Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: International trade and the Late Bronze Age Aegean 9781407304175, 9781407348926

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BAR S591 2009

Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea International trade and the Late Bronze Age Aegean

CLINE SAILING THE DARK-WINE SEA

B A R

Eric H. Cline

BAR International Series 591 2009

Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea International trade and the Late Bronze Age Aegean

Eric H. Cline

BAR International Series 591 2009

ISBN 9781407304175 paperback ISBN 9781407348926 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407304175 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

TABLE OF CONTENTS

This book is dedicated to the memory of my mother, who first introduced me to the wonders of archaeology

Evelyn Helen Cohen Cline (1934-1991)

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"I came by ship, with a ship's company, sailing the wine-dark sea for ports of call on alien shores..." Homer, Odyssey I.180-83.

"It is interesting to note that the Greek words for ships and for the sea are generally of Egyptian or Near Eastern origin. For example, thalassa, the commonest Greek word for 'sea,' is not of Indo-European origin. It is of Near East derivation with roots attested in Egyptian, Hebrew, and hieroglyphic Hittite. It means 'wine coloured' like oinops, the familiar Homeric epithet for the sea" Gordon 1992:190.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................................. xii LIST OF PLATES ................................................................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF MAPS ....................................................................................................................................................... xiii ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................................. xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................................................... xv ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................................xvi PREFACE

............................................................................................................................................................. xx

SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter Two: Previous Scholarship ....................................................................................................................... 3 Chapter Three: Chronology .................................................................................................................................... 5 SECTION TWO: TRADE DURING THE LATE BRONZE AGE Chapter Four: Overview (LH/LM I-III) ................................................................................................................. 9 Chapter Five: Mesopotamia and the LBA Aegean ............................................................................................... 24 Chapter Six: Egypt and the LBA Aegean............................................................................................................. 31 Chapter Seven: Syro-Palestine and the LBA Aegean .......................................................................................... 48 Chapter Eight: Cyprus and the LBA Aegean ....................................................................................................... 60 Chapter Nine: Anatolia and the LBA Aegean ...................................................................................................... 68 Chapter Ten: Italy, Europe and the LBA Aegean ................................................................................................ 78 SECTION THREE: TRADE AND TRANSACTIONS Chapter Eleven: Trade Mechanisms and Motivations .......................................................................................... 85 Chapter Twelve: Trade Routes and Merchant Nationalities................................................................................. 91 Chapter Thirteen: Trade Goods ............................................................................................................................ 95 Chapter Fourteen: Ulu Burun (Kas) and Cape Gelidonya Shipwrecks .............................................................. 100 SECTION FOUR: EPILOGUE Chapter Fifteen: Epilogue .................................................................................................................................. 106 CATALOGUE I. LITERARY AND PICTORIAL EVIDENCE FOR INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND THE LBA AEGEAN A. Egyptian Evidence........................................................................................................................................ 108 Generic Aegean Peoples ............................................................................................................................... 108 Kft(j)w .......................................................................................................................................................... 108 Tj-n3-jj ......................................................................................................................................................... 114 Iww h_ryw-ib nw W3d-wr ............................................................................................................................. 116 B. Syro-Palestinian Evidence ............................................................................................................................ 120 Kptr/Kapturi ................................................................................................................................................. 120 C. Anatolian Evidence ...................................................................................................................................... 121 Generic Aegean Person ................................................................................................................................ 121 Ahhiyawa ..................................................................................................................................................... 121 D. Mesopotamian Evidence .............................................................................................................................. 126 Kap-ta-ru ...................................................................................................................................................... 126 E. Linear B References to Egypt and the Near East .......................................................................................... 128 1. Egypt ....................................................................................................................................................... 128 mi-sa-ra-jo ......................................................................................................................................... 128 a3-ku-pi-ti-jo ...................................................................................................................................... 128 v

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2. Syro-Palestine .......................................................................................................................................... sa-sa-ma ............................................................................................................................................ ku-mi-no ............................................................................................................................................ ku-pa-ro ............................................................................................................................................. ku-ru-so ............................................................................................................................................. e-re-pa ............................................................................................................................................... A-ra-da-jo .......................................................................................................................................... Pe-ri-ta ............................................................................................................................................... Tu-ri-jo .............................................................................................................................................. po-ni-ki-jo ......................................................................................................................................... re-wo-te-jo ......................................................................................................................................... 3. Cyprus ..................................................................................................................................................... ku-pi-ri-jo .......................................................................................................................................... a-ra-si-jo ............................................................................................................................................ 4. Anatolia ................................................................................................................................................... mi-ra-ti-ja .......................................................................................................................................... ze-pu2-ra3 ........................................................................................................................................... ki-ni-di-ja........................................................................................................................................... a-*64-ja .............................................................................................................................................. 5. Mesopotamia ........................................................................................................................................... ka-ne-ja.............................................................................................................................................. ku-wa-no ........................................................................................................................................... ki-to ................................................................................................................................................... ko-no-ni-pi......................................................................................................................................... "rose" ................................................................................................................................................. 6. India? ....................................................................................................................................................... ko-no .................................................................................................................................................

128 128 128 128 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131

CATALOGUE II: ORIENTALIA AND OCCIDENTALIA IN THE LBA AEGEAN I. Figurines and Reliefs ..................................................................................................................................... 132 a. Figurines .................................................................................................................................................. 132 b. Statuettes ................................................................................................................................................. 133 c. Miscellaneous .......................................................................................................................................... 134 II. Jewellery....................................................................................................................................................... 135 a. Armlets .................................................................................................................................................... 135 b. Amulets ................................................................................................................................................... 135 c. Bars .......................................................................................................................................................... 136 d. Beads ....................................................................................................................................................... 137 e. Bezel Frames ........................................................................................................................................... 138 f. Bracelets ................................................................................................................................................... 138 g. Cymbals ................................................................................................................................................... 139 h. Earrings ................................................................................................................................................... 139 i. Pendants ................................................................................................................................................... 140 j. Pins ........................................................................................................................................................... 141 k. Rings........................................................................................................................................................ 142 l. Ornaments ................................................................................................................................................ 142 III. Scarabs, Seals and Plaques .......................................................................................................................... 142 a. Cartouches ............................................................................................................................................... 142 b. Diptychs .................................................................................................................................................. 143 c. Plaques ..................................................................................................................................................... 143 d. Scarabs .................................................................................................................................................... 144 e. Seals ......................................................................................................................................................... 150 f. Sealings .................................................................................................................................................... 162 g. Seals/Bullae ............................................................................................................................................. 162 IV. Utensils ....................................................................................................................................................... 162 a. Mirrors ..................................................................................................................................................... 162 b. Spoons ..................................................................................................................................................... 163

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TABLE OF CONTENTS V. Vessels and Stands ....................................................................................................................................... 163 a. Alabastra .................................................................................................................................................. 163 b. Amphorae ................................................................................................................................................ 168 c. Amphoriskoi ............................................................................................................................................ 180 d. Bottles...................................................................................................................................................... 180 e. Bowls ....................................................................................................................................................... 180 f. Boxes........................................................................................................................................................ 192 g. Cauldrons................................................................................................................................................. 192 h. Chalices ................................................................................................................................................... 192 i. Cups.......................................................................................................................................................... 192 j. Dishes ....................................................................................................................................................... 193 k. Dolii ......................................................................................................................................................... 194 l. Flasks........................................................................................................................................................ 194 m. Goblets ................................................................................................................................................... 197 n. Hydria ...................................................................................................................................................... 197 o. Jars ........................................................................................................................................................... 197 p. Jugs .......................................................................................................................................................... 202 q. Juglets ...................................................................................................................................................... 205 r. Kantharoi .................................................................................................................................................. 206 s. Kraters...................................................................................................................................................... 206 t. Krateriskoi ................................................................................................................................................ 206 u. Kylikes .................................................................................................................................................... 207 v. Lamps ...................................................................................................................................................... 208 w. Lids ......................................................................................................................................................... 209 x. Mugs ........................................................................................................................................................ 210 y. Pitchers .................................................................................................................................................... 210 z. Pithoi........................................................................................................................................................ 210 aa. Plates ...................................................................................................................................................... 211 bb. Potstands ................................................................................................................................................ 211 cc. Pyxides ................................................................................................................................................... 212 dd. Rhyta ..................................................................................................................................................... 213 ee. Spindle Bottles ....................................................................................................................................... 214 ff. Tripod Stands .......................................................................................................................................... 214 gg. Vases ..................................................................................................................................................... 215 hh. Vessels ................................................................................................................................................... 217 ii. Wall brackets ........................................................................................................................................... 221 VI. Weapons and Tools ..................................................................................................................................... 223 a. Adzes ....................................................................................................................................................... 223 b. Armour Scales ......................................................................................................................................... 223 c. Axes ......................................................................................................................................................... 224 d. Chisels ..................................................................................................................................................... 224 e. Daggers/Dirks/Knives.............................................................................................................................. 225 f. Drill Bits/Picks/Pruning Hooks ................................................................................................................ 227 g. Fishhooks................................................................................................................................................. 228 h. Hammers/Maces ...................................................................................................................................... 228 i. Hoes/Mattocks/Ploughshares/Shovels ...................................................................................................... 229 j. Rapiers/Swords......................................................................................................................................... 229 k. Razors ...................................................................................................................................................... 230 l. Sickles ...................................................................................................................................................... 230 m. Spearheads .............................................................................................................................................. 231 n. Tongs ....................................................................................................................................................... 231 o. Weapon Moulds ...................................................................................................................................... 231 VII. Weights and Measures ............................................................................................................................... 231 a. Weights .................................................................................................................................................... 231

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TABLE OF CONTENTS APPENDICES I-III: Raw Materials, Problematic Objects, Disputed Contexts I. Raw Material ................................................................................................................................................. a. Elephant Tusks ................................................................................................................................... b. Hippopotami Canines/Incisors ........................................................................................................... c. Ingots ................................................................................................................................................. d. Shell ................................................................................................................................................... e. Wood .................................................................................................................................................. II. Dubious or Problematic Imports ................................................................................................................... a. Figurines ............................................................................................................................................ b. Jewellery ............................................................................................................................................ c. Scarabs, Seals and Plaques ................................................................................................................. d. Vases and Stands ............................................................................................................................... e. Weapons and Tools ............................................................................................................................ III. Unknown or Disputed Contexts .................................................................................................................. a. Figurines and Reliefs.......................................................................................................................... b. Scarabs, Seals and Plaques ................................................................................................................ c. Vessels and Stands .............................................................................................................................

234 234 235 235 236 239 239 239 240 240 241 247 252 252 252 253

TABLES for CATALOGUE II ................................................................................................................................ 258 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................................................... 278

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LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Modified Revised Chronology utilized in this volume ................................................................................... 7 Table 2. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LH/LM I-II Aegean, by findspot ........................................................... 13 Table 3. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LH/LM I-II Aegean, by country of origin ............................................................................................................................................................... 13 Table 4. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LH/LM III Aegean, by findspot ............................................................. 14 Table 5. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LH/LM III Aegean, by country of origin ............................................................................................................................................................... 15 Table 6. Orientalia and Occidentalia on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Site and Context Date .................................. 16 Table 7. Orientalia and Occidentalia on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Object Type and Context Date ................................................................................................................................................ 17 Table 8. Orientalia and Occidentalia on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Object Material and Context Date ......................................................................................................................................................... 18 Table 9. Orientalia and Occidentalia on LBA Crete, by Site and Context Date ......................................................... 19 Table 10. Orientalia and Occidentalia on LBA Crete, by Object Type and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 20 Table 11. Orientalia and Occidentalia on LBA Crete, by Object Material and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 20 Table 12. Orientalia and Occidentalia on LBA Shipwrecks, by Site and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 21 Table 13. Orientalia and Occidentalia on LBA Rhodes, by Site and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 21 Table 14. Orientalia and Occidentalia on LBA Rhodes, by Object Type and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 21 Table 15. Orientalia and Occidentalia on LBA Rhodes, by Object Material and Context Date ......................................................................................................................................................... 22 Table 16. Orientalia and Occidentalia in LBA Contexts on the Islands, by Site and Context Date ......................................................................................................................................................... 22 Table 17. Orientalia and Occidentalia in LBA contexts on the Islands, by Object Type and Context Date ......................................................................................................................................................... 23 Table 18. Orientalia and Occidentalia in LBA contexts on the Islands, by Object Material and Context Date ......................................................................................................................................................... 23 Table 19. Mesopotamian Objects in the LBA Aegean................................................................................................ 28 Table 20. Mesopotamian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Type ..................................................................... 29 Table 21. Mesopotamian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Material ................................................................ 29 Table 22. Mesopotamian Objects on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Site and Context Date ....................................... 30 Table 23. Mesopotamian Objects on LBA Crete, by Site and Context Date .............................................................. 30 ix

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Table 24. Mesopotamian Objects on LBA Rhodes, Islands and Shipwrecks, by Site and Context Date ......................................................................................................................................................... 30 Table 25. Egyptian Objects in the LBA Aegean ......................................................................................................... 43 Table 26. Egyptian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Type .............................................................................. 44 Table 27. Egyptian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Material ......................................................................... 45 Table 28. Egyptian Objects on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Site and Context Date ................................................ 46 Table 29. Egyptian Objects on LBA Crete, by Site and Context Date ........................................................................ 47 Table 30. Egyptian Objects on LBA Rhodes, Islands and Shipwrecks, by Site and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 47 Table 31. Syro-Palestinian Objects in the LBA Aegean ............................................................................................. 56 Table 32. Syro-Palestinian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Type .................................................................. 57 Table 33. Syro-Palestinian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Material ............................................................. 58 Table 34. Syro-Palestinian Objects on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Site and Context Date..................................... 58 Table 35. Syro-Palestinian Objects on LBA Crete, by Site and Context Date............................................................ 59 Table 36. Syro-Palestinian Objects on LBA Rhodes, Islands and Shipwrecks, by Site and Context Date ......................................................................................................................................................... 59 Table 37. Cypriot Objects in the LBA Aegean ........................................................................................................... 64 Table 38. Cypriot Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Type ................................................................................ 65 Table 39. Cypriot Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Material ........................................................................... 66 Table 40. Cypriot Objects on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Site and Context Date................................................... 66 Table 41. Cypriot Objects on LBA Crete, by Site and Context Date .......................................................................... 67 Table 42. Cypriot Objects on LBA Rhodes, Islands and Shipwrecks, by Site and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 67 Table 43. Anatolian Objects in the LBA Aegean ....................................................................................................... 75 Table 44. Anatolian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Type ............................................................................. 76 Table 45. Anatolian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Material........................................................................ 77 Table 46. Anatolian Objects on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Site and Context Date ............................................... 77 Table 47. Anatolian Objects on LBA Crete, by Site and Context Date ...................................................................... 77 Table 48. Anatolian Objects on LBA Rhodes, Islands and Shipwrecks, by Site and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 77 Table 49. Italian Objects in the LBA Aegean ............................................................................................................. 82 Table 50. Italian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Type .................................................................................. 83

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LIST OF TABLES Table 51. Italian Objects in the LBA Aegean, by Object Material ............................................................................. 83 Table 52. Italian Objects on the LBA Greek Mainland, by Site and Context Date..................................................... 83 Table 53. Italian Objects on LBA Crete, by Site and Context Date ............................................................................ 84 Table 54. Italian Objects on LBA Rhodes, Islands and Shipwrecks, by Site and Context Date ............................................................................................................................................................... 84 Table 55. Orientalia and Occidentalia at Mycenae ..................................................................................................... 89 Table 56. Orientalia and Occidentalia at Tiryns ......................................................................................................... 90 Table 57. Orientalia and Occidentalia at Knossos ...................................................................................................... 90 Table 58. Orientalia and Occidentalia at Kommos ..................................................................................................... 90 Table 59. Open versus Closed Vessel Shapes (all materials) on LM I-II Crete .......................................................... 98 Table 60. Canaanite Jars in the LBA Aegean area...................................................................................................... 99 Table 61. Orientalia and Occidentalia on the Ulu Burun (Kas) and Cape Gelidonya Shipwrecks, by Object Type .......................................................................................................................................................... 102 Table 62. Orientalia and Occidentalia on the Ulu Burun (Kas) and Cape Gelidonya Shipwrecks, by Object Material ..................................................................................................................................................... 102 Table 63. Mesopotamian Objects in Good LH/LM I-III Aegean Contexts ............................................................... 258 Table 64. Egyptian Objects in Good LH/LM I-III Aegean Contexts ........................................................................ 259 Table 65. Syro-Palestinian Objects in Good LH/LM I-III Aegean Contexts ............................................................ 263 Table 66. Cypriot Objects in Good LH/LM I-III Aegean Contexts .......................................................................... 268 Table 67. Anatolian Objects in Good LH/LM I-III Aegean Contexts....................................................................... 271 Table 68. Italian Objects in Good LH/LM I-III Aegean Contexts ............................................................................ 272 Table 69. General Near Eastern Objects in Good LH/LM I-III Aegean Contexts .................................................... 274 Table 70. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LBA Aegean, by Site and Catalogue Number .................................... 276

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LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LH/LM I-II Aegean, by findspot ........................................................... 13 Figure 2. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LH/LM I-II Aegean, by country of origin ............................................. 14 Figure 3. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LH/LM III Aegean, by findspot ............................................................ 14 Figure 4. Orientalia and Occidentalia in the LH/LM III Aegean, by country of origin .............................................. 15 Figure 5. Mesopotamian Objects in the LH/LM I-II Aegean ...................................................................................... 28 Figure 6. Mesopotamian Objects in the LH/LM III Aegean ....................................................................................... 29 Figure 7. Aegean Names and Peoples in Egyptian Texts and Paintings ..................................................................... 34 Figure 8. Egyptian Objects in the LH/LM I-II Aegean ............................................................................................... 43 Figure 9. Egyptian Objects in the LH/LM III Aegean ................................................................................................ 44 Figure 10. Syro-Palestinian Objects in the LH/LM I-II Aegean ................................................................................. 56 Figure 11. Syro-Palestinian Objects in the LH/LM III Aegean .................................................................................. 57 Figure 12. Cypriot Objects in the LH/LM I-II Aegean ............................................................................................... 64 Figure 13. Cypriot Objects in the LH/LM III Aegean ................................................................................................ 65 Figure 14. Occurrences of Ahhiyawa in Hittite Texts ................................................................................................ 75 Figure 15. Anatolian Objects in the LH/LM I-II Aegean............................................................................................ 76 Figure 16. Anatolian Objects in the LH/LM III Aegean ............................................................................................. 76 Figure 17. Italian Objects in the LH/LM III Aegean .................................................................................................. 82 Figure 18. The Directional Gateway Model: Internal Trade and Distribution of Imported Artifacts within the LBA Aegean. .............................................................................................................................................. 89 Figure 19. Sample "Central Place" territories on the LBA Greek Mainland............................................................... 89 Figure 20. Orientalia in the LH/LM IIIA Aegean; Percentage of total imports by country of origin, as compared to the Ulu Burun (Kas) Shipwreck ........................................................................................................ 103 Figure 21. Orientalia in the LH/LM IIIB Aegean; Percentage of total imports by country of origin, as compared to the Ulu Burun (Kas) Shipwreck ........................................................................................................ 103 Figure 22. Orientalia in the LH/LM IIIA-B Aegean; Percentage of total imports by country of origin, as compared to the Ulu Burun (Kas) Shipwreck ........................................................................................................ 104 Figure 23. Orientalia in the LH/LM IIIB Aegean; Percentage of total imports by country of origin, as compared to the Cape Gelidonya Shipwreck ......................................................................................................... 105 Figure 24. Orientalia in the LH/LM IIIC Aegean; Percentage of total imports by country of origin, as compared to the Cape Gelidonya Shipwreck ......................................................................................................... 105

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LIST OF PLATES Mesopotamian imports in the LBA Aegean region............................................................................................... Plate 1 Additional Mesopotamian imports in the LBA Aegean region............................................................................. Plate 2 The Kom el-Hetan 'Aegean List' and Amenhotep III objects in the LBA Aegean region .............................................................................................................................................. Plate 3 Amenhotep III and Queen Tiyi objects in the LBA Aegean region ...................................................................... Plate 4 Egyptian imports in the LBA Aegean region ........................................................................................................ Plate 5 Additional Egyptian imports in the LBA Aegean region ...................................................................................... Plate 6 Syro-Palestinian imports in the LBA Aegean region ............................................................................................ Plate 7 Cypriot imports in the LBA Aegean region .......................................................................................................... Plate 8 Anatolian imports in the LBA Aegean region ...................................................................................................... Plate 9 Canaanite Jars in the LBA Aegean region .......................................................................................................... Plate 10

LIST OF MAPS Map 1. The Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age ..........................................................................................xxii Map 2. Mycenaean and Minoan artifacts in New Kingdom Egypt ............................................................................. 33 Map 3. Correlations between Findspots of Amenhotep III/Queen Tiyi Objects and Sites on the 'Aegean List' of Amenhotep III at Kom el-Hetan ..................................................................................... 40 Map 4. Possible Sea-Routes around the Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age ................................................ 94

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ABBREVIATIONS AA = Archäologischer Anzeiger AAA = Athens Annals of Archaeology AfO = Archiv für Orientforschung AJA = American Journal of Archaeology AM = Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung AnatSt = Anatolian Studies ArchEph = Archaeologica Ephemeris ARMT = Archives Royales de Mari, Textes ASAE = Annales du Service des antiquités de l'Égypte BA = Biblical Archaeologist BASOR = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BCH = Bulletin de correspondance hellénique Bd'E = Bibliothèque d'Étude, Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, Cairo BibOr = Bibliotheca orientalis BICS = Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London BSA = Annual of the British School at Athens CAJ = Cambridge Archaeological Journal GM = Göttinger Miszellen GRBS = Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies IEJ = Israel Exploration Journal IJNA = International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration ILN = Illustrated London News INA = Institute of Nautical Archaeology JAOS = Journal of the American Oriental Society JARCE = Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt JAS = Journal of Archaeological Science JCS = Journal of Cuneiform Studies JdI = Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts JEA = Journal of Egyptian Archaeology JFA = Journal of Field Archaeology JGS = Journal of Glass Studies JHS = Journal of Hellenic Studies JKF = Jahrbuch für kleinasiatische Forschung JMA = Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology JMAA = Journal of Mediterranean Anthropology and Archaeology JNES = Journal of Near Eastern Studies JRGZM = Jahrbuch des Romisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz JSSEA = Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities LAAA = Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology MBAH = Münstersche Beiträge zur Antiken Handelsgeschichte MDOG = Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin MonAnt = Monumenti antichi MVAG = Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatisch-Aegyptischen Gesellschaft NARCE = Newsletter of the American Research Center in Egypt OJA = Oxford Journal of Archaeology OpAth = Opuscula atheniensia PAPS = Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society PPS = Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society PSBA = Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology PZ = Prähistorische Zeitschrift QDAP = Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine RA = Revue archéologique RDAC = Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus RHA = Revue hittite et asianique SIMA = Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology SMEA = Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici ZA = Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie ZÄS = Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde ZDPV = Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins ZfA = Zeitschrift für Archäologie

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS "Sing to me now, you Muses who hold the halls of Olympus... The mass of troops I could never tally, never 'name, not even ifI had ten tongues and ten mouths, a tireless voice and the heart inside me bronze, never unless you Muses of Olympus, daughters ofZeus whose shield is rolling thunder, sing, sing in memmy... " Homer, Odyssey II.573-581.

thanks go to W.A. Ammerman, Director of the U.S. Educational Foundation in Greece, and to all of the Fulbright staff in Athens.

The present monograph is a substantially revised version of a dissertation originally written for the Ancient History Graduate Group at the University ofPennsylvania, under the guidance of Professors James D. Muhly, Spyros E. Iakovidis, and David B. O'Connor. Initial research, from 1987 to 1991, was supported by fellowships from the Archaeological Institute ofAmerica, the American Schools ofOriental Research, and the U.S. Educational Foundation in Greece, and by Student Associate Memberships at the American School ofClassical Studies in Athens.

Thanks are also owed to L. Bregstein, J.A. Brinkman, C. Broodbank, S.M. Burstein, G. Cadogan, E.N. Davis, N.H. Gale, V. Hankey, H.W. Haskell, N. Hirschfeld, G.L. Huxley, D. Johnson, R.B. Koehl, P.A. Kourachanis, R.A. Laffineur, C. Lilyquist, C.F. Macdonald, P.E. McGovern, T.G. Palaima, E. Palaiologou, J. Phillips, I. Pini, E. Porada, C. Pulak, D.S. Reese, J.B. Rutter, J.M. Sasson, T. Schneider, C.W. Shelmerdine, K. Shelton, E.S. Sherratt, J. Smith, Z.A. Stos-Gale, P.M. Warren, G.D. Weinberg, J.M. Weinstein, M. Wiener, J.G. Younger, and E. Zangger for providing information relating to various objects and topics. The photographs reproduced on Plates 1-10 appear courtesy ofSp.E. Iakovidis; M.R. Popham; J. Strange; E.B. French and the Helleno-British Excavations at Mycenae; Y. Tzedakis, E. Hallager and the Ephoria ofI