Romano-British Mosaics: A reassessment and critique of some notable stylistic affinities 9780860542940, 9781407317472

Citation preview

Romano-British Mosaics A reassessment and critique of some notable stylistic affinities

Neil Andrew Cookson

BAR British Series 135 1984

·B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR 135,1984 :'Romano-British Mosaics'

©

Neil Andrew Cookson,1984

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542940 paperback ISBN 9781407317472 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542940 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

A cknowledgement

W hat

f ollows

c omprises

t he b ulk o f a

d issertation

c ompleted

w hilst s tudying a t C orpus C hristi C ollege, C ambridge. F or h er a ssistance w ith t his w ork t hanks a re d ue t o t he l ate J oan L iversidge o f L ucy C avendish C ollege, C ambridge . I a m a lso i ndebted t o D avid S mith o f N ewcastle U niversity , a nd K eith B ranigan o f S heffield U niversity. I n r esearch s uch a s t his o ne a lso o wes a n i ncalculable d ebt t o m any e mployees o f m useums a nd l ibraries: I a m e specially t hankful f or t he s ervices o f L inda V iner o f t he C orinium M useum , C irencester ; B ob R utland o f t he J ewry W all M useum , L eicester ; P hillip C rummy o f C olchester A rchaeological T rust; M r. T -D C larke o f t he R esources C entre, C olchester ; D avid B romwich o f t he C astle M useum, T aunton; F rank S ear, o f t he U niversity o f A delaide; t he s taff o f t he H addon L ibrary a nd t he U niversity L ibrary, C ambridge; a nd t he s taff o f t he L ibrary o f C lassical A rchaelogy,

C ambridge.

F inance f or m uch o f t he t ravelling a nd p hotography w as p rovided b y g rants o f C orpus C hristi C ollege, C ambridge. I n p articular, I a m i ndebted t o t he C harles M cBurney F und. D eepest t hanks m ust a lso g o t o m y p arents f or t heir c onsiderable s upport. T his N icholson ,

n ote w ould b e i ncomplete w ithout a lso t hanking J ulia f or h er h elpful a dvice a s w ell a s f or h er w ork o n n umerous

p hotographs a nd i llustrations.

C ONTENTS P age F oreword

1

P art I

I ntroduction

1 .1

S tyle

1 .2 1 .3

Specificity o f a ffinity P roblems i n current s tudies

2 2 .1 2 .2 2 .3 2 .4

C onsidering s tyle i n R oman s ociety I nscriptions i n m osaic Inscriptions a nd w orkshops i n B ritain A rchaeological u ses o f s tyle Different l evels o f a ffinity b etween m osaics

3

T he m aking o f am osaic

2

3

6

T he u nspecialised p roduction a nd u se o f t esserae 3 .1 3 .2 3 .3

T esserae f abrics Colour o f t esserae P reparation o f t esserae T he p lanning o f s pace w ithin a m osaic

3 .4 3 .5 3 .6 3 .7 3 .8 3 .9 3 .10

P lanning a m osaic Adaptions Aids t o d esign The m ethods o f l aying a nd b onding tesserae T he d irect m ethod T he p lain i ndirect m ethod T he r everse i ndirect m ethod

P art I I

M osaics o f t he S econd a nd E arly-Third C enturies

1 1 .1

S equential a ffinity L ozenge d esigns

1 .2 1 .3 1 .4

G rid d esigns Fully c entralised, c ircular o r r adial d esigns A d iscussion o f f igural w ork a s a n a spect o f s equential a ffinity

2 2 .1

S ubstantial a ffinity O ctagonal p anelled d esigns

2 .2

Nine p anelled d esigns s uperimposed on c ircular a rrangements

9

1 2

1 7 17

2 2

2 7

P age 3 3 .1

I ntegral a ffinities I ntegral a ffinity

3 .2 3 .3 3 .4 3 .5 3 .6

A l ist o f p avements u nder c onsideration i n t he s outh-eastern p art o f t he p rovince M osaic 7 V erulamium , N orth H ill m osaics B a nd C T he m osaic f rom H igh W ycombe T he M iddleborough m osaic I nterpretation o f m osaics f rom C olchester

3 .7 3 .8

O ther m osaics f rom C olchester T he L ion a nd S tag m osaic

3 .9 3 .10

Am osaic f rom N orth L eigh T he O ceanus m osaic

4 4 .1 4 .2

4 1

4 .3 4 .4

U nitary a ffinities M osaic 7 V erulamium , N orth H ill m osaics B a nd C M osaics f rom t he M iddleborough s ite, a nd V erulamium T wo m osaics f rom V erulamium T he w orkshop a t L eicester

5

A s ummary o f p art I I

4 4

P art I II

M osaics o f C entral S outh-Western E ngland i n t he L ate-Third a nd F ourth C enturies

4 6

1

T he r egion a nd i ts m osaics

2

S equential a ffinities

2 .1 2 .2 2 .3

S imple g eometric p atterns esigns C oncentric c ircular d D iagonal a nd r otated l inear d esigns

3 3 .1

S ubstantial a ffinities I nterlaced s quares a s a f orm o f s ubstantial

3 .2 3 .3

a ffinity T ypes o f i nterlaced s quare a rrangement S ome d ates f or t hese m osaics

3 .4 3 .5 3 .6

T ype D a rrangements T ype B a rrangements T ype C a rrangements

4 .1 4 .2

I ntegral a ffinities I ntegral g roup ( a): t he m osaics o f N ewton S t. L oe a nd W ithington D ates o f m osaics i n i ntegral g roup ( a)

4 .3

3 2

3 5

4 8

5 3

5 9

6 3

P age 4 .4 4 .5 4 .6 4 .7

O ther m osaics o f i ntegral g roup ( a) Integral g roup ( b) T ype B a rrangements o f i nterlaced s quares Saltire m osaics f rom C hedworth, N orth L eigh

4 .8

a nd T ockington P ark M osaics f rom K ingscote, A shcroft ( Cirencester)

4 .9

a nd G loucester Mosaics f rom H alstock a nd L ondon

5 5 .1 5 .2

U nitary a ffinities A n O rpheus w orkshop T he m osaics f rom Halstock ,

5 .3

a nd G loucester N orth L eigh, T ockington P ark a nd C hedworth

69

74 L ondon ,

B ishopstone

6

A s ummary o f p art I II

7 6

P art I V

F ourth C enturyM osaics f rom Y orkshire a nd H umberside

7 8

1 .1

S ummary l ist o f m osaics

2 2 .1 2 .2

S equential a ffinities Radial a nd r ichly f igured d esigns Banded g eometric d esigns a nd m eanders

3 .1 3 .2 3 .3 3 .4 3 .5 3 .6 3 .7

S ubstantial a ffinities T he d ating o f t hese g roups Group ( i) Group ( ii) Group ( iii) Group ( iv) Group ( v)

4 4 .1 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4 4 .5 5

F urther a nalysis o f s ubstantial groups a nd

8 0

84

9 1

i nstances o f u nitary a ffinity. Group ( i) G roup ( ii) Group ( iii) G roup ( iv) Group ( v) A d iscussion o f i ndividual m osaics: t he M uses m osaic f rom A ldborough , t he m osaic f rom D alton P arlours, t he m osaic f rom T oft G reen , Y ork ,

9 5

t he Horkstow m osaic a nd o thers 6

A s ummary o f p art I V

9 8

P age P art V

C onclusion

1 00

N otes t o p art I

1 03

N otes t o p art I I

1 09

A ppendices

A :

I nscriptions i n t he m osaics o f R oman B ritain

1 11

B :

E vidence o f w orkshops a nd k napping

1 14

a reas.. C :

T he u se o f g lass t esserae..

1 16

D :

T he t ime t aken t o l ay m osaics

1 20

E :

A n ote o n t he c hronology o f s econd

1 23

a nd t hird c entury m osaics:

B ibliography P lates

E 1.1

S ummary l ist o f p avements c onsidered i n p art I I

E 1.2

T he m id-second c entury t o c .

E 1.3

T he l ater s econd c entury

1 29

E 1.4

T he e arly-third c entury a nd a fter

1 34

F :

T he p rincipal m osaics d iscussed i n p art I II

1 36

1 70

1 26

1 39-158

L ist o f M aps 1 .

S ites o f p rincipal R oman m osaic .

2 .

P rincipal g rid a rrangements in t he s econd a nd e arly-

f .p ,i9

t hird c enturies. 3 .

T he d istribution o f f ully c entralised d esigns i n t he

pAi

s econd a nd e arly-third c enturies 4 .

S ites o f p rincipal f ourth century m osaic i n c entral

4 ;

s outh-western E ngland. 5 .

M osaics i ndicating s pecific s tylistic affinities ( in c entral s outh-western E ngland).

6 9

6 .

P rincipal s ites o f m osaics i n Y orkshire a nd Humberside.

7 8

7 .

T he m osaics o f f ive substantial g roups i n Y orkshire a nd Humberside.

9 1

F OREWORD

I n aw ork w hich c onsiders t he a rchaeology o f s tyle,

i t w ould b e

u nnecessary t o u nderline t he i ndependence r equired o f a rchaeology i n t he a cquisition o f k nowledge , i f t his i ndependence w as n ot n eglected. H owever, t he n eglect i s r eal a nd t he a rchaeologist, t herefore, m ust i nsist t hat t he r eservation , c lumsy a rticulation a nd n ominal o bservat ions w hich c omprise t he i ndependent c ore o f h is d iscipline s hould b e a ccentuated. T he e xploration o f a rchaeology a s a m etaphorical e xpression o f o ne c ulture's a ssessment o f a nother, o r t he a pplication o f a rchaeology a s a s upplement t o a nother b ody o f k nowledge ( usually h istorical), h ave t heir p laces, b ut, w ithout t he f ormer e mphasis, t he o bjects u pon w hich t hey w ork a re d iminished. E ventually, t hey t urn a ttractive e xplanations i nto o nes w hich a re i mprobable. T his w ork , t herefore , h as t wo m ain a ims: ( i) t o p rovide a c ritical r eassessment o f a ffinity a s i t i s a pplied i n t he a rchaeol ogical s tudy o f R omano-British m osaics, i ncluding a s tatement o f s ome d ifferent d egrees o f a ffinity; ( ii) t o d iscuss e xplanations o f o bserved d istributions a nd a ffinities o ther t han t hose e xplanations a ssociated e xpressly w ith t he o rganisation o f m osaicists, i .e. t hose w hich a ccount f or t he r ole o f o ther p ersons i n s ociety o r e stablish a b ackground o f s equence a nd t radition. T he c ast o f t he w ork i s e specially B ritish ( of B ritish m osaics), w ith r ecourse t o c ontinental m osaics o nly w here t hese s uggest s trong p arallels, o r t o f oreign i nscriptions a nd h istorical r ecords o nly w here t he m aterial i s e xplicit. T he w ork a ssumes a n a rrangement o f o rganisations -including t hose r elatable o nly t o t he m osaicists t hemselves -in o rder t o p resent a c learer p icture o f s ome m ajor i ndigenous d evelopments.

1

P art I

1 .

I ntroduction

1 .1 S tyle, a s i t a bstracts c haracteristics f rom a f ormless, m aterial b ackground, i s c onsidered h ere a s a n a ppropriate s ubject f or a rchaeo logy: i t c an h ave m any l inguistic d efinitions b ut, i n t he s ense i n w hich i t i s t o b e e mployed b elow , ' ...the m anner i n w hich a w ork o f a rt i s e xecuted, r egarded a s1 c haracteristic o g t he i ndividual a rtist tyle c an e xist o r o f h is t ime a nd p lace... s eems a dequate. 4 A s t heoretically, a t l east -for e very f orm , a nd e ach a rtefact e xhibits a n umber o f p ossible a ppearances, d epending o n t he o bserver's i ntere sts. S uch i nterests s hould n ot, h owever, b e c onfused w ith t he ( stylistic) s ubject m atter , b ecause t his l eads t o a n o mission o f s ome c onsiderations o f s tyle o r a n o ver-generalized a ccount o f t hose s tylistic s imilarities w hich a re r ecognized. I ndeed, i n o ffering a c ritique o f c urrent t hinking o n t he m eaning o f s ome s pecific, r egion al , s tylistic a ffinities, w ork h opes t o o vercome.

i t i s f ailings s uch a s t hese w hich t his

1 .2 T he d egree o f a ffinity b etween a rtefacts c an v ary w ith t he p urposes t o w hich s uch a m easure i s t o b e p ut. F or e xample , a n a ppreciation o f t he i mpression w hich t he o wner o f am osaic w ished t o c ommunicate t o h is g uests, c learly r equires a n e xamination o f m ore g eneral f eatures o f a p avement t han d oes a n a nalysis o f t he t echn iques o f i ndividual c raftsmen r esponsible f or t he w ork . N o s ingle l evel o f a ffinity c an b e c onsidered, o bjectively , a s t he c ardinal l evel; i n f act, i t i s i mportant t o c onsider a n umber o f d ifferent l evels o f a ffinity. T he m ost v aluable p icture i s p rovided b y a c onsideration o f s everal s pheres o f i nterest. T hese m ay b e -i ndeed, a re o ften a ssumed t o b e -reflections o f v arious l evels o f s tylistic a ffinity o r d ivisions o f t he ' stylistic b ase'. I n o ne s ense , t here f ore, t he c haracter o f a n a rtefact o r s ample c hanges, d epending o n t he i nterests i nvolved. 1 .3 N eglect o f s uch c onsiderations h as h ad n otable r epercussions f or t he s tudy o f R omano-British m osaics. I n p articular , a p re-occupation w ith t he p ossible o rganisation o f c raftsmen h as a llowed t he s pecific e vidence a ssociated w ith a l imited i nterest t o b e c onfused w ith t he f ull s ignificance o f a ll s tylistic r elationships. T he s ignificance o f s tylistic r elationships i n t he s econd a nd e arly-third c enturies, f or e xample, b ut f or S mith's a rticle ( 1975), h as r eceived l ittle s tudy -d ue l argely, I s uspect, t o t he l ack h ere o f a ny o f t he 2

' right

t ype o f

e vidence. 4

I n o ther i nstances,

a s earch f or s pecific

t ypes o f c raft o rganisation w ill u ncover s ome e vidence o f t he w hich i s s ought; b ut t he v alue o f t his m ight t hen b e i nflated, o ther e vidence e astern E ngland,

t ype a nd

o verlooked. I n t he m id-fourth c entury, i n n ortht he ' Petuarian s chool ' a ppears t o b e s uch a c ase.

T here i s a f urther p roblem , w here o rganisations o f a s pecific t ype a re a ttested, e .g. a s chool o f m osaicists c entered o n C irencester, 6 i n t hat t he r igours o f i nquiry i nto o ne l evel o f a ffinity m ake i t d ifficult t o c onsider o ther l evels o f s tylistic r elationship. W ith t he ' Corinian s chool', t his h as m eant t hat v ery s pecific a ffinities w hich m ight b e i ndicative o f ' workshops', o r m ore g eneral a ffinities w hich m ight i ndicate a n a ccordance o f t astes a mongst c lients, h ave b een o verlooked. S uch i solation, o f a s ingle l evel o f a ffinity, c an b e v aluable a s l ong a s o ther l evels a re d iscussed s ubsequently. H owever, t his i s r arely t he c ase, p ossibly b ecause t his n arrowing o f i nterests h as a lso r esulted i n a n arrowing o f t he e vidence o r s ubject m atter. T he f requently s implistic p icture o f s tylistic s ignificance w hich e merges, a t t he v ery l east, d oes n ot d o j ustice t o t he i nteg rity o f

t he s chools w hich a re p ostulated.

I n m ore g eneral t erms, t here i s a c onfusion o ver t he s tylistic a ffinities b etween m osaics a nd t he r elationship o f t heir p roducers. T his i s d ue, l argely, t o t he v iew t hat a ny a ffinity i s e xplicable b y r eference t o t he w ork o f t he c raftsmen c oncerned ( because w hat i s v isible h as b een a ttributed e xclusively t o t he h and o f t he m osaic ist). A s a r esult, w e p ossess a v ocabulary w hich s uggests t hat m osaicists w ere a lmost e verywhere -especially i n t he f ourth c entury -c onstituted i nto o rganised g roups, b etween w hich m igrations w ere p ossible. However , t he s tylistic s ignificance o f a m osaic i s a ccount able t o s ome p roperties o f w hich t he m osaicist w as u naware: t o t alk a s i f a ny a ssociation o f f eatures w as a rranged b y -or e ven k nown t o -h im i s u nhelpful, a nd c reates c onfusion w here t here n eed b e n one. 2 .

C onsidering S tyle i n R oman S ociety

i n I t i s n otoriously d ifficult t o d iscuss t he r ole o f a esthetics p laces R ome a nd t o a scribe d efinite a esthetic i nterests t o s pecific osaics o r s ocial g roups: B rendel ( 1979) a nd B rilliant ( 1974). F or m s tyle e specially, r ecommendations o f a ppropriate t aste o r c hoice o f V II i ) i s p redomia re f ew a nd v ery g eneral. V itruvius ( De A rch. osaic, e .g. t he n antly c oncerned w ith t he a rchi t ectural a spects o f m 3 0 .60 .64), m eant echnicalities o f f oundations.' P liny ( Hist. N at. nly s light w hile, e choes m uch o f t hat d iscussed b y V itruvius -w ith o articular f oundad ifferences, e .g. t he t ypes o f p avements t o w hich p rafts w hich m ight t ions a re a pplicable. E ven c ommentaries o n t hose c a esthetic e nvirb e e xpected t o t hrow s ome n ew l ight o n t he b roader o nment

-

o f m osaic,

s uch a s L ucian's D ream ,

a re o f

l ittle a ssistance.

2 .1 I nscriptions, s ource

o f

w ithin

i nformation .

p rovide a

r icher

T hese d o r equire a c ertain d egree o f

m osaics a nd e lsewhere,

i nfer -

e nce, b ut i t i s c lear t hat u nder s ome c onditions s uch r emains c an s uggest t he n ame o f a s ponsor, t he r eason f or s ponsorship, a nd t he p resence o f a r espected c raft ren o r g roup o f c raftsmen. A t robably a t B avay -in F rance, a nd a t S eriana 10 a nd A venches 8 -a nd p 3

1 1

T imgad

i n

N orth

a ttested ( although , d iffering i deas o f

A frica,

t he n ames o f

i ndivi 41

c raftsmen

a re

a s i s s hown b y t he i nscription f rom T imgad, e ven t he p ractice i n w hich t he c raftsman w as i nvolved

a re a pparent). D auphin ( 1980), m eanwhile, l ists m any o f t he n ames o f scribed i n t he m osaics o f t he L evant. c lients ( and t h W p urchases) i n F rom L illebonne a nd M ienne, 1 F rance, w e h ave s ome e vidence f or a m aster/apprentice r elationship a nd f or t he e xistence o f w orkshops ( officinae). W hereas a n e pitaph ( in s tone) s peaks o f a m osaicist's i tinerance. However,

f rom P erinthus,

t he e vidence i s n owhere a s i nstructive a s,

1 4

G reece,

f or e xample,

t he

p otters s tamps o f s econd c entury, G allic, S amian w are : f or t he o rganisation o f s tyle, c onsciousness o f i ndividual o r s pecific s tyle, o r w ritten m arks i ndicative o f o ne m osaicist's w ork, r emains s light a nd d ifficult t o i nterpret.

t he

e vidence

i nscriptions a re n ot v ery

h elpful.

2 .2 F or

B ritain i n p articular,

M ost w ere i ntended t o b e e xulting o r t o a ct a s a ids t o t he r ecogn ition o f i ndividual f igures. O nly a t B ignor, S ussex ( no. 5 , A pp. A ) i s a c raftsman ( probably a v ery s killed o ne j udging b y t he q uality o f t he m osaics) p ossibly a ttested, a nd t his c ertainly, c ould h ave b een m ore e xplicit ( p1.37). E qually, t o b egin c onsideration o f t he a rchaeological ( as o pposed t o t he s pecifically e pigraphic) e vidence, t here i s a d earth o f p ossible w orkshops o r c raft a reas. T his i s t rue e ven w hen t hose s ites w hich p rovide e vidence f or o nly a s mall n umber o f m osaics a re i ncluded. T he m ost n oteworthy -sites a t R udston, E ast Y orks., N orth L eigh, O xon., W ater N ewton, C ambs., a nd W ellow , S om .;

s ee A pp.

B -i ndicate l ittle m ore t han t he i mmediate p lace o f

w ork d uring t he c onstruction o f t he p avements o f a s ingle b uilding. I n m ost i nstances, t hey a ppear t o h ave b een s ites w here o nly t esserae f or t he r epair a nd m aintenance o f c ompleted m osaics w ere k napped a nd s tored. 2 .3 I t s tyle

a ppears t hat o nly l imited i nsights i nto t he o rganisation o f a re t o b e g ained f rom t hose s ources -c ommentaries, i nscrip -

t ions, a nd s ocio-economic i ndicators -w hich r eflect u pon s tyle. G iven t his l imitation t herefore, o ne h as t o r ely o n a n i nterpretation o f

t he

r elationships b etween t he m osaics

t hemselves.

S uch a n i nterpretation i nvolves u s, i mmediately, w ith a c onsideration o f s tyle a nd, b y i mplication, ' form' ( that w hich h as b een i ncluded). B oth c an b e p artially a ddressed i n t erms o f c orrelates: ' subject a nd t echnique' o r ' structure a nd f unction', f or e xample. H owever, b oth o f t hese a lternative a pproaches t o i nvestigation h ave b een r ejected: t he f ormer a s t oo s pecific a nd l imiting, t he l atter a s i nsensitive t o i nnovation , i ntention , c reativity a nd t oo s uggestive o f s ocial t ele o logy. F orm ,

i n f act,

c overs a ll i nclusions,

b e t hey c onsidered

i n t erms o f

d esigns, s ubjects, s tructures, b orders, m otifs, c haracters, t echnical d evices o r t esserae. S tyle a ccounts f or a ll k inds o f n uance b etween t hese, a nd i ndeed b etween t hese a nd t he f actors d eemed r esponsible f or t heir m anufacture. S ometimes, t his i s t he r esult o f o bserving 4

o ne

o f

t he a bove t erms

( designs,

s ubjects e tc.)

a s i t

i s

s ubmerged

w ithin a nother; o n o ther o ccasions i t i s t he r esult o f o bserving b arely p erceptible c hanges i n o ne o f t hese t erms b etween d ifferent m osaics. E ven w hen a voiding t he o verlap o f t hese t wo c onsiderations, t here i s, c learly, a v ery l arge n umber o f p ossible p ermutations. I t i s w ith t hese t hat t he a rchaeological s tudy o f R omano-British m osaics i s p rimarily c oncerned: t he i ndicators o f s tylistic a ffinity u pon w hich a re b ased a ny s uggestions o f u niqueness o f d esign , r egularity b etween t he i nterests o f c lients, t he e xistence o f a ids t o d esign i .e . p attern b ooks, o r t he n ature o f t he w orkforce e mployed. 2 .4 T he

m ain a ssumption,

b elow,

i s

t hat v arious

i nferences

f rom

s tyle m ay s uggest d ifferent l evels o f s tylistic a ffinity. T hese l evels c an b e i ndependent o f a ny s pecific i nterest i n R omano-British s ociety, b ut g enerally i t i s n ot m eaningful t o h ave t hem s o. F our l evels w ere c onsidered a ppropriate f or t he a rguments w hich f ollow i n p arts t wo, t hree a nd f our. F rom t he m ost g eneral t o t he m ost s pecif ic l evels o f a ffinity t hese h ave b een l abelled ( i) S equential, S ubstantial, ( iii) I ntegral , a nd ( iv) U nitary a ffinity.

( ii)

I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat a m osaic c an b e c onsidered a t m ore t han o ne l evel -a nd c onceivably a t a ll l evels -of a ffinity. U sually, n umerous l evels a re r elevant t o t he u nderstanding o f a m osaic. F urt hermore , i f a m osaic i s c onsidered a t t wo n on-contiguous l evels o f a ffinity e .g. s ubstantial a nd u nitary l evels, b e s ignificant a t i ntermediate l evels.

i t n eed n ot

n ecessarily

F our L evels o f S tylistic A ffinity ( i)

S equential.

A t

t his

l evel

t here a ppears

t o b e l ittle c ross-

a ssociation o f e lements, e .g. a ll o f t hose i nclusions l isted u nder ' form', i n s ection 2 .3 ( all s ection n umbers r efer t o t he p art u nder d iscussion , u nless o therwise i ndicated). B etween m osaics o nly o ne o r t wo o f t hese w ill b e h eld i n c ommon, a nd a re

a lmost

c ertain t o b e g eneral

( design o r

s tructure,

f or

e xample). T here i s a n a pparent a cceptance o f f ormat i .e. l ittle c onscious m anipulation o f t he e lements u nder c onsiderat ion: a ffinities a re a ttributable, o f w hich t he m osaicist a nd h is

t herefore, t o d evelopments c lient m ight h ave b een

o blivious. ( ii)

S ubstantial. a ssociation

A t o f

t his

l evel

e lements

t here w ill b e s ufficient

t o s uggest

s ome a lmost u nique

c rossr ela -

t ionships. B ut t hese c annot y et b e a ttributed t o t he a ctivit ies o f a n i ndividual m osaicist -although t hey m ight w ell i ndicate t he p redilictions o f a n i nfluential c lient o r c losek nit g roup o f c lients -a nd a re s till m ost s ignificant w hen v iewed o ver c onsiderable p eriods o f t ime. ( iii)

I ntegral. H ere , t here a re i ndications b etween m osaics o f s ome c ontinuity i n t echnique, a ttesting t he p resence o f a n i ndivid ual s tyle . T he a ppearance o f s tylistically c lose b ut f orm a lly u nique m otifs ( signatures) i s a p ossibility, a nd i dentic al e lements m ight b e p resent i n d ifferent m osaics. I n g eneral, o ne n otable b ut n ot f ully c omprehensive s tyle ( or t wo

o r

m ore

s tyles

w hich

d o n ot c orrespond)

i s

i n

e vidence:

a nother, ' indefinite s tyle a ccompanies t he i ndividual -such a s o ne m ight e xpect w ith t he w ork o f am osaicist a nd a n umber o f h elpers. M oreover,

t he

r elationship

b etween

m osaics

n eed

n ot

n ecessarily b e " direct': a g roup o f m osaics c an b e i ncluded a t t his l evel w hen t he s tyle o f i ts m embers i s r elatable o nly b y c omparison w ith t hat o f a t hird p avement ( a ' distributed' r elationship). ( iv

U nitary. A t t his l evel o f a ffinity w e a re p resented w ith t he i diosyncrasies o f m ore t han o ne i ndividual s tyle, ( where t he c ompatability o f t hese s tyles i s g reat), o r w ith o ne c ompreh ensive s tyle w hich a ppears t o e xclude o thers. I n s uch c ases a n umber o f c raftsmen a ppear t o b e w orking t ogether ( to t he e xclusion o f o thers) o n a n umber o f s ites a nd p avements. A p redominant o r c omposite s tyle ( an a ssociation o f s tyles) s eems t o o rientate i tself i n r espect t o a g roup o f m osaics, o r t o a n a bstract d emand f or t hese m osaics. W orks o n a l imited n umber o f t hemes a nd w ith s everal e lements u nique t o t he s tyle a re c onspicuous. I t i s e asy t o b lur s uch d istinctions. I t i s e specially e asy t o c onfuse u nitary w ith i ntegral a ffinity o r i ntegral w ith s ubstantial a ffinity, a s i n e ach g eneral c ase s ome p avem ents w ill u ndoubtably b e c omparable a t t he m ore s pecific l evel. H owever, e ach l evel h as i ts p roper p lace a nd h elps i n t he u nderstanding o f t he o thers. S ometimes t he t ail-end o f a s equence e xhibiting s equential a ffinity, c an b e s een a lso t o b e p art o f a l ocalised e xample o f i ntegral a ffinity. A lterna tively, a n i ntegral a ffinity, e .g. i ntegral g roup ( a) o f P art T hree , s ection 4 .2, c an b e i nstrumental i n t he g rowth o f a s equential r elationship ( in t his i nstance, o f ' concentric, c ircular d esigns"). T hese p rinciples s hould b ecome c learer w ith t heir a pplication i n p arts t wo , t hree, a nd f our, b elow .

3 .

T he M aking o f aM osaic

T he c raft o f t he m osaicist i n B ritain w as n ot s tatic o ver a f our h undred y ear p eriod . , h owever , t here a re c ertain a spects o f i t w hich a re n oteworthy t hroughout. T hese p rovide a u seful i ntroduction t o t he e lements o f s tylistic c omparison :

( i) ( ii) ( iii)

T he u nspecialised p roduction a nd u se o f t esserae T he p lanning o f s pace w ithin a m osaic T he m ethods o f l aying a nd b onding t esserae.

T he u nspecialised P roduction a nd u se o f T esserae 3 .1

T esserae F abrics a nd A vailability C raftsmen w ere f amiliar w ith t he p roduction o f t esserae a nd w ere

c apable o f p iecemeal, s atisfied, h owever,

b ut f undamental, i mprovisations. T hey w ere w ith l ittle v ariety o f r aw m aterial: t ake a way 6

t he c halk,

l imestone,

m ost

a nd

s ites, G lass

a nd

-although ( Boon 1 974,

s hale,

s andstone a nd t erracotta t esserae f rom

t here i s v ery l ittle r emaining . e namel

t esserae,

f or e xample,

a re u ncommon i n B ritain

t hey d o o ccur m ore f requently t han i s s ometimes s uggested 3 45; N eal 1 976, 2 43). A ppendix C l ists t he t wenty-three

i nstances k nown t o t he a uthor. I n g eneral, w e a re g lass w as h ardly a n ' everyday p roduct' i n a ntiquity. i 5 I t

w ould

c eramic e merges

b e t edious t o l ist

t he t ypes a nd

r eminded

c olours

o f

t hat

s tone,

e tc. u sed a t e ach s ite i n B ritain ; i f a ny p icture a t a ll i t i s t hat m osaicists m ade g ood w ith w hat w as e asily

o btained, a nd t hat t he t ypes o f s tone u sed f or v arious s hades o f c olour a re p redictable a nd l imited i n n umber. 1 6 S ome s tone w as t ransported c onsiderable d istances, o r w as a ltered b y h eat, b ut m ost m ajor s ources 1 7 w ere l ocal a nd p rovided s tone w hich w as u sed i n i ts n atural s tate. T he v illa a t B ox, W ilts., 18 h ad p avements o f w hite l imestone ( used f or m uch o f t he b ackground w ork), b lue-black h as, a d ark-grey/ c hocolate-coloured p ennant s tone, r ed f rom b roken t iles a nd y ellow o olite; a ll o f w hich w ould h avc b een p rocurable w ithin a bout f ive m iles o f t he s ite. T he s ame i . : a pproximately t rue o f v illas n ear t o B ox , f or e xample a t B irdcombe, 1 9 Avon. H ere , s andstone f urnished a b uff c olour, p ennant s tone a b lue, a nd Mao t he w hite f or t he t essevon , w hite a nd b lue t esserae r ae o f r oom 1 1. A t K ings W eston , 2U A w ere o f l iassic l imestone,

y ellow w ere o f c alcereous s andstone,

g reen w ere o f a rgillaceous l imestone. h am, z1 H umbs., t ell a s imilar s tory:

a nd

O ther s ites, s uch a z B rantingw hite ( hard Y orkshire c halk),

b lue ( blue-grey l imestone), g reen ( sandstone), y ellow ( calcaLeous s endstone), a nd d ark r ed ( brown s andstone) t esserae w ere a ll o f ' l ocal m aterials. I n

v ery

f ew

i nstances a re w e

c onsidering

s ites

w hich

w ere

e specially c lose t o l arge o r v aried s upplies o f s tone. T wo e xcept ions a re t he I fo ld v illa, G los., a nd t he v illa a t N orth L eigh, O xon. T he f ormer, t esserae o f

w hich h as t he r emains o f a t l east o ne m osaic, oth o f w hich a re has a nd P ainswick s te ise, 22 b

p roduced f ound i n

l ocal q uarries. A t N orth L eigh," t he q uarries o f S tonesfield a re o nly o ne m ile d istant a nd w ill h ave p rovided t he b ulk o f t he f riable s tone , m etres

w hile t he q uarries o f o olite a t S tuart w ood ( less t han 2 00 a way) p rovided t hat o f h igher q uality. H owever, s ites w ere

n ot u sually s o w ell l ocated, a nd e ven w hen d istant f rom s ources s uitable s tone, t here c an h ave b een l ittle s pecial m ovement m aterial i n s uch s mall q uantities a s w ere r equired f or m oeeics. m ost s ites r emnants o f b uilding s tone w ill h ave b een u sed.

o f o f A t

I f w e c onclude t hat t he a vailability o f c ertain k inds o f s tone d id n ot s eriously a ffect t he e xecution o f a p avement, w e w ill n ot b e f ar f rom t he t ruth . A t L ockleys, H erts., f or e xample, s ix t ypes o f s tone f oreign t o t he l ocality w ere r ecorded b ut n one o f t hese w as u sed i n t he p avement o f r oom 2 . T he f ew i nstances o f ' long d istance' t ransport

t end

t o b e e arly:

a t F ishbourne, 25

o r A ngmering, 26

s iltstone o f M editerranean o rigin w as e ncountered. e rror, c ertainly, t o u nderestimate t he s kill o f c raftsman

w hen h e f ound

h ighlights

i n l ocal s tone.

i t

n ecessary

w here

I t w ould b e a n t he p rovincial

t o i mprovise f oreign s hades a nd

7

3 .2

T he c olour o f T esserae A lthough

m ost m osaics c omprise t hree t o s ix

b asic

w ork o f g ood q uality w ill i nclude m any s ubtle s hades. t herefore, t o n ote t en o r t welve d ifferent c olours o f p avement.

I n s ome,

s uch a s

c olours,

a

I t i s c ommon, t esserde i n o ne

t he L eadeepall S treet m osaic,

2 /

L ondon ,

o r t he S easons m osaic f rom D yer S treet, 4° C irencester, t here a re o ver t wenty, ( both o f t hese m osaics c ontain g lass t esserae : A ppendix C ). S uch v ariety h as b een m ost c learly a ppreciated w ith t he r estoration o f d amaged m osaics, e .g. t he O rpheus m osaic, L ittlecote, 29 W ilts., o r i n t he r econstruction o f b uried o nes, e .g. t he W oodchester O rpheus m osaic. 3U S ensitive

u se o f

s hading i s o f o bvious i mportance

-to

a ppre-

c iate t his o ne c ould d o l ittle b etter t han s tudy t he s triking d iff erences i n t he C harioteer m osaic, f rom R udston, E . Y orks., ( now d isplayed i n t he M useum o f T ransport a nd A rchaeology , H ull). O f t his w ork i t h as b een s aid.... ' The

e xceptional

q uality

o f

t he

p ortrait

o f

S pring i s i mmediately a pparent w hen o ne t urns t o t hat o f S ummer....it i s d ifficult t o t hink t hat i t w as p roduced b y t he ' painter' o f S pring : d elineation o f t he f eatures i s i nsensitive, c olouring i nferior' E lsewhere,

i ntelligent

u se

t he t he

( Smith 1 976, 9 ). o f c olour i s r esponsible f or

t he

b lue

s hading w hich f ills o ut e 9me o f t he c anthari s urrounding t he T yche m edallion a t B rantingham,"' H umbs., o r f or t he r ed s hadow w hich f alls a cross t he s houlder a nd l eft c heek o f V enus, i n t he K ingscote m osaic. 32 A n a ppreciation o f s trong a s w ell a s s ubtle c ontrast i s i mportant, h owever : t he b rilliant e ffects o f t he p redominantly g eom etric m osaics a t S ilchester, H ants., o r t he f amous m illefiori e ffects a t t he n eck a nd a round 1 981, n o. 1 6) a re n otable.

t he b odies o f

c anthari

W hilst c onsidering t he c olour o f t esserae i t i s a lso t o m ention t heir p reparation , s ize a nd s hape . 3 .3

( e.g.

N eal

p ertinent

T he P reparation o f T esserae T o

b lade, w hich

m anufacture t esserae a b lade, c an b e u sed. c an b e f ixed

s omewhat

l ike a b road c hisel-

U sually, t his i s m ounted o n a b lock o f t o a b ench o r h eld b etween t he k nees.

w ood, I t i s

d ifficult t o i magine t he m osaicist w orking w ithout t his t ool, f or i t i s c apable o f f racturing t he h ardest s tones, i t i s e asy t o c arry, a nd i t c an b e u sed w ith v ery s mall p ieces

t o

o f m aterial.

T he s ize o f am osaicist's ' cube-stock' w ould b e g raded a ccording t he q uality/kind o f m osaic. H e m ight b egin w ith b etween o ne a nd

f our d ifferent s izes o f t esserae -separated i nto h eaps o r p laced a p artitioned b ox -a nd w ould m ake m ore t han h e i ntended t o u se ( manufacture c ontinuing a s t he p avement w as l aid). T he t esserae w ould b e f urther s plit o r f ragmented o n s ite, a s r equired. A t W est l and, 34 S om ., f or e xample, t esserae a re s aid t o h ave f allen i nto t hrep d istinctive s izes: 1 c m . s q.; 2 .5 c m . s q.; B ox'' a ll t esserae a re s aid t o b e b etween 0 .6 8

a nd 3 .5 c m . s q. a nd 1 4.4 c m.

A t s q.

L ufton , s q.

3 6

S om.,

L ike c olour, a m osaic d esign .

h as

t wo p redominant s izes:

0 .5 c m .

s q.

a nd 1 .5 c m .

t he s ize o f t he t esserae a ffects t he p erspective o f T he l atter, i n f act, c an b e a l ittle m ore s ubtle.

A s l ighter s hades o f t esserae a ppear n earer w hen v iewed f rom a d ist ance, s o d o l arger t esserae; c onversely , s mall t esserae a ppear m ore d istant, a s d o d arker s hades. S uch c onsiderations a re, o bviously, o f v ital i mportance i n f igural m osaics w hich h ope t o m aintain a d egree o f n aturalism. B ut t hey a re a lso o f m ore g eneral s ignificance i n t he e xecution o f e rders, e .g . i n t he s wastika m eander o f t he p a pment a t L ullingstone, K ent, o r t he m osaic o f r oom 5 a t C hedworth, G los. H ere, t he a pparent w idth o f b lack a nd w hite l ines h ad t o b e c arefully a djusted i n o rder t o p rovide a c onvincing e ffect. A t L ullingstone, a b alance ( which a ctually s poils t he e ffect o f t he s wastika m eander) i s s truck b y u sing a b and o f b lack w hich i s t hree l arge t esserae w ide, a nd a b and o f w hite t hree s mall t esserae w ide. A t C hedworth , a b lack b and o f t wo t esserae, a nd a w hite b and o f t hree.

w e f ind

T he P lanning o f S pace w ithin a M osaic 3 .4

P lanning a M osaic T he

s izes o f R omano-British m osaics r ange b etween t hose o f

t ee

los., ( 227 s q. m .) a nd H orkstow ' 41 g reat p avements a t W oodchester, 39 G L incs., ( 76 s q. m .), a nd t he u all m osaics f rom r oom X LI, L ydney, G los., a nd r oom 9 a t B ancroft, B ucks., ( respectively, 1 .5 a nd 3 .1 s q. m .). U sually, a p avement i s e nclosed b y a b order w hich i s b etween 0 .5 a nd 1 .0 m . w ide , a nd c omposed o f l arger t esserae. N ormally, t he w hole o f a f loor i s t essellated. O ccasionally, h owever 4 a b order i s n r oom 8 , a bsent, a s a t W chester, i n a r oom o f b uilding X IX 2 ,4j i orchester; a nd i n a h ouse ' north o f t he N ewport C olliton P ark ' 45 D R oad', C aerwent. A lternatively, i t c an b e o f v ery T erge b locks, s uch a s a re f ound a round a m osaic a t W hittington C ourt, ' G los.

d ark

W here b orders a re p resent, h owever, t esserae ( deep r ed i s a f avourite

t hey a re u sually o f f airly c olour), s o p roducing a

s tronger ' proximity e ffect t han w ould l ighter s hades o f l arge t esser ae. T he b and ' sets o ff' t he m ain p anel. T his c an b ecome e xtreme, h owever,

f or t here a re i nstances o f v ery l arge b orders w ech make t he

m osaic a s mall p anel i n t he m idst s paces m ay h ave b een p laces

o f a h e

w b ackground.

S uch w ide

f or f urniture

-c ertainly,

a n umber o f

d ifferent p ositions f rom w hich t o v iew a p avement i s d esirable. l ooking a t a n arrative d esign , t he p ossibilities o f o btaining f erent p erspectives a re e specially s ignificant:

i t i s p recisely t he

l ack o f a w ide b order w hich w ould h ave m ade t he s tory o f A eneas m osaic, f rom L ow H am, 49 S om., s o h ard t o f ollow . 3 .5

W hen d if-

t he D ido a nd

A daptations B ecause

i t i s n ot

e asy t o s cale u p o r d own m ost o f

t he

d esigns

u sed i n R omano-British m osaics, o r i n R oman m osaics g enerally, r oom o f u nusual s hape o r s ig5 f requently r eceived f illing p anels o ther s pecial t reatments. L ittlecote P ark, W ilts., ( pl.

t he a nd

T he r ecently r e-discovered m osaic i n 7 1), w as a lmost c ertainly p lanned a s a 9

w hole

b ut,

n evertheless,

p rovides

a u seful i llustration o f

t hese

c onsiderations. T he p anel w hich c arries a wave-chevron p attern ( situated b etween t he d ividing w alls) i s p erfectly m atched w ith t he r adial d esign a nd t he d esign o f a q uartered s quare. B ut t he w ork a lso h ad t o c ontend w ith t hree a pses, a nd h ere i t m et w ith l ess s uccess: i n t he a pse t o O rpheus's r ight t he p anel i s a p oor f it, a nd t hrows o ut t he m eeting o f t he g gflloche b order o f t he m ain d esign w ith t he n orth-western a butement. V ery s ome , ( Arch.

c omplex

r oom s hapes

a re r are i n B ritain,

b ut

t here

a re

a nd

t heir m osaics a re u sually w ell d esigned. K eynsham , S om., L x xy ( 1926), p ls. X II a nd X III), p rovides t he b est e xamples.

I n r oom J , 52 t here i s a s killfully d rawn h exagonal m osaic, d ivided i nto s even i nternal h exag gps e ach o f w hich h olds i nterlaced g uilloche t riangles;

i n

r oom

W ,

J j

i s a nother

h exagonal

m osaic,

t his

t ime

nto s ix t riangles, e ach o f w hich c arries a s quare. A t d ivided 54 i L ufton , i n r oom 1 4, t he p lunge-bath h as a n a mbulatory ( with m osaic w ork) a round a n o ctagonal a rea o f t iles. T his i s c omparable w ith t he evon , a mbulatory f ound a t H olcombe, 55 D m osaic w ork o f s wastika p attern. O ther f actors,

w hich h as s impler b ut a ccurate

s uch a s a ccess v ia d oorways 56

o r a ccommodation o f

c entral f eatures, a lso h ad t o b e t aken i nto a ccount. M any r ooms w ith e laborate m osaics w ere h eated b y h ypoceust b ut, o ccasionally, s ome B ucks., h ad t o a llow f or a p avements, e .g. r oom 1 , B ancroft, 5/ c entral h earth. 58 M ore i mportantly, t he p lanning o f a m osaic f req uently h ad t o a ccommodate f ountains o r i mpluvia. T he e vidence r emains v ery l imited b ut, i n r oom 7 , a t B ignor, S ussex , 41. 3 8), w e h ave a p iscina a t t he c entre o f a m osaic, a nd W alters s uggests f ountains a s f urther e nhancements t o s uch r ooms. I n s uch i nstances a llowance h as t o b e made f or t hese f eatures w hen p lanning t he d esign, s o m uch s o t hat a t W oodchester O rpheus m ay, f or t his r eason, h ave b een d isplaced f rom h is u sual, P l.

c entral p osition ( pl.

4 3;

a lthough s ee

5 3).

3 .6

A ids t o D esign

t he

W hether o r n ot t he s ubject o f a m osaic w as c hosen b y t he c lient, m osaicist h ad t o r ely o n a n umber o f a ids a nd m ethodical p rac -

t ices

w hen o rganising h is w ork.

T hese w ill b e c onsidered

i n

t his

s ection . G uidelines

h ave b een d iscovered b eneath B ritish m osaics o n o nly

a f ew o ccasions: t he a uthor k nows o f o nly t wo u nequivocal e xamples t he p ainted l ines o n t he p enultimate l ayer o f m ortar o f t he m osaic f rom b uilding X II I , B eeches R oad, C irencester ( Neal 1 981, n o. 2 6), a nd t he s cored c ircle o f t he f ragmentary m osaic a bove t he C harioteer p avement a t R udston ( Smith 1 976, 6 ) -although , i n w all p ainting s uch p ractices w ere a lso k nown ( plaster o n d isplay,

J ewry W all M useum).

ore w ide T he c omplexity o f m any d esigns, h owever, s uggests a m I ndeed, i n s pread u se o f s uch m ethods t han t he a bove f inds c onfirm . s s truc m any c ases o f e ffective f igural d esign , c artoons ( as w ell a ffinities t ural g uidelines) a ppear t o h ave b een n ecessary. T he m any a n everthe o f a rrangement a nd d rawing b etween B ritish m osaics ( which, t h i s v iew , l ess, f ail t o s how i nstances o f i dentity) t ends t o s upport a nd,

f urther ,

s uggests

t he u se o f p attern b ooks 10

( compendia)

N eal, i n t he t radition o f I ppel ( Neal 1 976, 2 49), m entions t he f m osaic a nd t he e ase o f p lanning w hich s uch b ooks p refabrication 6U o e nsure. I n s ubsequent w ork ( Neal 1 981, 2 1-34) a n i ndication a s t o o ther p ossible a ids t o d esign h as b een g iven : t hese c ould h ave c omprised s ome o f t he c ontents o f ap attern b ook ( or w hat m ight, m ore a ccurately, b e c alled a ' manual"). A ccording t o N eal, t wo o f t he p atterns w hich i t i s m ost d ifficult t o p lan a ccurately a re e ightl ozenge s tar a rrangements a nd a rrangements o f ' juggled", i nterlaced rid o f l arge s quares. T he f ormer r equires a n et c omposed o f a9 0° g s quares, s eparated b y t hree r ight-angled l ines, w ith t he s pace b etween e ach l ine r epresenting o ne q uarter o f t he w idth o f a s quare. T he n et i s t hen o verlaid w ith a nother w hose d iagonal l ines a re a t 4 50. F or t his c omplex p rocedure t he u se o f s et s quares a nd c alipers i s e nvisaged ( loc. c it., 2 3). T he l atter d esign , m eanwhile , r equired a n et c omprising t wo i dentical g rids o f s paced s quares, i n s taggered o t he f irst. f ormation , b ut w ith o ne g rid s uperimposed o n a nd a t 4 50 t S uch g eneral s chemes c ould h ave b een u sed b y c raftsmen o f l ittle m athematical o r g eometrical a bility. W ith s light e xceptions -for e xample, i n r oom N 12 a t F ishbourne, w here t he m osaicist h as m isunders tood t he r elation o f a n et t o t he p attern o f l ozenges a nd c ones t hey w ould h ave b een i nstrumental i n t he m aking o f a n a cceptable p roduct. T o j udge b y t he s tandardization o f s ome m otifs a nd f igures, m oreover, a r epertory o f s et p ictures w as a lso a vailable t o t he m osaicist. T hese c ould b e t ranslated i nto c artoons a nd t he t ones a nd p lacements o f t he t esserae f ixed a ccordingly. A s t he m osaicist h ad t o u nderstand b ut n ot d evise g eometries i t i s l ikely t hat h e c ould a mend i llustrated m otifs b ut w ould c opy, a s aw hole, t he a rrangements s uggested f or a m osaic. S uch m anuals a s t here w ere m ay h ave b een m ore b land a nd t echnic al t han i s s uggested b y t he a ntique i llustrations r eproduced b y S mith ( 1969, p l. 3 .6) a nd B rilliant ( 1974, p l. 1 11.9), a lthough t his i s n ot t o s ay t hat s uch i llustrations w ere n ever u sed ( note t he i gnorant c opying o f i nscriptions i n t he R udston V enus m osaic: p l. 1 02b). W ork b y T ebby ( 1980 a nd 1 982) s upports a n a wssment o f m osaicists a s c raftsmen o f l imited g eometrical a bility. " I n t urn, t his s hould a lso r emind u s o f t he l imitations f or t he m osaicist o f o ver-o uate s ketches. T he " mosaic u nits p henomenon', o bserved b y M oore,' a nd p roposed a s a " spontaneous o ccurrence o f o rder f rom r andomly s elected p articles" o ffers f urther c orroboration : c ertain s izes o f t esserae a nd m otifs a re s hown t o p rovide m aximum a daptab ility o f d esign , b ecause t hey a re p roportional t o t he a bstract u nits m ost f requently p roduced b y ' processes o f s pontaneous o rdering'. I n f act, M oore a lso s uggests t hat m osaics 63- a s s eems l ikely f or p avem ents s uch a s t he A ldb2yough S tar m osaic ( pl. 3 5a) -w ere l aid f rom t he c entre, o utwards. " T his, w e a re t old, i s t o e nsure t hat e rrors m ade i n t he l aying o f t esserae w ould b e m ost l ikely t o o ccur a way f rom t he f ocus o f t he m osaic. O n t he w hole, t herefore, a r ather c rude k ind o f d raughtsmanship i s i mplied.

1 1

T he M ethods o f L aying a nd B onding T esserae 3 .7 W hen s peaking o f l aying t esserae, t he m ain d istinction t o b e m ade i s b etween d irect a nd i ndirect m ethods o f a pplication : t he c hoice d epends o n t he a bilities a nd p references o f t he m osaicist. T he f ormer m akes f or a f lexibility i n d esign a nd a llows f or l ocal i diosyncrasies, w hile t he l atter a re s lightly q uicker a nd e nsure t hat t he c raftsman s pends l ess t ime w orking i n t he r oom w hich i s t o r eceive t he d ecoration . 3 .8

T he D irect M ethod

W hen u sing t he d irect m ethod, t esserae a re p laced b y h and i nto a l ayer o f f resh m ortar s pread i n s mall p atches a cross t he h ardened, p enultimate, m ortar l ayer, ( hence t he p ossibility o f g uidelines, s ee a bove). T his c ontinues o ver t he e ntire s urface . T esserae a re a pplied i ndividually, a nd t he m ortar t hen s ets a round t hem . T hus, t he m osaicist m ust g auge , a ccurately , t he s etting o f t he m ortar. I t s hould b e h ard e nough t o s ecure t he t esserae, b ut i t m ust n ot h arden b efore t he l ocal p attern h as b een c ompleted. M ortar i s a pplied t o s uch a reas a s w ill b e t essellated w ithin a f ew h ours, a nd c ertainly w ithin t he d ay ( hence g iornata , f or m ortar p atches w hich r epresent a c ompleted p eriod o f w or . I n f act, r ennovation o f t he m osaics o f S an V itale, R avenna , h ave r evealed t onal a nd t extural d ifferences b etween n eighbouring a reas o f p laster w hich i ndicate t he w ork d one i n o ne ' shift'. T hey m ay a lso i ndicate s ections d one b y d ifferent c raftsmen . W ith t he d irect m ethod, t he m osaicist w ill b e w orking, o n s ite, f or a n e xtremely l ong t ime. H e i s t hus e ncouraged t o w ork q uickly, i n s pite o f t he l ikelihood o f m aking e rrors w hich a re d ifficult t o r ectify o nce t he t esserae h ave b ecome s emi-bonded. T here i s a lso a l imit t o t he n umber o f m en ( usually t wo o r t hree) w ho c an w ork o n a n i ndividual f loor -a v ery i mportant c onsideration w hen c ompared t o t he o ther m ethods, b elow . H owever, h ere t he c lient h as t he a dvantage o f o bserving t he p rogress o f t he c raftsmen , a nd h is w ishes c an b e c ontinually t aken i nto a ccount. 3 .9

T he P lain I ndirect M ethod

W hen u sing t his m ethod t he w hich i s t o b e t essellated, o n s ection i s t hen t ransported t o d esign o f aw ork , w hose g eneral i t w ill b e f ixed a s a ' tray

t esserae a re s et, a way f rom t he f loor a s ection o f s tone o r m ortar . T his t he s ite. I f i t c omprises t he m ain f eatures h ave a lready b een c ompleted, -otherwise i t w ill b e o ne o f m any

p refabricated s ections. T he i nitial s etting o f t he t esserae , t heref ore, c an b e u ndertaken i n aw orkshop n ear t o t he p avement o r, i nd eed,

i n t he n earest t own . T he

t esserae

a re

s till a pplied t o ab ed o f

m ortar,

b ut

t he

c lient c ould e xpect t he w ork i n t he r oom w hich w as a ctually r eceiving t he m osaic t o b e f inished m uch m ore q uickly t han w ith t he d irect m ethod. W ork c an c ontinue, i n a d istant w orkshop, w hen i t m ight b e i nconvenient t o w ork o n-site. S peculative s ections o f m osaic c an a lso b e m ade , i n t he h ope o f a c ommission ; a c lient m ight e ven b e i n 1 2

a p osition t o o rder a n a lready c ompleted m osaic. 3 .10

T he R everse I ndirect M ethod W ith

t his

m ethod,

t he

t esserae

a re

b onded,

b y

m eans

o f

a dhesives, o nto a s tr6ng b ut f lexible m aterial ( parchment, h ides, c loth eg g .). T esserae a re f ixed i n a r everse i mage o f t he r equired d esign . O n s ite , t his s ection i s t hen s et i nto a f resh l ayer o f m ortar w hich h as b een s meared a cross a h ardened m ortar l ayer. T he t esserae a re f acing d ownwards, t he f lexible m aterial i s u ppermost. T hus, u ntil t he r eceiving m ortar s ets a round t he t esserae, t hey a re i nvisible . W hen t he t esserae a re s et, h owever , t he b acking m aterial i s t orn o r s crubbed o ff, a nd t he r equired d esign i s r evealed ( for t he f irst t ime). A s w ith t he p lain i ndirect m ethod, t he m osaicist c an m ake u se o f d esigns p roduced i n a d istant w orkshop, o r d esigns p roduced b y o ther c raftsmen. He c an u se s tock m otifs a nd p atterns a nd s uperfluous w ork c an b e r etained t o c ater f or f uture d emand. E rrors t oo , i n b oth i ndirect p rocesses, a re m ore e asily r ectified t han w ith t he d irect. T his i s e specially t rue i f a s mall a rea o nly h as b een t essellated. I ronically, m ost o f o ur e vidence f or t he u se o f t hese m ethods i n R oman t imes c omes f rom m osaics w here, a pparently, s uch e rrors h ave b een o verlooked. " T he i ndirect p rocesses a re,

u sually,

t he e asiest w ith w hich t o

o btain a t olerable r esult, b ut i t i s d ifficult t o u se t hem w ell. T hey r ender t he p roduction o f f ine d etail a l ess a rduous t ask , b ut c o-ordination o f t he v arious s ections o f m osaic c alls f or c onsidera ble s kill. W hen u sed e ffectively, h owever, t hey l ead t o a g reater a ccuracy a nd, w i gout d oubt, a n i ncrease i n t he s peed w ith w hich a p avement i s l aid.'"

1 3

K ey t o S ites o f P rincipal RomanM osaics

1 2 3 4 5 6

F ifehead N eville F rampton H alstock D ewlish T arrant H inton H inton S t. M ary

7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0

H emsworth L enthay R ampisham W ynford E agle S paxton E ast C oker L ow H am L ittleton L ufton P itney P itney ( Langport) W adeford W estland I lchester M ead

4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8

Stockwood W adfield L ydney P ark T ockingtonP ark W hittington C ourt W ithington W oodchester C orinium ( Cirencester) G levum ( Gloucester) V enta S ilurum ( Caerwent) I sca ( Caerleon)

4 9

H olcombe

5 0 5 1 5 2

I sca D umnoniorum ( Exeter) B rading C arisbrooke C ombley

5 3

N ewport

5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9

B ignor P reston ( Brighton) P ulborough C hilgrove 1 C hilgrove 2 F ishbourne A bbots A nn B ramdean C lanville F ullerton C rondall T hruxton I tchen A bbas W est M eon R ockbourne S parsholt

7 0 7 1 7 2

G rateley W est D ean D ownton

L indinis ( Ilchester) D urnovaria (Dorchester) 2 1

W eymouth

2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9

K eynsham N ewton S t. L oe K ingsweston W ellow W hatley W emberham B rislington B ox

3 0 3 1 3 2

B romham P itmeads C olerne A quae S ulis ( Bath)

3 3

C hedworth

3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1

F rocester C ourt G reat W itcombe H ucclecote I fo ld K ingscote R odmarton C hesters S poonley W ood

N oviomagus ( Chichester) V enta B elgarum ( Winchester) 7 3 7 4

L ittlecote P ark R udge ( Froxfield)

7 5 7 6 7 7

E aling F rilford W oolstone

S ITES O F P R INC IRAL ROMAN MOSA IC M AP i •

• • • • • •

C OLON IA E C I V IT AS C AP ITA LS S UBSTANT I A L S ETTU EM ENTS M INOR S ETTLEMENTS T EMPL ES o rS HR IN ES R URA L S I T ES ( V ILLA E )

--AREAS C OVERERED B Y C A S E S TUD IE S . o De rve n t io T UM

1 7 .1 4 5 1

E BURACUM

1 3 4.

1 3. 3

«N e v a

1 3 5 1 3 6*

4 1. 1

7 1 40.

•

•

I s ca /41 5 7

/ J D

t h. i s

2 8. L1 4 i n d in is

1 8.

• 1

0 .4 2 1

. 1

u o

1 0 410 4 10 2 5. 013 1 ' 14 3 1• 1 1 1. 9" 4 00 1 --- 0. / Or 1 I C AMOLODUNUM I .. _ 43.1 i - -f o , 6e l . 9 3 G L EVU 4.3 1 0 tr 1 0 7 )9 5.9 1 X• VERU LAM IUM B COR 1N IUM . ' 4 it 39 9 Z 44 8 Id 4' • 3 8 7 6. % 9 6. L AM 7 7 r I b A qu a4

1 3 .

2• • 103 1

• 16 1 74 . 1

•Ma gn ts

J a

1

1 3 0 • 12 9

• Th i s t l e t on r t on • e te t B RA T A E M edbourne 11 ;372 i‚t b r i va e 1 2e 1 2 6"

• U IRDCON IUM

• Sa l in ae

1 5 6.

.1 3 7

4

3 1

4, 1 , 3

. 75 LEVA • CAL

7 4 6 5 . 2_ k a

4 . 64

7 6 t o- . , J a wn

• 7 1 . 5 6 1 *a . 7

2 URNOVAR IA

1 9

8

'

J O 3 4 (1

,. . 8 % ,. . 8 6 8' 1/ * e a ni ,

1

-" Kült r kum 6

, L. , 56 7 84 .. 5 •N OV IOMA

. 5 5

'8 9

Q URO " I 7 7 9.

N UM

7 8 7 9

W ingham F olkstone D urovernum ( Canterbury) C alleva ( Silchester)

8 0 8 1 8 2

A shtead R apsley W alton H eath

8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9

W orplesden T itsey D arenth E ccles F arningham 2 L ullingstone M aidstone

9 0 9 1

L ondinium ( London) B oxmoor G adebridge P ark

9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9

G orhambury L ockleys G reat W ymondley N orthchurch H ambleden H igh W ycombe L atimer T ottenhoe

1 21

A pethorpe

1 22 1 23 1 24 1 25 1 26 1 27 1 28

C astor ( Mill H ill) C hesterton Helpston C otterstock G reat W eldon S apcote T ixover M edbourne T histleton D yer G reat C asterton

1 29 1 30 1 31

G ayton T horpe G rimston W hitton R atae ( Leicester)

1 32

B arton-in-Fabis

1 33 1 34 1 35

N orthfield O ldcoates S outhwell

1 36 1 37 1 38 1 39

D enton Haceby N orton D isney S campton L indum ( Lincoln)

V erulamium •1 40 1 00 1 01 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 05

B ancroft ( Wolverton) F oxcote G ayhurst H arpole N ether Heyford W hittlebury

1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 1 10 1 11 1 12

G reat T ew N orth L eigh S tonesfield W idford W iggington T henford D aventry

1 13 1 14 1 15

H , adstock R idgewell I ckleton

1 16 1 17 1 18 1 19 1 20

G reat C hesterford I sleham E xning A lresford W est M ersea R ushey C amolodunum ( Colchester)

1 41

B ishopstone L ea ( Pontesbury) U riconium ( Wroxeter) D eva ( Chester) S alinae ( Droitwich) D urobrivae ( Water N ewton)

1 42 1 43 1 44 1 45 1 46 1 47 1 48 1 49 1 50 1 51 1 52 1 53 1 54 1 55 1 56

I surium B rigantum ( Aldborough) E buracum ( York) D erventio ( Malton) R oxby B rantingham C astle D ykes D alton P arlours H arpham P ond H ead W ell H orkstow S turton R udston B eadlam H ovingham W interton K irmond-le-Mire L lanfrynach

1 57 1 58 N ot m arked: B asildon ( Essex) S outhfleet ( Essex)

L lantwit M ajor ( Caermead) I llogan

P art I I

M osaics o f t he S econd a nd E arly-Third C enturies R ecent p rogress i n t he s tudy o f f ourth c entury m osaics h as l ed ( almost i nevitably p erhaps) t o a r elative n eglect o f m osaics o f t he s econd a nd t hird. A dmittedly, t here i s a l arger n umber o f f ourth c entury p avements ( differential p reservation m ay b e a n i mportant f actor h ere): b efore t he 1 960 s, b ut f or t hose f rom Wheeler's e xcav ation a t V erulamium , f ew p re-fourth c entury p avements w ere d atable a t a ll. H owever, a s keleton c hronology i s n ow a vailable ( see A ppend ix E , w here a l ist o f t he p avements u nder d iscussion i s a lso p rov ided). F ishbourne ( Cunliffe 1 971) i s a n i mportant s ite h ere: a lthough m any o f i ts m osaics a re v ery e arly , a nd s o o utside t he s cope o f t his p aper, i t p rvides i nvaluable i nsights i nto t he o rigins a nd d evelopm ent o f B ritish m osaics a t a t ime ( c. 7 5 A .D.) w hen t he m ajority o f d esigns w ere b orrowings f rom t he c ontinent a nd n ative s chemes w ere j ust e merging. E qually i mportant i s t he a ccurate t erminus p ost q uer n f or t he t wo o ctagonal p anelled g rid d esigns f rom L eicester ( see a ppendix E ). T here a re n ow a lso d ated m osaics f rom t he G loucester e xcavations o f 1 968-1973; f rom t he e xcavations o f t he N orth H ill a nd M iddleborough s ites a t C olchester ( appendix E ); a nd f rom f urther e xcavations i n V erulamium , ( for e xample t hose w hich b rought t o l ight t he n ow f amous L ion a nd S tag m osaic : p l . 3 0). E xcavations o f a v illa a t R apsley, S urrey, ( Sy. A rch . C olls. L XV ( 1968), 2 6-7) e ven r evealed a m osaic o f t he t hird c entury. A s a r esult, i t i s n ow p ossible t o c onsider t he s tylistic a ffinities o f o ver o ne h undred m osaics w ithin a b asic c hronological c ontext. 1 .

S equential A ffinity

A c lear i ndication o f s equential a ffinity, a nd p erhaps o f l ongt erm d evelopments o f c ulture a nd o f c hanges i n t aste , i s p rovided b y a c onsideration o f t he u se o f s tructure a nd o f s ome m otifs i n t he c omposition o f am osaic. T hree g roups ( there m ay b e m ore) a re c ons picuous h ere: ( i) L ozenge p attern d esigns, ( ii) G rid d esigns, ( iii) F ully c entralised, c ircular o r r adial d esigns. 1 .1

a nd

L ozenge D esigns

S imple l ozenge d esigns a re n umerous a t F ishbourne, i ndeed, t hey a re c ommon t hroughout t he e mpire i n t he f irst c entury A .D. ( Blake 1 930 ; B ecatti 1 961). A ll-over p atterns, p atterns b ased o n s quares a nd c ruciforms ( e.g. C unliffe 1 971, p l . L XXVIII), p atterns b ased o n o ctagons ( e.g. C unliffe 1 971, L XXVI), a nd p atterns b ased o n g rids o f s quares ( e.g. C unliffe 1 971, p l. L XXVIIa) e mbody a s pecific g eom etrical c oncern . T his m anipulation o f l ozenge f ormations f eatures 1 7

p rominently a mongst I n b ased

o n

s ubsequent d evelopments.

t he s econd c entury r eduction a nd e mbellishment o f p atterns a ll-over s tructures o f l ozenges ( and i nsets) o ccurs.

B etween t he m id a nd l ater s econd c entury,

f or e xample ,

t here a ppears

t o b e a n i nterest i n q uincunx a rrangements o f p anels, a s e laborations o f l ozenge f ormats ( thus m aintaining c onsiderable l ozenge d ecorat ion). T hese i nclude t he l arger d esign o f m osaic 6 , V erulamium ( Wheeler 1 936, ( Archaeologia

p l. X L); L V ( 1986),

t he p avement f rom S ilchester, X IV , h ouse 1 , P l. X II); p avement ( A) f rom i nsula I, I

C olchester ( pl. 7 ); a nd t hat f rom B oxmoor ( pl. 2 2). I n s uch i nstanc es, l ozenges w ith p lain, d ark r homboids ( as f illing d evices o r o ther s imple, i ndividual m otifs s uch a s p eltae o r t riangles) a re c ommonly a ssociated w ith r ectangular/strip p anels, w hich o ften c arry s imple g uilloche a nd e nclose o ne o f t he m ain p anels. e xhibit r ather s imple f illing d evices, f or

T he m edallions a lso e xample t he r osetted

f lowers o f m osaic ha f rom C olchester o r m osaic 6 a t V erulamium . I n o ne m osaic, a t Y ork , ( R.C.H.M. Y ork I ( 1962), p l. 2 3a), a g uilloche k not i s a f eature o f a m edallion . A t B oxmoor a s ophisticated ' cant harus, w hich s hows f ew , i f a ny, s tylistic p arallels i n R omanoB ritish m osaic, i s n otable ( in t his m osaic, ' angle p ieces a re a lso c onspicuous h owever, a nd s hould b e n oted a s p ossible p recursors o f t he ' L' s hapes w hich b ecome p rominent i n t he r esidual l ozenge p att erns o f t he l ate-second c entury; s ee a ppendix E ). T he b reakdown o f t he r igid s quare, t riangle, a nd l ozenge p attern i nto i nvolved s wast ika m eander, a t B oxmoor i s a lso s ignificant -suggesting t his m osaic a s t he m ost e laborate ( the f inal ? ) p attern i n t he s eries o f q uincunx p anels. I f s o, t his s eries i s u nlikely t o h ave b een c onspicuous a fter t he t hird q uarter o f t he s econd c entury. H owever, i n t erms o f p rovenance i t i s a lso r elatable t o t he d evelopment o f t he r esidual l ozenge p atterns w hich p ossess ' L' s hapes a round a c entral, s quare p anel; l ike t he l atter, t he d istribution o f t he q uincunx a rrangements i s p redominantly e astern , w ith f ew e xamples i n t he W est C ountry. 1 .2

G rid D esigns T wo

v arieties

o f

r egular g rid d esigns a re

p rominent

i n

t he

s econd c entury, o ne w here t he p anels a re o f a s quare o r r ectangular a ppearance a nd a nother w here t he p anels a re o ctagonal, ( see a lso t he g rid o f h exagonal p anels, f rom S ilchester, X IV, h ouse 1 , r oom 2 7 ( Arch. L V ( 1896), p l. X IV). T he f ormer i s p redominantly o f e astern o rigin , w ith t he m ost c onspicuous a ffinities v isible b etween m osaics pl. 1 3), C olchester, f rom C olchester ( Berryfield), V erulamium X XVII 3 ( N orth H ill ( pl. 1), a nd t he v illa a t H igh W ycombe ( pl. 2 3); 1 ( although s ome e xamples a re k nown i n t he w estern p ortion o f t he c ountry, e .g. t he m osaic f rom t he s ite o f 1 3-17, B erkeley S treet, G loucester). T he s equence o f o ctagonal p anelled d esigns m eanwhile i ncludes e xamples f rom G loucester, N-18, E astgate S treet; G reat W itcombe, G los., r oom 5 ( appendix E ); a nd t he m osaics f rom t he B lack f riars a nd S t. N icholas S treet s ites, L eicesker ( pls. 1 a nd 5 ). I f n ot e ntirely r estricted t o t he w est c ountry, t here a re n o s ignif icant r emains i n t he e ast ( i.e. a round L ondon, V erulamium , o r C olchester).

* s ee m osaics f rom S ilchester a nd C rondall 1 8

P R INC IPAL G R ID A RRANGEMENTS I N T HE S E COND A ND E ARLY—TH IRD C ENTUR IES MAP 2 .

v i la s i tes l 1 . C ronda l l 2 . G rea tW i t combe 3 . We s tM e rs e a 4 . H igh W y combe 5 . Gayt on T horpe 6 . Wad f i e ld

0 w i th o c tagona l p ane ls • w i th o c tagona l p ane ls ( mo re t h an o n e e x amp le ) w i th s q uar e o rr e ct angu la r p a ne ls ( e spe c ia ly r e gu la r n i ne-pane ld e s igns ) l w i th s q ua re o r r e c t angu la r p ane ls ( e spe c ia l y r e gu lar n i ne-pa ne l d e s igns ) l ( mo re t h an o ne e x amp le )

x5

•L e ices ter

C o l ches te r

c » A G louces ter

>aeru lam ium

•C i rencester

0B a th

4 o xS i lchester 0 1

°D orches te r

. ‹ ) m i les_______ 5 0

O nly

o ne

g rid

i n t he l atter r egion h as m ore t han n ine

p anels:

t he m osaic f rom V erulamium ( Wheeler's m osaic 1 0 ; p l. 2 4), w ith a 4 x 4 a rrangement. H owever, t his s till m aintains s quare f rames t o t he m edallions, e ach o f w hich h olds a s ingle, f loral d evice . A l ist o f t he m ost i nclude t he f ollowing: a ll

o f

i mportant m osaics i n e ach s equence s hould ( i) i n t hat o f o ctagonal p anelled d esigns,

t hose s o d escribed

ut i n a ppendix El b

f or t he

m osaics

F ordington H igh S treet, D orchester; a nd D yer S treet, ( these, a lthough s howing 3 x 3 a rrangements o f o ctagons, t heir d ecoration , r ather d ifferent c oncerns t o t hose

f rom

C irencester s uggest, i n i llustrated

e lsewhere); ( ii) i n t he s equence o f s quare a nd r ectangular p anelled g rid a rrangements, t he f our e xamples m entioned a bove, p lus o ther p ossible e xamples f rRm t he T hree C ups I nn s ite ( Barnard s g arden), C olchester ( pl. 1 2b); t he m osaic f rom S ilchester X IX , h ouse 2 ( Boon 1 974, p l. 2 8); a nd t he m osaics f rom N orth H ill, C olchester ( Neal 1 981, n os. 3 9 a nd 4 0) w hich c ombine c ircular e lements w ith a n e ssent ially g rid f ormat. T he o ctagonal p anelled g rids f rom L eciester a nd G reat W itcombe s hare t he l ightness, c larity o f c omplex d esign , a nd a ustere d raughtsm anship, w hich i s t ypical o f t his s equence. T he m osaics f rom C irenc ester ( the C ongregational C hurch s ite a nd L ocke's T imber Y ard), G loucester, a nd B ath, a lthough f ragmentary, h ave a c omparable s imp licity o f d ecoration : i n t heir f illing o f m edallions w ith s imple g uilloche ( or t hin, d ark l ines), t he f illing o f m edallions w ith s ingle m otifs, a nd t he u se o f c omplex b ut r egular g eometrical f illing d evices ( alternating w ith s imple f loral m otifs). A s m entioned a bove,

m ost o f

t he m osaics w ith g rids o f s quare o r

r ectangular p anels a lso s hare a n umber o f d ecorative f eatures. c onspicuous i s t he p ractice o f p lacing l arge r homboids i n t he

M ost r ec -

t angular p anels w hich l ie a djacent t o a c entral s quare -i n t wo p anels ( e.g. p ls. 2 3, 1 3, a nd 1 1) o r p ossibly i n a ll f our ( e.g . P l. 1 2b). I n s ome i nstances, ( e.g. p ls. 1 1, 1 2b, a nd i n t he B erryfield m osaic), t he g rid.

a

r osette i s f ound i n t he s mall s quares a t t he c orners o f B old, a ngular b orders a re a lso p rominent, i n t he f orm o f

t horn p attern ( pl. 1) a nd d entil ( Berryfield m osaic). T he m osaic 1 f rom H igh W ycombe ( pl. 2 3) h as b orders o f s uperposed t riangles i n o ne o f

i ts r ectangular p anels. B etween m osaics o f

t his

f ormat v arious a quatic d evices

a re

a lso

s ignificant. T hey a re p resent o n a t l east t hree o ccasions: a t H igh W ycombe ( miniature d olphins); B erryfield, C olchester ( seabeasts c hasi ng f ish) a nd V erulamium ( pl. 1 3: t he o nly o ccasion o n w hich f igures o ccupy t he c entral p anel o f s uch a g rid a rrangement -in t his c ase, d olphins w ith t heir t ails T here

e ntwined w ith t he h andles o f a c antharus).

a re s ome n otable c ontrasts,

t herefore,

b etween t he

t wo

m ain v arieties o f g rid d esign o f t he m id-late s econd c entury. I n t he e ast o f t he c ountry, t he s quare a nd r ectangular p anelled d esigns s uggest r ather m ore m ovement -if n ot n aturalism -than t hose o f t he w est, ( and, V erulamium :

e ven i n t he m osaic w ith s ixteen m edallions -m osaic 1 0 , p l. 2 4 -there i s l ess a dherence t o t he p ractice o f

f illing w ith c onventional g eometrical m otif). I n b oth c ases h owever, d ecoration i s e xtended i n l argely r egular f rameworks, w ith m otifs d istributed

u niformly

a cross

a

s urface. 1 9

U ntil

t he

s lightly

c ontrasting

t endencies b ecome m ore m anifest

i n t he l ater-second c en-

t ury ( with t he t rend t o f ully c entralised d esigns e tc.) c haracteristic w hich m akes t hese d esigns c omplementary. 1 .3

F ully C entralised, I n

i t

i s

t his

C ircular o r R adial D esigns

t he s econd h alf o f

t he s econd c entury,

a t hird

s equence

i s

a pparent ( see a ppendix E , p ossibly a fter 1 60 A .D.). A f ull c entralis ation o f s tructure a nd a m ore f lowing a nd e nergetic s tyle -often w ith g reater p ictorial c ontent -is i n e vidence. m ain f acets:

I t

e xhibits

t hree

a ) C entralised l ozenge d esigns w ith s quare c entral p anels. b ) G rids o f s quares a nd c ircular d esigns.

r ectangular p anels o verlying c oncentric

c ) N ine p anel d esigns/Irregular s altire d esigns. a )

he c entral s quare. E xamples o f ' L s hapes u sually f rame t orth H ill, C olchester ( pl. 2 1); t his i nclude t he p avements f rom N 2 3); V ictoria R oad, C irencester C ulver S treet, C olchester ( pl. ( pl. 1 6b); C aerwent, H ouse V II, r oom 6 ; S ilchester X IV, h ouse 2 ;

H ere,

B ox ,

W ilts.,

n o. 6 5). d ecoration ,

r oom 6 ( pl.

2 5);

a nd R apsley ,

S urrey,

( Neal 1 981,

U sually, t he ' L' s hapes c arry a s imple g uilloche a lthough a t B ox t his i s r eplaced b y r esidual p anels

( if t his i s h ow t he t hree s mall s quares o ctagon a re b est d escribed) c ontaining

w hich c onnect e ach v arious g eometrical

d evices, a nd a t N orth H ill t he ' L' s hapes a lso c arry a s tencill ed ' L' s haped l ine. A ctually, n ot a ll o f t hese a rrangements a re d erived f rom t he s ame b asic f ormat ( Neal 1 981, 9 1): B ox a nd R apsley , f or e xample, p ossess o ctagonal a nd n ot h exagonal p anels a round t he c entral s quare. I t s eems l ikely, h owever, t hat t he i ntention b ehind e ach o f t hese n umerous d esigns w as s imilar. ( This j udgement s eems e qually a pplicable t o t he m osaic f rom V ictoria R oad, C irencester, w hich h as a t ilted c entral s quare a nd s o a ppears q uite d ifferent t o t hose w ith s ingle, r egular p anels

a t

t heir c entres).

I ndeed,

t he

d ecoration

s istency w hich s upports

o f

t hese m osaics e xhibits a

s uch a n otion .

c on-

T he s wastika l ozenge ( at

N orth H ill a nd B ox) o r s wastika i n a t ilted s quare ( Culver S treet) i s a c ommon m otif; a s a re t riangles ( hollowed a t R apsley a nd

N orth H ill),

r eversed

a nd u sed a s f illers f or

t he

s paces

b etween l ozenges. T he m ost c onvincing a ffinity , h owever , i s t he p lacing -o n e ach o ccasion -of a f loral d evice i n t he c entral p anel. A t N orth H ill, B ox a nd R apsley, a d evice w ith f our h eart-shaped p etals a nd a n umber o f a dditions a nd e xcrescences i s s een : a t C ulver S treet a m ore s tylised f our-petalled f lower i s p resent. T he i mportance a nd p ossible I talian a ntecedents o f t his f ormat a re d iscussed i n a ppendix E ( pp. 1 32-133). T he d ating o f R omano-British m osaics i s n ot y et s ensitive e nough t o e xclude t he p ossibility d iscussed), t he t hese

t hat t he r egular g rid a rrangements ( already s imple o r q uincunx-panel l ozenge f ormats, a nd

c entralised d esigns w ere n ot b roadly

c ontemporary

( that

e ach w as p ossible a t t he s ame t ime, d epending o n t he t aste o r k nowledge o f t he c lient o r m osaicist). B ut t his s eems e xtremely 20

T HE D I STR IBUT ION O F F U L LY C EN TRA L IS ED D ES IGNS I N T H E S E COND NO E ARLY T H IRD C ENTUR IES

0

M ILES

L INCOLN x

xL E ICESTER

C OLCHESTEt

aE R U L A M I U M

/

xd,R ENCESTER C AERWEN 1

l eS ILCHESTER ) (

2

xW1NCHESTER 4

V ILLA S ITES 1 .B OX 2 .R APSLEY 3 .N ORTH L EIGH 4 -FISHBOURNE

O NE E XAMPLE 1 . 4 TWO E XAMPLES eMORE T HAN T WO E XAMPLES ---BO UNDARY O F A S ECOND/ E ARLYT H IRD C ENTURY G ROUP O F M OSA ICS S HOW ING I NTEGRAL A FF INITY

i f

g 0

u nlikely:

i t

i s d ifficult

o bserving a d evelopment

t o a void

t he c onclusion t hat w e a re

o f c entralised d esigns f rom r egular g rid

a rrangements. O nly t hree m osaics a re n os.

i llustrate t his f acet

c omprehensively.

T hese

f rom N orth H ill, C olchester ( mosaics B a nd C : N eal 1 981, 3 9 a nd 4 0) a nd m osaic 7 , V erulamium ( pl. 2 0) ( three m osaics

w hich a lso e xhibit m any o ther c haracteristics w hich a re c ompara ble, i .e. t he s tyle o f b orders i n t heir c oncentric c ircular f ields, a nd t he p lacement o f t he m ain, c entral s quare).

r osettes i n t he s quares t angent t o T here a re n o o ther c omparable

a rrangements h owever, a nd a s a s eparate f acet o f t his s equence t hey a re r elatively u ninstructive a nd m ore p rofitably c onsidered a t a m ore s pecific P p.

l evel o f

a ffinity ( section 2 .2 a nd 3 .3,

b elow

3 0 a nd 3 3). T hese

N orth H ill

e xamples a re p robably

c ontemporary

w ith

a nother m osaic f rom N orth H ill w hich h as ' L s hapes a round a c entral s quare ( although t he f ormer a re t echnically i nferior, a nd a re u nlikely t o b e p redominantly -if a t a ll -the w ork o f t he s ame m osaicists). I t i s s uggested, t herefore, t hat t he t hree m osaics w ith c oncentric, c ircular b orders a ssociated w ith a r egular g rid a re a lso r eflections o f t he t rend t o c entralised a nd

m ore f luid

r epresentation .

a nd c urving d esign, w ork , t hat t he t hird c )

I t

i s

e specially i n s uch f luid

o ften a ccompanied b y a ccomplished f acet i s c onspicuous.

f igural

N ine p anel d esigns/Irregular s altire d esigns T here i s a d istinction t o b e d rawn h ere b etween t hose m osaics w hich e xhibit n ine-panels b y i ncluding q uarter r oundels i n e ach o f t heir f our c orners, a nd t hose w hich e xtend d ecoration f ound o n t he ' arms o f a s altire' t o t he c orners, w here i t . supp orts i ndividual m otifs. I nto t he f ormer c ategory f all t he m osaics f rom F ishbourne, r oom N 7 ( pl. 1 5); U pper B rook S treet, W inchester ( see a ppendix E ); V ine S treet, L eciester ( pl. 1 7); E xchequergate, L incoln; V ictoria R oad a nd D yer S treet, C irencest er ( pls. 1 6b a nd 8 , r espectively); a nd S ilchester X XVII, h ouse 1 , r oom 1 6. T he l atter c ategory, m eanwhile, c omprises t he ' Lion a nd S tag' p avement f rom V erulamium ( pl. 3 0); t he ' Wrestling C upids' m osaic f rom C olchester ( pls. 3 2 a nd 3 3); a nd t he m osaic o f r oom 3 0 a t N orth L eigh ( pl. 3 4). A ll o f t hese p avements, h owever, a ppear, t o a g reater o r l esser e xtent, a s v igorous a nd i nventive

d esigns,

w ith

a n

e ase o f d raughtsmanship

a nd

t he

s uggestion o f f ree m ovement f rom o r a bout a c entral p oint. T he l atter t hree ( two o f w hich h ave a s quare c entral p anel, w ith t he N orth L eigh e xample h aving a c entral r oundel) a re t he m ost n otable i n t his r espect, a lthough t he s ame c onfidence i s a lso d isplayed a t F ishbourne. t endency t o o ver e laborate,

I n o ther i nstances o ne .f inds a a nd a h eaviness o f d esign ( or a n

e mpty, l ifeless s tylisation) i s t he r esult. T here a re, c learly, s ome v ery s pecific a ffinities b etween t he C upids m osaic, t he L ion a nd S tag a nd t he N orth L eigh p avements ( see s ections 3 .5 a nd 3 .8 p p. 3 4 a nd 3 7). T hese r ange f rom s imilar m otifs ( and c omparable p lacing o f m otifs) t o t he a lmost o f s imilar s tructural d evices.

2 1

i dentical d ecoration

A ll

o f

t hese m osaics d o e xhibit m ore g eneral

a ffinities,

h owever. C onspicuous i n t he C upids m osaic, f or e xample , a re t he s eabeasts o f t he s emi-roundels, c omparable -if n ot i dentical r epresentations o f w hich a re t o b e s een i n t he s emi-roundels a djacent t o t he c entral s quares o f b oth t he F ishbourne a nd C irencester ( Dyer S treet) m osaics. A d olphin a nd a d olphin w ith a t wisted t ail a re a lso p resent i n t he m osaic f rom L incoln, a gain i n t wo o f

t he s emi-roundels;

w hilst

i n a c omparable p osi -

t ion t he W inchester m osaic, i llustrates a c ornucopia ( J.R.S. X LIX ( 1959), p l. X VI), ( although t his c ould b e a m isrepresentat ion o f a s ea-serpent). C anthari a re a lso f requent a ttributes. T heir s tyles v ary: s hort a nd s quat a t L eicester, u sually e legant a t F ishbourne. T hey a re a lso d epicted i n t he m osaics f rom V ictoria R oad, C irencester ( in a n a rm o f a s emi-roundel), N orth L eigh, a nd W inchester ( crudely d rawn). T he p ositioning o f t hese m otifs,

m oreover,

i s v irtually i dentical.

T his,

a gain,

i ndicates t he p ossibility o f a m ore s pecific s tylistic a ffinity b etween t hese p avements. I n t hese p avements f rom N orth L eigh, V erulamium a nd C olchester, c hain-guilloche i s e mployed i n a s imilar ' framing r ole. S uch g uilloche a lso p rovides a n b order f or t he W inchester m osaic. F ishbourne, m eanwhile,

o uter h as a

s croll b order c omparable e ncloses t he C upids m osaic.

w hich

i n

i ts

e ssentials

t o

t hat

T ogether, t hese m osaics s uggest a l ate-second c entury d evel opment o f t he e lements o f c entralised a nd c urvilinear d esign , w ith t he m osaics f rom N orth L eigh, C olchester, a nd V erulamium i llustrating t he c ulmination o f a l ate-second c entury t rend. E ventually, a s t he p avements f rom N orth H ill a nd V erulamium ( mosaic 7 ) l ead o ne t o e xpect, t his s hould h ave r esulted i n t he a ppearance o f f ull r adial d esigns. P resently, h owever, t here i s o nly o ne s uch d esign , ( another m osaic f rom M iddleborough: M osaic 4 ( 1981), f ig. 3 ; f ig. 1 57, i n C rummy ( 1984), a nd t his r emains i n a f ragmentary c ondition . E nough o f i t s urvived t o s how t wo c anthari, o ne o f w hich ( pl. 1 7) i s c omparable t o t hose o f t he p avement f rom V ine S treet, L eicester. 1 .4

o f

A D iscussion o f F igural W ork a s a n A spect o f S equential A ffinity I t i s i nteresting t oo t o c onsider h ow t he n ature a nd i ncidence f igural d esigns r elate t o t hese p ossible s equences o f d evelopment.

O f t he o ne h undred o r s o m osaics u nder e xamination o nly t wenty a re f igured. P ossibly, s ome h ave h ad t heir c omplement d estroyed e .g. W hitton ( P.S.I.A .

XI X

( 1931-3),

p lan),

o r N orth L eigh ( pl.

3 4),

b ut

t his c annot b e t aken i nto a ccount. W hen o ne c onsiders t hat w e a re d ealing a lready w ith t he p rincipal m osaics o f t he p eriod, t wenty i s v ery f ew. O f t hese, s even a re f rom r ural s ites, a lthough F ishbourne a ccounts f or f our o f m inor f igural w orks.

t hese e xamples d ue t o t he i nclusion , h ere, o f T he o ther t hree m osaics a re f rom H igh W ycombe

( pl. 2 3), E ccles ( Arch. C ant. L XXX ( 1965), f rontispiece), a nd G reat W itcombe, r oom 6 ( T.B.G.A.S. L XXIII ( 1954, Pl. V I). H igh W ycombe a nd E ccles

c ould

b efore c .

b e

1 75 A .D.,

e arlier t han t he l atter , w hereas i t

a s

t hey a re

d atable

c ould b e o f t he t hird c entury.

2 2

t o

T he f ragmentary r emains f rom E ccles h ave b een i nterpreted a s

t he

f igures o f t wo g ladiators, a lthough , i n l ight o f t he s ubjects o f o ther f igural d esigns i n B ritain ( see b elow), t his m ight a lso h ave b een a h unting s cene ( or c ould h ave b een o f f igures o ther t han g ladiators; s ee t he d rawing o f C upids a s g ladiators: p l. 3 2). I t w ould c ertainly a ppear ' t o b e o f a r epresentative o r c ommemorative c haracter h owever, w hich w ould m ake i t o ne o f t he e arliest o f s uch s cenes i n B ritain ( the m ost l ikely c andidate f or t his h onour p ossible c hariot s cene, f rom E xeter: B idwell 1 979, p l. X VI).

i s

a

O ther f igural m osaics o f a r elatively e arly d ate i nclude t hat o f r oom N 13, F ishbourne w hich, i n a r oundel a t i ts c entre, h as a c irc ular f igure w ith t endrils a nd o ther e xcrescences. T his i s o nly a s ingle, p olychrome r epresentation, h owever; i t i s c omparable i n p osit ion a nd e ffect t o t he p eacock a t t he c entre o f t he m osaic f ound i n S t. N icholas S treet, L eicester ( pl. 5 a). T he p anel f rom H igh W ycombe i s i nterpreted b y S mith ( in Hartley, B .R ., R ecs. B ucks. X VI ( 1959), 2 27-54) a s t he b ust o f a s eason. C ertainly, i t i s u nlikely t o h ave b een t he o nly f igured p anel i n t he m osaic. I f t here w ere m ore b usts, i t i s d ifficult t o s ee t hem ( in l ight o f t he h eavy g uilloche a nd c ornice p attern) a s o ther t han i nsets w hich w ould b e s ubsumed b y t he w hole d esign r ather t han p rovide a n i ndependent p ictorial e lement. I n c ontrast, r oom N 7 a t F ishbourne , h as a m osaic w ith a n e xpress ive f ormat, w hose m ain f eature i s a l ively C upid s eated u pon a d olphin . T hese f igures a re i n t he c entral r oundel, w hile a ctive s eabeasts o ccupy t he s emi-roundels. T he m osaic i s d atable t o t he l ater s econd c entury, i f n ot t he t hird ( appendix E , s ection 1 .3 P . 1 31). T he f igures h armonise m ore r eadily w ith t he a rrangement o f d ecoration t han i n m any o f

t he e arlier e xamples.

A L ist o f F igured P avements o f S econd a nd E arly-Third C entury D ate 1 .

F ishbourne, r oom C unliffe 1 971, p l.

2 .

V erulamium ,

3 .

4 .

i nsula X XVII,

h ouse 3 ;

N icholas S treet;

5 0-52,

S t.

c entral,

o ctagonal p anel:

E ccles,

K ent;

C olchester,

H igh

p anel:

A rch.

C ant.

' Berryfield a djacent

1 3.

f an-tail p eacock i n a

L XXX ( 1965),

m osaic";

p ortrait p l.

p l.

5 a . p robably a g ladiaf rontispiece;

N eal

v arious a quatic d evices,

t o t he c entral

B ucks.;

c orner p anel:

p l.

s quare p anel:

f ragments o f a c entral s quare,

W ycombe,

A ldborough;

p l.

r oundel:

t wo d olphins e ntwined w ith

L eicester,

s quare, 7 .

? Medusa i n a c entral

i n a c entral,

r ectangles X XXIV. 6 .

o f

t he a rms o f a c antharus,

t orial c ontest: 1 981, n o. 4 3. 5 .

N 13; m ask X LIII.

s quare :

o f a s eason,

H ull

i n

1 958,

o ne

i n p l.

s mall,

2 3.

l ion r eclining b eneath a t ree, 3 5b .

2 3

i n a c entral,

s quare

8 .

B ath, p l.

9 .

V erulamium, t ral,

1 0 .

B luecoat S chool; v arious aquatic d evices:

i nsula I V,

s quare p anel:

G loucester,

1 0-18,

h ouse 8;

p ortrait o f O ceanus i n a c en-

p l. 26. E astgate Street;

a m ask, in a b and b etween

t he o uter b order a nd t he l arge c entral s quare : 5 6. 1 1.

C irencester, Dyer S treet; ? chariot o f N eptune, t ic d evices: T oynbee 1 962, p l. 2 13.

1 2.

F ishbourne,

room N 5a;

t he c entre o f a d esign : 1 3.

F ishbourne,

r oom N 7;

F ishbourne,

r oom N 8;

C unliffe 1 971,

1 6.

r oundel,

D yer

i n

p ls. L XXXVb a nd L XXX1Xb.

i n

o ccasional d olphins a re paired a round

t he

h ouse 2 ;

j aws a nd d rags i t a way, p l. 3 0 .

C irencester,

a nd v arious a qua-

o ther a quatic d evices

C unliffe 1 971,

V erulamium, i nsula X XI, i n i ts s quare:

n o.

a C upid o n a d olphin i n t he c entral r oundel

c entre o f a d esign : 1 5.

N eal 1 981,

o ccasional r epresentations o f d olphins

o f a n i rregular s altire a rrangement; t he s emi-roundels: p l. 1 5. 1 4.

C unliffe 1 971,

L XXXIa .

S treet;

p l.

L VIIIb .

a l ion h olds t he h ead o f a s tag t owards t he l eft o f

? three hunting d ogs,

a

c entral

i n a

c entral

a re a ssociated w ith m asks a nd a quatic d evices i n

i rregular s altire a rrangement:

p l.

t his

8 .

1 7.

C irencester, D yer S treet; S easons a re p ersonified i n t he c orner p anels o f a 3 x 3 a rrangement of o ctagonal p anels: p l. 9 .

1 8.

D orchester,

F ordington

H igh S treet;

a m ask o f

N eptune ,

s ur-

r ounded b y f ish a nd d olphins, i n a m osaic w hich decorates t he a pse a bove a p avement w ith a 3 x 3 a rrangement o f o ctagonal p anels: R .C.H.M. D orset 1 1.3 (1970), f rontispiece. 1 9.

G reat W itcombe, G los.; a n a rray o f a quatic d evices i s d epicted i n t he m osaic o f r oom 6 : T .B.G.A.S. L XXII ( 1954), p l. V I; R ainey 1 973,

2 0 .

C olchester, a

l arge,

p l.

1 5b.

M iddleborough S ite, s quare,

r oom 7 0 ;

t wo w restling C upids i n

c entral p anel a re w atched b y a b ird.

O ther

a canthus s croll, a nd s eabeasts b irds i nhabit t he b order of f t his i rregular s altire a rrangement: o ccupy t he s emi-roundels o p ls.

3 2

a nd 3 3.

F ragmentary o r d ubious e xamples 2 1.

i nclude t he f ollowing:

V erulamium , i nsula I V, h ouse 1 0; f ragment s howing t wo d olphins w ith t heir t ails e ntwined w ith t he h andles o f a c antharus ( comp are n o.

2 ):

p l.

1 4.

2 4

2 2.

L eicester,

H igh C ross

S treet;

C yparissus,

C upid a nd

a s tag,

i n a

p anel w hich m ay h ave b een o ne o f a n a rrangement o f o ctagonal II, a fter F owler. p anels: V .C.H. L eics. I ( 1907), Pl. I 2 3.

S ilchester, i nsula X IX , . B oon 1 974, p l. 2 8 a nd P

2 4.

L incoln ,

E xchequergate;

a djacent

t o t he c entral r oundel:

F ourteen o f

t he f irst

h ouse 2 ; 20 . 2

? representation o f

d olphins o ccupy t wo o f M organ 1 886,

f igures:

t he s emi-roundels 1 38.

t wenty m osaics a re f rom t own s ites

( eight-

t een i f n os. 2 1-24 a re i ncluded). T he e arliest i s p ossibly t hat f rom L eicester ( no. 3 ), b ut e qually l ikely i s t hat f rom V erulamium ( no. 2 ).

B oth o f

t hese m osaics c ould b e o f

t he p eriod 1 40-160;

p robably,

t hey a re c ontemporary w ith, o r s lightly e arlier t han, t he B erryfield m osaic ( no. 5 ), w hich h as s eabeasts a nd d olphins i n e ach o f i ts f our s emi-roundels. T he V erulamium e xample ( no. 2 ) c ertainly a ppears t o b e t he f irst f igured d esign i n t he C hiltern a rea ( prior t o t he H igh W ycombe m osaic). I n o ther r egions w e s ee s cattered d evelopments,

a gain o f f igures

w hich a ppear m ore o r l ess s ubsidiary t o t he w hole d esign . I t i s d ifficult t o m ake a c ase, h owever, f or a ny s uch m osaic i n t he w est c ountry b efore c . 1 70 . T hose o f t he w est i nclude m osaics f rom C irencester ( nos. a nd 1 7), D orchester ( no. 1 8), a nd G reat W itcombe ( no. 1 9).

1 1, 1 6 A ll o f

t hese, a long w ith n os. 8 a nd 1 0 , a re c andidates f or d ates a fter 1 70 . T his c ontrasts w ith o ther r egions i n t he p rovince w here t here a ppears t o b e a s mall b ut c onsistent o ccurrence o f f igured m osaics b etween t he m iddle a nd l ate s econd c entury. E lsewhere, t here i s a c hange i n t he c haracter o f f igural c omposition b etween t hese d ates b ut t he u se o f f igures i s e stablished b efore c . t o o ccur i n t he w est i n a ny n umbers

1 50 . ( i.e.

T hat f igural d esigns b egan n ot c ounting t he v ery e arly

e xample f rom E xeter : B idwell 1 979) i n a pproximately t he s ame p eriod a s a f urther d evelopment o f f igural d esign i s a pparent i n t he s outhe ast, i s a n i nteresting p ossibility : t emporary w ith t he f irst a ppearance o f

t his m ay a lso h ave b een c onf ully c entralised d esigns.

T he c hange i n t he c haracter o f f igural c omposition i n t he e ast i s a pparent i n t he n ature a s w ell a s i n t he k ind o f f igures d epicted: f igures t ogether i n a s cene, g roups o f f igures, a nd s ome i ndividual f igures. G enerally, t hese a re a ctive -apparently a t o ne i nstant a nd a re n ot j ust ' collected b y t he s tructure o f t he p avement. N otable e xamples a re n o. 1 5, n o. 2 0 , n o. 1 3 a nd n o. 9 . T hey a re n ot a ll s cenic ( no. 9 s hows a s ingle b ust o f O ceanus, a lbeit v ery a nim ated a nd t he f ocus o f t he p avement). H owever, i t r emains t rue t o s ay t hat t here i s o nly o ne s cenic m osaic i n t he e ast b efore c , 1 70 t hat f rom E ccles ( no. 4 ; E , s ection 1 .2 p . 1 26). I n t he w est o f

a lthough t his

t he p rovince,

d ominant s ingle f igures,

o r f igured

t oo c ould b e l ater:

a ppendix

t here a re n o c entrally p laced s cenes.

I nstead,

a pparently d ifferent c oncept o f f igural d ecoration. a quatic a rrangements ( probably i nfluenced b y t he b lack m osaics, s howing m arine s cenes, w hich w ere s o p opular i n t he s econd a nd e arly-third c entury: s ee C larke 1 979) a nd 2 5

a nd

w e e ncounter a n T here a re a nd w hite I taly, i n o ther s uch

s cenes e .g.

t he m ask o f N eptune,

a ddition , t here f igural s equence,

f ish a nd d olphins o f n o.

1 8.

3

I n

a re a lso e xamples o f a m ore e clectic b ut ' static' w hose c omposite a rrangements a re e xtremely r ich i n

f igures b ut w hose f igures a re l inked o nly c onceptually o r a re e nvis aged a s n othing m ore t han n umerous, i ndividual r epresentations. H ere , t he m osaics f rom D yer S treet, C irencester ( nos. 1 6 a nd 1 7) a re n otable. T he f ormer s hows t hree h unting d ogs, i n a c entral r oundel, c hasing a n u nknown p rey. T he d ogs a re s light i n r espect t o t he e laborate b order-work a nd t he o ther f igured p anels. M asks o f N eptune o ccupy t he i nterspaces b etween t he c entral a nd o ther r oundels: a n a quatic t heme w hich i s e nhanced b y s eabeasts i n t wo o f t he s emir oundels. T here i s a lso a m ask o f M edusa i n o ne ( perhaps t wo) o f t he q uarter r oundels i n t he a ngles. I t i s p ossible t hat w e h ave h ere a n a ttempt t o c ombine h unting a nd a quatic s cenes ( see n ote 3 ), b ut s uch a s uggestion m ust b e t entative. I t c ould e qually w ell b e t he p roduct o f s everal r econstructed r emnants ( Smith 1 975, 2 80). W hatever, a ' composite m entality t o f igural d esign i s d isplayed, ( perhaps l itera lly a s w ell a s m etaphorically). T he

l atter

m osaic

f rom D yer S treet

( a 3 x

3 a rrangement

o f

o ctagonal p anels) i s o f a m ore e ven b lend o f f igures, a lthough t hese a re y et m ore e laborate a nd i ndividualistic ( pictures i n t heir o wn r ight). T he p avement h as f ine b usts o f s easons i n a ll t hree o f i ts r emaining c orner p anels. B etween S pring a nd S ummer i s S ilenus o n a d onkey; b etween S ummer a nd A utumn A ctaeon -attacked b y h is o wn h ounds -h as b lood d ripping f rom h is t high ( see a ppendix C , n o. a nd b etween A utumn a nd ? W inter B acchus r eclining o n a l eopard. c ase

c an b e m ade h ere,

f or

t he l atter a s s cenes

o f a

" life-cycle',

s paced b etween t he s easons o f t he y ear a nd f ollowed b y t he t riumph o ver d eath ( signified b y ? P egasus, i n t he c entral T his,

a gain ,

i s

8 ); A

u limate p anel).

t enuous h owever.

I n c ontrast, l eading f igured m osaics f rom o ther p arts o f t he p rovince h ave s ober d esigns w hich u sually i llustrate a n i ndividual s cene. T he m ain -often t he o nly -figure i s p laced i n a p anel a t t he c entre. T his i s u sually a s quare p anel, a s c an b e s een a t A ldborough ( pl. 3 5b) a nd i n t wo p avements f rom V erulamium ( nos. 9 a nd 1 5) w here t he c entral p anel i s e mphasized i n r elation t o t he s quare b order o f a m osaic, t hus s etting-off t he p avement a nd t he f igured d esign b y b alance r ather t han c ontrast. T he A ldborough m osaic i s p robably t he e arlier o f t he t hree. I t s hows t hree s ingle b ands f raming a t hree-sprayed t ree o f m edium h eight, w hich i n t urn f rames t he h eavy f igure o f a l ion r esting o n i ts h aunches. T his g ives t he i mpression o f a p ainting i n a f rame, a n i mpression a lso g iven b y t he d rawing o f t he c entral p anels i n t he t wo m osaics f rom V erulamium . I n n o. 1 5 i ndeed, w e m ight b e d ealing w ith a p refabricated p anel ( Neal 1 976b, 2 49; N eal 1 981, n o. 7 5): t his i s s uggested b y t he c utting o f t he l ion's

t ail b y t he b ordering l ine.

H owever,

i t i s p ossible t hat

s uch ' cutting' w as i ntentional, i n o rder t o c reate t he e ffect o f m ovement a way f rom t he s pectator ( who i s s een t o b e r eceiving p rivileged

v iew).

S uch a n i nterpretation w ould

b e m ore i n

w ith t he p roficient o rganisation o f s pace t hroughout p avement. t he 2 0),

T he o blique p erspective i s,

m osaics d epicting O ceanus i .e.

( no.

9 )

c learly,

2 6

k eeping

t he r est o f

t he

a n otable f eature o f

a nd t he W restling C upids

o ther d esigns i n t he e ast w hich a re p robably o f

s econd c entury.

a a

( no.

t he l ater

I n a s ense t he d evelopment o f f igural w ork a lone s uggests p arallels w ith t he d evelopment o f A t

l east

t hree u ses o f

f igures

s trong

t he g eneral a rrangements o f m osaic.

a re n otable:

( i)

O ccasional f igures, i n a c entral o r p eripheral p osition ; c onspicuous i n m osaics d atable t o c . 1 30-180 .

( ii)

E laborate f igures, o ften n umerous, w ell d rawn a nd w ell e xecuted b ut w ith a n umber o f p ossible t hemes i n a ny o ne m osaic; p redominantly i n t he w est o f t he p rovince , a fter c . 1 70-180 .

( iii)

F igures

i n a s cene;

E ngland ,

a fter c .

p redominantly i n t he s outh-east

o f

1 60-170 .

T here a re n o c lear p arallels b etween t hese c ontrasting u ses o f f igures a nd t he f irst a nd s econd i nstances o f s equential a ffinity ( sections 1 .1 a nd 1 .2, a bove). R ectangular a nd s quare p anelled d esigns a ppear t o s how a h igher i ncidence o f f igured w ork t han d o l ozenge d esigns w ith d istributed p anels, f or e xample, b ut t his i s n ot e specially s ignificant.

B oth o f

t hese s equences e pitomise a n e xperi-

m ent w ith g eometries, d uring w hich t he u se o f f igures w as r efined, a pparently a s a n a djunct t o a g eneral d evelopment o f a rrangements. I t i s o nly w ith t he s equence o f ' fully c entralised, c ircular a nd r adial d esigns t hat c lear p arallels a re v isible. H ere, b etween c . 1 60 a nd 2 00 , a c ertain s equence o f m osaic a rrangement d oes a ppear c ontemporaneous w ith a p articular d evelopment i n t he u sage o f f igures ( i.e. s cenic f igural w ork i n t he e ast, a nd t he f irst a ppearance o f a ny s ignificant f igural w ork i n t he w est). I n t he e astern p art o f t he p rovince a d istinct t ransformation i n t he n ature o f f igural r epresentation , w hen c oupled w ith t he t rends i n g eometrical d evelopm ent,

p roduces

t he

m ost

s ignificant

i nnovations

i n s econd

c entury

d esign .

2 .

S ubstantial A ffinity

T here a re a t l east t wo g roups o f p avements w hich s how m ore s pecific s imilarities t han w ere c onsidered a s ' sequential' ( above). T hese s hould b e c onsidered h ere. 2 .1

O ctagonal P anelled D esigns

O ne c lear e xample o f s ubstantial a ffinity i s a pparent w hen c onsidering s ome o f t he o ctagonal p anelled d esigns d iscussed, b riefly, a bove ( section 1 .2). T hese i nclude t he m osaics f rom t he B lackfriars a nd 5 a,

s ite a nd 50-52,

r espectively);

S t.

N icholas S treet,

t he m osaic o f r oom 5 ,

L eicester

( pls.

G reat W itcombe;

1

t hat

f ound a t 1 0-18, E astgate S treet, G loucester; a nd t he f ragment f rom L ocke's T imber Y ard, C irencester ( pl. 1 6a). T he f irst t hree a re 3 x 3 a rrangements, t he G loucester e xample i s a 4 x 4 a rrangement, w hile t hat o f t he C irencester m osaic i s c onjectural. A v ery c lose s tylist ic

r elationship

u nitary

b etween

r elationship:

s ee

t he f ormer t wo s eems l ikely s ection 4 .4),

a nd

t he

( possibly

G reat

a

W itcombe

m osaic, i n s pite o f i ts c ontrasts w ith t hese p avements -i n i ts u se o f b order d evices a nd i n i ts k inds o f g eometric p atterning -c an a lso 2 7

b e

c onsidered

a

v ery s imilar d esign.

T his

s pecific a ffinity b etween t hese m osaics i solation). I t i s t he c omparability o f c ester a nd C irencester w hich s uggests c onsidered a t t his l evel. W hen

d iscovered

t he p avement

i ndicates

a

y et

m ore

( when t hey a re e xamined i n t hese w ith t hose f rom G lout hat a ll m ight b e

p rofitably

f rom G loucester w as i n

f ragments,

b ut e nough o f i t s urvived t o p ermit a c onvincing r econstruction ( Neal 1 981, n o. 5 7). T he s ixteen o ctagonal p anels w ere s eparated b y s mall, t ilted s quares. A t l east o ne p anel c ontained a b order o f w avecrest p attern, s uch a s c an b e s een i n a l ess g racile f orm i n b oth o f t he L eicester m osaics. T hree o ther p anels h ed b ands o f j agged s aw-tooth d ecoration ( which i s i rregular i n p laces'), a nd a lthough t his d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave a n e xact p arallel i n a ny o f

t he o ther m osaics,

t he

g eometrical s hark's-tooth p attern o f t he G reat W itcombe m osaic a ng t he c ircular b and o f t horn p attern i n t he S t. N icholas S treet m osaic i ndicate s imilar c oncerns. T he f ramework o f t he g rid i tself i s d ecorated w ith s imple g uilloche, w hich i s p resent i n t he B lackfriars m osaic ( pl. 4 a), a lthough t he f rame o f t he m osaic i s, h ere, e xecuted i n t hree-strand g uilloche. I n f act, t he S t. N icholas S treet m osaic i s, m ore c omparable. I n t erms o f g uilloche, i t i s a lso i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he G reat W itcombe m osaic c ombines t he t wo : s imple g uilloche f or t he a xes o f t he g rid, a nd a t hree-strand g uilloche f or i ts b order . A p avement c ircular

m ore

s pecific s imilarity i s

t he p resence i n

t he

G loucester

o f a v ariety o f e ight-petalled r osette w hich h as a h eart p rojecting f our s pindly l ines t o t he ' petals'.

s mall, T his

c ertainly f ills f our o f t he p anels, a nd w ill h ave o ccupied m any m ore. A t C irencester a p anel c ontaining a s ixteen-petalled r osette h as a c omparable c entral d evice, h owever , t he s trongest c omparisons a re t o b e m ade w ith b oth o f t he L eicester m osaics, w here e ight-petalled r osettes s imilar t o t hose i n t he G loucester p avement a re p laced a t t he c entre o f a k aleidoscopic g eometric d esign ( pl. 3 b) a nd i n t ilted s quares b etween o ctagonal p anels ( pl. 5 b). A t L eicester t he r osettes -c oloured ( from t he e dges i nwards) r ed, y ellow a nd w hite -are m ore f inely r endered t han t hose i n t he G loucester m osaic. I n t he S t. N icholas S treet p avement i n f act, t hey a re o n a s quare b ackground a nd a re g iven b ulbed t ips b etween e very s econd p etal. T he G loucester e xamples a re s impler, a nd -to j udge b y e rrors e lsewhere, f or e xample i n t he w ave-crest p attern ( Neal 1 981, m uch c ruder. T he o nly

p avement

t hree

n o.

f rom L ocke's T imber Y ard,

o ctagonal p anels.

5 7)

a nd

t he s aw t ooth

C irencester

T he f ramework o f

p reserves

t he m osaic

s imple g uilloche ( as a t G loucester; S t. N icholas S treet, a nd G reat W itcombe), w ith a n o uter b order o f f our-strand

-

w as

o f

L eicester; g uilloche.

O nly o ne o f t he s mall t ilted s quares i s p reserved, t his s upports a g uilloche k not ( aligned w ith t he a xes o f t he g rid f ramework). P aral l els f or t his t reatment i nclude t he t ilted s quares i n t he g eometric d esigns o f t he G reat W itcombe a nd S t. N icholas S treet m osaics: t he m ain t ilted s quares i n t he f ormer a re d ecorated w ith g uilloche m at. A t C irencester e ach o f t he s urviving p anels d isplays a d ifferent m otif: a p elta w ith h ollowed c entre a nd s mall, c urvilinear, t riangul ar i nset; a s tylised l otus w ith f our h eart-shaped p etals; a nd a s ixteen

p etalled

r osette b ased o n a n e ight 2 8

p etalled

d evice.

T he

f ormer

h as n o c lose p arallel i n t he m osaics u nder d iscussion ( except

p erhaps i n t he B lackfriars m osaic: p l. 1 ), a lthough t he S easons p avement f rom D yeg S treet ( pl. 9 ) d oes h ave a s ingle p elta i n a r esidual t riangle. T he c losest a ppears i n a m osaic f rom N orth H ill, d esign ,

h owever i s n early i dentical

m otif, s tylistically C olchester ( pl. 2 1).

s peaking, T he l otus

t o t he f lower w hich i s

s et i n t he

c entral s quare o f a g eometrical d evice i n t he S t. N icholas S treet p avement ( pl. 5 a); o nly d ifferences i n t he c olouring o f t he t ips o f t he p etals ( darker i n t he C irencester m osaic) a nd t he a bsence o f d ividing l ines i n t he c alyxes ( as a re p resent a t L eicester) a re n otable. V ariants o f t his d evice a re k nown i n s everal o ther m osaics: a gain , i n t he H unting D ogs m osaic ( pl. 8 ); i n t he c entral s quare o f o ne o f t he m osaics f rom N orth H ill, C olchester ( pl. 2 1); a nd, i n a m uch a ltered f orm , i n t he m osaic f rom B ox , W ilts. ( pl. 2 5). B ut n one i ndicates s uch a c lear s imilarity a s d oes t he S t. N ichilas S treet p avement. L ikewise, t he s ixteen p etalled f lower i s a lso p resent, i n a s imilar s tyle, a t L eciester, ( in t he B lackfriars m osaic: ( pl. 1 ). A c omparable f loral d evice i s

t o b e s een i n m osaic 7 ,

V erulamium ( pl.

2 0), b ut a c omparison o f t he m otif i n t he C irencester p avement w ith t hat f rom L eicester r emains t he m ore c onvincing . T he m eaning o f

s uch a ffinities i s o bscure,

b ut

t hey a ppear

t oo

r egular t o b e j ust c oincidental. A p erson o r p ersons ( draughtsman, c raftsman, o r a pprentice) w ho w orked a t L eicester c ould h ave w orked i n t he w est c ountry, b ut n owhere i n t he L eicester m osaics i s e vidence f or w ork s o u naccomplished a s t hat o f t he G loucester m ent. T his a pprentices

t heir p ave-

l eaves t he p ossibility o f i nfluence a t t he h ands o f o r a d esigner -a p ossibility f or w hich w e h ave l ittle,

i f a ny, e vidence. I f t he f ormat w as c hosen b y a m osaicist's c lients ( as s eems l ikely) i t i s a lso d ifficult t o a ttribute t o h is d iscretion t he o ccasional r egularities i n t he f orm a nd p lacements o f m otif. T he

t rue s ignificance o f

t he r elationship b etween t hese m osaics

p romises t o b e m ore c omplicated ( and m ore d istant) t han t his: p er h aps o ne f actor o perates t o s uggest a ffinities b eween m osaics X a nd Y a nd a nother f or a ffinities b etween Y a nd Z . T he r elationship o f t he B lackfriars m osaic a nd B etween

t he t wo,

t he m osaic f rom G reat W itcombe i s i nstructive.

m any g eometrical d evices a re c omparable,

b ut

t he

' drawing o f t he c entral c antharus a nd t he g eometric p attern ( in t he p anel t o t he l eft o f t his), a t G reat W itcombe , a re h ardly c onvincing e vidence o f t hat h and r esponsible f or t he L eicester p avement. T hus t he s ame d esigner c ould b e w orking w ith d ifferent m osaicists, p erhaps u nder t he g uidance o f t he c lient. M oreover, t he L eicester m osaics t hemselves c an h ardly b e c onstrued a s t he w ork o f e xactly t he s ame g roup o f c raftsmen , b ecause t he S t. N icholas S treet m osaic a ppears t o i nclude w ork o f a s tandard b elow t hat o f a ny i n t he B lackfriars m osaic ( see s ection 4 .4). T o a ccount f or t he r elationship o f t he G reat W itcombe p avement w ith t he S t.Nicholas S treet m osaic t herefore, i t s eems n ecessary ( on p resent e vidence) t o c onsider a t l east t wo o f t he f actors w hich c an a ffect t he t ransmission o f s imilar c haracteris t ics. I t i s

f rom t his p osition t hat

t he f eatures o f

t he G loucester a nd

C irencester p avements a re m ost i nformative. I n t wo p anels a t L eices t er ( pl. 1 ) w e h ave t he s ame s ixteen-petalled f lower a s i s p resent a t C irencester ( pl. 1 6b), e nclosed b y a w ave-crest p attern w hich f ollows t he o utline o f a n o ctagon ( as i n t he G loucester e xample). A gain 2 9

d ifferent f actors a re s uggested h ere.

I n t he f irst i nstance,

b etween

L eicester a nd C irencester, a s imilar d egree o f s kill i s a pparent. W ith t he G loucester m osaic, h owever, i t s eems t hat a m osaicist h as a ttempted a n e laborate d esign w hich h e h as e xecuted w ithout m uch s uccess. A d esign w hich, o n t his o ccasion, m ust h ave b een s uggested t o h im b y h is c lient o r b y o ther c raftsmen . 2 .2

N ine-Panel M osaics 6 , I nsula 3 4,

D esigns s uperimposed o n 7 a nd 1 0 f rom V erulamium ,

C ircular A rrangements, a nd t he M osaic f ound i n

C olchester

A s w ith t he o ctagonal p anelled g rid d esign f rom L eicester, m osaics B a nd C f rom N orth H ill, C olchester ( Neal 1 981, n os. 3 9 a nd 4 0) s uggest m ore s pecific l evels o f a ffinity t han a re t o b e c ons idered h ere . A nd a s t he f ormer w ere a lso c omparable w ith t he p ave m ent f rom G reat W itcombe, t he l atter e xhibit s imilar, f airly c lose p arallels w ith m osaics 7 , V erulamium ( pls. 2 0), ( closer t han t hose w hich t hey s hare w ith a ny o ther m osaic i n t his g roup). T he p avements f rom N orth H ill a nd V erulamium h ave s imilar s truc t ures i .e. a n a rrangement o f n ine p anels s uperimposed o n a c ircular d esign c omprising s tylistically s imilar b ands o f w ave-crest p attern , t horn p attern o r i vy-leaf s croll. M osaic C f rom N orth H ill a nd m osaic 7 b oth h ave f lowers w ith e longated p etals i n t heir c entral s quares. A ll t hree p avements a ppear t o h ave h ad r osettes i n t he s mall s quares w hich l ie t angent I t

i s

t o t he c entral s quare.

t he a ffinities w hich t hese m osaics

s hare w ith t he

o ther p avements i n t his g roup w hich a re o f i mmediate i nterest, e ver: t hese r epresent t he m ain s ubstantial a ffinities.

t hree h ow-

M osaic 1 0 , V erulamium ( pl. 2 4) i s a 4 x 4 g rid a rrangement, ( in s imple g uilloche), o f r egular s quares, e ach o f w hich h olds a c ircular m edallion . O n t wo s ides t he g rid i s f lanked b y l arge, p anels o f i nterlaced c ircles. T he d esign i s w ell d rawn,

r ectangular b ut t here

a re d iscrepancies b etween d ifferent r enderings o f t he s ame f loral d evice, ( for e xample, t he ' poised a nd t hen ' aligned' n ature o f t he f our-petalled d evice o n a s quared b ackground, w hich l ies n ext m edallion c ontaining a n e ight-petalled r osette).

t o

a

T his i s t he o nly e xample i n B ritain , o f s econd c entury d ate , o f a g rid c omposed o f s quares. I ts e astern l ocation i s p ossibly s ignif icant, s quared

f or t he e mphasis o f f ull c ircles a nd r oundels a gainst a b ackground i s a p redominantly s outh-eastern c haracteristic.

W ith s uch a v ariety o f f loral d evices i t i s i nevitable t hat m any c omparisons w ith o ther s econd c entury m osaics a re p ossible. M ention h as a lready b een m ade o f t he e ight-petalled r osette, a nd i ts a ppeara nce i n a t l east t wo o f t he s mall, t angent s quares i n N orth H ill, m osaic B ; b ut t his c an h ardly b e c onsidered a n i mportant a ssociation . L ikewise, f our a rrangements w hich e ach p ossess f our h eart-shaped p etals o n a f our-petalled b ackground a re c omparable t o f lowers i n m osaic A , i nsula I I, C olchester, a nd i n m osaic A f rom N orth H ill ( pl. 2 1). o f

H owever, a

i t

i s t he p resence,

s ixteen-petalled

( on t wo o ccasions i n m osaic 1 0),

f lower c omparable t o t hose w hich

o ccupy

t he

c entral s quares o f m osaic 7 a nd N orth H ill, m osaic C , w hich i s m ost s ignificant. T his i s a r are d evice, n ot r epeated e lsewhere i n B rit ain i n t he s econd c entury.

A dmittedly, 30

t he t wo e xamples i n M osaic 7

a re

l ess

n aturalistic t han a re t he l atter t wo

d rawing o f

t he f oremost

i nstances,

b ut

t he

e ight p etals i s c omparable i n a ll c ases.

M osaic 6 f rom V erulamium ( Wheeler 1 936, f rom i nsula 3 4, C olchester ( Hull 1 958, p l.

p l. X L) a nd t he m osaic V II) a re d erived f rom a

s imilar a rrangement o f e ight-lozenge s tars e nclosing a c entral s quare. A t C olchester, h owever, t his f ormat h as b een d eveloped, ( by e nlarging t he c entral p anel a nd r educing t he e ight-lozenge s tars, s o f orming

a n o ctagon).

T he p anel c ontains a c antharus w hich i s

c om-

I n p arable t o t hat i n t he c entral r oundel o f m osaic B , N orth H ill. 7 t he l atter , t he b ase a nd l ower b ody o f t he c antharus d o n ot s urvive , s o d epriving u s o f v aluable c omparative e vidence. H owever, t he r im d isplays t he s ame f langing , a nd t he n eck i s a lmost a s w ide a s t hat o f t he c antharus i n t he m osaic o f i nsula 3 4. C ertainly, b oth c anthari a ppear ' heavy b ut a re n ot ' squat', a nd t hey h ave s imilar l arge ' S -s haped h andles w ith a s ingle v olute v essel).

( where t hey m eet

t he b ody o f

t he

I n t he r ectangular p anels, a djacent t o t he o ctagon, i vy l eaves a re s et i n a k ind o f ' italic c ircle' s upported b y f our t riangles. T hese a ppear t o b e a s tylised c ornice p attern, i .e. a p artial o r s implified r epresentation o f t he p attern w hich e ncloses t he c entral s quare i n m osaic B . T here a re n o h ooked l eaves i n t he f ormer -as t here a re i n t hat o f m osaic B -a nd t hose w hich a re ' erect' d o n ot h ave t he l ong, t hin s tem o f t heir m ore e laborate c ounterparts. H owe ver, t he a ssociation o f s uch a d evice w ith s imilar c anthari, o n t wo s ites

i n t he s ame t own,

i s i mportant.

M osaic 6 , V erulamium , p reserves l ozenge s tars. T he c entral s quare,

t he r emains o f f our, f ull e ighta nd i ts d ecoration , w ere a bsent

w hen t he m osaic w as u ncovered, b ut t he b orders a s w ell a s t he k ind a nd p lacement o f m otif i n t his w ork a lone s uggest a ffinities w ith t he m osaics f rom N orth H ill a nd i nsula 3 4, C olchester. T he b order d ecoration c omprises, f oremost, a s trip o f s croll p attern ( double-looped, w ith t endrils r ound t he c rests) a round s ingle l eaves o f i vy. T he l eaves a re t urned, a lternately, t owards a nd a way f rom t he c entre o f

t he m osaic,

a s i n t he s crolls o f m osaics B a nd C ,

N orth H ill. A lso, a long t wo s ides o f m osaic 6 a re s trips o f t horn p attern ( dark o n l ight, a s i n m osaic B b ut i n c ontrast t o m osaic C , a t N orth H ill). T his i s n ot i mportant i n i tself, b ut b ecomes s o w hen a ssociated, a s i t i s i n m osaic 6 , w ith f urther b order d ecoration i .e. w ave-crest p attern , w hich e ncloses t he w hole o f t he c entral d esign , ( the c losest p arallel f or t his h eavily d rawn p attern, w here t he w aves s tand s tiff a t t heir b ase a nd r oll q uickly, t o a f ine p oint, i s i n m osaic C ,

N orth H ill).

i n m osaic 7 , I t h owever,

i s

T he p attern i s a lso p resent i n m osaic B a nd

V erulamium ( pl.

2 0).

t he l otus b ud m otif ( or c alyx)

i n t he a ngles o f m osaic

6 ,

w hich m ost c learly s uggests a r elationship w ith m osaic B a nd

m osaic 7 . s pandrels

I n m osaic B , b uds ( probably f our i n n umber) f ill t he a round t he c entral m edallion . T hese b uds d o n ot h ave t he

s tems o f t hose i n m osaic 6 , b ut t he d rawing o f t he l eaves i s c ompara ble. I n m osaic 7 , t wo b uds o ccupy o pposite a ngles a round t he c entral

f lower,

a lthough h ere t hey a re m ore s tylised

t he a bove e xamples.

3 1

t han e ither o f

W hereas t he o ctagonal p anelled g rids f rom L eicester w ere p roba bly t he f irst m osaics i n t heir ' substantial g roup', i t s eems t hat m osaics B a nd C f rom N orth H ill, a nd t he m ore s tylised m osaic 7 , f rom V erulamium , p ost-date t he t hree o ther m osaics i n t his g roup. I t i s d ifficult

t o i magine t he m osaicist r esponsible f or t he c antharus

i n

m osaic B w orking w ith s uch c onventional g eometries a s a re s een i n m osaic 6 a nd t he m osaic f rom i nsula 3 4. L ikewise, t he m ore n aturali stic a ppearance o f t he c entral, s ixteen-petalled f lowers i n m osaic 7 a nd m osaic C , N orth H ill, w hen c ompared w ith s imilar, s maller f lowers i n m osaic 1 0 , s uggests t hat t hey a re l ater. However,

t he s ignificance o f a ll t his i s u nclear:

i n t he s outh-

e astern p art o f t he p rovince t here a ppears t o b e a g reater i nterr elationship o f d esigns t han i n t he w est. T his c ertainly m akes i t d ifficult t o a ccount f or t he d evelopment o f s tyle w ithin a g roup o f s ix m osaics s uch a s w e h ave h ere. U nlike t he w est,

s mall, i n t he

e ast a n a dequate u nderstanding o f a ny r elationship b etween m osaics o f t he l ater s econd c entury r equires a n a ppreciation o f t ically i ntegrated n ature o f t he s ample.

3 .

t he m ore s tylis-

I ntegral A ffinities

3 .1 A g roup o f p avements w hich s hows t his k ind o f a ffinity h as m any t raits w hich a re o ften u nderstood a s e ssential c haracteristics o f a s chool o f m osaic/mosaicists: t he s haring o f a c ommon m ode o f r epres entation , t he p redominance o f t his m ode i n a r estricted g eographical a rea, a nd t he p resence o f c raftsmen , ( perhaps o f d ifferent a bilities) w ho w ere w orking ' together'. F rom t his p osition , t he s ignificance o f a s chool l ies i n i ts r elationship w ith t he ' workshops r esponsible f or i ndividual m osaics

( these a ppear t o b e -almost e xclusively -the

w ork o f t he s ame c raftsman/men). S uch w orkshops ( probably c omparable t o t he R oman o fficinae) i mply a h igh d egree o f s tylistic s imilarity b etween p roducts, s howing a lmost i dentical o r ' unitary' a ffinity. C ertainly, t he s chool s hould n ot b e c onfused w ith t he w orkshop -as i s f requently t he c ase -if o nly b ecause i t i s t hen d ifficult t o c redit I t

t he ' school' w ith a ny r eal m eaning. i s

a lso

p rofitable i n s uch c ircumstances

t o

e xamine

t he

r elationship o f i ntegral a ffinities w ith a ffinities w hich a re m ore g eneral e .g. s ubstantial a ffinities: g roup i i o f s ection 2 .2, a bove p p. 3 0-31, i s a c ase i n p oint. T he p osition o f a n i ntegral g roup w ith r espect

t o g roups w hich m ight

i ndicate t he c irculation o f

i llus-

t rations, a c onsensus b etween c lients a s t o d esigns w hich w ere p re f erable, o r l ong t erm c hanges i n t aste, i s a lso i mportant. 3 .2 A gain , t he p avements u nder c onsideration h ere a re i n t he s outhe astern p art o f t he p rovince. T hese a re t he m osaics f rom N orth H ill, C olchester, ( mosaic 7 :

m osaics A , B , a nd C ; i nsula I V, h ouse 1 , V erulamium, p l. 2 0); H igh W ycombe ( pl. 2 3); M iddleborough , C olchester

( pls.

3 2 a nd 3 3);

O xon . h ouse

( pl. 3 4); i nsula X XI, h ouse 4 , V erulamium ( pl. 3 0); i nsula I V, 8 , V erulamium ( pl. 2 6); a nd t he s ite o f t he V ictoria I nn,

C ulver S treet,

C olchester ( pl.

3 2

2 7);

N orth L eigh,

C olchester ( pl.

2 9).

3 .3 M any g eneral c omparisons o f m osaic 7 ,

V erulamium,

w ith m osaic B

a nd C , N orth H ill, h ive a lready b een m ade ( section 2 .2), a nd i n s ection 4 .1 t he p ossibility o f a w orkshop a t N orth H ill i s d iscussed. H ere i t i s n ecessary t o c onsider t he a ffinities h inted a t i n s ection 2 .2 a l ittle m ore t horoughly. T he u pon :

s tylised n ature o f t he f ormer h as a lready b een c ommented t he h eavy g uilloche f rame, t he l ifeless ( and s ometimes i nept)

d rawing o f t he c ircular b ands o f w ave-crest a nd s aw-tooth p attern, a nd t he c rude r endering o f t he l otus d evices i n t he c entral s quare. I n s ome r espects t his m osaic a ppears a lso t o h ave b een i nfluenced b y p avements i n t he w estern p art o f t he p rovince . T he p resence o f o ne s ixteen-petalled f lower ( compare w ith t hat o f L ocke's T imber Y ard: p l.

1 6a),

a nd

r homboids i n s eries,

a long t wo s ides o f

t he p avement

( as i n t he b order o f a m osaic f rom B erkeley S treet, G loucester: N eal 1 981, n o . 5 4), i s n otable. N evertheless, t he l otus m otifs a nd t he f our r osettes i n m osaic 7 o ccupy i dentical p ositions t o t hose o f c omparable f orm i n m osaic B , N orth H ill. M oreover, o ther t han m osaics B a nd C , N orth H ill, t he f ormer r emains t he o nly e xample i n B ritain o f a n ine-panelled g rid b acked b y a n a rrangement o f c onc entric,

c ircular

b orders.

H ere,

t he r eplacement

o f

i vy-scroll

d ecoration b y a c ircular b and o f s aw-tooth i s a c ontrast w ith t he l atter t wo p avements ( the p arallels f or t his t ype o f d ecoration, a gain , a re f ound i n w estern E ngland in t he o ctagonal p anelled m osaic f rom E astgate S treet, G loucester; N eal 1 981, n o. 5 7); b ut t here a re s till t hree c oncentric b orders, s imple g uilloche. I t

i s t he s imilarities o f

a s i n m osaic B ,

t echnique a nd o f

o ne o f w hich i s

t he c entral

o f

f lowers

a nd g uilloche d ecoration b etween t hese m osaics w hich a re t he f inal i ndicators o f a ffinity. T he s imple g uilloche d ecoration o f m osaic 7 a ppears s lightly c ruder t han t hat o f m osaics B o r C .

T he m ore

c om-

p licated t hree-strand g uilloche o f t he f ormer, h owever, i s n ot s ignif icantly i nferior t o t he f our-strand g uilloche o f m osaic C . T he f ormer a ppears t o b e ' stretched', b ut t hen t he l atter s eems t o b e c ramped ( although ' loose"). T here a re c olour c ontrasts h owever : t he s imple g uilloche o f m osaic C i s s aid t o b e g rey, r ed a nd w hite ( Neal 1 981, n o. 4 0), w hereas t hat o f m osaic 7 i s c learly b rown , r ed, a nd w hite ( mosaic o n v iew i n V erulamium M useum). T he t hree-strand g uill oche o f m osaic 7 i s o f b lack, r ed, b rown , a nd w hite, w hereas t he f our-strand

g uilloche o f m osaic C i s

g rey,

w hite,

p ale-blue,

a nd

b rown w ith s ome y ellow ( Neal 1 981, n o. 4 0). However, b etween m osaics o f d ifferent t owns t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat s uch m oderate c ontrasts T he

t hemselves a re s ignificant. s imilarity o f

t he c entral f lower i n m osaic 7 w ith

t hat

i n

t he s ame p osition i n m osaic C i s m ore c ompelling. A t l east t wo l eaves/petals i n t he l atter a re i dentical t o t he f our a xial l eaves o f t he f ormer. However, t he m ore s ubtle u se o f c olour i n t he l atter a lso p roduces a l ess c ontrived f lower. M ore t han a nything e lse, i t s eems t hat t he s ingle, t hin , b lack l ine o f t esserae w hich d elineates t he e ight s emi-hidden p etals i n m osaic 7 i s r esponsible f or t heir a ngular

a ppearance.

A n o verall p overty o f c olour,

11

a nd t he u se

o f

s lightly m any o f

l arger ( but s till w ell-cut) t esserae i n m osaic 7 , t he c ontrasts o f t his m osaic w ith m osaic C . T he

p roduce l atter,

t herefore, r emains a m ore a ccomplished d esign, b ut i t i s d ifficult t o a void t he c onclusion t hat s ome o f t he s ame c raftsmen a nd s ome i dentic al p lans o r

i deas w ere e mployed a t V erulamium.

3 .4 A nother N orth H ill. m ent w hich f ormation ,

m osaic

a lso e xhibits a ffinities w ith m osaics B a nd

T his

t he m osaic f rom H igh W ycombe ( pl.

i s

C ,

2 3),

a p ave -

h as f ive s quare a nd f our r ectangular p anels i n ( although w ithout a b ackground f ield o f c ircular,

a g rid c oncen-

t ric b ands). I nstead, l arge r homboids o ccupy t wo o f t he r ectangles l ying a djacent t o t he c entral s quare -in a m anner r eminiscent o f 1 o ther m osaics f rom C olchester ( pls. 1 a nd 1 2b). A dditional, n arrow p anels,

b ordered i n t hree-strand g uilloche a nd w ith o ccasional r epre -

s entations o f s mall d olphins, s ides o f t he m ain a rrangement.

a re a lso p laced a long t he t wo

s hort

A c loser r elationship w ith t he N orth H ill m osaics i s s uggested b y s ome s imilarities o f m otif a nd o rnamentation . A t hird r ectangular p anel ( adjacent t o t he c entral s quare) h as a s trip o f a r eminiscent o f t he ' cornice d ecoration w hich e ncloses t he

p attern c entral

s quare i n m osaic B . A t H igh W ycombe, t his i s c omposed o f f our e rect ' leaves' o n t hick s tems. T he s ame r ectangular p anel a lso h as a b and o f s uperposed t riangles. T hese a re o f d ark o n w hite, a s i s a v ery s imilar b and o f t riangles i n t he ' top' p anel o f m osaic C , N orth H ill ( Neal 1 981, n o. 4 0). F urthermore, c omparable e rrors i n t he e xecution o f t hese t riangles a re v isible, e .g. t he o ccasional s kewing o f m otif, e specially a t t he c orners o f a p anel.

c rowding

a nd

O ther p anels a lso s how s ome s imilarities w ith t hose o f m osaic C . I n t he t wo r ectangular p anels w ith l arge r homboids, s ingle i vy l eaves a re p laced i n t he a ngles. S imilar l eaves, a lthough w ith a t hick s tem a nd a f iner t ip, o ccupy a t l east t wo o f t he s pandrels i n m osaic C . H owever, o ne o f t he s mall s quares l ying t angent t o t he c entral s quare, a t High W ycombe, c ontains a n u nidentified b ust ( section 1 .4, n o. 6 ) w hich i s u nparalleled a t N orth H ill. I nstead, t his b ust c alls t o m ind t he s quare, f igured p anel o f t he m osaic f rom i nsula I V, h ouse 8 , V erulamium ( pl. 2 6), w hich s hows O ceanus -a nother f igure w hose h ead i s s lightly t urned, t o h is r ight, a nd d epicted i n a n a lmost s ullen m anner. T he p anel a t H igh W ycombe i s a lso f ramed b y a s ingle b lack l ine, a s i s O ceanus. I t h as t o b e a dmitted h owever, t hat t he e vidence f rom t he f ormer s ite i s n ot c lear e nough, o r t he o bvious a ffinities s pecific e nough, t o p osit a d irect ( i.e. p hysical l ink , o f t ravelling c raftsmen , o r s wapping o f d rawings) l ink b etween t he t wo s ites.

S uch p ossibilities s imply r emain i ntriguing i n t he l ight

f urther e vidence f or s uch a ssociation,

o f

( below).

3 .5 T he

m osaic f rom r oom 7 0 o f t he M iddleborough s ite,

C olchester,

i s a s altire a rrangement w ith a c entral, s quare p anel. F our s emir oundels o ccupy t he s paces b etween t he a rms o f t he s altire. I n t he c entral p anel a re d epicted t wo w restling C upids, w atched b y a s pecies o f l arge b ird; t his i s e nclosed b y a s ingle d ark l ine a nd i s b ordered b y a c hain-guilloche w ith ' tongues'. T his s ame g uilloche a lso m akes 3 4

u p t he b order o f

t he s altire,

t hus e nclosing t he c urved s ides o f

s emi-roundels, a ll o f w hich a ppear t o h ave c ontained a s eabeast. a rms o f t he s altire a re e ach s plit i nto f our t riangular f ields, c arry a v ariety o f g eometrical a nd f loral m otif. i nclude a l arge l otus c alyx a nd t wo i vy l eaves f illet. s eries

o f

T he f loral e xamples j oined b y a s light

I n o ther t riangles a re a rrangements o f s mall, f illed, s uperposed t riangles.

d esign i s a b order o f

t he T he a nd

t riple p eltae a nd A round t he w hole

f loral s croll.

3 .6 Here,

t herefore,

a re m any c ontrasts w ith t he m osaics f rom N orth

H ill. T he a rrangement i s d ifferent ( though p ossibly b ased o n a n ine3 p anelled g rid) a nd t he s tandard o f w orkmanship s uperior, ( pl. 3). T he marine f igures c annot b e c ompared w ith t hose a t H igh W ycombe , a nd t he

q uality

a s w ell a s t he s ubject

o f

t he c entral p anel

i s

e xcep-

t ional. H owever, c lose e xamination o f t his m osaic, a s w ell a s s ugg esting a s urprisingly c lose r elationship w ith o ther p avements i n t he r egion ( pls. 3 0 a nd 3 4), d oes w ith t he m osaics a t N orth H ill. f illet

r ecall

n o k ink f amiliar.

a s

r eveal s ome f eatures h eld i n T wo i vy l eaves j oined b y a

t hose o f N orth H ill,

m osaic B .

c ommon l ooped

T he f illet o r s tem h as

i n m osaic B b ut t he w ide b ase a nd n arrow t ips a re T he s tyle o f t he l eaves t hemselves i s p robably n earest t o

t he s ingle l eaves o f i vy i n N orth H ill, m osaic C , a lthough t he l otus c alyxes o f t he M iddleborough p avement, a gain , a re p aralleled i n m osaic B . T he l otus c alyxes o f m osaic 7 ,

V erulamium ( pl. 2 0),

a re s tylis-

t ically c loser t o t hose i n t he C upids m osaic t han a re t hose o f N orth H ill B . T he l eaves a nd b uds w hich c omprise t he f loral s croll i n t he C upids m osaic h owever, a re m ore c omparable t o t hose o f t he c entral s quare o f t he l atter. T he t ongued v ariety o f c hain-guilloche -n ot a c ommon f eature -w hich f orms t he b order o f t he c entral s quare i n m osaic C i s a lso o f a s imilar d esign ( if n ot e xecution) t o t hat w hich e ncloses

t he c entral p anel w hich c ontains t he C upids.

3 .7 I t i s

t he v ery f ine w orkmanship i n t his m osaic,

h owever,

w hich

i ndicates f urther l inks w ith t he N orth H ill s ite. M osaic A ( pl. 2 1), a n a rrangement o f f our " L'-shaped p anels a round a c entral s quare w hich c ontains a n e laborate f loral d evice, i s a gain o f v ery h igh q uality a nd i s a lso d atable t o t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury ( pp. 1 32-133). I n t his m osaic a d evice o f t hree p eltae a round a h ollow t riangle i s a lso r eminiscent o f t hree p eltae a t M iddleborough. T hese u nique a rrangements a re e specially n otable. T he c losest s tructural p arallel

f or m osaic A ,

t he m osaic f ound i n C ulver S treet,

C olchester

f loral d evice i dentical t o t hat a t

t he c entre o f

m ent n ow d isplayed i n C olchester f ragment i s i mportant, f or i n c ontiguous t riangles ( recalling o ther c orners s quares c ontain s quares o f m osaic A ). A lthough

( pl.

i n t his r egion, 2 7).

T his

a r eassambled

i s

s hows a p ave-

M useum ( pl. 2 8b). T his r eassembled o ne c orner i s a p attern o f f ifteen t he M iddleborough m osaic) a nd i n t he g uilloche k nots ( as i n t he t ilted i ncluding t he s ame b asic c olours, a s

w ell a s t esserae o f a s imilar s ize, t o t hose o f m osaics B a nd C , f rom N orth H ill, t his r estored w ork , o bviously, r emains u ntrustworthy a s 3 5

a n i ndication o f a ny d irect, s tylistic l ink b etween m osaic A a nd t he C upids m osaic. I nstead, i t p rovides a v ery i nteresting s uggestion a s t o t he d irection a nd

s trength o f c o-operation w ithin s uch a s chool.

W ith r egard t o m osaic A a nd

t he C upids m osaic,

t he u se o f

v ery

f inely w orked t esserae i n b oth o f t heir c entral p anels, i s p robably t he m ost s ignificant a ffinity. I ntricate s hading, a chieved b y t he s ensitive b lending o f m any t ones o f f ive o r s ix b asic c olours, i s n otable i n b oth d esigns. I t i s a s ensitivity w hich e ffects a n a lmost f leshlike a ppearance o n t he l egs o f t he C upids a nd a v elvet-like s oftness i n t he p etals o f t he f lower i n m osaic A . c ubic a nd n arrow s livers o f g esserae p roduce w hat,

I n b oth i nstances i n o ther c ontexts,

c ould b e t ermed a n e mblema. S uch s pecial t reatment o f t he d esign o f a m osaic i s a lso a pparent, a lbeit l ess n otably, m osiacs f rom V erulamium ( pls. I f

c entral i n t he

2 6 a nd 3 0).

t he m osaics f rom M iddleborough a nd N orth H ill,

C olchester,

A ,

r epresent t he m ost s ignificant d evelopments i n t his g roup, t heir c hronological p osition i n r elation t o t he o ther m osaics i s i mportant. I t i s b y n o m eans c ertain t hat, a s i nnovative d esigns, t hey w ere t he e arliest m osaics i n t his g roup ( section 3 .2). I n f act, t hey s eem t o p ost-date N orth H ill, m osaics B a nd C a nd t he H igh W ycombe p avement ( appendix E , s ection 1 .3 ( pp. 1 29-130). T he l ength o f t he p eriod w hich s eparates t hese m osaics, h owever, a lso r emains p roblematical. M osaic 7 f rom V erulamium, ( judging b y t he s tyle o f t he l otus b uds/ c alyxes i n t he c entral s quare a nd t hose o n t he a rms o f t he s altire a t M iddleborough), m ight b e c ontemporary w ith t he C upids m osaic; b ut t his i s v ery f limsy e vidence o n w hich t o b ase a ny s uch a ssessment. O n t he o ther h and, i t s eems p robable t hat o ther m osaics w ith h igh q uality

f igured w ork i n a c entral,

C upids m osaic. ( pl. 2 6), t his

s quare p anel a re l ater t han

t he

I n t he c ase o f t he p avement w hich f igures O ceanus m ight a lso i ndicate a l ater d ate f or a c omparable

s tructural a rrangement f rom C olchester

( pl. 2 9).

When e xamining t he r ole o f a s pecific, u nitary a ffinity w ith r egard t o a m ore g eneral a ffinity, t he s tylistic c omparisons a t t he m ore s pecific m osaicists

l evel a re e specially i mportant.

m ight

b e v isible h ere,

T he w ork o f d ifferent

s o h inting a t t heir

n umber

t herefore t he p robable d iversity o f s ubsequent d evelopments. c ase o f t he M iddleborough m osaic o ne i s f irst s truck b y t he h omogeneity o f s tyle : c ontrast t he m osaics f rom i nsula I I,

X t er ( Hull 1 958, p l. XIIIb; p l. 7 ) o r r oom N 7, F ishbourne ( pl. f or e xample , w here o bvious d ifferences i n q uality a re t o b e s een. c loser i nspection, i nconsistencies.

a nd

I n t he a pparent C olches 1 5) O n

h owever, t he M iddleborough m osaic d oes r eveal s ome T he a canthus d ecoration o f t he f loral s croll i s

h eavier t o t he ' bottom l eft o f t he C upids t han e lsewhere i n t he m osaic. I n p articular, t he s ingle p etal w hich h ere o ccupies t he c orner p osition i s p erpendicular, a nd n ot d irected t owards t he c entre o f

t he w ork,

d evice

a s a re a ll o ther p etals i n s uch a p osition .

i mmediately

t o t he r ight o f

t his -a

s tylised

A lso,

c alyx

t he

-w hen

c ompared w ith s imilar d evices i n o ther p arts o f t he p avement, i s s een t o b e p oorly d rawn. I n s hort, t his p ortion o f t he f loral s croll a nd s ome o thers a

h and

( Crummy i n M osaic 2 ( 1980),

7 )

-could b e t he w ork o f

d ifferent t o t hat r esponsible f or m ost o f

p ossible t hat s uch e rrors h owever,

t he r est.

a re m erely i ndicative o f

c raftsman's r eadjustments. 3 6

I t

i s

t he s ame

O ther o bservations t he

l otus

s hould a lso b e m entioned h ere.

T he s tyles

b uds w hich o ccupy o pposite a rms o f t he s altire

a re

o f

d if-

f erent -the o ne a t t he ' bottom l eft i s b roader a t t he b ase a nd m ore h eavily d rawn t han t he o ther, a lthough t hey p ossess i dentical s tems b oth o f w hich m eet

a s mall r homboid,

w ith e qual p recision.

C ontrasts

b etween t he i nner ( around t he c entral s quare) a nd o uter b ands o f c hain-guilloche a re a lso n otable. W hereas t he i nner b and s hows a g enerally c onsistent i nterlace o f c olour, o ne i n e very f our t ongues o f t he l atter i s d arker t han t he r est. T his m ight b e, t echnically, u nimportant, b ut i t c ould s ignify a s cheme f or m arking o ut t he d esign. T he q uestion w ould t hen r emain : w as t he m osaicist p lanning f or h is o wn , f uture r eference o r f or t hat o f a n a ccompanying m osaicist? T hat

a ll w ork h ere i s o f a c raftsman's s tandard

( and n ot

t hat o f

a n a pprentice) i s i ndisputable. I f, i ndeed, m ore t han o ne c raftsman w as r esponsible, i t i s o nly j ust p ossible t o b e s ure o f a reas w here r elevant c ontrasts o ccur. 3 .8 T he s altire q uality

m osaic

f rom V erulamium ( pl.

3 0),

a nother m osaic

w ith

a

a rrangement, a lso p ossesses a c entral s quare w ith h igh f igural w ork. T he s quare i tself i s e nclosed b y a b and o f

f our-strand g uilloche ( compare t he c hain-guilloche a t M iddleborough), a lthough, a s i n t he M iddleborough m osaic, t he s altire i tself i s d efined b y c hain-guilloche ( with b ars i nstead o f p rominent E ach a rm o f

t he s altire c arries a n e legant c antharus.

t ongues).

T hese a re e ach

f ramed b y a s wallow-tailed b lack l ine. I n e ach o f t he s emi-roundels, a djacent t o t he c entral s quare, a re t wo l otus b uds l inked b y a f illet ( in t he p anels t o t he l eft a nd r ight o f t he l ion) a nd h alf o f a s ixteen-petalled f lower e nclosed b y s imple g uilloche ( in t he p anels a bove a nd b elow t he l ion). B oth t he a rms o f t he s altire a nd t he s emi-roundels a re d ecorated i n am anner q uite d ifferent p anels i n t he M iddleborough m osaic. I t i s

t he q uality a nd

e ffect

o f

t o

s imilar

t he d esign i n t he c entral p anel,

h owever , w hich p rovides t he c losest p arallel w ith t he M iddleborough m osaic. T he p erspective d iffers a l ittle -as b efits t he s cene b ut, a s i n t he l atter p avement, t he s ensitivity o f t essellation ( seen i n t he t ones o f t he l ion's c oat a nd i n t he s hadow b eneath h is b ody) i s n otable . F ramed b y a s ingle, d ark l ine b oth p anels g ive t o t he s pectator t hat s ense o f a p rivileged v iew m entioned a bove. T here i s a v itality o f s ubject u nknown e lsewhere i n t he p rovince, i n t he s econd c entury ( except, p erhaps, f or t he O ceanus m osaic, a gain f rom V erulamium). T he a pparent m ovement o f b oth t he l ion a nd t he C upids a long a n i maginary, o blique l ine i s l argely r esponsible f or t his e ffect. B etween t hese t wo m osaics,

h owever,

t here a re f ew o bvious s imi-

l arities o f m otif. I t i s t his w hich s uggests t he p resence o f V erulam ium o f a t l east o ne c raftsman n ot e ngaged a t M iddleborough, f or t here a re s ome s ignificant a dditions t o t he f eatures o f t he l atter. W ave-crest p attern, f ollowing a c urved l ine, i s a bsent f rom t he C upids m osaic, a nd h as i ts c losest p arallels i n t he s altire d esign f rom N orth L eigh ( p1.34). T he f loral d evice e nclosed b y e ach o f t he w ave-crest p attern b orders i n t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic, a dmittedly, 3 7

a re

c omparable

w ith

t he i vy l eaves

l inked b y a f illet

a t

M iddle-

b orough, b ut t he m ore s ignificant h alf-flowers a re a bsent, w hereas t hey a re c losely p aralleled a t N orth L eigh , a nd i n m osaic B ( panel B ), N orth H ill ( Neal 1 981, N o.39). A bove a ll, i n t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic, c anthari w hich o ccupy e ach a rm o f t he s altire a re a m ore e ffective d ecoration t han t he t riangular f ields o f t he C upids m osaic. A gain a t N orth L eigh, c anthari a re f ound i n a s imilar p osition, ( though o f a d ifferent f orm). A s urprisingly c lose p arallel f or t he c anthari a t V erulamium i s a fforded, h owever, b y a c antharus f rom o ne o f t he o ctagonal p anels o f m osaic B , N orth H ill ( now d isplayed i n C olchester M useum : p 1.31). L ike t hat f rom V erulamium t his h as m eand ering s wastika a t t he n eck, " S" -s haped h andles w ith v olutes, a nd a n o val m outh w hich r eveals t he i nside o f t he v essel. T he f ormer h as f ive g adroons, c ompared t o t he t hree i n t he C olchester e xample b ut, c learly, t hey m ight s till b e t he w ork o f t he s ame m osaicist. ( Another m osaic f rom M iddleborough d id f eature a c antharus w hose m outh p ointed t owards t he c entre: p 1.28a. T his m ight h ave b een a r adial a rrangement o f n umerous p anels a round a c entral h exagon : M osaic 4 ( 1981), f ig.3). A s w ith t he C upids m osaic, i t i s d ifficult t o a scertain w hether t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic i s t he w ork o f m ore t han o ne c raftsman . T here i s s lightly m ore t o g o o n w ith t he l atter h owever, a nd o ne s eems j ustified i n p resuming t he w ork o f a t l east t wo m en . F irst, t he c anthari a re n ot i dentical. T hat t o t he b ottom l eft i s b adly d rawn a t t he b ase, t he f oot i s c rooked a nd t he g adroons a re s maller a t t he l eft t han t o t he r ight. T he r emainder i s w ell d rawn . I ndeed, i ts s wastika p atterning m atches t hat o f t he t wo c anthari t o t he ' top l eft a nd ' top r ight'. O nly t hat t o t he ' bottom l eft' c arries a l ateral, s wastika m eander . t herefore, i s p roblematical:

T he s ignificance o f t hese c anthari, a ll f our a re o f l arger t esserae t han t he

t esserae i n t he c entral s quare, t he t esserae b eing m ore a kin t o t hose u sed f or t he b ackground f illing. T hey c ould b e t he i nconsistent w ork o f a n a ssistant m osaicist. S econdly, t he f our-strand g uilloche w hich e ncloses t he c entral s quare i s w ell d rwan , b ut s lightly i nferior t o t he c hain-guilloche. A s imilar i nconsistency i s v isible i n t he c urved s ections o f c rest p attern : t hat t o t he l eft o f t he l ion h as l ightly c rests,

w hile t hose t o t he r ight

T hirdly,

w aved rawn

a re m uch h eavier.

i n o ther s emi-roundels d ifferences a re a pparent i n b oth

m otifs a nd b orders. T hat t he f loral d evice ' above' t he l ion i s m ore l ightly s haded t han t hat ' below' m ight s eem i nsignificant, b ut t his i s a lso a ssociated w ith n otable c ontrasts i n t he q uality o f t he g uilloche ( both s imple a nd c hained) b y w hich t hey a re e nclosed. A round t he t op p anel, t he s imple g uilloche i s i nterlaced o nly t welve t imes, w hile a round t he b ottom p anel i t i s i nterlaced s eventeen t imes. T he c hain-guilloche t oo i s i nterlaced m ore f requently ( and, t herefore , i s m ore c ompact) a round t he b ottom p anel a nd t he t wo p anels

w hich c ontain w ave-crest p attern ,

t han i t i s a round

t he

t op

o nly

o ne

p anel . I t

i s

d ifficult

t o i magine h ow t he v ariable w ork o f

m osaicist c ould a ccount f or s uch d ifferences: a n e xplanation w hich m erely s upposes o ne m osaicist a pplying a n umber o f c ontrasting m ethods o f

l aying

( Part 1 ,

s ections 3 .8 -3.10) m ust b e s uspect.

3 8

3 .9

f rom

A lso c omparable w ith t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic i s t he p avement N orth L eigh ( p1.34), s hown h ere i n a s ketch b y Hakewill. T he

s ketch i s p oor, c onsequently a ny c omparisons m ust b e f airly g eneral. H owever, a s altire d esign i s a gain a pparent. T he b orders a re e labor ate -c omprising b ands o f c hain-guilloche, w ave-crest p attern, a nd s imple g uilloche ( all o f w hich a re t o b e s een i n t he L ion a nd S tag p avement). Y et t he c entre o f t he m osaic i s n ow d ominated b y a r ound el ( the c ontents o f w hich h ave n ot s urvived), a nd t he c anthari, h ere, a re w ide a t t he b ase a nd c urve, e venly, u p t o t he r im . T he c anthari, e specially, a re a c lear c ontrast w ith t heir c ounterparts a t V erulamium, a lthough t heir p ositioning, l ike t he p ositioning o f t he h alf-flowers i n t he s emi-roundels, i s a n otable p arallel. C onv ersely, s ixteen-petalled f lowers, o f a s imilar s tyle t o t hose i n t he s emi-roundels o f t he L ion a nd S tag p avement, a re, a t N orth L eigh , f ound i n a s quare i mmediately a bove t he c anthari, f ree o f f loral d ecoration i n t he f ormer. T he

r ichness

o f

t he b order a rrangements a t

a p osition w hich i s

N orth

L eigh

h as

a lready b een m entioned. T he q uality o f t he w orkmanship i s i mpossible t o a scertain, b ut t he d ecoration a ppears m ore e laborate t han t hat o f t he C upids o r t he L ion a nd S tag p avements. I n f act, a s trip o f c ornice p attern , ( along o ne s ide), a s w ell a s a b and o f s uperposed t riangles w hich e nclose t he m osaic, a re r eminiscent o f s ome o f t he b order d evices i n t he p avements f rom N orth H ill, C olchester. T he c ornice p attern o f m osaic B , N orth H ill, l acks t he t hird c alyx ( seen a t N orth L eigh) a nd c oncentrates o nly o n t he ' erect a nd ' hooked' l eaf. T he b order o f t riangles i s e qually, i f n ot m ore, d iagnostic h owever: b oth a t N orth 9 L eigh a nd i n m osaic C ( and a t H igh W ycombe) i t e ncloses a q uadrangle. T his L eigh

s uggests

m osaic,

s ome f urther s tylistic a ffinities f or t he

w hich s upplement

t hose a lready o bserved

N orth

b etween

t he

L ion a nd S tag a nd C upids m osaics. I t r emains a nother c onvincing s altire d esign , b ordered b y e laborate c hain-guilloche : a m osaic w hich m ust h ave b een t he w ork o f a t l east o ne c raftsman w ho h ad e xperience a t V erulamium a nd C olchester. 3 .10

w ith

A nother p avement, f rom V erulamium, a lso s uggests s ome a ffinity t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic. T his i s t he p avement o f i nsula I V,

h ouse 8 , w hich h as a b ust o f O ceanus i n a c entral s quare, e nclosed b y a d ouble s wastika m eander ( p1.26). E ight r elieving p anels a re p res ent: s quare p anels w ith ' squared' e ight-petalled r osettes o ccupy e ach o f t he f our c orners, a nd f our r ectangular p anels, ( each h olding a s mall c antharus), a re a djacent t o t he c entral s quare. * To t he b ottom o f t he m osaic i s a b and o f f our s trand g uilloche . O ceanus

i s d rawn b oldly,

t he s houlders a nd n eck a re s haded v ery

e ffectively, a nd t he h air a nd f ace a re c onfidently d elineated. T he t esserae a re l arger t han t hose o f t he C upids o r L ion a nd S tag p anels, a lthough s mall t esserae a re u sed i n t he f ace o f O ceanus. T he l atter -as

i n t he f ormer w orks -a re s haped a ccording t o t he j ob t hey

t o d o, i t

i .e.

f alls

r ectangular

e ither s ide o f

( not c ubic) t he m outh.

h ad

t esserae d epict t he m oustache a s W ork o f 3 9

s uch q uality r emains

a

r arity i n R oman B ritain. w ell

r endered,

1 0

r ecalling

T he e yes a nd t he c heeks a re e xceptionally t he t reatment o f

t he l egs o f

t he

T he h air o f O ceanus a lso a ppears t o b e s tyled o n t he l ocks w hich c omprise t he l ion's m ain a t V erulamium .

C upids.

s ame m atted I ndeed, t he

b older d rawing o f t he O ceanus p anel ( contrast t he c onfusion o f c olour a round t he h eads o f t he l ion a nd s tag) i s m ore s uitable t o t his k ind o f p ortraiture -a s tyle w hich d epends o n t he s trength a nd n aturalism o f t he s ubject. A s a nother p seudo-emblema o f t he l ater s econd c ent ury, t herefore, i t a ppears t hat t his p anel w as t he w ork o f a m osaicist e mployed o n t he L ion a nd S tag a nd, p erhaps, o n t he C upids m osaic. T he g eometric d ecoration i s a lso i nstructive.

I n s ome i nstances

f urther a ffinities w ith t he l atter m osaics a re s uggested. T he b ulky, f our-strand g uilloche i s r eminiscent o f t he g uilloche w hich e ncloses t he c entral s qauare o f t he L ion a nd S tag p avement ( such a b and, i n e ven h eavier f orm, i s p resent i n m osaic C , N orth H ill). T he u se o f p recise, d ark l ines, t wo t esserae w ide, t hroughout t he p avement i s a lso f amiliar. H owever t his m osaic i s i mportant f or t he o ther a ffinit ies w hich i t s uggests. T he c anthari a djacent t o t he c entral s quares h ave

t heir

c losest

p arallel a t N orth H ill

( mosaic B )

a nd

i n

t he

m osaic f rom i nsula 3 4, C olchester. T he p resence o f a l adle -on t wo o ccasions -is p aralleled i n a n ine-panelled, c urvilinear d esign f rom C irencester ( p1.16b); i ndeed, t he s hape o f t he c antharus, h ere , i s a gain c omparable w ith t hat o f I t

i s

t hose i n t he O ceanus m osaic.

t he p rominent a rrangement o f s wastika

m eander

h owever,

w hich a ppears t o b e p articularly i mportant f or a ny s uggestion o f a s chool o r g roup o f i ntegrally r elated m osaic d esigns. I n a ddition t o t he r homboidal s wastika c onspicuous i n m osaic A , N orth H ill, s wastika m eander was a f eature o f t er ( pl. o n t he

t he m osaic f ound i n C ulver S treet,

C olches-

2 7). T his p avement i s o f a s imilar s tyle t o a m osaic f ound s ite o f t he V ictoria I nn , C olchester ( pl. 2 9) -a m osaic

w hich, w hen r econstructed, h as a n a rrangement v ery s imilar t o t hat o f t he O ceanus p avement. A s a n a rrangement o f ' L shapes a round a c entral s quare, t herefore, t he C ulver S treet m osaic, w hen c ompared w ith t hat f rom t he V ictoria I nn, a gain s uggests f urther, c omplicated r elationships b etween m osaic A , N orth H ill, a nd, i ndirectly ( through t he O ceanus m osaic), A e astern

g roup p art

t he C upids m osaic f rom M iddleborough.

c omprising o f

a t

l east e leven p avements

o f

t he p rovince c an t hus b e c onsidered

t he a

s outh-

r easonably

c onvincing e xample o f i ntegral, s tylistic a ffinity. I t i s p ossible t o i magine a w eb o f d irect r elationships b etween m osaics, w herein e ach m osaic i s a ssumed t o b e t he w ork o f a c raftsman w ho h ad w orked o n a t l east

o ne o ther m osaic i n t he g roup.

W ithin t his g roup,

h ow-

e ver, n ot a ll p avements n eed b e t he w ork o f a s ingle g ang o f w orkers ( a u nitary a ffinity, i ndicating a w orkshop), a lthough s ome w orkshops a re a pparent,

i .e.

a nd m osaics B a nd C , b ination o f

t hose b ased o n t he L ion a nd S tag/Cupids m osaics, N orth H ill.

T he g roup r epresents i nstead,

s uch c ontrasting i nterests.

a c om-

I n r egard t o o ther l evels o f

s tylistic a ffinity ( e.g.the s ubstantial g roup o f w hich t he N orth H ill ( B a nd C ) m osaics a nd t he H igh W ycombe m osaics a re a p art, o r t he s eq uential g roup o f ' fully c entralised c ircular o r r adial d esigns' -of w hich e very p avement h ere,

b ut

t he H igh W ycombe p avement,

i s a p art),

i t a lso o ffers a n i nsight i nto t he s ignificance o f p articular a nd

t rends

f or t he d evelopment o f

t he c raft a s a w hole. 40

t astes

4 .

U nitary A ffinities T wo u nitary a ffinities h ave a lready b een m entioned:

( i ) ( ii)

P avements B a nd C , N orth H ill, n os. 3 9 a nd 4 0), a nd

C olchester ( Neal

T he

a nd t he

L ion a nd S tag m osaic

C upids m osaic

( pls.

( p1.30)

M iddleborough,

3 2 a nd 3 3).

S uch a ffinities a re a lso p rominent b etween o ther p avements, ( iii)

T wo p avements f rom V erulamium , c ontaining

T he B lackfriars L eicester, ( pls.

( pls.

h owever:

e ach o f w hich h as a s quare

t wo d olphins w ith t heir t ails

t he a rms o f c antharus ( iv)

1 981,

e ntwined

w ith

1 3 a nd 1 4);

a nd S t. 1 a nd 5 ).

N icholas

S treet

p avements,

4 .1 T he

N orth

H ill

m osaics

( pl. 2 0) w ere s een , a bove, s tylistic a ffinity; b ut m osaic 7 , t esserae,

a nd t he m osaic

( 7)

f rom

V erulamium

t o b e c omparable a t a n i ntegral l evel t he s ize a nd s haping o f t he t esserae

o f i n

i ts l arge a reas o f b ackground f illing i n b uff-brown a nd t he a bsence o f t he m ost s ignificant b order d ecorations

v isible i n m osaics B a nd C , s uggest t hat i t w as t he w ork o f a n e ssentially d ifferent g roup o f c raftsmen. M osaics B a nd C t hemselves s how s ome n otable c ontrasts: m osaic C h as a b ead a nd r eel p attern a s t he i nnermost o f i ts c oncentric, c ircular b ands; t he t horn p attern i n t his m osaic i s w hite o n b lack , c ompared w ith b lack o n w hite i n m osaic B ; a nd a s ubsidiary p anel o f m osaic C w hich c ontains a b order o f s uperposed t riangles, h as n o p arallel i n t he l atter. A lso, i n o ne o f i ts c orner s quares, m osaic C s hows t he r emains o f a f loral d evice w hich i s n ot, s tylistically, c omparable w ith t hose p laced i n a s imil ar p osition i n m osaic B . T he d ifferences b etween t he m otifs i n t he c entral s quares o f b oth t hese m osaics h as b een c overed a bove ( section 2 .2. p p.30-31) a nd, c learly, i s n ot u nimportant. H owever, y ellow , g rey,

o n b alance, p ale-blue,

t he u se h ere o f s imilar c olours ( red, b rown) a nd s hapes o f t esserae i s m ore

s ignificant. I n a ddition , n otable p arallels i n d ecoration c annot b e i gnored: i n t heir c oncentric, c ircular b ands, b oth m osaics h ave w ave-crest p attern a nd a f loral s croll; b oth h ave t horn p attern i n a s quare f ormation ;

a nd

t heir l eaves

( of

t he

f loral s crolls,

o r a s

s ingle l eaves i n m osaic C a nd b ipetals i n m osaic B ) a re a lmost i dent ical. W hen s uch d etails a re e xamined i t s eems t hat, i n s pite o f a ll t heir c ontrasts,

t hese p avements w ere b y t he s ame c raftsman/gen .

4 .2 T he s tyle,

M iddleborough s o f ew i n f act,

m osaic t hat

s hows v ery

f ew

i nconsistancies

t here m ight b e n o n eed

o f

t o p ostulate t he

p resence o f m ore t han o ne m osaicist ( section 3 .5). I f s o, t he c onc lusion i s i nescapable t hat h e a lso w orked o n t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic f or, a lthough t his m osaic d oes s uggest t he p resence o f a nother m osaicist

( section 3 .8)

i t i s o f a v ery s imilar d esign a nd 4 1

s tyle

t o

t he M iddleborough e xample. O ne c annot b e s o c lear w hen c onsidering o ther m osaics a ppear t o o we m uch t o t his m anner o f a rrangement a nd d epiction . N orth L eigh p avement m ium d ers,

( p1.34)

a nd

t he O ceanus p avement,

f rom

w hich T he

V erula-

( p1.26) h ave, r espectively, a n a rrangement o f d ecorative b ora nd a c entral s quare w ith f ine f igured w ork, b oth o f w hich

m ight b e i ndicative o f t he c raft o f s ome o f t he m osaicists e mployed a bove. H owever, b oth a lso s uggest a s ignificant i nfluence a bsent b oth f rom M iddleborough a nd t he L ion a nd S tag p avement. I n t he c ase o f N orth L eigh t his c an b e c onstrued a s r elatively u nimportant, i .e. t he s tyle o f t he c anthari, t he s hape o f t he c entral p anel, a nd t he b order o f s uperposed t riangles a nd c ornice p attern . H owever, i n t he O ceanus p avement t he a rrangements a nd m otifs a re c onsiderably d iffere nt: t he o nly m ajor s imilarity i s t he b ust o f t he c entral p anel. I t i s s afest t o a ssume, t herefore, t hat w hereas t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic m ight b e p redominantly t he w ork o f a c raftsmen w ho w as a lso p resent a t N orth L eigh, t he s ame p roximity o f r elationship c annot b e p ostulat ed f or t he O ceanus m osaic. T hus a s econd e xample o f u nitary a ffin ity m ust b e r estricted t o t he C upids m osaic a nd t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic, w ith a p ossible i nclusion o f t he m osaic f rom r oom 3 0 , N orth L eigh . 4 .3 T wo o f

t he

p avements f rom V erulamium p rovide a lmost i dentical v ersions s ame f igural s cene ( pls.

1 3 a nd 1 4).

T he

s cene

h as

t wo

d olphins f alling, l eft a nd r ight, f rom a c entral c antharus ( with w hose h andles t heir t ails a re e ntwined). F rom t he c antharus o f p 1.13 f lows w hat a ppears t o b e t wo j ets o f a f ountain. T his m osaic i s t he m ore i mposing p iece o f w ork, b ut t he f ragmant m ight a lso h ave b een t he c entral d isplay o f a c omparable a rrangement. B oth s cenes o ccupy a s quare p anel e nclosed b y a s ingle, b lack l ine t wo t esserae w ide. F urther

s imilarities i nclude t he t hree p etal-shaped g adroons a t

t he b ase o f e ach c antharus, ( although t hose i n p l. 1 3 a re l arger, a nd e xtend f urther u p t he b ody, t han t hose o f t he f ragmentary d esign). T he h andles o f b oth c anthari h ave a s ingle v olute a t t he t op, a nd j oin t he b ottom o f t he c up, d irectly, w ithout f urther t wists, ( each h andle a lso j oins t he c up a t a proximately 1 2 c ms. b elow i ts r im , a r im w hich i s n otably w ide a nd o pen). T here a re s ome d ifferences,

h owever.

T he b ase o f

t he f ragmen-

t ary d esign c omprises a h alf-boss w hich r ests o n a s mall t riangle. I n p l. 1 3 t his i s r eplaced b y a f ull b oss a nd a n e longated t riangle a bout 2 0 e ms. l ong. T he e yes a nd t he f ins o f t he d olphins a re a lso m uch m ore c learly a nd e laborately d epicted t han i n t he f ormer. T he c antharus i tself i s m ore r igid, w ith a lmost s traight s ides,, i n p l. 1 4: i ts b ase i s a lso o ff-centre. F inally, t he t essellation o f t he l atter, a lthough c omprising t esserae o f m uch t he s ame s ize a s t hose i n t he f ormer, p resents p erceptible d ifferences i n t he s hape o f t esserae ( often j agged), a nd u ses f ewer t esserae t o c over a g iven a rea. I t

i s

p ossible

t hat

t hese d ifferences d o

n ot

p reclude

t hese

m osaics a s w orks o f t he s ame m osaicist. B ut g iven t he i neptitude d isplayed w hen d ealing w ith s ome e lementary f eatures, e .g. t he p lac4 2

l ag o f

t he b ase o f

t he c antharus,

a scribe t he l atter m osaicist's w orkshop.

p avement

i n p l.

1 4,

i t

i s m ore r easonable t o

t o a n a ssistant o f

a

m ore

c ompetent

4 .4

t he

A long w ith t he m osaics o f s ection 4 .2 a bove, t he m osaics f rom B lackfriars a nd S t. N icholas S treet s ites, L eicester, p rovide

e vidence f or o ne o f t he c losest s tylistic r elationships b etween a ny m osaics i n s econd c entury B ritain . I t i s p rofitable t o c onsider a nother p avement ( the G reat W itcombe m osaic) i n r egard t o L eicester m osaics, b ut t he e vidence f or f urther, u nitary, h ere a ppears t o b e l ess c onvincing. A g eneral d escription o f a ppendix E ,

s ection 1 .2,

P .

t he t wo a ffinity

t he t wo L eicester p avements i s g iven i n 1 27:

h ere i t i s o nly n ecessary t o c on -

s ider m ore s pecific d etail. B oth

p avements

h ave e xamples o f

a

f our-petalled

f lower

w ith

l ong, b road l eaves w hich c urve t o a f ine t ip, ( pls. 1 a nd 5 b). D own t he c entre o f e ach p etal r uns a r idge o r v ein o f c ream c oloured t esserae ( half o f t he l eaf i s s haded y ellow a nd h alf d ark r ed). I n t he B lackfriars m osaic t he d evice i s b acked b y f our b road p etals, l ess a ngular i n a ppearance t han t hose i n t he S t.Nicholas S treet m osaic. H owever, t hese m otifs r emain r are i n R omano-British m osaic, a nd t heir o ccurrence i n L eicester, i n t wo p avements o f s econd c entury d ate, i s i mportant. T horn p attern i s c ommon t o b oth m osaics. F req uently, a lthough t here a re d ifferences o f s cale, m otifs o f t he B lackfriars p avement a re r epeated i n t he l atter. A n e ight-petalled r osette d ivided i nto f our b y s ingle, b lack l ines i s s een a t t he c entre o f a g eometric s pray p attern ( pl. 3 b) a nd i n t he t ilted s quares o f t he S t. N icholas S treet m osaic ( pl. 5 a); f urthermore, a t ype o f f our-petalled f lower w hich o ccupies a t ilted s quare d irectly b elow t he p eacock ( pl. 5 a), i s a lso f ound i n a t ilted s quare i n t he B lackfriars m osaic. C ornice p attern, a s b ordering s trips, i s a lso c ommon m osaic

t o b oth m osaics. a lthough, h ere

d ifferent s tandards, C ontrasts

I t t oo,

( see p ls.

i s o f b etter q uality i n t he B lackfriars t here i s w ork w hich a ppears t o b e o f 4 a a nd 4 b).

i n t essellation w ithin t he s ame m osaic a re i nsignifi-

c ant h owever w hen c ompared w ith t he c ontrasts b etween t he m osaics t hemselves. T he f illing o f t riangular p anels w ith c ontiguous t ria ngles -a d evice c ommon t o b oth p avements -is n otable h ere. I n t he S t. N icholas S treet m osaic s ome t riangles a re v ery c rudely e xecuted ( pls. 6 a h ere t oo),

a nd 6 b; d ifferent q ualities o f w orkmanship a re n oticeable w hereas t hose o f t he B la liriars p avement a re m uch f iner

( pl. 2 b) a nd m ore e laborate ( pl. 2 a). I t s eems t hat a l ess s killed c rafstman w as e mployed i n t he f ormer w ork -a c raftsman ( or . a pprent ice) w hose c ontributions a re n ot v isible i n t he B lackfriars m osaic. O ther c ontrasts b etween t he t wo p avements

i nclude t he a bsence o f

a ny ' whirling-wheel o r k aleidoscopic p attern i n t he S t. N icholas S treet m osaic, t he p resence t here o f a r ichly c oloured f igured p anel ( enclosed b y a c hain-guilloche) a t t he c entre , a nd t he a bsence o f a ny f loral s croll p attern o r s tencilled l ines. B ut w hereas t hese m ight i ndicate a nother m osaicist ( i n a ddition t o t he s killed ' assistant' m entioned a bove) t hey d o n ot c ontradict t he s uggestion t hat t his 4 3

p avement i s v ery c losely r elated

i n

t o t he B lackfriars m osaic.

I t s eems p robable, t herefore, t hat t hree w orkers w ere e mployed m aking t he S t. N icholas S treet p avement a e5 o nly o ne ( possibly

t wo) i n t he m aking o f t he B lackfriars m osaic. I f s o, i t b ecomes e asier t o a ccount f or t he r elationship o f b oth o f t hese w orks t o t he p avement o f r oom 5 , G reat W itcombe ( see s ection 2 .1, a bove . p p. 2 72 8). T he l atter h as m uch i n c ommon w ith b oth p avements f rom L eicest er, b ut t he k aleidoscopic p atterns a re n ot i dentical t o t hose o f t he B lackfriars m osaic, w hile t he f loral d evice o f t he l ozenge a rrangem ent ( based o n f our h alves o f a n e ight-lozenge s tar, a round a c entral s quare) i n t he S t. N icholas S treet p avement i s t ilted, n ot p erpendic ular a s i s t he f loral d evice i n t he G reat W itcombe m osaic. I t

s eems

W itcombe N icholas

c ertain t hat t he b lend o f

c haracteristics

a t

G reat

i s a ttributable t o a m osaicist w ho h ad w orked o n t he S t. S treet m osaic. W hether o r n ot t his i s t he s ame c raftsman

w ho w as r esponsible f or m uch ( if n ot a ll) o f t he w ork i n t he B lackf riars m osaic, r emains u nclear. I f i t i s n ot, t hen i t i s p remature t o s peak o f a u nitary s tylistic a ffinity b etween G reat W itcombe a nd t he L eicester p avements: a n i ntegral l evel o f a ffinity i s m ore a ppropriate . 5 .

S ummary

I t s eems a ppropriate t o e mphasise f our m ain p oints w hen s ummaris ing t he a bove d iscussion : ( a) W hatever t he r ole o f i ndividual m osaicists o r g roups o f m osaicists w as i n t he s econd c entury, t here a ppears t o b e a l ong t erm t rend i n t he p opularity o f c ertain d esigns o ver w hich c ontrol b y t hese m osaicists w as n egligible. T his i s o nly a s o ne m ight e xpect a t a ll t imes a nd i n a ll p laces -for i t i s a lways a p roblem i n a rt h istory o r a rchaeology t o k now t o w hat d egree c ertain p ersons c an b e h eld r esponsible f or t he a ppearance o f p articular a spects o f d esign ( especially w here o ne i s d ealing w ith a spects o f a rrangement, s truc t ure, a nd f igural t ypes). N evertheless, t hese t rends s hould n ot b e o verlooked:

t here h as b een a t endency t o s top a t

t he r ecognition o f

p articular f orms o f a rrangement e tc., w ith l ittle a ccount o f t he d evelopements w hich c onnect t hem . T his c an b e a scribed t o t he a bs ence o f a ny c raft-related e xplanation o f t he c hanges. B ut s uch a gencies d o n ot s eem a ppropriate p recursors o f a d iscussion o f t he e laboration o f l ozenge d esigns, o f t he t rend t o s cenic o r e laborate f igural w ork , ( b) e specially

o r t he c entralisation o f a rrangements.

I n o ur i gnorance i t i s b est t o a ssume s implicity. t rue o f

t he o rganisation o f m osaicists b efore

i deas o f c lients ( or a t l east,

T his i s 1 60 .

t he p atronage o f a c raftsman's

g ence) a ppear t o b e i mportant f actors d evelopment o f p articular a rrangements.

T he i ndul-

i n t he d istribution a nd I n a l and w hich h ad b een

r ecently ' Romanised', m ost m osaics w ere e xecuted i n t he c ivitas c apitals. H ere, t here w ere w orkshops ( e.g. i n L eicester, a nd a lso i n V erulamium), b ut t hese w ere s mall s cale a ffairs, w ith a t m ost f our a ttested

p roducts

a nd

l ittle i ndication o f

o rganisational s ignificance. d esign i s m any m iles d istant.

a ny

m ore

w idespread

S ometimes, t he c losest p arallel f or a T his s uggests t hat t he c lients t hem-

s elves m ight h ave p rovided a n i mpetus

t o i tinerance. 4 4

( c) G enerally, d ecoration a nd a rrangement d o s uggest r egional p references. T hese a re a m ajor s ource o f d efinition f or t he s ample b efore c . 1 60-170 , ( and d esigns a fter t his p eriod).

r emain a n e lement i n t he d evelopment o f L ozenge p atterns a nd g rids o f p anels a re

t he m ain c onstituents o f d esign a t t his t ime; h owever, w ithin t hese g eneral c ategories o ne c an d iscern a g roup o f m osaics w hich f eature g rids o f o ctagonal p anels ( predominantly a p henomenon o f w estern E ngl and) a nd a g roup w hich f eatures s quares a nd r ectangles, i n a n inep anel a rrangement ( predominantly a n p henomenon o f e astern E ngland). I ndeed, t he d ifferences e nshrined h ere s eem t o b e r esponsible f or t he d evelopment o f s cenic, u nified f orm o f f igural T he

o nly

c lear

s chool o f m osaic)

i s

f igural r epresentation i n t he e ast r epresentation i n t he w est. i ndication o f

i ntegral

i n t he e ast o f E ngland,

a ffinity

a nd a l ess

( a

p ossible

a nd i s d atable t o c .

1 60

a nd l ater. T his a ppears t o h ave b een c omposed o f t wo w orkshops ( possibly s mall a ffairs) w here t he p roducts o f e ach o ccur i n b oth V erulamium a nd C olchester.

T he C olchester p roducts a re,

g enerally,

t he e arliest. I ndeed, S mith ( 1975, 2 88) s uggests t hat t he s chool o riginated i n C olchester a nd t hen t ransferred t o V erulamium , a lthough t he s imilarity o f a n e arly p avement a t C olchester ( the C upids m osaic) t o w hat w ould b e a c onsiderably l ater o ne a t V erulamium ( the L ion a nd S tag m osaic) w ill m ake t his d ifficult t o s ubstantiate . A t p resent, i t s eems j ustifiable t o r ecognize t wo p artially c ontemporary w orks hops. O ne o f t hese, w hich s pecialised i n r egular n ine-panel a rrangements

a nd

r esidual l ozenge a rrangements,

w as b ased

i n C olches-

t er. A nother, w hich s pecialised i n i rregular s altire a rrangements f ine f igured w ork, o perated o n a s emi-itinerant b asis w hile f ormer w as s till w orking.

4 5

a nd t he

P art I II

M osaics o f C entral S outh-Western E ngland i n t he L ate-Third a nd F ourth C enturies 1 . T his

r egion h as y ielded a v ery l arge n umber o f m osaics;

i ndeed,

t he c ounties o f G loucestershire a nd S omerset a lone h ave, t ogether, b een c redited w ith 2 37 e xamples ( Mosaic 9 ( 1984), 9 ). T his e nsures t hat e ven a d etailed d iscussion o f t he e vidence i s s elective. F ortu n ately, h owever, b ecause m any o f t he m ost i mportant m osaics a re v ery c lose s tylistically, a nd b ecause m any s imple o r r epetitive g eometric d esigns h ave b een r ecorded, i t i s p ossible t o u nderstand c haracteristics o f t hese m osaics b y r eference t o w hat i s, a lly, a r elatively s mall s ample.

t he m ain n umeric -

T he c ounties m entioned a bove h ave p rovided m ost o f t he p avements a ttributed t o t he ' Corinian S chool o f m osaicists -a g roup o f m osa i cs a nd m osaicists c entered o n t he t own o f C irencester ( Toynbee 1 962, 1 98; S mith 1 965, 1 969 a nd 1 984e . A lthough o ne t enth o nly o f t hese p avements c an a ssociations o f

b e d ated o n e xternal c riteria, b oth t he p articular t he O rpheus a nd s altire m osaics, a nd t he m ore g eneral

a ssociation o f t his s chool w ith o ther s chools i n B ritain , h elps t o s uggest a n a dequate u nderstanding o f d evelopments. T he l ast f ifteen y ears, h owever, h ave b rought m ore m osaics t o l ight -m ost n otably i n C irencester i tself. S mith ( 1969b, i n B rown e t.al. 1 969) s uggested a s econdary p hase f or t he C orinian g roup, a nd r ecently ( Neal 1 981, n o. 8 7; T .B.G.A .S. ( 1982), 2 72) a ttention h as b een d rawn t o f urther c omp lexities o f i ts o rganisation . I n v iew o f t hese n ew d iscoveries a nd r efined i nterpretations, a r eview o f t he s tylistic r elationships t heir i mplications) i n t his r egion s eems n ecessary.

m ost

( and

I n a ppendix F o ver 70 p avements a re l isted, i ncluding a ll t he i mpressive a rrangements. U ninspired d esigns w hich, n onetheless,

a re i mportant a lso i ncluded,

i n t he i nterpretation o f s tylistic r elationships, a s a re m any s imple m osaics f ound i n a ssociation

a re w ith

t hose t hought t o i ndicate m ore s pecific a ffinities. S eventeen o f t he l isted m osaics a re f rom C irencester; t hree a re f rom G loucester; t wo a re f rom C aerwent; n otable s imilarities

a nd

o ne i s f rom L ondon ( a m osaic w hich s hows

t o p avements i n t he s outh-west).

s ome

T he m ajority,

h owever, a re f rom r ural s ites, o ften w ith s everal m osaics i n t he s ame b uilding. S ix o f t he l isted m osaics a re f rom C hadworth; s even a re

F orthcoming i n A tti d el 1 11 C olloquio I nternazionale s ul A ntico . 4 6

M osaic ( )

f rom N ewton S t. L oe; f our a re f rom N orth L eigh ; f our a re f rom S tonesf ield; s even a re f rom W ithington ; a nd a t l east t en ( nearer t wenty , i f f ragments a re a ccounted f or) f rom W oodchester.

S I TES O F P R INC IPAL F OUR THC EN TURY M OSA IC I N C ENTRAL S OUTH -W ESTERN E NG LAND M AP 4 .

-- Ma in a r ea o f s t ud y • C o lon iae i • C v i tas c a p ita l t •O t her s ubs t an t ia l s e t lemen t l •V i la s i te

. D ro i tw ich

G l ou cet ser

. 1 2

. 9;

r

2 1 3 .'

6

3 .. 14

l C i rences te r

. 5

C a e r leon . 10

N ewpo r t

1 . 1

7

l c hes t e r

1 . B romha i n 2 . C h edwo r th 3 . F r oces t e r C our t 4 .I f o ld 5 .K i ngs co t e 6 .L y dney P a rk 7 .N ewton S t L o e

8 . N o r th L e igh 9 . S t ones fi e ld 1 0 . T o ck ing ton P a rk . W embe rham 1 1 2 . W h it tington 1 3 . W i th ing t on 1 4 . W oo dches t e r

4 7

M i les 0

2 0

1 . 0

2 .

S equential A ffinites

T here a re a t l east t hree c ategories o f p avements w hich i llust rate t his g eneral l evel o f a ffinity: ( i) S imple g eometric p atterns, ( ii) C oncentric c ircular d esigns, a nd ( iii) D iagonal o r r otated l inear d esigns. T he f ormer i ncludes m any a ll-over a rrangements o f i nterlaced c ircles, c hequered s quares, p erspective b oxes o r r elieved m eanders. N umber ( ii) a ccounts f or a ll t he O rpheus d esigns a nd, a mongst o thers, t he B acchus m osaic f rom S tonesfield. T he l atter g roup i ncludes m osaics w hich f eature s altire d esigns o r d esigns b ased o n p atterns o f i nterlaced s quares. 2 .1 S imple G eometric P atterns A lthough t he s implicity o f t hese p avements r enders t hem l ess i nformative t han m any o ther a rrangements t hey d o p resent o ne o f t he c learest p ictures i n B ritain o f au niformity i n g eneral d esign . S uch p atterns m ay h ave b ecome a c onventional p art o f t he m osaicist's r epertory, i ndeed, t he s imilarity o f t hese m osaics t o s ome i n n orthe astern E ngland ( part I V) s uggests a w idespread a cceptance o f t hese f orms o f d ecoration . I n

t he

w estern

c ounties,

t hree o f t he s ites

w ith

p avements

d epicting O rpheus -N ewton S t. L oe, W oodchester, a nd W ithington a lso p rovide e vidence f or c omparable a ssortments o f g eometric m osai cs. A t t he f ormer , t hese i nclude p avements o f i nterlaced c ircles, r elieved m eanders a nd a f ragmented a rrangement o f p erspective b oxes b ordered b y a r elieved m eander ( pl. 4 0). T hose a t W oodchester a re m ore n umerous a nd a re g enerally m ore s ophisticated, b ut t hey r epeat t he d esigns o f i nterlaced c ircles, r elieved m eanders a nd p erspective b oxes ( in t he c orridor, r oom B , f or e xample : p l. 4), s uch a s a re 4 a lso f ound a t W ithington , ( pl. 4 5). ( The s implicity o f g eometric d esign a t W ithington , h owever, i s m uch m ore i n k eeping w ith t hat o f t he m osaics a t N ewton S t.

L oe).

A nother O rpheus m osaic -from B arton F arm -w as n ot a ssociated w ith g eometric m osaics, o nly a r emnant o f b order w ork w hich c omprises r elieved s wastika m eander a nd a n a rrangement o f p erspective b oxes s urvives ( pl. 4 1). A t S tonesfield, h owever , t wo p avements a t l east w ere a ssociated w ith a nother l arge, f igured m osaic f eaturing c oncent ric , c urved b ands ( pl. 4 7): o ne o f p erspective b oxes b ordered b y c hain-guilloche ( pavement C ), a nd o ne w ith t wo p anels o f p erspective b oxes a djacent t o a p anel o f r elieved s wastika m eander ( pavement B ). T his f ormula i s a lso a pparent ( at l east p artially) a t C hedworth, w here a r adial a rrangement o f e ight c ompartments i s b oth a djacent t o a n e xtensive, r elieved s wastika m eander ( Goodburn 1 979, p l. 6 ) a nd a ssociated w ith m osaics o f i nterlaced c ircles ( room 1 1: 7 .1) a nd p elta-pattern ( room 1 4: p l. 5 8a). A bove

a ll,

i bid.,

p l.

s imple g eometric m osaics a re f ound e lsewhere i n t he

r egion , a s i solated i nstances o r i n c ontexts w here n o s ophisticated w ork i s k nown . A t W hittington C ourt, G los., w here t he p avements a re m uch c ruder t han a ny o f t hose m entioned a bove, c orridor 1 1 h as a n a rrangement o f p erspective b oxes, l ozenges a nd c hequers ( T.B.G.A .S L XXI ( 1952), P 1. I V). A t N orth L eigh, O xon ., o ne o f t he f our g eomet ric m osaics c omprises a r elieved s wastika m eander ( p1.64) o f f airly s ophisticated

f ormat

( such

a s

i s 4 8

v isible

a t

C hedworth

a nd

W oodchester,

f or e xample).

A nd a t t he B eeches R oad s ite,

C irences-

t er , w hich p roduced t he m osaic d epicting a h are ( pl. 7 3), a rrangem ents o f m eander p attern ( Neal 1 981, n o. 2 6), g uilloche m at ( ibid., n o . 2 9), c hequered s quares ( Neal 1 981, n o. 3 1) a nd s wastika m eander r elieved b y s quare p anels ( ibid., n o. 2 8) w ere d iscovered. I n a ll a bout f orty s imple g eometric m osaics a re k nown i n t his r egion . M ost a re f rom t he a rea t o t he n orth-east o f C irencester, a lthough t o t he s outh o f t he t own o ther s ites, e .g . W oodchester a nd N ewton S t. L oe, a re i mportant. T he w idely d iffering q uality o f t hese m osaics i s p robably i ndicative o f m any d ifferent m osaicists. C ert ainly, t hese d esigns w ere e mployed f or a p eriod o f a t l east f orty y ears, a nd t heir d esigners m ight n ot a lways h ave s een t hem i n t he s ame l ight. 2 .2 C oncentric C ircular D esignes Here w e a re c onsidering a v ery i mposing g roup o f O rpheus m osaics a nd t he B acchus m osaic f rom S tonesfield, a lthough , s trictly s peaking, o ther p avements w hich d o n ot r eceive s uch f ervent a ttention , e .g. t he c ircular a rrangement a bove t he ' Hare m osaic ( pl. 7 2), a nother c ircular d esign f rom B eeches R oad, C irencester ( Neal 1 981, n o.30), a nd p avement K ( pl. 4) f rom W oodchester, s hould b e i ncluded. A s a 4 g ood c ase h as b een m ade r ecently ( Mosaic 4 ( 1981), 6 ) a gainst t he a uthenticity o f t he D yer S treet O rpheus m osaic ( Beecham 1 886, f .p . 26), o nly f our O rpheus m osaics c an n ow b e c redited t o t his r egion : 2 t he W oodchester m osaic ( pl. 4 3), t he W ithington m osaic ( pl. 4 6), t he m osai f rom B arton F arm ( pl. 4 1), a nd t he m osaic f rom N ewton S t. L oe ( Smith 1 969, p 1.3.10). W ith t he S tonesfield m osaic , w hich i n t erms o f s ophistication i s s econd o nly t o t he d esign f rom W oodchester, t his r egion , h owever , s till b oasts f ive r emarkable, c oncentric c ircular d esigns. T he W oodchester m osaic c omprises t hree c oncentric c ircular b ands w hich e nclose a c entral o ctagon . B irds, t rees a nd b ranches o ccupy t he i nnermost b and, f ollowed b y a p rocession o f m ammals i n t he m iddle b and, a nd a c ontinuous, c ircular , a canthus s croll i n t he o uter. T he m iddle a nd i nner b ands a re s eparated b y aw reath p attern a s w ell a s b y t he c onventional g uilloche . T he w hole c ircular d esign i s s et w ithin a s quare f ormed b y t he i nner b order o f a n a rrangement o f r epeating g eometric p anels ( panels w hich , t hemselves, a re s ignificant n ot o nly f or t heir s uggestion o f l inks w ith t he c ontinent ( section 4 .4) a nd w ith o ther s imple , g eometric d esigns, b ut a lso f or t heir i nclusion o f e ight c ircular m edallions, e ach o f w hich i s r eminiscent o f t he t hree, m inor c oncentric c ircular d esigns l isted a bove). I n c ontrast t o t he W oodchester m osaic,

t hat f rom B arton F arm h as

o nly t wo c ircular b ands ( which o n t his o ccasion e nclose a . c entral r oundel). T he i nner b and a gain f eatures b irds a nd t rees -a nd t he o uter l arge m ammals -b ut t he b and o f a canthus s croll i s a bsent. T he b ands a re n o l onger s eparated b y t wo b orders, o nly t he w reath p attern i s p resent; f urthermore , t he c hain-guilloche w hich b orders t he o uter b and n ow r uns i nto t hat w hich e ncloses t he w hole c ircular d esign . T he m osaic a gain a ppears t o h ave a n o uter b order o f s wastika m eander, s lightly r elieved b y g uilloche s trips. U nlike W oodchester, h owever, s uch g eometric d ecoration a s e xists d oes n ot s erve t o e mphasize t he a utonomy o f

t he c ircular a rrangement. 4 9

M uch

t he

N ewton S t. L oe, I n t he f ormer,

s ame c an b e

s aid o f

t he m osaics

f rom

W ithington

a nd

a lthough h ere o ther c ontrasts a re a lso c onspicuous. t he u nity o f t he e nclosing f rame w ith t he o utermost

b and o f t he c ircular d esign i s c omparable t o t hat a t B arton F arm . I n t he l atter, a s tencilled l ine i s a ll t hat d efines t he f orm o f t he c ircle ( within a s quare'frame w hose s imple g uilloche a lso c ross-cuts t he s pandrels). B oth o f t hese f eatures r ender t he d esigns m ore s cenic, c ircular v isions t han e xpansive r oundels. T his e ffect i s e ncouraged b y t he b anding ( or l ack o f i t) w ithin t he c ircular f ield. A t W ithington a t hin l ine a nd a b order o f w evecrest p attern e nclose O rpheus: b etween t hese a nd t he o uter b order o f t hree-strand g uill oche l ies t he o nly c ircular b and. Here, i s a p rocession o f l arge m ammals, w ith t he b irds ( seen a t B arton F arm a nd W oodchester) s eemi ngly d espatched t o t wo n arrow s trips w hich l ie e ither s ide o f t he m ain d esign. A t N ewton S t. L oe, m eanwhile, w here O rpheus i s e nclosed b y a b order o f s imple g uilloche, t hese b irds a re a bsent a ltogether , a nd t he o uter b order o f t he s ingle b and ( which a gain c ontains m ammals s eparated b y t rees) i s c omposed o f a b roken p attern o f t riangles. W ith

t he m osaic

f rom S tonesfield

t hree o r f our c oncentric b orders,

t he e ffect

i s m aintained.

o f a r oundel,

w ith

L ike W oodchester,

t his i s a l arge m osaic; i ndeed, i t c onsists o f t wo l arge, c ircular 7- e canthus s croll, d evices ( p1.47). T he l arger h as a n o uter b and -6 t hen a b and o f t hree g eometric b orders. T ogether, t hese e nclose t he c entral f igure o f B acchus, s eated u pon a l eopard. T he s maller c ircul ar d evice, f ormed b y a b order o f c hain-guilloche, e ncloses a g eom etric d esign s imilar t o t hose o f t he b order o f g eometric p anels a t W oodchester A ll o f

( p1.43). t hese m osaics

a ppear t o b e o f

t he f ourth c entury,

o r t he

v ery l ate t hird, ( Smith f avours a d ate b efore 3 00 f or t he m osaic f rom N ewton S t. L oe: S mith 1 969, 1 01; a lthough s ome d oubts h ave b een e xpressed r ecently : S mith 1 983, 3 26* ) . I n f act, t he m ost c onvinc i ng e vidence i s f rom B arton F arm, w here c oins p rovide a t erminus p ost q uem o f c .293. F rom t his, a nd w hat w e k now o f t he d emise o f t he m osaic c raft i n t he m id-late t hird c entury, i t h as b een c ustomary a nd r easonable -to i nfer t hat t he B arton m osaic a nd t he c omparable m osaic f rom W oodchester a re o f t he e arly f ourth c entury, p robably b efore 3 25. F urther e vidence f rom W oodchester s upports t his v iew ( Brittania X III ( 1982), 2 06-7); i ndeed, f or t he g reat p avement, a d ate o f b etween 3 00 a nd 3 20 i s s uggested ( Mosaic 9 ( 1984), 7 ). T he d ate o f t he W ithington a nd N ewton S t. L oe m osaics r emains u nclear, b ut, o n s tylistic g rounds t he a uthor w ould a ssign t hem a lso t o t he f ourth c entury ( pace S mith 1 969, 1 00): t hey a re p robably s lightly l ater t han t he a bove p avements ( section 4 .3) b ut a lmost c ertainly a re b efore 3 40 . S tonesfield, w ith i ts m any s tylistic p arallels w ith t he W oodchester m osaic, l ikewise, c an b e a ssigned t o a p eriod b etween 3 00 a nd 3 40. T he p roximity,

b oth g eographically a nd c hronologically,

o f

s uch

s imilar s tructural a rrangements i s, c learly, v ery s ignificant. T he s ubject o f O rpheus e ntrancing t he w ild b ests, a nd t he f amiliar

* R .

G inouves e t a l.

S tern'.

( eds.),

" Mosaique:

P aris. 50

R ecueil

d 'Hommages ä H enri

a ssociation o f O rpheus w ith w heels a nd t he r evolution o f n ature, s eems t o e xplain t he c hoice o f a rrangement i n f our o f t he a bove i nstances ( although o n n umerous o ccasions e lsewhere, e .g. B rading, I .O.W. ( V .C.H. H ants. ( 1900), f ig. 2 2); a nd i n F rance , a t B lanzy-lesF ismes a nd T rinquetaille ( the l atter i s d isplayed i n t he M useum o f R oman A rt, A rles), t he a nimals a re e ither i n t he s ame p anel a s O rpheus o r t here i s n o s tructural s eparation o f t hese f igures). I n t he m osaic f rom S tonesfield, t he a ppearance o f B acchus a t t he c entre o f a c oncentric c ircular d esign, i s n oteworthy. A lthough a f amiliar 7 s ubject i n B ritain ( see p ls. 7 a nd 7 8, f rom L ondon ; N eal 1 981, n o . 5 2, f rom G loucester), t his i s t he o nly i nstance o f B acchus a s t he f ocus o f s uch a n a rrangement. G iven t he p otential o f t he d esign f or i llustrating t he B acchus t heme, t his i s m ore t han a l ittle s urprisi ng . E lsewhere i n t he r egion , w e h ave o ther i nstances o f t he c oncent ric c ircular a rrangement. T hose o f t he o uter p anels o f t he W oodc hester m osaic, a nd t hat a bove t he B acchus p anel a t S tonesfield, h ave a lready b een n oted. I n a ddition t o t hese, h owever, a nother t hree e xamples s hould b e c onsidered. T he f irst, p avement K f rom W oodc hester , s hows t he r emains o f a b and o f c hain-guilloche w hich i s 4 s imilar t o t hat o f t he O rpheus m osaic ( pl. 4). L ike t he m inor, c ircular d esigns o f t he l atter, i t m ay h ave p ossessed a n umber o f c oncentric b ands. O thers c ertainly d id: m osaic 9 , b uilding X 11,2, C irencester ( Beeches R oad s ite) h as a n o uter c ircle o f s imple g uill oche, e nclosing a b order o f c rowstep p attern a nd a n i nner b order o f p etals ( Neal 1 981. n o. 3 0). T he c ircular p anel ' above t he H are m osaic ( again f rom i nsula X II, C irencester) h as t hree c oncentric, s tencilled l ines, e ach s eparated f rom t he o ther b y a n i nner b and o f s imple g uilloche a nd a n o uter b and o f t hree-strand g uilloche ( pl. 7 2). I t s eems c ertain t hat p avement K , W oodchester i s o f t he s ame p eriod a s t he O rpheus m osaic, i .e. c . 3 10-325. F or t he t wo e xamples f rom B eeches R oad h owever, d ating i s a l ittle m ore h azardous. T he c ircular a rrangement a bove t he H are w as a ssigned, o riginally , t o t he l ate-third c entury ( Neal 1 981, n o. 2 5), b ut t his d ating h as b een a mended, a nd t he p avement n ow a ssigned t o t he f ourth c entury ( perhaps a s l ate a s t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury: C irencester E xcavations I II, f orthcoming). I n t he e arly f ourth c entury, t herefore , a r emarkable a ptitude f or t he m anufacture o f c ircular d esigns s eems t o a ccompany a t aste p resumably o f c lients -for O rphic t hemes. I t i s t he c ombination o f t hese t wo i nterests w hich i s r esponsible f or t he n ovelty a nd s uccess o f t hese m osaics. I n B ritain , t heir i nfluence , c ertainly, w as w ides pread, a nd m ight h ave p rovided m odels f or t he m osaics a t H orkstow : P l. 9 7; W interton : 2 .3

N eal 1 981,

n o. 8 3;

a nd L ittlecote :

p l. 7 1.

D iagonal a nd R otated L inear D esigns

I t i s a lso p ossible t o r ecognise a t hird s equence o f g eneral a ffinity : m osaics w hich h ave d iagonal o r r otated, l inear a rrangem ents, i n t he f orm o f s altires ( e.g. P l. 6 5) o r r otated, l inear a rrangements i n t he f orm o f i nterlaced s quares ( e .g . p l. 6 0). S omet imes, t he i nterlaced s quares a re f ully r otated ( pl. 5 0 ), o r a re f eatured a s o ne o f a s et o f f our p airs o f s quares ( pl. 5 6). A ll o f 5 1

t hese d esigns a ppear t o s how a c ommon t aste f or a s pecific t ype o f g eometric i deal ( often t he f orms o f i nterlaced s quares a nd s altires a re j oined -in a n a ll-over p attern -as i n t he p avement f rom S treet, L ondon : p l. 7 7). F or

a r elatively c omplex g eometrical

f ormat,

m oreover,

B road

t hese

d esigns a re e specially n umerous i n t he s outh-western p art o f E ngland. T here a re a lso m any e xamples i n H ampshire , S ussex a nd D orset, b ut t heir c oncentration i n a nd a round C irencester i s n oteworthy . H ere a re s everal e xamples ( not a ll i nstances) o f e ach c learly d efinable f orm o f d esign : a rrangements o f f our p airs o f r otated, i nterlaced s quares ( from t he A venue : p l. 5 6; f rom Q uerns L ane : p l. 4 9; f rom t he N ew M arket H all s ite , G loucester: A nt. J . L IV ( 1974), p l. V ; a nd f rom N orth L eigh : p l. 6 3b); a rrangements o f s ingle p airs o f r otated s quares ( from K ingscote : p l. 5 0 ; B romham : p l. 5 4; L ydney , r oom L : p l. 7 9; a nd A dmiral's W alk, C irencester: p l. 4 8); a rrangements o f s ingle, c onventional i nterlaced s quares ( from T ockington P ark : p l. 6 0 ; L ydn ey, r oom X V II: p l. 8 0 ; a nd B eeches R oad, C irencester : p l. 7 3); a nd s altire a rrangements ( from A shcroft H ouse, C irencester : p l. 6 5 ; N orth L eigh : p l. 6 1; a nd C hedworth, r oom 1 0 : p l. 5 7a). S uch a c oncentrat ion o f c omparable g eometrical f orms c annot b e c oincidental. A ll t he d evices l isted a bove a re m ore t han e xtended m otifs. S ome p avements, s uch a s t hat f rom K ingscote ( section 3 .4) o r t he m osaic f rom C hedworth ( Goodburn 1 979, 2 6) a re d atable t o t he e arly f ourth c entury, p ossibly b efore 3 25. T here i s t hen a s ubstantial n umber, i ncluding t he m osaics f rom T ockington P ark , r ooms 9 a nd 1 2 ( T.B.G .A .S. X II ( 1888), 1 59-169), N orth L eigh ( Wilson a nd S herlock 1 980), a nd A shcroft H ouse ( Ant. J . X LIX ( 1969), 2 42) d atable t o t he s econd q uarter o r t he m iddle y ears o f t he c entury. O nly o ne o r t wo m osaics c an b e a ssigned, t enuously, t o a p eriod a fter c .350 , a lthough t he o riginal d ates f or t he L ydney m osaics ( Wheeler 1 936, 6 5), i f e ven a pproximately c orrect, c ould s uggest a r elatively l ate p eriod f or m osaics i n t he r egion w hich s hare t he e ssentials o f t he a rrangement o f t he p avement o f r oom X VIII. S ome o f t hese w orks,

t herefore,

w ill b e c ontemporary w ith

t he

l ater O rpheus m osaics, w hile m any o thers w ill p ost-date t his p eriod. A s i f t o e mphasise t he r elative l ongevity o f t his s equence, h owever, i t i s a lso p ossible t hat s ome m osaics m ight p re-date t he s equences o f s imple g eometric a nd O rphic p avements. T his i s, a dmittedly, d iffic ult t o s ubstantiate . I t i s c ertain , h owever, t hat t he s equence i ncludes m osaics w hose d istribution i s m ore w idespread t han t hat o f t he c oncentric c ircular d esigns, a nd w hose d esigns a re m ore d iagnost ic t han t hose o f t he s imple g eometric m osaics. O f t he t hree s equenc es ( where t hat o f s imple g eometric m osaics c omprises r egular a nd r epetitive d esigns, a nd t he c oncentric c ircular s equence c onsists o f v ery i maginative w orks) t his s equence a ppears t o b e t he n earest t hing t o a ' traditional f orm o f d esign. I ndeed, i t s eems p ossible t hat t he s equences o f c oncentric, c ircular d esign a nd r otated l inear d esigns s hare a c ommon r oot; g rids o f r egularly s paced c ircles. S ome p avements i n t he f ormer s equence a lso s uggest a f amiliarity w ith t he l inear g eometric p rinciples o f t he l atter . A t S tonesfield, w here a d esign w ith ' L'-shaped p ieces o ccupies t he c entre o f o ne m edallions i n t he B acchus m osaic, a nd w here a m osaic w ith a a rrangement W oodchester,

o f t he s altire

i s a ssociated w ith a m ore s ophisticated p avement; o r a t w here t he b order p anels o f t he O rpheus m osaic i nclude 5 2

e ight

w ith ' L'-shaped p ieces

( for p ossible c onnections o f

o f a rrangement w ith t hat o f i nterlaced s ection 1 .4 p . 1 34). 3 .

s quares,

s ee

t his

k ind

A ppendix

E ,

S ubstantial A ffinities A lmost

a ll

o f

t hose m osaics w ith s altire o r

O rpheus

d esigns

s uggest m ore s pecific s tylistic a ffinities t han c an b e c onsidered i n t his s ection, ( see t he d iscussion o f u nitary a nd i ntegral r elations hips). P avements p ossessing v arious a rrangements o f i nterlaced s quares,

h owever,

d o s how g eneral s imilarities o f m otif,

a nd

s hare

p articular s tructural c haracteristics, s uch a s a re i ndicative o f a s ubstantial r elationship. I f t hese a rrangements a re p art o f a t radit ion o f m osaic d esign , h owever, t hey m ust, n onetheless, h ave b een e asily r ecognizable a nd, t herefore, t he s ubject o f s ome s mall d egree o f a ssent o r c hoice b y t he c lient a nd h is m osaicist. 3 .1.

I nterlaced S quares

a s a f orm o f S ubstantial A ffinity.

T hese a re t wo s quares, o f e quivalent d imensions, s o i nterlaced a s t o p roduce a n e ight-pointed s tar o r a n e ight p ointed r osette. T he f ormer o ccurs w hen o ne s quare i s p arallel w ith a nd a nother t urned a t o t he b order; t he l atter i f b oth a re t urned, o ppositely, t hrough 4 5° t ften t he s quares a re p laced i n a c entral p osition a nd a bout 3 0° . O e nclose a f igured m edallion . O n o ther o ccasions t hey o ccupy r espect ive q uarters o f a p avement ( in w hich c ase t here w ill b e n ot o ne b ut f our p airs)

e ach s urrounding t he c entral m edallion w hich i s t hen s ub-

s idiary. T he s quares t hemselves a re u sually o f t he s ame k ind o f d ecoration, i .e. c able o r s imple g uilloche, a lthough t he c olour o f t heir p atterns c an v ary ( indeed,

t his

i s a f avourite m ethod o f e mpha-

s izing t heir c ontrast). A t l east n ineteen m osaics m entioned i n A ppendix F a ppear t o h ave i ncorporated a rrangements o f s uch s quares, i .e. n early 3 0%. I n s ome i nstances, h owever, e .g. n o. 2, f rom C aerwent, t he s quares a re 2 d ifficult t o d iscern . O n o ther o ccasions t he m osaics d o n ot s how s ufficient a ffinity t o w arrant t heir i nclusion , e .g.a p ossible s quare O rpheus d esign f rom W ellow, S om.: V .C.H. S om . 1 ( 1906), f ig. 7 1. T he e ighteen m osaics u nder c onsideration ,

t herefore,

1 .

C irencester ,

B eeches R oad,

b uilding X 11,

2 .

C irencester,

T he A venue:

3 .

A o nce u nprovenance m osaic d rawn b y L ysons,

p l.

C irencester,

S t.

5 .

C irencester,

Q uerns L ane :

6 .

G loucester,

1 ( mosaic 2 ):

p l.

7 3.

5 6.

C irencester, a lmost c ertainly a Halstock, D orset: p ls. 6 8 a nd 7 0 . 4 .

a re a s f ollows:

M ichael's F ields, p l.

t hought

t o b e

d rawing o f

t hat

i n

r oom

b uilding V I,

3 :

p l.

4 8.

f rom 1 ,

4 9.

N ew M arket Hall s ite:

Hassall a nd R hodes 1 974,

p ls.

I a nd I II. I 7 .

G loucester, 1 2-36, 1 981, n o. 5 2.

E astgate S treet:

53

H urst 1 974,

p l.

V a nd N eal

8 .

G loucester,

B on

M arche s ite;

S treet:

C ra'ster 1 961,

9 .

B romham,

W ilts.:

1 0 .

L ydney,

1 1.

K ingscote,

1 2.

T ockington P ark,

1 3.

W hittington C ourt,

1 4.

W emberham

1 5.

L ydney,

1 6.

N orth L eigh :

p l.

6 3a.

1 7.

N orth L eigh:

p l.

6 3b.

1 8.

L ow Ham ,

r oom L :

p l. p l.

G los.:

S om .:

p l.

j unction o f O xbode a nd

K ings

7 9. 5 0

G los.,

r oom X V II:

a t

V .

5 4.

p l.

( Yatton),

p l.

r oom 1 2:

r oom 1 11: A von : p l.

p l. 6 0 .

O 'Neill 1 952,

p l.

p l.

1 .

5 5.

8 0 .

7 6.

3 .2. T he f irst o f

t hese,

f rom B eeches R oad,

C irencester,

i s b etter

k nown a s t he ' Hare m osaic'. A h are s quats a mongst f oliage, i n a s cene w hich i s e nclosed b y a r oundel s upported b y t wo c onventionally i nterlaced

g uilloche s quares.

T he s urrounding d esign ,

o f

l ozenges

a nd p erspective b oxes ( with t heir f illings o f b lack r homboids, g uill oche t wists a nd c hequered t riangles), b y v irtue o f t he i nterposition o f t he s quares, M osaic n o.

b lends w ell w ith t he c entral r oundel. 2 ( pl.

5 6),

a lso f rom C irencester ,

e xhibits a v ery

d ifferent a rrangement o f i nterlaced s quares. H ere t hey a re r otated: f our p airs, e ach c arrying a s imple g uilloche b and, o ccupy a q uadrant o f a m osaic w hich h as q uarter r oundels i n t he a ngles a nd h alf r ound els a long e ach b order. T he c entral r oundel i s e nclosed b y a n o ctag on f ramed b y t he s quares, w hilst, o f t he f our s ubsidiary r oundels, t wo h ave s tylised d ahlia w ith g uilloche k nots a t t heir c entres, a nd t wo

h ave s tylised

l otus

f lowers w ith c hequers.

A s i n t he H are

m o-

s aic, t he o uter f rame o f t he p avement a nd t he i nterlaced s quares s hare t he s ame k ind o f d ecoration ( simple g uilloche). I n t his p avem ent -as i n o thers o f a c omparable d esign -the s quares h ave a ssumed a n o verall s tructural i mportance a nd g reatly i nfluence t he c haracter o f

t he w ork . I n

c ontrast,

t he m osaic f rom Halstock ( pls.

6 8 a nd

7 0),

s hows

i nterlaced s quares a s p art o f a n a ll-over a rrangement w ith s altires. S tylised l otus a nd o ther f loral m otifs p rovide t he f oci. T he f ill ing m otifs -p etals j oined i n t wos, u rn-peltae, s quares w ith g uill oche k nots a nd f loral s crolls -a re a ll t o b e f ound, i n v arious s tages o f d evelopment, e lsewhere i n t he r egion . M oreover t he s quares, w hen c ompared t o t he s altires ( with t heir s trong a ccent) a ppear t o b e a l ess i mportant, f eature o f d esign . A

f ourth

e xample,

a f ragmentary p avement f rom

5 4

S t.

d iagonal

M ichael's

F ields,

C irencester,

s hows t wo i nterlaced

s quares

( each w ith

g ull -

l oche d ecoration o f d ifferent c olours) i n r otated f ormation ( pl. 4 8). A q uarter r oundel o ccupies e ach a ngle o f t he p avement a nd, i n t he t wo w hose c ontents w ere p reserved, w e h ave a l otus b ud a nd l eaves w ith t endrils. I t a ppears t hat t he s quares e nclosed a c entral r oundel b ordered b y a b and o f w ave - c rest p attern : r ather t han c ontribute t o t he s tructure a nd g reatly i nfluenced s pectator. E ach

o f

f our t ypes o f T ype A :

d etermined

i ndeed, t hey d ominate m ust, o riginally, h ave

t he e ffect o f

t he e ighteen p avements

l isted

t he

p avement

a bove i s

o n

o f o ne o f

t he

t hese

a rrangement:

S tar-like s quares

a s

e laborate m otif:

n os.

1 3,

1 4,

1 5,

1 6,

a nd 1 8. T ype B :

R otated, m ultiple p airs:

T ype C :

S tar-like s quares i nterlocking w ith s altires o r a s a ry f eatures: n os. 1 , 3 , 6 , 8 , a nd 1 2.

T ype D :

R otated,

A ll

s ingle p airs:

p avements

i n

n os.

n os.

2 ,

4 ,

9 ,

g roup A f eature

5 ,

7 ,

1 0 ,

a nd 1 7. s ubsidi-

a nd 1 1.

l arge,

e nclosing

c ircles.

T here c ould b e n o c learer i ndication t han t his o f t he b lending o f t he c oncentric c ircular g eometric a nd t he g eometric d iagonal o r r otated l inear d esigns. C onsequently, i t i s n ot s urprising t o f ind t hat n one o f t hese m osaics i s a ssignable, c onfidently, t o a p eriod b efore 3 30 ( or t hat a ll b ut n o. 1 6 c ould b e o f t he t hird q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury). I n

a rrangements

a rrangemnts t heme. A s b oth m ore

o f

t ypes B a nd D ,

t he s quares

c ontribute

o f w hich t hey a re t he d iagnostic f eatures, i f n ot s uch t hey m ust b e a ccounted a c ertain i ndependance

t o t he ( of

t he w hole g roup o f p avements w ith i nterlaced s quares a nd o f t he g eneral g roup o f d iagonal a nd r otated l inear d esigns t o w hich

t his b elongs). M oreover, t his i ndependance ( or, m ore c orrectly , t his i ntegrity) a gain s uggests a p articular p eriod o f p roduction : p roba bly t he e arly m id-fourth c entury. C ertainly , t hey p recede m osaics o f t ype A , a nd a re t hus i ndicative o f a t o f d evelopment.

l east

t wo i ndividual p hases

T ype C m ay h ave b een p resent t hroughout -from t he e arly l ate-fourth

t o

t he

c entury -as e lements i n a n umber o f c ontrasting d esigns

( e.g. P l. 7 2, p l. 5 9, a nd p l. 7 0). T he Hare m osaic i s l ate; t he T ockington P ark e xample i s p robably o f t he m id-fourth c entury ; w hile t he t wo p avements f rom G loucester a nd Halstock m ay b e o f t he e arly o r m id-fourth c entury . 3 .3 D ating r emains p roblematical a nd e ven i f t he i mplications o f f our

t ypes a re s ignificant,

t he f ollowing i nsights i nto

t he

c hronology

a re n oteworthy. A s m entioned a bove, 3 67

L ydney P ark p rovides a t erminus p ost q uem o f

f or t he m osaics e xcavated b y B athurst a nd K ing 5 5

( pls.

7 9 a nd 80):

av ery l ate d ate w hich , t hat r oom

r ecently ,

h as b een q uestioned.

I t a ppears

t he m osaic o f r oom L i o f t he ' abaton -a nd p resumably t hat o f L -could b e e arlier t han t his r äiltannia X II ( 1981), 3 57;

B ritannia X III ( 1982),

3 80).

I n p articular,

a c oin h oard f rom t he

b aths s uggests a d ate c onsiderably b efore 3 67 f or t he p atching o f a m osaic w hich w as a lready w ell-worn . T he b aths a t l east, t herefore , m ight p re-date t he a baton -the o pposite t o w hat W heeler c oncluded a nd, m ore i mportantly , t he m osaics o f b oth s tructures a re a ssignable t o a p eriod b efore 3 67. I n t he c ase o f t hose f rom t he b ath-house t his c ould m ean a d ate b efore 3 25; f or t hose o f t he a baton , e spec ially t hat o f r oom L , a l ater d ate m ight b e a ppropriate. A ll n ow r emain d ifficult t o a ssign t o a p eriod a fter c . 3 40 , ( a d ate w hich c orresponds m ore c losely w ith t hat o f o ther m osaics p ossessing s ingle p airs o f r otated s quares , s ee b elow). T he m osaic o f r oom X VIII a t L ydney h as n ot y et p rovided s uch e vidence f or r evision . L ike t he ' guest-house' i tself, i t ( and a ssoc iated m osaics) c ould b e l ater t han t hose o f t he a baton o r b athh ouse . I ndeed, a r easonable c ase c an b e m ade f or a ccepting a d ate o f b etween 3 40-370 f or t his m osaic ( if n ot W heeler's s uggested d ates) o n t he b asis o f s tylistic c omparisons w ith s ome o ther p avements w ith t ype A a rrangements. A t W hittington C ourt, t he c rude m osaic o f r oom 3 w as a ssigned, o n s tratagraphic c riteria , t o t he p eriod 30-360 3 ( T.B.G.A .S. L XXI, 2 1), w ith a n e mphasis o f 3 60 r ather t han 3 30 . T he p avement a djacent t o t he f amous m osaic f rom L ow H am i s o f c omparable q uality a nd i nspiration ( pl. 7 6) t o t hat a t L ydney. T he V irgilian m osaic i tself ( Toynbee 1 962, p l. 2 35) i s d atable , p robably , t o t he m id-fourth c entury a nd c ertainly a fter 3 30 ( Ralegh-Radford a nd D ewar 1 952, 2 ): a p eriod t o w hich t he m osaic o f p l. 7 6 c an b e a ssigned a lso. ( If t he m osaic w as a p roduct o f a s chool o f c raftsmen b ased a t L indinis ( Ilchester) -as s eems l ikely -this m ight a lso s uggest a m id-fourth c entury d ate). N either t he W emberham m osaic ( pl. 5) n or t he m osaic f rom N orth 5 L eigh ( pl. 6 3a) p rovides c onvincing e vidence o f d ate , o r o f d etails o f d ecoration w hich a re c omparable w ith o ther m osaics i n t he r egion. T he f ormer i s u ndated b ut r etained m uch o f i ts r ather u nique f loral d ecoration : a n a rrangement o f s tar-like i nterlaced s quares ( one c arrying r ight-angled ' Z' p attern , t he o ther c arrying c hequers) e nc losed b y t wo c oncentric c ircles ( one, a gain , w ith r ight-angled ' Z' p attern , t he o ther c arrying a s ingle t hick l ine). C omparison w ith t he d ate o f o ther m osaics e xhibiting a s imilar d ecoration o f ' Z' p attern , i .e . t he C harioteer m osaic, R udston , Y orks., o r t he m osaic f rom W ynford E agle, D orset, a gain s uggests a m id-fourth c entury d ate. T he l atter p avement, f rom N orth L eigh , r emains o nly i n a s ketch b y H akewill. T his s hows a c entral, f loral d evice, e nclosed b y a c ircle o f s imple g uilloche, ( which , i n t urn , i s e nclosed b y a n a rrangement o f s tar-like i nterlaced s quares a nd a n o uter c ircle o f c rowstep m atched w ith t hree-strand g uilloche). T his m osaic p rovides e ven f ewer i ndications o f d ate t han d oes t hat f rom W emberham . H owe ver , b y v irtue o f i ts a ssociation w ith t he s altire m osaic ( pl. 6 1) i t i s d atable t o c . 3 40 ( T.B.G.A .S. L XXXIX ( 1970 ), 7 6). 3 .4 M ention

h as

a lready b een m ade o f t he t ype D 5 6

a rrangement

f rom

r oom L o f t he a baton a t L ydney.

T his m osaic m ay n ow b e c onsidered a s

e arlier t han c . 3 40 , a d ating w hich a ccords w ell w ith t hat o f o ther m osaics w hich a lso p ossess s ingle p airs o f r otated s quares. I n c omparison , t he K ingscote m osaic ( pl. 5 0), f or e xample , e xhibits a t echnical e xpertise a nd p ossesses m any f ine d ecorative f eatures b oth f igural a nd m otival -absent i n t he f ormer. B ut w hen d iscovered i t w as a ssigned b y i ts e xcavators t o t he l ate-third o r e arly-fourth c entury ( Britannia V III ( 1977), 4 13): a d ating s ubsequently a ccepted b y N eal ( 1981, n o. 6 3) a nd S wain a nd L ing ( Britannia X II ( 1981), 1 68: w here t he w all p aintings f rom t he s ame r oom a s t he m osaic a re c ons idered t o b e o f l ate-third/early-fourth c entury d ate). J ohnson ( 1982, 4 7) h as r ecently s uggested t his m osaic t o b e t he w ork o f a n o fficina b ased a t L indinis, o perative i n t he m iddle y ears o f t he f ourth c entury. N eal ( loc. c it.) h owever, a ttributes t o t he m osaic ' Corinian a ffinities -notably, b eige c oloured b ackground t esserae, a s u sed a t W oodchester -a nd, p resumably , w ould p lace i t a t t he b order o f t he f irst a nd s econd q uarters o f t he f ourth c entury. I n l ight o f b oth o f t hese r efinements, a t hird c entury d ate s eems u nl ikely. P erhaps t he m osaic i s c orrectly d ated i f a ssigned t o a p eriod o f c . 3 00-330 . A nother t ype D a rrangement, t he m osaic f rom A dmiral's w alk C irencester ( pl. 4 8), i s v ery s imilar i n s tructure t o t he K ingscote m osaic. I ndeed, i t s hares w ith i t s ome e lements o f d ecoration, e .g. a b and o f w avecrest p attern a round t he c entral r oundel. H owever , t he m osaic h as m otifs i n t he a ngles, i .e. a l otus b ud, a nd a v ine l eaf w ith v olutes, w hich d iffer f rom t hose a t K ingscote, ( where , i n c orr esponding p ositions, o ne f inds a t hirty-two p etalled f loral d evice a nd a g adrooned c antharus). I n f act, t he f ormer m otifs ( from C irenc ester) b ear a g reater r esemblance t o s ome o f t hose i n t he m osaic o f r oom X II, T ockington P ark ( pl. 6 0), w hich b ecause o f i ts a ssociation w ith o ne o f t he s altire m osaics ( Brown e t. a l. 1 969, 2 43), c annot b e a ssigned a d ate o f b efore c . 3 25. T hus, a lthough t he m osaics f rom K ingscote a nd A dmiral's w alk m ust b e c onsidered a lmost c ontemporary, t hat f rom A dmiral's w alk m ight b e l ater.* T he s tyle o f t he m osaic i n r oom L , L ydney, i s p aralleled m ost c losely b y t hat f rom B romham , W ilts., ( pl. 5 4). T he q uality a nd q uantity o f o rnament i s v ery s imilar, a nd, a lthough t he c antharus i n t he a ngle a nd t he a quatic s cenes a djacent t o t he d esign a re a bsent, t hey a re k nown i n o ther m osaics a t L ydney, e .g. a c antharus i n t he m osaic o f r oom X LI ( Wheeler 1 932, p l. X IXc), a nd a n a quatic d esign i n t he c ella ( ibid., p l. X 1Xa). B earing i n m ind t he r evised d ates f or L ydney , t herefore , i t i s p lausible t o s ee a ll f our d esigns o f t ype D a s b efore 3 50 a nd, i n s ome i nstances, a s n earer t o 3 20 .

*Am osaic f rom B ishopstone, H erefs. ( V.C.H. H erefs. I ( 1908), F ig. 1 4) a lso e xhibits a s ingle p air o f r otated, i nterlaced s quares, w hich e nclose a c entral r oundel, i n t he m anner o f t he f our p avem ents m entioned h ere . O n t his o ccasion , h owever, t he s quares a re s mall i n c omparison t o t he r est o f t he m osaic; t hey a re c ontained w ithin a l arge r homboid, w hich i s s et a gainst a b ackground o f f our s altires i n a s quare f ormation .

5 7

3 .5 F or t he m ost d istinctive t ype o f a rrangement ( type B ) w e h ave t he l east e xternal e vidence. T he m osaics f rom C irencester -from Q uerns L ane ( pl. 4 9) a nd t he A venue ( pl. 5 6) -are i mpressive, a s w ell a s c omparable , d esigns. T hat f rom N orth L eigh ( pl. 6 3b), m eanwhile , i s p oorly r ecorded, b ut a ppears t o e xhibit t he s ame, e asily r ecogniz able , d isplay o f f our p airs o f i nterlaced s quares b ordering a d imin utive, c entral p anel. B oth o f t he f ormer t wo m osaics w ere a ttrib uted t o t he f ourth c entury ( entirely o n s tylistic g rounds), a nd b y v irtue o f i ts a ssociation w ith t he s altire m osaic ( pl. 6 1) t he l atter c an b e a ssigned a s imilar d ate ( on g rounds w hich a re o nly s lightly m ore c onvincing). O nly t he p avement f rom t he N ew M arket H all s ite, G loucester , p rovides u nequivocal e vidence f or a f ourth c entury d ate , a nd t his m osaic w as i n a f ragmentary c ondition w hen d iscovered ( McWhirr 1 974,

p l.

V ).

I t i s i nconceivable,

h owever,

t hat t hese p avements w hich

h ave

m ultiple , r otated c onfigurations o f s quares a re o f a v ery d ifferent d ate f rom t hose w ith s ingle, r otated a rrangements. B etween t wo m osaics f rom C irencester ( that f rom A dmiral's W alk : p l. 4 8 , a nd t hat f rom t he A venue : p l. 5 6) t here i s a n otable s imilarity o f l otus b ud a nd i vy l eaf m otifs, w hich o ccupy t he a ngles o f t he p avements. T here i s e ven a s mall b and o f t horn p attern t o t he ' bottom r ight o f t he l atter , w hich m atches t hat o f t he f ormer . T his a ffinity a lone s ugg ests t hat, l ike s ome e xamples o f i ndividual a rrangements o f s quares, t he m ultiple c onfigurations a re a lso o f t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury. I ndeed, t he s imilarity o f s ome m otifs i n t he C irenc ester m osaic ( pl. 5 6) t o t hose o f t he m osaic f rom T ockington P ark ( pl. 6 0) i .e. t he h eart-shaped p etals a nd t he g uilloche k not e nclosed b y a s ixteen-petalled r osette , a s a t N orth L eigh , s uggests a d ate i n t he m iddle o f t he f ourth c entury. T he l atter s ite c ould b e s omething o f aw atershed,

p ossessing a s

i t d oes a n e xample o f a t ype B a rrangement, o ne o f t he e arliest e xamples o f s tar-like s quares e nclosed b y a c ircle, a s altire d esign, a nd a s imple g eometric m eander ( pl. 6 4). T hese m ight b e i ndicative o f p eriodic v isitations b y i ndividual m osaicists. M ore l ikely i s t he p ossibility t hat a g roup o f c raftsmen w ith a v aried r epertory w orked a t N orth L eigh, f or a c lient w ho h ad a k nowledge o f f ashionable g eometric d esigns. 3 .6 E xcepting t he H are m osaic, a ll a rrangements o f t ype C s how s tarl ike i nterlaced s quares a s p art o f a n a ll-over d esign w ith h alf o r f ull s altires. B etween t he l atter, m oreover, t here i s a n otable s imilarity o f m otif, e specially b etween t hose f rom H alstock ( pl. 7 0) a nd T ockington P ark ( pl. 6 0) -w hich h ave i n c ommon p elta-urns w ith c onvolutes ( in t wo o f t he a ngles a t T ockington , o n t he a rms o f t he s altire a t H alstock) a nd a s ixteen-petalled r osette w hich e ncloses a g uilloche k not ( at t he c entre o f i nterlaced s quares i n b oth m osaics). I n a ddition, t he H alstock m osaic b ears a c lose r esemblance t o t he m osaic f rom B road S treet, L ondon ( pl. 7). T his a lso p ossesses 7 ' veneered r homboids' a nd r homboids w ith f illed t riangles ( both o n t he a rms o f s altires) a s w ell a s t he p articular f loral d evice w hich c omprises f our h eart-shaped p etals w ith c onvolutes ( at t he c entre o f 5 8

s ome

o f t hose r oundels e nclosed b y s quares).

M oreover,

t he m osaic

f rom L ondon a lso d epicts B acchus, r iding o n a l eopard a s cene . T his s cene i s r epeated i n am osaic f rom t he N ew M arket H all s ite, G loucest er . A s a nother t ype C a rrangement i ndeed , i t i s d ifficult t o a void t he c onclusion t hat t he l atter i s o f a s imilar p eriod t o t hat o f t he L ondon m osaic. C ertainly, v eneered r homboids a nd a d istinctive ' squat u rn b oth .

w ith g adroons ( Neal 1 981,

n o. 5 2) a re n otable f eatures o f

M ore i s s aid o f t hese s pecific a ffinities i n s ection 4 .8, b elow . F or t he m oment, h owever , i t i s p ertinent t o c onsider t he a pproximate d ate o f e ach. T he T ockington e xample h as b een d escribed, a lready , a s a m osaic o f t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury, p erhaps o f c . 3 40 . I n f act, o f t he f our e xamples w ith s altires, i t m ight b e t he l ast t ype C a rrangement, w ith t he m osaic f rom t he s ite o f B on M arche , G loucester, ( which s hows a c omparable s implicity o f m otif a nd m edio cre d raughtsmanship), p eriod.

b eing a ttributable t o a n a pproximately s imilar

A s a t T ockington, t he t ype C a rrangement a t H alstock i s a ssoci ated w ith a nother m osaic w hich d isplays a s altire d esign, ( although i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he l atter a ppear t o b e o f a f iner s tandard t han t he f ormer). T his s ubtlety a nd e xpertise -often r eminiscent o f t he s kill e mployed a t C hedworth ( pls. 5 7a a nd 5 7b) -suggests a d ate n earer t he b eginning t han t he e nd o f t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury: c . 3 25 r ather t han c . 3 40 , i .e. w ell b efore t hose m osaics i n D orset w hich a re a ttributable t o a ' Durnovarian s chool ( Smith 1 969, 13-118). I f s o, t he m osaics f rom B road S treet a nd t he N ew 1 M arket P ark.

H all

s ite m ust b e a ssigned a d ate b efore t hat o f

T ockington

S uch a d ating o f t he i nterlaced s quare a nd s altire a rrangements ( type C a rrangements) a ccords w ell w ith w hat w e k now o f t he c ontinent al p arallels. T o c ite t he n ow f amiliar e vidence o f m osaics f rom Gaul, i t i s d ifficult t o b elieve t hat t he m osaic w hich f eatures B acchus i n a s quare c entral p anel a mid a n a rrangement o f s altires a nd i nterlaced s quares ( Parlas a 1 959, p l. 6), i .e . a t ype C a rrange6 m ent, i s l ater t han c . 3 20 ( it i s m ore l ikely t o b e o f t he l eter d ecade o f t he t hird c entury). T he s uperior q uality o f t his m osaic tjl , w hen c ompared w ith t hose i n B ritain, i s l ike m any m osaics i n tt s elf-evident. I t s eems p remature , t herefore , t o s ee t his, l ike t he p anel o f am osaic i n t he P alastplatz ( Smith 1 969, 16), a s a r esult 1 o f i nfluence f rom B ritain . I ndeed , i t r emains a p ossibility t hat t he m osaics O f Teid - influenced t he d evelopment o f p avements i n B ritain : t his i s e ven m ore a pplicable t o t he p avements w ith t ype C a nd B a rrangements t han i t i s t o t he O rpheus m osaics a nd t heir a ssociated g eometric p anels. E ven

w ith t his p articular a spect ( interlaced s quare d esigns) o f

a w idespread t radition ( diagonal a nd r otated l inear d esigns) t heref ore, i t i s p ossible t o s ee d ifferent d egrees o f c ontrivance a nd a ppreciation : f rom t he d istinctiveness o f t he a rrangements w ith f our c onfigurations o f s quares, t hrough t he a pparent a cceptance o f s ingle r otated a nd t ype C a rrangements, t o t he s tylisation o f t he s tar-like d esigns e nclosed b y c ircles. S ometimes, w here a r ather m undane d esign w as G loucester,

r equested, e .g . t he m osaic f rom t he B on M arche s ite , t he m osaicist's c lient w ill h ave b een i gnorant o f i ts 5 9

s ignificance. O n o ther o ccasions, w here d istinctive t ypes o f d esign w ere p roduced, e .g . t he m osaics o f t ype B , b oth c lient a nd c raftsman w ill h ave b een u naware o f t he m osaic's w ider a nd m ore g eneral r elat ionships. 4 .1

I ntegral A ffinities

I t w ould h ave b een p ossible t o h ave c onsidered t he O rpheus m osaics a nd a g roup o f s altire m osaics, a t t he l evel o f s ubstantial a ffinity: i n b oth i nstances t here a re s imilarities o f c ontent a nd d ecoration , w here t hese s imilarities a re n ot s trong e nough t o s uggest t he p resence o f e ven a s ingle c raftsman w ho w orked o n m ore t han o ne o f t he c omparable m osaics. H owever, a s a c onsideration o f t he f ull l ist o f O rpheus a nd s altire m osaics i n s ection 3 , a nd t hen a gain i n s ection 4 , w ould h ave b een r epetitive, m osaics w hich a re c losely r elated ( but n ot s ufficiently c lose t o b e c onsidered a s r elated a t t his l evel o f a ffinity) w ill b e e xamined i n t he p re-amble t o a d isc ussion o f t wo p utative , ' integral g roups'. A l ist o f t he p avements o f t hese t wo i ntegral g roups, w hose m ain f eatures a re ( a) O rpheus m osaics, a nd ( b) s altire a rrangements, i ncludes t he f ollowing : ( a)

( i) ( ii) ( iii) ( iv) ( v) ( vi)

Orpheus m osaic: p l. 4 3) W oodchester , m osaic A ( ( B o n u m E v e n t u m m o s a i c : p l. 4 4 W oodchester, m osaic H a nd S mith 1 969, p l. 3 .14) Orpheus m osaic: p l. 4 6) W ithington , m osaic D ( B arton F arm S tonesfield C hedworth, r oom

M any w ell-set,

5

( Orpheus m osaic: p l. 4 1) ( Bacchus m osaic : p l. 4 7) ( Seasons m osaic: p l. 5 8b a nd S mith 1 977, p l. 6 .VIIIb)

g eometric m osaics c an a lso b e c onsidered,

a long

w ith t hese e laborate m osaics: t hese a re m ainly o f t he d esigns v is4 i ble i n p ls. 4 a nd 4 5 ( at W oodchester a nd W ithington) -some o f w hich a re, a gain , c onspicuous a t S tonesfield. ( V.C.H. O xon . I( 1939), X p l. XIV) a nd i n t he b order o f t he O rpheus m osaic f rom B arton F arm ( pl. 4 1). A t C hedworth, h owever, t he s imple g eometrics o f r ooms 1 1 a nd 1 4 a ppear t o b e o f a d ifferent q uality t o t hose p ortrayed i n L ysons e ngravings o f B lates 4 4 a nd 4 5; a lthough h ere ( and a lso a t N orth L eigh : p l. 6 4) t he p attern o f s wastika m eander, r elieved b y s quares, i s c haracteristic o f m osaic D , W oodchester. I n a ll, a t l east t hirty-five g eometric a nd o ther s imple d esigns h ave t o b e e xamined i n t h is s ection , a nd t his d oes n ot i nclude t hose f rom N ewton S t. L oe , o r o ther r elatable b ut d ebased d esigns, e .g . t hat o f r oom 2 2, C hedworth o r t he r adial a rrangements o f L ydney ( Wheeler, 1 932, p l. X IXb) a nd C irencester , X II, 2 , ( mosaic 9 ). T hese a re a ll e xamined i n r elation t o t he s ix e laborate m osaics l isted a bove. ( b)

A shcroft H ouse ,

C irencester ( pl. 6 5).

H alstock, D orset; r oom 2 ( pl. 6 9). H alstock , r oom 1 ( pl. 7 0). B road S treet, L ondon ( pl. 7 7). B ishopstone , H erefs. ( V.C.H. H erefs.

I ( 1908),

f ig. 1 4). C hedworth , G los; r oom 1 0 ( pl. 5 7a a nd 5 7b). C irencester, X IV, 2 r oom 4 ( Neal 1 981, n o. 2 2). 60

( viii) ( ix)

T ockington P ark , T ockington P ark ,

( x) ( xi) ( xii) ( xiii) ( xiv) ( xv) ( xvi)

N ew M arket Hall s ite, G loucester ( Neal 1 981, n o. 5 2). N orth L eigh , O xon ; r oom 1 ( pl. 6 1). N orth L eigh . ( pl. 6 3b). T he A venue , C irencester ( pl. 5 6). Q uerns L ane, C irencester ( pl. 4 9). C irencester, V I, 1 , r oom 3 ( pl. 4 8). N ew M arket Hall s ite, G loucester ( Ant. J . L IV V . ( 1974), Pl. K enchester, H erefs. ( Jack 1 916, p l. 2 3).

( xvii)

r oom 9 r oom 1 2

( pl. 5 9). ( pl. 6 0).

A s i n g roup ( a) t he p avements o f g roup ( b) a re a ssociated w ith s ome s imple g eometric p atterns. H ere, h owever, t he l atter a re f ewer, w ith n otable e xamples a t T ockington P ark ( T.B.G.A .S. X II, ( 1888), p ls. V a nd V III); C irencester, b uilding X IV, 2 , c orridor 5 ( Neal 1 981, n o. 2 3); a nd F rocester C ourt, G los., ( T.B.G.A .S. L XXXIX ( 1970), P l. I I). I ndeed, t he l arge n umber o f r elatively s ophisticated g eomet ric a rrangements, i s n otable . A s d efined a bove ( part I , s ection 2 .4), i ntegral a ffinity r el ates p avements w hich a ppear t o b e t he w ork o f a t l east o ne o f t he s ame g roup o f c raftsmen . S ometimes, t wo p avements c an e xhibit a n i dentity o f m any f eatures -suggesting a n a lmost i dentical w orkforce ; o n o ther o ccasions, e .g. w here l arge n umbers o f m osaicists w ere e mployed ( perhaps f our o r f ive c raftsmen), t he s imilarity o f o ne p avement t o a nother m ay n ot b e i mmediately c lear, a nd s o r elies u pon a n i nterpretation o f t echnique a nd s mall d etails o f d esign . I n a ddition t o t his d irect, A -B, i ndividual r elationship, h owe ver , a nother t ype o f r elationship i s p ossible a t t his l evel o f a ffinity. T his i s o f t he f orm A -B-C ( which w ould b e m eaningless a t l evels o f m ore g eneral a ffinity, a nd i s e xcluded b y t he h omogeneity o f s tyle a t t he u nitary l evel), w here s ome o f t he m osaicists r espons ible f or m osaic A w orked o n B , a nd s ome o f t he m osaicists r espons ible f or B w orked o n C , b ut w here f ew m osaicists w orked o n b oth A a nd C . A t e ach s tep i n s uch a ' distributed r elationship s ome c raftsmen a re ' lost'. H owever, t heir c haracteristic m ethods h ave b een o bserved a nd c an b e ( i) r ecorded a t s ubsequent s teps i n t he s equence, o r ( ii) n oted a s t he s tylistically d istinct b ut c orporately a mbiguous b oundary o f t he ' integral g roup'. ( Indeed, s uch a ' fuzzin ess o f b oundary -w here a n umber o f p avements c an b e p art o f o ther g roups ( even i ntegral g roups) -seems a n e ssential t rait o f t he ' school' o f m osaic). 4 .2 I f t he m osaics f rom N ewton S t. L oe a re t o b e i ncluded a t a ll i n g roup ( a), i t w ill b e a s o ne s tep i n a d istributed r elationship w ith t he o ther O rpheus m osaics. N umerous f eatures o f t hese p avements c ontrast w ith t hose o f t he m ain O rpheus d esigns: ( i) T he a nimals i n t he N ewton S t. L oe O rpheus m osaic a re a gitated, n ot ' entranced' a s a t W oodchester a nd B arton F arm . I ndeed, t he t rees w hich s eparate t hem a re o f d ifferent v arieties a nd a re, g enerally, m ore g racile t han t hose a t W oodchester ( Neal 1 981, n o. 8 7). ( ii) A lso, a t N ewton S t. L oe, t he m osaics.

a nimals

a re p aired,

n ot i n p rocession, 6 1

a s i n t he

o ther

T hus,

t he t rees w hich s eparate t he b easts -o n o nly f ive o ccas-

i ons, a s o missions o ccur -at N ewton S t. L oe a re s ituated b etween c onfronting p airs. ( iii) F urthermore, O rpheus h imself i s d rawn v ery d ifferently h ere, c ompared t o t he f igure a t B arton F arm ( at W oodc hester O rpheus d oes n ot o ccupy t he c entral r oundel, f or W ithington s ee b elow). I n t he f ormer h e p lays -w ith t wo f ingers -a v ery l arge l yre w ith s ound-box o r r est; h e l ooks t o h is l eft w ith a ' crosse yed g aze, a nd h is c loak f alls, r ather t han b lows, b ehind. A t B arton F arm , O rpheus l ooked t o h is r ight a nd r uns v ery t hick f ingers a cross w hat a ppears T here

t o b e m ore a g rille t han t he s trings o f a l yre.

a re m ore t elling d ifferences,

h owever:

( iv)

E rrors

o f

d raughtsmanship a re v isible i n t he N ewton S t. L oe m osaic w hich c ont rast w ith t he a ccurate e xecution o f t he O rpheus p anels i n a ll o ther O rpheus m osaics i n t he r egion . T he c entral ' roundel' i s n ot r ound; t he o uter, s tencilled, c ircular b and i s s quashed a nd p oorly c entred ( thus e ffecting t he i rregular d rawing o f t he b and o f s uperposed t riangles); a nd i t a ppears t hat t wo t rees a nd o ne a nimal h ave b een o mitted. ( v) T he m osaic a lso l acks t he a ccomplished i nterlace ( which i s a f eature o f t he W ithington m osaic), t he b ordering p anels ( or t races F arm),

o f t hem , a s i n t he b order o f p erspective b oxes a t B arton a nd e ven a s uggestion o f t he e legant c oncentric b anding o r

c olourful

p rocession

M oeover, a c lose N ewton S t. L oe ( pl.

o f b irds v isible i n t he o ther

m osaics.

( vi)

i nspection o f t he p anel c ontaining O rpheus, a t 3 9), s hows t he t esserae t o b e w idely s paced ( fre-

q uently w ith g rout-filled g aps o f c . 0 .5 c ms) a nd o f g reatly d iffere nt s izes. I n t he B arton p avement t his i s n ot s o : i n s ensitive a reas,

e .g.

t he f ace o f O rpheus,

t he t esserae a re w ell s elected a nd

a re h alf

t he s ize o f

t hose i n a c omparable p osition i n t he f ormer .

I t e mployed

i s d ifficult t o b elieve, t herefore, t hat a ny m osaicists i n m aking t he O rpheus m osaics a t W oodchester o r B arton F arm

c ould h ave w orked a t N ewton S t. L oe. A s f or t he p ossibility t hat t he O rpheus a nd o ther m osaics f rom W ithington m ight b e t he m idway s tep o f a d istributed r elationship ( between t he f ormer t wo a nd t he l atter) t his, t oo , s eems u nlikely. A dmittedly, t he a nimals i n t he W ithington m osaic a re l ively; b ut t hey a re r unning n ot s pringing ( as a t N ewton S t. L oe), a nd a re m oving i n o ne d irection o nly. A lso a ssociated w ith t he O rpheus m osaic a t W ithington a re g eometric p avements, w hich f eature i nterlaced c ircles ( mosaic F ), c hequers ( mosaic B ), p erspect ive b oxes ( mosaic C ), a nd r elieved s wastika m eander ( mosaic E ) -all o f w hich a re a t p resent i n S om.

a t N ewton S t.

C ounty M useum).

a re v ery s imple p atterns

B ut,

L oe

( Rainey 1 973,

a s N eal h as n oted

o n w hich i t

( 1981,

i s d ifficult

p l.

1 2b;

n o.87),

p lan t hese

t o b ase a ny c onclu -

s ions r egarding a uthorship.

w hich

M osaics f rom t he l atter s ite, m oreover, a lso i ncluded f eatures n ot o nly a re w ithout p arallel a t W ithington b ut w hich r ecall

o ther p avements, f rom S omerset a nd D orset. E xamples o f t hese a re t he c onfronting p airs o f a nimals i n t he m osaics f rom W ellow , S om. ( V.C.H. S om .

I ( 1906),

f ig.

7 1)

a nd N unney,

S om.

( ibid.,

f ig.

7 7).

A t N un-

n ey, t here i s e vidence ( poorly r ecorded) o f a nother O rpheus m osaic, w here i n a b and b ordering a c entral s quare a re c onfronting p airs o f l arge mammals. A b ust o f a f emale ( Tyche) w as a lso d epicted a t N unney, a t t he c entre o f a m osaic a djacent t o t he O rpheus m osaic. S uch a b ust w as a f eature o f t he s trip o f m osaic b etween r ooms 3 a nd 4 a t N ewton S t. L oe ( where i t w as b ordered b y a s croll p attern, 6 2

c omparable t o t he d ecoration e ither s ide o f t he c hi-rho m onogram i n a p avement f rom F rampton, D orset ( Lysons I ( 1813), i ii, p l. V ). A t hird f eature o f t he m osaic o f r oom 5 , N ewton S t. L oe, i s a bsent f rom t he g eometric m osaics w hich a re a ssociated w ith o ther O rpheus m osaics i n t he w estern p art o f t he c ountry. T his i s a b order o f s uperposed, r ight-angled t riangles, w hich r ecalls t hose o f p avement B , P itney ( V.C.H. S om . I ( 1906), f ig. 8 6) a nd t he p avement f rom O lga R oad, X XI

D orchester ( P.D.N.H.A .S. I ndeed,

a t N ewton S t.

( 1900), L oe,

f .

p .

1 62).

w hen c onsidering t he a bsence o f s ome

c onventional a ttributes o f t he w estern O rphic a nd a ssociated g eom etric p avements ( and t he p resence o f s ome n otably c ontrasting c har acteristics), i t i s d ifficult t o a void t he c onclusion t hat t he m osaics w ere i nfluenced a s m uch b y d evelopments t o t he s outh a s t o t he n orth. T he p resence o f ( like t hose o f t he N ewton S t.

s uperposed t riangle b orders a nd t rees L oe O rpheus), a t W ithington, a re n ot-

a ble h ere . W hen c onsidering t he s kewed d raughtsmanship o f a p ossible 1 ' Durnovarian a ddition, a t W ithington ( Smith 1 969, 13), i t i s a s w ell t o r emember t he p oor d rawing o f t he d esign a t N ewton S t. L oe . I t a ppears t hat s tyles o btaining i n t he s outh c ould h ave a ffected b oth o f t hese m osaics, o riginal c ontributions. R ecently,

i n

n ot

f act,

a

o nly a s s ubsequent

a mendments

s chool o f m osaicists s erving

b ut

t he

a s

a rea

a round I lchester h as b een p roposed ( Mosaic 8 ( 1983), 5 ; w here t he t erm o fficina i s p referred). I t m ay b e p remature t o a ssign t he N ewton S t. L oe m osaic t o s uch a s chool: i ndeed, g iven t he v agueries o f s tylistic r elationships i n t his r egion i t m ight b e r ash. C ertainl y, h owever, t he N ewton S t. L oe O rpheus m osaic i s n ot a c onvincing c andidate f or i nclusion i n i ntegral g roup ( a). T he m osaic a ppears t o b e p art o f a m ixing o f s tyle, s ubject a nd a rrangement w hich i s p rob a bly o f m id-fourth c entury d ate. T his i s n ot u nreasonable w hen o ne c onsiders t he p eriod o f a nother m osaic, d epicting O rpheus, i .e. t he L ittlecote m osaic ( pl. 7 1), w hich i s d ated t o c . 3 60 ( Walters a nd P hillips 1 980 ,

6 ).

4 .3 H owever,

i n t he s equence p roposed b y S mith ( 1969,

N ewton S t.

1 00):

L oe

W ithington B arton F arm W oodchester t he

W ithington p avement w as p laced a fter t he N ewton S t.

a nd

b oth w ere c onsidered a s w orks o f

t he

l ate-third

L oe m osaic,

c entury.

T he

B arton F arm O rpheus, b ecause o f i ts a ssociation w ith t he s ealed c oin o f A llectus ( Powell 1 919, 7 1; T .B.G.A.S. L XX ( 1951), 5 1-4) w as t he p ivot o f t he

t he s equence;

l atest

w hile t he g reat p avement f rom Woodchester w as

a nd f inest m osaic o f

t he g roup.

N ot o nly i s

t he

N ewton

S t. L oe p avement d ated a g ood 3 0-40 y ears e arlier t han h as b een s uggested a bove, t he W ithington m osaic i s l ater t han t he f ormer a nd e arlier t han t he B arton F arm a nd W oodchester e xamples ( as a n i ncreasi ng e laboration o f d esign i s a ccepted a s t he c riterion b y w hich t hese d evelopments a re b est u nderstood).

6 3

I n

t he

W ithington m osaic

( pl.

4 6)

n umerous f eatures

c ontrast

w ith t hose o f t he m osaics o f B arton F arm a nd W oodchester. ( i) I ns tead o f a n i nner, c oncentric b and c ontaining b irds, t he f ormer h as t wo n arrow b ands a long t wo s ides o f t he g uilloche f rame . ( ii) T he t rees, a t W ithington, a lso s how m ore b ranches ( each o f w hich h as a l arge c alyx a t

t he t ip),

a nd

t he a nimals

r un a round t he i nner r oundel

i n a n a lmost f renzied m otion. ( iii) T he a bsence o f a n i nner, c onc entric b and p roduces a m ore o pen a rrangement, w herein t he t rees a re t aller, t he a nimals l ess r estricted, a nd w here t he d esign s uggests a r adial m ovement ( which, w ith r egard t o t he f ully r adial a rrangements o f m osaics s howing O rpheus, a t L ittlecote a nd W interton, L incs., b oth d ated t o p eriods a fter 3 50 , i s n ot w ithout c hronological s ignific a nce). H owever, i n t he a bsence o f m uch e vidence f or t he q uality o f t essellation a t W ithington ( some f ragments o f m osaic D a re p reserved i n t he B ritish M useum), s ignificant s tylistic a ffinities s till i ndic ate t hat o ne o r t wo c raftsmen w orking h ere h ad a lso w orked o n t he B arton F arm a nd W oodchester m osaics, i .e. s uggesting a n i ntegral r elationship. ( i) T he e laborate f orm o f t he l arge g uilloche c ircle a nd i ts s kilfully e xecuted j unction w ith t he f rame o f t he m osaic i s r eminiscent o f t he c ircle o f c hain-guilloche a t B arton F arm . B oth m osaics a lso p ossess o uter b orders o f r elieved s wastika m eander. ( ii) T here a re s imilarities b etween t he b irds i n b oth m osaics, e specially t he p eacock w hich, i n b oth i nstances, i s s hown ( as a t W oodchester) w ith a l ong, c losed t ail. O ther s quat, d uck-like b irds a re c omparable t o t hose a t B arton F arm ; i n t hese t hat t he

i ndeed,

w hereas t he a nimals

m osaics a ppear t o b e o f q uite d ifferent s tyles, d raughtsman r esponsible f or t he b irds a t B arton

i t s eems F arm w as

a lso r esponsible f or t hose a t W ithington . T his i s p recisely t he d egree o f s tylistic a ffinity w hich i s m issing w hen o ne c ompares t he O rpheus m osaics o f W ithington a nd N ewton S t. L oe. F or t he f ormer, i t s uggests a n i ntegral r elationship w ith t hose f rom B arton F arm , W oodchester a nd S tonesfield. T he l atter p avements, a dmittedly, s hare a n umber o f f eatures w hich, t ogether, i ndicate a m uch g reater d egree o f a ffinity: s imilar a canthus s croll a nd a rrangement o f d esigns a t S tonesfield a nd W oodchester, o r t he a lmost F arm.

i dentical s tyles o f t he a nimals a t W oodchester a nd B arton T he l atter s imilarities, i n f act, c an b e i nterpreted a s u ni-

t ary a ffinities ( section 5 .1). A t W ithington i t a re d ealing w ith a p art o f t his w orkforce.

a lso

i s p ossible t hat w e

A s m entioned a bove, t he p avements o f t his i ntegral g roup -a nd t he p avements o f N ewton S t. L oe -still p ose t wo i mportant

p roblems: ( i) W hat i s t he c hronological d istance b etween t hem , (1 n w hat o rder w ere t hey l aid. 1) i

( i )

a nd

W ithout e xternal e vidence o f d ate , t he p eriod o f a m osaic i s a lways a rrived a t b y a n e xtrapolation f rom t he s tyle o f o ther p avements. r al

e stimate o f

t ures. p eriod

T his i s a p rocedure f ounded u pon a g enet he r ate o f d evelopment o f s tylistic

f ea-

I n o ther r egions, e .g. D orset o r N orth Y orks., a o f c . 20-30 y ears u sually a ppears l ong e nough t o

a ccount f or t he m ajor p art o f a f eature's d evelopment, ( this i s p ossibly t he w orking l ife o f a n i ndividual c rafts m an).

T here

a re

n o i ndications t hat

s uch a

f ormula

i s

i napplicable t o t he m osaics o f W oodchester, B arton F arm , S tonesfield a nd W ithington. I ndeed, c onsidering t he d ating 6 4

o f

l ater,

O rpheus m osaics

i n t he n orth o f E ngland

( part I V,

s ection 3 .2, w here t he r adial a rrangement o f t he m osaic f rom B rantingham , i s a lso d ated t o a p eriod

T yche a fter

3 30) a nd t he d ate o f t he B arton p avement, i .e . c . 3 00-320 , s uch d uration s eems l ikely. T he i mplication t hat a p eriod o f t wenty o r s o y ears s eparates t he W oodchester a nd i ngton p avements ( Smith 1 969, 1 00) s eems r easonable. ( ii) T he

q uestion

o f

t he o rder o f

t hese d evelopments

W ith-

i s

m ore

p roblematical. B ecause t here i s l ittle, i f a ny, e vidence o f m osaics o f t he l ate-third c entury i n B ritain , i t h as b een c ustomary t o a ssign t he f irst m osaics o f t his d iagnost ic O rpheus s equence t o t his p eriod s equence u sually b egins c . 2 75 a nd,

( see a bove). T he t hrough s uccessive

e laborations o f t he o riginal O rphic d esign , i s s een t o r each a c limax a t W oodchester. T he s equence c an b e e xtend ed a s f ar b ack a s 2 75 o nly b y i ncluding t he N ewton S t. L oe O rpheus a s t he f irst, i nnovative m osaic. T he W ithington m osaic i s c onsidered a n e laborate v ersion o f t his f ormat ( datable t o c . 2 90) l eading t o t he B arton m osaic ( with i ts n umismatic e vidence) o f c . 3 00 , a nd t hence t o t he o ther p avements i n t he g roup. T he p ossible m ovement o f a m osacist f rom t his r egion t o T rier i s a lso

a

c onventional e xplanation ( if a p artial o ne)

o f

t he

e ventual

f ate o f t he m osaicists w ho w orked o n t he f inest a nd f inal p avement, a t W oodchester : i n t he P alastplatz i n T rier a p anel s imilar t o o ne o f w as l ate b een

t he g eometric p anels o f t he a mbulatory o f t he W oodchester O rpheus f ound ( Parlasca 1 959, p l. 5 0). T his c ould, h owever, s uggest t oo a d ate f or t he w ork a t T rier ( for i t i s v ery u nlikely t o h ave 7 a fter 3 25), i ndeed, P arlasca ( 1975, 7) t hinks t he m osaicist

c ould h ave t ravelled

i n t he o pposite d irection.

I n o ther a reas

t oo,

i t s eems t hat t he c ase f or W oodchester a s t he f inal p avement o f a s equence o f e laborations ' cuts w ith a d ouble-edged b lade': a t t he b eginning o f t he s equence, f or e xample, i t i s d ifficult t o u nderstand h ow a t wenty-five y ear l ong p eriod o f d evelopment h ad n o o ther l ocal i nfluence . I t

s eems

t hat

t he

c ase f or e laboration ,

a nd

t hus

f or

t he

W ithington-Barton F arm-Woodchester o rder o f d evelopment, m ust s tand o r f all o n t he i mplications o f t he s tylistic i nter-relationships o f t he p avements t hemselves. T here i s i nsufficient e vidence t o i nclude t he N ewton S t. L oe p avement w ithin t his g roup; i t b egs t he q uestion, t herefore, t o d escribe i t a s t he e xample u pon w hich s ubsequent p avem ents w ere b ased. I n t urn ,

t his

s eriously q uestions t he p osition o f

t he W ithington

m osaic a s a m osaic o f t he l ate-third c entury ( other m osaics i n t he a rea o f W ithington, e .g. C hedworth, S poonley W ood, W hittington C ourt a nd S tonesfield, a re a lmost c ertainly w ell i nto t he f ourth c entury), a nd p recursory t o t hat a t B arton F arm . A d ifferent p rinciple o f d evelopment -indeed, a r eversal o f t he p rinciple o f i ncreasing e laboration -seems m ore p robable. T he h igh d egree o f s tylistic a ffinity maintained b etween t he p avements f rom W oodchester, B arton F arm a nd S tonesfield ( section 5 .1) d oes s uggest t he w ork o f m uch t he s ame g roup o f c raftsmen . I t i s i mprobable t hat s uch a s tandardized a rrangement

o f g eometric m osaics a s a ccompany 6 5

t he O rpheus

p avements

a t

W ithington a nd N ewton S t.

t his w orkforce. a ssociated w ith

M oreover, t he w ork o f

L oe w ere l aid b efore t he f ormation i f t he W ithington m osaic t his g roup ( at t he i ntegral

o f

i s t o l evel)

b e i t

a ccepted,

i t

m ust b e a s a p arallel o r s ubsequent d evelopment. I f

s uch a n e xclusion o f

t he W ithington m osaic i s

s till r emains a m atter o f c onjecture a s t o w hich o f t he t hree c losely r elated m osaics w as e arliest. A p rinciple o f ' stylisation w ould s uggest t he W oodchester m osaic t o b e t he e arliest: a p lan o f d esigns a nd t heir a rrangement, w hich w as s ubsequently t he ' blueprint' f or t he S tonesfield, ( 1984), m osaic.

B arton F arm a nd

7 )

T here

o ther p avements.

a d ate o f 3 00-320 h as b een p roposed

R ecently, f or t he

( Mosaic 9 W oodchester

i s n o m ore e vidence f or t he u se o f p attern b ooks a s

r egu-

l ators o f d esign t han t here i s f or t he e xistence o f c entral w orkshops s ervicing d efinable t erritories. H owever, t o t he e xamples i n B ritain o f p avements w hich s uggest a r eliance o n p lans o r d rawings, e .g. t he V irgilian m osaic f rom L ow H am ( Smith 1 969, p l. 3 .5, a nd f orm o f p oss ible d rawing: p 1.3.6) a nd t he V enus m osaic f rom R udston , E . Y orks., ( part I V, s ection 3 .3), c an b e a dded t he ' ceiling' d esigns o f H inton S t. M ary, D orset ( Painter 1 976, 5 0) a nd H orkstow ( pl. 9 7). F rom t his v iewpoint, w e a re r eminded t hat t he c omplexity a nd c lear d efinition o f d esigns s uch a s t hose o f W oodchester, B arton a nd S tonesfield, w ould h ave b een h ard t o m aintain w ithout t he u se o f s ome k ind o f i llustration . T he r epetition o f m any g eometric p atterns a t W ithingt on a nd N ewton S t. L oe i s n otable. A t W oodchester a nd, t o a l esser e xtent, a t S tonesfield, w e f ind s uch a v ariety o f m otif a nd p atterni ng t hat t he p avements t hemselves c ould w ell m irror a p age ( or t he p age) o f d esign : a t W oodchester e specially, t hey c omprise a n a rray f rom

w hich

a ll o ther i nstances o f c losely r elated

p avements

c ould

h ave b een t aken . I f

t he W oodchester m osaics a re t he e arliest

e xamples

o f

i ntegral

g roup ( a), a ll t he p avements o f W oodchester, B arton a nd S tonesfield w ill b e c hronologically c lose, a nd a re p robably d atable t o t he f irst t wenty y ears o f t he f ourth c entury ( in t he s equence W oodchester B srton-Stonesfield---?Chedworth). T his, o f c ourse, r elies o n a l iberal i nterpretation o f t he c oins f rom B arton F arm . T he c ontext o f t hese c oins ( in a 6 " l ayer o f d ead v egetable m atter, r ubble a nd s and, o n t op o f a 1 2" c oncrete f oundation,

i .e.

n ot w ithin t he 3 "

c ement

b ed o f t he p avement), h owever, d oes s upport s uch a n i nterpretation. F urthermore, t his s cheme o f d evelopments, w here i t a ccounts m ore s atisfactorily f or t he r elationship o f t he B arton, W oodchester a nd S tonesfield m osaics w ith t he s tylised a nd s cattered m embers o f i ntegral g roup ( a) -see b elow -also i mplies a n i nitial s timulus t o m osaic b uilding. I ndeed, a lthough t he e vidence i s o nly c ircumstant ial, t he h istory o f m osaics i n t his r egion i s o ne o f a pparently w ealthy v illa o wners c ommissioning g roups o f c apable

c raftsmen .

I t

i s w orthwhile r ecalling h ere t hat t he g reat p avement a t W oodchester i s t he l argest d omestic m osaic n orth o f t he A lps. T herefore, i f a ny m osaic i n t he r egion i s t o b e c onsidered a f ocus o f w idespread f oreign c ontacts 4 .4

t his m ust s urely b e i t.

O ther m osaics o f I ntegral G roup ( a) A

l arge

n umber o f

t he m osaics w hich a ppear t o i ndicate

6 6

f airly

s pecific

a ffinities w ith

t he m osaics o f

s ites

m entioned

a bove

a re

g eometric p avements. A s s uch , h owever , t hey a re a menable t o d uplicat ion, a nd c are m ust b e t aken, t herefore, w hen c onsidering t he c losen ess o f t heir r elationship w ith t he g eometric m osaics d epicted i n p ls. 4 4 a nd 4 5. I t i s i mportant t o d ifferentiate m osaics w hich a ppear t o b e o f a s imilar q uality a nd

b etween t hose c haracter, a s

w ell a s o f t he s ame, g eneral a ppearance. I f t his i s n ot a ppreciated t here i s a d anger o f i ncluding p avements w hose d esigns a re n ot s uff iciently d iagnostic t o p ermit s pecific s tylistic c omparison ( or m osaics w hich a re s tylised a nd, t herefore , s tylistically r emoved f rom t he m ain m embers o f

t he g roup).

S ome p atterns, e .g. c hequers, s trips o f s wastika m eander, g uilloche m at a re c ommon e nough i n t he r egion b ut, n onetheless, b e d ifficult

t o

r elate t o c omparable f orms f rom W ithington a nd

a nd c an

W ood-

c hester. I n b uilding X II, 2 , C irencester, f or e xample, m osaics a ppear t o b e c rude i mitations o f g eometric p atterns o bserved e lsew here . A dmittedly, t he r epetition o f s uch s imilar p atterns t ogether c annot b e c oincidental b ut, a s w ith t he m osaics f rom N ewton S t. L oe, t his r epetition i s n ot a lways b est e xplained b y t he p resence o f t he s ame c raftsmen a t a d ifferent s ite. O ther p atterns d o p rovide,

h owever,

a n o pportunity

t o r ecognize

s uch i ntegral s tylistic a ffinity. O f t hese, r elieved s wastika m eanders ( as a ll-over d esigns), s ome c oncentric, c ircular a rrangem ents, a nd p atterns o f i nterlaced c ircles a re t he b est e xamples. T he l atter, o utside W oodchester a nd W ithington, a re l ess c ommon t han m ight b e e xpected: s ome n otable e xamples o ccur a t R ockbourne ( Morley-Hewitt 1 978, p l. II) a nd R udston, E . Y orks., ( Neal 1 981, I n o.

7 0),

a nd

a t H olcombe,

D evon ,

a s cheme i s b ased o n i nterlaced

c ircles ( P.D.A .E.S. 3 2 ( 1973-4), p l. X XVIII). W ithin t he r egion h owe ver, t he o nly c onvincing e xamples a re a t C hedworth, G los., r oom 1 1 ( Goodburn 1 979,

p l.

7 .1)

a nd B ancroft,

B ucks.,

( Green 1 975,

p ls.la

a nd l b). T he l atter, a gain, m ight b e t oo c rude t o b e i ncluded; e ven a t C hedworth t he w orkmanship i s i nferior t o t hat o f t he e laborate m osaic o f

r oom 5 ,

( pl.

5 8b).

I nterlaced c ircles a lso a dorn t he b order o f a s altire m osaic f rom C irencester ( pl. 6 5). T his m ay o ffer s ome e vidence f or a p ossi ble o verlap o f i ntegral g roups ( a) a nd ( b): f or t he A shcroft m osaic i s c ertainly o ne o f t he m ost i mpressive s altire a rrangments ( the c onstituents o f g roup ( b)). L ike t he m osaic f rom C hedworth, t he A shcroft m osaic i s n ot a ccurately d ated, b ut i n i ts s tylistic r elat ionship w ith o ther s altire p avements i t t oo a ppears t o b e o f t he e arly-fourth c entury ( section 4 .8), p robably b etween t he y ears 3 203 40 , i .e. o f a c omparable p eriod t o t he m osaics o f C hedworth, p hase 4 .

S ome a ffinities b etween m osaics w ith c oncentric, a rrangements h ave a lready b een d iscussed ( section 2 .2).

c ircular I n m ost

i nstances t hese a re n ot c lose o r s ignificant e nough t o m erit c omp arison a t t his l evel o f a ffinity: t he m osaic o f r oom L XIV, L ydney ( Wheeler 1 932, p l. X IXb); m osaic 9 , o f b uilding X II, 2 , C irencester ( Neal 1 981, n o. 3 0); a nd t hat o f t he p anel a bove t he H are m osaic ( pl. 7 2). M osaic 9 m ay, i n f act, s hare s ome q uite s pecific f eatures w ith m osaic K , W oodchester ( pl. 4 4), b ut t he s tylisation o f t hese i n t he

f ormer -as i n t he s imple,

g eometric m osaics w ith w hich 6 7

i t

i s

a ssociated

-suggests c onsiderable s tylistic d istance.

T he q uality

o f w orkmanship i n t he p anel a bove t he h are i s n earer t o t hat o f t he m osaics a t C hedworth ( room 5 ) a nd a t B arton F arm b ut, i n t his i nstance, t he c anthari h ave n o b raiding a t t he ' waist', t here i s a n a lmost c ontinuous s croll p attern w ith c onvolutes, a nd t he c ircular b ands a re v ery c ompressed ( none o f w hich i s a f eature o f t he c ircular a rrangements a t B arton F arm, S tonesfield, o r W oodchester). I t i s o nly b ecause o f t heir s imilarity w ith t he m osaic f ound a t K ingscote ( pl. 5 0) t hat s ome o f t hese m osaics c an b e c onsidered s eriously a s p art o f i ntegral g roup ( a). T he K ingscote m osaic ( see s ection 3 .4) a ppears t o d ate t o t he e arly y ears o f t he f ourth c ent ury, w hile t he t echnique e mployed ( especially i n t he h ead o f V enus) i s r eminiscent o f t hat i n t he f igure o f O rpheus a t B arton F arm ( pl. 4 2). C oloured b ackgrounds, a f eature o f t he K ingscote m osaic, a re a lso u sed a t C hedworth ( room 5 ) a nd W oodchester ( Neal 1 981, n o. 6 3). I n a ddition , t he K ingscote p avement s hares w ith m osaic 9 a s imilar a rrangement a nd a b order o f r elieved s wastika m eander; a nd l ike t he L ydney m osaic i t h as a c ircular b and o f s croll p attern , w hile t he c urving s crolls w ith p etals a nd v olutes a re b est m irrored i n b oth o f t he p anels w hich l ie a bove t he H are m osaic. I n s pite o f t hese a ffinities, h owever, i t s hould b e r emembered t hat t he K ingscote m osaic i tself i s a ssigned o nly t entatively t o i ntegral g roup ( a): i t c ould o verlap w ith, o r b e c onsidered p art o f, i ntegral g roup ( b). J ohnson ( loc. c it.) i ndeed, m akes a g ood c ase f or t he m osaic a s a p roduct o f a g roup o f m osaicists b ased a t I lchester* -a n a rgument w hich, e ven i f n ot a ccepted i n d etail ( section 4 .8), r eminds u s o f t he i mportant a ffinities b etween t his m osaic a nd o thers T he K ingscote m osaic i tself, l ike t hose o f r ooms 5 ,

t o t he s outh. 1 1 a nd 1 4 a t

C hedworth, c ould l ie a t a s tylistic ' crossroads'. I t w ould b e a mbit ious, t herefore, o n t he b asis o f t heir s imilarities w ith t his m osaic, t o i nclude t he b asic c oncentric c ircular a rrangements f rom C irencester o r L ydney.

W ith a ffinity m ents

r elieved

s wastika

m eanders

h owever,

s ome

e xamples

o f

w ith c omparable m osaics f rom s ites p ossessing O rpheus p ave-

i s

a pparent.

T he m osaics o f

r oom 2 4,

N orth L eigh ( pl.

6 4)

a nd

r oom 5 , C hedworth, p ossess m eanders w hich a re m ore e laborate t han t hose o f m osaics B a nd D a t W oodchester o r m osaic E a t W ithington. F urther, t he b ordering s trips o f a canthus s croll a nd r elieving s quares o f g uilloche m at ( at C hedworth), o r t he s wastika-peltae w ith g uilloche k nots ( at N orth L eigh) a re p rominent f eatures o f o ther m osaics a t W oodchester. A t N orth L eigh t he r elieving i nsets o f g uilloche e tc. b e

s impler

b order

t han

a lso

g uilloche

o f

t hose a t C hedworth.

s eems

t o b e o f

t he l atter.

T he g uilloche o f

t hicker s trands

t han

t he

T he C hedworth m osaic a lso

o uter b order o f c ontinuous s wastika m eander. d ifferences h owever, i s t he p resence, i n b oth,

a ppear t o t he

o uter

t hree-strand p ossesses

a n

S et a gainst t hese o f c rowstep p attern

a nd s wastika-peltae ( in t he c entral p anel a t C hedworth), a s w ell a s a n a rrangement o f c oncentric b orders a nd r ectangular s trips o f d eco r ation

*

a djacent

t o t he m ain d esign.

S ee a lso S mith i n P .S.A.N.H.S.

I t

16, 1 6 8

i s

7 1-77.

d ifficult

t o

b elieve

M OSA ICS I ND ICAT ING S PE C IF IC S TYL IST I C A FF IN IT IES

MAP 5 . 9 19 29 e 4 959 m i les

. 3

j 3 ' 6

1 .H a ls tock 2 .B road S t ree t 3 .B i shop s t one 4 ,G l ou ce s t er 5 .C hedwor th 6T o ck ing t on P a rk 7 .N o r t h L e igh

B .F r oces te r C o ur t 9 .C i ren cest e r 1 0 .W i th in g t on 1 . K ings co te 1 2 .S t one s fi e l d 1 3 .Woodches ter

01

1 0 u , c e i rS

4 . 12 7

9 h

I n t eg ra l G roup ( a ) ( O rpheus m osa ics ) I n t egr a l G roup ( b ) ( I n t e r la ced s q ua r e / s a l t i r e m o sa i cs )

2

f o r Orpheus w o r k shop ' tr 1 aU nat ibu t ed I l i .W o rk shop ( i ) i •W ork shop ( ) tr 0U nat ibuted

t herefore, M oreover,

t hat o ne o f t hese m osaics w as n ot i nfluenced b y t he o ther. g iven t he s triking s imilarity b etween t he s easons, o ctago -

n al a rrangement f rom C hedworth a nd m osaic H f rom W oodchester ( Smith 1 969, 1 01), i t s eems a lmost c ertain t hat t he s easons m osaic w as t he p roduct

o f

c raftsman w ho h ad w orked a t

Members o f

t he l atter s ite.

i ntegral g roup ( a):

W oodchester, ?W ithington , S tonesfield:

a ll m osaics

l isted i n a ppendix F

a ll m osaics l isted i n a ppendix F a p avement f eaturing p erspective b oxes a p avement o f p erspective b ox d esign, w ith a p anel o f r elieved s wastika m eander

t he B acchus m osaic B arton F arm O rpheus m osaic ( with l ozenge p attern b order) N orth L eigh, C hedworth:

r oom 2 4: r oom 5 : r oom 1 1: r oom 1 4:

?K ingscote m osaic, ?A shcroft Houses,

4 .5

a ll-over r elieved s wastika m eander s easons m osaic a nd a djacent p anel o f r elieved s wastika m eander p attern o f i nterlaced c ircles p attern o f i nterlocking p eltae

V enus m osaic s altire p avement w ith b order p attern o f i nterlaced c ircles

I ntegral G roup ( b) D ue

i n

p art t o l ight s hed b y r ecent

d iscoveries

( Ant.

J

X LV

X ( 1965), p l. XXIIIa ; T .B.G.A.S. L XXXIX ( 1970), p l. I I) i t n ow s eems r easonable t o p ostulate a s econd g roup o f i ntegral a ffinities f or t he r egion . I n

g eneral

t here

a ppears

t o b e

l ittle

s ignificant

o verlap,

e ither s tylistically o r i n t erms o f d istribution , b etween p avements o f g roups ( a) a nd ( b). A s altire m osaic i s k nown f rom S tonesfield ( Rainey 1 973, p l. 1 6a) b ut, i f d rawn a ccurately, b e a s tylised v ersion o f m ore e legant e xamples. f rom A shcroft H ouses,

C irencester,

t his w ould a ppear t o T he s altire m osaic

a lso s uggests

s ome a ffinity w ith

t he g eometric d ecoration o f m osaics a t W oodchester a nd W ithington ( see a bove), a nd y et, s et a gainst s uch c omparisons, i s t he c omplete a bsence f rom t he l atter s ites o f a rrangements o f i nterlaced s quares o r s altires.

M any m osaics o f g roup

( b)

a ppear t o b e l ater t han t hose

o f g roup ( a), a lthough i n s ome i nstances m osaics o f e ach m ight b e c ontemporary ( i.e. a t C hedworth a nd N orth L eigh), a nd, o ccasionally, g roup ( a) m osaics a ppear t o b e l ater ( if a l ater, f ourth c entury, d ate f or t he W ithington m osaic i s a ccepted) t han s ome o f g roup ( b). T here a re

v ery

c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat m any o f c losely

r elated.

i ntegral g roup i n t he c ountry,

I t i s

t he m osaics

p robably

t he

i n g roup ( b)

m ost

f or a lthough m any o f

c onvincing

t he s imilarities

b etween t he m osaics a re n o m ore ( and f requently l ess) s ignificant t han t hose o f W oodchester a nd S tonesfield, t here a re m any m ore m odera te W hen

a ffinities c onsidered

b etween

o ther

b etween w hat a re f airly s ophisticated i n

t he c ontext o f

m osaics

i n B ritain ,

l evels

o f

t he d egree o f

g roup i s e xceptional.

6 9

a rrangements.

a ffinity

o btaining

s imilarity i n

t he

4 .6 O ne o f t he m ost e asily r ecognizable a rrangements i s t hat o f f our p airs o f i nterlaced s quares ( type B i n s ection 3 ). T hese o ccur t wice a t C irencester ( The A venue: p l. 5 6; a nd Q uerne L ane: p l. 4 9), w here t hey p ossess f rames a nd s quares o f s imple g uilloche , s ingle p etals o f i vy ( or l otus b ud i n t he A venue m osaic) t o d ecorate t he a ngles, a nd a m otif b ased o n f our h eart-shaped l eaves. O ther e xamples, f rom t he N ew M arket Hall s ite, G loucester ( Ant. J . L IV ( 1974), p l. V ) a nd f rom a r oom a t N orth L eigh ( pl. 6 3b) a re a lso p robably r elated t o t he f ormer a t a n i ntegral l evel o f a ffinity. A t N orth L eigh a n i mportant s altire m osaic w as d iscovered ( see b elow), a nd t he o ne r emaining f lower o f t he G loucester m osaic i s r eminiscent o f t hose i n t wo o f t he s emi-roundels o f p l. 5 6. S ome f eatures o f a nother m osaic, a gain f rom C irencester,

c an a lso b e c ompared w ith t hose o f

t he p avement f rom t he

A venue. T hese a re t he l otus b ud i n t he a ngles a nd t he t horn p attern b order o f t he p avement f rom A dmiral's w alk ( pl. 4 8). H owever, t ogether, t hese p avements a re t oo f ew a nd t oo p oorly r ecorded t o b e c onsidered t he d iagnostic m osaics o f t his g roup. 4 .7 I t m osaics d esigns

i s

f rom

C hedworth,

a s ite w hich

o f i ntegral g roup ( a), i s k nown. I n c ontrast

p rovides

e vidence

o f

s ome

t hat o ne o f t he e arliest s altire t o t he c omments ( above) o n p avements

w ith f our p airs o f i nterlaced s quares,

t his m osaic c an b e c onsidered

o ne o f t he f irst e xamples o f a d istinctive s altire a rrangement: a rrangement w hich h as p elta-urns ( with b ases f acing a way f rom c entral r oundel)

a n t he

o n e ach a rm .

S uch d esigns a re a lso k nown f rom o ther s ites i n t he r egion ,

i .e.

2 b uilding X IV, 2 , r oom 4 , C irencester ( Neal 1 981, n o. 2), N orth L eigh, r oom 1 ( pls. 6 1 a nd 6 2), a nd T ockington P ark, G los., r oom 9 ( pl. 6 0). T here a re o ther s altire d esigns, i ndeed t here a re o ther m osaics w hich s hare s tylistic t raits w ith t he s altire a rrangements, b ut a ll o f

t hese w ill b e c onsidered b elow .

I n r oom 1 0 a t C hedworth, a s quare m osaic e nclosed b y a r elieved s wastika m eander h as a c entral r oundel w hich c ontains a c antharus. T he

r oundel i s

t he f ield,

' supported

b y t he i ntrusion o f

l arge t riangles

t hree o f w hich c ontain d istinctive m otifs.

i nto

B etween t hese

t riangles l ie t he f our a rms o f t he s altire, a ll o f w hich s eem t o h ave b een d ivided i nto t hree z ones: t wo l ozenges e nclosing p entagonal d evices

w ith t wo h eart-shaped p etals,

a nd a p entagonal

a rea

w hich

c ontains a p elta-urn . O ne

o f

t he m ost n otable f eatures o f

q uality o f d raughtsmanship a nd e xecution .

t his m osaic

i s

A long o ne o f

i ts v ariable i ts

s ides

s wastika m eander b reaks d own i nto a c onfused k ey p attern. c raftsman w as, p resumably, a ttempting a r elieved m eander o f

t he

T he t hree

l inked s wastikas a t e ach c orner, b ut t his i s n ever a chieved ( although t he w ork t o t he ' right' i s f airly n eat: p l. 5 7a). E xcavation b eneath t his m osaic h as s hown t he m ortar b eneath t he c entral r oundel t o b e o f a d ifferent c haracter t o t hat u sed e lsewhere i n t he p avement ( Good b urn p ers. c omm.): t he o verall p icture, t herefore, s uggests t wo w orkm en , o r ( less p robably g iven t he r emarkable v ariety o f t he m eander) 70

o ne w orkman u sing O f

' acquired

t he m otifs,

t he p resence o f a b ird

s prig) i s s ignificant, m osaic i n t he r egion . i s u ncommon. ( pl. 7) a nd 7

s ections o f p refabricated m osaic. ( apparently p ecking a t a

f or i t d oes n ot o ccur i n a ny o ther s altire I ndeed, i n g roup ( b) f igured w ork i n g eneral

I t i s t o b e s een i n d esigns f rom B road S treet, L ondon t he N ew M arket H all s ite, G loucester ( Neal 1 981, n o.

5 2), b ut t his i s, c learly, o f a d ifferent c haracter. O ther n otable m otifs a re t he s ingle b uds w hich o ccupy t wo o f t he s upporting t ria ngles ( the s tyle o f t hese i s r eminiscent o f s ome l eaves o f t he f loral w hich,

s croll o f t he K ingscote m osaic: p l. 5 0), a nd t he c antharus a pparently, h as t hree g adroons, ' S'- shaped h andles w ith

v olutes s mall,

a nd a b raided w aist. T he p elta-urns h ave a h ollow b ody a nd a f illed t riangle a t t he b ase. T he m iddle p oint o f t he p eltae

a re d rawn-up t o m ake l otus f orms a nd t wo c ompact v olutes o f a t l east t hree b ands. T he o uter p oints o f t he p eltae a re d rawn t o a g reater h eight t han a re t he c entral f eatures, a nd t erminate i n a v olute w ith t endrils. I n t he m osaic o f b uilding X IV, 2 , C irencester, t he p elta-urns a re o f a c omparable f orm t o t hose a t C hedworth. H ere, h owever, t he p eltae t hemselves d o n ot a ppear t o b e h ollow , a nd t he v olutes h ave o nly o ne b and. T hese m otifs p rovide t he b est m easure o f a ffinity b etween t his a nd t he C hedworth m osaic, f or t he a ll-over a rrangement f requently i ncludes s implified m otifs, e .g. f illings o f g uilloche m at a nd f illed t riangles, a nd i ncludes f eatures s uch a s t he f lower w ith f our h eart-shaped p etals, C hedworth m osaic. S uch c omment, m ent

o f

r oom 9 ,

w hich a re n ot c omparable t o m otifs i n

c oncerning m otif, T ockington P ark.

t horn p attern a re f eatured, i n t he h alf t ilted-squares,

t he

i s a lso a pplicable t o t he p aveH ere,

b orders o f w ave-crest

a nd

a long w ith a p yramid o f s mall t riangles a nd s wastika l ozenges o n t he a rms o f t he

s altire. T he p eltae a re h ollow , a s a t C hedworth, a lthough t hey a re d rawn n ow e ven l ess g racefully t han t heir c ounterparts f rom b uilding X IV, 2 , C irencester. T he a rms o f t he p elta-urn a re t aken o nly s o h igh a s t he c entral l otus f orm . T he f our, i ndependant, h eart-shaped l eaves o f t he c entral r oundel, m eanwhile, a re s imilar t o t hose o f t he c entral r oundel o f t he p avement o f i nterlaced s quares ( pl. 5 6). A nother p avement f rom T ockington P ark ( pl. 6 0), i n f act, h elps t o e mphasize

t he c onsistent b ut o ften i ndirect r elationship b etween t he

m osaics o f t his g roup. I t e xhibits o ther f eatures f ound i n t he A venue m osaic ( e.g. t he f an-flower o f s ixteen p etals w ith a g uilloche k not a t i ts c entre, a nd t he l otus b uds w hich o ccupy t he a ngles o f t he p avements), a nd w hich a re h ere a ssociated w ith p elta-urns w ith v ol u tes o f t wo o r t hree b ands, t hose a t C hedworth). T he

( i.e.

m otif

s tylistically

a ll-over s altire p avement a t N orth L eigh ( pls.

c loser

6 1 a nd

t o

6 2)

s hares s ome f eatures o f t he m osaic o f r oom 9 , T ockington P ark ( pl. 5 9). H owever, a n e xamination o f t he f loor ( it r ests i n s itu) s hows t hat Hakewill's d rawing i s n ot e ntirely a ccurate ( the p elta-urns f or e xample, a re t oo e longated). T he p elta-urns n ow v isible a t N orth L eigh a re m ore a kin t o t hose o f t he a ll-over p attern f rom C irencester ( see a bove) -a nother m osaic w ith g uilloche m at f illed t ilted s quares a nd

a t

l east

o ne r oundel w hich e ncloses a f lower o f

p etals. 7 1

f our h eart-shaped

S tylistically, t he p avement f rom N orth L eigh a ppears t o b e h alfw ay b etween t hose o f b uilding X IV , 2 , C irencester ( the a ll-over p attern) a nd t he m osaic o f r oom 9 , T ockington P ark . M oreover, t he p anel a t t he t op o f t he s altire a rrangement o f p l. 6 1 i s i nstructive a s t o d ate. T he c entral d evice h ere ( four p eltae w ith t endrils, g rouped a round a g uilloche k not) i s p aralleled i n a f ragmentary p avement a t F rocester C ourt ( T.B.G.A .S. L XXXIX ( 1970), p l. I I), d ated t o p ost 3 40 . T he N orth L eigh m osaic, c onsidering t he s ophistication o f i ts d esign, m ight b e e arlier. T here a re n o s uch u seful c omparisons f or t he C hedworth m osaic. H owever , t he a ssociation o f t his s altire m osaic w ith a m osaic ( of r oom 5 ) w hich i s a ssignable t o i ntegral g roup ( a), p oints t o a d ate b efore c . 3 40 ( and i n v iew o f t he s pecial f eatures o f t his s altire m osaic, i .e. t he f igural w ork , a nd t he w ork o f d ifferent t echnical q ualities, i t c ould b e n earer t o 3 20 ). O verall, t herefore , t his s uggests a s equence o f d evelopments w hich b egins a t C hedworth , i nc ludes t he m osaics o f b uilding X IV, 2 , C irencester a nd N orth L eigh , a nd b ecomes s tylised a fter t he w ork a t T ockington P ark . 4 .8 A nother s altire a rrangement e xhibits t he m otif o f f our p eltae a round a g uilloche k not: t he s altire m osaic f rom A shcroft H ouses, C irencester ( pl. 6 5). O n t his o ccasion t he p eltae d o n ot ' hug t he g uilloche k not ( as t hey d o a t F rocester C ourt), a nd t he t endrils a re m ore e laborate. A s t his m osaic a lso i ncludes b order w ork r eminiscent o f s ome p atterns s een a t W oodchester a nd C hedworth , i t m ight, t heref ore, b e e arlier t han t he F rocester m osaic ( dated t o c . 3 40 o r l ater), a nd t he m osaic f rom N orth L eigh , r oom 1 . H owever, i t i s d ifficult t o r elate t his m osaic w ith t he s equence o f s altire a rrangements a lready d iscussed. A dmittedly, e ach a rm o f t he s altire i s d ivided i nto t wo l ozenges ( each d ecorated w ith s imple f loral m otifs) a nd a p entagon , b ut h ere t he m otif w hich o ccupies t he l atter i s m ore o f a ' squat u rn' t han a p elta-urn . T his d evice h as f our g adroons a nd s hort t endrils d ropping f rom i ts s mall h andles; t he b ase c omprises a b ulb a nd t riangle ( pl. 6 7) -i n c ontrast t o t he s ingle t riangle o f t he p elta-urns d iscussed a bove . T his n otable m otif o ccurs i n av ery s imilar f orm i n a nother p avement f rom t he N ew M arket H all s ite, G loucester ( Neal 1 981, n o. 5 2), w here B acchus s its o n a l eopard a mid a n a rrangement o f i nterl aced s quares a nd h alf-saltires. O n t his o ccasion t he u rn h as t wo s hort s prays w hich t erminate i n s ingle l eaves, y et, s tylistically, i t r emains s imilar t o t hat o f t he A shcroft H ouse m osaic. I nterestingly , t he B acchus a nd L eopard m osaic a lso d isplays s ome a ffinity w ith t he p avement o f s ingle, r otated i nterlaced s quares ( from C irencester V I, 3 : p l. p attern , i s a lmost c ester .

4 8). A s w ell a s a c omparable c urved s tretch o f w avecrest i n o ne o f i ts a ngles i t a lso h as a s ingle p etal m otif w hich i dentical t o t hat p ossessing v oluted t endrils

a t

C iren-

I n a ddition t o t hese m odest c onnections w ith t he p avement f rom G loucester , h owever, t he l atter a lso p ossesses a s tructure a nd c har acter w hich a re r emarkably s imilar t o t hose o f t he m osaic f rom K ingscote

( pl.

5 0):

am osaic w hich s hows s ome a ffinities w ith t he 7 2

m osaic o f r oom 5 , C hedworth ( see s ection 4 .4 p p. 6 6-67). T he d ate o f t he K ingscote m osaic ( section 3 .4 p p. 5 6-57) i ndeed c ould b e c omp arable t o t hat o f t he m osaic o f r oom 1 0 , C hedworth. I t a ppears t hat a s tring o f c onnections c an b e m ade b etween t he s altire p avements o f t he A shcroft s ite a nd C hedworth. C learly, t hese a re t enuous : t hey r ely c onsistently o n s mall s tylistic s imilarities b etween c onsecutive p avements. H owever, t hey a lmost c ertainly s ign ify ad istributed r elationship w ith t hose m osaics o f t he s equence w hich i ncludes t he N orth L eigh a nd T ockington P ark s altire a rrangem ents. I ndeed, s ome o f t he f eatures w hich s uggest t his s tring o f c onnections a lso l ead o ne t o a s econd, m ain s equence o f s altires -a s equence w hich h as m any t raits i n c ommon w ith e ach o f t he p avements s o f ar d iscussed, a nd w hich p uts t he d evelopment o f t his i ntegral g roup i nto p erspective . 4 .9 A s w ith t he B acchus a nd L eopard m osaic a nd t he m osaic o f b uilding V I, 3 , C irencester, t he p eriod o f t he p avements o f t his s econd s equence i s u nclear. T he l atter m ight b e c omparable i n d ate t o t he K ingscote m osaic, b ut a s t hat i tself c an o nly b e a ssigned t entatively t o c . 3 25, t his a ssociation m ust b e c onsidered i nconc lusive . S tylistically, a p reliminary e xamination i s r evealing. B oth t he f loral s croll o f t he K ingscote p avement, a nd t he s quat u rns o f b oth t he A shcroft a nd B acchus a nd L eopard m osaics, a re p aralleled i n m osaics f rom H alstock , D orset. I n t he m osaic o f r oom I I ( pl. 6 9) t wo s trips o f s croll d ecoration -d own t he l ongest s ides o f t he p avements -are d rawn l ightly a nd f eature h eart-shaped p etals. T hese p etals a re n ot e xactly c omparable t o t hose a t K ingscote, b ut t hey a re s imil ar t o t hat i n o ne o f t he a ngles o f t he m osaic f rom V I, 3 , C irencest er, ( pl. 4 8). M ore n otable, h owever, i s y et a nother m inor v ariation o f t he s quat u rn . T he b ase c omprises a s ingle f illed t riangle ( unl ike t he e xample f rom A shcroft H ouse) a nd a t t he r im p ossesses n either t he h andles o f t he A shcroft m osaic, n or t he s prays o f t he B acchus a nd L eopard m osaic: i nstead, i t h as a n a rrangement o f t wo s mall i vy l eaves, l inked b y t endrils t o a s mall r homboid. H owever, t he s imilarity b etween t hese m otifs i s s ufficiently c lose t o s uggest t he w ork o f t he s mae c raftsman . M oreover , t his m osaic, u nlike t he A shcroft H ouse m osaic, a lso f eatures a v ariety o f p elta-urn , p yramids o f t riangles, a nd g uilloche k nots f lanked b y t wo p etals: a ll m otifs c onspicuous i n t he s equence o f s altire m osaics w hich i ncluded t he d esigns o f X IV, 2 , r oom 4 , C irencester , a nd N orth L eigh , r oom 1 . T he p elta-urns a ppear n earer t o t hose o f r oom 1 0 , C hedworth, f or t hey h ave c omparable v olutes a nd l otus f orms, a lthough t hey l ack t he s imple t riangular b ase.

s ize

T he f lowers o f a nother m osaic f rom Halstock ( pl. 7 0 ) a lso e mphas imilar r elationships. T hey i nclude t he f an-flower w ith a

g uilloche k not a t i ts c entre ( as i n t he T ockington P ark p avement: p 1.60). T he h igh s tandard o f w orkmanship a t Halstock m ight i ndicate t hat t he p avements h ere w ere, h owever, s omewhat e arlier t han t hose a t T ockington P ark o r N orth L eigh . A lthough a v ery e laborate a nd w elle xecuted m osaic h owever, t he s altire p avement -w hich i n o ne f orm o r a nother p ossesses m ost o f t he m otifs t ypical o f t his i ntegral g roup 7 3

i s

c ertainly n ot a n i solated e xample o f s uch r ichness.

A t

B ishop-

s tone , H erefs. ( V.C.H. H erefs. I ( 1908), f ig. 1 4) a n a rrangement o f f our s altires, f orming a s quare f ield, s upports a l arge, c entral, t ilted s quare , w hich , i n t urn , e ncloses a s ingle p air o f i nterlaced s quares a nd a r oundel. H ere, s trips o f s croll p attern a long t he b orders a re r eminiscent o f t he H alstock m osaic ( pl. 7 0). I n t wo a ngles o f t he t ilted s quares s quat u rns w ith t endrils a re p resent i n s tyle , m ost a kin t o t hose o f t he p avement f rom A shcroft H ouses ( pl. 6 5). A lso w orthy o f n ote a re t he s ixteen-petalled f lowers w ith g uilloche k nots a t t heir c entres ( occupying t wo o f t he f our r oundels a t t he c entre o f t he s altire), t he s wastika l ozenges, t he l ozenges w ith t wo h eart-shaped p etals, a nd, -as a t t he N ew M arket H all s ite, G loucester, H alstock ( pl. 6 9) a nd B road S treet, L ondon ( pl. 7 7) -the p resence o f ' veneered r homboids'. I n

f act t he l atter m osaic -a n a rrangement o f s tar-like

i nter-

l aced s quares a nd s altires -h as m any m otifs w hich a re c ommon i n o ther s altire m osaics. T he m ost c onvincing a ffinity h owever, i s t hat o f t he s quat u rns, ( which o ccupy a t l east t hree o f t he h alf-roundels a long t he b orders) w ith t hose o f t he B acchus a nd L eopard m osaic a nd t he p avement f rom H alstock . T hose o f t he l atter m osaic a ppear a l ittle f iner, w ith n eat t essellation a nd d elicate t endrils f lowing f rom t he r im . T hose o f B acchus m osaic h owever , a re v irtually i dentic al t o t hose a t B road S treet. T his s uggests t he w ork o f t he s ame m osaicist: a c raftsman w ho , i f n ot s olely r esponsible f or t he m osaics i n G loucester a nd L ondon , w as p art o f a g roup w hich h ad a v ery s pecific r epertory . T his a gain r aises t he p ossibility ( and t he p roblem) o f i tinera nce , f or c onsiderable d istances s eparate t hese s ites. G iven t he v ariety o f m otif e tc. I n t he B road S treet, H alstock, B acchus a nd L eopard a nd B ishopstone p avements, i t i s d ifficult t o i magine h ow t hey c ould h ave g rown o ut o f t he C hedworth T ockington s equence. A nd y et t hese m osaics d o s how s ome n otable s imilarities t o t he l att er. B oth s equences i ndeed, s eem t o c ontribute t o ( or a re r epres ented b y) a n umber o f p avements w hich s hare t he f eatures o f e ach , i .e. t hose w ith f our c onfigurations o f i nterlaced s quares ( from Q uerns L ane a nd t he A venue); t he K ingscote m osaic a nd t he m osaic o f b uilding V I, 3 , C irencester; a nd t he A shcroft m osaic. S ome m osaics f rom e ach o f t he t wo m ain s equences h ave t o b e c onsidered a s a pproxim ately c ontemporary: t hese s equences, a lthough d eveloping p artly i n p arallel, d o s eem t o o verlap , s tylistically , a t C hedworth . I t s eems r easonable t o c onclude, t herefore, t hat t he N orth L eigh a nd T ackingt on m osaics o riginated w ith t he a rrival i n G loucestershire o f c raftsm en r esponsible f or t he m osaics a t H alstock a nd B road S treet, L ondon. 5 .0

U nitary A ffinities A t l east t hree e xamples o f u nitary a ffinity a re a pparent i n t his

r egion a nd, t herefore , t hree e arly/mid-fourth c entury ( all

w orkshops m ay h ave e xisted i n t he o f w hich m ight h ave b een p artially

c ontemporary). T he f irst i ncludes t he p avements o f W oodchester, S tonesfield, B arton F arm a nd p robably t he S easons m osaic o f C hedworth . B etween t hose o f t he f ormer t wo s ites ( assuming t he d rawings o f t he m osaics a re a ccurate) t here a re n umerous i ndicators o f a c lose s tylistic 7 4

r elationship. ( a) A t S tonesfield, t he d ecoration o f t he r oundel ( pl. 4 7) i ncludes a n a canthus s croll w hich i s s imilar i n s tyle ( and a lso o riginates f rom a m ask o f N eptune) t o t hat a t W oodchester. L ike m any o f t he s mall c ircles o f t he g eometric b order a t W oodchester , t he d ecoration w hich e ncloses t he r oundel a t S tonesfield a lso i ncludes b ands o f t horn p attern . I n t he s pandrels o f t his r oundel t he l arge b irds ( in t heir p ositioning a t l east) f urther r ecall t he W oodchester m osaic a nd i ts f our r eclining n ymphs. ( b) B oth m osaics a lso i nclude a n o uter b and o f s wastika m eander r elieved b y o nly f our n arrow s trips o f g uilloche m at. A t S tonesfield, t he r oundel w hich c ontains t he l arge g eometric p anel i s b ordered b y f our l ozenge s wastikas, c ompara ble t o t hose i n f our o f t he W oodchester g eometric p anels. ( c) C hain-guilloche, s eries o f s wastika-peltae w ith g uilloche k nots, o r f our-strand g uilloche a re e ither p resent i n t he l arge m osaic a t W oodchester o r i n t he s maller, g eometric p anels o f a djacent r ooms: t hese a re a ll r epeated a t S tonesfield, e .g. i n m osaics B a nd C ( V.C.H. O xon I ( 1939), p l. XIV), w here t he m ain e lements o f t he X a rrangements ( perspective b oxes a nd r elieved s wastika m eander) a re a lso p resent a t W oodchester i n m osaics D a nd B . T he B arton F arm m osaic i s a lmost c ertainly b y t his g roup o f c raftsmen . I t a lso f eatures p erspective b ox/lozenge p atterns, s eries o f ' mirrored p eltae ( as a t S tonesfield), a nd a b order o f s wastika m eander r elieved w ith o ne s hort s trip o f g uilloche m at. T he l arge m ammals, e specially t he l eopard a nd t he t iger , a re s trongly r eminisc ent o f t he W oodchester O rpheus m osaic ( in d rawings t he l atter a re o ften s uggested t o b e f iner b ut t hey a re o f c omparable q uality t o t hose o f t he B arton m osaic). I t a lso p ossesses a c ircular w reath a s o ne o f i ts c oncentric b ands, a nd t he s pandrels o f t he a rrangement a re f illed w ith g raceful a canthus s prays. I n c ontrast, t he C hedworth S easons m osaic i s n ot c ertainly o f t his g roup, a lthough m any s imilarities w ith t he m osaics o f W oodc hester m ake s uch a n a ttribution a ttractive. I n a ddition t o r epeati ng t he f ormat o f m osaic H , W oodchester, i t i ncludes a lmost i dentical r epresentations o f c upids ( pl. 5 8b ; G oodburn 1 979, p l. 6 ; f or t he W oodchester m osaic s ee L ysons 1 797, p l. X IX). F urther, m any f eatures o f i ts g eometric a nd b order d ecoration a re f amiliar : c ontinuous s wastika m eander , r elieved, a ll-over s wastika m eander, a nd -m ost s ignificantly -strips o f a canthus s croll ( with r ed, b lack a nd y ellow l eaves) w hich a re a lmost i dentical t o t hose e nclosing t he c entral r oundels a t W oodchester a nd S tonesfield.

a

T hus, a t l east f our s ites p rovide e vidence f or t he e xistence o f w orkshop w hich s pecialised i n t he d esign o f c omplex , c oncentric

c ircular s chemes a nd s imple g eometric d esigns. I ts p eriod o f o peration i s b etween 3 00 a nd 3 25, w hereafter c raftsmen a ppear t o h ave b een e mployed a t W ithington , d esigning o f m osaics w hich a lso s hare t he f eatures o f s hops, i .e . t he K ingscote a nd A shcroft H ouses m osaics.

m ost l ikely s ome o f i ts a nd. i n t he o ther w ork-

T wo o ther e xamples o f u nitary a ffinity h ave b een m entioned a lready, i n t he d iscussion o f i ntegral a ffinity ( above). T he f irst i ncludes p avements f rom Halstock ( pls. 6 9 a nd 7 0 ),. B road S treet, L ondon ( pl. 7) a nd p robably t hose o f t he N ew M arket H all s ite , 7 G loucester ( Neal 1 981, n o. 5 2) a nd B ishopstone, H erefs. ( V.C.H. H erefs. I ( 1908), f ig. 1 4). T he p avement o f t he A shcroft H ouses s ite 7 5

( pl.

6 5) m ight A ll

o f

a lso b e i ncluded.

t hese m osaics

i nclude e xamples o f

' squat-urns

( Bishop-

s tone a nd A shcroft) o r b owls ( Gloucester, L ondon , a nd Halstock). I n a ddition, a ll b ut t he A shcroft m osaic f eature a v ariety o f ' veneered r homboid' -a d iagnostic m otif i n R omano-British m osaic w hich s ugg ests, f or f our p avements a t l east, t he p resence o f t he s ame c raftsm an , ( similar r homboids a re v isible, i n s tylised f orm , i n t he Hare m osaic ( pl. 7 3); a nd o f t he f ragmentary r emains f rom W iggington, O xon ., ( Neal 1 981, n o.78), a b order p attern o f a djacent c alyxes s imilar t o t hat o f t he B road S treet m osaic, i s n otable). T he

o rigin o f

s uch a n o rganised b ody p resents p roblems,

a s

t he

s hort d iscussion o f t ypes o f i nterlaced s quare a rrangement ( section 3 .6) i ntimates. F urther t o t he p ossibilities m entioned t here h owe ver,

n ote s hould b e m ade a lso o f

f eatures o f m any m osaics

S ussex ( Lysons ( 1817), v ol. II): f eatures s uch a s I t endrils a nd h eart-shaped p etals ( in t he s pandrels o f

a t B ignor,

t he b owls w ith t he c ircular

a rrangement i n p late 3 8, a nd i n t he a rrangement o f i nterlaced s quares, p l. 3 6). I t i s t oo m uch t o s uggest t hat t he ' T R ' o f t he B ignor m osaics ( pl. 3 7) i nfluenced t he m osaics o f t his w estern w orks hop: f ormer,

m any e .g.

s pecial a nd i ndeed a lien ( to B ritain) f eatures o f t he t he s ubject o f G anymede a nd Z eus ( pl. 3 8) o r t he s eries

o f g ladiators ( Lysons 1 817, p l. X VI; R ainey 1 973, p l. 1 0b), g uarantee t hat f urther i nquiry q uickly d evolves i nto o pen s peculation . I t i s d ifficult t o m aintain i n t his i nstance, h owever, m ents o f s altires i n g eneral, a nd t he s chemata o f i n p articular, p rovinces.

p receded

t he d evelopment o f

t hat t he a rranget he B ignor m osaics

s uch d esigns

i n

o ther

t hese e xamples i ncludes t he p avements f rom

C hed-

5 .3 T he

s econd o f

w orth, r oom 1 0 ; C irencester, X IV, 2 , r oom 4 ; N orth L eigh, r oom 1 , a nd T ockington P ark a nd F rocester C ourt. T he p resence i n t he A shcroft m osaic o f t he s ame f our-peltae d evice a s i s v isible i n t he m osaics o f F rocester a nd N orth L eigh s uggests t hat i t a lso m ight b e i ncluded, b ut i n i ts n eat e xecution a nd p ossession o f a f orm o f ' squat-urn' i t i s b etter t o c onsider i t a p roduct o f t he f ormer u nitary g roup. T he m ain f eatures o f t he r emaining p avements a re a s f ollows: s ixteen p etalled f lowers w ith g uilloche k nots a t t heir c entres; f lowers w ith f our

h eart-shaped

p etals w here t he i nterspaces

o f

t he

p etals

a re

d rawn o ut i nto s tylised l otus b uds; a nd, m ost c haracteristically, p elta-urns w ith f illed t riangle b ases, l otus t ips, a nd t endrils w ith v olutes. T he w orkshop p robably h as i ts o rigins a l ittle l ater t han t he s altire/interlaced s quare w orkshop a lready m entioned; i ndeed, i t c ould h ave b een a p roduct o f t he l atter's c ontact w ith p hases o f t he ' Orpheus w orkshop' i n c . 3 25. 6 .0

t he

l ater

S ummary

C ontrary t o t he b elief t hat t he f ourth c entury m osaics o f t his r egion a re t he p roducts o f c onsecutive p hases o f t he s ame s chool o f m osaicists, i t n ow s eems r easonable t o a ssume o ne s pecific a nd o ne m ore g eneral t rend o f m osaic b uilding, w ith m any c hronological a s w ell a s s tylistic o verlaps. T he s pecific t rend f eatures m osaics o f c ircular-concentric c onfiguration , w hereas t he g eneral o ne f eatures 7 6

m osaics

o f

r elatively c omplex,

s trictly a xial g eometries.

A t hird

g roup o f p avements, c lassified a t t he l evel o f s equential a ffinity, i .e. p avements o f s imple g eometrical d esigns, a re d istributed b etween b oth o f t he f ormer. A n i mportant f eature o f t he g eneral t rend i s t he n umber o f m osaics w hich e xhibit d esigns o f i nterlaced s quares ( section 3 .1). T hese a re w idely d istributed w ithin t he r egion . B etween t he f orms w hich a ccommodate f eatures d iagnostic o f a n i ndividual w orkshop a nd t hose w hich s how o nly a s tructural s imilarity t o o ther m osaics i n t he r egion , a p icture o f t he d evelopments o f p atterns i n t he w ider c ont ext o f s outh-western E ngland e merges. A t

t he i ntegral l evel o f

s tylistic a ffinity - t he l evel a t w hich

' schools o f m osaicists a re a ssumed t o b e d iscernable -two s chools a re r ecognised. O ne, w hich i ncludes m osaics o f s pecific t rend,

s eparate t he m ore

f eatures m any n eatly e xecuted a rrangements f rom e ach

o f o nly a h andful o f s ites. T hese a rrangements, s plendid p avements w ith n aturalistic d isplays t o

w hich r ange f rom s imple g eometric

m osaics, i nclude m ost o f t hose a ttributed t o t he o riginal C orinian s chool ( Smith 1 965). H owever, t he m osaics o f N ewton S t. L oe a re n ow e xcluded, a nd a s a c onsequence o f r ejecting t he p rinciple o f i ncreasi ng e laboration o f O rpheus d esigns, t he W ithington m osaics a re p ostulated a s p avements o f t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury, ( section 4 .3). T his s chool,

d atable t o 3 00-350 ,

o verlaps w ith a s econd

w hich i ncludes m ost p avements o f t he m ore g eneral t rend, c . 3 20-350 ( section 4 .9). U nlike t he f ormer h owever,

s chool

d atable t o t he l atter

p robably c omprised t wo w orkshops, o ne o f w hich w as c omposed o f i tinerant c raftsmen r anging o ver m uch o f s outhern E ngland. I n d ecor ation a nd l inear f ormat, n ative t radition ; w hilst

t his s chool a ppears t o r epresent m ore o f a t he f ormer, a pparently b ased u pon a s ingle

w orkshop ( and i ts s ubsequent c ontraction) a ppears t o m ore d eliberately.

7 7

b e

o rganised

P art I V

F ourth C entury Mosaics f rom Y orkshire a nd Humberside T here

a re

f ar

f ewer m osaics o f f ourth c entury

r egion t han t here a re i n t he West t he

w est

O rpheus S easons

a re a mong m osaic, m osaic

t he m ost

C ountry.

d ate

i mpressive i n B ritain -the

o f

t he H umber a re

P R INC IPAL S ITES O F M OSA ICS I N Y ORKSH IRE A ND H UMBERS IDE

1B ead lam 2 .B r an t ingham 3C a s t le D ykes 4 .D a lton P a r lou rs S .H arpham

7 . Hov ingham aR oxby 9 .R uds ton 1 0 .S t urton 1 .W in ter ton

t his i n

Woodchester

t he S tonesfield B acchus m osaic, a nd t he a re n otable e ven i n a c ontinental c ontext

t hose f rom Y orkshire a nd t he b anks ( if o ften a mbitious) d esigns.

i n

M oreover, m any m osaics

m ore

M AP 6

•C O LON IAE •C v i tas c a p i ta ls i t •S ubstan t ia l s e t lemen ts •M i no r s e tt lemen ts • R ur a l s i tes ( v i l las )

C hedworth -w hereas l imited

W ith s uch m ight e xpect t ions o f t hese o f t he m osaics

d ifferences i n t he q uantity a nd q uality o f m osaics o ne d ifferent l evels o f s tylistic a ffinity -a nd c ombina l evels -to b e p rominent. I ndeed, a c lose e xamination f rom Y orkshire a nd Humberside s eems t o r eveal n otable

c ontrasts w ith t he w est i n t he n umber a nd i mportance o f i ndividual w orkshops a s w ell a s i n t he s ignificance o f p lanned d evelopments ( i.e. s trategies o f m osaic b uilding d esired b y c lients o r, a ppare ntly,

f ollowed b y m osaicists).

I n p articular, t he e vidence s uggests m ore n umerous a nd m ore s ignificant s ubstantial a ffinities, a nd a d earth o f t he c lose b ut e xtensive

r elationships

( integral

a ffinities)

w hich

a re

u sually

i ndicative o f ' schools o f m osaicists. I ndividual s ites, m eanwhile, a ppear t o s how v ery l ittle s tylistic d iversity b etween t heir m osaic r emains: e ach p avement i s u sually r elatable t o a s pecific i nstance o f u nitary a ffinity, w hich i n t urn s uggests t he e xistence o f m any, s mall, r elatively i ndependent w orkshops. A lso o f n ote i s a s equent ial o r g radual d evelopment o f d esigns f eaturing a d istinctive g eom etric ( comprising c oncentric, l inear b ordering, s wastika m eanders, a nd s imple, s ingle m otifs). 1 .1 T hirty-one a lmost e ast. b een

m osaics a re l isted b elow w hich t ogether a ccount

a ll s ignificant

r emains o f

f or

f ourth c entury m osaic i n t he n orth

T he m osaic f rom R oxby, L incs., ( Fowler 1 818, n o. 3 ), h as n ot i ncluded a s i t s hows m ore c ertain a ffinities w ith p avements i n

s outhern

L incolnshire

a nd

t he a rea

a round

W ater

N ewton,

C ambs.,

( Smith 1 969, 1 08). O ther o missions i nclude s mall f ragments o f m osaic a nd m osaics w hich w ere v ery p oorly r ecorded. T hese w ill b e d iscussed o nly w ith r eference t o p avements o f t he m ain s ample. T he l atter i ncluded a t l east s ix m osaics f rom A ldborough; f ive f rom Y ork ; f ive f rom R udston, E ast Y orks.; f our f rom W interton , L incs.; a nd f our f rom B rantingham , H umbs. S ome s ites h owever, e .g. M alton , N orth Y orks.; a nd D alton P arlours,

H ovingham , N orth Y orks.; B eadlam , N orth Y orks.; W est Y orks.; p rovide r emains o f o nly o ne s igni-

f icant m osaic. A id b orough 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

T he

' Muses m osaic':

p l.

8 1,

a fter S mith 1 852,

p l.

X VIII;

s ee

N eal 1 981, n o. 3 . T he ' Wolf a nd T wins m osaic': p l. 8 5, n ow i n L eeds C ity M useum ; s ee S mith 1 977, p l. 6 1Ia. R emains f rom B orough H ill: p l. 8 2, a fter S mith 1 852, p l. X IX . F ragments o f g uilloche; N eal 1 981, n o. 4 .

5 .

C orridor m osaic:

6 .

V arious

7 .

B eadlam,

f ragments:

p l.

8 4,

p l.

N orth Y orks.:

p l.

8 1,

a fter S mith 1 852,

a fter S mith 1 852,

8 3,

p l.

a fter S mith 1 852.

N eal 1 981,

7 9

n o.

9 .

X IV.

p l.

X II;

s ee

B rantingham , H umbs. 8 .

R oom I :

9 .

1 3.

R oom I I: p l. 9 9, n ow i n M useum o f T ransport a nd A rchaeology , H ull; s ee Y .A .J. X XXVII ( 1948-51), f ig . I V . T he ' Tyche m osaic': p ls. 9 8 a nd 9 9a ; f or f ull d rawing s ee N eal 1 981, n o. 1 2. C orridor f ragment: N eal 1 981, n o. 1 3. D alton P arlours, W est Y orks.: p l. 9 6 : d esign o f m osaic i n a pse o f t he l arger r oom n ow d isplayed i n Y orkshire M useum , Y ork ; f or p lan s ee Y . P hil. S oc. P roc. I ( 1849-54), p l. 7 . H arpham , L abryinth m osaic a nd o ther f ragments: p ls. 8 6 a nd 8 7;

1 4.

T .E.R .A .S. X III ( 1907), f ig. 3 . H orkstow , H umbs.: p l. 9 7; F owler 1 818,

1 0 . 1 1. 1 2.

N eal 1 981,

n o. 8 8.

n o.2.

8 H ovingham , N orth Y orks.: p l. 8, a fter d rawing i n Y orkshire M useum , Y ork; M osaic 7 ( 1982), p l. I V. M alton , N orth Y orks.: p l. 8 9; Y .A .J. X LI ( 1963-6), p l. I X .

1 5. 1 6.

R udston, E ast Y orks. 1 7. 1 8. 1 9. 2 0 . 2 1. 2 2.

T he ' Venus m osaic': p ls. 1 02 a nd 1 03; S tead 1 980 , p l. X II. T he ' Geometric m osaic': p l. 9 3 ; S tead 1 980 , p l. X V . I nterlaced c ircles: S tead 1 980 , p l. X Ia. T he ' Aquatic m osaic': p l. 1 00a ; S tead 1 980 , p l. X IV. T he ' Charioteer m osaic': p l. 9 1; N eal 1 981, n o. 6 9. S turton , L incs.; p avement A : F owler 1 818, A pp. I I, n o. 1 0 .

W interton , L incs. 2 3.

T he ' Orpheus m osaic':

2 4. 2 5. 2 6.

T he ' Fortuna m osaic': S tead 1 976, p l. 2 3a ; N eal 1 981, n o. 8 4. T he ' Providentia m osaic': S tead 1 976, p l. 2 1; N eal 1 981, n o. 8 5. T he ' Geometric P avement': N eal i bid., n o. 8 6.

S tead 1 976,

p l. 2 4;

N eal 1 981,

n o. 8 3.

Y ork 2 7. 2 8.

T he ' Seasons m osaic': p ls. 9 4 a nd 9 5a ; R .C.H.M . Y ork I ( 1962), p l. 2 4. F ragment s howing a s eabeast: p l. 9 5b; f ragment o n v iew i n

2 9.

Y orkshire M useum . C herry S treet m osaic:

R .C.H.M . Y ork I ( 1962),

p l. 2 3a .

T his i s p robably t he s ame m osaic a s t hat r ecently u ncovered o n t he C lementhorpe s ite, Y ork : p l. 1 04; B ritannia V II ( 1976), 3 82. 3 0 . 3 1.

2 .

M icklegate B ar m osaic : R .C.H.M . Y ork I ( 1962), p l. 2 3c ; R ainey 1 973, p l. 5 . F ragments f rom t he E bor B rewery s ite : p 1.105; B ritannia V ( 1974), 2 36.

S equential A ffinities

A t l east t wo n otable i nstances o f s equential a ffinity a re i n e vidence . F irst, i s a g roup o f p avements w ith r adial a rrangements, o ften w ith m uch f igural d etail. S econdly, i s ag roup o f p redomina ntly g eometric p avements p ossessing l inear, b anded a rrangements, l ittle ( if a ny) f igural d etail, ! and d eliberate p lacement o f a f ew , p lain m otifs. 80

2 .1

R adial a nd R ichly F igured D esigns

F our m osaics h ave a r adial a rrangement: t he m osaics f rom H orks tow ( a v ery l arge p avement w hich, i n f act, s hows t wo v ery d ifferent r adial d esigns: p l. 9 7), a f ragmentary, o ctagonal d esign w hich l ies ' above t he C harioteer m osaic a t R udston ( Neal 1 981, n o. 6 9), t he B rantingham T yche m osaic ( ibid. n o.12), a nd t he O rpheus m osaic d isc overed a t W interton ( Stead 1 976, A s a t W interton , t heme.

p l.

2 4).

a t H orkstow t he p avement

I n t he l atter,

i llustrates a n O rphic

O rpheus o ccupies h is u sual p osition,

a t

t he

' hub' o f t he d esign . T he m osaic c omprises e ight c ompartments e ach o f w hich i s s eparated b y ' spokes' o f s imple g uilloche. T he c ompartm ents a re f urther d ivided, l aterally, i nto f our s ub-compartments, m aking t hirty-two i n a ll. T he o utermost e nclose f igures o f l arge m ammals, t he n ext p airs o f b irds, t he t hird s mall m ammals, a nd t he i nnermost a re s haded, l ongitudinally, i nto f ive b ands. C ontrasts o f t his a rrangement w ith t hat f rom W interton a re c lear. I n t he l atter o nly e ight l arge c ompartments, e ach o f w hich f rames a l arge m ammal a nd a s tylised t ree , a re p resent. T he d rawing o f O rpheus h imself a lso 1 818,

d iffers c onsiderably b etween t he t wo. A t W interton ( Fowler n o. 2 ) h e, e vidently, p layed a v ery l arge ? lyre a nd d id n ot

f ace t he s pectator.

T he s pandrels a t H orkstow a re f igured w hereas a t

W interton t hey c ontain a h eart-shaped c antharus. A lso , t he t echnique o f t he m osaicist(s) a t W interton i s l ess s ophisticated t han t hat o f t he H orkstow c raftsmen . T here a re , i n f act, m any m ore d ifferences i n s tyle a nd f orm o f d esign b etween t hese p avements; s ee s ections 3 .7 a nd 5 .1. However, t he p resence o f t wo r adial v ersions o f a n i mportant f ourth c entury t heme i s u ndoubtedly s ignificant. A s p ostulated b y S mith ( 1969, 1 03), t his m ay b e i ndicative o f i nfluence f rom t he w est c ountry. I t r ather t han

i s v ital, h owever, a t t his s tage, t o s tress i nfluence ' involvement'. T he c urving a nd c ontinuous d esign o f

O rpheus m osaics, a dmittedly, i s r are o utside o f B ritain ( though s ee S tern 1 955, f ig. 1 4), a nd h ere m ost i nstances a re c oncentrated i n t he s outh-west o f t he c ountry. B ut t he m isunderstanding o f t he b easts a nd t heir c haracteristics i n t he n orth e ast -especially o f t he p lacidity d emanded b y t he O rphic t heme -coupled w ith a r adial a s o pposed t o a c oncentric c ircular s tructure, d oes n ot s uggest a ny d irect, p hysical l inks b etween t he m osaicists o f t he t wo r egions. S uch s imilarities a re m ore l ikely t o r eflect p revailing i deas o f d esign -the s entiments o f t he c lient p erhaps. T he p revalence o f f igural w ork a nd t he g enerally r ich i conography o f t he o ther m osaics a t W interton , a nd i n o ther p arts o f t he g reat p avement b ear t estimony t o t he i mportance o f s uch s entiments.

a t

H orkstow,

T he s econd r adial d esign f rom H orkstow i s s lightly s maller t han t he O rphic a rrangement, a lthough i t i s b ordered b y a v ery w ide s trip o f

e ight-strand g uilloche w hich r enders b oth p anels o f

a pproximately

e quivalent d imensions. F rom t he h ub o f t he d esign s pokes o f s imple g uilloche, w hich t raverse a n i nner,

r adiate f our c ircular b and

a nd e ventually m eet

t he r im o f

t he w heel.

e ach s pandrel b y k neeling f igures,

T he w hole i s

s upported a t

a pparently f ulfilling t he r ole o f

A tlas. T he u se,

i n p avements,

o f d esigns w hich w ere p robably i ntended 8 1

f or c eilings o r v aults h as b een c onsidered b y P ainter ( 1976), w ith r egard t o t he m osaic f rom H inton S t. M ary, D orset. A t H orkstow w e m ight h ave a nother e xample o f s uch u sage -a n i nterpretation s upp orted b y t he c osmic i magery, t he r ole o f t he k neeling f igures, a nd t he i nclusion o f a g uilloche b order w hich o therwise d iminishes t he d esign's r adius. A gain , t herefore , t he i mportance o f r adial d esigns i s c lear. T hey a ppear i mportant i n t heir o wn r ight a nd n ot s imply a s a djuncts t o t he O rphic t heme . L ikewise , t he s ymbolism o f t he O rphic s tory c ould b e r eplaced b y a n i conography w hich a lthough d ifferent, s till r epresents t he w orld i n t erms o f p acification a nd s upport. T he B rantingham T yche m osaic ( Neal 1 981, n o. 1 2) h as, a t i ts c entre, a n i rregular o ctagon f rom w hose a ngles r adiate e ight s pokes. T hese c onnect w ith e ight s emi-roundels b ordered b y a n o ctagonal b and. A ll t he i nterlace o f t his a rrangement i s e xecuted i n s imple g ulll oche. S uch a b ust o f T yche i s k nown f rom W hatley, S om ., ( Rainey 1 973, p l. 1 5a) b ut h ere s he o ccupies a r oundel w hich i s e nclosed b y a p lain

r ectangular p anel.

M oreover,

b usts

t he n orth-east; o ccurring, f or e xample, M alton ( pl. 8 9), a nd R udston ( pl. 9 1). h owever

m uch a ' civic d eity

a t

o f

f igures

a re c ommon i n

a t Y ork ( pls. 9 4 a nd 9 5), I t s eems, t herefore, t hat

t he c entre o f

s uch a

r adial

f ormat

m ight b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f w orldly p eace o r c ounsel T yche w as s imply a f igure w hich w as v ery a menable t o t his f orm o f r epresenta t ion.

1 981,

L ike t he T yche m osaic, t he f ragmentary d esign f rom R udston ( Neal n o. 6 9) i s o ctagonal a nd p ossesses e ight c ompartments. I n h is

r econstruction, N eal e nvisages a l arge c entral r oundel c onnected t o t he o uter o ctagon b y e ight s hort s pokes, a lthough t he e xact c on f iguration o f t he c entre o f t his m osaic r emains c onjectural. I t i s u nprofitable t o s peculate a s t o t he t heme o r s ubject -o nly t he f eet a nd p arts o f t he l ower b odies o f t wo f igures, a s w ell a s w hat m ight b e a p hallus o r c ornucopia, r emain . T he a rrangment w as p robably s imilar t o t hat o f m osaics f rom P itney, S om ., f ig. 8 4), C hedworth, G los., ( Smith 1 977, p l. H ants., ( Smith, C .R . 1 852, s outhern E ngland. However,

I t d oes

e .g.

t o a ttribute s ubjects c onspicuous

d ancing c upids,

s eem r easonable,

I ( 1906), B ramdean ,

p l. X XI), i .e. m osaics f rom w estern a nd i t i s i mpossible, o n t he b asis o f t he

m eagre e vidence a t o ur d isposal, t hese m osaics

( V.C.H. S om . 6 VIIIb) a nd

i n

t o t he R udston e xample.

h owever,

t o d ate t he R udston m osaic

t o

t he s ame p eriod a s t he a djacent C harioteer p anel, i .e. t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury ( Stead 1 980 , 1 37). T he c olouring o f t he m osaics w as a lmost i dentical a nd, a lthough t he g uilloche o f t he f ormer i s s impler, t hey a re b oth e nclosed b y t he s ame o uter b order o f w hite ' T' s hapes o n a r ed b ackground. I f t his i s c orrect, t he R uds ton o ctagonal d esign i s t hen a ssigned t o a p eriod s imilar t o t hat o f t he

f our r adial a rrangements a lready d iscussed i .e.

c .330-360

( see

s ection 3 .2). 2 .2

B anded G eometric D esigns a nd M eanders B roadly

c ontemporary

w ith t hese r adial d esigns i s a t rend

w ards s imple, g eometric r epresentation o f a c haracter w hich, r estricted t o t he r egion , i s p articularly w ell e xploited h ere. i s

t he p ossibility o f

s outh,

a round

s ome i nfluence f rom c raftsmen w orking

W ater N ewton ,

t o

w ho s pecialised i n t he m anufacture 8 2

t o-

i f n ot T here t he o f

g eometric

d esigns,

b ut

t heir w ork w as b ased l argely

u pon

l ozenge

c onfigurations a nd c annot h ave b een a m ajor s ource o f i nspiration . O nly a t W interton ( Neal 1 981, n o. 8 6) a nd a t S turton ( Fowler 1 818, A pp.

I I,

n o.

1 0)

I n

w estern

c an t his

i nfluence h ave b een s ignificant.

E ngland,

t hree o f

t he

f our

c oncentric,

c ircular

O rpheus m osaics ( Part I II, s ection 2 .2) w ere a ssociated w ith n umerous s imple, g eometric p avements. H owever, t he n orthern g eometric d eigns, a gain ,

a ppear t o o we l ittle t o t he l atter .

O nly t he a rrangement

o f

i nterlaced c ircles, f rom R udston ( Stead 1 980 , p l. X Ia) s hows a ny s ignificant s imilarity t o t he w estern d esigns ( chequered d ecoration a f eature c ommon t o m osaics o f b oth r egions -is i nsufficiently d iagnostic t o b e c onsidered a m ajor i ndex o f a ffinity). A t l east e ight m osaics c an b e a ssigned t o t his g roup o f b anded g eometric d esigns a nd m eanders: t he H arpham l abyrinth m osaic ( pl. 8 6); a c orridor f ragment f rom A ldborough ( pl. 8 4); t he p avement o f r oom I a nd

t he c orridor m osaic,

f rom B rantingham ( Neal 1 981,

a nd 1 3); v arious f ragments f rom A ldborough ( pl. m osaic ( pl. 8 8); t he R udston g eometric m osaic m osaic d iscovered a t B eadlam ( Neal 1 981, n o. 9 ).

8 3); ( pl.

n os.

8 8

t he Hovingham 9 3), a nd t he

A s a ll o f t hese m osaics a re t o b e d iscussed a s p art o f a n e xamination o f s ubstantial a ffinities ( below, s ections 3 .4 a nd 3 .5) i t w ill s uffice, h ere, t o p rovide s ummary d escriptions o nly. T he H arpham l abryinth o f g rey/blue l ines e ncloses a f our-petalled f lower. E ach

q uadrant

o f

t he l abryinth c omprises f our

m ain

m eanders.

A t

A ldborough, t he c orridor m osaic d isplays n umerous p anels, b ut e specia lly s ignificant a re t hose o f a ll-over c hequers i n t hree c olours a nd t hat w ith a b and o f c rowstep p attern w hich e ncloses t wo s wastikas. T he l atter m ight, o riginally, h ave b een a f our-swastika m eander a round a c entral b and. I n o ther f ragments f rom A ldborough t here i s m ore e vidence f or t he u se o f c hequers ( pl. 8 2) a nd c entral b ands f ramed b y s imple b orders. T he f ragments i llustrated i n p l. 8 3 f urn ish f urther e vidence o f t he l atter, a nd, i n a ddition , o f a m eanderi ng, s wastika d esign. A c ontinuous, r egular s wastika m eander i s a f eature o f t he R udston G eometric p avement ( pl. 9 3), w here a b order o f c rowstep p attern e ncloses a d esign o f f our s wastika-peltae a round a s mall, c hequered s quare . I t

i s w ith t he m osaics

f rom B rantingham ,

( room I a nd

a rranged

t he

c or-

r idor), t he B eadlam m osaic, a nd t he m osaic f rom H ovingham , h owever, t hat m any o f t he t ypical a ttributes o f t his g eometric t rend a re m ost e asily o bserved. I n t he l atter t wo, c oncentric, p lain b ands a nd b ands o f c rowstep p attern b order f our-swastika m eander a rrangements. B ands o f c rowstep, c hequers, s imple g uilloche , a nd c oncentric b orders ( around a c entral b and) a re a lso f eatures o f t he t wo B rantingham m osaics. P atterns

o f

s wastika m eander -especially t he v ariety b ased

f our a djacent s wastikas -in c onjunction w ith c oncentric, b orders, a re n ot c ommon o utside t he r egion, a lthough s ome p arallels d o e xist. F irst C irencester ( Neal 1 981, n o.

o n

l inear n otable

i s t he m osaic f rom b uilding X 11 2 , 2 8) w hich h as a t l east t wo p anels

2 , o f

f our-swastika a rrangement ( and w hich, i ncidentally, b elongs t o t he s ame b uilding a s a nother l abyrinth d esign : N eal 1 981, n o. 2 7). T his m osaic i s a lso d atable t o t he f ourth c entury. T he m osaic f rom M iddle

8 3

B rook S treet,

W inchester

( P.P.H.F.C.

X VIII

( 1959),

p l.

I I),

a gain,

h as f our-swastika m eander a rrangements, e nclosing s imple s quares -a f ormat w hich i s r epeated a s a n a ll-over d esign i n t he p avement f ound i n M r. T empleman's g arden , D orchester ( Hutchins 1 863, 6 92). T he m ost c onvincing p arallel, R ockbourne, H ants, c rowstep

h owever, i s p rovided b y t he m osaic f rom r oom I I, ( Morley-Hewitt 1 969, p l. I II), w here a b order o f

p attern e ncloses a m ixed

a nd g reek k ey, d esign. I n a a rrangement,

t o t he w est n earby r oom,

( or f ailed

? ) m eander o f

s wastika

o f w hich l ies a f our-swastika t here i s y et a nother s wastika

w hich e ncloses a s mall,

r adial,

m eander m eander

g eometric d evice b or-

d ered o n t wo s ides b y c hequers ( on v iew i n s itu). B oth o f t hese d esigns c an b e d ated t o t he f ourth c entury, ( Morley-Hewitt 1 969, 2 ) a nd s o m ight b e c ontemporary w ith t he n orthern s equence ( see s ection 3 .2 p p. 8 5-86). I t i s t he d esign o f r oom I I, h owever , w hich i s o f s pecial i mportance. T he e mphasis o f s uch a rrangements i s t he m ost n otable a spect o f t he n orthern g eometric s equence. I ndeed, a rrangem ents o f f our r elated m otifs ( or f igures) a ccompanied b y s imple, c oncentric b anded d ecoration h ad a p articular a ppeal f or c lients i n t his r egion ( the p avement f rom M elton, p l. 8 9, c ould r epresent a m ixture o f 3 .1

s uch s entiments).

S ubstantial A ffinities I n a ddition t o t he t wo e xamples o f

s equential a ffinity d iscussed

a bove, a t a m ore s pecific l evel o f a ffinity i t i s p ossible t o l ist a t l east f ive m ore g roups o f m osaics: ( i) T he R udston A quatic m osaic, p l. 1 00a; t he R udston V enus m osaic, p ls. 1 02 a nd 1 03, a nd t he m osaic f rom A ldborough w hich s hows a s he w olf a nd t wins, p l. 8 5; ( ii) T he R udston G eometric p avement, p l. 9 3; t he R udston m osaic o f i nterlaced c ircles ( Stead 1 980 , p l. X Ia), a nd t he l abyrinth m osaic f rom H arpham, p l. 8 6; ( iii) T he B eadlam m osaic ( Neal 1 981, n o. 9 ), t he H ovingham m osaic, p l. 8 8, a nd a p anel f rom a c orridor m osaic a t A ldborough, p l. 8 4; ( iv) T he m osaic f rom B rantingham , r oom I I, p l. 9 9; H arpham m osaic A , ( sketch H ull); t he

i n t he a rchives o f M useum o f T ransport a nd A rchaeology, B rantingham T yche m osaic ( Neal 1 981, n o. 1 2), a nd t he

f ragments o f t he M uses m osaic, f rom A ldborough, p l. 8 1; ( v) T he O rpheus, F ortuna , a nd P rovidentia m osaics f rom W interton ( Stead 1 976, p ls.

2 4, O f

( above)

2 3a a nd 2 1), t hese g roups,

a nd a f ragment ( ii)

a nd

f rom A ldborough,

( iii)

i nclude

( or t hree, H owever,

8 1.

p avements

a s b anded g eometric d esigns a nd m eanders.

( v), m eanwhile, i nclude t wo a ccounted t wo) r adial d esigns.

p l.

c onsidered

G roups

( iv)

a nd

i f t he H orkstow m osaic i s t here a re s ome m osaics f rom

b oth t he r adial a nd g eometric s equences, a nd s ome m osaics w hich a re, a s y et, u nmentioned, e .g. t he R udston C harioteer m osaic, o r t he m osaic f rom C lementhorpe, Y ork, w hich a re n ot i ncluded h ere. T hese w ill b e c onsidered i mmediately a fter, a nd i n r elation t o, t he v arious g roups o f s ubstantial a ffinities ( where, b een t he p ractice t o l ook a t e xamples o f

o nly

i n f act, i t h as p reviously i ntegral a ffinity).

D ue t o t he p aucity o f t he e vidence h ere o f i ntegral a ffinities t he p avements o f g roup ( iii), a bove, s uggest s uch a r elation-

s hip, a nd t hese p avements a re f ew i n n umber, v ariably r ecorded, a nd o f v ery s imple p attern -such a n a nalysis i s u nnecessary. M oreover, s ome p avements o f g roups ( iv) a nd ( v), ( ii) a nd ( iii), i ndicate v ery s pecific

a nd p ossibly s ome o f g roups ( unitary) a ffinities w ithout

a ny c onvincing s uggestion o f m ore g eneral, 8 4

w idespread o r

' integrated'

r elationships. T he s ignificance c oncluding d iscussion ( section 6 ). O f t he f ive ' diffuse f igures.

o f

t his w ill b e e xamined

s ubstantial g roups, T hese a re, u sually,

i n

t he

g roup ( i) f eatures n aive, v ery c olourful b ut a re c rude

a nd a wkward ( in c lassical t erms) w hilst d isplaying a f reedom o f h and w hich b etrays a ' Celtic' e ase o f c omposition. T he t esserae a re o f v ariable s ize a nd s hape b ut a re f requently l arge a nd o f c ontrasting c olours.

T he o verall e mphasis i s o f f antasy n ot

G roup ( ii)

s hows a c lear,

c lose-setting o f

r igour. t esserae a lthough t he

t essellation i s o ften i naccurate a nd, w hen r estricted t o t he r epeti t ive m eanders o f t his g roup, l acks t he i ntensity v isible i n s ome o f t he f igured w ork i n t his r egion e .g. i n o ther m osaics f rom R udston . G roup ( iii), m eanwhile, s hows a p recise, c ompact s etting o f c onc entric

l inear

c lear-cut,

d esigns.

T onal c ontrasts a re s harp

g eometric c overage o f

-suiting

t he

a n h omogeneous b ackground.

T he m osaics o f g roup ( iv) a re c omposed o f w ell s et, l arge t esserae, w hich, u sually, a re w ell s haped a nd o f a s tandard m orphol ogy. M ost o f t he f igural w ork i s b old, b ut w ithin t he c ontext o f i ts a mbitious a nd ' open' ( neither r ichly o rnamented n or c ontained w ithin

r ich

b orders)

d esign i s q uite

g raceful.

T he

s hading

o f

f igures i ndicates a c onventional u se o f c olour ( in c ontrast t o m osaics o f g roups ( i), a nd ( v), b elow), w hilst t he a rrangement o f g eometric p avements s hows a n a ppreciation o f t he p ower o f w elle xecuted d esigns o f r epeated m otifs. G roup ( v) f eatures m osaics w hich a re c rudely s et, s howing l ittle u se o f t he m osaicist's s tandard s kills: s hading, c ontrast, a nd c onsistent s etting o f u niform t esserae. T he p atterns o f b orderwork a nd i nfilling a re v aried, b ut s cenes a nd f igures a re l imited a nd, i n g eneral,

t he w ork i s c ramped a nd c umbersome.

3 .2 I t i s d ifficult t o d ate t hese g roups -h owever, f or a ll, s ome g uidelines a re a vailable. W ith r egard t o g roup ( i), J ohnson h as s uggested

r ecently ( 1982,

2 9)

t hat t he R udston V enus m osaic i s o f

t he

t hird c entury, i .e . o f t he ' make-shift' p hase o f b uilding d iscussed b y S mith ( 1981). T he a ppearance o f s uch a h ybrid s tyle o f r epresent ation , t ure h ouse

t he p oor q uality o f

t he t essellation ,

t he n ine-panel s truc -

( see P art I I, s ection 1 .3), a nd S tead's s uggestion t hat t he o f t he V enus m osaic m ight h ave b een d isused b y c . 3 00 , c er -

t ainly s upport s uch a n i nterpretation. H owever, t he d ating r emains t enuous. M oreover , t he s ophisticated i magery i s n ot i n k eeping w ith s uch a d ate: m ost o f t he p avements f or w hich a t hird c entury d ate s eems p robable s how s ingle s cenes o r g eometric a rrangement ' s. T he g reat

v ariety

o f c olour

( a t ypically f ourth c entury

B ritain), t he i nclusion o f V enus ( portrayed, e lsewhere, ( 1967), R adford

i nscriptions, a t H emsworth,

p henomenon

i n

a nd t he i llustration o f D orset: B .M.Q, XXII X

X V; K ingscote, G los., p l. 5 0; a nd L ow Ham , S om .: R alegha nd D ewar 1 954, p l. I , i .e. i n f ourth c entury c ontexts) s till

P l.

s upport a l ate d ate . T he

i nterpretation o f

f ourth c entury i s

t his p avement

s till n ot w ithout

a s a w ork o f

s ignificant 8 5

t he

f oundation .

m id/lateI f

t his

d ating,

f irst

p ropounded

b y S mith ( Stead 1 980)

i s

n ow s een t o b e

a

l ittle t oo l ate, i t s eems r ash t o a ssign t he V enus m osaic d irectly t o t he t hird c entury. B oth t his a nd t he a quatic m osaic f rom R udston c ould b e o f a s imilar p eriod t o t hat o f t he C harioteer m osaic, i .e. c . 3 30-350 ( Stead 1 980, 1 37). D oubts h ave b een e xpressed,

r ecently ( Mosaic 9 ( 1984),

3 ),

a s

t o

t he a uthenticity o f t he W olf a nd T wins m osaic, p l. 8 5. I ndications o f p ossible f orgery a re n umerous: a t ampering, w ith t he f abric a nd b orderwork o f t he p avement, i ncluding ' fanciful a dditions; t he s tora ge o f t he p avement, f or m any y ears a fter i ts l ifting i n t he f orm o f l arge ' blocks"; t he a pparent r eluctance o f H .E. S mith t o a ccept i t a s a g enuine r elic, a nd t he u nique s ubject o f t his m osaic ( to w hich m ight b e a dded t he p ossibility o f c opying o f t he d esign f rom t hat o f a nother m osaic i n A ldborough: p l. 3 5b). O n b alance, h owever, t here a re a lso m any t hings i n f avour o f t he p avement's p artial a uthentic ity. I n t he b order o f l ozenges t here a re t wo c olours ( white a nd b eige) s ides

o f b right t esserae, p robably a n i ndication t hat o f t his m osaic w hich a re s et i n w hite -a nd w hich,

a lly,

a re a lso m ore l oosely s et -a re a n ineteenth c entury

t he t hree i ncidenta ddition

t o t he o ne r emaining b order o f b eige. T ogether, t he ' fanciful' b orders m ay h ave b een f ar m ore c omphrehensive t han t his s mall b and o f l ozenges; i ndeed, t hat t he p attern o f l ozenges m ight b e a n o riginal f eature o f t he d esign i s s upported b y t he e xistence o f c omparable d ecoration i n t he m osaics f rom W interton ( Neal 1 981, n . 8 3) a nd B rantingham ( Neal 1 981, n o. 1 2). I n r egard t o t he s ubject a nd p oor d rawing

o f

t he m osaic,

o ne a lso h as

t o a sk h ow ,

i n d ays b efore

t he

d iscovery o f c omparably n aive p avements f rom R udston , t he ' restorer' c ould h ave h oped t o h ave h ad s uch a n a pparently i ncongruous m osaic a ccepted. I n o ne,

s hort,

i f

t his p avement i s a f ake i t

e ven d own t o t he l arge c racks w hich

i s

a n e xtremely c lever

t raverse i ts

s urface

c ations o f t he p lanes o f t he ' large b locks' m entioned a bove p robably, t here i s s ome d egree o f s ubstance t o i ts d esign;

( indi -

? ). M ore i n w hich

e vent, l ike H .E. S mith, w e s hould a ccept i t w ith r eservations. I f s o, i ts c onventional a scription t o t he l ater f ourth c entury i s s till a pplicable, a lthough n ow t oo l ittle s upported t o b e o f u se i n t he d iscussion o f T he

s tylistic d evelopments.

m osaics

o f g roup ( ii) m ight b e

p artly

c ontemporary

t hose o f g roup ( i). T he R udston G eometric p avement ( Stead 1 980 , a nd t he Harpham l abyrinth m osaic ( papers i n M useum o f T ransport A rchaeology,

H ull,

i ndicate

a t erminus p ost q uem o f

p avement a djacent t o t he l abyrinth m osaic) s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury. T he p avements o f g roup ( v), c . 3 50 ( Stead 1 976, c lose, s tylistically, m etric

m osaic,

m eanwhile,

a re

1 37) a nd

c .310 f or

t he

l ikely t o b e o f

t he

a ppear r eliably , d ated

t o

4 9). T he f igured p avements a re s ufficiently t o s uggest v irtual c ontemporaneity. T he g eo-

w hich f eatures p erspective b oxes

s ome s imilarities ( 1969, 1 07), a nd,

w ith

a nd

c hequers ,

s hows

w ith t he p avements o f S mith's D urobrivan s chool t herefore, i s a lso t o b e a ssigned t o t he m id o r

l ate-fourth c entury. I n c ontrast, g roup ( iv) i s m ore d ifficult t o d ate. However, c oins f rom B rantingham , a lthough n ot f ound a ssociated 3 w ith t he T yche m osaic, c annot h ave b een s ealed b efore c . 30 ; a nd, i ndeed,

t hey

a re t hought

t o d ate t he g eometric p avements 8 6

t o 3 30-350

( Slack 1 951,

5 14-20).

P ottery,

s ealed b y t he f loor o f

b elongs t o ' no l ater t han t he f irst h alf o f ( Liversidge e t. a l. 1 973, 8 9). O ne

o f

t he m osaics

o f g roup ( iii),

t he

r oom I a lso

f ourth

t he H ovingham

c entury'

m osaic,

w as

d iscovered i n t he e ighteenth c entury. A nother, t he m osaic f rom A idb orough, w as d iscovered i n t he n ineteenth. B oth a re a ssociated w ith l ittle , i f a ny, c ontextual e vidence, a nd d ating, t herefore, i s d iffi c ult. T hose o f r oom I ( a m osaic w hich i s, i n f act, s tylistically d ifferent f rom t he p avements o f g roup ( iv)) a nd t he c orridor, a t B rantingham , h owever, a re a lmost c ertainly b efore 3 50 ( above). S uch a d ating p avements

s eems a cceptable i n s pite o f t he a ffinities w hich t hese s hare w ith l ater p avements f rom D orset ( section 2 .2), a nd

t he v ery l ate p avement f rom V erulamium ( Ant.

J .

X L ( 1960),

p l.

I ),

w hich s hows a s wastika m eander r elieved b y s quares ( although n ot i n s taggered f ormation , a s a t B eadlam). H owever, t he m osaic f rom M alton ( pl. 8 9), w hich i s a lmost c ertainly i nfluenced b y t he d esigns o f g roup ( iii), p ossesses s ome a ttributes w hich a re c ommon i n m osaics i n w estern E ngland: t he h unting d ogs ( paralleled i n m osaics o f S mith's D urnovarian s chool) a nd s ingle i nterlaced s quares ( part I II, s ection 3 .3), w hich s uggest a m id-fourth c entury d ate a t l east -a nd p ossibly l ater. T his r aises t he q uestion , t herefore, w hether o r n ot t hese a ffinities a re m ore t han c oincidence. I f t hey a re, t hen t he g roup ( iii) p avements

f rom B rantingham m ight b e t he e arliest,

a s aw hole d atable t o c .

3 .3

3 20-380 m id-fourth c entury 3 30-370

G roup G roup

c . c .

( The

t he g roup

3 30-370 .

G roup G roup G roup

G roup ( i)

a nd

3 30 3 50

V enus a nd

t he A quatic m osaic f rom R udston,

a nd

t he W olf a nd T wins m osaic f rom A ldborough) T he

V enus m osaic i s b ased o n a d esign o f c ircles i n g rid f orma-

t ion w hich, b y t he i ntervention o f a s quare b order, h as b een r es tricted a nd r endered a q uasi-saltire. I n a c entral r oundel V enus i s p ortrayed, a ccompanied b y a t riton ( pl. 1 02a), a nd i n t he f our h alfr oundels, c lockwise f rom V enus's r ight a re, r espectively, a s tag 1 03a), a l ion , a b ull ( pl. 1 02b) a nd a l eopard. I n e ach o f

( pl. t he

q uarter r oundels i s a b ird p ecking a t f ruit. O n e ach a rm o f t he ' saltire i s p ortrayed a h unter : p l. 1 02a. I t c ompares w ell w ith t he s imple d raughtsmanship a nd f antastic s tyle o f t he W olf a nd T wins p avement. h as

T he l atter u ses f ewer s hades o f c olour

u pwards

o f

t wenty s hades,

t he W olf

( the V enus

a nd T wins m osaic

m osaic

e ight

o r

n ine), b ut b oth a re c olourful w ithin t his n orthern c ontext. F or e xample, t he W interton m osaics c omprise o nly f our o r f ive s hades, f requently l aid w ithout a ny f orceful j uxtaposition . B oth o f t he m osaics' a lso i nclude f igures d rawn w ith l ittle r espect f or p erspect ive -almost a s m otifs, b ut w ithout t he s tylistic r igidity s uch a l abel i mplies. T here i s n othing t o s uggest, t he m an

h owever,

t hat t hese m osaics

w ere

w ork o f t he s ame m osaicists. B oth a ppear t o b e t he w ork o f o ne -although t he s ize o f t he V enus m osaic ( 4.67 x 3 .2m) m ight b e 8 7

a gainst s uch a n i nterpretation -b ut a gain w e s eem t o b e c onsidering i nfluence r ather t han d irect i nvolvement. T his c ould, i ndeed, b e t he i nfluence o f s elves.

t he c lients

r ather t han t he m osaicists/stonemasons

T he o ther m osaic i n t his g roup,

t he A quatic d esign,

t hem-

h as a s ea-

c reature a t i ts c entre ( or p ossibly a r epresentation o f N eptune). T his i s a ccompanied b y a v ariety o f s ea-beasts, i ncluding a d olphin, a f ish a nd a n o pen b ivalve. T he m osaic s hares t he c rudeness o f f igural d rawing j ust d iscussed, a bove, b ut i t i s l ess c olourful a nd t he f igures ( a l ittle m ore c onventional) s how s ome r egard f or p er s pective, a s w ell a s t hose g eometric p rinciples w hich m ake f or s ome d egree o f d ecorative u nity.

t he

Here, h owever, t here m ight h ave b een t wo m osaicists a t w ork: u rn-lotus d ecoration o f t he b order s uggests o ne s killed a nd o ne

l ess s killed h and. T he f ormer p robably a cted a s a r egister f or t he l atter, f or t he g ood e xamples o ccur a t r egular i ntervals b etween t hose w hich a re p oorly d rawn. T he t rees t oo, w ith t heir b ases a t e ach o f t he r emaining c orners ( others, p resumably, o ccupied t he t wo o pposite a ngles) a re a lso s imilar t o o ne a nother i n d esign b ut c ont rast i n t heir d etail a nd t essellation ( pls. 1 00 a nd 1 01). T he t esserae o f t hat i n p l. 1 00b a re l arger, e specially a t t he b ase o f t he t runk; a nd t he t runk i s b ordered b y o nly o ne l ine o f d ark t esse r ae i n p l. 1 01a, w here i n p l. 1 00b i t h as t wo l ines o f d ark t esserae t o t he r ight, t hree t o d epict t he a rea a round t he b ase, a nd o ne o nly t o t he l eft. I n p l. 1 00b, t he b ranches a nd t runk a re a lso l ess g racile -m ore k notted -than i n p l. 1 01a. T his m ight b e i ndicative o f d ifferent s pecies o f t ree, a lthough t he d rawing o f t he l eaves w hich, i n b oth i nstances, a ppear s imilar, d o n ot s upport s uch a n i nterpretation. T he

V enus m osaic d oes i mply t he i nfluence o f

i nherited

o r

b or-

r owed i deas o f d esign . T his i s e vident f rom t he u se o f i nscriptions w hich, a pparently, w ere n ot f ully u nderstood ( pl. 1 02b), a nd t he d rawing o f b easts w hose d egree o f n aturalism s eems t o v ary i n r egard t o t he m osaicist s f amiliarity w ith t hem. I f t his i s s o, i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat n umerous l ocal c raftsmen i nfluenced b ut d id n ot n ecessarily a ssist o ne a nother ( or w orked a ccording t o p lans, p erhaps p rovided b y t he c lient).

3 .4

G roup ( ii)

( The R udston G eometric p avement, t he Harpham L abyr inth m osaic, a nd t he R udston m osaic o f i nterlaced c ircles)

T he R udston G eometric p avement, w ith t wo s tandards o f b orderw ork, r eadily s uggests t he p resence o f t wo m osaicists. T o one s ide t he s wastika m eander i s f ramed b y a n e rroneous l ine. H ere, t he q uality o f t he s wastikas t hemselves i s i nferior t o t hat o f t hose w hich b order t he o pposite h alf o f t he p avement ( pl. 9 3). T his, a long w ith t he v ariable q uality o f t he c rowstep p attern , s uggests t hat t he p avement w as p lanned a s t wo s ymmetrical h alves -to b e c ompleted b y d ifferent m osaicists.

t he

A p rocedure s uch a s t his m ight a lso e xplain t he d iscrepancy i n b orders o f t he p avement o f i nterlaced c ircles ( Stead 1 980 , p l. 8 8

X Ia), w here t he c hequered, b order s quares w ere o f d ifferent c olours ( red a nd w hite o r b rown a nd w hite). H ere, h owever, t he w ork o f t he m ain d esign, w hich i s r elatively p oor, t rue o f t he e ntire m osaic a t Harpham). T he

C harioteer

m osaic,

i s a lso h omogeneous,

a lthough n ot

a m ember o f

( this

t his

i s

g roup,

p rovides f urther e vidence f or t he d ivision o f l abour a t R udston . s ome p laces, t he m osaic s hows, c learly, t he s kill i n d rawing

I n a nd

t essellation w hich o ne a ssociates w ith a l eading c raftsman , e .g. i n t he C harioteer p anel i tself ( p1. 9 2c), a nd i n t he p anel w hich s hows a b ust n ot

o f S pring. T he c hariot a nd h orses ( facing t he s pectator) a re c onfused a nd m aintain a n aturalistic f eel a bsent f rom m any o ther

f ourth c entury m osaics i n t he n orth-east. T he s uperior q uality o f t he S pring p anel ( pl. 9 2a) h as a lready b een c ommented u pon ( part I , s ection 3 .2) h owever, f or i n c omparison w ith t hose s howing A utumn a nd S ummer

i t

i s m uch f iner a nd b etrays

t he p resence o f

e nced h and. F urther, b ut l ess o bvious, e vident e lsewhere i n t his m osaic, e .g.

am ore

e xperi-

d ifferences i n q uality a re i n t he d rawing o f t he t wo

l eopards w hich l eap a t a c antharus. T he

p oorest w ork i n t he C harioteer m osaic,

h owever,

s till a p-

p ears s uperior t o t he b est o f t he g eometric p avements, a lready d isc ussed. I t s eems, t herefore, t hat a t l east f our c raftsmen ( and p ossibly f ive o r s ix) w ere r esponsible f or t he w ork a t R udston . M oreover, t hese w orks m ay h ave b een c ompleted a t d ifferent t imes, o r c ould i ndicate a s pasmodic w orkshop ( one i n w hich i ndividual m osaici sts w ho d id n ot s hare a s et r epertory w ere a ssembled b y a c lient).

3 .5

G roup ( iii)

( The

H ovingham ,

p avements,

a nd

B eadlam a nd t he

A ldborough

c orridor

p avements f rom r oom I

a nd

a

c orridor a t B rantingham) Here, w e a re c onsidering a c ollection o f r egular, g eometric d esigns a ll o f w hich f eature r ectilinear a rrangements o f c oncentric b ands. T he v ery n ature o f t hese s imple, r ectangular d esigns m ight h ave e ncouraged t he d evelopment o f s uch r epeating b orderwork : t he v ariety o f b ands a nd t he r egular d epiction o f s imilar l inear m otifs, h owever, s uggests a d eliberate a rrangement w hich, a t s ome t echnical a ffinities.

i ncidentally,

h ints

I n a ll c ases, t he t esserae a ppear t o b e o f v ariable s ize. W here t he m osaics h ave b een e xamined i n m odern t imes, i .e. n ot t he H ovingh am o r A ldborough m osaics,

t he s izes r anged f rom 0 .5cms s q.

2 .0 c ms s q. ( often i n t he s hape o f B rantingham p avements, a pparently,

t o o ver

s mall c hips a nd s livers). T he s how t he l east v ariation i n

t esserae s ize, a lthough t he t esserae a re c onsisently l arge. T he B eadlam m osaic p ossesses m any s mall e xamples, b ut t hese a ppear t o b e m ixed w ith o thers o f o ver 1 .5 c ms s q. T here

i s

( Neal 1 981,

n o.

9 ).

l ittle t o i ndicate t he n umber o f m en a t w ork o n a ny o f

t hese m osaics. R epeatedly, t he d esigns a re e ffective ( well a rranged i n c omparison w ith o thers i n t he n orth-east), a lthough l imited. O ne d oes n ot n eed t o a ssume a s kilful h and i n c harge o f o perations; i ndeed, g iven t he r epetitive n ature a nd o bvious s imilarities o f m otif b etween t hese d esigns, i t i s c onceivable t hat t he s ame c raftsman w as r esponsible f or a ll f ive, ( beginning w ith t he m osaics a t B rantinham 8 9

a nd,

l ater,

i ncorporating a rrangements

3 .6

G roup ( iv)

( The

m osaic

o f

o f

f our-swastika m eander.

r oom I I a nd t he T yche

B rantingham ; t he M uses m osaic p avement A f rom Harpham)

m osaic

f rom

f rom A ldborough,

a nd

T he B rantingham m osaics h ave a b old, c lear f ormat a nd a s ureness o f e xecution w hich, i n t he T yche m osaic, l ends a B yzantine g race t o t he f igural w ork. T he M uses m osaic, u nfortunately, i s a lmost d est royed, b ut b y v irtue o f f igures a dorned w ith l oose-folded r obes ( and i ts b ands o f s uperposed t riangles, a s a lso a ppear i n t he H arpham p avement) i t T here

i s c omparable w ith t he T yche m osaic. i s l ittle d ifficulty i n a scribing b oth o f

t he B rantingham

m osaics t o t he s ame h ands ( section 4 .4). M oreover, c onsidering t he s etting t echnique i n t he T yche m osaic, i t s eems t hat a t l east t hree m en w ere a t w ork h ere : t he c anthari i n t he c ompartments w hich r adiate f rom t he c entral o ctagon i ndicate t hree s tandards o f w orkmans hip ( pls. t he b usts

9 8a a nd 9 8b); a nd, i n t he f igured p anels ' below T yche, i ndicate t wo o r t hree l evels o f p roficiency ( most c learly

i llustrated b y t he v ariable n umber o f t riangles w hich f orm t heir b orders). T he c antharus t o t he ' middle-left' o f T yche i s c learly t he w ork o f a n a pprentice o r r elatively u nskilled c raftsmen . t he e xact r elationship o f i s u nknown , b ut i t s eems o f

t he s ame m en.

T herefore,

t he m osaic o f r oom I I w ith t he t yche m osaic r easonable t o a ssume t hat b oth w ere b y s ome

T he f ormer c ould h ave b een l aid w hilst

t he

T yche

m osaic w as c ompleted.

3 .7

G roup ( v)

( The m osaics m at

W ith

f rom W interton a nd

a s trip o f

g uilloche

f rom A ldborough)

t he t hree m osaics

f rom W interton w e s eem t o h ave a

c loser

s imilarity o f s tyle b etween p avements t han a t a ny o ther s ite i n t he r egion. M ost f igures a nd m otifs a re h eavily d rawn: t he r icher t he d esigns b ecome -the h eavier t he d rawing. T he f igures, g enerally, a re e xecuted w ith g reat i neptitude, a lthough l acking t he n aive a ppearance o f t he p avements i n g roup ( i). T he h uman f orm i s b etter d epicted t han i s t hat o f v arious a nimals ( in t he O rpheus m osaic). T he c losest p arallels f or t his

s tyle a re a t H orkstow

( pl.

9 7),

w here t he r emains o f a c omplicated a nd e xtensive p avement w ith e labor ate f igural s cenes a re r endered i n f airly c oarse, a nd p oorly s et, t esserae. T he c olour o f t he t esserae, h owever, d iffers c onsiderably f rom t he b rowny-red, w hite, b lue a nd y ellow u sed a t W interton . T he H orkstow m osaic a lso h as a p rofusion o f f igural w ork, m uch i n e xcess o f

t hat

( blue a nd

a t W interton .

I t a lso i ncludes

r ed) w hich a re n ot

s ome c oloured

b ackgrounds

i n e vidence i n t he l atter.

T he W interton c raftsmen w ere, c learly, m ore a t h ome w ith p anels o f g eometric d ecoration t han w ith r adial a rrangements c omprising m any n aturalistic f eatures. T he a pproach t o d esign i s ' solid', ' blocky' a nd, i ndeed, i nterlace a nd h as t o a bsent.

' angular' ( such a j udgement i s e ven a pplicable t o t he g uilloche). H owever, t he w ork i s b alanced a nd, o ne

c onclude t hat t he s kill w as t here b ut t he m entality w as T he O rpheus m osaic e specially , w hen o ne c onsiders t he a mount 90

o f f igural r epresentation, s eems t o h ave b een i nspired b y t he t ingham T yche m osaic o r, m ore p robably , t he Horkstow p avement.

B ran-

A t W interton, h owever, o ne s ees f ewer d ifferences i n t he q uality o f t essellation t han a re v isible e lsewhere i n t he r egion . T he F ort une m osaic p rovides t he m ost c onvincing e vidence o f t he w ork o f t wo o r m ore m en : i ng F ortune

t he s cale-patterns b elow a nd a bove t he r oundel c ontaina re b roken a nd t he p anels o f i nterlaced c ircles a re

m isunderstood. T he P rovidential m osaic a lso s hows s ome c lumsy w ork t o t he ' bottom a nd ' top' l eft, b ut o ne c annot a ttribute t his t o t he c raftsmen w ho l aid t he p avement. T he t essellation o f t he t hree m osaics s uggests a m ediocre m osaicist a ccompanied b y a l ess a ccomp lished a ssistant.

T he l atter m ay h ave w orked a t A ldborough.

4 .0

F urther A nalysis: A ffinity

4 .1

G roup ( i) I n

S ubstantial G roups a nd I nstances o f U nitary

g roup ( i) w e e ncountered v ery l ittle r epetition o f m otif

o r

f igures. T he p resence o f t hematic s cenes t hemselves s uggested s ome d egree o f s imilarity, b ut e ach m osaic h as a d ifferent s tructural a rrangement, i .e . a c entralised p anel d esign , a d esign o f d istributed r oundels. I n

e ach o f t hese p avements

a d ispersed d esign ,

a nd

t here i s a lso a d earth o f i ncidental

m otif. T he V enus m osaic p ossesses t he m ost v ariety o f m otif b ut a pparently s ubsidiary f eatures, e .g. t he d isc a bove t he l eopard o r t he h orned s taff a bove t he b ull ( pl. 1 02b), s eem t o h ave m ore t han a t oken m eaning ( and c ould b e e qual i n s ignificance t o t he m irror w hich a ccompanies V enus). A ll

t hree m osaics d o,

h owever,

p ossess

b order

p anels.

T he

A quatic m osaic s hows ( on t wo s ides) a r epitition o f a n u rn-lotus m otif, w hile t he r emains o f t wo s tunted t rees o ccupy i ts c orners ( pl. 1 00a). T he l atter p rovided a s etting f or b irds p eck a t t wo c anthari ( Neal 1 981, n o. 6 7) p laced

w hich , a pparently, i n p ositions c ompar-

a ble t o t hat o f t he b ust o f M ercury i n t he V enus m osaic. T he A ldb orough m osaic, m eanwhile, h as a n o uter b order o f t ilted l ozenges i n a r ectilinear f ormat.

o f

T his a ll s erves t o e mphasize t he l ack o f s ignificant p arallels f igures o r m otif b etween t he m osaics o f g roup ( i). W hile s howing

s ome t echnical a ffinities a nd e videncing s imilar a pproaches t o d es ign , t he f ormal s imilarities a re v ery f ew . F or t his r eason i t i s a lso u nrewarding t o c ompare t hese f igures w ith o thers ( in t he p rov ince) w hich p ortray t he s ame s ubject. T he W olf a nd T wins m osaic i s u nique i n B ritain ( section 3 .3), a nd A quatic m osaics a re r are o uts ide t he s outh a nd w est o f E ngland. 4 .2

G roup ( ii)

W here g roup (0 p rovides l ittle e vidence f or s imilarities o f m otif a nd b order d ecoration , a t R udston t oo w e s ee t hat m any f eatures o f t he G eometric m osaic o f i nterlaced c ircles a re a bsent f rom t he C harioteer

m osaic.

I n

f act,

t he s trongest 9 1

a ffinity

b etween

t he

C harioteer m osaic a nd t he m osaics o f g roup ( ii)

i s i n t heir i nclusion

o f f eatures w hich a re o therwise a lien t o t he n orth-east: t he s wast ika-peltae o f t he G eometric p avement, t he l abyrinth a rrangement; t he i nterlaced c ircles o f t he s econd R udston p avement ( Stead 1 980 , P l. X Ia); t he ' rainbow-pattern b order ( Smith i n S tead 1 980 , 1 32), t he ' T'-shaped b order l ogischer A nzeiger

m otifs ( which h ave p arallels i n T rier : A rchaeo1 971, f ig. 8 ), a nd t he ' right-angled Z p attern'

( widely u sed i n t he s outh-west, e specially i n a r oundel a t W ynford E agle, D orset, w here a b order s imilar i n s tyle t o t he b orderwork o f t he V enus m osaic i s a pparent: R ainey 1 973, p l. 1 6b) o f t he C hariot eer m osaic. T he

m osaic w ork a t R udston,

t herefore,

a ppears

t o b e t hat

o f

c raftsmen w ho h ad c ertainly w orked i n o ther a reas, a nd i n a reas w hich a re d istant f rom o ne a nother, a s w ell a s f rom R udston . A t l east s ome o f t hese m osaicists m ust h ave b een i tinerant ( within B ritain). T here i s l ittle i ndication t hat t he r epertory o f t he C harioteer m osaic w as e mployed e lsewhere i n t he r egion , a nd w hen e mployed a t R udston i t c omprises a m ixture o f f eatures w hich a ppear t o h ave b een b rought t ogether. I n a w ay t his c omplements t he n ovelty o f t he s ubject ( FEJ c harioteer a nd s easons). T he c lient m ust s urely h ave b een i nstrument al i n t he c hoice o f t his d esign ( though s ee S tupperich 1 980 , 3 01), a nd i t i s p ossible, t herefore, t hat h e b rought t ogether c raftsmen w ho p reviously ( and s ubsequently) a s imilar r epertory. 4 .3

d id n ot w ork w ith o ne a nother,

o r s hare

G roup ( iii) T he c lose a ffinity a ttested a bove,

b etween t he m osaics o f g roup

( iii), i s c orroborated b y t heir s imilarity o f m otif, b orderwork a nd g eometry. E ach m osaic h as c oncentric b orders o f s tripes a nd c rowstep p attern . A t B eadlam a nd H ovingham t hese e nclose s wastika m eander r elieved b y s quares w here,

i n t he f ormer,

f urther c rowstep e ncloses

a

s ingle l ine c entral t o t he p anels ( which ' fill-out' t he d esign). I t i s t his r ectangular a rrangement w hich i s m irrored i n t he c orridor f ragment, f rom B rantingham . H ere, c an b e s een a d ouble c rowstep p attern , a b and o f t wo-strand g uilloche, a nd a b and o f s tripes a round a c entral l ine . T he w hole i s e dged i n c hequers. A t t he ' top', h owever, t here i s a ' lozenge a nd o rb' d esign w hich i s u nique t o t his g roup. B ut f or t he l atter m otif, a v ery s imilar r epertory i s t o b e s een

i n t he m osaic f rom r oom I ,

B rantingham ( Neal

1 981,

n o.

8). 8

H ere, t he w hole a rrangement i s e nclosed b y a c rowstep a nd t wo-strand g uilloche ( as a re t he f ive r elieving p anels). T he f our s maller p anels, h owever, c arry e ither c hequers o r g uilloche t wists, w hile t he l arge, c entral p anel c arries a c ircular m edallion w ith a f an ( another m otif u nique t o t he r egion , b ut w ith p ossible p arallels w ith a m otif i n am osaic f rom G rateley, Hants.,: P .P.H.F.C. I X ( 1920), T he c hequered d ecoration o f t he c orridor p avement f rom ( Neal 1 981, ( ii) m ent,

n o.

1 3)

s uggests

f . p . 4 06). B r4ntingham

s ome a ffinities w ith t he R udston,

m osaics ( with t he d evice a t t he c entre o f a nd w ith t he b order o f t he m osaic o f

I ndeed, i f o ne c onsiders t he p avements i n a i ncludes t he p avements o f t he E ast M idlands,

t he g eometric p avei nterlaced c ircles). w ider c ontext, w hich i t a ppears t hat s ome

b orrowing o f d ecoration m ay h ave o ccurred ( if S mith's d ating o f D urobrivan s chool i s a ccepted i .e. t hird q uarter o f t he f ourth t ury : f rom

g roup

t he c en-

S mith 1 969, 1 07, i t s eems t hat t his i nfluence w ill h ave b een t he n orth t o t he s outh) b etween d ifferent r egions, a s w ell a s 9 2

T HE M OSA ICS O F F IVE S UBSTANT IA L G ROUPS I N Y ORKSH IRE A ND H UMBERS IDE

0 1 3EAOLAM

M ILES

6

i o

G ROUP 1 + 2 0 3 • 4 • 5 X

M AP 7

b etween

d ifferent

g roups

w ithin

t he s ame

r egion .

A s

w ith

t he

C harioteer m osaic, s uch a s ituation i s i lluminating f or a nother m osaic, f rom M alton ( pl. 8 9), w hich h as t raits o f t wo p ossible g roups, y et w hich s uggests s tyle o f d esign r eminiscent o f n either. T he

l atter

p avement

h as a n a rrangement o f

s ix

p anels

( four

s quares a nd t wo r ectangles) f ramed b y a b order o f c hequers. T he c entral p anel i s d ominant a nd c ontains a p air o f i nterlaced s quares i n c ontrastig s hades o f t wo-strand g uilloche . T his i s e nclosed b y, r espectively, b orders o f c rowstep, c hequers, c rowstep, a nd t hrees trand g uilloche . T he m iddle o f t he c entral p anel -p ossibly f igured -is d estroyed, a s a re t hree o f t he f our c orner p anels a nd m ost o f o ne o f t he r ectangular p anels. T he r emains o f o ne o f t he l atter c ontain w hat a ppears t o b e a r oe d eer ( pl. 9 0), w hile t he f ully p reserved r ectangular p anel s hows a h unting d og l eaping t o t he l eft ( pl. 8 9). T he o ne s quare p anel h as a h ooded b ust, c arrying a t wig o ver h er ( Winter's) r ight s houlder : t his i s a lmost c ertainly i ndicat ive o f a n a rrangement o f f our s easons, a lready e ncountered a t R uds ton a nd t o b e d iscussed, b elow ( section 5 .1), i n r elation t o a p avem ent f rom T oft G reen , Y orks. T he q uality o f t essellation i s f airly h igh . I n t he p ortrait o f W inter t he t esserae a re a pproximately 1 c m s q. a nd a re n eatly s et. H owever, t he o verall q uality o f w ork i s i nferior t o m ost o f t hat i n t he C harioteer m osaic, ( although s uperior t o t hat o f t he W interton p avements). T he m ost c omparable t essellation i s, i n f act, t hat o f t he B rantingham T yche m osaic, w here t he d raughtsmanship i s l ess n aturalistic t han a t M alton . T he m ost s ignificant c omparisons a re t o b e m ade b etween t he m otif a nd b orders a t M alton a nd t hose o f g roup ( iii) g enerally . A round t he c entral p anel o f t he M alton m osaic w e f ind t he s ame b ord ers, i n f amiliar s uccession . T he s hading o f t he i nterlaced s quares, h owever, i s a n ovel f eature, c ontrasting a s ense o f a xiality w ith t he c oncentric , r ectilinear b orders. T he M alton m osaic, t herefore, p resents a m ixture o f s tyles w hich o btain e lsewhere , i n t he m id-fourth c entury . W hereas o ne c an e nvis age t his w ork a s t hat o f a s killed m osaicist, i t s eems i nconceivable t hat h e w as a lso r esponsible f or t he m osaics o f g roup ( iii), o r i nvolved w ith t he C harioteer m osaic. H owever, i n t he a bsence o f a ny c onvincing e vidence t o t he c ontrary , t he M alton p avement s hould b e a ssigned t o a p eriod s imilar t o t hat o f t he f igured p avements f rom B rantingham , H orkstow , a nd W interton , i .e . b etween c . 3 30-360 . 4 .4

G roup ( iv) I n

g roup

( iv),

t he B rantingham T yche m osaic h as

a n

o riginal

s tructure a nd b old p ortraiture. F rom a c entral o ctagon r adiate e ight s pokes; t hese j oin h alf-roundels c ontaining n ymphs, w ho r ecline o n r ecumbent v essels. T his a rrangement i s w holly c ontained w ithin a l arge , o ctagonal b order, e ffected b y l ines w hich t erminate t he h alf r oundels. E ach o f t he s paces b etween t he s pokes c ontains a n u ngainly c antharus. T he a ngles o f t he m ain p anel a re f illed w ith a s plit p elta m otif w ith t endrils: t wo s ubsidiary p anels e ach c ontain f our b usts ( with d iffering e xpressions) w hich a re o f a s tyle s imilar t o t hat o f t he T yche i n t he c entral m edallion . T he w hole i s e nclosed o n 9 3

t wo

s ides

b y l ozenges

i n a l ine-box f ormat,

a nd o n t he

o ther

t wo

s ides b y p anels o f i nterlaced c ircles. O f t he t hree r emaining c orner p ieces, o ne i s o f g uilloche m at, o ne i s o f ' axe-head p attern, a nd a nother i s

o f

s cale-pattern .

T he l atter m otifs a re i nteresting, f or i n t he m osaic o f r oom I I, B rantingham, t hey a re r epeated: a s quare p anel o f a xe-head p attern i s b ordered b y a l ine o f s uperposed t riangles w hich, i n t urn, i s e nclosed b y a b and o f s cale-pattern a nd a t hick s tripe. T he t ria ngles o f t his m osaic a re a lso n otable f eatures o f t he T yche m osaic. G iven t he s imilarity i n t he u se o f t esserae a s w ell a s t he s imilarity o f m otif b etween t hese t wo m osaics, t herefore, t here c an b e d oubt t hat t hey a re t he w ork o f t he s ame c raftsman/men .

4 .5

l ittle

G roup ( v) T he

m osaics

o f g roup ( v)

s hare a m ediocre s tandard

o f

d esign

e ven w hen e laborate; h owever, t here a re f ew m otifs h eld i n c ommon b etween t he d ifferent p avements. C hain-guilloche e ncloses t he c ent ral r oundels o f t he O rpheus a nd t he F ortuna m osaics, b ut t his i s r eplaced b y a t wo-strand g uilloche i n t he P rovidentia m osaic. T he F ortuna a nd P rovidentia p avements b oth e mploy p anels o f i nfill: i nterlaced

c ircles a nd

s cale-pattern,

r espectively.

T he

O rpheus,

h owever, i s m ore i nvolved, p ossessing a s imple g uilloche w hich f oll ows a c renellated m eander. T he s pandrels o f b oth t he O rpheus a nd F ortuna c ontain c anthari, b ut t hese a re o f c ontrasting t ypes ( even w ithin t he m osaic) i n t he l atter, a nd t he f ormer p rovides o nly a s ingle e xample. T he P rovidentia m osaic, m eanwhile, h as p eltae i n t he s pandrels ( peltae o f a t ype s imilar t o t hose w hich c an b e s een d ering t he s trip o f g uilloche m at a djacent t o t he M uses m osaic : 8 1). T he

o verall

p lanning

o f d esign b etween t he

O rpheus

a nd

b orp l.

t he

P rovidentia o r F ortuna m osaics i s, c learly , q uite d ifferent. T he l atter d o n ot s uggest s uch c lose p arallels a s d oes t he d iagnostic O rpheus p avement ( Smith i n G inouves e t. a l. 1 983, 3 21).* H owever, a s imilar a rrangement i s t o b e s een i n a m osaic f rom T henford, N orthants., ( Neal 1 981, n o. 7 2), w here p anels o f g uilloche a nd p eltae b order a c entral m edallion c ontaining t he b ust o f a y outh. T he s tyle o f d rawing i s d ifferent f rom t hat s een a t W interton , b ut t he t essell ation i s o f c omparable q uality. A t e arlier,

W interton t here i s a lso s ome e vidence o f a ffinity w ith t he g roup ( iv) m osaics, f rom B rantingham . T he b order o f L ine-

b ox p atterned l ozenges a round t he O rpheus m osaic i s c omparable t o t hat o f t he T yche m osaic. T he F ortuna m osaic h as a p anel o f i nterl aced c ircles a nd o f s cale-pattern, d evices f eatured, i n t he b order o f t he T yche m osaic a nd i n t he m osaic o f P rovidentia m osaic, a nd

m eanwhile,

h as

c rowstep p attern f raming d evices

a p ortrait w hich i s c omparable i n i ts c onception t o t hose o f

T yche m osaic. N one o f t hese a ffinities, h owever, t o s uggest t he c ommon i nvolvement o f c raftsmen ,

* R .

r espectively, r oom I I. T he

G inouves e t.

S tern .

a l.

( eds.),

M osaiques:

P aris. 9 4

t he

i s s pecific e nough o r t he c hoice o f

R ecueil d 'Hommages a H enri

p articular f eatures b y l ike-minded c lients. t he m ost c onvincing r elationship o f r emains t hat H orkstow .

o f

t he

a ny o f

O rpheus m osaic w ith

F rom t his p oint o f v iew , t he p avements a t W interton t he

g reat

m osaic

f rom

U nitary A ffinities a ttested a bove: ( a)

M osaics o f g roup ( iii): t he Hovingham m osaic; t he B eadlam m osaic; t he m osaic o f a c orridor a nd o f r oom I a t B rantingham ; a nd a p anel f rom a c orridor m osaic ( and p resumably o ther f eat ures o f

t his m osaic)

f rom A ldborough :

p l.

( b)

M osaics o f g roup ( iv): m osaic o f r oom I I.

( c)

M osaics o f g roup ( iv): t he m osaics P rovidentia a nd F ortuna , f rom W interton .

O n

t he

8 4.

t he B rantingham T yche m osaic a nd

t hree o ccasions w here w ork b y t he s ame

d epicting

c raftsmen

t he

O rpheus,

( or

w ork

w hich i nvolved t he s ame c raftsmen) i s a pparent, t wo a re r estricted t o m osaics f rom t he s ame s ite. T his c riterion ( or c raft i dentity) m ay b e a h arsh o ne t o a pply, b ut i t i s a pplicable t o a s election o f f ive p avements,

5 .

i n ( a).

A D iscussion o f I ndividual M osaics

5 .1 T he M uses m osaic, A long

f rom A ldborough ( pl.

8 1),

i s m ostly d estroyed.

w ith s ome a ffinities w ith t he B rantingham T yche

m osaic,

h ow-

e ver, i t a lso h as b orders o f s uperposed t riangles t o f rame r ectangul ar p anels a nd f igures i n s eries. T he f igures t hemselves a re n ot d issimilar t o t hose o f t he T yche m osaic -t hey s how t he s ame f olded d rapery, h ave t he s ame g raceful m anner a nd c omparable f eatureless c omplexions -b ut t his a ffinity i s i nsufficient t o s uggest a nything o ther t han a ' substantial r elationship b etween t he t wo. O ther d ifferences b ear t his o ut: d er a nd w avecrest p attern , t o t he n orth-east, a nd

t he b orders o f s wastika m ean-

w hich e nclose t he M uses m osaic, a re a lien i ndicate i nfluence n ot f rom s ites t o t he

i mmediate s outh, i .e . t he E ast M idlands, b ut f rom t he w est c ountry. E vidence f rom Y ork, i n f act, i n t he f orm o f a q uincunx a rrangement o f o ctagonal p anels ( from a s ite n ear M icklegate B ar : R .C.H.M . Y ork I ( 1962), p l. 2 3c), s uggests f urther s imilarities w ith m osaics o f t he w est c ountry, e .g. t he B onus E ventus m osaic f rom W oodchester: L ysons, ( 1797 p l. X IX). T he a ccuracy o f F owler's d rawing o f t he f ormer

p avement

h as b een c alled i nto q uestion r ecently,

( Mosaic

9

( 1984), 2 ), b ut i t s eems c ertain t hat a p avement o f f ive o ctagonal p anels w as f ound a nd, f rom o ur k nowledge o f d eer i n o ther m osaics ( Malton : p l. 9 0 ; W interton : N eal 1 981, 1 10) t heir d rawing i s u nl ikely

t o b e e ntirely ' fanciful'.

I f b oth t he A ldborough a nd

Y ork

p avements w ere p artly i nfluenced b y s ome ' western' i deas, t his, 3 a lmost c ertainly, w ould h ave b een l ater t han c . 30 -after m any o f t he m ost i mportant m osaics i n t he C orinian r egion w ere c ompleted. S uch a d ating w ould a gree w ith t hat o f t he B rantingham T yche m osaic. 9 5

A t t he s ite o f D alton P arlours w e h ave, a s w ith t he M uses m osaic, a n a psidal f loor ( pl. 9 6). T his i s m ainly g eometric d ecorat ion, o f s cale-pattern a nd g rid-work. S ome f igural w ork i s k nown, h owever , i n t he f orm o f a M edusa h ead w hich o ccupied t he p anel o f t he a pse. s croll

T his h ead i s e nclosed b y t wo b ands o f g uilloche a nd a v ine ( which o riginates f rom a c antharus). T o t he l eft a nd r ight o f

t he h ead a re l otus-bud m otifs. M edusa

i s

a lso e ncountered i n t he r estored

m osaic

f rom

T oft

G reen , Y ork ( R .C.H.M . I ( 1962), p l. 2 4): t he l otus-bud m otifs a re t o b e s een i n m osaics f rom C herry S t./Clemthorpe, Y ork ( loc. c it., p l. 2 3a; p l. 1 04) a nd R udston ( pl. 1 00a), b ut n one o f t hese i s a s ignific ant a ssociation . T he c losest p arallels a re a fforded, i nstead, b y t he g eometric p atterning. A l inear a rrangement o f p anels i s a lso f ound ( in a m ilder f orm) a t W interton a nd B rantingham . T he m osaic o f r oom I I a t B rantingham , w ith i ts c omparable b ands o f s cale-pattern , i n f act, s hows t he c losest a ffinity w ith t he g eometric d ecoration o f t his p avement. T he c antharus a nd s croll a re p aralleled a t W interton , b ut t he c antharus f rom D alton P arlours i s r eally o f a t ype n ot e ncountered e lsewhere i n t he r egion . A lso, t he f igure h ere i s l ivel ier t han t hose a t W interton. A s m entioned a bove,

a m osaic f rom T oft G reen,

Y ork,

i s

t he o nly

o ther m osaic i n t he n orth-east t o i nclude a p ortrait o f M edusa . O n t his o ccasion i t o ccupies t he c entral p anel o f a d esign. A gain, p arallels a re f ew h owever. T he p avement i s a n ine-panel a rrangement ( with a s quare p anel a t e ach o f t he f our c orners) e nclosed b y a s wastika m eander. T he q uality a nd t he c olour o f t essellation a re n ot s een i n a ny o ther m osaic i n t he r egion -a f eature w hich, i n p art, m ight

b e

a ttributed

t o

t he r estoration o f t he

p avement

i n

m odern

t imes. W ith t his i n m ind,

a ttention s hould b e d rawn t o t hree d ifferent

q ualities o f w ork. T hese a re c learly v isible i n t he b usts o f t he S easons w hich o ccupy t he c orner p anels: W inter i s n eatly r endered b ut p oorly f illed

i n i ts p anel

( pl.

9 4a);

S pring i s o f m edium q uality

a nd, a gain, p oorly f illed ( pl. 9 4b); A utumn i s o f b oth p oor q uality a nd s etting ( pl. 9 4c). T he p ortraits i ndicate a m ixture o f s tyles, a s i s s een i n a nother S easons d esign , f rom R udston ( pl. 9 1), b ut t his i s p robably c oincidental. I n

s pite o f m odern r estoration w ork t herefore,

q ualities o f m osaic m ight b e a pparent.

I t

s eems

t hree

l ikely ,

o riginal u nder s uch

c ircumstances, t hat o ne m osaicist a t l east w orked o n a nother m osaic f rom T oft G reen -the f ragmentary p avement w hich p reserves t he f igure o f a s eacow ( pl.

9 5b).

T he s hading o f

t he l atter i s c omparable

t o

t hat o f W inter i n t he S easons m osaic. T he

l argest a nd m ost

H orkstow , o bvious

S outh

Humbs.,

e xaggerations,

e .g.

s pectacular m osaic i n t his ( pl.

9 7).

r egion i s

T he d rawings o f

t he s tylised

F owler

f rom h ave

r epresentations o f g riffins,

o r t he s uggestion o f w ork w hich, t echnically , i s s uperior t o t hat w hich r eally e xisted. T he s ize o f t he p avement, h owever, w ith i ts n umerous o riginal d esigns, m akes i t o ne o f t he m ost i mportant w orks i n t he n orth-east. T he w hole i s s trip o f i nterlaced c ircles.

o f

t wo r adial d esigns s eparated b y a O ne s hows a g lobal a rrangement 9 6

s upported b y f our g iants -p robably a c eiling d esign -e nclosed b y a l oose b ut c omplicated ( eight-strand) g uilloche . ' Below i s a r ecta ngular p anel w hich d epicts a c hariot r ace. T he o ther r adial d esign h as e ight s pokes, f orming e ight c ompartments, e ach o f w hich i s d ivided i nto f our r egisters ( by t he t raverse o f t wo l ines c oncave t o t he o uter r im a nd o ne l ine w hich f orms a n o ctagon a round t he c entral m edallion). I n t he l atter i s O rpheus, a ccompanied b y a f ox a nd a l yre, a nd ? seated u pon a r ock. T he r egisters h ave r espectively, o f s mall g ame, b irds, a nd l arge a nimals,

s equences, ( a c ommon

e nough t heme b ut o ne w hich , h ere , i s s upported b y f our y outhful b usts i n t he a ngles a nd f rames b y f our c ushion-like r ests w hich ' hold' t he w heel). W ith p ossible.

s uch a v aried r epertory c omparisons a t m any l evels a re T he m ost s ignificant i s w ith W interton s O rpheus m osaic,

a lthough h ere t he f igural r epresentation i s r educed ( there a re o nly l arge b easts a t W interton , f or e xample). N onetheless, i t i s d iff icult t o d eny a f airly c lose r elationship b etween t hese t wo m osaics: t hough i ndeterminate, t he t echnical e vidence s eems t o b e m ore i n f avour o f a l ink w ith t he W interton m osaics t han a ny o ther p avement i n t he r egion -o nly t he o ccurrence o f c oloured b ackgrounds a t B rantingham,

a s w ell a s a t Horkstow,

s uggests a n e xception t o t his.

O nly o ne o ther m osaic i n t he r egion s hows c lose s tylistic s imilarities w ith t he Horkstow p avement: t he m osaic f rom C herry S treet/Clementhorpe, Y ork ( pl. 1 04). T he q uality o f t essellation , h ere,

i s c omparable t o t hat i n t he Horkstow p avement;

i ncludes

a

c omplicated

e ight-strand o f

( six-strand)

g uilloche

f urthermore i t

w hich

r ecalls

t he

t he l atter.

I t i s p ossible t o s ay a l ittle a bout o ther f ragments.

A mosaic

f rom B orough H ill, A ldborough ( pl. 8 2), s hares s ome a ffinities o f d esign w ith m osaics o f g roup ( iii). O ther m osaics o f t he s ame p late s uggest p atterns o f b ordering g rids a nd b oxes ( see t he B rantingham T yche m osaics a nd t he W interton O rpheus p avement). A s a n i ndication o f t he d ate o f t he C herry S treet/Clementhorpe m osaic ( above), t he c orridor p anels f rom A ldborough ( pl. 8 4) s how o ne p anel o f a ll-over p elta p attern a djacent t o ( and c ontemporary w ith ? ) a nother d esign o f l ine-box a nd l ozenge p attern, w hich, a t W interton, w as d ated t o c .

3 50-360 . M oreover,

c lose ( 1818,

f or t he m osaic o f r oom I I,

B rantingham ( pl.

r elation a ppears t o b e t he p avement i llustrated a pp. I, n o. 1 0), f rom S turton, S outh Humbs. I

9b), 9

a

b y F owler T he l atter

f eatures s cale-pattern d ecoration o f a t ype w hich b ordered t he c entral p anel o f t he f ormer. T hese o bservations s upport w hat m ust b e e vident a lready -that m any d ifferent s eries o f b orrowings, . exchanges o f i deas,

a nd m igrations o r m ovement o f c raftsmen o ccurred i n f ourth

c entury Y orkshire a nd Humberside .

9 7

6 .0

S ummary

B etween c . 3 30-360 i n t he n orth-east, r adial d esigns w ere a pprec iated, b oth i n t erms o f t heir g eneral r adial c haracter a nd t heir s ymbolic c ontent i .e. t hemes o f p acification . P robably t he e arliest p avement o f t his k ind i s t he T yche m osaic f rom B rantingham , w hich i s d atable t o c . 3 30 . T his a ppears t o p recede t he o ther O rpheus m osaics o f t he r egion ( at Horkstow a nd W interton). T he l atter, i n f act, a ppear t o b e c onsiderably l ater -p erhaps a s m uch a s f orty y ears l ater -than t heir p recursors i n t he Vest C ountry, a nd a re m ore l ikely t o h ave b een i nfluenced b y t he m osaics o f W ithington, G los. ( pl. 4 6), N ewton S t. L oe, S om ., ( Smith 1 969, p l. 3 . 1 0) o r t he r ectangular O rphic a rrangement, a ccompanied b y a nother T yche m osaic, f rom W hatley, S om . T he l atter ( Som . A rch. N at. H ist. C XIV ( 1970), 3 7-47) 3 25.

l ike t he ' former

I n

t he

n orth

t wo ( part I II,

o f E ngland

s ection 4 .3), m ay b e l ater

t hese r adial d esigns

s imilar s tandards o f w orkmanship,

r arely

t han

e xhibit

a nd w ith f ew r eal s imilarities

o f

m otif t hey s uggest t he i diosyncratic b orrowing o f t hemes w hich w ere c ommon e lsewhere. I ndeed, a nother s equence , w hose p avements a re l ess e laborate, s maller, b ut w hich a re m ore w idespread w ithin t he r egion, s eems t o r epresent a n a lternative t o s uch r ichly f igured d ecoration . T his i s a s eries o f p avements c omprising m otifs ( often s wastikas) s et i n f ours, c oncentric b anded d ecoration, a nd m eandering l ines. A ll s eem

t o

b e o f

t he p eriod 3 30-370 ,

i .e.

a l ittle l ater

s ometimes c ontemporary w ith -the r adial a rrangements. g reater h omogeneity o f s tyle a nd t heir m ore g eneral t hese s imple m osaics a ppear t o b e m ore o f a ' native

t han

-b ut

W ith t heir d istribution,

d esign .

I t

i s

d ifficult t o a ttribute s uch a ffinities t o a ny p rinciple o f o rganisat ion -either o f c raftsmen o f c lients -h owever t hey m ight r eflect t he n earest t hing t o a t radition i n t he n orth-east. I f s o, t he e arly o ccurrence o f b orough, ( pls.

c oncentric b anded d ecoration a round s quares a t A ld3 5a a nd 3 5b), b efore t he m id-third c entury, i s

n otable . T hroughout t he r egion t here i s l ittle e vidence f or i ntegral a ffinity. A mongst t he p avements d iscussed, a d earth o f t he p articul ar

m otif/border

s imilarities

b etween c raftsmen, t ure, i s a pparent.

w hich

w ould

i ndicate

c o-operation

o r a ttachment t o a s pecific ' locus' o f M osaics a t W interton a nd B rantingham

m anufac s uggest,

r espectively, a ffinities w ith m osaics a t Y ork ( Ebor B rewery s ite: P l. 1 05) a nd A ldborough ( Muses m osaic), b ut o n b oth o ccasions t he e vidence i s f ar f rom p ersuasive. T he p avements o f g roup ( iii) a re m ore s ignificant i n t his r espect, b ut h ere t he p resence o f n early i dentical d ecorative e lements, r epetitive a rrangements, a nd ( except i ng t he M alton m osaic) f ew s pecific a ffinities w ith o ther m osaics i n t he r egion , s uggests o rganised a nd n ot m erely c o-operative b ehaviour. A s

t hese

d istant

p avements a re f rom m any s ites,

f rom o ne a nother,

h owever,

a s

t he w ork o f

i t

a nd s ites w hich a re

o ften

i s i mpossible t o v iew s uch o rganisation ,

a n i ndividual c lient o r

v illa

o wner.

I n

s ection 3 .5 i t w as p ostulated a s t he r esult o f t he w ork o f a s ingle m osaicist, o r a s mall b and o f i tinerant c raftsmen ( i.e. u nitary a ffinity). O ther

e xamples

o f u nitary a ffinity i ncluded m osaics

s ites o f B rantingham a nd W interton .

T hese i ndicated 9 8

f rom

t he

t he p resence o f

l ocal w orkshops,

w hich p robably

s erved o nly o ne s ite.

A t B rantingham

( the T yche m osaic a nd t he m osaic f rom r oom I I) a nd W interton ( the O rpheus, F ortuna, a nd P rovidentia m osaics) v ery c lose s tylistic s imilarities w ere e vidence f or d istinct g roups o f c raftsmen : p roba bly a g roup o f t hree c raftsmen a t t he f ormer, a nd t wo a t t he l atter. T he n umber o f

c raftsmen e mployed a t m ost s ites,

h owever,

c ould

b e m ore t han t his: a t R udston t here c ould h ave b een f ive; a t B rantingham , i n a ddition t o t he t hree m entioned a bove, a t l east o ne o ther c raftsman ( i.e. t he i tinerant c raftsman/men r esponsible f or t he p avements o f r oom I a nd t he c orridor) w as a t w ork. I n f act, t he o rganisation s uggested b y n umerous s tylistic r elationships a ppear t o b e

m ore

e asily e xplicable i n t erms o f

t he n eeds a nd i nitiatives

c lients t han a ny m omentum p ossessed b y t he i ndustry i tself. t he k ey t o u nderstanding m any a ffinities o f s tyle i n t his I ndeed, t he s ubstantial g roups a re p robably t estimony t o

o f

T his i s r egion . t he i n-

f luence o f c lient's f ashions a nd b orrowings: t he o verall s implicity o f t he g eometric d esigns a t R udston a nd Harpham, o r t he p resence o f r adial m osaics a t H orkstow a nd W interton . C lients m ight h ave e xchanged i deas o f d esign a mongst t hemselves a nd, p erhaps, p rovided p lans ( n .b. t he i nscriptions i n t he R udston V enus m osaic, o r t he s cheme o f t he Horkstow p avement) t o s ummarise t he a rrangements w hich t hey d esired. T hey w ere d emanding o f t he c ontent a nd t he a pparent u tility o f t heir f loors, w ere b oth c onservative a nd o stentatious, b ut r emained o pen t o w idespread i mitation o f d esigns, o f t echnically i nferior w ork.

9 9

a nd t he a cceptance

P art V

C onclusion T he

f inal s ections o f p arts I I,

I II a nd I V c arry a s ummary

o f

t he main c onclusions o f e ach i ndividual e xamination o f a ffinity . H ere, t herefore, t hese s ummaries a re b rought t ogether w ithin t he s cope o f a m ore g eneral d iscussion . B y

c .

1 60-170

i n B ritain,

c hanges o ccur i n

t he

d esigns

m osaics ( in s imple/distributed l ozenge p atterns; r egular, r ectangular p anelled g rid a rrangements; a nd o ctagonal

o f

s quare/ p anelled

g rids), r epresented b y t he e mergence o f f ully c entralised d esigns, o r d esigns w hich i nclude c urvilinear o r c ircular g eometries. T his c hange , a pparently , w as m ore n otable i n t he e ast o f t he p rovince t han i n t he w est. A s t he d istribution m ight s uggest, i t s eems t o b e p art o f a w ider , c ontinental d evelopment ( appendix E , s ection 1 .3 p p. 1 301 33) w hich ( unlike t he B ritish) c ontinues i nto t he t hird c entury. T his t astes o f

m ust b e a ttributed, i n p art a t l east, t o a c hange i n t he t he m osaicists c lients ( although, o ver a l onger p eriod -

e specially i n B ritain -beginnings o f s ome c haracteristic f ourthc entury d esigns, i .e. s altire/interlaced s quare d esigns, o r c onc entric c ircular d ecoration , a re n otable). I n B ritain , i n t he l ates econd c entury, a p reference i s d isplayed f or ( i) c entralised d esigns b acked b y c ircular g eometries, a nd ( ii) c entralised d esigns w ith c urvilinear a rrangements a nd a ccurate f igural r epresentation. I t c an b e

n o

c oincidence

t hat,

i n t he f ourth c entury,

t wo o f

t he

m ain

f eatures o f a rrangement a re c oncentric, c ircular ( or r adial) a rrangem ents w ith r ich f igural w ork, a nd i nterlaced s quare/saltire g eometries. I t i s t empting t o s ee t he f ourth c entury t radition o f s altires a s d erived f rom t he d esigns o f i rregular s altires c ommon i n t he l ates econd c entury, b ut t his m ay n ot b e t he c ase. T he f ormer a re p roba bly a r esult o f a n e xperiment w ith c entralised l ozenge p atterns ( along w ith t he d erivation o f i nterlaced s quares). B y t he f ourth c entury, i n w estern E urope, m ental a spect o f d esign. I n

t he

l ater e mpire,

t hese a rrangements h ave b ecome a f unda-

m uch o f

t he o riginal w ork i n

m osaic

i s

f ound i n p rovinces w hich a re d istant f rom R ome : f rom s ites s uch a s W oodchester a nd P iazza A rmerina, t o T rier a nd L epcis M agna. W ithin B ritain t oo, i n t he f ourth c entury, t he f ocus o f a ctivity s eems t o h ave s hifted ( from t he e astern t o t he w estern p art o f t he c ountry). T he m ajor c hanges b etween t he s econd a nd f ourth c enturies, w hich a re r eflected s ocially a nd e conomically b y t he d istribution o f i mportant s ites a nd i mportant w orks o f o rnamentation , c learly, a re r adical. T hey m ust h ave s timulated m uch o f w hat i s t aken t o b e d iagnostic o f 1 00

f ourth c entury l ife. I n

m osaic,

t his

' inversion

( presumably a p henomenon

o f

t he

t hird c entury) i s r easonably r epresented a s a p eriod o f a mateur a ctivity ( Smith 1 981). B ut e ven h ere, many f eatures o f d esign c an b e r elated t o s ome a spects o f l ate-second a nd e arly-fourth c entury g eometries. B etween t hese d ates i t s eems t hat t aste b egins t o f avour p articular a spects o f a rrangements w hich w ere p redominant i n t he l ate-second c entury. I t i s n otable t hat t he c urvilinear d esigns ( based o n g rids o f c ircles) a nd g rids w ith s uperimposed c ircular b ands, a re v irtually u nknown i n t he f ourth B ritain . W hat i s p reserved h owever, c entralised a rrangement. W here

t he

R oman

i s

t he p rimacy o f

c olonial e xperiment w as

m ost

c oncentric, c entury i n t he

f ully

s uccessful

E ngland ( in t he s outh-eastern p ortion), t here i s e vidence f or o nly p re-fourth c entury s chool o f m osaic i n B ritain, c entred o n

i n t he t he

t owns o f C olchester a nd V erulamium . M any o ther s econd c entury m osaics a re n ot a ttributable t o s uch s chools; i ndeed, t here i s e vid ence o f s mall w orkshops, s imilar p roducts f rom s ites w hich a re d istant

f rom o ne a nother,

a nd e vidence o f

i tinerance ( part I I,

s um-

m ary). F actors s uch a s t he l atter a ppear t o b e a dequate e xplanations o f m ost o f t he r elationship b etween m osaics o f t his p eriod. I f t hird

t here

i s l ittle e vidence f or t he h istory o f m osaic

c entury,

o rganising e specially

b y

i n

t he

t he f ourth c entury i t i s c lear t hat s chools

a s

p rinciples) a re m ore f requently a ttested. U sually, i n G loucestershire ( part I II), t here i s a s uggestion o f

r igour i n t he c hoice o f ' fashionable' d esign o r d esigns w ith s pecific m eaning. l eading

I n t he s outh-east h owever, ( notably, t he a rea o f d evelopments i n t he s econd c entury), t here i s n o s uch

m any e vi-

d ence. C loser e xamination o f s ome f ourth c entury s chools ( parts I II a nd I V), m eanwhile, d oes r eveal t hat t hey c an b e l ess s ignificant m anifestations o f m ore s ignificant ( usually m ore s pecific) p henomena o r a lternatively , a s i n t he n orth-eastern p art o f E ngland, i nadequate s ummaries o f o rganisation. B ecause

f requent d ifferences

i n t he o peration o f f actors

w hich

a ffect t he f ormulation o f s uch s chools i s a pparent, t his i s t o b e e xpected. T hus, f or e xample, t he n orth-east o f E ngland, i n t he f ourth c entury, p rovides e vidence o f a n o rganisation n ot u nlike t hat a ttested i n t he w estern h alf o f t he c ountry i n t he s econd ( where s mall w orkshops s erviced o pportunistic c lients). A lso i n t he f ourth c entury, w est I I,

a nother c omparison c an b e m ade,

( part I II) s ection 3 ).

b etween t he m osaics

i n t he

a nd t hose o f t he s ingle s econd c entury s chool ( part H ere, h owever, w e h ave t he a dded ( and r evealing)

s ubtlety o f a s uperior a rchaeological r ecord. T his s uggests t hat t he l atter w as a t ruly u rban s chool ( in t he s ense t hat i ts m ajor .products a nd w orkshops w ere b ased i n t he t owns c oncerned), ( with i ts r emarkable u niformities o f s ubjects,

w hereas t he f ormer a rrangements, a nd

m otif; i ts p aucity o f u rban e xamples; a nd i ts c omparatively d ispersed d istribution) s uggests a s ignificantly i ndependent, r ural o rganisat ion w hich m ight w ork f rom , b ut w as n ot d ependent o n t he t owns. T he d ivision o f o rganisation a nd

t radition i s a d ifficult

o ne t o

m ake. I f o ne i s i nvestigating t he s uperiority o f o ne o ver t he o ther, i t i s a lso f raught w ith c ircularity. H owever, a s c hanges i n b oth a re 101

f requently

a ssociated

( e.g.

i n t he l ate-second

c entury,

w here

a

s chool a ppears i n t he s outh-east o f E ngland a t a pproximately t he s ame t ime a s am ajor c hange i n t he a rrangement o f d esigns i s v isible), t he q uestion o f w hich i nfluenced w hat, i s n ot a h ollow o ne. T his d oes n ot m ake i t a ny t he e asier t o a nswer, a spects a nd c ontrasting a ttitudes o f b elief i n a R ealistically,

f or h ere a re e nshrined t he t win t he e arly a nd l ate e mpire : a

m anufactured a s o pposed t o a n o rdained e nvironment. h owever, t he a rchaeologist m ust e ndeavour t o a ccount

f or b oth.

10 2

N otes t o P art I 1 .

O xford E nglish D ictionary ( 1970 , 2 nd r eprint),

2 .

A dequacy i s a ll t hat w e c an e xpect f rom s uch a d efinition b ecause o ur i mage o f s tyle i s n ot d iscovered b ut c reated b y a bstracting c ertain f eatures f rom w orks o f a rt.

3 .

N either f orm n or s tyle c an e xist i ndependently o f t he o ther ; i t i s c ontended h ere m erely t hat a d iscipline w hich e xamines t he p ast f or i ts m an-made m aterial r emains, s hould p lace s tyle t o t he f ore . A s P anofsky i nsisted, e ven t he f ormal, w hen c onsidered i n i solation , i s m eaningless.

4 .

n o. 2 1.

F or e vidence o f s chools o f m osaicists o r m osaics a s i ndicated b y w idespread a nd f airly s pecific s tylistic a ffinity ( a p re-occupat ion , e ven w ith s tudies o f s econd c entury m osaics i n B ritain w here t he a rchaeological e xplanation o f f eatures o ften s uggests m ore l ikely f orms o f o rganisation) s ee p art I I, s ection 3 .

5 .

S mith 1 965; S mith 1 969, 1 02; S mith 1 984, i n A tti d el I II C oll oquio I nternazionale s ul M osaico A ntico ( forthcoming), 1 6.

6 .

T oynbee 1 962, 1 969, 2 35-245; n azionale s ul s ible C orinian

7 .

T he f oundation r ecommended b y V irtruvius w as, f rom g round l evel t o m osaic s urface, o f r ubble s tatumen, r ubble/lime r udus ( 17cms t hick), c rushed p ottery/lime n ucleus ( 11 c ms t hick) a nd a f inal l ayer o f m ortar a nd t esserae. T his i s r ecorded b eneath n umerous s econd c entury m osaics i n B ritain ( and s ome f ourth c entury e xamples), e .g. S hip I nn S ite, C irencester ( Lysons I I 1 817, p l. V II); am osaic f ound i n F ordington H igh S treet, D orchester ( Moule 1 906); a nd S ilchester, i nsula X IV, h ouse o ne, r oom 2 2 ( Boon 1 974, 2 09). H owever, m any p avements a re l aid u pon t hin o r n on-existent f oundations: o f t he s ixty k nown t o t he a uthor, o ver t hirty-five f oundations a re i nsubstantial. ' Poor f oundations a re c ommon a fter c . 2 00 ( 30/41 m osaics), w hen V itruvian f oundations a re v irtually u nknown ( 1/41 m osaics).

8 .

B lanchet a nd L afaye 1 909,

9 .

I bid.,

1 0.

B lanchet a nd L afaye 1 909,

1 1.

I bid.,

1 2.

B lanchet a nd L afaye 1 909, 8 0 .

1 3.

I bid.,

1 4.

ities T oynbee 1 951, 44 ; P roclus w orked i n'all i c i ng i n P erinthus, w here h e w orked o n t he T ychaeum .

n o.

n o.

1 98; S mith 1 965; S mith 1 969, 9 7; B rown e t. a l. a nd S mith 1 984, i n A tti d el I II C olloquio I nterM osaico A ntico ( forthcoming), 9 , a nd f or a p osS altire s chool: i bid., 1 1.

n o.

1 390 .

1 162.

1 33;

n o. 2 06;

s ee a lso n o. 3 13.

i nsula X LIX .

n o. 9 32. b efore s ettl-

1 5.

O n

t he

b asis

o f

t he t entative d ates w hich i t

i s

p ossible

t o

a scribe, h owever, i t s eems t hat f ourth c entury m osaics a re m ore l ikely t o i nclude g lass t esserae t han a re m osaics o f e arlier p eriods, ( see a ppendix C , w here w e h ave a t l east e ight f ourth c entury e xamples). 1 6.

A t D orchester, f or e xample, i n p avements f ound i n t he D urngate ( Mosaic i n D orset C ounty M useum ; s ee R .C.H.M. ( Dorset), 1.3 1 1 970 , p l. 2 23), l ight-grey t esserae w ere o f l imestone, w hite t esserae w ere o f c halk, a nd r ed o nes o f b roken t ile. C aerwent, House X II ( Ashby 1 905, 2 98) h ad r ed a nd p ink t esserae o f b rick, w hilst w hite h as p rovided b lue a nd w hite a nd t he l ocal s and s tone y ellow a nd p urple t esserae. A t G reat C hesterford, E ssex, w e a re t old ( Neville 1 848; B ritannia X ( 1979), 3 10) t hat t he b lue a nd w hite t esserae w ere o f l imestone a nd r ed w ere o f p ots herds. M edbourne, L eics., ( V.C.H. L eics.; I ( 1907), 2 14 a nd p l. V II) h ad a r ed s hade p rovided b y b rick -as a t C aerwent -a d rab b rown p rovided b y t he l ocal o olite a nd b lue f rom a l ocally a bundant W hinstone. A s imilar o ccurrence o f t hree o r f our ' base X materials i s f ound a t N ewton S t. L oe, A von. ( J.R.S. XVI 4 ( 1936), 4), a t R apsley, S urrey, ( Sy. A rch. C oils. L XV ( 1968), 2 6), a nd a t H igh W ycombe, B ucks. ( V.C.H. B ucks. ( 1906), I I, 1 71 9). T he f ormer h as b rown t esserae o f P ennant g rit, g reen o f h as m arl, w hite a nd b lue o f l ocal has, b ricks ( sometimes b urnt t o p roduce b lack ;

a nd r ed t esserae f rom s ee n ote 1 7). R aps-

l ey, b uilding s ix, r oom f our, h as t esserae o f r ed t ile , p aley ellow s andstone, a nd a b uff-coloured s iltstone. H igh W ycombe, r oom 1 , h as b lue f rgments o f l imestone, c reamy l imestone, r ed p otsherds a nd w hite ( provided b y c halk). T he w ell e xplored u rban s ites o f V erulamium ( Wheeler 1 936, 1 40) a nd S ilchester ( Boon 1 974, 2 14; a fter F ox) m aintain p icture. T hey s how a s lightly g reater v ariety o f s tone,

t his b ut

n othing o ut o f p roportion w ith t heir s tatus a s i mportant c ent res. I n i nsula I V, b uildings t wo a nd e ight a t V erulamium , f or e xample, ( Purbeck

w ere f ound b lack ( argillaceous l imestone), d ark-blue m arble), w hite ( local c halk), g reen-grey ( lime-rich

g rit), a nd y ellow i nferior o olite). 1 7.

T here

r emains

( a

c alcereous

s andstone

l ittle e vidence f or t he s pecial

f ound

i n

p reparation

t he

o f

t esserae. T he v illa a t Walton H eath, S urrey , h ad d eep c rimson t esserae m ade o f s un-dried c lay ( V.C.H. S urrey I V, 3 69). A t G adebridge P ark, H erts., t he p ink a nd g rey t esserae o f r oom 2 7 w ere

p robably p repared

f rom s pecial c lays

( Neal

1 974,

5 0-51).

I t s eems, h owever, t hat m ost m an-made m aterials w ere o f t ile o r p otsherds. T he f ormer a re a bundant, a nd t hey w ere u sed f req uently w ithout a lteration ( as d ark r ed). W hen b roken t hey a lso p rovided a s ource o f b lack o r b lue ( from t heir r educed c entres). B urning, i n f act, w as a v ery u seful t ool f or p roducing a ny d ark s hade; f rom t he v ery d eep r ed o f b urnt t ile ( at N ewton S t. L oe), t o t he i ntermediate s hades o f p urple a nd p ink o f b urnt l imestone a t S ilchester. Heath i s o ne o f

P otsherds w ere u sually o f s amian w ares ( Walton t he f ew i nstances w here o ther f igured w ares w ere

u sed). T hese ( Cunliffe 1 971,

w ere f ound i n l arge q uantities a t F ishbourne 4 1-3), W alton H eath, a nd H igh W ycombe ( where

v ery s hiny s herds o f D ragendorf t ypes 3 1 a nd 3 3 h ad b een s pecia lly s elected, t hus a ffording a d ate f or t he m osaic o f s omewhere 1 04

i n t he l ater s econd c entury). A t o ther s ites, s amian i s used m ore s paringly b ut i s s till u ncommon . M any m osaics i n S ilchester, t he p avements o f

n ot

House X II a t C aerwent, a nd t he ' Peacock' m osaic f ound i n 5 0-52 S t. N icholas S treet, L eicester (Part 2, s ection 2 .1) t estify t o s uch u sage. 1 8.

B rakespear

1 9.

S ykes a nd B rown ( 1961,

2 0 .

B oon ( 1967,

2 1. M osaics Hull; 2 2.

S t.

( 1904).

1 8);

4 6).

s ee T .B.G.A .S.

5 -58.

ransport o n d isplay i n t he M useum o f T

s ee S mith ( 1976,

a nd

A rchaeology,

1 9).

C lair-Baddeley ( 1904,

1 62).

nd S herlock ( 1980, 2 3. W ilson a 2 4.

1950), L XIX (

2 1).

W e c an t ake G xample: at Hucclecote ( Clifloucestershire a s an e f ord 1 933, sed i n t he p avements o f r oom 1 5 3 23-76), a ll s tone u w as o f b lue has, b olite o r o ld r ed s andstone. A ll roken t ile, o ed s andstone -c ame f rom t he o f t hese -m ost n oticeably t he old r A t G reat W itcombe ( Clifford, d ebris o f h ouse c onstruction. earthenware', l iassic l imestone, 1 954, 5 -70), w e f ind o olite, ' a nd s andstone w hich o riginated i n t he F orest o f D ean. T he l atter, h owever, i s f ound a ll o ver t he s ite, i n s uch q uantities, t hat i t c annot p ossibly h ave b een t ransported ( over 8 0kms) p rimarily f or m aking m osaics. S andstone u sed i n p avements a t W oodchester ( Smith 1 973, 5 ; W oodward a nd C ull 1 980) a nd C hedw orth ( Goodburn 9 179, 2 4) c ame t o b e u sed i n t he s ame w ay.

2 5. 2 6. 2 7.

C unliffe ( 1971, S cott

( 1938,

4 1-3).

2 4).

On v iew i n t he B ritish M useum ;

1886, s ee M organ (

2 8.

O n v iew i n t he C orinium M useum , N ewmarch ( 1850 , 4 2-44).

2 9.

O n v iew i n s itu.

3 0.

R eproduction L td.,

( on view

W otton-under - E dge,

3 1.

C olour p late i n N eal

3 2.

I bid.,

3 3.

n o.

C irencester;

f t o t he p ublic) c are o G los.;

( 1981,

n o.

p l.

s ee B uckman

W otton

a nd

M osaics

5 3.

1 2).

6 3.

oa T he r emainder w ill h ave been c arried t f uture u se, w ere m ade). a nd

1 79-81).

r ubbish t ip,

s aved f or

n s itu ( in t he r oom i n w hich t hey eft i o r s imply l herefore, h ave b een i n s urplus', T esserae c ould, t

o l able, w e m ust be c areful n ot t

a utomatically,

a f ind

o f

orkshop'. R oom 5 4 a t N orth L eigh, s uch m aterial a'maintenance w n p oint ( Wilson a nd S herlock 1 980, 2 1). O xon ., i s a c ase i 105

3 4.

N otes a nd d rawings

i n S omerset C ounty M useum .

3 5.

B rakespear

3 6.

M anuscripts

3 7.

P ortfolio o f p hotographs o f t he L ullingstone m osaic, h eld by t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon ; m osaic o n v iew i n s itu i n the s ite m useum .

3 8.

O n v iew i n s itu.

3 9.

T his

( 1904). f orwarded c ourtesy o f L .C. H ayward.

i s p robably t he l argest p avement n orth of

t he

A lps;

h ow-

e ver, w ithout i ts a mbulatory t he a rea o f t he a rrangement i s less t han t hat o f t he Horkstow m osaic. 4 0 .

P late 9 7.

4 1.

W heeler a nd W heeler

4 2.

N eal

4 3.

B oon ( 1974); L ondon .

4 4.

R .C.H.M.

4 5.

A .T.

4 6.

T .B.G.A .S.

4 7.

A ttention i s f ocussed o n t he c entral ' rug', o f Hellenistic m osaics ( in t he f ormer c ase,

( 1981,

n o.

( 1932,

7 ).

d rawings

D orset I II

M artin ( 1894), L XXI

p l. X IXc).

h eld b y t he S ociety o f

( 1971), P .S.A.L.

( 1952),

p ls.

A ntiquaries

o f

5 56. X V,

1 42.

1 -7.

t o h ave b een t he i ntention).

a s i n t he e mblemata t his i s l ess l ikely

T he L ion a nd S tag m osaic

( pl.

3 0)

i s a n e specially w ell e xecuted d esign f ramed b y a b order w hich i s u p t o t wo m etres w ide , w hilst t he m osaic i tself i s o nly t hree m etres s quare. O ther c ontrasting u ses o f t he w ide b order a re Ant. J . L III ( 1973), f ound a t C irencester, b uilding X 11 1 , ( p l. X XXIIb) a nd S ilchester, b uilding X XIII 2 , ( Arch. L VII ( 1901), 2 32). H owever, i n t hese m osaics t he q uality o f t he m osaic w ork i s

m odest,

a nd

i nstead

s uggests a d esire t o

m ake

e conomies.

T his c ertainly a ppears t o b e t rue o f o ther e xamples, f rom C anterbury ( Britannia V III ( 1977), 4 24; f or C rypt o f S t. G abriel s ee B ritannia X I 4 8.

I n

( 1980),

t he l argest r oom o f

4 01). t he v illa a t F ifehead

N eville,

D orset,

( R.C.H.M . I II ( 1970), p l. 1 33), t he m osaic o ccupies o nly h alf o f t he a vailable f loor s pace. A t C hedworth, t he a rea o f . r elieved s wastika m eander a djacent t o t he o ctagonal a rrangement ( in r oom 5 ),

p rovides a nother l ikely a rea f or f urniture.

B ut

t he

m ost

c onvincing e xample i s t hat o f L ullingstone, K ent, w here a w ide b order i s a ssociated w ith f igures w hich a re e longated w hen v iewed f rom m ore t han t hree f eet a bove g round l evel ( the h eight o f r eclining d iners 4 9.

? ).

A n a mbulatory i s a lso a ttested i n a nother r oom w ith a m osaic i n t his r egion , i .e. a t L ufton : P .S.A.N.H.S. X CII ( 1946), Pl. I V. 10 6

SO.

Mention has already been made of room 5 at Chedworth (note 48). This rather general type of addition is also to be found in a mosaic from Pitney, Som.; mosaic A (Smith 1969, pl. 3.3). Room XII1, housing mosaic two, at Cirencester, even shows two decora­ tive panels to be of diffrent dates (Neal 1981, no. 25). Both of these panels (A.and C) border a third, rectangular panel (B) which is poorly aligned with panel A - an illustration of the difficulties with which a mosaicist (even a competent one, which this craftsman was) had to contend when fitting new pavements with old.

51.

Apses appear to have presented problems: at Whittington Court, room one, (T.B.G.A.S. LXXI (1952), pl. VII) and at Dewlish, Dorset, room II (P.D.N.H.A.S. 94 (1973), fig. 10), mosaics are poorly fitted. This is certainly attributable to the problems with scaling up/down a design, in order to maintain a continuity of pattern between the recess and the main design. The fitting of square or rectangular panels was accomp­ lished more easily. There are many instances, at Colchester for example (Arch. J. CXXIII (1967), pl. VIII) where additional panels compensate for main quadrangular designs whose dimensions are restricted (in this case by the inclusion of central, circu­ Such additions were easy to effect and are wide­ lar designs). spread.·

52.

Drawings VII.

53.

Drawings in Somerset County Museum.

54.

P.S.N.H.A.S. VI-IX.

55.

Britannia II (1970); see Bryn Walters in Mosaic 6, (1982, 13-14) on the use of polygonal rooms as baths. Clementhorpe, York, (Britannia VIII (1977), 382) also has fragments which suggest a polygonal mosaic.

56.

E.g. the Holy Bones site, Verulamium:

57.

Neal (1981, no. 6).

58.

The mosaic from Sparsholt, Rants., now in the Winchester City Musum, has scorch marks which are attributable to a brazier: ? another, portable, source of heat.

59.

Mosaic 6 (1982), 13-14.

60.

'Mosaikstudien', in Rom. Mitt. (1930), 80-110, See Ippel, A.: for a discussion of the uses of prefabrication in the Alexander mosaic; recent notes on the limited use of prefabriction in antiquity appear in Mosaic 7 (1982), in papers by Fischer (pp. 3-6) and Toynbee (pp. 15�18).

61.

With examples of how apparently very complicated geometric pat­ terns can be produced by shading areas which are defined by easily constructed point-to-point lattices (in essence similar

in Somerset County Museum;

XCII (1946),

Arch.

LXXV (1924-6),

pl.

pl. IV; loc. cit. XCVII (1952), pls.

107

Britannia IV (1973), 19.

to the nets described by Neal (1981), but more detailed and more specifically related to the drawing of difficult motif), it is shown that the mosaicist need not be a capable geometrician. The 'wheel pattern' designs from Leicester, Blackfriars (pls.1 and 3a), were, perhaps, drawn from a 4, 8, 16, 32 ••••• doubling sequence, each with 64 radii; those of Great Witcombe, Glos., are from the same doubling sequence but this time each has only There is, admittedly, little evidence for 16 and 24 radiic these proposals: they do attribute a spontaneity (if not imagi­ nation) to the craftsmen who, with.a few basic instruments, could have attempted very elaborte geometrical designs. 62.

For Moore's works see bibliography.

63. Neal (1981, no. 2). 64.

Nature (1968), 482-4.

65. Alternatively, the tesserae can be laid directly into a tray of sand. When the required design is then obtained a backing cloth can be applied to the tesserae. After setting, the whole cloth (and tesserae) can be lifted from the sand and the section stored. This has the advantage - unknown when the craftsman fixes tesserae straight onto a cloth which, possibly, carries a cartoon - of allowing the mosaicist to see the actual design before he bonds it into a pavement. 66.

The most convincing examples are the Lion mosaic from Aldborough (pl. 35b) and the Lion and Stag pavement from Verulamium (pl. 30), both of which show a cramping of the lion's tail. Th� work of the central panels at Verulamium and Aldborough is noticeably finer than that in the rest of the mosaic. The work from Hinton St. Mary, Dorset is well-known for its implications regarding the use of indirect methods of construction (Toynbee 1964b; Smith 1969). It is possible that the differences in mortar of the pavement in room 10, Chedworth (Britannia X (1979), 318; and information from Roger Goodburn) is further evidence for the transport of finished designs from a nearby workshop. It should always be remembered however, that even when adopting conven­ tional, direct methods of laying, an individual craftsman will leave patches of mortar which are of marginally different com­ positions.

67.

Although the direct methods of construction appear to be far slower than the indirect, the latter do involve many discreet operations which can be very time consuming. This is important, for it seems that as materials were rarely expensive (section 3.1), labour will have been the most significant cost, (see appendix D).

108

N otes t o P art I I 1 .

R emains

o f

s ingle,

o ctagonal p anels a re k nown f rom

C olchester

a nd L eicester ( the m osaic f rom t he s ite o f t he R ed L ion , C yparissus m osaic, r espectively).

a nd t he

2 .

A f ragment o f a p ossible n ine-panel a rrangement o f s quare a nd r ectangular p anels, f rom G ayton T horpe ( Norf. A rch. X XII ( 1929), p l. I ) i s a lso n otable i n t his c ontext.

3 .

I n t he s econd c entury, t here i s f igures w ith a quatic s ignificance.

a p redominance i n B ritain o f O ther t ypes a re f ew. T he

o nly o ther c ategory w hich i t i s p ossible t o d efine i s o ne ' hunting s cenes', i ncluding ' splendid b easts a nd s cenes

o f o f

c ombat: i ndeed, s ome m arine f igures a ccentuate s uch c ombat ( pl. 1 5). I f, o n t he o ther h and, o ne t akes a n arrow d efinition o f ' hunting s cene', i .e. t he c hase, t hen s uch s cenes a re u ncommon, ( Neal 1 981, n o. 7 6). 4 .

P ossibly a c ommon o ccurrence; 7 , V erulamium ( pl. 2 0).

5 .

P l.

6 .

A t C irencester ( pl.

s ee t he s aw-tooth b order o f m osaic

5 b. 1 6a),

t hese t riangles s how a s imple,

v ery

s mall t riangle c omposed o f o ne o r t wo t esserae. T his m ay b e a m arker; i ndeed, t he r ole o f s uch t riangles i s i nteresting -some o f

t he m ore c omplex

( see p ls.

2 a,

6 b,

1 0a a nd 2 1)

s uggest p er-

s onal m arks. 7 .

A m osaic f ound i n M ilk S treet,

L ondon ( Neal 1 981,

n o.

6 4)

a lso

h as a c antharus i n a c entral r oundel. I t i s am osaic o f t he s econd c entury, a lthough d oes n ot a ppear t o p rovide a c lose p arallel w ith t he C olchester e xamples. 8 .

T he e mblems p roper i s u sually a ' tray' o f m osaic, p laced a t t he c entre o f a s imple g eometric a rrangement ( often o f l ines).

9 .

F rom

Hakewill's s ketch i t

a ppears

t hat

o f w ave-crest p attern w hich e nclosed f ined

t he w hole s altire.

t he m osaic h ad a

b order

t he c entral r oundel a nd d e-

S uch a u se o f w ave-crest , i n c ircular

f ormation , i s r eminiscent o f m osaics B a nd C o f t he N orth H ill s ite, C olchester. M oreover, i t s uggests a m ore g eneral r elat ionship o f w ave-crest p attern w ith c urvilinear d esign , a lready s uggested i n t he s emi-roundels o f t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic. 1 0 .

O ther

e xamples

o f

f ine w orkmanship a re v isible i n t he h ead

o f

M edusa, o f t he D yer S treet m osaic ( pl. 1 0b); s ee a lso t he S eas ons i n t he s ame m osaic. T he C upid o f t he c entral p anel o f F ishbourne

N 7

i s o f

a h igh,

b ut

s lightly

l ess

a ccomplished,

s tandard. 1. 1

T hese m ight b e t he m arks o f m osaicists,

b ut i t i s d ifficult

t o

i magine h ow t hey c ould r epresent i ndividual c raftsmen . ( Could t here h ave b een s ix m osaicists a t w ork o n t he B lackfriars m osaic?

T his

s eems

i mpossible).

10 9

1 2.

A

7 1 umber o f c raftsmen o f d ifferent a bilities L ight a lso a cczunt

f o7 o ther, l ess d iagnostic, a ffinities b etween p avements i n L s f :cester ( Johnson : L V ( 1979-80), f or c omments o n o ther m osaics f rom t he B lackfriars s ite).

1i ø

A PPENDIX A : 1 .

I nscriptions i n t he M osaics o f R oman B ritain

F rampton ( Dorset),

R oom B

A l arge r oom, d ivided i nto t wo b y s hort w alls, g ives t wo p avem ents. O ne h a* a n a pse a nd a l arge c entral m edallion s howing ? Bellerophon, t he o ther h as a c ircular d esign b ordered b y t wo p anels o f h unting s cenes. T he f irst p avement c arries a c hi-rho m onogram -this l ies i n o ne o f t he c ircles w hich f orm t he b order b etween t he a pse a nd

t he m ain b ody o f

t he p avement.

A

f urther

b order ( of d olphins) a lso h as a m ask o f N eptune, w hich f aces t he c hi-rho, a nd i s f lanked b y t he f ollowing i nscription : N eptuni v ertex r egnem s ortiti m obile v entis -scultum c ui c aerulea e (t) d elfinis c incta d uob ( us). B etween t he l arge a nd s maller p ave m ent t he b order o f d olphins i s i nterrupted b y a c upid ( the a nimals t o h is i mmediate l eft a nd r ight n ow b ecome ? d ucks) f lanked b y t he p erfici u llum p l. 2 .

f ollowing, p artial, g nare C upido.

L ysons 1 813 i ii, 3 .27.

p l. V ;

i nscription:

T oynbee 1 963,

p l.

2 34;

( faci)nus S mith 1 969,

L ittleton ( Somerset) A p artially e xcavated v illa p roduced a t l east t wo p avements. O ne w ith a r epresentation o f B acchus a nd a nother w ith a n i ns cription w ith t he l etters F LA ... b eing t he o nly s urvivors. R ainey 1 973, 10 , s uggests t his a s t he a rtist's s ignature, 1 b ut t his s eems d oubtful. S ee V .C.H S omerset I ( 1906), C ounty M useum , T aunton .

3 .

L ydney

3 24;

( Glos.) C ella o f t he t emple,

a nd d rawings

i n S omerset

r oom L XIII

T his s mall m osaic, w ith a c hannel r unning t hrough t he m osaic a nd i ts b edding, h ad t he i nscription : D (eo) N (odenti) T (itus) F l(a)vius S enilis p r(aepositus) r el(iquationi) e x s tipibus p os s uit o (pus c ur) a nts V ictorino i nter(pret)e. T his i s a g ood i nsight

i nto t he p ossible w ays i n w hich m osaics w ere b ought,

i s l ess i nformative o f t he w ays i n w hich m osaicists w ent t heir w ork. W heeler 1 932, p l. X IXa ; T oynbee 1 964, 2 71. 4 .

W oodchester ( Glos.), A n

a rrangement o f

b ut

a bout

R oom 1 0

f ive o ctagonal p anels,

b adly

p anel s hows t wo c upids w ith t heir c apes b lowing B eneath t heir f eet a re t he w ords: B onum E ventum . s how s atyrs a nd m aenads,

d amaged.

O ne

a bout t hem. O ther p anels

a lthough t he o ne f urther i nscription -

B ene C (olite) -is f rom a p anel w hose c ontents w ere entirely d estroyed. L ysons 1 797, p l. X IX; S mith 1 969, p l. 3 .14; S mith 1 977, p l. 6 .XXXIc . 5 .

B ignor T his

( W.

S ussex),

R oom 2 6

p avement i s v ery b adly d amaged.

I ts s cheme s eems

t o h ave

b een o f t wo m ain s quares; o ne h ad a c entral o ctagon f lanked b y f our s ets o f i nter-laced g uilloche s quares, t he o ther h as a 1 11

c entral

o ctagon s urrounded b y e ight

t o L yson's r econstruction).

s mall h exagons,

( according

T he r emains n ow i n s itu s how l ittle

m ore t han a b ust o f w inter ( the c ontents o f o ne m edallion s urr ounded b y t he i nterlaced s quares m entioned a bove) a nd a p ortion o f b order w ork w hich, l uckily, i ncludes t he i nscription T ER ( a r emnant o f t he s econd m ain s quare), i nterpreted a s T ER -p oss ibly

t he i nitials o f

t he m osaicist.

a ppear t o b e a ny l etters m issing, a t a ny o ther c onclusion. L ysons 1 817, m useum; p l. 3 7. 6 .

p l.

X III;

C ertainly,

t here w ould

a nd i t i s d ifficult

r emains

n ot

t o a rrive

o n v iew i n s itu i n

s ite

T hruxton ( Hants.) A m osaic s howing B acchus i n a c entral m edallion a nd s urrounded b y b usts o f s easons i n t he s pandrels, h as a n i nscription r unning f rom ' top l eft t o ' top r ight'. I t r eads: ' Quintus N atalius l inus e t B odeni...'. T his, i f i t r efers t o t he c lient o r t he m osaicist a t a ll, w ould b est f it t he f ormer. I ts f orm a nd p rominence w ould s eem t o r ule o ut t he l atter. A rch. J . S alisbury V ol. 1 851, P . 2 41-5; S mith 1 969, p l. 3 .9. N ow i n B ritish M useum ( on d isplay). S ee a lso A rch. X XIII ( 1829) 4 9-52, w here i t i s s uggested ( unconvincingly) r efers t o B oduni -a c orruption o f D obuni.

7 .

L ullingstone, A

p anel

t hat B odeni

K ent.

w hich o ccupies

t he a pse o f

t his f amous

p avement

h as,

nvida s i t a(uri) v idisset a long t he ' top', t he i nscription -I I uno n atatus i ustius A eolias i sset a dusque d omos'. T he p anel s hows a s cene f rom t he s eduction o f E uropa b y Z eus. S ee B ritann ia I X ( 1978), n o. ( d); M eates ( 1955) , p ls. 3 -9; S mith ( 1977), p l. 8 .

6 .

X XIVb;

C olchester,

o n v iew i n s itu i n s ite m useum .

f rom a h ouse i n L ion W alk

A b adly d amaged c ircular d esign p reserved s ome l etters o f a n i nscription. T his i s q uoted b y N eal ( 1981, n o. 7 4, a s ' AD. N PVIA ... A t t he o pposite s ide o f t he d esign i s a s econd, e ven v aguer i nscription -s et i n t wo l ines -r eading ' .... D RIA LIC ..; s ee B ritannia I V ( 1973), 3 31; N eal 1 981, n o. ../...I L 4 1; 9 .

o n v iew i n C olchester C astle M useum .

A ldborough,

T he M uses M osaic

T his t oo i s a b adly d amaged m osaic. I t s hows f ragments o f f emale f igures, o ne w ho h as a t unic a nd h olds a s croll. T o h er l eft i s t he i nscription : E LIKON ( in g reek c haracters): . P l. 8 1; S mith 1 852, p l. X VIII; S mith 1 977, p l. 6 .Ia ; N eal 1 981, f ig. 1 2. 1 0.

R udston ( E.Yorks.),

V enus M osaic

I n t he s emi-circular p anels w hich s urround

t he c entral m edallion

w e f ind o ne r epresentation o f a b ull a nd o ne o f a l ion . T hese a nimals a re, r espectively, a ccompanied b y t he i nscriptions ' Taurus O micida' a nd ( Leo) F (r)amefer. T hese m ay r elate t o t he s tates o r

t he n ames o f

t he a nimals c oncerned. 12 1

T he m osaicist w as

o bviously h as

c onfused b y t he l ettering,

b een g iven t wo b ars

l etters As i .e. 1 1.

C hester,

A A :

p l.

w here t he M i n

1 02b.

i n t he " Nun's G arden"

I n W atkin s H istory o f R oman C heshire ( 1886), 1 92-4, g iven o f a c ast o f a n i nscription s aid t o h ave c ome c entre G arden ,

n ote i s f rom t he

o f a t essellated p avement f ound i n 1 803, i n t he N un's n r. t he C astle. T he i nscription r eads a s f ollows: G

V TI L A R P ESCENNINI. h ave

' Omicida'

s o a s t o g ive t he a ppearance o f t wo

a n

a llusion

I f

t his r elic i s g enuine,

t o a f urther i ndividual

w e m ight w ell

a ssociated

w ith

a

p avement. 1 2.

C olerne, W ilts. R ainey ( 1973),

5 6,

d raws a ttention t o t he i mportant n ote

p ub-

l ished i n t he A rch. J . X III ( 1856), 3 28, w here i t i s s aid t he p avement i n R oom I a t C olerne s howed a c hariot, c harioteer, f our h orses a breast, a nd t hat t here w as a n i nscription a bove t he c hariot w hich r ead " Servius" o r " Severus': s ee a lso S tead 1 980 , 1 32. A part

f rom t his o ne r eference,

f urther m ention o f 1 3.

L ondon, F .G.H.

t here w ould s eem t o b e

n o

t he i nscription.

P udding L ane P rice i n P SAL X II ( 1887-89),

1 28,

n otes a m osaic p avement

c omposed o f t esserae a nd l aid u pon a 1 2" c oncrete b ed, w ith a n i nscription i n s maller b lack t esserae. T his i s g iven a s: ..UUVANI. ..NIIISTGNA+VS ..IMNESSELSTRAT S EMDS D

w hich s eems p articularly o bscure. n ot v enture a n i nterpretation .

P rice,

n ot s urprisingly, d id

A PPENDIX B :

E vidence o f W orkshops a nd K napping A reas i n R oman B ritain

1 .

R udston, E . Y orks.,

b uilding 3 :

h eaps o f t esserae,

s orted a c-

c ording t o s ize a nd c olour ( pl. 1 01b). T here w as -perhaps -a c entral ' knapping a rea :W oodward 1 936, 2 16-7; S tead 1 980 , 1 37. 2 .

W ater N ewton , C ambs., d iscovered b y A rtis a nd r eported b y R oach S mith ( Arch. C ant. X V, 1 32): h eaps o f s orted t esserae, s imilar i n q uality a nd q antity t o t hose i n n earby p avements. S ee S mith i n C order ( 1951, 3 9) a nd S tead ( loc. c it.).

3 .

N orth L eigh , O xon ., r oom 5 4: a r oom u sed f or t he a ctual m anuf acture o f l imestone t esserae, m any h undreds o f w hich w ere f ound, a s w ell a s l umps o f s tone f rom w hich t o m ake t hem : W ilson a nd S herlock 1 980 , 2 1.

4 .

W ellow, S om., f rom a r oom ' just o utside t he m ain v illa c ame a b ushel o f t esserae, o f u niform s ize a nd h eaped r eady f or u se': V .C.H. S om . I ( 1906), 3 14.

b lock, a s i f

L ess c onvincing e xamples: 5 .

N orden F arm s ite, n r. F ishbourne ; u sed a s a s ource o f s tone f or t he F ishbourne m osaics. E xcavation h as s hown w hat a ppears t o b e a s tonemason's y ard w ith m any t esserae: C unliffe ( 1971, 4 1-3).

6 .

K ings W eston , G los.; a t t he w est e nd o f t he p orticus w ere f ound m any t esserae, a nd e vidence o f t heir w orking. T his c annot b e c onsidered a w orkshop, b ut i llustrates t he k napping o f t esserae i n u nsophisticated c ircumstances: B oon ( 1967, 1 8).

7 .

G loucester; b eneath a p avement l aid i n t he f orum : r emains i nclude s preads o f m osaicist's d ebris, p robably a k napping s ite.

8 .

E xeter, 2 2, G oldsmith S treet; h ere , c . 2 50 , w alls w ere l aid i n a y ard w hich h ad s catters o f t esserae : B rittania X ( 1979).

9 .

T arrant H inton , D orset, r oom I V ; i n t he n orth-west c orner w as f ound a s mall b ay w hich c ontained o ver 6 ,900 t esserae o f P urbeck m arble ( white c . 1 " s q.). N earby w as a p it i n w hich w ere f ound r ed, w hite a nd b lack t esserae, d ating t o b efore t he c onstruction o f t he r oom : P .D.N.H.A .S. 1 973, 8 6.

1 0 .

D arenth, K ent; a b arrowful o f u nused t esserae d eposited i n r oom 3 0 : A rch . C ant. . X XII ( 1896), 6 0 .

1. 1

A tworth, W ilts.,

r oom 2 9;

h eaps o f t esserae w hich s eem t o h ave

b een d umped ( possibly t he r esult o f c leaning-up o perations). N o m osaics w ere f ound, t herefore t he t esserae c ould b e t he r emains o f m osaics: W .A .M. 4 9 ( 1942), 6 5.

114

O ur

m ost c onvincing e xamples o f w orkshops a re f rom r ural

s ites.

T he r emains f rom G loucester a re u nimpressive, a nd a nyway a re n ot l ikely c andidates f or f ourth c entury w orkshops. E xamples c ome f rom a v ariety o f s ites -large v illas, s mall v illas, s mall t owns, f ourth

a nd a q uarry s ite -a nd s trongly s uggest t hat i n t he c entury a t l east t he m osaicist w as o perating o n a s mall

s cale.

1 1 R

A PPENDIX C :

T he U se o f G lass T esserae i n R omano-British M osaics

U sually o nly a f ew g lass t esserae w ere e mployed i n a ny m osaic t hese w ere r eserved f or h ighlights o r o ther s pecial f eatures.

a nd

T his m eans t hat o ne m osaic w ill o ften h ave g lass o f a p articular c olour, o r o f c olours w hich c omplement o ne a nother i n t he r endering o f a c ertain e ffect, e .g. t he b lue a nd g reen t esserae i n m osaics d epicting a quatic s ubjects ( no. 6 ). T he h aphazard m orphology o f m ost g lass t esserae s uggests t hat t hey w ere n ot p urposefully m ade f or m osaic w ork, r ather t hat t hey w ere t aken f rom b roken v essels o r o rnam ents.

A dmittedly,

a ntiquity, b e n os. 5 ,

g lass

a nd e namel t esserae w ere m anufactured i n

b ut t he o nly c lear e xamples o f s uch, 2 1, a nd 2 2.

I n n os.

4 ,

5 ,

9 ,

1 0 ,

1 2,

1 7,

1 9,

i n B ritain,

a ppear t o

a nd 2 2 t he t esserae w ere f ound

l oose o r i n a s econdary c ontext. T his, o bviously, r enders t hem o f l ess u se t han t hose w hich r emain i n s itu. I n s ome i nstances e .g. n o. 1 2, i t i s f airly c ertain t hat t he r oom i n w hich t hey w ere f ound w as p aved w ith a m osaic; e lsewhere, a s i n n o. 5 , t his i s m ore d oubtf ul. M ost

i nstances

o f t he e mployment o f g lass

t esserae i n

B ritain

a re p oorly d ated. T his i s p artly d ue t o t he d ifficulty o f d ating m osaics o n s tylistic g rounds a nd p artly d ue t o t he h aphazard d istrib ution

o f f inds

o f l oose t esserae.

O n t he b asis o f

t he

t entative

d ates w hich i t i s p ossible t o a ssign, h owever, i t s eems t hat f ourth c entury m osaics a re m ore l ikely t o i nclude g lass t han a re t hose o f e arlier p eriods. A t l east e ight o f t he e xamples l isted ( below) a re p robably o f t he f ourth c entury ( nos. 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 , 7 , 1 2, 1 5, a nd 2 3), o ne a ppears t o b e o f t he m id-second ( no. 1 3) a nd a nother i s p erhaps o f

t he l ate s econd o r e arly t hird I n

o ne

s hades

8 ).

i nstance i t w as s uggested t hat g lass h ad b een

r epair a m osaic l ar

( no.

( no.

1 1);

u sed

t o

b ut g iven t he f requency w ith w hich p articu -

w ere o bviously c hosen f or s pecial

e ffects,

t his

s eems

u nlikely. F or e xample, a t C irencester g reen g lass p rovides t he l eafy s hade w hich f alls o n t he b ack o f t he h are ( no. 7 ) a nd r ed t esserae w ere u sed l uxuriously t o b ring t he b loom ( in t he h ead o f S pring) a nd t he b lood ( on A ctaeon's t high) t o l ife i n n o. 8 . L ondon p rovides t he e xample f rom L eadenhall S treet ( no. 1 5) w here t he d rive o f B acchus i s e mphasized b y t he i nclusion o f o paque g lass ( enamel, s malti) t esserae i n h is m antle . P erhaps t he m ost o bvious u se o f g lass a s a r efined c haracteristic, h owever, c omes f rom A ldborough ( no. 1 ), w here t he n ame o f M ount H elicon w as w orked i n c haracters t esserae.

o f

t ranslucent

b lue

T here a re t hirteen i nstances o f b lue t esserae ( including t urq uoise a nd o ther s hades), e leven o f g reen ( including b luey-green), t wo o f p urple a nd o ne e ach o f p ink, r ed a nd w hite. ( It s hould b e n oted t hat t he r ed a ppeared w hite a t t he t ime o f d iscovery : B uckman a nd N ewmarch 1 850 , 5 3-61). S uch p roportions a re w hat

s ee o ne

w ould e xpect i f t esserae w ere n ot s pecially m anufctured. B lue w as t he s hade o f g lass m ost e asily c reated ( with t he a dmixture o f c opper i f b luey-green w as d esired, o r o f c obalt i f a v iolet-blue w as n eeded). G reen w ould h ave r esulted f rom t he i nclusion o f a ny i mpurit ies, a lthough c ontrol o f t he a ctual s hade i s m ore d ifficult t han i s t he c ase w ith b lue. I t i s t he o ther c olours, e specially r ed 1 16

( requiring

t he a ddition o f c olloidal c opper) a nd w hite ( needing

t he

a ddition o f a ntimony o r m anganese) w hich n eed f ine t echnical s kills, w hich a re n oticeably r are. T his i s a r eminder t hat g lass i n g eneral w as h ardly a n ' everyday p roduct' i n a ntiquity . F ourteen o f t he t wenty-three e xamples o f g lass t essellation a re f rom u rban s ites. C irencester a nd L ondon a ccount f or e ight; a nd i t m ay b e a c omment o n t he l atter's i mportance a s t he c ommercial c entre o f B ritain t hat t he s ites i n L ondon a ccount f or o ver a f ifth o f t he t wenty-three . E ven t he r ich v illa s ites o f G loucestershire a nd D orset a re u nrepresented, a nd B ignor i s t he o nly r ural s ite w hich i s e specially n otable .

L ist o f M osaics i ncluding G lass T esserae 1 .

A ldborough ( Yorks) B lue , f orming t he w ord E LIKON. L ate-third/fourth c entury. S mith 1 852, 4 2, p l. X VIII; S mith 1 977, n o. 4 8; N eal 1 981, n o. 3 8, f ig. 1 2. A f ew t esserae a lso i n t he s ite m useum .

2 .

B ignor ( West S ussex), R oom 3 , P avement H G reen , i n t he n imbus o f t he f emale h ead i n t he a pse. P robably e arly-fourth c entury. L ysons 1 817, p l. X IV; W inbolt a nd H erbert 1 934, 9 , 1 0 , 1 3; S mith 1 977, n o. 3 1.

3 .

B ignor ( West S ussex) R oom 7 ,

P avement B

G reen , i n t he d rapery o f t he b accantes. C ontemporary w ith ( 2). L ysons 1 817, p l. X IX ; W inbolt a nd H erbert, 1 934, 9 , 1 0 a nd 1 3. 4 .

5 .

C aerleon ( Gwent) B lue, i n a t hird c entury c ontext; i nformation f rom M r . G .C . B oon .

A rch. C amb.

C XIX ,

1 8

a nd

C apel S t. M ary ( Suffolk) O paque ( enamel), s hades o f b lue a nd t urquoise i n c akes a s w ell a s s ome l oose t esserae ( smalti). P eriod u nknown . I n I pswich M useum .

U npublished?

6 .

C irencester ( Glos.), A shcroft V illas B lue a nd g reen , i n t he h air a nd b eard o f N eptune. P robably f ourth c entury : A rch . L XIX ( 1920), 1 76, n o.20 ; S mith 1 977, n o. 5 3.

7 .

C irencester ( Glos.), B eeches R oad, B uild. X II, R oom 2 , M osaic 2 G reen , i n t he b ack o f t he h are. F ourth C entury. A nt. J . L III, ( 1973), 2 15, p l. X XXIb; N eal 1 981, n o. 2 5, p anel c ;-1 77-7 4 .

8 .

C irencester ( Glos.), D yer S t., t he S easons M osaic R ed ( 'ruby'), i n t he f loral a ttributes o f S pring a nd t he b lood o n A ctaeon's t high . E arly-third c entury. B uckman a nd N ewmarch 1 850 , 4 3, p ls. I I a nd V ; J BAA X XV ( 1869), 1 10 ; S mith 1 977, n os. 3 , 8 6.

9 .

C lanville ( Hants.) B lue, o ne, i n o ne o f t he f ragments o f m osaic o f s mall t esserae f ound l ying o n t he p avement ( fallen w all m osaic ? ). P eriod 117

u nknown. 1 0.

A rch.

L VI ( 1898),

F ishbourne ( West S ussex) O paque l ight-blue,

( enamel)

t he m id-second c entury. 1 1.

O ne of c .

t hree.

C unliffe,

1 971,

I, I

7 5/80-100,

t wo o f

4 1-3.

G ayton T horpe ( Norfolk) G lass

eemed t o t ake t he place o f b lue o f a b luish t inge, w hich s

has t esserae': 1 79, p l. I . 1 2.

3 .

? c.

A r epair?

K eynsham ( Avon),

3 00 .

N orfolk A rch. X XII,

( 1928),

R oom V

p u ple, w 4 " s 3 quare; , ink, pr hite, / O paque b lue ( enamel), green A rch . L XXV ( 1926), 125. l oose , f ourth c entury. 1 3.

L eicester,

5 0 S t.

N icholas S treet

O paque b lue ( enamel) i n t he ' eyes o f t he p eacock's tail. E arly-third c entury. J .B.A .A . N ew S er. I V ( 1898), 2 90 . 1 4.

L ondon,

3 7,

F enchurch S treet

B right a zure a nd u nknown . M organ H inks 1 933, 1 5.

1 21,

g reen i n a p eacock a nd c antharus. 1 886, 1 91; R .C.H.M . L ondon 1 928,

n o.

4 7,

f ig.

P eriod 18; 1

1 38.

L ondon , L eadenhall S treet O paque ' ....indigo, u ltramarine,

c obalt, turquoise,

a nd W edge-

w ood b lue', e merald-green , a nd p urple i n the m antle o f B acchus. L ondon 1 928, 127; H inks 1 933, 9 7, R .C.H.M. ? Fourth century. o. 8 ; p l. 7 8. ig. 1 08; S mith 1 977, n n o. 3 2a , f 1 6.

L ondon,

S t. M ildred's C ourt

antharus. P eriod reen' f or h ighlights in a c ' Bright g II ( 1870), 2 17. nd M iddx. A rch . Soc. I T rans. L ondon a 1 7.

L ondon, n r.

t he R oyal E xchange a nd n o r eference to a m osaic.

C olour u nspecified, 1 2. 1 8.

1 9.

L ondon, C olour l ife':

u nknown.

treet T hreadneedle S art o f u nspecified, i n p 6. S mith 1 859, 5

P ortishead ( Avon) B lue, l oose. P roc.

U niv.

' a f emale h ead o f

B ristol S pel.

S oc.

X ,

P rice 1 870 ,

t he

n o.

s ize

o f

3 ( 1965),

2 71. 2 0 .

ns. I I. H ouse 2 , R oom 9 S ilchester ( Hants.), I ubes o f v ery d eep b lue....composed o f v ery m inute .c ...a g lass', i n a c antharus i n am osaic n ow i n S tratfield S aye. 1881), 3 36-7, p l. X III; B oon 1 974, P eriod u nknown . A rch. X LVI ( 3 45.

2 1.

S ilchester ( Hants) I ns. O paque

r oyal

nd b lue a

X IV, H ouse 2 , Room 1 4 j ade ( enamel)

-g reen in t he f lowers

i n

T he B lue a re d escribed a s ' cubic' a nd w ere o ne o f t he b askets. F ragments i n R eading M useum : A rch. L V p robably m anufactured. ( 1896),

2 41-2,

p l.

X V;

B oon 1 974,

2 14.

118

2 2.

S outhwick ( East S ussex) ..'Eight, l oose, o f y ellow-green g lass, t he i nner s ide t apering t o 5 /16 t o 6 /15";

t he f ace 7 /1 6 " s q., o n t hickness 3 /16 ". G old

l eaf w as l aid o n t he u pper s urface, a nd f lashed w ith a v ery t hin c oat o f g lass'. F rcm a w all m osaic. F ormerly i n H ove M useum b ut n ow m issing: 2 3.

S ussex A rch.

V erulamium ( Herts),

I ns.

X XVII,

C oils.

L XXIII

B uilding 2 ,

( 1932), 2 4. R oom B

G reen, i n t he h ead-dress o f a b ust p robably r epresenting B acchus, w earing a w reath w ith g rapes. L ate-fourth c entury. A nt. J X L ( 1960), 1 9, p l. V ; N eal 1 981, n o. 7 4.

A PPENDIX D :

T he T ime t aken t o l ay M osaics

T he a pparently c omprehensive i ncrease i n s peed o f l aying a fford ed b y t he i ndirect a s o pposed t o t he d irect m ethod -a nd i ts r eflect ion i n t he c ost o f a p avement -is s omething w hich s hould b e e xamined m ore c losely. E ven w ith t he i ndirect m ethods t he t esserae m ust b e s et i ndividually o nto a f abric o r i nto s and: t hey s till h ave t o b e s elected, t rimmed, a nd f inally a pplied. W orking o n a b ench i nstead o f o n t he g round f acilitates t he t ask , p rocesses a ssociated w ith t hese a dvantages.

b ut

t here a re t edious

T he i ndirect m ethods e ncourage a s tandardization o f d esigns,

b ut

t here i s a t endency f or w ork t o b ecome s implified a nd, t herefore, u ndervalued. S avings c an o ccur w hen o ne w orker s pecializes i n a s ingle a spect o f d esign : h e b ecomes i ncreasingly p roficient a nd i s m ore d ependent o n f ellow w orkers. T his i s t he k ind o f e conomy s ugg ested b y S alviati ( 1865, 3 5) f or w all m osaic. W ith s tandardization t he m ain s avings a re a ttributable n ot t o i ncreased s peed o f t esserae f ixing b ut t o t he c hange i n t he o rganisation o f t he c raft w hich i t e ngenders. W hen u sed a lone, f or a s ingle m osaic, b y m en o rganised a long

t he t raditional l ines

( for t he u se o f

t he d irect m ethod)

t hey

w ould p romise a m uch l ess s ubstantial i ncrease i n s peed. M ajor s avings a re o nly m ade w hen t he c raftsman b ecomes l ittle m ore t han a n a ssembler o f t esserae. I n a ny i ndividual m osaic t he d ifferences p attern ( in t erms o f a lignment a nd c ontrast o f t esserae) a nd s ize t esserae a re o f p aramount

o f o f

i mportance.

I n a r econstruction o f t he h ead o f V enus, f rom B ignor, S ussex, R .J. S myth s tates ( pers. c omm .; M osaic 2 ( 1980), 1 6-18) t hat a d esign t wo f eet i n d iameter', p lus t he s urrounding ' Z p attern, t ook 7 ,500 t esserae. A r ecord w as k ept o f t he f inest w ork , c omprising t he h air, l ower b ust, n imbus a nd f ace. T his t ook 3 ,000 t esserae, ( each 0 .4 e ms t hick a nd v arying b etween 0 .4 e ms

( i.e.

c ubic)

a nd 0 .8 e ms s q.

s ur-

f ace a rea) a nd t wenty-seven h ours o f w ork. T his i ncluded t he t ime n eeded t o c ut t he c ube-stock f rom i ndustrial t iles. S myth m entions t hat a ' great d eal o f t ime w as t aken u p i n f inding t he c orrect s hades o f c olour . H e a lso u sed a rtificial l ight, a nd e mployed a v ariant o f t he p lain i ndirect m ethod. o f 3 0 s econds f or e ach t essera l aid. F urther

I t

w ork b y S myth i llustrates

s uggests

t he e ffect

a c omposite f igure

o f m orphology

a nd

a lignment o f t esserae o n t hese c omposite t otals. I n a n a ttempt a t a a m edallion c astellated b order p attern w ith a f leur d e L ys m otif', e ms c ubed, 2 1" i n d iameter a nd c omposed o f t esserae w hich w ere 2 .4 a s wastika p attern w ith a H owever, t ook t wo h ours t o c omplete. c entral d uplex k not' t ook t he s ame t ime y et w as ' 2 x 3 f eet' i n a rea , a nd c omprised t he s ame s ize t esserae a s t he f ormer p anel. I n t he f irst i nstance, t herefore, t esserae w ere l aid a t t he r ate o f t hree p er m inute, a nd i n t he s econd i nstance a t t he r ate o f s ix p er m inute. T his d ifference w as a ttributed t o t he n ecessary c utting a nd a lterat ion o f I n

t esserae t o f it g eneral,

i t

t he c urving d esign o f i s

t he f ormer.

i mpossible t o b e m ore p recise

t han

t his:

i ndividual m osaics c an p resent s o m any c ombinations o f s uch f actors. T imes s uggested b y c omposite t otals c an m erely a ct a s a g uide t o t he f inal f igure. W .E. N ovis, a c raftsman w ith a l ifetime's e xperience o f

m osaic

r enovation h as s uggested a c omposite r ate o f 1 20

p rogress

o f

just over one square foot per day for a mosaicist using tesserae \ -�" sq. (0.8-1.2 ems sq.). This accounts for the laying of foundtions, cutting of cube-stock, and finishing off (factors which affect all three methods of laying to a similar degree) as well as the time taken to actually apply the tesserae. It accords well with the speeds suggested above· for the Venus medallion, where an area of 1\ sq. feet (c. 0.16 sq. m), using tesserae of between \ - 1/6" (0.8-0.4 ems sq.), took three days to tessellate. Other good insights are provided by-the reproduction of the Great pavement from Woodchester, by Wotton Mosaics (Mosaic 4 (1981), 10-15). The replica of the Orpheus mosaic (pl. 53) was made from tesserae of coloured clay extruded and bonded onto a transparent sheet placed over photographs of the mosaic (taken in the form of full-size projections when the mosaic was last opened to the public in 1973). This variant of the plain indirect method progressed at a rate of 2 sq. feet per day (0.18 sq. m per day) when using tesserae of c.\" sq. (0.8 ems sq.). One of the largest undertakings of any period is the mosai-cs of the cathedral at Monreale, nr. Palermo, Sicily (Demus 1949; Chieri­ chetti 1979, 59). Here, all the work associated with the laying of wall mosaic took about 84,000 man-days. The area covered by this work is 6,440 sq. metres, thus a rate of tessellation of c. 0.076 sq. metres per day is implied. This is very slow progress but, as a composite figure, the rate allows for all the processes associated with laying, the building of scaffolding, the raising of the raw materials to the wall face, and the clearing up operations. It seems reasonable to suggest a rate of c. 0.1 sq. metres per day for these mosaicists had they been working at ground level. When one considers that some of the tesserae in the cathedral were about 0.5 ems sq. (very small) and of glass or enamel i.e. specially prepared, this is a rate of progress comparable to those suggested by Smyth and Novis. Apart from an entry in Diocletian's edict concerning maximum prices, dictating the highest wage of a worker in tessellation (SO denarii per day with maintenance: Frank 1959, 338), there is little indication of how much mosaic cost in antiquity. However, some modern insights are useful. Certainly, the laying of mosaic is a slow process; it is labour This expense is often very intensive and therefore very expensive. revealing, for mosaic is seldom portable and its presence reflects a steady confidence. This has certainly been the assumption of Brani­ gan (1972) and Dauphin (1980). Three examples, from various periods, show how costly such.undertakings could have been. Hoare (1819, 125) speaks of copying the paintings of Raphael (the Transfigurtion, on the walls of St. Peter's, Rome) and Leonardo's 'The Last Supper' in mosaic work - in opus vermiculatum. The former was estimated to cost £ 4-5,000, the latter £7,500. This was at prices prevailing in 1820, and so can be multiplied by about 25 to obtain a comparable present day figure. The mosaic of 'The Last Supper' was only 24' x 11' (288 sq. feet or 26 sq. metres), but was of minute tesserae which Hoare says were specially prepared and (as far as the enamel ones were concerned) could be amended by heat treatment. 121

The work of Salviati has already been mentioned. In 1865 he notes that work done at Wolsey Chapel, Windsor, would have cost at least £20,000 if done by the direct method, but in fact cost £4,725. The area covered was over 2,000 sq. feet (c. 180 sq. metres), and although he does not mention the tesserae size, it seems clear that we are dealing with work which was much cruder than that contemplated by Hoare. Both figures - £ 20,000 or £4,725 - remain considerable when adjusted by 20 x to account for contemporary price levels. Only very recently, in fact, renovations of part of the re­ discovered Orpheus mosaic at Littlecote Park, Wilts., have cost over £100,000. The work was to restore the pavement to the original design (as shown in a tapestry in Littlecote House, and as drawn by Vertue) from the 40% which remained. Ceramic tesserae were used which ranged in size between � and t sq. (1.2 - O. 6 ems sq.). 11

II

122

A PPENDIX E :

S mith

A N ote o n t he C hronology o f S econd a nd T hird C entury M osaics ( 1975) p rovides

t he m ost c onvincing t ypology ( perhaps

t he

o nly t ypology) f or R omano-British m osaics ' before t he f ourth c ent ury'. T he c hronology s uggested h ere -w hich f orms t he b ackground t o p art I I -is v ery m uch i ndebted t o h is w ork. H owever, m osaics o f t he f irst c entury a re n ot a s ignificant f eature o f t he p resent s urvey; a lso,

t here

a re s ome n ew m osaics

t o c onsider a nd

s ome n ew i deas

t o

d evelop. 1 .1 T he

s ummary-list o f p avements u nder c onsideration i n t his i nst-

a nce, a nd f ollows:

c ategorised

a ccording t o g eometric

a rrangement,

i s

a s

D esigns d erived f rom L ozenge P atterns C olchester I I,

p avement A ( pl.

7 ;

H ull 1 958,

p l.

XIIIb) X

C olchester X XXIV, p avement A ( Hull 1 958, p l. V II) V erulamium I V, h ouse 2 , m osaic 6 ( Wheeler 1 936, p l. X L) V erulamium I V, h ouse 8 , r oom 6 ; a f ragment ( ibid., p l. X LVIIIa) S ilchester X IV,

h ouse 1 ,

r oom 2 2

( Arch .

L V,

p l.

X IL)

E ccles, K ent ( Arch. C ant. L XXX ( 1965), f rontispiece) C aerwent V II, r oom 7 ( Arch. L VIII, p l. X ) B oxmoor, H erts.; r oom 3 ( pl. 2 2) C olchester, C ulver S treet ( pl. 2 7) C olchester, N orth H ill, m osaic A ( pl. 2 1) C aerwent, V II, r oom 6 ( fragments o f a d esign w ith ' L'-shaped i nsets) S ilchester, X IV, h ouse 2 , r oom 1 2 ( Arch. L V ( 1896), p l. X V) C irencester, V ictoria R oad ( pl. 1 6b) R apsley, S urrey; r oom 4 ( Sy. A rch. C oils. L XV ( 1968), Pl. V II) B ox ,

W ilts;

r oom V I ( pl.

2 5)

N ine P anel D esigns/Irregular S altire D esigns V erulamium, C olchester,

X XVIII, h ouse 3 , r oom 9 ( pl. 1 3) ' Berryfield m osaic ( Hull 1 958, p l.

XXIV) X

S ilchester, X IX , h ouse 2 , r oom A ( Boon 1 974, p l. 2 8) G loucester, 1 3-17, B erkeley S treet ( Neal 1 981, n o. 5 4) W est M ersea , f ound 1 767 ( V.C.H. E ssex I II ( 1963), Pl. X XIII) H igh W ycombe,

B ucks.;

r oom 1 ( pl.

2 3)

C olchester, C olchester, C olchester,

N orth H ill ( pls.11 a nd 1 2a) N orth H ill, p avement B ( Neal 1 981, N orth H ill, p avement C ( Neal 1 981,

C olchester, V erulamium ,

T hree C ups I nn ( Hull 1 958, I V, h ouse 8 , m osaic 8 ( pl.

C olchester,

V ictoria I nn ( pl.

V erulamium ,

I V ,

n o. 3 9) n o. 4 0)

p l. X XIIIa) 2 6)

2 9)

h ouse 1 , m osaic 7 ( pl.

2 0)

W adfield, G los., ( Dent 1 877, f . p .13) G ayton T horpe, N orf.; r oom L ( Norf. A rch.

X XIII

( 1929),

G reat W itcombe, G los.; r oom 1 0 ( T.B.G.A.S. L XXIII a) W alton Heath , S urrey ( Rainey 1 973, p l. 3

p l.

( 1954),

I )

p l.

V II)

I rregular S altires a nd d eveloped N ine-Panel D esigns W inchester,

U pper B rook S treet

( J.R .S.

V erulamium, X XI, h ouse 2 , r oom 4 ( pl. F ishbourne , r oom N 7 ( pl. 1 5) N orth L eigh, C irencester,

O xon.; r oom 1 ( pl. 3 4) D yer S treet, m osaic B ( pl.

L eicester, V ine S treet ( pls. 1 7-19) L incoln , E xchequergate ( Morgan 1 886,

p l. X VIa)

8 )

1 38)

C irencester, V ictoria R oad ( pl. 1 6b) S ilchester, X XVII, h ouse 1 , r oom 1 6: ( S.A .L.) S ilchester, C olchester,

X L1X ( 1959), 3 0)

D rawings i n F ox C ollection ,

X XVII, h ouse 1 , r oom 2 7: D rawings i n F ox C ollection. M iddleborough C upids m osaic ( pls. 3 2 a nd 3 3)

D esigns w ith O ctagonal P anels i n G rid F ormation L eicester,

B lackfriars m osaic

( pl.

1 )

L eicester, S t. N icholas S treet m osaic ( pls. 5 a nd 6 ) S ilchester, X IV, h ouse 1 , r oom 2 4; A rch . L V ( 1896), Pl.

X I

C rondall, H ants.; ( Smith 1 975, p l. C XXIIIi) B ath , B ridewell L ane ( Cunliffe 1 969, p l. L XXXIIa) G reat W itcombe,

G los.;

r oom 5 ( T.B.G.A.S.

L XXIII ( 1954),

P l.

V III)

C irencester, C ongregational C hurch s ite ( Ant. J . L XII1 ( 1973), p l. X XXIIIb) G loucester, 1 0-18, E astgate S treet ( Ant. J . L II ( 1972), P l. X c) C irencester , D orchester,

L ocke's T imber Y ard F ordington H igh

( pl. 1 6a) S treet

f rontispiece) C irencester, D yer S treet, m osaic A ( pl.

( R .C.H.M .

1.3 1

( 1970),

9 )

S ingle o ctagonal p anels d isplayed: C olchester, L eicester ,

R ed L ion H otel

( Hull 1 958,

C yparissus m osaic

G ayton T horpe,

N orfolk;

( V.C.H.

X XIVb)

p l.

L eics.

I ( 1907),

P l.

r oom 1 ( Norf. A rch. X XIII ( 1929),

I II) P l.

X III)

A rrays o f A quatic/Marine C reatures B ath, B luecoat S chool ( Cunliffe 1 969, p l. G reat W itcombe, G los.; r oom 6 ( T.B.G.A .S. C irencester,

D yer S treet

( Toynbee 1 962,

S qaure P anels w ith C oncentric, C olchester, B ath,

R ed L ion H otel

R oyal U nited H ospital

L XXXIa) L XXIII ( 1954),

p l.

2 13)

R ectilinear B orders

( Hull 1 958,

p l.

( Cunliffe 1 969,

A ldborough, L ion a nd T ree m osaic ( pl. 3 5b) W ell, N orth Y orks. ( Gilyard-Beer 1 951, p l.

X XIVc) p l.

L XXXIIb)

I Xa)

W hitton S uffolk; m osaic 1 ( P.S.I.A. X XI ( 1931-3), p lan c ) G loucester, 1 0-18, E astgate S treet ( Neal 1 981, n o. 5 6) A ldborough, S tar m osaic ( pl. 3 5a) E xeter, f orum s ite ( Bidwell 1 979, p l. X V) C olchester, d rawing i n C olchester M useum

1 24

P l.

V I)

O ther S ignificant D esigns

( not

e xhaustive)

C anterbury,

K ings Head I nn ( Gents. M ag.

V erulamium, G loucester ,

I V, h ouse 8 , m osaic 1 0 , ( pl. 2 4) L ongsmith S treet C ar P ark s ite ( Neal 1 981,

1 805,

p t.

i ,

1 6) n o. 5 3)

S ilchester, X IV, h ouse 1 , r oom 2 7 ( Arch. L V ( 1896), Pl. X IV) C olchester , M iddleborough ( radial d esign): ( Mosaic 4 ( 1981), C olchester I I, p avement B ( Hull 1 958, p l. X V) C hichester, s outh a isle o f c athedral ( Neal 1 981, n o. 2 0)

f ig.

3 )

Y ork, f rom a ' townhouse ( R.C.H.M. Y ork I ( 1962), p l. 2 3a) C aerleon, m osaic f ound i n 1 692 ( Camden's B ritannia, 6 03) F olkestone,

r oom 4 0 ( Winbolt 1 932,

p l. X IV)

B rislington , A von; m osaics 1 a nd 2 ( T.B.G.A .S. X XIII ( 1900), a nd V , r espectively) C arisbrooke, I .O.W., r oom D ( Neal 1 981, n o. 1 8) C aerwent, m osaic f ound

i n 1 778

( Arch.

X XXVI

p ls.

I V

p l. X XIV)

( 1856),

C ombe S t. N icholas ( P.S.A.N.H.S. I ( 1849), Pl. I ) F ishbourne , r oom N 13 ( Cunliffe 1 971, p l. X LIII) F ishbourne, F ishbourne ,

r oom N 8 ( ibid., p l. L VIIIb) r oom N il ( Cunliffe 1 971, p l.

F ishbourne,

r oom N 5a ( ibid.,

W interton , B uilding r espectively) C irencester,

X IV,

G ,

p l.

L VIc)

L XXXVb)

r ooms 1 3 a nd 1 5

h ouse 2 , m osaic 1 ( Ant.

( Neal 1 981,

n os.

J . X LIX ( 1969),

8 1 a nd 8 2, p l.

X XXVIIB)

C aerleon , Headquarters b uilding, a l abyrinth ( Bull. B . C eltic S t. 1 8, I p t. i ii ( 1959), Pl. I) V erulamium , I I, h ouse 7 ( Wheeler 1 936, p l. X XXIX) L eicester, T hree p avements f rom B lackfriars S treet ( V.C.H. L eics, I ( 1907), p ls. I V a nd V , a fter N ichols' ' History o f L eicester' I ) L atimer, V I)

B ucks.;

m osaics

i n r ooms 2 7 a nd 2 2

( Branigan 1 971,

L ondon, M ilk S treet ( Neal 1 981, n o. 6 4) C hichester , C athedral, r oom 1 ( Down a nd R ule 1 971,

p l.

I n t he s econd c entury o nly a fter a bout 1 30 A .D.

p ls.

V a nd

6 )

c an f ully i ndi-

g enous d evelopments b e p laced w ithin a u seful h istorical f ramework . A fter t his d ate, r ather t han t reat e ach o f t he a bove c ategories o f d esign s eparately, t he v arious s trands o f a ll c an b e b rought a nd t heir i nterrelationship a ssessed. B efore

c .

t ogether

1 30 t he o nly s ignificant a nd w ell d ated r emains

a re

f rom F ishbourne. S ome s ites -the l egionary b ath h ouse a t E xeter f or e xample, ( Bidwell 1 979, p l. X VI) -furnish a dditional e vidence, b ut t his i s f ragmentary. O ther p avements, w hich a re r easonably w ell p reserved, c annot b e d ated w ith c ertainty t o s uch a n e arly p hase. A t

F ishbourne

t he

p avements f rom r oon N 3

s quares a djacent t o e ight-lozenge s tars, s quares), r oom W 8 ( a s cheme b ased o n s quares, w ith t ilted s quares i n t he o f c ruciforms a lternating w ith r ows a ble o n ' external e vidence' t o 7 5-80

o f

s paced

s eparated b y s mall,

( a

g rid

t ilted

o ctagons a round a djacent, s paced i nterspaces) a nd r oom N 12 ( rows o f s paced s quares) a re a ll d atA .D., ( Cunliffe 1 971, 1 45-50).

A ll a re b ased o n a rrangements o f l ozenges. I t i s d ifficult t o c ateg orise o ther m osaics f rom t he f irst m osaic p hase a t t his s ite, e .g. r oom N 5 ( a f ragment s howing t wo t hin , b lack b order l ines; r oom N 4 ( a l attice w ork o f r ectangles a nd s quares); a nd r oom N 20 ( an i mpressive 1 25

r oundel

o f c able a nd f loral b orders,

w ith a mphorae d epicted i n

t he

s pandrels), b ut t hey t oo a re c ertainly b efore 1 00 . P recursors o f t he n ine-panel a rrangements a nd s quare p anels a re known ( see m osaics N i, N 19, a nd W 6 f rom F ishbourne : C unliffe 1 971, p ls. L XXIX , L XXXa , a nd L XXIVa, r espectively), a lthough t here i s, a pparently, n o i ndigenous l ink b etween t hese a nd t he s econd c entury d evlopment o f s uch g eomet rical f ormats. T his i s a lso t rue o f t he p ossible f irst c entury d esign f rom C aerwent X II, 3 6 ( Arch. L IX ( 1905), Pl. L XVIII). T he m osaic f rom E ccles, K ent ( see a bove) -a d esign b ased o n a n a rrangement o f e ight-lozenge s tars a nd s quares e nclosing a n e nlarged, c entral p anel -again c ould b e v ery e arly, p ossibly o f t he l ate-first o r e arly-second c entury ( Arch. C ant. L XXX ( 1965), 9 0-91). T he a ppearance o f s uch a f igured p avement a t a n e arly d ate w ould b e I nteresting c ombat); ( ibid.,

( reconstructed

b y D .S.

N eal t o s how t wo g ladiators

i n

h owever, t he e vidence f or t his d ating i s f ar f rom c onvincing 7 1), a nd t he d esign c ould b e c onsiderably l ater ( see b elow ,

s ection 1 .2).

1 .2

T he M id-Second C entury t o c . B y t he m iddle o f

1 70

t he s econd c entury t wo m osaics f rom C olchester,

b oth o f w hich a re d ated o n e xternal e vidence ( Hull 1 958, 7 9), e laborate d esigns o f l ozenge p atterns. T hese a re t he m osaics I i nsula I, s quares a nd

a re

p avement A , a nd a n a rrangement o f e ight-lozenge t ilted s quares, f rom i nsula X XXIV.

s how f rom s tars,

T he f ormer i s b ordered b y a s ingle b lack l ine a nd t he l ozenges f illed -b oth e arly f eatures i n m osaics a t F ishbourne -b ut t he

p eltae f orms)

m otifs a bsent

( pl. 7 b) a re o f a k ind ( emphasizing s emi-octagonal i n t hat e arly c ontext. T he s ame a pplies t o t he s mall

p anels o f g uilloche w hich f rame t he c entral m edallion ( pl. 7 b). T he f loral m otifs a nd t he c entral f lower a re a lso i nnovative, i f t he d ating i s a ccurate. T he l atter m osaic, a gain , d isplays a b lack, r homboidal, i nfilling o f l ozenges, b ut t his t ime t he p resence o f t wo, s ingle p etals ( in p arallel, o val c ompartments s ituated b etween t he r esidual e ight-lozenge s tars) a nd t he c omprehensive u se o f i nterlace a round t he c entral m edallion a nd o uter b order, s uggest a s lightly l ater d ate t han t hat o f W ith b oth m osaics,

t he m osaic f rom i nsula I I. h owever,

w e s ee t he b eginnings o f a n e labora -

t ion o f t he v arious a pproaches t o d esigns b ased o n l ozenges a nd, i n b oth i nstances, t he c entralisation o f t hese d esigns a round e nlarged, c entral p anels. T his c entralisation i s t he m ost o bvious f eature o f t he m osaic f rom E ccles, K ent. T he b order o f g uilloche w hich e ncloses a l arge c entral s quare ( which c ould h ave b een e ffective a s a ' pseudoe mblema')

a nd

t he o uter b order o f

t hree-strand

g uilloche,

. as

s ug -

g ested a bove, a re p erhaps i ndications o f a t l east a m id-second c ent ury d ate ( and p ossibly l ater). I t i s t rue t hat t he g eometric s truct ure o f t he m osaic o wes m uch t o t he s cheme o f F ishbourne e xample ( Neal 1 981, n o. 4 3), b ut t he p resence o f f igures w ith t he t heme C olchester: p l. s ection 1 .3),

N 3, f or ( compare

i llustrated i n t he m uch f iner C upids m osaic 3 2) i n s uch a c entral, s cenic c omposition

i s s urely a m ore i mportant f eature i n t his

R ecently ( Frere 1 981),

f rom ( see

r espect.

t here h ave b een s ome d oubts e xpressed a s 1 26

t o

t he

a ccuracy

o f W heeler's d ates f or m any o f

t he

p avements

a t

V erulamium. M ost m ight h ave b een d ated t en , p erhaps t wenty, y ears t oo e arly. A b and o f t wenty y ears w as u sually a llowed b y W heeler h owever, a nd s o t hese d ates c an b e a djusted w ithout t oo m uch d iscomf ort. T he d ate o f m osaic 6 , f or e xample -t wo m osaics i n e ffect, t he l arger o f w hich w as a lmost c ertainly a q uincunx a rrangement o f o ctag onal s tars

p anels, a nd t he s maller w hich w as a d esign o f e ight-lozenge a nd s quares -is p robably m ore a ccurately d escribed a s o f c .

1 50-170 A .D. S ome o f t he v aried b orders , i ncluding t horn a nd w avec rest p attern , i vy s croll i n a p anel b etween t he t wo, a nd t he s wast ika m eander i n t he p anels o f t he l arger, m ight s upport t his. I f s uch a d ating i s a cceptable, t he p avement o f i nsula X IV, h ouse 1 , 2 2, S ilchester, m osaic 6 , m ust

r oom w ith

w hich s hares m any g eneral d ecorative d evices a lso b e o f t he t hird q uarter o f t he s econd

c entury ( as p roposed b y S mith 1 975, m ent f rom Y ork : R .C.H.M . Y ork I , p anels

f ramed

2 72). 1 962,

b y g uilloche s trips w ere

( Another q uincunx a rrangep l. 2 3a , w here c ircular i nterspaced

w ith

r esidual

h exagons, m ust b e a ssigned a c omparable d ate). B roadly

c ontemporary w ith t he m osaics o f

i nsula I I a nd X XXIV a t

C olchester i s t he d evelopment o f t he o ctagonal p anelled g rid. E arly e xamples a re n otable i n L eicester: i n S t. N icholas S treet a 3 x 3 a rrangement w as f ound, t he c entral p anel o f w hich c ontained a p eacock ( with o pen t ail); a t t he B lackfriars s ite a nother 3 x 3 a rrangement d isplayed p anels c ontaining ' whirling-wheel d esigns a nd o ther i ntric ate g eometrical c onfigurations ( see p art I ,

s ection 3 .6).

B oth o f

t hese m osaics a re n ow k nown t o h ave i ncluded t esserae m ade f rom S amian f orms, w hich a fford a t erminus p ost q uem o f 1 40-145 ( Mosaic I ( 1979), 1 0-11). I t s eems r easonable t herefore, t o d ate t hem b oth t o c . 1 50-160 . I t i s p ossible t hat t his p ottery w as i n c irculation f or m any y ears p rior t o i ts i nclusion i n t he m osaics; i ndeed, s ome i dentical, T rajanic, S amian f orms, i n S cotland a re d iscovered i n A ntonine I c ontexts. E ven a llowing f or s uch ' curation' h owever, t hese d ates a re f ar m ore a ccurate t han t hose w hich w e p reviously p ossessed

f or t hese w orks,

a nd a re m ore a ccurate t han i s u sual.

M osaics o f a s imilar c onfiguration, i n d ecoration, C XXIIIi) p eriod.

e .g.

a lthough w ith s ome c ontrasts

t hose f rom C rondall,

H ants.

( Smith 1 975,

p l.

a nd S ilchester, X IV, h ouse 1 , r oom 2 4, s uggest a c omparable T he a ffinities b etween t hese Hampshire p avements a nd t he

p avements f rom L eicester a re n ot g reat, b ut i t i s d ifficult ( in l ight o f t he e vidence f rom L eicester) t o c onsider e ither o f t hese p avements a s

o f

o ther t han t he m id-late

s econd

c entury.

I n

c ontrast,

i t

a ppears a lmost c ertain t hat a nother 3 x 3 a rrangement, f rom G reat W itcombe, G los., r oom 5 , i s d atable t o t he s ame p hase a s t he L eicest er b uilding. I t c omprises s imilar r adial g eometric p atterns, e xhibiting d esigns w hich S mith ( 1975, t ical w ith t hose o f

2 83)

t he B lackfriars m osaic.

j udges

t o b e a lmost

T here a re,

i den-

i n f act,

n o

r adial, g eometric d evices f rom L eicester p aralleled e xactly a t G reat W itcombe : t his o bservation a lone d ictates c aution . H owever, S amian ( forms 2 0 , 2 1, a nd 2 9) i nclusions a re a gain p resent a nd p rovide t he n ecessary c orroboration o f a d ate i n t he m id-late s econd c entury, p robably c .

1 60-180 .

T he r emaining,

m ore f ragmentary p avements,

f rom B ridewell L ane,

B ath; 1 0-18, E astgate S treet, G loucester ( a 4 x 4 a rrangement); L ocke's T imber Y ard, C irencester, ( pl. 1 6a); a nd t he C ongregational 1 27

C hurch S ite,

C irencester,

a re m ore d ifficult

t o p lace.

S uch e vidence

a s t here i s, f rom t he G loucester s ite ( Ant. J . L II ( 1972), 5 0) a nd t he C ongregational C hurch S ite ( Ant. J . L ill ( 1973), 2 01) s uggests d ates i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c entury. T he e vidence f or t he o ther t wo p avements i s i nconclusive, a lthough t he p resence o f a ' holl owed p elta i n o ne o f t he p anels o f t he m osaic f rom L ocke's T imber Y ard i s c omparable t o t hose o f t he N orth H ill m osaic ( pl. 2 1) f rom C olchester ( almost s ection 1 .3). O ne

o f

c ertainly

t he m ost

a w ork o f

i nstructive o f

t he

s econd

c entury,

t he r egular n ine-panel

s ee

d esigns

i .e. d esigns w ith r ectangular a nd s quare p anels, i s t hat f rom V erulam ium , i nsula X XVII, h ouse 3 , r oom 9 ( pl. 1 3). T his h as a s quare p anel a t t he c entre, f eaturing a c antharus w ith w ater j ets, i n w hose h andles a re e ntwined t he t ails o f t wo f lanking d olphins. S urprising c onceptual p arallels a re a fforded h ere b y c omparison w ith a f ragment ary d esign, a gain f rom V erulamium ( pl. 1 4) w hich a gain s hows a c antharus s upporting d olphins. A lthough l ittle r emained o f t he o ther p anels o f t he l atter, ( and t hat w hich d oes r emain a ppears t o b e o f a n i nferior s tandard w hen c ompared w ith t hat o f p l. 1 3) t he w ork i s s urely o f a s imilar p eriod. B oth p avements c ould t herefore d ate t o a t ime b efore t he A ntonine f ire ( Ant. J . XXIX ( 1959), 1 3), i .e . c . X 1 40-160 . A nother n ine-panel d esign, m ore

p robably,

t he

f rom t he T hree C ups I nn

B erryfield

m osaic

( both f rom

s ite,

C olchester)

d atable t o a s imilar p eriod. T he l atter h as e laborate f igures s eabeasts a nd a f lower o f f our h eart-shapes o ver a r hombus ( such h ave p arallels, r espectively, p avement A ; s ee s ection 1 .3)

a t F ishbourne N 7,

T wo o ther n ine-panel d esigns,

a nd, a re o f a s

a nd a t N orth H ill,

f rom S ilchester X IX,

h ouse 2 ,

r oom

A , a nd 1 3-17, B erkley S treet, G loucester, w ere v ery f ragmentary . L ittle c an b e s aid o f t hese: t he f ormer, c ertainly, i s s tylistically u nique ( Boon 1 974, 2 18, a ccepts a f ourth c entury d ating o f t he w ork) b ut i f i ncluded h ere w ould b e d ifficult t o p lace a fter c . 2 00. I n t he G loucester p avement, a b order o f r homboids i n s eries a nd a b order o f ' cornice p attern' a re n otable. T ogether t hey s uggest a d ate i n t he s econd h alf o f

t he s econd c entury,

i f n ot c .

1 60-180 :

c ornice

p attern ( Smith 1 975, 2 74) i s a f amiliar o rnament i n a n umber o f l ater s econd c entury m osaics ( in t he H igh W ycombe p avement ( pl. 2 3), a nd i n t he L eicester p avements, a bove), a nd r homboids i n s eries a re f ound, f or e xample , i n t he q uincunx a rrangement f rom Y ork ( above) a nd m osaic 7 , V erulamium ( pl. T he

m osaic

2 0). f rom H igh W ycombe i s

a nother

r egular,

n ine-panel

d esign . H ere , h owever, o ne o f t he s mall s quares i s f igured ( a b ust) a nd t he c ontents o f t he o ther c orner p anels a re d estroyed. . I n t he t wo r ectangular p anels a re s ingle r homboids, w ith s ingle, h eart s haped l eaves

i n e ach a ngle.

T he w hole a rrangement

i s

b ordered b y a

t wo- strand g uilloche. T o t he ' top' a nd ' bottom' a re n arrow , r ect a ngular, b order p anels, d ecorated w ith i ndividual d olphins ( not d iss imilar t o t hose f rom V erulamium : p ls. 1 3 a nd 1 4). F ortunately, t his p avement a lso i ncluded s ome S amian s herds w hich, a s t he e labora te d esign o f t he m osaic m ight s uggest, w ere o f t he p eriod 1 50-175 ( Rec. B ucks. X VI ( 1959), 4 9-53), i .e. p robably 1 0-20 y ears a fter b oth t he s herds o f t he L eicester p avements a nd t he e arlier n ine-panel g rid 1 28

d esigns f rom V erulamium . T his, t herefore, i s p ossibly o ne o f t he l atest r egular n ine-panel g rid d esigns i n t he e ast o f B ritain , ( the w est f urnishes s ome i diosyncratic w orks, e .g. t he m osaics f rom W adfield a nd G reat W itcombe , r oom 1 0 , w hich c ould b e l ater), p ossibly c omtemporaneous w ith t he q uincunx a rrangement f rom Y ork a nd t he b ulk o f t he w est c ountry p avements w hich e xhibit o ctagonal p anels, ( see b elow). T he p artially p reserved p avement f rom N orth H ill, C olchester ( pls. 1 1 a nd 1 2a) a lso h as a c omparable d istribution o f s ingle , l arge r homboids, c ornice p attern ( contrast t his w ith t hat o f t he B lackf riars m osaic:

p ls.

4 a a nd 4 b)

a nd t horn p attern b orders,

a nd y et i s

p robably a l ittle e arlier t han t he H igh W ycombe p avement. M ore c omparable i n s tyle i s t he m osaic f ound o n t he s ite o f t he T hree C ups I nn ( pl.

1 2b s ee a bove).

t he p eriod 1 50-180 , a nd H igh W ycombe.

A ll

t hree e xamples,

T his d ating i s e specially s ignificant, t he

t hird

a nd

h owever,

p erhaps i n t he s equence :

f ourth q uarters o f

a re d atable t o

T hree C ups,

f or i t

s eems

N orth H ill

t hat b etween

t he s econd c entury f urther d evelop-

m ents o f s chemes o ccurred. T his a s tep w hich w as a s i mportant f or t he d esign o f R omano-British m osaics a s w as t he i nitial e laboration o f l ozenge p atterns, t he u se o f o ctagonal p anels, a nd t he f eaturing o f a c entral s quare a t 1 .3

t he c entre o f

t he r egular n ine-panelled g rid.

T he L ater S econd C entury I t

i s

t he s tylistic s imilarities o f

t he H igh W ycombe p avement

t o

t wo e laborate n ine-panel d esigns f rom N orth H ill, C olchester ( Neal 1 981, n os. 3 9 a nd 4 0), w hich s uggests t hat t he l atter m ay b e o f t he t hird q uarter o f t he s econd c entury. W hen e xcavated t he p avements w ere a ssigned t o t he m id-second c entury ( Arch. J . C XXIII ( 1967), 4 04 2), w ith a n i mplication t hat a d ate s oon a fter t he Hadrianic b uildi ng p hase l ater d ate, M osaics

w as m ost p robable. p ossibly c . 1 50-180 , B

B elow i t w ill b e m aintained i s m ore a pplicable .

a nd C f rom N orth H ill,

t hough

n ot

t hat

i dentical,

a

a re

s tylistically v ery c lose. O ne o f t hese m osaics ( mosaic C ) h as a r ectangular b order o f s uperposed t riangles, c omparable t o t hat o f t he H igh W ycombe m osaic. T horn p attern i s c onspicuous i n b oth -around t he c entral s quare i n m osaic C a nd a round t he t wo t angent s quares i n m osaic B . B oth h ave c omparable s croll d esigns, w ith s ingle i vyl eaves o f t hree b anded c olour a t t he c entre o f e ach r oll. I n m osaic B t his c rests.

i s a d ouble r oll, I n b oth m osaics,

a nd a dditional ' petals f low f rom t he h owever, t he s croll, a long w ith a r adial

w ave-crest p attern , i s t he m ajor f raming d evice f or t he c ircular f ield. M osaic B a lso p ossesses a r igid c ornice p attern o f e rect a nd, a lternately, b ow-tipped i vy-leaf ( compare w ith t hat o f t he H igh W ycombe m osaic: p l. 2 3) a round t he c entral s quare: t his m osaic a lso h as l otus b uds i n t he s pandrels a nd s quared r osettes i n t wo o f t he t angent s quares, ( both o f w hich a re a bsent i n m osaic C ). O verall t he e ffects o f t hese p avements a re t oo c omplementary s uggest a nything o ther t han v irtual c ontemporaneity. I n r egard

t o t o

d ating, i t i s a lso s ignificant t hat m osaic B , p anel B , s upports a c antharus ( pl. 3 1) w hich i s c omparable t o t hose o f t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic, f rom V erulamium ( pl. 3 0), a m osaic w hich i s a lmost c ertainly hird c entury. S tructurally, m osaics B a nd o f t he l ate-second/early - t C a re i nnovative .

W hether o r n ot

t hey a re c ompass d rawn ( and t here1 29

f ore,

s trictly,

p art o f S mith's

t ype 2 g roup)

t hey p rovide t he g rand

i mpression o f a g rid s uperimposed o n a c ircular d esign o f c oncentric b ands, i .e. a m ixture o f s traight a nd c urved g eometries a lso v isible i n a m osaic -p erhaps o f s imilar d ate -from W alton Heath , S urrey : ( Rainey 1 973, p l. 3 a). T his i s e qually t rue o f t he o nly o ther e xample o f t his f ormat: m osaic 7 , V erulamium ( pl. 2 0). r espects t his i s a s implified v ersion o f t he N orth H ill

I n m any m osaics,

c ontaining s ome c ontrasting f eatures, e .g. a b order o f r homboids i n s eries, s aw-tooth p attern a s o ne o f t he c oncentric c ircular b ands, a nd s implified v ersions o f t he r osettes p resent i n p avement B . O ne o f

t he c oncentric b ands,

h owever,

i s a gain o f w ave-crest p attern ,

a nd

t he r osettes o f t he c orner s quares c an b e p aralleled i n t he o ctagonal p anels o f p anel B , m osaic B . A bove a ll, m osaic 7 , i n i ts c entral s quare ,

d isplays a s urprising m ixture o f a ffinities:

c ompares

w ell w ith t hat

l otus b uds w hich, s imilar p osition.

a t

t he c entre o f m osaic C ,

a d ahlia w hich N orth H ill,

a nd

t hough c ruder t han t hose o f m osaic B , o ccupy a M osaic 7 , i n f act, w as a ssigned t o t he l ate-second

c entury b y W heeler ( 1936, 1 46) a nd, a lthough t his c ould b e t he l atest o f t he t hree m osaics s howing s uch a n a rrangement, i t s uggests t hat a ll c ould b e a fter 1 60 . N ine-panel

d esigns w hich d o n ot

s how c urved b orders o r s igns o f

t he c ompass a re a lso d eveloped i n t his p eriod. W e s ee t he a doption o f a r elieved m eander f or e xample, w ith m eanders i n f our o f t he s quares, t hus l eaving f ive o ther s quares o pen t o t ake f igural d esigns o r m otif. T he m osaic f rom t he s outh a isle o f t he c athedral a t C hichester ( room 1 ), w ith a s quared r osette i n o ne o f i ts c orner p anels ( Neal 1 981, n o. 2 0), a nd t hat f rom t he s ite o f t he V ictoria I nn, C olchester ( pl. 2 9) , a re n otable e xamples. T he m ost i lluminat i ng, h owever, i s t he p avement o f i nsula I V, h ouse 8 ( mosaic 8 ), V erulamium ( pl. 2 6). I n c ontrast w ith t he t wo m osaics a bove t his h ad a n e nlarged c entral s quare ( containing a b ust o f O ceanus), w hich w as c ompensated f or i n t he m eander p attern b y t he i nclusion o f s mall r ectangles c ontaining c anthari.

T he q uality a nd o riginality o f

t he

d esign i n t he c entral p anel i s s triking: O ceanus i s m uscular, w ith a h eavy n eck a nd t hick, m atted h air, a nd y et d raws o ne i nto t he m osaic r ather t han c onfronting o ne w ith a s tark e xpression o f s trength . W heeler ( 1936, 1 46) d ates t he w ork t o t he p eriod 1 60-190 . T he c hara cter o f t he r osettes i n t he c orners a nd t heir s imilarity t o t hose a t C hichester i s n otable. T here a re n o o bvious a ffinities b etween t he V erulamium a nd C olchester e xamples h owever, a s t he l atter ( from V ictoria I nn) p reserved n o i dentifiable m otif. C ontemporary

w ith

t hese d evelopments s eems

t o

b e

t he

i ntro-

d uction o f a n ine-panel d erivative w hich s ometimes a ppears a s a n ' irregular s altire'. I n r eality, t hese d esigns m ay h ave b een b ased o n g rids o f c ircles, a nd s o d eserve t he d escription ' compass d rawn': t wo e xamples a re a m osaic f rom E xchequergate, L incoln , V ine S treet, L eicester ( pls. 1 7-19). I t i s d ifficult a bout t hose

t heir d ating. T he s quared o f o ther L eicester m osaics:

a nd.one f rom t o b e p recise

r osette-like m otif ( contrast w ith p ls. 3 b a nd 5 a) a nd t he s tyle o f

t he t hree l inked i vy-leaves o f t he l atter, i ndicate a s econd c entury d ate ( as d o t he f ew S amian f orms w ith w hich t he m osaic w as a ssociated). A t L incoln t he d esign r emains w eight t o b e p laced u pon s tylistic d etails.

t oo c rude t o a llow m uch T he ' dolphin a nd ' sea-

b east' f igures a re s ignificant ( see F ishbourne N 7, b elow), l arge, f our-petalled f lowers ( contrast w ith t hose o f p ls. 1 30

a nd f our 1 a nd 5 b)

a re

p resent.

B ut

i t

i s o nly b y c omparing t he m osaic

s imilar f ormats w hich a re m ore p recisely d ated, c . 1 60 i s i ndicated. T he m osaic f rom U pper B rook S treet,

w ith

o ther,

t hat a p eriod a fter

W inchester,

w hich f eatures

a n u rn a nd t wo s callop-shell m otifs i n t he r emaining q uarter c ircles; a c antharus a nd a b owl w ith t endrils o n t he a rms o f t he g rid; a nd a c ornucopia i n o ne o f i ts s emi-circles, w as d ated t o c . 2 00 b y i ts e xcavators ( J.R.S. X LV, 1 42). T his d ating i s n ow c omparable t o t hat o f t he p avement o f r oom N 7, F ishbourne ( pl. 1 5), i n w hich t he f amous " Cupid a nd D olphin m osaic e xhibits a s imilar s tructural a rrangement. A r evised d ate f or t he l atter -w hich , o n t he b asis o f p ottery i nclus ions w as c onsidered t o b e o f t he m id-second c entury ( Cunliffe 1 971, 1 63)

-suggests

a p eriod a t

l east a fter 1 60 ( Mosaic

4

( 1981),

8 ;

M osaic 2 ( 1980), 1 5). I n f act, r ecently, t wo p revious f loor l evels o f 7 5-80 A .D., a nd l ater, h ave b een i dentified b eneath t his m osaic ( Britannia X X ( 1981), 3 64). T ogether, t herefore, t he W inchester a nd F ishbourne m osaics f urnish s trong e vidence o f a l ate-second ( perhaps e ven t hird c entury) d ate f or t he m ajor n ine-panel t ives

i n B ritain .

T he p avements f rom L eicester a nd

L incoln

m otif e tc. o f t he E xchequergate a nd V ine S treet m osaics a gainst i t - m ight a lso b e o f t he p eriod 1 70-200 o r l ater.

a lso

c entury d eriva-the i s

n ot

A fter t he F ishbourne a nd W inchester p avements m ention s hould b e m ade o f t he f ragments o f a n ine-panel a rrangement f rom

V ictoria R oad, C irencester ( pl. 1 6b). A part f rom a n i mpressive c ollection o f b order d ecorations ( including w ave-crest p attern , t hree-strand g uilloche, s wastika m eander a round t he c entral p anel, a nd s wastika m eander a s w ell a s t hree-strand g uilloche e nclosing

t he

w hole w ork) t here a re f ew i ndications o f d ate. A c antharus i n o ne s emi-roundel i s o f t he o pen v ariety ( revealing s ome o f t he i nside s urface o f t he v essel), b ut m ore s ignificantly i t a ppears t o i nclude a l adle, s uch a s i s s een i n t he l ate-second c entury p avement f rom V erulamium ( pl. 2 6). T his, t herefore, s uggests a d ate a fter c . 1 70 ; i ndeed, i f t he d ate o f t he e laborate b orders i n a m osaic f ound i n D yer S treet ( Smith 1 975, 2 80 ; p l. 8 ) i s a nything t o g o o n , t his c ould b e s lightly t oo e arly, w ith a d ate o f c . 2 00 a ppearing m ore a ppropriate.

a nts

T hree o ther i mportant m osaics a re a lso b est u nderstood a s v ario f t he n ine-panel d esign : t he p avements f rom N orth L eigh,

O xon., ( pl. 3 4); a nd M iddleborough,

i nsula X XI, h ouse 2 , r oom 4 , V erulamium ( pl. 3 0); C olchester ( pls. 3 2 a nd 3 3). T hese m osaics a re o f

a s imilar g eneral s tructure, s howing a c ontinuity o f d ecoration f rom t he c entral p anel t o t he o uter a ngles. T he s emi-roundels a re p re s erved b ut q uarter r oundels n o l onger e xist. N orth L eigh, i n c ont rast t o t he s quare, c entral p anels o f t he l atter t wo, h as a c entral r oundel, a nd i s n earer t o t he o riginal n ine-panel, c ompass-drawn f ormat. T he b order p atterning i s, a gain , c oncentric a nd e laborate ; c omprising s uperposed t riangles ( compare w ith N orth H ill B a nd C , H igh W ycombe , a nd W alton H eath , a bove), w ave-crest p attern , a nd c hain g uilloche. T his p avement m ust b e d atable t o a t l east 1 75, a nd i s p ossibly l ater t han 2 00 . T he a rms o f t he s altire a re d ecorated w ith c anthari w hich, i f n ot c omparable w ith t hose a t V erulamium , o ccupy s imilar p ositions; s imilar h alf-flowers a lso o ccupy s emi-roundels o f b oth m osaics. T here a re d ifferences: t he V erulamium m osaic e xhibits o ne o f t he f inest f igural d isplays i n R omano-British m osaic, w ith a 131

s tately

l ion

a pparently d ragging t he h ead o f a s tag a way

f rom

t he

s pectator. B ut t he p avements c annot b e c hronologically d istant: S mith ( 1975, 2 81) c onsiders t hem t o b e t he w ork o f t he s ame m osaic i st. W ith t he d ating o f t he L ion a nd S tag m osaic t o t he l ate-second, i f n ot t he e arly-third c entury ( Ant. J . X L ( 1960), 1 6-18), t herefore, a p lace a fter c . 1 70 , f or b oth o f t hese m osaics, s eems a ssured. S uch a d ate i s a lso a pplicable t o t he t hird m osaic, f rom M iddleb orough. T his m osaic i s l ikely t o b e a l ittle e arlier a lthough i ts b uilding ( no. 7 0) s till p rovided a t erminus p ost q uem o f 1 50 , I ( Colchester A rch. R ep. II, f orthcoming).* S mith ( ibid.) c ompares i t w ith c ontinental p avements w hich h ave a s imilar s ubject, e .g. V ienne

( France),

d atable t o t he s econd h alf o f t he

s econd

c entury

( Lancha 1 981, n o. 3 18), o r T hasos ( Garlan 1 965), w hich i s o f t he l ate-second o r e arly-third c entury. I n l ight o f t he t erminus p ost q uem a nd t he h igh a esthetic q uality o f t he p avement, h e p refers a d ate b efore t he c ontinental m osaics, p robably i n t he t hird q uarter o f t he s econd c entury. I t w ould t hus b e t he f irst p avement i n a s eries w hich i ncludes t he L ion a nd S tag a nd t he N orth L eigh m osaics p ossibly d ating n earer 1 75 t han 1 50 ( pace S mith). W ith r egard t o t he l ater d ate i t s hould b e r emembered t hat b uilding 7 0 w as o ccupied, c ertainly, a s l ate a s 2 30-250 a nd, p ossibly, u pto i ts d emolition ( c. 3 00).

N ine-panel d esigns w ere o nly o ne s trand i n t he d evelopments o f t his p eriod: a nother i s t he d evolopment o f d esigns b ased o n l ozenge p atterns. D iscussion o f t he d erived n ine-panel d esigns b egan w ith m osaics B a nd C f rom N orth H ill, C olchester. P robably c ontemporane ous w ith t hese i s m osaic A , f rom t he s ame s ite. T his h as a s quare, c entral p anel ( pl. 2 1), c ontaining a v ery f ine a rrangement o f f our h eart-shaped l eaves w ith t endrils, w hich i s s et b etween f our ' L's hapes

l ine

b ordered

b y s imple g uilloche.

T he r emainder

o f

t he

d esign c omprises r esidual l ozenges c arrying s wastikas, a nd t ilted s quares c ontaining g uilloche k nots. T here a re a lso t hree v arieties o f p eltae p resent ( as f illing m otifs), i ncluding a u nique t riple p eltae a rrangement w hich e ncloses a h ollow t riangle. t he m osaic i s b ordered b y a b and o f ' L shaped b locks. I t B ritain . r educed

i s p robably t he e arliest T he

p resence

r emnants o f

o f

e xample o f t his

' L'-shapes

T he w hole

t ype o f

( themselves,

o f

d esign

i n

p ossibly

t he

s quares o nce s paced b etween e ight-lozenge s tars)

d oes o ccur m uch e arlier o n t he c ontinent, h owever, e .g. i n t he m osaic o f t he a trium o f a v illa a t L ucas F eroniae ( a m osaic o f t he f irst c entury,

v isible i n s itu),

' Tarentum S chool' T he

p avement

( M.A .A.R. f rom

o r i n t he m osaics o f X III

C ulver

( 1936), S treet,

t he e arly -A ntonine

1 17-20). C olchester

( pl.

2 7)

a lso

e xhibits ' L'-shapes, a nd i s o f t he s ame g eneral a rrangement a s t hat f rom N orth H ill. T he u se o f s imple i nfilling f or t he l ozenges, t he s imple f our-petalled f lower a t t he c entre, a nd t he b asic c ruciform w hich i s p laced i n o ne o f t he t ilted s quares, m ight s uggest s tylised a nd, t herefore , a l ater v ersion o f t he N orth H ill m osaic.

s ee b ibliography ( addenda) under C rummy ( 1984). 132

a

H owever, a bove ,

t his p avement d oes

e xhibit

a f ull e ight-lozenge s tar w hich,

w as c onsidered a p recedent o f r esidual l ozenge f ormations.

T he

d evolpment o f

' L'-shapes a round a

c entral s quare h ad

b een

h eralded, a lready, i n t he m osaic o f r oom 3 , B oxmoor ( pl. 2 2). T his p avement i s a g reat m ixture o f m otifs a nd s tructural a rrangements: e ssentially, i t i s a n e laboration o f t he q uincunx o f o ctagonal p anels ( see m osaic 6 , V erulamium, a nd t hat f rom S ilchester, X IV, h ouse 1 , r oom

2), 2

w here t he c entral o ctagon h as b een r eplaced b y a

s quare.

T he r emaining o ctagons a re, i n f act, n ot d rawn b ut m erely s uggested b y t he l ine o f t he m eandering s wastikas ( strips o f g uilloche p roduce t he

s ame

e ffect

s wastika-pelta , a nd, a bove a ll,

a round

t he

c entral

s quare).

T he

m otifs

( the

t he u rn w ith t endrils, t he c antharus i n t he m edallion t he ' L'-shaped a ngle p ieces) a re u nusual f or B ritish

m osaics o f t he m id-second c entury. I ndeed, t his w ork i s l ikely t o b e l ater t han m osaics w ith s imple q uincunx a rrangements: i t i s l ikely t o b e o f t he p eriod 1 60-190 , i .e. p robably c ontemporaneous w ith m osaic A ( and B a nd C ) f rom N orth H ill, C olchester.

b e

T hree o ther p avements w ith l ozenge a nd ' L'-shaped i nsets n oted. T wo r espectively a re f rom C aerwent V II, r oom

s hould 6 a nd

S ilchester, X IV, h ouse 2 , r oom 6 : f or t hese t he e xcavation r ecords a nd p lans a re n ot g ood, a lthough b oth a ppear t o b e o f a s imple n ature, c omparable t o t hat o f t he m osaic f rom R apsley, S urrey, ( see b elow), w hich i s d ated t o b etween 2 20-280 ( Sy. A rch. C oils. L XV ( 1968), 2 6). T he l atter m osaic i s n ot, i n f act, b ased u pon t he s ame s tructure a s t he N orth H ill d esign ( Neal 1 981, 3 4), i n s pite o f t heir o bvious a ffinites. I t o wes m ore t o a n e laboration o f t he k ind o f a rrangement s een a t B oxmoor; h ence t he r esidual, o ctagonal p anels b etween t he " L'-shapes. B lake ( M .A .A .R.

X III ( 1936),

9 5;

p l. 2 7) p rovides s ome i nsights

i nto t he p ossible o rigins o f ' angle-pieces'. M ore u seful h ere, h owever, i s t he a rgument f or ' mature a ngle-pieces ( ibid., 8 0 , p l. 1), a s 1 m osaic.

t hese m ight i ndicate p arallels f or t he ' L Wshapes o f B ritish A lso r elevant, f or t he b ordering o f o ctagons b y f illed,

I r ectangular f ields, a re m osaics f rom L yon, F rance ( R .M .G. II ., P l. L VIII) a nd O stia ( Becatti 1 961, n os. 1 71 a nd 1 43). F rejeiro ( 1978, n o. 9 , p l. 2 8) t oo, r eproduces a m osaic w hich c omprises a n e ights wastika m eander a round a c entral s quare, w ith p ossible a ngle p ieces d evolved f rom c ruciforms, ( which, o n t his o ccasion, a ppear t o b e a ssignable t o t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury). T he t hird m osaic t o b e n oted, a ppears

t o b e d evolved

h owever,

f rom a n a rrangement o f

t ilted s quares a nd i nterspaced s quares. s ame b uilding a s t he n ine-panel d esign,

i s o f

t he v ariety w hich

e ight-lozenge

s tars,

T his i s a p avement f rom t he f rom V ictoria R oad, C iren-

c ester ( considered a bove). H ere, i n f act, w e c an s ee ' L'-shapes a mong e ight-lozenge s tars ( pl. 1 6b) m ore c learly t han w as t he c ase a t N orth H ill o r C ulver S treet. T he l ozenges c arry p lain i nfill, i n t he s hape o f s maller, d ark l ozenges. T he ' L'-shapes h ave a s imple c able p attern . B oth o f t hese w ere f eatures o f t he C ulver S treet m osaic. I n c ontrast, h owever, t he c entral s quare n ow h as a n e nlarged, t ilted s quare s uperimposed o n i t. T he c orners o f t his o ccupy t hose s paces b etween t he ' L'-shapes w hich a t N orth H ill w ere f illed w ith s mall, t ilted s quares e nclosing i ndividual m otifs: b y v irtue o f i ts d efinit ion b y s imple g uilloche,

i t c omes t o b e t he f ocus o f 1 33

t he d esign.

A t

i ts

c entre

i s a s mall f lower o f

e ight p etals,

o n a

s quared

b ack-

g round. I t d oes n ot r equire g reat i magination t o s ee o ne p robable o rigin h ere o f i nterlaced s quares a s a n i ntegral e lement o f d esign. I f t his i s t he c ase t hen , a gain , w e f ace t he d ilemma o f a n i ndication o f a n e arly d ate ( the u se o f f ull, e ight-lozenge s tars) a nd a l ater d ate ( the r elationship o f t he c entral, s quare a rrangement t o t he f uture d evelopment o f i nterlaced s quares -a p redominantly f ourth c entury d evice). A s a s olution , i t s eems r easonable t o a ssign t his m osaic t o t he p eriod 1 70.200 a lthough, w hen i ts a ssociation w ith t he d erivative n ine-panel d esign i s a lso c onsidered, e xtended i nto t he t hird c entury. 1 .4

t his d ating c ould b e

T he E arly T hird C entury a nd A fter

T wo o ther i mportant r esidual l ozenge p atterns,

p avements, w hich a re b est u nderstood a s a re f rom R apsley ( Neal 1 981, n o. 6 5) a nd

B ox , W ilts., r oom 6 ( pl. 2 5). B oth a re d ifficult t o d ate w ith a ny d egree o f p recision b ut, a s i ndicated a bove ( section 1 .3), R apsley, l ike L atimer ( Branigan, 1 971, p l.VI), i s o ne o f t he f ew s ites i n B ritain t o p roduce m osaic r emains w hich a re d atable t o t he t hird c entury o n e xternal e vidence. g iven b y Hanworth a s 2 20-280 ,

T he p eriod o f t he R apsley p avement w as ( possibly l ater r ather t han e arlier).

T he m osaic i s f airly c rude, w ith a c entral s quare e nclosed b y f our ' L'-shapes w hich c arry p oorly e xecuted, t hree-strand g uilloche. B etween e ach ' L'-shape i s a n o ctagonal p anel ( as a t B ox), t wo o f w hich c arry a f lower w ith f our h eart-shaped p etals, a nd t wo o f w hich p robably c arried a s ixteen-petalled d evice. A ll o f t hese f lowers w ere p oorly p reserved. I t i s t he q uality o f t his w ork , a s w ell a s i ts r ather s tylised t reatment o f a l ate-second/early-third f ormat, w hich s uggests a d ate w ell i nto t he t hird c entury . A ttention

h as b een d rawn r ecently ( Smith 1 981),

c entury

t o t he g eneral

d emise o f t he m osaicist's c raft i n t he t hird c entury, w hen t hat w ork w hich w as d one w as e xecuted a t t he h ands o f ' amateur m osaicists'. A t l east t wo m osaics a ttributable t o t his p eriod a nd t o t his k ind o f c raftsman h ave i nterlaced s quares a s a s tructural d evice ( in a p avem ent f rom L enthay, D orset: R .C.H.M . D orset I ( 1952), p l. 1 27b) a nd a s a m otif ( in a p avement f rom C ombley. I .O.W.: N eal 1 981, n o. 4 2). I t i s t his w hich s uggests a p ossible t hird c entury d ate f or t he f ar f iner ( but i nadequately r ecorded) m osaic f rom B ox. H ere, f our o ctago nal p anels l ie a djacent t o t he c entral s quare. T here i s a n u nusu a lly l arge v ariety o f g eometric m otifs: g rids o f s mall r homboids; g uilloche l ozenges.

m at; T he

t wo, f our a nd e ight-petalled f lowers; a nd s wastika b orders a re e laborate, i ncluding a p anel o f s croll

w ork w ith i nset c alyxes, r ight-angled ' Z p attern , a nd t hree-strand g uilloche a round e ach o f t he m edallions. S ignificantly, w ith r egard t o d ate, b etween t hese m edallions a re r esidual ' L'-shapes, e ach o f w hich i s d ivided i nto t hree e qual s quares c arrying c ontrasting d ecoration . M ost i mportant o f a ll, h owever, i n t he c ontext o f t he p resent d iscussion, i s t he c entral, s quare p anel w ith i ts c learly d efined b order o f i nterlaced, s imple-guilloche s quares. I t

i s

t he t rends

c oncern h ere : t hroughout t he

i llustrated b y s uch a d evelopment w hich a re o f

t he t endency t o c entralise d esigns, s econd c entury; t he i nterlacing a nd

b orders a nd m otifs i n o rder t o i ntegrate a d esign ; t ion

o f

a nd

c ircular a nd r adial g eometries i n t he s econd 1 34

w hich o ccurs m eandering o f t he i ntroduc h alf

o f

t he

s econd

c entury.

B ritain a t

T he c ase f or t he p resence o f

t his t ime i s n ot a s trong o ne -a

r adial g eometries

n otable e xample o f

a d esign c omes f rom M iddleborough ( Mosaic 4 ( 1981), c ontinuity w ith t he r adial a rrangements o f t he f ourth c entury ( at B ignor, i s p ossible . A dmittedly,

i t

B ignor , t he m osaics t hird c entury, b ut

S ussex,

f or e xample:

i n s uch

f ig. 3 ) -b ut a l ate-third/early-

s ee p ls.

3 6 a nd 3 8)

i s d ifficult t o e nvisage s uch c onnections.

A t

( especially t hat o f p l. 3 8) m ay b e o f t he l ates how n o s pecific a ffinity w ith a ny e arly-third

c entury d esign . I t i s h ardly c redible, t herefore, t hat s uch l ittle c ontinuity o f d esign a s t here w as s hould b e a ttributed t o t he h ands o f t he m osaicist: t he d evelopment o f t aste , e specially a s i t r elates t o t he a rrangement a nd o verall c haracter o f am osaic, n eed n ot -a nd p robably d id n ot -rely o n s uch c hannels.

A S ummary o f t he M ain S econd C entury D evelopments s imple a nd d istributed l ozenge a rrangements r egular n ine-

o ctagonal p anelled

p anel d esigns

g rids 1 50

1 75 s cenic/portrait f igural w ork

2 00

2 25

f ully c entralised

c ompass d rawn

l ozenge d esigns

n ine-panel d esigns/ i rregular s altires

A PPENDIX F :

T he P rincipal M osaics d iscussed i n P art I II

C irencester : 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

M osaic f ound i n T he A venue': p l. 5 6. M osaic f ound i n Q uern L ane : p l. 4 9. B uilding V I, 4 , A dmiral's W alk ; m osaic s howing d olphins a nd 981, n o. 3 4. c antharus: N eal 1 B uilding V I, 3 , A dmiral's W alk ; m osaic o f i nterlaced s quares;

6 .

p l. 4 8. B eeches R oad S ite. B uilding X II, 1 ; H are m osaic a nd a djacent p anels: B uilding X II, 1 ; M eander. N eal 1 981, n o. 2 6.

7 . 8 .

B uilding X II, B uilding X II,

2 ; 2 ;

L abyrinth m osaic: i bid., n o. 2 7. M eander: N eal 1 981, n o. 2 8.

B uilding X II,

2 ; 2 ;

G uilloche m at: i bid n o. 2 9. C oncentric c ircular a rrangement:

2 ; 2 ;

C hequers: i bid., n o. 3 1. C onventionalised f lower :

5 .

9 . 1 0 . 1 1.

B uilding X II, n o. 3 0 .

1 2.

B uilding X II, B uilding X II,

1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6.

W atermoor R oad: T .B.G.A .S. 9 3 ( 1974), 6 9. B uilding X IV, 2 , r oom 4 : Neal 1 981, n o. 2 2. B uilding X IV, 2 , c orridor 5 : i bid., n o. 2 3. A shcroft H ouse ( saltire m osaic): p l. 6 5.

1 7.

A shcroft House ( mosaic o f l ozenges, Ant. J . X LV ( 1965), p l. X XXIIIb.

p ls.

7 2 a nd 7 3.

N eal 1 981,

N eal 1 981.

n o.

3 2.

o ctagons a nd r ectangles):

G loucester 1 8. 1 9.

M osaic f rom t he B on M arche s ite : T .B.G.A .S. L XXX ( 1961), N ew M arket Hall s ite ( mosaic o f f our p airs o f I nterlaced

2 0 .

V . s quares): A nt. J . L IV ( 1974), Pl. N ew M arket Hall s ite ( Bacchus a nd L eopard m osaic): n o. 5 2.

P l.

V .

N eal 1 981,

C aerwent 2 1. 2 2. 2 3.

M osaic s howing a c antharus a nd a d olphin : N eal 1 981, n o. 1 6. F ragment o f a m osaic w ith i nterlaced s quares: i bid. n o. 1 7. L ondon, P l.

B road S treet;

m osaic o f i nterlaced s quares a nd

s altires:

7 7.

O ther s ites a nd r ural s ites. 2 4.

B arton F arm,

2 5. 2 6. 2 7.

B ishopstone, H erefs.: V .C.H. H erefs. I ( 1908), f ig. 1 4. B romham , W ilts.; p l. 5 4. C hedworth, G los., r oom 5 ( Seasons m osaic): p l. 5 8b ( detail); IIIb ; G oodburn 1 979, p l. 6 . S mith 1 977, p l. 6 V

G los;

O rpheus m osaic:

p l. 4 1.

2 8. 2 9.

C hedworth, C hedworth,

3 0.

C hedworth,

3 1.

7 .1. 1 979. Pl. C hedworth, r oom 1 4,

3 2.

C hedworth,

3. 3 3 4.

D roitwich, W orcs: V .C.H. W orcs. I ( 1901), f ig. 5 a. .B.G.A .S. L XXXIX ( 1970), Pl. F rocester C ourt, Gr o-i77 T

s ee

: B rittania X II ( 1981), 3 55. r oom 6 0, ( saltire m osaic): p l. 5 7a a nd 5 7b. r oom 1 1, ( mosaic o f i nterlaced c ircles): G oodburn, r oom 1

r oom 2 2:

( mosaic o f N eal 1 981,

r eflected p eltae): n o.

1 36

p l. 5 8a.

1 9. I. I

3 5.

Halstock,

D orset,

r oom 1 ( mosaic o f

s altires): p l. 7 0; s ee a lso p l. p robably o f t he s ame m osaic. 3 6. 3 7.

H alstock , r oom 2 , K ingscote, G los.:

3 8. 3 9.

L ydney P ark, L ydney P ark,

4 0.

P l. 8 0 . K enchester,

4 1.

J ack, J .H. N ewton S t.

4 2. 4 3.

s ee S mith 1 969, N ewton S t. L oe, N ewton S t. L oe,

i nterlaced s quares a nd

6 8,

f or d rawing b y L ysons,

( mosaic o f s altires): p l. V enus m osaic: p l. 5 0.

6 9.

G los.; r oom L o f ' long b uilding': p l. 7 9. r oom X VIII o f w est r ange o f t he ' Guest House'; H erefs.

( mosaic o f

i nterlaced

s quares a nd

( 1916), p l. 2 3. L oe, S om., r oom 3 ( Orpheus m osaic):

p l.

s altires):

3 9

( detail);

p l. 3 .10 . r oom 4 : p l. 4 0 . r oom 1 , ( corridor d esign o f p erspective b oxes

a nd c hequers): R ainey 1 973, p l. 1 2b, a fter p lan i n t he Haverf ield C ollection , A shmolean M useum , O xford; a nother p lan o f t hese m osaics ( nos.

4 3-47)

i s i n S omerset C ounty M useum ,

a

p hotograph o f w hich i s p ossessed b y t he a uthor ( courtesy o f D avid B romwich). 4 4. 4 5. 4 6. 4 7. 4 8.

N ewton S t. L oe, m eander). N ewton S t. L oe, N ewton S t. L oe,

r oom 2 ,

( mosaic o f a ll-over r elieved,

r oom 5 , r oom 6 ,

( corner f ragment s howing t riangles). ( mosaic o f i ntersecting c ircles).

N ewton S t. L oe, r oom 7 , ( adjacent p eltae). N orth L eigh , O xon , r oom 1 , ( a r ow o f t hree s altires): a nd 6 2. N orth L eigh,

5 0.

N orth L eigh, ( a m osaic o f f our p airs o f i nterlaced s quares): p l. 6 3b . N orth L eigh, ( a m osaic w ith a p air o f i nterlaced s quares e nclosed b y a c ircle): p l. 6 3a .

5 2. 5 3.

p l.

p ls. 6 1

4 9.

5 1.

r oom 2 4:

s wastika

6 4.

5 4.

S tonesfield, O xon . B acchus m osaic: p l. 4 7. S tonesfield, r ectangular m osaic o f p erspective b oxes a nd a p anel o f r elieved s wastika m eander: V .C.H. O xon. I ( 1939), p l. X XIV. S tonesfield, s quare m osaic, ( loc. c it.).

5. 5 5 6. 5 7.

S tonesfield, s tylised s altire m osaic: R ainey 1 973, T ockington P ark , G los., r oom 1 2: p l. 6 0 . T ockington P ark, G los., r oom 9 : p l. 5 9.

5 8. 5 9.

W emberham, S om.: p l. 5 5. W hittington C ourt, C l .,

6 0.

L XXI ( 1952), P1. I I. W ithington, G los., m osaic D ( Orpheus m osaic):

6 1.

p l.

altire m osaic): ( stylised s p l.

1 6a.

T .B.G.A .S.

4 6.

W ithington, p l. 4 5.

m osaic A ( a n arrow s trip o f i ntersecting o ctagons):

6 2.

W ithington,

m osaic B ( small s quares

6 3.

W ithington, p l. 4 5.

m osaic C ( three p anels o f g eometric d ecoration):

6 4.

W ithington, m osaic E ( a n arrow s trip o f r elieved s wastika m eander): p l. 4 5. W ithington , m osaic F ( a s quare o f i ntersecting c ircles): p l. 4 5.

6 5. 6. 6

W ithington, P l. 4 5.

a nd c hequers):

a n arrow s trip o f m osaic G (

T wenty m osaics

p l.

4 5.

s wastika m eander):

( some i n f ragmentary c ondition)

a re k nown a t

W oodchester, G los. O nly t en a re l isted h ere h owever, i .e . p rincipal p avements, d rawn i n p lan ( pl. 4 4) b y L ysons.

137

t he

6 7.

W oodchester, m osaic A

6 8.

H ( Bonum E ventum m osaic):

6 9. 7 0 . 7 1.

W oodchester, m osaic 1 969, p l. 3 .14. W oodchester, m osaic W oodchester, m osaic W oodchester, m osaic

B : D : E :

p l. 4 4. p l. 4 4. p l. 4 4.

7 2. 7 3. 7 4. 7 5.

W oodchester, W oodchester, W oodchester, W oodchester,

F : G : K : L :

p l. 4 4. p l. 4 4. p l. 4 4. p l. 4 4.

7 6.

: W oodchester, m osaic M

m osaic m osaic m osaic m osaic

( Orpheus m osaic):

p l.

4 4.

1 38

p l.

4 3;

s ee p l.

p l.

4 4;

5 3.

s ee S mith

Abbreviations Used in Bibliography AIEMA

L'Association ique Antique

Am. Ant.

American Antiquity

Am. J. Arch.

American Journal of Archeology

Ant. J.

The Antiquaries Journal

Arch. Camb.

Archaeologia Cambrensis

Arch. Cant.

Archaeologia Cantiana

Arch. J.

The Archaeological Journal

ASPROM

The Association for the Study and Preservation of Roman Mosaics

BAR

British Series)

C. Anth.

Current Anthropology

DOP

Dumbarton Oaks Papers

Herts. Arch.

Hertfordshire Archaeology

JBAA

Journal of the British Archaeological Association

MAAR

Memoirs of the American Academy at Rome

Norf. Arch.

Norfolk Archaeolog y

Internationale pour l'Etude de la

Archaeological

Reports

(I.S.

=

Mosa­

International

Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and ological Field-Club

Archae­

PSAL

Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London

PSANHS

Proceedings of History Society

the Somerset Archaeology

and

Natural

Sy. A. Calls. Surrey Archaeological Collections Sx. A. Colls. Sussex.Archaeological Collections TBGAS

Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucester Archaeologi­ cal Society

T ERAS

Transactions of the East Riding Antiquarian Society

WAM

Wiltshire Archa�ological Magazine

W. Arch.

World Archaeology

YAJ

Yorkshire Archaeological Journal

139

Bibliography Applebaum, S.

(1975) 'Observations on the Economy of the villa at Bignor'. Britannia VI, 118-32.

Artis, E.T.

(1828) 'The Durobrivae of Antoninus.'

Ashby, T.

(1905) 'Excavations at Caerwent, Monmouthshire, on the site of the Romano-British town of Venta Silurum'. -Arch. J. 59, 289-310.

Atkinson, D.

(1928) 'The Roman Villa at Gayton Thorpe'. Arch. XXIII, 166-229.

Baker, Thomas

(1846) 'The Roman Villa discovered at Bisley, Gloucester'. Arch. J. II, 42-5.

Barker, W.R.

(1900) 'The Remains of a Roman Villa at Brislington'. TBGAS. XXIII, 289-308.

Barley, M.W. and Hanson, R.P.C.

(1968) 'Christianity in Britain, 300-700'. Barley and Hanson ed. Leics. University Press.

Barral I Altet, Xavier

(1978) 'Les Mosaiques Romaines et Medievales· de la Regio Laietana'. Barcelona.

Bartel, Brad

(1980) 'Colonisation and cultural responses: Problems related to Roman Provincial Analysis'. W. Arch. 12 no. 1, 11-26.

Bartel, Timothy

(1979) 'Appreciation and Dickie's definition of Art'. British Journal of Aesthetics, 19, 44-52.

Bartlett, J.E.

(1972) 'New Roman Mosaics from Rudston'. ·Bulletin of Kingston-upon-Hull Museums, 9, October 1972.

Beecham, T.

(1886) 'A History of Cirencester'.

Beesley, A.

(1841) 'A History of Banbury'.

Bidwell, P.T.

(1979) 'The Legionary Bath House and Basilica and Forum at Exeter'. Exeter Arch. Reports, 1. 1979.

Binford, L.R.

(1972) 'An Archaeological Perspective',

Birley, Anthony

(1979) 'The People of Roman Britain'.

Blagg, T.F.C.

(1981) 'Architectural Patronage in the Western Provinces of the Empire in the third century'. In BAR. (I.S.) 109, 167-188.

Blake, M.E.

(1930) 'The pavements of the Roman buildings of the Republic and Early Empire'. MAAR. VIII, 9-152. 140

Norf.

New York.

B lake,

M .E.

B lake,

(1936) 'Roman M osaics

M .E.

( 1940)

I taly'.

MAAR.

' Mosaics

o f

L afaye, B oon,

A .

a nd

( 1909)

G .

t he s econd

X III,

c entury i n

6 9-215.

t he Late E mpire i n R ome a nd

v icinity'. B lanchet,

o f

MAAR.

X VII,

t he

8 1-125.

' Inventaire d es M osaiques d e l a G aule'. 2 v ols.

G eorge C .

( 1950)

' Excavations

a t K ings W eston

T BGAS.

L XIX,

5 -58. B oon,

G eorge C .

( 1961)

T he R oman B uildings a t K ings Weston P ark'. B ristol C ity M useum P ublicn .

B oon,

G eorge C .

( 1972)

' Isca:

B oon ,

G eorge C .

( 1974)

' Silchester: T he R oman T own o f C alleva'. S econd e dition.

( 1978)

' Ravenna M osaics'.

B rakespear, Harold

( 1904)

T he R oman V illa a t B ox'. 2 40-250 .

B ranigan,

( 1971)

B ovini,

G uiseppe

K .

F ort o f

' Latimer:

t he s econd A ugustan L egion'.

O xford

A B elgic,

E arly-Modern f arm'. A ssoc. B ranigan,

K .

( 1972)

' Pavements V illas'.

B ranigan,

K .

( 1973)

B ranigan,

K .

( 1974)

( Phaidon). W AN.

R oman,

XXXIII,

D ark A ge a nd

C hess V alley A rch.

a nd P overty i n t he C hiltern B ritannia I II,

9 7-106.

' Town a nd C ountry i n R oman B ritain'. ' Gauls i n G loucestershire?'

T BGAS.

9 2,

8 2-95. B ranigan, F owler,

K .

a nd

( 1976)

T he R oman West C ountry'.

N ewton A bbot.

P .J.

B ranigan,

K .

( 1977)

T he R oman V illa i n S outh-West E ngland'. B radford-on-Avon.

B rendel,

O tto

( 1979)

' Prologemena t o t he s tudy o f R oman A rt'. Y ale.

( 1974)

' Roman A rt f rom t he R epublic t o C onstantine'.

J .P.

( 1878)

' Old N ottinghamshire'

D onald

( 1980)

' A n ew t heory o f A rt'.

B rilliant,

B riscoe, B rook,

R ichard

A esthetics 2 0 ( 4), B uckman, N ewmarch,

J .

a nd

( 1850)

B ritish J ournal o f

3 05-321.

T he R emains o f R oman A rt i n C irencester'.

C .H.

141

B ulleid, Horne,

A .

a nd

(1926)

E .

B urnham,

T he R oman House a t Keynsham, A rchaeologia L XXV,

B arry C .

( 1979)

' Invasion a nd R esponse:

a nd J ohnson, Helen B .

B ritain'.

C harlesworth,

' Aldborough:

D .

C hierichetti,

( 1970) ( 1977)

S andro

B AR.

D .L.

( 1972)

t he c ase o f R oman

7 3.

R oman T own'.

T he C athedral a t M onreale'. D onald M ills.

C larke,

' Models

b y

a nd P aradigms i n c ontemporary

C larke,

D .L.

( 1977)

' Spatial A rchaeology',

C larke,

D .L.

( 1978)

' Analytical A rchaeology'.

C larke,

J ohn,

( 1979)

T rans.

P alermo.

A rchaeology'. I n C larke, i n A rchaeology', 1 -60 .

R .

S omerset'.

1 09-138.

D .L.

e d.

' Models

1 -32. S econd

e dition.

' Roman B lack a nd White F igural M osaics', N ew Y ork U niversity P ress.

C larke,

M .K.

( 1935)

' Gazetteer o f R oman M osaics i n E ast Y orks hire'.

C lifford,

E .M.

( 1933)

T he R oman V illa a t Hucclecote'. L V,

C lifford,

E .M.

( 1954)

T he R oman V illa a t W itcombe, T BGAS.

C ocks,

A .H.

( 1921)

E .

( 1976)

C .V.

( 1906)

B ucks.

G los.'

5 -70 . i n Hambleden

A rchaeologia L XXI,

' Environmental O rientations'. X VII n o.

C ollier,

L XXIII.

' A R omano-British Housestead V alley, 1 98.

C ohen,

T BGAS.

3 23-376.

7 ,

C .

Anth.

4 9-71.

T he R oman r emains a t Harpham'. X III p t. 2 , 1 41-153.

T ERAS.

C ollingwood, R .G. a nd Myres, J .N.L.

( 1936)

C ollingwood,

R .G.

( 1938)

T he P rinciples o f A rt'.

C ollingwood,

R .G.

( 1946)

T he I dea o f H istory'.

C ollingwood,

R .G.

( 1969)

T he A rchaeology o f R oman B ritain'.

a nd R ichmond, C onverton,

' Roman B ritain a nd t he E nglish S ettlements.

I .A .

J .G.

( 1937)

' Excavations

o n t wo R omano-British s ites

F inchingfield'. C order, K irk,

P a nd

1 41-

( 1932)

T EAS.

X XI,

' A . R oman V illa a t L angton,

J .

1 42

2 19-229.

n r.

M alton'.

a t

C order,

P .

( 1951)

T he R oman T own a nd V illa a t G reat C asterton".

C order,

( 1955)

P .

T he r e-organisation o f d efences t owns i n t he f ourth c entury'. C XII, 20-42.

ter, C ra - s

Mary D .

( 1961)

' Roman r emains T BGAS.

C rummy,

P hillip

( 1975)

L XXX,

o f B ritish

A rch.

f rom t he B on Marche,

J .

1 955 .

50-59.

N ot o nly a matter o f t ime".

C olchester

E xcavation R esearch C ommittee. C rummy,

P hillip

( 1980)

' Mosaics

f rom M iddleborough,

M OSAIC I I, u pon-Tyne. C unliffe,

B .

( 1969)

-R oman

8 -9.

B ath'.

C olchester'.

U niversity o f N ewcastle-

S ociety o f A ntiquaries of

L ondon R esearch R eport 2 4. C unliffe,

B .

( 1971)

' Excavations a t F ishbourne".

S ociety o f

A ntiquaries o f L ondon R esearch R eport 26. C unliffe,

( 1979)

B .

S ome c oncluding t houghts'. a nd R esponse: e d. BAR.

D auphin,

C .

Davey, N . L ing, R . D emus,

a nd

O tto

D iffey,

T .J.

D owker,

( 1982)

' Wall P ainting i n R oman B ritain'. B ritannia Monograph n o. 3.

( 1949)

' The M osaics o f N orman S icily'.

( 1882)

A . a nd

R ule,

M .

D unbabin,

( 1971)

K .M.D.

D uncan-Jones,

R .

J ohnson,

3 59-364.

' Mosaic P avements a s an i ndex o f p rosperity'. L EVANT X II ( 1980).

' On d efining A rt'.

B ritish J ournal o f

A esthetics X IX,

1 5-23.

( 1)

' On a R oman V illa a t W ingham - . X IV,

D own ,

7 3.

B urnham a nd Helen B .

( 1980)

( 1979)

G eorge

B arry C .

I n ' Invasion

t he c ase o f R oman B ritain - ,

A rch.

' Chichester E xcavations',

I -

( 1978)

T he M osaics o f R oman N orth A frica'.

( 1974)

T he E conomy o f

D uthy,

J .

( 1839)

E lton ,

G .R.

( 1967)

C ant.

1 34-9.

t he R oman E mpire'

' Sketches o f Hampshire'. The P ractice o f H istory'.

S ydney

U niversity P ress. E ngleheart,

G .H.

( 1903)

T he R oman V illa a t F ifehead-Neville - . XIV, 1 72-7. P DNHAFC. X

E ngleheart,

G .H.

( 1909)

T he R oman V illa a t Hemsworth'. X II,

E vans,

( 1897)

A .J.

' A R oman V illa a t F rilford'. L IV,

F inberg,

( 1972)

H .R.

F owler,

P . W .

A rch.

J .

3 40-354.

T he A grarian H istory o f E ngland a nd Wales',

F ischer,

P DNHAFC.

1 -12.

5 -223.

( 1971)

' Mosaic:

( 1796)

' Engravings o f t he P rincipal M osaic P ave-

H istory a nd T echnique'.

m ents': a c ollection o f t wenty-six p lates, 1 796-1818, p lus a ppendices. F ox,

A ileen Mary

( 1952)

F ox,

G .E.

( 1887)

' Roman E xeter'. T he R oman V illa a t C hedworth'. X LIV,

F ox,

( 1897)

G .E.

F rank,

( 1959)

T enney

' Uriconium',

( 1978)

V I,

A rch.

307-421.

J .

L IV,

1 23-173.

P rinceton.

' Corpus d e M osaicos R omanos d e E spana'. P art I : P art I I:

Antonio B lanco

J .

' Economic S urvey o f A ncient R ome'. V ol.

F reijeiro,

A rch.

3 22-36.

M osaicos R omanos d e M erida, M osaicos R omanos d e I talica ( 1).

Madrid. F rere,

S .S.

( 1962)

' Roman C anterbury'.

F rere,

S .S.

( 1978)

' Britannia'.

F rere,

S .S.

( 1981)

S econd

e dition.

' Verulamium i n t he T hird C entury'.

I n

A nthony K ing a nd Martin Henig e d.

T he

R oman West

i n t he t hird

c entury',

B AR 1 09,

3 83-392. F riedman,

( 1974)

J .

' Marxism,

S tructuralism a nd V ulgar

M aterialism'. F ulbrook-Leggart,

( 1968)

M AN I X,

4 44-69.

' Roman G loucester'.

L .E.W. G ardin,

( 1980)

J -P.

' Archaeological C onstructs'.

C ambridge

U niversity P ress. G ardiner,

P atrick

( 1961)

G etis, B oots,

a nd

( 1978)

A . B .

G ilyard-Beer,

R .

( 1951)

T he N ature o f H istorical E xplanation'. ' Models o f S patial P rocesses'.

T he R omano-British B aths a t W ell .

144

G odwin,

E .W.

(1856) 'Account C olerne, A rch. J .

G ombrich,

E .H.

( 1972)

o f

t he R oman V illa d iscovered

a t

i n t he C ounty o f W iltshire'. X III, 3 28-31.

' Symbolic I mages:

S tudies i n t he A rt o f

t he R enaissance'. G ombrich,

E .H.

( 1975)

' Art History a nd t he S ocial S ciences'.

G ombrich,

E .H.

( 1976)

' Means a nd Ends: R eflections o n t he H istory o f F resco P ainting'.

G oodburn,

R oger

( 1979)

' The R oman V illa a t C hedworth'. T rust.

G reen,

M .J.

( 1975)

' The B radwell R oman V illa'. D evelopment C orp.

O cc.

N ational

M ilton K eynes

p apers.

n o.

( 1978)

' Art i n S ociety'.

Hakewill, H .

( 1826)

' The R oman V illa a t N orth L eigh'.

Hamilton ,

( 1959)

G reenhalgh, M ichael a nd M egaw,

1 .

V incent

Anne

' The R oman V illa a t W oolstone'. A rch.

H arris,

C .M.

( 1975)

F .

( 1918)

Haverfield,

F .

( 1921)

L IX,

B erks.

8 4.

' Dictionary o f A rchitecture a nd C onstruct ion',

Haverfield,

J .

p .

1. 1

N ew Y ork.

' Roman L eicester'.

A rch.

' Roman C irencester'.

J .

L XX,

1 -47.

A rchaeologia X I,

1 61-

2 00. Hayward,

H inks,

L .C.

R .P.

( 1952)

' The R oman V illa a t Lufton, P SANHS. X CVII, 9 1-112.

n r.

Y eovil'.

( 1933)

' Catalogue o f G reek, E truscan a nd R oman P aintings a nd M osaics i n t he B ritish M useum'.

Hoare,

R .

C olt

( 1819)

' History o f Ancient W iltshire', ' Roman A era',

Hobsbawm,

E .

( 1979)

p t.

I, I

11-123. 1

' An H istorian's C omments',

i n B arry C .

B urnham a nd J ohn K ingsbury e d. H ierarchy a nd S ociety'.

' Space,

B AR ( I.S.),

5 9,

2 47-252. Hodder,

I .

( 1972)

' Locational M odels

a nd

B ritish S ettlements',

t he S tudy o f R omanoi n D .L.

' Models i n A rchaeology', H odder, O rton,

I .

a nd

( 1976)

C larke e d.

87-909. 8

' Spatial Analysis i n A rchaeology'.

C live

1 45

Hodder,

I .

M illet,

M .

a nd

Holmes,

J ohn

(1980) 'Romano-British V illas S ystematic A nalysis'. ( 1971)

a nd T owns: W .

A rch.

A 1 2,

6 9-75.

' Chichester -T he R oman T own'.

M artin Hull,

M .R.

( 1958)

' Roman C olchester'.

S ociety

o f A ntiquaries

o f L ondon R esearch R eport X X. Hume,

D avid

( 1975)

' Enquiries C oncerning Human U nderstanding a nd C oncerning t he P rinciples o f M orals'. S elby-Bigge t ext, e d. P .H. N idditch.

Hunter,

A .G.

( 1963)

' Excavations a t 9.

Hutchins,

J .

( 1863)

T BGAS.

t he B on M arche S ite 1 958-

L XXXII,

2 5-66.

T he H istory a nd Antiquities o f t he C ounty o f D orset'.

I llingworth,

( 1808)

I ons,

' A T opographical A ccount o f t he P arish o f S campton'.

C ayley E dmund

J enkins,

( 1977)

A .

( 1979)

' Against B ehaviouralism'. ( Blackwell).

O xford

T he S ocial T heory o f C laude L evi-Strauss'. L eicester University P ress.

J ohnston ,

D .

( 1977)

T he C entral S outhern G roup o f M osaicists', i n J ulian M unby a nd Martin Henig e d. L ife a nd A rt i n B ritain', 1 95-215.

A .H.M.

( 1974)

J ones,

M .

( 1979)

M iles,

D .

J ones,

a nd

B AR.

' Roman

4 1 p t.

2 ,

T he R oman E conomy'. ' Celt a nd R oman i n t he T hames Valley: A pproaches t o C ulture C hange'. I n B AR.

7 3,

3 15-327. K ing,

A .

Henig,

( 1981)

a nd

T he R oman W est B AR ( I.S.)

M .

K itzinger,

( 1965)

E .

' Mosaic', A rt',

K nowles,

W .H.

a nd

( 1934)

X ,

i n T he E ncyclopedia o f W orld 8 43-867.

' Reports o n t he B arbican a nd B on M arche S ites'.

F ulbrooke-Leggart,

i n t he T hird C entury'.

1 09.

T BGAS.

L XVI,

6 5-83.

L .E.W. K nowles, L ancha,

W .H. J .

( 1938)

' Upper Q uay S treet'.

T BGAS.

L X,

1 65-9.

( 1981)

R ecueil d es M osaiques d e l a G aule I II, N arbonnaise.'

L aver,

H .

oman V illa r ecently d iscovered a t ( 1907) 'On a R G rimston,

N orfolk'.

27. 2

146

N orf.

A rch. X VI,

2 19-

L eadman, L ee,

( 1893) 'A S urvey o f I surium'.

A .D.H.

( 1862)

' Isca S ilurum'.

G .

( 1869)

' On a R oman V illa d iscovered S y. A .C. I V, 2 14-37.

J errold

( 1979)

J .E.

L eveson-Gower,

L evinson,

Y AJ.

X II,

a t T itsey'.

' Defining A rt H istorically'.

B ritish

J ournal o f A esthetics 1 9 p t. ( 1971)

L evi-Strauss,

' Mythologiques

I V.

4 13-427.

3 ,

2 32-250.

P aris.

C laude L indgren,

C laire

( 1978)

' Classical A rt F orms a nd C eltic M utations'. N ew J ersey.

L iversidge,

J oan

( 1968)

L iversidge,

e t.al.

( 1973)

' Britain i n t he R oman Empire'. ' Brantingham R oman V illa -d iscoveries 1 962 .

L iversidge, ( ed.) L ower,

J oan

( 1929)

A .W.

L owith,

Karl

L 'Orange, H .P. a nd N ordhagen,

i n S y.A.

' Excavations a t A shtead, XXVII, X

i n

8 4-106.

' Roman P rovincial Wall P ainting o f Western Empire'. B AR ( I.S.) 1 40.

( 1849) A L etter P ublished 9 .

M .A.

L owther,

( 1982)

B ritannia I V,

C oils.

S urrey'.

t he

I, I

2 57-

S y.

A .C.

1 44-63.

( 1949)

' Meaning i n H istory'.

( 1966)

' Mosaic'.

' Castle D ykes'.

C hicago.

P .

L ukis,

C .W.

( 1875)

L yell,

A .H.

( 1911)

A rch.

J .

XXXII,

1 25-54.

' A N ote o n t he T essellated P avements

f ound

a t M edbourne, L eics., a nd i n B road S t., L ondon. A rch. J . L XVIII, 2 18-220. L ysons,

( 1797)

S .

' An A ccount o f R oman Antiquities d iscovered a t Woodchester i n t he C ounty o f G loucesters hire'.

L ysons,

S .

( 1813)

' Reliquiae B ritannico-Romanae',

v ol.

L ysons,

S .

( 1817)

' Reliquiae B ritannico-Romanae',

v ols I I a nd

( 1888)

' The M anor o f T ockington i n t he C ounty o f G loucestershire, a nd t he R oman V illa',

M aclean,

J ohn

T BGAS X II, M acMullen ,

R .

( 1975)

I .

1 59-169.

' Roman G overnment's R esponse t o C risis. Y ale.

1 47

M ann,

M .D.

( 1951)

T he R oman V illa a t W oodchester'.

Margary,

I van D .

( 1955)

' Roman R oads i n B ritain'.

Mathews,

C .L.

( 1963)

' Ancient D unstable'.

Maynard,

G .

( 1930)

B rown,

a nd

T he R oman S ettlement I xworth,

B .

P roc. M eates,

( 1973)

G .W.

G .W.

C ookson ,

S uff.

I nst. A rch.

' Farningham R oman V illa, 8 8,

Meates,

a t S tanton C hair, X XII,

3 39-41.

I I'.

A rch.

C ant.

1 .

P rivate C ompendium o f P hotographs

a nd

S ociety o f Antiquaries

M .B.

n r.

S uffolk.

i llustrating

L ibrary,

i n t he L ondon ,

t he L ullingstone P avement,

( MS

8 15). M errifield, M iddleton,

R .

( 1965)

J .H.

( 1888)

T he R oman C ity o f L ondon'. ' A l etter t o L ondon'.

M itchell,

F .J.

M itchelson,

N .

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f

P SAL.

X II,

1 57.

( 1886)

' A l etter t o t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon'. P SAL. X I, 1 95.

( 1963)

' Roman M alton: T he C ivilian S ettlement E xcavations i n O rchard F ield, 1 949-52 . YAJ.

I X,

209-261.

M oore,

R .E.M.

( 1968)

' A n ewly o bserved s tratum i n R oman F loor M osaic'. A m. J . A rch. 7 2, 5 7-68.

M oore,

R .E.M.

( 1968)

' Mosaic U nits'.

M oore,

R .E.M.

( 1970 )

' Mosaic Units: P atterns i n A ncient M osaic'. F ibonnaci Q uarterly 8 , 2 81-310.

Moore,

R .E.M.

( 1971)

T he R elation b etween M osaic u nits a nd t he s izes o f R oman M osaic s tones'. I n F .R. Hodson e d.

A rcheometry 1 1,

1 45-59.

' Mathematics i n A rchaeology,

4 45-452. M oney,

W .

( 1880)

' Roman M osaics a t Hampstead N orris, N ewbury'.

M organ,

O ctavius

( 1856)

J BAA X XXVI,

' Excavations p rosecuted b y t he C aerleon A rchaeological A ssociation w ithin t he walls o f C aerwent, i n t he S ummer o f 1 855'. A rchaeologia X XXVI, 4 18-437.

T homas

( 1886)

' Romano-British M osaic P avements'.

M orley-Hewitt,

( 1969)

T he R oman V illa a t R ockbourne'. P amphlet ( Private P ublication).

M organ,

A .T.

n r.

2 7-9.

1 48

M OSAIC

1979-N ewsletter p ublished b y A SPROM, B ranch o f A IEMA .

t he B ritish

N ewcastle-upon-Tyne.

M oule , H .J.

( 1906)

' Dorchester A ntiquities'.

N eal,

D .S.

( 1970)

T he R oman V illa a t B oxmoor: a n I nterim R eport'. B ritannia I , 1 56-62.

N eal,

D .S.

( 1974)

' Gadebridge P ark,

n r. Hemel Hempstead,

Herts. R eports o f t he R esearch C ommittee o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon X XXI. N eal,

( 1976)

D .S.

' Northchurch, B oxmoor, H emel Hempstead S tation : T he E xcavations o f t hree R oman B uildings i n t he B ulbourne Valley'. Herts.

A rch.

R eprints 1 974-6,

1 -135.

N eal,

D .S.

( 1976b)'Floor M osaics. I n D . S trong a nd D . e d. ' Roman C rafts', 2 41-52.

N eal,

D .S.

( 1981)

' Roman M osaics i n B ritain'.

B rown

G loucester.

N eedham ,

R .

( 1975)

' Polythetic C lassification : C onvergence a nd C onsequences'. M an 1 0 , 3 49-69.

N eville,

R .C.

( 1848)

' Sepulchra E xposita'.

N eville,

R .C.

( 1849)

' Recent D iscoveries m ade a t I ckleton a nd C hesterford, o n t he b orders o f E ssex a nd C ambridgeshire'. J BAA I V, 3 56-68.

N ichols,

J .

( 1795)

' History a nd A ntiquities o f t he C ounty o f L eicester'.

( 1838)

T he R oman V illa a t N ewton S t. L oe'. P amphlet s old b y Hearn ( Strand) a nd c arry-

N ichols, W .

L l.

i ng n ame o f W .B.

C ooke.

C opies i n S omerset

C ounty M useum a nd S ociety o f A ntiquaries' L ibrary, L ondon . A p artially p reserved c opy e xtant i n Haverfield C ollection o f t he A shmolean M useum , O xford. N ordhagen ,

P .J.

( 1963)

T he M osaics o f

t he G reat P alace o f

B yzantine E mporers'. Z eitschrift L VI. O liver, V ere L .

( 1928)

T he R oman V illa a t F ifehead-Neville'. P DNHAFC.

O 'Neil, Helen

( 1943)

O 'Neil, Helen

( 1953)

t he

B yzantinische

L , 9 2-5.

T he R oman V illa a t P ark S treet, n r. S t. A lbans, Herts.' A rch. J . C II, 2 1-110. ' Whittington C ourt R oman V illa'. L XXI,

1 3-87.

1 49

T BGAS.

O rdnance S urvey

( 1978)

' Map o f R oman B ritain'. S outhampton .

O sborne, H arold

( 1979)

T he C oncept o f C reativity i n A rt'. B ritish J ournal o f A esthetics 1 9 p t.3, 2 24-31.

O swald,

A drian

( 1937)

1 ' 1 f ortified R oman V illa a t N orton D isney'. A nt. J . X VII, 1 38-178.

A sher

( 1980 )

' Geometric a nd F loral P atterns i n A ncient M osaics ( to t he A ge o f C onstantine r. R ome.

O vadiah,

( 1976)

P ainter, K .S.

T he D esign o f S t.

P apineau,

( 1979)

D avid

M ary'.

F ourth e dition.

t he R oman M osaic a t H inton

A nt.

J .

' Theory a nd M eaning'.

5 6,

4 9-55.

O xford U niversity

P ress. ( 1959)

P arlasca, K laus

' Die R omischen M osaiken i n D eutschland'. B erlin .

P arlasca,

( 1975)

K laus

' Neues z ur C hronologie d er R omischen M osaiken i n D eutschland'. 7 G reco-Romaine I I'. 7-82.

P ayne,

( 1897)

G eorge

I n ' La M osaique P aris.

T he R oman V illa a t D arenth'.

A rch.

C ant.

X XII, 4 9-84. P ayne,

G .

a nd

S mith,

C .

R oach

P earce,

( 1883)

' Roman F oundations a t B oxted'. X V,

( 1927)

B .W.

' A R oman S ite a t O tford'. X XXIX,

P ercival,

( 1976)

J .

P hillips, K yle M .

( 1960)

A rch.

C ant.

1 04. A rch.

C ant.

1 53-8.

T he R oman V illa'. ' Subject a nd T echnique i n Hellenistic-Roman M osaic:

A G anymede M osaic f rom S icily'.

A rt B ulletin 4 2. P layne ,

( 1881)

C harles

( 1973)

P lommer, Hugh

' Remarks o n t he R oman P avement a t W oodchester'. T BGAS. V , 1 42-7. ' Vitruvius a nd t he L ater R oman B uilding M anuals'.

P log,

( 1980 )

S tephen

P oulett-Scrope,

G .

( 1862)

' Stylistic V ariation i n P rehistoric C eramics'. C ambridge University P ress. ' On a R oman V illa d iscovered a t N orth W raxall'.

P owell,

A .H.

( 1910 )

C ambridge U niversity P ress.

W AN V II, 5 9-74.

' A R oman P avement a t t he B arton , X C irencester'. T BGAS. XXIII, 6 7-77.

1 50

P rice,

J .E.

P rice, F. G.H.

J .E.

R ahtz,

P .

( 1870)

a nd

R alegh-Radford,

( 1881)

' A R oman V illa a t D ownton, L VIII, 3 03.

( 1928)

' The R oman S ite a t W estland, Y eovil'. P SANHS L XXIV, 1 22-43.

( 1936)

T he R oman V illa a t D itchley, O xoniensia I , 2 4-69.

C . R alegh-Radford, C .

T he R oman V illa a t B rading'.

( 1963)

C . R alegh-Radford,

' Roman T essellated P avement f ound i n B ucklersbury'.

( 1954)

W AN

O xon.'

T he R oman M osaics f rom L ow Ham a nd E ast C oker'

a nd D ewar, H .

W ilts.

( Somerset M useum P ublications),

p .5-6. ( 1886)

R ansom, W .

' Roman R emains n r. H itchin'. N at. H ist.

S oc.

T rans. Herts.

I V, 4 3-6.

R eade,

R .C.

( 1886)

T he R oman V illa a t W emberham i n Yatton'. P SANHS X XXI, 1 -9 a nd 6 4-73.

R eece,

R ichard

( 1979)

' Romano-British I nteraction'. I n B arry C . B urnham a nd J ohn K ingsbury e d. ' Space, H ierarchy a nd S ociety', B AR ( I.S.) 5 9, 29-240 . 2

R eece,

( 1981)

R ichard

' Coinage a nd C urrency i n t he T hird C entury'. I n A nthony K ing a nd M artin Henig e d. T he R oman W est i n t he T hird C entury' B AR ( I.S.),

R eece,

R ichard

R eid-Moir, J . M aynard, G .

a nd

1 09,

7 9-89.

( 1981)

T he T hird C entury: C risis o r C hange?' I n A nthony K ing a nd Martin Henig e d. T he R oman W est i n t he T hird C entury', B AR ( I.S.) 1 09, 2 7-39.

( 1932)

T he R oman V illa a t C astle Hill, W hitton, I pswich'. P roc. S uff. I nst. o f A rch. X XI, ( 1931-3), 2 40+62.

R enfrew ,

C olin

( 1979)

' Dialogues o f t he D eaf',

i n B arry C .

B urnham a nd J ohn K ingsbury e d. ' Space, H ierarchy a nd S ociety' B AR ( I.S.) 5 9, 2 53-259. R ichmond, R ivet,

I .

A .L.F.

( 1963) ( 1964)

' Roman B ritain'.

S econd e dition .

' Town a nd C ountry i n R oman B ritain - . S econd e dition .

R ivet,

A .L.F.

( 1969)

T he R oman V illa i n B ritain',

1 51

( ed.).

R ivet, A .L.F.

( 1975)

T he R ural E conomy i n R oman B ritain'. I n H . T emporini e d. ' Austieg u nd N iedergang d er R omischen W elt'. B erlin .

R udder ,

S .

( 1800 )

' History o f C irencester'.

R udkin , D .

( 1981)

' Recent d iscoveries a t F ishbourne'. I V, 8 -10 .

S ackett, J .R.

( 1977)

T he M eaning o f S tyle i n A chaeology'. A m . A nt. 4 2, 3 69-80 .

S t. C lairB addeley, W .D .

( 1904)

T he P ainswick o r I fo ld V illa'. X XVII, 1 56-171.

S t. C lairB addeley, W .D.

( 1927)

T he R oman P avement a t W oodchester'. X LVIII, 7 5-96.

S alviati, A .

( 1865)

' On M osaic G enerally a nd t he S uperior a dvantages a nd a daptability a nd g eneral nd P resent A ge, i n u se, i n t he P ast a A rchitectural a nd o ther d ecoration, o f e namel M osaics'. W ertheimer a nd C o. L ondon .

S alway, P eter

( 1981)

' Roman B ritain'. H istory o f E ngland S eries, v ol. I . O xford U niversity P ress.

S aunders, A .D.

( 1961)

' Excavations a t P ark S treet'. C XVIII,

M OSAIC

T BGAS

T BGAS

A rch. J .

1 00-35.

S chlesinger, G eorge

( 1979)

' Aesthetic E xpression a nd t he D efinition o f A rt'. B ritish J ournal o f A esthetics 1 9 p t. 2 , 1 67-177.

S cott, G arret C .

( 1938)

' Chesters R oman V illa , W oolaston , G loucestershire'. A rch. C amb. X CIII, 9 3-125.

S cranton ,

R .L.

( 1964)

' Aesthetic A spects o f A ncient A rt'. C hicago.

R oger

( 1980 )

S cruton , S ear,

F rank

( 1976)

S ear ,

F rank

( 1977)

T he A esthetics o f A rchitecture'. ' Roman W all M osaics', i n D . B rown e d. ' Roman C rafts'.

S trong a nd D .

' Roman W all a nd V ault M osaics'. H eidelburg.

S heldon , H .

( 1975)

' A D ecline i n L ondon S ettlement A D 1 50I 2 50?' L ondon A rcheol. I, 2 78-284.

S heldon , H .

( 1981)

' London a nd S outh-East B ritain', i n A nthony K ing a nd M artin H enig e d. T he R oman W est i n t he T hird C entury', B AR ( I.S.) 1 09, 3 63-382. 1 52

S kinner,

Q .

( 1972)

' Social M eaning a nd E xplanation o f S ocial A ction', i n P . G ardiner e d. T he P hilosophy o f H istory'.

S lack,

P .E.

( 1951)

' Report o n a R oman V illa a t B rantingham, E ast Y orkshire'. A rch. J . XXVII, 5 14-20 . X

S mith,

C .

R oach

( 1859)

' Illustrations o f R oman L ondon'.

S mith,

C .

R oach

( 1868)

' Collectanea A ntigua',

S mith,

C .

R oach

( 1876)

' On a R omanV illa n r . A rch.

C ant.

X ,

V I. M aidstone'.

1 63-172.

S mith,

D .J.

( 1965)

' Three F ourth-Century S chools o f M osaic i n R oman B ritain', i n S tern, H . a nd P icard, D . e d. ' La M osaique G reco-Romaine I ', P aris.

S mith,

D .J.

( 1969)

T he M osaic P avements', i n R ivet, A.L.F. e d. T he R oman V illa i n B ritain', 7 1-126.

S mith,

D .J.

(1969b)'New L ight o n t he C orinian S chool',

( in B rown e t a l.) S mith,

D .J.

X LIX, ( 1973)

A nt.

J .

2 35-245.

T he G reat P avement a nd R oman V illa a t W oodchester'. P amphlet o f W oodchester R oman P avement C ommittee.

S mith,

D .J.

( 1975)

' Roman M osaics i n B ritain b efore t he F ourth C entury'. I n S tern, a nd L e G lay. e d. , L a M osaique G reco-Romaine I I, 2 69-289. P aris.

S mith,

D .J.

( 1976)

' Roman M osaics'. P amphlet p ublished b y C ity o f K ingston-upon-HullM useums a nd A rt G alleries.

S mith,

D .J.

( 1977)

' Mythological F igures a nd S cenes i n R omanoB ritish M osaics', i n M unby, J . a nd Henig, M . e d. ' Roman L ife a nd A rt i n B ritain', B AR 4 1, 1 05-195.

S mith,

D .J.

( 1981)

' Romano-British M osaics i n t he T hird C entury', i n K ing, A . a nd Henig, M . e d. T he R oman W est i n t he T hird C entury, B AR ( I.S.)

S mith, H .E.

( 1852)

S mith,

( 1964)

J .T.

1 09,

' Reliquiae I surianae'. T he R oman V illa a t D enton'. a nd A rchitect.

S tead,

I .M.

( 1976)

1 59-165.

L incs.

A rch.

S oc. R eports X , 7 5-104.

' Excavations a t W interton R oman V illa a nd o ther R oman S ites i n N orth L incolnshire'. D .O.E.

R eport n o.9.

1 53

S tern ,

H .

( 1957)

' Receuil G enerale d es M osaiques d e l a G aule',

G allic,

S upplement 1 0 p ts.

I ( i,

i, a nd i ii), a nd I I ( i -L yon, i i - P artie S ud, 1 975), P aris. i

1 967,

a nd

P aris.

S tern, H . a nd L e G lay, M arcel

( 1975)

' La M osaique G reco-Romaine I I',

S tone,

( 1929)

T he R oman V illa a t N ewport, I X, 1 41-5.

( 1981)

' Third C entury C hester', i n K ing, A . a nd Henig, M . e d. T he R oman W est i n t he T hird

P .G.

S trickland,

T .J.

C entury', S tukeley,

S turgis,

W .

( 1885)

R .

S ykes,

C .M .

B rown,

G .A.

T ebby,

S usan

( 1902)

a nd

( 1961)

( 1980 )

B AR ( I.S.),

' Letters',

P ub.

4 0-42,

a nd 6 1-62.

5 8,

I O W,

A nt.

J .,

1 09, 4 15-444.

o f S urtees S oc.

L XXX,

' A D ictionary o f A rchitecture a nd B uildi ng, p t. I II'. L ondon. T he W raxall V illa'.

P SANHS C V,

3 7-51.

' Geometric D esigns i n R oman T essellated P avements: A F irst C entury M osaic a t F ishbourne, W est S ussex'. S chool o f M athematics, C omputing a nd S tatistics, L eicester P olytechnic R esearch N otes I I.

T ebby,

S usan

( 1982)

' Geometric D esign i n R oman P avements'. M OSAIC 6 ,

1 0-12.

( 1965)

' Roman C heshire'.

T hompson-Watkin, W .

( 1886)

' Roman N ottinghamshire', 3 2-34.

T illey,

( 1981)

T hompson ,

F .H.

M .

T oynbee,

( 1978)

J .M.C.

( 1951)

J .

B AR ( I.S.)

9 6.

' Studies i n t he R omano-British V illa', ( ed.). L eicester. S ome N otes o n A rtists i n t he R oman W orld', C ollection L atomus v ol.

V I.

B ruxelles.

T oynbee,

J .M.C.

( 1962)

' Art i n R oman B ritain'.

T oynbee,

J .M.C.

( 1964)

' Art i n B ritain u nder t he R omans'.

T oynbee,

J .M .C.

( 1964b)

X LIII,

W hat R elationship?

i n ' Economic A rchaeology 1 31-148.

C hristopher

T odd,

' Economy a nd S ociety:

A rch.

' A N ew R oman M osaic P avement f ound i n D orset', J .R.S. L IV, 7 -14.

1 54

T ucker,

W .T.

( 1899)

' On t he D iscovery o f a R oman T essellated F loor n ear S t. N icholas C hurch, L eicester'. T ract i n L ibrary o f q uaries o f L ondon.

V itruvius

T he A rchitectura', Harleian m s. 1 934.

V ogt,

J oseph

( 1967)

R uth H urst

t rans.

f rom

t rans.

L ondon

b y Janet

L ondon .

' Glass'.

' Civitas C apitals o f R oman B ritain'. L eics. U niversity P ress.

J ohn S .

( 1966)

W acher,

J ohn S .

( 1974)

J .B.

a nd

( 1980)

W acher,

W ard-Parkins,

e d.

o f A nti-

2 767 b y F rank G ranger.

T he D ecline o f R ome', S andheimer.

V ose,

t he S ociety

( 1938)

L ondon.

T he T owns o f R oman B ritain'. T he R oman V illa a t L ockleys, A nt.

J .

X VIII,

Welwyn'.

3 39-76.

W arren,

F .C.

( 1938)

' Excavations o f a R oman S ite a t G reat B edwyn' WAN X LVIII, 3 18-20.

W atkin ,

W .T.

( 1886)

' Roman C heshire'.

W aywell,

S .E.

( 1979)

' Roman M osaics i n G reece'. n o.3,

Wheeler,

R .E.M.

a nd W heeler,

( 1932)

J .

A rch.

8 3

' Report o n t he E xcavation o f t he P reh istoric,

T .V.

Am.

2 93-321.

R oman,

L ydney P ark,

a nd P ost-Roman S ite i n

G loucestershire'.

R eports o f

t he R esearch C ommittee o f t he S ociety o f Antiquaries o f L ondon, n o. I X. W heeler, R .E.M. a nd Wheeler, T .V.

( 1936)

' Verulamium: A B elgic a nd T wo R oman S ites'. R eports o f t he R esearch C ommittee o f n o.

W heeler,

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon, X I.

R .E.M.

( 1964)

' Roman A rt a nd A rchitecture'.

W hitwell,

J .B.

( 1970)

' Roman L incolnshire I I'.

W ightman ,

E dith

( 1970 )

' Roman T rier a nd

t he T reveri'.

L ondon.

M ay W illiams,

A .

M oray ( 1907)

T he R oman V illa a t L ippenwood'. L XIV, 1 -14.

W illiams,

A .

M oray ( 1908)

T he S troud R oman V illa'. 5 7-60 .

A rch.

a nd

' North L eigh R oman V illa'.

D .O.E. Handbook.

W ilson,

D .R.

S herlock,

( 1980)

D .

1 55

A rch.

J .

J .

L XV,

W inbolt,

S .E.

H erbert,

G eorge

a nd

W inbolt,

S .E.

( 1930)

T he R oman V illa a t B ignor,

S ussex',

O xford. ( 1932)

T he R oman V illa a t S outhwick'.

A .M .

( 1934)

T he R oman V illa a t R udston'. 3 66-376.

W oodward,

A .M.

( 1938)

' Excavations W est o f X XXIII, 8 1-6.

W yatt,

D igby

( 1848)

' Geometric M osaics o f t he M iddle A ges".

M .

Y AJ.

X XXI,

W oodward,

t he P avements'.

Y AJ.

A ddenda A ndreae,

B .

( 1959)

B ecatti,

G .

( 1961)

' Das A lexandermosaik'. ' 5cavi d i O stia: m armorei.

C arandini,

A .

( 1964)

B remen.

m osaici e p avimenti

R ome.

' Ricerche s ullo s tile e l a c ronologia d el m osaici d ella v ila d i P iazza A rmerina'. S tudi M iscellanei,

V II.

C rummy,

P .

( 1984)

C olchester Excavation R eport I II. C olchester A rch. T rust.

D origo,

W .

( 1971)

' Late R oman Wall P ainting'.

S .S.

( 1972)

' Verulamium Excavations I. R esearch R eports o f t he C ommittee o f t he S ociety o f

F rere,

A ntiquaries G onzenbach,

V .

V on ( 1961)

o f L ondon,

n o. XXVIII.

' Die R omischen M osaiken d er S chweiz'. B asle.

( 1956)

' I M osaici d i P alestrina'.

Hawkes, C .F.C. a nd Hull, M .R.

( 1940)

' Camolodunum'. R esearch R eports o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon , n o. X IV.

J ack,

( 1916)

T he R omano-British t own o f Magnis ( Kenchester), Hereford.

( 1982)

R omano-British M osaics.

D .

( 1947)

' Antioch M osaic P avements'.

L 'Orange, H .P.

( 1965)

' Nuovo c ontributo a lla s tudia d el P alazzo E rculio d i P iazza A rmerina'. A cta a d

G ullino,

G .

G .H.

J ohnson, L evi,

P eter

R ome.

S hire A rchaeology. P rinceton.

A rchaeologiam e t 4 P i rtium H istoriam P ertin entia I I, 6 5-104. M cWhirr, M eates,

A .D.

( 1974) ( 1979)

G .W.

Ant.

J .

L III,

1 91-218.

T he R oman V illa a t L ullingstone,

K ent'.

K ent A rchaeological A ssociation. M eiggs,

R .

( 1973)

' Roman O stia'.

P icard,

G .C.

( 1970 )

' Roman P ainting'.

R ainey,

A nne

( 1973)

S econd

e dition.

' Mosaics i n R oman B ritain:

A G azetteer'.

N ewton A bbot. S tead,

( 1980)

I .

' Rudston R oman V illa'.

P ublished b y Y ork-

s hire A rchaeological A ssociation . S tupperich,

R .

( 1980)

S ome F ourth C entury B ritish M osaics R econsidered'. B ritannia X I, 2 89-301.

W acher,

J .S.

( 1960)

' Petuaria'.

A nt. J .,

W acher,

J .S.

( 1975)

' Villae i n U rbibus?

W alters, B . a nd P hillips, B .

( 1981)

' Archaeological E xcavations i nL ittlecote P ark, W ilts., 1 979 a nd 1 980 .

W oodward, R .N. a nd C ull, J.

( 1980)

T he W otton M osaic: W otton M osaics.

1 58

L X,

5 8-64.

B ritannia V I,

2 82-4.

an i llustrated g uide'.

L ist o f P lates A ldborough,

S tar m osaic p ls. 8 1-85.

B arton F arm , B ignor, p ls. B ox , p l. B oxmoor,

( pl.

3 5a);

L ion m osaic

( pl.

3 5b);

a nd

p ls. 4 1-42. 3 6-38.

2 5. p l.

2. 2

B rantingham , B romham, p l.

p ls. 5 4.

9 8-99.

C hedworth, p ls. 5 7-58. C irencester, D yer S treet ( pls. 8 -10); V ictoria R oad ( pl. 1 6b);

L ocke's T imber Y ard ( pl. pl. 4 8); b uilding V I3 (

1 6a);

Q uern's L ane ( pl. 4 9); L eauses G arden ( pl. 5 6); A shcroft H ouses ( pls. 6 5-67); X II 1 ( pls. 7 2-75). I nsula I I ( pl. 7 ); N orth H ill ( pls. 1 1, 1 2, 2 1 a nd 3 1);

C olchester,

C ulver S treet ( pl. 2 7); M iddleborough ( pl. F ragment ( pl. 2 8b); V ictoria I nn ( pl. 2 9). D alton P arlours, p l. 9 6. F ishbourne N 7, p l. 1 5. H alstock, p ls. 6 8-70 . H arpham, p ls. H igh W ycombe,

2 8a, 3 2-33);

8 6-87. p l. 2 3.

H orkstow, p l. 9 7. H ovingham , p l. 8 8. K ingscote, L eicester,

p ls. 5 0.52. B lackfriars ( pls. V ine S treet p l. 7 1.

L ittlecote, L ondon, p ls. L ow Ham , p l. L ydney, p ls. M alton , p ls.

1 -4);

( pls.

S t.

5 -6);

7-78. 7 7 6. 7 9-80 . 8 9-90 .

N ewton S t. L oe, p ls. 3 9-40 . N orth L eigh, r oom 3 0 ( pl. 3 4); a nd p ls. R udston , p ls. 9 1-93; a nd 1 00-103. S tonesfield,

N icholas ( pls.

1 7-19).

p l.

6 1-64.

4 7.

T ockington P ark, p ls. 5 9-60 . V erulamium, b uilding X XVIII 1 , r oom 9 ( pl. 1 3); I V 10 ( pl. 1 4); pl. 2 0); 1 V8, n o. 1 0 ( pl. 2 4); I V8 , n o. 8 ( pl. I V1 ( W emberham ,

pl. XI 2 ( X p l. 5 5.

3 0).

W ithington, p ls. 4 5-46. W oodchester, p ls. 4 3-44; a nd p l. 5 3. Y ork, p ls. 9 4-95; p l. 1 04; p l. 1 05.

2 6);

B lackfriars S ervice.

a .

b .

P late

2 a:

D etail o f b y

P late

2 b:

t he

t he a uthor,

A s a bove.

B lackfriars m osaic,

L eicester:

c ourtesy o f J ewry W all M useum.

p hotograph

a .

P late

P late

3 a:

3 b:

D etail o f b y

t he

A s

a bove.

t he B lackfria s m osaic,

a uthor,

L eicester:

c ourtesy o f J ewry W ail M useum.

p hotograph

a .

b .

P late 4 a:

D etail b y

P late 4 b:

o f

t he

t he a uthor,

A s a bove.

B lackfriars m osaic,

L eicester:

c ourtesy o f J ewry W all M useum.

p hotograph

a .

b .

P late

5 a:

L eicester,

5 0-52,

S t.

N icholas

p hotograph b y t he a uthor, P late 5 b:

S treet;

c entral p anel:

c ourtesy o f J ewry W all M useum.

D etail o f t he S t. N icholas S treet m osaic: t he a uthor, c ourtesy o f J ewry W all M useum.

p hotograph b y

a .

b . P late 6 a:

D etail o f t he S t. N icholas S treet m osaic: t he a uthor, c ourtesy o f J ewry W all M useum.

P late 6 b:

A s a bove.

p hotograph b y

a .

b .

P late 7 a:

C olchester,

E ssex,

t he c entre o f

I nsula I I

t he p avement:

( pavement A );

t he p anel a t

p hotograph b y t he a uthor,

c ourtesy o f C olchester a nd E ssex M useum. P late 7 b:

A s a bove,

d etail t o

' top l eft' o f

c entral p anel.

A

--. . ' C' 4Z, 27 e .

la

i r

ek t

e

lsc

j il

E

WL •

. 1 J • ,

M

I

••• 441

I

•

M ie I IM

i r i l r li IgMm C "Ol fa

M

I k E ete l

f l

a l t•L i re

A

Y

% 4

b' t1

k e , r 3

4

t e —g, , e ' s i % `. 71

1 r e ' ü I N ve e r. , „ 91 i k rt t e ' . , e i › - • , . . . . 2

t , &

e k v z . L e R

e M IN

L i k % 4N g

I A

1 4

% 6

4 E%

" fe y %

4 4 t • i t ;

$ ie e

„ , . g %k N , e 4

V

I p t i

e Z4 ‘

b aCi k e *

A ri Xe re je ..

s i . .4 . 46. 1 /1

§ s z t e i % ‘ I g G e nnne tnnex mccr UN I ne t a

ll

b

%

o

‘ , . .

e li t e

Z r e i p l . e

J fA r

1

AV

tku i " Iu w -` e t '

1 6 ."1 1

In_ e te t A . 4% 4; 4 4.. 0 rit " de ,P fl ii,

` i4 1

tk e i t i l Kh

a s i b r ( A1

21 ; 4 " 3S

II I li

E l

J D 7h2D rADD1 02 74S S

i le l e l ar r a färe ar if erie a i lg e äle A r dz i e ara ird a l i 121

P late 8 :

C irencester,

G los.,

D yer S treet;

a fter B uckman a nd N ewmarch

H unting D ogs m osaic:

( 1850),

P l. V I.

j L UL TL TUL TLT LILT ILTLT I SL7L a n i ' i r r ix im v f r d z Z e i x e r rz i z e i ew zav A r z c s i ,77. e x ez med m e r am o re zz r . e , w 4

§

' e t y e* % e4

ei e . x ee .

4

* Z .. ...

.

r ° 3 E L j 3

k

o r ' [ 2

o l%

,

e mb4e :* „

w z rxex c exe r z e zvwxrz cz et i ce : ce r Am ro f i e r ze i rx r ze r,yh e r

3 . A tm c cumm eam c c em eam e e t =e mez e tz e A c e 1 -1 . 7 15 1 _51 5-L TL 7 15 15 1S i tZL E TU I-L I ,r iL ,

r rrrrrrrrrrrrrr KK

r rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr o r

l L.16 KKI K KK K IL KKK I e . t t

P late 9 :

» LK KAL

C irencester,

I LK

I L LI kA tAKILL

G los,.

B uckman a nd N ewmarch

D yer S treet; ( 1850),

P l.

r rr

r r ryrrrrr irrrrrrr

kba nk sAwk L kbas Lkl eAd tdejs IL L IL L i e ga . _ • -. • .

S easons m osaic: I. I

a fter

a .

b .

P late

1 0a:

C irencester, G los., D yer S treet; d etail o f t he S easons m osaic: p hotograph b y t he a uthor, c ourtesy o f t he C orinium Museum.

P late

1 0b:

A s a bove,

h ead o f M edusa.

• . . . . . . .

I

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

•

i ts • g . u k.t , e:a. I• . , •

•

•

. .. . ... . .. .. . ... .

61 1 ,1 1 1 1 “• • •• . . 1 . 1

.... . .

r.

.

. .

...

. . . .

. . . .

.

.

•

•

f rom N orth d etail o f

w . 4 . S 0 , 0 4 ) .

. 0 0

0

0 . 4

4 i

< 1 , )

C olchester.

•

•• a s c • I

C * 1

•

4 .

4 4

r 1 g 2 4

t z •

P late

1 3:

V erulamium,

H erts.,

m osaic

o f

b uilding X XVII

p hotograph b y V erulamium a nd C ity M useums.

9 :

I

P late

1 4:

V erulamium, I V10:

H erts.,

f ragment

o f a m osaic

i n b uilding

p hotograph b y V erulamium a nd C ity M useums.

e 1 5:

F ishbourne, ( 1971),

S ussex;

p l . X LVII.

a m osaic o f r oom N 7:

a fter C unliffe

a .

« TAA T A f feCA , g t,

', W C .

• ? ' /

1.1 . P A T ,t A ,/ A

ror .

y MeA ,

Yh t, PA W 6A . 04 6 A P rAV KAAAA,Alr, ' ,AW L O A " IN . A AWI NC ,AAL

" 4 1 ., . /E h

,

rme

Me

L A J . - A N A WD

l/rA TEO e xr "V IC Ael . A NEA

,4 1 r r e.er 1 AL A T / 1 . >r o e SAVA ,,, ,•er

0 ,C O V I S A , ..Sr

•„ ,

. -4 dAe w i l eeg iw„ 6CAL ,

d A,CA, , o

A 1 ,0 o n

P

W .7 .ipte .

) 2. ,

-, , 2 -,

\ \

•

4

' . . •

' ..-

' , -

-22

f .

•

r

N 2 ---

s . i, :

.

'

\

': . „ : _, .1 •

1

- -

' .' -- s ---: -: I

--

. . . ----_-7 , -

.

/

; ' .'

'

a .

b . P late 6 3a:

N orth L eigh, ( 1826),

P late 6 3b:

p l.

N orth L eigh, ( 1826),

p l.

O xon.;

m osaic o f

r oom 8 :

d rawn b y H akewill

O xon.; m osaic o f

r oom 9 :

d rawn b y H akewill

2 .

3 .

P late 6 4:

N orth L eigh, O xon.; m osaic o f S herlock ( 1980), 1 6.

r oom 2 4:

a fter W ilson a nd

P late 6 5:

C irencester,

G los.;

a m osaic f rom A shcroft H ouse:

p hotograph b y C irencester E xcavation C ommittee.

i redm i i i t e i e d i p a hem ' a d i teb i ld r iw i r e* / #4 1 1 4 p ie t o kia g l ib t i eW le i l l e kt is lia t e o i l X* 7 *

P late 6 6:

C irencester,

G los.;

m osaic

f rom A shcroft H ouse

p hotograph b y C irencester E xcavation C ommittee.

( detail):

P late 6 7:

C irencester,

G los.; m osaic f rom A shcroft H ouse

p hotograph b y C irencester E xcavation C ommittee.

( detail):

P late 6 8:

H alstock,

D orset; m osaic o f r oom 1 ( detail)?:

d rawn b y

L ysons, c ourtesy o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon.

P late

6 9:

H alstock,

D orset;

F latters,

c ourtesy o f

m osaic o f

r oom

R on L ucas.

p hotograph b y T ed

P late

7 0:

H alstock,

D orset;

m osaic

o f

p hotograph b y T ed F latters,

r oom 1 ( northern h alf): c ourtesy o f

R on L ucas.

P late 7 1:

L ittlecote

p ark,

W ilts.;

c ourtesy o f L ittlecote

O rpheus m osaic:

p hotograph

R oman R esearch T rust.

1 1 0 d

e %

V

0

DSN

P late 7 2:

C irencester, m osaic):

1

G los.,

d rawn

F T

a m osaic o f b uilding X II

b y D .S.

N eal

)

( Hare

( Crown C opyright).

P late

7 3:

C irencester,

G los.;

' Hare m osaic':

C irencester E xcavation C ommittee.

p hotograph b y

P late

7 4:

C irencester,

G los.;

d etail o f

p hotograph c ourtesy o f

t he

' Hare m osaic':

C irencester E xcavation C ommittee.

P late

7 5:

C irencester,

G los.;

d etail o f

p hotograph c ourtesy o f

t he

' Hare m osaic':

C irencester E xcavation C ommittee.

P late 7 6:

L ow H am , S om.; m osaic f rom t he a ntechamber t o t he r oom c ontaining t he t Virgilian e p avement: p hotograph b y t he a uthor, c ourtesy o f t he C astle M useum , T aunton.

P late 7 8:

L ondon, L eadenhall S treet; c entral p anel o f t he B acchus m osaic: d isplayed i n t he B ritish M useum.

I i.18.-.1rAirerfgr

‘

L ydney,

G los.;

b uilding:

t he m osaic o f

a fter B athurst

r oom L o f

a nd K ing

t he

( 1879),

l ong P l.

V II.

P late 8 0:

L ydney, r ange o f ( 1879),

G los.; t he

t he m osaic o f r oom X VIII i n t he w est

' Guest H ouse'; a fter B athurst a nd K ing

P l. X VI.

• . . .

•

• '• .•

y

-

.

.

•: . .. .

-.

i

•

,

' .,' L .r .

. •

" : .` "" . t. .. L :22 ' . 71

* .: 1 -

• -

.-

• •

- • , :i '-2 2; 1•

- L -

•

.... . . .

P late 8 3:

A ldborough,

N . Y orks.;

( 1852),

X II.

P l.

f ragments:

a fter H .E.

S mith

5

r — I

P late 8 5:

A ldborough,

N . Y orks., W olf

a nd Twins m osaic*

p hotograph c ourtesy o f L eeds M useum a nd A rt G allery.

a .

b . P late 8 6a:

H arpham ,

E ast Y orks.;

L abyrinth m osaic:

p hotograph b y

t he a uthor. P late 8 6b:

D etail o f t he L abyrinth m osaic: a uthor.

p hotograph b y t he

25 1

: 1 1

r g i

I

1i-- 1 1 612

, 1 = . ,

= r e t r g i ? 34

a rk . . wir

= r 9 CELM

2 0

1

P late 8 7:

H arpham,

E ast Y orks.;

i n T .E.R.A.S.

r n t r .

41 1 1 1 4 I

X III

p lan o f m osaics:

( 1907),

f ig.

3 .

a fter a d rawing

P late

8 8:

H ovingham, V ertue:

N .

Y orks;

m osaic d rawn b y D rake a nd

p hotograph c ourtesy o f Y orkshire Museum.

P late 8 9:

M alton, N . Y orks.; m osaic f ound i n 1 949: p hotograph c ourtesy o f t he M useum o f T ransport a nd A rchaeology, H ull.

P late 9 0:

M alton,

N . Y orks.;

d etail o f m osaic f ound i n 1 949:

p hotograph b y t he a uthor.

C harioteer

a .

b . P late 9 2a:

R udston,

E ast Y orks.;

C harioteer m osaic,

( detail): p hotograph b y t he a uthor, M useum o f T ransport a nd A rchaeology, P late 9 2b:

R udston, E ast Y orks.; a s a bove.

h ead o f

c ourtesy o f H ull.

C harioteer m osaic,

h ead o f

S pring t he

S ummer:

P late 9 3a:

R udston,

E ast Y orks.;

C harioteer m osaic

p hotograph b y t he a uthor, c ourtesy o f T ransport a nd A rchaeology, H ull. P late 9 3b:

( detail):

t he M useum o f

R udston, E ast Y orks.; G eometric m osaic: p hotograph b y t he a uthor, c ourtesy o f t he M useum o f T ransport a nd A rchaeology, H ull.

P late 9 4a:

T oft G reen, Y ork; S easons m osaic ( detail), h ead o f W inter: p hotograph b y t he a uthor o f a m osaic o n d isplay i n Y orkshire M useum.

P late 9 4h:

A s a bove,

h ead o f

S pring.

a .

\

b . P late 9 5a:

T oft G reen, A utumn:

Y ork;

S easons m osaic

( detail),

h ead o f

p hotograph b y t he a uthor o f a m osaic o n

d isplay i n Y orkshire M useum. P late

9 5b:

T oft G reen,

Y ork;

f ragment

o f W alter S cott L td.

s howing a s eacow :

c ourtesy

P late 9 6:

D alton P arlours,

W .

Y orks.; m osaic w ork o f t he a pse:

p hotograph b y t he a uthor o f r emains i n Y orkshire M useum.

A

ey V

A

AA A A A A A AAA AA •y V •V' V V V VV V V

A V 'V VV VVV V V V

, . 4 11

A K .A .A .AJUL do

e i ree ler4 , ye y .t ei s r+

VV

e t :A+ + Abe d tA A AJA . A A—A A A • A A A 4 1 / .4 1 ,4 K AA A .A . & A AA .A i t h ,f r ar v irire r Nr ir e ir qr Are /+ 4, v >yr *A y-gr egrA g reim ir

P late 9 7:

H orkstow,

L incs.;

,h i

l id

VeN i r y el vrernr e i re2

O rpheus m osaic a nd r adial a rrangement:

a fter a d rawing b y F owler

( 1796-1818),

n o.

2 .

•• 4 4 • 0

e •

E o

E 4

4 ( 4 •

C O C L )

. 1 4 C

0

•I ' s 0 • „C C c

• • — • 4 r 4

e‚ . 0 0 ' U0 W

e