Routledge Handbook of Communication Disorders 9780415821025, 9780203569245

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ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

The Routledge Handbook of Communication Disorders provides an update on key issues and research in the clinical application of the speech, language and hearing sciences in both children and adults. Focusing on areas of cutting-edge research, this handbook showcases what we know about communication disorders, and their assessment and treatment. It emphasizes the application of theory to clinical practice throughout, and is arranged by the four key bases of communication impairments: • • • •

Genetic, Neurobiological and Neurophysiological Bases Perceptual-Motor Bases Cognitive and Linguistic-Discourse Bases Social Interactional Bases.

The handbook ends with an integrative section, which looks at innovative ways of working across domains to arrive at novel assessment and treatment ideas. It is an important reference work for researchers, students and practitioners working in the communication sciences and speech and language therapy. Ruth Huntley Bahr is Professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders with a Courtesy appointment in Psychology at the University of South Florida, USA. She is a Fellow of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association (ASHA), a Fellow of the International Society of Phonetic Sciences (ISPhS), and was awarded the Svend Smith Award for Practical Applications of Phonetics. Her areas of specialization include clinical phonology, voice production, dialectal variations, and prosody. Recent research involves the spelling abilities of typically developing children and dialectal/second language influences on literacy. She is currently serving as the President of ISPhS and Executive Secretary of the International Association of Forensic Phonetics and Acoustics and was past Editor of Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. Elaine R. Silliman is Professor Emeritus of Communication Sciences and Disorders and Courtesy Professor of Psychology at the University of South Florida, a Fellow of the American Speech–

Language–Hearing Association (ASHA), a recipient of the ASHA Honors for her significant scholarly contributions, and a Fellow of the International Association of Research on Learning Disabilities. Her research interests and publications focus on academic language proficiency in children and adolescents who are struggling with reading, writing, and spelling, including monolingual English-speaking children with social dialect variations and bilingual (Spanish– English) children. She is the author or co-author of numerous journal articles and chapters, and a co-editor of eight books, including the Routledge Handbook of Communication Disorders.

ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Edited by Ruth Huntley Bahr and Elaine R. Silliman

First published 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 selection and editorial matter, Ruth Huntley Bahr and Elaine R. Silliman; individual chapters, the contributors The right of the editors to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Routledge handbook of communication disorders / edited by Ruth Huntley Bahr and Elaine R. Silliman. p. ; cm. Handbook of communication disorders Includes bibliographical references. I. Bahr, Ruth Huntley, editor. II. Silliman, Elaine R., editor. III. Title: Handbook of communication disorders. [DNLM: 1. Communication Disorders--diagnosis. 2. Communication Disorders--therapy. WL 340.2] RC423 616.85’5--dc23 2014041820 ISBN: 978-0-415-82102-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-56924-5 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby

CONTENTS

Author biographies Introduction: rethinking the accepted wisdom in communication disorders Ruth Huntley Bahr and Elaine R. Silliman1

xi 1

SECTION I

Genetic, neurobiological, and neurophysiological systems of communication impairments 1

(A)typical language development: genetic and environmental influences Natalia Rakhlin and Elena L. Grigorenko

9

11

2

Neural network mechanisms of adult language Stephen E. Nadeau

22

3

Reading impairment: from behavior to brain Willy Serniclaes and Liliane Sprenger-Charolles

34

4

Brain imaging studies of developmental stuttering: a review Luc De Nil and Deryk Beal

46

5

Speech and language disorders in children with craniofacial malformations Robert J. Shprintzen

6

Neurophysiology and voice production Eileen M. Finnegan

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56

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Contents

7

8

Neural control of swallowing and treatment of motor impairments in dysphagia Aarthi Madhavan, Nancy J. Haak, Giselle D. Carnaby and Michael A. Crary Neuropharmacologic approaches to aphasia rehabilitation Marcelo L. Berthier, Guadalupe Dávila and María José Torres-Prioris

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SECTION II

Perceptual-motor systems of communication impairments

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9

103

Oral sensorimotor development: research and treatment Steven M. Barlow and Austin Oder Rosner

10 Perceptual processing of speech in infancy Barbara T. Conboy and Alexis Bosseler

114

11 Developmental models of childhood apraxia of speech Ben A.M. Maassen

124

12 Speech recognition skills of children with cochlear implants Laurie S. Eisenberg, Dianne Hammes Ganguly, Karen C. Johnson, Amy S. Martinez and Nae-Yuh Wang

134

13 Instrumental analysis of atypical speech Sara Howard and Barry Heselwood

145

14 Contemporary issues in dysarthria Kris Tjaden, Jennifer Lam and Lynda Feenaughty

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SECTION III

Cognitive and linguistic-discourse systems of communication impairments

171

15 What bilingualism tells us about phonological acquisition Elena Babatsouli and David Ingram

173

16 Information processing in children with specific language impairment James W. Montgomery, Ronald B. Gillam and Julia L. Evans

183

17 Spelling strategies and word formation processes: evidence from developmental and spelling ability data Ruth Huntley Bahr

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18 Literacy development: the interdependent roles of oral language and reading comprehension Kate Cain

204

19 Child word finding: differential diagnosis guides comprehensive intervention Diane J. German

215

20 The person behind the written language learning disability Kerri Wingert, Roxana Del Campo and Virginia Berninger 21 Vocabulary and grammatical profiles and relevant interventions for adolescents with Down syndrome Lizbeth H. Finestack 22 Beyond the Theory of Mind Hypothesis: using a causal model to understand the nature and treatment of multiple deficits in Autism Spectrum Disorder Tiffany L. Hutchins and Patricia A. Prelock 23 Language and the speaking mind: brain in stuttering Nathan D. Maxfield 24 Linguistic disruption in primary progressive aphasia, frontotemporal degeneration, and Alzheimer’s disease Amanda Garcia and Jamie Reilly 25 Word retrieval impairment in adult aphasia Myrna F. Schwartz, Erica L. Middleton and Roy Hamilton

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237

247

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268

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SECTION IV

Social interactional systems of communication impairments

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26 Two challenges of the academic language register for students with language learning disabilities Elaine R. Silliman and Louise C. Wilkinson

291

27 African American children’s early language and literacy learning in the context of spoken dialect variation Nicole Patton Terry, Megan C. Brown and Adrienne Stuckey

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Contents

28 Treatment approaches for second language learners with primary language impairment Kathryn Kohnert

313

29 Second language literacy learning and social identity: a focus on writing Robin L. Danzak

324

30 Continuities in the development of social communication: triadic interactions and language development in children with autism spectrum disorder Julie Longard and Chris Moore 31 Emotional intelligence and treatment outcomes in children with language impairment Bonnie Brinton and Martin Fujiki

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32 Social participation and aphasia Madeline Cruice

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33 Bilingualism and aphasia Mira Goral

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SECTION V

Reaching toward systems interdependence

379

34 Interaction of motor and language factors in the development of speech production Meredith Saletta, Allison Gladfelter, Janet Vuolo and Lisa Goffman

381

35 Neuro/cognitive and sociocultural perspectives on language and literacy disabilities: moving from parallel play to productive cooperation C. Addison Stone 36 Communication as distributed cognition: novel theoretical and methodological approaches to disruptions in social communication following acquired brain injury Melissa C. Duff, Bilge Mutlu, Lindsey J. Byom and Lyn S. Turkstra Index

393

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417

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Dedication For my children, Coleman and Alyssa, who brighten every day with their laughter, love and support. For my husband, Paul, who has always been the shining light across the years; our daughter, Dawn Woods, and son, Scott Silliman, who are the diamonds in the crown; and our grandchildren, Ryan, Michael, and Jenna Woods and Lauren and Julia Silliman, who are the rubies of our lives.

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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

Elena Babatsouli

Elena Babatsouli was born and raised in Greece. She has a BA in English (Honours) from Royal Holloway, University of London, a MA in European Languages and Business from London South Bank University and a PhD in Linguistics from the University of Crete. Her doctoral thesis was on her daughter’s Greek/English bilingual phonological development. Her research interests are in the acquisition and use of monolingual and bilingual speech, in children and adults, normal and disordered. Currently, she is Director of the Institute of Monolingual and Bilingual Speech in Chania, Greece. Steven M. Barlow

Steven M. Barlow is the Corwin Moore Professor of Special Education and Communication Disorders, Department of Biological Systems Engineering, and the Center for Brain, Biology and Behavior. His team studies the neurobiology and plasticity of orofacial and hand sensorimotor systems across the lifespan. A recent NIH-funded project led to a new FDA-approved therapy using pulsed somatosensory stimulation to facilitate oral feeding skills and brain development in preterm infants. A variant of this approach using dynamic somatosensory fields is being implemented to map (fNIRS, fMRI, MEG, EEG) the brain for velocity encoding, with neurotherapeutic applications in stroke and traumatic brain injury. Deryk Beal

Deryk Beal is Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders and the Executive Director of the Institute for Stuttering Treatment and Research in the Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine at the University of Alberta. He is also a member of the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute. Dr. Beal’s research focuses on combining neuroimaging and genetics to understand how genes influence the development of the brain network for speech motor control and its related pathologies.  Virginia W. Berninger

Virginia W. Berninger, PhD, Psychology (Johns Hopkins University), is Professor of Learning Sciences and Human Development, University of Washington, a licensed clinical psychologist, and former teacher who is Principal Investigator for the University of Washington NICHDxi

Author biographies

funded Interdisciplinary Learning Disabilities Center on Defining and Treating Specific Learning Disabilities. She is author of Interdisciplinary Frameworks for Schools: Best Professional Practices for Serving the Needs of All Students (American Psychological Association) and co-editor of Arfé, Dockrell, and Berninger, Writing Development in Children with Hearing Loss, Dyslexia, or Oral Language Problems: Implications for Assessment and Instruction (Oxford University Press), and McCardle and Berninger, Narrowing the Achievement Gap for Native American Students: Paying the Educational Debt (Routledge). Marcelo L. Berthier

Marcelo L. Berthier is Professor of Neurology and Director of the Cognitive Neurology and Aphasia Unit at the University of Malaga, Spain. His current research involves cognitive and neuroimaging studies on aphasia mainly focusing on the development of interventions combining cognitive enhancing drugs and aphasia therapy. He is also involved in research dealing with the neural basis of language repetition and in examining the benefits provided by repetition-imitation in speech production deficits among aphasic patients. Alexis Bosseler

Alexis Bosseler is a cognitive neuroscientist with a PhD in Speech and Hearing Sciences. Her research, which utilizes behavioral measures and neurophysiological methods (event-related potentials/electroencephalography and magnetoencephalography), focuses on the development of language processing systems in infants. She has also conducted research on the speech processing skills of children with autism. Bonnie Brinton

Bonnie Brinton is Professor of Communication Disorders at Brigham Young University (BYU), Provo, Utah. Her work focuses on assessment and intervention with children who experience difficulty with social communication. She has served as Associate Professor at the University of Nevada, Research Scientist at the Schiefelbusch Institute for Lifespan Studies at the University of Kansas, Associate Dean, McKay School of Education at BYU, and Dean of Graduate Studies at BYU. She has been an Associate Editor for the journal Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. She is a Fellow of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association. Megan C. Brown

Megan C. Brown earned her PhD in Experimental Psychology from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Her research interests include the influence of dialect variation on language and literacy skills for adults and children. Lindsey J. Byom

Lindsey J. Byom, PhD, is a postdoctoral Fellow at the Center for Women’s Health Research at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Her research focuses on links between social cognition and social communication outcomes in adults with traumatic brain injury. Kate Cain

Kate Cain is Professor of Language and Literacy in the Department of Psychology at Lancaster University. Her research focuses on how language skills and cognitive resources influence reading and listening comprehension development and how weaknesses in these contribute to reading comprehension problems. Her books include Understanding and Teaching Reading xii

Author biographies

Comprehension: A Handbook (Routledge) and Reading Development and Difficulties (WileyBlackwell). She is the Editor of Scientific Studies of Reading. Giselle D. Carnaby

Giselle D. Carnaby, MPH, PhD, SLP-CCC, FASHA, is speech pathologist, public health epidemiologist and Co-director of the Swallowing Research Laboratory at the University of Florida. Since 2000, she has been on faculty at the University of Florida and held appointments in the Departments of Communicative Disorders, Behavioral Science-Public Health and Psychiatry. She teaches and specializes in research methodology and biostatistics. She is a wellrecognized researcher in dysphagia with over 30 years’ experience in the evaluation and management of swallowing disorders. She specializes in the areas of stroke and head/neck cancer, and has a strong track record of research funding and publication. Barbara T. Conboy

Barbara Conboy is a developmental psycholinguist and a certified speech–language pathologist with specialized training and professional experience in bilingualism and child language disorders. She studies language and cognitive processing and development in infants and children from monolingual and bilingual backgrounds where English, Spanish, or both are spoken. Her research, which utilizes behavioral measures and neurophysiological methods (event-related potentials/electroencephalography), focuses on the experiential factors that shape young children’s processing systems and lead to variations in typical and atypical development. Michael A. Crary

Michael A. Crary, PhD, is Professor of Speech–Language Pathology and Director of the Swallowing Research Laboratory at the University of Florida. His current clinical and research interests focus on disorders of swallowing in adults. Current research includes screening methods for dysphagia in at risk populations, characteristics of dysphagia and related morbidities in stroke patients, outcomes of dysphagia treatment in patients with head/neck cancer, and application of exercise-based therapy for dysphagia in adults. He has published over 80 refereed papers and five books. He has a long history as a practicing clinician and is an ASHA Fellow. Madeline Cruice

Madeline Cruice, PhD is a speech pathologist and Senior Lecturer at City University London, UK, specializing in quality of life and stroke rehabilitation for people with aphasia. Her core research focuses on understanding the relationships between communication impairment, activity and participation (WHO ICF) with well-being and quality of life in individuals who live with aphasia, so that treatment is best targeted for maximum effect. She investigates the use of self-report questionnaires, goal setting, treatment planning, and integrated interventions; is actively involved in teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students, and supervises practising clinicians undertaking research in the workplace. Robin L. Danzak

Robin L. Danzak is an Assistant Professor of Speech–Language Pathology at Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Connecticut. Her research focus is on the language and literacy of bilingual students, particularly adolescents. Areas of interest include bilingual/translingual writing, critical literacy, and writing instruction through authentic and multimedia text composition. She values a collaborative, sociocultural framework in which classroom research aligns with engaging instruction and assessment. She is a recipient of a Fulbright Junior Research xiii

Author biographies

Grant to investigate linguistic and cognitive contributions to the bilingual writing of Italian adolescents learning English as an additional language. Guadalupe Dávila

Guadalupe Dávila is Associate Professor of Psychobiology and staff member of the Cognitive Neurology and Aphasia Unit at the University of Malaga, Spain. Her current research deals with the cognitive-behavioral assessment and treatment of attentional deficits in chronic patients with post-stroke aphasia. She also participates in the study of the neural basis of attention and speech production deficits (accent) as well as in development of new speech-language therapies for Spanish-speaking aphasic patients. She is the principal investigator of a trial combining two drugs with intensive rehabilitation in patients with aphasia. Luc De Nil

Luc De Nil is Professor in the Department of Speech-Language Pathology at the University of Toronto and Vice-Dean of Students in the School of Graduate Studies. His research focuses on investigating the behavioral and neural characteristics of developmental and acquired neurogenic fluency disorders. In addition to his university appointment, he is an affiliated scientist at the Toronto Western Research Institute and a visiting Professor at the University of Leuven in Belgium. He is a Fellow of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association and Editorin-Chief of the Journal of Communication Disorders. Roxana Del Campo

Roxana Del Campo is a PhD candidate in Learning Sciences and Human Development at the University of Washington. She has a BA in Neuroscience and Latin American Studies from the Johns Hopkins University and a MA in Urban Education Policy from Brown University. Her research interests are in phonological/phonemic skill, pitch/rhythmic discrimination skills and musical skills in students with and without dyslexia. She is also interested in brain and language and the use of novel methodological tools for educational data analysis, research, and measurement. Melissa C. Duff

Melissa C. Duff, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders and Neurology and a faculty member of the Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program at the University of Iowa. Her research focuses on the contributions of hippocampal declarative memory to language use and social interaction and the characterization of preserved and impaired memory and learning abilities in individuals with acquired brain damage. Laurie S. Eisenberg

Laurie S. Eisenberg, PhD, CCC-A, is Professor of Research Otolaryngology at the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California. She began her career as an audiologist working with the “Father of Neurotology”, William F. House, MD, on first generation cochlear implants and auditory brainstem implants at the House Ear Institute. For the past 38 years she has conducted clinical research on sensory devices, new test development, and communication outcomes in children who are deaf and hard of hearing. Her research is funded by the National Institutes of Health.

xiv

Author biographies

Julia L. Evans

Julia L. Evans is Professor in the School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas and Research Scientist at the University of California, San Diego. She works in the fields of child language disorders, child language development, cognitive neuroscience, and human memory and learning. The goal of her research is to develop more effective intervention strategies for children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI). To this end, her research focuses on the neurobiology of SLI, in particular the brain structure and functions that support learning and memory in these children. Lynda Feenaughty

Lynda Feenaughty is a doctoral candidate working in the Motor Speech Disorders Laboratory at the University at Buffalo. She received her master’s degree in communicative disorders from the State University of New York at Geneseo. Her research interests include investigating acoustic and linguistic characteristics of speech to determine how cognition influences motor speech behavior and perceived speech adequacy in adults. She has presented at speech motor control conferences that resulted in publications in Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics. Lizbeth H. Finestack

Lizbeth H. Finestack, PhD, CCC-SLP is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Speech– Language–Hearing Sciences at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. Her research is focused on identifying effective and efficient language interventions for children with language impairment, including children with specific language impairment (SLI), Down syndrome, and fragile X syndrome. She is particularly interested in better understanding the grammatical and narrative language profiles of children with developmental disabilities to inform intervention services. Eileen M. Finnegan

Eileen M. Finnegan is Associate Professor in the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders at the University of Iowa. Her initial research focused on understanding how respiratory and laryngeal systems coordinate activity to control fundamental aspects of phonation, including pitch, loudness, voicing, and register. Her current research deals with the assessment and treatment of persons with laryngeal movement disorders, such as vocal tremor and spasmodic dysphonia. In addition, she has contributed to a NIH-funded project examining the aeroacoustics of voice and the biomechanics of the ventricular folds. Martin Fujiki

Martin Fujiki is Professor of Communication Disorders at BYU, Provo, Utah. He has authored numerous publications in the area of social and emotional competence in children with language impairment. He has been an Assistant Professor at the University of Nevada and a Research Scientist at the Schiefelbusch Institute for Lifespan Studies, University of Kansas. He has served as an Associate Editor for the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, and the American Journal of Speech Language Pathology. He is a Fellow of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association. Amanda Garcia

Amanda Garcia is a doctoral student in the Department of Clinical and Health Psychology at the University of Florida. She received her bachelor’s degrees in Psychology and Linguistics

xv

Author biographies

from the University of Florida in 2011. Amanda is currently interested in brain imaging technologies to understand the neurocorrelates of language in healthy and pathological aging. Diane J. German

Diane J. German is Professor at National-Louis University, Chicago, Illinois. She is holder of the Ryan Endowed Chair in Special Education created to support her work in Word Finding. She is an ASHA 2008 Fellow and a Fellow in the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities. She has published/presented many articles and technical papers, and has conducted numerous seminars in Child Word Finding. She has authored the Test of Word Finding, Third Edition; the Test of Adolescent/Adult Word Finding; and the Test of Word Finding in Discourse. She is also author of the Word Finding Intervention Program, Second Edition. Ronald B. Gillam

Ronald B. Gillam is the Raymond and Eloise Lillywhite Endowed Chair of Speech-Language Pathology at Utah State University. His research primarily concerns information processing, diagnostic markers of language impairment and language intervention. He has published two books, three clinical tests, and more than 100 articles and book chapters. Ron has received numerous teaching and research awards, including ASHA Fellow, the Haydn Williams Fellow at Curtin University in Western Australia, the Editor’s Award for the Article of Highest Merit in the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research (twice) and the Robins Award for the Outstanding Researcher at Utah State University. Allison Gladfelter

Allison Gladfelter, PhD, CCC-SLP, is Assistant Professor of Speech–Language Pathology at Northern Illinois University. Her research explores multidimensional aspects of language acquisition in children with autism spectrum disorder, SLI, and typical language development. Recently, she has focused on factors that influence how children learn words, specifically in the areas of phonological aspects of words, prosodic patterns, and the semantic richness of the learning context. Her overall goal is to develop more effective interventions for these populations by improving our understanding of specific semantic and phonological cues that facilitate word learning in children with autism and SLI. Lisa Goffman

Lisa Goffman is Professor in the Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences at Purdue University. The major objective of her research program is to provide an empirical foundation for understanding developmental language disorders, one that incorporates findings about shared language and motor substrates. Children with developmental language disorders, such as SLI and autism, have well documented motor difficulties. Her laboratory uses a combination of approaches from psychology, linguistics, motor control and physiology to assess how language and motor domains interact over the course of language learning. Mira Goral

Mira Goral, PhD, CCC-SLP, is a Professor of Speech–Language–Hearing Sciences at Lehman College and the Graduate Center of The City University of New York. She also holds an appointment at the Aphasia Research Center of the Boston University School of Medicine. She completed her BA in Linguistics at Tel Aviv University and her PhD in Neurolinguistics at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. She has published in the areas of bilingualism, multilingualism, aphasia, language attrtition, and language and cognition in aging. xvi

Author biographies

Elena L. Grigorenko

Elena L. Grigorenko received her PhD in general psychology from Moscow State University, Russia and her PhD in developmental psychology and genetics from Yale University, USA. Currently, she is the Emily Fraser Beede Professor of Developmental Disabilities, Child Studies, Psychology, and Epidemiology and Public Health at Yale (USA), Adjunct Senior Research Scientist at Moscow City University for Psychology (Russia), and Education and Lead Scientist at St. Petersburg State University (Russia). Nancy J. Haak

Nancy Jeanne Haak, PhD, CCC-SLP is an Associate Professor and the current Chair of the Department of Communication Disorders at Auburn University. Over the past 25 years, she has taught undergraduate and graduate courses in medical aspects of speech-language pathology including dysphagia, motor speech disorders, aphasia, cognitive/linguistic disorders, and neuroanatomy. Her primary research interests lie within the realm of cognitive disorders, including mild cognitive impairment, dementia of the Alzheimer’s type, caregiver interaction and in practice patterns associated with dysphagia. Roy Hamilton

Roy Hamilton is Assistant Professor in the Departments of Neurology and Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation at the University of Pennsylvania, where he also directs the Laboratory for Cognition and Neural Stimulation. The central thrust of his research is to use noninvasive electrical and magnetic brain stimulation to determine the characteristics and limits of functional plasticity in the intact and injured human brain. His work also explores the therapeutic use of brain stimulation in patients with aphasia. his research has been supported by grants from the NIH, American Academy of Neurology, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and Dana Foundation. Dianne Hammes Ganguly

Dianne Hammes Ganguly, MA, CCC-SLP, is Adjunct Assistant Professor of Clinical Otolaryngology at the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California (USC) and a speech–language pathologist for the USC Center for Childhood Communication. She has nearly 20 years of clinical experience working with children who have hearing loss and their families. In both clinical and research roles, she evaluates children’s speech, language, and literacy skills. She has published on outcomes and communication development following cochlear implantation. Barry Heselwood

Barry Heselwood, PhD, is Honorary Senior Lecturer in Phonetics at the University of Leeds, UK. He has researched and published in the areas of phonetic transcription, speech perception, atypical speech, the phonetics and phonology of English, Persian, Punjabi, Arabic, and Modern South Arabian languages. Sara Howard

Sara Howard, PhD, is Professor of Clinical Phonetics in the Department of Human Communication Sciences at the University of Sheffield, UK. Her academic background spans linguistics and speech and language pathology. Her research focuses on the phonetic and phonological analysis of developmental speech disorders and the phonetics of conversation in individuals with atypical speech. Sara is Past President of the International Clinical Phonetics xvii

Author biographies

and Linguistics Association (ICPLA) and her most recent books are Handbook of Clinical Linguistics (co-edited with M. Ball, M. Perkins and N. Müller, Wiley-Blackwell, 2008) and Cleft Palate Speech (co-edited with A. Lohmander, Wiley-Blackwell, 2011). Tiffany L. Hutchins

Tiffany L. Hutchins is Assistant Professor at the University of Vermont in the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders. She has researched the relationships from mother– child interaction strategies to social cognition, as well as child cognitive and language development. She has developed and validated new measures of theory of mind and is currently investigating the efficacy of story-based interventions to remediate the core deficits of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). With the use of eye-tracking technology, she has also established a program of research to examine how individuals with ASD allocate visual attention when viewing face stimuli. David Ingram

David Ingram is a Professor in the Department of Speech and Hearing Science at Arizona State University. He received his BS from Georgetown University and his PhD in Linguistics from Stanford University. His research interests are in language acquisition in typically developing children and children with language disorders, with a cross-linguistic focus. The language areas of interest are phonological, morphological, and syntactic acquisition. He is the author of Phonological Disability in Children (1976), Procedures for the Phonological Analysis of Children’s Language (1981), and First Language Acquisition (1989). His most recent work has focused on whole word measures of phonological acquisition. Karen C. Johnson

Karen C. Johnson, PhD, is Associate Professor of Clinical Otolaryngology at the University of Southern California. A pediatric audiologist with over 30 years of experience in the assessment of young children with hearing loss, she has directed pediatric audiology programs at children’s hospitals in Houston, Chicago, and Louisville. In 2002, she joined the Childhood Development after Cochlear Implantation (CDaCI) Investigational Team, assisting in the development and implementation of the study’s speech recognition assessment protocol. She has published in the areas of pediatric audiologic assessment, outcomes in children with hearing loss, and cochlear implants in special populations. Kathryn Kohnert

Kathryn Kohnert is Professor Emeritus in Speech–Language–Hearing Sciences at the University of Minnesota. She received her PhD from the joint doctoral program in Language and Communicative Disorders at San Diego State University and the University of California, San Diego. Her research and publications are focused on language and cognition in diverse populations, including bilingual children and adults with and without language impairment. She is a Fellow of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association and has received numerous awards for teaching, research and professional service. She is also a nationally certified bilingual speech–language pathologist. Jennifer Lam

Jennifer Lam is a doctoral student in the Department of Communicative Disorders and Sciences at the University of Buffalo. She received her MA in Communicative Disorders and Sciences

xviii

Author biographies

at the University at Buffalo. Her research interests are in the areas of speech acoustics, speech perception and motor speech disorders. Julie Longard

Julie Longard is completing her PhD in Clinical Psychology at Dalhousie University under the co-supervision of Chris Moore and Susan Bryson. Her research interests include the socioemotional development of typically developing children and children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Her dissertation is focusing on the development of prosocial behavior in early childhood. She is also completing a project on early language trajectories in children with ASD. She has recently published peer-reviewed research on various areas of early social cognition in typically developing children, as well as research on positive affect in children with ASD. Ben A. M. Maassen

Ben A. M. Maassen (Professor of Dyslexia and Clinical Neuropsychologist) has a background in cognitive neuropsychology and speech–language pathology. His previous affiliations include: Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics and Department of Child Neurology at Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen. His main research areas are dyslexia and neurocognitive precursors; neurogenic speech disorders, in particular childhood apraxia of speech; perceptionproduction modeling in speech development; and speech-related cognitive dysfunctions. He has served as Chair of the International Conference on Speech Motor Control (Nijmegen 2001, 2006; Groningen 2011), and Chair of the Motor Speech Disorders Committee of the Ingternational Association of Logopedics and Phoniatrics (IALP). Aarthi Madhavan

Aarthi Madhavan, MA, CCC-SLP, is an ASHA member and fourth year doctoral student in the Swallowing Research Laboratory at the University of Florida. Prior to pursuing her PhD, she obtained her master’s degree from Case Western Reserve University and worked as an acute care speech pathologist for three years. Her research interests include assessment and treatment methods in an adult dysphagic population. Currently, her research is focused on patients with head and neck cancer and community dwelling elderly adults. Amy S. Martinez

Amy S. Martinez, MA, CCC-A, is Assistant Professor of Clinical Otolaryngology at the University of Southern California (USC), and Clinical Research Coordinator at the USC Center for Childhood Communication. With over 30 years of experience as a research audiologist, she has been engaged in studies investigating auditory perception and speech recognition abilities in adults and children with hearing loss. She has conducted longitudinal studies of auditory development in children identified with hearing loss in early infancy, and helped to develop new speech perception tests for infants, toddlers, and preschool children. Nathan D. Maxfield

Nathan D. Maxfield is Associate Professor in Communication Sciences and Disorders at the University of South Florida’s (USF) Tampa campus. His research emphasis is in cognitive neuroscience investigations of speech/language/hearing, and his clinical emphasis is in stuttering. Nathan’s research in stuttering has focused on brain electrophysiological correlates of real-time language and cognitive processing in people who stutter, both supported by funding from the National Institute of Deafness and other Communication Disorders (NIH-NIDCD) and the USF Seckel-West Fluency Scholarship. He is a member of the National Stuttering Association’s xix

Author biographies

Research Committee, and directs an intensive treatment program for stuttering (Program for the Advanced Treatment of Stuttering, PATS, formerly directed by Pat Sacco). Erica L. Middleton

Erica L. Middleton is an Institute Scientist at Moss Rehabilitation Research Institute and directs the Language and Learning Laboratory. Her research is dedicated to characterizing the representation of lexical knowledge and how learning through language use affects changes in lexical processing. Her work is also dedicated to the development of efficacious treatments of naming impairments in acquired aphasia that draw on best practices provided by basic research on learning and memory. Her research has been supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Albert Einstein Healthcare Network. James W. Montgomery

James W. Montgomery, PhD, is Professor in Communication Sciences and Disorders and Director of the Developmental Psycholinguistics Laboratory at Ohio University. His research has centered on the intersection of cognition and sentence processing/comprehension in children with SLI. He has focused on the influence of memory, storage, retrieval, and attention on the offline and online sentence processing/comprehension of children with SLI. Current research efforts are directed at building cognitively-based models of sentence comprehension. Chris Moore

Chris Moore received his PhD from the University of Cambridge and moved to Canada in 1985. Apart from a two-year stop at the University of Toronto, where he was a Canada Research Chair in Social Cognitive Development, he has been Professor of Psychology at Dalhousie University since 1988. His long-standing research focus has been the development of children’s social understanding, including joint attention and theory of mind. He has published over 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals and edited five books and journal special issues. His authored book, The Development of Commonsense Psychology was published in 2006. Bilge Mutlu

Bilge Mutlu, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Computer Science, Psychology, and Industrial Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison where he directs a research program on designing social robots and their applications in education, health and well-being, and collaborative work. He also uses social robots as experimental tools to study communicative disorders, particularly in populations with traumatic brain injury and autism, developing diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Stephen E. Nadeau

Stephen E. Nadeau was educated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the University of Florida College of Medicine. He trained in neurology at the University of Florida/Shands Hospital and pursued a fellowship in behavioral neurology with Kenneth Heilman. He is presently Associate Chief of Staff for Research at the Malcom Randall VA Medical Center and Medical Director for the VA Rehabilitation Research and Development funded Brain Rehabilitation Research Center of Excellence. His major research interests are in the neural basis of cognitive functions, particularly language, connectionist approaches to brain function, neuroplasticity, and neurorehabilitation.

xx

Author biographies

Patricia A. Prelock

Patricia A. Prelock, PhD, CCC-SLP, BCS-CL, is Dean of the College of Nursing and Health Sciences and Professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders at the University of Vermont. She coordinates parent training programs designed for caregivers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and has been awarded more than 11 million dollars as PI or Co-PI in university, state and federal funding to develop innovations in interdisciplinary training supporting children and youth with neurodevelopmental disabilities and their families, facilitate training in speech–language pathology, and support her intervention work in ASD. She has more than 145 publications and 455 peer-reviewed and invited presentations. Natalia Rakhlin

Natalia Rakhlin is Associate Professor in the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders at Wayne State University. Her research focuses on child language acquisition, in typical development and under conditions of developmental pathology. She is interested in how children’s ability to represent linguistic structure and carry out grammatical computation interacts with extra-linguistic cognitive capacities (working memory, executive control, and social cognition) during language development and how compromises in various parts of the system lead to heterogeneous outcomes found across neurodevelopmental disorders with impaired language. She is also interested in how the social and physical environment interact with child-internal characteristics shaping his or her development. Jamie Reilly

Jamie Reilly joined the Eleanor M. Saffran Center for Cognitive Neuroscience at Temple University as an Assistant Professor in January 2014. Jamie is an academic researcher and also a clinically licensed speech pathologist specializing in dementia and progressive aphasia. He completed doctoral and postdoctoral training in cognitive neuroscience at Temple University and the University of Pennsylvania. His research addresses the organization of human semantic memory and its disruption in neurodegenerative conditions, such as Alzheimer’s Disease and Frontotemporal Degeneration. He currently serves as the Director of the Memory, Concepts, and Cognition Laboratory (www.reilly-coglab.com). Austin Oder Rosner

Austin Oder Rosner is a PhD candidate in Human Sciences, with a specialization in Communication Disorders and Neuroscience, at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. She previously received her BA in Speech–Language–Hearing: Sciences and Disorders, with a minor in Linguistics, from the University of Kansas. Her primary research interests include the development of oromotor coordination, sensorimotor integration in healthy and disordered populations, and the role of sensory influence on neuroprotection, neuroplasticity, and brain maturation. Her doctoral research examines the cortical hemodynamics associated with somatosensory and motor experiences across the lifespan using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Meredith Saletta

Meredith Saletta is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders at the University of Iowa in Iowa City, Iowa. She explores the multifaceted interaction between language and speech, balance, and other motor skills. She uses production-based methodologies, including language transcription, phonetic transcription, articulatory kinematics, and analyses of postural stability and timing, to investigate the fundamental mechanisms of xxi

Author biographies

human communication and learning. She has studied these issues in children and adults with typical language skills, as well as in individuals with specific language impairment (SLI), Parkinson’s disease, or dyslexia. Myrna F. Schwartz

Myrna F. Schwartz is the Associate Director of Moss Rehabilitation Research Institute (MRRI) and Research Professor of Rehabilitation Medicine at Thomas Jefferson University. She directs MRRI’s Language and Aphasia Lab, which conducts basic and applied research on language processing impairments in stroke, including behavioral, computational, and neuroimaging investigations of word retrieval impairments. She is also co-founder and Research Director of the Moss Aphasia Center, which since 1998 has provided community-based clinical, educational, psychosocial and research services to families living with aphasia. Her research is supported by the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health. Willy Serniclaes

Willy Serniclaes is Senior Scientist at the National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS)Paris Descartes University and Honorary Professor at the Brussels Free University. His main research interest is on speech perception, with a special emphasis on perceptual models and developmental disorders (mainly dyslexia and cochlear implants). He is currently working on the applications of the “allophonic” theory of dyslexia for remediation. Robert J. Shprintzen

Robert J. Shprintzen, PhD, ASHA Fellow, was awarded ASHA’s Honors of the Association in 2013. He is Past President of the Society for Ear, Nose, and Throat Advances in Children and received their Robert Ruben Award for Excellence in Science. He was President of the Society of Craniofacial Genetics and Editor of the Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal. He has published 210 journal articles, 43 chapters, and 7 books. He is credited for discovering four genetic syndromes. His specialty spanning 40 years is genetic and craniofacial disorders. He is President and Chairman of the Board of the Virtual Center for Velo-Cardio-Facial Syndrome. Liliane Sprenger-Charolles

From 1990, Liliane Sprenger-Charolles has been working as a Senior Researcher (first in Paris Descartes, then in Aix Marseille University). Her research focuses on the establishment of written-word recognition mechanisms in typical development, their dysfunctions in dyslexia and the origin (at behavioral and brain levels) of these dysfunctions. She has also investigated the relationships between these mechanisms and reading comprehension, especially in dyslexia compared to specific language impairment (SLI). She has also developed tools, such as tests to assess reading and statistics on French grapheme–phoneme and phoneme–grapheme correspondences. She is (and has been) a consultant for French ministries (Education, Health), international institutes (World–Bank, UNESCO) and private industries (Leapfrog), among others. C. Addison Stone

C. Addison Stone, PhD, is Professor Emeritus, School of Education, University of Michigan. He served previously as Professor and Head of the Learning Disabilities Program, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University. His research interests center on the social contexts of typical and atypical language, cognitive, and social development, xxii

Author biographies

with a particular interest in children with learning disabilities and language disorders. He has published extensively in both the developmental psychology and special education fields. He is past Editor of Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, co-Editor of a book series for Guilford Press on Challenges in Language and Literacy Development, and Fellow of the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities. Adrienne Stuckey

Adrienne Stuckey is a former high school teacher and current doctoral student in Special Education (Learning Disabilities) at Georgia State University. Her research interests include teacher–student verbal interactions and development of general educator and special educator co-teaching skills in urban and suburban high schools. Nicole Patton Terry

Nicole Patton Terry is an Associate Professor at Georgia State University in the Department of Educational Psychology, Special Education, and Communication Disorders. She is the Director of the Urban Child Study Center in the College of Education. Her research interests concern young children with and without learning disabilities who struggle to acquire language and literacy skills, particularly children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in preschool through third grade who speak nonmainstream dialects of American English, live in low-income households, and attend urban schools. She completed her graduate studies at Northwestern University. Kris Tjaden

Kris Tjaden is Professor in the Department of Communicative Disorders and Sciences and Director of the Motor Speech Disorders Laboratory at the University at Buffalo. Her research focuses on the acoustic and perceptual consequences of dysarthria. María José Torres-Prioris

María José Torres-Prioris is a student at the Cognitive Neurology and Aphasia Unit at the University of Malaga, Spain. She graduated in Clinical Psychology. Her BA thesis focused on the effect of cholinergic modulation in visual attention and naming in aphasic patients, obtaining the maximum grade with honors. She is particularly interested in research and clinical application of neuroscientifically-based approaches to aphasia rehabilitation and its associated cognitive deficits. Lyn S. Turkstra

Lyn S. Turkstra, PhD, is a Professor of Communication Disorders and Sciences and Trauma Surgery and a faculty member in the Neuroscience Training Program at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Her research focuses on effects of cognitive impairments on communication ability in adolescents and adults with acquired neurologic disorders. Janet Vuolo

Janet Vuolo is a speech–language pathologist and doctoral student in Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences at Purdue University. The overarching goal of her research is to improve treatment outcomes for children with speech and language disorders. Her research focuses on understanding the relationship between speech, language, and motor skills in children with specific language impairment (SLI) and childhood apraxia of speech. She utilizes kinematic, acoustic, and transcription measures to investigate these relationships. xxiii

Author biographies

Nae-Yuh Wang

Nae-Yuh Wang is Associate Professor of Medicine at the Johns Hopkins University. He earned his PhD in Biostatistics from the Bloomberg School of Public Health, and joined the Faculty of Medicine upon graduation. He is a core member of the Welch Center for Prevention, Epidemiology and Clinical Research, and holds joint appointments in Biostatistics and Epidemiology. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles, of which a significant portion focused on longitudinal outcomes after pediatric cochlear implantation. He is the Principal Investigator of the Data Coordinating Center for the Childhood Development after Cochlear Implantation Study. Louise C. Wilkinson

Louise C. Wilkinson is the Distinguished Professor of Education, Psychology, and Communication Sciences at Syracuse University. She studies children’s language and literacy learning and has published 151 articles, chapters and volumes. She served on the editorial boards of and/or as guest Editor of: the British Journal of Education Studies; American Education Research Journal; Linguistics and Education; Discourse Processes; the Journal of Mathematics Behavior; and Language, Speech and Hearing Sciences in Schools. She is Fellow of the American Psychological Association, the Association for Psychological Science, the American Education Research Association, and the American Association of Applied and Preventative Psychology. Kerri Wingert

Kerri Wingert is a doctoral student at the University of Washington. As a former language teacher, she is interested in the ways teachers create opportunities so that each student – with their unique profile of skills and needs – can engage in rich and meaningful language learning in schools. Currently she is investigating how certain teacher practices afford opportunities for students to develop language skills in the context of science instruction.

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INTRODUCTION Rethinking the accepted wisdom in communication disorders Ruth Huntley Bahr and Elaine R. Silliman1

Many decades ago, Albert Einstein in surveying the state of scientific progress at that time observed “We can’t solve problems by using the same kind of thinking we used when we created them.” Einstein’s challenge is still pertinent today. Little question exists that the advent of improved imaging tools and more efficacious behavioral measures has resulted in international advances in the understanding of typical communication processes and disorders across the lifespan. Moreover, the incorporation of sociocognitive and sociocultural factors into research has uncovered the relevance of individual differences in explaining the communication profiles of children and adults who struggle with their speech, voice, or language abilities. Hence, our understanding of the complex systems affecting communication has expanded at an exponential rate. A consequence is that the very breadth of communication sciences and disorders makes it difficult for either scientists or practitioners in particular areas of the field to appreciate how scientific advances in one aspect of communication may affect another facet of communication. The purpose of the Routledge Handbook of Communication Disorders is to provide readers with an overview of this multilayered discipline by highlighting contemporary developments over the lifespan in at least four fundamental aspects of typical and impaired communication. These aspects are captured by the systems complexity of communication and include: 1) genetic, neurobiological, and neurophysiological systems; 2) perceptual-motor systems; 3) cognitive and linguistic-discourse systems; and 4) social interactional systems. Each of these systems constitutes a thematic section of the book. The final section presents a blueprint for theory integration in advocating the concept of systems interdependence through synergistic interactions that include the sociocognitive and sociocultural contexts of communication. The notion of systems interdependence, which is proposed as the primary mechanism that motivates systems interactions, offers two rich opportunities to advance the knowledge bases in communication sciences and disorders. First, it creates a new frontier for research and clinical practices and, second, it serves as a bridge for enhanced cross-fertilization of ideas across the many disciplines involved with communication and its impairments. Systems interdependence is explored further in the next section.

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Ruth Huntley Bahr and Elaine R. Silliman

From systems independence to systems interdependence: Reaching towards new frontiers and cross-fertilization The nature of Einstein’s challenge within communication disorders The field of communication disorders faces the multifaceted quandary reflected in the Einstein quotation. In the United States, as with many other disciplines from psychology to engineering, the teacher-researcher is typically prepared at the doctoral level in a localized area of expertise within communication disorders, e.g., aphasia, dysphagia, autism spectrum disorders (ASD), speech sound disorder (SSD), oral language impairment, vocal disorders, stuttering. Individuals tend to collaborate primarily with others inside their expertise area, generate data within particular subsystems of the expertise area, and publish in journals specific to their sub-discipline. In sum, we tend to spend professional careers in like communities with like epistemologies (Bower, 2013). As shown in Figure 0.1, the dashed circle indicates that those in the sub-areas of language, speech, or hearing tend to maintain a microscopic eye primarily within their own research milieu, which does not necessarily take into account how interactions among the four subsystems influence communicative functioning as a whole. If the social contexts of communication are considered, they are often treated as “add-ons,” not as central to understanding individual patterns of communication performance.

Sociocognitive context

Language

Genetic, neurobiological, and neurophysiological systems

Speech

Sociocultural context

Systems Social Independent Model interactional systems

Hearing

Perceptualmotor systems

Cognitive and linguisticdiscourse systems

Figure 0.1 The systems independent model. This inner circle of the model depicts four basic systems of the communication process, which research and practice frequently regard as four separate subsystems. The broken dotted line represents inadequate consideration of synergistic interconnections among the systems. The outer dashed circle represents the tendency for research and clinical practice within each of the subsystems to be approached primarily within the domain of expertise. The external circles, depicting sociocognitive and sociocultural contexts of communication, are acknowledged occasionally in research and clinical practice as influences on how subsystems perform, but not as major contributors to variations in subsystem functioning.

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Introduction

A similar kind of fractionation in psychology has led to a reframing of Einstein’s admonition. For example, Mischel (2009) refers to “the toothbrush problem (author’s italics): Psychologists treat other peoples’ theories like toothbrushes – no self-respecting person wants to use anyone else’s” (p. 1). Others (e.g., Bower, 2013) argue that outcomes of this culture are professional isolationism and closed thinking that leads to disorganized theories. In fact, the narrowness or broadness of epistemological orientations to the work of science influence what phenomena are relevant to attend to; the hypotheses generated; the elements of adequate explanations; and the nature of related practices (Medin and Bang, 2014).The “toothbrush” culture is one that scholars in communication disorders should be aware of because of at least two pernicious effects for realizing models of systems interdependence as discussed next.

Two possible reasons for an insular perspective in communication disorders One likely basis for a restricted perspective is that, unlike psychology or engineering, communication disorders is a highly amalgamated field as described in Duchan’s (2011) history. In the nineteenth century United States, the original “practitioners” were educators, physicians, and elocutionists; in Europe, physicians or “speech doctors” offered apprenticeships. By the mid-twentieth century, areas of expertise were beginning to crystallize: neuro-psychiatrists (and psychoanalysts) interested in aphasia or stuttering; laryngologists who focused on voice problems; and a small, but emerging, cadre of graduates in communication disorders concerned with stuttering and, to a lesser extent, developmental problems in language and speech. With the psycholinguistic revolution of the 1970s under the tutelage of developmental psychologists, language separated from speech2 in research and practice. This partition then culminated in a wide expansion of the discipline and profession into sub-areas of knowledge in both domains, including demarcation into child and adult focuses. In the United States, from the late 1970s until now, federal policies further fueled the child–adult demarcation through the funding of basic research in a variety of communication disorders and in the support of special education (for review, see Silliman and Wilkinson, 2014) and health services. We can only presume that the rapid rate of the technological revolution in the past 25 years combined with federal government research and service initiatives in the United States has further heightened the insularity of expertise within the language and speech areas. A second possibility accounting for insularity is that early researchers in communication disorders, regardless of the type of disorder, increasingly concentrated on tests and practices, e.g., the development of normative data (Duchan, 2011). This attention to practice, including evidence-based practices, still appears ascendant, which is apparent from a new emphasis on implementation science within the discipline (Embry, 2014). Without question, attention to practices is vital for professional continuance. However, in today’s scientific world, comprehensive understanding of the intricacies of the human communication system and the multiple ways that its disruption can affect structure and functions often requires expertise that transcends the discipline. Because the crossing of disciplinary boundaries is not common, with some notable exceptions in language impairment, SSD, ASD, aphasia, and hearing impairment (see Dunham, 2014), the door has opened for a wide variety of researchers from disciplines outside of communication disorders to take a lead in investigating mechanisms underlying the four systems identified in Figure 0.1. In sum, new research questions and strands do continue to develop in the sub-domains of language and speech, for example, as stimulated by the advent of the neurosciences and neuroimaging. However, despite these developments, Einstein’s challenge for the communication disorders discipline has not been adequately considered until recently (e.g., Prelock, 2014). 3

Ruth Huntley Bahr and Elaine R. Sillim