the work is "A Narrative which has its Foundation in Truth and Nature; and at the same time that it agreeably entertains, by a Variety of curious and affecting Incidents . . ."21 In a letter describing his intentions in Pamela II Richardson indicates his awareness of the 18

VIII, 328. "Gentlemen's Magazine (August, 1749), X I X , 348-349. ls T o Edward Moore, n. d., and to Lady Bradshaigh, February 25, 1754, Selected Letters, pp. 118-119, 269. 18 Baker, p. iv. In his correspondence Richardson mentions on three ocoasions his intentions of presenting natural actions and avoiding affectations in Pamela II (To George Cheyne, August 31, 1741; to Ralph Allen, October 8, 1741; to Stephen Duok, n. d., Selected Letters, pp. 49, 61, 53). «® (Forster MS XV, 2, f. 53); in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 126-127. 21 Baker, p. 15.

KICHAKDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

21

basic importance of variety: " I only aimed to give the Piece such a Variety as should be consistent with Probability, and the general Tenor of a genteel Married Life". 22 In a quotation by an unidentified eminent critic at the end of his Postscript to Clarissa Richardson indicates what must also be his feeling about the need for variety: t h a t an effective piece of writing should contain " a variety of incidents sufficient to excite Attention, and those so conducted as to keep the Reader always awake . . ," 23 Richardson, in a later letter, takes pride in saying that Grandison has variety if it has nothing else;24 and in his preface he defends the length of his final work by citing the need for holding the reader's interest: "Mere Facts and Characters might be comprised in a much smaller Compass: But, would they be equally interesting?" 25 Richardson felt t h a t a work of fiction should possess unity, a virtue which would help it to achieve its purpose. I n defending Pamela II against charges that it lacked incidents Richardson describes the unity of purpose that he intended in Pamela and its sequel: "the four Volumes were to be consider'd as one Work: The two First were to include the Storms, the Stratagems, and all t h a t could indanger Virtue, and ingage the Attention of the Reader, for its Distresses. — The Succeeding of course were to be more calm serene, and instructive, and such as should be Exemplary." 2 ® Richardson's respect for unity in his major novel is revealed by his claims t h a t all elements in his narrative arise "naturally from the Subject", support it, and carry it forward, 27 that the story, which contains a large number of characters with different dispositions, is presented "in a series of Letters from different persons, without the aid of digressions and episodes foreign to the principal end and design . . ." Furthermore he justifies the slow pace of the story in Clarissa by the need for unity in the work as a whole: "They [the 22

See n o t e 15, above. V I I I , 330. 24 To Mrs. Donnellan, n. d., no source given; in Dobson's Samuel Richardson, pp. 144-145. 25 Samuel Richardson, Sir Charles Grandison (Oxford, 1931), Shakespeare H e a d Edition, I, ix. U n l e s s otherwise indicated this edition of Grandison will be used for all references t o t h e novel in this chapter. 26 I n the letter described in n. 15 above, t h e w h o l e of w h i c h is printed in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 6 4 - 6 5 . 27 See p. 20, above. 23

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RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

objectors] were of opinion, that the Story moved too slowly, particularly in the first and second Volumes, which are chiefly taken up with the Altercations between Clarissa and the several persons of her Family. B u t is it not true, that those Altercations are the Foundation of the whole, and therefore a necessary part of the work?" 2 8 The method that Richardson planned for the revision of his final novel indicates his serious concern for unity: after saying t h a t he is going over it again to see what he can omit, he says, "Vast is the fabric; here I am under a kind of necessity to grasp it all, as I may say: to cut off, to connect; to rescind again, and reconnect". 29 And the successful results of this method are claimed by the author in the Preface oiGrandison: "There is not one Episode in the Whole; nor, after Sir Charles Grandison is introduced, one Letter inserted, but what tends to illustrate the principal Design". 30 Summary

Richardson's ideas concerning narrative structure, which are few and more general than one could desire, can be summed up briefly. A writer of fiction should follow a plan and keep within self-prescribed limits of length even at the expense of extensive revision. The most important event in the narrative structure is the catastrophe, which should be appropriately placed near the end of the work. A work of fiction pretending to represent real life should maintain an air of probability by presenting actions minutely and circumstantially. The actions of all its characters should be probable. The actions in the narrative should be motivated by natural causes, and all elements of the narrative structure, including even digressions, should arise naturally from the subject and carry it forward. There should be variety in the incidents so that the work entertains the reader, excites his attention, and maintains his interest throughout the narrative. All of the elements in the narrative structure should contribute to the unity of the work by relating naturally to the subject and illustrating the work's design. The pace of the narrative should be slowed when necessary to accommodate minute descriptions that are essential to the unity of the work. 28

This q u o t a t i o n and t h e p r e v i o u s one are f r o m the Postscript t o V I I I , 325 a n d 328. 29 T o L a d y Bradshaigh, N o v e m b e r 20, 1752, Corr., V I , 2 2 2 - 2 2 3 . 30 I. ix.

Clarissa,

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION EPISTOLARY

23

TECHNIQUE

I . T h e w o r k of fiction should be w r i t t e n in the epistolary m a n n e r rather t h a n in the n a r r a t i v e m a n n e r . A . T h e use of letters f r o m different characters p r o v i d e s n o v e l t y . B . T h e use of letters provides a sense of t h e present not obtainable in n a r r a t i v e writing. I I . T h e letters t h a t m a k e u p the w o r k of fiction should be familiar, or p r i v a t e , in nature, and of a t least three specific kinds. A . T h e letters should be intimate and entirely informal in nature. B . T h e r e should be a t least three particular kinds of letters. I I I . T h e letters should a p p e a r t o h a v e been w r i t t e n and e x c h a n g e d b y t h e characters in a believable manner. A . T h e w r i t i n g of t h e letters b y the characters should a p p e a r natural. B . T h e e x c h a n g e of correspondence should be varied t o suit t h e relationships of t h e characters in the w o r k of fiction. I V . T h e letters should be used t o support t h e characterization. A . T h e letters should include m a n y particulars concerning the characters. B . T h e letters should b e placed in t h e n a r r a t i v e so as t o r e v e a l a t t i t u d e s appropriate t o t h e characters a t p r o p e r times. C. T h e letters should be used to strengthen t h e position of t h e c h a r a c t e r s in t h e w o r k of fiction.

Richardson does not say a great deal about epistolary technique, but what he does say is more specific than his statements on narrative structure. Probably his basic point is that the work of fiction should be made up of letters, instead of being written in the form of a narrative. Richardson supports this statement with two claims: the epistolary manner offers novelty; and it provides a sense of the present unattainable in narrative writing. He makes the first of these claims in connection with Clarissa: " A Story in which so many persons were concerned either principally or collaterally, and of characters and dispositions so various, carried on with tolerable connexion and perspicuity, in a series of Letters from different persons, without the aid of digressions and episodes foreign to the principal end and design, he thought had novelty to be pleaded for it: And that, in the present age, he supposed would not be a slight recommendation." 31 His claim that he achieves a sense of the present appears in the prefaces of his three novels and in the Postscript to Clarissa. His 3 1 Postscript, V I I I , 325. R i c h a r d s o n f u r t h e r supports this p o i n t s o m e w h a t figuratively in ' H i n t s of P r e f a c e s for Clarissa' w i t h a n a n a l o g y t h a t likens his n o v e l epistolary m a n n e r t o a " w o n d e r f u l V a r i e t y of Sounds, w h i c h constitute t h e H a r m o n y of a H a n d e l " and surpass t h e n a r r a t i v e m a n n e r , w h i c h he likens t o " t h e dead Tolling of a single B e l l " (Brissenden, p. 13).

24

KICHABDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

major point is t h a t since the letters are written immediately after, during, or in anticipation of various actions, the attentions of the writers are fully engaged with present activities rather than with activities in the distant past, as is the case with writers of narratives. A few of his comments will illustrate what Richardson means by letters t h a t are "written . . . to the Moment"-.32 the letters are " . . . written under the immediate Impression of every Circumstance which occasioned them"; 3 3 "All of the Letters are written while the hearts of the writers must be supposed to be wholly engaged in their subjects"; 3 4 " M u c h more lively and affecting . . . must be the Style of those who write in the height of a present distress"; 35 and "The minute particulars of events, the sentiments and conversation of the parties, are, upon this plan, exhibited with all the warmth and spirit, t h a t the passion supposed to be predominant at the very time, could produce, and with all the distinguishing characteristics which memory can supply in a History of recent transactions". 3 6 Richardson uses contrast between the epistolary manner and narrative writing to point up the superiority of his technique in obtaining a sense of the present. He informs us t h a t the epistolary manner provides a better sense of the present " t h a n can possibly be found in a Detail of Actions long past, which are never recollected with the same Affections, Hopes, and Dreads, with which they are felt when they occurred"; 37 and he points out t h a t his epistolary method obviates the need for the "dry, narrative, unanimated Style of a person relating difficulties and dangers surmounted . . .; the relater perfectly at ease; and if himself unmoved by his own Story, not likely greatly to affect the Reader". 3 8 Richardson evidently felt t h a t 32

Preface t o Grandison, I, ix. Preface t o Pamela, I, iii. 34 Preface t o Clarissa, I, x i v . 35 Ibid. 36 Postscript t o Clarissa, V I I I , 326. 37 Preface t o Pamela, I, iii. This s t a t e m e n t appears in t h e first letter, f r o m J. B . D . F . , t o t h e editor in t h e Preface. A l t h o u g h R i c h a r d s o n did n o t m a k e this s t a t e m e n t , w e can be certain t h a t it expressed his beliefs. 38 Preface t o Clarissa, I, x i v . Richardson m a k e s p o i n t s similar t o these in 'Hints of Prefaces for Clarissa' (Brissenden, pp. 6, 9). I n this s a m e work h e m a k e s a cryptic t h o u g h curious claim for t h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e varied p o i n t of v i e w afforded b y his epistolary manner: " W h e n c e different Styles, Manners, etc. t h a t m a k e episodes useless" (p. 4). Richardson's o b v i o u s awareness t h a t his epistolary m a n n e r o b v i a t e d t h e need for a n episodic narrative structure is interesting. 33

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OP HIS THEORY OF FICTION

25

such romances as Moll Flanders and Marianne were major offenders among narrative writings t h a t failed to provide a sense of the present, for he quotes, in his Postscript to Clarissa, an "ingenious and candid Foreigner" who condemns the heavy dependence on unnatural memory in the romances: "Romances in general, and Marivaux's amongst others, are wholly improbable; because they suppose the History to be written after the series of events is closed by the catastrophe: A circumstance which implies a strength of memory beyond all example and probability in the persons concerned, enabling them, at the distance of several years, to relate all the particulars of a transient conversation: Or rather, it implies a yet more improbable confidence and familiarity between all these persons and the author." 3 9 Richardson believed t h a t the letters in a work of fiction should be familiar, or private, in nature and of at least three different kinds. Since he uses FAMILIAR to describe his letters in his letter writer and in all the novels, 40 but never defines the term, something should be said of the term's meaning at the time he was writing. Ever since the sixteenth century FAMILIAR had been used to refer to a category of letters in model letter writers. 41 According to Katherine Gee Hornbeak, Day's The English Secretarie (1586), one of the more influential of the letter writers, lists FAMILIAR as one of four general groups into which the thirty-two different types of letters in the writer are divided. 42 By the early p a r t of the seventeenth century FAMILIAR referred to letters of a domestic nature, as is indicated by one J . W. who, in his Speedie Poste (1625), makes a special plea for a plain and familiar style while at the same time indicating a concern.for "domestical affairs". 43 So t h a t by the time Richardson began his writing in 1740 the term FAMILIAR was well established as a designator of letters t h a t were informal, domestic, and somewhat moralistic in nature. 44 To a certain extent Richardson's three comments on familiar letters and what he calls "familiar 39

VIII, 326. On the title pages of Pamela and Pamela II; in the Postscript to Clarissa, VIII, 326; and in the Preface to Grandison, I, ix. 41 Fulwood's Enimie of Idlenesse (1568) is the first of a long series of such letter writers; see McKillop's Richardson, p. 17. 12 "The Complete Letter Writer in English 1568-1800", Smith College Studies in Modern Languages (1934), XV, 20. 43 McKillop, Richardson, p. 18. 44 Ibid., p. 19. 40

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B I C H A R D S O N ' S STATEMENT OF H I S THEORY OF FICTION

writing" confirm this designation and reveal his feeling that familiar letters are intimate, private, absorbing and written to the moment. In one comment Richardson describes as the nature of familiar letters that they be "written, as it were, to the Moment, while the Heart is agitated by Hopes and Fears, on Events undecided". 45 In another comment he implies that familiar letters may reveal traits of character that are usually hidden: " I have often sat by in company, and been silently pleased with the opportunity given me, by different arguers, of looking into the hearts of some of them, through windows that at other times have been close shut up. This is an advantage that will always be given by familiar writing." 46 In a third comment he points out the extent to which familiar letter writing absorbs the attention of the writer: "But this is one of the felicities that give a preference to familiar correspondencies — that they may be carried on, and best carried on, at the retired hour, either morning or evening, before needful avocations take place, or after they have been answered. For the pen is jealous of company. I t expects, as I may say, to engross the writer's whole self; every body allows the writer to withdraw: it disdains company; and will have the entire attention". 47 Although Richardson makes no explicit statements concerning the different kinds of letters that should appear in works of fiction, he does mention three particular kinds that do appear in his novels. Thus it can be assumed that he felt that the collections of letters in all his novels should include the characteristic letter, which describes the character of its writer; the dramatic letter, which, to use Richardson's terms, is written "in the dialogue or dramatic way"; and the narrative letter, which relates events that occurred prior to the current time of the fictional work. Richardson mentions the first two kinds in his Preface to Clarissa: " . . . several others are introduced, whose Letters are characteristic"; and many of the letters are "written in the dialogue or dramatic way". 48 In his Preface to Grandison he mentions the third kind: " . . . an Account of the juvenile Years of the principal Person is narratively given in some 45

Preface to Grandison, I, ix. To Lady Echlin, October 10, 1754, Corr., V, 34. 47 To Miss S. Westcomb, n. d., Corr., I l l , 247. 48 1, xiv. Richardson also mentions the characteristic kind of letter in his letter to Sarah Chapone, April 18, 1752, Selected Letters, p. 207. 46

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

27

49

of the Letters". Richardsons's use of the narrative letter is rather curious because of his belief that any kind of narrative writing is inferior to epistolary writing since it is not written to the moment when the characters' hearts are engaged. However Richardson evidently discovered t h a t narrative writing was appropriate to his final novel, for he makes rather extensive use of it there. Richardson felt that letters in works of fiction should appear to have been written and exchanged by the characters in a believable way. His concern with the believable appearance of the letters is revealed by the difficulties he had in achieving this end. His problem, first expressed during the writing of Clarissa, was that he was making his characters carry too much of a writing burden: " I am afraid I make the Writers do too much in the Time. If Lazy Ladies, t h a t is to say, Ladies who love not Writing, were to be Judges, they would think so; especially if not Early Risers." 5 0 This same problem is restated in broader perspective by the "ingenious and candid Foreigner", who is quoted in the Postscript to Clarissa: "There is, however, one difficulty attending the Epistolary method; for it is necessary, that all the characters should have an uncommon taste for this kind of conversation, and that they should suffer no event, nor even a remarkable conversation, to pass, without immediately committing it to writing." 51 Richardson's solution, which follows the above complaint in the Postscript, is succinctly this: the problem has been solved in Clarissa by limiting the number of avid correspondents to the four major characters, two ladies who love familiar writing and two gentlemen who write extensively to entertain each other, and b y treating all of the other characters as occasional writers who correspond when the need arises. " I t is very well accounted for in it [Clarissa]; how the two principal Female characters come to take so great a delight in writing . . . The two principal gentlemen had motives of gaiety and vain-glory for their inducements . . . These Four (whose Stories have a connexion with each other) out of a great number of characters which are introduced in this History, are only eminent in the Epistolary way: The rest appear but as occasional writers, and as drawn in rather by neces49 1 , ix. I n one of h i s letters Richardson speaks of p u t t i n g parts of L o v e l a c e ' s letters into narrative f o r m (To Hill, October 29, 1746, Selected Letters, p. 71). 50 T o Hill, J a n u a r y 20, 1 7 4 5 - 4 6 (Forster MS X V , 3, f . 7); in McKillop's Richardson, p. 124. " V I I I , 326.

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RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

sity than choice, from the different relations in which they stand with the four principal persons."52 So that the exchange of correspondence in each novel should appear believable, Richardson thought that the exchange should be adapted to suit the peculiar relationships of the characters. In Clarissa, he presents four major correspondents, whose letters are "written principally in a double yet separate correspondence". 53 In a letter to Stinstra he confirms this point and indicates the suitability of the exchange: "In Clarissa . . . there is a twofold Correspondence necessary, one between her and Miss Howe; the other between Lovelace and Belford. The Subject of one Letter arose often out of another. I t was necessary it should". 54 However, in Grandison, where there is only one major correspondent, Harriet Byron, and one secondary, Charlotte Grandison, Richardson does not utilize the exchange of correspondence important to the relationship of the characters in Clarissa. About the exchange in Grandison he says that "(except [for] one or two letters of each of the Respondents, as I may call them) the answers to the letters of the Narratist are only supposed, and really sunk". 55 Richardson believed that the letters in the work of fiction should support the characterization by two means: by providing many particulars concerning the characters and by their placing in the narrative so as to reveal attitudes appropriate to the characters at all points. Richardson's remarks supporting this belief that the letters reveal many particulars concerning the characters are cited above in connection with the familiar nature of his letters. Two additional remarks illustrate Richardson's feeling that the letters should be used to describe their writers' characters as fully, as freely, and yet as accurately as possible: "the several Passions of the Mind must, of course, be more affectingly described, and Nature may be traced in her undisguised Inclinations with much more Propriety and Exactness", than can be found in the narrative manner, 56 and all of the letters "abound not only with critical Situations, but with what may be called instantaneous Descriptions and Reflections".57 52

This and the above quotations are from VIII, 327. Preface, I, xii. 54 June 2, 1753, London Magazine, 1, 384. 55 Ibid. 56 Preface to Pamela, I, iii. See n. 37. 57 Preface to Clarissa, I, xiv. 53

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

29

Another remark, quoted above, is, because of its relevance, presented again here: "The minute particulars of events, the sentiments and conversation of the parties, are, upon this [epistolary] plan, exhibited with all the warmth and spirit, that the passion supposed to be predominant at the very time, could produce, and with all the distinguishing characteristics which memory can supply in a History of recent transactions." 58 Concerning the proper placing of characters' letters, Richardson thought that letters, and passages of letters, should be inserted in the narrative in places appropriate to the writer's attitude at the time. In a letter to Edward Young, written when he was composing Clarissa, he says: " I am greatly obliged to you for your admirable additions to the letter I sent you; but believe I shall insert them rather nearer the hour of her death, because in this letter I do not make her so fully able to die in charity with Lovelace, as she hopes she shall do". 59 Further in the same letter, where he is complaining about a passage written for Clarissa by Colley Cibber, he says, "In a future letter to one of Lovelace's relations, who presses her for all their sakes to marry him, I give some further strength to her arguments and resolutions; since only to repent the same, with which they hoped she might be led to dispense, after they had seen them, would have been not so well." 60 From these comments it seems obvious that Richardson believed that letters should serve as units of characterization that could be inserted, deleted, or otherwise strengthened or weakened to reveal the character's attitude at a certain point in the narrative. Summary What Richardson has to say about epistolary technique can be stated succinctly. A work of fiction should be made up of letters because letters from a number of different people provide novelty and because letters give a sense of the present unobtainable in narrative writing. Letters are written when the writers' hearts are engaged and thus they do not require that the reader depend on the memory of the narrator, as is the case in narrative writing. 58 59 60

Postscript to Clarissa, VIII, 326. December 3, 1745, Monthly Magazine, X X X V I (1813), 422. Ibid.

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RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

The letters should be familiar in nature; specifically they should be intimate, private, and absorbing, and their writing should seem to demand the full attention of the writers. There should be three different kinds of letters in the work of fiction: the characteristic letter, the dramatic letter, and the narrative letter. The letters should appear to have been written and exchanged by the characters in a believable manner. The illusion that all of the letters have actually been written by the characters should be maintained b y demonstrating t h a t all of the major characters are avid letter writers who write for specific purposes. The exchange of correspondence should be adapted to the relationships of the characters in the novel. Finally, letters should support characterization by two means: by providing many intimate particulars concerning the characters in the letters and by the placing of letters in the narrative. CHARACTERIZATION I. Characters are t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in w o r k s of fiction. I I . Characters should entertain a n d divert t h e readers b y m e a n s of v a r i e t y and novelty. I I I . Major characters should b e drawn carefully t o suit t h e purposes i n t e n d e d for t h e m as characters in t h e story. A . P a i n s should b e t a k e n t o insure successful presentation. B . Distinguishable l i v i n g m o d e l s s h o u l d n o t b e used. C. E x p e r i e n c e gained f r o m drawing characters in novelist's p r e v i o u s w o r k s should b e utilized. IV. Major characters serving as e x e m p l a r s should be d r a w n in a m a n n e r t h a t b e s t illustrates their e x e m p l a r y features. A . T h e m a j o r features of their character should be a n n o u n c e d t o t h e reader before, a n d after, t h e y appear. B . Their introduction i n t o t h e narrative should b e d e l a y e d w h e n appropriate. C. T h e y should n o t b e perfect a n d their virtues and w e a k n e s s e s s h o u l d be m a d e e v i d e n t t o t h e reader. D . Their a t t i t u d e s a n d character should d e v e l o p n o t i c e a b l y during t h e course of t h e narrative. E . Their expressions a n d feelings should a l w a y s be appropriate t o their character. F . T h e y should be supported b y other characters.

Richardson's statements about characterization are more specific and frequent than those concerning narrative structure and epistolary technique. In fact their prevalence and concreteness allows for the remarkably comprehensive and logical statement of theory

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

31

presented in outline form above. Characters were to Richardson the most important element in a piece of fiction. His repeated mentioning of them and his concise comments on their value emphasize his concern with characterization. In the Prefaces and in the Postscript to Clarissa, the characters are a primary subject of discussion. Not only are their virtues and shortcomings described, evaluated and defended, but the characters are quoted as if they are social critics, qualified to judge the manners and morals of society. Richardson's earliest comment on characterization has the distinction of being the first statement in the Preface to Pamela that is not concerned with moral purpose. In this statement Richardson says that his purpose is "to draw Characters justly, and to support them equally". 61 Much of the criticism in the letters supporting the Preface, and printed with it, is concerned with characterization. In his correspondence Richardson suggests the importance of his characters by referring to them as people. In two letters he says that "Harriet has suffered from my avocations", 62 and "Clementina's Fate is not yet come to my Knowledge", 63 and in a third letter he seems concerned entirely with a real person rather than with Harriet Byron, the heroine of Orandison: " I myself, indeed, seeing a great deal of delicacy in the frame, in the temper of Miss B., thought she had whined herself into the foible; for the man was not any thing extraordinary, either in person or understanding". 84 Richardson felt that characters should be used to entertain and divert the readers by means of variety and novelty. His concern for variety involves not only the presence of variety within the personalities of certain characters but also among a large number of different characters in the novel. In his Preface to Clarissa he says, "Besides the four principal persons, several others are introduced, whose Letters are characteristic: And it is presumed that there will 61

Baker, p. iv. To Mr. Duncombe, December 12, 1751, Gorr., II, 278. 63 To Mr. Duncombe, October 22, 1751 (Maggs Brothers, Catalogue 411 (1921), No. 2215); in McKillop's Early Masters, p. 86. 64 To Miss Mulso, October 5, 1752, Gorr., I l l , 203. Richardson deals extenively in his correspondence with his characters from both Clarissa and Grandison as real people. At least fifty pages in Carroll's Selected Letters are concerned with characters as familiar people with weaknesses and virtues (pp. 203-204, 221, 240-241, 244-245, 248-291). 62

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RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

be found in some of them, but more especially in those of the chief character among the men, and the second character among the women, such strokes of Gaiety, Fancy, and Humour, as will entertain and divert; and at the same time both warn and instruct". 6 5 In the Postscript to Clarissa he explains that the "Letters and Conversations, where the Story makes the slowest progress . . . give occasion likewise to suggest many interesting Personalities . . Later near the end of his Postscript Richardson quotes an unnamed eminent critic who lists variety and naturalness in the characters as one of the salient features of effective narrative. 67 And in the Preface to Orandison he makes this explicit statement: "Yet it is hoped the Variety of Characters and Conversations necessarily introduced into so large a Correspondence as these Volumes contain, will enliven as well as instruct: They rather, as the principle Correspondents are young Ladies of polite Education, and of lively Spirits". 68 To provide novelty in the characters with which to entertain and divert the readers, Richardson presented what he described as new characters, drawn freely and naturally, and not according to accepted rules. About Lovelace and other characters he wrote in 1747, " I intend in him a new Character, not confin'd to usual Rules: And something indeed New in each, or I should not have presum'd to scribble: If absurd or unnatural, they ought not to appear at all". 69 When pressed to defend against charges of indiscretion the warmth of Lovelace's description in the fire scene in Clarissa, Richardson based his answer, in part at least, on his belief in the naturalness of his character by saying "the Lady's personal as well as intellectual Beauties, and his avowed Passion for her, characteristically . . . required t h a t it be done with Warmth", and he strengthens his defense by writing . . . "You, [sic] know Sir, what is required of Writers, who aim at personating (in order to describe the more naturally) a particular Character, whether good or bad." 7 0 Richardson was not as conventional in his treatment of characters as is 65

1, xiv.

" V i n , 328. 330. I, ix. 69 To Hill, January 5, 1747 (Forster MS XIII, 3, f. 81); in Dobson, p. 89 and McKillop, Richardson, p. 133. 70 T. C. Dureau Eaves and Ben D. Kimpel, "Richardsoniana", Studies in Bibliography, X I V (1961), 223. 68

RICHARDSON'S STATEMENT OF HIS THEORY OF FICTION

33

believed. He answered Rev. Mr. Hildesley's complaint that Sir Charles's treatment of his father's concubine was more than Christian charity would demand with, "Does not our blessed Saviour's treatment of the woman taken in adultery shew a superior instance of goodness" ?71 Major characters, Richardson believed, should be drawn carefully, even painstakingly, to suit the purposes intended for them. This belief is amply demonstrated by statements concerning his handling of Lovelace's character in Clarissa. In a letter, written while composing the novel, Richardson explains that he made Lovelace "still more and more odious, by his heighten'd Arrogance and Triumph, as well as b y Vile Actions" after he discovered t h a t a young lady, on hearing Lovelace's part read, pitied Richardson's villain and wanted him made into a penitent. 72 I n his attempt to make Lovelace repulsive rather than attractive to women Richardson worried t h a t he would offend his readers' sensibilities if he went too far. Soon after the first two volumes of Clarissa appeared, he wrote "My Libertine in the next Volume proves to be so vile, t h a t I regretted the Necessity, as I may call it, which urged me to p u t the two former to Press". 7 3 Obviously Richardson's attempt to present a villain that was repulsive to women and yet decent and acceptable as a character caused him considerable difficulty. His acute awareness of the exact way in which one of his secondary characters suited her purpose is revealed in this statement from a letter: "nor could you be a Miss Howe, I am sure, who shines from a foil, and seldom does without one. True genius wants no one to set itself off. Miss Howe . . . dazzles most when she takes liberties she should not take; and neither her lover, nor my [sic] mother, escapes her, when the vein is opened. Miss Howe is a true modern wit, who thinks it

71

To Rev. Mr. Hildesley, February 21, 1755, Gorr., V, 134. N o t only is Richardson not always conventional in his treatment of characters, he confesses at one point to being downright playful in his presentation of characters in Grandison: "— In m a n y Instances of the Piece, I have, designedly, play'd the Rogue with m y Readers; intending to make them think now one way, now another, of the very same Characters" (To Lady Bradshaigh, November 12, 1753, Selected Letters, p. 148). 72 To Hill, October 29, 1746, no source given; in Dobson, Samuel Richardson pp. 89-90. 73 To Hill, December 4, 1747 (Forster MS X I I I , 3, f. 148); in McKillop's Richardson, p. 132, and Dobson, p. 90.

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not necessary, when it carries the keenest edge, to retain discretion in its service".74 In his attempt to make his good man, Grandison, as exactly suitable as possible for his important part, Richardson wrote several letters requesting advice, even to the extent of asking a friend in France to let him know what a good man would do or see in Paris to be polite.75 Richardson indicates, from what he says about his use of models, that a writer may or may not use real people as models in drawing his characters; he may exploit the qualities of these real people, collectively or individually, in the process. However, he should not show distinguishably the effects of the models on his characters. Richardson's correspondence concerning Pamela and Lovelace illustrates his belief. On being asked if he had a model for Pamela, Richardson answered that his novel was based on a story he had heard, and then he added: "for I myself knew no more of the Story, than what I recollected a Gentleman told me of it Fifteen Years before I sat down to write it, and as it was related to him by an Innkeeper in the Neighborhood of the happy Pair; and which Gentleman had been, at the Time, several years dead". 76 In a letter to Aaron Hill Richardson admits using models for Lovelace and for Mr. B. — in Pamela: "Yet I must own, that I am a good deal warped by the Character of a Gentleman I had in my Eye, when I drew [sic] both him and Mr. B. in Pamela. The best of that Gentleman for the latter, the worst of him for Lovelace, made still worse by mingling the worst of two other Characters, that were well known to me, of that Gentleman's Acquaintance. And this made me say in my last, that I aimed at an uncommon, altho' I supposed, a not quite unnatural Character". 77 Even though Richardson admits using somewhat remote and indistinguishable composite models, he 71 T o Miss S u t t o n , A u g u s t 20, 1750, Corr., IV, 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 . T h a t R i c h a r d s o n also t o o k pains w i t h Clarissa as well as w i t h a m i n o r character n a m e d D i g g s in Clarissa is e v i d e n t in his letter to Hill, J a n u a r y 26, 1746/47, Selected Letters, pp. 80, 8 2 - 8 3 . " T o D e Freval, J a n u a r y 21, 1750 (OS), Corr., V, 274. 76 T o Stinstra, J u n e 2. 1753. (London Mercury, V I I (1923), 383); i n McKillop's Richardson, p. 26. 77 T o Hill, J a n u a r y 26, 1747 (Forster MS X I I I , 3, f . 86); in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 1 3 3 - 1 3 4 . R i c h a r d s o n m a k e s t h e s a m e claim t h a t h e " p u t t h e I n i q u i t y of t w o or three bad Characters t o g e a t h e r [Sic] in m y Mind in order t o d r a w " L o v e l a c e ' s character, in a letter t o Sarah Chapone, March 25, 1751, Selected Letters, p. 181.

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35

makes this strong claim for originality late in his career: "no one can challenge either for Praise, or for Dispraise, his or her Picture in any of these Pieces". 78 While Richardson felt that a writer of fiction was free to choose whether to use models, he did believe t h a t a writer should, in the creation of his characters, take advantage of experience gained in creating characters in his preceding works. In contrasting Clarissa with Pamela he says t h a t if he had drawn a heroine able to cope with everything he would have nothing more than another Pamela. 79 H e is more explicit about the basis for his creation of Harriet: in a letter he says he designed Harriet to keep a middle course between Pamela and Clarissa and between Clarissa and Miss Howe; and he intended to make her what Clarissa might have been without the persecutions at home and the torments of Lovelace. 80 I n one of his letters requesting advice on the creation of a good man Richardson remarks, "He must be wonderfully polite; but no Hickman! How can we hope t h a t ladies will not think a good man a tame man?" 8 1 According to Richardson major characters serving as exemplars, of vices as well as of virtues, should be drawn in a manner that best illustrates their exemplary features. This important point concerning characterization is substantially supported by six statements t h a t together form a remarkably complete pattern to follow in the presentation of leading exemplary characters: (1) the major features of their characters should be announced before, and after, they appear, (2) their introduction should be delayed when appropriate, (3) their weaknesses and trials should be made evident along with their virtues, (4) their characters should develop clearly during the story, (5) their expressions and feelings should be appropriate to their characters at all times, (6) their characters should be supported by other characters in the narrative. Major features of exemplary characters should be announced before the narrative, and the actions of these characters should be evaluated and justified afterward. Richardson first illustrates this belief, at least the second part of it, in his concluding remarks to 78 T o Stinstra, J u n e 2, 1763, London Mercury, V I I (1923), 383. I n a l e t t e r w r i t t e n t w o years earlier R i c h a r d s o n m a k e s a m o r e explicit s t a t e m e n t t o t h i s s a m e effect (To Sarah Chapone, March 25, 1751, Selected Letters, p. 181). " T o L a d y Bradshaigh, October 26, 1748, Selected Letters, p. 92. 80 To L a d y Bradshaigh, p r o b a b l y March 24, 1751, Gorr., V I , 85. 81 T o Miss Highmore, J u n e 4, 1750, Corr., II, 236.

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Pamela, where he comments on the moral significance of the actions of Mr. B. —, whom he refers to as the "GENTLEMAN"; of Pamela, whose virtues he describes in great detail and lists in catalogue form; and of several of the minor characters, including the "unhappy Miss Godfrey". 82 Richardson's treatment of his characters is more to the purpose in Clarissa. In the Preface he points out that one correspondence is between "two young Ladies of virtue and honour" and the other is between "two Gentleman of free lives; one of them glorying in his talents for Stratagem and Invention, and communicating to the other, in confidence, all the secret purposes of an intriguing head and resolute heart". 83 Richardson then goes on to say that one of the gentlemen (Belford) is reforming while the other (Lovelace) is thoroughly wicked although he does preserve a decency not always to be found in the fiction of other writers.84 As pointed out above, Clarissa's limitations are also indicated in the Preface. In the Postscript Richardson defends and justifies Clarissa's actions, defends his not drawing Lovelace as an infidel or scoffer, and points out the virtues in Hickman's character. 85 In addition to giving these previews and reviews of his characters in Grandison as well as Clarissa, Richardson utilizes the preface of his final novel to recapitulate the various merits and weaknesses of the major characters of Pamela and Clarissa. Some of what he says about Pamela demonstrates the importance he attached to his characters as examples: "The first Collection, intitled Pamela, exhibited the Beauty and Superiority of Virtue in an innocent and unpolished Mind, with the Reward which often, even in this Life, a protecting Providence bestows on Goodness. A young Woman of low Degree, relating to her honest Parents the severe Trials she met with from a Master who ought to have been the Protector, not the Assailer, of her Honour, shews the Character of a Libertine in its truly contemptible Light." 88 When he felt that the position of his exemplary character would be strengthened by doing so, Richardson delayed the introduction of that character into the narrative. During the time he was com82

Pamela, ed. Ernest Rhys, Everyman's Library Edition (London, 1933), I, 461-463. These concluding remarks do not appear in the Shakespeare Head edition. 83 I, xii. 84 1, xii-xiii. 85 VIII, 320-321, 328-329; 321-323; 323-325. 86 1, vii.

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posing Orandison, Richardson wrote a friend t h a t he was holding his "good m a n " off awhile from the action because he must be preceded and thus his entrance would be more important. 8 7 Richardson's consciousness of the possible effect of this delaying on the unity of the novel is shown by a statement in his Preface: "Those [letters and episodes] which precede his Introduction, will not, it is hoped, be judged unnecessary on the Whole, as they tend to make the Reader acquainted with Persons, the History of whom is closely interwoven with t h a t of Sir Charles". 88 The weaknesses as well as the virtues of the exemplary characters should be revealed, Richardson thought, because the characters would then not appear perfect nor immune to the trials and tribulations of all mankind. Richardson's most explicit statement of this belief appears in his Preface to Clarissa: he says t h a t Clarissa is appropriately not in all respects a perfect character. I t is natural t h a t she have some faults, "were it only to shew the Reader, how laudably she could mistrust and blame herself, and carry to her own heart, divested of self-partiality, the censure which arose from her own convictions, and t h a t even to the acquittal of those, because revered characters, whom no one else would acquit, and to whose much greater faults her errors were owing, and not to a weak or reproachable heart". 89 I n answer to a reviewer's complaints about Clarissa's imperfections Richardson points out t h a t her "selfblame, and strict impartiality, are a showing part of her character". 9 0 And in regard to Clarissa's actions just before she goes off with Lovelace, Richardson says he did not want her to be blameless, and "thus she obtained a carriage for leaving her family". 9 1 Richardson says much t h e same thing about Grandison. In his Concluding Note to his final novel he points out that Grandison is not faultless and is fully aware of his imperfections. 92 And earlier, while he was writing Grandison, he requests from a friend a few unpremeditated faults 87

To Lady Bradshaigh, probably March 24, 1751, Corr., VI, 86. ix. 89 I, xiii. 90 Gentleman's Magazine, X I X (August 1749), 347. 91 Note of Richardson's on Vol. I I of a presentation copy of Clarissa, 1st edition; in Samuel Crompton, "Richardson's Clarissa Annotated", Notes andQueries, 5th Series, V I I I (1877), 101-103. In two letters to Hill Richardson explains that he worked to give Clarissa failings so that she would not seem perfect (May 10 & November 18, 1748, Selected Letters, pp. 88 & 101). 92 VI, 326.

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to sprinkle into Grandison's character, "Lest", as he says, " I should draw a faultless monster". " I would not make him guilty of too great refinements: I would draw him as a mortal. He should have all the human passions to struggle with; and those he cannot conquer he shall endeavour to make subservient to the cause of virtue." 9 3 In addition to believing his exemplary characters should struggle with their imperfections, Richardson believed t h a t the attitudes of the major characters should develop, noticeably, during the course of the narrative. Concerning Clarissa's attitude toward Lovelace, he writes, " I would not have Clarissa in Love, at setting out. And I intended the Passion should be inspired and grow, unknown to herself, and be more obvious, for a good while, to everybody than to herself; and when it became glowing, t h a t it should be owing more to unreasonable Opposition, than to the Merits of the Man." 94 I n regard to the development of Harriet's character in his third novel Richardon wrote, " I intend to make her shine by her cordial approbation, as she goes along, of every good action of her beloved. She is humbled b y her love (suspense in love is a mortifier) to think herself inferior to his sisters: but I intend to raise her above them, even in her own just opinion; and when she shines out the girl worthy of the man, not exalt, but reward her, and at the same time make him think himself highly rewarded b y the love of so frank and right an heart." 9 5 Richardson's belief t h a t his exemplary characters should have an opportunity to develop morally is demonstrated by his answer, to a complaint about Charlotte Grandisons' character: "That fault [prepossessions against old maids in general] was thrown into Lady G-'s [Charlotte's] character on purpose . . . to be corrected by Harriet". 9 6 Richardson thought that the expressions and feelings of his exemplary characters should be appropriate to their character at any time in the course of the narrative. H e demonstrates the pains " T o Miss Mulso, July 11, 1751, Corr., I l l , 168, 169-170. 91 To Hill, January 26, 1746-47 (Forster MS X I I I , 3, ff. 87-88); in McKillop's Richardson, p. 131. " T o Miss Mulso, September 3, 1751, Corr., I l l , 180-181. M T o Lady Echlin, September 12, 1754, Corr., V, 26. In a similar vein Richardson explains that he made Anna Howe give a shocking description of Solmes, Clarissa's unwanted suitor, so that Clarissa could demonstrate her generosity by censuring Anna, even though she hated Solmes (To Hill, January 5, 1746/47, Selected Letters, p. 77).

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he took to accomplish this end in a letter acknowledging Edward Young's additions to one of Clarissa's letters for the novel: "but believe I shall insert them rather nearer to the hour of her death, because in this letter I do not make her so fully able to die in charity with Lovelace, as she hopes she shall do. Such noble, such exalted sentiments and expressions, will adorn her last hours, when above the world, and above the resentments she acknowledges in this piece. And only they are too exalted for the rest of the work, or they are entirely comformable to the frame I have designed she shall then be in — " In the same letter he goes on to indicate a real concern for character development when he informs Colley Cibber t h a t a letter he has written for Clarissa is unsatisfactory: "because, the injury having been received above a month, I mean her to act, and to reason, coolly and deliberately: to touch with warmth the subject, b u t not with passion, that the determination may be the result of deliberation; since passion will admit of abatement, and when it subsides may be thought to alter. In a future letter to one of Lovelace's relations, who presses her for all their sakes to marry him, I give some further strength to her arguments and resolutions; since only to repeat the same, with which they hoped she might be led to dispense, after they had seen them, would not have been so well." 97 To further reveal the virtues of his exemplary characters, Richardson believed t h a t secondary characters should be used to support them. Two instances of such support have already been suggested above. One is placing in a secondary character a fault to be corrected by the heroine. The other is the use of a secondary character as a foil to the major character, as in the case of Anna Howe and Clarissa. Richardson describes Miss Howe as one "who shines from a foil, and seldom does without one", and, as if to contrast her limitations with Clarissa's merits, he adds, "True genius wants no one to set itself off" J98 A third way that secondary characters may support exemplary ones is by having such characters impute some important charge to the heroine in a manner that 97 To Edward Young, December 5, 1745 (Monthly Magazine, X X X V I [1813], 422); in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 123-124. 98 See n. 74. Richardson mentions, at least twice in his correspondence, that he provided Anna Howe with faults so that Clarissa's virtues would be all the more evident (To Hill, November 18, 1748 and to Sarah Chapone, March 25, 1751, Selected Letters, pp. 101 & 181).

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allows the reader to see beyond the heroine's denial and accept the imputation. I n a letter written during the composition of Clarissa, Richardson says, "As to Clarissa's being in downright Love, I must acknowledge, t h a t I rather chose to have it imputed to her, (his too well known Character consider'd) by her penetrating Friend (and then a Reader will be ready enough to believe it, the more ready for her not owning it, or being blind to it herself) than to think her self t h a t she is". 99 Summary What Richardson has to say about characterization represents a remarkably coherent statement of theory. His belief in the characters' importance in fiction is revealed by explicit remarks of two different kinds; statements in his prefaces and postscripts, which discuss and justify their conduct; and extensive comments in his correspondence, which reveal t h a t he thinks of them as real people. His ideas concerning characterization are summarized briefly in the following statements. Characters should entertain and divert the readers by means of variety and novelty. Variety should be obtained not only by having a number of different characters in the work but also by presenting characters whose personalities are varied. Novelty should be obtained by presenting characters t h a t are new and not drawn according to accepted rules. Major personages should be drawn carefully to suit the purposes intended for them and pains should be taken to make their characters as appropriate as possible. Their characters may be based on living models, b u t not in a distinguishable way. Their characters should be based on experience gained in characterization in previous works. Exemplary characters are important in works of fiction and they should be presented according to a pattern specified in six statements: (1) so that the exemplary nature of the character may be clear, major features of the characters should be announced before the narrative and the characters' actions should be evaluated and justified afterward; (2) when the position of the exemplary characters is strengthened thereby, their introduction in the narrative should be delayed; (3) so t h a t the characters will be effective »9 To Hill, October 29, 1746 (Forster MS X I I I , 3, f. 63); in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 130-131.

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exemplars, they should not be perfect and their weaknesses and trials should be revealed along with their virtues; (4) the exemplary characters should develop, perceptably, during the course of the narrative; (5) the exemplary characters' expressions and feelings should be appropriate to their character and situation in the story at all times; (6) the exemplary characters should be supported by other characters in the narrative.

P R E S E N T A T I O N OF M O R A L D O C T R I N E I. Fiction should provide instruction and entertainment in such a way that the latter supports the former. A. I t s chief purpose should be to provide instruction, particularly to the young, by directing the light thoughts and passions of the reader toward laudable ends. B . I t should avoid using inflaming descriptions which mislead the reader. II. Fiction should provoke interest and provide instruction in social conduct and moral issues. A. I t should deal with conduct as comprehensively as possible. B . I t should provide the following specific instruction concerning courtship and marriage. 1. That one sex takes advantage of the other in numerous devious ways. 2. That reformed rakes and wild fellows do not make the best husbands. 3. That the man who is the object of a girl's first affection usually does not make the best husband for her. 4. That in courtship and marriage friendship, or "liking", is superior to love. C. Fiction should concern itself with current moral issues and provoke interest in them. 1. That the tendency to degrade human nature should be counteracted. 2. That the immoral practice of duelling should be opposed and condemned. 3. That people should be familiarized with death as a heavenly reward in order to make it acceptable to them. 4. That friendly debate about moral issues should be provoked among the readers of fiction. I I I . Fiction should be presented in such a way that it engages the reader's attention as fully as possible. A. I t should provide both probability and variety. 1. I t should provide probability and variety in its characters and in their actions.

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2. I t should provide probability in its appearance as collections of letters edited and presented to the reader b y a n editor rather t h a n written by an author. B. I t Bhould utilize a new, more n a t u r a l m a n n e r of narration r a t h e r t h a n those manners found in older and unnatural kinds of literature. 1. I t should not contain the unnatural elements of t h e marvelous, the heroic, and t h e epic kinds of literature. 2. I t should not aim a t providing only what is angelic or perfect as examples. 3. I t should utilize t h e better examples f r o m h u m a n nature. C. I t should, however, when appropriate (as in Clarissa), a d a p t a n older form, t h e tragic, to support t h e Christian system. 1. I t should utilize adapted elements of classical tragic form. a. I t should utilize t h e catastrophe prescribed b y Aristotle and in accordance with Christian doctrine. b. I t should present t h e tragic qualities of pity, fear, and terror. 2. I t should utilize t h e current concept of poetical justice along with t h e older concept found in classical tragedies. 3. I t should apply to a private family rather t h a n t o a king or prince.

The most pervasive of Richardson's numerous statements on moral doctrine is his version of the Horatian dulce et utile: for him, first of all, fiction should be useful and instructive to all ages, particularly to youth. This statement either appears or is implied in all of the prefaces and postscripts to his novels and in much of his correspondence. It first appears as early as 1733, seven years before the publication of Pamela, in his Vade Mecum, where he complains that of all the Restoration and early eighteenth-century drama, only Lillo's London Merchant is worthy as an example to the youth of the city. 100 It is evident in Richardson's one contribution to Johnson's Rambler, an instructive fictitious letter that is concerned with conduct during courtship. 101 And it is found as late as 1755 in a letter in which Richardson says that even though he has not dealt with suicide in Orandison, he has done so in Pamela and Clarissa in ways that are instructive, and that he has published a Collection of Sentiments extracted from all three of the novels which will show that not many articles of conduct are left unattended in his three works. 102 Richardson felt that to be useful his fiction should provide both 100 101

MoKillop, Early Masters, pp. 52-53.

N u m b e r 97, February 19, 1751. 102 To Rev. Mr. Hildesley, February 21, 1755, Gorr., V, 131-132.

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instruction and entertainment. Of these two his chief purpose was instruction, a point that is revealed in a number of his statements, from the broad all encompassing ones in Pamela to a statement of specific aims in his Concluding Note in Grandison. On the titlepage of Pamela he promises "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes", 103 and in his Preface his stated purposes include, among others, "to Instruct and Improve the Minds o f . . . Youth; to inculcate Religion and Morality in so easy and agreeable a manner, as shall render them equally delightftil and profitable"; and "to paint vice in its proper Colours, to make it deservedly Odious; and to set Virtue in its mm amiable Light to make it truly Lovely". 104 The tone is considerably different in the Preface to Clarissa where he warns readers that the work was not designed merely to divert and amuse and that they should not expect "a light Novel, or transitory Romance; and look upon [the] Story in it (interesting as that is generally allowed to be) as its sole end, rather than as a vehicle to the Instruction". 105 He further informs readers that they can find recapitulations of the major moral ideas in the novel in tables of contents at the end of each volume, and that there also appears in the work a collection of sentiments which is recommended "as useful theory to the Youth of both Sexes".108 In Grandison Richardson neither provides a collection of sentiments at the end of the final volume nor puts his tables of contents at the ends of the volume; however he does claim to have shown "that characters may be good without being unnatural" 107 by exhibiting how a good and prudent man acts in many different circumstances. The strength of Richardson's feeling concerning usefulness and instructiveness in his fiction is best shown in his answer to his French translator's (Prevost's) complaint of his having often sacrificed his story to moral instructions, warnings, etc.: Richardson said that such moral instructions and warnings constituted "the very motive with me, of the story's being written at all". 108 103 104 106

106

Baker, Samuel Richardson's Introductions, Ibid., pp. iii-iv. I,

p. 15.

XV.

Ibid., I, xvi-xvii. 107 Postscript, VI, 326. 108 As reported by Richardson in his letter to Lady Bradshaigh, February 24, 1753, Gorr., VI, 245.

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To achieve the simultaneous presentation of instruction and entertainment and to have the latter support the former, Richardson believed that the writer must properly mingle the two so that the effect will be to divert the light thoughts and passions of youth in praiseworthy directions. He makes statements concerning this intention on the titlepage and in the Preface to Pamela,109 in the Preface to Grandison,110 and in his correspondence. In an unsent letter concerning his intentions in Pamela I I , as well as his achievements in Pamela, Richardson explains how he will entertain his reader by means of an engaging story and, at the same time, direct his passions toward constructive ends: " I am endeavouring to write a Story, which shall catch young and airy Minds, and, when Passions run high in them, to show how they may be directed to laudable Meanings and Purposes, in order to decry such Novels and Romances, as have a Tendency to inflame and corrupt: And if I were to be too spiritual, I doubt I should catch none but Grandmothers; for the Granddaughters wou'd put my Girl indeed in better Company, such as that of the graver Writers, and there they would leave her; but would still pursue these Stories, that pleased their Imaginations without forming their Judgments". He then goes on to explain the reasons for catching the "young and airy Minds" and the method he will use to do so: There is a Time of Life in which the Passions will predominate; and Ladies, a n y more than Men, will not be kept in Ignorance; and if w e can properly mingle Instruction with Entertainment, so as to m a k e the latter seemingly the View, while the former is really the End, I imagine it will be doing a good deal. For when the Mind begins to be attach'd to Virtue, it will improve itself, and outstretch the poor Scenes which I intend only for a first Attractive. A n d can this be done, Sir, with y o u n g Minds, without blending and enlivening the serious Part with some swift and tender Pencillings? — Especially when they are never touch'd b u t upon Occasions almost intellectual, and w h e n they are guarded against sensual Finishings ? — W h a t Tragedy-writer ever durst venture the finest Performance upon the Stage, without Lovescenes intermingled, however incongruous to y e Story? — My Gentleman is a m a n of warm Passions, Youthful, unconverted — My Heroine is pious and Virtuous, but Blooming in Y o u t h and Beauty, which were t h e first Attractions to him. 1 1 1 109

Baker, pp. 15 and iii. I, ix. 111 This and the previous quotations are from a letter of Richardson's that, McKillop believes, w a s apparently never sent. They are given in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 6 2 - 6 3 , and in Carroll's Selected Letters, pp. 4 6 - 4 8 . 110

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Years later in a letter Richardson restated more concisely this same intention of mingling instruction and entertainment: "Instruction, Madam, is the pill; amusement is the gilding. Writings t h a t do not touch the passions of the light and airy, will hardly ever reach the heart". 1 1 2 According to Richardson, fiction should achieve this effective mingling of entertainment and instruction without the use of inflaming descriptions and passages which shock and mislead the reader. On the titlepage and in the Preface of Pamela he says t h a t his story "is intirely divested of all those Images, which, in too many Pieces calculated for Amusement only, tend to inflame the Minds they should instruct", and t h a t he has achieved his ends in Pamela "without raising a single Idea throughout the Whole that shall shock the exactest Purity, even in . . . . tender Instances".113 I n the same letter quoted above, in which he describes the means he will use to direct the passions, he says t h a t he will avoid inflaming descriptions. 114 I t is interesting to note that later, after the publication of Clarissa, Richardson defended the warm scenes in Clarissa, which people said exceeded the bounds of decency, by writing himself, or inspiring Mr. Urban to write, in the Gentleman's Magazine t h a t " a nice person of the [female] sex may not . . . be able to bear those scenes in action, and on the stage, in presence of a thousand witnesses, which she may not think objectible in her closet". 115 I n addition to this defense, Richardson printed and privately circulated a pamphlet entitled "Answer to the Letter of a Very Reverend and Worthy Gentleman Objecting to the Warmth of a Particular Scene in the History of Clarissa" in which he defended the passionate nature of the fire scene by describing his feelings concerning the scene: "the Passion I found strongest in me, whenever I supposed myself a Reader only, and the Story real, was Anger or Indignation: I had too great an Aversion to the intended Violator of the Honour of a CLARISSA, to suffer any-thing but alternate Admiration and Pity for her, and Resentment against him, to take place in my mind, on the Occasion . . . What a Mind must that be, t h a t could make Sport

112

To Lady Echlin, September 22, 1755, Gorr., V, 60. Baker, pp. 15 and v. 114 See n. 111. 115 Gentleman's Magazine, X I X (August 1749), 348; in Dobson, Samuel Richardson, pp. 100-101. 113

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to itself, or even light, of what was Death, or worse than Death to a Fellow-creature supremely excellent !"116 Fiction should, Richardson believed, provoke interest and provide instruction in social conduct and moral issues. The comprehensiveness with which it should provide instruction concerning social conduct appears in statements from the prefaces of all four of Richardson's works. In Pamela the stated purpose of the instruction is "to set forth in the most exemplary Lights, the Parental, the Filial, and the Social Duties", and "to give practical Examples, mostly to be followed in the most critical and affecting Cases, by the modest Virgin, the chaste Bride, and the obliging Wife". 117 In Pamela II the instruction concerns issues broader in scope; to provide "rules, equally new and practicable, inculcated, throughout the whole, for t h e general conduct of life". 118 Friendship and honor are importantsubjects of the instruction provided in Clarissa and Orandison. I n the Preface to his masterpiece Richardson promises "to exhibit a practicable friendship, that demonstrates virtue, delicacy, impartiality, etc.", 119 and in his final novel he promises to describe "the Character and Actions of a Man of True Honour". 1 2 0 As is. pointed out above, Richardson in a letter written in 1755 stated t h a t most of the articles of conduct are described in his three works, "so that all together they complete one plan, the best I was able to give". 121 Furthermore Richardson wanted his readers to b e aware t h a t his characters were providing instruction for themselves as well as for each other. In a statement concerning the characters in Clarissa he says: "the different persons, writing to each other in this piece with great freedom, point out what the faults of each other are; as Clarissa does her own; and that without aiming a t palliation". 122 116 T. C. Duncan Eaves and Ben D. Kimpel, "Richardsoniana", Studies in Bibliography, X I V (1961), 233. 117 I, i. 118 The Complete Novels of Mr. Samuel Richardson, ed. Austin Dobson and Wm. Lyon Phelps (London, 1902), II, 284. 119 1, xiii. In a letter written the year after he finished Clarissa, Richardson expresses great pleasure that Edward Young has called it "The Whole Duty of a Woman" (To Frances Grainger, December 21, 1749, Selected Letters, p . 141). 120 Orandison, I, viii. 121 See n. 102. 122 Gentleman's Magazine, X I X (August 1749), 349. This statement, if not written by Richardson, was written at his direction. See Watt, p. 199.

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Richardson thought that his fiction should provide specific instruction on the subjects of courtship and marriage, two of his favorite interests. One of his purposes was to expose the ways the male sex takes advantage of the female during courtship. His first statement on this subject appears not in his Preface to Pamela but in the Preface to his Familiar Letters, published in J a n u a r y 1741. The statement is characteristic of the tone of many of his familiar letters: " H e has also attempted to expose the empty Flourishes, and incoherent Rhapsodies, by which shallow Heads, and designing Hearts, endeavour to exalt their mistresses into Goddesses, in hopes of having it in their Power to sink them in the Characters of the most Credulous and Foolish of their Sex". 123 A brief statement, " t o warn the thoughtless of one sex against the base arts of the other", appears in his Preface to Clarissa.124 Richardson's belief t h a t fiction should provide warnings to young ladies against the evil attempts of young men is further evident in his firm moral defense of the detailed completeness of his fire scene in Clarissa. In justifying this scene, which had been called indiscreet, he makes the following points: "Young women should be warned by being shown "the sly, the artful Progressions to a criminal A t t e m p t " and should also be shown how to triumph, as Clarissa does, if such an attempt is made. If the scene had not been described, the licentious would have been ready to blame Lovelace for not succeeding "and to boast what They would have done on the like Occasion". If the attempt had not been particularly described, the licentious would have imagined 'that the Indignities offered to her were of an higher and grosser Nature, than now there is room to suppose they were'". 125 123

Familiar Letters on Important Occasions ( N e w Y o r k , 1928), p . x x v i i i . Clarissa, I, x v . H o w e v e r R i c h a r d s o n p r e s e n t s a m o r e explicit s t a t e m e n t t o this effect in t h e first part of his " H i n t s of Prefaces for Clarissa" (Brissenden, p. 1); a n d one of t h e several claims in h i s first long title for Clarissa, "The L a d y ' s L e g a c y " , is t h a t t h e work d e t e c t s a n d e x p o s e s " t h e m o s t secret arts and s u b t l e s t practices, of t h a t endangering species of t r i u m p h a n t rakes called W o m e n ' s Men, assisted b y corrupt a n d vicious engines of t h e s e x t h e y p l o t a g a i n s t " (Selected Letters, p. 77, n. 64). 125 This defense appears in Richardson's Answer to the Letter of A Very Reverend and Worthy Gentleman, Objecting to the Warmth of a Particular Scene in the history of Clarissa, w h i c h is also q u o t e d a b o v e . These p o i n t s of Richardson's tire q u o t e d b y E a v e s and K i m p e l , "Richardsoniana", Studies in Bibliography, X I V (1961), 233, w h o h a v e described, for t h e first time, t h e m a j o r p o i n t s in this p r i v a t e l y printed p a m p h l e t of Richardson's. 124

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Another purpose of Richardson's specific instruction concerning courtship and marriage was to show that a reformed rake does not make the best husband. This point appears in the prefaces to both Clarissa and Grandison, the Postscript to Clarissa,126 and in a t least four of his letters. 127 Richardson granted t h a t some rakes were reformable; in a letter explaining t h a t a reformation and rewarding of Lovelace would have destroyed the moral of his work, he says, "All t h a t could have been obtained, as to Instruction by the Reformation of a Rake, is obtained by t h a t of the once Libertine Belford, who had not sinned up to the other's size of Enormity". 1 2 8 Notice that here Richardson is obviously answering a letter written by a person who desired a happy ending for Clarissa, and t h a t his answer is concerned not with the writer's feelings about the ending but with the moral doctrine of the work. Two other instructive purposes concerning courtship and marriage are closely related to each other and to the warning against reformed rakes. One of these is to warn girls t h a t they will need help in overcoming their first affection. In a letter written in 1752 Richardson says t h a t the overcoming of a first affection without the help of religion or anything " b u t mere natural goodness" is not possible. 129 The other purpose, a rather interesting one, is to present the idea t h a t in courtship and marriage, friendship, or "liking", as Richardson calls it, is superior to love. This point is expressed in three places in different ways, but seemingly, although not obviously, to the same purpose. I n one letter Richardson makes his point vividly and explicitly: "Love, Madam, may, and love does, often stop short of friendship. Love is a blazing, crackling, greenwood flame, as much smoke as flame; friendship, married friendship particularly, is a steady, intense, comfortable fire. Love, in 126

Clarissa, I, x v and VIII, 307, 323-325; Grandison, I, vii-viii. To Hill, October 29, 1746, Selected Letters, p. 73; to Mrs. Belfour, October 6, 1748, Corr., IV, 190 and n. d., Corr., IV, 221; and to Mrs. Donnellan, n. d., Gorr., IV, 12. 128 To Lady Echlin, May 17, 1754, published in Alison Bishop's "Richardson Discusses his Clarissa and Sir Charles Orandison", Boston Public Library Quarterly, IV (October 1952), 217-221. 129 To Miss Mulso, October 5, 1752, Corr., I l l , 202. In another letter, written while he was writing Clarissa, Richardson explains that he is using Clarissa's example to show that a young lady should be able to subdue the passion aroused by her first affection (To Hill, October 26, 1746, Selected Letters, p. 73). 127

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courtship, is friendship in hope; in matrimony, friendship upon proof". 130 In his Postscript to Clarissa Richardson says that Clarissa was not in love with Lovelace but in liking only, and that love should be called cupidity or Paphian Stimulus. 131 In a letter describing his intentions in Pamela I I , Richardson says he will treat the relationship of Mr. and Mrs. B- as a "kind of intellectual Fondness". 132 Richardson was concerned with moral issues current during his day, and he believed that fiction should provoke interest in them. In the Concluding Note in Orandison he mentions two issues which are dealt with in the work: the tendency to degrade human nature and the honor attached to duelling. In connection with the first he says that this work is intended to counteract the current tendency to degrade human nature and to show "the characters may be good without being unnatural". 133 Later he says, the "God of Nature intended not Human Nature for a vile and contemptible thing: And many are the instances, in every age, of those whom He enables, amidst all the frailties of mortality to do it honour". 134 In regard to the honor attached to duelling, Richardson condemns challenges to duels as invitations to murder and says that there is no honor in such barbaric practices. He states that a consistent refusal to participate in duels will give "more delightful consciousness of a strong inward principle of piety and virtue". 135 Richardson was also concerned with familiarizing people with death as a heavenly reward in order to make it acceptable to them. In the Postscript to Clarissa he states that Clarissa's death was a triumphant act and that she died happy as she had desired;13® and in a letter he explains that one of his great ends in Clarissa was to "make those think of Death, who endeavour all they can to banish it from their Thoughts". 137 130

To Miss Mulso, September 30, 1751, Corr., I l l , 182. VIII, 320. 132 From an unsent letter; McKillop, Richardson, p. 62. 133 VI, 326. 134 VI, 329. Ibid. 1M VIII, 319. 137 To Aaron Hill, July 12, 1749 (Forster MS XIII, 3, f. 112); in McKillop's Richardson, p. 172. In his "Hints of Prefaces for Clarissa", Richardson says that his purpose is "to teach the Reader how to die, as well as how to live" (Brissenden, p. 5). 131

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Richardson intended his novels to offer moral subjects for discussion among his readers. In his correspondence he indicates that he was providing in Grandison a means for debate on numerous issues. In one letter he says, "the whole piece abounds, and was intended to abound, with situations that should give occasion for debate, or different ways of thinking". 138 And in another letter he states: "Many things are thrown out in the several characters, on purpose to provide friendly debate; and perhaps as trials of the reader's judgment, manners, taste, and capacity". 139 In addition to prescribing how fiction should instruct and what the content of its instruction should be, Richardson describes the means by which fiction should achieve these ends. To be as useful and instructive as possible, fiction should be presented in a manner that fully engages its readers' attention. One important way to do this is to provide both probability and variety, two qualities that have been dealt with more specifically in the sections above. Richardson makes statements about both of these qualities in connection with Pamela and Pamela II. On his titlepage of Pamela he states that his narrative "agreeably entertains, by a Variety of curious and affecting Incidents", 140 and in his Preface he relates probability to the directing of the readers' passions by saying that his work will "effect all these good ends of instructing and inculcating in so probable, so natural, so lively a manner as shall engage the Passions of every sensible Reader and strongly interest them in the edifying Story". 141 In a letter describing his intentions in Pamela II he recognizes that variety should be subordinate to probability: " I only aimed to give the Piece such a Variety, as should be consistent with Probability, and the general Tenor of a genteel Married Life". 142 Richardson in his Postscript to Clarissa is specific about the purposes of probability and variety: concerning his narrative in Clarissa he says, "there was frequently a necessity to be very circumstantial

138

To Miss Mulso, A u g u s t 21, 1754, Corr., I l l , 209. T o L a d y Echlin, October 10, 1754, Corr., V, 34. R i c h a r d s o n m a k e s s t a t e m e n t s to this effect in t w o letters t o L a d y Bradshaigh, October 5, 1753 a n d F e b r u a r y 25, 1754, Selected Letters, pp. 244, 296. 140 Baker, Samuel Richardson's Introduction to Pamela, p. 15. 141 Ibid., p. v. 142 T o Dr. Cheyne, n. d. (Forster MS X V I , I, f . 74); i n M c K i U o p ' s R i c h a r d s o n , p. 40. 139

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and minute, in order to preserve and maintain that Air of Probability, which is necessary to be maintained in a Story designed to represent real life"; 143 and at the end of his Postscript he quotes an eminent judge of composition who maintains that an effective work should have characters that "are various and natural" and "a variety of incidents sufficient to excite Attention, and those so conducted, as to keep the Reader always awake". 144 Probability could also be obtained, Richardson thought, by presenting the work of fiction as if it were a collection of letters prepared by an editor. In all his prefaces and postscripts, except for one, Richardson maintains the pretense of being the editor of the various collections of letters. In the Preface to Pamela, the advertisement at the end of Pamela II, the Preface to Clarissa, and the Preface and Concluding Note to Orandison, Richardson refers constantly to an editor and never mentions the word author except in the Preface to Pamela, where he exploits his pretense fully by implying that the reader is fortunate to have an editor involved here because "an Editor may reasonably be supposed to judge with an Impartiality which is rarely to be met with in an Author towards his own works". 145 However, Richardson's pretense is not maintained in his important Postscript to Clarissa, where he refers consistently to the author of the work and never once to the editor.149 In spite of this inconsistency it can be assumed that Richardson believed that the author should, for the sake of probability, pretend to be the editor of the letters. His only full statement on the extent to which he expected his readers to accept the letters as genuine supports his belief that a pretense of editorship should be maintained. He explained to Bishop Warburton why he could not use a preface that his friend had written for Clarissa: " I could wish that the Air of Genuiness [sic] had been kept up, tho' I want not the Letters to be thought genuine; only so far kept up, I mean, as that they should not prefatically be owned not to be genuine: and this for fear of weakening their Influence where any of them are aimed to be exemplary; as well as to avoid hurting that kind of Historical 143 144 146

Clarissa, V I I I , Ibid,., p. 330.

328.

I, ii. F o r a probable e x p l a n a t i o n for R i c h a r d s o n ' s lack of c o n s i s t e n c y on t h i s one occasion, s e e n o t e 16, p. 237 below. 146

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Faith which Fiction itself is generally read with, tho' we know it to be Fiction . . ."147 Richardson felt that a new kind of fiction would be more engaging to the reader and thus more useful for his purpose. In several places he states his opposition to the standard literary forms then current and, at the same time, suggests that a more natural kind of fiction was needed. In a letter on his intentions in Pamela II he says, " I hate so much the French Marvellous and all un-natural Machinery, and have so often been disgusted with that sort of Management of the Pieces, that I am contented to give up my Profit, if I can but Instruct". 148 And in his Preface to Pamela II he expresses the hope, as editor, "that the Letters which compose this Part will be found equally written to Nature, avoiding all romantic flights, improbable surprises, and irrational machinery". 149 In the Postscript to Clarissa he quotes a foreigner to the effect that "Romances in general, and Marivaux's amongst others, are wholly improbable"; 150 and in two letters dealing with Clarissa he opposes heroical literature: in one he says that he wrote Clarissa because people are more affected by distresses near themselves than by unnatural heroics;151 and in another letter he complains of the savage spirit of the Iliad and Aeneid which has done mischief by inspiring warriors "that, worse than lions or tigers, have ravaged the earth, and made it a field of blood".152 Richardson's awareness of the fact that he was developing a new kind of fiction is evident from two statements he makes after the successful publication of Pamela. The first, in a letter to Aaron Hill, gives his intentions in writing his first novel: "Little did I think at first, of making one much less two volumes of it . . . I thought the story, if written in an easy natural manner, suitable to the simplicity of it, might possibly introduce a new species of writing that might possibly turn people into a course of reading different 147

April 19, 1748 (Extracts in Samuel J. Davey's Catalogue 35 [1891], p. 41, and in the Catalogue of the American Art Association, [Sale of March 18-19, 1925]); in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 163-164. 148 In answer to Stephen Duck's letter of October 14, 1741 (Forster MS XVI, I, f. 74); in McKillop's Richardson, p. 39. 149 The Complete Novels of Mr. Samuel Richardson, II, 284. 150 VIII, 326. 161 To Lady Bradshaigh, December 15, 1748, Selected Letters, pp. 105-106. ,5S To Lady Bradshaigh, n. d. (Gorr., IV, 287); in Watt's Rise of the Novel, p. 243.

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from the pomp and parade of romance writing, and dismissing the improbable and marvelous, with which novels generally abound, might tend to promote the cause of religion and virtue". 153 In a second statement Richardson briefly describes his new manner by contrasting it with what he calls the common narrative manner; "and if it [Pamela II] be done in a common Narrative Manner, without those Reflexions and Observations, which she [Pamela] intermingles in the New Manner attempted in the two first volumes [Pamela], it will be consider'd only as a dry Collection of Morals, and Sermonizing Instructions . . ."154 To make his fiction less unnatural and thus more useful, Richardson says that he does not aim at providing only what is angelic or perfect as examples. In a letter describing his intentions in Pamela II he says that he has "generally taken Human Nature as it is; for it is to no purpose to suppose it Angelic, or to endeavour to make it so".155 In his Preface to Clarissa he states that since his work is a history of life and manners, "those parts of it which are proposed to carry with them the force of an Example, ought to be as unobjectible as is consistent with the design of the whole and with human nature".156 Richardson points out in his Preface and Postscript to Clarissa and in his Concluding Note in Grandison157 that his heroine and hero are to be considered examples but that neither is perfect nor is intended to be; however, they both represent the best examples of their respective sexes and, as such, are fully aware of their limitations. Richardson's other statements about his use of characters as exemplars have been presented in the section above on characterization. Concerning the attainment of moral perfection in his stories and characters in his works, Richardson made this general statement in a letter written in 1754: "Perfection, if attainable, ought not to be aimed at in stories, any more than in characters, designed to display life and manners". 158

153

In Corr., I, xxxiii-xxxiv; quoted excerpts appear in Huffman, pp. 24 and 44-45. 154 In a letter to James Leake, August, 1741 (Forster MS XVI, I, ff. 55-57); in McKillop's Richardson, pp. 51-54. 155 In an unsent letter; McKillop's Richardson, p. 62. 156 1, xvii. 157 1, xiii-xiv and VIII, 320-321, 328-329; VI, 326. 158 To Miss Mulso, August 21, 1754, Corr., I l l , 209.

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Although Richardson was opposed to some features of heroical literature, he obviously believed that, when appropriate, a classical form could be adapted to suit his fictional needs. In the Postscript to Clarissa he explains that he has adapted elements of the classical tragic form, particularly its catastrophe, to suit his Christian doctrine in Clarissa. He says that his intentions are to "steal in, as it may be said, and investigate the great doctrines of Christianity under the fashionable guise of an amusement" and to do what the tragic poets have rarely done; to make his heroes "true objects of pity", and have "them in their deaths look forward to a future Hope and thus, when they die", not "seem totally to perish". 159 He justifies his heroine's death in the catastrophe by both the practice followed in the ancient classical tragedies and the ideal of heavenly reward followed in Christianity. In regard to the tragedies, he quotes, at some length, 160 Addison's Spectator No. 40, which condemns the then-current conception of poetical justice. He goes on to explain t h a t he is "well justified by the Christian System, in deferring to extricate suffering Virtue to the time in which it will meet with the Completion of its Reward". 1 6 1 He further quotes Horace and Rapin as authorities who endorse tragedy's edifying effects on the emotions of the audience and approve, along with Aristotle, of stories that end unhappily. And he says that an inference to be gained from these authorities is, "That if the temporary sufferings of the Virtuous and the Good can be accounted for on Pagan principles, many more and infinitely stronger reasons will occur to a Christian Reader in behalf of what are called of future rewards; which is every-where strongly enforced in the History of Clarissa". 162 While Richardson's concern in his Postscript was limited to the catastrophe of the ancient tragedies, one of his letters reveals a specific reference to other important elements of tragedy. Richardson explains that he cannot leave his heroine short of heaven and that he must punish such a premeditated violation as t h a t b y Lovelace and "thereby make pity on her account and terror on his join 159 VIII, 308. In a letter to Hill, Richardson explains that in Clarissa he intended more than a novel or romance, "and that it is of the Tragic Kind" (November 7, 1748, Selected Letters, p. 99). 160 VIII, 309-314. 161 VIII, 309. 162 VIII, 317.

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to complete his great end, for the sake of example and warning". He goes on to explain t h a t acts of horror in a play are acts of terror and warning and " t h a t terror, fear, and pity are essential in a tragic performance". Richardson's belief that the starkness of classical tragedy should be softened for the reader by using such an approach, perhaps, as the Christian one he uses in Clarissa, is implied by a remark that appears later in the same letter: " B u t true tragedy we must not bear". 163 Even though Richardson quotes Addison's condemnation of the then-current conception of poetical justice and rejects a fortunate ending for his heroine Clarissa, he states, later in the Postscript, t h a t he has observed poetical justice in his treatment of a number of the characters. I n fact his claim is rather strong: that "the notion of Poetical Justice, founded on the modern rules, has hardly ever been more strictly observed in works of this nature, than in the present performance". 164 He supports this claim by pointing out t h a t not only Lovelace, b u t Belton, all of the Harlowes except Clarissa, Tomlinson, Mrs. Sinclair, and even certain servants are punished for evil actions; while Anna Howe, Hickman, Belford, and Mrs. Norton are all rewarded. 165 And he concludes the defence of his claim by stating that his heroine's reward should be fully acceptable in the eyes of all Christians: "And who that are in earnest in their profession of Christianity, b u t will rather envy than regret the triumphant death of CLARISSA; whose piety, from her early childhood; whose diffusive charity; whose steady virtue; whose Christian humility; whose forgiving spirit; whose meekness, and resignation, H E A V E N only could reward?" 1 6 6 In addition to combining an adaptation of the classical conception of tragedy with the current ideas of poetical justice, Richardson adjusted the situation usually found in tragedy to suit his purposes in Clarissa by having his tragedy concern a private family rather than a king or prince. In a letter he explains t h a t he wrote Clarissa 163

To Lady Bradshaigh, December 15, 1748, Selected Letters, pp. 104-105. lei VIII, 318-19. While he does not use the term poetical justice in his concluding note to Pamela, Richardson illustrates the ways Providence has rewarded the honest and virtuous characters and has been merciful to the erring ones who are penitent. See note 82, above. 165 VIII, 319. 186 Ibid.

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because poeple are more affected by distresses near the self t h a n b y unnatural heroics, and he says t h a t the Orphan owes its success to the fact t h a t it concerns a private family "tho' in high, yet not in princely life". 187 And on the title page and in the Preface of Clarissa he points out that the story deals with the important concerns of private life.168 Summary The pervasiveness of Richardson's statement that fiction should be useful and instructive is illustrated in a number of different ways. The statement appears, or is implied, in the prefaces and postscripts of all novels and a number of his letters. The extent to which he believed in the statement is indicated by his placing tables of contents at the ends of the volumes so t h a t the reader can recapitulate the instruction in the story, and by his publication of a separate collection of aphorisms found in the novel. The importance of instruction to fiction is further shown b y statements that fiction should provide comprehensive instruction concerning conduct and t h a t the story in the novel is a vehicle to the instruction. Fiction will be morally useful if it mingles entertainment with instruction in such a way t h a t the former supports the latter. To provide this necessary entertainment and to attract the readers' attention and direct it toward useful goals, the story must be lively and natural, rather than serious and spiritual. Although the story should contain no inflaming descriptions, it should provide scenes warm enough to affect the readers' feelings. I n fact one of fiction's values is t h a t it touches its readers' passions by entertainment and guides the readers' feelings in the right direction by instruction. And it can touch its readers' passions more effectively than can public entertainment because it is read privately. Fiction should provoke interest and provide instruction for both social conduct and moral issues. Not only should it deal with the numerous problems concerned with social conduct, but also it should provoke interest in conduct by having its characters point out each other's faults. I t should provide specific instruction on courtship and marriage b y exposing the ways t h a t girls are deceived by men. Its descriptive scenes should be detailed and true to life so as to illustrate as fully »«'To Mrs. B e l f o u r , n. d., Corr., 168 I, v , xiii.

I V , 221.

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as possible the conduct a girl should follow in her relations with evil men. Fiction should be concerned with current moral issues and should provoke interest in them. I t should deal with such issues as the current tendencies toward degrading human nature and looking upon duelling as an honorable activity. Furthermore fiction should provide means for friendly debate among its readers on many current moral issues, and it should provoke its readers into new ways of thinking about them. To be as instructive as possible fiction should be presented in a way that fully engages its readers' attention. To accomplish this end, it should provide probability in its actions and variety in its incidents and in its characters; it should be written in a natural manner t h a t suits the simplicity of its purpose and intermingles the reflections and observations of its major characters in its narrative; it should avoid entirely the unnatural, improbable, and marvelous elements found in romances and heroical literature; it should not aim at providing only what is angelic and perfect, and its major characters should represent the best examples of human nature. However, fiction should adapt principles of classical literature when appropriate to its purpose. I t should adapt the catastrophe of classical tragedy to illustrate through the heroine's death the Christian conception of heavenly reward. But, in doing so, it should make its heroes true objects of pity by having them look for hope in death rather than seeming to perish altogether, as in classical tragedies. I t should also incorporate in the actions of its characters the pity and terror of classical tragedy. I t should utilize the current view of poetical justice by punishing evil and rewarding good. Because its distresses should closely touch the reader, it should deal with a private family rather than with kings, as is the case in classical tragedy.

n NARRATIVE STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION

The narrative structure of Richardson's three novels has never been analyzed in its entirety1 and in the light of Richardson's statements of theory on narrative structure. This chapter is an attempt to make such an analysis incorporating pertinent scholarship and using methodology that I have established for the purpose. So that this methodology and its application to the narrative structure are clear, I have divided the chapter into two sections: the first will describe Richardson's narrative structure and explain the techniques he uses to support it; the second will explain in some detail the application and development of the technique in the novels. This second section will be divided into six subsections, the first four of which will be organized topically according to the major events in the narratives of the three novels. The term EVENTS as it is here used should be explained. Basically the major events of a novel are those single events, or, in some instances, those areas of the narrative which are important enough to affect seriously the fates of the central characters and thus to change the direction that the story will take from the time of their occurrence until the end of the novel, or until the occurrence of other events of equal or greater importance. The relationship between these events and the structure of the work in which they occur was first pointed out by Aristotle, who, in his Poetics, described an important event, which he called the turn, or crisis, as the 1 However, several scholars have dealt with certain aspects of it. Prominent among these are Alan Dugald McKillop, Samuel Richardson (Chapel Hill, 1936), and The Early Masters of English Fiction (Lawrence, Kansas, 1956); and Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel (Berkeley, 1957).

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major event of a tragedy because it brought about both discovery and reversal for the central character and, at the same time, determined his fate and the direction that the story would take until its end. From the important basic scheme of Aristotle's, which provided t h a t a tragedy should be made up of three parts, a complication, a turn or crisis, and an unraveling, and from other similar schemes of dramatic structure formulated since Aristotle's time has developed a somewhat more complex pattern that is used to describe the important actions and areas of action in the structure of narrative, as well as dramatic, works of literature. This pattern is made up of five parts, or major events which, for convenience, may be called the point of entrance, the definition, the turn or crisis, the culmination, and the conclusion. These five major events are related to Aristotle's three parts in the following manner. Within Aristotle's complication, or area of rising action and involvement for the hero, two major events may be specified: the point of entrance, the point at which the author chooses to enter the lives of his characters; and the definition, the event t h a t defines the nature of the conflict and the predicament of the central character. To a large extent Aristotle's turn or crisis has retained its essential nature in that it is still the most crucial action in the story and leads to the central character's discovery of his predicament and to the reversal of his fortunes. The crisis may also be referred to as the confirmation because it confirms unalterably the central character's problem and predicament in the basic conflict. And the crisis is the logical outgrowth of the definition because it confirms the problem that was earlier defined by the definition. Aristotle's unraveling, or area of falling action, may be divided into two major events, the culmination and the conclusion. The culmination is, as its name indicates, the culminating event which brings to a head all of the elements of the basic conflict in the story. The conclusion then resolves all of the conflicts remaining after the culmination and serves as the final event in the unraveling, or denouement, of the story. Taken individually these major events exhibit a number of distinct characteristics. The point of entrance is the point in the story at which the reader is first shown the conflict between the major characters. This point is almost always a single event which either causes a conflict or intensifies, to a very serious stage, a

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conflict that had existed before the story began. The definition is usually a single event that serves as a sort of climax in the series of actions that were established by the point of entrance. Always a single event, the crisis, most clearly of all events, fully defines the problem of the central character. In addition it determines the central character's fate throughout the remainder of the story. The culmination, which can be either a single event or an area of actions, is the part of the story in which all of the difficulties and problems of the central character reach their climax. To a great extent the culmination is the most decisive of all the events because it culminates the central character's predicament in the conflict by resolving the major features of the basic conflict. Usually an area of actions instead of a single event, the conclusion describes the ultimate fates of the major characters in addition to resolving the remaining conflicts and serving as a final unraveling event in the story. Because of their importance as central elements in the narrative structure, the major elements described above serve as the basis for the organization of the second section on the application and development of technique in this chapter. The titles of the first four subsections of the second section are: (1) Point of Entrance to Definition, (2) Definition to Crisis, (3) Crisis to Culmination, (4) Culmination through Conclusion. The last two subsections are devoted to the application and development of the narrative technique in Pamela I I , and to the placing of the major events within the novels. In addition to the terms which identify the major events, there are seven terms which will be given specialized meanings for use in describing Richardson's technique in this chapter: (1) situation, (2) conflict, (3) isolation, (4) association, (5) method, (6) device, and (7) action. 'Situation' is a set of circumstances or a relationship between characters that is established at one time and continued for an extended period, or periods, in the novels. A good example of a situation is the relationship, which is one of conflict, that exists between Pamela and Mr. B — from the beginning of the novel up until the crisis, when both the relationship and the set of circumstances surrounding it are changed. There are three kinds of situations which are described by the terms 'conflict',''isolation', and 'association'. Conflict is used to describe a situation in which the heroine is opposed by one or more forces, which may be in the form

NARRATIVE

STRUCTURE

GÌ

of a person or a number of people, physical objects, or even the heroine's feelings. Isolation describes the situation in which the heroine, or other major character, is separated, physically, and sometimes spiritually, from the rest of the world and from aid in her conflict. Association, the opposite of isolation, describes the degree of relationship t h a t exists between the heroine, or other major character, and the rest of the world. For instance, in Pamela, the heroine's situation from the beginning is one of conflict with Mr. B. —. When she is kidnapped and sent off to Lincolnshire at the definition, Pamela's isolation, which is physical in t h a t instance, is drastically increased, and, conversely, her association is reduced and severely limited. The three remaining terms, 'method', 'device', and 'action', describe the means by which the three situations are developed in the narratives of the novels. The method is the major means of developing the situations and thus effecting the narrative movement, and it is used in varying ways over a section, or sections, and within the situations, in the novel. A good example of a method is the maintaining of a balance between the safety of a heroine's going home and the danger of her staying within the reach of the villain. 2 This method is used in the early part of Pamela before the definition. Supporting the method are the 'devices' and 'actions', which are minor means of effecting thè narrative movement. The device is relatively unchangeable and can appear any number of times in the novels. I t can be an object, such as an anonymous warning note; an agreement involving two or more characters, such as a clandestine correspondence; or an action, such as the villain's use of servants and spies to practice deception on the heroine. 3 An 'action' is simply a single occurrence in the narrative t h a t is used by the author to exploit certain methods. Such a means, which appears only once in the narrative, is called an 'action' in order to differentiate it from a device. An example of an 'action' is Pamela's being unable to leave Mr. B—'s estate because she has not finished her work. I n this chapter this special use of the word ACTION will be designated by single quotation marks, i.e., 'action'. The precise relationship of these terms will be explained below in the section describing the technique which supports the narrative structure. 2 3

See Appendix A, p. 286 for other examples of methods. See Appendix A, p. 286 for other examples of devices.

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Since the relationship between Richardson's statements of theory and his actual practice in the novels will be analyzed in the conclusion of this study, this chapter will be primarily concerned with the ways t h a t Richardson handled, or 'practiced', narrative structure in his three novels and one sequel. However, whenever theory a n d practice are inconsistent and whenever practice noticeably conforms to theory, comments relating practice to theory will be provided. 1. The Narrative

Structure of the Novels and the Technique Used to Support It

I n their narrative structure Richardson's novels are not episodic b u t depend heavily on a central situation or a single unifying action which is elaborated extensively. The importance of this central situation t o the structure of the novels has been pointed out b y b o t h A. D. McKillop and Ian W a t t . McKillop describes Richardson's characteristic method as one "of elaborate analysis of a situation by a record of mood, reflection, dialogue, and gesture . . ."* and refers to Richardson's 'new method of construction' as a "rigorous analysis of a central situation". 5 W a t t has said t h a t Richardson "avoided an episodic plot b y basing his novels on a single action, a courtship". 6 I n a more recent work McKillop points out t h a t Richardson "does not devise a wide range of episodes, b u t works out his effects from a few simple premises" 7 a n d t h a t t h e details in Richardson "always bear more or less directly on t h e question of what the central character is to do in a given situation . . ," 8 Because of the unifying effect of this central situation, all three of Richardson's novels follow a similar p a t t e r n of narrative structure, t h e framework of which is a series of m a j o r events in this order: point of entrance, definition, crisis, culmination, conclusion. A description of the patterns in the three novels will demonstrate b o t h their similarities in structure and t h e importance of the series of m a j o r events to their narrative structures. 4

Samuel Richardson, p. 154. Ibid., p. 265. 8 The Rise of the Novel, p. 135. ' Early Masters of English Fiction, p. 60. 8 Ibid., p. 58. 5

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At the point of entrance of each novel a conflict between the heroine 9 and a person 10 or a group of persons that are trying to subdue her is established. Against her will, the heroine is being forced into marriage, or, in the case of Pamela, into the status of a kept woman. As this conflict is intensified the heroine, excluding Harriet Byron b u t including the tragic heroine Clementina, is, in many respects, isolated from the world and those who are sympathetic toward her. At the same time, two of the heroines, Clarissa and Clementina, are persecuted severely by their families, and a third one, Harriet, is harassed by her overbearing suitors. I n Pamela's and Clarissa's situations the conflicts are intensified and prolonged until the heroines are abducted by the villains and the 'definition' takes place. I n Harriet's situation the abduction occurs before the definition and serves as the climax of the harassment of Harriet b y her suitors. I t is not until her rescuer, Sir Charles Grandison, indicates that he is in love with Harriet, just before he departs for Italy, t h a t the definition takes place. After the definition in each novel there is greater intensification of conflict and greater isolation of the heroine. Pamela's conflict with Mr. B becomes more intense after she is made a total prisoner of Mrs. Jewkes and her isolation is complete. Clarissa's conflict with her parents is intensified by her abduction by Lovelace. In addition her complex conflict with Lovelace is just beginning and she is now, as a prisoner of Lovelace, almost completely isolated. Harriet's conflict with her suitors is intensified somewhat by Grandison's departure, and her conflict with her own feelings becomes severe. Although physically a free person, she is isolated from the world by her feelings. She is still harassed by her suitors and by the idea that she may be losing to someone else the only suitor t h a t she loves. Each heroine's conflict then becomes a dilemma. While she is staying at an inn on her way home from Lincolnshire, Pamela cannot decide whether to go home or return 9

The heroine is always a marriageable young girl. Brian W. Downs has pointed out in Richardson (New York, 1928), p. 109, that a woman is the center of focus in all three novels. 10 This person is always a villain and a rake, at least at the beginning of the narrative. In Pamela the villain becomes the hero at the crisis; in Clarissa the villain remains a villain throughout; and in Sir Charles Grandison the heroine is rescued from a villain by the hero who becomes a major character from that point forward.

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to Mr. B —, who has become attractive to her. From the time Clarissa leaves her home with Lovelace, she is faced with a dilemma. Everyone urges her to marry Lovelace but she cannot bring herself to do so even though marriage would ostensibly solve her problem. Harriet must turn down attractive suitors and remain faithful to a man who is not obligated to her in the least. She must do this because her feelings dictate it. The 'crises' in Pamela and Grandison resolve the conflict and the dilemma. Pamela and Harriet marry the heroes and their weddings are the culminations. In Clarissa the crisis intensifies the conflict and changes its character. Clarissa is defeated physically but triumphs spiritually, and her death, in which she receives her divine reward, is the culmination. In a spiritual sense her death is a sort of divine marriage. The culminations and the conclusions in all three novels provide for some further action but serve primarily to present the important reconciliations, as well as the rewards and punishments that are justified by the previous actions. The close similarities of the narrative patterns in these novels strongly suggest that in practice Richardson did follow a preformed plan in writing his novels, as is pointed out in the chapter on his theory. 11 However, before we can say that practice definitely confirms theory in this respect, we should look at the section below dealing with the application and development of his technique to see if other similarities in narrative structure substantially support the fact that he wrote his narratives according to plan. The technique that Richardson uses to support the narrative structure described above involves two important procedures. The first is the establishment of the situations of conflict, isolation, and association in the narrative, and the second is the prolongation, intensification, and resolution of these situations. Richardson accomplishes the first primarily by the effective use of major events. In all of the novels major events at the beginning establish situations of conflict while other major events establish both isolation and association. What Richardson does in Clarissa illustrates what is meant here. The point of entrance, James Harlowe's violent encounter with Lovelace, brings to a head all of the animosity that Clarissa's family has been harboring for Lovelace and places Clarissa squarely in the middle of a bitter conflict. The definition, 11

See p. 17-18, a b o v e .

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Clarissa's departure with Lovelace, increases her conflict with her family, establishes fully her conflict with Lovelace, and confirms the heroine's isolation but establishes spiritual association which is fulfilled b y the culmination, her death. However, the more important procedure is the second, the prolongation, intensification, and resolution of the situations. Because this procedure provides the means by which the narratives are sustained between and during the major events, it can, by analogy, be likened to flesh and blood which covers and gives substance to the bones represented by the major events. The two primary means used to prolong, intensify, and resolve the situations exist at different levels and are inter-related. The major one of these is the method which is used directly to develop the situation and which represents one level of technique. Supporting the method are the devices and 'actions', which together make up a lower level of technique. An example from Clarissa will illustrate the relationship of these two primary means. Clarissa's conflict with her family over Lovelace, a situation established by the point of entrance, is developed by several methods, one of which is the maintaining and controlling of the anxieties of the heroine. This method is, in turn, supported by several devices and 'actions'. Two of the devices are Clarissa's having a foreboding dream about Lovelace and her maintaining of a clandestine correspondence with him, and two supporting 'actions' are Clarissa's family's presentation of Roger Solmes as a suitor to her and Lovelace's sudden appearance in the woodhouse behind Clarissa's home. Throughout his three novels Richardson uses a number of different methods which he supports by devices and 'actions'. Other means which do not strictly belong in these two levels of techniques but which are important to Richardson's narrative technique involve the further use of single occurrences and major events as well as utilization of the situations themselves. Examples are the placing of occurrences in sequences t h a t progressively intensify the heroine's conflict, having the actions in the narrative ease or intensify the heroine's conflict immediately before a major event, and keeping the heroine's isolation and association so evenly balanced t h a t any slight effect on either situation intensifies her conflict considerably. Although these various means are not classifiable, as are the methods and devices, they are nonetheless important, as will be demonstrated in the sections on application and

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development of technique. A final feature of Richardson's technique involves not the treatment of situations in the narrative b u t the placing of major events and occurrences in the various volumes of the novels to obtain the greatest possible effect. This feature of Richardson's technique will be described in the sixth subsection of the following section. 2. Richardson's Application and Development of the Technique That Supports the Narrative Structure in the Novels The first four subsections below are organized so that they demonstrate, as effectively as possible, the application and development of the technique which supports the narrative structure of the novels. Each of the first four subsections describes the significance of one major event in the three novels and then explains the means t h a t are used to prolong and intensify, up to the next major event, the situation(s) t h a t are established. All four of these subsections follow a similar pattern: (1) the significance of the main event and the situation(s) it establishes, (2) the prolongation of the situation(s), (3) the intensification of the situation(s), (4) the significance of isolation and association and the means t h a t are used to prolong and intensify them. These four subsections demonstrate Richardson's application and development of his technique in the novels. The subsections are organized topically to illustrate application, and each subsection is arranged chronologically to illustrate development. So that a composite picture of Richardson's development of technique can be seen, a summary description is placed at the conclusion of the chapter and all of the methods and devices in the three novels are listed in Appendix A. A. Point of Entrance to Definition. — Although Richardson establishes situations of conflict with point of entrance events immediately at the beginning of each novel, he varies the times at which the definitions take place in the three novels. I n Pamela the definition occurs early, 12 after only one-sixth of the total length of the novel. I n Clarissa the definition is delayed somewhat, occurring after almost one quarter of the narrative is completed. 13 In Grandi12 13

On p. 119 of Vol. I, when Pamela is taken to Lincolnshire. On p. 339 of Vol. II, when Clarissa leaves her home with Lovelace.

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son the definition, a series of actions extending from Grandison's rescue of Harriet halfway through Volume I to his departure for Italy at the end of Volume III, is delayed for an even longer period, until one-half of the total narrative is completed. 14 Just why and how Richardson varies the narrative lengths between the points of entrance and the definitions in his novels will be revealed in the paragraphs below. Richardson varies the ways in which he establishes situations of conflict at the point of entrance in the three novels. In Pamela the primary conflict is established as the first letter is being written. In the postscript of this letter Pamela expresses shock at the special attentions that the young Mr. B — is paying her after his mother has died and left him in charge of the estate. This event serves as the point of entrance by establishing the situation of conflict which lasts until the crisis of the novel. In Clarissa Richardson uses a different approach, one that takes advantage of the past to make a strong impact on the present. Instead of describing the point of entrance event, the first letter in Clarissa inquires about a recent event, an encounter between James Harlowe and Lovelace, which has brought to a violent head the animosity between Carissa's family and Lovelace and has opened the breach between Clarissa's family and the heroine. The next several letters, in which Clarissa answers the inquiry, explain the building up of the conflicts that were smouldering before the encounter and have now exploded into violence. Thus the point of entrance event is the encounter between Lovelace and Clarissa's brother, but the several conflicts established by it existed before, and the novel opens with Clarissa in the midst of conflicts that have reached a dangerous stage. Among the major conflicts are those between Clarissa and her family over her interest in Lovelace, between James and Lovelace over a long list of grievances, and between Clarissa and Arabella over Lovelace as a suitor. The magnitude of these conflicts, which continue, and are added to, up to the definition, has been pointed out by Watt who says that " a t the outset, therefore, Clarissa is placed in a complicated conflict of class and family loyalties". 15 In his final novel Richardson modifies the approach used in Clarissa to establish a situation of conflict at the point of entrance. " I l l , 411. 15

The Rise of the Novel, p. 221.

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Mechanically the two approaches are the same, for the first letter in Grandison inquires about a recent event, Harriet's determination to visit her cousins in London and to leave her overbearing suitors behind in Northamptonshire. But, differing from the approach in Clarissa, the letters in answer to the inquiry do not describe a bitter and complex conflict that has been smouldering for some time. They simply indicate that by going to visit in the city Harriet has intensified her conflict with her country suitors, Greville and Fenwick, who will become more jealous than ever about Harriet's meeting other suitors in London. This basic conflict between Harriet, who wants to be free, and her suitors and others, who want her to marry, lasts until the crisis but is overshadowed by a more important conflict between Harriet and her feelings. This second conflict, which begins after Harriet's rescue by Grandison and also continues to the crisis, concerns the heroine's feelings about the hero. Although Grandison is the only one of her male friends that she admires and wants to marry, he is, ironically, not available for reasons she cannot determine until the definition. The ways that Richardson prolongs these conflicts up to the definitions in the three novels demonstrate his application and development of his technique in the early parts of his narratives. In Pamela he uses two methods to prolong the conflict: the delaying of the herione's departure by a series of logical circumstances and the maintenance of a balance between the safety of the heroine's leaving and the danger of her staying at Mr. B —'s house. The 'actions' supporting the important delaying method are as follows. A t first Pamela cannot leave because she must finish her work. Then, when a tentative date is set for Pamela's departure, she is uncertain as to how she should go. Next, Mrs. Jervis is also to go and Pamela thus must wait a week to go with her. Then Mr. B — tells Mrs. Jervis that she can stay. Finally when Pamela is determined to go Mr. B — urges her to stay. Instead of providing a series of 'actions' to support his second method, Richardson balances 'actions' which affect the heroine's safety and danger; against the assurance that Mrs. Jervis will protect Pamela as a second mother are balanced such 'actions' as Mr. B —'s refusal to let her go with Lady Davers as a maid and his hiding in the closet. To prolong the heroine's conflict in Clarissa Richardson makes further use of the method of maintaining a balance between safety and danger. Against Clarissa's desire to escape the persecution of

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her family is balanced her fear of being out in the world without protection. To support this method, Richardson also uses two important devices: clandestine correspondence, between Clarissa and both Lovelace and Anna Howe; and the heroine's failure to seek relief because she believes that it is on the way. This second device is one that is used over a long period in the novel. From soon after the novel begins until the culmination, help for Clarissa in the form of her cousin Colonel Morden is supposedly on the way. Because she is so sure t h a t he is expected at any time, Clarissa fails to write him and he does not arrive until too late. I n the prolongation of the heroine's conflicts Richardson advances his technique beyond the balancing of 'actions' to support methods, as mentioned above, to the balancing of one method against another to prolong the conflict. Against the heroine's attempting to achieve reconciliation with her family is the family's urging of the heroine into an unwanted marriage. Clarissa's many pleading letters and interviews with the various members of the family are 'actions' supporting the first method, and the numerous threats of the family as to what will happen if Clarissa refuses to marry are 'actions' supporting the opposing method. A final method of prolonging is keeping the heroine's curiosity aroused about the villain. This method, which prolongs the conflict in its early stages, is supported by the 'actions' involved in Anna Howe's investigation of Lovelace's character at Clarissa's request. The most important incident in this investigation concerns Rosebud, the girl to whom Lovelace was generous for the sake of impressing Clarissa. In Grandison Richardson prolongs his heroine's conflicts over a longer stretch of narrative than in Clarissa and with fewer methods. For Harriet's conflict with her suitors Richardson uses a method that appears at least once in every novel, the urging of the heroine to marry. Numerous 'actions' that support this method occur intermittently throughout the long section which occupies almost three volumes, from the point of entrance to the definition. Some of these are Harriet's uncle's urging her to be less vain about her suitors, Harriet's being almost beseiged by persistent suitors in London, Sir Hargrave Pollexfen's attempt to force Harriet into marriage, and the intermittent importuning of Lady D— that Harriet marry her son. Richardson prolongs his heroine's conflict with her feelings, which can be said to begin in the latter part of Volume I when Harriet is

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hesitant about what answer to give Lady D — 's urgent offer of her son for marriage, by an important delaying method: the gradual revelation of the hero's life and marriageability to the heroine. Several'actions'support this gradual unfolding, which begins early in Volume I I and continues intermittently throughout Volume III. These 'actions' include conversations with various relatives and numerous letters that are delivered to Harriet by Grandison's friend, Dr. Bartlett. What Harriet learns at first concerns Grandison's youth and young manhood, and it is not until sometime later that she learns about the affair in Italy and its seriousness. This prolongation of the heroine's conflicts over a long stretch of narrative is characteristic of Richardson's final novel whose structure is much looser than that of Pamela and Clarissa. By using such a loose structure Richardson is able to sustain a narrative and, at the same time, include much that is tangential. In the space of the first three volumes, approximately half of the novel, many activities go on that are not in the main narrative: Charlotte's romantic affairs are put in order and she is married; Grandison settles estates and disputes and arranges equitable matches; Emily Jervois, Grandison's ward, is introduced and the disputes with her mother are described; and a great deal of background material about Grandison and other members of his family is presented. Scholars have noted this basic difference in the narrative structure of Richardson's last novel. Mrs. Barbauld, the editor of Richardson's correspondence and one of his first biographers, explains, and, incidentally, defends this difference by saying that Grandison differs from the other two in that it "does not depend upon one great event, but is intended to open and display this character [Grandison] in a variety of lights. The unity of the work, therefore, consists in the reference which every person, and every incident, bears to him who is the hero of it". 16 McKillop, on the other hand, feels that the narrative is weakly sustained: "Partly because of this guarded treatment of the central character [Harriet], the story does not move steadily to a conclusion, but is dragged along intermittently''. 17 McKillop's comment that "Lucy Selby's opening sentence, 'Your resolution to accompany Mrs. Reeves to London has greatly alarm16 Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Richardson's pp. 115-116. 17 Samuel Richardson, p. 210.

Correspondence

(London, 1804),

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ed your three lovers', suggests a direct narrative which does not develop" 18 is both valid and indicative of the loose narrative structure of Grandison. In addition to prolonging the heroine's conflicts at the points of entrance in the three novels Richardson intensifies them up until the definitions. To accomplish this he uses methods that are, in most instances, different from those used for prolongation. To intensify the conflict in Pamela, Richardson uses two methods: the maintaining and controlling of the anxieties of the heroine and having the villain practice deception on the heroine. This first method, which is a standard method for intensification purposes, is supported by three 'actions' and two devices in this order: Pamela is shocked by Mr. B — 's forwardness; by the fact t h a t she is watched; and by Mr. B 's admiration of her in the dress she makes for her trip home. After her appearance in her new dress Pamela receives an anonymous warning note saying that Mr. B— is determined to have her, and later Mr. B controls her correspondence with her parents. The second method, having the villain practice deception on the heroine, is also supported by the device of the villain's controlling the heroine's correspondence mentioned above. Also supporting this method are one device, the villain's use of servants as spies, and an 'action', Mr. B —'s threat to discharge Mrs. Jervis and his consequent decision not to. 19 In Clarissa Richardson intensifies the heroine's conflicts with the same two methods used in Pamela, maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties and the villain's practicing deception on the heroine, but, in his second novel, he supports the first method more extensively. Clarissa's anxieties are kept acutely alive up to the definition by several 'actions': her interview with Roger Solmes, the suitor; her family's threat to send her to her uncle's moated castle to be married; Lovelace's threat of violence to her family and his sudden appearance in the woodhouse. I n addition three devices sustain the heroine's anxieties: having some unwanted person appear suddenly and cause an uproar, a warning note, and a foreboding dream. Richardson supports the second method involv18

Early Masters, p. 84. For an excellent description of Richardson's skill in the handling of the narrative structure in the early part of Pamela, see McKillop, Early Masters, pp. 59-60. 19

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ing the villain's deception with a device used in Pamela, the villain's employment of servants as spies, and a new device, the use of a specific deed to obtain the heroine's respect for the villain. This latter device is Lovelace's success in impressing Clarissa by his treatment of the girl at the inn, Rosebud. In his major novel Richardson uses two additional methods to intensify the heroine's conflicts. The first of those is also used for prolongation, the heroine's being urged to marry. Two devices support this method: the taunting of the heroine by having her family show her patterns for the clothing for her unwanted wedding, and the heroine's being threatened with a forced marriage. At one time a date is actually set for Clarissa's wedding with Solmes at her uncle's castle. The second method that Richardson uses for intensification is the adding of conflicts to those that already exist. New conflicts introduced between the point of entrance and definition include Clarissa's conflict with Lovelace over his impertinence as a correspondent, with Roger Solmes and with her brother James, whom her father has appointed as agent for the family, and with Arabella and James over the fact that Clarissa was willed an estate by her grandfather. The complexity of the conflicts that Richardson initiates early in Clarissa has been ably described by McKillop: There is a double warfare, a struggle within the family and a combat between the sexes, and the plot consists in the connection of the two. l o v e lace, Clarissa, and the other Harlowes all have pride, and are alike in wanting to control the situation and at the same time to justify themselves in terms of accepted standards. Y e t Clarissa and Lovelace are both in a sense quixotic in their pride, and stand in contrast to many of the surrounding characters who are bogged down in convention and give automatic responses, facile and superficial answers to the questions that beset the principals. The two major characters inevitably assert themselves, and this points to a tragic outcome.20

In Orandison Richardson uses the maintaining and controlling of the heroine's anxieties to intensify the heroine's two conflicts, that with her suitors and that with her feelings. Supporting the method as it intensifies Harriet's conflict with her suitors are four devices,21 all of which are concerned with what could be considered the climax of Harriet's harassments by her suitors, her abduction by Sir Hargrave Pollexfen. It is after Harriet's rescue from Sir Hargrave that 20 21

Early Masters, pp. 67-68. These devices are listed as Devices 1-4 on p. 292 Appendix A .

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the emphasis shifts to her conflict with her feelings. Richardson supports the same method as it intensifies Harriet's second conflict by the 'actions' and devices22 which reveal Grandison's eligibility to her, sometimes gradually and sometimes shockingly. Some of these 'actions' are: Harriet's discovery, soon after she has refused Lady D —'s suit for her son, that Grandison's sisters are interested in a Lady Anne S— for Grandison; Harriet's learning t h a t Lady Olivia is in love with Grandison and t h a t he has two or three intricate affairs on his hands; Grandison's statement t h a t he is not interested in Lady Anne S— or Lady Olivia; and Harriet's having read about Lady Olivia's violence immediately before she is notified t h a t Lady Olivia is on her way to England to see Grandison. A method that intensifies Harriet's conflict with her suitors is, obviously, the urging of the heroine to marry, which is supported by a number of 'actions' involving Harriet's numerous suitors early in the novel. But this method, like the one mentioned above, serves to intensify Harriet's conflict with her feelings also. The most important device supporting this method as an intensifier of Harriet's second conflict is Lady D—'s urging of Harriet to marry her son, which occurs at crucial times and forces Harriet to admit, before she wants to, t h a t she is in love with Grandison. In addition to prolonging and intensifying the heroine's situations of conflict in the three novels, Richardson places his heroines in two other situations: isolation; and association with, and responsibility for, others. These situations, which are actually extensions of the basic conflicts, serve two purposes in t h a t they focus attention on the plights of the heroine over long stretches in the narrative and they further intensify the heroine's conflicts established by the major events in the novels. Like the basic situations of conflict they are both prolonged and intensified from one major event to the next. The importance of Richardson's placing of the heroine between two opposite forces — one urging her to act and the other urging her not to — as illustrated by the situations of isolation and of association has been pointed out by two scholars. Brian Downs has called the ambiguous situation of the heroine's having almost constantly to make important choices the "divided mind'. 23 In connection with this distinction of Downs, McKillop 22 23

These two devices are listed as Devices 5 and 6 on p. 293 of Appendix A. Richardson, pp. 129-134.

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describes the characteristic situation in Richardson as "one of prolonged tension and indecision; as Mr. Downs has well said, he always writes the story of the 'divided mind', and it may be added that this division goes back to the conflict between a rigid general principle and an individual case . . . his narrative really moves in a world of moral ambiguities". 24 From the beginning of his first novel Richardson places his heroine in a state of indecision about whether to run to the austere but safe world of her parents or to remain in the rich but dangerous world of Mr. B —. By having Pamela remain in the world of Mr. B — Richardson stresses his heroine's isolation from the world over her association with it. He prolongs and intensifies this situation, which should more accurately be called semi-isolation up until the definition, by five methods. Two of these are having the villain assure the heroine that she is always free to leave, and placing the heroine under obligations to the villain.25 Opposing the situation of semi-isolation is Pamela's association with her family and the forces beyond Mr. B —'s Bedfordshire estate. This situation is prolonged and intensified by one method, having the heroine advised how to act in the face of danger. Pamela is advised once by Lady Davers and at numerous times by her parents to leave Mr. B—. Thus even though isolation is stressed over association up to the definition in Pamela, Pamela's primary conflict is intensified to the extent that her parents' and Lady Daver's urging her to leave opposes the forces that keep her in a state of semi-isolation. In Clarissa Richardson develops his technique of using the situations of isolation and association to intensify the conflicts of his heroine. By making Clarissa's family a formidable element in the conflict between the two situations described above Richardson is able to keep his heroine in situations of isolation and association simultaneously and, at the same time, to give the situations equal stress. Furthermore every intensification of one situation intensifies the other so that the heroine's conflicts are doubly intensified by an 'action' involving either situation. The relationship between Clarissa and Lovelace and Clarissa's family up to the definition will demonstrate her predicament. 24

Samuel Richardson, p. 127. T h e three other m e t h o d s are listed a t t h e t o p of p. 285 of A p p e n d i x A as n u m b e r s 1, 4, a n d 7. 25

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Everything that contributes to Clarissa's association with Lovelace prolongs and intensifies her isolation from her family. Several methods support this simultaneous existence of two situations: placing the heroine under obligations to the villain, having the heroine curious about the character of the villain, urging the heroine into an unwanted marriage, and having the heroine attempt to be reconciled with her family. Clarissa's promising Lovelace that she will never marry any man as long as he is single, her continuing of a correspondence clandestinely with Lovelace even after her parents forbid it, and her ordering Anna Howe to investigate Xiovelace's character support the first two methods, as well as the third, in that this one device and two 'actions' help to precipitate the harsh measures that the family takes to force the marriage of -Clarissa with Solmes. And because her family is as unyielding as Clarissa about her marriage to Solmes, almost every attempt that she makes toward reconciliation leads to further alienation and isolation. In addition to opposing the situations of isolation and association t o complicate the heroine's conflicts, Richardson prolongs and intensifies the situations separately, as he does in Pamela. To prolong and intensify Clarissa's isolation he uses the four methods mentioned in the previous paragraph and two others: the removal of the heroine's privileges so that physical isolation is complete, which is new at this point, and the placing of the heroine in the hands of a captor more severe than the initial one. In addition he uses the device of the villain's controlling the heroine's correspondence (in which instance, the villain is the family). The important method of urging of the heroine to marry mentioned in the previous paragraph is supported by the strong refusals and the stormy pleadings of Clarissa and the family, and, ultimately, leads to Clarissa's alienation from every member of the family. By the use of the ^actions' supporting this method Richardson achieves a cumulative effect which greatly intensifies Clarissa's isolation. The method involving the physical isolation of the heroine is supported by the device of forbidding the heroine to attend church while she is a prisoner, a device that is used in Pamela and, in a different way, later in Clarissa. The method of placing the heroine in the hands of a more severe captor is worthy of note because Richardson uses it after the definition in Pamela and again after the definition in Clarissa. The 'action' supporting the method in this instance is the

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placing of Clarissa in the hands of her violent brother James by her offended father not long before Clarissa is abducted by Lovelace. To prolong and intensify Clarissa's association Richardson uses a method, the heroine's attempt to obtain reconciliation with her family, which he supports by several 'actions': Clarissa's frequent attempts to get her family to relent in its insistence that she marry Solmes, the curse which Clarissa's father places on her, her father's order that she be turned out of the house, and her mother's attempts to get her to relent, which make Clarissa realize that her mother has borne much of her father's and brother's violence for her sake. These actions demonstrate vividly how Clarissa's attempts at reconciliation, which are aimed at increasing her association with her family, actually lead to greater isolation. Two other methods that Richardson uses to prolong and intensify association are having the heroine advised how to conduct herself in her predicament and having her desire to meet the family of the villain. Devices supporting the first of these methods are the villain's wooing of the heroine by letters, which Lovelace does intermittently to Clarissa, and a clandestine correspondence, which Clarissa maintains with both of her links to the outside world, Anna Howe and Lovelace. 'Actions' supporting the last method include Lovelace's invitations to Clarissa on behalf of his relatives to visit them (part of this is, of course, entirely deceptive); Clarissa's expressions to Anna Howe that she would like to consult Lovelace's relatives; and Lovelace's offers to take Clarissa directly to one of his relatives when she leaves Harlowe-Place. In his final novel Richardson further varies his treatment of the two situations of isolation and association. In Pamela isolation is stressed much more than association and the heroine's conflict is consequently relatively simple. In Clarissa association is stressed as much as isolation and the heroine's conflicts are thereby intensified and made more complex. In Grandison Richardson reverses what he does in Pamela and stresses association more than isolation. By this emphasis he makes Harriet's conflicts more complex than Pamela's but much less so than Clarissa's. At the same time he is able to concentrate less on the plight of his heroine and more on the virtues of his hero. The major method used to prolong Harriet's association is characteristic of Grandison and does not appear in Clarissa: the heroine's gradual acceptance into a new social relationship and her assuming

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of responsibilities within the new 'family'. Devices that support this method are the heroine's becoming a protector and confidante of the hero's ward; the heroine's being advised about her problems by others, including Charlotte Grandison and her sister in the 'family'; and the hero and heroine's exchanging letters from which they learn about each other's past. Important 'actions' that support the method are Harriet's advising Grandison about the affections of his sister Charlotte, and Grandison's looking upon Harriet as one of his sisters. However, there are anxieties involved in Harriet's association, and Richardson intensifies this situation by the method of maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties. He uses three devices to support this method: a heroine's (Clementina's) attempt to commit suicide, a device that appeared once in Pamela and once in Clarissa; having a grandfather's will determine adversely the actions of the grandchildren (Laurana's cruelty to Clementina is caused by her forcing Clementina to conform to the terms of their grandfather's will); and having the arrival of some unwanted person cause violence and embarrassment (Lady Olivia visits Grandison before his departure for Italy and embarrasses everyone with her very forward manner, and Emily's mother and her husband cause an uproar which has to be subdued by Grandison). A second method that intensifies the association is placing the heroine under obligation to the hero (Harriet for her rescue by Grandison). Harriet's semi-isolation, which is emotional rather than physical, is prolonged by the method of urging the heroine to marry. Her 'actions' of having to be introspective and withdrawing because of the uncertainties about the only man she loves support this method. Harriet's semi-isolation is intensified by two methods; the heroine's concern for her new social relationships and the heroine's inordinate curiosity about the hero (or villain). One difference between an 'action' supporting this latter method and its counterpart in Clarissa is that Harriet is looking for flaws in Grandison whereas Clarissa is seeking virtues in Lovelace. A device which supports this same method is the heroine's bracketing of the sections of her letters home that reveal her interest in the hero so that these passages will not be read aloud to all of her family. B. Definition to Crisis. — In both Pamela and Clarissa Richardson devotes more space to the narrative between the definition and the crisis than he does to that between the point of entrance and the

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definition. I n Pamela Richardson devotes two-thirds of a volume, or approximately one-third of his total space, to the area between the definition and the crisis.26 This contrasts with the one-third of a volume which he devotes to the section preceding the definition. I n Clarissa the two-volume space between the point of entrance and definition increases to almost three volumes, or about o n e third of the total length, between the definition and crisis.27 I t is interesting to note t h a t in both his first and second novels Richardson devotes exactly one-third of the narrative to the space between the definition and the crisis. In Grandison Richardson departs from this pattern by spacing the definition and crisis only two-thirds of a volume apart. 2 8 However, before this brief length of approximately one-ninth of the novel is condemned as highly artificial, it must be remembered t h a t Richardson utilizes a delayed definition in Grandison which extends two and one half volumes. 29 Such a delayed definition allows Richardson space to introduce his hero adequately and to reveal the great emotional effect of the hero on the heroine. Richardson adapted the placing of his definitions in the narrative in that, with the writing of each novel, he delayed his definition somewhat further. I n Pamela the definition occurs early, only one-sixth of the way through the narrative. In Clarissa it is delayed until a quarter of the narrative has been presented. I n Grandison the definition begins very early, one-twelfth of the way through, b u t it is extended so t h a t the defining event itself does not appear until the novel is half completed. I n all of the novels the definitions intensify both the conflicts and the isolations of the heroines. Although Richardson uses several methods to achieve this intensification, as will be demonstrated below, he uses one method in all three novels which makes these defining events as crucial and as anguishing to the heroines as. possible: he has the drastic defining event occur after the anxieties of the heroine have been relaxed somewhat. I n Pamela the heroine is more at ease before she is abducted to Lincolnshire than she has

26

From From 28 From 29 From of V o l u m e 27

I, 119 t o I I , 27. I I , 399 to V, 314 in t h e eight v o l u m e third edition. I I I , 415 t o IV, 295. Harriet's rescue in V o l u m e I t o Grandison's departure a t t h e encl IV.

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been for some time because she thinks she is going home. In Clarissa the heroine, although worried about her prospective interview with Lovelace, is pleased because her family has relaxed some of their restrictions on her and she is more optimistic about prevailing against them than she has been for some time. In Grandison the heroine is, when she informs Lady D— that her affections are no longer disengaged, pleased with even the remote possibility of becoming Grandison's wife. Instead of having her hopes devastated by one particular event, however, Harriet must wait to learn that Grandison is not available even though he does have affection for her. The event occurs when, soon after he has indicated his affection for Harriet, Grandison departs for Italy with the intention of marrying Clementina. In addition to the important method mentioned above Richardson uses four methods to intensify the conflicts of the heroines by the definitions in the three novels. The standard method of maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties is used in Pamela and it is supported by six devices. The extent to which the definition intensifies Pamela's conflict with Mr. B— and increases her isolation is indicated by two of these devices: the heroine's being made the prisoner of a harsh, forbidding woman and the villain's eliminating any possibility of aid for the heroine.30 The definition in Clarissa greatly intensifies the heroine's conflict with her family and, even more, with Lovelace. Instead of using one general method to develop this intensification, as he does in Pamela, Richardson uses two specific methods. One of these is the placing of the heroine under obligations to the villain, which is supported by several 'actions', the most important of which is Clarissa's previous promise to marry no other man while Lovelace remains single. The other method is having the villain maneuver the activities of the heroine by using deception. Devices supporting this method include the tricking of the heroine into a rash act 31 (a device used at least once in the other novels); and the villain's taking advantage of the heroine's fears of violence. Watt describes the worsening effect of the definition on Clarissa's situation succinctly: 30

T h e other devices are listed o n p. 286 of A p p e n d i x A a n d are n u m b e r s

2-5. 31

McKillop, in Early Masters, p. 70, accurately describes t h i s act of Clarissa's departure w i t h L o v e l a c e as occurring "half b y accident a n d h a l f b y L o v e l a c e ' s plot".

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Clarissa escapes from such oppressions and the struggle is transferred to the purely individual plane. E v e n here, however, she is under great disadvantages. The mere fact that she has left home to protect her own freedom and not out of love for him gives deep offence to Lovelace's pride; while the main issue that separates them, that of marriage, presents peculiar difficulties. 32

I t is interesting to note that in Clarissa Richardson intentionally delays using two devices which he introduced immediately in Pamela: having the heroine made the prisoner of a harsh, forbidding woman; and transporting the heroine to a place where she is exposed to possible evils. By so delaying Richardson is able to prolong the intensification established by the definition. And he is also able to use these two devices along with a series of 'actions' during which Clarissa's situation gradually worsens from the definition to the crisis. The delayed definition in Orandison is made up of these 'actions', the last of which is the defining event: Harriet's rescue in Volume I, Harriet's admission that her affections are engaged at the beginning of Volume II, the revelation of the Italian affair in Volume III, and Grandison's departure for Italy after indicating his fondness for Harriet at the end of Volume III. Harriet's conflicts are greatly intensified by this definition, and the method used to develop the intensification is the maintaining and controlling of the heroine's anxieties. 'Actions' supporting this method are the heroine's discoveries that the only man she has ever cared for has gone away to arrange a marriage with another woman; her protector has gone, exposing her to her various suitors who worried her before her rescue by Grandison; her future is infinitely blacker than it was when she first came to London; and Lady Olivia, who attempted to stab Grandison just before his departure, will be spending some time in England. To prolong up to the crisis the heroine's conflicts that have been intensified by the definitions Richardson uses six different methods in his three novels. In Pamela he uses two: allowing the imprisoned heroine a single correspondent who offers some hope for escape, and maintaining a balance between the safety of staying and the dangers of escaping. A device supporting the first method is establishment of a clandestine correspondence between the heroine and Mr. Williams. The second method, which is a standard one for prolonging conflicts, is supported by two devices — the villain's 32

The Rise of the Novel, p. 224.

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use of servants to spy on the heroine and the heroine's injury in an attempt to escape — and several 'actions': having Williams robbed, beaten, and later put in jail for debt (acts which remove entirely any possible aid for the heroine); placing the objectionable Colbrand as a guard over Pamela; and having a bull, which formerly injured a servant, running loose in the only area that affords escape. In Clarissa Richardson uses these same two methods, in addition to one other, to prolong the herione's conflicts to the crisis. However, he uses one new device, as well as those mentioned above, to support these two methods in Clarissa: the possibility that aid is constantly on the way (in the form of Colonel Morden) keeps the heroine from acting when she should. Two devices that support the third prolonging method (the villain's maneuvering of the heroine's actions by deception) are worthy of note because they are strictly delaying devices. The first is the villain's offering the heroine something which he knows is not available, the Fretchville house with which Lovelace teases Clarissa at St. Albans; the second is the heroine's inability to settle on a wedding date, which is used in the other two novels in the way one would expect it to be. In Clarissa, however, the heroine does not have the choice because Lovelace is again taunting her and keeping her in his power. A fourth prolonging method is peculiar to Richardson's major novel, the villain's capitalizing on the heroine's fears and scruples. Lovelace's referring to Clarissa as Mrs. Lovelace, his constant warnings that James Harlowe will take her from him by violence, and his attempts to alienate Mrs. Howe from Clarissa all support this method. Watt has pointed out another way that Richardson prolongs Clarissa's conflicts between the definition and the crisis: The reinforced taboo on women avowing their feelings in courtship is, therefore, primarily responsible for the way that the deadlock between Clarissa and Lovelace drags out so long, becoming uglier and more desperate in the process. Richardson, indeed, with remarkable objectivity, even makes Lovelace challenge the whole basis of the code. 33

The methods that Richardson uses to prolong Harriet's conflicts in his final novel are standard ones, particularly the first: the urging of the heroine to marry and maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties. Among the 'actions' supporting these meth33

The Rise of the Novel, p. 226.

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ods are Lady D—'s importunings to Harriet for her son, which are embarrassing to Harriet; Harriet's re-exposure to Greville and Fen wick, her country beaux; and Lady Olivia's shocking Harriet by expressing intense hatred for Clementina. Although Richardson had a number of devices at his disposal at the time, he did not use them as frequently to support his methods in Grandison, as he had done earlier in Clarissa. Because they reveal both uniformity and adaptability, the ways that Richardson intensifies the heroines' conflicts up until the crises effectively demonstrate the application and development of his technique. In all three novels Richardson uses the same two methods to intensify the heroines' conflicts: the progressive worsening of the heroine's position and the urging of the heroine to marry. And in Pamela and Clarissa he supports these methods with devices and 'actions' that are effectively arranged in order of increasing intensity and remarkably similar in content. The similarity between the arrangements of 'actions' and devices supporting the worsening of the heroine's position in the two novels is evident from the following brief description. In Pamela Richardson presents this sequence of 'actions': Pamela's imprisonment; the elimination of Mr. Williams, Pamela's only hope for aid; the placing of an ugly Swiss as guard over Pamela; Mr. B —'s offering to make Pamela his mistress soon after her attempt to escape and consequent injury; Mr. B—'s attempt to rape Pamela; Pamela's learning from a gypsy fortune teller that she will never marry and will die giving birth to her first child. Richardson interlards this sequence with several devices which include a foreboding dream, an anonymous warning note, and the villain's use of disguise. In Clarissa the sequence of 'actions' is, very briefly: Clarissa's arrival and virtual imprisonment at Mrs. Sinclair's; her exposure to Lovelace's world at the collation; Lovelace's feigning illness to arouse sympathy; the appearance of an 'agent' of Clarissa's family to effect a reconciliation; Lovelace's 'attempt' on her during the fire scene; Clarissa's escape and capture; the return to Mrs. Sinclair's and the rape. Devices that Richardson uses to interlard this sequence include the villain's trying of the heroine under different circumstances (as a 'semi-prisoner' at St. Albans, a 'guest' at the collation, and a 'prisoner' at the Widow Bevis'), and the use of disguise (on the part of Lovelace, the Widow Bevis, and Lovelace's two accessories to the rape who pretend to be his relatives).

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The second intensifying method in Clarissa, the urging of the heroine to marry, is especially effective because Richardson supports it by 'actions' t h a t greatly increase the heroine's anxieties. The pressure of these 'actions' — Anna Howe's frequent urgings t h a t Clarissa marry Lovelace and Lovelace's agonizingly ambiguous offers of marriage to Clarissa — increases Clarissa's conflicts because the better she knows Lovelace, the less she desires to marry him. The striking similarities in the devices Richardson uses to intensify the conflicts from definition to crisis in Pamela and Clarissa are demonstrated by the following summary: both heroines are tricked into going off to a place of imprisonment; both are placed under harsh, coarse women; both are allowed one correspondent who promises hope for an escape. In both instances the villains maneuver the people involved so t h a t either no aid or ineffectual aid is obtained. Both heroines are spied on while they are prisoners and their correspondence is controlled by the villain either all the time or part of the time. Both heroines are exposed to harsh men (Pamela to Colbrand and Clarissa to Lovelace's rakish friends) and both are urged to marry men they dislike. Both heroines are offered unsatisfactory settlements by the villains and both try to escape. Both are attempted by the villains (Mr. B— while disguised as a maid and Lovelace in the fire scene), and both of the villains use illness to arouse sympathy in the heroines. And to this list can be added some more general similarities noted by McKillop: B o t h Pamela a n d Clarissa h a v e heroines w h o assert t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n and p a r t l y in opposition t o a social f r a m e w o r k . I n Pamela t h e i m m e d i a t e f r a m e w o r k is t h e h o u s e h o l d rather t h a n t h e f a m i l y , a n d centers a b o u t t h e m a s t e r - s e r v a n t relationship; in Clarissa t h e f r a m e w o r k is t h e u p p e r middleclass f a m i l y . I n b o t h stories t h e heroine is s o u g h t , or w e m a y s a y assailed, b y a m a n of higher rank; in b o t h there is a n interplay of a t t r a c t i o n and repulsion; as t h e heroine tries t o p r o t e c t herself, t o assert her personality a n d ideals in a s e x u a l crisis, w e p a s s f r o m a social d o c u m e n t t o a n o v e l of personality. 3 4

Evidently Richardson found a number of the devices that he had used in Pamela effective and thus repeated and developed them in his major novel. However, along with all of these numerous similarities there is one striking difference between Richardson's intensifications of his 34

Early

Masters,

p. 64.

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heroines' conflicts from the definition and crisis in Pamela and in Clarissa. On the surface the positions of both heroines seem to be worsening, but a closer inspection reveals that Pamela's position is actually improving before the crisis. Her anxieties are greater; however, Mr. B —'s treatment of her is more considerate than it has been. Such is not the case in Clarissa, where the villain's deception worsens the heroine's position to a greater extent than she is aware. This variation in handling the heroines' positions prior to the crises, which is, in turn, neatly adapted to suit the different culminations that follow, is a good example of Richardson's application and development of his technique. In Grandison Richardson intensifies Harriet's conflicts from the definition to the crisis by the same two methods used in Pamela and Clarissa: the progressive worsening of the heroine's position and urging the heroine to marry. As in the other two novels Richardson arranges the 'actions' supporting these methods in order of increasing intensity. The following sequence, which supports both methods, illustrates this arrangement: Lady D— and Mr. Fowler importune Harriet to marry; Harriet returns to her home in the country exposing herself to her former suitors; Harriet hears news from Italy about Clementina's rapid improvement after Grandison's arrival there; when everyone in England feels that Grandison and Clementina are married, Lady D— importunes Harriet again; Harriet learns that Grandison has been accosted by the Count of Belvedere; Harriet feels ill and persecuted. Along with the 'actions' listed above, three devices involving Clementina but increasing the anxieties of Harriet are used to support the progressive worsening of the heroine's position.35 As in the first section of the three novels — from the point of entrance to the definition — Richardson intensifies and prolongs the heroines' situations of isolation and association from the definitions to the crises. Basically his treatment of these situations in the second section of the novels is similar to that in the first section but there is evidence of further application and development, as will be demonstrated below. In Pamela isolation is stressed over association and the heroine's isolation is intensified considerably by the definition, at which she 35 These devices, two of which are used previously to support methods in Clarissa, are listed at the middle of p. 293 as numbers 2-4.

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is made a virtual prisoner instead of a partial one. The major method in this development is the use of deception by the villain. This isolation is prolonged and intensified until the crisis by two methods: maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties and urging the heroine to marry. Supporting the first method are two devices: the heroine's belief t h a t aid (in the form of Mr. Williams) is on its way keeps her from seeking it from other sources, and the villain's maneuvering of the means of aid keeps it from being effectual. At the same time Pamela's association with others is reduced sharply b y the definition, and her need for it is prolonged afterward by the device of her having a clandestine correspondence with Williams, her only association with the outside world, except for Mr. B —. Her need for association is intensified before the crisis by a desire for reconciliation with her family from which she has been completely cut off, and by a similar desire for reconciliation with Mr. B—'s sister, Lady Davers, who has bitterly opposed the proposed match of Mr. B - and Pamela from the time of its inception. As in the first part of Clarissa, Richardson maintains an even balance between isolation and association in the section from the definition to the crisis. By doing this he is able to sustain within his heroine a conflict that is intensified by any forces that further isolate her from the world or further associate her with her supporters in the world. Both isolation and association are intensified by the definition. Richardson intensifies Clarissa's isolation by three methods: the villain's practicing of deception on the heroine and maneuvering her actions, the urging of the heroine to marry, and the placing of the heroine under obligations to the villain. Because Clarissa realizes almost immediately after Lovelace has whisked her away from the garden gate that she has been deceived and because she understands t h a t society expects her to marry this man she is already beginning to dislike, Clarissa's isolation, spiritual as well as physical, is greatly intensified. 36 At the same time her desire for association with others is intensified by several methods, two of which are the heroine's 36 W a t t p o i n t s o u t , in The Rise of the Novel, p . 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 , t o f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t e C l a r i s s a ' s e x t r e m e i s o l a t i o n t h a t " t h e r e a l t r a g e d y , h o w e v e r , is t h a t t h e c o d e [ t h e m i d d l e class m o r a l c o d e of t h e p e r i o d ] also m a k e s C l a r i s s a w i t h h o l d h e r sexual feelings f r o m A n n a H o w e , a n d even f r o m her own consciousness, a n d it is t h i s w h i c h c r e a t e s t h e m a i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e n s i o n i n t h e e a r l y volumes . . .".

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attempting to obtain reconciliation with her family, and the heroine's being allowed a single correspondent who offers a chance for escape. 37 Clarissa's desire for reconciliation with her family was intense before the definition; after it, when attainment of reconciliation seems even more hopeless, the desire is more intense. Because of her dependence on her correspondent, Clarissa is drawn closer to Anna Howe, who unwittingly does more to increase Clarissa's conflicts than to reduce them since her attitudes toward life are entirely different. By balancing Clarissa's isolation against her desire for association, Richardson is able to make the definition in the novel so intensify both situations that it sets the tone of the novel up to the crisis. Richardson prolongs Clarissa's isolation until the crisis by a continuation of the methods 38 used to intensify isolation by the definition, along with one other: the heroine's possessing an insatiable curiosity about the villain. This method and the one concerning her desire for reconciliation, mentioned above, ironically serve to intensify association by the definition and work in this peculiar manner: every attempt that Clarissa makes to obtain reconciliation with her family is either taken advantage of by Lovelace or completely and bitterly repulsed by the harsher members of her family. Clarissa is thus further isolated by her good intentions. Clarissa's curiosity about Lovelace is strong until the fire scene, but Lovelace seldom completely satisfies Clarissa's curiosity, as Clarissa indicates to Anna Howe, and thus the heroine's separation from the villain is increased and she is further isolated. In effect, she is, because of her circumstances, not free to associate fully with anyone. Association for Clarissa is prolonged until the crisis by one of the methods used to intensify the desire for association by the definition: the heroine's being allowed a single correspondent who offers a chance for escape. Clarissa's association with Anna is important in that it provides her a connection with the world during her period of isolation. An important device which prolongs associa37

T w o other m e t h o d s are listed o n p. 290 of A p p e n d i x A as n u m b e r s 10 a n d

11. 38

I n effect R i c h a r d s o n is using e l e v e n m e t h o d s a l t o g e t h e r for several purposes: to i n t e n s i f y t h e heroine's isolation and association b y m e a n s of t h e definition, t o prolong a n d i n t e n s i f y t h e heroine's isolation until t h e crisis, and to prolong and i n t e n s i f y t h e heroine's association until t h e crisis. T h e s e e l e v e n m e t h o d s are listed o n pp. 290 of A p p e n d i x A.

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tion up to the crisis, and which, in fact, is utilized in the crisis, is the heroine's desire to meet and know the villain's family. Clarissa's interest in meeting the ladies that Lovelace carefully mentions on the right occasions is strong; in fact, it is so strong that it helps to lead her into the trap Lovelace has set at Mrs. Sinclair's. Here again is a means of both prolongation and intensification. Certainly the major method Richardson uses to intensify Clarissa's isolation up to the crisis is the progressively worsening position of the heroine. Two devices supporting this method are worthy of note since they so aptly represent Richardson's technique. One is the presenting of patterns of wedding clothes to the prospective bride for the making of a choice. Clarissa is presented these when she is being forced to marry Solmes early in the novel. She is again presented patterns to choose from when Lovelace, who is now repulsive to her, is supposedly making plans for their wedding. The other is Richardson's use of illness to justify inaction on the part of certain characters. This device is used three times during Clarissa's isolation: Clarissa's maid Hannah is ill and cannot attend her even though Lovelace has given permission; L o r d M — has the gout and cannot give Clarissa away at the 'wedding' that Lovelace urges for a short period on Clarissa; and, most important, Belford, who might have kept Lovelace from the violation, is confined at the side of his dying uncle. During the first section of Orandison Richardson stressed his heroine's association over her isolation, which was at best only semi-isolation. I n the rather brief period between the definition and crisis, isolation is stressed almost as much as association, even though Harriet is never physically isolated to the extent t h a t Clarissa and Pamela are. The definition intensifies Harriet's isolation by the same 'actions' that support the method of maintaining and controlling her anxieties in the intensification of the basic conflict, and which are listed above. 39 I n addition to these 'actions' moreover, there is Harriet's awareness t h a t she is extremely limited by decorum. She cannot express her feelings openly and she cannot enjoy the familiar association with the Grandison family t h a t she enjoyed before. And her returning to the country where she is physically isolated from the social life of London is an important supporting 'action'. 39

See a b o v e .

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Harriet's isolation is prolonged by the method of urging the heroine to marry and by such 'actions' as the receiving of the news from Italy about Grandison and Clementina, which is all important to her, and being kept in a state of anxiety about possible dangers, both imagined and real. Her isolation is intensified until the crisis by the 'actions' described in the sequence listed above. Harriet's association is intensified during the definition by the 'action' of her sympathizing with Grandison's ward, Emily Jervois, over the possible loss of their protector. The heroine's association is prolonged by two methods: the heroine's having been placed under obligation to the hero (in the other novels, the villain) and the heroine's having an almost obsessive curiosity about the hero (villain). A device supporting this first method is the heroine's serving as guardian (Harriet serves as guardian of Emily Jervois). Of special interest is the fact that Harriet's association is intensified until the crisis in an ironical way. Like Clarissa she intensely desires association with her friends and Grandison's family, but is thwarted by practically everything that happens to her between the definition and the crisis. In his handling of isolation and association in this section of Grandison, Richardson surpasses his performance in Pamela and approaches, however slightly, the skill that he exhibits in Clarissa. In the second sections of his three novels Richardson takes fuller advantage of his two situations of isolation and association to intensify the conflicts of his heroines than he does in the first sections. In Pamela, and to a greater extent in the other two novels, he utilizes the heroine's desire for association as a force opposing her isolation, and thus is able to exploit fully the opportunities offered by the conflict between association and isolation. In all three of the novels he develops his technique of using the two situations beyond his achievement in the first sections of the novels. C. Crisis to Culmination.—'Between the crisis and the culmination Richardson devotes the least amount of space to the narrative in Pamela, although the proportions in this section of the novels are more nearly uniform than they are between the definition and the crisis, where the narrative in Grandison is very brief. In Pamela the space between the crisis and the culmination amounts to approximately one-sixth of the novel,40 while the comparable space in 10

116 pages, f r o m I I , 27 t o I I , 143.

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Clarissa represents well over a quarter of the novel.41 In Orandison the space between the two events is proportionately much greater than that in Pamela but less than that in Clarissa, well under a quarter of the novel.42 In Pamela and Orandison the crises resolve the basic conflict that had been intensified by the definitions, while in Clarissa the crisis intensifies the basic conflict and, at the same time, changes its character. To make his crisis as effective as possible Richardson uses an approach exactly opposite to that used for the definition: the heroines' anxieties are thoroughly intensified just before the crucial acts occur so that the acts come as a relief in Pamela? and a further intensification in Clarissa rather than as unexpected or unwanted drastic actions as in the definitions. In addition each heroine, just before the crisis when her anxieties are highly intensified, is placed in a dilemma which further increases her anxieties. A brief description will demonstrate Richardson's use of this approach in his three novels. In Pamela, the heroine is sent, after the series of intensifying 'actions' described in the previous subsection, to an inn by Mr. B—, where she is to depart for her home. While there, she receives two letters from Mr. B—, one saying that he is sending her to her parents, and the other that he wants her to return and forgive him because he is so much impressed with her journal. I t is at this point that her dilemma occurs and she is undecided as to which way to go. Soon after she returns, Mr. B — proposes marriage and the crisis occurs. It should be remembered that in the definition the heroine had no illusions about returning and was given no choice; her pleasant feelings about returning to her home were changed drastically when she was sent to Lincolnshire. In Clarissa the heroine is also removed to an inn-like house but she is given no choice after she arrives and she strenuously protests being sent there. Before this she has escaped from Lovelace, been captured by fraudulent means, and been deceived into believing that two of Lovelace's friends were his relatives who were to accompany her to Mrs. Sinclair's. Her dilemma is that she, differing from Pamela, is certain of which way to go but completely lacks means. Soon after she arrives, Lovelace violates her and the crisis occurs. Clarissa's dilemma, it should be pointed out, is the 41 42

T w o and one-fifth v o l u m e s of eight volumes, f r o m V, 314 t o V I I , 468. One and one-third v o l u m e s of six v o l u m e s , f r o m IV, 285 t o V , 367.

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result of the long conflict that began at the definition and is more complex than those of the other heroines. In Grandison the news that Clementina has rejected Grandison, which is the crisis, comes to Harriet as a shock and a relief since she had assumed that they were already married and she had just been confronted by Lady D —, whose urging of marriage for her son was based on that assumption. Harriet's dilemma is that she must not show her passion for the only man she has ever loved because that would be indecorous and selfish. As was indicated in the previous subsection, Pamela's situation is not "so serious as it appears on the surface just before the crisis. Watt has described Richardson's skill in handling this situation: When Pamela leaves him to return to her parents it appears certain that all is over between them; actually a counter-movement at once begins. On the one hand, she is surprised to discover 'something so strange . . . so unexpected' in her feelings that she is forced to wonder whether she is not in fact sorry to be leaving; on the other hand, Mr. B.'s deepest feelings, as revealed in his parting letter, show that he is not merely the stereotype of the licentious squire but a m a n whose intentions m a y become honest, and who m a y quite possibly be a fit mate for Pamela. These sudden revelations of the disparity between the conventional and the actual attitudes of the lovers thus enabled Richardson to work out their relationship in a plot of the type which Aristotle considered to be the best, a complex action in which the peripety and the recognition coincide. 43

Watt also points out that the moral code of the time which forbade a girl to show her affections for a man until he had proposed marriage allowed Richardson to withhold from his readers "any idea of Pamela's real feelings towards Mr.B. until the crisis in the action". 44 The effects of the crises in the novels vary considerably. In Pamela the effect of Mr. B —'s proposal, the crisis event, is very simply to reduce to nothing the conflict between the two leading characters. At the same time the crisis establishes another conflict — that between Pamela and Mr. B —, on one hand, and Lady Davers, on the other — which lasts even beyond the culmination. In Clarissa the effect of Lovelace's violation of Clarissa, the crisis event, is to intensify the basic conflict between Lovelace and Clarissa

" The Rise of the Novel, "Ibid., p. 167.

pp. 167-168.

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9]

and to increase Clarissa's other conflicts with her family and now because of the stigma attached to the violation, with society. In effect the violation and all of its ramifications are 'actions' which support four methods that develop these conflicts. These methods are placing the heroine under (further) obligation to the villain; the urging of the heroine to marry, which is pursued more strenuously by Lovelace and Anna Howe after the violation; the heroine's attempts at reconciliation with her family which are rendered ineffectual by the violation; and the progressive worsening of the heroine's position. A device supporting this last method is the coming of aid to the heroine after it is too late. In Orandison the news that Clementina has rejected Grandison, the crisis event, resolves Harriet's primary conflict about Grandison's eligibility but, as in Pamela, it establishes other conflicts which last up to the culmination. However, there is one difference between these conflicts and the one established by the crisis in Pamela: all of Harriet's conflicts after the crisis concern circumstances which existed before (Greville's extreme jealousy of Grandison because he has won Harriet is a good example) and several of them are more imaginary than real. In Pamela Richardson sustains his narrative effectively after the crisis by prolonging and intensifying the heroine's remaining conflict from the crisis through the culmination. To do this he uses a method that is also important in Grandison: having the heroine concerned about her new social status. The 'actions' supporting this method involve Lady Da vers' objections to this match between her young brother, Mr. B —, and his mother's former serving maid. By having the crisis allay all of Pamela's anxieties but one, Richardson provides his first novel with an important link in the narrative structure before and after the culmination. A device which might be said to provide a conflict between the leading characters from the crisis to shortly before the culmination is the heroine's inability to settle on a wedding date. Pamela's playful indecisiveness about this matter provides an effective, and entirely feminine, delaying device which does much to fill up the pages between 48 and 122. Two other devices are used in this section of the novel. One is the full exploitation of ceremonies on the part of the author, a device which appears in the other two novels as well. Richardson exploits the church service before the wedding as an occasion of joyful reconciliation between Pamela and her

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father when final and full consent is given to the union of Pamela and Mr. B—. The second device is having the villain become the hero as soon as he becomes the protector of the heroine. Mr. B —, of course, protects Pamela from Lady Davers, a circumstance that emphasized the importance of Pamela's conflict with her sister-inlaw in the last part of the novel. In Clarissa the heroine's conflicts are prolonged and intensified from the crisis to her escape from the villain by two methods, in addition to the four mentioned above: the villain's practicing of deception on the heroine and the villain's allowing the heroine a correspondent who offers hope for escape. An 'action' supporting the first method is the villain's presenting the heroine with a contrived letter from Captain Tomlinson which informs her that her family has planned for the marriage of Clarissa and Lovelace to be held on her uncle's birthday at his home. The most important 'actions' supporting the second method are Clarissa's relations with her confidante and hope for relief, Anna Howe, and her cousin, Colonel Morden, who presumably has been coming from Florence since the beginning of the narrative and who arrives in London just in time to witness Clarissa's death, the culminating event. Of the four methods mentioned above in connection with the effect of the crisis in Clarissa, two are extremely important in the prolongation and intensification of the heroine's conflicts: the urging of the heroine to marry and the progressive worsening of the heroine's position. Since these two methods contribute extensively to the development of Clarissa's isolation, they will be described below in the discussion of isolation. Richardson prolongs and intensifies his heroine's conflicts in Grandison from the crisis up to the culmination by the standard method of maintaining and controlling the anxieties of his heroine. Four of the more important 'actions' that support this method are Harriet's anxiety about the news from Italy which may reveal that Clementina has, after the rejection, yielded to the urging of both Grandison and Clementina's family that she reconsider and accept him; the report that the Count of Belvedere has threatened Grandison with two pistols; the report that Lady Olivia has accosted Grandison in his apartment and, later, that she is threatening to come to England before the wedding of Harriet and Grandison; and Greville's accosting of Grandison while he is staying at the inn in the village near the Selby's house. As in Pamela and Clarissa

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Richardson maintains his heroine's anxiety in Grandison by having the heroine unable to decide on a wedding date. However, Richardson's treatment of this device differs from that in Pamela and Clarissa in t h a t Harriet is playfully feminine about the question (as was Pamela) only up until the time that Clementina strenuously urges the wedding; then Harriet relinquishes her prerogative and places the problem of the date entirely in Grandison's hands. Three other devices t h a t Richardson uses to maintain Harriet's anxieties are having an old beau of the heroine urge marriage up until the last (Greville is very reluctant to give up his suit even when the wedding is imminent); the heroine's having a foreboding dream; and the heroine's receiving an anonymous note warning her t h a t Greville will attempt to threaten Grandison. As in his first novel. Richardson demonstrates in Grandison that he is able to sustain his narrative even after the major conflict has been resolved. The importance of isolation and association from the crisis to the culmination varies considerably in the three novels. In Pamela these two situations are of little or no importance, in Grandison they are of slight importance, and in Clarissa they are of extreme importance — in fact they are responsible for changing the character of Clarissa's conflict, as will be pointed out below. Very simply the crisis in Pamela reduces to nothing the heroine's isolation. At the same time it increases her association, and the method of the heroine's being concerned about her new social situation intensifies this situation of association until after the culmination. I n Clarissa the crisis intensifies the heroine's physical isolation to the point t h a t her conflict is changed from a battle with Lovelace over her individual rights to a battle with society over her right to survive as a person with feelings and preferences. And as her physical isolation is further intensified, b y means that will be described below, her spiritual association is intensified until the culminating event, her death, which serves as a sort of spiritual wedding. The transformation from physical isolation to spiritual association is evident in the following five stages in the heroine's situation maintained by isolation and association in this section of the novel: (1) the period immediately after the violation when Clarissa is physically isolated and still vulnerable to further attack by Lovelace; (2) the period after the penknife scene when Clarissa is no longer vulnerable to attack even though she is still a prisoner (by threatening suicide with the penknife she attains a sort of spiritual free-

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dom); 45 (3) the period after her escape when she is both physically and spiritually free; (4) the period after her arrest when she is physically isolated but spiritually free; 46 (5) the period before her death when she is physically isolated by illness but spiritually free. By adding a possible sixth stage, t h a t of being physically nonexistent but spiritually alive and free, 47 it is possible to see the skill with which Richardson handled his narrative structure so as to make the 'actions' from the crisis to the culmination as meaningful as possible. To prolong and intensify the heroine's isolation progressively up to the culmination Richardson uses two methods: the urging of the heroine to marry and the progressive worsening of the heroine's position. The 'actions' supporting this first method are agonizing to Clarissa, as this brief list will demonstrate: Lovelace urges marriage very strongly by deceptive means soon after the crisis; Anna Howe persistently urges it; and even Clarissa's closest friends and advisors of her happy youth, Doctor Lewen, Colonel Morden, and Mrs. Norton, urge it strenuously. Clarissa's dilemma in this situation is rendered more complex by this constant urging of her friends that she solve her problem by doing what is now impossible for her to do. Richardson uses his second method, the progressive worsening of the heroine's position, so extensively to develop his heroine's isolation that it is necessary to group the supporting devices and 'actions' according to the minor events they involve. The first group, which involves Clarissa's attempts to escape, includes a number of devices: the heroine's attempting escape and being injured in the process; the use of disguise; the heroine's attempting suicide (Clarissa's penknife scene, which must be considered a very serious attempt to escape); the use of illness to justify the action of a character at a crucial time (Lovelace is called to M— Hall because 45 McKillop confirms this, in Early Masters, p. 74, where h e s a y s "The so-called 'penknife scene' m a r k s a t long last t h e end of L o v e l a c e ' s p l o t t i n g a n d establishes Clarissa's spiritual and d r a m a t i c d o m i n a n c e . " 46 I n reference t o this McKillop, in Early Masters, p. 76, says, "Clarissa's second escape f r o m L o v e l a c e a n d her refuge in C o v e n t Garden, w i t h t h e final false arrest b y L o v e l a c e ' s a g e n t Mrs. Sinclair, confirm her isolation a n d martyrdom." 47 R i c h a r d s o n ' s awareness of t h e existence of t h i s possible s i x t h s t a g e is s e e n in his remark, Postscript, V I I I , 319, t h a t Clarissa's w i s h t h a t her closing scene b e h a p p y c a m e true: "She h a d her wish. I t was h a p p y . "

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of the illness of Lord M— and is there when Clarissa makes a successful escape); and the villain's wooing of the heroine b y letter. Two 'actions' following the heroine's escape also support this method: Anna Howe's mother advises Clarissa to stop writing to her daughter, and Clarissa is arrested for 'debts' that she supposedly owes Mrs. Sinclair and imprisoned in the Rowlands' house. The 'actions' involving Clarissa's relationships with her family demonstrate the way t h a t Richardson uses circumstances to intensify his heroine's alienation from her family and, consequently, her complete isolation from the world. The first of these 'actions' is the exchange of curt, unpleasant notes between Anna Howe and Arabella Harlowe, which only increases the antagonism between Clarissa and her family. Related to this letter exchange is Mrs. Norton's advising Clarissa that her family was considering sending a Mr. Brand to London to investigate Clarissa's situation b u t had decided against this after the fruitless exchange between Clarissa's friend and her sister. Clarissa's isolation is further increased by the receipt of cruel letters from Arabella and from her two uncles, on whom she had depended for help. Another 'action' is the report t h a t Brand later makes to the family in which he claims that Clarissa is sinning further by entertaining in her room an unmarried man. This report, of course, further alienates the family and delays any possibility of understanding on their part. Another group of 'actions' and devices, which support the method of worsening the heroine's position, involves Clarissa's inability to find a home, or even a safe resting place, in the world. One 'action' in the group is Arabella's writing Clarissa urging her to go to Pennsylvania and live with a relative until the scandal is over. A second 'action' is Lovelace's invasion of Clarissa's quarters, for which Richardson used his device of an opportune illness: Clarissa's 'guardian', Belford, is away attending a dying friend. A device t h a t is used at this point to accentuate Clarissa's complete inability to find a home in the world is the heroine's preparing a bundle for an anticipated journey, a device used in Pamela and once before in Clarissa. All of the 'actions' and devices supporting the worsening of the heroine's position are handled so that they seem completely feasible. Richardson's ability to make them all seem to be the result of natural circumstances and, at the same time, to limit Clarissa's world so thoroughly that she is isolated is remarkable. McKillop has

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described Richardson's handling of his heroine's isolation in this section of the novel: These separations may be called the severing of earthly ties, but what we really have here is isolation as an essential part of the tragedy of personality. From isolation imposed by mere physical restraint, as in Pamela and some parts of Clarissa, Richardson works his way to something more profound. 49

All of this 'severing of earthly ties', this complete isolation of the heroine from her world, leads to association that is not physical but spiritual — not of this world. To develop his heroine's spiritual association Richardson uses a familiar method in a somewhat unusual way: the heroine's desire for reconciliation in both this world and the next. Several 'actions' and devices support this method. First there is the 'action' of the heroine designating Belford as her executor and the device of a major character turning over his letters to another for a specific purpose (Clarissa, of course, turning hers over to Belford). Several 'actions' are Clarissa's answering Doctor Lewen's urgent request that she prosecute Lovelace at law with the statement that divine law will punish him; Clarissa's father's reluctant lifting of his curse; Clarissa's selling her clothes and jewelry (her only worldly possessions) to pay her 'debts' to Mrs. Sinclair's house where she was violated by evil forces in the world; and Clarissa's purchase of her coffin and writing of her will. Devices are the appearance of the heroine in a symbolically colored gown (Clarissa in white before Lovelace after the rape); a mysterious letter which causes anxiety on the part of one character (Clarissa's note about going to her father's house, which causes Lovelace anxiety); and the heroine's attending church while a prisoner. The five previous paragraphs confirm that Richardson practiced in his fiction two principles of this theory concerning narrative structure: probability and naturalness. To repeat what is pointed out by way of summary on the previous page, all of the numerous 'actions' and devices supporting the worsening of the heroine's position are handled so t h a t they seem completely feasible. This feasibility, or probability, is obtained by Richardson's careful use of an ample number of minute details, which, as he has indicated, 49 48 49

Early Masters, pp. 74-7$. See Chapter I, pp. 19-20.

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are necessary in a story representing real life. According to the foregoing description of his technique, Richardson fulfilled in his practice his theoretical intention to engage and interest his reader by presenting his story in a probable manner. Furthermore Richardson's ability to make all of these 'actions' and devices seem to be the result of natural circumstances, also pointed out above, indicates that he confirmed in his practice his intentions to "raise a Distress from natural Causes" and to make all elements of the narrative structure arise naturally from the subject (more particularly the purpose) of the work. 50 In addition to isolation and association of the heroine there is some slight isolation, both physical and spiritual, of the villain. The method used to develop this isolation is adapted to the maintaining and controlling of the anxieties of the villain. A supporting device is having the family of the rake shocked by tales of his escapades, a device that is also used in Pamela II. The effect of this device is, of course, the ostracizing of Lovelace by his family, a form of physical and slightly spiritual isolation. Another supporting device is the use of warning dreams: Lovelace dreams that Morden defeats him in a fight and at the end he drops into hell (in some respects like Clarissa's dream about Lovelace just before the definition). Two of the 'actions' supporting this method are Lovelace's alienation from his old friend Belford and his hysterical behavior immediately before Clarissa's death. As in Pamela the heroine's isolation in Richardson's last novel is greatly reduced by the crisis. Yet in Grandison Richardson varies his technique in that this reduction does not occur immediately as it does in the earlier work. Harriet refuses to accept offered congratulations when the news of Clementina's rejection of Grandison arrives, and she is not entirely at ease about her position in the world until Grandison returns and makes his proposal. And even after that she is plagued by the dangers mentioned above. 51 As in Clarissa Richardson is, in his final novel, able to make his heroine's desire for association increase her isolation. This conflict of the two situations, of course, applies to Harriet's relationship with Clementina: because she feels sorry for her and desires to be reconciled to her, Harriet cannot be as overjoyed as her friends are 50 51

See Chapter I, p. 20. See pp. 92-93, above.

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about the news of her rejection of Grandison and thus she remains somewhat isolated by her feelings. Harriet is further sorrowed by the news, after the crisis, that Clementina's family is attempting to force her into marriage. Association, on the other hand, is of great importance in this section of Grandison, and several 'actions' support it: the reunion of the 'Grandison' family, of which Harriet is now a permanent part; the determination that Harriet is to keep Emily with her after the marriage; the close association of Harriet's grandmother with Grandison; the acceptance of Beauchamp in the 'family'; and the settling of affairs that Grandison engages in and Harriet supports to the fullest. D. Culmination through Conclusion. — In contrast to his devoting of just one-sixth of the narrative to the space between the crisis and culmination in Pamela, Richardson devotes a substantial three—tenths of his narrative to the final section from the culmination through the conclusion. And throughout this section, which appears to be unduly long and out of proportion to the rest of the novel, Richardson is able to sustain his narrative even though the culmination has occurred. In Clarissa and Grandison the space Richardson devotes to the final sections is more nearly uniform, one-eighth for his major novel and one-sixth for his final one. However, the final section in Grandison seems out of proportion since it represents a sixth of the entire novel and includes only the visit of Clementina and her family to England and the tentative resolution of Clementina's problem. All three of the culminations have one basic similarity: they are all weddings which in Pamela and Grandison unite the hero and heroine, and in Clarissa, the heroine with her Lord at her death. In all three novels the culminations serve to resolve the conflicts and settle the remaining major issues. In Pamela and Grandison the culminations further resolve the conflicts established earlier at the points of entrance and definitions and resolve most of those established at the crises. In Pamela the culmination settles every major problem but one, that of Pamela's acceptance by Lady Davers, which is resolved before the conclusion. In Grandison, the culmination resolves all of Harriet's conflicts but leaves Clementina's unresolved, and at the same time, shifts the focus in the novel from Harriet to Clementina. In Clarissa the culmination resolves, for the

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first time, the conflicts established earlier in the novel. However, because Clarissa writes a will and leaves letters to her friends and relatives, she still exists as a character, at least for a brief period, after the culmination. In fact her influence in the world is far greater after she has left it, and she is able after her death to bring about at least part of the reconciliation that she so earnestly desired in life. Although the culmination is important in all three novels, only in Clarissa does Richardson use devices and 'actions' specifically to make the culminating event effective. Just before Clarissa's death 'actions' and devices are used to indicate a turn in the heroine's fortune: Brand's incorrect report to the family is rectified and the family is preparing to help Clarissa, and the aid that is always coming and is always too late arrives in the form of Colonel Morden, who witnesses the death of the heroine. Immediately after Clarissa's death and before it is known by the family, letters offering kindness and assistance from Clarissa's family pour in and it is announced that Mrs. Norton is on the way as a representative of the family to help the heroine. In Pamela Richardson uses two methods and several devices and 'actions' to prolong and intensify the one remaining conflict with Lady Davers which was intensified by the culmination. Supporting the maintaining and controlling of the heroine's anxieties are one 'action', the violent encounter between Pamela and Lady Davers soon after the marriage,52 and several devices: having illness justify the inaction of a major character at a crucial time (Mr. B— is called to visit a sick friend soon after the wedding, thus exposing Pamela to Lady Davers); having the sudden arrival of some person cause a violent encounter, a device used at least once in each novel; and having a villainous character become an heroic one by affording protection to the heroine (Colbrand, who earlier was hired to guard Pamela as a prisoner, now protects her from Lady Davers and her servants). A second 'action' supporting the method is Lady Davers' pulling the heroine out of the hero's bed. At this point Mr. B— becomes the heroine's protector, and from his argument with his sister another conflict arises. The second method used to prolong and 52 According to Robert A. Donovan, this particular scene, in which Pamela is forced to confront a violent, overbearing Lady Davers alone, is one of the most dramatic and significant scenes in the entire novel ("The Problem of Pamela, or, Virtue Unrewarded", Studies in English Literature, I I I (Summer, 1963), 390-394).

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intensify Pamela's conflict is having the heroine concerned about her new social status. In the heat of this argument with Lady Davers Mr. B — confesses that Sally Godfrey once yielded to him. The device that Richardson uses in this instance is having some important bit of information arise out of a completely irrelevant conversation. This device is also used in Charlotte's affair with Captain Anderson in Grandison. Another device that supports this method of maintaining the heroine's anxieties is having a bit of information that is of extreme importance to the heroine revealed gradually, a device of great importance in Grandison. Although Pamela first hears of Sally Godfrey on page 260, volume II, the fact that she was once a mistress of Mr. B —'s and has an illegitimate daughter by him in boarding school is not made known to her until page 330. A third 'action' supporting this method is Mr. B —'s informing Pamela later that he had planned to make her into a second Sally Godfrey. Just before the end of the novel, Pamela's conflict with Lady Davers is resolved and her anxieties concerning the importance of Sally Godfrey to Mr. B — are allayed. Supporting these resolutions are one device, the showing of the bride, or bride-to-be, patterns for new clothing, and several 'actions': the local gentry accept Pamela wholeheartedly; Lady Davers finally accepts her and, at the end of the novel, sends her a letter of congratulations; Pamela is reunited with Mrs. Jervis; Pamela's parents are established on a farm in Kent by Mr. B —; and Pamela is convinced by Mr. B— that his treatment of Sally Godfrey is honorable. Although the culmination finally resolves Clarissa's conflicts, other conflicts arise and these are used by Richardson as the basis for his narrative structure in the final section. The first of Ihese has to do with Clarissa's family and is finally resolved by Clarissa's mother. It is the argument of James Harlowe with Belford over Belford's right to the executorship and the complaining on the part of some members of the family about certain provisions of Clarissa's will (such as the sending of money to Mrs. Norton). A conflict of major importance, and one that extends until Lovelace's death at the end of the novel, is the antagonism which develops between Colonel Morden and Lovelace. Although Clarissa has warned against the seeking of vengeance in her will and specifically against duelling in her posthumous letter to Morden, Clarissa's cousin is determined to avenge the crime of Lovelace. Belford keeps

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them apart in London but they meet in Europe and Lovelace is killed. The only other conflict is a slight one: Belford admonishes Anna Howe to marry as urged in Clarissa's will and she answers with a series of questions concerning the problems that would arise if she did marry. Most of the resolution in this section is effected by the dead Clarissa, whose will and long series of posthumous letters exert a strong influence on her relatives and friends. Ironically she is more influential after death than she was before, and her influence is in many respects spiritual even though much of it is fortified by a material will and actual and specific letters. Certainly what she does in this section can be said to support and develop her spiritual association which began after the crisis. Richardson's skill in his timing of Clarissa's death in the novel has been described very ably by Watt, who shows the care with which Richardson worked to make his main events effective: At the same time we must recognize that there are strong literary reasons why Richardson should have placed such an emphasis on the death of his heroine. A very considerable length of time is required before we can forget the sordid scenes through which Clarissa has passed and remember only the final radiance, the 'sweet smile' that remains on her face when Colonel Morden opens the coffin. A very complete description is necessary before we can fully appreciate, in Belford's words, 'the infinite difference, on the same awful and affecting occasion, between a good and a bad conscience'. Clarissa meets her end with tragic serenity, asking Belford to tell Lovelace 'How happily I die: — and that such as my own, I wish to be his last hour.' But Lovelace falls suddenly and unprepared, whereas by his unhurried emphasis Richardson has contrived to give Clarissa's death all the appearance of an act the will — it is no hasty surrender to man's mortality but a beautifully staged collaboration with the powers above that have already marked her for their own. 53

One device used in this section should be mentioned: the full exploitation of ceremonies so as to make them as meaningful as possible. Richardson exploits Clarissa's funeral as he does later Harriet's wedding in Grandison. Most of what has been said so far in this subsection, including W a t t ' s able and appropriate remark, confirms that Richardson followed in his practice what he advocated in his theory of fiction concerning narrative structure. He included, as a major event in his 53

The Rise of the Novel, pp. 218-219.

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novels, a catastrophe, or culmination, which was appropriately placed in the narrative. 54 In fact the skill he used in the placing of this event, in Clarissa at least, illustrates that, in this instance, his practice far outran his limited statement of theory. In Grandison Richardson is able to maintain conflicts throughout his final section and thus prolong his narrative structure beyond the culmination, but he is unable to make his narrative compelling because of the shift in focus from the familiar heroine, Harriet, to the unfamiliar one, Clementina, and because the actions come to the reader second hand without the accompanying feelings and anxieties that are so necessary in Richardson's novels. Much of the conflict in this section involves Clementina, whose problems are manifold. A long series of circumstances and occurrences supports Clementina's conflicts with herself, her family, and others, including the Count of Belvedere. The first set of circumstances includes reports t h a t she is emotionally disturbed and is talking of visiting England, that her family is attempting to force her into marriage, and t h a t she has run off to England with two servants; Clementina's arrival in England and Grandison's finding her in a somewhat dazed condition in London (not unlike Belford's discovery of Clarissa under arrest in Rowlands' house); and Harriet's meeting her and being attracted to her. A second sei of circumstances involves the settlement of Clementina's future: the arrival of Clementina's family and the Count of Belvedere; the moderating of the conflict between Clementina and her family by Grandison, who arranges everything satisfactorily; and Clementina'« tearing off the names of her family from the signed agreement an d making herself solely responsible. A set of final occurrences is the most important because it includes the resolution of Clementina's problems: that she examine the inclinations of her feelings for a year, allowing the Count of Belvedere the opportunity to marry someone else if he desires, and that her family not force her into marriage at any time in the future. The friendship ceremony that Grandison, Harriet, and Clementina hold in the garden occurs very near the end of the novel and provides a sort of symbolic union of the three leading characters t h a t transcends marriage. In connection with this ceremony Richardson

54

See Chapter I, p. 18-19.

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uses a familiar device, the exploitation of ceremonies so they are made as meaningful as possible. Another conflict that Richardson uses to support the narrative structure of this section is that established by Greville's courting of Lucy Selby. Actually the conflict in this situation exists as much in Harriet's mind as in reality, and it does much to distress the otherwise tranquil Harriet. The courting continues over the greater part of the section and ends when Lucy decides to marry someone else, having been able to conquer her first love, much to the delight of Harriet. In the final section of all three novels association is of greater importance than isolation since the resolution of the various conflicts would naturally associate isolated persons. In Pamela there is a further association beyond the culmination in that the heroine and Lady Davers are united. I n Clarissa the spiritual association of Clarissa tends to bring about association among those who remain alive. However, the isolation of Lovelace which was begun by the crisis is intensified by the culmination. 'Actions' supporting Lovelace's isolation are his wanting to cut out Clarissa's heart soon after her death; his being seriously affected by her posthumous letter of forgiveness to him; and his being forced to go to the Continent. In Orandison Clementina's isolation, which decreases progressively from the time of her arrival in England until the end of the novel, is the only instance of isolation in the final section. Association is of great importance and is supported and developed by several 'actions' and devices. One device is the exploitation of a ceremony, Harriet's wedding. 'Actions' include the friendship ceremony of the three leading characters; Harriet's and Grandison's joy in doing good for Clementina (it becomes a uniting force in their marriage); the growth of the 'Grandison circle'; the marital plans of Emily and Beauchamp; and Grandison's serving as executor of Sir Hargrave's will which provides money for Harriet in payment for the pain he once caused her, an interesting example of posthumous association. Differing from the other two novels, Clarissa has a separately presented 'Conclusion' in which conflicts are finally resolved and rewards and punishments announced. Included in the conclusions are the results of two minor conflicts in the narrative: Anna Howe finally marries Mr. Hickman; and Colonel Morden regrets to his death the fact that he violated Clarissa's will and letter to him.

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These resolutions illustrate Richardson's care in seeing that none of his narrative threads were left untied. E. The Relationship of Pamela I I to the Narrative Structure of the Novels. — Richardson's two-volume sequel to Pamela, published in 1741, has practically no narrative structure and cannot be considered either Richardson's fourth novel or a valid continuation of the narrative begun in the first. McKillop has pointed this out by saying that in his sequel to Pamela Richardson's "characteristic analysis of mood and sentiment within the framework of a dramatic action . . . becomes impossible".55 Yet because it contains devices not found in Pamela and because it is an important stepping stone in Richardson's development as a novelist, it should be considered here. In Pamela II Richardson establishes none of the three conflicts found in Pamela and, later, in the other two novels. There is in Pamela II a slight conflict between Pamela and Mr. B — and Pamela and a countess, but these conflicts exist for only a brief period and are not developed. Richardson does use four methods in the sequel which appear in the three novels and which show that he was continuing to experiment with narrative structure. The most important of these methods is the maintaining and controlling of the heroine's anxieties, which Richardson uses in connection with Mr. B—'s running off with a countess soon after Mrs. B —'s (Pamela's) first son is born. A second method, which is important in Clarissa, is having the heroine's position grow progressively worse. After Pamela's husband becomes unfaithful, Pamela catches smallpox and everything seems to go from bad to worse for a short period. A third method is having the heroine's dilemma achieve some complexity, again an important method in Clarissa. After Pamela meets and is charmed by the countess who has seduced Mr. B —, she is completely at a loss as to what to do. The fourth method is as basic as the first: providing advisors who help the heroine in difficulty. Pamela is advised in her trials by her parents and Lady Davers. Although the presence of these methods would seem to indicate an advance in the narrative structure of Pamela II over Pamela, the methods are of little importance since they are not developed as fully as those in Pamela. Nor are they always closely related to the devices, which in many instances do not directly support methods sustained over long periods of the narrative. 55

Samuel

Richardson,

p. 57.

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What is important to the narrative structure of the other novels is the devices in Pamela I I , which do much more to sustain the limited amount of narrative than the methods. Nineteen of the sixty-two devices used in one or more of the novels appear in Pamela II; sixteen of these do not appear in Pamela and thus are products of the sequel. Six of these sixteen are used again in both Clarissa and Orandison, six appear again only in Clarissa, and four appear only in Orandison. From a simple device count it appears that Pamela II exerted a greater influence on Clarissa than on Orandison since twelve of the sixteen devices are used in the former but only ten in the latter. The three devices that are taken from Pamela and appear later in the other two novels are the use of the warning note having the heroine summarize her situation just before a crucial action occurs, and transporting the heroine to a place where she is exposed to possible evils. Of more importance here are the six devices that were first used in Pamela II and then incorporated into Clarissa and Orandison. A major one of these is the establishment of a conflict between two sisters over a male admirer. In Pamela II the sisters Polly and Nancy Darnford argue over a beau, and in Clarissa much of Arabella's antagonism toward Clarissa is caused by Lovelace's shift in his attentions from Arabella to Clarissa. Richardson's use of this device in Orandison illustrates effectively the ways that he adapted his devices to his purposes in his last novel. The conflict in Orandison is between two sisters of the Grandison 'family', Harriet and Emily, and it is anything but harsh. In fact neither sister possesses the bitterness attained by Nancy Darnford or Arabella, and the conflict is soon resolved. A second device is having the hero and heroine make provisions, usually in the form of wills, for those who would be affected by their death. Pamela makes such provisions before her first child is born, as do Clarissa and Grandison for other purposes later on. The third device is the exposure of the heroine to friends of the villain, a device which Richardson adapts somewhat in his later works. In Pamela II Mr. B— brings home a few of his rakish friends soon after the marriage and Pamela is disturbed by them. In Clarissa the heroine is the center of attraction at a collation at which she is forced to endure the company of Lovelace's rakish friends. In Grandison, however, Harriet meets Pollexfen's friends only after

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the villain has been subdued by the hero and is ready to apologize to the heroine. A fourth device is important to the establishment of situations involving the heroine's association: the heroine's assuming the role of a guardian. In Pamela II, Pamela looks after Miss Goodwin, Mr. B—'s illegitimate daughter; in Clarissa the heroine attempts to care for her 'poor'; in Orandison Harriet looks after Emily, Grandison's ward. The fifth device involves the heroine's wearing an appropriately colored gown during a crucial scene: Pamela wears a plain, unjeweled gown when she meets the gay countess who has led her husband astray; Clarissa appears before Lovelace in a white gown soon after the rape; and Clementina wears a black gown when in the depths of melancholy. A sixth device is that the villains and other evil people die harsh and sometimes horrible deaths. This latter device is exploited more emphatically in Clarissa than in the other novels. The first of the six devices used again in Clarissa but not in Grandison is important to the plot of that novel; having a father angry at the loss of a daughter to an unwanted man. In Pamela II this device applies to Nancy Darnford's father, and, differing from the outcome in Clarissa, there is no curse which plagues the daughter to her death. The second device is also one that is important in Clarissa: having what is to happen to the heroine known to the reader before it is to the heroine. This device is, of course, a result of Richardson's more sophisticated use of epistolary technique in Pamela II. A third device is having the family of the villain shocked by accounts of his escapades. Mr. Bi— 's relatives are distressed by his attempts on Pamela but not nearly so much as Lovelace's relatives are when they learn of his treatment of Clarissa. The fourth device is the use of gay, imprudent widows as causers of difficulties: the countess leads Mr. B astray, the credulous, shallow Widow Bevis adores Lovelace blindly. The last two devices are relatively unimportant: the heroine's having a dairy house as a retreat and the setting up of the conclusion as a separate entity in the novel. Primary among the devices used again in Orandison is the settling of disputes by the hero and heroine. In many respects Pamela is Grandison's precursor: she settles unhappy affairs, arranges marriages, and is just to the poor in her neighborhood. A second device has to do with action at or near the close of the novels: the hero

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and heroine either make a tour or makes plans for a tour of the Continent. Mr. B— and Pamela enjoy such a tour, and the Grandisons look forward to one in a year. To a very limited extent Pamela II is concerned with the Continent and is, in this respect, a precursor of Orandison. Two devices, in addition to the one mentioned above, illustrate this influence. The first is having a crucial phrase spoken in a foreign language in the presence of the heroine, and the other is the suggestion that gay foreign ladies, particularly those from Italy, are wicked. The same two characters are involved in these devices: the countess, a widow who has lived in Italy, speaks in Italian before Pamela, and Lady Olivia, the Italian widow who is always haunting Harriet, speaks in Italian before Harriet. Harriet, by the way, is able to understand while Pamela is not. Although more of the important devices from Pamela II are found in Clarissa than in Orandison, Pamela II is closer to Grandison in many ways. The conversations and letters are concerned primarily with trivial and feminine subjects. The scenes are fully elaborated and the atmosphere is leisurely and genteel. Decorum is of great importance and all the action that occurs is relatively tepid and is made anguishing to the characters only by indirect means. Pamela I I , a poor work itself, was invaluable to Richardson's development as a novelist because it provided him a proving ground for his later successful techniques in Clarissa and Orandison. F. The Placing of the Narrative Events in the Volumes of the Novels. — Richardson's placing of the narrative events in the volumes that hold his novels reveals that he was fully aware of the value of having his volumes either begin or end with important events and of having the installments of his novels end with events exciting enough to hold his readers' interest until the appearance of the next installment. Since Richardson published Pamela in two volumes in 1740, he was obviously not concerned with installments, although his subsequent publication of Pamela II a year later could have opened his eyes to the possibilities of installment publication. Even so Richardson does place his major events effectively in his first novel. The definition comes in the first part of Volume I 58 and the suspense that it creates lasts through the end of the volume, where 56

Exact, locations according t o p a g e n u m b e r s of t h e s e major e v e n t s appear in f o o t n o t e s a t t h e beginnings of t h e first four subsections of this chapter.

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it is near its peak, to the beginning of Volume II, where the crisis occurs. The culmination occurs about two-fifths of the way through Volume I I and, of course, the conflict with Lady Davers lasts until near the end of the novel. The fact that the novel continues for three-fifths of a volume after the happy ending has occurred seems somewhat out of proportion to us today. However, when one considers that the subtitle of the work is "Virtue Rewarded", he realizes t h a t Richardson has probably exercised no little restraint and t h a t the same situation in lesser hands would not be so well worked out. Of course it should be admitted that Richardson was able to present moral doctrine to his heart's content when he wrote the two-volume sequel to Pamela a year later. Richardson published his major novel in three installments: Volumes I and II, December 1747; Volumes I I I and IV, April 1748; Volumes V, VI, VII, and VIII, December 1748. At the end of the first installment he placed the most crucial and exciting event in the early part of the novel, the definition. At the end of the second installment he placed an event t h a t might well be considered a preliminary crisis, the important 'fire scene'. 57 H e began his final installment with Clarissa's escape from Lovelace and spaced his events in these final four volumes so t h a t there is at least one major event or three minor ones in every volume but the last. A brief description will demonstrate this remarkable point. Near the end of Volume V, which begins with Clarissa's escape, is the crisis. I n the first quarter of Volume VI the penknife scene occurs and shortly after t h a t Clarissa makes her second and final escape from Lovelace. Two-thirds of the way into this same Volume VI Clarissa is arrested and made a prisoner until her debts to Mrs. Sinclair are paid. Volume V I I ends with the culmination, Clarissa's death, and Volume V I I I ends with Lovelace's death, Clarissa's funeral having occurred about a third of the way through the volume. I t is evident that, contrary to what one critic has said, 58 Richardson was keenly aware 47

For the ways that Richardson ended these two installments in the first edition of Clarissa see Frederick W. Hilles, "The Plan of Clarissa", Philological Quarterly, XLV (January, 1966) 1, 241. 58 Miss Clara Thomson, in Samuel Richardson (London, 1900), p. 243, contends that "Accident, and not choice, determined the form of his romances, and the contemporary fashion for memoirs and correspondence ensured its popularity. It was not till he had won a decided success that he paused to inquire into the theory of his method, and formulated his results in the preface to Clarissa Harlowe."

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of the effectiveness resulting from the proper spacing of narrative events in the structure of his novels. Richardson published Orandison in three installments: Volumes I—IV, November 13, 1753; Volume V, December 11, 1753; and Volume VI, March 14, 1754. Near the end of his first intallment, about two-thirds of the way into Volume IV, he placed the most important event in the novel, the crisis. At the end of the second installment he placed another important event, the culmination. Since all of the last installment, Volume VI, is devoted to the second heroine, Clementina, there are no major events in it, although Clementina's arrival in England about one third of the way into the volume and the reconciliation of Harriet and Grandison with Clementina near the end are of some importance to the narrative. However, in spite of this deficiency, there is at least one important narrative event in each of the other five volumes. Halfway through Volume I Harriet is rescued by Grandison, and near the beginning of Volume I I the heroine declares that her affections are no longer disengaged, in effect t h a t she is in love with Grandison. At the beginning of Volume I I I , Grandison tells Harriet the important story of his relations with Clementina and at the end of the same volume he leaves for Italy ostensibly to marry Clementina although he has revealed to Harriet his fondness for her. This event, of course, completes the extended definition. Two-thirds of the way into Volume IV the crisis occurs, and Volume V, which ends with the culmination, begins with Grandison's return to England after Clementina's rejection of him in Italy. Evidently Richardson's acute awareness of the value of properly placing the important events in the novels extended to the placing of events in the volumes and in the installments as well, for he demonstrates great skill in both. This neat organization of major events in the novels, as well as in the volumes and installments confirms what was strongly suggested in Part I of this chapter, that Richardson did in practice, as he stated in his theory concerning narrative structure, 59 write his novels according to a pre-formed plan. 60 Evidence supporting this point is strong throughout this 59

See Chapter I. pp. 17-18. I n a n e x c e l l e n t analysis of t h e s y m m e t r y o f n o t o n l y t h e p l o t b u t o f several other features of t h e n o v e l as well, Frederick W . Hilles d e m o n s t r a t e s conclusively t h a t R i c h a r d s o n m u s t h a v e been following a p l a n in h i s writing of Clarissa ("The P l a n of Clarissa", pp. 2 3 6 - 2 4 8 . ) . 60

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subsection and in the four earlier subsections on development and application of narrative technique. In fact it seems difficult t o understand how such neatly organized novels could possibly have been written without the help of a pre-formed plan. CONCLUSION

In the application of his technique to support the narrative structure in his three novels and one sequel Richardson demonstrates effective and varied use of the two chief elements of his technique: t h e competent management of major events; and the prolongation, intensification and resolution of the situations established by these events. His skill in exploiting his major events is evident in his introducing, in several ways, the primary conflicts within the point of entrance events in the three novels; in his easing of the heroine's anxieties before the definitions and his intensification of them before the crises to make these two events highly meaningful; in his making the crisis in Clarissa serve a purpose different from t h a t in the other two novels; in his care not only to avoid having the crises resolve all of the conflicts b u t also to have the crises intensify old conflicts and introduce new ones; in his utilizing all of the major events to establish and prolong the important situations of isolation and association; and in his effective placing of his major events within the novels and within the volumes and installments of the novels. I n his prolonging, intensifying, and resolving of the conflicts established by his major events, Richardson demonstrates t h a t he is able to adapt the means he used in his earlier works to his needs and purposes in his later ones. Several examples illustrate this ability. Whereas in Pamela Richardson resolves most of the conflicts with the crisis, in Clarissa he continues to worsen the position of the heroine by some of the same devices t h a t he uses in Pamela, but, in this instance, for different purposes. After the definition in Clarissa, he delays introducing two devices t h a t he uses immediately after the definition in Pamela (making the heroine a prisoner of a harsh woman and transporting her to a potentially evil place) so that he can sustain the intensified conflict over a longer period of his novel. In Grandison Richardson uses means of prolongation and intensification different from those in his earlier works t o produce a delayed definition, which allows for a fuller descrip-

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tion of the hero, an important consideration in a novel which aims at presenting the virtues of a good man. I n fact, throughout Grandison Richardson uses prolongation to support his loose narrative in the same way that he uses intensification in both Pamela and Clarissa to make his narrative as gripping as possible. In Orandison Richardson's delay of the relief for the heroine after the crisis contrasts with his immediate relief of the far less sensitive heroine of his first novel. Richardson also adapts his devices to suit the tone of the novel. Such an adjustment is seen in his using the conflict of two sisters over a beau: in Clarissa the conflict between Arabella and Clarissa is moderately violent, while in Grandison the similar conflict between Harriet and her 'sister' Emily is subdued and more imagined than real. Richardson further demonstrates t h a t he is able to use means of intensification and prolongation to develop situations of isolation and association in varied ways to suit his purposes in the three novels. While in Pamela isolation is physical and association is of limited importance, in Clarissa isolation and association are so effectively balanced, as contending forces acting on the heroine, t h a t they increase the heroine's conflicts considerably between the definition and the crisis. Because every force t h a t aims at increasing association actually increases isolation, Clarissa's isolation up to the crisis is both physical and spiritual. Richardson demonstrates his greatest skill in handling this technique of balancing isolation and association after the crisis in Clarissa when the heroine's isolation remains physical while her association becomes spiritual. Richardson achieves this spiritual association by a series of stages made up of events and actions that are altogether conceivable and logical. This achievement of Richardson's is an important one in the history of English fiction, especially when it is realized t h a t Richardson was a pioneer who was creating a new form of writing. Yet Richardson's description of Clarissa's physical isolation and spiritual association after the crisis has perception and depth that any of the later novelists of the Romantic and Victorian periods should admire. In his third novel Richardson varies his heroine's isolation so t h a t it is more spiritual and psychological than physical, although he has his second heroine, Clementina, undergo isolation that, like Clarissa's, is both spiritual and physical. Richardson's development of his technique in his three novels and one sequel has been described within the subsections above.

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However, in order to present a better picture of the chronological development of his technique, I have listed all of the methods and devices 61 as they occur in the four works in Appendix A, page 285. This list reveals, in graphic form, several interesting points concerning the development of Richardson's technique. Considering that it is Richardson's earliest and briefest novel, Pamela has a relatively large number of methods and devices (fourteen and twentynine respectively) which are fairly evenly balanced throughout the four sections of the narrative. While weak on methods because it has no narrative structure, Pamela II has nineteen devices, a substantial number. Only three of these appear in Pamela and the remaining sixteen original devices appear later in either Clarissa or Grandison or in both. When it is realized that in 1741, when he completed Pamela I I , Richardson had developed fifteen of the twenty-seven different methods and forty-five of the sixty-two different devices that he would use in all four of the works, the importance of Pamela and Pamela II to the early development of his technique can be understood. These totals of twenty-seven methods and sixty-two devices developed in the four works and listed in Appendix A fail to include all of the elements in Richardson's narrative technique. Missing are the various different major events, the situations, and the important and numerous 'actions' described in the preceding sections. When all of these elements are totaled, the impressive result confirms that Richardson practiced in his fiction what he stated earlier in his theory concerning narrative structure: 62 that fiction should provide a variety of incidents to excite the attention and hold the interest of the reader. Furthermore the fact that Richardson practiced in his fiction the unity that he advocated in his theory 63 is also evident from the technique described above: in the close similarities of the central situations and the narrative patterns in the three novels, as illustrated in the subsection above, pp. 62-64; in the heavy inter-dependence of all the various elements of his narrative technique, as described in great detail in the first four subsections above; and in Richardson's constant adaptation of his 81 B e c a u s e t h e y are practically t h e s a m e (i.e., conflict, isolation, a n d association) in e v e r y s e c t i o n o f e v e r y novel, situations are n o t listed. 62 See Chapter I, pp. 20-21. 63 See Chapter I, pp. 2 1 - 2 2 .

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narrative elements from one of the four works to the next to serve essentially similar purposes in different ways, as described in the first four subsections above and illustrated in Appendix A. In brief, Richardson's complex narrative technique was flexible enough to provide both variety of incident and detail, and unity of action and purpose. And the many elements that make up the technique provide both of these qualities simultaneously. Although admittedly the most highly developed because of the relative frequency and sophistication with which the methods and devices are used, Clarissa depends heavily on the two early works for both methods and devices. In his major novel Richardson used eleven of the fourteen methods and twenty-one of the twenty-nine devices in Pamela. In addition he used the one new method and a large percentage (twelve out of nineteen) of the devices in Pamela II. I t is interesting to note that in his long, complex major novel Richardson added only ten new methods and thirteen new devices to those he used from Pamela and Pamela II, to make a total of twenty-two methods and forty-seven devices. For his final novel Richardson took nine methods and twentythree devices from all three of his earlier works and added only two new methods and four new devices. That the narrative structure of Grandison is loose is evident from the fact that its methods and devices are not balanced evenly over the four sections of the narrative as they are in Pamela. It might be added that there is also a sharp reduction in the number of methods and devices in the final section of Clarissa, a strong indication of a falling off of the structure at the end. Oddly enough, Richardson's first novel has the best balanced narrative structure of the three novels, and, more importantly, it is the foundation for the narrative structure in both Clarissa and Grandison.

Ill EPISTOLARY TECHNIQUE

INTRODUCTION

Richardson's epistolary technique has been dealt with briefly by numerous scholars and historians of the English novel, and four scholars have described the technique in some detail. 1 Yet no one has examined Richardson's practice of epistolary technique to an extent thorough enough to serve as a basis for relating his practice to his theory of fiction. The present chapter attempts to make such a study. The chapter serves two primary purposes. The first is to describe in some detail the five major elements of Richardson's epistolary technique by demonstrating both the means that he uses and the effects t h a t he obtains in his treatment of the letters in the novels. The second is to show the development of Richardson's epistolary technique from Pamela through Orandison by demonstrating, with some degree of thoroughness, his facility in creating a technique and adapting it to the different purposes in the novels. Because a topical organization best serves these two primary purposes, it has been followed. Since the relationship between Richardson's statement of theory and his practice of fiction will be treated in the conclusion of this study, comments relating practice to theory will be limited in this chapter to occasions where theory and practice are inconsistent or where practice noticeably conforms to theory. 1 Paul Dottin, "Samuel Richardson et le roman épistolaire", Revue Anglo-américaine, X I I I (1936), 481-499; Alan Dugald McKillop, "Epistolary Technique in Richardson's Novels", Rice Institute Pamphlet, XXXVIÏI (1951), 36-54; Bertil Romberg, Studies in the Narrative Technique of the First Person Novel (Stockholm, 1962), pp. 177-235; A n t h o n y Kearny, "Clarissa and the Epistolary Form", Essays in Criticism, X V I , 1 (January, 1966), 4 4 - 5 6 .

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The chapter is organized in the following manner. There are five sections each of which describes an element of Richardson's epistolary technique. These sections are arranged so that the first describes the use of the parts of, or the details within, the letters; the next two treat the letters in the novels as individual letters; and the last two treat the letters as parts of the novels. The section titles are: (1) devices of less than letter length, (2) letter types and whole letters as devices, (3) letter lengths and the exchange of correspondence, (4) point of view, and (5) the use of letters to support narrative structure. So that Richardson's development can be seen, each of the sections is arranged chronologically in three subsections: Pamela and Pamela I I , Clarissa, and Orandison. To avoid the presentation of an excessive amount of detail in the chapter sections, appendices are provided at the end of the study. Footnotes indicate evidence included in the appendices but not in the chapter itself. Since Richardson's epistolary technique can be adequately described by the use of the five elements enumerated above as the sections of the chapter, terminology as specialized as that used to describe narrative structure in Chapter Two is unnecessary and will not be utilized. The terms SITUATION, METHOD, ACTION, and DEVICE will not have the specialized meanings of Chapter One, except that DEVICE will mean a mechanical or rhetorical contrivance or detail of epistolary technique that is relatively unchangeable and can appear any number of times in the novels. Aside from DEVICE and the terms defined in the General Introduction to the study, none of the terms in the chapter will have specialized meanings, and there will be no particular relationship between any of the terms, as was the case in Chapter One. 1. Devices of Less Than Letter Length The relative complexity of Richardson's epistolary technique in even its earliest stages 2 is readily seen when his use of devices of less than letter length is examined. In both Pamela and Pamela II 2

The c o m p l e x i t y of Richardson's epistolary technique is revealed very clearly b y R o m b e r g , w h o describes in s o m e detail t h e intricate use of letters for a number of different purposes in Pamela (ibid., pp. 2 0 7 - 2 1 0 ) and w h o s a y s t h a t in Pamela and Clarissa "Richardson exploits m o s t of the possibilit ies of epistolary technique" (p. 177).

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Richardson concerned himselfwith making the letters appear realistic and as if they were written of the moment; in doing so he developed a number of devices within the letters. Later in Clarissa and Orandison he used some of these same devices again and went on to adapt others and to invent new ones to support his epistolary technique in his longer novels. Just which devices he used and how he went about developing them is the subject of this subsection. Pamela and Pamela II. — Because it is the most important of the devices of less than letter length, the postscript will be considered first. In Pamela the postscript functions primarily as a second letter, supplementing the first and intensifying any dramatic action involved. Postscripts which vary in length from one to thirty-two lines appear in twenty-three of the sixty-nine letters in Pamela and serve several dramatic purposes. Two examples of such purposes will suffice here. The postscript of the first letter in the novel effectively establishes a sense of immediacy by describing Mr. B — 's sudden appearance before Pamela. In fact this postscript, by describing Pamela's startled reactions to the seemingly inexplicable attentions that Mr. B— is paying her, establishes the dramatic conflict that exists throughout the early part of the novel. Because it reveals Pamela's confusion concerning her feelings toward Mr. B—, the postscript to another letter serves to render ambiguous, and thus more realistically dramatic, Pamela's true attitude toward her master.3 In Pamela II Richardson uses his postscript but not as frequently nor as importantly as he does in Pamela. Thirty of the 103 letters have postscripts, most of which serve such perfunctory purposes as asking for more letters (III, ii, 11) or paying respects to friends and relatives (IV, X, 57). Only two of them (IV, xxvi, 143; xxvii, 155), in letters concerning Mr. B — 's affair with the countess, carry the immediacy that is common in those in Pamela, and in no way do the postscripts serve as a second set of letters. In addition to the postscript Richardson uses other devices within the letters and journal in Pamela and within the letters in Pamela II. Within the letters of Pamela there are six devices, two of which will serve here to illustrate the dramatic intensity achieved by such devices of less than letter length. The first of these is the writer's 3

I, x, 17 See Appendix B, Section 1, page 295 for the ways in which postscripts serve dramatic purposes in Pamela.

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closing the letter because of some circumstance that forces her to stop writing. Pamela closes one letter (I, xx) abruptly because she believes Mr. B— is coming and two others (I, xxv; xxviii) because she is too emotionally disturbed to continue. A second device, and one that occurs extensively later in Clarissa, is an abrupt interruption in the letter which is caused by some action that suspends the writing for a brief period. In one letter (I, xxix) Pamela stops writing because someone is coming, and in another (I, xxx) she suspends her writing briefly while Mr. B — goes out of the room.4 The bulk of Pamela is not made up of letters but of Pamela's journal; yet there are, in the journal, numerous devices that are definitely a part of Richardson's epistolary technique. The first of these is the treatment of the entire journal as a sort of letter from Pamela to her parents. As such it contains a salutation at the beginning (I, xxxii, 128), two within (I, 200; II, 324), and five complimentary closes, four within the body (I, 200; II, 155; 166; 324), and one appropriately at the end (II, 361). In addition to the thirty-one letters within it, some of which contain the devices mentioned above, the journal has numerous entries that are comparable in length and function to the letters in the first part. These journal entries contain two devices of less than letter length, one of which Richardson uses again in Clarissa. The most important of these is the placing of time labels, such as "6 in the morning", "8 : 30", and "Five o'clock is come", at the beginning of several of the journal entries. Such labels do much to increase the sense of immediacy in the journal. 5 A substantial part of the journal has as much dramatic intensity as the letters that precede it, and the journal is, in many respects, a sustained letter. Generally Richardson uses devices less extensively in Pamela II than in Pamela, and he adapts only one device used in Pamela to suit new purposes in the sequel: the salutations and complimentary closes become more elegant to suit Lady Davers and the other gentry in the dramatis personae.6 However, there are four new 4 See A p p e n d i x B , Section 1, p a g e 295, for a list of t h e six d e v i c e s of less t h a n letter l e n g t h t h a t R i c h a r d s o n uses in t h e letters of Pamela. 5 See A p p e n d i x B , Section 1, p a g e 295, for a list of t h e t w o d e v i c e s of less t h a n l e t t e r l e n g t h t h a t R i c h a r d s o n uses in t h e journal entries in Pamela. 6 See A p p e n d i x B , Section 1, o n p a g e 296, for locations of this d e v i c e in t h e t w o v o l u m e s of Pamela I I .

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devices in Pamela II which do not appear in Pamela. Because these devices so effectively demonstrate Richardson's development of epistolary technique in a relatively unimportant work, two of them are described in some detail. The first is the enclosing of one or more letters or other writings within a letter, a device that is important in the construction of what are, in effect, complex accounts of the characters' actions. Such accounts later become important elements in both Clarissa and Grandison. Richardson's complex use of this device in Pamela II is illustrated by one letter (IV, xxxiii) which contains two notes and three letters, along with three journal entries and a scene description. A more typical example of this device is Letter 45, Vol. IV, from Mrs. B— to Lady Davers which contains a letter from the former Sally Godfrey, Pamela's answer to it, and, enclosed in this answer, a letter from Sally Goodwin to her mother. A second new device, which is related to the first in the purpose achieved, is the inclusion in the letters of extensive passages of dialogue as well as quotations from the Bible, plays, Dryden's poetry, and the speech of other characters. Both of these devices are used extensively later in Clarissa where they enrich the characterization and help to make the point of view highly complex.7 Clarissa. — In Clarissa Richardson takes advantage of the devices of less than letter length that he developed in his earlier work. At the same time he further develops several of these devices and invents new ones to suit the complexities of his major novel. A case in point is the postscript, a device of major importance in Pamela. Although Richardson uses this device far less frequently in Clarissa, in only forty-eight of the 537 letters, he makes it serve dramatic purposes more varied and numerous than it served in Pamela, where it functioned primarily as a second letter. In Clarissa it increases the dramatic exchange between several characters by bringing into sharp focus the point of the letter it follows, and it is used in several different ways, for example, to convey a serious warning, as in Anna Howe's two warnings to Clarissa, and to present an extremely cruel expression, as in Antony Harlowe's letter to Clarissa.8 7

See A p p e n d i x B, Section 1, o n p a g e 296, for t h e n a m e s and locations of t h e four n e w devices t h a t R i c h a r d s o n first uses in Pamela II. 8 See A p p e n d i x B, S e c t i o n 1, o n p a g e 296, for other w a y s t h a t postscripts serve d r a m a t i c purposes.

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Richardson's dependence on the devices in his earlier works is illustrated by the fact that he uses extensively in Clarissa eight of the eleven devices of less than letter length in Pamela as well as all of the four new devices in Pamela II. However, he demonstrates further development of his technique by adapting to new purposes five of these eight devices taken from Pamela and one of the four from Pamela II. Two examples of adaptations of devices from Pamela will serve as illustration here. The first is his changing his simple salutations and complimentary closes in Pamela, which became more elegant in Pamela I I , into highly expressive salutations and closes that serve to intensify the feelings between characters. For instance, several of Clarissa's letters from her family have these salutations: "Sister that was !" "Undutiful and perverse Clarissa", and "Miss Cunning-ones". The second example of Richardson's adaptations is the greater variety in his use of the device of presenting a character's comments interlinearly on the letter being commented on, a device which appears in simple form in Pamela. One such variation is the use of a printer's 'fist' or a finger to point at statements in one of Anna Howe's letters which particularly infuriate Lovelace and another is the presentation of Anna Howe's comments in italics between which Lovelace's remarks about them appear. 9 Richardson's adaptation of the one of the four devices that he takes from Pamela II is extensive and demonstrates his ability to make a device both flexible and entirely appropriate to the numerous dramatic situations in Clarissa. This device of including dialogue, quotations, and documents in the letters, which is used to a limited extent in Pamela I I , is adapted in Clarissa to include the following elements: the extensive and frequent quoting of dialogue, the labeling of dialogue with the speakers' names as in a play, the inclusion of stage directions, the use of stychomythia, and the inclusion of lines of poetry and various documents. 10 In addition to these adaptations, Richardson further develops his epistolary technique in Clarissa by inventing six new devices

9 See A p p e n d i x B, Section 1, on p a g e 297, for o t h e r d e v i c e s f r o m Pamela t h a t are u s e d in Clarissa. 10 See A p p e n d i x B , Section 1, o n p a g e 298, for other d e v i c e s f r o m Pamela II t h a t are used in Clarissa.

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of less than letter length. Included among these is beginning the letter in a very startling manner; not only Lovelace's but also Anna Howe's and even one of Belford's begin in this manner. A second new device is the writing of a note on the cover of a letter in pencil after the letter is ready to send and doing the same under the superscription. 11 Orandison. — In Orandison Richardson is largely dependent on the devices of less than letter length developed in the earlier works. He does not use all that he had available, and he does not adapt and invent many new ones, as he did in Clarissa. He makes far less use of the postscript than he did in Clarissa, since only fifteen of the 319 letters in the novel have postscripts and only two of these are at all dramatic. 12 Of the eleven devices originally developed in Pamela, Richardson uses only six in Orandison, and only two of these to any great extent. Two devices, which Richardson had developed from simple devices in Pamela to complex ones in Clarissa, are omitted almost entirely in Orandison. These devices, which were of some importance in Clarissa, are the use of salutations and interlinear commentary in the letters. Two other devices important to sustaining dramatic intensity in the earlier novels are used much less extensively in Orandison: the interrupted letter and the abruptly closed letter. The latter device appears in only three of the 319 letters in the novel. 13 On the other hand Richardson utilizes all four of the devices that he developed in Pamela II. While he does not adapt any of them to new purposes, he does make extensive use of two of them that are important to the documentary nature of Orandison. These are the enclosing of letters, and copies of letters, in letters, and the inclusion of extensive passages of dialogue and quotations in the letters, both of which provide the reader with immediate accounts of action, much of which occurred before the time treated in the novel.14 Richardson utilizes in his final novel only two of the eight 11

See A p p e n d i x B , Section 1, pp. 298, for other d e v i c e s i n v e n t e d for u s e Clarissa. 12 See A p p e n d i x B , Section 1, o n p a g e 298, for locations of t w o d r a m a t i c postscripts in Orandison. 13 See A p p e n d i x B , Section 1, on p a g e 298, for d e v i c e s d e v e l o p e d in Pamela t h a t are used in Grandison. 14 See A p p e n d i x B , Section 1, p a g e 298, for d e v i c e s d e v e l o p e d in Pamela II t h a t are used in Grandison. in

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new devices that he developed in Clarissa: the adding of a summary statement to focus interest on a problem, and the writing of a note on the outside of a letter. However, he does adapt both of these the former to the presentation of a problem followed by reflection on it, and the latter to two variations: the writing of a note under the superscription of the inner cover of a letter and the pinning of a note on a letter. 15 All three of the new devices t h a t Richardson invents for use in Orandison are similar in nature to the latter of the two variations mentioned above: they serve to promote the privacy of the letter writer's remarks. Two are used to insure the privacy of the heroine's feelings: the stitching to a letter of a separate paper to be seen by one person, and the enclosing in brackets of material that is not to be read aloud from the letters. The third, also aimed at protecting the feelings of the heroine, is the scratching out of lines that may be offensive in a letter. 18 Since the majority of the devices mentioned above serve to make the letters appear immediate, intimate, informal, and natural, it can be conjectured that Richardson practiced, in his use of details, three statements of his theory concerning epistolary technique. These statements are: (1) t h a t the use of letters provides a sense of the present not obtainable in narrative writing, (2) that the letters in the novels should be intimate and entirely informal in nature, and (3) t h a t the writing of the letters by the characters should appear natural and believable. 17 2. Letter Types and Letter-Length

Devices

Of importance to the development of Richardson's epistolary technique are the different types of letters that appear in the novels and the use of letters as devices, which for convenience's sake, will be referred to as 'letter-length devices'. However, before an examination of these two elements is made, something should be said about the difficulties encountered in attempting to classify the different types of letters in the four works. 15

See Appendix B, Section 1, page 299, for devices adapted in Grandison from those developed in Clarissa. 16 See Appendix B, Section 1, page 299, for devices invented in Grandison. 17 For a fuller expression of these statements, see Chapter I, pp. 23-26, 27-28.

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A major difficulty in formulating a strict classification of the letters — nearly one thousand numbered letters and hundreds of letters enclosed within them and within Pamela's long journal — is that many of them serve several purposes. What Katherine Gee Hornbeak, an authority on English letter books, says about Richardson's presentation of the model letters in his Familiar Letters applies also to his treatment of the letters in his novels. Differing from many of his predecessors, who wrote letter writers in a formally rhetorical manner, "Richardson's interests are not rhetorical but ethical. He is not concerned with epistolary types and structure." 1 8 Speaking specifically she goes on to say that "Richardson's heart, however, was not in the formal aspects of letter-writing. H e gives no hint even of correct forms of superscription, salutation, or subscription. . . . Familiar Letters is the work of a moralist, rather than a rhetorician." 19 In fact " . . . the book itself betrays his complete indifference to rhetorical matters". 2 0 In his novels Richardson is likewise a moralist first and a rhetorician second, or even third or fourth, because many of his letters are not only moralistic, they are dramatic, they are narrative in nature, they are highly emotional, and they serve even other purposes, sometimes all at the same time. Even so, if a close examination of the letters is to be made, a classification of the various types is necessary. Such a classification which divides the types according to subject, attitude, and form, and is adequate for our purposes here, is provided in outline form in Appendix B, Section 3.21 I n this outline every determinable type of letter that Richardson uses in all four works is included, along with a classification of whole letters as devices. The numerous types of letters classified in the outline mentioned above and described in the section below confirm the fact that in his practice Richardson followed his statements in his theory that the letters in the novels should be of at least three specific kinds. 22 In fact, in this instance Richardson's practice far outran his theory and, as will be pointed out, he uses many 18 "The Complete L e t t e r Writer in E n g l i s h 1 5 6 8 - 1 8 0 0 " , Smith College Studies in Modern Languages, X V (1934), 104. 19 Ibid., p. 105. 20 "Richardson's Familiar L e t t e r s and t h e D o m e s t i c Conduct B o o k s " , Smith College Studies in Modern Languages, X I X (1938), 1. 21 P a g e 301. 22 See Chapter I, pp. 2 6 - 2 7 .

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different kinds of letters for a number of different purposes in his four works. Pamela and Pamela II. — Through variety in the different types of letters in both Pamela and Pamela II, Richardson demonstrates early development of his epistolary technique. In Pamela there are eight distinct types of letters, a relatively large number when it is realized that there are only sixty-nine letters in the novel. Also worthy of note is the fact that each of the three major categories, subject, attitude, and form, is represented by these eight different types, as the following examples will demonstrate. Of the six types classified according to subject, two are of major importance because they appear in all of the novels. These are the letter describing a conflict, in which the heroine reveals her difficulties to her parents, and the letter describing a scene other than a conflict, in which the actions of various characters are described in great detail. Representing the attitude category is the letter revealing strong affection, and representing the third category of form is the letter which is made up essentially of two columns in which numbered proposals on the left are paralleled by answers on the right.23 In Pamela II the number of distinct types of letters increases to thirteen. There are three new letters which primarily involve the attitude of their writers, and six new types classified according to subject. In his second work Richardson develops new letter types for new purposes, as has been pointed out above and will be demonstrated later. And he adapts old letter types to new conditions: four of the letter types used in Pamela.are adapted to new conditions in Pamela II. Two examples are the letter describing a scene which, in Pamela II, becomes more social and describes a variety of social gatherings including a masquerade, and the letter of advice and assurance which becomes more sophisticated since it is written by Lady Davers.24 Richardson develops nine new letter types in Pamela //.Examples of four of these types will reveal the versatility and flexibility achieved by their presence in the sequel. Two of the six classified by subject are important because they also appear at crucial points 23 See Appendix B , Section 4, page 302, for the location of different letter types in Pamela. 24 See Appendix B, Section 4, page 303, for a list of adaptations in Pamela II of the letter types in Pamela.

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in both Clarissa and Grandison: the letter describing the heroine's arrival at a new place and the letter describing a character's reputation. Two others revealing attitudes do much to enliven Pamela II and the later novels: the whimsical letter and the amusing letter. 25 In both Pamela and Pamela II Richardson uses letter-length devices in exploiting the possibilities of the epistolary form. Specifically these letter-length devices are descriptions of circumstances that involve the letters in one way or another and are not to be confused with the letter types themselves. For instance, in Pamela one of the letter types is a warning letter. This letter is also sent anonymously and this circumstance is therefore treated as a device rather than as a second letter type. Devices involve such circumstances as letter origin and signature; time of writing and sending letters; the incorporation of different elements, aside from other letters, in the letters; etc.28 As in his development of various letter types, Richardson shows an advance in epistolary technique by his use of letter-length devices in his two early works. In Pamela he uses six devices, including the anonymous letter mentioned above. Examples of letterlength devices, all of which affect the narrative action are: the misdirected letter which is addressed to one person (Pamela) but intended for another (Mrs. Jewkes); the altered or fabricated letter which misleads and confuses Pamela's parents; and the letter that is opened before the time intended by the sender.27 In Pamela I I , Richardson also uses six letter-length devices, but four of them are new and one other is an adaptation of a device in Pamela. The letter sent by a servant in Pamela becomes a poorly spelled letter in the sequel. Two of the four new devices adumbrate devices used later in Clarissa and Grandison: the letter that is sent within the same building and the letter written by a person who affected the early experience of a character but who is not active in the novel.28 25

For the names and locations of the nine new types in Pamela II see Appendix B, Section 4, page 303. 26 For a complete classification of all the letter-length devices used in the four works see Appendix B, Section 2. page 300. 27 For the names and locations of the letter-length devices in Pamela, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 303. 28 For the names and locations of letter-length devices in Pamela II, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 304.

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By the time he completed his first novel and its sequel, Richardson developed a total of seventeen distinct letter types and utilized ten letter-length devices. In addition he adapted four types and one device to new purposes in his second work. Richardson showed a definite advance in his epistolary technique involving types and devices and proved that his technique was highly flexible. Clarissa. — In Clarissa Richardson advances his epistolary technique by utilizing in various ways thirteen of the seventeen letter types developed in Pamela and Pamela II and by developing eighteen new types. Furthermore he utilizes five of the ten letter-length devices developed in the earlier works and develops seven new ones. Altogether he increases the total number of types and devices in his major novel to forty-two, over twice as many as he uses in Pamela II and almost three times the number in Pamela. In spite of this general increase of different letter types in Clarissa, Richardson depends heavily on his early works for types classified according to subject, and he develops only three new types under this category in his major novel. Several of the ten older types that he depends on are used more extensively in Clarissa and are adapted to new uses. For instance, the letter describing a conflict is used to present a number of different conflicts of the heroine, including the introduction of Roger Solmes and the infliction of her father's curse. Also the letter describing a scene is used for death scenes, and the letter describing a character's reputation, which appears only once in Pamela I I , becomes important to the heroine's judgment of Lovelace in Clarissa. Two of the three new types developed in Clarissa are related to the first and last mentioned above: inquiring about a conflict and describing a character fully.29 Of the twelve letter types classified by attitude, nine are new. Among these new types which serve distinct functions in the novel are the proverbial letter, the pedantic letter, and the mysterious allegorical letter. The proverbial letter both characterizes Lovelace's uncle and serves to provide a contrast between Lovelace's actions and his uncle's admonitions; the pedantic letter serves to increase the suspense and to provide ironical contrast at a crucial period, when Clarissa is near death, by injecting worthless pedantry into For the names and locations of letter types classified according to subject in Clarissa, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 304.

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the narrative; and the mysterious allegorical letter demonstrates Clarissa's awareness and Lovelace's lack of awareness of her spiritual situation when she is near death. 30 All five of the letter types classified by form in Clarissa are new. Examples of these are the letter made up of incoherent fragments, the letterwritten in stage dialogue, and the letter written as a play with acts, scenes, and stage directions. 31 In his major novel Richardson uses twelve letter-length devices, five of which appear in the earlier works and seven of which are new. Examples of two of the more important of the five older devices are the altered or fabricated letter and the letter sent within the same building. Four of the new devices are the letter that is sent posthumously, the letter that is left for a recipient who intentionally does not pick it up, the intercepted letter, and the letter that arrives after the recipient has died. 32 The fact that Richardson increases substantially the number of letter types involving form and attitude but increases only slightly types involving subject reveals his ability to develop letter types suitable to his needs. Like the majority of the new letter devices, most of the new letter types in Clarissa help to promote dramatic intensity in a novel that is far more dramatic than either Pamela or Pamela II. Orandison. — Even though Grandison has seven fewer letter types and letter-length devices than Clarissa, there is evidence that Richardson was extending his use of letter types and devices in his last novel. The number of types classified according to subject increases from thirteen in Clarissa to fifteen in Grandison, and, although Richardson had a number of available types to draw on, he develops five new types in his final novel. The number of types classified according to form is five in both of Richardson's two major novels, but one of the five in Grandison is new. The number of letter-length devices is eleven in Grandison, only one less than the number in Clarissa, but six of those in the final novel are 30

For the names and locations of letter types classified according to attitude in Clarissa, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 304. 31 For the names and locations of letter types classified according to form in Clarissa, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 305. 32 For the names and locations of letter-length devices in Clarissa, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 305.

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new. Only in letters classified according to attitude does the number decrease appreciably, from twelve in Clarissa to four in Orandison. In his final novel Richardson adapts old letter types to new purposes and develops new ones to suit conditions different from those in Clarissa. In Orandison, three of the ten letter types classified according to subject taken from the earlier novels are adapted in the following waysi the letter describing a conflict is written not only by the heroine but also by such characters as Clementina and Emily Jervois to describe their conflicts; the letter describing a heroine's arrival is adapted to describe the arrival of a hero; letters proposing marriage are written by the mother and uncle of the suitors rather than by the suitors themselves and such letters are somewhat formalized. Two examples of the five new letter types classified by subject are a challenge to a duel and the letter describing family background. While there is but one instance of the former, the latter type is used extensively in the second and third volumes of the novel and provides the primary means by which the heroine, and the reader, learn the remarkable past of the hero.33 Two of the four letter types involving attitude differ from those in Clarissa: the whimsical letter becomes somewhat more serious in the hands of Mr. Selby, and a number of Charlotte Grandison's letters mix the serious with the whimsical; and the vehement letter of anguish is written exclusively by minor characters, Mr. Selby and Jeronymo, and is more subdued than comparable letters of the type in Clarissa. Richardson makes extensive use of one type involving form, the letter written in stage dialogue; however, in most instances major parts and not entire letters are written in this manner. The one new letter type classified according to form is the letter made up of extracts taken from papers by a character (Dr. Bartlett in this instance) and not by the editor of the novel, as in Clarissa.3* In his treatment of letter-length devices in Orandison Richardson does not adapt to new purposes devices that he used before. For instance, he uses the letter sent anonymously and the letter signed 33 For the names and locations of letter types classified according to subject in Orandison, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 306. 34 For the names and locations of letter types classified according to attitude and form in Orandison, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 306.

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by two or more correspondents as he did in Pamela and Clarissa. However, in his development of new devices, he demonstrates that he is fully aware of the various possibilities t h a t such devices offer. Four examples of the seven new devices illustrate this point: a letter t h a t is left by a character (Emily's mother) during an incident which consequently leads to a reconciliation; a letter t h a t is written by two correspondents who alternate, signifying their portions of the letter (the description of Harriet's wedding) ; a letter written before the time setting of the novel and used to provide background material; and the letter from an ingénue. 35 Even in his final novel Richardson reveals the flexibility of his epistolary technique by creating new devices to serve very different purposes. 36 3. Letter and Journal Entry Lengths and the Exchange of Correspondence Pamela and Pamela I I . — In his handling of letter and journal entry lengths in Pamela and Pamela I I , Richardson shows that he was fully aware of the possibilities t h a t the letter and the journal entry offered as units in a longer narrative. I n Pamela he obtains a feeling of urgency through the use of brief letters and journal entries. Letter lengths in the first part of the novel vary from onehalf page to nine pages, and almost one-half (fourteen of thirtyone) of the letters are two pages and under. 37 The lengths of the thirty-eight letters t h a t appear in the long journal are comparable to those of the letters in the first part. Although longer than the letters, the entries in the journal are kept under careful control so t h a t a sense of urgency is maintained throughout. The entries, which, cover time periods varying from one hour to four days, vary from less than a page to twenty-four pages, the average being under ten. Because of this handling of entry lengths, the journal

35

McKillop has pointed out, in his "Epistolary Technique", p. 52, that this ingénue type of letter, which was first introduced by Richardson, was "destined to be developed in various ways by Fanny Burney and Jane Austen". 36 For the names and locations of letter-length devices in Grandison, see Appendix B, Section 4, page 307. 37 Lengths in pages here refer to the pages in The Shakespeare Head Edition, in which each page contains approximately 380 words in 33 lines.

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never becomes static but, instead, approximates in many respects a collection of letters written under varying circumstances. Even though Richardson uses letter length to create a sense of urgency on only a few occasions in Pamela I I , the major instance being the exchange of five short notes between Pamela and Lady Davers during the crucial affair concerning the Italian countess (IV, xxii-xxvi, 139-43), he manages to keep the lengths of his letters under reasonable control. Forty-eight of the 103 letters average slightly over three pages in length with none over five pages, and seventy of the total are eight pages or less. Even in the latter part of Vol. I, where Richardson resorts to three letter-journals, there are a number of short letters which provide a sort of epistolary balance. For example, just before Pamela's letter-journal of over forty-nine pages (IV, xxix-xxix, 164-214) there is a three and one-half page letter from Polly Darnford to Pamela (xxviii, 161164), and between this long journal and the next one of eightyseven pages (xxxii, 217-303) there is a similar letter of three pages (xxxi, 214-217). While Richardson does not develop his technique of using letter length for creating a sense of urgency beyond that in Pamela, he does, in Pamela II as in his other works, exert a firm discipline over letter lengths, a control that demonstrates his consciousness of letters as realistic documents whose integrity should not be violated. Richardson's early development of an epistolary technique can be readily seen in his handling of the exchange of correspondence between the characters in Pamela and in Pamela II. As McKillop has pointed out, there is only a slight exchange in Pamela in that "the 'narratist' sends letters or keeps a journal, but does not regularly receive and answer letters". 38 Yet this slight exchange is of some importance because it allowed Richardson the opportunity to develop a technique for writing letters of different types to suit varying circumstances. For instance, the exchange of letters between Pamela and her parents early in the novel (I, i-xxxi, 1-119) provided Richardson with a means of developing his technique in writing letters of advice to a heroine in difficulty, a technique which he used frequently in Clarissa. The five brief exchanges, between Pamela and Mr. Williams and Pamela and Mr. B —, later in the novel (I, intermittently 137-263), are important because 38

Early

Masters

of English

Fiction,

p. 61.

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they involve situations where there is some dramatic intensity; included among them are letters offering marriage (192-193) and proposing articles whereby Pamela would become the mistress of Mr. B - (256-263). The exchange of correspondence in Pamela II represents a major advance in the development of Richardson's technique since there is greater and more complex exchange throughout the narrative. As McKillop has pointed out, in Pamela II Richardson for the first time "conducts a two-sided correspondence, instead of the series of letters virtually without replies, coalescing into a continuous journal". 39 Indicative of the extent of exchange is this brief description of the sequence of exchanges in Vol. I: five letters between Pamela and her parents (i-v, 1-29), fifteen letters between Pamela and Lady Da vers (vi-xx, 29-120), a letter from Polly Darnford to Pamela (xxi, 121-125), three letters between Mr. B— and Sir Simon Darnford (xxii-xxiv, 126-143), two letters between Pamela and her parents (xxv-xxvi, 143-151), and a long exchange between Pamela and Polly Darnford (xxvi-xlii, 152-432). The sequence in Vol. I I is somewhat similar except that there are several longer exchanges between Pamela and her two major correspondents, Lady Davers and Polly Darnford. The exchange of three letters between Mr. B— and Sir Simon Darnford, mentioned above, is important because it represents what Dottin has pointed out: an exchange between secondary characters acting independently of the major character. 40 Such an exchange, which occurs again in two places in Vol. I I (x, 48—57; xviii-xx, 114-130), illustrates the importance of Pamela II to Richardson's development of an epistolary technique. Another advance in technique in the second volume of the sequel is the use of a minor character to describe the actions of a major character who is unable to do so. Pamela's lying-in is related to the reader by Polly Darnford in letters to her parents (xviii—xx, 114-130). This means of narrating actions is developed further in Clarissa and Grandison. It should be pointed out that in spite of the fact that the exchange of correspondence is greater in Pamela I I , Richardson does resort to the use of a journal on three occasions in the first volume of the 39 40

Samuel Richardson, p . 60. Revue Anglo-americaine, X I I I , 488.

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sequel. Yet, as has been indicated on the second page of this section, he is careful to balance these long journal sections by short letters which serve as answers to them, and he thus uses the journal sections as part of the exchange of correspondence in the sequel. A final advance in the use of the exchange of correspondence in Pamela 11 is the relating of much of the action of the narrative in a manner that softens its effect and places it in the background, very much like the situation in Grandison. McKillop has pointed out that in one of the few intense situations in the sequel, the countess episode, "the affair is told by Pamela to Lady Davers in letters which are then read and supplemented by Mr. B., but without heightening the dramatic effect". 41 To a great extent Richardson used exchange of correspondence in Pamela II to reduce immediacy or dramatic intensity, an effect opposite to his purpose in Pamela. Even so, this practice, along with a greater exchange of correspondence, an exchange between secondary characters, the use of secondary characters to relate actions of the heroine, and the balancing of journal sections with letters, represents an important step in Richardson's development of epistolary technique in Pamela II. Clarissa. — In his treatment of letter lengths in Clarissa Richardson advances his epistolary technique over that in his earlier novels in two ways. First, by placing several of his short letters that announce crucial narrative events among longer and less important letters, he emphasizes the gravity of the event and makes it memorable to the reader by the strong contrast between the stark understatement of the short letter and the detailed descriptions of the longer ones that precede and follow. Second, by maintaining a strict control over his letter lengths, Richardson is able to serve two purposes well: background and development are provided by longer letters, and a sense of urgency, comparable to that in the first part of Pamela, is sustained throughout much of the narrative. The best example of Richardson's use of the short letter to obtain the effect described in the first instance is the terse two-line note from Lovelace to Belford announcing that the rape has occurred (V, xxxii, 314). This letter, which reads "And now, Belford, I can go no farther. The affair is over. Clarissa lives", comes as a shock 41

" E p i s t o l a r y Technique", p. 40-

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to the reader because it follows a series of rather long letters from Lovelace to Belford which include many trivial details and some childish bragging about Lovelace's proposed conquest, and it precedes another long exchange between Lovelace and his confidant. Another effective example is the letter from Belford to Lovelace announcing Clarissa's death (VII, cx, 464) which also follows a long relating of details, this time by Belford. The three Unes in this letter demonstrate Richardson's ability to use highly charged understatement: " I have only to say at present — Thou wilt do well to take a tour to Paris; or where-ever else thy destiny shall lead thee ! ! ! The effect of this use of the short letter has been aptly described by McKillop: . . . a n o t h e r f e a t u r e of his narrative m e t h o d should b e n o t e d here, t h e occasional and m e m o r a b l e direct stroke. W e h a v e h a d it before — " Y o u r Clarissa h a s g o n e off w i t h a m a n " — "All is over — Clarissa l i v e s " ( L o v e l a c e t o Belford a f t e r t h e rape). There are s o m e powerful strokes of t h i s kind t o w a r d t h e end. T h u s Belford a n n o u n c e s t h e d e a t h of Clarissa t o L o v e l a c e : " I h a v e o n l y t o s a y a t present — T h o u wilt do well to t a k e a Tour t o Paris; or wherever else t h y d e s t i n y shall lead t h e e ! ! !" . . . b u t R i c h a r d s o n uses t h e s w i f t stroke again w h e n L o v e l a c e g o e s t o t h e Continent and falls in a duel w i t h Morden a t Trent, e x c l a i m i n g a t last, " L e t this e x p i a t e ! " T h e n o v e l i s t tells t h i s final episode w i t h t h e u t m o s t brevity; far f r o m being anticlimactic, it g i v e s t h e inevitable close, w i t h s o c i a l c o d e and personal t r a g e d y finally fused. 4 3

Richardson's strict control over letter lengths can best be demonstrated by a summary of the lengths of the letters in the novel. Sixty-four per cent of the 537 letters are six pages or under, 44 and only twelve per cent are over ten pages long. And in the last three volumes the number of letters of over ten pages is remarkably low — seventeen out of 269. There are, of course, a number of longer letters, particularly in Volumes I, IV, and V, which are dominated by two correspondents, Clarissa and Lovelace, and 42 See A p p e n d i x B , Section 5, p a g e 307, for other e x a m p l e s of R i c h a r d s o n ' s use of t h e short letter. 43 Early Masters, pp. 7 7 - 7 8 . T h e first a n d last q u o t e d expressions are f r o m II, xlvii, 339 (Clarissa's first l e t t e r after t h e abduction) a n d V I I I , lvii, 277 (Lovelace's d y i n g words). 44 See n o t e a t beginning of this section o n page 128 for t h e l e n g t h s referred t o here.

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serve to provide necessary background and description. In fact Volume V demonstrates the greatest variety of letter lengths in that it contains the longest letter in the novel, forty-three pages (viii, 79-121), and shortest, two lines (xxxii, 314). While longer than the letters in Pamela the letters in Clarissa are kept within reasonable lengths and the majority of them are shorter than the journal entries in Pamela. In addition where longer letters dominate, in Volumes I, IV, and V, there are also shorter letters which, along with the shorter letters in the other five volumes, sustain a sense of urgency throughout much of a long and complex narrative. In his handling of exchange of correspondence in Clarissa Richardson incorporates all of the advances that he had made in Pamela II over his limited achievement in Pamela, and then develops in five of the eight volumes an exchange that is remarkably frequent considering that there are 537 letters45 altogether and only four major correspondents. In these five volumes (III, IV, VI, VII and VIII), which contain 398 of the 537 letters, there are very few long series of successive letters by the same correspondent. There is one series of thirteen, one of seven, one of six, seven of five and five of four, all of which are spread fairly evenly over the five volumes, and there are numerous short series: fifteen which have three letters each and thirtyfive that have two. Thus only eighty-one of the 398 letters appear in series of four or more letters, and there are, in Vols. VI and VII, two unbroken stretches of nineteen (xvii-xxxv, 81-134) and twenty-three (lii-xxv, 20-84) single letters, as well as a number of other moderately long stretches throughout the five volumes. Volumes I, II, and V, on the other hand, are exceptional in that they contain long series of letters from the same correspondent. Vols. I and II, in which Clarissa is the major correspondent, contain series of as many as eleven successive letters, and in Vol. V, in which Lovelace is the major correspondent, the series are the rule rather than the exception. In this volume there is one series of as many as twenty-seven successive letters. Lovelace's describing of almost all the action in Vol. V represents a further use of the device instituted in Pamela II of having another correspondent 45

This figure does n o t include letters t h a t are enclosed in t h e n u m b e r e d letters of t h e novel.

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describe the action when the usual correspondent is no longer able to do so. Two other devices are used in connection with the exchange of correspondence in Clarissa. The first, that appeared earlier in Pamela II, is having secondary characters correspond independently of major characters, which occurs in Vols. II, IV, and VII. And the other, one that is new in Clarissa and allows for a still greater exchange of correspondence, is the corresponding of major characters with minor characters, which occurs in six of the eight volumes. In one major respect Richardson's use of correspondence in Clarissa is opposite to that in Pamela II. As was pointed out earlier in this section Richardson uses exchange of correspondence in Pamela II to relate much of the action of the narrative in a manner that softens its effect and places it in the background. He does this by having the characters pass letters around and comment on their contents so that much of what is written is commentary about actions rather than descriptions of actions. In Clarissa the reverse of this situation is true. The exchange of correspondence involves the heroine in actions, and although there is commentary, as in the correspondence between Clarissa and Anna Howe, the greater the exchange of correspondence the greater is the involvement of the heroine, so that the exchange is used not to soften the effects of the actions but to heighten them. The fact that the greatest exchange in Clarissa occurs in the last three volumes when Clarissa is suffering extreme anguish because of her isolation from her family demonstrates the truth of his point. In his use of letter lengths and exchange of correspondence Richardson advances his epistolary technique considerably in Clarissa. He demonstrates that he is not only able to use the short letter as an intensifying dramatic device in the narrative but that he can also also keep his letter lengths within reasonable proportions and still vary them so that different purposes are served. Going far beyond his achievement in Pamela and Pamela II he creates a remarkably frequent exchange of correspondence in a long narrative and adapts his exchange so that it serves his purpose of intensifying the involvement of the heroine. Orandison. — In Grandison Richardson does not advance his epistolary technique in his use of letter lengths beyond his achievement in Clarissa. He does exercise a strict control over lengths so that

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the integrity of the letter form is maintained and he does provide epistolary balance by interspersing shorter letters among longer ones. In addition he varies the lengths of his letters so that his shortest is only six lines longer than the shortest in Clarissa and his longest is only four and one-half pages longer than the longest in his previous novel. However, he does not use short letters as intensifying devices in the narrative and, except in a few instances, he does not utilize letter lengths to create a sense of urgency. Throughout Orandison Richardson uses consistently longer letters than in all three of his earlier works. Almost one quarter (twenty-three per cent) of the letters are over ten pages, and less than half (forty-six per cent) are six pages or under. These figures contrast strikingly with twelve per cent in the first instance and sixty-four per cent in the second for Clarissa. Y e t Richardson's use of longer letters and his failure to utilize letter lengths, as in Clarissa, do not necessarily indicate that his epistolary technique was retrogressing. Richardson's purpose in Orandison, as in Pamela II, was to have the letters provide commentary and background material and to serve as a buifer between the heroine and the actions of the world. Generally the letters do not involve the heroine in action, as is the case in Clarissa, but rather they provide her with the means of reflecting on the actions and revealing them through discussion with her relatives and friends. Because the letters are thus not required to provide dramatic intensification and a sense of urgency, it is fitting that they be longer and more static, more documentary, to be exact. As the section below on the use of letters for narrative structure will demonstrate, Richardson was interested in reducing, rather than increasing, dramatic intensity in Orandison, and, for that reason, his use of letter lengths is appropriate to his purpose and a good example of his ability to adapt his technique to a new purpose. In his final novel Richardson varied his exchange of correspondence considerably from that in his earlier novels. One basic difference is that in Grandison a genuine exchange of correspondence, in which there is action and reaction as well as reflection, is the exception rather than the rule. The majority of the letters in the novel are either unanswered or answered only to the extent that an exchange can be assumed by the reader. Much of the time one minor character is the unanswering receiver of numerous letters by a major

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character. I n the first three volumes, for instance, the majority of the letters are written by Harriet Byron, the heroine, to her cousin Lucy Selby, who is at another place informing everyone there of what Harriet is doing. As both Dottin 46 and McKillop 47 have pointed out, only in Volume V is there a genuine exchange, 48 between Harriet and Charlotte Grandison, approaching t h a t achieved throughout Clarissa. There are other exchanges, such as those between Mr. Selby and Mr. Reeves over Harriet's abduction (I, xxxiii-xxviii, 174-227) and between Grandison and Clementina over her future plans, 49 b u t these are perfunctory in nature and cannot be compared with such dramatic exchanges as those between Clarissa and her family in the previous novel. A second difference between the exchange of correspondence in Grandison and that in the earlier works, particularly Clarissa, is that there are many long groups of letters b y the same correspondent. Although these groups are separated by short exchanges t h a t do much to promote epistolary balance, Dottin's statement t h a t "Richardson attempted in vain to break the monotony in his correspondents" 50 is essentially correct. A brief survey of the sizes of the groups of letters from the same correspondent in the six volumes will reveal just how limited the exchange is. In Volumes I, II, and I I I there are three groups with fifteen (viii-xxii), twentytwo (v-xxvi), and seventeen (i-xvii) letters respectively which collectively occupy almost 600 pages. Of the 138 letters in these three volumes, sixty-eight appear in groups of seven or more. In Volumes IV and VI there are two groups of seven, one of eleven, while in the exceptional Volume V there are only two groups of over five letters and there is a series of nineteen letters each of which is written by a different correspondent. The third difference between the exchange in Grandison and that in the other novels is related to the first two differences : the presentation of a large amount of material that describes actions which 46

Revue Anglo-américaine, X I I I , 484. " E p i s t o l a r y Technique", p. 50. 48 F r o m xi, 47 to 1, 345 w i t h s o m e letters f r o m other correspondents interspersed. There are also 15 letters b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o correspondents in groups of three and four in V o l u m e IV, w h i c h also m i g h t c o n s t i t u t e a g e n u i n e exchange. " I V , 5 1 - 5 5 ; V, 6 - 7 , 19-20, 2 2 - 2 5 . 50 Revue Anglo-americaine, X I I I , 493. 47

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either occurred before the time setting of the novel or are taking place at some distance from the heroine's locale in the novel. 51 This material which covers over forty per cent of the space in Volumes II, III, and IV, is presented in the form of letters and extracts of letters written, or provided from files, by characters in the novel. However, these letters, while somewhat like journal entries, are different from any of those in the earlier novels for at least two reasons: (1) they deal with actions in the past or at great distances away, for which reasons their receivers do not answer them, and (2) they are primarily narrative in nature rather than dramatic, although a few contain dramatic scenes. Instead of being answered they are passed around by friends and read to family groups, as are the majority of Harriet's letters in the first three volumes, and for this reason their use by Richardson reduces the exchange of correspondence considerably and justifies the numerous long series of letters from the same correspondent. Two important devices t h a t appear in the earlier works are used by Richardson in Orandison: minor characters correspond independently, and major characters correspond with minor characters, and a secondary character becomes the dominant correspondent when the major character is incapacitated. Richardson's use of exchange of correspondence in Grandison indicates t h a t even though he did not develop and refine the remarkable exchange t h a t he had achieved in Clarissa, he did adapt his practice to his particular purposes. By presenting long series of letters from the same correspondent and having these letters passed around and discussed rather than answered, Richardson was able to make his letters serve primarily as reflective comments to be read by several characters rather than as dramatic provokers of the feelings and actions of a very few characters, as in Clarissa. The adaptability of Richardson's exchange of correspondence in his four works is evident when these works are applied to Romberg's classification of epistolary novels according to the number of narrators: 52 (1) one single narrator — Pamela: (2) two or more narrators exchange letters — Pamela I I , Clarissa, and Orandison, 51

E x a m p l e s are t h e thirteen letters b y Dr. B a r t l e t t o n Grandison's background in t h e I t a l i a n affair ( I I I , iv, 4 2 t o xii, 232) a n d letters f r o m Grandison t o Dr. B a r t l e t t a b o u t e v e n t s in I t a l y (IV, x v i i , 1 1 2 - x x i v , 178; x x x i v , 2 2 2 - 2 4 9 ; lvi, 3 8 2 - l i x , 412). 52 Studies in the Narrative Technique of the First Person Novel, pp. 5 1 - 5 2 .

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in part; (3) two or more narrators, without reply-correspondence — Grandison, in the main. This fact, along with the evidence presented above, shows that Richardson followed in practice what he stated in his theory concerning exchange of correspondence: that the exchange should be varied to suit the relationships of the characters in the novels.53 4. Point of View Pamela and Pamela II. — The point of view in Pamela is limited primarily to one character, the heroine, who is the writer of thirtynine of the sixty-nine letters and all of the long journal. In fact, only two other characters, Mr. B— and Mr. Williams, write over five letters apiece.54 Even so, there are in Richardson's first novel the rudiments of a multiple point of view in that five correspondents other than Pamela are individualized to the extent that they represent elements in the point of view, however small. These correspondents are Pamela's parents, who count as one; Lady Davers; Mr. B—; Mr. Williams; and Mr. Arnold, the servant. 55 In Pamela I I , Richardson develops a point of view that is far more multiple than the limited one in Pamela and adumbrates the very sophisticated point of view in Clarissa. While Pamela is still the major correspondent, writing sixty-seven of the 103 letters, there are two other correspondents who, between them, write slightly under a third of all the letters. They are Lady Davers and Polly Darnford, who write sixteen and twelve letters respectively. Other correspondents include Pamela's parents, four letters; Mr. B—, two; and Sir Simon Darnford, two. All of the six correspondents in the sequel are individualized by their letters. In fact the letters of these characters illustrate Richardson's ability to present several entirely different characters by letter, a definite advance 53 See Chapter I, p. 28. " T h e numbers of letters written by the minor characters are Mr. B —, sixteen; Mr. Williams, six; Pamela's parents, five; Mr. Arnold, Lady Davers, and an anonymous "Somebody", one each. 55 Because the manner in which the characters in all four of Richardson's works are individualized in the letters is appropriately described in the following ehapter on characterization (see pp. 179 and Appendix C, Section 2), details concerning individualization are omitted in this chapter. For a concise treatment of Richardson's individualizing of his characters in all but his final novel, see Romberg, pp. 180-181.

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over the epistolary technique in Pamela. A further advance in Pamela II has been pointed out by McKillop, who says that a light social tone is developed in the letters of the three female correspondents, 58 a technique that is more fully utilized later in Grandison. In both Pamela and its sequel Richardson's exercise of his control as editor of the letters affects the point of view. I n Pamela he violates the integrity of the epistolary point of view by presenting editorial comment immediately after the definition (I, 119-128) where Pamela has been sent off to Lincolnshire by Mr. B—,57 Richardson used this means to describe what happened at Mr. B—'s Bedfordshire estate after the abduction because his point of view character was obviously unable to do so. Although Richardson found it necessary, in his later works, to have someone other than the heroine tell her tale, he never again resorted to using the editor for this purpose and thus violate his point of view. Another way t h a t Richardson exercises control in Pamela is by the use of one footnote (I, 155), in which he as editor impresses on the reader's mind the fact t h a t Mr. B altered, to his advantage, Pamela's note to Mrs. Jervis after her abduction. In Pamela II, Richardson continues the use of the footnote and has approximately 100 of them under thirty-nine letters that are fairly well spread throughout the two volumes, but with more in the first. The majority of them, which refer back to pages and letters in Pamela, provide a link between Pamela II and Pamela, and some letters have as many as nine or ten footnotes. Of the eight footnotes t h a t are not letter or page references, only one (III, xxvii, 158), which explains t h a t arguments referred to in the letter had been pleaded by someone else, is related to narrative structure. Five others refer to a hint of an action in Volume I of Pamela (IV, xvii, III), to character descriptions in Pamela (III, xxxii, 217), to a comparison of a conversation with one in Volume I I of Pamela (III, xxxii, 239), to later intentions of Mr. Williams (IV, xxxii, 298), and to Mr. B—'s earlier reasons for not marrying (III, xxx, 191). One is factual and historical (III, xxix, 170) and another 56

"Epistolary Technique", p. 50. I n an excellent description of Richardson's role as the editor of Pamela, Romberg says that Richardson's violation of his epistolary point of view at the event which I have called the definition is the only instance in Pamela where Richardson fails to demonstrate both care and skill as an editor. (Romberg, pp. 181-189.) 57

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advises the reader to see the new translation of Aesop's Fables (III, xx, 118).58 Richardson further exercises editorial control in Pamela II on three occasions (II, xxvii, 160-161; xxv, 341; IV, x, 56-57) byusing brief notes, which are placed at the ends of two of the letters and at the top of another to explain just why he is violating the normal time sequence and to give the location in the volume of a letter that Miss Darnford has mislaid. In the first instance he argues that even though time order will be violated, it is better for the reader to see the letter and the answer together, and he points out that this liberty will be taken on other occasions. Clarissa. — Highly complex and fully developed, the point of view in Clarissa represents a major advance in epistolary technique beyond the simple point of view in both Pamela and Pamela II. This complexity is made evident by an examination of the basic characteristics of the point of view in Clarissa. These characteristics are (1) a large number of individualized correspondents, (2) the inclusion of a number of different elements in the letters of major characters, (3) the use of letters of particular characters to serve several different purposes, (4) a progressive increase in the number of correspondents, (5) a high degree of balance. The first characteristic is strikingly apparent in Clarissa. Instead of the limited number of correspondents that appear in Pamela and Pamela I I , there are twenty-six correspondents in Clarissa, each of whom is distinctly individualized by the traits shown in his letters.59 The different elements referred to in the second characteristic include numerous conversations of other characters, whole letters and excerpts of letters, quotations, and notes, as well as the burden of the exposition of the narrative, 60 all of which appear in the letters of major characters. Because of this inclusion of such varied elements, Clarissa, for instance, does not monopolize the point of view in Volumes I and I I of the novel even though she is the dominant character, and Lovelace, although more dominant 58

Richardson doubtless is referring here to his own translation of Aesop's Fables which he printed and published in 1739, two years before Pamela II was written. » See n. 55. 60 For examples of the use of such multiple elements see: II, v, 24 to ix, 57; xiv, 88-134; V, xix, 208 to xx, 237; xxvi, 258 to xxvii, 281.

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than Clarissa, does not entirely monopolize the point of view in Volumes IV, V, and VI because he presents much conversation of other characters in his letters. This second characteristic confirms t h a t in his practice Richardson follows what he states in his theory concerning epistolary technique: the letters in the novels should include many particulars concerning the characters. 61 The third characteristic of using letters of particular persons to serve several different purposes is evident in the letters of the major correspondents. Although not numerous in the novel, Anna Howe's letters provide incisive comments about Clarissa's situation, show the stark contrasts between Anna's freedom and Clarissa's captivity, and dramatize the striking difference in the basic attitudes of Clarissa and her confidante. Lovelace's letters are entirely different from those of Clarissa and Anna Howe, and serve other purposes. Instead of carrying the burden of exposition, his letters in the first four volumes serve primarily to reveal the character of their writer. Although some of them present the different elements mentioned above, a large number are extensive unanswered soliloquies. Other important effects of Richardson's having the letters of particular characters serve different purposes are described in detail by Romberg. 62 Among these effects are the presentation of both external and internal views of major characters and a broader and more sophisticated point of view. The extent to which Richardson develops multiplicity of point of view in Clarissa is demonstrated by the proportions of the novel t h a t are written by the various characters. Based on a total of 3,092 pages, Lovelace writes thirty-five per cent; Clarissa, thirtytwo; Belford twelve, and Anna Howe, eleven. 63 These four correspondents fill ninety per cent of all the pages; the twenty-two minor characters write sixty-one letters to fill the other ten per cent. Only three of the minor characters write over five letters apiece: Mrs. Norton writes twelve; Col. Morden, nine, and Arabella Harlowe, six. The fourth characteristic of Richardson's complex point of view, a progressive increase in the number of correspondents, is remarkable 61

See Chapter I, pp. 28-29. Pp. 221-229, 234-235. 63 T h e n u m b e r s of letters w r i t t e n b y t h e major characters are Lovelace, 169; Clarissa, 167; Belford, 78; and A n n a H o w e , 62. 62

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because of the figures on the proportions in the novel given in the paragraph above. Even though the twenty-two minor characters write only sixty-one letters (ten per cent of the narrative), Richardson is able to place these relatively few letters so that the number of correspondents increases as the narrative progresses and the plot becomes more involved. The number of correspondents in the various volumes illustrates that, with two exceptions, there is a progressive increase in the number of correspondents involved in Clarissa up until the final volume: Vol. I, three; Vol. II, six; Vol. I l l , seven; Vol. IV, seven; Vol. V, three; Vol. VI, thirteen; Vol. VII, sixteen; and Vol. VIII, twelve. The fifth and final characteristic of the complex point of view in Clarissa is the distribution of letters among correspondents throughout the eight volumes. Each of the two major characters dominates two volumes strongly and a third one moderately. Clarissa strongly dominates Vols. I and I I and is moderately dominant in Vol. I l l , while Lovelace occupies the same position in Vols. IV, V, and VI. Belford writes the largest number of letters in the other two volumes (VII and VIII) but he is never dominant. Of the eight volumes, Vol. VII is the best balanced, as the following proportions reveal: of the 111 letters in the volume, Belford writes thirty-four; Lovelace, twenty-seven; Clarissa, twenty-two and Anna Howe, six. In addition to using dominant characters to promote balance in certain of the eight volumes Richardson also balances the letters of the four major correspondents over the entire eight volumes of the novel. While Clarissa writes 113 letters in the first half (Vols. I-IV), her number decreases to fifty-four in the second (Vols. V-VIII). To balance this Lovelace's sixty-six in the first half increases to 103 in the second. At the same time Anna Howe's thirty-nine in the first half decreases to twenty-three in the second half while Belford's six letters increase to a formidable seventytwo.64 Of these five characteristics of Richardson's point of view in Clarissa the second and third are the most important because they 64

Romberg also describes the ways in which Richardson has balanced the letters of his major characters in the novel (pp. 178-180), and on p. 348 he presents two tables that show the distribution of letters and pages written by the four major characters in the eight volumes of the novel. That his figures and mine should disagree in some instances is a matter of slight importance.

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determine the basic nature of Richardson's point of view. By including a number of different elements, which present details concerning other characters in the letters, Richardson broadens his point of view from the simple first person of the letter writer to something approaching the omniscient. And by giving the letters of particular characters definite purposes, Richardson takes full advantage of the contrasting personalities and situations of his characters. He is able to juxtapose and contrast these personalities to the extent t h a t every major character is revealed both internally and externally, as well as directly and indirectly most of the time. By going beyond the single letter writer and, at the same time, taking full advantage of the several single letter writers in the narrative, Richardson develops a point of view t h a t incorporates effectively the advantages of both the omniscient and first person points of view. Richardson's achievements in constructing an effective multiple point of view have been pointed out. McKillop has said that Richardson's "use of several major correspondents in Clarissa means t h a t he presents with shifting point of view a triangular situation in which Clarissa, her family, and the lover-abductor-seducer Lovelace are each engaged in an intense, bitter, and protracted struggle with the other two". 65 In connection with Richardson's paralleling of his major correspondents Ian W a t t has pointed out t h a t "the basic formal division [of two women and two men] is both an expression of the dichotomisation of the sexual roles which is at the heart of Richardson's subject, and an essential condition of the candid self-revelation b y the characters which would have been inhibited by a mixed correspondence". 68 W a t t goes on to show how Richardson achieved both variety and effective character contrasts by his use of point of view: Richardson p r e v e n t s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s i m p l i c i t y of hia h a n d l i n g of t h e m a i n epistolary structure f r o m becoming o b v i o u s or boring b y a great v a r i e t y o f auxiliary devices. There is, first of all, t h e contrast b e t w e e n t h e t o t a l l y different worlds of t h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e correspondences; a n d w i t h i n t h e m are further contrasts of character and t e m p e r a m e n t : Clarissa's a n x i o u s restraint is j u x t a p o s e d t o A n n a ' s pert volubility, and L o v e l a c e ' s B y r o n i c alternations of m o o d are s e t off against t h e increasingly sober tenor of Belford's letters. F r o m t i m e t o t i m e further contrasts of t o n e are provided b y t h e introduction o f n e w correspondents, such as Clarissa's h e a v y U n c l e 65 66

" E p i s t o l a r y Technique", p. 42. The Rise of the Novel (Berkeley, 1957), p. 209.

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Antony, Lovelace's illiterate servant Joseph Leman, the ridiculous pedant Brand or by the inclusion of incidents of a contrasted kind, varying from the full-dress description of the moral and physical squalor of Mrs. Sinclair's death to the social comedy of some of the disguise scenes in which Lovelace participates. 6 '

Romberg describes the skill with which Richardson presents, on two occasions in Clarissa, the very different feelings of Lovelace and Clarissa concerning the same situation, 68 a device he calls double exposure. In his description of the two major characters' versions of one incident Romberg says, "In both these versions we see how carefully Richardson has built up his novel. The two versions are like searchlights illuminating the same scene but with a light of a different colour. They are complementary and bring out the many facets of the scene and the persons figuring in it." 69 "The two versions together provide the reader with a double view of an incident, which gives depth to the description and at the same time an indirect but detailed characterization of the two chief narrators." 70 Watt's statement above and much of the evidence in this section show that with the multiple point of view in Clarissa Richardson followed his theory for the epistolary novel: the use of letters from different characters provides novelty. 71 In Clarissa and, as will be seen later, to a limited extent in Grandison, Richardson presented letters from a number of different correspondents throughout much of the narrative (particularly in Volume VII of Clarissa) so that their various character traits would be strikingly apparent and their letters would appear novel and interesting to his reader. In Clarissa Richardson exercises his control as editor72 by two means: he uses numerous footnotes of varying lengths for several different purposes, which will be described below, and he provides 67

Ibid., p. 210. Pp. 212-220. 69 P. 216. 70 P. 217. 71 See Chapter I, pp. 23. 72 In his excellent description of Richardson's role as editor of Clarissa (189-197), Romberg points out that although Richardson does not directly violate his epistolary point of view as he did in Pamela, he is not as meticulous about maintaining the function of an editor who is presenting authentic letters as he was in Pamela. 68

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brief editorial comments 73 which explain and justify his 'extracting' 74 , 'suppressing', and placing of certain letters in the novel. Of the 427 footnotes in Clarissa, which contrast with one in Pamela and one hundred in Pamela II, the most important are the thirtyone which are aimed at denigrating the character of Lovelace and the twenty-seven which praise Clarissa and justify her actions against attacks claiming t h a t she is cold and proud. I t should be pointed out t h a t Richardson added these fifty-eight footnotes when he prepared the third edition of Clarissa, and t h a t they represent his attempts to combat unwanted praise of Lovelace and criticism of Clarissa. 75 One of the most important of the footnotes denigrating Lovelace's character (II, xxvi, 168) explains that Lovelace's treatment of the girl Rosebud represents a calculated plan to better his position in Clarissa's eyes rather than an act of kindness on his part, as some readers believed. Another footnote (IV, v, 24) condemns Lovelace for recklessly coining words and cites his ludicrous reason for doing so in another letter. In a footnote defending Clarissa (III, ii, 13) Richardson argues that those who have criticized the heroine for being reserved and haughty have not paid attention to the story; then he goes on to explain the parts of the story t h a t the readers have neglected. 76 The majority of the footnotes serve other purposes: many clarify problems concerning the characters' circumstances and provide cross references to other letters and volumes, very much like the footnotes in Pamela II; seven elaborate the description in the text; and eight present quotations from the Bible to support actions in the narrative.

73 These are presented without labels either between letters or below the date lines. They are generally italicized either totally or in part and they vary from one line to half a page in length. For examples see III, 52, 53; 113; 115; 133-135; IV, 130; 336. 74 According to Romberg his process of 'extracting' from letters that do not exist was, when Richardson used it, "A new device in narrative" (179). 75 For an illuminating description of the changes that Richardson made in his second and third editions of Clarissa see Kinkead-Weekes, "Clarissa Restored?" Review of English Studies, new series, X (1959), 156-171. 76 For other examples of footnotes concerning Lovelace and Clarissa see, for Lovelace, I, 10, 210; II, 23, 27, 294, 312; and, for Clarissa, III, 82, 275, 365; IV, 113; V, 33.

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Richardson's editorial comments, mentioned above, are less important than his footnotes. Although these comments, which describe his 'extracting' and 'suppressing', are fairly frequent, only a few of them can be said to affect point of view to any extent, and those are concerned with Lovelace's letters. Generally the comments serve to point out weaknesses in Lovelace's character and are, in effect, descriptions of Lovelace presented in the guise of editorial comments. For example, in one comment the editor describes Lovelace as 'triumphing' in his letter, and, in another, he speaks of his pretending to have some little remorse (III, lxi, 337).77 Although the editorial comments and footnotes t h a t aim at denigrating Lovelace's character and justifying Clarissa's actions are sometimes strongly worded and strategically placed, there are too few of them to affect the management of the point of view to any extent, and the overall effect of the editorial control on the novel is slight. Grandison. — The point of view in Grandison is not nearly so complex and fully developed as t h a t in Clarissa. Of the five basic characteristics of the point of view in Clarissa, only two appear distinctively in Richardson's final novel: a large number of individualized correspondents, and the inclusion of a number of different elements in the letters of major characters. The other three characteristics, having the letters of particular characters serve several different purposes, a progressive increase in the number of correspondents, and a high degree of balance, are present b u t do not contribute to the point of view in the novel. In Grandison the first basic characteristic of the point of view in Clarissa is not fully developed. While there are a large number of correspondents, twenty-two as compared to twenty-six in Clarissa, not as many are as distinctly individualized by the letters. At least ten of the minor correspondents, who write from one to five letters each, are indistinguishable as characters, and so many of the letters in the novel have a tone t h a t is closer to formal than colloquial that the sharp distinctions in diction present in Clarissa are less distinguishable in Grandison. Because of the heroine's dominance as a correspondent, the second characteristic, the inclusion of different elements in the major 11

Other examples can be found as follows: III, 52, 53, 113, 177, 183.

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characters' letters, is not nearly so prominent as it is in Clarissa. Harriet Bryon's dominance as a correspondent is formidable in that her 189 letters fill sixty-four per cent of the 2,503 pages and only in Volumes IV and V is she the writer of less than two-thirds of all the letters. However, her letters, as well as a limited number of other characters' letters, do include a number of such different elements as numerous conversations of other characters, whole letters, brief notes, quotations, and, unique in Orandison, shorthand recordings of conversations at meetings. 78 As in Clarissa, but to a lesser extent, Richardson goes beyond the simple first person point of view to obtain some of the advantages of the omniscient by the use of these various elements. Yet because he fails, except to an inconsequential extent, to have the letters of particular characters serve different purposes, the third characteristic in Clarissa, he does not achieve a point of view that fully incorporates the advantage of both the omniscient and first person points of view. Orandison does not show the increase in number of correspondents or the balance found in Clarissa: only three characters write over six letters each, and nine characters write only one letter. There is slight evidence of a progressive increase in that, as in Clarissa, the penultimate volume has the greatest number of correspondents. 79 A slight degree of balance is achieved by having well over half of Harriet's letters appear in the first three volumes while the bulk of Grandison's, Charlotte Grandison's and Clementina's appear in the last three. Although Richardson obviously fails to utilize the major features of the complex point of view developed in Clarissa, he does attempt to improve his management of point of view in Orandison in several less important ways. In relation to Richardson's handling of his letters McKillop points out that in Orandison "the vein of social notation does, however, produce ingenious variations of the device of making dramatic play with letters, and this sometimes stands in contrast to the plodding and mechanical provision of the documents". 8 0 In several of his letters Richardson evidently is experiment78 For examples of the presence of different elements in Harriet's letters see: I, ii, 3-11; xvi, 106-119; xxxix, 306-324; xlix, 328-413; I I I , xxiv, 317-327; IV, iv, 19-28. 79 The number of correspondents per volume is I, 9; II, 6; I I I , 4; IV, 9; V, 10; VI, 5. 8 0 "Epistolary Technique", p. 51.

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ing with ways to improve his management of point of view. In one (II, xxxii, 274) he creates an intimate situation by having Harriet subjoin a separate paper intended only for Lucy Selby to one of Dr. Bartlett's letters about Grandison. In another instance (II, xxiv, 284) he informs the reader by a note under the superscription t h a t this letter is the one "which Miss Byron refused to read, or hear read". A third letter (V, xxxii, 229-230) contains an officialappearing 'judgment' which orders t h a t Harriet marry Grandison on a date of his choosing. This 'document' is labeled "Sir Charles Grandison, against Harriet Byron., E t e Contra . . . " and is signed by Henrietta Shirley, Marianne Selby, and Lucy Selby. McKillop has noted t h a t in one letter Richardson "goes so far as to record at length a troubled dream of Harriet's, recapitulating with broken imagery the principal events of the story (V, xxxv)". 8 1 Generally scholars have described Richardson's handling of the point of view in Grandison as weak. According to McKillop dramatic intensity is lost in the process of the extensive lending and forwarding of long files of letters by the characters. 82 Dottin points out t h a t because of the presence of such abstraction and unreality, Grandison is not a novel of action but one in which it must be assumed that the characters do little more than write letters. 83 Edward Wagenknecht 84 and Percy Lubbock feel that the lack of directness in the presentation of actions and feelings weakens the point of view considerably. By way of illustration Lubbock states t h a t at one point "Miss Byron is reduced to reporting to her friend what another friend has reported concerning Sir Cha.rles's report of his past life among the Italians." 85 These comments are justified by two related features of Richardson's final novel: the presence of a large amount of background material in letter form but completely lacking in dramatic interest, and the fact t h a t many of the letters are used to comment and reflect on past actions rather than to initiate new actions and arouse strong feelings. 86 Although these features are not directly related to the management of point of view, they affect this management to an important extent. 81

Ibid., p. 53. Ibidp. 47. 83 "Samuel Richardson et le roman epistolaire", pp. 496-497. si Cavalcade of the English Novel (New York, 1954), p. 53. 85 The Graft of Fiction (New York, 1921), p. 155. 86 For descriptions of these two features see pp. 135-137 of this chapter.

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Richardson's use of editorial control in Grandison is slighter than in any of the earlier novels. Except in a few instances where it is necessary to provide editorially Grandison's extensive background, there is neither the editing nor the extracting of letters t h a t was fairly extensive in Clarissa. None of the much smaller number of footnotes is used to influence in any respect the reader's opinion of the characters' actions. 5. The Use of Letters to Support Narrative Structure Much of what has been described in the previous sections concerns the different ways t h a t letters are used to support narrative structure. However, this section is concerned with specific ways t h a t the letters themselves and the circumstances concerning them are used to support directly the narrative structure of the novels. Because the locations of many of the means and devices used by Richardson have already been cited in previous sections, only those locations t h a t have not been cited elsewhere will be indicated in this section. Pamela and Pamela II. — Because his first novel has a definite narrative structure and his sequel lacks one, Pamela is of greater importance to our purposes here than Pamela II. Even though Richardson uses fewer letters in Pamela than in its sequel and in the other two novels, he makes the letter the central vehicle in presenting his narrative. With the exception of the conclusion all of the major events are supported by the use of letters. The initial conflict established at the point of entrance is introduced by the postscript of the first letter, and the abduction of Pamela, which is the definition, involves both the villain's controlling the correspondence of the heroine and his sending of a fabricated letter to her parents to 'justify' his action. Letters are used extensively to support the narrative structure after the definition and preceding the crisis. During her captivity Pamela is advised by letters after a clandestine correspondence has been established, and her feelings are upset by receiving a letter intended for Mrs. Jewkes and by later receiving an anonymous warning note. 87 As McKillop has pointed out, Pamela's journal ,7

" E p i s t o l a r y Technique", p p . 38-39.

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serves as a highly important letter before the crisis. After hiding it, first under a rosebush and then on her person, Pamela reluctantly gives it to Mr. B —, whose reading of it both suspends the action of the novel briefly and precipitates his desire for her.88 In his treatment of the scene in which Pamela is waiting at the inn just prior to the crisis Richardson demonstrates skill in the effective placing of letters to support his narrative. Soon after her arrival at the inn Pamela reads, a day before she is supposed to, Mr. B—'s letter expressing honorable intentions toward her. This simple action confirms her favorable opinion of Mr. B— and makes her eager to accept the invitation to return which Mr. B— gives in his letter the next day. Thus both Mr. B —'s action and Pamela's reactions before the crisis are effected by the use of letters. Both the culmination and the important conflict between Pamela and Lady Davers following it are supported, in part at least, by the use of letters. Prior to the culmination (II, 121) Mr. B— tears into bits a letter protesting the impending marriage which is sent by Lord Davers, who presumably had written what Lady Davers commanded. After scattering the bits into the air, Mr. B— tells the messenger to inform Lord Davers what he has done with the letter. Such an action certainly does much to confirm Mr. B —'s intention of defending Pamela against his irate sister. The conflict between Pamela and Lady Davers, which occurs late in the novel, is introduced by a letter from Lady Davers. Briefly stated, Richardson uses in Pamela the following devices to support his narrative structure: the postscript, which serves as a brief letter introducing a conflict; the controlling of the heroine's correspondence by the villain; the fabricated letter; the letter of advice; the clandestine correspondence; the misdirected letter; the anonymous warning note; the use of a journal as a highly strategic letter; the effective placing of letters in the narrative so that the character's reactions are made to seem natural; and the confirming of a character's intentions by producing a violent reaction at the receipt of a letter. To these devices may be added three that Romberg has described in his analysis of Pamela: the circumstances involving the exchange of correspondence including the use of the clandestine 'post office' which Pamela establishes under a tile in the garden; the various 88

Ibid.,

p. 39.

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circumstances under which the heroine must write her letters; the heroine's extensive copying of whole letters. According to Romberg all of these devices support the narrative structure in that they carry on the action in the novel.89 McKillophas commented on Richardson's handling of letters to carry on the action in Pamela, as well as in the other novels: "The writing of the letters is only the beginning; they are copied, sent, received, shown about, discussed, answered, even perhaps hidden, intercepted, stolen, altered, or forged." 90 By comparison, the use of letters to carry on the action in Pamela II is very slight. Yet in spite of the fact that there is little narrative structure in the sequel Richardson did utilize a few devices which are related to narrative structure and which show up later in the other novels. One, which is an adaptation of the anonymous warning note in Pamela, is the signed note that warns the heroine of an impending event. Another, and one which is an important new device in Pamela I I , is the short letter to announce a crucial action, Mr. B —'s affair with the countess in this instance. And still another important device, one which Richardson used in connection with the scene at the inn in Pamela and was to use extensively in Clarissa and Grandison, is the effective placing of letters to support his narrative. By placing his letters as he does in Pamela II Richardson allows the reader to know what will happen to the heroine before she does, and he further allows the background of a situation or the character of an individual to be gradually revealed to the heroine. A final device is having one correspondent agree to describe minutely everything that has occurred and will occur (III, xi), a device that is essential to the motivation in Grandison. In addition to using letters to support narrative structure Richardson developed, within the individual letters, patterns of action which contribute to the structure and the dramatic effect of the novel. The treatment of the narrative action in two letters from Vol. I of Pamela will illustrate what is meant here. Letter xi follows this pattern: the heroine begins by trying to recollect the contents of a letter to her parents that has been lost or stolen; she then describes, in great detail, an encounter between Mr. B — and herself, 89 Studies in the Narrative Technique of the First-Person Novel, pp. 200-201, 202-204, 207. Romberg also explains several other ways in which Pamela's extensive copying supports the narrative structure (pp. 207-210). 90 "Epistolary Technique", p. 36.

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which has caused her to suspect Mr. B— of stealing her letter; following this she reflects and comments on Mr. B—'s conduct during the encounter; she then asks her parents to pray for her; at the end she is forced to break off abruptly for a reason which is not explained. Letter xxiii illustrates a variation of the above pattern: the letter opens with anxious anticipation of the appearance of several ladies who are coming to see the heroine; next the heroine describes what Mr. B — has told the ladies about herself; then after a break in the letter, the heroine announces that the ladies are coming; next she describes the visit in great detail; then she comments and moralizes on the visit and closes by looking forward to wearing a new dress that she has recently made. Such varied patterns as these are not limited to the thirty-one letters at the beginningbut occur in the journalas well. InPamela //Richardsonattempts to achieve dramatic intensity in some of his letters by using similar patterns, but with little success. In fact McKillop points out that in the sequel Richardson's "device of repeating and commenting on the earlier action is ineffectually extended". 91 Clarissa. — Whereas in Pamela every major event except the conclusion is supported by letters, in Clarissa every major event, as well as many of the actions and minor events that occur between them, is supported in a number of different ways by the use of letters.92 The point of entrance is introduced by a letter asking for information concerning a reported altercation; this letter provides the justification for the detailed accounting of the background of the basic conflict in the early part of the novel. An important feature of Clarissa's involvement in this conflict is her correspondence with Lovelace, which was obligingly started at the request of her uncle (I, 17-18).93 Also of importance before the definition is the clandes91

"Epistolary Technique", p. 40. For an excellent analysis of the way that Richardson uses letters to support narrative structure and to provide his reader with "a detached and unified vision of life", see Anthony Kearny's "Clarissa and the Epistolary Form", pp. 44-46, 51-52. Kearny also describes how Richardson obtains greater isolation for both Clarissa and Lovelace by his skillful use of letters (pp. 45-51). 93 Concerning the narrative value of such a circumstance as this, Romberg has pointed out that Clarissa's correspondence with Lovelace establishes early in the narrative "a correspondence within the correspondence which provides the intrigue of the novel" (p. 199). 92

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tine correspondence between Clarissa and her two links with the outside world, Lovelace and Anna Howe.94 The rising anxiety of the heroine, immediately before the definition, is determined, to a great extent, by the letter that Lovelace intentionally fails to take up and read, the letter informing him of Clarissa's determination not to go with him. The crucial interview at the garden gate, which can be said to be the actual beginning of the definition, is caused, in part, by Lovelace's failure to pick up this same letter. During Clarissa's captivity and period of anxiety before the crisis letters are used in several ways to support the narrative structure. Lovelace attempts at this time to gain absolute control over Clarissa by maneuvering her correspondence with Anna Howe, by altering and fabricating several letters of importance to Clarissa, and by using extreme attempts to intercept a crucial letter from Anna Howe to Clarissa. The announcement of the crisis itself is a short note which states, very suddenly and startlingly, that the rape has occurred. Letters are used in various ways to support the culmination and render it more dramatically effective. Reconciliatory letters from members of the heroine's family appear immediately after Clarissa's death, and Clarissa's posthumous letters have an important effect on several of the characters, particularly Lovelace, who at the time is still under the spell of the earlier mysterious allegorical note sent to him by Clarissa. And even the conclusion of the novel is made more meaningful by one of the most important 'letters' in the work — Clarissa's posthumous letter to everyone, her will.95 In Clarissa Richardson develops the ability that he showed slightly in Pamela and Pamela II of placing letters in the novel to support narrative structure. Perhaps the best example of this means of obtaining dramatic effect by the positions of the letters 91 Romberg comments on the failure of Clarissa and Anna Howe to be concerned at all with secrecy or to exercise discretion concerning their letters and the effect that these circumstances, which apply as well to other correspondents, have on the narrative technique in Clarissa (p. 200). 95 Romberg points out that in Clarissa, as in Pamela, Clarissa's writing and dispatching of her letters, even to the extent of providing for their disposal in her will, are an important part of the action of the novel (pp. 200-204). Romberg also describes other ways in which the copying, discovering, and reading of letters support the narrative structure in Clarissa (pp. 210-212).

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is the incident concerning Clarissa's reaction to Anna Howe's two letters describing Lovelaces' treatment of the girl named Rosebud. Because of the way Richardson places the two letters, the first describing Lovelace's harsh treatment and the second refuting the first and praising his great benevolence, the impact of the information on Clarissa is great, and particularly so because it comes at an impressionable period for her. During Clarissa's capitivity, from the definition to the culmination, Richardson shows versatility in the placing of letters by cleverly incorporating into the narrative the' slowness and uncertainty of mail delivery. On one occasion Clarissa receives the answer to one of her letters before a letter written previously had been received by her correspondent, a situation which caused her some anguish. On another occasion Clarissa receives a letter from Colonel Morden, who, because he lives at a great distance and has to depend on the slow mail service, is unacquainted with current developments. Morden, Clarissa's ever unattainable source of aid, advises her by letter (IV, 29-36) to beware of Lovelace long after she has become his prisoner. Richardson, as he did to a limited extent in Pamela I I , places letters so that the character and reputation of a major figure are revealed gradually and in a fragmental form, as in the case of the revelation of Lovelace to Clarissa. The villain's letters are placed so that they reveal what will happen to the heroine before she is aware of it. Richardson aptly places a letter forbidding correspondence with the only person that the heroine can possibly correspond with (Mrs. Howe's letter to Clarissa when her only link with the outside world is Anna Howe); and he places the harsh, fruitless correspondence between the well meaning Anna Howe and the adamant Arabella at a time when the Harlowe family is relenting slightly in its inhuman treatment of Clarissa. Richardson's ability in the placing of letters in Clarissa has drawn the admiration of scholars who have recognized his achievement. An appropriate comment by Watt is worth quoting in full: Richardson's main method of resolving the narrative problem, however, is to give us large groups of letters from one side or the other and to organise these major compositional units in such a way that there is a significant relationship between the action and the mode of its telling. At the outset, for example, the letters between Clarissa and Anna Howe occupy most of the first two volumes. It is only when their characters and background have

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been fully established, and Clarissa has taken the f a t e f u l step and placed herself in Lovelace's power, t h a t the m a i n male correspondence begins a n d a t once reveals t h e full danger of Clarissa's situation. The climax of t h e story brings another very effective piece of counterpoint: t h e rape is announced briefly b y Lovelace, b u t t h e reader has to undergo several hundred pages of anguished expectation before hearing a word of Clarissa's account of the affair, and t h e events t h a t preceded it. By then her death is already in sight and it precipitates another significant reordering of t h e epistolary p a t t e r n : t h e rigid canalisation of correspondence is broken down b y a flood of letters surrounding Clarissa with admiring and anxious attention, while Lovelace becomes a more and more isolated figure, to have his eventual reported by a French traveling valet. 96

In connection with Richardson's placing of the short letter that announces the rape and then suspending the detailed account of it until later, McKillop says that Clarissa, as the principal correspondent for a time at Co vent Garden, unravels t h e web of Lovelace's deceptions, and in unimpeded letters to A n n a tells for t h e first time t h e details of the tragic r e t u r n f r o m H a m p s t e a d . This is a masterly piece of narrative, surcharged with almost intolerable apprehension and agony; its power is p a r t l y due to the skill with which Richardson has held it back until Clarissa could tell t h e story with t h e tremendous weight of deliberate recollection. I t is after all the complex letter mechanism t h a t produces this powerful delayed effect, this merciless iteration of doom. 8 '

Closely related to the use of letters to support narrative structure and a definite advance in Richardson's epistolary technique is the 'reduction' and 'suppressing' of certain letters by the editor in several places in Clarissa. As McKillop has pointed out, Richardson's obvious purpose in doing this was to avoid excessive duplication.98 Another purpose was to give the illusion that the entire narrative was fuller than that recorded by the 'included' letters. Letters of Lovelace, Clarissa, and Belford are 'reduced' and 'suppressed', and, at one point, Richardson adds even further to his editorial apparatus by giving the reader quotations from Clarissa's book of memoranda. In Clarissa Richardson extended and developed his use of individual letters to support narrative structure far beyond his limited achievement in Pamela. The degree to which he developed his patterns of narrative structure within the letters can best be illustra36 97

The Rise of the Novel, pp. 209-210. "Epistolary Technique", p. 44.

™Ibid., p. 43.

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ted by a comparison of the patterns found in two letters, one from Pamela and one from Clarissa. A letter of Pamela's (I, x; to her parents) follows this pattern: the heroine begins with the explanation that a sad occasion (which is not described immediately) has been the cause of their not hearing from her for weeks; she then tells them that all their cautions to her (concerning the possible wicked attempts of Mr. B—) were well grounded but that she is still honest; next she expostulates about how Mr. B— who pretended to be her protector, as his mother had prayed he would truly be, has taken freedoms with her (the sad occasion); she then explains that Mr. B— has probably stolen her long letter to them describing his freedoms with her; she next promises to write all the details later but that she is unable to now because she is being watched; she says that she has been working on the family linen, including a waistcoat for Mr. B—; she closes by saying that her heart is broken and her future looks black. By contrast, one of Clarissa's letters (I, xxi) follows this complex pattern: the heroine announces her feelings concerning an incident at the beginning; then she relates in great detail, with dialogue and comments, the incident itself; then, after a break in the letter, she announces that her father has come home and all of the family is in conference; then after another break she says that the assembly is broken up and she has been ordered not to go to bed; then after another break she announces, in another paragraph labeled "Twelve o'clock", that all of her keys have been taken from her and that she would have been sent for, but her father could not bear to look at her; finally, in the last brief paragraph, she expresses her anguish. A brief summary of the pattern in another letter of Clarissa's (II, viii) will serve to illustrate how Richardson was able to adapt his patterns to different circumstances at the same time utilizing devices in his earlier works: at the beginning, which is labeled "Friday Morning, Six o'clock", Clarissa is informed by her servant that she is to be sent to her uncle's; then in a section labeled "Ten o'clock", she overhears her brother and sister bragging to Solmes that they have her where they want her; next there follows Clarissa's letter to her brother stating her position firmly; in the next section, labeled "Three o'clock" Clarissa reports that her servant has come upstairs aghast at the response the letter receives, and then, after a break, Clarissa reports that Arabella has just left her after a violent encounter, which is next described in detail; in the final

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paragraph Clarissa informs Anna Howe what to do in case she is sent off to her uncle's, and in the postscript she informs her that she has received four of her letters but is so entirely enervated that she cannot answer them.99 In addition to the complex patterns of the two letters described above, Richardson develops complicated patterns in the letters of his other characters. Two brief summaries of the patterns in Lovelace's letters reveal the manner in which Richardson is able to adapt his letters to a character whose disposition and attitude are quite different from those of his heroine. In one of his many letters to Belford (IV, xlviii) Lovelace begins with a description of Clarissa's attitude; then Dorcas (the servant) excitedly announces Tomlinson's arrival; dialogue is presented with Clarissa's reactions described interlinearly in italics by Lovelace, and some of the dialogue is labeled as it would be in a play; next Dorcas rushes in to report that a gentleman has arrived, and Lovelace explains to Belford just what his plan is and how well it is working; after more dialogue Dorcas rushes in two more times to inform Lovelace that the gentleman is getting impatient, and finally Lovelace dismisses Tomlinson. A variant of this dramatic description is another letter to Belford (V, ii). Here Lovelace describes his correspondence with Clarissa by enclosing the five notes that they have exchanged and telling Clarissa's manner of receiving them; then he explains his purpose to Belford, receives a verbal answer from Clarissa via the servant, is moved while peeking through the keyhole at Clarissa praying, and sits to peruse her written answers to his earlier proposals while waiting for his friends to obtain a marriage license; then he reflects aloud on his prospects with Clarissa; after a break in the letter he announces that the marriage license is on the way and that he has figured out why Clarissa has asked a week's delay; he concludes by quoting lines of Rowe that are pertinent to his situation. 100 Although to a far lesser extent, Richardson develops letter patterns for his two secondary characters. Anna Howe's theatrical

99

For other examples of patterns of narrative structure in Clarissa's

letters, see: I I I I , xli, lix; lxii; I V , vii, xxix. 100 j r o r other examples of patterns of narrative structure in Lovelace's letters, see I V , i; v ; x x v ; V , vi; viii.

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description of Clarissa's Uncle Antony's courting of her mother and Belford's descriptions of the deaths of Belton and Mrs. Sinclair illustrate Richardson's ability to adapt his letter pattern and contents to various purposes. At this point it is possible to confirm what was conjectured much earlier in this chapter: 1 0 1 t h a t in practice Richardson follows three of the principles of epistolary technique t h a t he stated in theory. H e said t h a t letters should provide a sense of the present t h a t is unattainable in narrative writing, t h a t letters should be intimate and entirely informal in nature, and that the writing of letters by the characters should appear natural. Supporting these three principles are three features of Richardson's letters that are evident in this chapter: (1) the varied and inclusive patterns of action in the several letters described above indicate that many of the letters in the novels possess similar traits of spontaneity, intimacy, informality, and naturalness; (2) the varying letter lengths, and particularly the use of short letters on crucial occasions, provide a sense of the present, and do much to make the letters appear intimate, informal, and natural; (3) the inclusion of trivial details in many of the letters helps to provide a sense of the present and contribute to t h e intimacy, informality, and naturalness of the letters. In addition to these features, there is a fourth which supports the first principle: the highly multiple point of view, including the 'double exposure' described by Romberg, and the progressive increase in the number of correspondents, in Clarissa, exposes the reader to several writers, all of whom appear to be writing in the present time of present, or immediately past, actions. Supporting the second and third principles, along with the three features given above, are certain of the various types of letters in the novels, particularly those concerning attitude and form, 102 which include letters that are highly intimate, informal, and natural. Further supporting the intimacy and informality of the letters are such devices as the heroine's subjoining to a letter a separate paper intended only for one reader and the heroine's use of a tile in the garden as a clandestine post office. And further supporting the principle 101

See p. 121. F o r e x a m p l e s of t h e s e various t y p e s of letters, including s u c h particularly appropriate t y p e s a s t h e v e h e m e n t letter of a n g u i s h a n d t h e l e t t e r w r i t t e n entirely in f r a g m e n t s , see t h e outline provided in A p p e n d i x B , Sections 3 a n d 4. 102

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t h a t the writing of the letters should appear natural are such letterlength devices as the fabricated letter and the poorly spelled letter written by a servant. Grandison. — I n his use of letters to support the narrative structure of his final novel Richardson demonstrates further adaptability of his epistolary technique. I n Grandison, for example, instead of using letters further to involve the heroine in dramatic actions, he uses them to keep his heroine remote from many of the actions in the narrative. Thus, once her abduction is happily resolved by Grandison's rescue, Harriet Byron, the heroine, is allowed to meditate on her prospects undisturbed directly by the actions of the real world which are kept at a distance by the use of letters. A brief summary of the relation of the epistolary technique to the narrative structure will show how the heroine's relationship to practically all of the major events is controlled by specific uses of letters. During the extended definition Harriet learns much of what she knows about Grandison through letters and extracts from old letters. At one point she is even teased by Charlotte Grandison to read a letter of the hero's that first mentions the Italian situation; and throughout the definition these letters are presented to her in such a way t h a t she learns much about Grandison before she is even aware of the problems concerning Clementina. On the other hand, Grandison reads all of Harriet's letters in two sittings and thus gets to know her more completely. This specific use of letters may be contrasted with Mr. B —'s forcing Pamela's journal from her and reading it through, an action which helped to effect the crisis in Richardson's first novel. That the heroine's physical participation in the crisis of the novel is limited to reading a letter announcing Clementina's rejection of Grandison emphatically indicates Richardson's success in his use of letters to remove the heroine from direct action in Grandison. Grandison's proposal to Harriet, which precedes the culmination of the novel is prepared for by Grandison's describing the conclusion of the Italian affair to the heroine's grandmother. In fact Harriet's only relation to the important Italian affair, which is occasionally punctuated by violence and strife, is controlled by letters, except at the end when she meets the subdued Clementina in England. Except in a very few instances Richardson uses letters in Grandison to serve as a buffer between his heroine and the real world.

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Thus he reverses the technique that he used in Clarissa of exposing his heroine to the real world by means of letters. The effective placing of letters to support narrative structure appears only slightly in Grandison, and there are only two instances of it worthy of note: the placing of letters of proposal to Harriet from Lady D— at times when it is most embarrassing for Harriet to be forced into a firm decision about her affections, and the ordering of the letters describing Grandison's background so that the heroine learns about his complicated romantic situation gradually. Richardson's placing of letters in Grandison, as described immediately above, and in Pamela and Clarissa, as described previously in this section, confirms t h a t in practice Richardson followed what he stated in theory concerning epistolary technique and narrative structure: that letters should be placed in the narrative so t h a t they are appropriate to the characters' attitudes at the time. 1 0 3 As in Pamela and Clarissa, there are patterns of narrative structure in the letters of Grandison, although these are found in the letters of only two characters, Harriet and Charlotte Grandison. A description of the pattern in one of Harriet's letters will reveal that like the letters in Pamela and unlike the letters in Clarissa, the letters in Grandison are reflective first and dramatic second, even though many of them describe scenes. Briefly the pattern of Harriet's letter to Lucy (III, iii) is something like this: Harriet is distressed and is soothed by Grandison, who leaves shortly; Harriet worries that she will not be unselfish about her love for Grandison; Harriet is comforted by Grandison's sisters and is asked b y Emily, who is also distressed by Grandison's impending departure to Italy, if anything is wrong; Harriet feels that her suspense concerning her future with Grandison is over; Grandison returns and promises that Dr. Bartlett will provide accounts of the Italian affair which will explain what has happened; in a section labeled "Saturday" Harriet worries about Grandison's not being happy; in a section labeled "Saturday Noon" the Grandison sisters tell Harriet t h a t Grandison's struggle is between compassion for Clementina and love for someone else; Harriet then meditates on the meanings of the words COMPASSION and LOVE; Harriet tells Dr. Bartlett which of Grandison's accounts she would like to read first; Harriet closes by saying that she can bear no more suspense 103

See Chapter I, p. 29 for a fuller s t a t e m e n t .

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and she hopes to know what is behind the story of Grandison's Italian affair and his struggle between compassion and love.104 A description of the pattern of one of Charlotte Grandison's letters (V, xii) reveals that Charlotte does not punctuate her descriptions with soliloquies about her feelings nor is she as introspective as Harriet. Briefly the letter follows this pattern: Charlotte first expresses excitement over the good news of the engagement of Harriet and Grandison and then gives the reactions of every member of the family to the news; she explains that Emily is unhappy but assures Harriet that the situation is not serious; she expresses hope that Clementina will not change her mind; then there is a lively dialogue between Charlotte and her sister in which Charlotte defends what she has just written to Harriet ; in a postscript Charlotte hopes that Harriet's change of status will not keep her from sending copies of important letters as she always has. These two epistolary patterns demonstrate what different worlds Harriet and Clarissa live in. In many respects the patterns of Harriet's and Charlotte's letters are dramatic even though they seem very tame and passive compared with those patterns in Clarissa. Here again is an example of Richardson's adapting his epistolary technique to different purposes in his final novel. CONCLUSION

The epistolary technique that Richardson developed in Pamela and Pamela II provided him with a foundation for the more fully developed technique in Clarissa and Grandison. A description of just what he accomplished in these two early works will show the extent of this foundation. Pamela and Pamela II provide thirteen devices of less than letter length and demonstrate that such devices can be both invented and adapted for new purposes. They further provide seventeen different types of letters and ten letter length devices, a number of which are also invented and adapted as needed. To the development of the use of letter lengths Pamela provides the short intensive letter so important to obtaining a sense of immediacy, and Pamela II supplements this with letter lengths that are controlled and varied to produce the dramatic effect of the occasional short letter and the finished effect of epistolary 104

For a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a p a t t e r n in Harriet's letters see: I I I , x x i .

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balance. Pamela 11 provides an exchange of correspondence that adumbrates both the highly developed exchange in Clarissa and the indirect exchange in Grandison. Together, Pamela and Pamela II provide the rudiments of a genuinely multiple point of view in which several characters, beyond the major ones, are individualized by their letters. Pamela II supplements this point of view with letters written in a social vein, which adumbrate those in Grandison. I t further makes use of one hundred footnotes, which form the foundation for the more extensive use of footnotes in Clarissa. In Pamela Richardson uses letters to support major events and other actions; he places letters in the narrative to produce dramatic effects, and he develops patterns of action in the individual letters to achieve the same purpose. In all five of the elements of technique Clarissa represents the highest stage of Richardson's development, and in every instance the technique is advanced over that in Pamela and Pamela II. The greatest advance is in point of view, from the relatively simple point of view in Pamela and Pamela II to the fully developed multiple point of view in Clarissa. This point of view with its progressive increase in complexity, its twenty-six individualized correspondents, its use of various letters to reveal the character in different ways, and its sense of balance is undoubtedly the greatest single achievement of Richardson's epistolary technique and is remarkable in the history of English fiction. Another greatadvance is in the use of letter lengths and the exchange of correspondence. The strict control of the lengths of the hundreds of letters promotes the effect that Richardson intended of a series of real letters, and the varying of letter lengths produces striking dramatic effects. When the limited number of letters written by minor characters is considered, the exchange of correspondence is remarkably frequent, particularly in the last three volumes. Two other important advances in technique are in the- use of letters to support narrative structure and in letter types and devices of letter length. In Clarissa letters support the narrative in a variety of ways, and both the placing of letters and the patterns of action in the letters produce variation and dramatic effectiveness in the narrative. The number and variety of letter types and devices are increased substantially in Clarissa. Although there is advance in the use of devices of less than letter length, the degree of development is slighter than that in the other four elements.

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163

While Grandison demonstrates some slight progress in Richardson's development of epistolary technique, there is on the whole no advance over that in Clarissa. In fact, as the following paragraph will point out, Richardson adapted his technique as much as he improved it in his final novel. In the use of letter types and letter length devices, Grandison demonstrates Richardson's ability to extend his technique by rejecting existent types and devices and inventing entirely new ones which are better suited to a novel that is essentially different from the previous one. Grandison further demonstrates t h a t longer letters and an exchange of correspondence less frequent than that in Clarissa are both better adapted to a novel that provides extensive background material, uses exchange of correspondence to 'soften' the actions of the world for its heroine, and provides a basis for passive reflection rather than dramatic action. At the same time letters are used to support narrative structure in a way different from that in Clarissa. The heroine's participation in several of the major events is limited to her reading about them, and in this different final novel, even the patterns of actions in the individual letters are more reflective and less dramatic than those in Clarissa. I n the other two elements, the handling of devices of less than letter length and the treatment of point of view, Grandison demonstrates little or no adaptation and only a slight amount of invention in that Richardson fails to usé all of the techniques that he developed, and, except very slightly in the case of point of view, he does nothing to advance his epistolary techniques. The extent of Richardson's achievement has been indicated in the preceding sections. His meticulousness as the real editor of his novels, his complete control of numerous details and devices, his ability to adapt his devices to different purposes, and his willingness to experiment and to increase his scope all contribute to produce a technique of fictional writing that is remarkable even today, over two hundred years after it was developed.

IV

CHARACTERIZATION

INTRODUCTION

The different attitudes that scholars have taken toward Richardson's characterization are evident from their remarks, which vary from Balzac's statement that the creation of Lovelace was by itself enough to secure his maker's immortality, 1 to Huffman's naive conclusion, in an early dissertation, that Richardson added very little to the character sketches of Addison and Steele, 2 to Fiedler's comment that Richardson created characters who are "fictional actors a t once completely motivated and consistent, highly individualized and typical". 3 There is a relatively large body of scholarship 4 which examines and describes Richardson's characterization in some detail. Included among this scholarship is a book devoted entirely t o Richardson's characterization, Richardson's Characters by Morris Golden. 5 While this work primarily concerns the psychological nature of Richardson's characters and of his depiction of them, it does explain, in a highly perceptive manner, several of the way3 in which Richardson presents and develops his characters. Altogether

1

Brian W. Downs, Richardson (New York, 1928), p. 116. Charles H. Huffman, The Eighteenth-Century Novel in Theory and Practice (Dayton, Virginia, 1920), p. 12. 8 Leslie A. Fiedler, Love and Death in the American Novel (New York, 1960), pp. 41-42. 4 Primarily the important points made about Richardson's characterization appear in various places in the following works: Downs' Richardson, see n. 1; McKillop's Samuel Richardson (Chapel Hill, N. C., 1936), and his The Early Masters of English Fiction (Lawrence, Kansas, 1956); Bertil Romberg, Studies in the Narrative Technique of the First-Person Novel (Stockholm, 1962); and Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel (Berkeley, Calif., 1957). »Ann Arbor, Mich, 1963. a

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the scholarship on Richardson's characterization is more extensive than t h a t on either narrative structure or epistolary technique. In this chapter, I have incorporated that large body of competent scholarship into a systematic description of Richardson's characterization in the light of his theory of characterization, as presented in Chapter I. Throughout the chapter I have correlated my findings with what the scholars have pointed out and have attempted to present Richardson's practice so that it can be related as directly as possible to his theory. Since the relationship between his theory and practice will be dealt with in the conclusion of the dissertation, the relating of practice and theory in this chapter will be limited to pointing out those instances where. Richardson's practice either confirms or fails to confirm his statements of theory. I have organized the chapter into four sections so t h a t what is said in the earlier sections will support what follows. The organization moves from the general and external to the particular and internal — from Richardson's presentation of all of the characters in the works to his specific development of the major characters. The section titles, which reflect this organization, are (1) The Placing and Relating of the Characters in the Novels, (2) The Individualization of the Characters, (3) The Presentation of the Characters, and (4) The Development of the Characters. Although these two latter sections are in some respects similar, their emphases differ in that section three deals primarily with the means used to engage the characters in the narratives while section four concerns the ways the characters grow and change in the course of the narratives. So t h a t Richardson's development of his technique of characterization in the four works can be followed I have organized each of the four sections chronologically. To reduce the number of cumbersome details in the text I have provided appendixes at the end of the dissertation. In addition to the terms describing the major events in the narrative, which are defined in Chapter II, I have used four terms with special meanings in this chapter. These terms and their special meanings are (1) primary character — a character who reveals himself to the reader in great detail and is seriously involved in all of the important events in the narrative, (2) secondary character — a character who reveals himself to the reader in some detail and is involved, directly or indirectly, in most of the important events and actions in the narrative, (3) minor character — a character who reveals himself to

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a limited extent and may or may not be involved in some or all of the important events in the narrative, (4) nominal character — a character who exists only as a name and takes no part in the action of the narrative. 1. The Placing and Relating of the Characters in the Novels Richardson's methods of characterization can best be examined by first looking at the characters in the novels as Richardson places them in the narrative and relates them to their settings and to each other. Richardson uses four ways to achieve these ends: (1) he establishes four general levels for all of his characters: primary, secondary, minor, and nominal; (2) he uses a number of character types; (3) he uses social levels, which serve to place all of his characters; (4) he relates his characters to each other and to their settings according to their social levels. In the following subsections each of these four ways will be examined as they are revealed in Richardson's four works: Pamela and Pamela I I , Clarissa, and Grandison. So that the chronological development of Richardson's characterization can be seen, emphasis will be placed on the manner in which Richardson repeats and varies in later works the features he developed in early ones. Pamela and Pamela II. — In both Pamela and Pamela II Richardson limits the number of primary characters to only one, Pamela, the heroine. I n fact Pamela's dominance as a character is so great in both works that determination of the standings of the other characters depends, to a large extent, on their relationship to the heroine. Although there are six relatively important minor characters, 8 there are no secondary characters in Richardson's first novel. Mr. B — is, of course, an important character in the narrative, but since he is seen essentially through the eyes of the heroine and reveals himself in his own words to only a relatively slight extent, he cannot be considered secondary, despite his importance in some of the actions of the narrative. In spite of his position as a minor character, however, Mr. B — does change somewhat in the narrative and does not sacrifice his integrity as a single character in the process 6

Mr. B —, L a d y D a v e r s , Mrs. Jervis, Mrs. J e w k e s , Mr. Williams, a n d P a m e l a ' s parents, w h o for convenience, c o u n t as o n e .

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as one scholar contends.7 It is in his sequel, Pamela II, that Richardson presents secondary characters for the first time. Both Lady Davers and Polly Darnford reveal themselves and participate, at least indirectly, in most of the events to the extent that they must be considered secondary. In addition to adding two secondary characters, Richardson increases the number of minor characters in his sequel to Pamela. Of the list of nine minor characters in Pamela8 Richardson retains five and adds seven new minor characters, five of which belong to the gentry: Lord Jackey, a young rake; Sir Simon Darnford 9 and his daughter Nancy Darnford (who is the sister of Polly); Sir Jacob Swynford; and the Countess Dowager of —. In both Pamela and Pamela II Richardson gives the illusion of having a larger cast of characters than is the case by means of a device he uses extensively again in Orandison. Pamela, Lady Davers, and Polly Darnford all mention and often describe a number of people who play no part in the action of the two works. These people are defined above as nominal characters. Altogether there are twenty-three characters in Pamela and thirty-five in Pamela I I , nineteen of which are new. This total of forty-two characters for the two works can be broken down as follows: one primary character, two secondary characters, twelve minor characters, and twenty-seven nominal characters. Richardson develops in both Pamela and Pamela II twelve distinct character types, some of which he uses in Clarissa andOrandison with and without variation. In Pamela, which is far richer in the variety of dynamic characters than is the sequel, Richardson develops eight character types . The most important of these is the attractive, vulnerable servant girl, a type which appears in the person of Pamela. Two types that Richardson was to use later in both Clarissa and Orandison are the rake, Mr. B —, and the outspoken, unconventional woman, Lady Davers. 10 In his sequel 7

D o b s o n sees Mr. B — as t w o characters: "Of t h e t w o Mr. B.'s, — for w e c a n n o t c o n s e n t t o regard t h e m as one — Mr. B., t h e rake, c o m e s o u t of t h e play-book; Mr. B . , t h e reformed, o u t of t h e c o p y - b o o k . " (Samuel Richardson, p. 35.) 8 Those m e n t i o n e d in n. 5 p l u s Colbrand, t h e Swiss valet; R o b i n , t h e serv a n t ; a n d Mr. L o n g m a n , t h e steward. 9 According t o Golden (Richardson's Characters, p . 79) Sir S i m o n is, in spite of h i s faults, " b y far t h e b e s t f a t h e r i n R i c h a r d s o n " . 10 See A p p e n d i x C, Section I, p. 309, for t h e other five t y p e s d e v e l o p e d in Pamela.

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Richardson uses two of the eight types in Pamela and adds six new ones.11 Richardson maintains a low social level for his characters in Pamela. Throughout much of Pamela the heroine's world is that of the servant; all of her acquaintances, with the exception of Mr. B — and Lady Davers, are of the servant class, and even Mr. Williams, the clergyman, is treated by Mr. B— as a servant. In Pamela II Richardson raises the social levels until he has a situation almost the opposite of that in Pamela.12 All of the characters except Polly Barlow, the maid, and a few inconsequential servants, are of the gentry, which includes a number of young ladies of Pamela's age. Downs has pointed out that Richardson raised the social positions of characters with every new book he wrote, including the Familiar Letters, which is at a social level slightly below that of Pamela. 13 Social levels in Pamela and Pamela II determine to a great extent the relationships of the characters in the two works. In Pamela, particularly in the first part, these social relationships are loose and uncertain. 14 There is no strict binding family organization since Mr. B —'s mother has died and Pamela's position as a favored employee is highly ambiguous. Later, when she is a prisoner of Mr. B —'s servants, her social relationships are less certain. Even after her marriage, her new family does not become the major unit of social relationship in the narrative. Characterization is not predicated on family relationships because they are simply not made important. Pamela relates her experiences as the new wife of a country squire, and the feelings of her husband are rarely exposed. As McKillop has pointed out, in Pamela Richardson "deliberate]}' avoids the presentation of a full family circle".15 In Pamela I I , where social levels are higher and social relationships are more certain, a loose family circle does exist throughout the narrative. Yet, as in the last part of Pamela, this circle is de-emphasized. The family is seen as background, not as an important means of relating the characters but 11

See A p p e n d i x C. Section I, p. 312, for t h e s e v e n t y p e s in Pamela I I . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e character t y p e s in Pamela I I , M c K i l l o p h a s said t h a t in Pamela II R i c h a r d s o n " e x p e r i m e n t s . . .with n e w t y p e s of character on a n e w social l e v e l " (Samuel Richardson, p. 108). 13 F o r a concise description of t h e social levels in Richardson's five works see D o w n s ' Richardson, pp. 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 . 14 Golden describes t h e w a y s t h a t Mr. B — 's aritocratic social l e v e l affects his relationships w i t h P a m e l a (pp. 101-102). 15 Early Masters, p. 60. 12

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as a vehicle for Pamela's long discussions with Lady Davers and Mr. B— (whose ideas and feelings are almost always expressed from Pamela's point of view) about Locke's opinions concerning education, the merits of breast feeding, and other kindred subjects. However, Richardson in Pamela II does adumbrate the family situation in Clarissa to a slight extent by introducing the Darnford family, a group not unlike the Harlowes, into the novel. And this family, as it is described by Polly Darnford, is a much tighter social unit than is found elsewhere in Pamela and Pamela II. In both of Richardson's early works the social relationships are limited primarily to those of one individual, Pamela, and do not involve a family circle or other similar social group. Clarissa. — Richardson broadens the scope and increases the complexity of his characterization considerably in his major novel. Instead of the one primary character and the two rather limited secondary characters in Pamela and Pamela I I , there are, in Clarissa, two primary characters, Clarissa and Lovelace, both of whom are highly developed, and two important secondary characters, Anna Howe and Belford, who support the primary characters. In addition to these four primary and secondary characters there are approximately thirty minor characters and thirty-one nominal characters. A comparative breakdown of the characters of the works shows in Pamela and Pamela II a total of forty-two with one primary, two secondary, twelve minor, and twenty-seven nominal; in Clarissa a total of seventy-five with two primary, two secondary, thirty minor, and thirty-one nominal. With this increase in the proportion of active characters in Clarissa came an increase in the variety of the minor characters, a point that will be evident in the following paragraphs on types of characters. Richardson increases the number of character types in Clarissa to twenty-one, seven more than the total in Pamela and Pamela I I , and he varies and enriches his earlier types to suit the more sophisticated characters in his major novel.16 For instance, the rake, who is 16

McKillop h a s c o m m e n t e d briefly on t h e background of t h e s e character t y p e s : "More clearly in Clarissa t h a n in Pamela, R i c h a r d s o n m a d e h i s o w n use of t h e character-types established in t h e kind of d r a m a w i t h w h i c h h e w a s familiar" (Early Masters, p. 71). McKillop also c o m m e n t s in s o m e detail on t h e relationship b e t w e e n t h e s e t y p e s in t h e d r a m a a n d L o v e l a c e and Clarissa (Samuel Richardson, pp. 147-154).

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the somewhat diffident Mr. B— in Pamela, becomes in Clarissa the highly complex and audacious rake, Lovelace, on one hand, and the reformed rake, Belford, on the other. The outspoken, unconventional lady of Pamela, Lady Davers, becomes the richly endowed confidante of Clarissa, the indispensable Anna Howe. The repulsive, morally debased housekeeper, Mrs. Jewkes, becomes the procuress Mrs. Sinclair. Concerning Richardson's use of the outspoken, unconventional lady as a character type in Pamela and Clarissa, as well as in Orandison, scholars have found similarities between Lady Davers and Polly Darnford as anticipations of Anna Howe. Downs says that Anna Howe's counterparts are Charlotte Grandison and Lady Davers.17 McKillop points out that in "trying to create characters on Pamela's new social level [in Pamela II] he [Richardson] makes several studies which prove to be preliminary to Clarissa. Thus the sprightly Polly Darnford is a first sketch of Clarissa's best friend and correspondent Anna Howe, and comments on the heroine's situation in the same way. The ill-natured Nancy Darnford taunts her sister as the ill-natured Arabella Harlowe does in a parallel situation". 18 Altogether Richardson takes seven character types from Pamela and four from Pamela II for use in Clarissa. In addition to this total of eleven types, Richardson creates nine new types, almost half of the total in Clarissa. Three of these are variations on the possible husband for an eligible young lady: the repulsive suitor, Roger Solmes; the virtuous, unappealing suitor, Charles Hickman; and the ever-faithful suitor who proposes marriage while his lady is on her deathbed, Mr. Wyerly.19 Scholars have noted adumbrations of at least two character types in Clarissa in Richardson's Familiar Letters, which he began before he wrote Pamela and finished afterward in 1741. Both McKillop and Downs have pointed out that Anna Howe, the outspoken, unconventional lady, was foreshadowed as the writer of a model letter

17

Richardson, p . 121. Samuel Richardson, pp. 6 0 - 6 1 . 19 See A p p e n d i x C, Section I, p. 309, for t h e t y p e s t h a t R i c h a r d s o n t o o k f r o m Pamela and Pamela II for use in Clarissa a n d t h e t y p e s t h a t h e created for t h e first t i m e in Clarissa. F o r a perceptive description of t h e various groups (according t o similarity of s i t u a t i o n a n d personality, i.e. "Mild Y o u n g Men") in all t h e novels, see Golden, passim, Chapters I - I V pp. 1 - 9 3 . 18

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from a facetious maiden to a serious lover (LXXXIII) 2 0 and as "that 'facetious young Lady' . . . who wrote a letter to her Aunt, 'ridiculing her serious Lover' ". 21 Concerning the character type of the attractive young girl who is being forced into marriage (represented by Clarissa), McKillop has discovered a similarity between the writer's attitudes in a series of letters on the courtship of Polly, Numbers XV—XXI in Familiar Letters, and Clarissa's attitudes in her letters on the courtship of both Solmes and Lovelace. Richardson raises the social levels of the majority of the characters in Clarissa above those in Pamela and Pamela II. Instead of a poor servant girl who fortuitously becomes the wife of a somewhat undistinguished country squire, the heroine of Clarissa is the carefully educated daughter of a wealthy middle-class family. And the villain is the university-educated scion of a wealthy and noble family. In addition the majority of the primary and secondary characters belong to the upper middle class and are far more urbane than any of the characters, including the supposedly genteel Lady Davers, in either Pamela or Pamela II. The clergy, represented by the highly respected Dr. Lewen, occupy a position higher than that of Mr. Williams in Pamela. There are, at the same time, members of the lower classes, such as servants and prostitutes, who participate in the action. The character types sustain the broader social basis of Richardson's major work. In Clarissa, much more than in Pamela, Richardson relates variations in social levels directly to characterization. While it is true that Pamela is interested in raising her social level and does do so, Clarissa is, from the beginning, the victim of a conflict involving the social position of her family, particularly that of her ambitious brother James, who will stop at nothing to raise the family fortunes so that he can become a peer. Some of the characters surrounding Clarissa represent the possible means of attaining a higher social level. Along with the heartless James Harlowe and Clarissa's father and her sister, there are the repulsive Roger Solmes, a direct means of obtaining the ends that James wants, and Lovelace, who represents the social level that James aspires to attain, but who, because of his superiority, thwarts James at every turn.

20 21

McKillop, Samuel Richardson, Richardson, p. 121.

p. 21.

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It is this initial conflict of social levels which motivates James Harlowe and leads to other more important conflicts later.22 Like social levels, social relationships are more complex in Clarissa than in Pamela and Pamela II and contribute more extensively to the characterization. For instance, Clarissa's position as the central member of a full family circle, whose strained relations have reached the breaking point, does much to determine her character. Although Clarissa's family is in a state of disintegration from the very beginning, Clarissa's obligations to it remain strong throughout the narrative. Because she is a member of such a family Clarissa's social relationships are much more complexly ambiguous and sensitive than Pamela's. In addition there are other social relationships which are not found in Pamela. The most important of these is the ambiguous relationship between Clarissa and Lovelace after the elopement, a relationship which involves every other character in the novel. There are also other family circles, as is true to a limited extent in Pamela I I , that render the relationships of the characters more complex. Lovelace's family provides a loose circle, while Anna Howe and her mother represent a tight family circle. Another circle that might be considered a parody of a family group, a sort of 'anti-family', is made up of Mrs. Sinclair and her house of prostitutes, that group of 'would-be sisters' of Clarissa and admirers and critics of Lovelace. And still another circle, which is also a sort of 'anti-family', is that group of adventurers, criminals, and rakes that Lovelace keeps in his close employ to maintain his control over Clarissa. Clarissa's social relationships as a prisoner are much more complex than those of Pamela. Differing from Pamela, she is a prisoner not merely of her captor's servants, but of Lovelace himself, and not in a remote country estate, but in the city where all of her actions are vulnerable to exposure. Another social relationship not found in Pamela or Pamela II is the intimate relationship of two pairs of confidants, Clarissa and Anna Howe, and Lovelace and Belford, which provides a comprehensive exposure of Clarissa's character. A further relationship, also not present in the earlier works, is the pairing of suitors in the novel. About this pairing in Clarissa and its connection with the 22 Golden describes in some detail Richardson's effective use of different social levels, particularly the aristocratic and mercantile bourgeois, to support his characterization in Clarissa (pp. 95-101, 102-103).

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dramatic conventions of the time, McKillop has said, "Though Richardson does not make direct use of the 'gay' and the 'serious' couple, he pairs a serious suitor with a lively or 'difficult' lady, Hickman with Anna Howe and later of course Lord G. with Charlotte Grandison. Clarissa and Lovelace conform less exactly to the pattern of serious lady and lively suitor, though the analogy is helpful for their lighter scenes". 23 Grandison. — In his final novel Richardson reduces the scope of his characterization insofar as primary and secondary characters are concerned. Instead of the two primary and two secondary characters of Clarissa, he has only one primary character and one secondary character in Grandison. Although his primary character, Harriet Byron, is well developed, she is not so complex or so dynamic as either Clarissa or Lovelace, and his secondary character, Charlotte Grandison, is not so important a supporting character as either Anna Howe or Belford. Like Anna Howe, Charlotte Grandison supports Harriet, but since she is not an intimate confidante, the extent to which she serves to characterize Harriet is limited. Richardson varies his treatment of his leading characters in his final novel by introducing two new characters that, although highly important to the theme and the story, are neither primary or secondary characters. The more important of these is Sir Charles Grandison, the subject of the novel, who participates in the major events and is essential to the theme of the novel. However, even though Grandison is described in great detail, he is a minor character because he fails to reveal himself in his own words to any real extent. There are three reasons why his self-revelation is limited: he is never a major correspondent, and thus he does not reveal his character in his own words as all of Richardson's primary and secondary characters do; unlike all of Richardson's heroines and his major villain, he never analyzes himself nor is he ever analyzed completely by other characters; 24 much of what is said about him by others is presented as action in either the immediate or the somewhat distant past, as in the series of documentary letters furnished b y Dr. Bartlett. This rather curious situation of having a leading character in a minor category is understandable when it is realized t h a t 23 24

Early Masters, pp. 7 1 - 7 2 . McKillop, Samuel Richardson,

p. 210.

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Richardson is evidently presenting Grandison to his readers as other characters see him and admire him. Unlike Pamela, Clarissa, and Lovelace, Grandison does not expose his weaknesses and foibles in a profusion of details that reveal his every thought and feeling. Richardson holds him off at a respectful distance so that all of his good qualities are evident. Clementina, who is often called the second heroine, cannot be considered a primary or secondary character for much the same reasons as the three listed above for Grandison. McKillop has said, "Clementina never becomes a Richardsonian heroine in the full sense because she never becomes a major correspondent". 25 Richardson's precedent for having characters that are important but fail to qualify as primary or secondary was established in Pamela and Pamela I I , where Mr. B—, who is entirely necessary, cannot be considered more than an important minor character in the strict sense of the word. Richardson also followed a precedent set in Pamela and Pamela II by having in Grandison a large group of characters which is made up largely of mere names. He has in his final novel approximately 150 characters,26 twice the number in Clarissa. But of this impressive number, only twenty-two are active correspondents and only twenty-six are more than mere names. In fact, like Pamela in Pamela and Pamela II, Harriet dominates the correspondence, and the point of view as well, to a formidable extent, and, as in the first two works, the very large cast of characters is illusory. The breakdown of the characters in Grandison is one primary character, one secondary character, twenty-six minor characters, and 122 nominal characters. These figures, and the latter two in particular, contrast strongly with those for Clarissa: two primary, two secondary, thirty minor, and thirty-one nominal; and with those for Pamela and Pamela II: one primary, two secondary, twelve minor, and twenty seven nominal. All of the nineteen character types in Grandison are taken from the previous works, sixteen of them having been used in Clarissa."11 Yet Richardson has varied a number of these types to suit his purposes in his final work. For instance, instead of two rakes (the 25

Early Masters, p . 86. McKillop, Early Masters, p . 84. 27 F o r t h e n a m e s of c h a r a c t e r t y p e s in Grandison earlier w o r k s see A p p e n d i x C, Section 1, p . 309. 26

t h a t are taken f r o m the

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175

rake, Mr. B— of Pamela, and the spoiled young rake, Lord Jackey, of Pamela I I ) found in the earlier work, he has three varieties of rakes: (1) the city rake, Sir Hargrave Pollexfen; (2) the country rake, John Greville and Richard Fenwick; and (3) the spoiled young rake who has grown up, Everard Grandison. Furthermore his rakes in Grandison are tamer, more civil, and more foolish than his earlier versions, as McKillop says: "From Grandison also stems the treatment of the libertine as fool rather than villain; his position is often reduced to absurdity . . ." 28 "Even the unscrupulous Sir Hargrave aims at enforced marriage, not seduction, and is far from being a complex egotist like Lovelace; other rakes and men of pleasure, like Sir Everard Grandison, are silly and futile rather than dangerous." 29 Richardson has also adapted less important character types. The deceitful servant, the unrepentant Joseph Leman in Clarissa, becomes a repentant William Wilson, who confesses his crimes and is forgiven by Grandison. The attractive and repulsive sisters, Clarissa and Arabella, become cousins in Grandison,—the attractive Clementina and the repulsive Laurana. The whimsical and proverbial old country squire, Sir Simon Darnford in Pamela II and Lord M. in Clarissa, becomes the benevolent and garrulous Sir Roland Meredith, Harriet's 'godfather' in Grandison. The naive young ward of Pamela in Pamela I I , Miss Goodwin, becomes a sensitive ingénue in Grandison, Emily Jervois. Concerning this last variation Downs has said that Emily Jervois is a '"younger relative' of Miss Goodwin in Part I I of Pamela". Downs also points out that there is a quality in Emily similar to that in Richardson's first heroine, Pamela: "Emily, like Pamela, is a self-deceiver, if a genuinely innocent one". 3 0 Richardson has introduced a variation in his character type of the outspoken unconventional lady, represented in Pamela by Lady Davers, in Pamela II by Polly Darnford, in Clarissa by Anna Howe, and in Grandison by Charlotte Grandison. Several scholars have commented on the similarities and differences in the characters that represent this type. 3 1 Dobson has said that Charlotte Grandison 28

Early Masters, p. 96. Ibid., pp. 87-88. 30 Richardson, p. 119. 31 I n fact one scholar has devoted a short article to t h e similarities between two of the characters: H . G. Ward, " A n n a Howe and Charlotte Grandison", Notes and Queries, 11th Series, I I I (1911), 164-165. 29

176

CHARACTERIZATION

"comes of the same inconceivable stock as Lady Davers in Pamela",32 and McKillop has remarked that, "Next to Anna Howe, Charlotte Grandison is the most important of Richardson's lively ladies, and does much to sustain the level of the comedy of manners". 33 Downs comments in greater detail on the three characters: "The lapses one deplores in Miss Howe's behaviour become the norm in Miss Grandison, whom even her creator found 'intolerably playful sometimes'". "For Lady Davers in Pamela, however, there can be no comprehension and no pardon: she is simply a titled fish-fag who bounces and scolds her way over everybody's susceptibilities and expects to be valued as a jolly, downright sort of woman with a heart of gold." 34 Scholars have noted other similarities between characters in Clarissa and Grandison. McKillop points out some of the similarities mentioned above and listed in the chart on character types in Appendix C, Section 1: . . .the haughty Porretta family is a somewhat pallid duplication of the Harlowes . . . both heroines [Clarissa and Clementina] at last take flight from the 'cruelties of persuasion.' The great salient roles of Clarissa are split up among several characters. Clementina is obviously a Clarissa manquie. Harriet is more like Anna Howe, Charlotte Grandison taking over the more objectionable traits of that lady. Two inferior Lovelaces appear in Sir Hargrave Pollexfen . . . and Mr. Greville. Anna Howe's inept suitor Hickman becomes not only Charlotte Grandison's submissive husband, but the bashful Mr. Orme as well. 35

To these adaptations might be added one more that seems obvious from the description of Hickman above. The inept Hickman, in addition to becoming submissive and bashful, becomes, in the person of Sir Charles Grandison, the perfect suitor — apt, kind, responsible, and attractive. In his final novel Richardson again raises the social levels of practically all of his characters, but not to the extent that he raises them from Pamela and Pamela II to Clarissa. As Downs puts it, "In Grandison, once more, the rise in the social scale is slight, but perceptible: two baronets dispute the hand of the heroine, and one of them, despite the difference of faith, is considered a suitable 32 33 34 35

Samuel Richardson, p. 159. Early Masters, p. 87. Richardson, pp. 123-124. Samuel Richardson, p. 212.

CHARACTERIZATION

177

match for the only daughter of an Italian count". 3 6 However, since Richardson raises the social level of most of the characters up to an almost equally high standing, he does not relate social levels to characterization as he does in Clarissa. Like Clarissa, the heroine Harriet Byron is carefully educated and sensitive, b u t instead of being the victimized daughter in a crassly ambitious family, she is an independent young lady of fortune. The hero is a wealthy baronet who is free to spend his time as he will. Sir Hargrave Pollexfen, the villain, is, like Lovelace, a step higher than the heroine on the social scale. Most of Harriet's friends are upper middle class. The clergy occupy the same highly respected position they have in Clarissa. All of Clementina's family are of the nobility. In fact with the exception of a very few inconsequential servants and several 'social misfits' such as Everard Grandison and Captain Anderson, none of the characters has to concern himself with poverty as is the case in Pamela and Pamela II. All in all there is far less variety of social levels in Grandison than in any of the other works except Pamela II. And there is more benevolence among the characters. As was suggested above in connection with character types, the rakes are less rakish, the servants are less deceitful and more repentant, and the country squires are more mellow. And for the first time in Richardson's works there is a sharp distinction between country customs and city customs, as can be seen in the differences between the city rakes and the country rakes and the urbane Sir Charles and the rustic Sir Roland Meredith. In two major respects social relationships in Grandison are the opposite of those in Clarissa. In the first place, the heroine is, as the ward of an attorney serving as executor of a trust fund, an independent agent who has a large fortune and is altogether free from family obligations. Differing from Clarissa, she can choose her company and go and come as she desires. Her struggle is not with her family and society but only with her feelings. In the second place, instead of the progressive disintegration of a family circle as in Clarissa, there is in Grandison the gradual growth and development of a large 'family circle', which does not exist at the beginning but at the end includes in its folds a majority of the more active characters in the narrative. The 'circle', which includes friends as well as relatives, is established by several important actions. Harriet, as an 36

Richardson,

p.

109.

178

CHARACTERIZATION

eligible, but entirely free, young lady in London, first acquires a sort of godfather, Sir Roland Meredith. Next she acquires what might be called two sisters in friendship, Grandison's two very different sisters. After some anguish she acquires a husband who in turn becomes an active part of Harriet's family and a fond admirer of its matriarch, Grandmother Shirley. Finally Harriet also becomes a sister in friendship to Clementina during a ceremony conducted by Grandison, at which vows of eternal friendship are solemnly taken. Concerning the comprehensiveness of this family circle and Grandison's position in it, McKillop says, " H e is the center of a large group of kinsmen, friends, and dependents, and above all he dominates a circle of refined and admiring women. These relationships are conceived of as an extension of the family". 37 Social relationships in Grandison are not as complex nor as important to the characterization of individuals as they are in Clarissa. They do have some effect on the lack of individuality in Richardson's final novel, as will be pointed out below in the section on individualization. Outside of the large and important circle mentioned above, there is only one other circle in Grandison, Clementina's family in Italy, which, as McKillop has pointed out, is not unlike the Harlowes.38 While this group does for a time pose a threat to Harriet's peace of mind and to her pleasant position in the larger circle, it does not, like the various groups in Clarissa, create conflicts that seriously threaten and molest the heroine. There is a very slight amount of pairing of characters, much less than in Clarissa. 39 In Clarissa there are several social groups, all of which are pulling in different directions; in Grandison there is primarily one large group that is pulling everyone, except Sir Hargrave and a few other 'misfits', in the same direction, into one harmonious social relationship that can be termed a family. 40

Masters, p. 82. See p. 176, above. 38 McKillop has pointed out (in Early Masters, p. 87) that " T h e Lord G. — Charlotte and Harriet — Charlotte contrasts . . . come from the crosspattern of grave and lively characters in current comedy,,, but as mentioned above there are no pairs of confidants and no intimate social relationships of the kind found in Clarissa. 40 Golden comments that this harmony is due in part to the fact that Grandison is a benevolent combination of the bourgeois and the aristocratic (Richardson's Characters, pp. 103-106). 37 Early

38

CHARACTERIZATION

2. Individualization

179

of the Characters

Richardson individualizes all of the primary and secondary characters and a number of the minor characters in all four of his works. In addition he identifies many of his minor characters by providing them with at least one distinguishing feature which sets them apart from the other characters. To achieve these ends he uses a number of means, some of which serve both to individualize major characters and to identify minor ones. The three subsections below present, first, the means Richardson uses to individualize his characters, and, second, the means he uses to identify his characters. To avoid a heavy accumulation of details in the text and to supplement the textual material, composite descriptions of the individual styles of the characters are listed in the appendix. 41 Pamela and Pamela II. — In Pamela Richardson individualizes three of his characters, Pamela, Lady Davers, and Mr. B —. Pamela is carefully individualized. Her name, Pamela Andrews, is particularly appropriate to her character and her situation. Watt has pointed out that because Pamela is a romantic name with pastoral overtones,12 and Andrews is a realistic rural name, Pamela's whole name symbolizes the conflict in which she finds herself throughout most of the novel. Downs has suggested that Letter X X X I in Familiar Letters, which recommends "Mr. John Andrews as a superior Man-Servant, gave him [Richardson] the surname for his heroine". 43 41

A p p e n d i x C, S e c t i o n 2. " T h e N a m i n g of C h a r a c t e r s i n D e f o e , R i c h a r d s o n a n d F i e l d i n g " , Review of English Studies, X X V (1949), 3 2 2 - 3 2 8 . T h i s e x c e l l e n t a r t i c l e e m p h a s i z e s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of R i c h a r d s o n ' s h e r o i n e s ' n a m e s in h i s f i r s t t w o n o v e l s . A b o u t t h e r o m a n t i c a p p e a l of t h e n a m e P a m e l a , W a t t , i n h i s Rise of the Novel, p . 204, h a s s a i d : " S u c h a r e t h e a t t r a c t i o n s of r o m a n c e , a n d R i c h a r d s o n ' s n o v e l b e a r s e v e r y w h e r e t h e m a r k s of i t s r o m a n c e o r i g i n — f r o m P a m e l a ' s n a m e , w h i c h is t h a t of S i d n e y ' s p r i n c e s s i n t h e Arcadia, t o h e r a s s e r t i o n of t h e p a s t o r a l h e r o i n e ' s f r e e d o m f r o m e c o n o m i c a n d social r e a l i t i e s w h e n s h e p r o p o s e s t o s e e k r e f u g e in n a t u r e a n d 'live, like a b i r d i n w i n t e r , u p o n h i p s a n d h a w s ' (I, 6 8 ) . " 42

43

Richardson,

p. 19.

180

CHARACTERIZATION

More important as an individualizing feature than her name is Pamela's individual style. 44 U p until her marriage and ascension to the status of the gentry her expression is highly colloquial. Many phrases such as " I was hush", "ALAS-A-DAY", and "You could knock me down with a feather" punctuate her speech, and she is given to expressive overstatement much of the time. Her highly detailed accounts concentrate on her feelings which she views and reviews almost constantly throughout the novel. She begins some of her letters and journal entries with a sense of urgency, which she sustains throughout. After her rise in status, Pamela's style becomes more formal, and, at the same time, less individual. The only other character with an individually striking style in Pamela is Lady Davers, whose manner is, almost until the end of the novel, always sharp and harshly critical. She is outspoken most of the time. I n her letter to Mr. B — about his marrying Pamela she says that she "must write, whether it please you or not, my full Mind", and t h a t "— I blush for you, I'll assure you" (II, p. 20). On other occasions she calls Pamela "The Creature", "Wench", and "Pert-one". She is further individualized by her uncouth actions, such as roughly pulling Pamela out of bed after her marriage to Mr. B —. Mr.B— is much less colorfully individualized than are Pamela and Lady Davers. His name is meaningless to the point that it has an almost negative effect. Concerning this W a t t says that "Mr. B— is just a cipher" and that Richardson's withholding of a name, due to the tradition against naming the nobility and gentry in writing, focuses the story on the heroine. 45 Mr. B —'s style is fairly formal, particularly when contrasted with the styles of Pamela and Lady Davers. 46 H e is somewhat pretentious and adopts a sneering attitude on occasion. At the same time he can be considerate and sympathetic, as he is when he writes to Pamela at the inn and shows his affection for her during and after the crisis. Like Pamela's, his style changes after the marriage, but differing from Pamela's, his is less stable and more adaptable before the important event.

44

Brief descriptions of t h e individual s t y l e s of characters in Pamela appear o n p. 310 of A p p e n d i x C. 45 "The N a m i n g of Characters", pp. 3 2 8 - 3 2 9 . 46 H e does o n occasion u s e colloquial expressions, as w h e n h e calls P a m e l a " Y o u little e q u i v o c a t o r " a n d " S a u c e b o x , a Bold-face".

CHARACTERIZATION

181

In Pamela II the major characters who first appeared in Pamela are not individualized as they are in the earlier work.47 Pamela and Lady Davers, who contrast vividly in the earlier work, move closer together in Pamela II. Pamela's style, like that in the last part of Pamela, is formal and more sophisticated than that of the rural servant girl who describes her plight earlier. She is still given to overstatement, but she is now pretentious and, on occasions, proverbial. Lady Davers has lost all of her former harshness. Her style is formally proper and sympathetic, as befits the arbiter of morals and manners that she is. Mr. B —'s style continues as it was in the last part of Pamela — somewhat formal, considerate, sympathetic, and slightly urbane. In contrast with the relative sameness of these three characters, two new characters in Pamela II have distinctive and varied individual styles. Polly Darnford, a secondary character, is slightly whimsical and somewhat more urbane than Pamela and Lady Davers. She is unpretentious, gracious, and charmingly feminine. Sir Simon Darnford, a minor character and father of Polly, is individualized as a whimsical and crotchety old squire who looks upon the younger generation as upstarts and calls his daughter "Boldface". One of his letters to Mr. B — (III, xxiv, 139-143) begins "Hark ye me, 'Squire B. — A Word in your Ear! — I like neither You, nor your Wife, to be plain with you, well enough to trust my Polly with you". In both Pamela and Pamela II Richardson gives several of his minor characters identifying traits. In Pamela colloquial expressions are peculiar to certain servants: John Arnold's "Howsomever" and "may-hap", Mrs. Jewkes' "Ifackins" and "Lambkin", and Mr. Longmans's "Ads-bobbers!" are examples. Colbrand has a foreign accent. Ugliness and fierceness identify two characters that come close to being caricatures. Downs explains why these two servants can be accepted as characters: "The exaggerated ugliness of Mrs. Jewkes, for example, who 'is as thick as she is long', and the melodramatic ferocity of Mr. Colbrand, Mr. B —'s Swiss servant, figures of anti-mask, are excused by Pamela's fears". 48 I nPamela II Richardson again uses colloquial expressions and adds three new means of identifying his characters: by nicknames (Lady Davers' 47

B r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e s of c h a r a c t e r s i n Pamela a p p e a r o n p . 310 of A p p e n d i x C. 48 Richardson, p . 140.

II

182

CHARACTERIZATION

nephew is nicknamed Lord Jackey); b y servants' speech habits (Polly Barlow, the maid, says "Me'm — Ma'm"); and b y the illiterate, poorly spelled letters of irresponsible characters (Mr. H., spoiled young rake and attempter of Polly Barlow, is such a writer). E v e n though Richardson's characterization in Pamela II is weaker than in Pamela, he was evidently developing his ability to individualize and identify his characters. Richardson sometimes anticipates in Pamela and Pamela II names that appear later in Clarissa and Orandison. The Colbrand in Pamela seems related to the Brand in Clarissa. Polly Darnford's husband is Lord G in Pamela II as is Charlotte Grandison's in Richardson's final novel. A n d the names of Sir Charles Hargrave, a rake in Pamela and Pamela II, reappear in Sir Charles Grandison and Sir Hargrave Pollexfen in Orandison. Clarissa. — Clarissa has a much larger number of individualized characters than Pamela and Pamela II together. Against the five in the first two works, there are no less than twenty individualized characters in Clarissa. This remarkable increase is due to two previously discussed features of Richardson's major work, — multiple point of view and multiple characterization. Because more characters express and describe themselves and each other, there is greater opportunity for individualization of a large number of characters, and Richardson extends his means of characterization b y using to individualize characters in Clarissa the means b y which he identified characters in Pamela and Pamela II. For instance, such means of identification as writing an illiterate letter and using highly colloquial expressions in Pamela and Pamela II become means of individualization in Clarissa. While it is true that certain individualized characters represent character types — Lovelace, for instance, is a young rake — each of the twenty individual characters in Clarissa is a dynamic individual whose character transcends the types described in the earlier section of this chapter. In the few instances where there are groups of characters, all of which represent one type, usually one, two, or even three of the group will be individualized and the rest will be little more than names. Such is the case with the group of five rakes 49

19

Lovelace, Mowbray, Doleman, Tourville, and Belton.

183

CHARACTERIZATION

which includes two characters, Lovelace and Mowbray, who are individualized above and beyond their station in the world as young rakes. There are also among the total of twenty individual characters several that are similar in respect to attitude and position and yet still maintain individual distinctions. There are three pairs of such characters: James Harlowe and his father, Belford and Colonel Morden, and Clarissa's mother and Aunt Hervey. Because space does not allow a description of the ways that Richardson individualizes the twenty individual characters in Clarissa, eight have been chosen to serve as representatives. Richardson's methods are described below.50 The most important individual character in Clarissa is, of course, the heroine, who exhibits a few of Pamela's features, but is much more complex and sensitive. This difference is evident in the implications of her two names, Clarissa and Harlowe. As Watt points out, her given "name . . . combines an emphatic romance ancestry with mingled overtones of fashionable gallantry, religious abnegation, and the pathos of an early and tragic death. It thus has the same complex and apparently contradictory appropriateness as that of his first heroine". He says, further, that in the heroine's two names "we can perhaps detect suggestions of sexual guilt. 'Clarissa' is very like 'Calista', whose name had become a byword of feminine frailty; and 'Harlowe' is the closest proper name to 'harlot"'.51 Although Watt says that Richardson was probably not conscious of all these implications, it does seem evident that he did exercise care in selecting a name to individualize his most important heroine. In addition to her highly appropriate name Richardson further individualizes Clarissa by a motto, "Rather useful than glaring", which Anna Howe bestows on the heroine in her first letter, because, as Anna says, she was "so uniform in conduct".52

Brief descriptions of the individual styles of characters in Clarissa appear on p. 311 of Appendix C. « " T h e Naming of Characters", pp. 330-331 and 333. 52 Leo Hughes points out that Richardson individualizes both Clarissa and Clementina in crucial scenes late in the novels by the use of colored clothing, after the manner of the theatre of the day ("Theatrical Convention in Richardson: Some Observations on a Novelist's Technique", Carroll 50

C a m d e n , ed., Restoration

of Alan Dugald McKillop

and Eighteenth

Century Literature:

[Chicago, 1963], pp. 242-244).

Essays

in

Honol

184

CHARACTERIZATION

Clarissa's individual style is much richer and more variegated than Pamela's. 53 For t h a t reason it is difficult to describe. She is more sensitive than Pamela and is constantly relating her emotional reactions to the reactions of others — she is never self-centered like' Pamela. Her style is more formal than Pamela's and, at the same time, more flexible. I t has the vitality of Pamela's early style and none of the stuffy stiltedness of the Pamela of the sequel. She occasionally uses colloquial expressions and begins her letters in startling ways, and she demonstrates repeatedly that she is a skillful letter writer. 54 Clarissa's individual expression is, above all, graceful. Her style is impeccable and her tone is always appropriate — no obstacles arise to weaken the effect of the experience that she so comprehensively describes. In fact Clarissa is an exemplary letter writer whose responsibility to her letter recipient and to posterity is always evident. In this respect she contrasts very vividly with such less considerate letter writers as Lovelace, Richard Mowbray, and Joseph Leman (See descriptions of their letters in Appendix C, p. 311).55 Richardson's second woman character, Anna Howe, is carefully differentiated from Pamela or Clarissa. She is frank much of the time and is often outspoken. Her tone is much lighter than Clarissa's and she can be flippant or vehement, depending on her feelings at the time. In one letter (II, i, 1) she shouts, "ANGRY — W h a t should I be angry for?" She can be humorous — she mocks the advances of Clarissa's Uncle Antony to her mother very effectively — and she can be almost callous in her cutting criticism during occasional lapses of decorum. Whereas Clarissa's style is diffusive, though always under control, Anna's style is concise and her language is incisive. 53 I n a comprehensive analysis of t h e s t y l e s of Clarissa and L o v e l a c e , W i l l i a m J. Farrell d e m o n s t r a t e s R i c h a r d s o n ' s skillful use of p l a i n s t y l e , courtly l o v e letter s t y l e , a n d s t a g e rhetoric t o individualize Clarissa and L o v e l a c e and t o m a k e their expressions appropriate t o their c h a n g i n g attit u d e s and circumstances ("The S t y l e a n d A c t i o n in Clarissa", Studies in English Literature, I I I (Summer, 1963), 3 6 5 - 3 7 5 ) . 54 I n connection w i t h this skill see t h e description of her letter writing ability o n p. 311, A p p e n d i x C, Section 2. 55 For a n e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e w a y s t h a t R i c h a r d s o n relates good letter writing to t h e moral character of t h e writers, see A n t h o n y K e a r n y , "Clarissa a n d t h e E p i s t o l a r y F o r m " , Essays in Criticism, X V I , 1 ( J a n u a r y , 1966), 53-56.

CHARACTERIZATION

185

Lovelace is more artfully individualized than any other character Richardson has drawn. Differing from Mr. B— in almost every respect, Lovelace is individualized by a number of positive features. One of these is his name, Robert Lovelace, which by its completeness demonstrates at the outset t h a t he will be more actively in evidence than Mr. B —. Concerning this name, which, like those of the two heroines, was obviously carefully chosen, W a t t has pointed out t h a t its suitability is evident from its pleasant sound, its prestige, and its "overtone of 'love-less' [which] can suggest unrequited passion, as well as hard-heartedness". 58 Lovelace's archaically worded letters to Belford give some insight into his richly artful individual style. His use of THOU, as well as THEE, he refers to as his Roman style 57 which he adopts as a sort of fraternal bond when writing to Belford and his other rakish friends. In fact much of his expression is literary and theatrical, as two random examples will illustrate: on one occasion he says to Clarissa, "But take care, Fair one; take care O thou most exalted of female minds" (I, 217); on another occasion he refers to his hired servant: "For my implement, hight Joseph Leman" (I, 255). Many of Lovelace's letters have a theatrical tone, as if he were the producer of many new plays, each with a dashing, heroic man and a highly desirable almost divine woman: many of his letters are rambling soliloquies that display a self-confidence bordering on arrogance, and contain numerous classical allusions and quotations of poetry, some of which was written by him; and several letters have startling beginnings: "Good God! What is now to become of m e ! " (II, xix, 129); "O For a Curse to kill with! — Ruined! Undone! . . ." (V, iii, 16). In contrast to Lovelace's unique individuality is the far more restrained individual style of the second important male character, John Belford. Belford's style is natural and his approach is reserved except on occasions when he berates Lovelace harshly for the injustices that he commits. Like Lovelace, he too quotes poetry, but always for serious purposes and never to display his learning or vent his strong feelings. Belford is always polite and discreet. 56

" T h e N a m i n g of C h a r a c t e r s " , p p . 3 3 2 - 3 3 3 . W a t t also p o i n t s o u t (Rise of the Novel, p . 19) t h a t " n e a r l y all R i c h a r d s o n ' s p r o p e r n a m e s , f r o m M r s . S i n c l a i r t o Sir C h a r l e s Orandison, s o u n d a u t h e n t i c a n d a r e y e t s u i t e d t o t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s of t h e b e a r e r s " . 57 See f o o t n o t e I , 210, in Clarissa.

186

CHARACTERIZATION

Although he is sometimes long-winded, he is a better constructor of letters than Lovelace. And like Clarissa he is a vivid describer; in fact, he is as good at describing actions as Lovelace is at laying plans. A minor character who is sharply and unforgettably individualized is Clarissa's brother, James Harlowe. His individual expression is curt, sententious, demanding, cruel, and unyielding. He refers to Clarissa as 'Miss Pert", "child", "pretty witty Miss", "you fallen angel", and " M i s s Cunning-ones". By contrast, Mrs. Norton, a governess who remains sympathetic to Clarissa throughout the entire struggle, has an individual style that is thoroughly and warmly human. She is honestly pious and considerate. Yet when the occasion demands she reveals strong indignation. Two other minor figures, who are less important than James Harlowe and Mr. Norton, are effectively individualized by their styles. Clarissa's Uncle Antony Harlowe is pompous, verbose, callous, proverbial, heavy, and narrowly moral (he tells Clarissa, "The devil's in your Sex" [I, xxxii, 234]). Richard Mowbray, one of Lovelace's rakish friends, has an individual style that is as colorfully metaphorical as the conversations of some of the friends of Shakespeare's Falstaff: "— and Dorcas cutt down from her bed's tester from dangling in her own quarters, — " (VI, xxiv, 94); "Rot me if it be not my full persuasion, —," and "She was a Vixen in her virtue" (VIII, xvi, 44, 45). The twelve additional individualized characters in Clarissa that cannot be described here because of space limitations give further evidence of Richardson's skill in characterization. 58 As in his earlier works, Richardson identified many of his minor characters by a number of means. Among these are three means which are new to Clarissa: the use of a proverbial style, by Lovelace's Lord M; the use of fictitious names, by Patrick McDonald, 58 More e v i d e n c e of R i c h a r d s o n ' s skill in individualization is revealed b y t w o c o m m e n t s b y George Sherburn: "Richardson, h o w e v e r , s u c c e e d s n o t a b l y w i t h t h e ear. I n t h e passage just quoted, y o u hear t h e s o u n d of t h e t w o voices. T h e parenthetical ' i m p a t i e n t l y ' — recorded b y R i c h a r d s o n rather t h a n b y Clarissa w h o is s u p p o s e d t o be w r i t i n g — as well as t h e annoying italics, c o n v e y s t h e v e r y t o n e of voice, brings it all t o life." " H e a d a p t e d his s t y l e t o t h e spirit of each correspondent a d m i r a b l y " ("Samuel R i c h a r d s o n ' s N o v e l s and t h e Theatre: A T h e o r y S k e t c h e d " , Philological Quarterly, XLI [January, 1962], 329).

CHARACTERIZATION

187

who pretends to be Captain Tomlinson, an agent of Clarissa's family, and by other characters; the use of disguise, by the Widow Bevis, who pretends to be Clarissa, and by others, including Lovelace.59 Although Richardson did not identify his characters by their ugliness and fierceness (Mrs. Jewkes and Colbrand) to the extent he did in Pamela, he did identify two characters in an exaggerated manner. The Rev. Mr. Brand is almost too pedantic, pompous, and absurd to accept, and the exaggeration, in this instance, cannot be justified by the heroine's fears as was the exaggeration of Mrs. Jewkes in Pamela. While Mrs. Sinclair is not as generally repulsive as Mrs. Jewkes, she is, on certain occasions, particularly at her death, not merely repulsive but grotesque. The development of individualization and identification beyond what is found in Pamela and Pamela II can be suggested by a listing of some of the new means for individualization and identification that Richardson developed in his major novel. These new means are mottoes, 'Roman style', quoting of one's own poetry, theatrical language, literary and classical allusions, animal imagery, use of humor, colorful language, use of disguise, and use of fictitious names. Clarissa represents the high point in Richardson's development of individualization of his characters. Grandison. — In his final novel Richardson does not individualize his characters to the extent that he does in Clarissa. Instead of the twenty individualized characters in Clarissa, there are nine such characters 60 in Crandison. As is true of Pamela, this decrease is undoubtedly related to the fact that both multiple point of view and multiple characterization are not so well developed in Grandison as they are in Clarissa. Fewer characters reveal themselves or are revealed by others, and thus there is less opportunity for individualization. Another possible cause of this lack of individualization is the absence of a dramatically compelling story in which most of the 59

Sherburn also points out the use of a particular gesture to identify a minor character: he cites as an example the patting of the hand by Clarissa's servant Betty, who at one point indicates no less than seven persons in the room below by this graphic means (" 'Writing to the Moment': One Aspect". Carroll Camden, ed., Restoration and Eighteenth Century Literature: Essays in Honor of Alan Dugald McKillop [Chicago, 1963], pp. 200-208). 60 Harriet Byron, Charlotte Grandison, Sir Charles Grandison, Mrs. Shirley, Emily Jervois, Clementina, Sir Rowland Meredith, Lady Olivia, Mr. George Selby.

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characters are involved. In Clarissa many of the minor characters are remarkable for the dramatic stands that they take, Arabella and James Harlowe are both unforgettable, but in Grandison only a few characters beyond the central figures of Harriet, Charlotte, Sir Charles, and Clementina are vivid enough to maintain integrity as individuals. Sir Rowland Meredith, for his garrulous brand of courtesy, or Emily Jervois, for her charming naivete, may possess vitality enough to make them memorable but there are few others to join them. In Grandison, although a few characters are rather fully individualized, there is less accent on the individual than is the case in Pamela and Clarissa. In Pamela Richardson focuses solely on the heroine. In Clarissa Richardson focuses primarily on the heroine and the villain and relates every other character to these two major figures. I n Grandison Richardson focuses on the heroine but, with a few exceptions, does not relate all of the other characters to her plight and thus make their individual characters important. Established groups of characters and characters that are similar in respect to attitude and position are almost as important as are individuals in Richardson's final novel. Examples of established groups are the Grandison family and the della Porretta family of Italy. Some of the characters who show similar traits are Sir Hargrave, Greville, and Fenwick; Mr. Reeves and Mr. Selby; the Earl of L. and Lord G; and Harriet and Emily Jervois. While Richardson adumbrates this accent on social groups and relationships and, of course, uses the rigid family structure in Clarissa, his full development of a rather pleasant social situation based on the relationship of groups is original to Grandison. In spite of the relative importance of social groups, individual characters still occupy a strong position in the novel. In fact one such character, Charlotte Grandison, is individualized, in p a r t at least, by the mischievous ways in which she rebels against such social customs as the dominance of an older brother and the subservience of a married woman. And her older brother, Sir Charles, is individualized, in part, by the virtues which allow him to maintain dominance over one of the social groups. In the next few paragraphs the means by which Richardson individualizes these two characters and four other representative ones will be examined. 61 61

Brief descriptions of t h e i n d i v i d u a l styles of t h e c h a r a c t e r s in a p p e a r o n p . 312 of A p p e n d i x C.

Grandison

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189

Harriet Byron, the heroine and dominant correspondent, seems to be the only one of Richardson's three heroines who does not have a distinctively appropriate name. Because her name lacks both romantic connotations and significance for some inherent conflict, it fails to distinguish its holder beyond the fact that it has more dignity and force than does the name of her friend, Lucy Selby. 62 Like Clarissa, Harriet is considerate and highly sensitive, particularly to nuances of feeling in social relationships. Differing from Clarissa, she is self-confident and independent in-her relations with men; however, after the definition when she begins to feel t h a t Sir Charles may marry Clementina, she loses her self-confidence, and her well-constructed letters tend to become soliloquies in which she views and reviews her feelings, very much like the earlier Pamela. By contrast, Charlotte Grandison, who is somewhat like Anna Howe, has an individual style that characterizes her as whimsical, mischievous, humorous, even perverse on some occasions, and humble and kindly on others. She is capable of startling expressions, such as "Good God, my dear! —" and "For Heaven's sake, my dearest Harriet, dine with us today", and sometimes her tone is theatrical, although not to the same extent as Lovelace's. Like Anna Howe she is a versatile character: her attitudes vary considerably, ranging from those of the practical joker to those of a highly considerate and compassionate woman. I n connection with the similarities between Charlotte and Anna Howe, and Harriet Byron as well, Dobson has said that " a large portion of Miss Howe goes to equip Miss Byron as well as Miss Charlotte Grandison", 63 and McKillop has pointed out that "Harriet is more like Anna Howe, Charlotte Grandison taking over the more objectionable traits of that lady". 64 The particular similarities between Richardson's characters in Clarissa and Grandison described immediately above and the general similarities between several of his characters described in both this section and the previous one suggest that in practice Richardson followed his theory of characterization: the novelist should profit from his accumulated experience in characterization. 65 62

Watt, in his article on the naming of characters, says nothing about Harriet's name. See footnote 42, above. 63 Samuel Richardson, p. 158. 64 Samuel Richardson, p. 212. 65 See Chapter I, p. 35, for a fuller statement.

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The title character of Richardson's final novel, Sir Charles Grandison, is less fully individualized than either of the two women described above. One reason is that he is not directly presented to the reader. He is most often written about by others or described by his own letters, which are written in the past and do not relate him closely to the other characters. Like Richardson's first two heroines he has a distinctive name; however, as scholars have pointed out, the name seems aimed at satisfying Richardson's vanity and his esthetic sense rather than individualizing the hero of his final novel. According to Watt, the name Sir Charles Grandison "combines the flourish of rank, a non-biblical christian name with a royal flavour, and a surname which happily combines the suggestion of grandeur with a flattering derivation from the Irish peerage, of which Richardson was certainly aware". Richardson "could not have chosen an aristocratic name more similar to his own". 68 Although Richardson very obviously was careful in choosing the name for his 'good man', he did not succeed in making it significantly appropriate to his character as he did for his first two heroines. Grandison's individual style is different from that of any of Richardson's leading figures. I t is not theatrical and artful like t h a t of Lovelace, nor is it so seemingly artless and natural as Pamela's, Clarissa's, and Harriet's. I t is instead precise, orderly, moral, and admonitory with a businesslike concern for pertinent details. The one strongly personal element in Grandison's character, which saves if from becoming too good to be credible, is his concern about controlling his temper and feelings in all situations. This strong concern and an occasional glimpse of the human being beneath the surface are the strongest individual elements in Grandison's character. I n contrast to Grandison's style is the colorful and memorable individual style of Sir Rowland Meredith. Sir Rowland is a garrulous and generous Welsh country squire whose speech is dotted with colloquial expressions ("Ad's-my-life, that's prettily said") and whose well intended but bungling attempts to offer his nephew in marriage to Harriet are amusing. The individual styles of two other minor characters illustrate that, although Richardson's individualization in his final novel was 66

Early

"The N a m i n g of Characters", p. 334. B o t h W a t t and McKillop, in his Masters, p. 82, g i v e possible sources for t h e s u r n a m e Grandison.

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limited, he did achieve some variety in the characters that he treated. Clementina della Porretta, the second heroine who suffers madness during part of the narrative, is individualized by her passionate apostrophe and firmness in the midst of great dangers. She is far less fluttering than Harriet and the English women who witness her tragic situation from a safe distance. George Selby's style individualizes him as one who teases by exaggeration: concerning Harriet's trip to London and the three country suitors that she left behind to regret her departure, he says, "WELL ! and now there wants but a London Lover or two to enter upon the stage, and Vanity Fair will be proclaimed, and directly opened". Besides individualizing fewer characters, Richardson identified fewer minor characters in his final novel than he did in Clarissa. However, examples indicate that he used new means of identification in his final novel: the constant offering of her son in marriage to Harriet identifies the Countess Dowager of D—, and a morally repentant tone identifies William Wilson, the servant responsible for Harriet's abduction. These new means of identification, with the very few means of individualization that Richardson added in Grandison, represent the only development of Richardson's characterization in his final novel. One curious point about Richardson's naming of one of his nominal characters is worthy of mention. I t seems certain that in the case of a Miss Barnevelt, a very mannish girl described by Harriet in Grandison (I, x, 58), Richardson took a character's name and description from a literary source. For according to Arthur J. Tieje there appeared in 1732 a work entitled Memoires de Madame de Barneveldt, about which Tieje has this to say, "and one will remark with edification that under the habit of a man which Mme. de Barneveldt wears during the early years of her fife, nothing occurs contrary to modesty". 67 At this point in the chapter it is possible to confirm the fact that in practice Richardson follows his theory that characters should be used to provide variety in the novels.68 The evidence in this and the preceding sections indicates that Richardson does provide variety 67 The Theory of Characterization in Prose Fiction Prior to 1740, U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota Studies in L a n g u a g e and Literature, N o . 5, Minneapolis, 1916, p. 51. 68 See Chapter I, pp. 31-32 for a fuller s t a t e m e n t .

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by means of his characters. The twenty-four character types and the thirty—four individualized characters in the four works are, in themselves, proof of the variety in characterization that Richardson achieved. And the fact that he not only provided adequate variety in all the novels but also increased this variety to serve his purposes in Clarissa is further proof of this achievement.

3. Presentation

of the Characters

Altogether Richardson uses three procedures to present his characters. The first two of these, which are so closely related t h a t they represent a logical unit, are (1) the serious involvement of all important characters in conflicts which are sustained throughout the narrative, and (2) the minute reporting of details by the characters to each other. The last procedure, which is referred to as a multiple characterization, is the presentation of the characters by three different means; by themselves, by other characters, and through the use of other characters. Richardson's procedure of involving his characters in situations of conflict in the narrative can best be understood if the descriptions of his establishing and maintaining of conflicts in Chapter I I are briefly reviewed. As is demonstrated in the chapter on narrative structure, Richardson establishes a situation of conflict at the beginning of each work, with the exception of Pamela I I , and then he prolongs and intensifies this conflict up until the first major event, after which he changes the nature of the conflict and, in some instances, adds other conflicts. He then prolongs and intensifies these conflicts up to the next major event, after which he either changes the conflicts, adds new ones, or, in some instances, resolves the conflicts. He continues this process throughout the narrative so that most of the characters are placed in the conflicts and the important characters are seriously involved in conflicts during the greater part of the story. 69 As will be demonstrated below, the degree to which the characters are revealed will depend on the nature and extent of the conflicts to which they are subjected. Concerning the relationship of this conflict or dramatic situation to 68

F o r a brief resume of the p a t t e r n t h a t R i c h a r d s o n follows in s u s t a i n i n g and v a r y i n g t h e conflicts in his novels, see pp. 62-64, above.

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Richardson's characterization, McKillop makes this general statement, which in this instance refers to Orandison: "As usual, he [Richardson] devises a fairly intricate situation in which characters may be displayed . . ." 7 0 Richardson's second procedure — the minute reporting of details by the characters to each other — is closely related to his first. H e uses the compelling nature and, on some occasions, the complexity, of the conflicts to justify the extensive communications of his characters. The characters must communicate in minute detail because they are unable to bear their burdens and resolve their problems alone. Furthermore Richardson makes each of his primary and secondary characters eager and accomplished letter writers who are acutely sensitive to the effects of minor details. By having such characters write the beginning letters in each novel, Richardson sets up a chain reaction whereby each question calls for an answer, each answer for an explanation, each explanation for another question, and so forth, so that details beget details, actions reactions until all of the letters, or the great majority of them, are made up of minute details. And this extensive sending and receiving of communications is not only part of the action of the novels, as was pointed out in the chapter on epistolary technique; it is also part of the characterization, as will be shown in the subsection on the novels below. The relationship between Richardson's first procedure and his second of having his characters report minute details to each other is obvious. The first justifies the second, a procedure of great importance to Richardson's presentation of his characters. By having his characters report every action, every reaction, every feeling, and even absences of feeling, Richardson is able to present his characters not only fully and comprehensively but also realistically and vividly. Scholars have confirmed the importance of this second procedure. Downs has said t h a t Richardson's minuteness and diffuseness are the essence of his method of characterization; 71 and W a t t has described the extent to which Richardson used the procedure: "the basis of Richardson's 'diving into the recesses of the human heart' was his detailed description of individual states of mind, a description which requires a minute particularity in the presenta70 71

Samuel Richardson, p. 209. Richardson, p. 104.

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tion of character . . ."72 In the subsections on the novels that follow the way that Richardson used and developed his first two procedures will be examined. Pamela and Pamela II. — During the course of the narrative in Pamela Richardson places all of the important characters in situations of conflict. Pamela, Mr. B —, and Lady Davers are all so placed and their characters are presented by their actions in such situations. Even the minor characters are presented to a limited extent according to how they act in conflict. Mr. Williams and Pamela's parents are good examples. However, only one character, Pamela, is seriously involved in a conflict that is sustained throughout most of the narrative and thus only one character is fully revealed. Her character is revealed in great detail by a serious involvement that leads her to do extensive debating with herself, as well as a great deal of self-analyzing. Her involvement also leads to such serious actions as attempted escape and attempted suicide, all of which reveal her character. 73 Since these extreme actions are also concerned with Pamela's development as a character, they will be considered in the section on character development. Except for a brief period in the narrative Pamela II has no conflicts, and there is only a slight involvement on the heroine's part. Pamela does practically no debating with herself. In what slight conflict there is, Pamela debates with Lady Davers about her plight. Richardson justifies the need for the extensive reporting of minute details in Pamela by the situation he establishes at the beginning. A young servant girl who enjoys displaying her talent for letter writing and who has promised to report minutely to her parents concerning Mr. B —'s intentions toward her writes detailed letters and, later on, an even more detailed journal. The journal becomes more detailed because of Pamela's sense of desperation 72 The Rise of the Novel, p. 261. W a t t h a s also p o i n t e d o u t (ibid,., p . 25) t h a t in t h e n u m e r o u s scenes where t h e reporting of details is particularly m i n u t e " R i c h a r d s o n a c h i e v e d for t h e n o v e l w h a t D . W . Griffith's t e c h n i q u e of t h e 'close-up' did for t h e film: added a n e w dimension t o t h e representation of reality." 73 F o r an effective description of t h e w a y s t h a t conflicts support P a m e l a ' s character, see Golden, p. 63.

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195

and her need for some outlet for her overwhelming emotion. The journal is also justified as a minutely reported account of her trials; in fact, it serves this purpose in a tangible way when Mr. B— reads it to determine Pamela's true character. Richardson also reveals Pamela's character through her meticulous manner of writing, handling, sending, and receiving letters. For instance, Pamela's many activities which centered around her clandestine post office, the rock in the yard under which she leaves letters for Mr. Williams, reveal her character vividly. Scholars have remarked the importance of this handling of letters in the presentation of the heroine in Pamela. Bertil Romberg describes in some detail the tricks and various ingenious means that Pamela and Clarissa use to send and receive letters, and, at one point, he says that Richardson "lets the writer's self-satisfied accounts of her tricks and little deceptions shed indirect light on her character". 74 In Pamela II Richardson justifies at least part of the need for detailed communication in much the same way that he does in Pamela — the new wife writes home to describe all of the glories of her new-found happiness to her parents. However, since the need for Pamela and Lady Davers to communicate is not in itself compelling, Richardson has Lady Davers ask Pamela a series of questions in her first letter. Pamela answers these in great detail and asks others in turn, and thus Richardson establishes the chain response which continues throughout much of the narrative and which adumbrates the much more sophisticated and dramatic chain response in Clarissa. Richardson's presentation of his characters in Pamela by the procedure of minute reporting is more complex than it appears on the surface. Pamela's short letters at the beginning and her journal later describe pertinent single incidents in great detail. For instance, Pamela reports Mr. B—'s remarks to Pamela; her reactions to his remarks at the time and to herself and to her parents later when she is writing; the physical appearances of other characters, which she presents very subjectively; conversations; quotations from letters and notes; dreams; and brief descriptions of characters present at social gatherings. This list could be extended considerably.

74

Studies

in the Narrative

Technique

of the First Person Novel, p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 .

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CHARACTERIZATION

McKillop comments on this minute reporting and its effect on characterization in Pamela: Richardson "dwelt on fluctuations of mood, on the small indecisions that make up so large a part of life".75 He further says that the account of minute details in Pamela gives the reader a continuous and cumulative impression of living through the experience, and thus creates a new kind of sympathy with the character whose experiences are being shared. It is not merely that the character's feelings and observations are systematically presented. . . . The point is that here we have the close linking of memory and current impression with anticipation of what is to come — a future not merely conceived as ultimate outcome — will Pamela's chastity be violated? will the story end with wedding bells? — but a future emerging directly from the spacious present. . . ,7S

Katherine Hornbeak sees Richardson's ability to characterize by the use of minute details as stemming from his seemingly innate ability for writing letters, which antedates his writing of Pamela. Concerning characterization in his letter writer, Familiar Letters, which he began before starting Pamela, Miss Hornbeak says, "The vivid characterization in Familiar Letters depends in part upon the minute reporting of conversation, at times approaching the comedy of manners in dramatic arrangement". "Such a detailed account of the accompanying action [as seen in Letter CLXIII] was unheard of in the model letter; it shows more affinity with the drama or the novel".77 McKillop explains Richardson's use of details in Pamela: "The presentation of a situation in letter form suggested [to Richardson] the idea of changing the scale of the narrative by giving a minutely particular account of thoughts, actions, and accompanying circumstances at such frequent intervals as to make up a current record rather than a retrospective summary". 78 Although there are occasional detailed descriptions of individuals and of the persons in attendance at social gatherings, there is much less minute reporting in Pamela II than in Pamela because of the lack of a dramatic situation. Generally the characterization in Pamela II is weak. 75

Samuel Richardson, p. 99. Early Masters, p. 59. 77 "The Complete Letter Writer in English 1568-1800", Smith Studies in Modem Language, X V (1934), 113. 78 Early Masters, p. 57. 76

College

197

CHARACTERIZATION

Clarissa. — In Clarissa Richardson involves a greater proportion of his characters in a conflict that is far more complex, more progressively protracted, and more deadly serious than is the case in Pamela. The conflict includes not only the two primary and two secondary characters but also a large number of the minor characters, such as the members of Clarissa's large family. Since the nature of what are, in effect, several conflicts in the novel has been described in detail in Chapter II, 79 the conflict in Clarissa will not be described here. McKillop has shown how the conflict involves the various characters as correspondents and contributes to the characterization: T h e correspondents r e p o r t conflict a n d offer c o m m e n t a r y . T h e conflict is n o t typically a h e a d - o n collision b e t w e e n one correspondent a n d a n o t h e r , assertion a n d reply; r a t h e r i t is presented largely w i t h i n t h e letters of a d o m i n a n t correspondent, who m a k e s his r e p o r t in g r e a t detail. E a c h principal correspondent u n d e r t a k e s t o r e p o r t a n d c o m m e n t on various aspects of a complex situation, m a y be h a r d p u t t o i t t o f o r m u l a t e i m m e d i a t e or longr a n g e aims, a n d t h u s p r e s e n t s t h e spectacle of t h e "divided m i n d " [to b e described l a t e r in section on d e v e l o p m e n t ] . Conflict a n d d o u b t inhere in t h e present, a n d are p r o j e c t e d i n t o t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e . This is p r e e m i n e n t l y t r u e for Clarissa a n d Lovelace. F o r Clarissa's c o n f i d a n t e Miss H o w e a n d for Lovelace's confidant Belford, t h e provision of c o m m e n t outweighs t h e r e p o r t of conflict, b u t w h e n R i c h a r d s o n is a t his b e s t t h e r e is a n organic connection; t h a t is, significant c o m m e n t a r y on t h e action is a complication a n d advancem e n t of t h e action. Secondary characters m a y b e given over t o one aspect or t h e o t h e r : t h e Harlowes represent a b r u t a l a n d sullen f o r m of conflict, a n d are n o t intelligent or a r t i c u l a t e enough t o p r o v i d e their own c o m m e n t a r y . A b o u t all t h a t J a m e s a n d Arabella H a r l o w e can d o is t o be, as R i c h a r d s o n says: "affrontive."80

In Clarissa the heroine is more deeply involved in conflict than in Pamela, and thus the conflict can more fully reveal her character. As McKillop has pointed out, Clarissa differs from Pamela because the "central qualities in her personality are involved in an intense and protracted dramatic struggle",81 and she, as an individual who must either follow a rigid social principle or yield, has been placed in "mortal conflict with the whole system". 82 As in Pamela, Richardson focuses on the plight of his heroine and exploits her conflicts to 79

P p . 67-98, along with conflicts in Pamela Early Masters, p . 68. 81 Samuel Richardson, p. 153. *2Ibid., p. 127. 80

and

Grandison.

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CHARACTERIZATION

reveal her character as fully as possible.83 Like Pamela in the first novel Clarissa debates with herself over possible alternatives, and like the Pamela of the sequel, she debates with others over her plight. However, differing from the heroine of Pamela and Pamela II, she is involved in a conflict that tests her character to the fullest, and she has a confidante to bear some of the burden and, on occasion, to further perplex her in her struggle. At the same time, Richardson does not neglect his villain, who also engages in both internal and external debate. In addition, the villain's character is revealed by the conflict in two respects rather than one: he relishes creating conflicts for Clarissa and he writes extensively about his plans; he also is forced to meet issues of the larger conflicts — with the social code, with Clarissa's unyielding resistance, and with the evil code of his procuress, Mrs. Sinclair, and her prostitutes — that he did not anticipate and is unable to cope with. Lovelace's conflict has unexpected effects on his character and reveals it fully. And, of course, Anna Howe, Belford, Mrs. Norton, the Harlowe family, and a number of others are all revealed as they participate in the basic conflicts in the narrative. In Clarissa Richardson justifies the need for extensive communication of minute details in a number of ways. Like Pamela, Clarissa is an avid young letter writer in a dangerous situation who feels obligated to write minutely concerning her circumstances. But differing from Pamela, Clarissa, who is also a highly accomplished letter writer, begins her minute reporting for the definite and serious purpose of explaining the background of a serious conflict and as the result of a specific promise to her close friend Anna Howe. Because it shows Clarissa's acute awareness of the value of details, a value not made so apparent in Pamela, a part of her promise is worth quoting: "And then you will always have me give you minute descriptions, nor suffer me to pass by the air and manner in which things are spoken that are to be taken notice of; rightly observing, that air and manner often express more than the accompanying words" (I, ii, 8). Clarissa fulfills her promise to Anna Howe by reporting all circumstances fully and objectively, even to the extent of using reports and on the spot accounts of surgeons, neighbors,

83

For a p e r c e p t i v e description of t h e w a y s i n v o l v e m e n t in conflict s u p p o r t Clarissa's character, s e e Golden, p p . 6 4 - 6 5 , 66.

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and other witnesses and saying something about the reliability of these people. Thus she establishes very early in the narrative the precedent of full description and the chain response of question begetting answer, answer begetting explanation, and so forth, that was first introduced and used to a limited extent in Pamela II. The effect that Richardson achieves from this situation in Clarissa has been pointed out by Watt: "In Clarissa the individual must be given priority in the total structure; Richardson merely brings together certain individuals, and their proximity is all that is necessary to set off an extended chain reaction which then proceeds under its own impetus and modifies all the characters and their mutual relationships".84 Like Pamela, but to a far greater degree, Clarissa has respect for the reports in her letters as living records of her life during her period of trial, and as evidence that may be useful in the future. In addition to justifying Clarissa's communication of minute details, Richardson justifies the correspondence of the other primary characters and the two secondary characters. Lovelace is also an avid, accomplished letter writer who very obviously uses letters as vehicles of his expansive ego and as a means of revealing his many plots and contrivances. Anna Howe is an accomplished and creative letter writer who loves to express her opinions, try her hand at humorous depictions, and offer advice to her friend Clarissa. Belford, Lovelace's confidant, is an accomplished but not an avid letter writer. He writes out of necessity and serves as peacemaker and advisor. As in Pamela the heroine and, in this instance, the villain, is characterized also by the handling of letters. Clarissa is much disturbed, for instance, by the need of a clandestine correspondence, while Lovelace thinks nothing of counterfeiting and stealing letters to serve his ends. Richardson improves his procedure of minute reporting in Clarissa over that in Pamela. From the beginning, the scenes reported are fuller and of greater duration. Instead of the several brief scenes taken from over a fairly long period of time in the early part of Pamela, there are throughout Clarissa descriptions of whole days and long scenes involving every member of Clarissa's family in which every expression and every word, as well as every long,

84

The Rise of the Novel,

pp. 270-271.

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CHARACTERIZATION

awkward pause, are reported. 85 All of the varied and minute elements that appear in the descriptions in Pamela are used in Clarissa, along with a number of others. Some of these are highly detailed descriptions of individual characters that are based on manner and expression as well as physical appearance: animal imagery, as used metaphorically by Lovelace;86 descriptions of characters' reactions;87 extensive dialogue; the commentary of the narrator interspersed between the conversation of two or more characters; and the fragmentary thoughts of the anguished heroine while in a state of semiconsciousness. In addition to the variety of the elements of minute description in Clarissa there are scenes in which all of the minute details are effectively focused on the emotions of the heroine. Watt has pointed out how skillfully Richardson uses these minute details to reveal his characters. Of a scene in which Clarissa's father refuses to speak to her, Watt says that Mr. Harlowe's "callous resolve seems all the more convincing because it is only manifested in his refusal to speak to Clarissa — our own involvement in the inner world of Clarissa makes it possible for a father's silent look to have a resonance that is quite lacking in the physical and rhetorical hyperbole by which Fielding demonstrates the fury of Squire Western". 88 Although Richardson's characters report profusely and minutely, their reporting is by no means an aimless record of all details, the tedious as well as the pertinent. McKillop has best described Richardson's selection of details to reveal his characters: "His 'minute descriptions' are selective. His way of 'writing to the moment' is not indiscriminate expansion of descriptive detail, but a running record of significant circumstance and fluctuating feeling from the point 85 Sherburn points out Richardson's use of the technique of the plays to achieve his minute presentation in Clarissa, and, concerning Richardson's use of dialogue, he says " . . . the quality and the vividness of his written conversations are unparalleled in earlier English fiction" ("Samuel Richardson's Novels and the Theatre", pp. 327-328, 329). 86 I n connection with the use of imagery, Golden has said that "the whores at Mrs. Sinclair's, are consistently described in the imagery of hell" (p. 59). 87 Hughes (pp. 240-241) and Sherburn (" 'Writing to the Moment': One Aspect", pp. 203-207) describe in some detail Richardson's use of stylized gestures, such as lifting the eyes, kneeling, and sitting, as well as physical details, such as facial expressions, not only in Clarissa but in Grandison as well. 88 The Rise of the Novel, p. 268.

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89

of view of the letter-writer". W a t t has also described the effective character revelation by means of a selective use of minute details. The scene presenting Clarissa's haughty treatment of Roger Solmes, W a t t says, "is characteristic of Richardson's very different kind of realism. Clarissa is describing what happened 'this morning', and is 'as minute as' she knows Anna wishes her to be; only so can Richardson convey the physical reality of the scene — the party at breakfast, the jockeying for position over trifles, and all the ordinarily trivial domestic details which bear the main burden of the drama". 9 0 Orandison. — In his final novel Richardson fails to use conflict as a major means of presenting his characters. As in Pamela and Clarissa he involves his heroine, Harriet Byron, in a conflict over her freedom and future happiness, 91 b u t he fails to involve, to any serious extent, the one secondary character, Charlotte Grandison, and the two important minor characters, Sir Charles Grandison and Clementina della Poretta, in the same conflict. Charlotte Grandison shares in Harriet's conflict to a slight extent and serves as a confidante part of the time, and Clementina has serious conflicts of her own; these, however, are never described fully nor presented to the reader in any strongly revealing way. At the same time Grandison's conflict is not directly presented and his character is never realized through his conflict. McKillop sums up this basic weakness through lack of conflict for important figures in Grandison very aptly: But this central situation is not fairly worked out in terms of character; there is much talk, and Clementina runs mad for a time, but the Gordian knot is cut only by her timely scruples about marrying a heretic. In other matters too Sir Charles is never put to the test: the death of his father saves him in the conflict between filial duty and self-respect, and his skill at fencing makes it easy for him to decline a duel honorably. Despite all the discussion, Sir Charles is never analyzed . . .92

Richardson failed to use the ability to exploit conflict for characterization t h a t he developed in Clarissa. I n certain respects his 89

Early Masters, p. 59. "The Rise of the Novel, p. 266. 91 For a resume of the nature and extent of this conflict see Chapter II, pp. 62-64, as well as Golden, pp. 67-69, who shows the ways that the conflict supports Harriet's character. 92 Samuel Richardson, pp. 209-210.

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situation of conflict in Grandison is closer to that in Pamela: a heroine is in conflict with a force and she is somewhat isolated from the world because of this force; at the same time no one else, not even the villain, the cause of the conflict, seems to be seriously involved in the same conflict. As in Pamela, Richardson focuses on the conflict of his heroine in Grandison but he fails to provide adequately for the conflicts of his other characters, and thus they are not the primary and secondary characters that one would expect them to be. In spite of these weaknesses, Richardson is fairly successful in revealing his heroine's character through her conflict. While Harriet's conflict is not as serious as Pamela's or Clarissa's, it is serious enough to reveal her great sensitivity and highly feminine nature. As in the other novels there is emphasis on the heroine's feelings and extensive internal debating on Harriet's part. There is also some debating with others, but much less than in Clarissa. Richardson fails in Grandison to justify, except in a very limited way, the need for the extensive communication of minute details. While it is true that Harriet and Charlotte Grandison, her friend and advisor, are both presented as avid and accomplished letter writers, there are a number of weaknesses in this communication. In the beginning there is only a slightly compelling dramatic situation, and though the situation is related to Harriet's conflict, it does not provide a strong impetus for communicating minute details as do the conflicts at the beginnings of Pamela and Clarissa. Because most of the letters are not answered there is no chain response of questions and answers, except to a very slight extent in the limited exchange, the only real one in the novel, between Harriet and Charlotte. As in Pamela II the letter writer, Harriet or whoever happens to be describing a series of activities, promises to report minutely to the receiver of the letters. However, beyond this promise, which does practically nothing to establish a dramatic situation, there seems to be little or no justification for the extensive communication of minute details, and therefore many of the minute details that do appear are not as dramatic or as pertinent to character revelation as those in Clarissa. Although Richardson fails generally to justify the need for communicating minute details in Grandison, he nevertheless uses this minute reporting to support his characterization. With the exception of such an element as the reporting of conversation in shorthand, he does not add new elements of minute description to those

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found in both Pamela and Clarissa. However, he does use the more effective elements from the two earlier works and achieves a fullness in some of his scenes that makes them comparable to the better scenes in Clarissa. I n Orandison Richardson presents a number of social scenes in which his minute reporting of social events and long conversations does much to reveal the characters of those in attendance. Concerning the degree of success that Richardson attained from minutely reporting social scenes, McKillop has said, "Grandison furnishes the most striking illustration of the tendency of Richardson's novels to impart to the reader a feeling of close acquaintanceship or intimacy with a group of characters set in the framework of a familiar society". 93 Critics have both condemned and praised the effects t h a t Richardson obtained from his minute reporting in Grandison. Downs a t one point describes what he refers to as Richardson's realistic method of using details to present character: " I t consists of an accumulation of small facts or small traits, to all of which the same importance attaches and none of which can be fairly described as consummate". 9 4 On another occasion he remarks t h a t "Richardson makes Harriet Byron describe the former [Charlotte] in set terms which, [have the effect of] exemplifying both his methodical minuteness and the strangely flat effect produced by i t . . ." 9S McKillop has, on the other hand, pointed out the success t h a t Richardson sometimes achieves from his minute details: "Occasional happy bits of characterization [in Grandison] may easily be overlooked, such as the picture of Lady Betty Clemson 'perpetually dinning the ears of her guests with her domestic superlatives', or of Sir Charles's youthful ward Emily Jervois, 'as sleek and as shy as a bird new caught', or his maiden aunt Nell, who 'prank'd herself, stroked her ribbands of pink and yellow, and chuckled and mumped for joy, t h a t her nephew at least would not go out of Old England for a wife". 9 « Richardson's third and final procedure for presenting his characters is multiple characterization. The procedure is closely related to Richardson's use of multiple point of view, which appears in its 93

Early Masters, p. 92. Richardson, p. 134. Ibid., p. 121. 98 Samuel Richardson, p. 213. 94

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most advanced form in Clarissa.91 Because he has numerous letter writers expressing themselves and describing each other throughout the narrative, Richardson is able to have his characters present themselves directly by self-analysis or commentary, or indirectly by betraying something about themselves in their description of other characters. In addition, his characters can present the traits of each other by commentary, analysis, and other means in their letters, and by the ways in which they contrast with other characters, as in the case of one character's serving as a foil for another. Briefly, the characters are presented by themselves, by other characters, and through contrast with other characters. The extent to which Richardson uses this procedure of multiple characterization is greater than one is inclined to realize. However, when the reader sees that many of the characters are characterizing themselves or each other throughout much of the novel, the extent of the multiple characterization is evident. Romberg has described what he calls Richardson's 'double exposure' of his characters: The various narrators' quotations and résumés of their own letters and those of others serve two purposes. I n the first place they explain, in the interest of creating an illusion of reality, w h y various persons at different stages of the development of the action can be in possession of information which otherwise they could not reasonably be expected to have. In the second place they show what the narrators consider to be of value and importance. When the double exposure is employed, it gives two versions to the reader and thus supplies him with a double perspective, giving the portrayal an added dimension of depth as well as indirectly but accurately characterizing the two narrators. 98

While space does not permit an account of all instances of multiple characterization, such as the 'double exposure' described above, a brief summary of Richardson's use of multiple characterization in his four works is presented in the paragraphs that follow. Pamela and Pamela II. — In Pamela Richardson's procedure of multiple characterization is adumbrated but not developed. There is, of course, extensive self-presentation by the heroine. She reveals her character by such means as self-analysis, imaginative speculation on her situation, and detailed descriptions of her reactions to 97 For a description of his use of multiple point of view, see pp. 141-144 of Chapter III. 98 Studies in the Technique of the First Person Novel, p. 234.

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Mr. B —'s advances toward her and Lady Davers' treatment of her. There is some presentation of other characters, in the form of commentary, judgments, and quotations of dialogue, but practically all of this is done by Pamela herself. At the same time, Pamela's character is not presented by other characters, with a very few exceptions, such as Mr. B —'s comments on her good qualities after he has read her journal. Furthermore, none of the characters is presented through contrast with other characters. While Richardson does not present his characters effectively in Pamela I I , he does come closer to achieving a limited degree of multiple characterization than he did in Pamela. There is selfpresentation not only on Pamela's part but to a limited extent on the parts of Lady Davers and Polly Darnford. Pamela does present herself in her detailed descriptions of her reactions to several important situations, including her difficulty with Mr. B —, and in her analyses of herself and others. In addition there is presentation by other characters. Pamela and her two friends describe other characters and each other extensively by means of commentary, judgments, analyses, reports, quotations of dialogue, and descriptions of reactions under various circumstances. In fact the chain of reactions that is established by the characters is rather impressive: the heroine's feelings are illustrated by her reactions, by the reactions of others to her reactions, and by her reactions to the reactions of others. Clarissa. — I t is in Clarissa that Richardson develops multiple characterization to its highest point. Both of the primary characters, Clarissa and Lovelace, and one of the secondary characters, Anna Howe, present themselves extensively by such means as analyses, dialogue, dramatic descriptions of physical and emotional actions and reactions. A number of the characters, including several minor ones, are presented by other characters by such means as extensive commentary and analysis (Anna Howe's analysis of Clarissa is an example), reports and opinions, direct exposition, quotations of dialogue (much of what we learn of Arabella is through dialogue furnished by Clarissa), extensive descriptions of interviews, descriptions of other characters as comic figures (at the hands of Anna Howe), and even dramatic scenes complete with stage directions. And a number of characters are presented through the means of others, a definite advance over multiple characteriza-

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tion in Pamela and Pamela II. Anna Howe is a foil to Clarissa. Belford is a foil to Lovelace and Lovelace's character is revealed by contrast with Hickman's. 99 Because of the presence of Aunt Hervey as an intermediary between Clarissa and her family, both Clarissa and her mother are more fully presented. Clarissa is a foil to Arabella, and, for a brief period, Lovelace is a foil to Clarissa's brother James. And this list could be extended. Romberg has commented on the multiple presentation of the major characters in Clarissa: "Different mental moods and different narrative styles also characterize the main characters indirectly, especially Clarissa. Even in their direct descriptions of other characters, the principal figures throw indirect light upon themselves. — The main characters are frequently directly described by their correspondents". 100 One of Clarissa's descriptions of Arabella serves to illustrate the way that characters throw light upon themselves when describing others: "The poor Bella has, you know, a plump high-fed face, if I may be allowed the expression. You, I know, will forgive me for this liberty of speech sooner than I can forgive myself: Yet how can one be such a reptile as not to turn when trampled upon!" (I, vii, 44). Richardson's multiple characterization provides the means of presenting the characters in broader perspective than would otherwise be the case. For instance, early in Clarissa Anna Howe describes Clarissa's brother and sister according to what the world outside Clarissa's family thinks of them (I, x, 60) and in the same letter she goes on to characterize Clarissa's whole family as narrow and selfish: they will not let Clarissa correspond because they want no other judgments but theirs (61). In her answer to this Clarissa is, of course, forced to defend her family and to present something of their qualities as well as some of her own in the process. I t is in this manner that multiple characterization works in Clarissa to present many of the characters. Related to the result of a broader perspective is another effect of multiple characterization, the obtaining of a certain degree of objectivity. Romberg explains how this is achieved: "This external illumination [of Clarissa's character by 99

F o r a n analysis of t h e w a y s t h a t R i c h a r d s o n contrasts his characters w i t h each other b y p l a y i n g t h e m off "against each other as l e t t e r writers", s e e Frederick W . Hilles' "The P l a n of Clarissa", Philological Quarterly, X L V , (January, 1966) 1, 2 4 4 - 2 4 6 . 100 Studies in Technique of the First Person Novel, p. 224.

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others] occurs constantly of course, since other narrators correspond with her and above all about her. This . . . is the only way of giving directly an approximately objective portrait of a main character who is at the same time a first-person narrator". 1 0 1 Grandison. — In Grandison multiple characterization is less fully achieved than in Clarissa. The heroine and the one secondary character, Charlotte Grandison, present themselves extensively by such means as analysis, reflective concern about their situation (though of a less elaborate variety than t h a t in Clarissa), dialogue, and detailed descriptions of physical and emotional actions and reactions. A few of the minor characters present themselves; Clementina does so to a limited extent but Grandison does so hardly at all. Several of the characters present other characters by extensive commentary, judgments and fully developed analyses (Harriet seriously analyzes Charlotte and Charlotte facetiously analyses the meek Lord G., who later becomes her husband), reports and opinions, direct exposition, quotations of dialogue, and descriptions of actions at interviews. There is also a limited amount of character presentation through the means of other characters. For instance Grandison is a foil to Sir Hargrave and Harriet is a foil to both Charlotte and Emily Jervois. However, this part of Richardson's multiple characterization is not so well-developed and effective as it is in Clarissa. One distinct weakness of the multiple characterization in Orandison is the fact that, with a few exceptions, the characters do not exchange replies, and thus there is much less of the indirect presentation of self and direct presentation of others on the part of the characters. B u t there are long conversations in extended scenes in which multiple characterization takes place and which compensate, to a certain extent, for the lack of exchange among the characters. Generally, nevertheless, Richardson fails in Grandison to obtain the degree of objectivity, the extended and almost constant presentation of characters, and the broader perspective t h a t he achieves in Clarissa. Scholars have pointed out various aspects of the multiple characterization in Richardson's final novel. Concerning Charlotte's dynamic self-presentation Downs has said, " I t is when she acts and 101

Ibid.,

p. 224.

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speaks, however, t h a t Charlotte Grandison becomes a person — authentic, vital, a n d most unpleasant". 1 0 2 McKillop has quoted one of Charlotte's descriptions which reveals t h a t the presentation of minor characters b y others is sometimes remarkably rich: Amid the festivities and self-congratulations of the wedding day, Charlotte can write: "The coach-way was lined with spectators. Mr. Selby, it seems, bowed all the way, in return to the salutes of his acquaintance. Have you never, Lady L., called for the attention of your company in your coach, to something that has passed in the streets, or on the road, and at the same time thrust your head thro' the window, so that nobody could see but yourself? So it was with Mr. Selby, I doubt not. He wanted every one to look in at the Happy Pair; but took care that hardly any-body but himself should be seen." 103

A n d to a limited extent a t least, it is obvious t h a t Charlotte is indirectly presenting her own character to us in this quotation.

4. Development

of the Characters

Richardson uses three closely related procedures in the development of his primary and secondary characters. His first procedure is to expose these characters to situations of conflict and to contrast them with other characters according to t h e ways they react to their conflicts. His second procedure is to place his characters in positions which, because of the n a t u r e of the conflicts, are morally ambiguous and produce ambivalent feelings. His final procedure is to have his characters analyze and discover themselves a n d to analyze and discover other characters as well throughout the course of the narratives. Before Richardson's use of these three procedures in his four works is examined, the procedures themselves should be explained. The effect on t h e major characters of t h e conflicts t h a t Richardson establishes a t the beginning of his novels has been described in an earlier chapter on narrative structure and in the section of this chapter on presentation of the characters. These conflicts, which become progressively worse over sustained periods, expose a n d test the natures of t h e characters and thus provide the primary means 102 103

Richardson, p. 123. Early Masters, p. 91.

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for development. The similarity in the way that Richardson involves three of his heroines in conflicts that expose their characters has been pointed out by McKillop: "Clarissa, Harriet, and Clementina all meet social and moral obstacles as they are drawn into unavowed or imperfectly avowed attachments; all undergo various degrees of compulsion; all are confronted with the argument, 'If you aren't really in love with A, why should you refuse to marry While the characters are developed by the exposure and testing of conflicts, they are developed in another way by being contrasted with the secondary and minor characters, of both the static and dynamic varieties, that constantly surround them. In Clarissa the major characters are the center of a circle of numerous characters, all of whom contrast with the major characters. McKillop has described this situation: "Yet Clarissa and Lovelace are both in a sense quixotic in their pride, and stand in contrast to many of the surrounding characters who are bogged down in convention and give automatic responses, facile and superficial answers to the questions that beset the principals. The two major characters inevitably assert themselves, and this points to a tragic outcome." 105 Richardson's second procedure of placing his characters in ambiguous positions, in which all moral issues are gray and nothing is truly black and white, allows the character to develop in a manner not possible in more rigid positions. Downs refers to this ambiguous positions as the 'divided mind', and he says that all of Richardson's major psychological studies concerned the divided mind. 106 Because the heroine's position is uncertain and the doors are always open to a new position, her status is always potentially flexible. Downs has pointed out t h a t this equivocation on the part of Richardson's heroines produced effects that were not wholly commendable. Richardson's heroines, he says "all have a kind of obliquity in their moral vision, what downright Dr. Johnson meant when he complained of Clarissa: 'You may observe there is always something which she prefers to truth'. Truth they profess to venerate and truth 104

Early Masters, p. 86. Ibid., p. 68. 106 Downs' useful concept of the divided mind is described and illustrated in detail in his Richardson, pp. 128-134. 105

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(to give them their due) they speak a great deal more frequently than not, but they all command an amazing gift for making the letter of t r u t h obscure or even strive against its spirit, for proffering a suggestio falsi on a half-truth or literal truth". 1 0 7 Richardson's third procedure of having the characters analyze and discover both themselves and other characters allows him to use his characters to reveal their own development. And by having the characters discover truths about themselves, sometimes, b u t not always, while in the process of self-analysis, he makes the character's revelation of their development both spontaneous and convincing. By having characters analyze each other and discover various facts about each other, Richardson takes full advantage of the multiple characterization described earlier. The naturalness with which Richardson's characters reveal their own development has been pointed out by Downs: the characters reveal "themselves just as, with quite negligible exceptions, actual people reveal their natures to us in real life. The pace at which motive was disclosed and the constituent parts of an emotional complex laid bare was, in general, infinitesimal: the observer could appreciate them at his leisure and become familiar with a slowly changing emotional situation exactly as if one of his own daily acquaintances were concerned". 108 In the next three subsections Richardson's use of these three procedures for the development of his characters will be demonstrated. So t h a t the progressive use of these procedures will be seen, the order of the subsections will be chronological. Pamela and Pamela II. — Richardson uses his procedure of exposing and testing his heroine by conflict throughout the better part of Pamela. As her conflict becomes more intense from the beginning up until the crisis, Pamela's feelings are exposed and her character develops. For instance, her conflict forces her to contemplate and even attempt suicide, yet the development of her character does not arise simply from this action but from all of the thoughts that pass through her mind before and after her attempt. Later, before the crisis and while she is staying at the inn before departing for home, the lessening of the conflict allows her to change her opinion 107 108

Richardson, p. 110. Ibid., pp. 127-128.

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of Mr. B—, and to discover her real feelings toward him. Since Mr. B— is engaged in this conflict, his character develops somewhat, particularly during the crisis, where his affection toward Pamela seems spontaneous. To a lesser extent Richardson develops the characters by contrasting them with others. Pamela's character contrasts with the static figures that surround her, and her actions can be judged in terms of the actions, or lack of actions, of such other characters as Lady Davers 109 and Mrs. Jewkes. Ian Watt makes a pertinent comment on the importance of the conflict for the development of both Pamela and Mr. B—: The relationship between Pamela and Mr. B. is therefore able to develop a much richer psychological and moral content than that between the traditional lovers in romance. The barriers between them that have to be broken down are not external and contrived but internal and real; and for this reason, combined with the fact that these barriers are baaed on the differences in their respective class outlooks, the dialogue between the lovers is not, as it is in romance, a conventional exercise in rhetoric, but an exploration of the forces that have made them what they are. 1 1 0

In Pamela II Richardson tests and exposes his heroine's character through conflict very slightly. The small amount of conflict in the narrative tests the heroine's character for such a brief period that only the slightest development can be said to occur. However, Richardson does contrast Pamela with Lady Davers and Polly Darnford over a long part of the narrative, so that Pamela's development as a character is visible as her actions and reactions are related to those of her two friends. And to a very slight extent Lady Davers and Polly Darnford develop as characters through their contrast with Pamela.

109 Golden describes Richardson's somewhat erratic character in some detail (pp. 48-50). In connection with with other characters, Golden shows how Richardson as if she is acting before an audience who is watching

development of this Pamela's contrasting presents his heroine her every move (pp.

160-161). 110 Rise of the Novel, p. 167. Golden also describes the nature of the conflict between two isolated individuals (Pamela and Mr. B— in Pamela) and public opinion in both Pamela and Clarissa (pp. 144-145). In connection with society's part in Richardson's novels, Golden says that in Pamela and Clarissa society tends to exert force as an individual "with a resultant complexity of existence unprecedented in the novel and perhaps not to occur again in England until the times of J a m e s and Lawrence" (p. 181).

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Richardson uses his second procedure of placing his heroine in an ambiguous position rather extensively in his first novel. Prom soon after the beginning and up until the crisis, Pamela's position is ambiguous and her feelings ambivalent. She equivocates constantly about her situation; her feelings alternate between attraction and repulsion towards Mr. B—. Her problem is not a simple one of two clearly defined choices. As Downs has pointed out, her motives are intricately mingled because of self-deception and because, "Not only was she handicapped by weakness and ignorance, but also . . . by her own sensual nature (videlicet love for Mr. B —) and . . . by the hideous temptation to make sure of the second prize (Mr. B 's very handsome terms of concubinage) at the risk of throwing away her chief chance of infinitely greater gain". 111 Since the question of the state of her feelings is open up until the crisis, Pamela's feelings are thoroughly exposed by her position, and her development is visible throughout this relatively long period. Downs has noted the ambivalence of Pamela's feelings: she is a master of equivocation and Richardson was aware of this trait because he has Mr. B tell Pamela so. And on the positive side, Downs indicates that Pamela's character development is enriched considerably by her ambiguous position: she "who manages even to deceive herself quite perfectly in this elaborate hypocrisy and to wallow in self-pity, is, as the most highly differentiated and most living, also the most successful of Richardson's character portrayals". 112 In Pamela II Richardson does not to any extent develop the character by ambiguity and ambivalence. Pamela's position is ambiguous during only a very short period. Richardson uses extensively in Pamela part of his third procedure for developing his characters; having the heroine constantly analyzing herself and discovering truths about herself in the light of her ambiguous position. Much of what Pamela writes in her letters and throughout her long journal is self-analysis. Examples of clearly focused analyzes of her feelings are easy to find: in the postscript of Letter X, p. 17, she says, "May-be I he and Mm too much"; just before she is to go home, she expresses great concern over the dress that she has made for the purpose (XX, 49-51); she analyzes 111 112

Richardson, Richardson,

p . 129. p . 111.

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her situation extensively when she is contemplating her escape; and she summarizes her situation just before she gets into bed on the night that Mr. B— attacks her. In most instances her analysis consists of comments to herself; on one occasion, however, her fears are revealed in the form of a dream that Mrs. Jewkes and Colbrand are coming into her bed. Pamela discovers that her feelings about leaving the Bedfordshire estate, presumably to go home, are thoroughly mixed and that later when she is to go home from the Lincolnshire estate, she does not want to because of her affection for Mr. B - . 1 1 3 Richardson uses part of his third procedure, analysis of characters and discovery of characters by others, much less extensively than he uses self-analysis and discovery. There is some analysis of other characters by Pamela and a very slight amount of analysis of Pamela by Mr. B— and Lady Davers, and there is discovery of facts about other characters. However, while this discovery is limited entirely to Pamela, its use by Richardson is moderately important in his first novel. Mr. B— is developed primarily by Pamela's discoveries about him, and his gradual revelation to her anticipates similar revelations of Lovelace to Clarissa and Grandison to Harriet. Although Mr. B— develops slightly as an independent character, he develops primarily through Pamela's knowledge of him. In effect, it is her knowledge of him that develops, and this situation adumbrates that of Harriet and Grandison in Richardson's final novel. Pamela, for instance, discovers, almost by accident, that Mr. B— has seduced Sally Godfrey, and she later discovers that his intentions toward Pamela herself were originally like those toward Miss Godfrey. Lady Davers' character develops as Pamela makes discoveries about her: that she exhibits the fury of hell when scorned and that she can be altogether agreeable and even compassionate when she is pleased. Richardson's success in the development of the heroine in his first novel has been pointed out. McKillop says that we may "call Pamela what we will, a minx, a hypocrite, or worse, our very vexation is proof of her vitality".114 Downs believes that Pamela has greater vitality than her author intended: for "Pride of place 113 Downs illustrates the crucial importance of this discovery of her feeling of affection for Mr. B — just before the crisis (Richardson, pp. 130-134). ui Samuel Richardson, p. 99.

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among Richardson's feminine creations Pamela must, for all her unintended excellence, dispute with Clarissa Harlowe, who is great according to the measure in which she fulfils her author's intention, not in proportion as she emancipates herself from them and takes on a vitality of her own". 115 In Pamela II Richardson continues to use self-analysis and selfdiscovery to develop his characters but his use is so very slight that it does not represent any degree of development beyond Pamela. His use of analysis and discovery by others in Pamela II is not limited to Pamela, but is applied to Lady Davers and Polly Darnford to a limited extent, at least. As in Pamela, Richardson uses the device of gradual revelation of a character, Mr. B —, to support his development of his heroine. Clarissa. — In Clarissa Richardson's development of his characters is more extensive and complex than in Pamela. From the beginning Richardson exposes and tests his heroine's character by a series of conflicts with such forces as her family's demands, her sense of guilt, Lovelace's demands, and the social code, to the extent that, as McKillop has put it, he achieves "the total impact of circumstance upon a sensitive and resolute soul". 116 And this exposure of Clarissa is not only more extensive, it is also more intensive than that in Pamela, as has been pointed out in the previous section on presentation and in the chapter on narrative structure. 117 The importance of these conflicts in Richardson's development of Clarissa has been pointed out by Downs: ". . . it is the process to which the supreme interest attaches and in which her creator's unique genius had the fullest and happiest scope, — the development of her character under the stress of her misfortunes, from that of an emotionally unformed, rather colourless young lady, rigorously disciplining herself by a routine of principle, through the hardest physical and sentimental trials, to the stoic serenity of a martyr who embraces death like a heavenly bridegroom". 118 Like Clarissa, Lovelace is 115

Richardson, p. 114. Samuel Richardson, p. 131. 117 Clarissa's development is evident from the description of her treatment in all of the sections on major events and particularly on pp. 92-96, above. 118 Richardson, p. 114. As if to complement Downs' remark concerning Clarissa's scope, Golden points out Clarissa's high degree of sensitivity as a character (pp. 126-127). 118

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exposed by a series of conflicts, some of which he creates himself, and some which he cannot cope with: he does not know what to do with Clarissa after the rape. As in Pamela, the basic conflict between the two major characters has implications which contribute extensively to their development. Each character represents one of the social codes that were in serious conflict at the time. As Watt points out, "Lovelace himself, like the rakes and heroes of Restoration drama, gives his allegiance to a debased form of romantic love, thus underlining his historical role as the representative of the Cavalier attitude to sex, in conflict with the Puritan one represented by Clarissa".119 The major characters in Clarissa are always surrounded by other characters who contrast with them and thus reveal their development. In fact Richardson's use of this part of his first procedure goes much beyond his use of it in Pamela and Pamela II. Not only is the heroine surrounded by and contrasted sharply with a major foil (Anna Howe) and several minor foils (Arabella and Dolly Harvey are examples) but also the villain is similarly encircled by and contrasted with a character who develops into an antitype (Belford) and two foils (Hickman and James Harlowe, Jr.). The remarkable way that Anna Howe contrasts with and complements Clarissa has been pointed out by McKillop, who says that she h a s a role w h i c h is hard t o define, b u t which is m o s t i m p o r t a n t for Richardson's t e c h n i q u e . She keeps c u t t i n g Gordian knots, s o t o speak; her k e e n intelligence oversimplifies Clarissa's p r e d i c a m e n t . S o m e t i m e s her c o m m e n t s are obvious, t h o u g h a l w a y s p u n g e n t ; s o m e t i m e s her flashes of insight are of decisive importance, as w h e n she discovers t h a t Clarissa is really in l o v e w i t h L o v e l a c e . T h e elaborate counterpoint of t h e correspondence b e t w e e n t h e t w o friends is one of Richardson's m o s t original effects. 1 2 0 A n n a ' s part is to present a non-tragical a n t i t y p e t o Clarissa; s h e h e l p s t o anchor t h e s t o r y in social reality b y g i v i n g us a v i e w of a n ordinary world in w h i c h girls c a n i n n o c e n t l y quarrel w i t h suitors a n d parents. A t t h e s a m e t i m e s h e s h o w s t h a t e v e n wit, spirit, and s e n s e fall short of s o l v i n g Clarissa's tragic problem; her a d v i c e is good, b u t it is n e v e r a d e q u a t e for Clarissa's needs. 1 2 1 119

Rise of the Novel, p. 227. F o r a h i g h l y p e r c e p t i v e description of t h e e x t e n t a n d c o m p l e x i t y of t h e conflict b e t w e e n Clarissa and Lovelace, s e e Golden, pp. 1 3 1 - 1 3 3 , 152, 1 5 7 - 1 5 8 , a n d 1 6 6 - 1 6 9 . 120 Samuel Richardson, p. 129. 121 Early Masters, pp. 7 0 - 7 1 .

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McKillop goes on to quote a remark of Anna's which, he says, "formulates what Richardson no doubt thought to be the fundamental contrast between these two characters: 'Were your character, and my character, to be truly drawn, mine would be allowed to be the most natural. Shades and Light are equally necessary in a fine picture. Yours would be surrounded with such a flood of brightness, with such a glory, that it would indeed dazzle; but leave one heartless to imitate it'". 122 Two other effects of Richardson's use of this procedure of development by contrasting characters represent advances over his technique in Pamela. To a certain extent the two secondary characters, Anna Howe and Belford, who serve as foils and confidants, reveal their development as characters through their service to their principals. This is particularly true of Anna Howe, whose character develops perceptibly during the novel.123 A second effect is the establishment of dramatic irony by the contrasts between certain of the characters. For instance, Clarissa's naivete is evident to us because of our knowledge of Lovelace's character, and we can see this trait of hers as it affects the different circumstances she encounters. Romberg has illustrated the effect of this dramatic irony: The reader, who knows all about the character of Mrs. Sinclair's residence, understands why the passers-by stare and whisper among themselves, but the innocent Clarissa does not understand this; instead she believes that they are admiring Lovelace. — It may be remarked in parenthesis that Clarissa here gives a lovable and naively unconscious bit of information about her own personality, about her complete lack of pretention and conceit and her admiration, in spite of all, for her persecutor Lovelace. 124

In Clarissa Richardson develops his characters through their ambiguous positions and ambivalent feelings more fully than he does in his earlier works. From the beginning up to the culmination Clarissa's involvement is always such that extrication from one part would create an insoluble problem elsewhere, and because of this her feelings are ambivalent toward not only Lovelace but her family as well. She is constantly divided between allegiance to her 122

Ibid., p. 71. 123 jp or a n effective description of Anna Howe's complex character and its development in relation to Clarissa's character, see Golden pp. 50-53. 124 Studies in the Narrative Technique of the First-Person Novel, p. 124.

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family and revulsion at their adamant position toward her, and, up until the crisis, she feels a varying attraction for and a strong revulsion against Lovelace.125 According to Downs, the strong emotional forces working on Clarissa and causing her divided mind are "an undeniable affection for Lovelace with an admiration for certain of his qualities" on one side and "on the other, her pride, which views her affection and admiration with disdain, prohibits her from forcing Lovelace's hand . . . and from taking any step" which would deviate from the decency of the accepted code.126 The ambiguity of position and ambivalence of feeling allow for a full exposure of the development of Clarissa's character. The importance of Clarissa's ambiguous situation in relation to her affections toward Lovelace in the first half of the novel has been explained by Watt: T h e counterpoint of these unconscious duplicities in t h e early volumes is built upon t h e f a c t t h a t A n n a believes t h a t Clarissa is in love with Lovelace, and does not believe Clarissa's protestations t h a t her elopement was entirely accidental and involuntary on her p a r t . A f t e r the marriage h a s been long delayed, A n n a Howe even t h i n k s it necessary t o write t o Clarissa: ' W h a t then have you t o do but to fly this house, this infernal house! Oh t h a t your h e a r t would let you fly the man!' Lovelace it is true, seizes t h e letter, and Clarissa escapes on her own initiative. Nevertheless, until h a l f t h e book is done, there is a genuine ambiguity about the situation in everyone's mind; we are fully entitled to suspect Clarissa herself o f n o t knowing h e r own feelings: and Lovelace is not altogether wrong in suspecting h e r o f t h e 'female affectation of denying (her) love.' 1 2 7

Lovelace also occupies an ambiguous position during part of the narrative, particularly from the climax to the conclusion.128 And for a longer period, from the definition until the culmination, his feelings are ambivalent toward Clarissa. Watt has pointed out the importance of Lovelace's ambivalent feelings toward Clarissa in the development of the two major characters: This division in Lovelace between conscious villainy and stifled goodness provides yet another satisfying formal s y m m e t r y to the conduct of t h e narrative. F o r , j u s t as Clarissa began b y loving Lovelace unconsciously and then Golden describes these ambivalent feelings o f Clarissa in some detail (pp. 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 ) , and he also reveals the nature o f Clarissa's struggles with society and her own conscience (pp. 1 4 6 - 1 4 8 and 1 5 2 - 1 5 4 ) . 126 Richardson, p. 128. 127 Rise of the Novel, p. 229. 128 F o r a description o f this ambiguous position, see Golden, pp. 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 and 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 . 125

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was forced to see that, in truth, he did not deserve it, so Lovelace begins with a feeling in which hate and love are mixed, but comes eventually to love her completely, although only after he himself has made it impossible for her to reciprocate. Clarissa could perhaps have married Lovelace, very much on her own terms, had she known her own feelings earlier, and not been at first so wholly unaware, and later so frightened, of her sexual component; so Lovelace need not have lost Clarissa, if he had known and been willing to recognize the gentler elements in his personality. The ultimate reason why this was impossible is, indeed, the exact complement of that which causes Clarissa's virtual suicide; both their fates show the havoc brought about by two codes which doom their holders to a psychological attitude which makes human love impossible, since they set an impenetrable barrier between the flesh and the spirit.129

It is entirely possible that Richardson intended to make Lovelace's character ambiguous, above and beyond his involvement in conflict. One scholar has said that "Lovelace's attitudes lead him to use a style which blends a half-playful use of the rhetoric of tragedy and heroic play with the colloquialisms of the fine gentleman of comedy. His conscious inclination to adopt one role and then another is an essential part of his characterization."130 Another scholar points out that "All in all, Lovelace is an odd mixture of cold calculation and passionate subjectivity and his style oscillates accordingly".131 At any event it seems obvious that Richardson was aware of the value of ambiguity and ambivalence in the development of his major characters. In his major novel Richardson uses the third procedure of developing his characters by analysis and discovery far beyond the extent to which he developed it in Pamela and Pamela II. In Clarissa all four elements of the third procedure — self-analysis, self-discovery, analysis by others, and discovery of others — are utilized to the fullest. Like Pamela, Clarissa analyzes her feelings and her situation almost constantly. She abhors the artifice and contrivance she must use to write to Anna Howe; she believes that her family think they can subdue her because she is meek, which she knows she is not; and, in general, she provides a running analysis of her reactions throughout the narrative. But differing from those

of the Novel, p. 237. Early Masters, p. 71. 131 Romberg, Studies in the Narrative Technique of the First-Person p. 227. 129 Rise

1 3 0 McKillop,

Novel,

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of Pamela, Clarissa's analyses are rich in their significance, not only to the heroine but to other characters, and, more important, they are not soliloquies but are answered directly with analyses by other characters. In addition Clarissa's subconscious analyses are expressed in a way more sophisticated than by the use of the dream in Pamela, which is, of course, also used in Clarissa. After the rape Clarissa first writes her feelings in several scraps of letters. The remarkable way these scraps reveal her subconscious has been pointed out by Romberg, who describes Clarissa's letter to her father: "The staccato rhythm, with its breathless sentences and its aposiopeses, where the throughts push and jostle one another as they are written down, undeniably gives us an impression of a desperate, confused human being, who is defiant and yet craves forgiveness at the same time". 132 Lovelace uses self-analysis extensively, and the development of his character is evident in the changing tones of his analyses — from haughty self-confidence to rationalizing and attitudinizing to desperate and complete frustration. As in the case of Clarissa, Lovelace's subconscious is expressed in a dream fairly late in the narrative. The description of Clarissa's running self-analysis, immediately above, and the earlier description of Pamela's self-analysis, in the paragraphs on pages 194-195, confirm t h a t Richardson follows in practice his statement of theory that the expressions and feelings of major characters should always be appropriate to their character a t any time in the course of the narrative. 1 3 3 Self-discovery, an element in Richardson's third procedure, is developed more fully in Clarissa than in Pamela. An important feature of Clarissa's development as a character is her discovery of herself and her true feelings as they relate to her past. Throughout much of the narrative, specifically from shortly after the definition until just before the culmination, Clarissa learns more and more about herself and is thus able to understand her situation. W a t t has pointed out the importance of this understanding to Clarissa's development. "Much of our sense of Clarissa's psychological development arises from the way that her experience brings a continual deepening of her understanding of her own past . . ," 134 And it is not, 132 133 134

Ibid., p . 221. See C h a p t e r I , p p . 38-39, f o r a f u l l e r s t a t e m e n t . Rise of the Novel, p . 275.

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as is the case in Pamela, that Clarissa is discovering things about herself fortuitously; she is consciously attempting to discover the various influences that have affected her and put her in the position she is in. As Watt has said, "Indeed, with a supreme objectivity, Richardson connects his heroine's downfall with her attempt to realise the aims of the campaign of sexual reformation [in which women were being given a higher place in the social order] . . . Clarissa eventually comes to realise that she fell into Lovelace's power because of her spiritual pride, which led her to believe 'that I might be an humble means in the hands of Providence to reclaim a man who had, as I thought, good sense enough at bottom to be reclaimed'". 135 Lovelace also is developed by self—discovery, although much less extensively than Clarissa. Late in the novel he begins to discover the true nature of his feelings and that the urges he has been following have deceived him. Richardson develops the final two elements of his procedure, analysis by others and discovery of others, most fully in his major novel. There is nothing in the earlier works, even in Pamela I I , that approaches Anna Howe's very extensive analysis of Clarissa. This analysis begins in the first letter and continues nearly to the culmination. Anna's analyses are always pertinent and often attempt to resolve in a simple direct manner Clarissa's very complex problems. Through Anna's eyes we see Clarissa as a simpler person than she really is, as a person who should be able to solve her problems, but is never able to, and who is in greater danger than she is often aware of.136 Through Clarissa's analyses of Anna we see Anna as a faithful friend who constantly offers her aid, no matter how limited it may be. But Anna's analyses are more important because a number of them serve as mileposts in the development of Clarissa's character. An example is Anna's "The result is this, That I am fitter for this world than you: You for the next than me; — that's the difference, —" (I, x, 63). While Anna shows Clarissa's development by her analyses, Lovelace shows the development of his character by his descriptions and analyses of other characters. He frequently analyzes Clarissa's and Anna's characters, sometimes facetiously and sometimes seriously. To a limited extent Belford's analyses reveal Lovelace's development in the later half to the novel. 135

Ibid., pp. 213-214. See McKillop's description of Anna's relationship as an analyzer of Clarissa quoted above on p. 215. 136

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In Clarissa Richardson has followed his theory of characterization: the major characters are supported by other characters in appropriate ways, by analysis, as described above; by contrast during extended conflicts, as described at the beginning of this section; and by the other ways described in both this section and the previous section on presentation of the characters. 137 Discovery of others, which is so important to Pamela in the first novel, is of great importance to the development of Clarissa. From the beginning up until the culmination Clarissa is almost constantly discovering something new about Lovelace. H e is revealed to her gradually through various means: at first by reports, conversations, hearsay, even rumor, and later by himself, but always in a disguise of one kind or another and aided by people who are often in disguise. Even after the pen-knife scene, Clarissa is still making disoveries about Lovelace; his gradual revelation to her is one of Richardson's more important devices for characterization. He used it in Pamela and he uses it twice in Grandison: Grandison's gradual revelation to Harriet and Clementina's gradual revelation to Harriet. Closely related to this gradual revelation is another device t h a t affects character development, the delayed entrance. Concerning Richardson's use of this device Downs has said, "Richardson learned to use such delayed entrances very well: there is no such thing in Pamela really, since Mrs. Jewkes is b u t an extension of Mr. B — 's will, not a new factor in the situation: but Lovelace does not come into action until page 176 of Clarissa and the equally late entry of Sir Charles Grandison is, of course, melodramatically effective in the best approved style." 138 I t should also be pointed out that Lovelace discovers new truths about Clarissa throughout his acquaintance with her, and that, ironically, his discoveries come as a surprise because he is so altogether certain that he knows all there is t o know about eligible young ladies. Richardson believed t h a t attitudes and characters of major persons should develop visibly during the course of the narrative. 139 Much of what has been said so far in this section 140 reflects the reader's almost constant awareness of the development of Pamela, 137

See Chapter I, pp. 39-40, for a fuller statement. Richardson, pp. 98-99 139 See Chapter I, p. 38, for a fuller statement. 110 Particularly in those paragraphs on pages 212-214 and 216-220. 138

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Clarissa, and Lovelace and shows that Richardson's practice confirms his theory. Although practically all scholars agree that Richardson was successful in the development of Clarissa and Lovelace, there has been some disagreement about certain features of the developed characters. The major question concerning Clarissa is whether she is an idealized or a natural character or a mixture of both. One scholar believes that Clarissa was both conceived and executed as an ideal character: "This exaltation of Clarissa's character I maintain was premeditated, consistent, and sustained to suit the author's purpose. Surely here is no true intention of realistic portraiture. Richardson is not drawing from life but from an ideal, loth as he is to admit it." 1 4 1 Other scholars142 believe that while Clarissa was conceived as an ideal, she has enough realistic features to be considered a mixture of the ideal and the real. And one scholar goes so far as to point out that she is much more realistic than ideal. After listing several of Clarissa's remarks during her embarrassing interview with Roger Solmes, Watt says, all these details of characterisation must surely be overlooked b y those who describe Richardson a s a creator of 'ideal' characters: there is, of course, great will and tenacity in Clarissa, but it is very definitely t h a t of an inexperienced young woman, who has her fair share of sisterly vindietiveness and pert self-assertion, and who, far from being an idealised figure of virgin sainthood, is capable of the catty and sardonic emphasis on Mr. Solmes a s a 'curiosity'. Nor is she b y any means a disembodied being; . . . Clarissa's very intense one [physical reaction] to Solmes—[represents] an instinctive sexual revulsion from 'his ugly weight'. 1 4 3

Watt's comment immediately above, his statement quoted above on page 220, that Clarissa possessed spiritual pride; and Downs' description, quoted on page 217, of Clarissa's overweening pride all imply that Richardon followed in practice his statement of theory that major characters serving as exemplars should not be perfect and that their virtues and weaknesses should be made visible to the reader.144 1 4 1 Helen S. Hughes, Journal "Characterization in Clarissa Harlowe", of English and Germanic Philology, X I I I (1914), 110-123. 142 McKillop in Early Masters, p. 69, and R o m b e r g in Studies in Narrative Technique, pp. 234-235. 143 Rise of the Novel, p. 267. 144 See Chapter I, pp. 37-38, for a fuller statement.

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Three scholars agree that Lovelace is primarily a concocted character made up of rakish elements on one hand and a few genteel elements on the other so as to fit the part that Richardson has him play; a rake who is evil and yet Christian and subject to reformation.145 But another scholar finds that Lovelace, like Pamela, "attests the rare artistic vitality of the author, in coming alive and displaying a nature quite other than that intended for him". 148 The very fact that these several scholars have seen so much to comment on in Clarissa and Lovelace attests to Richardson's achievement in the development of two fully dynamic characters. Grandison. — In his final novel Richardson uses all three of the procedures that he used in Pamela, Pamela I I , and Clarissa, but not nearly so extensively and intensively as in Clarissa. Only the heroine, Harriet Byron, is developed by exposing her character to a series of conflicts sustained over the better part of the narrative. And her conflicts are not so severe as those of Clarissa or Pamela: at first her conflict is an external one with her overbearing suitors; after she has been rescued from one of these suitors by Grandison and has fallen in love with him, her conflict becomes internal. Throughout much of the narrative she struggles to control her feelings toward Grandison.147 Two other women characters, Clementina and Emily Jervois, are revealed slightly by conflict, but neither is developed to any extent by the conflict. Clementina is, like Pamela and Clarissa, driven to the extreme actions of attempted suicide and escape, but since she is almost always in the background and only very slightly exposes herself through correspondence, her development is limited. Grandison is also exposed to conflicts, and because he must struggle with some of them, he develops slightly during part of the narrative. Because there is no basic conflict that runs throughout Grandison, Harriet, Clementina and Grandison are not constantly surrounded by contrasting characters as are Clarissa and Lovelace, who serve as the center of a figurative circle. In Grandison the contrast is 145

McKillop in Samuel Richardson, pp. 148-152; Dobson in Samuel Richardson, p. 88; and W a t t in Rise of the Novel p. 214. 146 Downs in Richardson, p. 116. 147 For a description of the ways Harriet's character is revealed by her conflict, see Golden (Richardson's Characters pp. 148-150).

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limited to that between individuals. Harriet's character is developed by her contrasts with two antitypes, Clementina and Charlotte Grandison, and two foils, Emily Jervois and Lucy Selby. Concerning the contrast between Harriet and Clementina, Downs has said, "Richardson wished no doubt to emphasize Miss Byron's ladylike passivity, her Anglo-Saxon phlegm, in order to furnish as striking a contrast as possible with the Latin passion informing her rival for Sir Charles Grandison's hand."148 Grandison is contrasted with such foils as Sir Hargrave Pollexfen and the weak Everard Beauchamp, but the character development that comes of these contrasts is much slighter than that Richardson achieves with Lovelace and the two foils, Belford and Hickman, in Clarissa. In Grandison Richardson refines his second procedure for character development to suit a purpose more particular than that in Clarissa. Like Clarissa, Harriet is placed in an ambiguous position but the effect is much less dramatic. Instead of being in danger of losing everything that she has and believes in, Harriet is in danger simply of losing Grandison as a lover and husband. In fact her position is ambiguous only because of her sensitivity149 about exposing her true feelings and appearing selfish in wanting Grandison when she realizes that Clementina may need him to keep her sanity. Like Pamela and Clarissa, she is in an ambiguous position: she is highly attracted to Grandison yet she is repulsed by the idea of showing her strong desires and thus appearing selfish and indecorous. Downs has pointed out that because of her position Harriet reveals a divided mind that is much more subtly presented than Pamela's and Clarissa's.150 This ambiguity of position in Grandison is limited largely to Harriet. Other characters sometimes occupy ambiguous positions which contribute to a slight extent at least to their character development. Emily Jervois and Grandison are both placed in ambiguous positions for relatively brief periods. Downs has said, "The all-important dilemma in which Sir Charles finds himself at the heart of the story seems almost physical. He is a piece of iron played upon by two different magnets. We are not made aware of any conflicting impulses within him urging him now

Ibid., p. 115. Golden describes the degree of delicacy in Harriet's character (p. 134). 150 For an effective description of the nature of Harriet's divided mind, see Downs' Richardson, pp. 129-130. u*

119

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225

to Clementina, now to Harriet. " 151 Clementina occupies an ambiguous position over a relatively long period. However, we see her development primarly through the words of others, and even though she does develop slightly as a character, she always remains remote, even in the last volume when she is in England. Richardson makes less use in Grandison of his third procedure of character development than he does in Clarissa, and he varies the differents elements to suit his purposes. Like Pamela and Clarissa, Harriet analyses her feelings extensively, but, as in the case of Pamela, much of the analysis is presented in the form of speculation about her situation, since the majority of Harriet's letters are unanswered. Richardson presents subconscious self-analyses through dreams for Harriet and premonitions for Clementina. However, he does not use anything for his heroines as sophisticated as the scraps of letters by which Clarissa reveals her feelings after the rape. Harriet, like Clarissa but to a less extent, discovers truths about herself as the narrative progresses, and her discovery is intentional, like Clarissa's, rather than simply fortuitous like Pamela's. There is much less analysis by other characters than in Clarissa. Harriet and Charlotte Grandison analyze occasionally, yet the value of Charlotte's analyses of Harriet is limited by her whimsical attitude.152 Perhaps Richardson's most important use of his third procedure is discovery of others. Throughout much of the narrative Harriet is discovering more about Grandison, who is revealed gradually by such means as conversations, reports, documents, old letters, etc. And as Clarissa looked for something good in Lovelace, Harriet attempts to find something bad about Grandison, and her discovery of facts about Grandison does much to reveal her development as a character. The importance of this discovery for Harriet's character, and indirectly, for the revelation of Grandison's as well, has been pointed out by Downs: "Sir Charles walks his path with decent unconcern: its turnings, uncertainties and latent pitfalls are only realized on marking the reaction of Harriet Byron's sensibility to them".153 Harriet's gradual discovery of both Grandison and Clementina is facilitated by Richardson's device of using delayed

Ibid., p. 130. Golden provides an incisive description of the development of Charlotte Grandison's character in the novel (pp. 54-56). 151 152

153

Richardson,

p. 110.

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entrances for his characters. Grandison does not appear until his rescue of Harriet after her visit to the masquerade; Clementina does not appear as a character directly involved in the action until her arrival in England, in the last volume. Richardson's use of the delayed entrance of important characters shows him following in practice what he advocated in theory: the introduction of major characters into the narrative should be delayed when appropriate. 154 Richardson's success in developing Harriet's character is generally admitted by scholars; Downs has pointed out t h a t Richardson achieves in his final heroine a "lightness of touch foreign to the simple ignorant piety of Pamela Andrews and to the tragic Clarissa Harlowe . . ." 155 However, most scholars agree t h a t Richardson's development of Grandison is limited and unsuccessful. McKillop's description of Grandison expresses this opinion very well: "The hero himself is not an important letter-writer. As far as the reader is concerned, he comes ready-made; we do not really see him developing or changing. There is of course elaborate illustration of his virtues — his numerous benefactions, his lofty intervention in the tangled affairs of kinsmen, friends, or even strangers, and his notoriously effective way of placating and disarming men who want to fight duels with him". 158 Clementina has fared better at the hands of the scholars, even though she is not, as most of Richardson's heroines are, a major correspondent. Downs quotes Richardson's contemporary, Joseph Warton, to the effect that she is a remarkable character: "But of all the representatives of madness, t h a t of Clementina, in the History of Sir Charles Grandison, is the most deeply interesting. I know not whether even the madness of Lear is expressed by so many little strokes of nature and genuine passion". 157 Although the last comment is admittedly extreme, it does indicate that character development in Richardson's final novel was not altogether ineffective. Richardson did not fully utilize the procedures t h a t he developed so completely in Clarissa, but he did in his final work succeed in creating such memorable characters as Harriet, Clementina, and Charlotte Grandison. 154 156 166 157

See Chapter I, Richardson, p. Early Masters, Richardson, p.

pp. 36-37, for a fuller s t a t e m e n t . 87. p. 85. 89.

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The evidence in this and the preceding sections shows that in his practice Richardson followed two of the principles in his theory of characterization: that pains should be taken in drawing major characters to insure successful presentation and that characters should be drawn in a new manner and not according to rules.158 Richardson's minute reporting, his use of multiple characterization, his involving his major characters in sustained and intensive conflicts, along with scholars' comments on his successful characterization all support the conclusion that Richardson did take pains and that he effectively presented most of his major characters. Richardson's presentation and development of his characters in such a way that their traits are minutely revealed by themselves and others according to their involvement in sustained conflicts represented, in Richardson's time, a new manner of drawing characters.

CONCLUSION

The most striking feature of Richardson's technique of characterization is its pattern of development. Richardson develops his technique to a limited extent in Pamela and repeats some devices and adds new elements in Pamela II. Together Pamela and Pamela II adumbrate rather comprehensively his very full development of technique in Clarissa, which includes variations and refinements along with innovations. In Grandison Richardson does not use the fully developed technique of Clarissa, but he does adapt it to his purposes by varying and refining certain elements. Richardson increases the number of primary and secondary characters from one of each in Pamela and Pamela II to two of each in Clarissa. In Grandison he reduces the number to one of each. In Clarissa Richardson uses a large number of active characters; whereas in Pamela, Pamela I I , and Grandison he presents relatively large numbers of nominal characters. Richardson increases his number of character types in Clarissa over those in Pamela and Pamela I I , and in Grandison, he adds no new ones but refines several of those used in Clarissa. With each novel he writes Richardson raises the social level of his characters; he presents a greater variety of levels in Pamela and Clarissa than he does in Pamela II 158

See Chapter I, pp. 33-34 and 32-33 for fuller statements.

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and Grandison. Social relationships contribute to the characterization in all of the novels. In Clarissa and Grandison these relationships work in opposite directions. The center of a disintegrating family circle, Clarissa becomes involved in conflicts until she is forced outside the circle into isolation. An independent agent outside a family circle, Harriet is drawn into a broader circle that includes friends as well as relatives. Richardson increases fourfold, from five to twenty, the number of individualized characters in Clarissa over the number in Pamela and Pamela II. In keeping with his general pattern he individualizes his characters in Clarissa by means that are much richer and more numerous than those in Pamela and Pamela II, and in Grandison he fails to use the technique that he developed so fully in Clarissa. He individualizes in Grandison only nine of his characters, less than half the number of Clarissa, and his characters, like those in Pamela II, are somewhat more alike than those in Clarissa. The procedures that Richardson uses to present his characters depend to a large extent on conflict. In one procedure, the involving of characters in situations of conflict, Richardson increases the number of characters that he seriously involves in conflict inClarissa over the number in Pamela and Pamela II. In Grandison he seriously involves only one character, his heroine, in conflict and thus reverts to the pattern he follows in Pamela and Pamela II. In a second procedure, the minute reporting of details by the characters, Richardson's four works pair off neatly: in Pamela and Clarissa he justifies the need for reporting minute details by several means, such as having an extensive and compelling conflict and having major characters who love letter writing and who promise to provide minute details to the receivers of their letters; in Pamela II and Grandison Richardson only partially justifies the need for minute reporting, and accordingly his presentation of characters by minute and dramatic details is weaker. However, it should be mentioned that in Grandison this weakness is compensated for by Harriet's minute presentation of characters and long detailed scenes in which some dramatic interest exists. Richardson's third procedure of presentation is multiple characterization, having the characters present themselves and others by three means: directly, by self-analysis and description; and indirectly by analysis and description of other characters, and through contrast with other characters. Richardson does not achieve mul-

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tiple characterization in Pamela and Pamela II. In Clarissa, however, he presents several characters by these three multiple means. In Grandison he achieves multiple characterization much less fully. The conflicts that Richardson uses for character development expose and test the major characters by placing them in ambiguous positions in which they are forced to analyze and discover themselves and others as well. Richardson develops his characters most extensively in Clarissa because a greater proportion of the major and minor characters are exposed to and tested by conflicts that are more intensive than those in the other works. While he develops all of his major characters by contrast with others, in Clarissa he achieves his fullest development by constantly surrounding his major characters with contrasting characters. Richardson also utilizes his characters' ambiguous positions to reveal their ambivalent feelings most fully in Clarissa, where both the heroine and the villain develop according to their reactions to their ambiguous positions. Further, Richardson develops the major characters by having them analyze and discover themselves and each other. In Pamela Richardson develops his heroine by self-analysis, self-discovery, and discovery of others. In Pamela II he first uses analysis by others. Thus in his first two works he adumbrates, rather comprehensively, the fully developed use of analysis and discovery in Clarissa. In Grandison he again uses these methods but to a lesser extent than in his major novel. Characterization by means of discovery by others is an effective procedure with all three heroines: for Pamela, Clarissa, and Harriet the man who is essential to their happiness is gradually revealed. Richardson uses not only narrative structure to support the conflict so important to characterization but also epistolary technique to support multiple point of view, and, in turn, multiple characterization. He supports in practice his important theoretical statement: characters are the most important elements in works of fiction.159

159

See Chapter I, p. 31, for a fuller s t a t e m e n t .

y PRESENTATION OF MORAL DOCTRINE

INTRODUCTION

Richardson's concern with teaching moral doctrine preceded his interest in writing novels. In fact, his writing of Pamela grew out of his desire to illustrate more fully the moral doctrine that he was presenting in his letter-book, Familiar Letters. Richardson explains in a letter, which does much to reveal his keen interest in moral doctrine, his motivation for writing his first novel: Two Booksellers, m y particular Friends, entreated m e to write for t h e m a little Volume of Letters, in a common Style, on such Subjects as might be of Use t o those Country Readers who were unable to indite for themselves. Will it be a n y H a r m , said I, in a Piece you w a n t to be written so low, if we should instruct t h e m how they should t h i n k & act in common Cases, as well as indite ? They were the more urgent with m e to begin t h e little Volume, for t h e H i n t . I set a b o u t it, & in t h e Progress of it, writing two or three Letters to instruct handsome Girls, who were obliged to go out to Service, as we phrase it, how to avoid t h e Snares t h a t might be laid against their Virtue; t h e above Story [ t h a t appears earlier in t h e letter and forms t h e basis for t h e plot in Pamela] recurred t o m y Thought: hence sprung Pamela. 1

Richardson might as well have asked himself about instructing his readers in acting and thinking and avoiding "Snares" before writing Pamela II, Clarissa, and Grandison, as well as Pamela, because all of his novels are seriously concerned with teaching the readers a moral doctrine that will be useful on different occasions. ' T o t h e Rev. Johannes Stinstra, J u n e 2, 1953, Correspondence, I, liii-liv; in Alan Dugald McKillop's Samuel Richardson (Chapel Hill, 1936), p. 16. The 'Story' t h a t is referred to in the letter appears on pp. 25-26 of McKillop's Richardson.

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Scholars have shown interest in Richardson's moral doctrine,2 particularly in the nature and value of it, but they have not been so much concerned with Richardson's technique in presenting his doctrine. In this chapter I attempt to make a systematic examination of Richardson's technique for presenting moral doctrine and I use means developed in previous chapters and incorporate pertinent scholarship. Richardson presents his moral doctrine through a technique that involves four related methods. He establishes and maintains the pretense that his works of fiction are authentic records of actual events. He treats these authentic records as demonstrations of moral doctrine. He illustrates the moral doctrine by the actions of his characters. He justifies the moral doctrine by showing the consequences of his characters' choices. These four methods are examined in some detail in the four sections of this chapter: (1) Presentation of Novels as Authentic Records, (2) Treatment of Novels as Works Demonstrating Moral Doctrine, (3) Illustration of Moral Doctrine within the Novels, (4) Justification of the Moral Doctrine within the Novels. Organization, as in the previous chapter, moves from the general to the particular so that the earlier sections may contribute to the understanding of later ones. The development of Richardson's technique is indicated by a chronological treatment of his works within the sections. This chapter differs in approach from the preceding chapter in that for the first time Richardson's prefaces, conclusions, and concluding notes will be considered to be parts of the novels and will be examined as elements essential to his presentation of moral doctrine. Except for those terms defining major events, which were explained in Chapter II, no terms with special meanings are used in this chapter. Since the conclusion of the entire study will be wholly concerned with the relationship of Richardson's practice to his theory, only those places where practice confirms or notably differs from theory will be pointed out in this chapter.

Prominent among these are Ian Watt (The Rise of the Novel [Berkeley, 1957]), who treats Richardson's moral doctrine in proper historical perspective; Alan Dugald McKillop in Richardson (see n. 1) and The Early Masters of English Fiction (Lawrence, 1956); and Brian Downs in Richardson (New York, 1928). 2

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Presentation of The Novels as Authentic Records Richardson's first method of presenting moral doctrine in his novels is more complex than appearances may indicate. Richardson pretends to be the editor of his works, all of which according to the pretense are collections of authentic letters which have come into his hands and which he has arranged and edited for presentation to the public. Not only does Richardson maintain this pretense, with one brief exception in Pamela, throughout the texts of his works, he also devotes prefaces, postscripts, concluding notes, and advertisements in his novels to establishing their authenticity as collections of letters. In addition, he has his leading characters show such unfaltering respect for full and authentic records of events that the reader of the novels is made aware of the fact that he is privileged to be reading a full and authentic account. A closely related effect has already been described in the preceding chapters: the sense of authenticity obtained through Richardson's extensive use of minute details, which give the impression of immediacy of both time and place. Ian Watt has commented on Richardson's success in presenting a sense of authenticity: "What is distinctive about Richardson's novels is not the kind or even the amount of emotion, but rather the authenticity of its presentation." 3 Accordingly in this section our specific concern is with the three steps that make up the first method that Richardson uses to present moral doctrine: (1) establishing the pretense of presenting collections of authentic letters by means of prefaces, postscripts, etc., (2) maintaining the pretense by making the letters appear authentic throughout the works, (3) using the characters to establish in the reader a strong respect for the value of full and authentic records. In the following paragraphs this method will be examined. Pamela and Pamela II. — In his first two works Richardson establishes at the beginning the pretense of being the editor of collections of authentic letters which he is presenting to the public. He announces this pretense in the subtitle and in the prefaces and conclusions of both works. Richardson's first announcement of the authenticity of his work appears in what serves as the title for both Pamela and Pamela II: 3

Rise of the Novel,

p. 174.

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"Pamela: or Virtue Rewarded. In a Series of Familiar Letters from a Beautiful Young Damsel, to her parents." 4 In his preface to Pamela, Richardson states his position as "the Editor of the following Letters", and he goes on to indicate that he is a sensitive editor who is far less prejudiced than an author would be in similar circumstances. In fact he says that no apology or other preface is needed "because he [the editor] can Appeal from his own Passions, (which have been uncommonly moved in perusing these engaging Scenes) to the Passions of Every one who shall read them with the least Attention: And, in the next place, because an Editor may reasonably be supposed to judge with an Impartiality which is rarely to be met with in an Author towards his own Works." 5 In the brief Concluding Note to Pamela, Richardson maintains his pretense by referring to himself as "the editor of these sheets". 6 In his Preface to Pamela II, Richardson is more explicit about his efforts as editor than he is in the Preface to Pamela and thus strengthens his pretense. After saying that "the Editor hopes, that the Letters which compose this P a r t " will be found to be written to nature, Richardson goes on to explain his difficulty in handling the married life of Mr. B— and Pamela: "the Editor's greatest difficulty was how to bring them [the multitude of materials concerning their married life] within the compass which he was determined not to exceed. And it having been left to his own choice, in what manner to digest and publish the letters, and where to close the work, he had intended, at first, in regard to his other avocations, to have carried the piece no further than the First Part." He then strengthens the illusion of authenticity by stating that he has been importuned by various people to name the principal persons

4

See Samuel Richardson's Introduction to Pamela, edited b y Sheridan W . Baker, Jr., A u g u s t a n R e p r i n t Society, N u m b e r 48 (Los Angeles, 1954), p. 15, for a reproduction of t h i s title. 5 According t o Baker, pp. 10 and 13, R i c h a r d s o n did n o t c h a n g e t h e wording of t h i s p a r t of h i s preface until t h e eighth edition (which appeared on October 28, 1761, three m o n t h s a f t e r R i c h a r d s o n ' s death) of Pamela w h e n h e reduced it considerably in l e n g t h b u t m a i n t a i n e d t h e claim t h a t a n editor w a s m o r e impartial t h a n a n author. 6 This N o t e d o e s n o t appear in t h e Shakespeare H e a d E d i t i o n b u t c a n b e f o u n d in The Complete Novels of Mr. Samuel Richardson, ed. A u s t i n D o b s o n and William L y o n P h e l p s (London, 1902), I I , 283.

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in the work: he says, "all he [the editor] thinks himself at liberty to say, or is necessary to be said, is only to repeat what has already been hinted, that the story has its foundation in truth: and that there was a necessity, for obvious reasons, to vary and disguise some facts and circumstances, as also the names of persons, places, etc." 7 Richardson's Conclusion to Pamela II and his Advertisement that appears at the very end of the sequel further enhance the claim for authenticity. He introduces his Conclusion with these comments: "The Editor thinks proper to conclude in this Place, that he may not be thought to deserve a Suspicion, that the Extent of the Work was to be measured but by the Patience of its Readers. But he thinks it necessary, in order to elucidate the Whole, to subjoin a brief Note of the following Facts." 8 Although Richardson's Advertisement at the end of Pamela II is admittedly commercial, it is, at the same time, a strongly worded claim to authenticity. He begins with a challenge to imitators "who supposing the Story of Pamela a Fiction, have murder'd that excellent Lady, — " and, then, speaking as the editor, he gives "this publick Assurance" that all copies of Mr. B—'s writings are in one hand, "And that, if ever they shall be published, (which at present is a Point undetermined) it must not be, till after a certain Event, as unwished, as deplorable: And then, solely, at the Assignment of Samuel Richardson, . . .the Editor of these Four Volumes of Pamela: or, Virtue Reivarded."9 Evidently Richardson must mean by the "certain Event" the death of the person who is 'Pamela' in real life. In addition to presenting these announcements which establish and reinforce the impression of authenticity, 10 Richardson, except in one place in the narrative, maintains throughout Pamela and Pamela II the pretense of being an editor of a collection of authentic letters and journal entries. Only once, when he intrudes to describe 7

This and the previous quotation are from p. 284 of the edition described in the previous note. 8 Pamela, Shakespeare Head Edition, IV, 453. »Ibid., p. 457. 10 Concerning the effect of Richardson's Preface to Pamela, Baker (Samuel Richardson's Introduction to Pamela, p. 11) says that "Richardson's disguise as editor is little more than half-hearted." However, Baker fails to point out any place in the Preface where Richardson refers to himself as anything but the editor.

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the action at Bedfordshire after Pamela's abduction (I, 119-128), does he violate his position as editor by presenting part of the narrative directly. At all other times in both works he presents the letters and journal entries as if he had selected them, numbered them, placed them in proper chronological order, and used footnotes and other editorial means 11 to make their relevance to each other as clear as possible. Since the various means that Richardson uses in Pamela and Pamela II to make the letters appear authentic have been described in great detail in Chapter I I I on epistolary technique,12 our description here will be limited to a listing of some of the more representative means. In both Pamela and Pamela II Richardson provides each letter with a salutation and complimentary close; he sets off postscripts at the bottom of the letters; he includes above some letters short notes explaining that the letter is in answer to the preceding; he indicates letters that are enclosed within letters, and he labels such enclosed letters adequately; he indicates time and day of week on journal entries; and he indicates at the tops of many letters the names of sender and receiver. Throughout his first two works Richardson maintains very convincingly the pretense that he is accurately presenting collections of genuine letters written by real people. Richardson's final step in his method of presenting Pamela and Pamela II as authentic records is more subtle than the two steps described above. He establishes such a strong and healthy respect on the part of the characters for comprehensive, authentic records of conduct that the reader is inclined to share this respect and to feel privileged to be reading the record which the editor has presented to him. An examination of how Richardson achieves this sense of respect in Pamela and Pamela II will demonstrate the way this third step works. Throughout all of Pamela, the heroine is concerned to provide her parents with a full account of her conduct at all times and places, and this concern justifies her keeping of a journal. In the early part of Pamela Mr. B— has such respect for Pamela's letters to her parents that he intercepts several of them before he has 11

F o r a description of t h e editorial apparatus in Pamela a n d Pamela s e e Chapter I I I , pp. 139-140. 12 See s e c t i o n s o n d e v i c e s of less t h a n l e t t e r length, pp. 116-118.

II,

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her abducted. Later Mr. B— becomes so much interested inPamela's journal that he asks her for it and threatens her when she refuses. After Pamela does give Mr. B — the journal and he reads it, he seeks her forgiveness and asks her to return to him instead of going home. Soon after this, he proposes marriage to Pamela, the event which is the crisis of the novel. Obviously Mr. B— was so much impressed by what he read in that full account of Pamela's trials that his attitude toward her changed and he gave up attempting to force her into being a mistress and made her his wife instead. In Pamela II the presentation of long, authentic accounts serves no dramatic purpose although it does enhance the readers' respect for such records. Lady Davers learns about Mr. B —'s actions toward Pamela by reading Pamela's papers. In addition Lady Davers gives the papers to Lady Betty to read, and together they discuss Mr. B—'s vileness and Pamela's virtues. Throughout her difficulties stemming from Mr. B —'s affair with a Countess Dowager, Pamela provides Lady Davers a full account of her conduct and the Dowager's as well. In fact much of Pamela II involves the exchange between characters of long accounts of conduct which are then reviewed by other characters. Not only Pamela's character but the characters of Polly Darnford, Lady Davers, Mr. B —, and even Pamela's parents are made evident, in part at least, by the presentation of these valued accounts, and the entire sequel (so we are led to believe) is a master account into which all of these authentic records have been deposited and kept for posterity. Clarissa. — In the Preface to his major novel Richardson again establishes his pretense of being the editor of a collection of authentic letters, but he is not as convincing about his position as he is in Pamela and Pamela II. On one hand he notes carefully both on the title page and in the Preface of the third edition that "it has been thought fit to restore many Passages, and several Letters, which were omitted in the former [edition]" 13 and that "The following History is given in a Series of Letters written principally in a double yet separate correspondence".14 On the other hand he weakens his pretense considerably by saying in the Preface that "All the Letters are written while the hearts of the writers 13

I, X V .

"I,

xii.

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must be supposed to be wholly engaged in their subjects." 15 I n his Postscript at the end of Clarissa Richardson drops altogether his pretense of being the editor of the novel. 16 For the only time in any of his prefaces and postscripts, he refers to himself as the 'Author' and also, for the first and last time, he speaks very candidly and explicitly about what he, as the author, has done with his story. Although Richardson did drop his pretense of being an editor in the Postscript, he did not in any sense do so in the narrative of Clarissa, throughout which he carefully maintains the position of editor of a long and complex collection of authentic letters. In addition to what he does in Pamela and Pamela I I , Richardson uses the following devices for making his letters appear authentic in Clarissa:11 all letters are dated and many list the place where they were written; on notes and on sections of long letters, the hour and the day of the week are given; where appropriate, the letters are signed by two or more writers; and writing styles of letters are varied to suit different writers. Richardson achieved in Clarissa the sense of authenticity in his letters that he described to Warburton and that he believed would support their moral influence: "Will you, good Sir, allow me to mention, t h a t I could wish t h a t the Air of Genuiness [sic] had been kept up, tho' I want not the Letters to be thought genuine; only so far kept up, I mean, as t h a t they should not prefatically be owned not to be genuine: and this for fear of weakening their Influence where any of them are aimed to be exemplary; as well as to avoid hurting that kind of Historical

15

I, xiv. It is possible that Richardson m a y have meant, and m a y have been understood to mean, by this statement that because of the way the letters are written, we must 'assume' that the writers' hearts are engaged. 16 This dropping of the pretense occurs in the long Postscript in the important third edition of Clarissa, which is used for this present study. It is highly probable that Richardson maintained his pretense in his shorter Postscript to the first and second editions. According to W. M. Sale (Samuel Richardson: A Bibliographical Record of His Literary Career With Historical Notes [New Haven, 1936], pp. 48 and 56) the first Postscript is only seven pages as contrasted with twenty-two for the Postscript to the third edition. Richardson m a y have felt that by dropping the pretense he could better defend his catastrophe, which had been criticized. 17 For a full description of the various devices that Richardson uses to make his letters appear natural, see Chapter III, pp. 118-120.

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Faith which Fiction itself is generally read with, tho' we know it to be Fiction." 18 As in Pamela and Pamela II Richardson establishes in Clarissa a healthy respect for written records on the part of his characters. Like Pamela, Clarissa keeps an account of all her activities so as to justify her conduct. In fact her account is much fuller than Pamela's since it contains reports, records of conversations, and copies of letters and other documents, such as wills and written agreements for becoming a gentleman's mistress. Like Pamela, Clarissa is forced to defend and care for her record, but her situation is much more complex. She sends a bundle of letters to Anna Howe before she leaves with Lovelace; she disputes with her family and later struggles with Lovelace over her right to correspond and thus keep a full running record; she urges Anna Howe to suspend her censure of her departure with Lovelace until Clarissa can place all of the evidence before her; she asks for and reads extracts of Lovelace's letters to Belford that Belford has furnished her; she delays writing her description of the circumstances surrounding her rape until she is mentally able to remember all of the details; she appoints Belford executor of her records and she leaves a bundle of letters to be read after her death; after her death members of her family read extracts of her record and their anguish is heightened. More than in Pamela and Pamela II, the authentic record in Clarissa seems to possess a virtue of its own — a belief that knowledge of all of the circumstances surrounding an event can explain and even justify, in part at least, the conduct during that event. Supporting this strong contention is the fact that, unlike Pamela and Pamela I I , Clarissa contains examples of false, inadequate, even falsified records, such as the counterfeit letters of Lovelace and the narrowly moralistic reports of Elias Brand. Throughout the novel the reader is made aware of the fact that the true and full accounts of actions have won out over the false and that this is entirely just. By making such a strong appeal for the full and authentic record within the novel, Richardson is, in effect, revealing the great virtue of the novel itself as a comprehensive and fully genuine collection of 18 To William Warburton, April 19, 1748, printed in Catalogue of American A r t Association, sale of March 18-19, 1925; in McKillop's Early Masters, p. 42.

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real letters written by real paople and edited impartially by an editor who is acutely aware of the value of full and accurate accounts. Grandison. — In his final novel Richardson announces his position and the nature of the collection in the title: "The History of Sir Charles Grandison In a Series of Letters published from the Originals by the Editor of Pamela and Clarissa."19 Throughout the Preface 20 he refers to himself as the editor and is careful to make statements that confirm his position. He comments that the nature of familiar letters is the excuse for the great bulk "of a Collection of this Kind". He has attempted to reduce the bulk of the correspondence: " I t happens fortunately, that an Account of the juvenile Years of the principal Person is narratively given in some of the Letters. As many, however, as could be spared, have been omitted." And he announces an independent origin for the letters: "How such remarkable Collections of private Letters fell into his Hands, he hopes the Reader will not think it very necessary to enquire." However, Richardson was not careful enough in establishing his pretense to avoid raising some doubt about his position. In the following statement, also from the Preface, he appears to be speaking as an author even though he continues to use the word editor: "Here [after the publication of Pamela and Clarissa] the Editor apprehended he should be obliged to stop, by reason of his precarious State of Health. . . .But it was insisted on by several of his Friends who were well assured he had the Materials in his Power, that he should produce into public View the Character and Actions of a Man of True Honour. He has been enabled to obey these his Friends, and to complete his first Design: And now, therefore, presents to the Public, in Sir Charles Grandison, the Example of. . .". 21 In his brief "Concluding Note by the Editor" at the end of Grandison Richardson continues to refer to himself as "The Editor of the foregoing collection" and to the work as a "Series of Letters". As in Clarissa, Richardson carefully maintains the pretense of presenting authentic letters throughout Grandison. He makes the letters appear authentic by all of the means described above in 19

A s it is g i v e n in t h e Shakespeare H e a d E d i t i o n , I, v. Ibid., I, v i i - i x . 21 1 , viii. 22 V I , 326. 20

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connection with the letters in Clarissa, and he varies some of these means and adds new ones in his final novel.23 For instance he uses time-date-place labels as frequently as he does in Clarissa, and he uses the letters 0. S. to indicate the recent calendar change. In another letter he labels a section of the text in this manner: " I n Lady L's closet Tuesday, two o'clock". He also uses head notes, usually presented in brackets, to indicate such information as "Under Cover, to George Trumbull, Esq.", "Inclosing the preceding", and "Subjoined in a separate paper, by Miss Byron to her Lucy". Instead of using editorial notes to abstract, summarize, and indicate omitted letters, he simply uses footnotes to indicate omitted letters and create the illusion of an actual collection that is larger than what is published. These new devices indicate that Richardson was developing his method of maintaining a pretense of authenticity in his final novel. Richardson also establishes in Grandison respect for authentic and full accounts. Like Richardson's earlier heroines, Harriet Byron is constantly recording her actions for the benefit of all of the Selby family in the early part and for others later in the novel. Unlike Pamela and Clarissa, however, Harriet is never forced to stop writing or to turn over her records to anyone. She does give her letters to Grandison, as Pamela gives her journal to Mr. B — (but with less reluctance). In fact Grandison comes to 'know' Harriet much better than he had known her up to that time by reading a large number of her letters. Like Mr. B— in Pamela, he is favorably impressed by the heroine's account; and later on, just before the crisis, Grandison presents Grandmamma Shirley, matriarch of Harriet's family, with all his letters concerning his affair in Italy so that she can discover from reading an authentic account that the way is now clear for his marriage to Harriet. In fact, his presentation of these accounts to the matriarch of Harriet's family is considered to be the first act of Grandison's proposal of marriage, in which he obtains the parent's permission and at the same time explains his intentions. On the other hand Harriet learns about Grandison very gradually from reading long accounts of his past, presented to her in the form of extracts of letters by Dr. Bartlett. In Grandison, then, Richardson establishes and maintains 23

For a full description of the various devices that Richardson uses to make his letters appear natural in Grandison, see Chapter III, pp. 120-121.

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a very healthy respect for the importance of the written record as a means of revealing conduct. As in Pamela, the reading of the accounts has real bearing on the actions of the characters; and as in Clarissa, the authentic accounts seem to possess a virtue of their own. At this point it is possible to confirm, from all we have said in this section, that Richardson's practice supports his theoretical statement concerning presentation of doctrine: a work of fiction should provide probability in its appearance as a collection of letters edited and presented to the reader by an editor rather than written by an author. 24

Treatment of the Novels as Works Demonstrating Moral Doctrine Richardson's second method in presenting moral doctrine is to treat his novels, which he offers as "authentic records" of real events, as if they are works demonstrating moral doctrine and conduct worthy of emulation. While Richardson never refers to his novels as conduct books or courtesy books,25 he obviously wants his readers to consider his works as models for conduct. To achieve this end he follows these procedures, which together constitute the two steps of his second method: (1) he announces at the beginning and reviews at the end of each novel the worthiness of the novel as moral doctrine, and (2) he points out, almost constantly and by various means throughout the novel, the value of the moral doctrine in the work and the reader's possible application of it. Richardson, of course, also uses the narratives in the novels to illustrate moral doctrine. That important use will be examined in some detail in the following section. Here we are concerned with his overt presentation of moral doctrine by his treating the novels as conduct and courtesy books. Pamela and Pamela II. — In both his first novel and its sequel Richardson indicates from the very beginning that he regards his works as a vehicle for moral doctrine. The complete title is an 24 25

See Chapter I, pp. 51-52 for a fuller statement of Richardson's theory. Several scholars have done so since, as we shall see below.

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obvious statement of his intention: "Pamela: or Virtue Rewarded. In a Series of Familiar Letters From a Beautiful Young Damsel, To her Parents. Now first Published In order to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes."26 Richardson presents in his Preface to Pamela a series of clauses which enumerate, somewhat extravagantly, the strongly moral purposes of his novel. Among other claims, the editor states that his work will serve to "inculcate Religion and Morality"-, "set forth in the most exemplary Lights, the Parental, the Filial, and the Social Duties"; "teach the Man of Fortune how to use it; the Man of Passion how to subdue it"; and ' 'give practical Examples, worthy to be followed in the most critical and affecting Cases, by the Virgin, the Bride, and the Wife."2'7 In his brief Preface to Pamela I I , Richardson is more specific about his claims for his narrative as a guide for conduct. In fact, he seems to be introducing his work as a conduct book: he expresses the hope that it will provide "rules, equally new and practicable, . . .throughout the whole, for the general conduct of life", and that Pamela will be exemplary as "an affectionate wife, a faithful friend, a polite and kind neighbour, an indulgent mother, and a beneficent mistress" .28 Richardson concludes both Pamela and Pamela II with a review of the worthiness of the particular work as moral doctrine. At the end of Pamela he carefully points out the lessons to be learned from the conduct of practically all the characters. He introduces his comments specifically as "a few brief observations, which naturally result from the story and characters, and will serve as so many applications of its most material incidents to the minds of Youth of Both Sexes".29 Then, in the fashion of the conduct books, he goes on to describe lessons to be learned from the actions of such characters and groups of characters as the 'Gentleman', Lady Davers, Miss Godfrey, and the 'Upper Servants' and the 'Lower Servants'. The last character that he describes is Pamela. He devotes a page to enumerating her eleven qualities, each of 26

Baker, Samuel Richardson's Introduction to Pamela, p. 15. "Ibid., pp. iii-v. 28 Dobson and Phelps, eds., The Complete Novels of Mr. Samuel II, 285. M Ibid., pp. 283-284.

Richardson,

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which is presented in a brief paragraph so that her virtues are easily seen and remembered by the reader. At the end of Pamela II Richardson changes the form in which he presents his concluding statements about moral lessons in the work. Instead of the few brief and explicit observations in Pamela, he presents in Pamela II a 'Conclusion',30 which is, of course, presumed to be written by the editor who is able to discover moral values. In this conclusion Richardson points out that most of the persons in the novel live on to receive appropriate rewards for their goodness of character, and that their virtues do great good in the world, even after their deaths. During the time between the completion of Pamela and the writing of the last part of Pamela II, Richardson evidently decided to provide a formal conclusion to his narrative, one that would complete the actions of the characters and, at the same time, demonstrate the values of their moral conduct. In addition to announcing at the beginning and reviewing at the end the value of Pamela and Pamela II as moral doctrine, Richardson draws attention throughout both works to the propriety of his characters' conduct. Pamela is concerned almost constantly with conduct. She not only describes different kinds of conduct, the servant's as well as the new wife's, she also describes the testing of conduct by difficult situations. Furthermore the heroine's awareness of conduct is enhanced by extensive self-analysis and conversations. 31 In Pamela II, problems of conduct are more extensively treated than in Pamela. Much of the work is made up of long, uninterrupted discussions of conduct in courtship and marriage. Some of the topics dealt with areMr.B—'s conductduring courtship, the nursing of children, the raising of children according to Locke's ideas, the wife's duty to the husband, and the need for prudence. In Pamela II conduct is only slightly tested by conflict, and there is much less self-analysis of behavior than in Pamela. However, Richardson can display a greater variety of conduct because of the larger cast of characters in the sequel. Richardson also emphasizes moral values in Pamela and Pamela II by including matter that is overtly concerned with the teaching of conduct — elements that would not be out of place in actual conduct books. Pamela, for instance, contains fables, which are quoted and applied to 30 31

IV, 453-456. See C h a p t e r I V , p p . 212-214 a b o v e , f o r o t h e r m e a n s .

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the action in the story; quotations from the Bible, including psalms that are modernized and adapted by Pamela; the text of part of a church service; quotations from the wedding service; Pamela's prayers and apostrophes; and, toward the end, a list of forty-eight rules for Pamela to follow as the wife of Mr. B—. In Pamela II Richardson uses some of this same matter, such as quotations from the Bible (one of these concerns nursing the baby, and another the constant fear that a wife should have of her husband), and he adds others: quotations of moralistic poetry; morally narrow dramatic criticism of a tragedy, a comedy, an opera, and a masquerade; and nursery tales told as moral parables by Pamela. So that, the extensive discussions of conduct in Pamela II can be illustrated, Richardson in footnotes refers back to events in Pamela. Scholars have recognized the presence of certain features of the conduct book in Pamela and Pamela II. Watt points out that Richardson probably thought of the last 200 pages of Pamela as a conduct book for marriage.32 McKillop refers to Pamela II as a book that provides an accepted view of society33 and says that Richardson thought of his heroine in Pamela II as the "exemplar of the age". 34 McKillop also describes how narrowly moralistic Pamela's dramatic criticism in Pamela II is,35 and thus suggests its suitability for appearance in a conduct book. Dobson points out the heavily didactic nature of Pamela 7/, 36 and Downs describes the sequel as a book that contains endless discussion on conduct. 37 Clarissa. — In his major novel Richardson is more careful than in Pamela and Pamela II to point out from the beginning the fact that his work presents moral doctrine worthy of emulation. Not only does he state his moral purpose in his title and describe its nature in his preface, he also makes use of other means that do not appear in Pamela and Pamela II. As editor he presents subjective summaries of the contents of the letters at the ends of the volumes; he lists the principal persons in the novel, with subjective 32

Rise of the Novel, p. 149. Early Masters, p. 62. 34 Samuel Richardson, p. 57. 3i Ibid., pp. 143-144. 36 Samuel Richardson, pp. 39-40. 37 Richardson, p. 70. 33

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descriptions; and he publishes a collection of moral sentiments from the novel along with the third edition of the work. Richardson makes the title of his major novel more precise than t h a t of Pamela and Pamela II. Instead of professing to show how virtue is rewarded and "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes", Clcvrissa promises to present a history of a young lady, comprehending "the most Important Concerns of Private Life and particularly shewing the Distresses that may attend the Misconduct both of Parents and Children in relation to Marriage". 38 Richardson also makes his preface more specific than those in Pamela and Pamela II. In the rather extensive preface in Clarissa39 Richardson avoids the broadly vague claims made for Pamela and presents, instead, a meaningful statement of the moral nature of the work and the purposes that it will achieve. He points out t h a t the work is a "history of Life and Manners" aimed at providing an example; that it describes the correspondence of two young ladies of virtue and honor, and of two gay gentlemen one of whom censures the other; and t h a t the work is a vehicle of instruction rather than a novel or romance. Richardson claims four specific moral purposes for his work: (1) it will warn the "inconsiderate and thoughtless of one sex against the base arts and designs of specious contrivers of the other", (2) it will warn parents against too great authority over children in marriage, (3) it will warn young women against men of pleasure and the idea that reformed rakes make the best husbands, and (4) it will investigate the doctrines of morality and Christianity to show how they apply in life. Richardson explains in the Preface to Clarissa his reason for using the first of his three new means of announcing the moral purpose of his work, the placing at the end of each of the eight volumes very brief summaries of the contents of all the letters in the volume. He points out that these summaries are to "serve not only as an Index, b u t as a brief Recapitulation of the most material passages contained in it; and which will enable the Reader to connect in his mind the perused volume with that which follows; and more clearly shew the characters and views of the particular 38 T h e title, a s it actually appeared in t h e works, is described in t h e Shakespeare H e a d E d i t i o n of Clarissa, I, i x - x , as t h e full t i t l e presented in all v o l u m e s b u t t h e first of t h e i m p o r t a n t Third E d i t i o n of 1751. 39 I, x i i - x v i i .

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correspondents." 40 What is particularly relevant to Richardson's use of these summaries as announcements of moral significance is t h a t the highly subjective descriptions of the letters serve to point out, almost persistently it seems, the exemplary nature of the characters' conduct. For instance, in Volume I, the summary of Letter I X states t h a t Clarissa regrets having to establish a clandestine correspondence with Anna Howe, and the summary of Letter X I X begins in this manner: "Her [Clarissa's] dutiful motives for putting her Estate into her Father's power". Richardson's second new means of announcing the moral purpose in Clarissa is somewhat like the first. In his list of 'Names of the Principal Persons' at the beginning of Clarissa he describes several of the persons subjectively so that the moral nature of their character is evident to the reader before he begins the novel. Clarissa is, for instance. "A Young Lady of great Beauty and Merit". Mrs. Norton is "A Woman of great Piety and Discretion, who had had a principal Share in the Education of Clarissa''. Dr. Lewen is "A Worthy Divine'' and Captain Tomlinson is "The assumed Name of a vile Pander to the Debaucheries of Mr. Lovelace". Richardson's third new means of announcing his moral purposes is the taking of sentiments and aphorisms from the work itself and publishing them as a separate collection with the novel. 41 I n his Preface Richardson explains that a gentleman had made the collection and given it to him, and t h a t "the design and usefulness of the Work could not be more strikingly exhibited, than by inserting i t (greatly enlarged) at the end of the last volume". Furthermore the collection has been "digested under proper Heads, with References to the Pages where each Caution, Aphorism, Reflection, or Observation, is to be found, either wrought into the practice of the respective correspondents, or recommended by them as useful theory to the Youth of Both Sexes". 42 I t is difficult to conceive of a more ambitious way of pointing out to the reader the great value that fiction possesses as a vehicle of moral doctrine. For his review of the doctrine at the end of Clarissa, Richardson uses the same device that he used in Pamela I I , a separate, formal 40

I, x v i - x v i i . F o r a description of this collection, w i t h several e x a m p l e s , see Dobson'a Samuel Richardson, pp. 1 8 3 - 1 8 5 . 42 I, xvii. 41

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conclusion of the narrative, which demonstrates in some detail the value of moral conduct. Throughout the novel Clarissa is constantly aware of her conduct in situations involving conflicts and she provides extensive self-analyses. Like Pamela and Lady Davers in Pamela II, Clarissa and Anna Howe and Lovelace and Belford comment on each other's conduct. And as Mr. B —'s past conduct is reviewed by Pamela and Lady Davers in Pamela I I , Lovelace's conduct with Clarissa is reviewed by his family. In Clarissa Richardson uses some of the same means for the teaching of conduct that appear in Pamela and Pamela I I , the most important of which is the footnote. Footnotes provide comments on the morality or immorality of the actions of primary characters and call to the attention of young ladies rules of conduct worthy of emulation. A curious but perhaps characteristic footnote, referring to Lovelace's desire to see twin Lovelaces at Clarissa's breasts, announces that a pertinent section of Pamela II presents worthwhile information on the merits of breast feeding. Richardson uses for the first time in Clarissa mottoes for primary characters, a model will, model posthumous letters, meditations for religious purposes, a detailed description of the heroine's schedule, a full account of a model funeral, and the printing in italics or capital letters of strong moral statements. Bad examples as well as good are presented — models that should not be followed under any circumstances. These include Lovelace's rules for conduct during his collation, and his settlements for Clarissa if she agrees to serve as his mistress. Scholars have pointed out the similarities between Clarissa and certain features of conduct books. Downs believes that Clarissa illustrates the importance of good conduct directed by the heart 43 and McKillop describes Clarissa as the prototype of Puritan didactic literature. 44 Watt says that although the long description of Clarissa's achievements and schedule is uncongenial to us, it would have been praised as worthy of emulation in the eighteenth century. 45 Watt also points out that the great funeral was not out of place in Clarissa because of the Puritan interest, and he goes on to say that " I t was undoubtedly part of Richardson's intentions to 43 44 45

Richardson, p. 184. Samuel Richardson, pp. 1 5 2 - 1 5 3 . Rise of the Novel, pp. 2 1 2 - 2 1 3 .

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supply another work of this kind, a conduct book for death and burial."« Orandison. — I t would seem that in his final novel Richardson did as little as possible to point out at the beginning the fact that his work presents moral doctrine worthy of emulation. Differing from the titles of Pamela and Clarissa, the title, The History of Sir Charles Orandison, indicates no moral purpose. Although there is a brief preface and a list of characters, there are no subjective moral descriptions either of the characters at the beginning or of the letters at the end of the volumes, as in Clarissa. And there is no collection of moral sentiments that have been extracted from the novel and published as a unit. The short preface, which is far less specific about the moral purposes of the work than the one in Clarissa, is concerned in part with brief reviews of the moral doctrine illustrated by the heroines in Pamela and Clarissa and in showing how these two works and Orandison represent the completion of Richardson's plan. The major part of the preface points out that Grandison is intended to serve a& an example of a "Man of True Honour . . . A Man acting uniformly well through a Variety of trying Scenes, because all his Actions are regulated by one steady Principle; A Man of Religion and Virtue; of Liveliness and Spirit; accomplished and agreeable; happy in himself, and a Blessing to others." But there are no direct claims that the work will achieve specific moral purposes. At the end of Orandison Richardson does not present a conclusion to demonstrate the relationship of moral doctrine to the characters in the narrative. His only statement is a brief "Concluding Note by the Editor", 47 which, somewhat like his Postscript to Clarissa, seems to be primarily an answer to readers' objections that Grandison is required to be unnatural to be good. Richardson argues that Grandison is not unnatural and "is therefore in the general tenor of his principles and conduct (tho' exerted in peculiarities of circumstances that cannot always be accommodated to particular imitation) proposed for an Example". Richardson's limited editorial statements about his moral purpose in Orandison are compensated to some extent by the concern for conduct that almost all of his characters demonstrate throughout "Ibid., p. 217. "VI,

326-330.

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the narrative. As in Pamela, Pamela I I , and Clarissa the heroine is constantly attentive to conduct, and, as in Clarissa, present actions are analyzed, discussed, and reviewed by one or more characters; and past actions are discussed and reviewed by two or more characters. Orandison, in comparison with Clarissa, shows few serious conflicts. There is, however, a greater concern with the conduct of people of all ages, from the young Emily Jervois to the elderly Grandmamma Shirley, in such situations as courtship, marriage, guardianship, and friendship. In this novel Richardson gives much attention to courtesy in social intercourse that can be sustained only by the leisurely sort of life depicted in Orandison. The long conversations, the extensive descriptions of Harriet's courtship and wedding, the letters expressing admonition and offering proposals of marriage, these and many other features of Orandison provide the sort of models for genteel conduct that appeared in the courtesy books of the time. 48 In accord with his theory of fiction, Richardson in Orandison especially dealt with conduct as comprehensively as possible.49 As in his earlier works Richardson uses matter in Orandison that is specifically concerned with the teaching of conduct. As in Clarissa there are footnotes, which are used much less extensively; moral statements in italics; description of an important ceremony, in this instance a wedding instead of a funeral; and meditations written by the characters. Examples of matter that is varied somewhat from its use in Clarissa are the paper drawn up by Grandison enumerating provisions for Clementina's future, a variation of Lovelace's provisions for Clarissa as his mistress; and Grandison's 'Reflexions', a variation of Clarissa's meditations. New elements that Richardson creates for use in Grandison include Clementina's wedding congratulations and Harriet's extensive social correspondence, much of which is not unlike some of the exemplary letters in Richardson's Familiar Letters, such as, for instance, a letter of proposal from a parent of the young man to a parent or guardian of the young lady, or a letter from a young lady to her guardian. In spite of the variety of matter in Orandison, as indicated by these examples, Richardson used a relatively small amount of such matter in his final novel, far less, proportionately, than he had in Clarissa. 48

I n his description of Orandison, in Samuel Richardson, p . 306, M c K i l l o p refers t o t h e work as "Richardson's courtesy-book". 19 See Chapter I, p. 46, for a fuller s t a t e m e n t of R i c h a r d s o n ' s theory.

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Scholars have recognized in Qrandison features that characterize it as a conduct book. Richardson's original name for his novel, The Good Man,50 is an indication of his intention of presenting a model for conduct, an intention which he most certainly achieved. Both McKillop and Downs have described Grandison as a latter day exponent of the kind of conduct that Steele advocated in his comedies. McKillop has said that "As a conduct book Qrandison builds on the program of Steele. . . . Behind Sir Charles stands the figure of Bevil in Steele's Conscious Lovers."51 Downs points out that "The Good Man Sir Charles Grandison is in fact the embodiment in fiction of the new 'gentleman', the Christian Hero begotten of Steele",52 and then goes on to show Richardson's continuation of the ethical movement Steele had begun: "Richardson indeed carried the ethical advance of Steele a couple of steps farther. First, he put forward as the criterion by which the true Christian gentleman might be tested his attitude towards women and his treatment of them, and it does not require any great ingenuity to find concrete exemplifications in all the three novels: Lovelace is put to the test and fails; Mr. B— redeems himself after a long period of trial; Grandison always stands superior to the suggestion of any such test."53

Illustration of Moral Doctrine Within the Novels In the previous section we examined Richardson's presentation of his works as conduct books, as narratives that provide moral doctrine. Here we are concerned with Richardson's third method of presenting moral doctrine: his illustrating of doctrine within the works. Because scholars have dealt with this aspect of Richardson's presentation of doctrine I have incorporated relevant scholarship in this section. Richardson's means of illustrating his moral doctrine is obvious at this point — he uses a story and characters to illustrate his doctrine and make it attractive. Since his stories and characters McKillop, Samuel Richardson, p. 206. Early Masters, p. 83. 52 Richardson, p. 168. 53 Ibid., p. 169. 50

51

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251

have been described in detail in Chapters I I and IV, it will not be necessary to describe them. Our interest here is in the ways that he illustrates moral doctrine in the stories and characters. Richardson evidently chose for each of his works a story appropriate to his purpose. In every work except Pamela II, which has only the thinnest outline of a narrative, Richardson presents a story that provides conflicts to challenge and test exemplary characters and to display effectively the conduct of practically all the characters in the work. In each conflict the desires of the heroine are placed in opposition to the prevailing social code. Concerning this basic conflict McKillop says that Richardson "is a pioneer in the analytical study of behavior under the pressure of a social code".54 McKillop also points out that Richardson's basic issue "goes back to the conflict between a rigid general principle and an individual case" and that "his narrative really moves in a world of moral ambiguities". 55 As we have seen in the previous chapter, Richardson's opposing his heroines to a social code forces them into ambiguous moral positions for which the relatively simple moral code does not offer a satisfactory solution. The heroines' positions arouse ambivalent feelings which are sustained until the conflict is resolved. The fact that Richardson's narratives are so much concerned with moral ambiguity raises important questions. Is Richardson's moral purpose weakened by his prolonging and elaborating the morally ambiguous positions of his heroines? Does Richardson become interested in the imaginative presentations of his heroines' feelings to the extent that he loses sight of his moral purpose? Before we attempt to answer these questions in the subsections below, let us see what has been said on the subject. McKillop feels that generally Richardson prolongs his narratives to enhance his moral teaching: Richardson "does not prolong his novels simply because he wants to exhaust the emotions of his characters or readers, but because he wants to work out fully all the aspects of a situation in the light of his moral system". 56 In Clarissa McKillop feels that Richardson goes beyond his moral purpose in the telling of his story: "In endlessly reinforcing a moral and trying to squeeze 54

Samuel Richardson, Ibid., p. 127. "Ibid., p. 209.

55

p. 134.

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the last drop of feeling out of a situation, he sought the complete 'significance' of that situation, as Henry James might say. His moral purpose sets the process going, and comes in at the end with an edifying tag, but sandwiched in is true artistic creation, for which didacticism was a necessary but not a sufficient condition." 57 W a t t indicates that Richardson's great display of emotions in his novels belies at least one element of his moral theory: "Richardson's moral theory was opposed to the cult of love and emotional release in general, while in his practice as a novelist he presented a much wider range of feelings than those to which the sentimental-? ists proper usually restricted themselves." 58 W a t t also explains, psychologically, why "Richardson's imagination was not always in touch with his didactic purpose: . . . it is likely t h a t only a very safe ethical surface, combined with the anonymity of print, and a certain tendency to self-righteous sophistry, were able to pacify his inner censor and thus leave his imagination free to express his profound interest in other areas of experience." 59 And Morris Golden makes a comment concerning the difference between Richardson's teaching and his illustrating that is all the more impressive because it is so telling: "Though Richardson did not in principle object to arranged marriages, and though he in general argued t h a t the young and emotional need the protection of the judgment of their elders, none of his heroes or heroines enters into such a marriage — in every case they choose each other." 6 0 The questions posed above and answered in part by McKillop, Watt, and Golden suggest that while writing his works Richardson wavered between restraining his imagination and presenting moral doctrine consistently throughout or allowing his imagination to run free. Related to this conflict within Richardson are two other issues: do the three works possess aesthetic integrity if they are viewed as completely divorced from the moral doctrine presented in them, and did Richardson in attempting to inculcate moral doctrine through entertainment go so far as to defeat the effect of the moral doctrine'? These issues, as well as the questions posed in the preceding paragraph, are considered in the subsections below. "Ibid., p. 130. 58 Rise of the Novel, p. 174. s»Ibid., p . 235. 60 Richardson's Characters (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1963), p . 35.

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Pamela and Pamela II. — While Richardson succeeds in showing how a kind of virtue can be materially rewarded in Pamela, he illustrates by the actions of his characters in much of the novel a moral doctrine of questionable value. For instance, Pamela's position is made morally ambiguous soon after the novel begins because she does not go home as her parents urge, and, incidentally, as Richardson himself recommends in model letters between a servant in a similar situation and her parents in his Familiar Letters.61 While it cannot be claimed that Pamela directly disobeys her parents in this instance, it cannot be said that she gives them the consideration that a morally respectable child should. Pamela's presence in Mr. B—'s house and her resistance to him brings about another morally ambiguous situation, as Watt points out: "there is . . . no doubt that Mr. B. finds Pamela's virtuous resistance infinitely more provocative than any compliance could have been . . .".62 In fact, Pamela is not an exemplary character during much of the story. She is a persistent equivocator, and since her appeal as an attractive naive young lady is not sustained, we are likely to think less of her at the end of the novel than at the beginning. Dobson sees her as a "young politician" 83 who "is much too clever for an ingenue", and he says that "What Richardson calls her 'innocent stratagems to escape the snares laid for her virtue' have all the shrewdness of forethought, and from the first she has her eye on the main chance." 64 Watt has pointed out Pamela's inconsistent attitude toward upper class values: her "virtuous indignation at upper-class licentiousness jars very unpleasantly with the heroine's abject regard for Mr. B.'s social status". 65 The two preceding paragraphs indicate that Pamela is not an exemplary character and that, in fact, Richardson could not have made her ideally exemplary and have had her serve as the heroine of her particular story. After all, she had to stay with Mr. B — to be tempted, and she had to equivocate and be clever to survive the 111

See William White, "Richardson: Idealist or Realist?" Modern Language Review, X X X I V (1939), 240-241. •2 Rise of the Novel, pp. 169-170. 83 Samuel Richardson, p. 35. "Ibid., p. 34. 64 Rise of the Novel, p. 220.

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morally ambiguous position she occupied until Mr. B —'s proposal of marriage. Pamela's morally ambiguous position, which is so important to the novel is, oddly enough, the result of Richardson's attempt to illustrate moral doctrine, not his artistic endeavor. Pamela's position is intentionally made awkward because it illustrates a feature of Richardson's moral doctrine. According to Watt, Richardson's statement, in his letter to the Rambler in 1751, that "the feminine role in courtship made it immoral as well as impolitic for a girl to allow herself to feel love for a suitor until he had actually asked for her hand in marriage" 6 6 is the rule of his moral code that he supports in Pamela. His support allowed him to illustrate moral doctrine and, at the same time, to construct a particularly appropriate and striking plot: The very difficulty [of the situation caused by the rule], however, and the sudden reversal of the lady's attitude which was implied, supplied Richardson with a vital plot resource, since it m a d e it possible for Richardson to withhold from us any idea of Pamela's real feelings towards Mr. B . until the crisis in the action. When Pamela leaves him to return to her parents it appears certain t h a t all is over between them; actually a counter-movement a t once begins. On the one hand, she is surprised to discover 'something so strange . . . so unexpected' in her feelings that she is forced to wonder whether she is not in f a c t sorry to be leaving; on the other hand, Mr. B . ' s deepest feelings, as revealed in his parting letter, show t h a t he is not merely the stereotype of the licentious squire but a m a n whose intentions m a y become honest, and who m a y quite possibly be a fit m a t e for Pamela. These sudden revelations of the disparity between the conventional and the actual attitudes of the lovers thus enabled Richardson to work out their relationship in a plot of the t y p e which Aristotle considered to be the best, a complex action in which the peripety and the recognition coincide. The dramatic resolution of the plot of Pamela, in fact, was m a d e possible by the actual moral and social attitudes of the time, which had produced an unprecedented disparity between the conventional roles of the sexes and the actual tenor of the oracles of the h e a r t . "

As we will see later, Richardson applied this same rule to his heroines in Clarissa and Orandison and thus used moral doctrine to support narrative structure and characterization in all of his novels. What is relevant here about Richardson's using moral doctrine to support narrative structure and characterization is K

Ibid., Ibid.,

67

p. 167. pp. 167-168.

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that the rule of doctrine becomes lost in the story. We see the effect of the rule, but we are not aware that a rule is being used, because it is so closely related to the story. According to both Watt and McKillop, Richardson's technique in Pamela considerably weakens his moral effect. Watt sees the work not as a realistic vehicle for promoting moral doctrine but as a romance. He calls it "romance with a difference: the fairy godmother, the prince and the pumpkin are replaced by morality, a substantial squire and a real coach-and-six".68 Watt explains how Richardson's interest in technique led him into writing an improbable romance: "His attention was so largely focused on developing a more elaborate representational technique than fiction had ever seen before that it was easy to overlook the content to which it was being applied — to forget that his narrative skill was actually being used to re-create the pseudo-realism of the daydream, to give an air of authenticity to a triumph against all obstacles and contrary to every expectation, a triumph which was in the last analysis as improbable as any in romance.""McKillop sees Pamela not as a romance but as a realistic work in which the small inconsistencies of life become, because of Richardson's technique, more important than the fixed principles of a moral code: According to t h e external code of morals w h i c h R i c h a r d s o n accepted, virtue w a s standardized a n d rigid. B u t h i s n e w w a y of 'writing t o t h e m o m e n t ' d w e l t o n fluctuations of m o o d , o n t h e small indecisions t h a t m a k e u p s u c h a large p a r t of life. F r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of R i c h a r d s o n ' s m o r a l code t h e s e small indecisions were m a t t e r s for casuistry, t o b e discussed a n d settled according t o fixed principle. B u t in t h e a c t u a l telling of t h e s t o r y t h e y resolve t h e m s e l v e s i n t o countless smaller vibrations of impulse, interest, and desire, w h i c h interfere variously w i t h o n e another, a n d break u p t h e personalities a n d principles in t e r m s of w h i c h t h e moralist carries o n h i s discussions. 7 0

68

Ibid., p. 204. Ibid,., pp. 2 0 4 - 2 0 5 . A n o t h e r critic, R o b e r t A . D o n o v a n , feels t h a t Richardson's t e c h n i q u e does n o t w e a k e n his effect because h i s p u r p o s e w a s n o t primarily t o d e m o n s t r a t e m o r a l c o n d u c t b u t rather, as i n h i s Familiar Letters, t o describe t h e proper social c o n d u c t necessary for success i n t h e world ("The P r o b l e m of P a m e l a , or, V i r t u e U n r e w a r d e d " , Studies in English Literature, I I I (Summer, 1963), 3 7 7 - 3 9 5 . ) . 70 Samuel Richardson, p. 99. 68

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We can now answer the four questions raised in the introduction of this section as they apply to Pamela. Richardson's moral effect is weakened by his process of prolonging and elaborating his heroine's morally ambiguous position. Richardson becomes so completely interested in revealing his heroine's feelings that he loses sight of his moral purpose. Pamela is effective as a story even if divorced from the moral doctrine in it, although the story is indebted to one rule of Richardson's moral doctrine. His desire to entertain his readers and, probably, his own creative interest caused a weakening of the moral effect of Pamela. Apparently, in his first novel, which he wrote in a matter of weeks, Richardson intended to illustrate moral doctrine but became more interested in technique and in his characters. As a result he wrote a thoroughly entertaining story which presented romance in a realistic fashion but failed to illustrate a workable and commendable moral doctrine.71 Richardson achieved in Pamela II an effect opposite to that in Pamela. Pamela II presents an extensive amount of moral doctrine, none of which is weakened by the technique of writing as in Pamela. However, the limited story and weak characterization fail to engage and sustain the reader's attention, let alone entertain him; and Pamela II is unsuccessful as an illustration of moral doctrine. McKillop has pointed out Richardson's realization of the limitations of Pamela II in this respect: Pamela II helped Richardson "to realize that didacticism would not suffice. It brought home the point that a story must divert as well as edify, that moralizing must occur in a dramatic or psychological context to be effective."72 Clarissa. — In Clarissa Richardson more than makes up for the lack of dramatic story in Pamela II. In fact, the story in Clarissa is so dramatically imaginative and possesses such psychological depth that it is not fully appropriate for illustrating moral doctrine. In spite of this fact, Richardson's major novel illustrates moral doctrine more effectively than Pamela. The heroine in Clarissa 71 One scholar, however, points out that Richardson does present a doctrine that is workable, if not commendable from a Christian standpoint, in Pamela. Morris Golden says that Richardson illustrates in his novels, particularly in Pamela, that "deception is virtuous when necessary in a virtuous cause, while it is evil when indulged in for its own sake or to impose one's will on others for one's own g o o d " (p. 135). 72 Samuel Richardson, p. 60.

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is an exemplary character in both her actions and the spirit behind them. While she is by no means perfect, 73 she sets a good example by her actions and feelings. Unlike Pamela, she is never devious and her virtues seem to multiply with the progress of the story. Clarissa fulfils the promise stated in its title. According to W a t t the promise of the title— that the novel will deal with important concerns of private life, particularly those involving misconduct of parents and children in relation to marriage — is fulfilled: "both parties are wrong — the parents in trying to force Solmes on their daughter, and their daughter in entertaining the private addresses of another suitor, and leaving home with him; and both parties are punished — Clarissa dies, and is shortly followed to the grave by her remorseful parents, while the fates bring to her sister and brother respectively the appropriate scourges of a faithless husband and a wife who brings, not the anticipated fortune b u t only 'a lawsuit for life.' " 74 McKillop has pointed out the success of the novel in illustrating man's limitations in society: "Lovelace comes to see that he has become the victim of his own contrivances, and t h a t the victory he has plotted for will undo him. On the other hand, Clarissa's early hopes of a solution t h a t will satisfy her pride and her personal standards are necessarily futile." 75 But although Clarissa may partially succeed in illustrating moral doctrine, in negative as well as positive ways, Richardson's highly detailed story illustrates t h a t a rigid and relatively simple moral code cannot cope with all the ramifications of Clarissa's conflicts. In effect, Richardson shows, in his major novel, thatahighly complex story of a conflict t h a t transcends a conventional moral code is not well suited to illustrating such a code. McKillop demonstrates the truth of this point by showing how imitations of Clarissa's story have turned out to be completely ineffectual as moral doctrine. 76 Downs admits t h a t Clarissa teaches but, unlike Watt, he holds t h a t the novel teaches "by no means the lessons that Richardson had at heart and which he specified" in his Preface and Post-

73

Cf. Chapter IV, p. 222, above. Rise of the Novel, p. 215. 75 Early Masters, p. 73; W a t t also points out that Clarissa learns that she fell into Lovelace's hands because of her spiritual pride (Rise of the Novel, pp. 213-214). 76 Early Masters, p. 94. 74

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script. According to Downs, Clarissa delineates current manners and portrays "a fine character superficially humiliated while inwardly preserving and enhancing its dignity", but it does not present high and important doctrines of Christianity, as it pretends to.77 Watt points out that Clarissa's family, with the authority of a rigid conventional moral doctrine on its side, illustrates pathological cruelty; "Richardson . . . suggests how rigid middleclass morality, combined with a primary regard for material considerations, express themselves in a concealed and self-righteous sadism." . . ,78 Richardson's awareness of the limitations of his novel as an illustration of moral doctrine, both while he was writing and afterward, is evident from his attempts to blacken Lovelace's character and purify Clarissa's by means of characterization as the narrative progresses79 and by the addition of footnotes in all the editions after the second. As in Pamela, Richardson supports his story with his moral rule that a young girl should not reveal her feelings about love until her suitor has proposed marriage. In Pamela this rule allowed Richardson to prolong the heroine's ambiguous situation and develop a striking plot, as Watt has explained. 80 In Clarissa this rule serves the more important purpose of forcing Clarissa to suppress her true feelings for a sustained period in the novel: "The real tragedy, however, is that the code also makes Clarissa withhold her sexual feelings from Anna Howe, and even from her own consciousness, and it is this which creates the main psychological tension in the early volumes . . ,". 81 What is interesting here is that Richardson's rule helps to make a good plot in Pamela, and the same rule contributes to the tragedy of the heroine in Clarissa, with a force somewhat comparable to that of a tragic flaw. Clarissa demonstrates that this rule denies the young woman the self-awareness which might enable her to cope with her ambiguous position. As in Pamela, but to a much greater extent, Richardson's technique of describing all of his characters' actions in profuse detail 77 78

79

Richardson, p. 75. Rise of the Novel, p . 223.

See McKillop's Samuel Richardson, pp. 131-133. See my previous subsection, p. 254 and n. 65. 81 Watt, pp. 228-229. See pp. 216-217 in Chapter IV above on the importance of this withholding to the presentation and development of Clarissa's character. 80

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weakens the effect of his moral doctrine. Like their predecessor Pamela, Clarissa, Lovelace, Anna, and Belford are, in varying degrees, casuists concerning moral doctrine. They equivocate and they quibble in ways that are not always exemplary, and their actions and feelings involve small incidents and indecisions, many of which are not affected by a strict moral code. As in Pamela, Richardson has his characters writing to the moment, and what McKillop says about the weakening effect of such writing on moral doctrine in Pamela applies equally to Clarissa. Perhaps the feature of Richardson's technique in Clarissa that does most to lessen the force of his moral doctrine is the complexity of his story. While the major events in the novel are not numerous, their moral ramifications are seemingly endless and highly complex, and they are presented in profuse detail. McKillop aptly indicates the extensive moral ramifications of the conflict in Clarissa: "The accumulated moral experience of mankind, as Richardson saw it, or, as we might put it, the whole weight of the bourgeois tradition of family relationships and sexual morality, is thrown in the scale against the heroine." The moral "principle remains rigid, and does not easily accommodate itself to the individual case. But, with the instinct of a casuist, he [Richardson] takes an extreme case in which the individual, tenacious of rights and principles, comes into mortal conflict with the whole system". 82 Such a full story demands characters of depth, and in the process of developing such characters, Richardson transcends his initial purpose of providing exemplary characters to illustrate his doctrine. As Watt has said, Richardson writes "with a psychological penetration which shows how, if the need arises, Richardson the novelist can silence Richardson the writer of conduct books"; and "Richardson's strong tendency towards making his characters exemplifications of some rather obvious moral lesson is to a large extent redeemed by his equally strong if not stronger tendency towards a very powerful imaginative projection into a much more complicated psychological and literary world". 83 McKillop has pointed out that Richardson, illustrating social and moral excellence, could avert duel after duel in Orandison, but could not avoid the duel between Colonel Morden and Lovelace, because it represented the culmination of so many issues in the 82 83

Samuel Richardson, pp. 128 and 127. Rise of the Novel, pp. 213 and 214.

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story at the time.84 During much of Clarissa, Richardson's desires to illustrate moral doctrine were made secondary by the formidable influence of his great human story, that, once started, had to be told even if it contradicted certain tenets of moral doctrine and illustrated its inefficacy. Critics have shown that Clarissa has validity as a story even after the major claims that Richardson makes in the Postscript for its great moral purpose are denied. McKillop says that "The story hangs together whether or not we share the concern of Richardson . . . for the reward of virtue in another world."85 Watt is more explicit: "the overpowering sense of waste and defeat actually conveyed by Clarissa's death, combined with the fortitude she displays in facing it, actually succeed in establishing a true tragic balance between the horror and the grandeur of Clarissa's death, a balance which reveals an imaginative quality of a much higher order than the jejune eschatology of Richardson's critical defence in the Postscript would suggest".88 At this point we can answer the four questions asked in the introduction of this section. In Clarissa Richardson weakens his moral purpose by his process of prolonging and elaborating his heroine's morally ambiguous position. He becomes so interested in revealing his heroine's feelings that he loses sight of his moral purpose. His story in Clarissa is effective even if divorced from his moral doctrine. Both Richardson's and the reader's interest in the characters may minimize the effect of his moral doctrine. However, even though the answers here are much the same as for Pamela, Richardson's effects are not the same. He does, as is his intention, illustrate valid moral doctrine in Clarissa, which he does not contradict as in Pamela; and, what is more important, he illustrates the consequences for people who violate the spirit that moral doctrine attempts to represent. Orandison. — In his final novel Richardson solves the problem of a story too overwhelming to illustrate moral doctrine satisfactorily. Unlike Clarissa, Orandison is in no sense overwhelming and is thus better adapted to the author's moral purpose than either of his preceding novels. In fact only in Orandison does Richardson fully 84

Early Masters, p. 78. Ibid., p. 74. »« Rise of the Novel, p . 216.

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achieve his intention of having his story serve as a vehicle for the instruction of moral doctrine. The appropriateness of the plot of Grandison as an illustration of moral doctrine is evident. Like Clarissa, Harriet Byron, as well as Clementina, is an exemplary character throughout the narrative. Harriet is not challenged and tested, as Clarissa is, to the extent that her entire character is exposed. She exhibits such qualities as humility, sensitivity, and compassion even though she is independently wealthy and supposedly can afford not to. The story of Grandison is such that the good qualities of at least one of the characters are always on display. By his actions in many different circumstances, the hero illustrates almost every talent and virtue a superior man of the world can be expected to have. There is nothing in the story of Grandison to impede the illustration of moral doctrine. Evidently Richardson wrote his story so as to display a stable social system. McKillop comments on this system as portrayed in Richardson's final novel: "This moral seriousness in a settled system, expressed in socially acceptable forms and in detailed illustrations and nice distinctions, imparts a sense of security and encourages lightness of touch. The feminine point of view prevails." 87 McKillop further indicates that in Grandison Richardson achieved a sense of intimacy between characters and readers which promoted effective illustration of moral doctrine: "Readers of Grandison thought of the characters as actual members of contemporary society; some of Richardson's circle took nicknames from the novel, and Continental readers enjoined their friends who were traveling to England to visit their favorite characters." 88 As in Pamela and Clarissa Richardson supports his story with his moral rule that young ladies should not reveal their feelings until their hand has been asked in marriage. However, the result is not so drastic as in Clarissa. Harriet Byron is not able to reveal her feelings towards Grandison for a sustained period and this ambiguity contributes to her conflict. Yet the rule is justified, or at least so it seems, for Harriet maintains her self-respect and is rewarded by Grandison's proposal of marriage. Thus Richardson's moral rule works efficaciously in a world that is stable and amenable to moral teaching. 87

Early Masters, p. 90. >lbid., p. 93.

Si

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There is little in Richardson's technique in Grandison to weaken his moral effect. Downs admits that unlike the stories in Pamela and Clarissa, the story in Grandison does have probability: "for it must be owned that the general course of two at least out of his three novels is conditioned by great improbabilities, while the third, Grandison, only succeeds in surmounting the cardinal difficulty by minimizing both the Harrassment and the Triumph". 89 McKillop reports that Grandison was closely imitated to more purpose, as a fiction illustrating moral doctrine, than was Clarissa.90 Generally Richardson's technique of giving profuse details concerning small incidents is held in check in Grandison so as not to fragment and dissipate the illustration of moral doctrine. Finally, Richardson keeps his story from becoming complex by depending on other characters to present his hero and by constantly maintaining control over the actions of all the characters. Some scholars have complained that Richardson so subjects his story to his moral purpose that the story is unnatural and fails to illustrate moral doctrine effectively and entertainingly. Downs complains, as Milton surely did before him, of the weakness of virtues that are not opposed by vices. He says of the story in Grandison that "no single Virtuous act is, actually or by implication, confronted with a Vicious alternative, and no specified recompense directly follows on the first, no punishment on the second. The main characters never leave the plane of Virtue, so to speak, or stand in any danger of being forced from it. Virtue simply brings with it an increment of Virtue." 91 McKillop says that Richardson fails in his presentation of Grandison as a good man "because he will not admit candidly that his hero's deliberately wrought out program must be modified and even broken by the limitations of nature." 92 Downs finds the long parade of virtue and good feeling in Grandison almost unbearable. He objects specifically to such details as "Harriet Byron's confession to a friend that in all her conduct she is governed by her aim at giving a tacit example to Emily Jervois". 93 What is of interest at this point is McKillop's discovery that toward the end of Grandison one character begins to object somewhat 89

Richardson, p. 100. Early Masters, p. 95. 91 Richardson, p. 87. 92 Samuel Richardson, p. 209. 93 Richardson, p. 188.

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to the heavy virtue illustrated by another character. As might be expected, it is Richardson's frank, very feminine heroine who voices objection to Grandison's pervasive, overbearing virtues. McKillop observes: There is a minor strain o f uneasiness after the hero's return from I t a l y , a hint o f impatience or dissatisfaction with his very virtue. Should he come unannounced to Selby House to claim, as all expect, the hand o f Harriet ? Should he send word in advance? " O r does he t h i n k , " asks Harriet, " w e should not be able to outlive our joyous surprize, if he gave us not notice o f his arrival in these parts before he saw us ? " Harriet had already hit the target with a remarkable bit o f analysis: " D o you think, m y dear, t h a t had he been the first m a n , he would have been so complaisant to his E v e , as Milton makes Adam [So contrary t o t h a t part of his character, which made him accuse the woman to the A l m i g h t y ] — T o taste the forbidden fruit, because he would not be separated from her, in her punishment, tho' all posterity were to suffer b y it ? — No; it is m y opinion, t h a t your brother would have had gallantry enough to his fallen spouse, t o have made him extremely regret her lapse; but t h a t he would have done his own duty, were it but for the sake of posterity, and left it to the Almighty, i f such has been his pleasure, to have annihilated his first E v e , and given him a second." 9 4

Thus, even in a story expressly made secondary to presentation of moral doctrine the naturalness of Richardson's characters occasionally breaks through to weaken the intended effect. The four questions posed at the beginning of this section can now be answered. In Grandison Richardson does not undermine his moral purpose by elaborating his heroine's ambiguous position because he does not place his heroine in such a position. He does not become so much interested in revealing his heroine's feelings that he loses sight of his moral purpose. His story is not effective if divorced from his moral doctrine, and he does not go so far in entertaining his reader as to defeat the intent of his moral doctrine. In his final novel Richardson comes closest to making his story appropriate to the illustration of his moral doctrine, but in the process he weakens his story considerably. At this point we can observe that Richardson practices in his novels three of his theoretical principles for the presentation of moral doctrine in fiction, as stated in Chapter I. In spite of limited " Early Masters, p. 92. McKillop quotes from V , 88, and I V , 366. T h e brackets are in the t e x t . Perhaps Harriet's r e m a r k about Grandison is more than justified since, as Morris Golden points out, Grandison "steadily harasses the women surrounding h i m " throughout the novel (Richardson's Charactersi (p. 9).

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exceptions, his practice supports his statement t h a t a writer of fiction should "utilize a new, more natural manner of narration rather than those found in older and unnatural kinds of literature". 95 Even though Pamela has features of the romance, and, in certain respects, the stories in Pamela and Clarissa are not altogether probable, all three of Richardson's novels utilize what must be called, when compared with the long narratives preceding them, a new, more natural manner of narration, and none of them "contains the unnatural elements of the marvelous, the heroic, and the epic kindB of literature". 96 Furthermore, as has been illustrated above and in Chapter IV, Richardson's major exemplary characters are not perfect, and, as he points out in his statements of theory, his novels do not aim at providing only what is angelic or perfect as examples, but rather utilize the better examples from human nature. 97 Richardson's statements that fiction should provide instruction and entertainment in such a way that the entertainment supports the instruction and that fiction should provide instruction in social conduct and moral issues98 are not fully confirmed by his practice. In fact, it appears from what has been said above that Richardson's practice in Pamela and Clarissa refutes his theory. His practice in Grandison, however, supports four specific theoretical statements: (1) fiction should provide instruction, particularly to the young, by directing the light thoughts and passions of the reader toward laudable ends by mingling instruction with entertainment, (2) fiction should avoid using inflaming descriptions, (3) fiction should oppose and condemn the immoral practice of duelling, (4) fiction should provoke friendly debate among its readers about moral issues.99 Justification

of Moral Doctrine Within the Novels

Richardson's fourth method in presenting moral doctrine is to justify the moral doctrine by showing the rewards and punishments t h a t come from following or failing to follow that doctrine. I n all is 96 m 98 99

See p. 52-53. Ibid. For a fuller presentation of these statements see p. 53, above. See pp. 42-46. See pp. 44-46, 49-50.

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his novels he rewards and punishes his characters within the narratives, and, in Pamela II and Clarissa, in conclusions which he appends to the narratives. As Waverly Erwin Hester has pointed out in a careful analysis of poetical justice in Richardson's novels,100 Richardson rewards and punishes his characters according to three different concepts of justice. These concepts, and their definitions, as Hester explains them, are (1) the concept, termed 'poetical justice', which provides for "the punishment of the wicked and the reward of the good, performed within the limits of the literary work in which the characters are contained", (2) the Addisonian concept, known as 'divine justice', which provides for reward or punishment beyond the grave and assumes that literary characters have eternal lives,101 and (3) the modern concept, known as 'poetic justice', which requires reward and punishment of good or evil characters, "but places the emphasis on the frequent ironic appropriateness of that reward or punishment. It is not unusual for the reward or punishment to come unexpectedly from something which the character does without realizing the importance it will eventually have in the course of his life."102 Hester points out that Richardson practices 'poetical justice' consciously in the three novels, that he gives evidence of believing in divine justice in the novels and practices divine justice in the case of his heroine in Clarissa, and that he, consciously or not, practices poetic justice to a limited extent in Pamela I I , Clarissa, and Grandison. In the subsections below we will examine the ways in which Richardson justifies moral doctrine in his four works. Pamela and Pamela II. — In Pamela Richardson justifies his moral doctrine entirely within the narrative by rewarding all his virtuous characters in a material manner. Pamela marries an opulent country squire and becomes the mistress of a large estate; Mr. B is rewarded with an adoring wife who directed him on 100 "Poetical Justice in the Novels of Samuel Richardson", (unpublished Masters thesis, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1953). This thesis, to which I am gratefully indebted for its highly pertinent information, is, as far as I know, the only work on the subject of poetic justice in Richardson's novels. 101 102

Ibid., pp. 9-10. Ibid., p. 69.

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the path of virtue; Lady Davers is rewarded with an attractive companion and friend in her new sister-in-law; Pamela's parents become the owners of a small estate in Kent; Miss Goodwin, Mr. B— 's illegitimate daughter, becomes the ward of Pamela. Furthermore Richardson expects his characters to be rewarded beyond the grave because he shows that the important characters definitely believe in heavenly rewards;103 and, since he reforms the few evil characters he has, he indicates that both his virtuous and his repentant characters will receive a final reward.104 In giving all his virtuous characters material rewards within the novel, and in suggesting that both they and the few repentant characters will receive final rewards, Richardson is practicing poetical justice and acknowledging the presence of divine justice.105 In his first novel Richardson does not provide a formal conclusion. Instead he presents a few observations in which he advises his readers to notice how providence has rewarded a virtuous girl who withstood a designing lover and to respect a benevolent providence which has raised the rich, and the poor as well, to reward them for their virtue. In Pamela II Richardson practices poetical justice and acknowledges divine justice by giving his virtuous characters both material and heavenly rewards. As in Pamela, the heroine has her virtue rewarded by many pleasant associations commensurate with her new social position as wife and mother. And other characters as well are rewarded within the limits of the narrative. However in Pamela II Richardson punishes a character for evil actions even though the character is repentant. Mrs. Jewkes, the debased housekeeper who serves as Pamela's captor in Lincolnshire, dies a painful death though she repents of her evil conduct and begs to die in Pamela's service. Richardson here anticipates his treatment of Mrs. Sinclair in Clarissa. Another innovation in Pamela II is a Conclusion in which Richardson disposes of his characters. In this relatively brief Conclusion he explains that several characters live on happily beyond the time of narrative, prospering and doing good in the world. For example, Mr. B— serves his country abroad, Pamela has seven 103

Hester quotes Pamela and her parents to this effect, ibid., pp. 17-18.

101 105

Ibid., p. 30. Ibid., p. 32.

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healthy children, and Lady Davers lives in harmony as a widow with Pamela and Mr. B —. Richardson also announces that Mr. Longman, a former servant of Mr. B —'s, subsequently dies and leaves his money to Mr. B - since his own family is selfish. Very much in the fashion of Belford in Clarissa and Sir Charles in Grandi•son, who settle the somewhat chaotic estates of Belton and Sir Hargrave, Mr. B— settles Longman's estate by sharing the money Among the now fully repentant members of the family. However, not all of the characters in the sequel are rewarded in the Conclusion. Polly Darnford, a virtuous young lady who marries Lord G, dies "in childbed of her fourth child", and Lord H., the nephew of Lady Davers who had wanted to become a rake, is ruined by a selfish wife. He is later rescued from his plight by Mr. B— (another anticipation of what occurs in Grandison) and forced to marry a young lady of Lady Davers' choosing. While the latter of these two punishments seems feasible in the light of Richardson's desire to punish evil characters and guide them to virtuous paths, the punishment of the virtuous Polly Darnford •cannot be justified by the criteria of poetical and divine justice. Hester suggests that in these two punishments Richardson may be, unconsciously perhaps, practicing the modern concept of poetic justice in which characters are made to suffer for seemingly unimportant acts. Since Polly Darnford had scorned marriage and Lord H . had tried to be a libertine, they are both made to suffer.106 Clarissa. — In Clarissa Richardson justifies his moral doctrine both within his narrative and in a relatively long Conclusion. As in Pamela he continued to practice poetical justice by rewarding t h e virtuous characters and punishing the evil, and to acknowledge •divine justice by indicating that his characters have eternal lives in which they may be rewarded. Richardson does more than simply -acknowledge divine justice. For the first time he actively practices •divine justice by giving his heroine a heavenly reward and by strongly suggesting that his villain will be punished in hell. One basic difference in Richardson's practice of poetical justice in Clarissa is that he concentrates on punishing evil characters rather than on rewarding virtuous ones, as in Pamela and Pamela II. This emphasis is related to Richardson's intention in Clarissa of illustrating the effects of misconduct. As Hester aptly points out, im

Ibid., pp. 71-72.

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" I t is apparent that in Clarissa, Richardson wishes to show the proper way to act in certain situations by demonstrating the evils that arise from misconduct especially in regard to duty. This is a negative teaching method, in contrast to the positive one of Pamela, which demonstrated by good example the proper way to act in a variety of situations." 107 Thus even though such virtuous characters as Anna Howe, Mrs. Norton, and Belford are all materially rewarded by happiness in the Conclusion, a larger number of evil characters are punished both during the narrative and in the Conclusion. Richardson's primary means of punishing his evil characters during the narrative is essentially the same as that he uses with Mrs. Jewkes in Pamela II — having the character suffer agony and remorse while approaching death. Using Belford as his spokesman, Richardson describes in great detail the agonies that several of the evil characters undergo on their deathbeds.. The most vividly repulsive deathbed scene108 is that of Mrs. Sinclair, the procuress, whose demise is described by Belford in such horrifying detail that the Abbé Prévost omitted the scene when he translated Cicvrissa into French. Almost as agonizing as Mrs. Sinclair's end is that of Belton, the rake friend of Lovelace, who dies a horrible death with no friends to regret his passing. Richardson uses Belton's demise as a warning to rakes by having Belford describe the hideous deaths that the rakes Tourville and Mowbray will doubtless undergo unless they change their ways. And as Belford describes Belton's death to Lovelace he warns that "Thou Must Die, as well as Belton." Richardson is obviously making the most of these deathbed scenes to provide a vivid and memorable contrast between these harshly repulsive scenes of final agony and the almost divinely beautiful death and funeral of Clarissa, at which she is surrounded by grieving friends and family. Richardson punishes Captain Tomlinson, the pretended agent of Clarissa's family, by having him die penniless and friendless in Maidstone gaol. Even Sally Martin and Joseph Leman, two very minor characters, do not go unpunished. Near the end of the narrative Sally is reported to be remorseful and Joseph is reported by Lovelace to be conscience ridden about their treatment of Clarissa. 107 108

Ibid., VIII,

p. 38. 53-69.

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269

Richardson indicates that Providence begins to punish Lovelace soon after the rape and intermittently until his violent and untimely death, 109 for which he was not prepared and immediately before which he refused the final sacrament of the church. Thus Lovelace's death is in several respects the opposite of Clarissa's and the suggestion t h a t Lovelace goes to Hell is strongly made. Richardson punishes Lovelace after the rape in several ways: he is grilled and ostracized by his family; he becomes ill and loses his faculties temporarily; he is thoroughly shattered when he learns t h a t Clarissa's letter about going to her father's house is allegorical rather than literal; he is torn by his conscience and obsessed by the idea of cutting Clarissa's heart out of her body; he is later delirious and completely unmanageable; and just before his death he says, "LET THIS EXPIATE." Richardson uses his Conclusion also to punish a number of evil characters. Clarissa's father and mother suffer greatly from learning how unjustly they have treated Clarissa, and they die in anguish. James and Arabella marry unhappily; James is never able to get the money he sought and Arabella's husband is a cruel libertine. James is haunted by his conscience and refers to himself as "The Most Miserable of Beings". Clarissa's uncles are also conscience ridden because of their cruelty to Clarissa; 110 several of the servants meet untimely ends, Joseph Leman and Betty Barnes both dying of consumption. Roger Solmes remains repulsive, having been rejected b y several ladies. Sally Martin and Polly Horton die in debauchery after misspent lives. One critic finds the Conclusion ineffective; he complains of the heaviness and unreality of the poetical justice for the Harlowes, and he finds it next to ridiculous t h a t Polly Horton 'falls' simply because of "music, songs, romance, novels, and plays". 1 1 1 Richardson's treatment of Clarissa, in which he actually practices divine justice for the first time, is the greatest innovation in his justification of moral doctrine. Richardson denies Clarissa any material or earthly reward but gives her, instead, a heavenly 109

Hester, p. 53. Concerning the extent of Richardson's punishment of Clarissa's family Golden says, "Nowhere else in literature, not even in the Joseph story, has the self-pity of the punished child managed to exact so complete a revenge on the adult punishers" (p. 177). 111 Downs, pp. 79-81, 183. 110

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reward. For Clarissa an earthly reward would be inadequate. Yet it might be said that he does give her some earthly reward since h e makes her anticipation of her heavenly journey more attractive as her death approaches. Hester aptly summarizes Richardson'spresentation of Clarissa so that she illustrates divine justice: "Clarissa, [who is] partially at fault in her duty toward her parents, errs further in escaping with Lovelace. However she is basically a good woman 'with a future saint in her character'. By her sufferings, she achieves the atonement which brings out her full virtue and saintliness, and in this process, Richardson accomplishes the intentions he mentions in the Postscript and shows 'self-denial and mortification' as Christian virtues." 112 According to Hester, Richardson's practice of the modern concept of poetic justice in Clarissa was, differing from that in Pamela I I , more than likely conscious since a number of characters are punished for some act they committed. 113 Hester points out ten characters whose punishments are ironically related to earlier actions, in their lives. Among these are James Harlowe, who is never able to get his hands on his wife's great fortune; Joseph Leman and Betty Barnes, who die unmarried even though they commit any number of sins so that they can be married; Capt. Tomlinson, who would do anything to obtain money but dies penniless; and even Clarissa, who refuses marriage to Solmes and thus must accept a nun-like marriage with the church. Compared with what he does in Pamela and Pamela I I , Richardson's justification of his moral doctrine in Clarissa is complex since it actively involves not only poetical justice but divine justice as well. Richardson demonstrates in Clarissa that he is able to adapt his means to his purposes, that he can combine divine justice with poetical and poetic justice and still produce a story whose moral doctrine is effectively justified. He further demonstrates that he can use his treatment of justice in Clarissa to reduce adverse effects on the novel's moral doctrine caused by his describing important characters in profuse detail and presenting a story whose highly complex moral ramifications transcend his initial 112

Hester, pp. 39-40. Golden indicates that Richardson punishes three of his young aristocratic and aggressive men in the three novels in minor ways: he "thwarts B . with childish homilies, gives Lovelace a nasty cold from roaming the walls in rainy weather, and knocks out a couple of Sir Hargraves' teeth" (p. 100). 113

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moral purpose.114 The only weakness in Richardson's practice is that poetical justice in his Conclusion is, as Downs points out, too heavy and somewhat difficult to accept. Yet this is not a major fault when it is realized that he succeeds in taking systems of justice that are in many respects antithetical and making them work together to achieve his ends. Grandison. — In Grandison, as in Pamela, Richardson justifies his moral doctrine entirely within his narrative, even though he appends a very brief 'Concluding Note by the Editor'. However, Richardson does point out in the preface to Grandison that in Pamela providence rewarded Pamela for her goodness and that in Clarissa the heroine "rejoices in the Approach of a happy Eternity" while Lovelace "sinks into the Grave oppressed with Guilt, Remorse, and Horror". 115 Richardson further follows his procedure in Pamela by concentrating almost exclusively on poetical justice in his final novel. Good characters are rewarded and evil characters are punished or made to repent and then rewarded by material means. There is some awareness of divine justice but actually there is less than in Pamela. And Richardson's use of poetic justice is far less extensive than in Clarissa.119 While Richardson's approach to the subject of virtue is positive in Grandison as it is in Pamela, he does not stress the rewarding of virtue to the extent he does in his first novel. Nor is he as concerned with punishing the evil characters, as in Clarissa. In Grandison Richardson concentrates on rewarding evil characters who repent and reforming those who are prone to be reckless. Examples of such characters are William Wilson, the evil servant, who because he repents is given aid by Grandison; Mrs. O'Hara, Emily Jervois' mother, who because she repents is reconciled with Emily; Everard Grandison, who is rescued from sharpers by Grandison and later turns from his dissolute life; and Sir Hargrave Pollexfen, who is saved by Grandison from a violent attack and dies repenting his evil actions toward Harriet. 114

See pp. 258-260. 1, viii. 116 H e s t e r (p. 75) p o i n t s o u t three characters t h a t R i c h a r d s o n m a y p o s s i b l y b e p u n i s h i n g b y p o e t i c justice: Sir Hargrave, Mrs. O'Hara, and Mr. O'Hara. Hester's grounds for his c o n t e n t i o n are, however, n o t strong, as h e h i m s e l f admits. 115

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What punishment Richardson inflicts on his evil characters is neither so severe nor so vividly described as in Clarissa. Sir Hargrave is attacked by relatives of a girl he has raped, and, after his rescue by Grandison, falls ill and dies. Bagenall is forced to marry, and, like his fellow rake Merceda, dies an untimely though not a miserable and violent death. Everard Grandison is gulled by his mistress, and the overbearing Greville suffers illness and is overwrought at the time of Harriet's marriage to Grandison. The only punishment that approaches the agonizing death given Mrs. Sinclair and Belton in Clarissa is that given to Laurana, Clementina's evil cousin, who when she discovers that Clementina may marry Count Belvidere is seized by melancholy and raving fits and dies miserably. Her death, however, is merely reported and is not described in repulsively vivid detail. Richardson, of course, rewards Harriet, Grandison, Clementina, and other characters with happiness. But, as Hester points out, there are a number of characters that are neither rewarded or punished,117 a situation which obviates the necessity for a conclusion in which rewards and punishments are enumerated. Hester explains Richardson's reason for not passing judgment on all his characters: "he is not interested in showing the reward of virtue, as in Pamela, or the triumphant expiation of suffering virtue, as in Clarissa. His emphasis is more on the static model of virtue, Sir Charles, and on description of a certain rather fictitious level of social life." 118 Richardson's failure to pass judgment on all his characters is an innovation, and, at the same time, an indication that he was able to adapt the justification of moral doctrine to suit his purposes. From what we have been considering above we can now state that Richardson's practice in his novels supports his two contentions that fiction should concern itself with current moral issues and provoke interest in them, and that the author of fiction should, when it is appropriate, adapt an older form, the tragic, to support the Christian system.119 Richardson's long description of Clarissa's eagerly anticipated death confirms his statement that fiction should familiarize people with death as a heavenly reward in order to " ' P p . 66-67. Ibid. u , P p . 46, 5 4 - 5 5 .

118

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make it acceptable to them. 120 Richardson's successful adaptation of the traditional concept of divine justice to serve his purpose along with poetical justice in the tragic story of Clarissa supports his theory that fiction should adapt elements of classical tragic form, 121 bringing the catastrophe prescribed by Aristotle into accord with Christian doctrine; arouse the tragic qualities of pity, fear, and terror; and present divine justice as well as the current concept of poetical justice. 122

CONCLUSION

Richardson's technique for presenting moral doctrine consists of four related methods. He offers his works as if they are authentic collections of letters that he has edited for publication. He treats these supposedly authentic letters as demonstrations of moral doctrine worthy of emulation. He illustrates the moral doctrine by means of stories and characters. He justifies the moral doctrine by rewarding and punishing his characters as they support or fail to support his doctrine. Richardson's first method is more complex than it appears to be since it involves three steps: (1) the establishing of the pretense of being an editor by announcements in the titles, prefaces, and other comparable places in the works, (2) the maintaining of this pretense throughout the work by devices which would be appropriate only with authentic letters, (3) the creating of respect on the reader's part for full and authentic records by having the characters show sincere respect for records. In his Postscript to Clarissa, Richardson refers to himself as the author; otherwise he is very careful to establish the pretense of being the editor in all his works. Except for one brief interruption inPameZa,Richardsonmeticulously maintains his pretense throughout his works by making all features of the letters and of the journal entries appear entirely authentic. Richardson's care is particularly evident in Clarissa, where he uses a number of means to make the letters seem real. He creates T

120

For a fuller treatment of this statement see p. 49. Ira Königsberg describes the ways in which Clarissa qualifies as a tragedy ("The Tragedy of Clarissa", Modem Language Quarterly, X X V I I (September, 1966), 285-298.). 122 For a fuller treatment of these statements see pp. 54-55. 121

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respect on the reader's part for the documentary nature of his novels by having authentic records play an important part in the lives of his characters. In fact authentic records in Clarissa and Grandison are so important to the characters that they seem to have a virtue of their own, a virtue not unlike that which the novel itself possesses as a collection of full and authentic records for the reader's information. Richardson's second method is to regard his novels as conduct or courtesy books containing both precepts and examples worthy of emulation. The two steps of this second method are, somewhat like those for the first, to announce at the beginning, by such means as title and preface, that the work presents doctrine worthy of imitation and to make the same point throughout the narrative by excessive attention to conduct and by the use of elements, such as fables, mottoes, and prayers, that are normally found in conduct books. Richardson follows both steps carefully in Pamela and Pamela II. The announcement of purpose at the beginning of Pamela II is more effective than that in Pamela although both works display conduct extensively and contain numerous elements common to conduct books. In Clarissa Richardson announces his purpose not only in his title and preface but also in a list of principal persons at the beginning of the novel and tables of contents at the ends of all volumes in which both persons and letters are subjectively described. Richardson uses in Clarissa a conclusion much longer than in Pamela II to restate and enforce his moral purpose; he displays his characters' conduct in great detail, and uses the matter of conduct books to indicate moral purpose. In Grandison Richardson makes little or no effort to announce his moral intention at the beginning. His title does not suggest such a purpose and his brief preface and conclusion add little to the title. Richardson does display conduct comprehensively in Grandison, but he does not use matter normally found in conduct books as extensively ashedoes inClarissa. Richardson's third method of presenting moral doctrine is the illustration of such doctrine by stories and characters. He selects stories with conflicts that test the virtues of his exemplary characters and pit his heroines against rigidly established social codes. The effectiveness of Richardson's third method is best determined by asking four questions about his handling of stories, characters, and doctrine: (1) is Richardson's moral purpose weakened by prolonging and elaborating the morally ambiguous positions of his

PRESENTATION OF MORAL DOCTRINE

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heroines? (2) does Richardson become so interested in the imaginative presentation of his heroine's feelings that he loses sight of his moral purpose? (3) are the stories of the three novels effective even when they are divorced from the moral doctrine presented in them? (4) did Richardson in his attempt to inculcate moral doctrine through entertaining his readers go so far as to defeat the effect of the doctrine? Because the story and the heroine in Pamela do not illustrate a valid moral doctrine and because Richardson's method of writing to the moment in Pamela does not lend itself to illustrating a rigid moral code, all of the questions as they apply to Richardson's first work must be answered in the affirmative. Although the questions are not specifically appropriate to Pamela I I , they enforce the conclusion that here Richardson has presented characters and a story that are too weak to carry the very heavy burden of didacticism. In Clarissa the story and characters illustrate moral doctrine more effectively than do those in Pamela. The answer to all four of the questions as they apply to Clarissa is affirmative, as it is for Pamela, but for somewhat different reasons. The complex story in Clarissa transcends any particular moral doctrine; in fact the story succeeds in suggesting that a moral code is inadequate to cope with the conflicts that the characters face. Furthermore, critics have pointed out that the characters and story are valid even when divorced from the moral intent that Richardson states in his Postscript. Because the story and characters in Orandison are held in check by Richardson and made secondary to moral intention, the answer to the questions as they apply to Orandison is negative. In his final novel Richardson succeeds in presenting a story and characters that illustrate his moral doctrine, but in the process he weakens both his story and his characters. In his final method of presenting moral doctrine Richardson rewards and punishes his characters according to their acceptance or rejection of his moral code. To reward and punish his characters, he uses three concepts of justice: poetical, divine, and poetic. Since Richardson's approach to teaching virtue in Pamela and Pamela II is positive, he is primarily concerned with rewarding his virtuous characters in material ways according to poetical justice. In Clarissa Richardson's approach is negative and thus

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he punishes more characters for misconduct than he rewards for virtuous conduct. Although he relies largely on poetical justice in Clarissa, Richardson strongly emphasizes divine justice for the first and only time by giving his heroine a heavenly instead of a material reward. In his major novel Richardson shows that he can combine three concepts of poetic justice harmoniously and effectively. The approach in his final novel is somewhat different from that in Pamela and Clarissa. He again relies upon poetical justice but he seems to be mainly interested in rewarding those characters who repent and reform. Some definite relationships among Richardson's methods are evident at this point. Richardson desired that his works appear as authentic collections of letters and that his readers be fully aware of the value of these collections as moral doctrine. However, he must have realized that Clarissa was not well adapted to illustrating his moral doctrine because he made a strenuous effort, by exploiting his second method, to have his major novel appear as a serious work of moral doctrine. In Orandison he was less insistent on moral value since he was aware that the story itself was a suitable vehicle. Because he realized that his story in Clarissa was complex, Richardson used three concepts of justice to enforce the moral doctrine. Because he realized that his story and characters in Orandison were relatively simple, Richardson felt that one concept of justice would suffice to support his doctrine.

CONCLUSION

We can now consider the purpose of this study as it is stated in the Introduction: to describe Richardson's theory of fiction and to determine, by a careful examination of his practice, how closely it corresponds to his theory. In every major aspect of fiction Richardson's practice is more comprehensive than his theory, so that it must be taken into account if we are to determine his theory of fiction. The information in the previous chapters shows how Richardson's practice complements and develops beyond his statements of theory; by using this material as a basis, we can formulate his theory of fiction. Richardson's practice in his narrative structure confirms his statements of theory and, in some instances, develops beyond the intentions of the statements. The practice thus provides additional points of theory by induction. Three statements t h a t Richardson confirms by practice are (1) fiction pretending to present real life should maintain an air of probability by reporting actions minutely and circumstantially, (2) works of fiction should possess sufficient variety to interest and entertain the reader, and (3) the writer of fiction should follow a plan and keep his work within limits imposed by himself. Four of Richardson's statements of theory do not adequately describe his practice. In his theory Richardson says t h a t the catastrophe is important and should be placed near the end of the narrative; in his practice Richardson emphasizes (and thus seems to recognize the importance of) not only catastrophe but four other major events as well: point of entrance, definition, crisis, and conclusion. And he is careful to place all of them effectively in his narratives. His theory requires that all elements of narrative structure should arise naturally from the subject and carry it

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forward and should contribute to unity by relating and illustrating the design of the work. This principle can be expanded to include Richardson's practice of having everything in the narrative develop naturally by means of conflict, association, and isolation out of an important central situation and contribute not only to the primary design but to a number of smaller conflicts as well. And Richardson's statement that the pace of the narrative should be slowed to accommodate minute descriptions is not only practiced in Richardson's extensive use of prolongation and intensification of conflict, b u t the principle is varied and applied to different purposes in Pamela, Clarissa, and Grandison. Several points in Richardson's theory of narrative structure can be drawn from his practice. In order to develop fully the major events in his narrative the writer should make the conflicts established and altered by these events as effective as possible by prolongation, intensification, and resolution. The novelist should be able to adapt these three means of controlling conflicts so that he can exploit the isolation or the association of his heroines. Furthermore he should develop his ability to adapt his older narrative techniques and to create new ones to achieve his ends. The case for epistolary technique is similar to that for narrative structure. Richardson's practice of epistolary technique confirms all his statements of theory and develops beyond the intentions of three of them. I n this instance, also, his practice outruns his theory and provides additional points of theory by induction. Four statements are confirmed by Richardson's practice: (1) a work of fiction should be made up of letters because letters provide variety and a sense of the present, (2) the letters should be familiar, private, and absorbing, and their writing should demand the full attention of the writers, (3) an illusion t h a t the letters are real should be maintained by making all major characters avid letter writers, (4) letters should be used to support characterization in three ways: (a) they should include many particulars about the characters, (b) they should be appropriately placed in the narrative, (c) they should be inserted in the collection to strengthen the positions of the characters in the story. Richardson develops his practice of epistolary technique beyond what three of his statements indicate. In one statement he says t h a t there should be at least three different kinds of letters; in his novels he uses over thirty kinds. I n another statement be says

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t h a t letters should appear to have been written and exchanged in a believable manner. In practice he not only supports this point b y numerous devices b u t also makes the letters appear authentic in every respect. H e also says that the exchange of correspondence should be adapted to the relationships of the characters in the novel. I n practice he develops an exchange that not only achieves this end but also intensifies character involvement in the novel and supports a remarkably multiple point of view. Several points for his theory of epistolary technique can be drawn from Richardson's practice. Primary among these is the principle that a writer should use several devices of epistolary technique simultaneously: he should invent and adapt devices which appear as details in letters and which involve the use of whole letters. The epistolary novelist should maintain control over his letter lengths; he should adapt letter lengths to obtain dramatic effects by using short intensive letters as well as by juxtaposing short and long letters. A writer should control his exchange of correspondence so t h a t it will appear authentic. At the same time he should be able to reduce the exchange to soften actions and provide for passive reflection or to increase its frequency to indicate active and serious involvement on the characters' parts. The writer should arrange the sequence of letters in his novel to achieve two purposes: (1) to adopt a point of view that varies from a single narrator to a fairly large number of narrators who present themselves in different ways, and (2) to obtain dramatic contrasts that support major events in his narrative structure. In characterization Richardson's practice confirms thirteen of his fourteen statements and strongly supports five of those it confirms. I t develops beyond what is indicated in one of these statements, and, to a greater extent than with the practice of narrative structure and epistolary technique, it outruns the stated theory and provides, by induction, additional points of theory. The seven statements confirmed by practice are (1) characters are the most important elements in fiction, (2) characters should entertain and divert the readers by their variety and novelty, (3) variety should be obtained by presenting a number of characters, including several that possess eccentric personalities, (4) novelty should be obtained by presenting characters that are new and not drawn according to accepted rules, (5) exemplary characters are important for moral doctrine and should be drawn according to plans t h a t

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support t h a t doctrine, (6) so that the exemplary nature of the character is evident, features of the character should be announced at the beginning and reviewed at the end of the narrative, (7) when the position of the exemplary character is strengthened thereby, his introduction into the narrative should be delayed. The five statements that are both confirmed and strongly supported by Richardson's practice of characterization are (1) major characters should be drawn carefully to suit all the purposes intended in the narrative and pains should be taken to make their characters as appropriate as possible, (2) characters should be based on experience gained from drawing characters in previous works, (3) characters should develop, visibly, during the course of the narrative, (4) characters' expressions and feelings should a t all times be appropriate to their character and situation in the story, and (5) characters should be supported in appropriate ways, (such as being served by foils and antitypes) by other characters. Richardson develops his practice beyond his statement t h a t exemplary characters should not be perfect b u t that their weaknesses as well as their virtues should be revealed. In his novels he reveals so much about his exemplary characters that these richly described characters transcend the mere possessing of an abundance of virtues or of vices in the usual manner of two-dimensional characters. A relatively large number of points concerning characterization can be drawn from Richardson's practice. The first deals with the extent to which the characters reveal themselves in the works: in this respect they are primary, secondary, minor, and nominal. Each work should contain at least one primary character. Characterization may be enriched if the two primary characters in a work can each be assigned secondary characters who support them as corresponding confidants and thus provide a basis for extensive contrast of the two primary characters. The writer should use different types of characters and should vary the social levels and relationships of his major characters. For instance, he can use social relationships to affect the primary character in a manner t h a t is either disintegrative and isolating or integrative and associating. Effective characterization requires t h a t the persons be involved in situations of conflict. The characters should be given the need, by serious involvement in conflict, to communicate with each other so that they reveal both themselves and others by minute and

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extensive reporting of details. The writer should use multiple characterization, a process by which the characters not only reveal themselves and others but are also revealed through the means of others. Included among the numerous points on characterization implied by Richardson's practice are several concerned entirely with character development. Important characters should be developed by serious and sustained involvement in conflicts which expose and test them and place them in ambiguous positions where they are forced to analyze and discover themselves. Exemplary characters that are so exposed should be surrounded by contrasting characters so that their reactions are fully visible over a sustained period. All important characters should be developed by the use of selfanalysis, self-discovery, analysis by others, and discovery by others; and heroines in particular should be developed by the gradual discovery of themselves and of the character of the appropriate hero-villain. Differing from the case with the other aspects of fiction, Richardson's practice in presenting moral doctrine fails to confirm all, or nearly all, of his statements of theory. Although he gives them partial support in Pamela II and Orandison, Richardson fails to confirm five of his twelve statements. He strongly supports six of the seven statements he confirms and he develops his practice beyond the intentions of one statement. But in both Pamela and Clarissa Richardson's practice does more than fail to confirm his statements; it runs afoul of them and subverts his moral intentions, as we will see below. In keeping with the patterns already established, Richardson's practice outruns his theory as a whole and provides additional points of theory by induction. The statements that Richardson does not confirm are (1) fiction should have as its chief purpose the providing of instruction, (2) it should direct the light thoughts and passions of the reader, particularly the young, toward laudable ends by mingling instruction with entertainment, (3) it should avoid inflaming descriptions, (4) it should provide both probability and variety. Richardson's practice in Pamela and Clarissa subverts the intentions of his first two statements in the following ways. The novels provide entertainment but not always in a manner that supports instruction. The stories in Pamela and Clarissa are not well suited to providing instruction, for the young in particular, and the chief purpose of

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each novel, as it turns out, is not to provide instruction but to entertain the reader in a gripping fashion. Such a statement does not indicate t h a t the novels are altogether uninstructive, b u t t h a t they fail to provide, to any real extent, the kind of instruction t h a t Richardson intended. The novels do not necessarily direct the light thoughts and passions of the readers towards laudable ends. As we have demonstrated in the previous chapter, emulation of Pamela is not always laudable, even though Richardson may have thought otherwise, and Clarissa's complex moral involvements do not provide a feasible proving ground for the exercise of common virtues. As to the last two of Richardson's statements above it can be said t h a t he does not avoid inflaming descriptions, which for some readers might be provocative; and while he provides great variety, he fails to make all of the major features of his stories entirely probable. H e achieves probability in detailed actions and feelings b u t he sometimes fails to achieve it on the larger scale. The statements of theory t h a t Richardson's practice confirms and strongly supports are (1) fiction should provide interest and instruction in social conduct, (2) it should provide specific instruction concerning courtship and marriage, (3) it should concern itself with current moral issues and provoke interest in them, (4) it should, when appropriate, adapt an older form, the tragic, to support the Christian system of ethics and within this system it should utilize appropriate concepts of administering justice to the characters. Richardson also develops his practice beyond his statement that fiction should cultivate a new, more natural manner of narration rather than that found in old and unnatural kinds such as the romance. Several principles of a theory for presenting moral doctrine can be drawn from Richardson's practice. Four methods should be used in fiction to present moral doctrine: (1) the work of fiction should be published as an authentic collection of letters arranged by an editor, (2) these letters should be treated as a work demonstrating moral doctrine, (3) the story and characters in the work should illustrate moral doctrine, (4) the rewarding and punishing of the characters should justify the moral doctrine. The first method involves establishingapretense of authenticity at thebeginning, maintaining the pretense throughout the narrative, and creating respect for records in the narrative. The second method involves treating the works as if they were conduct and courtesy books by announcing

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their moral purpose at the beginning, restating it at the end, and presenting, throughout the narrative, matter usually found in conduct books. Because Richardson practiced in Grandison but failed to practice in Pamela and Clarissa several principles in his theory, it is difficult to discover from his practice how he intended characters and story to illustrate moral doctrine, the third method mentioned above. The following points are based on our knowledge of his statements of intention and our, admittedly, less certain knowledge of how effectively his achievement fulfilled his intention. A writer should select a story appropriate to illustrating his doctrine, and in this story he should pit his heroine against a social code so that both heroine and code are tested. While a writer should place his heroine in a morally ambiguous position, he should not weaken his moral purpose by unduly prolonging and elaborating the heroine's plight. A writer should not become so interested in imaginatively presenting his heroine's feelings and in entertaining his reader that he defeats his moral purpose. And he should not make his story independent of the moral doctrine it illustrates. Fortunately, for the sake of the development of the novel as a work of art, and particularly for the sake of narrative structure and characterization, Richardson did what he advocated not doing even though he must have been at least partially aware of the inconsistency. Concerning Richardson's method of justifying moral doctrine, the fourth point listed above, we can conclude that a writer of fiction should use both traditional and current concepts of justice to support the distribution of rewards and punishments to his characters. He may reward his good characters by worldly means, by the promise of heavenly reward, and by heavenly reward itself. He may punish his evil characters by various means in this world and, as the manner of death implies, by the promise of eternal damnation in hell also. He may simply reward by worldly means the wicked characters who repent and reform,.and not bother to judge them for eternal reward or punishment. The successful didactic novelist should be able to unite in his work all these means of justifying moral doctrine. By combining the principles that Richardson stated as theory with principles that we have induced from his practice, we have been able to formulate a theory of fiction for Richardson that is comprehensive and well balanced. Altogether the theory indicates

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that Richardson was a careful craftsman of the novel, who, even though a pioneer, was able to develop, during a relatively brief writing career, a remarkably original poetic for the art of fiction. A review of our findings indicates t h a t of forty statements of theory, Richardson practiced all b u t six. And of the thirty-four precepts t h a t he followed, he strongly supported eleven and developed nine beyond the implications of the statements themselves. I t can be said with merely minor qualifications t h a t Richardson practiced in his fiction his own statements of theory. Only in presenting moral doctrine did Richardson fail to practice what he advocated. I t should be pointed out, however, that Richardson's close adherence to his precepts is not so remarkable as it might seem, since he wrote a number of his precepts after he had written his important Clarissa. Even so the consistency of Richardson's statements, of his practice, and of the points of theory induced from his practice demonstrates t h a t his achievements were in accord with his intentions, and t h a t when he did outrun his intentions, he seldom violated their spirit.

APPENDIX A METHODS AND DEVICES AS THEY OCCUR I N THE NOVELS AND SEQUEL

Pamela Point of Entrance to Definition Methods 1. Delaying of heroine's departure by a series of logical circumstances 2. Maintenance of a balance between safety on one hand and danger on the other 3. Maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties 4. Villain's using deception on the heroine 5. Villain's keeping heroine assured that she is always free to leave 6. Placing heroine under obligation to the villain 7. Keeping heroine's curiosity aroused about the villain 8. Having heroine advised on how to act in face of danger Devices 1. 2. 3. 4.

Anonymous warning note Villain's controlling of heroine's correspondence Villain's use of servants as agents and spies Having heroine summarize her situation just before a crucial action occurs 5. Heroine preparing bundle for anticipated journey Definition to Crisis

Methods 1. Having definition occur after heroine's anxieties are relaxed 2. Maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties

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3. Placing heroine in the hands of a captor more severe than t h e initial one 4. Allowing imprisoned heroine a single correspondent who offers some hope for escape 5. Maintenance of a balance between safety on one hand a n d danger on the other 6. The progressive worsening of the heroine's position 7. The urging of the heroine to marry 8. Villain's using deception on the heroine Devices 1. Having heroine made prisoner of harsh, forbidding woman 2. Transporting heroine to a place where she is exposed to evils 3. Tricking the heroine into committing a rash act 4. Villain's use of servants as agents and spies 5. Villain's controlling of heroine's correspondence 6. Forbidding heroine to attend church 7. Villain's eliminating of any possibility of aid for heroine 8. A clandestine correspondence 9. Heroine's being injured in attempt to escape 10. A foreboding dream 11. Heroine's planning to commit suicide 12. Use of disguise by villain 13. Anonymous warning note 14. The threat of a mock marriage 15. Heroine's not enlisting aid because of belief t h a t it is on t h e way Crisis to Culmination Methods 1. Placing heroine in a dilemma 2. Maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties 3. Heroine's concern about being accepted in a new social situation Devices 1. Villain's use of servants as agents and spies 2. Villain's wooing of heroine by letter 3. Villain's feigning illness to arouse sympathy in heroine

APPENDIX A

287

4. Heroine's inability to settle on a wedding date 5. Author's full exploitation of ceremonies to make them meaningful 6. Villain's becoming hero as soon as he becomes protector of heroine Culmination through Conclusion Methods 1. Maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties 2. Heroine's concern about being accepted in a new social situation Devices 1. Having illness justify inaction of a character at a crucial time 2. Having sudden arrival of an unwanted person cause an uproar 3. Having a villainous character become an heroic one by protecting heroine 4. Having an important bit of information arise out of a completely irrelevant conversation 5. Having an extremely important bit of information revealed gradually 6. Showing bride-to-be fabrics for new clothing 7. Heroine's becoming protector and confidante of hero's ward Pamela

II

Note: Methods and devices are not arranged according to order of occurrence because Pamela IVs lack of narrative structure makes such an order irrelevant. Methods 1. 2. 3. 4.

Maintaining and controlling of heroine's anxieties Progressive worsening of heroine's position Having heroine's dilemma achieve some complexity Having heroine advised on how to act in face of danger

Devices From Pamela: 1. Use of warning note

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2. Having heroine summarize her situation just before a crucial action occurs 3. Transporting of heroine to a place where she is exposed to possible evils Used later in Clarissa and Orandison 1. Establishment of conflict between two sisters over a male admirer 2. Having hero and/or heroine make provisions, in form of wills, for those who would be affected by their death 3. Villain's exposing of heroine to rakish friends 4. Heroine's assuming role of guardian 5. Heroine's wearing of a symbolically colored gown during a crucial scene 6. Villains and other evil characters dying harsh and sometimes horrible deaths Used later in Clarissa only 1. Having father angered at loss of daughter to an unwanted man 2. Having what is to happen to heroine known to reader before it is to heroine 3. Having family of villain shocked by accounts of his escapades 4. Having gay, imprudent widows cause difficulties 5. Heroine's having a dairy house as a retreat 6. Setting up of conclusion as a separate entity in the work Used later in Chandison only 1. Having hero and heroine serve as settlers of disputes 2. Having hero and heroine either make or plan a tour of the Continent 3. Having crucial phrase spoken in a foreign language in front of heroine 4. Having gay ladies of foreign nationality, particularly Italian, appear to be wicked Clarissa Note: Letters after methods and devices indicate that they appeared earlier in Pamela (P) and Pamela II (P2)

APPENDIX

A

289

Point of Entrance to Definition Methods 1. Maintenance of a balance between safety on one hand and danger on the other (P) 2. Heroine's attempting to obtain reconciliation 3. The urging of the heroine to marry (P) 4. Keeping heroine's curiosity aroused about villain (P) 5. Maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties (P and P2) 6. Having villain practice deception on the heroine (P) 7. Adding of conflicts to those that already exist 8. Placing heroine under obligation to villain (P) 9. Having heroine curious about the villain's character 10. Villain's attempting to control heroine's correspondence 11. Removal of heroine's privileges so that physical isolation is complete 12. Placing heroine in hands of a captor more severe than the initial one (P) 13. Having heroine advised on how to act in the face of danger (P and P2) 14. Having heroine desire to meet family of villain Devices 1. Establishment of a conflict between two sisters over a male admirer (P2) 2. A clandestine correspondence (P) 3. Herione's not enlisting aid because of belief that it is on the way (P) 4. Having sudden arrival of an unwanted person cause an uproar (P) 5. Heroine's having a dairy house as a retreat (P2) 6. A warning note (P) 7. A foreboding dream (P) 8. Villain's use of servants as spies and agents (P) 9. Villain's use of a specific action to gain heroine's respect 10. Showing brides-to-be fabrics for new clothing (P) 11. Having what is to happen to heroine known to reader before it is to heroine (P2) 12. Heroine's assuming role of guardian (P2) 13. Heroine's actually being threatened with a marriage 19

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A

14. H a v i n g a grandfather's will cause dissension 15. Forbidding heroine t o a t t e n d church (P) 16. Villain's wooing of heroine b y letter (P) Definition to Crisis Methods 1. H a v i n g definition occur a f t e r heroine's anxieties are relaxed (P)

2. H a v i n g heroine under obligation to t h e villain (P) 3. H a v i n g villain maneuver actions of heroine by deception 4. Allowing imprisoned heroine a single correspondent who offers some hope for escape (P) 5. Maintenance of a balance between safety on one hand and danger on the other (P) 6. Villain's taking a d v a n t a g e of heroine's fears and scruples 7. Progressive worsening of heroine's position (P) 8. The urging of t h e heroine to m a r r y (P) 9. Heroine's a t t e m p t i n g to obtain reconciliation 10. Heroine's dilemma achieving some complexity (P2) 11. Keeping heroine's curiosity aroused about villain (P) Devices 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Villain's tricking heroine into committing a rash act (P) Villain's use of servants as agents a n d spies (P) Villain's taking advantage of heroine's fears and scruples H a v i n g heroine's assurance t h a t aid is on way keep her f r o m enlisting it (P) Villain's pretending t o be ill to arouse, s y m p a t h y in heroine Villain's intentionally offering heroine an arrangement t h a t will not be suitable Heroine's inability to decide on wedding d a t e (P) H a v i n g father angered a t loss of daughter to an unwanted man (P2) Making heroine prisoner of a harsh woman (P) Villain's exposing heroine to his rakish friends (P2) H a v i n g heroine escape Villain's trying of heroine under different circumstances Transporting of heroine to place where she is exposed t o evils (P) Use of disguise by the villain and his assistants (P)

APPENDIX

A

291

15. Having a gay, imprudent widow cause difficulties (P2) 16. Heroine's desire to meet and know family of villain 17. Showing bride-to-be patterns for new clothing (P) 18. Use of illness to justify inaction on the part of a character (P) 19. Allowing (or forbidding) heroine as prisoner to attend church (P) Crisis to Culmination Methods 1. Placing heroine in a dilemma (P) 2. Heroine further placed under obligation to villain 3. The urging of the heroine to marry (P) 4. Heroine's attempting to obtain reconciliation 5. Progressive worsening of heroine's position (P and P2) 6. Villain's practicing deceptions on heroine (P) 7. Villain's allowing heroine a single correspondent who offers hope for escape (P) 8. Maintaining and controlling anxieties of heroine (P and P2) Devices 1. Having aid come to heroine after it is too late 2. Heroine's attempting escape (P) 3. Use of disguise (P) 4. Foreboding dream (P) 5. Heroine's being injured in an attempt to escape (P) 6. Heroine's attempting suicide (P) 7. Use of illness to justify inaction of a character at a crucial time 8. Villain's wooing of heroine by letter (P) 9. Heroine preparing bundle for anticipated journey (P) 10. Having old beau of heroine offer proposal at crucial time 11. Having major character turn over letters to another character for specific purpose 12. Heroine's wearing of a symbolically colored gown during crucial scene (P2) 13. Heroine's sending of a mysterious, allegorical letter 14. Having family of villain shocked by accounts of his escapades (P2) 15. Villains and other evil characters dying harsh and sometimes horrible deaths (P2)

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A

16. Allowing (or forbidding) heroine as prisoner to attend church (P)

Culmination through Conclusion Devices 1. Having aid come to heroine after it is too late 2. Author's full exploitation of ceremonies to make them meaningful (P) 3. Having hero and/or heroine make provisions, in the form of a will, for those who would be affected by their death (P2) 4. Author's setting up of the conclusion as separate entity in the work (P2)

Orandison Note: Letters after methods and devices indicate that they appeared earlier in Pamela (P), Pamela II (P2), and Clarissa (C) Point of Entrance to Definition Methods 1. The urging of the heroine to marry (P and C) 2. The gradual revelation of hero's life and eligibility to heroine 3. Maintaining and controlling the heroine's anxieties (P, P2, C) 4. Heroine's gradual acceptance into a new social relationship and her assuming of responsibilities within the new 'family' 5. Heroine placed under obligation to hero (villain) (P and C) 6. Heroine's concern for new social status (P) 7. Keeping heroine's curiosity aroused about the hero (villain) (P and C) Devices 1. Exposure (transporting) of heroine to place where evils possible (P and C) 2. Villain's use of unreliable servants to deceive heroine (C) 3. Threatening heroine with mock or forced marriage (P) 4. Having heroine injured in attempt to escape (P and C)

APPENDIX

A

293

5. Having crucial phrase spoken before heroine in foreign tongue (P2) 6. Use of disguise (P and C) 7. Villain's exposure of rakish friends to heroine (P2 and C) 8. Heroine's becoming protector and confidante of hero's ward

(P)

9. Heroine's being advised by members of new social relationship (family) 10. Hero's and heroine's exchanging of letters from which they learn about each other's past 11. Heroine's attempting suicide (P and C) 12. Having a grandfather's will cause dissension (C) 13:. Having arrival of some unwanted person cause an uproar (P and C) 14. Heroine's bracketing sections of her letters home so t h a t those present at reading will not hear her confidences 15. Having hero and heroine serve as settlers of disputes (P2)

Definition to Crisis Methods 1. Having definition occur after heroine's anxieties are relaxed (P and C) 2. Maintaining and controlling anxieties of heroine (P, P2, and C) 3. The urging of the heroine to marry (P and C) 4. The progressive worsening of the heroine's position (P, P2, and C) 5. Heroine placed under obligations to hero (villain) (P and C) 6. Keeping of heroine's curiosity about hero (villain) aroused (P and C) Devices 1. Establishment of conflict between two sisters over male admirer (P2 and C) 2. A character's having a premonition about another character 3. Heroine's wearing a symbolically colored gown on crucial occasions (P2 and C) 4. Having grandfather's will cause dissension (C)

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APPENDIX

A

5. Having gay ladies, of foreign nationality, particularly Italian, give impression that they are wicked (P2) 6. Heroine's serving as guardian for ward of hero (villain) (P2) Crisis to Culmination Methods 1. Placing heroine in a dilemma (P and C) 2. Maintaining and controlling anxieties of heroine (P, P2, and C) Devices 1. 2. 3. 4.

Heroine's inability to decide on wedding date (P and C) Heroine's old beau offering proposal at crucial time (C) Foreboding dream (P and C) Anonymous warning note (P) Culmination through Conclusion

Devices 1. Author's full exploitation of ceremonies to make them meaningful (P and C) 2. Villains and other evil characters die harsh and sometimes horrible deaths (C) 3. Having hero and heroine either make or plan a tour of the Continent (P2)

APPENDIX B MEANS THAT SUPPORT EPISTOLARY TECHNIQUE I N T H E NOVELS AND SEQUEL

SECTION 1: DEVICES OF LESS THAN LETTER LENGTH IN THE FOUR WORKS

Pamela I. Devices used within the letters. A. The postscript. 1. Ways in which postscripts serve dramatic purpose. a) By establishing a sense of immediacy in Pamela's situation (I, i, 3-4). b) By revealing the ambiguity of Pamela's feelings toward Mr. B - (I, x, 17). c) By revealing Pamela's naive confidence in her safety while in Mr. B —'s house (I, iv, 9). d) By revealing dread for what is to come (I, xv, 33). e) By describing the reasons why Pamela is postponing her trip home (I, xvi, 38-39). B. Forced closing of the letter: I, xx, 51; xxv, 81; xxviii, 96. C. Abrupt interruption in the letter: I, xxix, 99; xxx, 110. D. Indication of change in writer's situation in letter: I, xxiii, 59. E. Complimentary closes that are appropriate to situation of the writer: appear in practically all of the thirty-one letters not in the journal. F. Parentheses to set off 'asides' and intimate feelings of heroine: I, v, 10; xx, 48-49; xxviii, 93. G. Dashes to increase conversational effect: I, ii, 5; xvi, 35; xx, 51; xxiii, 61; xxiv, 72. II. Devices used in the journal entries. A. Placing of time labels at the beginning of the journal entries: I, 229, 247, 265, 309; II, 124.

296

APPENDIX B

B. The presenting of a reader's comments on a letter interlinearly within the letter: II, 211-13. Pamela II I. Devices adapted in Pamela II from Pamela A. Use of elegant salutations and complimentary closes: III, vii, 32 & 36; xiii, 56 & 62; IV, ix, 44 & 48; xliii, 266 & 267. II. Devices invented for use in Pamela II A. Enclosing one or more letters, or other writings, in a letter: III, xvi, xx; IV, xxxiii; xlv; xl. B. Inclusion in the letters of extensive passages of dialogue, as well as quotations from various sources: dialogue passages, III, xvii; xviii; xxi; xxx; IV, xli; quotations, IV, xi; xii; 1. C. Use of questions and replies as basis for separate series of letters: one series (III, xii-xix) includes an original request for information from Lady Davers, answers given in turn by Pamela, Lady Davers' comments on Pamela's answers in turn, and Pamela's comments on Lady Davers' comments in turn. D. Use of brackets to set off asides: III, xxiv, 140; IV, liv, 357-58. Clarissa I. Devices in Pamela that are used in Clarissa A. The postscript 1. Ways in which postscripts serve dramatic purposes in Clarissa a) By giving serious warning — Anna Howe to Clarissa (II, xxv, 165; xlii, 311). b) By presenting an extremely cruel expression — Antony Harlowe's letter to Clarissa (VII, xxxvii, 114). c) By serving as a second letter containing newly acquired pertinent information — Dr. Lewen to Clarissa (VII, lvii, 228). d) By presenting a strong admonition not to write — Antony Harlowe to Clarissa (I, xxxii, 243), Mrs. Howe to Clarissa (VII, xxviii, 118).

APPENDIX B

297

e) By expressing strong distaste — Clarissa to Anna Howe (I, xl, 326). II. Devices in Pamela that are adapted to new uses in Clarissa. A. Simple salutations and complimentary closes in Pamela become highly expressive salutations and closes that serve to intensify the feelings between characters. Examples are salutations to Clarissa from members of her family: "Sister that was !" (Ill, li, 282), "Undutiful and perverse Clarissa", (I, xli, 309), and "Miss Cunning-ones", (II, xvi, 104). B. A character's comments, which appear in dialogue form in Pamela, are presented interlinearly on the letter being commented on in Clarissa. This is achieved in two ways: by the use of a printer's 'fist' or a finger to point at statements in one of Anna Howe's letters which particularly infuriate Lovelace (II, iv, 31-47) and by the presentation of Anna Howe's comments in italics between which Lovelace's remarks about them appear (IV, xxxii and xxxiii, 188-200). C. Abrupt interruption in letter is used more extensively in Clarissa than in Pamela and is caused by various circumstances. One example is Clarissa's letter (I, xxii), which contains three interruptions caused by her family's deliberations concerning her fate. Two of Lovelace's (IV, xxxii, V, xxxix) have five interruptions. Other examples are II, xxviii; III, iv; VII, lxxiv. D. Forced closing of the letter in Clarissa is caused by various circumstances rather than by one or two as in Pamela. Clarissa is forced to close because of fatigue (II, xxxiii; V, xlix, 323; VII, xli, 128). Other examples are I, xxxvi; I, xxxvii; IV, 1, 323-332. III. Devices that are used in the same way in both Pamela and Clarissa. A. Indication of change in writer's situation in letter: I, xxi, 158; IV, liii, 347; VI, vii, 27; VII, lxxiv, 307. B. Parentheses: II, xii, 70-78; V, xxiv, 254-57. Dashes: I, vi; II, vii, 46-48; VII, ix, 40-41. C. Time labels in letter entries: I, vii, 51; xlii, 324; IV, xxxiv, 201; V, iv, 47.

298

APPENDIX

B

IV. Devices in Pamela II that are used in Clarissa. A. Devices that are adapted to new uses in Clarissa. 1. Inclusion of dialogue, quotations, documents in Clarissa is extended from a limited inclusion in Pamela to include the following elements: extensive and frequent quoting of dialogue (I, xlii, xliii, xliv); the labeling of dialogue with the speakers' names as in a play (V, x, xii, xviii; VII, lxxiv); the inclusions of stage directions (IV, xlviii, 305-15); the use of stychomythia (I, xliii, 330—31; VI, lxv, 280-82); and the inclusion of lines of poetry (I, xxi, 215-19) and various documents (I, iv; V, xxix). B. Devices that are used in the same way in Pamela II and Clarissa. 1. Enclosing letters within letters: I, xxix; xli; IV, xxvi, 231-242; VII, xviii, 66-69. 2. Enumeration of questions and replies: I, i-iv, 1-31; x, 58-67; xxviii, 177-181. 3. Use of brackets to set off asides: I, xxxix, 281; III, xxv, 144; V, xx, 231; VI, xxv, 98. V. Devices invented for use in Clarissa. A. Beginning the letter in a startling manner: Lovelace's (V, iii; VI, ix); Anna Howe's (I, xii; IV, xi); Belford's (V, xxxiii). B. Writing of a note on the cover of a letter in pencil after letter is ready to send (II, xii, 28) and doing the same under the superscription (II, xxxv, 255). C. Securing of a note to letter by a wafer: V, xxi, 240-242. D. Stitching of meditations to letter with black silk: VII, xxxiii, 107. E. Use of summary or central statement to focus attention: II, v, top of p. 27; xviii, middle of 110; xxxvi, bottom of 261. F. Use of 'Roman Style': I, xxxi and in majority of all of letters between Lovelace and Belford that follow. Orandison I. Devices developed in Pamela that are used in Grandison. A. The postscript. 1. Locations of two dramatic postscripts in Grandison. a) A warning that Grandison's life is in danger (I, xxxv, 269).

APPENDIX a

299

b) A description of a sudden illness of Lord G. (IV, xxxvi, 261-62). B. Abrupt interruptions in the letter: I, xxii, 166; xxv, 182 & 190; xxvi, 270; xxxviii, 305; II, iv, 27; V, i, 5. C. Abrupt forced closing of the letter: I, xxx, 235; I I I , i, 10; V, xliv, 304. D. Parentheses to set off 'asides': I, vi, 28; xix; II, xxiii, 185187; V, i, 7-8. E . Time labels placed at beginnings and at various places in the letters: I, v, 23; xv, 105; xxv, 185; xlviii, 375; V, xliv, 301. F. Dashes to increase conversational effect (used rather extensively): I, ii, 9, 10, 11; xii; xix; xxiv; II, x, 68—76; I I I , iii, 37-39; V, xxviii, 187--189. G. Italics for emphasis of important words (used rather extensively): I, iii; v; vi; xii; xix; xxv; 194; xxvii, 288; II, iv; x, 73-76; V, xlvii, 325-29. II. Devices developed in Pamela II that are used in Orandiaon. A. Letters enclosing letters: II, xxxvi; xxxvii, 315-16; xlvi, 393; II, iv, 42-53; V, xliv, 303. B. Inclusion of passages of dialogue and quotations in letters: II, i, 10; xxxiii, 277-81; xlvii, 398-402; I I I , iv, 54-59; IV, xxi, 149-55. C. Letters that serve as questions and answers, replies and comments: I, i and ii-v; V, 1, 12 and iii-lv. D. Use of brackets to set off asides: II, xii, 342; xlii, 349; I I I , vii, 104; V, xxiii, 125-27. I I I . Devices adapted in Orandison from those developed in Clarissa. A. From the use of a summary statement to focus interest on a problem to the presentation of a problem followed by reflections on it: I, xix, 135-43; IV, xxv. B. From the writing of a note on the outside of a letter to two variations: the writing of a note under the superscription of the inner cover of a letter (V, xlv, 305) and the pinning of a note on a letter (IV, xxxvii, 266-67). C. The stitching of a separate paper to a letter: II, xxxii, 275. IV. Devices invented for use in Grandison. A. The scratching out of passages that may be distressing: I, ii, 5, 6, 11.

300

APPENDIX B

B. The use of brackets to enclose passages not to be read aloud: I, i, 426, 432, 438-40; II, xxxix, 331; xliv, 393. SECTION 2: LETTER-LENGTH DEVICES

I. Involving letter origin and signature. A. From a servant. B. From an ingénue. C. From an anonymous sender. D. From a suitor to a parent or guardian. E. From a suitor and poorly spelled and written. F. Signed by two or more correspondents. G. Released by the receiver for the benefit of another character. H. Written by two correspondents with their sections marked. I. Made up of extracts from letters written in the past. II. Involving time of writing and sending of letter. A. Written before the time setting of the novel and provided from the files of a character. B. Written by a person who is not a character but is involved in the background of a character. C. Sent posthumously. D. Written before previous letter received. E. Sent after recipient has died. III. Involving circumstances of sending and receiving the letter. A. Sent within the same building. B. Misdirected. C. Opened before intended by sender. D. Opened by mistake. E. Intercepted intentionally. F. Not picked up intentionally by intended recipient. G. Letter intentionally left behind by a character. IV. Involving the incorporation of different elements in the letter. A. Incorporating a will. B. Enclosing odes and meditations.

APPENDIX B

V. Involving integrity of the letter. A. Altered or fabricated letter.

SECTION 3: A CLASSIFICATION OP THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF LETTERS IN THE NOVELS OF RICHARDSON

Types Classified by: I. Subject A. Descriptive 1. A scene a) a conflict b) heroine's arrival c) a social gathering d) a play, an opera, or a masquerade 2. A journey 3. Enjoyment from reading about someone else 4. A character's reputation 5. A character's full description 6. The settling of an affair 7. Family background B. Advisory 1. Advice and assurance 2. Instruction a) to a servant b) to a younger person 3. Warning C. Miscellaneous 1. Announcing future plans and intrigues 2. Proposing marriage 3. Urging establishment of correspondence 4. Requesting information 5. Inquiring about a conflict 6. A challenge to a duel 7. A settling of marriage terms I I . Attitude A. Sober 1. Reconciliatory

301

302

APPENDIX B

2. Admonitory 3. Proverbial B. Humorous 1. Amusing 2. Whimsical C. Violent 1. Curt, bitter 2. Harsh, cruel 3. Raving, incoherent 4. Strongly affectionate 5. Exultantly victorious 6. Vehement anguish D. Miscellaneous 1. Pedantic 2. Mysteriously allegorical I I I . Form A. Variations of letter structure 1. Composed of incoherent fragments 2. Essentially a reckless, lively soliloquy 3. Written in dramatic form a) with stage dialogue b) with dialogue, acts, scenes and stage directions 4. Written in parallel columns with proposals on one side and answers on the other 5. Written entirely in italics (completely underlined in manuscript form) 6. Made up of extractions from papers B. Forms other than letter. structure 1. Documents 2. Poems SECTION 4: TOPICAL INDEX OF LETTER TYPES AND LETTER-LENGTH DEVICES

Pamela A. Subject. 1. Describing a conflict, I, i; II, 20-21 (by Lady Davers). 2. Assurance and advice, I, ii; viii.

APPENDIX

B

303

3. Describing a scene, I, xi; xxiii. 4. Proposing marriage, I, 192-193. 5. Warning, I, 302. 6. Instruction to servant, II, 13. B. Attitude. 1. Expressing strong affection, II, 10-12. C. Form. 1. Written in parallel columns listing proposals and answers (I, 256-263). D. Devices. 1. Enclosing odes, I, xxxi, 116-119; 188-190; II, 23; 65; 101-03. 2. Misdirected letters, I, 218-223. (to Mrs. Jewkes and Pamela from Mr. B —). 3. Altered or fabricated letter, I, 155. 4. From a servant, I, 158-159. 5. From an anonymous sender, I, 307. 6. Letter opened before intended by sender, II, 6-7. Pamela II

Status

A. Subject. 1. Describing a conflict, III, xxxiv; IV, v; xxii (brief); xxvii; xxix; xxx. Adapted 2. Describing a scene — social gathering; III, xxix; xxxii, 217-227; IV, xxi. Adapted 3. Describing heroine's arrival, III, i; IV, i. New 4. Describing a play, tragedy, IV, xi; comedy, xxii; opera, xiii; masquerade, IV, xiv. New 5. Describing enjoyment from reading about someone, III, vi. New 6. Describing a character's reputation, IV, xlvi. New 7. Advice and assurance, III, ix, x; IV, iv. Adapted 8. Warning, IV, 175. Adapted 9. Urging establishment of a correspondence, New III, vii. 10. Requesting information, III, xii; III, xxvii; IV, iii. New B. Attitude. 1. Whimsical, III, xxii (Sir Simon Darnford), xxiv. New

304

APPENDIX

B

2. Amusing, III, xxi (Polly Darnford). New 3. Reconciliatory, IV, 270-74. New C. Form. D. Devices. 1. From a servant, IV, 175 and poorly spelled. Adapted 2. From a suitor and poorly spelled, III, 391-95. New 3. Written by a person no longer a character in the narrative, IV, 270-274 (Mrs. Wrightson, formerly Miss Sally Godfrey). New 4. Sent within the same building, IV, 198-201. New 5. Incorporating a will, IV, xvii. New 6. Inclusion of quotations of poetry, III, 194,195, 356-60; IV, 238, 239. Old Clarissa A. Subject. 1. Describing a conflict, I, iv; xvi; xxxvi; III, 1 (Father's curse). Adapted 2. Describing a scene, I, vii; II, iv; III, lxv; VIII, i (Death scene). Adapted 3. Describing heroine's arrival, III, lix. Old 4. Describing a social gathering, VI, xcix. Old 5. Describing a character's reputation, I, xii; II, xxv; xxxvii; IV, 29-36. Adapted 6. Describing a character fully, VIII, xlix. New 7. Advice and assurance, I, x; xxvii; II, xxii; III, iv. Adapted 8. Presenting instructions to a servant, II, 1; III, xliv; Ixii. Adapted 9. Announcing intentions, plans, intrigues, I, xxxi; III, viii; IV, xlii. Adapted 10. Proposing marriage, IV, xxi, 168-71; VI, xv; VII, lxvii. New 11. Requesting information, I, i; VI, xiii. Adapted 12. Inquiring about a conflict, I, i. New B. Attitude. 1. Reconciliatory, VII, iv; v. Old 2. Admonitory, IV, iii; IV, xxiii; lvi. New

APPENDIX B

3. Proverbial, IV, xxiv; xl. 4. Amusing, IV, xxxi. 5. Whimsical, II, i. 6. Curt, bitter, II, xvi, 104; I I I , li; IV, lxxxiiilxxxvii. 7. Harsh, cruel, I I I , xlviii; V I I , ix. 8. Raving, incoherent, VII, ii; V I I , cix; V I I I , xvii; xxxi. 9. Strongly affectionate, V, ii, 8; VI, xiv. 10. Exultantly victorious, I I I , i; V, vi. 11. Vehement anguish, II, xlvii; V, iii; V, xxxiii. 12. Pedantic, V I I , xcix; c. 13. Mysteriously allegorical, V I I , lii, 189-190. C. Form. 1. Composed of incoherent fragments, V, xxxvi, 327-39; VI, xxvii. 2. A reckless, lively soliloquy, I I I , iii; IV, lvii. 3. Written in stage dialogue, IV, xxxi, 172-81. 4. Written as a play with acts, scenes, and stage direction, IV, xlviii; V, iii. 5. Written entirely in italics, VI, 2. 6. Made up in part of documents, IV, xx, 103-06; V, xxix, 289-91. D. Devices. 1. From a servant, II, li; I I I , xliii. 2. From a suitor to parent or guardian, II, xxi. 3. Signed by two or more correspondents, VI, lxiv, 258-69; VII, xxx, 84. 4. Sent posthumously, VII, viii-xii. 5. Written before previous letter received, II, xliii. 6. Sent after recipient has died, V I I I , iv-v. 7. Sent within the same building, I, xxix, 205-06; V, i, 5; ii, 7-10. 8. Intercepted intentionally, I I I , 188-197; V, 31-47. 9. Not picked up, intentionally, II, 324. 10. Incorporating a will, V I I I , xxvii 11. Enclosing odes and meditations, II, ix, 53-56

305

Status New Old Old New New New Old New New New New

New New New New New New Old Old New New New New New New New Old

306

APPENDIX B

(with music); V, 166-72; VII, 99-100. 12. Altered or fabricated, III, xxxiv, 193-96; V, xiv, 166-72; xv, 174.

Status Old Old

Orandison

A. Subject. 1. Describing a conflict, I, iii; xvii; xxiii; II, xxxvii (Emily Jervois); V, vi (Clementina). Adapted 2. Describing a scene, I, viii; xxxi; xxxvii; II, i; III, xxviii; IV, iv. Adapted 3. Describing a social gathering, I, v, ix, x; xii; V, liii-lvii (Harriet's wedding). Adapted 4. Describing a heroine's arrival, I, iv; VI, v; V> i (Hero's arrival). Adapted 5. Describing a character fully, I, ii; II, vii. Adapted 6. Describing a journey, IV, xvi. New 7. Report on the settling of an affair, II, xxvii. New 8. Describing family background, II, iv-xix; xxxixxxii; III, 42-73, 84-99. New 9. A challenge to a duel, I, 316-19. New 10. Advice and assurance, II, ii; iii. Old 11. Warning, I, 300-02; V, 303 (Anonymous). Old 12. Proposing marriage, I, xli-xlii; IV, xxxvii (Exchange between Lady D— and Mrs.Selby). Adapted 13. Settlement of marriage terms, V, xvi. New Old 14. Requesting information, I, xl. 15. Inquiring about a conflict, I, i. Old B. Attitude. 1. Reconciliatory, II, 315-16; IV, lxi. Old 2. Whimsical, I, vii (Mr. Selby); III, xxvi; xxxiii; V, xxiii (all by Charlotte Grandison). Adapted 3. Amusing, IV, xiv; xxviii-xxix; VI, 233-240. Old 4. Vehement anguish, I, xxiv; VI, xvii (Jeronymo on departure of Clementina for England) (Mr. Selby). Adapted C. Form. 1. Soliloquy, III, ii; IV, i (Harriet Byron). Adapted 2. Written with stage dialogue, I, 338-43; 378-413;

APPENDIX

B

307

Status I I , i, 11-14; IV, v, 31 (contains a stage direction); V, xii, 61-63. Adapted 3. Written in parallel columns, I I I , iv, 75-76. Old 4. Made up of extractions from papers, II, x x x i xxxii. New 5. Documents, I, 338-43; 378-413 (Shorthand accounts); VI, xxxvi, 185-188 (Settlement agreements for Clementina). Adapted D. Devices. 1. From a servant, I, xxxv. Old 2. From an ingenue, II, 393; IV, xi-xxiv; V, xxxix. New 3. From an anonymous sender, V, 303. Old 4. Signed by two or more correspondents, V, 94; xxiii. Old 5. Written by two correspondents with their sections marked, V, xlix-lv. New 6. Released by the receiver for the benefit of another character, II, xxix; xlii-xliii; III, xviii; IV, xvii. New 7. Written before the time of the novel and provided from the files of a character, III, 42-73; 84-99, etc. New 8. Sent within the same building, VI, 302-05. Old 9. Left by a character during an incident, II, 31516. New 10. Enclosing odes and meditations, I, 103 (a poem written by a character); II, 10; 221-22 (a sonnet in Italian with translation provided); VI, x, 5557 (Grandison's religious reflexions). Old 11. Made up of extractions from letters written in the past, I I I , 42-73; 84-99; 101-110. New SECTION 5: EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF THE SHORT LETTER IN CLARISSA

1. Clarissa's announcement to Anna Howe that she now has a father's unrelenting curse added to all her other problems, III, 1, 280-81. 20*

308

APPENDIX

B

2. Clarissa's expression of extreme anguish to Lovelace after the rape, V, 5. 3. Clarissa's informing of Anna Howe that she is very ill and extremely depressed, V, iv, 47-48. 4. Lovelace's triumphant announcement to Belford t h a t he has at last obtained possession of an important letter from Anna Howe to Clarissa, V, xxv, 257-58. 5. Lovelace's brief announcement t h a t he can go no farther and Clarissa still lives, V, xxxii, 314. 6. Lovelace's anguished announcement that Clarissa has escaped, VI, xxvii, 115-16. 7. Clarissa's mysterious allegorical note informing Lovelace t h a t she would soon be going to her father's house, VII, 189-90. 8. Belford's enigmatic announcement to Lovelace that Clarissa is dead, VII, cx, 464.

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