Romanesque Cathedrals in Mediterranean Europe. Architecture, Ritual and Urban Context 9782503552811, 9782503552507, 2503552501, 2503552811

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R oM A N E S ^ E C a t h e d r a l s in M e d it e r r a n e a n E u r o p e

A r c h it e c t u r a M e d ii A ev i

Vol. VII

Series Editor Prof. Thomas Coomans (KU Leuven, Department of Architecture)

Advisory Board Prof. Caroline Bruzelius (Duke University, Durham, North Carolina) Prof. Paul Crossley (Courtauld Institute of Art, London) Prof. Christian Freigang (Freie Universität Berlin, Kunsthistorisches Institut) Prof. Dany Sandron (Université de Paris Sorbonne - Paris IV)

Romanesque Cathedrals in Mediterranean Europe Architecture, Ritual and Urban Context

Edited by

Gerardo B o t o Varela & Justin E.A. Kroesen

BREPOLS

Cover photo: Ravello (I), cathedral, interior (photo Luciano Pedicini) This volume was published with the financial support of the Institute for Christian Cultural Heritage at the Univer­ sity of Groningen, the Netherlands, and the University of Girona, Spain. All English te^s were carefully checked by JamesEdits. © 2016 Brepols Publishers n.v., Turnhout, Belgium All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. D / 2016/ 0095/27 ISBN 978-2 -503-55250-7 e-ISBN 978-2-503-55281-1 DOI 10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109561 Printed in the EU on acid-free paper

CONTENTS

Romanesque Cathedrals in Mediterranean Europe: Balance and Perspectives G ernrdoB otolekò'JustinE lK roesen I. Shaping Cathedrals in the Pre-Romanesque Era The Cathedrals of early Medieval Italy: The Impact of the Cult of the saints and the Liturgy on Italian Cathedrals from 500 to 1200 Beat Brenk French Cathedrals around the Year 1000: Forms and Functions, Antecedents, and Future Jean-PieeCaillet

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29

II. Building Romanesque Cathedrals on Older Substrates Between ‘Church Families’ and Monumental Architecture: German Eleventh-Century Cathedrals and Mediterranean Traditions MatthiasUntermann

47

Aosta Cathedral from Bishop Anselm’s Project to the Romanesque Church, 998-1200 MauroCortelazÂoôlenatoPerinetti

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In terrii^ sH isp a n ia rttittrb esJ a rra co n en sissed isin sq p ü ssii::

Morphogenesis and spatial Organization of Tarragona Cathedral (1150-1225) Gerardo Boto Varela

85

III. Romanesque Cathedrals in Urban Contexts The Cathedral of Toulouse (1070-1120): An Ecclesiastical, Political, and Artistic Manifesto Quitterie Cazes

109

The Renovation of Northern Italian Cathedrals during the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries: The state of Current Research and some Unanswered .e s t io n s SaerioLomatire Medieval Cathedral Architecture as an Episcopal Instrument of Ideology and Urban Policy: The example of Venice XarierBarmliAltet

139

The Architecture ofJaca Cathedral: The Project and its Impact JarierMartinezieAguirre

153

The Portuguese Cathedrals and the Birth of a Kingdom: Braga, oporto, Coimbra, and the Historical Arrival at Lisbon - Capital City and shrine of st Vincent JorgefMiueldeOlireiralRoclrigues

169

119

IV. Liturgical Layout and Spatial Organization The Mise-en-scène of the Holy in the Lateran Church in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries MicheleBacci

187

Liturgical Installations in the Cathedral of salerno: The Double Ambo in its Regional Context between sicilian Models and Local Liturgy ElisakttaScirocco

205

Romanesque Cathedrals in Catalonia as Liturgical systems: A Functional and symbolical Approach to the Cathedrals of Vic, Girona, and Tarragona (Eleventh-Fourteenth Centuries) MarcSurecUiJukn)!

223

V. Visual Discourses and Iconographie Programmes A New Interpretation of the Thirteenth-Century Capitals of the Ancient Cathedral of Lleida (‘seu Vella’) FrnncescFiteiLlerot The Iconography of the Cloister of Gerona Cathedral and the Functionalist Interpretation of Romanesque Historiated Cloisters: Possibilities and Limitations PeterK Ilein The Cloistral sculpture at La seu d’Urgell and the Problem of its Visual Repertoire M irtaSe'm oC ollò'EstkrLoz.ioLóleez, Romanesque sculpture in Zamora and salamanca and its Connections to santiago de Compostela JoseLuisHernndoGarido List of Contributors and Editors Index of Monuments Color Plates

245

259

275

291 305 309 317

Romanesque Cathedrals in Mediterranean Europe Balance and Perspectives Gerardo B o to Varela & Justin E.A. Kroesen

W ithin the ecclesiastical hierarchy, a cathedral is the principal church of a diocese. The term ‘cathedral’ is derived from cathedra, a Greek word designating the seat (or ‘see’) of a bishop, which stands as a pars pro toto for the entire church building. In France and Castile, respectively, the terms ‘cathédrale’ and ‘catedral’ became the most widespread names to signify the bishop’s church, while Portugal, Catalonia and Aragon in turn employed the words ‘sé’ (catedral), ‘seu’ and ‘seo’, indicating the bishop’s seat. In Italian, the term ‘duomo’ became common, corresponding to the German ‘Dom’, which is believed to be an abbre­ viation of domus (‘house’), being that of God or of the bishop (or both). In everyday speech, the term ‘cathe­ dral’ is nowadays often more loosely used to designate large church buildings in general, including churches that never housed the see of a bishop. Moreover, ‘cathedral’ in a more metaphorical sense may even be used to describe imposing structures per se, including those with non-ecclesiastical functions; football sta­ diums, for example, are sometimes called ‘cathedrals of soccer’ and museums ‘cathedrals of culture’, while train stations and airports have been described as ‘cathedrals of modernity’. As such, the debased mea­ ning has come to stretch far beyond the ecclesiastical category to effectively become the epitome of power, of technical wonder and of civic pride. The articles in this volume have grown out of two conferences held at the University of Girona (Spain) organized within the framework of Templa. Taller

d ’Estudis Medievals, an international research group comprised of scholars from Spain and several other European countries focusing on Medieval church architecture in Catalonia and beyond.1 Templa members who have contributed to the present volume are Gerardo Boto, José Luis Hernando Garrido, Justin Kroesen, Esther Lozano, Marta Serrano and Marc Sureda. The research group aims at under­ standing the overall complexity of Medieval cathe­ drals starting from the geology of building materials down to the visual discourse of iconographies and the intricacies of the liturgical life that once filled their interiors. Cathedrals are approached as multi-faceted stages with both tangible and intangible characteris­ tics, including architectural particularities, church furnishings, visual landscapes, the presence of relics, iconographic programs, ritual patterns, social and economic hierarchies, etc. This integrated and com­ prehensive approach attempts to surpass traditional cathedral research which was organized along disci­ plinary lines, such as history of art and architecture, liturgical studies and social and economic history, and which often resulted in either/or answers based on arguments from engineering to stylistic vocabula­ ries and scholastic discourses. The centuries studied in this volume correspond roughly to the Romanesque style period, from the turn of the millennium through to the thirteenth century. Examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first

RomnesqueCdtfoedniisin MedttemmeimEurope. A rcbitecturejR ttM iindU rknC ontext ١ e i \ y j G era.rdoBotoVareha.M us.trnlAIrocs.en .,Architectura.

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pan-European architectural style since late Antiquity. The Romanesque style period represented an age of expansion and consolidation of Christian Europe. It was characterized by increasing urbanization and witnessed remarkable technical and intellectual inno­ vations, including many monumental and indeed emblematic ecclesiastical building projects. This buil­ ding hausse was accompanied by large-scale structu­ ral reforms of the church organization as well as the meticulous codification of many aspects of religious life, from canonical law to the liturgical ritual. This is the time in which Georges Duby’s ‘L’Europe des cathédrales’ (‘The Europe of the Cathedrals’) took shape, with bishops’ churches coming to dominate the skyline of many towns and cities across the conti­ nent. The geographical focus of the studies collec­ ted in this volume is on the western Mediterranean countries, including the Iberian Peninsula, southern France, and Italy. The northern borders of the area studied are rather fluid, since some attention is also paid to cathedrals in northern France and the Germanic parts of the Holy Roman Empire, in view of the many political and cultural contacts which tied north and south together. Most of the case studies collected in this volume have remained unpublished to date — at least in English. Together they offer many new and in-depth insights into the nature of cathedrals in southern Europe and of cathedrals as such. Medieval architec­ ture is often the result of an ages-long process of buil­ ding and rebuilding. In most of the articles, cathedrals are not approached as isolated buildings, but rather as parts of complexes, including many subsidiary spaces, such as the cloister, chapter house, housing for the clergy and the bishop’s palace. Many contributions also address the location of cathedrals in the urban fabric, in an area that was often called the ‘canonical quarter’. Much attention is paid to the interiors of cathedrals as functional spaces: cathedrals served as ritual stages, not only for the sacred liturgy and the veneration of relics, but also for many other ceremo­ nies. Another focus well represented in this volume is on cathedrals as bearers of imagery, including first and foremost sculptured portals and the capitals found in their interiors and in cloisters. A number of studies deal with Romanesque cathedrals as ‘messen­ gers’ of the ideas, claims and ambitions held by those who built, furnished and used them. In this man­ ner, this book reaches beyond the state-of-the-art

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research concerning the individual monuments into the underlying cultural realm of the cathedral as a cultural topos and an identity marker both for local communities and indeed for Europe as a whole. As monuments of art and architecture, many cathedrals clearly express their status as the primary church of the diocese. The pursuit of a representative building to serve as primas to the entire bishopric could materialize into a single monumental building towering over all other churches and incorporating the latest building techniques. At the same time, in many Romanesque cathedrals, attempts were made to incorporate the oldest local layers of Christianity, which in southern Europe generally reach back into late Antiquity. The original texture of the late Antique cathedrals is preserved only by way of exception, however, with rare sixth-century examples found in PoreC/Parenzo and Grado (see Beat Brenk, in this volume). In other cases, the Ancient legacy becomes manifest in the outline and shape of Romanesque church buildings, such as in Tarragona, where the Roman temenos has determined much of the ground plan of the late-Romanesque cathedral and cloister, as is shown by Gerardo Boto Varela, or in the form of spolia, i.e., deliberately reused parts of predeces­ sor-buildings, as is the case in Modena, for example. Saverio Lomartire points out that, more than caused by a lack of funding or technical abilities, the main­ tenance of Ancient buildings and building parts forged ties to a remote past and kept the memory of the diocesan community alive. This memory was often closely bound up with the presence of relics, the possession of which could lead to fierce competition between dioceses. In his article, Jorge Rodrigues des­ cribes several cases of such relic rivalry in the Iberian Peninsula. Competition and emulation vis-à-vis the churches of the monastic orders and the parish churches of the increasingly self-conscious townspeople resulted in many Romanesque cathedrals being almost constantly altered, expanded and sometimes even rebuilt. Nearly all cathedrals therefore manifest a complex and fundamentally layered character. Matthias Untermann studies the many cathedral (re)constructions that took place in the Holy Roman Empire between c. 980 and c. 1050, often remarkably monumental with west transepts and double choirs. Saverio Lomartire examines the wave of cathedral renovations that swept across northern Italy during

the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In addition, Beat Brenk asserts that the chancels of Romanesque cathe­ drals in Italy and their furnishings are almost never preserved in their original form as the result of later changes and replacements. In Venice, as Xavier Barral i Altet demonstrates, the bishop’s church of San Pietro di Castello on the islet of Olivolo did not suc­ ceed in asserting itself architecturally as the primary church of the city since it was fully dwarfed by Saint Mark’s basilica at the palace of the Doge. For the twelfth-century rebuilding of Venice’s cathedral, a particular style idiom was adopted that was unfami­ liar to the lagoon city, but deliberately connected the building to the Romanesque in the Venetian hinter­ land, the powerhouse for the local bishop in his strug­ gle against the city’s ruler. In some instances, the Romanesque period saw the creation of coherent masterpieces in the roundarched style that would remain points of reference throughout architectural history. One such case is the cathedral of Jaca in northern Aragon studied by Javier Martinez de Aguirre, an ambitious and perfec­ tly designed three-aisled building in which the pur­ suit of the Gregorian Reform and the ambitions of a monarchy in an age of expansion were combined. The issue of patronage is addressed in a number of articles in this volume. Saverio Lomartire states that the bishop is — mistakenly — often regarded as the sole patron and the only ‘engine’ behind the rebuilding or renovation of cathedrals. In many ins­ tances, however, the chapter of canons also played a decisive role, as well as persons of political power, including kings, dukes and counts. In Modena, for example, the large-scale rebuilding of the cathedral took place precisely during a period when the bishop was absent and the canons regarded the cathedral as their own. José Luis Hernando Garrido explores the architecture and sculpture of Salamanca and Zamora Cathedrals which cannot be understood without the intervention of the Leonese kings Fernando II and Alfonso IX, who employed professionals who had previously worked on the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. Matthias Untermann analyzes the cathedral at Speyer, whose monumental features were not the result of a high ecclesiastical rank, but from royal patronage by Kings Conrad II and Henry III. Since the architecture of many Romanesque cathedrals displays a complex and layered charac­ ter, the sucessive periods have, like earth strata, all

left their mark on the buildings. It is the task of the researcher to peel these layers off and reconstruct the cathedral in its different stages and as a mirror of local history. Saverio Lomartire states that this requires the joint efforts of archaeologists, historians of art and architecture and historians of liturgy and palaeography. Such research projects should reach beyond the cathedral proper into the urban envi­ ronment in which the building is situated. ^ itte r ie Cazes describes how a true ‘cathedral quarter’ deve­ loped during the eleventh century at the eastern city gates of Toulouse. Jean-Pierre Caillet and Matthias Untermann highlight a number of cases where the special status of the cathedral was not expressed in a single building, but rather in complex and multiple ‘church families’ consisting of a number of separate cultic buildings, of which Lyon provided a repre­ sentative illustration. At many cathedrals in Italy the baptistery was maintained as a separate building throughout the Romanesque period because — as Beat Brenk shows — it had gradually changed into a parish church for the daily Mass and was used for the cult of the deceased. Cases such as these remind us of the fundamentally plural character of many cathe­ drals being all too often overlooked, obscured as it often was by later urban planning. Caillet points out that a better recognition of the spatial dissemination of different components of such church families or groups may help to understand the functional fabric of the large single-body church that became common in the thirteenth century. Many Romanesque cathedrals displayed a wide range of imagery in the form of sculptures, pain­ tings and stained glass. According to the oftenrepeated Medieval adagium, images would have served as Biblia pauperum (‘books of the illiterate’). Nevertheless, images never speak for themselves, but always in conjunction with other forms of commu­ nication including ritual activity and the written or spoken word. Where the images show a certain degree of internal coherence, in the form of thematic clusters or narrative series, we may speak of ‘iconographical programs’ or ‘pictorial narrativity’. A num­ ber of articles in this volume focus on the figurative sculptures found on capitals, which were particularly common in the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern France. Francesc Fité i Llevot recognizes a true iconographical programme in the imagery found on sculp­ tured capitals in the chancel and transepts of Lleida

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Cathedral, the so-called Seu ^lla. He notes that the presbytery is dedicated to Christological themes with a primordial role for the Virgin Mary, while the side chapels display hagiographic topics. The transepts and crossing, which were constructed at a slightly later date, treat Christ’s Second Coming accom­ panied by angels announcing the Final Judgement. As such, the entire History of Salvation is narrated and made present at significant locations inside the church building. Marta Serrano and Esther Lozano are less asser­ tive about the presence of a coherent programme in the processional space of the Romanesque cloister at the cathedral of La Seu d’Urgell. Rather than one unifying pattern, the authors believe that the sculp­ tor of the capitals deliberately situated certain eye­ catching compositions in relation to others without following one linear narrative, turning the cloister into a ‘mnemonic device’. Sculptures would evoke certain passages from the Bible, especially the book of Psalms, in the onlooker — being a cleric or a lay­ man — invoking, reminding and admonishing him toward good behaviour. Peter Klein studies the richly sculptured capitals of the cloister at Girona (Gerona) in the light of a possible explanation pertaining to the ritual functions of this space. He comes to the conclu­ sion that a one-to-one correspondence between image and ritual was never developed in Romanesque art. Rather, the biblical cycles on the capitals reso­ nate with general iconographical concepts that were also found in the naves of the churches and the por­ tal sculptures on the exterior. The choice for certain motifs and subjects, according to Klein, seems to have derived mainly from prevailing artistic traditions and trends. However, the strong concentration of figura­ tive decorations in the walk adjacent to the church and the presence of certain motifs including the Foot Washing (mandatum) and the head shaving (rasura) may be related to the functions of the cloister. The primary function of each cathedral was, natu­ rally, to provide space for the celebration of everyday liturgy — the celebration of Mass and the singing of the Officium by the canons — which means that cathedrals should first and foremost be defined as churches. Beat Brenk warns against the treatment of cathedrals as a category sui generis; bishops’ churches did not fundamentally differ from other church types functionally, and Sunday Mass, baptisms, feasts and solemn processions could just as well be

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celebrated in ‘ordinary’parish churches. Marc Sureda eloquently calls the cathedral a ‘celebrating machine, with the episcopal liturgy being the primary reason for its very existence, and it is Mauro Cortelazzo and Renato Perinetti who show that the renewal of Aosta Cathedral in the eleventh century was pri­ marily steered by the increase of private masses and orations. However, the study of cathedrals as stages for liturgical (and para-liturgical) ritual is rather recent. Fortunately, the last decades have seen a continual rapprochement between art history and liturgical studies, and many of the articles in this volume pay considerable attention to the liturgical use of Romanesque cathedrals. In spite of the many changes from the later Middle Ages and afterwards, almost all cathedrals studied are still in use, which means that the liturgy is one of our most direct connections to the past. It is the conservative nature of rituals that has helped to preserve large parts of their original fabric, although many choir partitions have lamentably fallen victim to such modern pur­ suits as ‘transparency’. Saverio Lomartire describes how architecture and liturgy constantly and mutually influenced each other. Renovations and restorations of Romanesque cathe­ drals in northern Italy were at the same time answers to new liturgical requirements and restricted the extent to which these could be adapted. The complex nature of cathedrals corresponds to the plural and stratified nature of the community of users being the bishop, the canons, the minor clergy (priests and chaplains), and the lay people. On the one hand, different clerics and the populace often competed over access to the salvation offered by the liturgy. At the same time, they all shared the same concern, namely the preservation of the memory of the patron saint(s) as protectors of the entire city. The community-building aspect of churches, and cathedrals in particular, is pointed out by Michele Bacci, who notes that they played a pro­ minent role in reinforcing the community’s solidarity around certain symbols by means of a shared beha­ vioural code. Upon entering the building, individuals become part of both the local congregation and of the wider Christian community: the ecclesia, metaphori­ cally understood as the Body of Christ. Compared to other churches, cathedrals served an additional func­ tion, namely that of manifesting the moral and politi­ cal authority of the bishop and his secular clergy. This authority was often underpinned by the presence of

relics in underground or semi-elevated crypts under the main altar where the bishop would celebrate. Important sources for the reconstruction of the liturgical use of Medieval churches are, in addition to written sources such as Libri Ordinarii, the furnishings installed in their interiors that may be interpreted as the silent witnesses to a ritual carried out in a distant past, and which has undergone numerous subsequent alterations. Furnishings from the Romanesque period only seldom survive, since most were replaced by later fittings. In her chapter, Elisabetta Scirocco focuses on a specific category of church furnishing, the ambo. She analyzes how in the cathedrals of Campania the use of two ambos had become an established praxis by the mid-thirteenth century, following an artistic model which originated in the cathedral of Salerno toward the end of the twelfth century. Marc Sureda studies the development of three Romanesque cathedral complexes in Catalonia (Vic, Girona and Tarragona) in the light of the liturgical use of their interiors, with special attention paid to the location of altars. He shows how the liturgical topography of Girona and Vic Cathedrals made deliberate references to both Jerusalem (the Holy Sepulchre) and Rome (Saint Peter’s). The wide transept of the cathedral at Tarragona, which is studied by Marc Sureda and Gerardo Boto, was equipped with five apses in a row in response to the need to house five altars. Apparently, the planners of this great archdiocesan church wished to emulate the architecture and liturgy of eleven­ th-century suffragan cathedrals of Vic, Girona and Urgell; the same would recur in Lleida when its ‘Seu Vella’ was planned around the turn of the thirteenth century (see Fité i Llevot). This last-mentioned aspect leads us to the cathe­ dral as an expression of power, pride and status. Gerardo Boto Varela demonstrates how the imposing architectural features of the cathedral of Tarragona were intended to express the new status of the diocese gained under Pope Urban II. Its dimensions even surpassed those of the mosque-cathedral of Toledo and the Romanesque pilgrims’ cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. This clearly brings to expression the desire to counter the primacy of Toledo over the entire peninsula and to strengthen the archbishop’s power over the city. In some instances, architectural grandeur served to compensate for the lack of impor­ tant relics. In Rome, for example, as highlighted by Michele Bacci in his article, the cathedral church of

Saint John Lateran, contrary to many other Roman churches, did not mark a holy burial site and, as a result, could not boast any important role as a destina­ tion for pilgrims. Here, deliberate attemps were made to transform the building itself and its furnishings into cult-objects. Beat Brenk describes how the authority ofthis imposing basilica relied on the association with the Pope’s residence and the related legends descri­ bing the origins of Papal power in connection to the alleged Donatio Constantini. ^ itte r ie Cazes analyses how successive archbishops and canons of Toulouse felt that their claim to hold the oldest Christian sett­ lement in the city, which goes back to the fourth century, was not enough to counter the fame of the nearby basilica of Saint-Sernin. A number of changes made to the architecture by innovative and able artists proved effective in this competition. As in Toulouse, many cathedrals laid a claim — and often rightly so — to the oldest Christian roots in the area, turning these buildings into important lieux de mémoire for local and regional communities; according to Irenaeus of Lyon, only the bishop, as a successor to the apostles, possessed the necessary auc­ toritas. ^ it t e r i e Cazes shows how the imagery of the cloister of Toulouse Cathedral reaffirmed the aposto­ lic origins of the church and positioned the bishop as the successor of Saints Saturninus and Extperius. The article of Jorge Rodrigues clarifies how the buil­ ding of Romanesque cathedrals in Braga, Coimbra and Lisbon served as landmarks of the reconquista of Portuguese territories from Islam, both by adopting a castle-like fortified architecture and by reconnec­ ting to the underlying Christian layer. Beat Brenk describes the cathedral as the ultimate place where the sacred history of a city is remembered and repre­ sented, and where communal myths and ideologies are forged. All these aspects together turn cathedrals into eminent monuments of civic pride that served as identity markers to local communities. Indeed, the network of Romanesque cathedrals that origi­ nated between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries reveals much about the mentalities of Europeans at the time: cathedrals served as showcases for the technical abilities of clerical and urban communi­ ties, expressed their self-image, which was made up of age-long traditions and historical claims, and at the same time functioned as ritual stages where their beliefs and convictions were constantly experienced and reaffirmed.

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NOTES 1 Research carried out by members of the Templa team is set in a framework of several successive projects including: Organization ftiionaldelosespaciosen sedesepiscopalesde laCataluftaViejajI): S e u d ’Urgell, Elna, Girotta y Vic (s. IX -X II): Analisistecnológicos ydoctieBtalesdearqttitecttiyprogram asxiisttnles H A k j o ‫ ؟‬13111/ARTE, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and

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k o l k ) ; Complejos catedralicios de la Catahtaa yi‫^^؛‬،i e» el Contexto meditertneo (s. X -X II). Investigaci(» ynuevaspeispect a s en la ftisferen cia d e sRCOBOcimienoos H A R io iv -iy io y-V , funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation); Edijicis iescenarisreligiososidieilsalacoroB ad’Aragó (lo iy S G R lio, funded by the Catalan Government [Generalitat de Catalu­ nya]). The principal investigator of these projects was Gerardo Boto Varela.

I

Sh aping Cathedrals in the P re -R om anes .

e

Era

The Cathedrals of Early Medieval Italy The Impact of the Cult of the Saints and the Liturgy on Italian Cathedrals from 300 to 1200* B eat B r en k

Abstract Research has not yet made it possible to summarize the fondamental factors that conditioned the general development of Italian cathedrals between 300 and 1200. Therefore, this paper focuses on fonction and meaning rather than typological and formal criteria, in the following sections: (1) cathedrals of the fourth century without relics, tombs, and mausolea; (2) the introduction of relics, tombs, and mausolea; (3) the invention of the crypt around 600; and (4) the privatization of the liturgy from the seventh and eighth centuries onwards. The cathedrals’ raison d’être emerges from their continuously changing functions that evolved over the centuries, particularly with regard to the apse around the altar, the choir enclosure and the baptistery. Other functions became manifest in the auxiliary liturgical side rooms and chapels, as well as in the narthex and/or in the atrium. It should be noted that not a single cathedral built between the fourth and twelfth centuries is preserved in more or less its original shape. Therefore, what we see today is always the result of more recent developments.

Introduction Studying the development of cathedrals in Italy from Constantine to the end of Norman rule is extre­ mely complicated. Rather than analyzing typolo­ gical and formal criteria, this current contribution focuses on the function and meaning of cathedral churches. A chronological arrangement of the mate­ rial following the political history of the territory will necessarily degenerate into a tiresome listing of rulers, bishops, buildings, and themes; the topogra­ phical aspect concerning the siting of a cathedral in the centre, at the perimeter, or on the outside of a city has been explored by Testini, Cantino Wataghin, and Pani Ermini.1 Another motivation for highlighting function and meaning in the study of early Medieval cathedrals in Italy is that the typological and formal arrangement of church plans is often well represented in the handbooks; a formal evolution is outlined

based on architectural characteristics. But what does it contribute to our understanding of Medieval cathedrals that certain churches have three or five aisles and were built with or without a transept? Jean­ Pierre Sodini, during the congress of Lyon in 1886, observed: ‘the bishops’ churches are not distingui­ shable from other churches’.2 Cathedrals never gene­ rated functions or rituals that were only practicable in bishop’s churches proper. The Sunday liturgy, bap­ tisms, the great feasts and solemn processions for the saints could just as well be celebrated in funerary and parochial churches. Therefore, the cathedral as a cate­ gory of its own should not be overvalued. Before developing new criteria, one basic pro­ blem should be addressed: whoever wishes to assess a cathedral from the early Christian period must accept never encountering an original monument in its entirety. The present state of early churches is always the result of a long history of alterations. Over

RctmescpteGitfoedniis in M e le m m e tm E u r o p e jc h ite c tu r e jliitin d U r k n C o n te x t ١ e ib y G e m c O B o to % eYa.&Ju‫ >؟‬t\n IA . YAoesen,Architectura.

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the centuries, bishops have constantly changed or replaced liturgical furnishings, eliminating what they considered unnecessary without too many scruples. Altars were replaced or destroyed, as were bishops’ thrones, pulpits, choir stalls, choir screens, private chapels, tombs, images, sculptures and so forth. Much of what had remained intact was subsequently altered by the Soprintendenti of the nineteenth and twen­ tieth centuries who often wanted to reconstruct a fic­ tional state of authenticity. To this should be added the effects of wars, revolutions, and natural disasters. Although liturgical furnishings certainly contribute to our understanding of cathedrals, I shall return to them only occasionally in this article. The research deficit to date concerning the early Christian and early Medieval cathedrals of Italy may be summarized in the following way. In order to understand the history of cathedrals in Italy, the archives of each cathedral should be carefully inves­ tigated, as these often hold historical drawings and etchings, plans and records of the archbishops’ pasto­ ral visits before and after the Council of Trent. In rare cases, we are informed by a Liber Ordinarius about local liturgical habits and customs.3 How can we define a cathedral? It is the principal church of a diocese where the bishop has his throne and where the Sunday liturgy is celebrated. The space reserved for the clerics and for the bishop is strictly separated from the space of the lay people. As head of the diocesan community, the bishop is responsible for baptizing the newly converted, which is performed in the baptistery. This chapel belongs to the immediate sphere of the cathedral and offers a testament to the outside world of the conversion of neophytes enacted by the bishop. The bishop administrates the cathedral properties and believers’ gifts, and lives together with the staff in a palace next to the cathedral. A cathedral always consists of legal, architectu­ ral, economic, and ideological components. Often, the cathedral clergy made the claim to be the heirs of the local origins of Christianity, which often amounted to the period of the apostles, martyrs, and the holy patrons. Although not necessarily visible, it was made sure that believers knew about these remote origins. The cathedral is thus a place where the sacred history of a city is remembered and represented; at the same time, it is also a place where sacred and com­ munal myths and ideologies emerge.

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This current contribution argues that the very rapid development of the cults of relics and saints in the early Middle Ages had a decisive impact on the tex­ ture of cathedrals, resulting in fundamental changes to their architecture. At the same time, aesthetic developments also developed independently; for ex­ ample, the hallmark of the so-called Romanesque style is its remarkably formal originality, and its mani­ fold aesthetics are certainly not entirely bound up with the liturgy and the cult of the saints. In fact, clear-cut borders between liturgical and devotional changes on the one side and creative artistic innovations on the other are often very difficult to draw. As was said before, we should not treat the cathedral as a cate­ gory sui generis since these buildings never developed independently from processes that took place in other church categories. The argument in this contribution on cathedrals in Italy between 300 and 1200 will be organized along the following rubrics: 1. 2.

3.

4.

Fourth-century cathedrals without relics, mausoleums or tombs The cessation of the ancient Roman funerary legislation and the introduction of relics, tombs, and mausoleums intra muros in cathedrals and baptisteries from the late fourth century on The invention of the crypt around 600 and the cult of martyrs sometimes developing into a cult of the bishops The privatization of the liturgy from the seventh to eighth centuries onwards and the diffusion and multiplication of private ex-voto altars

Fourtb-CenturyC،itbe،ira.lsuiitboutReiics, M g s o le n s ,o r T k b s It is very difficult to define cathedrals in Italy during the fourth century because not a single one survives in its entirety, with the possible exception of San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome, whose Constantinian walls are still fairly intact (Fig. 1). All other fourth-century Italian cathedrals are known only from texts and excavations. All evidence seems to indicate that relics and saints’ tombs are absent from the Lateran church because Roman funeral law prohibited burials intra muros.4 The Lateran church was originally called Basilica Constantiniana after its founder,5 and, after 600,

Fig. 1. Rome, San Giovanni in Laterano : cathedral and baptistery; ground plans of the Basilica Constantiniana and the baptistery (photos author, ground plans Sible DE B l a a u w ) Basilica Salvatoris (Church of the Saviour).6 The sys­ temic difficulty encountered when trying to demons­ trate the absence of relics here and at other cathedrals is naturally due to the traditional historian methodology only allowing positive proofs. The recently excavated Basilica Constantiniana of Ostia7was situated intra muros and showed no saint’s tomb or relics despite the Liber pontificalis naming the church basilica sanctorum Petri, Pauli et Ioannis Baptistae. This name could suggest the presence of

relics were it not for its being mentioned in an edi­ tion of the Liber pontificalis dating from no earlier than the sixth century. The three-aisled cathedral possessed just one apse and a baptistery. The same is true of the Basilica Ursiana in Ravenna (Fig. 2), which was named after its founder-bishop Ursus; built around 400, it possessed no relics, and we may assume that the so-called double basilicas of nor­ thern Italy from before 380, such as that at Aquileia, had no relics, either.

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Fig. 2. Ravenna, cathedral (Basilica Ursiana): ambo, ground plan, crypt (photos author, ground plans Friedrich Wilhelm D e i c h m a n n )

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Cathedrals from the fourth and fifth centuries had only one altar and a single apse; the location of the altar, however, is anything but certain.8 The bishop and the clerics had their seating bench in the apse.9 The only known liturgical furnishings in the Lateran church (Fig. 1) are seven silver altars where the faithful could make offerings, the so-called solea, and the fastigium, which was erected on high columns between the cen­ tral nave and the apse. Half of the silver statues placed on top of the fastigium were visible from the nave; the other half could only be seen by the clerics and the bishop from the apse. As the main altar is not men­ tioned in the Liber pontificalis, it was most probably made of wood.10Sible de Blaauw describes the function of the Lateran church as follows: ‘The Lateran basilica was destined for the liturgy of the bishop of Rome, the only collective liturgy of the city’s Christian commu­ nity’." The Basilica Constantiniana, ‘originally did not offer collective liturgical celebrations on the feasts of the saints’,12 and, ‘was used in the fourth century for numerous Eucharistic celebrations with the participa­ tion of a great number of the faithful’.13 The architectural program of the Lateran church included a baptistery constructed by Constantine (Fig. 1) that was subsequently altered and renovated by Pope Sixtus III (432-40). Christianity was not the only religion to only admit new believers after a consecration ceremony; however, of all the religions in the Mediterranean World, it was the only one to have developed a specific, recognizable building type for the conversion of neophytes. The first freestan­ ding baptistery, a centralized building with a diameter of nearly twenty metres and with a water basin in the centre decorated with silver statues, was constructed by Constantine at the same time as the Lateran church. The Lateran baptistery was an incunabulum that prompted continuous and rich architectural develop­ ment until around 1300. The five-aisled cathedral of Milan14 and its baptis­ tery constructed in the late fourth century by Saint Ambrose both follow and modify the model provi­ ded by the Lateran church. The octagonal baptistery of Milan served as a model for many others in nor­ thern Italy, including those at Ravenna, Novara, and Albenga. If the cathedral of Milan had been dedicated to a saint, Saint Ambrose would not have called it basi­ lica nova quae maior est (‘The new basilica which is the greater’).15This building certainly had no relics, and its dedication to Saint Thecla only occurred much later.

The double basilica constructed in Aquileia (Fig. 3) by Bishop Theodore16in 315 probably had only a woo­ den altar and certainly no relics.17It was only during the late fourth century that a marble altar on four columns was erected in the presbytery, although we do not know whether it contained relics. I have deliberately avoided a detailed discussion of the so-called double basilicas because the results reached hitherto are not conclusive.18To conclude, it would appear that up to about 380-90, nowhere in Italy had anyone thought of depositing relics or installing a tomb inside a cathe­ dral church. The only liturgical furnishings were an altar, which was generally of wood or sometimes marble, the bishop’s throne, the semi-circular clerics’ bench in the apse, and the so-called solea19in the nave, which served as a corridor for the clerics to make their solemn entrance into the presbytery. Thefastigium in the Lateran church seems to be an exception.

IC e s s Æ tiio fth e A r a c ie w tR o iiw F ie r a r y L e g is k tin A th e lw tr o d u c tio w o fR e lic s J d b s , ،iw d M g s o le iis mtra n s iw C iitbedralsgd !‫ ؛‬،!,] )tis te r ie s ^ ijie k ite F o ftb C e w tfy o w (A) W hen Constantine constructed various churches20 above and next to the martyrs’ tombs outside the walls of Rome, he did so in accordance with the ancient Roman funerary laws. The Constantinian church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, however, and the mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople21 were built inside the walls and thus helped to weaken the ancient Roman custom, legally renewed by Diocletian and Maximian, of not burying the deceased within a city. Elsewhere, bishops were responsible for the erection of martyrs’ churches extra muros, for example in Milan, Ravenna, Novara, Spoleto, and Cimitile.22 Diocesan commu­ nity churches and martyrs’ churches, both for pagan and Christian Romans, were strictly separate early Christian-period categories.23 The primary aim of martyrs’ churches was to promote the veneration of the saints as a special form of a broader cult for the deceased in the cemeteries extra muros.24 Besides ser­ ving the cult of the saints, these sanctuaries also pro­ vided burial space for privileged believers.25 The enormous success of the martyrs’ churches outside Rome, however, prompted Roman believ­ ers to rethink the laws. Everywhere, martyrs’ churches

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Fig. 3. Aquileia, cathedral: ground plans of the early Christian and the Medieval complex; interior of the Medieval basilica and its crypt (photos author, ground plans Gian Carlo M e n i s ) were constructed extra luros along Roman roads. The Vatican church of Saint Peter was constructed on a Roman cemetery because its apostolic tomb attrac­ ted many more pilgrims than the Lateran cathedral of Rome, which suffered, so to speak, from a defi­ cit of relics. The cathedral of Milan, too, like many other Italian cities, possessed no apostolic tomb. Contemporary sources suggest that this absence of a famous venerated tomb was deeply regretted by many. Bishop Ambrose lamented the absence of Milanese martyrs in his cathedral, calling it sterilei lartyribus ecclesiai Mediolanensei (‘the Milanese church devoid of martyrs’).26 Tombs of martyrs were disco­ vered in Milan only towards the end of the fourth century, thanks to Saint Ambrose who describes his findings in his letter no. 22.27 However, Ambrose deposited relics only in martyrs’ churches extra luros and never in the cathedral of Milan.2‫؟‬

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Altars in Early Christian diocesan community churches also remained without saints’ relics.29 Towards the end of the fourth century, the distinc­ tion between churches for local pastoral care and martyrs’ churches became increasingly blurred, which in turn meant that the ancient Roman burial laws were gradually disregarded.30 The Liber pontificalis says of Pope. D ،t m ،i ‫• ؛‬. hie n tta , corpora, samctorti reqwisiuitet in u e n it,q u o ru ie tia iu e rsib u sd e c ln it (‘He searched for and discovered the bodies of many saints, and also proclaimed their acts in verses’),3' but he never transferred relics to the Lateran church or to other urban churches. Instead, Pope Damasus is significant because he legitimized the cult of the saints and the martyrs and brought it to the attention of the Roman Christian community.32 The first private church in Rome, a so-called titulus, to contain relics was San Vitale. Pope Innocent I (401-17) dedicated

this church with relics of the Milanese saints Gervasius apply to these rooms because the word prothesis was and Protasius. used for the rite of offering bread and wine and not The first known Italian cathedral to be dedicated as a liturgical space. This rite was often performed to a martyr was that of Vercelli, which is situated out­ in a space to the left of the central apse.38 One of the side the city walls. Bishop Eusebius of Vercelli dedi­ very few spaces where the offerings of bread and wine cated it to the martyr Theonestus around 400,33when were placed on a table is the left lateral room at Santa relics were being discovered everywhere. In 401, a Maria in Grado.39 At Parenzo, the bishop’s throne synod was held in Carthage to deal with the question and the clerics’ marble benches in the apse is the best preserved ensemble of liturgical furnishings in of how to distinguish true relics.34 an early Christian cathedral, although it was slightly The absence of relics in the Lateran church was remedied by Pope Hilarus (461-68) who attached altered by bishops in the thirteenth century.40 Here chapels to the Lateran baptistery dedicated to Saint again, the name of Bishop Euphrasius is mentioned in the opus sectile decoration. The trefoil choir with its John the Baptist, Saint John the Evangelist, and the holy cross.35 The altars described by the Liber ponti­ own narthex at the northeastern end of the left aisle ficalis were decorated with golden crosses and with a initially stood isolated from the church; its presence silver confession, indicating the presence of relics. The indicates a typical change in sixth-century cathedrals. case of Saint John Lateran is the first known example It does not seem to have served as a memorial cha­ where the number of altars was increased. We do not pel, but rather as a mausoleum. The tiny rectangular know whether these altars served for private prayers windows, characteristic of the mausoleum of Galla or for the celebration of the Eucharist. In any case, Placidia in Ravenna, also support this conclusion. The square tower over the crossing is another fea­ it is noteworthy that Pope Hilarus chose the baptis­ tery rather than the cathedral for the deposition of ture typical of mausoleums,41 lending credence that relics. By doing this, he effectively separated the cult it was the mausoleum of Bishop Euphrasius himself, of relics from the Sunday liturgy celebration. although this must remain a hypothesis. (B) From the sixth century on, certain cathedrals Besides Parenzo, in Italy there is only one other in the Near East, and a few exceptional examples in cathedral that is nearly equally well preserved, namely Sant’Eufemia in Grado42 (Fig. 5), erected by the West, were built with three apses, though not necessarily inclusive of altars. The first Italian cathe­ Bishop Elias (571-86).43 Here again, a trefoil feretory drals with three apses are those of Parenzo (now PoreC was added to the left aisle during the late sixth cen­ in Croatia) and Pesaro. The cathedral of Parenzo tury. Traditionally, it is thought to have housed the relics of the martyrs Fortunatus, Hermagoras, and (Fig. 4), which belonged to the diocese of Aquileia and was constructed by Bishop Euphrasius around Marcus, although neither archaeological nor epigra550 to replace an earlier church, is the best preserved phic proof for such a hypothesis exists. The southern early Christian cathedral complex in that it includes aisle ends in a rectangular space with an apse that not only a three-aisle basilica with an atrium and initially served as a diaconicon and later became the baptistery, but also the bishop’s palace and various mausoleum of Bishop Marcianus, who died in Grado auxiliary rooms, such as a feretory. The apse inscrip­ in 578,44 as is testified by the inscription. It may also have been the mausoleum of Bishop Elias. It is a typi­ tion tells us that Bishop Euphrasius consecrated the church in the name of Christ.36 It was thus a Christ­ cal mausoleum for a privileged individual, located church, although the apse mosaic represents the next to the relics of Sant’Eufemia, which were added Virgin with the Child. This mosaic may have been ex posteriori. Such mausoleums were not restricted venerated, but it had no function in the liturgy. The to cathedrals, but were also added to diocesan com­ munity and funerary churches, for example Santa marble altar imported from the island of Prokonnesos Giustina in Padova. Although it is beyond doubt in the Sea of Marmara carries an inscription of Bishop Euphrasius, and its lower section has a rectangular that private mausoleums were not often added to opening for relics — afenestella confssionis.37 cathedrals in Italy, reasons for exploring this remain. The two lateral apses probably served as liturgical One of the very rare Medieval examples of this cus­ rooms and were closed off by means ofwooden doors tom is preserved on the south side of the Norman or curtains. The terms prothesis and diaconicon do not cathedral of Canosa di Puglia, where Boemund of

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Fig. 4. Parenzo/PoreC (Croatia), cathedral: ground plan, interior, bishop’s palace, north side (photos author, ground plan Ivan M a t e j c i c ) Antiochia was buried in an elaborate mausoleum between IIII and 8.45‫ﻟﻠﻞ‬ Cathedral presbyteries are almost never preserved in their original form. An important innovation is the erection of a ciborium, or canopy, over the altar, which made its first appearance in northern Italy during the fifth century (Grado). This device remained in vogue until well into the thirteenth century, not only in cathedrals, but in diocesan community churches

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as well. This is also true of the ambo, which was imported into Italy from the quarries of Prokonnesos from the sixth century onwards. One of the best preserved examples is the Bishop Agnellus ambo in Ravenna cathedral (Fig. 2).6‫ ب‬Ambos, however, are in no sense exclusive to cathedrals. At Ravenna, there is an ambo of Prokonnesian marble in the royal palace chapel of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo,47 and the most lavishly sculpted specimens are preserved in

Fig. 5. Grado, Sant’Eufemia Cathedral: interior, presbytery and baptistery (photos author, ground plan Mario M

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R o b e r t i)

parish churches and baptisteries from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Tuscany and elsewhere. An early example of a rectangular chorus psallen­ tium (as it is described by the council of Tours in 7‫ ة ﻵ‬parsquae acawcellis uersusaltarea.itna.itur) A partially preserved in Sant’Adriano in Rome (625­ 38), where it extended almost to the middle of the central nave.48 Whereas in the Early Christian period the choir screen was low so that the clerics

were visible, higher choir screens, the so-called ‘pergulae’ with curtains,49 were introduced from the early medieval period on, thus preventing lay people from disturbing the canons. From the ele­ venth century on the screen took on the shape of a wall, which in the case of Salerno Cathedral reached a height of 2.15 m.‫؛‬° In southern Italy, monumental candelabras in marble started to appear from the eleventh century on and were used in celebrating

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the liturgy of Exultet on the Saturday night before privileged individuals. All this explains the presence Easter, favoured particularly in the diocese of of three large portals serving the various groups wit­ Benevento. The deacon read the text from an illus­ hin the community of the town. trated scroll hanging over the ambo. Three or four portals are also found in the baptiste­ (C) From the sixth century onward, baptisteries ries at Pisa and Parma. The baptistery of Pisa is one of adopted functions that had earlier been reserved for the rare examples possessing a pulpit, which proves that cathedrals and martyrs’ churches extra juros, namely not only was Mass celebrated here, but that sermons the deposition of relics and the construction of pri­ were also delivered. Clearly, all baptisteries primarily vileged individuals’ tombs. A famous and impressive served for baptisms, but from the eleventh century example is the baptistery in the cathedral of Albenga, onwards, baptisteries in northern Italy were increa­ with a sixth-century mosaic inscription referring to singly used for daily Mass, for communal representa­ saints whose relics were probably preserved under the tion, and for housing the tombs of the privileged. The altar (Saint Stephen, Saint John the Evangelist, Saint baptistery at Parma also served to exhibit the carroccio, Laurentius, Saint Navoris, Saint Felix, Saint Gervasius, the very symbol of the municipality’s political power.55 and Saint Protasius).51During the Carolingian period — but possibly even earlier — tombs were construc­ Ilie r a tio r a o fth e C fg o iilig d ie C u tto f ted in arcosolia. Tombs of privileged individuals were I r t y r s sdetiüsDeveOqnwg iÉ Æ C uttofthe B i s l f installed in Italian baptisteries from the tenth and The crypt as a stage for venerating saints and pro­ eleventh centuries on, for example in the baptistery pagating their cult remains one of the most original of Santo Stefano adfontes in Milan,52 where Bishop architectural creations of the first millennium. In its Warimbertus was buried in 921.53 Another example early phase, the crypt allowed only a few privileged is the baptistery of the cathedral of Florence where believers to gain access to the tomb of a martyr or his Bishop Rainiero’s tomb from 1113 is still preserved or her relics. Over time, crypts changed into places for (Fig. 6). Thus, the baptistery was also used for the cult the veneration of local bishops, and multifunctional of the deceased. At the same time, cathedrals started spaces for prayers and burials, for Requiem Masses, to serve for the burials of bishops and clerics. In and for private devotion. Crypts were often — Milan, the first archbishop to be buried in the cathe­ but not exclusively — installed in cathedrals, and dral (ecclesiayeja li) was Angilbertus I (d. 823). Only from the tenth century onwards was it usual for arch­ belong to a period when the veneration of relics had long since been accepted inside cities without objec­ bishops to be buried inside cathedrals. From Aicho tion. Whereas crypts were built in the eastern part of (915) to Gotofredo (979), seven archbishops were the Mediterranean from the fourth century onwards, buried in the cathedral of Santa Maria. their development in the West was slower and much The reason for the remarkable monumentality of baptisteries in northern Italy was not only the highly more varied than in the East. Crypts as spaces for the propagation of cults were never prescribed by theo­ developed sense of communal identity, but also that logians or church councils; neither did they grow the baptistery had gradually changed into a de facto out of the needs of clerics. Conspicuously, the Liber parish church for the daily Mass, and housed a clergy independent from the cathedral clergy. Some baptis­ pontificalis does not testify to the presence of a semi­ circular crypt under the apse of Saint Peter’s in Rome, teries were thus furnished with their own choir stalls, as is shown in a drawing of the baptistery of Florence and only states of Pope Gregory that fecit ut super corp usbeati Petri m issascek brarentur ‫ ؟‬h t W o . v 'Æ ^ o u v by Bernardo Buontalenti (Fig. 6). The cathedral was only used by the bishop for the solemn Sunday that Mass could be celebrated above Saint Peter’s liturgy and for the Saints’ feasts, while the baptistery body’).56This innovation occurred in Rome, but Bishop Ambrose57had earlier deposited the relics ofSaintVitalis was the stage for the community’s daily liturgy. In the and Saint Agricola under the altar of his basilica ajbrobaptistery of Florence, the feast of the patron saint, siana, which was constructed extra juros in Milan. He Saint John the Baptist, was celebrated with processions54 of the guilds and fraternities accompanied by had his own tomb built under the same altar together music. The carroccio with the flags of the Florentines with the relics of Saint Gervasius and Saint Protasius, was preserved here, and it provided burial space for thereby guaranteeing himself the status of a saint.58

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Fig. 6. Florence, baptistery of S. Giovanni Battista: drawing by Buontalenti, sarcophagus of Bishop Rainiero (photos author, drawing from Rivista d ’arte 1‫ و‬0‫) و‬

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Gregory of Tours59described the specific situation o fS A m P exerns fo W o f. bocenimsepuCcbrumsub a t t a r e c o l l o c a t u i i U e m k h e t u r ‫ ؟‬A n k h tttT h t tomb is placed under the altar, as is very seldom seen’). Gregory’s surprise is understandable when we recall that in Gaul, relics were rarely deposited under the altar in the presbytery, but rather behind it.6. Most scholars agree that it was Pope Gregory the Great who had a semi-circular crypt with two entrances built under the apse of Saint Peter’s. This important innovation was imitated in Rome and also north of the Alps during the Carolingian period.61 I know of only three Italian cathedrals in which the semi-circular crypt of Saint Peter’s was imitated. The Carolingian cathedral of Santa Maria in Vescovio in Sabina (Fig. 7) possesses a semi-circular crypt, which was subsequently enlarged into a hall crypt during the eleventh century.62 The co۶fssio-altar at the end of the east-west corridor had a fenestella confessionis and was visible from the nave. It remains difficult, however, to explain the function of a second altar in the crypt — was it a private altar? A semi-circular crypt was also added to the aforementionedBasilica Ursiana in Ravenna in 974 (Fig. 2٣ during a period when the hall crypt had become more popular elsewhere. The spread of the hall crypt was not due to any official decree; rather its popularity came from the important advantages conferred by its spacious form with several bays of equal height and width. It was indeed an appropriate innovation by cle­ rics whose responsibilities by the eleventh century had expanded from solely taking care of the relics to atten­ ding to the burial of privileged ecclesiastical officials inside the crypt. O f course, the veneration of a saint’s tomb always remained the uppermost concern. This is quite visible in the ninth-century crypt of San Marco in Venice, which housed the tomb of the Evangelist Mark (Fig. 8), and in the large hall crypt under the apse of the cathedral of Salerno, where the relics of the Apostle Matthew were found in 108064 and then placed under the altar.65 In the crypt of Ivrea Cathedral,66 the relics of the saints Bessus, Sabinus, Tegulus, and Dalmatus were deposited in a reused, second-century sarcophagus. The builder of this cathedral was Bishop Warmundus (969-1005). A marble inscription reads: CONDIDIT H O C DOM INO PRAESUL I R M U N D U S A B IM O (‘Here the bishop Warmundus founded [and dedicated a church] to our Lord’). Only the

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ambulatory, the apse flanked by two towers, and the crypt are preserved from his time. The ambulatory runs on two levels: one on the level of the presby­ tery, the other at crypt-level, where it emends into a hall crypt.67 The solution involving a two-storied ambulatory is particularly original. The Roman sarco­ phagus containing the relics was flanked by two altars, perhaps intended for private Masses. The two towers indicate the spiritual and historical importance of this new building, and their shape seems to hark back to Ottonian architecture in Germany. Although crypts had become widely adopted by the eleventh and twelfth centuries, there are notable exceptions where saints were never buried in a crypt. One ex­ ample regarding a saint of utmost importance is Saint Benedict, whose remains were never placed in a crypt; instead, his tomb was venerated in the presbytery of the abbey at Montecassino. Likewise, the Norman cathedrals at Cefalù and Monreale in Sicily also pos­ sessed no crypts. Certain particularly venerated sovereigns and bishops were buried in the crypts of Carolingian and Romanesque Cathedrals. W hen Emperor Louis II died in 875 near Brescia, he was buried in the Carolingian crypt of San Filastro under the Rotunda of Santa Maria in Brescia, then the cathedral.68 Interestingly, the forerunner of the rotunda, Santa Maria del Dom, was a funerary church where Bishop Benedict was buried ante regiam Sanctae Mariae (‘he was buried in front of the main door of the chancel’) and Bishop Ardingo was also buried in 922 ante pusterlam SanctaeM fiaeM aioris ‫ ؟‬T h fto u v o fT h tsd t door of the church of Sancta Maria Maior’). It is impossible to describe every detail in the transformation from annular to hall crypt in a single article. However, one essential aspect is that the cult of the deceased overlapped with the cult of the saints,69 a change that in Italy took place during the ele­ venth century. Enormous vaulted crypts with many columns were built under the cathedrals at Aosta, Ivrea, Aqui, Venice (Fig. 8), Brescia, Salerno, and Gerace to enable large communities of believers to pray or assist at funeral services. In the earliest stages of this development, crypts were installed only below the middle apse; however, they soon became much larger and were built under the entire presbytery and underneath the transept as well, thus necessitating dozens of columns and capitals. It is for this reason that the late eleventh-century crypts of the cathedrals

Fig. 7. Sabina, Santa Maria in Vescovio Cathedral: ground plan and interior of the crypt (photos author, ground plan S.B.B.A. del Lazio)

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Fig. 8. Venice, Basilica of San Marco: ground plans of the nave and the crypt, the so-called ‘capitello’ (photo and ground plans author after Otto D e m u s )

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of Gerace and Modena (Fig. 9) possess no fewer than nine aisles; the same tendency is also found in an even more monumental and grandiose manner north of the Alps, for example, in the crypt of the cathedral at Speyer, built by Emperor Conrad II in 1030-35. In the crypt of the cathedral of Modena, an altar was installed to venerate the city’s patron saint, the late fourth-century bishop Saint Geminianus (Fig. 9).70 A further development can be seen in the cathedral of Parma,71 where the renowned bishop and builder, Bernardo degli Uberti (d. 1133), was buried in the eas­ tern part ofthe crypt. A biography celebratinghis merits was published in 1139 to promote his canonization and to propagate him as the city’s patron. Also, much earlier evidence of the cult of the local bishop can be found in the eighth century, for example, at Ravenna.72

I P r i i tiz u tio n o fth e L itu r g y j r o i tb e S e m t l ) to E ig h tb C e n tu r ie s o n u fd s u n d ie D fu s io n d ii M uttiplicutionofP riite ei-voto l u r s The private Mass,73 called a missa quam sacerdos pro semetipso debet canere (‘a Mass which the priest should read to himself’) is not celebrated for and in front of a community, but by a priest on his own at a secondary altar.74 It is difficult to know where exactly these pri­ vate Masses were read, but side aisles and crypts would seem to have been convenient places. In cathedrals, public liturgy was celebrated on Sundays, and on the rare occasions ofsaints’birthdays or burial days. When he was preaching, the bishop sat on the cathedra in the apse or stood on the ambo in the nave. In the Early Christian period, on the other hand, churches had had only one altar,75 and this changed only gradually from the seventh to eighth centuries onwards as a result of the rise of private Masses. Well-to-do believers paid for private votive masses, the so-called vota, to serve special purposes, such as praying for the deceased. The best preserved documentation ofsecondary altars before the eighth century is found not in a cathedral, but in two diocesan community churches in Rome, namely Old Saint Peter’s and Santa Maria Antiqua.76 Here, frescoes depicting the Virgin and Child or the Crucifixion and ex-voto frescoes decorate the walls and piers above the altar. It seems that such images above the secondary altars favoured the veneration of images long before large panels were installed above the main altars during the twelfth century.

Votive Masses are well documented in the third book (c. 24-106) of the so-called Gelasianum, where illnesses, threats, marriage, sterility, birthdays, and Masses for the deceased are listed.77 The real heyday of the votive Masses was the Carolingian period, when Alcuin7‫ ؟‬composed the Liber sacramentorum79 especially for these missae votivae. In the cathedrals, some priests celebrated Mass as often as three times a day, and the number of altars also multiplied in monasteries. Whereas it is easy to find secondary altars in monastic churches,0‫ ؟‬it is nearly impossible to find archaeological proof of a secondary altar in medieval Italian cathedrals because they have so often been replaced. The most eloquent secondary altar is the altare del crocifisso in San Marco in Venice (Fig. 8), which is attached to the left pier of the crossing and sheltered by a ciborium.1‫ ؟‬Other examples are present in the ele­ venth-century baptistery of San Vincenzo at Galliano south of Como, where two secondary altars are pre­ served in the galleries and a third one on the ground floor. These were surely altars for the celebration of private Masses. In the cathedral of Novara,2‫ ؟‬which was dedicated in 1132, the ordo shows that twenty-two altars were distributed throughout the naves, galleries, the baptistery, and even in the campanile, and that they were visited by the faithful during processions.

Epilogue In contrast to other Mediterranean countries, a great number of cathedrals in Italy stand out for their lon­ gevity. Apart from the cathedral of Parenzo (Fig. 4), however, only one Early Christian cathedral is pre­ served in its integrity from the sixth century due to its remote position on an island far away from traf­ fic, namely the cathedral of Sant’Eufemia built in Grado in 579 (Fig. 5). The church has been constantly repaired and restored from the sixth century to the present. Most early Christian cathedrals were replaced by new buildings during the Carolingian or, more often, the Romanesque period.3‫ ؟‬O f particu­ lar interest is the cathedral of San Giusto in Trieste which stands on a first-century Roman building plot with important religious and civic constructions.4‫؟‬ At the beginning of the twelfth century, the cathedral was partially reconstructed so that the apse received a mosaic of high quality showing the Virgin and the

T h e C a t h e d r a l s of Ea r l y M e d i e v a l I t a l y

23

Fig. 9. Modena, San Geminiano Cathedral: ground plan, ‘pontile’, ambo and Geminianus scenes on the so-called doorway of the Princes (photos and ground plan Chiara F r u g o n i ) Twelve Apostles and the remains of the Roman pro­ pylon were incorporated into the campanile. The cathedral of Aquileia85 (Fig. 3) was also erected during the early fourth century on a Roman building plot with private houses. In the first half of the eleventh century under Emperor Conrad II and the Patriarch Poppo (1019-42), the cathedral was extensively enlarged and furnished with prestigious monuments, thus making it the largest eleventh-century cathedral in northern Italy. After the collapse of the nave during the earthquake of 1348, the entire clerestory was recons­ tructed from the capitals up to the roof. Nearly all the eleventh-century columns and capitals were reused in the new nave. As such, this was an exemplary and suc­ cessful late Medieval restoration that greatly respected the old structure, in contrast to the earlier building phase in the first half of the eleventh century.

24

Beat Br e n k

In Apulia, many twelfth-century cathedrals are constructed over early Christian foundations; howe­ ver, we do not always knowwhether the early Christian building survived until the Romanesque reconstruc­ tion or whether the latter was built over ruins. Under the cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore in Barletta, a three-nave basilica with one apse was excavated and dated to the period of Bishop Sabinus of Canosa (514-66). Much later, this church became the seat of the Bishop of Barletta and was thoroughly recons­ tructed in the twelfth century with three naves and a gallery.86 At the other end of the spectrum is the cathedral of Santa Restituta in Naples,87 which has a Theodosian baptistery that escaped the radical reno­ vations of the later Middle Ages. W ith its mosaics, it represents a jewel of early Christian architecture among the monumental late Trecento constructions,

and its survival was only made possible because of the baptistery’s very solid architecture. The list of early Christian cathedrals reconstruc­ ted during the Romanesque period in Italy, be it over ruins or after the demolition of an ancient buil­ ding, is extremely long when compared to any other Mediterranean country. In other words, the recon­ struction of Romanesque cathedrals built over early Christian antecedents is key to our understanding of Italian Medieval church architecture. It is evidence of an outstanding tradition of Christian faith and also points to an important economic and social revival after the turn of the millennium. As early as the eleventh century, however, the Normans were induced by political reasons to establish new bisho­ prics in Sicily, resulting in the erection of new large cathedrals first at Catania and Mazara del Vallo and then in the twelfth century at Cefalu and Palermo.‫؟؟‬

NOTES ٠I

wish to thank Sible de Blaauw and Carlo Tosco for their pre­ cious advice. 1 Pasquale t e s t in i , Gisella c a n t in o WATAGHIN & Letizia pani e r m in i , ‘La Cattedrale in Italia', in Actes du X le congrès international !archéologie chrétienne, e i Noel DuvAE, Françoise Ba r i TEL & Philippe P ergola , vol. I, Vatican City 1989, pp. 5-229. 2Jean Pierre So d in i , ‘Les groupes épiscopaux de Turquie, à l’exception de la Cilicie', in Actes du x i ‫ ء‬congrès, I, p. 419; Noël D uval, ‘L’Évêque et la cathédrale en Afrique du nord', in Actes d u x i' congrès,E,p,١8 t, 3 Werner Jacobsen , ‘Probleme der Liber Ordinarius-Forschung für die Bau- und Kunstgeschichte. Methodische Vorbemerkun­ gen zu einem neuen Forschungsgebiet', in Heilige, Liturgie, R a u m Beiträge zur Hagiographie, e i Dieter 1 Bau er et ‫ ا ع‬, Stuttgart 20I0 ١ pp. I75-82. 4 Philipp H o fm eister , ‘Das Gotteshaus als Begräbnisstätte', in ArchivJiirfeatholischesKirchenrecht, m , i 9 ١i,p p . ٠v 8 7 - 0 ,‫'؛‬ 5 Alfons Maria Sc h n e id e r , ‘Die altchristliche Bischofs- und Gemeindekirche und ihre Benennung' in Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenscha۶ en inGöttingen. Philosophisch-historische Klasse, 7١ I952; Thomas M ich els , ‘Dedicatio und Consecratio in frü W o m kh er Liturgie’, in Enhainia.Gesammette Aujsätzezum goo-jährigenlihegedächtnisderAbteikircheM ariaLaaciD üv seldorf, I956, pp. 58-61 6Stale d e B laamwt, Cuttus etD ecor.L ilrgiae architetura nella Roma tardoantica e medievale, vol. I, Vatican City, I99I, pp. II9-33I. 7 Liber Pontificalis١ ed. Louis D u ch esn e , Paris, I892, p. I73: Eodem tempore fecit Constantinus Augustus basilicam in civitate Hostia, iuxta portum urbis Romae, beatorum apostolorum Petri et Pauli et Iohannis Baptistae.

8 O tto N ussbaum , Der Standort des Liturgen am christlichen Altar ،uor dem Jahre 1000. Eine archäologische ^ ^ d liturgiegeschicht;iicheUwt^ersuchung١ ‫ ؛‬o^A ١ ^96١. 9 Eu sebiu s ١HistoriaEcclesiastica X,4 ١ AA٠١Constitutionesapostolorum II ١ ‫ﻵ‬7١ 3- ‫ ؟‬١ T e s t a m e l m D i i n i .‫ ا‬١ ‫و ذ‬ ‫ ﻫﺎ‬Joseph B b a u ^ ١ Der christliche Altar in seiner geschichtlichen Entwicklung, Munich 1924, pp. 65-71 and 1.7; DE Blaauw , CuitusetDecor,! ١pp .TI9_ ١١T. 11 DE Blaauw , Cultus et Decor, I, p. 112: ‘La basilica Lateranense era destinata alla liturgia del vescovo di Roma, l'unica litu r^a col­ lettiva della comunità cristiana cittadina [٠٠٠] ' ٠ 12Ibidem, p. 139: ‘non ebbe ori^nariamente delle celebrazioni litur^che collettive per le feste dei santi'. 13Ibidem,p. 140: ‘Era nel quarto secolo destinata a numerose cele­ brazioni eucaristiche con la partecipazione di un gran numero di fedeli'. 14 Mario M irabella R o berti , ‘La posizione dell'altare nelle più antiche basiliche di Aquileia e di Parenzo', in Rivista di archeologia Cristiana, 26, 1950, pp. 181-94; Giovanni B ru sin , ‘Il posto dell'altare in chiese paleocristiane del Veneto e del Norico', in Festschriftfür RudolfEgger, vol. I, Klagenfurt, 1952, pp. 212-35. 15Ambrogio, ep. 22 ad sororem; Marco R ossi, ‘Le cattedrali perduve.. A c ^ o di M d n d , In Medioevo: LEuropadellecattedrali. A ttidelC onveno internazionaledi studi: Parma,i9-23 settembre 2006, ed. Arturo Carlo S T A V A T E , Parma, 2007, pp. 228-36; Paolo P iva, ‘Edilizia di culto cristiano a Milano, Aquileia e nell'Italia settentrionale fra IV e VI secolo', in c h ite lr a italiana. DaCostantino aCa^t'lo Magno, ed. SAde DE Blaauw , Milan, 2010, pp. 98-102. 16 Giuseppe CusciTO , ‘Vescovo e cattedrale nella documenta­ zione epigrafica in occidente', in Actes du x i e congrès, I, Vatican City, 1989, pp. 735-78. 17 Alan T hacker , ‘Popes, Patriarchs and Archbishops and the Origins of the Cult of the Martyrs in Northern Italy', in Saints and Sanctity, ed. Peter C larke & Tony C laydon (Studies in Church History, 47), 2011, pp. 51-79. 18 See Paolo P iva, ‘Edilizia di culto cristiano a Milano, Aquileia e nell'Italia settentrionale fra IV e VI secolo', in Storia delTarchi' tettura italiana, pp. 125-37; Hugo Brandenburg , ‘La basilica doppia in Aquileia e la cosidetta tipologia delle chiese doppie dell'architettura tardoantica. Il ruolo di fondazioni e donazioni nello sviluppo dei centri ecclesiastici dal IV al VI secolo', in Basdica di Aquileia. Storia, archeologia ed arte١ ed. Giuseppe C usciTO & Thomas L ehm ann (Antichità altoadriatiche, 69), Trieste, 2010, pp. 285-322. 19 Solea is a Greek term which was never used within the Latin realm. See: Sible DE Blaauw , ‘O rions and Early Developments o f TheCholr'١ ln La place du Choeur. Architectureetliturgiedu Moyen Âge aux temps modernes, ed. Sabine Frommel & Laurent L ec o n te , Paris, 2012, pp. 25-32. 20 S. Peter, S. Agnese, SS. Marcellino Pietro, S. Lorenzo and the BasîlicaApostolorti. 21 Cyril M a n g o , ‘Constantine's Mausoleum and the translation of relics', in Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 83, 1990, pp. 51-61; Cyril M a n g o , Le développementurbain deCottstantinople,Paris,1985 ١ pp. 35- 35.

T h e C a t h e d r a l s OF E a r l y M e d i e v a l I t a l y

25

22 Paola D e Sa n c t is , ‘Aedificare, novare, sacrare. Luoghi di culto dei martiri nelle iscrizioni di committenza episcopale' in Vetera Christianorum, 48, 2011, pp. 225-42. 23 Frani W y elanye Altar und Altargrab der christlichen Kunst im 4 . Jahrhundert: N eueStudieniiberdenA ltar der christlichen Liturgie, Leipzig, I9I2, p. 80. 24 Vincenzo Fyo c c h y N ycoy^ay, Strutture Junerarieededÿcidi i^ultop^aleoi^r'istiatiid.iR^omad^atlVa lT h secolo,VarYeano,2002, 25 W y e ia n d , Attarun^dAttar^gi^ab,p,Y3٥ , 26 Ambrosius, ep. 77. 27 Ibidem. 28 Jean-Charles Pic a r d , L esouvenirdeséveques.Séputtures, listes épiscopalesetcuttedesévequesenItalieduNorddesoriginesau X e siècle, Rome, 1988, pp. 17-108. 29 W y e ia n d , Altarun^dAltar^gi^ab'p.ÿy, 30 Ibidero,p,Y44. 3‫ ل‬Liber Pontificalis, p, 2I2. 32 Fio c c h i N icolay, Strutturefunerarie, p. 9. 33 W ieland , Altar und Altargrab, p. 92; see also: Paulinus oe M y i a n , Vtta Ambrosii, c. 29, 34 Johannes Dominicus M a n si , Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collection, vol. 3, Florence, 1754, p. 971, c. 14: [...] n u lla iiria m a rty ru m p ro b a b iiitera cc ep te tu r,n isia u t ibicorpus.autaliquaer^eliquiaei^er'taesittt; V.,] namquaeper somniaet per inanesquasirevelationesquoruilibethdinum ubiqueconst-tuuntur, altaria, omniumode reprobentur. 35 LiberPontificalis,p, 242-, HicJecttoraturialIIinbaptisteriobas-licaeConstantinianae, sanctiIohannisBaptistaeet sanctilohanni Evangelistaeet sanctae crucis, omniaexargento etlapidibus pre­ tiosis; Franz Alto Bauer , ‘Überlegungen zur liturgischen P a r i lierung des Kirchenraums im frühen Mittelalter' in Bildlichkeit und Bildorte von Liturgie, ed. Rainer I rland , Wiesbaden, 2002, pp. 75-103. 36 Giuseppe C uscyto , ‘Iscrizioni di co m m itten s ecclesias­ tica nell'alto adriato orientale', in Ideologia e cultura artistica tra AdriaticoeMediterraneoorientale (IV -X secolo).Ilruolodell"autoritàecclesiasticaalla lucedinuc^viscavier'icer^che , A tti del conve­ gno internazionale, Bologna-Ravenna, 26-29 2007, ed. Raffaella Faryoly C ampana TY & Clementina R yzzardy, Bologna, 2009, pp. 394-98. 37 ErgenYo R u sso , Scutturedelcomplesso eufasiano diParenzo, Naples & Rome, 1991, pp. 92-98; Urs P eschlow , ‘A ltar und Reliquien. Form und Nutzung des frühbyzantinischen ReliquienaltaresYnKonsranrYnopel,Yn ^ri^liit^ekt^urundF,tt^urgie.Afet^endes Kolloquiums vom25.bis27. J u li0 0 3 ‫ ؛؛‬inG refsuald,ed, MYehaeY A lTRYPP & Claudia N auer T, Wiesbaden, 2006, pp. 193-94. The earliest evidence for a ciborium in northern Italy was observed in the small basilica under the cathedral of Santa Eufemia (mid-fifth century). Mario M irabella R o berti , ‘La piU antica basilica dYGrado , Yn A tti e memorie della società istrianadiarcheologiae storia patria, 27-28, 1979-1980, p. 336; Federico G uydobaldy, ‘I cyboria d'altare a Roma fino al IX secolo', in Mededelingen van hetN ederla n d sIn stitu u tteR o i, 59,200 ٥ ,pp.55-69. 38 Thomas M athew s , ‘Private Liturgy in Byzantine Archi­ tecture: Toward a Re-Appraisal' in Cahiers Archéologiques, 30, 1982, p. 125; Georges D escoeudres , Die Pastophorien im syrobyzantinischenOsten.EineUntersuchungzuarchitektur-undliturgiegescbichtlichenProbeein,WYe‫؛‬baden,i98>y,Robert.TAET:, The

26

Beat Br e n k

Great E n e e , Rome,i978;•, Robert. T a e t ‫ل‬ Rites, Rome, 2000. 39 Monica C o r TELLETTY, ‘Nuove indagini sulla chiesa di S. Maria delle Grazie di Grado: analisi stratigrafica degli elevati', Areheologia dell’Architettura, 8, 2003, pp. 181-207. ٠٠ Bruno M olatole , LabasilicaeufrasianadiParenzo, Padova , 1943, p. 30; CusciTO , ‘Vescovo e cattedrale nella documenta­ zione epigrafica in occidente' p. 749. ٠' Ann T erry, ‘The Conservation History of Mosaic Pavements at the Cathedral Site in Pore1990- 1862 :‫ ' ؛‬in Hortus Artium Medievaiiuro,i,i99s,p.i78>. 42 Jean-PYerre C ayyeey , L.ev ergétisroe roonuroental chrétien en Italie et à ses marges: d,"aj^i^ès lepirapbie des pavements de mosaïque (iv ‘- v n ‫ ء‬s.), Rome, 1993, pp. 218-57; Giuseppe CusCITO, ‘Iscrizioni di committenza ecclesiastica', pp. 398-401. 43 The dedication took place on 3 November 579. 44 Mario M irabella R o berti , ‘Il Mausoleo di Elia nel Duomo dYGrado’, A ttie memorie della società isÉ nadiarcheologiae sto­ ria patria, 27-28, 1979-1980, pp. 347-56; P ica rd , Le souvenir desévèques,p,y ١ ٥ , 45 Marina Fa i i a C asTEIERANCHI, ‘Il mausoleo di Boemondo a Canosa, in I Normanni, popolo d ’Europa 1030-1200 (ed. Mario ٠ ONoERYo ١,V(nYceY994,pp, 527-30-, AttidelConvegto) d,iStttd,io suBoeTOoudodaTar^antoadAntoehia aCarasa, Storiadi unPrincipeN oiaio,Taranto,C cisa,raaggjo-nierobrei998,eAEraneo C a rdin i , Nunzio LOZYTO & Benedetto VeTERE, Gelatina, 2003. 46 Raffaella Faryoly C ampana TY, ‘Per la datazione della catte­ dra di Massimiano e dell'ambone di Agnello', in Studi in memoria di Patrizia Angiolini Martinelli, ed. Silvia Pasy, Bologna, 2005, pp. Y65-6% -,dauraNzzi,Am bouiuell.areaaltoadriaticatralI e XIIIsecolo, Pasian di Prato, 2009. 47 N azzy ,A mboni,p,i0Y, 48 PeYer CorneYYus C i aussen Die Kirchen der Stadt R^t^m im Mittelalter (1050-1300), vol. I, Stuttgart, 2002, 21-23; Paolo P iva , ‘Lo “spazio liturgico”: architettura, arredo, iconografia (sec. W -XU),,Yn LA rteidievalenelcontesto,300-1300. Fu^z,io^i, ico­ nografie, tecniche, ed. Paolo P iva, Milan, 2006, p. 139. 49 Paolo P iva, ‘L'ambulacro e i “tragitti” di pellegrinaggio nelle chiese d'Occidente (secoli X -X III)) in Arte medievale. Le vie dello spazio liturgico, ed. Paolo P iva, Milan, 2012, pp. 81-145. ٠° AnronYo B r a c a , Il Duomo diSalerno. ALrcbitetturae catture artistichedelM edioevoedelrEtàM oderna,Sa\a;no,2003,p. Y١Y-, see also: Francesco A ceto , ‘Peritia greca e arte della riforma: una proposta per il coro della cattedrale di Capua', in Medioevo medi­ terraneo: L ’occidenteThisanzioe 1"IslaroAttidelconvegno internazionaledi studi,Parm a,2i-25 settembre2004,eà Arturo Carlo ^ yntavalle, Milan, 2007, pp. 627-35. 51 Tiziano M annony & Aurora C agnana , ‘A rcheologia dei Monumenti. L'Analisi stratigrafica del battistero paleocristiano di Albenga) Archeologia dell’architettura, I, 1996, pp. 83-100. 52 P ica rd , Le souvenir des évêques, p. 104. 53 Ibidem, p. I02. 54 Girolamo M a n c in i , ‘Il bel s. Giovanni e le feste patronali di Firenze descritte nel 1475 da Piero Cannini' in Rivista d ’arte, 6, I909, pp. I 85- 220. 5١ Arruro Cado ^ ^ n y a n a l ie , B attisterodiP arm a.IlcieloeH terra, Parma, 1989, p. %Y-, carocium P a n ed u c tu m Ju itP a rm a m commagnohonore per populum P ane,R egijetM utineetguber-

naturo in Batisterioparroensi (according to the description of the chronicon ofi2 7 0 ١, 56 LiberPonti(icalis,p.١i2. 57 Paulinus of Milan, Vita Arobrosii, c. 29; Walter C u pper i , ‘“Regia Purpureo Marmore Crusta Tegit”: Il sarcofago reimpie­ gato per la sepoltura di Sant'Ambrogio e la tradizione dell'antico nella basilica ambrosiana a Milano' Annali della Scuola N om ale Superiore di Pisa. Quaderni, 14, 2002, pp. 141-75; Paola D e Sa n c t is , ‘Aedificare, novare, sacrare', pp. 225-29. 58 Jean-Michel Spieser , ‘A mbrose's Foundations at Milan and The ٣ stlonofm artyrlA ,ln Urban and Religious Spaces in L a te Antiquity and Early Byzantiuro, Aldershot, 2001. 59 Gregorius of Tours, De gloria roartyruro, c. 27. 60 John C r o o r , The Architectural Setting o‫ ؛‬the Cutt o‫ ؛‬the Saints intheE arly ChristianWestc. 300-C. 1200, Oxforà-,2000, pp. 69-75; Werner Jacobsen , ‘Saint's Tombs in Frankish Church Architecture', in Approaches to Early Medieval A rt, ed. Lawrence N ees, Cambridge MA, 1998 pp. 149-85. 61 I b i d e n ^ A - t o C 62 Fabio B e t t i , ‘La cattedrale di Vescovio in Sabina e l'architet­ tura carolingia nel ducato di Spoleto', in Medioevo: Arte Loro‫ء؛‬،^‫^ءﺣﺎ‬،‫ أ‬. atti del convegno internazionale di studi, Parroa, 2‫ ة‬- 2‫ؤ‬ setterobre 2002, ed. Arturo Carlo U N TA V A T E, Milan, 2004, pp. 500-10. 63 Jens Reic h e , Anmerkungen zur Datierung früh- und hochmit­ telalterlicher Architektur, am Beispiel der italienischen Kirchen­ bauten zwischen 870 unJ 1050, ln Bischöfliches Batten iro II. Jahrhundert, ed.JörgJARN٧ T, Ansgar Köb & Matthias W emhoee, Munich, 2009, p. 63; see also: Silvia Lusardi Siena , ‘La cattedrale S. Maria', in Luni, guida archeologica, Sarzana, 1985, pp. 121-30. 64 Antonio B r a c a , Il D u diSaeerno. Architettura e culture artistichedelMedioevoedellThtàModerna, SahAno,200 ١,p , 221; Mario D 'O n o er io , ‘Alfano, i Carmina e la Cattedrale di Salerno' In Medioevo: L'Europa delle cattedrali,p.180. 65 Domenico Fontana transformed the crypt at the end of the sixteenth century. 66 Adriano P ero n i , ‘Il ruolo della committenza vescovile alle soglie del Mille: il caso di Warmondo di Ivrea', in Cororoittenti e produzioneartistico-letterarianeE.atto roedioevooccidentale:4-i0 aprile 1991, ed. Ovidio C a pitan i (Settimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'alto Medioevo, 39), vol. 1, Spoleto 1992, pp. 243-71; Carlo T o sc o , ‘La committenza vescovile nell'XI secolo nel romanico lombardo' in Bischöfliches Bauen, pp. 7-9. 67 Adriano P ero n i , ‘Il ruolo della committenza vescovile alle soglie del Mille', p. 266; Samuel R u TISHAUSER, ‘Genèse et déve­ loppement de la crypte à salle en Europe du Sud', in Les cahiers de Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa, 24, 1993, pp. 57-52; Luca Fa b b r i , Cripte. D fusioneetipologianelH talianordorientaeeralX eX II secolo, Sommacampagna, 2009. 68 Marco Rossi, ‘Interpretazioni della Rotonda di Brescia: problemi storiografici e critici', in Medioevo: Arte Lorobarda, pp. 104-12; Fio c c h i N icolai, Strutturefunerarie, p. 134, 136 and fig. 89. 69 One of the earliest hall crypts in Italy is preserved under the Roman church of S. Maria in Cosmedin: Franz Alto Bauer , ‘Papst Hadrian I. und die Krypta von S. Maria in Cosmedin', in Rönisches Jt^l^irt^t^c^h der Bibliotheca Hertziana, ١22997/1998 ‫ا‬, 2002, pp. 135-78.

70 Albert D tety , Defensor Civitatis. Der Stadtpatron i» roroanischen Reliefzyklen Oberitaliens, Munich, 1998. 71 ManheBLucHTERHANDT, DieK(i،h ٤^£rnieer^o^nI>(^rrau. j 4 r^chitel^tur «niSfatlj^tur iTOZ^ettutterr^ojnReichskircheundKoTOWiuriebil dung, Munich, 10.9, pp. 386-87. 72 P ica rd , Le souvenir des évêques, p. 699. 73 Joseph Andreas J ung m an n , Missarum sollemnia, vol. 1, Vienna, 1958, p. 272; O tto N ussbaum , Kloster, Priestermönch und Privatmesse, Bonn, 1961, p. 136; Arnold A n genendt , ‘Missa Specialis. Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Entstehung der Privatmessen', ln J،^h^ir‫^؛‬t^(^hfu r Friihroittelalterforschung, ‫ ا‬7‫ ل‬29‫ ة‬5‫ ا‬p221- 152 ,‫; ؟‬ ArnoLL An g e n e n d t , O fe rto riu t Dus roittelalterliche Messop^r, Münster, 2.13, pp. 1.4-13. 74 N ussbaum , Der Standort des Liturgen, pp. 269-83. 75 J ungm ann , Missarum sollemnia, vol. 1, p. 281. 76 Franz Alto Bauer , ‘La frammentazione liturgica nella chiesa tom anadeJprlm omedloevo’, ln RivistadiarcheologiaCristiana, 75, 1999, pp. 385- 446 . 77 N u ssbau m , Kloster,PriesterroönchundPrivatisse,p.i57. 78 PatrologiaLatina,voL,202,coL,445-(s؟‬t\n IA . YAoesen,Architectura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 29-44

BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109564

fifteen volumes of the Topographie chrétienne des cités de la Gaule, an investigation instigated by Noël Duval, Paul-Albert Février, and Charles Pietri, and carried out under the direction of Nancy Gauthier and Jean-Charles Picard, and lately taken up by Brigitte Beaujard and Françoise Prévot.2 The title of the collection indicates that only the pre-Carolingian period is addressed, but both because the textual data gathered there also cover later centuries and because — as we shall verify — many buildings belonging to this first flowering were almost totally (or at least largely) standing around the year 1000, this bulk of information appears to be crucial. The achievements of the new corpus of the fourthto tenth-century religious buildings, coordinated by Miljenko JurkoviC at European level and Pascale Chevalier and Christian Sapin within France,3 will undoubtedly provide much new data. But, awaiting its publication, the already substantial contributions just mentioned will remain the basis of our argument; besides, we will also add some thematic studies such as those carried out by Noël Duval and myself (with later remarks byJean Guyon and Marc Heijmans, then ultimately by Christian Sapin and Brigitte BoissavitCamus) on ‘twin’, or multiple, churches,4 by Christian Sapin on the Westwerke and associated structures,5by Yves Esquieu then Jean-Charles Picard on the canons’ quarters,6 and by Sylvie Balcon, François Baratte, Dany Sandron, and myself about the transition from domus ecclesiae to episcopal palaces.7 Before embarking on this presentation, we must first attend to demarcating its limits. Geographically speaking, and with a need for historical coherence, we will remain roughly within the bounds of the contem­ poraneous Capetian kingdom, that is, modern France minus its eastern third (but including Lyon due to its immediate proximity and its ‘academic case’ character, though excluding lands to the east of the Rhône, the Saône and the Meuse, essentially). As for the chrono­ logical limits, in order to better account for the state of architecture in the tenth and eleventh centuries, we will of course often be forced to examine earlier periods.

The ThjüscojmlGrou])’: (kra llO w tlin e The primary characteristic of our panorama is the relative frequency of the ‘episcopal group’ formula, which is made up by at least two (and often three,

30

J ean-Pierre Caillet

sometimes even more) distinct architectural units. It is certainly not specific to our territory; and it is well known that Italy provided the earliest examples and then maintained the concept until the High Middle Ages. But Merovingian and Carolingian Gaul, then proto-Romanesque France, which largely assumed the heritage of these earlier phases, also offer a number of examples. It was Jean Hubert who, in 1963, inves­ tigated them as a true pioneer and who, according to the preserved ancient fabric of certain standing monuments as well as information on eighteenthcentury renovations from contemporary documents, in addition to the results of some partial excavations, drew up a list of about thirty cases within our present territorial limits;8 even with their partial, necessary revaluation — leading to certain additions, because of the advances made by research — we still are left with a corpus of numerically the same order. Practicality requires restricting ourselves to mentioning only those for which our knowledge is at present the least lacunar and which, typologically speaking, seem to be representative of the main solutions then in use. The complex of Lyon (Figs 1 & 2) is recommended for the excellent testimony that it offers of a plan com­ prising three houses of worship laid out side by side, particularly as it still clearly appears on sixteenth- and seventeenth-century scenographic representations. As was confirmed by Jean-François Reynaud’s excava­ tions of the 1970s and 1980s, this formula takes us back to a very early point in time.9 The actual cathedral of Saint-Jean-Baptiste, a Gothic building spanning from c. 1170-80 to the end of the fourteenth century, suc­ ceeded a basilica of the fifth century of which a letter of Sidonius Apollinaris gives us a poetic description: according to it, an open air atrium surrounded by por­ ticoes led to the main body of the church, subdivided into at least three naves, with a semi-circular apse at its eastern end (recently revealed in the Gothic transept crossing). Reworking of the outer walls’ masonry was possibly carried out during Merovingian, and then Carolingian, times. But it is especially a text of Bishop Leidrade, towards 809-12, which reveals a building restoration: a poem relating to the initiatives of Bishop Agobard (titular of the seat from 816-40) indicates that this work then had to be completed with the setting of a mosaic (probably in the apsidal conch) depicting Christ between the evangelists and the apostles, and the esta­ blishment of a new (?) altar dedicated to Saint John the Baptist — indeed, it is from the ninth century that his

Fig. 1. Lyon, episcopal group, scenographic view between 1545 and 1553 (anonymous, Lyons, Archives Municipales) name is attested for this church. Insofar as it was only in the eleventh and twelfth centuries that new installations were created (with, in particular, the establishment of a choir raised above a crypt and on one level with the nave, and the setting of a presbytery bench against the apse wall), can one thus see how, in its broad outlines at least, the complex around the year 1000 was not so dissi­ milar to the original design ofthe early Christian period. The second unit, immediately to the north, was originally a baptistery whose octagonal font has been excavated; its eastern apse dates from only a little later. Around 800, Bishop Leidrade rebuilt this unit accor­ ding to aplan which we are unfortunately no longer able to reconstruct: at least one knows, thanks to a docu­ ment issued by the same prelate towards 830, that this baptistery then became the church of Saint-Étienne, assigned to the canons. During the Romanesque period, this church included a transept on which were grafted, on both sides of the principal apse (that is, the original baptistery’s apse), two eastern apsed chapels;

toward the west was a short nave preceded by a porch (other modifications, besides, would have occurred in this part between twelfth and fifteenth centuries, and the building in its entirety was to disappear in 1792). Lastly, north of the church of Saint-Étienne stood the church of Sainte-Croix, whose Romanesque state included a tripartite nave with a semi-circular apse attached; we do not know the earlier plan, but archaeological remains at least allow us to think of a building of a similar format; and it seems correct in any case to date the original building back to the early Middle Ages, since a twelfth-century episcopal list assigns its foundation to Bishop Arigius shortly after 600. As for the name Sainte-Croix, it is surely not attested before the eleventh century but, as was sug­ gested by Jean-François Reynaud, it is possible that the introduction of the True Cross relics took place there rather early (through the transfer of some frag­ ments from the neighbouring city of Vienne, where there is mention of them in 514).

F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s AROUND TH E Y e a r 1000

31

Fig. 2. Lyon, episcopal group in the twelfth century: (1) Saint-JeanBaptiste, (2) baptistery, then Saint-Étienne, (3) Sainte-Croix, (A) cloister, (R) refectory, (P) episcopal residence (after Olivier JuFFARD & Jean-François R e y n a u d ) Furthermore, we may note the presence, within the framework of the same complex, of an episcopal residence which originally seems to have consisted of two buildings. Towards 800, Bishop Leidrade res­ tored one of them (the other was already completely in ruins), by enlarging it and creating a solarium, that is, a terrace on the upper floor. This construction would still have been standing around the year 1000, but it was replaced during the eleventh century by a new palace established on the banks of the Saône, about thirty metres southeast of the church of SaintJean-Baptiste. Before 1076 and on the initiative of Archbishop Humbert I, this new palace was equip­ ped with two towers (a post-Medieval drawing provi­ des us with an illustration).

32

J ean-Pierre Caillet

Lastly, the creation of a canonical corps in Carolingian times resulted, again on the initiative of Bishop Leidrade, in the erection of a cloister with a communal housing unit. Perhaps this cloister was laid out to the south of the church of Saint-Jean-Baptiste, where the Romanesque cloister was built after 1106; we do not have any certainty in this regard. The remains of a structure dated (by archeomagnetism) to between 730 and 850, at the corner of the Romanesque cloister and contiguous with the manécanterie of the end of the fourteenth century, could have belonged to this primi­ tive cloister — but this remains very hypothetical. We have described the example of Lyon because of the rather exceptional documentation available. Now we will mention more briefly examples that, in one aspect or another, appear to be of similar design. It is thus in Rouen10 (Fig. 3), Auxerre," and probably also Tours,12 Le Mans13 and Amiens,14 as well as, perhaps, Chartres,15 that the cult buildings were similarly laid out side by side. It should be said, nevertheless, that some differences are attested. This is especially the case at Nevers (Fig. 4), where excavations carried out after the (wartime) destruction of the Gothic choir revealed the existence of a chapel that had undergone several states between the fifth-sixth and the twelfth centuries and which, with a shift towards the south (whereas, symmetrically, the baptistery is somewhat towards the north), is located in the main church’s eastern prolongation.16Again, a plan comprising two buildings on the same longitudinal axis could have occurred in Paris, even if based on the scanty excava­ tions of the mid-nineteenth century:17 it seems that here there is evidence for a church of Saint-Étienne (the name is attested at the end of the seventh century; this building was destroyed at the time of the establish­ ment of the Gothic cathedral) and, more towards the east, a church of Notre-Dame (which the texts men­ tion as existing from the ninth century, and which also preceded the actual cathedral). The baptistery, whose existence goes back to the sixth century at least, and was later known under the denomination of SaintJean-le-Rond, was established north of the axis of the churches, near the apse of Saint-Étienne, and was demolished as late as 1748; according to the graphic documentation of this time, it had lost — at an unfor­ tunately unknown date — its original configuration and existed as a rectangular building. We should note at least that, independent of these alternatives, we apparently always deal with buildings

of early Christian (or at least early Medieval) founda­ tions, which have often been the object of refittings or rebuilding but were maintained as distinct units until proto-Romanesque times (or even later). As for their specific functions, information is unfortunately very scarce. Thus, it is mainly for Le Mans18 and Poitiers19 that, as with Lyon, we know thanks to a textual source that one of the churches was especially assigned to the canons from Carolingian times (or undoubted­ ly shortly after); it is, however, probable that, after Bishop Chrodegang of Metz created the cathedral chapters in the mid-eighth century, this stated pur­ pose also prevailed in several others of our complexes. Otherwise, it is obviously the dedications, as well as the attestation of the presence of certain relics, which provide some indications of these sanctuaries’ precise uses: one must indeed be prudent with respect to Jean Hubert’s proposal that the church dedicated to a mar­ tyr (often Saint Stephen) was the primitive cathedral to which would have been associated a second church (often dedicated to the Virgin, from Carolingian times especially) that the bishop would have reser­ ved for delivering sacraments. No text, in any case, confirms it within the territorial bounds and for the period that are taken into account here. Undoubtedly, one can, however, evoke some ex­ amples for which the special veneration for a saint could well have induced, in the building dedicated to him, special worship and devotional uses: such was the case in Amiens,20 where a charter of 850 clearly distinguishes the church of Sainte-Marie (corresponding to the actual Gothic Notre-Dame) and the church sheltering the remains of Saint Firmin (local proto-bishop and martyr) that, appa­ rently, stood north of the latter church until its des­ truction and rebuilding on a different spot in the thirteenth century (this in relation, precisely, with the Gothic reconstruction of the Marian sanctuary on a much vaster scale). In the same way, we will here note the case of Chartres,21 where the Marian church (already mentioned under this dedication in the ninth century) that was rebuilt by Bishop Fulbert at the beginning of the eleventh century, included in its crypt a place of devotion to the Virgin (still attested by the presence of a wall pain­ ting under the Gothic cathedral). In addition, the church immediately to the north, Saint-Serge-etSaint-Bache, known under this dedication in the eleventh century, could well have been the place of

Fig. 3. Rouen, episcopal group during Carolingian times: (a) NotreDame, (b) Saint-Étienne, (c) Canons’ court and buildings, (d) Court and buildings of the episcopal residence (after Bernard G a u t h i e z & Jacques L e M a h o ) a particular veneration of these two martyrs (the date of the introduction of whose relics at Chartres remains a mystery); that, we should well note, with­ out this specific devotion being the only function of the building (and so it was for the Marian pil­ grimage in the main church located close by). But let us add, all the same, that the assumption of such a major purpose for one of the components of an episcopal group may well be supported by the ex­ ample of Autun (Fig. 5) in the first half of the twelfth century:22 there, indeed, the new church of Saint-Lazare was expressly built to accommodate what passed for the body of the eponymous saint and to arrange there, under the main altar, a pas­ sage for the pilgrims; it is thus permissible to sug­ gest that this kind of use was inspired by what was

F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s AROUND TH E Y e a r 1000

33

Fig. 4.

Nevers, episcopal group in the eleventh century (after Gérard D e u b e r & Christian Sa p i n )

practised in certain cathedral groups in former cen­ turies. Finally, to close the examination of these res­ pective functions of the two churches, let us remark that, contrary to what is attested in northern Italy, for the French cases we do not have any evidence for the seasonal alternation of liturgical use.

C o r a tiiity o f،iS e ] fÉ B tip tism tilB Iiira g ? Another important aspect evoked by the Lyon ex­ ample is the presence of a separate baptismal building — but also the problem of the rather late conti­ nuity of its assignment to this same use (this, while knowing, moreover, that these baptisteries could have

34

J ean-Pierre Caillet

been equipped with an altar and thus also have ser­ ved as chapels, as had occurred in the early Christian period). We will approach this point by also taking into account the cathedral groups’ baptisteries, which, like those of Rheims or of Le Puy, were appa­ rently associated with only one church: the problems here are exactly those as in the case of more complex groups. In Rheims23 (Fig. 6), as in Lyon, it is clear that the baptismal building had disappeared by the Carolingian period: excavations by Robert Neiss and Walter Berry have established that it had been des­ troyed in the first half of the ninth century, with the erection of a Westw erk before the nave of the church of Sainte-Marie. The remains of this old baptistery were then hidden under the Westw erk in question;

Fig. 5. Autun, episcopal group during the Romanesque period: (1) Saint-Nazaire, (2) Notre-Dame, (3) Saint-Lazare, (4) cellarium, (5) refectory, (6) cloister (after Gilles FE v r e , Sylvie B a l c o n , Walter B e r r y and Christian Sa p i n ) but according to textual testimonies, we know that a new baptismal device was installed in the upper floor of the latter, and probably was maintained at least until the reorganization of this section of the building a little before the year 1000. In Poitiers also,24 Brigitte Boissavit-Camus has provided good evidence that the early Christian baptistery, still substantially well pre­ served, had been converted into a chapel, with impor­ tant plan modifications during the seventh century and assigned to the canons between the ninth and eleventh centuries; however, we do not know exactly when the baptistery was abandoned and where bap­ tism was carried out in the later centuries. But in this case, and in Lyon and Rheims likewise, it is quite rea­ sonable to argue that with the general introduction of child baptism through simple effusion before the Carolingian period, one could resort to a font of smal­ ler dimensions placed on a support and carry out the rite elsewhere (eventually in the main church). In fact, we should not seek a single interpretation for this period: given the many apparent differences

that arise through examining other examples, we should be careful in drawing single conclusions. Thus in Rouen25 (Fig. 3), in 1078, a text of Orderic Vitalis clearly mentions a burial in the baptisterium, the lat­ ter at this time being located in the northern arm of the transept of the church of Notre-Dame rebuilt shortly after the year 1000 and constituting the ori­ ginal complex’s southern component enlargement; following Jacques Le Maho, the eleventh-century baptistery’s location in the northern axis of the gal­ leried court placed initially between the two parallel churches could indicate the continuity of the baptis­ mal site from early Christian times until well into the Romanesque period. Two other cases are rather complicated. At Nevers26 (Fig. 4), the disappearance of the baptismal building was caused by erecting a Gothic counter-choir at the Romanesque cathedral, and we are uncertain of how long this building served for baptism: after a first reconstruction (around 600, according to Charles Bonnet) when this function was maintained, a final

F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s AROUND TH E Y e a r 1000

35

Fig. 6. Rheims, cathedral church from the seventh to twelfth centuries. Key clockwise from left: possible outline ofthefifth-century church / tu llf t h-cewtury ch^u»ch/b ٤p)titeety(,p^t^c^b٤^blywiit h ٤w^n^er^e‫ ؛‬f t e t Rok rt NetSS& ^ ‫) س أ ﻵ ت«د‬

church /

٠

phase involved a conspicuous raising of soil in the building’s immediate vicinity and creating a staircase to descend into it; also, the font was filled in and was replaced by a low octagonal wall, perhaps supporting a device for simple partial immersion (or infusion?). Given the evidence, one can only tentatively sug­ gest that this final phase dates to just before or after the year 1000. In the second case, that of Le Puy,27 the upper part of the present structure dates to a rebuil­ ding of around 1100 (according to Marcel Durliat). Its baptismal function is well attested by documentary sources from the early thirteenth century onwards. The lower parts of the perimetric walls — which, as in the next phase, delimit a short nave to which an apse is attached — clearly have far earlier origins. But we must await the publication of the current excavations to refine the building’s early chronology, as well as to be sure that a font was established there from the start. We may have here, then, another testimony of functional continuity in the same place — and this time in the same autonomous building — with only

36

J ean-Pierre Caillet

the substitution of the initial phase font (undoubtedly sunk into the floor itself) with a font of different type (that is, on a pedestal). So, given these various cases, we are faced with a rather complex panorama with — as was already su^ested, regarding the specific destina­ tion of each particular church in the most developed complexes — various likely solutions from one site to another. Indeed, this is hardly surprising, since, in spite of successive efforts by ecclesiastical authorities to standardize the liturgical functions, it is well proven that applying such decisions often posed problems.

lE jiis c o jitilR e s iie ie .lH o s jè l/G u e s t- H o u s e

^'Xenodochium) Our Lyon ‘reference case’ was also characterized by the presence of an episcopal residence — of real pageantry, since the text which mentions its repair in Carolingian times states that Bishop Leidrade wished the building to merit receiving and accommodating the Emperor on

the occasion of one of his visits. The recent conference held in Autun endeavoured to present an accurate sta­ tement of the transition from the early Christian domus ecclesiae to the episcopal palaces of the High Middle Ages.28 Despite the undeniable scientific advances, this process was not so easy to reconstruct: indeed, even though we quite often have textual evidence for the early episcopal residences, their exact nature — and location with respect to other units of the cathedral group — were generally overlooked. Furthermore, there have been few opportunities to carry out large-scale excavations within Medieval (or often post-Medieval) episcopal palaces in order to establish the sequence and details of the initial and later architectural phases. Here we will simply summarize what, on some sites, could be verified — or at least plausibly conjectured. In Tours, for example,29 the domus ecclesiae is clearly mentioned by the texts of second half of the sixth century, where an oratory is attested, associated with the housing of relics inside the altar and its dedication to the Holy Cross. As for the site of this domus ecclesiae, it seems to coincide with that of the archiepiscopal palace built during the twelfth century (and later altered, today housing the Museum of Fine Arts), just southeast of the Gothic cathedral (which itself was established on the spot of the early Christian episcopal group’s main component): it would seem that vestiges of the bishop’s old oratory were until recently still visible in a room of the modern palace. In Rheims also,30 texts from the sixth and seventh centuries mention an episcopal residence in which another ninth-century source indicates the presence of an oratory. The site of this domus ecclesiae also seems to have been maintained, since monumental arcades from the Carolingian period, undoubtedly corresponding to a rebuilding, have been found under the Tau Palace, the post-Medieval archiepiscopal resi­ dence established on the same location — that is, on the south side of the Gothic cathedral (itself built on the site of the early Christian, Carolingian, proto-Ro­ manesque, and Romanesque cathedrals) (Fig. 6). We should note here that the archiepiscopal chapel of the thirteenth century (still standing and built onto the Tau Palace) also perpetuated the principle of the ori­ ginal oratory in this component of the group. In the case of Rouen31 (Fig. 3), south of the sou­ thernmost church of the pre-Gothic cathedral group, the remains of two galleries of north-south circulation have been discovered delimiting a court with a square

tower in one of its corners; in addition, the eastern galleryserved a room pavedwith opussectile and decorated with historiated stained-glass windows, while another room, with the same type of decoration, was served by the western gallery. All these structures, attributed to the Carolingian period by Jacques Le Maho, supe­ rimpose remains which are thought to correspond to those of the domus ecclesiae of the end of the sixth cen­ tury. They were probably still in use during our period and offer the rare opportunity to gain an impression (partial, at least) of the articulation of a probable epis­ copal residence of the end of Late Antiquity. We may continue with the case of Rouen, given that Jacques Le Maho — quite hypothetically, it must be said — proposed to interpret the room next to the western gallery as a xenodochium; as such, it would be quite near the entry of the southern church of the cathedral group. One knows, indeed, that arranging a space especially devoted to the poor within the bishop’s residence initially constituted, for the pre­ late, a fundamental mission. Alain Saint-Denis also pointed out that in 816, the rule of Aachen empha­ sized the need to establish a building for receiving the poor.32But it is quite difficult today to determine where such a building (or function) was located in the complexes of the tenth and eleventh centuries. In fact, the only indications one has — and there are very few instances, moreover — are those relative to their des­ truction. Thus in Paris,33 a charter of 1208 announces that the establishment of the new cathedral’s fron­ tage, set up on the initiative of Bishop Maurice de Sully in 1163, involved demolishing the hospice which rose just to the west (anteportas ecclesiae) and which, probably, was the one mentioned as early as 829. In Chartres also,34 the construction of the Gothic cathedral’s western front, in about the mid-twelfth century, was related to the destruction by fire, in 1134, of the hospice established on the site at an (unfor­ tunately) imprecise earlier date. But one should not infer only from these examples that a hospice was always located next to the cathedral church. For ex­ ample, in Laon35it appears that it was initially located close to the abbey Sainte-Marie-Saint-Jean, in the southern part of the city; and according to the tex­ tual sources studied by Alain Saint-Denis, it was only around 1160-70 that the hospice was relocated, with construction of a new ad hoc building, by the south­ west corner of the Gothic cathedral (itself then in mid-construction).

F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s AROUND THE Y e a r 1000

37

^jeCawo^ws'Bwildiwgs The case of Lyon has finally led us, always within the subject of the components of the episcopal com­ plex, to the buildings established for the canons’ chapters founded in Carolingian times.36 Again, unfortunately, one usually has insufficient data to reconstruct the nature of these units prior to the Late Romanesque period (or sometimes the Gothic period). Besides, it is quite possible that, in spite of the arrangements adopted as early as the eighthninth centuries, these were not translated into actual buildings until much later. In Narbonne, for example,37 although a canonic corps seems attested by the textual sources as early as 885, the first pre­ cise mention of a structure for their community life appears only in 1095: this was a building that undoubtedly combined a dormitory and refectory, located north of the contemporary cathedral, and it remained standing until its demolition in 1271, when it gave way to the new Gothic cathedral. In other cases, however, it seems that one can recog­ nize establishments of this type at a much earlier period. In Rouen (Fig. 3) in particular,38 recent excava­ tions revealed the presence ofstructures probably going back to the seventh century located around a court to the north of the cathedral group’s northernmost church. Following several modifications, undoubtedly related to a concession of land by Emperor Louis the Pious, plus the rebuilding following the mid-ninthcentury Viking raids, the state of the complex in the decades around the year 1000 consists of a court on the northern side of the northern church, flanked by two buildings with small outhouses (the latter pro­ bably housing latrines); the canons who lived there had, in addition, direct access to the northern church, at the end of the north wall of the latter. But the most spectacular results have been achie­ ved in Autun39 (Fig. 5) where, on the southern side of the southernmost church (Saint-Nazaire), Sylvie Balcon and Walter Berry have been able to recognize a true cloister with galleries, undoubtedly established as early as the first half of the ninth century, serving a series of buildings probably identifiable as a chapter room (with a dormitory above?) in the east, a refec­ tory to the south, and a storeroom to the west, being all built of stone (with reuse of much Roman material, the Roman city being particularly rich). At the begin­ ning of the eleventh century, this cloister was subject

38

J ean-Pierre Caillet

to a major rebuilding that essentially addressed the vaulting in stone of the galleries that were hitherto covered in wood; according to the excavators, this increased ‘monumentalization’ would have rendered greater status to the canonic chapter.

S k j i e s i d S j i e c i f i c F i c ti d o f t b e C k r c b Bwildiwg After this panorama of the various complex units, we must now return briefly to the church building itself. Indeed, as was stressed by Dany Sandron in particular,40 the period that concerns us here proves to be marked by certain morphological options — and functional uses, also — sometimes key in the evolu­ tion of church architecture in a cathedral context. We will start this overview, however, with a rather atypical building, a priori without a successor in the case of its principal characteristics, but whose rela­ tively good state ofpreservation — rather exceptional for the French cathedrals of the time — and, precisely, its originality, do not permit us to overlook it. It is the major component of the episcopal group of Nevers41 (Fig. 4) which, according to Christian Sapin’s reas­ sessment, was rebuilt from the year 1015 onwards. Here we have, quite surprisingly for this time, a church with a western apse attached to a protruding transept equipped, in addition, with chapels installed into the lower sections of two turrets; a tower (lantern tower, undoubtedly) rose over the transept crossing. The altar of the main apse was dedicated to Saint Cyr (one of whose arms had probably been donated by King Charles the Bald), and a Marian altar stood in the subjacent crypt. The eastern transept chapels also housed altars dedicated to various saints (possibly related to local cults dating back to the Early Middle Ages). The building’s western orientation might well indicate, as in the Carolingian period in certain wellknown cases, a reference to Saint Peter of Rome; but, in addition, the formal characteristics correspond well to those of large Ottonian and Salian buildings, whose echo can also be perceived in such Gothic cathedrals as that in Laon, with its axial lantern tower and its transept side towers.42 The rebuilding of Sainte-Croix in Orléans (Fig. 7) on the initiative of Bishop Arnoul after a fire in 9 9 43‫ة‬ also represents a major step toward the format of Gothic cathedrals. The scale of the building is the

first point to note here: with a length of about ninety metres, the building indeed singularly announces the gigantism of the northern French achieve­ ments during the second half of the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries; further, as Alain Villes has underlined, we should probably relate this to the royal residence status that Orléans held around the year 1000, and with the ceremonies that implied the pre­ sence, even, of the first Capetians in the cathedral. O ther features, such as the establishment of higher galleries in the transept (and probably above the col­ laterals of the nave) and of an ambulatory with radia­ ting chapels around the apse, were to be found also in several Gothic-era cathedrals. It should be stressed that other cathedrals that were rebuilt during our period contributed to the diffusion of the ‘ambulatory with radiating cha­ pels formula’: this can be said of the cathedral in Clermont-Ferrand, erected towards the mid-tenth century (apparently),44 and of those in Chartres and Rouen (Fig. 8) in the immediate decades after the year I000.45 In each of these cases, the design is nowadays only attestable at the level of the crypt, but one can reasonably conjecture that the same applied above, on the ground level; the circulation of the pilgrims — but also of the clerks for particular celebrations — towards the altars associated with various relics is clearly present, as in many contemporary monas­ tic churches, and marks the reason for adopting this formula. Let us also note that, independent of these peripheral circulations, certain crypts present at their centre a hall-like structure, comprising several lon­ gitudinal naves (there is such a structure under the western apse of the cathedral of Nevers,46 and also in one of the cathedrals of Auxerre, the southern com­ ponent of the complex of the time, rebuilt by Bishop Hugues de Châlon around 1030);47 this feature is thus a secondary sanctuary. As for the evolution of the eastern parts of the church, one can, in addition, consider the case of the cathedral of Nantes.48 There, it appears that a fair part of the early Christian building was still standing around the year 1000. However, Viking raids necessi­ tated certain repairs, in particular toward 900, inclu­ ding a lengthening ofthe choir: this probably reflected the chapter canons’ need for sufficient space — and that also was a prelude to what was to become of rule in the Gothic-era cathedrals.

Fig. 7. Orléans, Sainte-Croix (after Pierre-Marie B r u n & Alain V i l l e s )

F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s AROUND THE Y e a r 1000

39

Fig. 8٠ Rouen, crypt with ambulatory of Notre-Dame (model after restitution by Georges L a n f r y ) The western parts of the church building have also been, as it is now well known, of more or less impor­ tance over time. And, even if there has been, to our mind, too much stress on this ‘stage’ in the progression,49 it remains true that certain Carolingian buil­ dings already showed a tendency to adopt a marked western accentuation. That can also be supported, within the framework which concerns us here, by the deployment of iconographic programs: the Gesta of the prelates of Auxerre thus indicates that, toward the mid-tenth century, Bishop Guy ordered the decora­ tion of his cathedral’s western parts with a pictorial composition evoking the Last Judgement, directly visible to those entering the building.50 It is the architectural devices used that are particu­ larly striking here. In Rouen51(Fig. 3), it well seems that around the year 1000, each of the two cathedral group churches constituted a true Westwerk. According to the stratigraphic data of the excavation directed by Jacques Le Maho, that of the northern church (SaintÉtienne) dates back to first half of the ninth century,

40

J ean-Pierre Caillet

and included two semi-circular turrets with, almost certainly, staircases leading to a high room above the porch — undoubtedly, this room constituted an ora­ tory, with direct access to housing units of the canons mentioned above immediately to the north. As for the southern church (Notre-Dame) of the same com­ plex, the textual data inform us that, on the initia­ tive of the Norman duke Richard I a little before the year 1000, a kind of Westwerk provided with a high chapel was built, which seems to correspond to the one mentioned by a 1069 documentary source. This document reveals that the chapel in question had two superimposed lines of windows (and thus a rather considerable elevation), and that it is there that, each year, four canons greeted by their singing the pas­ sage of the Palm Sunday procession; however, other evidence (particularly the dedication of the Gothic cathedral’s central portal, which supplanted this one) suggests that this same chapel was mainly an oratory devoted to Saint Romain, former bishop and patron of the city.

One can mention, in addition, because of its par­ tial conservation, the Westwerk of the cathedral of Mâcon52 (Fig. 9), whose two octagonal turrets, dating to between 1019 and 1030, are presently standing before an ante-nave of the twelfth century, but which had ori­ ginally served a sanctuary above a porch. The case of Rheims53 (Fig. 6) would seem to have marked a hesita­ tion in this process of generalisation of these kinds of frontage: a text of the local monk Richer indeed states that a little before the year 1000 Bishop Adalbéron ordered the destruction of the arcuatum opus (that is, the ‘vaulted structure’) that had been established at this end of the building by his predecessor, Ebbo, around 830; as a result, we do not know what happe­ ned to the altar of Christ and the baptismal font which had been installed on this structure’s upper floor. At any rate, one should hardly infer too much from this last, isolated example. Independently of the various establishments of this type mentioned above, a few later attestations help to confirm the predilection for this formula. Thus in Normandy, at Coutances,54 which was raised to the status of epis­ copal see in 1024, where the cathedral built toward the mid-eleventh century also presents — in quite a recognizable way, under the Gothic modifications — a western front with two turrets whose staircases serve an upper room surmounting the porch; as for the original function of this room, one does not have any data, unfortunately. But, as Valérie Chaix has pro­ posed and has, justifiably, applied to other cases, the need to demonstrate ‘prestige’ undoubtedly played a part in adopting such an appearance-magnifying solution: in fact, Coutances incorporates an in­ scription exalting the initiative, at the time of Bishop Robert, of the countess whose subsidies (with addi­ tion of those of the barons her vassals, and of those of various faithful) had allowed the erection of the whole building. We can thus easily project ourselves toward the time of large Gothic frontages with a royal gallery, where we can also recognize, and through the means of an Old Testament iconography, eventually, the manifestation of the sovereign.55

C o m clu sii:ID i،ich r(m icP ers])ectk These final statements lead us to the conviction that certain trends existed that, at the turn of the millen­ nium, were truly decisive for the future of cathedral

Fig. 9. Mâcon, Saint-Vincent, Westwerk of the eleventh century (after Olivier JuFFARD & Christian Sa p i n ) architecture. O f course, one must admit that the features taken into account do not constitute, at the time in question, genuine innovations: ambula­ tories around the apse, crypts, and western fronts are attested as early as the Carolingian period and even before then, with often-functional objectives of the same order as those considered here, and in both monastic — more so, even — and episcopal contexts. But that undoubtedly does not minimize the impor­ tance of the phase to which we confined ourselves; because, precisely, one can recognize that this period marked a turning point in the adoption, for cathedral sanctuaries, of solutions that heretofore had been primarily manifest in abbeys or great priories, and which were going later to assert themselves during the rebuilding projects embarked on by the prelates and the canonic chapters of the Gothic era. But this projection toward the future should not lead us to forget that during the tenth and ele­ venth centuries, the kingdom of France’s episcopal

F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s AROUND THE Y e a r 1000

41

architecture bears witness to very strong ties with what preceded it in the early Christian and early Medieval periods: all that we have said about the organization of the complexes was intended to make this clear. So, it is the plural character of the ‘cathe­ dral groups, and the complementarity of their com­ ponents, which prove to be the essential data of this panorama. Whereas today, after multiple post-Me­ dieval replannings of the urban entities, the cathe­ drals too often seem isolated units, the perception of this original plurality becomes extremely necessary to understand the true purpose of buildings thus arti­ ficially forsaken. It is known that the large Gothic cathedrals themselves were still accompanied by com­ ponents — episcopal palace, hospital, cloister, and canons’ quarter — of which we tried here to specify the antecedents. O n the other hand, one must remain aware of the diversity of worship and devotional uses for which the proper Gothic cathedral building was intended; a better recognition of their spatial ‘disse­ mination' in the past is a major help when attemp­ ting to sense the exact concept of what constitutes, functionally speaking, the large single church of the thirteenth century.

NOTES I greatly thank Professor Paul Reynolds for reviewing this text. e A l t e t , Le p a y sa g e riu ro e n ta ld e laFr^arw^e I t o u r d e I'anroil ,Paris ,1987, 1 Nancy Ga u t h ie r , Jean-Charles P ica rd , Brigitte Beaujard &FrangoisePRÉvoE, Topo۴ p h iech rétienriedescitésdelaG a ule des origines au VIIIesiècle, Paris, 1986-1007. 3M je n k o Ju r r o v e C, Corpus Architecturae R elig iosae F^trr^op^t^e (saec. IV -X ), one volume published to date, Zagreb, 1009; for the general progression of the whole series, see: Hortus Artium Medievaliuro, i 8>/ i ,1 o n 4 Noël D uval & Jean-Pierre C a i i i e t , ‘Églises doubles et familles d'églises' in Antiquité tardive, 4, 1996, pp. 19-134; Jean G uyon , ‘Émergence et affirmation d'une topographie chré­ tienne dans les villes de Gaule méridionale', in Gallia, 63, 1006, pp. 85-110; Brigitte Boissavit -C amus & Christian Sa pin , ‘De la cathédrale paléochrétienne à la cathédrale romane' in Les CahiersdeS aint-Michel de Cuxa, 44, 1013, pp. 19-38. 5Christian Sa p en , Avant-nejs et esp aces d.acctteil d i s l 'église entre le IV' etle x iI esiècle,Patis,1001. 6Yves E sq e ie u , Altn^otrr de nos cath édrales. Qua rtiers ca noniaux du sillonrho da nien etd u l itt oral roéditerranéen,Paris,i99i•, JeanCharTesPEcARE, Les chanoines dans la ville. Recherche sur la topog rdpbiedes qudrtiersca nonid u x enFrd nce,Patis,i994. ٠

1Xavier Ba r r a i

42

J ean-Pierre Caillet

7 SylvieBAicoN-BERRY,FrançoisBARATTE,Jean-PierreCAIIIET & Dany Sa n d ro n , Des domus ecclesiae aux palais épiscopaux, Turnhout, 1.11. 8 Jean H ubert , ‘Les cathédrales doubles de la Gaule' in Genava, 1, 1963, pp. 1.5-15 (reprinted in Jean H ubert , Arts et vie sociale de la.Jin،lu D n ،e e g t:iq t.،e § M o p ig e ,G e n è ١re,i977,117_97. ‫' ؟ ؟‬V 9 Paul-Albert FÉVRIER, Jean-Charles P ica rd , Charles P iet r i & Jean-François R eynaud , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne, 4, pp. 11-16; Jean-François R eynaud , Lyon aux premiers temps chrétiens (Guides archéologiques de la France, I.), Paris, 1986, pp. 89-1.7; Catherine A rlaud , Joëlle Burnoue , Yves E s s i e u , Jean-François R eynaud & Made­ leine VIAIETTES, notice in P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp. 171-85; Jean-François R eynaud , notice in Noël D uval & Jean-Pierre C aille T, ‘Églises doubles et familles d'églises' in Antiquité tardive, 4, 1996, pp. 91-94; Jean-François R eynaud , notice in Balcon -Berry, Baratte , C a i i i e t & Sa n d ro n , Des domus ecclesiae, pp. 15-17. 10Jacques L e M a h o , notice in P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp. 319-41; Jacques L e M a h o , notice in D uval & C a i i i e t , ‘Églises doubles' pp. 87-90; Nancy Ga u t h ie r , notice in Ga u t h ie r , Topographie chrétienne, 9, 1996, pp. 30-33. 11Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topo­ graphie chrétienne, 8, 1991, pp. 54-55. 11 Luce P ie t r i , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne, 5, 1987, pp. 18-31; Henri Ga l in i É, notice in P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp, 357-64. 13Jacques B ia rne , notice in G a u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienné,5,1987, pp, 48-51. 14 Luce P ie t r i , notice in Ga u t h ie r , Beaujard & P révot , Topographie chrétienne, I4, 1 ..6 , pp. I5I-51. 15John O ttaway, notice in Ba r r a i I A ltet , Le paysage monu­ mental, pp. 171-73; Christine D elaplace and Jean-Charles P icard , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétien»e,&,199!,p. 3‫ و‬. 16Jean-Charles P icard , notice in G a u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topo­ graphie chrétienne, VIII, 1991, pp. 146-48; Christian Sa pin , Charles Bonn et , Benoît O ude T, Jean-Charles P icard & Jean-Frangois R eyn au d , La cathédrale de Nevers. Dubaptistere palèochrètienau cheoet ro m a n jv i'-X I' siècles), Paris, 99 ‫ ا‬١ review by Noël D uval, ‘A rchitecture et liturgie' in Revue des Études Augustiniennes, 41/1, 1996, pp. 143-57). 17 Noël D uval, Patrick PÉRIN & Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne, 8, 1991, pp. 109-14. 18Jacques Bia rne , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienné,5,1987, pp, 48-51. 19 Brigitte Boissavit -C am us , notice in Ga u t h ie r , Topogra­ phie chrétienne, IO, 1998, pp. 80-81; Brigitte Boissavit -C amus , Le quartier episcopal de Poitiers: essai de topopaphie historique d ’un secteur urbain, IV '- x ii esiècle (doctoral thesis, University of Tours, 1001); Brigitte Boissavit -C amus , notice in Balcon Berry, Ba ra tte , C a i i i e t & Sa n d ro n , Des domus ecclesiae, pp. 73-87. Also, Brigitte BoissAviT- C amus , Le baptistère SaintJeandePoitiers.De l'é d ÿ c e t l.bistoireurbdine, Turnhout, 1014, p. 145, 419.

Luce P ie t r i , notice in Ga u t h ie r , B eaujard & P r Evot , Topographie chrétienne, 14, 2٠ ٠ 6, pp. 151-52. 21John O ttaway, notice in Ba r r a i i A it e t , Le paysage monu­ mental, pp. 271-73; Christine D elaplace & Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chré'tienne,&,i992,p, 3‫ و‬. 22 Charles P iet r i & Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u th ier & P icard , Topographie chrétienne, 4, 1986, pp. 41-42; Noëlle D e e io u , Jean-Charles P icard & Christian Sa pin , notice in Pic a r d , Leschanoinesdanslaville ,pp, 163-77; Autun: prémices etfloraison de l ’a rt roman (exhibition catalogue, Autun, Musée Rolin, 2٠ ٠ 3; collective publication), Autun, 2٠ ٠ 3, pp. 61-63 (Walter Berry ), 67-76 (Gilles R ollier ), 77-84 (Brigitte M a urice -C habard ); Sylvie Balcon -Berry & Walter Berry, notice in Ba lco n -Berry, Baratte , C a il ie t & San DRon , Des domus ecclesiae, pp. 43-62. 23 Luce P iet r i & Robert N eiss , notice in Ga u t h ie r , B eauJARD & P r Evot , Topographie chrétienne, 14, 2٠ ٠ 6, pp. 33-38; Patrick D emouy , Sylvie Ba lco n , Walter Berry, Bruno C haueeert -Yvart, Bruno D ecrock & Robert N eiss (ed.), Reims. L a cathédrale, La Pierre-qui-Vire, 2٠ ٥ ٠ , pp. 3 6 ‫ ل‬- ٠ (Robert N eiss and Walter Berry ); Sylvie Balcon and Walter Berry, notice in Christian Sa pin , Avant-nefs et espaces d ’accueil dans l ’église entre le IVe et le X IIe siècle, Paris, 2٠ ٠ 2, pp. i ٠ 8-26; Walter Berry, notice in Balcon -Berry, Baratte , C a il ie t & Sa n d ro n , Des domus ecclesiae, pp. 29-41. 24 Brigitte Boissavit -C am us , notice in G a u t h ie r , Topogra­ phie chrétienne, i ٠ , 1998, pp. 8٠ -82; B oissavit -C amus , Le quartier épiscopal de Poitiers; Brigitte Boissavit -C amus , notice in Balcon -Berry, Ba ratte , C a il ie t & Sa n d ro n , Des domus ecclesiae, pp. 73-87. Also, B oissavit -C amus , Le baptistèreSaint-Jean, pp. 151-277. 25Jacques L e M a h o , notice in P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp. 329-41; Jacques L e M a h o , notice in D uval & C a i i let , ‘Églises doubles' pp. 8 7 -9 ٠ ; Nancy G a u t h ie r , notice in Ga u t h ie r , Topographie chrétienne, 9, 1996, pp. 3٠ -33. 26 Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P icard , Topo­ graphie chrétienne, 8, 1992, pp. 146-48; Sa pin , B onnet , O udet , P icard & R eynaud , L a cathédrale de Nevers (and review by D uval, ‘A rchitecture et liturgie' pp. 143-57). 27 Anne C o urtill E, notice in Ba r r a i i A it e t , Le paysage monumental, pp. 183-84; Xavier Ba r r a i i A it e t , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne, 6, 1989, p. 91; Marcel D urlia T, ‘Le baptistère Saint-Jean [de la cathédrale du Puy],, in SociétéJrançaised.archéologie. Congrès archéologiquede France, 133e session, 1973: Velay, Paris, 1976, pp. 213-29; see also: Sophie L i Egard & Alain Fourvel , ‘Les données archéolo‫ ه‬¥ ‫ ة ؛‬récenAe‫’؛‬, in L a cathédrale u Puy-en-Velay, eA. Xavier Ba r r a i i A it e t , Paris, 2٠ ٠ ٥ , pp. 56-57, and ‘Résultats des inter­ ventions archéologiques menées de 1992 à 1995 dans la cathédrale du Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire)' in Archéologie médiévale, XXIX, 2٠ ٠ ٠ ‫ ا‬pp. 115-44, who assert that the baptistery was already exis­ ting in this building in the sixth century. 28 Balcon -Berry, Baratte , C a il ie t & Sa n d ro n , Des domus ecclesiae. 29 Luce P ie t r i , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne, 5, 1987, pp. 28-31; Henri Ga l in i E, notice in P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp, 357-64. 2٠

‫ل‬٠ Luce P iet r i & Robert N eiss , notice in G a u t h ie r , Beau JARD & P r Evot , Topographie chrétienne, 14, 2006, pp. 33-38; D emouy et al., Reims, pp. 31-60 (Robert N eiss & Walter B erry ); Sylvie Balcon & Walter Berry, notice in Christian Sa ™ , Av i t - n efs etesp acesd.accueil da ns l .égliseentre le I I ' et le XII ‫ ء‬siècle, Paris, 2٠ ٠ 2, pp. 1.8-26; Walter B erry, notice in Ba lco n -Berry, Ba ra tte , C a il ie t & Sa n d ro n , Des domus ecclesiae, pp. 29-41. 3' Jacques L e M a h o , notice in P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp. 329-41; Jacques L e M a h o , notice in D uval & C a i i let , ‘Églises doubles', pp. 8 7 -9 .; Nancy G a u t h ie r , notice in Ga u t h ie r , Topographie chrétienne, 9, 1996, pp. 3.-33. 32 P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp. 55-56 (Alain Sa in t D en is ). 33Noël D uval, Patrick PErin & Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in G a u th ier & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne, 8, 1992, pp. 1.9­ 14; and, for the oldest mention of a xenodochium which we evoke hereafter, André FElibien & Guy-Alexis L obineau , Histoire de la ville de Paris, vol. 1, Paris, 1725, p. 77. 34John O ttaway, notice in Ba r r a i i A it e t , Le paysage monu­ mental, pp. 271-73; Christine D elaplace & Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne,&,i992, p. 39, 35Alain Sa in t -D en is , Martine P io u v ie r & Cécile So u c h o n , L aon. L a cath édrale,P a rL 2 ٠ ٠ 2, ‫ ؛‬,p.41. 36Es s i e u , Autour de nos cathédrales, esp. pp. 15-39; P ica rd , Leschanoinesda ns l a viUe,p ‫ ؟‬.is-2 o . 37Yves E s s i e u , notice in P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp. 317-28. 38 Jacques L e M a h o , notice in P ica rd , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp. 329-41; Jacques L e M a h o , notice in D uval & C a il ie t , ‘Églises doubles', pp. 8 7 -9 ٠ ; Ga u t h ie r , notice in Ga u t h ie r , Topographie chrétienne, 9, 1996, pp. 3٠ -33. 39Charles P iet r i & Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u th ier & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne, 4, 1986, pp. 41-42; Noëlle D ee io u , Jean-Charles P icard & Christian Sa pin , notice in Pi c a r d , Lescha noinesdansl a ville,pp. v6١-77; ALu.tun:prémices etfloraison, pp. 61-63 (Walter Berry ), 67-76 (Gilles R ollier ), 77-84 (Brigitte M a urice -C habard ); Sylvie Ba lco n -Berry & Walter B erry, notice in Balcon -Berry, Baratte , C a i i let & Sa nd ro n (ed.), Des domus ecclesiae, pp. 43-62. 4٠ Dany Sa n d ro n , ‘Des cathédrales romanes aux cathédrales gpthiicp L L n 20 sieclesdecath éd rales: exp osition. R eims, Palais du Tau, 29juin-4 novembre 2002, ed. Catherine A rm in jo n & Denis L avalle, Paris, 2٠ ٠ i , pp. 157-68 and passim. 4' Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topo­ graphie chrétienne, 8, 1992, pp. 146-48; Sa pin , Bonn et , O udet , P icard & R eynaud , L a cathédrale de Nevers (and review by D uval, ‘A rchitecture et liturgie' pp. 143-57). 42 Sa in t -D en is , P io u v ie r & So u c h o n , Laon. L a cathédrale. 43 O ttaway, notice in Ba r r a i i A it e t , Le paysage monu­ mental, pp. 256-57; Alain Villes , ‘La cathédrale Sainte-Croix [d'Orléans] avant le XIII e siècle: les données de l'archéologie' in L u mièresde l a n m il enO r léanais. A u t our d u m ill énaire dA bbbo de Fleury (ex hibition catalogue, Orlea ns, M usee des B eaux-A rts, 2004), ed. Aurélie Bo sc -Lauby & Annick N o TTER, Turnhout, 2٠ ٠ 4, pp. 58-63.

F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s AROUND THE Y e a r 1000

43

44 Anne C ourtill É, notice in Barral i A ltet , Le paysage monumental, pp. '80-82; for the discussion on the chronology, see•. Jean iR T H t, LadatA tionde la si^«p^i^ui^e„iéd,ié١^ale,Ge„^è١^e, 2004, pp. 44-47, and for a review, see: Pascale C hevalier , ‘Les autels paléochrétiens des provinces d'Epirus Vetus, Epirus Nova et de Praevalis', in Hortus ArtiumMedievalium, '', 2005, pp. 350-52. 45 O ttaway, notice in Barral i A ltet , Le paysage monumenfcihpp. 2.7'-73 (Chartres)-, Valérie C h a ir , Les eglisesromanesde Normandie. Formes etfonctions, Paris, 2 0 '', p. 308 (Rouen). 46 Jean-Charles P ica rd , notice in Ga u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topo­ graphie chrétienne, 8, '992, pp. '4 6 -4 8 ; Sa pin , Bonn et , O udet , P icard & R eynaud , L a cathédrale de Nevers (and review by D uval, ‘A rchitecture et liturgie' pp. '43-57). 47 Christian Sa pin , notice in Barral i A ltet , Lepaysage monu­ mental, pp. 208-09. 48 Dominique É raud , notice in Barral i A ltet , Le paysage monumental, pp. 604-05; P ie t r i , notice in G a u t h ie r & P ica rd , Topographie chrétienne, 5, '987, pp. 88-92. 49 See our remarks in [Pierre R ic h É (ed.)], Jean-Pierre C aille T, [Éric Palazzo & Danielle Ga b o r it -C h o p in ] L ’Europe de l ’an

44

J ean-Pierre Caillet

mil, Paris, 10.1, pp. 113-15, then in Jean-Pierre C aillet , L ’a rt carolingien, Paris, 20.5, especially pp. 67-72, 82-83. 50 Michel Sot , Guy LoBRicHON, Monique G oulle T et al., Les gestes des évêques d ’A uxerre, vol. 1, Paris, 2002, pp. 226-27. ١' L e M a h o , n o tke in Ppcarr , Les chanoines dans la ville, pp. 329-4'; L e M a h o , notice in D uval & C aille T, ‘Églises doubles', pp. 87-90; G a u t h ie r , notice in Ga u t h ie r , Topograpbiechrétienne , ‫ ا ا و‬99 ‫ ة‬,p p , ١0 - ١١ , 52 Christian Sa pin , with the collaboration of Chantal A rnaud & Walter Berry, Bourgogne romane, Dijon, 2006, pp. 30-3'. 53 P ietri & N eiss , notice in Ga uthier , Beaujard & P révôt, Topographie chrétienne, '4, 2006, pp. 33-38; Patrick D emouy et al., Reims, pp. 31-60 (Robert N eiss & i l t e r Berry); Sylvie Balcon & Waiter B erry , notke in Sapins, Avantifsetespacesd.acateil, pp. '08-26; Walter Berry, notice in Balcon -Berry, Baratte , C aille T & Sandron , ed., Des domus ecclesiae, pp. 29-4'. 54 C h a ix , Les églises romanes, pp. 26'-62. 55Jean-Pierre C aille T, ‘Faire mémoire des Mérovingiens et Caro­ lingiens dans la France capétienne ( x l - x i n siècles)', in Medioevo: iltempodeglianticbi.Attidelcora!odiParma.,6>2003, eA A ttuto Carlo ^INTAVALLE, Parma & Milan, 2006, pp. '27-34.

II

B uildin g RoMANES^E C athedrals ON O lder Substrates

Between ‘Church Families’ and Monumental Architecture German Eleventh-Century Cathedrals and Mediterranean Traditions M a t t h ia s U n t e r m a n n

abstract Following a period of little building activity, from around the year 1000 to the middle ofeleventh century nearly all German Empire cathedrals underwent large-scale reconstructions, most of them in modern and monumental designs. This paper focuses on the formation of new cathedral types and their links to the tradition, and the new settings of the traditional ‘church families’ in the periphery of the cathedrals. In spite of these cathedrals’ monumental size, the late Antique double cathedrals and the early Medieval church families did not simply disappear, but instead were transformed into hierarchi­ cally composed groups of churches and chapels surrounding the cathedral, both in an inner circle adjoining the cathedral itself and its cloister, and in an outer circle emending into the town and its outskirts.

In the history of church architecture in the Medieval German Empire, the year 1000 was less of a break than Radulphus Glaber claimed with his famous phrase of the subsequent new ‘white mantle of churches’.1 Well known are important and inventive monastic buildings constructed in the tenth century at Trier, Cologne, Gernrode, Memleben, etc., yet the church of Saint Michael in Hildesheim, an eminent example of the new ‘High Romanesque’ style, continued traditional architectural structures and liturgical dispositions.2 These observations, however, are not valid with regard to cathedrals; we only scarcelyhear about new construc­ tions until the 980s.3From then until the middle of ele­ venth century nearly all German sees reconstructed their cathedrals, most of them in a modern and monumental design.4 This paper will discuss two issues: first, the for­ mation of new cathedral types and their links to the tra­ dition, and second, the new settings of the traditional ‘church families’in the periphery ofthe cathedrals. Since 1980, investigations into cathedrals of the late tenth and early eleventh centuries have advanced considerably

as a result of modern excavation techniques and more precise building documentation. The cathedrals of Paderborn and Verdun revealed an intricate building history and a nearly complete condition, respectively. New discoveries and investigations in the cathedrals of Augsburg, Bamberg, Cologne, Hildesheim, Liège, Mayence, Merseburg, Minden, Speyer, Strasbourg and Würzburg have changed the state of research. This contribution is based on the latest views.

PdierborwCratbedral The actual cathedral of Paderborn in Westphalia pre­ sents an early Gothic nave with a monumental west tower in late Romanesque forms of the thirteenth century, originally as a bipolar liturgical structure with altars in the east and west ends.5 High-quality excavations carried out in 1978-80 and 1983 have been extensively published.6 Adjacent to the cathe­ dral are the royal and episcopal palaces from the late

R o n n q u eG itfo ed niSs in M eèeïïA n e in E u ro p e jcb itectu rejR itM lim d U rkn C o n tex t ١ eA b y G e m d o B o to % eYa.& Jus>t\niA . Y ‫؟‬:oes>en,Architectura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 47-70

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109565

eighth to the early eleventh century.7 The numerous complementary building campaigns of the cathedral complex can be dated and explained by a great num­ ber of written sources. The first Carolingian cathe­ dral was a huge basilica of three naves, consecrated in 799 by Pope Leo IX in the presence of the Emperor Charlemagne. To house the relic of Saint Libor, which was translated from Le Mans in Western France in 836, a western transept with crypt and apse was built following the model of Old Saint Peter’s basilica in Rome. In the year 983, a fire prompted a reconstruction. Bishop Rethar (983-1009), who had ascended to the see shortly before, started rebuil­ ding, but seventeen years later another fire occurred, and Rethar had to start anew. His successor, Bishop Meinwerk (1009-36) ordered to stop the works only three days after his inauguration, because he conside­ red the structure to be a ‘modest work’ (opere modico) ankfoatAtsAyasstmfoVk (neglegentercom,summato١.) The walls built to the height of the lateral windows were torn down, and Meinwerk started an entirely new building ‘from the groundworks on’ (a funda­ mentis), which was erected very fast and with zeal (alacriter).8 Only six years later, in 1015, Meinwerk consecrated his new cathedral (Figs 1 & 2). Here we find one of the rare examples of contem­ poraneous judgements concerning old and new architectural styles shortly after the year 1000. But what does ‘modest style’ mean for the old, unfinished building, and what are the improvements made in the new one? Archaeological evidence demonstrates that Rethar abandoned the bipolar liturgy and relo­ cated the venerated relics of Saint Libor. His cathe­ dral obtained a hall crypt at the eastern end, with a new apse, in order to link the canons’ choir and the high altar closer to the tomb of the saint. In the place of the western apse and crypt, he ordered a new west end with the main entrance to be built, flanked by two stair towers, with a vaulted hall on ground level, and above a western choir. This meant a total change of all liturgical acts and processions. This type of west end is known from Carolingian churches, e.g., Rheims Cathedral and the abbey of Saint-Germain at Auxerre;9 in Saxony, it was adopted in the late ninth century at the Benedictine abbey of Corvey,10 as well as at Halberstadt Cathedral, which was rebuilt after a collapse in 965 and consecrated in 992," and even later than in Paderborn at Minden Cathedral in 1062-71A The nave of Rethar’s cathedral remains

48

M a t t h i a s Un t e r m a n n

unknown; its width retained the older dimensions and was not altered later on. It opened onto the west transept which would also keep its Carolingian shape. We do not know if Rethar had projected to use columns or pillars as supports in the nave. The new project of Bishop Meinwerk did not recur to the older bipolar liturgy. He retained the crypt at the east end, as well as the foundations of the nave, but now also reconstructed the transept in the east, which served as an entrance for the chapter, from the north, and for the bishop, from his new adjoining chapel on the south side. Instead of the multipartite west end, he ordered the erection ofahuge western entrance tower flanked by two stair towers. Liturgically and architectonically, this design was a clear reduction of the additive, ‘post-Carolingian’ conglomerate structure ofRethar, which had combined traditional and outdated elements without any attempt at a comprehensive concept. By contrast, the new cathedral had a clear overall design, modern with regard to later eleventh-century architecture. New liturgical demands could prompt Rethar’s rebuilding, but Meinwerk was responsive in equal measure to new aesthetic demands of that time; contrary to the story of his biographer, he had to constrain his plan to the east and west end. Meinwerk left the former royal palace north of the cathedral, building a new one for King Henry II, and a second episcopal palace located south­ west of his church. In 1058, a fire destroyed Meinwerk’s cathedral. The new concept returned to the bipolar scheme: Bishop Imad (1051-76) reconstructed the building with two transepts, and choirs in the west and east, the western one with an apse, the eastern with a new crypt. Saint Libor’s relics were now displayed in a new golden chasse. The return to the former, pre-Rethar liturgical order is obvious, as Imad chose his burial place and memoria in the western choir, and there again were kept Saint Libor’s relics.

H i,C o O o g n e ،ilL iè g e C ،itb e ،lra .ls Due to Gothic reconstructions, Meinwerk’s cathe­ dral at Paderborn is known mainly from its excavated ground plan. At Verdun in Lorraine, formerly a see of the German Empire, however, the eleventh-century cathedral stands up to the eaves. In spite of the disas­ trous German attacks during the First World War, the upper town of Verdun remained partly intact.

PFALZANL.AGE

‫د‬

٠ «‫ا‬-١‫أ‬،> . « ١١‫ ه ﺀ‬١

'.,.،‫؛‬Ü I U ?

‫™وود ء‬ '.‫ د ا‬٠

Fig. 1. Paderborn Cathedral, Carolingian basilica with western transept, additions by Bishop Rethar: canon’s choir to the east, western choir with two towers and entrance hall (reconstruction Uwe LoBBEDEY)

G erman El e v e n t h - C en tury C a t h e d r a l s and M e d it e r r a n e a n T r a d i t i o n s

49

Fig. 2.

Paderborn Cathedral rebuilt by Bishop Meinwerk (reconstruction Uwe LoBBEDEY)

Today the cathedral appears as a Neoclassical or late Baroque building with a late Romanesque apse and Medieval towers13 (Figs 3 & 4). W hen seen closely, the Neoclassical nave ornaments appear to have been carved into Medieval pillars and walls; the original windows, blocked by the later vaults, can be seen from outside, surrounded by attractive ornamental masonry. Apart from the east end, most parts of the masonry belong to the cathedral built by order of Bishop Haymo (990-1024); its construction started in 990, immediately after his inauguration, as is reported by a contemporaneous chronicle.14 The eas­ tern apse was consecrated in 1147, while chapels and the cloister were added in the early sixteenth century. Surrounded by these later additions, the early Medieval cathedral remains impressive: the origi­ nal overall length was nearly 100 m, with transepts in the east and west, a remarkably wide and high nave (11:19 m) with aisles. The west apse is flanked by two towers, in one of which a wooden lintel was

50

M a t t h i a s Un t e r m a n n

dated dendrochronologically to 998; obviously this belonged to the cathedral of Bishop Haymo, and it was built very fast (Figs 5 & 6). Unfortunately, Medieval liturgical texts from Verdun no longer exist, so we cannot explain its complex, bipolar liturgical layout. In contrast to Paderborn, the bipolar struc­ ture with apses in the east and west does not seem to be the result of the translatio of important relics. Rather, it is an element of an elaborate episcopal liturgy: the Bamberg ordinary, written around 1190 for the eleventh-century cathedral, illustrates that the canons used the two choirs and the two main altars alternatively, in a strict but not wholly logical order.15 Former hypotheses of a ‘king’s choir’ opposite the ‘bishop’s choir’ are outdated. Around the year 1000, the city of Verdun was an important merchants’ centre, but not of outstanding size or wealth, and the same was true of its diocese.16 Few other German cathedrals had two transepts. The best known is old Cologne Cathedral, which was

Fig. 3. Verdun Cathedral, seen from the northwest (photo Fab669‫ ؛‬/ Wikimedia commons)

G erman El e v e n t h - C en tury C a t h e d r a l s and M e d it e r r a n e a n T r a d i t i o n s

51

Fig. 4. Verdun Cathedral, nave (photo Marc R y c k a e r t / Wikimedia commons)

٢ ‫ ز‬٠،،‫ ذ‬2 ١ ١ ‫ة‬:, HI

‫■ل‬ :‫■ب‬ ٠٠

Fig. 5. Verdun Cathedral, ground plan, 1200 .‫( ء‬reconstruction Hans-Günther M a r s c h a l l )

52

M a t t h i a s Un t e r m a n n

Fig. 6. Verdun Cathedral, original nave (reconstruction Hans-Giinther M a r s c h a l l ) substituted from 1248 onwards by the monumental and famous Gothic cathedral. Archbishop Konrad and his chapter in 1247 decided to dismantle the early Medieval building, a basilica of five naves with two transepts, two apses and two crypts.17 Important remains of this church were excavated and can be seen approximately two metres below the actual floor level. Archaeological evidence indicates two main building phases, with the outer aisles being added during the second phase (Fig. 7). Until recently, the dating of these phases was controversial, with the original cathedral being dated between 800 and 960, and the outer aisles between 960 and 1030.18 Observations of chisel techniques, masonry and architectural

sculpture suggest an early start of works around the year 800,19 contemporaneous to the famous Palatine chapel at Aachen, which was recently dated by den­ drochronology between c. 793 (foundation post) and c. 813 (circular beam of the dome).20 Therefore, the symmetrical design of two transepts and two apses dates back to the reign of Charlemagne, and conti­ nues to be exemplary at least for two centuries. To the west, an atrium connected the cathedral to the bishop’s palace, located to the west of the church. The Cologne Cathedral model was adopted by three late-tenth-century bishops, at Verdun, Liège and Bremen, and somewhat earlier by King O tto II for the new Benedictine abbey of Memleben.21

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Fig. 7. Cologne Cathedral, pre-1248 ground plan (reconstruction Willy W e y r e s & Arnold W o l f f ) At Liège, Bishop Notker (972-1008) started his reign by reorganizing the cathedral chapter (Fig. 8). In the year 978, its size was set to sixty canons. At the same time he started the construction of the Carolingian cathedral. The new building followed rather quickly, and Notker celebrated the consecra­ tion in 1015. Following the French Revolution, the later Gothic cathedral was demolished in 1794-1829, and its site converted into an urban square. Due to the planning of an underground parking lot, long­ term excavations were started that led to the instal­ lation of a site museum (Archéoforum).22 Notkers’ cathedral was approximately 112 metres long, with two transepts and two aisles on each side, corres­ ponding to the second phase of Cologne Cathedral. The west end was square, and it remains doubtful whether the vaulted ground-floor room served as a crypt or as an entrance. The east apse was flan­ ked by an eastern atrium. The obvious imitation, two centuries later, of Cologne Cathedral stimu­ lated numerous studies.23Due to the lack of written sources, both for the liturgical dispositions and for N otker’s politics, they did not reach conclusive results; conspicuously, the very similar cathedral at Verdun was ignored.

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Bremien,MagdeburganidTrierCatyraSs The reconstruction of Bremen Cathedral followed more than half a century later. Adam of Bremen, a contemporary annalist, records that Bishop Bezelin Alebrand (1035-43), who reformed the canons’ disci­ pline, first had to rebuild the cathedral of his see after the union with Hamburg. In Bremen, works started, as was so often the case, after a disastrous fire in 1041 set by two hostile canons. Bezelin took the measure of length and the form (forma) for his new cathedral, and presumably also the ground plan, from Cologne Cathedral. His successor Bishop Adalbert (1043-72) saw ‘that the huge work of the newly inchoated basilica needed major support’ and he is said to have changed the plans following the model of Benevento Cathedral in Italy. The eastern high altar was consecrated in 1049, and the western crypt in 1066.24 Excavations in the existing Gothic building were of moderate quality, and the results were only published in preliminary reports.25The early Romanesque cathedral did not have two transepts but only one at the east end26 (Fig. 9). Moreover, for technical and stylistic reasons, this buil­ ding should not be attributed to Bezelin and Adalbert, but instead to Archbishop Liemar (1072-1101).27

Fig. 8. Liège Cathedral, ground plan (reconstruction Marcel O t t e et al.)

Fig. 9.

Bremen Cathedral as erected by Bishop Liemar (reconstruction Uwe L o b b e d e y )

Architectural historians are tempted to reframe Adam's story: more important than measurements and ground plans was the liturgical disposition with an altar of Saint Peter's at the western end, equal to Cologne. I am not convinced, however, that the trustworthiness of Adam should be reduced to such an extent. The late Carolingian cathedral of Bremen was quite small, and presumably not bipolar. That background given, the increase of dimensions and liturgical complexity could well be compared with Cologne, even if the new Bremen Cathedral needed rebuilding only a few decades later. More doubtful is the comparison to Benevento Cathedral;28 neither Bishop Adalbert nor the chronicler Adam saw it, at least as far as we know, and its west transept was not copied at Bremen.

Magdeburg Cathedral is likely to have been the most ambitious royal project of the tenth century: in the important castle at the eastern border of his kingdom, Otto I created a new archdiocese in 968. History and the building of Magdeburg Cathedral precinct remain disputed, in spite of (and partly due to) recent major excavations. The published reconstruction of a dual transept church was purely hypothetical and is proven to be false.29 The latest preliminary reports on the earlier buildings exca­ vated in the huge Gothic cathedral still do not supply sufficient information.30At Salzburg and Regensburg Cathedrals, new west ends were constructed under the reign of Bishops Hartwik (991-1023) and Gebhard I (994-1023), respectively. Both additions adopted the

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Fig. 10. Trier Cathedral, ground plan, c. 1060 (reconstruction Franz RoNlG) width of the nave, and are combined with two front towers, but it is doubtful if there were ever west tran­ septs or entrance halls divided by columns or pillars, as in Paderborn and Halberstadt.31 A special case is the cathedral of Trier, the most important Roman city in the Medieval German Empire. In Carolingian times, the extended late Antique cathedral complex was reduced to the nor­ theast building, and a monumental square church (41.5 X 41.5 m) with a cruciform interior. Its cros­ sing (16 X 16 m) was supported by giant monolithic columns, which were encased by masonry pillars since the tenth century. The late Antique brick walls remain standing to a height of approximately 30 m.32 Partial renovations took place under the reign of Archbishop Egbert (977-93), well known as a patron of book illumination and goldsmith's works. Archbishop Poppo (1016-47) started to enlarge his cathedral towards the west,33 and ordered the buil­ ding of a second transept followed by a normal bay, which continued in dimensions and form the late,

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albeit altered, Antique body (Figs 10, 11 & 12). The new part ends with a giant western apse of fourteen metres in diameter, appropriate to the late Antique nave, the largest apse in Medieval architecture. It is flanked by two towers dendrochronologically dated to 1040-46. Thus Trier Cathedral retained and renewed its unique Roman form and dimensions, constitutive for the predominant role of the oldest see of the Empire,34 and now it was possible to cele­ brate the then usual bipolar episcopal liturgy. More common than cathedrals with two transepts were those with only one. Nevertheless, most were bipolar, as were the already-mentioned cathedrals at Paderborn and Bremen. Two groups existed: sees of greater importance were equipped with a western transept, following the Roman model of the episcopal (i.e. papal) Lateran basilica, while in others the com­ mon alignment to the east was observed. The wes­ tern transept as a place of important relics, as in Old Saint Peter's basilica in Rome, determined the design only in Paderborn and some monastic churches,

Fig. 11. Trier Cathedral, nave seen to the west, c. 100 ‫ة‬ (reconstruction Friedrich K r a u s e )

Fig. 12. Trier Cathedral, western apse (watercolor by Anton R a m b o u x , 1828)

not in other cathedrals of the Ottonian period. At Halberstadt Cathedral, Bishop Bruno (923-68) order­ ed a multi-storey western choir to be built in order to house the relics of Saint Sixtus and his own burial place.35 Western transepts are known at Mayence, Augsburg, Bamberg and Hildesheim Cathedrals.

actual cathedral, which dates from the late eleventh to the thirteenth century.36 Statical enhancement of the foundations took place in the 1920s using tunnel excavation techniques, almost without any documen­ tation of archaeological remains or architectural fea­ tures. The foundation walls of the nave were drawn from below.37Therefore, only the main dimensions of Willigis’ cathedral are known, and at least the mul­ ti-storey lesene pattern of the towers, as well as the width of three lower windows of the transept’s front (Fig. 13). The west end remains wholly unknown, and the east end is difficult to understand: nave and aisle foundations continue to the east, ending in a tran­ sept with an apse. It remains controversial whether these foundations provide evidence for an adjoining atrium or for a second church: the collegiate church Saint Maria ad Gradus, which was later reconstruc­ ted and consecrated in 1069.38 This ‘church family’

M ayenceThuhergandAugsburgCatyraSs Highest in rank after Trier, and in permanent rivalry to Cologne, was the see of Mayence (Mainz). Archbishop Willigis (975-1011) did not rebuild the Merovingian cathedral but started his project nearby in an undeveloped area. In 1009, on the evening before the consecration, the building burned down; rebuilding would last until 1036. Two stair towers and the northern wall of the transept are preserved in the

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Fig. 13. Mayence (Mainz), cathedral of Archbishop Willigis, ground plan (reconstruction Karl Heinz E s s e r ) will be discussed later in this paper. The original position of the unique bronze doors of Willigis, which were cast by Berengarius, as the inscription says, remains unknown. These doors were the first to be cast after Charlemagne,39who had provided his Palatine Chapel in Aachen with five bronze doors.40 The reconstruction of the cathedral of Mayence adjacent to the old see is not a unique case; other examples include Hildesheim and perhaps also Speyer. In most cities, no sufficiently large, undeveloped areas were available within the cathedral precinct. The pre­ ceding Merovingian bipolar cathedral of Mayence was transformed into a collegiate church and still exists, altered in the ninth, eleventh and fifteenth centuries, partly destroyed in eighteenth-centurywars and during the Second World War, and moreover — alas — by new architectural concepts applied during the 1950s reconstruction. Partly reusing a fifth-century building, the Merovingian cathedral, with a very short nave, unsymmetrical projecting walls, weak foundations, and deviations of the main axis, likewise was a ‘modest work’. And still it was useable for a collegiate chapter, and firm enough for the bombs of the Second World War: as with Paderborn, aesthetic, as opposed to func­ tional, arguments were crucial for the reconstruction. ^ i t e recently, the Ottonian parts of the cathe­ dral of Augsburg in Swabia were precisely recorded.41 Its east end today is a Gothic choir, and the aisles are replaced by late Gothic double aisles (Fig. 14). The two stair towers with their decoration of lesenes and blind arcades as well as the upper part of the nave, with its blocked windows above the Gothic vaults

58

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and the walls and gables of the western transept, are all well preserved. Remnants of the scaffolding beams of the gables are dendrochronogically dated to the winter of 999-1000. Contemporary Augsburg annals note the start of works in 995 after a collapse of the Carolingian cathedral, during the reign of Bishop Ludolf (988-96), who was the first bishop buried in Augsburg Cathedral. In 1006, the works were nearly finished, as the tombs of three former bishops and the viscera of King Otto III (t 1002) were transferred to the new building. The canons’ choir stalls were placed in the western crossing, on a lower level than the high altar and the eleventh-cen­ tury bishop’s throne in the apse. The new bronze door was recently attributed to the Ottonian cathedral.42 Prior research had erroneously assigned the building initiative to Bishop Bruno (1006-29), the brother of King Henry II, or to Bishop Henry II (1047-63), and associated it with the act of consecra­ tion, which is reported for 1065. During the twelfth century, construction continued with the important stained glass windows of the nave, the elevation of the canons’ choir and new roofs, which are dendrochronologically dated to 1176.43 Almost contemporary with Augsburg Cathe­ dral is the cathedral of Bamberg. It was designed ex «‫ﻫﺮءه‬, after a new diocese had been created by King Henry II in 1007. Work started by order of the king already in 1003, two years after his election and three years before the papal confirmation. The new cathe­ dral was placed inside the Babenberg castle, and the act of consecration in 1012 was an event of the highest

rank: the king and forty-five bishops met at Bamberg, including almost all archbishops of the Empire. No other consecration is recorded with such an illustrious group of participants attending. It was the project of the king and his wife Kunigunde, who were both buried at Bamberg and later venerated as saints. In the last decades of the twelfth century, the cathedral of Henry II was reconstructed; the new late Romanesque building exceeded its predecessor not by size, but by its rich sculpture and architectonical abundance. The eleventh-century cathedral is known by partial excavations and by the mentioned ordinary44 (Fig. 15). It was bipolar, with the transept and the main choir turned to the west. Both choirs in the west and east were raised over crypts. The more important choir at Bamberg in the west end was on the same level with the western high altar. At the east end, the second canons’ choir was located in the nave; Bishop Otto I (1102-39) ordered to raise this choir by extending the eastern crypt. We do not know if the ground plan and liturgical structure of Mayence Cathedral served as a

model for Bamberg; in Mayence there is no evidence for such an arrangement of the west choir. At any rate, Henry II ’s new cathedral was planned to be one of the important church buildings of its time.

H iU esh eim lo n sa n d S tra sb o u rg C a tyra ls The Carolingian cathedral at Hildesheim, which had been altered only by the construction of a new west end in the first decades of eleventh century, was des­ troyed by a fire in 1046. Bishop Azelin (1044-54) then decided to build the new greater cathedral, turned to the west, on a new site located further west. His successor Hezilo (1054-79) abandoned these important yet unfi­ nished works and ordered to rebuild the Carolingian structure.45 As in Paderborn, contemporary annalists report the arguments retrospectively:46 Azelin started his ambitious project ('maiori ambitione), although the Carolingian building could still be repaired, and he ordered the nave destroyed (inconsulte ^eiecit).47 The new nave with its huge columns and two aisles

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Fig. 15. Bamberg, cathedral of King Henry II, ground plan (reconstruction Walter Sa g e ) used the former west towers as its east entrance. To the west, Azelin constructed a transept and a choir, which was raised above an extended hall crypt. Considerable remains of this church are preserved as cellars of the bishop’s palace and the actual diocesan administration.48 There is no evidence that the new building was weak, and the columns and walls threatened to colk F (,n a lic M -b ic a d e n te ,m c c a s M i,m in a n te ١ ( A ١S is reported by the chroniclers, who simultaneously criticized the severe decline of obedience to the Augustinian rule in the canons’ life and work. Rebuilding the cathedral at its former site meant reinstituting the former discipline. Afterwards, Hezilo, ‘inspired by God’, consistently repaired the Carolingian apse and transept, with select walls, doorways and windows still being visible. The crypt supporting the canons’ choir was now extended into the crossing, adopting Azelin’s concept. The dismant­ led nave needed to be entirely rebuilt.49 Partially des­ troyed in the Second World War, the nave and west towers were rebuilt. In most Empire cathedrals, the high altar and transept were (and continued to be) located to the east; usually, west entrances were situated in a huge tower or were flanked by stair towers. At some impor­ tant cathedrals from the Ottonian period, two stair towers formerly flanking the west apse are partially preserved; the stair newels feature the first known imperial mason marks.50

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Similarly narrow is the archaeological base for a reconstruction of Strasbourg Cathedral, rebuilt by Bishop Wernher (1001-28) from 1015 onwards after a collapse in 1007.‫ !؛‬The huge nave was nearly fifteen metres wide, the same as in the actual Gothic buil­ ding, and the total length was more than one hun­ dred metres. The width exceeds the dimensions of the nave of Mayence Cathedral and is surpassed only by the late Roman cathedral at Trier. Bishop Wernher presumably cognate to the early Habsburg family, became an influential politician and diplomat at the royal court after 1007, although his wealthy diocese was of lesser importance. Neither the chapter nor its liturgy needed a church of this size.

Other Cathedrals Early eleventh-century Constance Cathedral was partially reconstructed by order of Bishop Lambert (995?-!08 ‫ )ل‬above the Carolingian crypt,2‫ ؛‬but replaced after a collapse of the nave in 1054. New works for the well-preserved actual cathedral started in 1054, of which the consecration took place in 1089.‫ ؛؛‬A huge nave with monolithic columns and distinctive octagonal capitals is joined to the eastern transept, which is dendrochronologically dated to around the year 1000, and three rectangular apses that retain the Carolingian ground plan.

Fig.

1 6

.

M e rse b u rg C a th e d ra l, g ro u n d p la n , c.

1 0 5 0

(re c o n s tru c tio n F rie d ric h H aesler)

Würzburg Cathedral exceeds the length of most other cathedrals in the Empire. Work started under the reign ofBishop Bruno (1034-4‫ ) ؛‬after the Carolingian cathedral burned down in 1040. The crypt was conse­ crated already in 104‫ ؛‬because Bruno died and was to be buried there; in 107‫ ؛‬, the solemn consecration was celebrated. Due to Gothic vaulting and Baroque remodelling, archaeological excavation and documen­ tation of the masonry took place during rebuilding the cathedral ruins after the Second World War.4‫؛‬ O f similar design, albeit much smaller, was the cathedral at Merseburg, a contested diocese existing from 968 to 981, and reinstalled in 1004. The new cathedral with an eastern transept and two western towers was initiated in 101‫ ؛‬by Bishop Thietmar, who is known to be a biased chronicler, and consecrated in 1021 (Fig. 16). Due to statical problems, a new apse was built onto the east, flanked by two stair towers, consecrated in 1042.‫؛؛‬ In a small number of sees of the Empire, the Carolingian cathedrals were not or were only partially replaced by newbuildings during the eleventh century. Already mentioned are the cathedrals at Regensburg and Salzburg. Recently, this was archaeologically

proven also for Münster and Osnabrück Cathedrals; in Münster rebuilding started in the late eleventh cen­ tury, and the new cathedral was consecrated in 1090; in Osnabrück only a transept and rectangular eastern apse were rebuilt during the eleventh century.6‫؛‬ To conclude: around the year 980, an impressive series of cathedral rebuilding campaigns started, which continued for more than four decades. We see the application of new aesthetic rules: precisely measured, rectangular ground plans, wide transepts and naves, huge apses, flanking pairs of stair towers, as well as square pillars, huge windows and flat cei­ lings. In contrast to contemporaneous Romanesque churches in France, no part of these buildings was ever vaulted, apart from apses, entrance halls and crypts. The additive ‘Pre-Romanesque' design is substituted by this new, consistent architectonic style. The litur­ gical use of the new bipolar cathedrals remains lar­ gely unclear; an early liber ordinarius survives in Metz only, and neither the building erected under the reign of Bishop Dietrich I (964-84) nor the new cathedral built in 1014-40 by order of Dietrich II (1005-46) are known by excavations.7‫؛‬

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Fig.

1 7

.

S peyer C a th e d ra l, g ro u n d p lan , c.

1 1 3 0

(re c o n s tru c tio n H a n s E ric h KuBA CH & W a lte r H aas )

SpejerCathedral One more see ofspecial importance shouldbe discussed, namely Speyer. The place and form of the Carolingian cathedral are unknown. In 1025, half a year after his election, King Conrad II (1024-39) surprisingly orde­ red reconstructing Speyer Cathedral, a see of minor importance. Presumably, he was searching for an ade­ quate burial place. His predecessor Henry II had built Bamberg Cathedral and was buried there, and Otto I (1-965) had been buried in Magdeburg Cathedral. In 1025, the nearby cathedrals of Mayence, Worms and Strasbourg were recently rebuilt, and more or less fini­ shed. In Speyer, plans changed several times; finally a state-of-the-art cathedral was erected, technically and aesthetically one of the most important architectural creations of its time in Europe. Exemplary documenta­ tion, as well as technical and art historical studies, were comprehensively published in 1972;‫ ؟؛‬only few later studies have added new considerations concerning the first Romanesque cathedral59 (Figs 17-22). In 1039, King Conrad II was buried in his unfini­ shed cathedral at the east end of the nave, not in the canons’ choir or near the high altar; by his side, his wife Gisela was buried in 1043. Before 1039, Bishop Reginald (1033-39) had donated a gilded wheel

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chandelier to the new choir. Works had to continue, and scaffolding beams in the nave are dated dendrochronologically to 1045. Conrad’s son and successor Henry III (1039-56) during the first years of his reign promoted a new collegiate church at Goslar, but was buried in 1056 side by side to his parents in Speyer.60 The guardians of his minor son Henry IV (born in 1050) did not care for Speyer Cathedral, and works had to come to an end only in 1061, when the cathe­ dral was consecrated. Twenty years later, Henry IV restarted the works with the rebuilding of the apse and transept, and, by vaulting the unfinished nave, making it anew into the most splendid architecture of its time.61 Its current state results from an early (Baroque) heritage conservation (1772-78), carried out after the fire of 1689, and the neo-Romanesque rebuilding of the west end 1854-58 by order of the Bavarian King Ludwig I. The first building phase, an apse with a crypt, was quite modest. This changed soon: the eastern tran­ sept was also provided with a hall crypt with six more altar locations (Fig. 18). It is the first transept crypt to be created north of the Alps. The transepts and crossing are divided by huge pillars; four columns in each compartment support the groin vaults. A short, tripartite western arm extended the crypt into the

Fig. 18. Speyer Cathedral, building phase Ic, c. 1040 (reconstruction Hans Erich K u b a c h & Walter H a a s )

Fig. 20.

Fig. 19. Speyer Cathedral, building phases c. 1025-70 (reconstruction Hans Erich K u b a c h & Walter H a a s )

Speyer Cathedral, longitudinal section, c. 1130 (reconstruction Hans Erich K u b a c h & Walter H a a s )

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Walter Ha a s )

nave. Even more impressive is the sixteen metre­ wide, barrel-vaulted sanctuary between the crossing and apse, flanked by two stair towers; for centuries this remained the widest post-Antique vaulted bay. In the crossing, four twelve to fourteen metre-wide, twenty-five metre-high arches support the (later finished) octagonal crossing tower. These dimen­ sions equal and excel the then-largest cathedrals in the Empire, Mayence and Strasbourg. Moreover, the nave exceeded all previous Romanesque buildings in the Empire. Slender half-columns were applied to the square pillars both in the nave and the aisles (Fig. 21). Pillars and half-columns rise up to the window zone and support blind arches framing the unusual huge windows. This architectural design projects a Roman façade articulation to the interior of a church. Similarly Roman-inspired and unprecedented in the Empire are the groin vaults over the aisles. The nave remained without vaulting until the end of the cen­ tury. Recently, it was reasonably argued that the unu­ sual thickness of the foundations and the walls, and particularly the articulation of the nave, would sug­ gest that a huge barrel vault was planned62 (Fig. 22). This plan would have surpassed all then existing Medieval buildings, and was modelled on Roman monuments. To the west, an entrance hall with an

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upper storey were englobed in a large cube. The inte­ rior wall between the entrance hall and nave was no less than six metres thick and housed the two spiral stairs; a monumental stepped doorway was the main entrance to the cathedral. Strikingly, the explicitly Roman habitus of Speyer Cathedral is not related to contemporary church architecture in Italy or Southern France, but created ex novo 6 Only the type of the hall crypt which extends to the transept is known in Italy, but not the tripartite design with heavy pillars and compact columns, nor the blind arches that arti­ culate the interior walls. No barrel vaults spanning fourteen metres are known in the Medieval archi­ tecture of the Mediterranean countries; neverthe­ less, it is reasonable that workers from the south would have been involved.64 Therefore, Speyer Cathedral was denominated as the ‘Kaiserdom’ (Imperial Cathedral) for a long time; the bishops who reigned the see during the eleventh century were of lesser importance.6‫ ؛‬The works were ini­ tiated and promoted only by the German king. The new elaborate and extensive architecture of Speyer Cathedral was not emulated until c. 1090 in the new cathedral of Mayence, which was likewise pro­ moted by King Henry IV.

Eleuenth-C enturyatyralsinO tberEuropean Countries The eleventh-century German Empire cathedrals are considered a particular group of huge sizes and cha­ racteristic monumental designs due to the bishops’ involvement in organizing and governing the reign (‘Reichsepiskopat’). Moreover, their concern was to build cathedrals and reorganize cities.66 That they would have been educated as ‘architects’, and able to design buildings or to engineer difficult vaults, is pre­ sumed by many German scholars to date, who take such phrases of Medieval chroniclers literally.67At any rate, bishops were accustomed to funding and orga­ nizing such works, and they used their networks and expeditions in royal service to engage specialists. The attendance of the king and his court as well as many of their episcopal colleagues make explicit that these new cathedrals not only served as places of liturgy, but also as stages of imperial manifestations. The latter

likely determines the difference to Mediterranean cathedrals, which were created in very different sys­ tems of government. In Lombardy, Languedoc and Catalonia, com­ paratively few eleventh-century cathedrals are known,68 with most being smaller and less elabo­ rate in their liturgical design. Aosta Cathedral was rebuilt in the reign of Bishop Anselm (994-1026) and finished c. 1031; a new west end was added c. 1060-70.69 Instead of a transept, two pairs of two chapels with apses flanked the choir, which was raised above an extended crypt. On the exterior, two towers framed the main apse. The new west end extended the nave and added a western apse (dis­ mantled in the eighteenth century), flanked by two more towers. In contrast to what we know about cathedrals in the Empire, the nave was adorned with murals depicting scenes from the Old and New Testament and the life of Saint Eustace. The upper row showed ‘portraits’ of the ancestors of Christ and a remarkable cycle of clerics from the eleventh century, presumably the canons of the cathedral chapter.70 The vita communis was important to this chapter, which was joined at the time with the chap­ ter of the nearby church of Saint Orso; cloister and monastery were situated north to the cathedral. The renouncing of a transept in favour of lateral chapels also characterizes Acqui Cathedral, consecrated in 1067, with an extended crypt under the eastern part of the church.71This cathedral was adorned not only with murals, but preserved an important eleven­ th-century floor mosaic. In the counties of Arles and Toulouse, no early eleventh-century cathedral is known in its building structure. The later cathedrals of Vaison, Arles and Elne are comparably small churches,72 commensurate with the Lombard examples cited. The same is true of the early cathedrals in the county of Barcelona. Girona Cathedral, rebuilt 1015-38, was a cruciform church with a tripartite west end and a lateral tower.73 The liturgical use of this west end resembles that of collegiate churches in the Empire, rather than that of cathedrals.74 In the short-lived diocese of Roda de Isdbena, the second cathedral is a basilica of three barrel-vaulted naves, with a crypt and three apses.75 Presumably a first four-bay-plan was reduced during its construction, which took place under the reign of Bishop Arnulfo (1027-64). A small cloister is situated to the north.

Fig. 22. Speyer Cathedral, barrel-vaulted nave, not executed (reconstruction Hauke H o r n ) At La Seu d ’Urgell, Bishop Ermengol (1010-35) ordered the building of a new cathedral group consisting of three churches:76 the small church of Saint Michael to the north of the cathedral, 1021/23-33, the Cathedral Saint Mary, consecrated in 1040, and Saint Eulalia, consecrated before 1036. This ‘family’ was completed by the church of the Saint Sepulchre in 1045, the reconstruc­ tion of Saint Peter after 1055, and a new west end of the cathedral called Galilea, donated in 1084.77 According to the testament of Ermengol, the chap­ ter was obliged to live a common life, and they were called Augustinian canons in 1095. The monastery was situated in between the cathedral and Saint Peter’s church. Not the bishop, but the abbot was the principal of the canons, and his church was Saint Michael. The huge transept of the new cathe­ dral with its two towers outmatches all known Mediterranean cathedrals of its time; it not only emulated the partial reconstruction of the east end of the abbey church of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa

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under the reign of Abbot Oliba (1008-40),78 but also Aosta Cathedral and other cathedrals of the same standard. In Vic, Abbot Oliba, who was appointed bishop there in 1017, rebuilt the cathedral of Saint Peter with a single nave, transept, crypt, and five apses, and with the cloister to the south; its consecration took place in 1038.79 In front of the cathedral stood the round church of Saint Mary, built under the reign of Oliba and reconstructed in the twelfth century.80 The third church of Saint Michael, consecrated by Bishop Guadamir (948-57), is known only through written documents. The famous cathedral group of Terrassa dates back to early Christian times, and the ninth-century buildings were partly rebuilt not before early twelfth century.81 This eleventh-century cathedral group of La Seu d’Urgell was recently called ‘the last church family’,82 and it extended the liturgy not only to minor pre­ cinct churches, but to the city. W ithout doubt, all Mediterranean cathedrals discussed here belonged to liturgical sites, normally arranged around a clois­ ter. Only a meticulous study of liturgical sources will show a wider context spreading into the episcopal city and their outskirts — and yet such documents are missing for many sees. In spite of the monumental size of cathedrals in the Empire, the late Antique double cathedrals and the early Medieval church families83 did not simply disappear in the eleventh century, but were trans­ formed into and continued by hierarchically com­ posed groups of churches and chapels surrounding the cathedral, in an inner circle adjoining it and its cloister, and an outer circle extending into the town and its outskirts.84 For nearly all sees of the Empire, studies have tried to demonstrate, over the last thirty years, that the bishops of the late tenth to the mid-eleventh centuries sought to design a cross form with the position of new collegiate or monas­ tic churches, or to copy Rome by choosing appro­ priate patrons or founding a church across the local river — thereby imitating Saint Peter’s church trans Tiberem, or copying at least partially the group of holy sites at Jerusalem.85 Thus the episcopal sees were transformed into holy places, culminating in the title Sancta Colonia in the seal and coin legends issued by the Archbishop of Cologne.86 In most cases, such ‘urbanistic’ theories remain rather

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hypothetical, and only selected points are valid.87 Significant liturgical sources are only seldom avai­ lable. In addition, the topic of the cathedral clois­ ters and its chapels needs to be studied further. Although many of these sites were destroyed after the Reformation, the French Revolution and secu­ larization, others exist to date or were rediscovered by excavations.

NOTES 1 Richard P lant , ‘A rchitectural Developments in the Empire North of the Alps: The Patronage of the Imperial C ourt' in The Wht te M a ntle of Church e s j c h itectu reThtturg ^ and A r t around the M illenn ium, ed. Nigel H is c o c k (International Medieval Research, 10; Art History subseries, 2), Turnhout, 2003, pp. 29-56; Werner Jacobsen , ‘Ottonische Großbauten zwischen Tradition und Neuerung. Überlegungen zum Kirchenbau des IO. Jahr­ hunderts im Reichsgebiet (919-1024)' in Zeitschrift des Deutschen VereinsfürKunstwissenschaft, 58, 2004 (2006), pp. 9-41. 2 Matthias U n term a n n , ‘St. Michael und die Sakralarchitek­ tur um 1000. Forschungsstand und Perspektiven', in 1000 Jahre St. Michael in Hildesheim. Kirche, Kloster, Stifter, ed. Gerhard Lu tz & Angela W eyer (Schriften des Hornemann Instituts, 14), Petersberg, 20I2, pp. 4I-65. 3 Exceptions are Minden cathedral, started c. 925, consecrated 952: Roland P ieper & Anne Beatriz C h ad o ur -Sam pson , Der Dombezirk, vol. I (Die Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler von Westfalen, 50: Stadt Minden, 2.1.1), Münster, 1998, pp. 96-198; the western tower, then dated 952, was recently proved to be an eleventhcentury structure: Peter Ba rthold & Mechthild N eyses-Eiden , ‘Drei mittelalterliche Holzfenster im Mindener Dom: Neues zu drei sehr alten Fenstern' in estfa90, 2012, pp. 173-97. W 4 Matthias U n term a n n , Architektur im frühen M ittelalt er, Darmstadt, 2006, pp. 197-98. ١ Clemens K o sc h ١Paderbornsmittelalterlich eKirch e n ic b ite k ' t ur und Liturgie um 1300 (Große Kunstführer, 227), Regensburg, 2006, pp. 9-28. 6 Uwe L obbedey , D ie A usgrabungen im Dom ^u Paderborn 1978/80 und 1983, 3 vols (Denkmalpflege und Forschung in West­ falen II.I-3), Bonn, I986. 7 Sveva Ga i & Birgit M ecke , Est locus insignis... Die Pfalz Ka rls des Grob e n i n Paderborn ^ ^ d ih re baulich e E ntwickl ung bis zum Jah re i00 2. D ieNe u auswertu ngde r A usra b u n gen W i lhelm W i nkelmanns i n den Jahren 1964-1978 (Denkmalpflege und Forschung in Westfalen, 40/2), Mayence, 2004; Sveva Ga i , ‘Zur Rekonstruktion und Zeitstellung der spätottonischen Pfalz in P^derborh ١ in Z entre n h errsch aft lic h er Repräsentation im Ho chm.ittelalter . Gesch ich te, A rcbitek tu ru n d Zeremoniell,eà.Caspar E hlers , Jörg Ja r n u t & Matthias W emhoff (Deutsche Königspfalzen, 7; Veröffentlichungen des Max-Planck-Instituts für Geschichte, 11.7), Göttingen, 2007, pp. 121-50.

8 Vita Meinwerci episcopi Patherbrunnensis. Dus Leben Bischof Meinwerks von Paderborn١ ed. and transl. Guido M. B erndt (MittelalterStudien, 2I), Munich, 2009, pp. 74-75, 86-89. 9 Sylvie Bacon & Walter Berry, ‘Le massif occidental de la cathédrale de Reims( in Avaldnefs entre le IVe et le XIIe siècle١ ed. Christian Sa pin (Mémoires de la Section d'Archéologie et d'Histoire de l'Art, 13), Paris, 2002, pp. 208-26., Archéologie et architecture d ’un site monastique: V‫ء‬- XX ‫ ء‬siècles. 10 aus de recherches à l ’abbaye Saint-Germain dAuxerre١ ed. Christian Sa pin (Mémoires de la Section d'Arch éo l.^ e et d'Histoire de l'Art, 10), Paris, 2000. 10 Kristina K r Uger , ‘Westbau und Kirche, in Die Klosterkirche Corvey. Geschichte und Archäologie١ ed. Sveva Ga i , Karl Hein­ rich K r Uger & Bernd T h ier (Denkmalpflege und Forschung in Westfalen, 43.i .i ), Darmstadt, 2012, pp. 4-10; Uwe L obbe dey, ‘Der Herrscher im Kloster. Corvey und die Westwerke. Bemerkungen zum Stand der Forschung in der Frage der Z w t c k k É i u n ‫ ؛؟‬١ 'tn PaiKloster-Kloserp^alz St. J(^l)^^^n in Müstair. Historische und archäologische Fragen, ed. Hans Rudolf Sennhauser (Acta Müstair, Kloster St. Johann, 2), Zürich, 2010, pp. 163-82; Uwe L obbedey , ‘Die Baugestalt des Corveyer Westwerks. Forschungsstand und Aufgaben', in: Sinopien und Stuck im WestwerkderkarolingischenKlosterkirche vonCorve^, ed. Joachim P o eschk e , Münster, 2002, 115-29. A comprehen­ sive study on the Corvey Westwerk is Denkmalpflege und For­ schung in Westfalen, 43.I.2. 11 Gerhard L eopold & Ernst Schubert , Der Dom zu H al­ berstadt bis zum gotischen Neubau ١ Berlin, 1984, pp. 54-65; Uwe L obbedey , ‘V erlegungen zu den Westbauten der alte­ ren Domkirchen von Halberstadt', in Zeitschrift des Deutschen VereinsfürKunstwissenschaft١ 58, 2004 (2006), pp. 42-56. 12 Werner Jacobsen , Leo Schaefer & Hans Rudolf Sennhau ser , Vc^î^î^o^m^^nis.^k^e Kirchenbauten, Nachtragsband (NeröffenAlchungen des Zentralinstituts für Kunstgeschichte in München, 3/2), Munich, 1991, pp. 282-83 (Jacobsen ); P ieper & C ha d ou r -Sa m pson , Der Dombezirk ١ pp. 96-198. The date of ‘phase IIa' recently was changed to ‘post 1050/60' by new dendrochronological data: Barthold & N eyses-Eid en , ‘Drei mittelal­ terliche Holzfenster im Mindener Dom'; presumably ‘Minden cathedral IIa' was started shortly before the fire o f 1062, and was consecrated in I07I. 13 Hans-Günther M arschall , Die Kathedrale von Verdun (Die romanische Baukunst in Westlothringen, I; Veröffentlichungen des Institut für Landeskunde im Saarland, 32), Saarbrücken, 1981. 14 Bertarius, Gesta episcorum Virdunensium, ed. Georg W a it z , ln MonumentaGermaniaeHistoricasScriptores^voY. 4 ١ H^nnover, I84I, p. 47. 15 Renate K ro os , ‘Liturgische g e l l e n zum Bamberger Dom, in ZeitschriftfurKunstgeschichte١١ 9 2976‫ ؛‬١١pp.205_4Ce^p.pp.22‫ ؟‬24; slightly altered reprint in Dethard von W interfeld , Der Dom in Bamberg, vol. I, Berlin, 1979, pp. 160-76, esp. 164-65; Edmund Karl Farrenkopf , Breviarium Eberhardi cantoris: Die mittelalterliche Gottesdienstordnung des Domes zu Bamberg, Münster, I968. 1‫ ج‬Frank G. H ir sc h m a n n , Verdun im hohen Mittelalter. Eine lothringische Kathedralstadt ^ ^ d ihr Umland im Spiegel der geistlichen Institutionen (Trierer historische Forschungen, 27), Trier, 1996.

17B ^ b ^ ScHOCkWERNER ١ D ie Bauphasen desKolnerD o mes und seiner Vorgängerbauten١ Cologne, 2011; Klaus Gereon Beu c Ker S, Der Kölner Dom ١ Darmstadt, 2004. 18 Matthias U n t e r m a n n , ‘Memleben und Köln', in Form und Stil. Fest;scbrl۶ ^U^rGU^ut^berBlnd,lng2^um65. Geburtstag١ eA.Svef^nie L ieb , Darmstadt, 2001, pp. 45-55; Klaus Gereon B euckers , ‘Die Erweiterung des Alten Kölner Domes. V erlegungen zu Gestalt und Datierung der äußeren Seitenschiffe und der SüdvorhAYe١, ٠rn K u nstgeschich tlich e Stu dien Hu g o Borger u m 70. Geburtstag, ed. Klaus Gereon Beuckers , Holger Br ÜLLS & Achim P reiss , Weimar, 1995, pp. 9-68. 19 Dorothea H o c h k ir c h e n , ‘Zur Chronologie karolingischer Architektur im Lichte der Steinbearbeitungstechnik', in Der A lte D o m z u Köln. _^^٠^^^d e^^ d F ^ ^ d e 2^^r vorg otisch e n K ath edrale١ ed. Ulrich Ba ck , Thomas HO lt k e n & Dorothea H o c h ­ Kir c h en (Studien zum Kölner Dom, 12), Cologne, 2012, pp. 133-98. 20 Harald M üller , Judith L ey, Frank P ohle & Andreas Schaub , ‘Pfalz und vicus Aachen in karolingischer Zeit', in A uch en m d e n A n f ängen b is u r Gegei a r t , V0I2: Kar olingerOttonen-Salier, 765 bis 1137, ed. Thomas R. K raus (Veröffent­ lichungen des Stadtarchivs Aachen, 14; Beihefte der Zeitschrift des Aachener Geschichtsvereins, 8) ١ Aachen, 2013, pp. 5-408, e p . 9 ١-2 7 Y, D ie karolin^isch e^Ju z^ku^^elle i n A ach en١ eA. Ulrike H eckner (Arbeitsheft der rheinischen Denkmalpflege, 78), Worms, 2012. 21 U n t e r m a n n , ‘Memleben und Köln. 22Lesfou illesdelaPlaceSaint-Lam b ertàLiègesV ol. 4 : Teség!ises١ ed. Marcel O tte (Études et recherches archéologiques de l'U ni­ versité de Liège 57), Liège, 1992, pp. 248-49, fig. 162; Luc Fran‫ ؟‬ois G en ic o t , ‘La cathédrale notgérienne de Saint-Lambert à Liège. Contribution à l'étude de la grande architecture ottonienne disparue du Pays mosan, I'١ in Bulletin de la Commission R o a ledesM onume utsetdesSites١ 27١ i967/68 ١p p .7 -7 ٠ . 23 Friederike D h ein , ‘Lüttich. Inszenierung einer Bischofss­ tadt an der Wende zum II. Jahrhundert', in im 11. Jahrhundert١ ed. Jörg Jarnut , Ansgar KOb & Matthias W em hoff (5. Archäologisch-Historisches Forum; Mittelal­ terStudien des IEMAN, i 8) ١ Paderborn, 2009, pp. 191-200; Lex B osman , ‘Der Dom zu Köln als Vorbild der Kathedrale Bischof Notgers in Lüttich', in Kölner bm oD 56, 1991, pp. 245-58. 24 Adam von Bremen ١ Gesta H am m aburgensis ecclesiae po ntijicum, ed. Bernhard Sch m eidler (Scriptores rerum Germani­ carum in usum scholarum separatim editi, 2), Hannover, 1917, pp. I 39- 40 , I 45- 46 . 25 Karl Heinz B ra nd t & Margareta N ockert , ‘A usgrabun­ gen im Bremer St.-Petri-Dom 1974-1976. Ein Fundbericht', in Bremer archäologische Blätter, 7, I976, pp. I-98; Karl Heinz B randt , ‘Ausgrabungen im Bremer Dom 1973-1976', in Der B remer Do m . Baugeschich te, A u s ü bu ngen) K u nstschät ze ١ eA. Alfred LOh r (Hefte des Focke-Museums, 49), Bremen, 1979, pp. 56- 85. 26 Siegfried Fliedn er , ‘Der frühromanische Dom zu Bremen', in Der Bremer Dom, pp. 9-55. 27 Brandt , ‘A usgrabungen im Bremer Dom 1973-1976', pp. 33-34; Uwe L obbedey , ‘Der romanische Dom in Bremen, ein Werk Erzbischof Liemars (1072-1101)', in Frühmittelalterliche Studien, I9, I985, pp. 3I2-29.

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8‫ ل‬I yo C a r e l l a ١A rcbitectu rereligieuseha u t f edievaleen I talie 39 Ursula M ende , Die Bronzetüren des Mittelalters, 800-1200١ Méridionale. Le diocèse Bénévent (Bibliothèque de l'antiquité tar­ Munich 19942, pp. 25-27, 133-34; Susanne K ern , Die Inschriften dive, 18), Turnhout, 2011, pp. 22-31. d^e‫ ؟‬M^inz^erDo^^sundd^e‫ ؟‬Do^i-undDiöz^es^n^iuseu^is ٩^on8c^0 bis 1350 (Mainzer Inschriften, 1), Wiesbaden, 2010, pp. 11-14. 29 Jacobsen , ‘Ottonische Großbauten', pp. 38-41. 30 Rainer Ku h n , ‘Die Vorgängerbauten unter dem Magdeburger 40 M en d e , Bronzetüren des Mittelalters, pp. 21-24, 131-33. D om ١ .in Aufgedeckt II. Forschungsra b u n gen am M agdeburger 41 Thomas A um Uller , Matthias Ex ner , Bernhard H e rr­ Dom 200^-2009, ed. Harald M eller , Wolfgang Schenkluhn m ann , Christian K ayser , Angelika P orst , Hildegard Sahler & Boje E. Hans Sch m u h l (Archäologe in Sachsen-Anhalt, & Reinhold W inkler , ‘Der Augsburger Dom, ein verkann­ Sonderband, 13), Halle, 2009, pp. 31-86; Rainer Ku h n , ‘Die ter Großbau der ersten Jahrtausendwende. Neue Befunde zu Kirchen des Domhügels. Überlegungen zur ihrer Identifizierung Architektur und Dekorationssystem', in Jahrbuch der Bayerischen nach den Grabungen', ,pp. 221-34. Recent comprehen­ Ibidem Denkmalpflege, 64/65, 2010-2011 (2012), pp. 8-56; Hildegard sive publication on the Gothic cathedral: Heiko B randl & Sa hler & Reinhold W inkler , ‘Der Augsburger Dom in ottoChristian Fo rster , Der Dom zu Magdeburg, 1: Architektur (Die nischer Zeit. Neue Erkenntnisse zur Datierung des ottonischen Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler von Sachsen-Anhalt, 1; Beiträge zur Neubaus und seiner Stellung in der Architekturgeschichte', in Architectura, 41, 2011, pp. 13-26. Denkmalkunde, 6 ) ١ Regensburg, 2011. 31 Friedrich O swald , Leo Schaefer & Hans Rudolf Senn 42 Dorothea & Peter D iem er , ‘Die Bronzetür des Augsburger hauser , Vorromanische Kirchenbauten (Veröffentlichungen des DomesVrn Zeitsch rif t desD eutsch enV ereinsfü rK u nstwissenschaft١ Zentralinstituts für Kunstgeschichte in München, 3), Munich, 65, 2011 (2013), pp. 9-92. 1966-1971, pp. 270-72, 292-94; Jacobsen , Schaefer & 43 Denis André C hevalley, Der Dom zu Augsburg (Die Kunst­ S e n n h a u se r , Vorromauisch e Kirch enbauteu. N ach tragsband, denkmäler von Bayern, N.F٠١ 1), Munich, 1995, pp. 17-60. pp. 336-37, 358-59. Recent comprehensive publication on the 44 Walter Sage , ‘Die Ausgrabungen im Bamberger Dom', in K ai' Gothic cathedral of Regensburg: Achim H ubel & Manfred serHeinrich II. 1002-1024, ed. Josef K ir m eier , Bernd Sc h n e id Schuller , Der Dom zu Regensburg, 3 (of 5) vol. (Die Kunst­ m Uller , Stefan W ein furter & Evamaria B rockhoff denkmäler von Bayern, Neue Folge, 7), Regensburg, 2010-2013. (Veröffentlichungen zur bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, 44), 32Jochen Z in k , ‘Die Baugeschichte des Trierer Domes von den Stuttgart, 2002, pp. 93-109. Anfängen im 4. Jahrhundert bis zur letzten Restaurierung', in 45 Recent extensive excavations by Karl Bernhard Kruse have alte­ Trierer Dom, ed. Franz J. Ro n ig (Rheinischer Verein für Denk­ red nearly all current hypotheses on phases and reconstruction; a malpflege und Landschaftsschutz, Jahrbuch, 1978-1979), Neuss, publication is announced for 2015. The last comprehensive study 1980, pp. 17-111, esp, 24-31. of the excavator is outdated, but still remains useful for the youn­ 33 Z in k , ‘Baugeschichte des Trierer Domes', pp. 34-46; Hans ger phases: Karl Bernhard K ruse , Der Hildesheimer Dom. Von Erich Kubach & Albert Verbeek , Romanische Baukunst an der Kaiserkapelle und den karolingischen Kathedralkirchen bis zur Rhein und Maas (Denkmäler deutscher Kunst), vols 1-3, Berlin, Zerstörung 1945 (Materialhefte zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte Nie­ 1976; vol. 4 ١ Berlin, 1989, esp. vol. 2١ pp. 1085-1110. dersachsens, 27), Hannover, 2000. 34Lukas C lem en s , Tempore R o m ^ o r u m cousr u ctu. :^^r 1 ' 46 Annalista Saxo, ed. Georg W a it z , in Monumenta Germaniae zu ng ^î^d W٤t h ٢^neehn^u^۶ig l i e r Überreste uördlich der A lp en Historica, Scriptores, vol. 6١ Hannover, 1844, pp. 686-87; Vita wahrend des Mittelalters (Monographien zur Geschichte des Godehardi posterior, ed. Georg Heinrich P ertz , in M o n u Mittelalters, 50), Stuttgart, 2003, pp. 322-34. menta Germa niaeFIistorica, Scrip t oresinfoli o ,vo \.ii ,Hannover ١ 1854, pp. 215-16. 35 L obbedey , ‘Überlegungen zu den Westbauten der älteren 47 At Halber Stad t, after the collapse in 965, the cathedral was Domkirchen von Halberstadt', pp. 50-51. 3‫ ج‬Dethard von W in terfeld , ‘Zur Baugeschichte des Mainzer rebuilt exactly in the old design, including the outdated ring crypt: D o m t ‫؟‬.١٠m F^^rt^^t'S(^l3u^^^t^^^eF^(^mi. W kruehm ungundW undel L eopold & Schubert , Der Dom zu Halberstadt, pp. 54-65. der Kathedrale im L a u f der ١ eh. Hans48 K ruse , Der Hildesheimer Dom, pp. 118-20, 273-75. Jürgen Ko tzu r , Mayence, 2011, pp. 44-97, esp. 45-54; Dethard 49 K ruse , Der Hildesheimer Dom, pp. 120-23, 136-37, 276. ١٠ Very hypothehcah hs B ischofB urchrd (1000-102$). T^^tts^nd von W interfeld , ‘Willigis und die Folgen. Bemerkungen zur Baugeschichte des Mainzer Domes', in Basilica nova Moguntina. Jahre Romanik in Worms, ed. Gerold BOn nen , Worms, 1000 JahreWiUigis-DomSt. M artin inMain%,eh.Fehchas Ja n 2000, pp. 71-81, based on Rudolf K a utzsch , Der Dom zu son & Barbara N ic h tw e iss (Neues Jahrbuch für das Bistum Worms, 3 vol.١ Berlin, 1938. Cf. Matthias U n ter m a n n , ‘Die Mainz, 2009/2010), Mayence, 2010, pp. 105-35, esp. 105-21. Baugeschichte des Wormser Doms', in Die Salier. Macht im Wandel. Essays, ed. Alexander K o c h , Bernd Schneidm üller 37 Ludwig B ecker & Johannes Sa rto riu s , Baugeschichte der ^rü^hz^eitd^esDom٤esz^uMainz,.4^-i3.Jahrhund^ert;,Mayens^e,i9١ 6, & Stefan W ein furter , Munich, 2011, pp. 232-39; Matthias pl. 1-2; Rudolf K autszch & Ernst N eeb , Der Dom zu M ainz U n t e r m a n n , ‘Inschriften der Bauleute der Salierzeit', in Der (Die Kunstdenkmäler im Freistaat Hessen, Provinz Rheinhessen, D o m zu S p ey e r l onstruk tion, Funk tio n u n d R ez٠ep tionz ٠wisch en Stadt und Kreis Mainz, 2,1), Darmstadt, 1919, pp. 27-40. Salierzeit und Historismus, ed. Matthias M üller , Matthias 38Karl Heinz E sser & Annibal do Pa ‫ ؟‬o ^ esado , U n ter m a nn & Dethard von W in terfeld , Darmstadt, 2013, ‘Die Ausgrabungen auf dem Liebfrauenplatz in Mainz', in pp. 206-21, esp. 213-15. M ainzer Zeitschrift, 70, 1975, pp. 177-93; von W interfeld , ١‫ ا‬Jean-PhhYppe M eyer ١ L a cath ed raledeS trasbourg. L a cathé' ‘Baugeschichte des Mainzer Domes', pp. 50-52; Jacobsen , drale romane I0i$'vers 1180 (Bulletin de la Cathédrale de ‘Ottonische Großbauten', pp. 24-28. Strasbourg, 22١ Supplement), Strasbourg, 1998; Jean-Philippe

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M a t t h i a s Un t e r m a n n

M eyer , ‘La cathédrale de Strasbourg', in LAlsace au coeur du Moy en A g e. D e Strasbou rg au Rh i n supérieur X I t- x ile siècles, ed. Marie P o TTECHER, Jean-Philippe M eyer , Jean-Jacques Sc h w ien & Alexandre Freu n d -L eh m an n , Lyon, 1015, pp. 54-76, esp. 54-61. 51 Peter E ggenberger & Werner St Ockli , ‘Die Krypta im Münster Unserer Lieben Frau zu Konstanz. Ergebnisse des Bauuntersuch ‫ ؛‬von 1975! in Sch rißen des Vereins ^i^r Gesch ich te des Bodensees, 95, 1977, pp. 1-18; Ulrike Laule & Burghard L o hru m , ‘Die Kathedrale des 9. und 10. Jahrhunderts', in Das Ko nsta nzer M ü nster U nserer L iebenFrau.iooo Jahjr^eK ath ed^i^aee — 200 Jahre Pfarrkirche, ed. Ulrike Laule , Regensburg, 1013, pp. 64-69; Ulrike Laule & Burghard L o hru m , ‘Die Ostteile des 11. bis 13. Jahrhunderts', in Ibidem, pp. 70-71. 53 Albert K noepfli , ‘Beiträge zur Baugeschichte des K onstaner Münsters im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert', in Freiburger Diözesanarchiv, 109, 1989, pp. 17-84; Ulrike Laule , ‘Das Langhaus des 11. bis 13. Jahrhunderts', in DasKonstanzerMünster, ed. Laule , pp. 165-68. 34 Helmul Sc h u l z e , D er D o ! zu W ü rz burg. S ein Werden bis z u ! Sp äten Mittelatter, eitle Ba ugescbich te, 3 voi‫ ؛‬l ^ ^ l e n und Forschungen zur Geschichte des Bistums und Hochstifts Würz­ burg, 39,1-3), Würzburg, 1991. 53Forschu ngenzurn MerseburgerDoro ,edWlolf^an^WoETERS & Achim H ubee , Halle, 1000. 56 Uwe L obbedey , ‘Der Dom zu Münster. Der Bau und seine Vorgänger', Das Münster, 58, 1005, pp. 161-73; Uwe L obbe dey, ‘Die frühe Baugeschichte des Domes zu Osnabrück', in K otdewey -Gesetssch aß Berich t über die 45. Tagu ng J u r A usr abungsunssenschaßun d:Bauf orschung ,Stut.t.g>art.,1٠ i ٠ ,pp.175-79. 57 François H eber -Su ffrin , ‘La liturgie dans la ville: Metz du v iil ‫؛‬iècleàlépospieromane, , Lesca biersdeSaint-Mich et de Cuxa , 34, 1003, pp. 13-16; François H eber-Suffrin , ‘Metz. La cathé­ drale Saint-Etienne. Des origines à la consécration de 1040' in Les Trois-Evech es et l ’a ncien duch é de Bar C ongre‫ ؛‬areht ologjispie de France, 149th session, 1991), Paris, 1995, pp. 431-45. 58 Hans Erich Kubach & Walter H aas , Der D o ! zu Speyer, 3 vols (Die Kunstdenkmäler von Rheinland-Pfalz), Munich & Berlin, 1971. 59 Hauke H o rn , ‘Flachdecke oder Steingewölbe? Überlegun­ gen zum oberen Raumabschluss des frühsalischen Mittelschiffs im Dom zu Speyer (Bau I), in Der D o ! zu Speyer, ed. M üller , U n term a nn & von W in terfeld , pp. 158-81; Dethard von W interfeld , ‘Offene Fragen der Bauforschung zum Speyerer Dom', Ib id e!, pp. 135-57, esp. 135-50. 60 Thomas M eier , ‘Zwischen Stiftern und Heiligen. Die Saliergräber im Speyerer Dom', in Beitrage zur Mittelalterarchäol og ie i n Öseerreicb,Y4 ,1998 ,p p . 37-4&, 61 Dethard von W intere EID, ‘Wettstreit oder historischer Zufall-, Cluny Hl-Speyer H , in Canossa i07 7■ E rsch ütteru ng der Welt, 1 vols, ed. Christoph Stiegemann & Matthias W em hoff , Munich, 1006, vol. 1, pp. 343-58; Dethard von W interfeld , ‘Der Dom Heinrichs IV. und sein Rang in europäischer Perspekti vel in Salisch es K aisertu ! un d neues Europa. D i e Ze h HeinrichsIVundHeinrichs V., ed. Bernd Sc h n e id m ü lier & Ste­ fan W einfur TER, Darmstadt, 1007, pp. 371-409. Important new observations on the secondbuildingperiodofc. 1080-1110 inDoroThea H ocH K YRCHEN, Mittelattertich e Steinbearbett ung un d di e unfertigen K apiteUedesSpey erer D o i s (39. VerOffenAichun^der

Abteilung Architekturgeschichte des Kunsthistorischen Instituts der Universität zu Köln), Cologne, 1990; Holger M ertens , StudienzurP iauplastikderD o! in SpeyeruridMainz l ^ ^ e n u n d Abhandlungen zur mittelrheinischen Kirchengeschichte, 76), Mainz, 1995; U nterm ann , ‘Inschriften der Bauleute', pp. 109-13. 62 H o rn , ‘Flachdecke oder Steingewölbe?'. 63 Kristina K rüger , ‘A ntikenreeption im mittelalterlichen Sakral­ bau des 11. und 11. Jahrhunderts in Frankreich', in Der D o ! zu Speyer, ed. M üller , U ntermann & von W interfeld , pp. 93-110. 64 Andreas H artm ann -Vir n ic h , ‘Der Speyerer Dom und der frühromanische Gewölbebau in Frankreich', in Der D o ! zu Speyer, ed. M üller , U nterm ann & von W interfeld , pp. 181-105. ‫ اء‬G eo r^G R E ssE R ,D asB istuiSpeyerbiszuiE ndedesn.J،ibrhunderts (Quellen und Abhandlungen zur mittelrheinischen Kirchengeschichte, 89), Mayence, 1998. 66 Frank G. H ir s c h m a n n , Stadtplanung, Bauprojekte und Großbaustellen iroio. und.ii. Jahrhundert.VergteichendeStudien zudenKathedralstadtenuJestlich desRheins M ono^raphienzur Geschichte des Mittelalters, 43), Stuttgart, 1998; Bischöfliches Bauen ! !!.Jahrhundert, ed. Ja rnu t , KOb & W em hoff , 1008. 67 Simone H eim ann , Die Ausbildung hochmittelaltrlicher Bischöfe zu Architekten: Überlegungen am Beispiel Bischof Benno‫ ؛‬H v o n C h n A i k A n BischöflichesBauen !ii.J a h rh u n d ert, ed. Ja rnu t , KOb & W em hoff , pp. 137-51. 68 Andreas H artm ann -Vir n ic h , ‘Remarques sur l'architec­ ture religieuse du premier âge Roman en Provence (1030-1100)', in Hortus A r tiu ! M e d ie v a li! 1000 ,en,Architectura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 109-117

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109568

c h u rc h fro m th e f o u r th o r fifth c e n tu r y AD h a d th e

I t is i m p o r ta n t to n o te h e re th e v e ry e arly d a te o f

fo rm o f a b a silic a w ith ro w s o f c o lu m n s. In a d d itio n ,

th e c h a p te r ’s re fo rm , th e in v o lv e m e n t o f th e c o u n t

th e b u ild in g fa ç a d e is p a r tly p re s e rv e d a n d sh o w s

o f T o u lo u s e (w h o r e n o u n c e d th e r ig h t to c h o o se th e

v a rio u s c o n s tr u c tio n p e rio d s . T h e o ld e s t v estiges,

b is h o p , w h o s e e le c tio n n o w d e v o lv e d to th e c a n o n s ),

m a d e o f b r i c k layers, are f o u n d o n th e s o u th w e s t c o r­

as w e ll as th e p re se n c e o f H u g h o f C lu n y , t h e n leg ate

ner. T h ese are in te rs e c te d b y a w a ll m a d e o f re u se d

to P o p e G r e g o r y V I I . It s h o u ld also b e m e n tio n e d

m a te ria ls th a t c a n b e d a te d to th e e arly M id d le

t h a t c e rta in c a n o n s ‘s p o n ta n e o u s ly ) a g re e d , w h ic h

A ges. A n o t h e r s e c tio n o f m a s o n ry , m a d e e n tire ly o f

im p lie s th e c a te g o ric a l re fu sa l o f o th e rs . In th e sam e

b ric k a n d in c lu d in g a w in d o w , is a ttr ib u ta b le to th e

te x t, Isa rn d e p lo re d ‘th e a n c ie n t r u in o f m o s t o f th e

tw e lfth o r th ir t e e n t h c e n tu r y b a s e d o n th e f o r m a n d

w a lls [ o f th is c h u r c h ] ’ T h e p re c ise sta te o f th e c a th e ­

d e sig n o f th e b ric k w o rk .5

d ra l a t t h a t tim e is u n c e r ta in , b u t w e d o k n o w t h a t h e th e n u n d e r to o k to r e b u ild it co m p le te ly . T h e a r c h ite c tu r e o f th e c a th e d ra l to d a y is r a th e r

I R d ie s q w e G itb e d r a .1

d is c o n c e r tin g , b e c a u se it c o n ta in s th e re m n a n ts o f su ccessiv e u n f in is h e d b u ild in g s (F ig. 1). T o th e w e st

F ro m th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry ,

are th r e e b ays o f a w id e n av e, w ith la rg e in te r s e c t­

M e d ie v a l T o u lo u s e b e g a n to ta k e s h a p e as th e

in g rib v a u lts c o v e rin g a sin g le la rg e s p a n o f a b o u t

c a p ita l o f a v a st t e r r i t o r y r u l e d b y a c o u n t w h o

tw e n ty m e tre s, b e lo n g in g to a c h u rc h b u i lt in th e

h a d b e e n w o n o v e r b y th e G r e g o r ia n R e fo rm .

firs t h a l f o f th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry . T o th e e ast, a n

F ro m th e firs t h a l f o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , th e m a in

im m e n s e c h o ir fifty m e tre s l o n g w a s r e b u ilt fro m

c ity n o d e s b e c a m e c o n s o lid a te d . T h e C h â te a u

th e y e a r 1275, w ith a r c h ite c tu r a l re fe re n c e s b o r ­

N a r b o n n a is in th e s o u th , w h ic h h a d b e e n th e

ro w e d f r o m N o r t h e r n G o th ic .

c ity g a te in A n tiq u ity , w a s th e s e a t o f th e c o u n ts ’

T h e G o th ic m a s o n ry w as b u ilt o n to p o f th a t o f

p o w e r. O u ts id e th e to w n to th e n o r t h , a B o u rg

th e R o m a n e s q u e c a th e d ra l. T o th e w e st are th e re m ­

h a d s p r u n g u p a r o u n d th e b a s ilic a o f S a in t- S e r n in ,

n a n ts o f th e to w e rs th a t fla n k e d th e fa ça d e, as w ell

w h ic h w o u l d b e s u r r o u n d e d b y se v e ra l su c c essiv e

as th e b e g in n in g s o f th e nave w h o se w alls in c lu d e d

w alls. B e tw e e n th e c ity a n d th e B o u r g s t o o d th e

so m e o c u li a lo n g th e b o t to m (a t le a st o n th e e a s te rn

to w n h a ll, w h e re th e m u n ic ip a l m a g is tra te s o r con­

sid e ) a n d ta ll w in d o w s in th e trib u n e s (u p p e r s t o ­

suls o f T o u lo u s e w o u l d m e e t d u r in g th e M id d le

ries o v e r th e aisles). T h e w id th o f th e R o m a n e sq u e

A g es. A r o u n d S a in t- É tie n n e w a s th e b is h o p ’s a n d

nave ( tw e n ty m e tre s) su g g ests t h a t it c o n s is te d o f

c a n o n s ’ d is tr ic t, w h ic h , a t n e a rly t e n a cres, w as

th re e aisles. T o th e e ast, th e s o u th e r n w a ll o f th e

r a th e r la rg e . Y et th is q u a r te r , w h o s e b o u n d a r ie s are

G o th ic c h o ir w as b u ilt o n to p o f th e w a ll o f th e

k n o w n f r o m th e M id d le A g e s to th e e ig h te e n th

R o m a n e s q u e n ave, w h ic h is p re s e rv e d to a h e ig h t

c e n tu ry , r e m a in e d s e p a r a te d f r o m th e re s t o f th e

o f a lm o s t sev en m e tre s. T h is w a ll sh o w s th e c o rb els

c ity b y a w a ll a n d d id n o t a ffe c t c ity p la n n in g .

o f th e R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste r r o o f a n d tw o d o o rs th a t

T h e 107 0 s sa w th e s ta r t o f larg e -sc ale e cclesias­

c o n n e c te d th e in te r io r o f th e c h u rc h w ith th e clo is­

tic a l c o n s tr u c tio n p ro je c ts , first a n d fo re m o s t o f

te r gallery. T o w a rd s th e w e st, th e re is a d o o r th a t w as

w h ic h w e re th e b a silic a o f S a in t-S e rn in a n d th e

re b u ilt a t le a st tw ice , a n d to th e east, a d o o r w h o se

c a th e d ra l o f S a in t-É tie n n e . R e g a rd in g th e c a th e d ra l,

ja m b s w e re m a d e o f s to n e r a th e r th a n b ric k . T he

w e are u n u s u a lly w e ll in f o r m e d a b o u t th e c h a p te r ’s

sp ace b e tw e e n th e se tw o d o o rs p ro b a b ly m a rk e d th e

re fo rm , w h ic h B is h o p Isa rn in tr o d u c e d f r o m 1073,

b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n th e c h o ir a n d th e nave. W e c a n th e re fo re re c o n s titu te a b u ild in g a b o u t

w ith th e consent and u n d e r th e im m u n ity o f ou r glo ­ rious C o u n t [...] o f Toulouse, also w ith th e counsel o f H ugh, A b b o t o f Cluny, p ro p ag ato r o f m onastic disci­ pline, and w ith th e help and coo p eratio n o f venerable

110

eighty-five m etre s lo n g , w ith o u t a tra n s e p t; th e fo rm o f th e apse re m a in s u n k n o w n . T h e tw o pieces o f a w all d isc o v e re d in 1983 a n d 1991 d o n o t, in fact, enable a m o re precise reco n stru c tio n ; th e ensem ble is

H u n a u d , A b b o t o f M oissac, along w ith th e w illing­

d iffic u lt to d ate. C o n s tr u c tio n b e g a n b o th w ith th e

ness and spontaneous subm ission o f certain clerics living here together.6

w e ste rn façad e, m a d e o f re u se d b rick s, a n d th e nave,

^ I TTERI E CAZES

w ith o c u li m a d e o f a lte rn a tin g sto n e a n d b ric k (as a t

Allées François-Verdier

Porte SaintEtienne

lorte du lo ître

to u r

)Eglise Saint- [١

Cloître CourSainte-Anne

^Façade romane

0

Maisons des chanoines Palais archiépiscopal et ses dépendances

PlanQ. Cazes. .1SS8

Fig. 1.

Cathédrale : maçonneries romanes Bâtiments communs des chanoines et cloître

M ap reco n stru ctin g th e canons’ q u arter o f Saint-É tienne C ath ed ral, T oulouse (draw ing au th o r) (Plate 11)

S a in t-S e rn in fro m th e 1070s). A t th e sam e tim e , o n th e east, th e apse a n d th e c h o ir bays w ere c o n stru c te d . T he first G o th ic nave re u se d cap itals fro m

th e

R o m a n e sq u e c h u rc h , a n d d a te fro m th e sa m e tim e as th e cap itals in th e nave a t S a in t-S e rn in , b e tw e e n 1100 a n d 1110. It is also clear th a t c o n s tru c tio n w as c o m ­

th a t any cleric w ho w o u ld n o w becom e a m em ber o f this church b o d y recognize h im self as subjected to th e rigor o f canonical life, th a t he ow n n o th in g o f his ow n [...], th a t all clerics eat together, sleep together. T hat fo o d and clo th in g be co m m o n to all, as p re ­ scribed by apostolic life [...]

p le te d quickly, w ith in h a lf a c e n tu ry a t m o st. T h is m e a n t tw o th in g s : first, t h a t c a n o n s w e re g iv en a c h a p te r re v e n u e i n d e p e n d e n t o f e p isc o p a l re v e n u e ;

IG ithedralC O oister

s e c o n d , th a t c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e b u ild in g s r e q u ir e d f o r c o m m o n life b e g a n .

In th e te x t o f th e 1073 re fo rm , B ish o p Isa rn im p o s e d c o m m o n life o n h is c a n o n s,

T h e first b u ild in g se e m s to h a v e b e e n th e c lo is­ ter, w h ic h w as e re c te d b e tw e e n th e tw o c h u rc h e s o f

T h e C a t h e d r a l of T o u l o u s e

111

S a in t-É tie n n e a n d S a in t-Ja c q u e s, th u s d e te r m in in g its

o r th e w e s te rn p o r ta l.9 A c a p ita l w ith f o u r lio n s h a s

size. M e a s u rin g 45 X 41 m , th e c lo is te r is o n e o f t h e la rg ­

b e e n r e c o n s titu te d fro m o v e r se v e n ty fra g m e n ts a n d

e st in th e s o u th o fF ra n c e (g re a te r th a n M o issa c , w h ic h

sh o w s th e sa m e sense o f e x a c e rb a te d v o lu m e . W e c an

m ea su re s 41 X 37 m o r S a in t-S e rn in , o f 41 X 36 m ).

also c o m p a re th e f r a g m e n t o f a h y b r id b e in g a tta c k e d

In a n y case, it h a d n o t h in g in c o m m o n w ith o th e r

b y lio n s to so m e o f th e S a in t-S e rn in c a p ita ls, su c h as

m a jo r s o u th e r n c lo iste rs s u c h as A rle s, m e a su rin g

th o se o f th e c ro ssb o w -m e n in th e n ave, o r c h a ra c te rs

25 X 28 m , a n d it w as d o u b le th e size o f th e c lo iste rs

fro m th e w e s te rn p o r ta l c ap itals. A n o t h e r f r a g m e n t

in B éziers, L y o n , F réjus, a n d N a rb o n n e .

o f a n a b a c u s c a rv e d in th e sa m e b lo c k as th e c a p ita l

T h e c lo is te r w as d e m o lis h e d in 1799, b u t w e h av e

is c o m p a ra b le to o th e r w o rk s in th e c lo iste r o f S a in t-

a v e ry p re c ise p la n f r o m 1 7 8 0 :7 it a p p e a rs to b e a c o p y

S e rn in . T h is s e c o n d se t c a n th u s b e d a te d to th e first

o f th e c lo iste r a t M o issac , w ith p illa rs a t th e c o rn e rs

d e c a d e o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry .

a n d th e m id d le o f e ac h a rca d e a n d a lte r n a tin g sin g le

The

t h ir d

w o rk s h o p

w as t h a t

o f G ila b e rtu s ,

a n d d o u b le c o lu m n s. S urveys c o n d u c te d in 1991 a n d

w h ic h c re a te d th e fa m o u s c a p ita ls in th e M u s é e des

1992 h ave v e rifie d th is p la n a n d h av e f o u n d th e c lo is­

A u g u s tin s in c lu d in g th a t o f S a in t J o h n th e B a p tis t’s

t e r ’s lo w w a ll in v a rio u s p lac e s. S everal s to n e fra g ­

m a r ty r d o m , as w e ll as a h e a d fr a g m e n t o f m u c h la rg e r

m e n ts h av e also b e e n d isc o v e re d : m a rb le c o lu m n s,

d im e n s io n s th a t m u s t h av e b e lo n g e d to a p illa r in

c ap itals, a n d c u rv e s o f a rch e s. T h e f o u r c lo iste r g a l­

th e c lo ister. I f w e a c c e p t th e e a rly d a tin g t h a t I have

leries w e re c o v e re d , as in M o issac , b y a p e n t r o o f th a t

p r o p o s e d f o r th e w o r k o f G ila b e rtu s , th is w o rk s h o p

re s te d o n c o rb e ls in s e rte d in to th e p e rip h e ra l w alls.

w o u ld h a v e b e e n activ e a r o u n d I I I 0 - 2 0 . 10 T h e n cam e

W e c a n th u s a p p ro x im a te ly re c o n s tr u c t its h e ig h t a n d

la te r w o rk s s u c h as th e c a p ita l o f th e M a g i in th e

th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e c o lu m n s f r o m th e c u rv e o f

M u s é e d es A u g u s tin s , w h ic h is d a ta b le to 1 1 2 0 -4 0 .

th e a rc h e le m e n ts f o u n d d u r in g e x ca v atio n s. T h e p la n f r o m 1780 in d ic a te d th e p o s itio n o f a f o u n ta in a n d a p a r tia l e x c a v a tio n u n c o v e re d its f o u n d a tio n s : tw o

IC k p te r B lir a g s

c o n c e n tric c irc u la r w alls, w ith a to ta l w id th o f a b o u t

112

tw o m e tre s, c o n ta in in g th e sp ace f o r a b a s in n e a rly

T h e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e c lo is te r w a s th u s s p re a d o v e r

f o u r m e tre s in d ia m e te r, w ith a b ase m a d e o f b ro k e n

sev eral d e ca d es, a p e r io d d u rin g w h ic h th e c o n v e n ­

tile m o rta r. W e k n o w th a t a larg e m a rb le b a s in h e ld

tu a l b u ild in g s o f th e c h a p te r w e re also b u ilt. T h ey

th e w a ter, th a n k s to th e d isc o v e ry o f th e im p r in t o f

f o r m e d a c o m p a c t g ro u p e a st o f th e clo iste r. H e re ,

th e c e n tra l p illa r a n d th e sid e p illa rs th a t s u p p o r te d

n o t m u c h la n d w as av ailab le b e c a u se th e c a n o n s ’

it (th e sam e sy ste m w as e m p lo y e d w h e n th e b a s in w as

q u a r te r w as lim ite d b y th e R o m a n w alls. A s a c o n s e ­

re u s e d a fte r b e in g re -c u t, th e n p la c e d o n th e sq u a re

q u e n c e , th e b u ild in g s d e v e lo p e d vertically . T h e y w ere

o u ts id e th e c a th e d ra l in th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry ). T h e

d e s tro y e d in 1811, b u t w e h av e p la n s a n d d e sc rip tio n s

b a s in w as p r o t e c t e d b y a sm a ll b u ild in g c o n s is tin g

th a t e n a b le us to r e c o n s tr u c t a ro u g h im a g e o f th e m

o f e ig h t m a rb le c o lu m n s s u p p o r tin g a n e n ta b la tu re

(Fig. 2). T h is e n se m b le , fa c in g th e f o u n ta in , in c lu d e d

m a d e o f re u s e d A n tiq u e m a rb le , b u t w e d o n o t k n o w

a larg e re fe c to ry fo llo w e d b y a k itc h e n , a c h a p te r

th e g e n e ra l sh a p e o f th is sm a ll s tr u c tu r e .8

h o u s e , a n a d jo in in g c h a p e l a n d , t u r n in g b a c k to w a rd s

T h e s c u lp tu re fra g m e n ts d isc o v e re d in 1991 g re a tly

th e e ast, w h a t w as p r o b a b ly th e c h a p te r s c h o o l, w h ic h

in c re a s e d o u r k n o w le d g e o f th e c lo iste r, as th e M u sé e

fro m th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu r y o n w a rd w as c a lle d th e

des A u g u s tin s p o ssesses o n ly five c a p ita ls o f th e

C h a n c e lle rie (‘C h a n c e r y ’ o f th e u n iv e rs ity ). A g a in s t

n in e ty -s ix th a t e x iste d . W e n o w k n o w th a t th re e

th e w a ll w e re a c e lla r a n d th e ‘a rc h iv e to w e r ’.

w o rk s h o p s s u c c e e d e d o n e a n o th e r in th e o r n a m e n ta ­

A d ra w in g o f th e c ity w alls fro m 1780 sh ow s th e

t io n o f th e c lo ister. T h e first o r ig in a te d fro m M o issa c :

h e ig h t o f th e C h a n c e ry b u ild in g , th e u p p e r p a r t o f

th e fra g m e n ts o f a n a b a c u s s h o w o b v io u s s tr u c tu r a l

w h ic h h a d v isibly b e e n c u t o f f (Fig. 3).11 A b o v e th e

affin ities, so m e tim e s w ith in s c rip tio n s o n th e v e rtic a l

R o m a n w all (w ith its p a ra p e t w alk w ay a n d b rick e d -u p

b a n d s w i t h in th e d e c o r o f fo lia g e o r o f b ird s. T hese

w in d o w s), th e to p tw o levels o f th e b u ild in g can be seen,

c a p ita ls c a n th e re fo re b e d a te d to im m e d ia te ly a fte r

w ith tw o n a rro w w in d o w s a n d a sto n e c h a m fe re d lin tel,

1100. T h e s u b s e q u e n t w o rk s h o p w as r a th e r sim ila r

a se m ic ircu la r arch , a n d above, a large recessed w indow .

in style to S a in t-S e rn in w ith th e P o rte M iè g ev ille

T hus, th e b u ild in g w as p ro b a b ly fifte e n m etre s h ig h .

^ I TTERI E CAZES

٠‫ ذ د‬:‫ا‬

٠٢٠ ٤ ‫ ة‬،:‫ء‬

‫د ؛‬

.... . . . . . . . ‫ا‬

1‫أأ‬ ‫ ﻏ ﺺ‬٦‫غ‬٠

‫ء‬

‫د‬

٠

‫لأة‬

S

Fig. 2.

R econstru ctio n o f th e canons’ q u arter in eig h teen th -cen tu ry T oulouse (draw ing Fabrice M oiR E A u) (Plate 12)

A d ra w in g f r o m 1802 sh o w s th e f r o n t o f th e

r e tu r n to th is p o i n t , sin c e th e a p o s tle s se ries sh o w s

re fe c to ry , h ig h a n d p ie r c e d w ith tw o lo n g w in d o w s

c o n s id e ra b le ic o n o g r a p h ic c o n s is te n c y w ith th e p i l ­

(F ig. 4 ) ; a fte r th a t , th r e e e q u a l a rc h e s o f th e c h a p te r

la rs o f th e c lo iste r.

h o u s e c a n b e se e n , w h ic h w e re v isib ly w a lle d u p . S in c e 1835, i t h a s b e e n a s s u m e d t h a t th e s c u lp tu re s o f th e tw e lv e a p o s tle s m a d e b y G ila b e r tu s a n d h is

H c o w o g r a jib ic P r o g r u e o ftb e C lo is te r

w o r k s h o p w e re l o c a te d o n e it h e r sid e o f th e c e n tra l a rc h . T h is m a in p o r t a l h a s b e e n g re a tly d e b a te d ;

T h e ic o n o g ra p h ic p ro g ra m m e o f th e c lo is te r c a n n o t

a su rv e y a t th e site o f th e p o r t a l s h o w e d a v e ry

b e fu lly re c o n s tr u c te d , b u t p a r t o f th e c a p ita l p r o ­

t h ic k w a ll t h a t c o u ld h a v e c o n ta i n e d th e n e c e s s a ry

g ra m m e is k n o w n . T h e five su rv iv in g c a p ita ls re p re ­

s p la y e d ja m b s . H o w e v e r, th is su rv e y , th e p la n s , a n d

s e n t th e d e a th o f S a in t J o h n th e B a p tis t, th e W is e a n d

h is to r ic a l d e s c r ip tio n s c a s t d o u b t o n w h e t h e r th e re

F o o lis h V irg in s r e p e a te d tw ic e ( w ith v a ria tio n s ), th e

w as a recess to h o l d th e s e s c u lp tu r e s , as L in d a S e id el

J o u r n e y o f th e M a g i a n d th e s to r y o f S a in t M a r y o f

s u g g e s te d w h e n sh e d is p u te d th e e x is te n c e o f th is

E g y p t. M a rc e l D u r l i a t u n d e r s to o d th e m as a sm all

p o r t a l . I t is also p o s s ib le t h a t th e s e s c u lp tu r e s w e re

cycle d e d ic a te d to th e V ir g in .13 H o w e v e r, th e y c an

a r r a n g e d b o t h in th e re c e s s e d a rea s o f th e c e n tra l

also b e se e n as a b r o a d e r re fle c tio n o n th e C h u rc h .

p o r t a l ( f o r th e sin g le a p o s tle s ) a n d in th e la te ra l

In th e tw o c a p ita ls re p re s e n tin g th e W is e a n d F o o lish

b ay s ( f o r th e d o u b le a p o s tle s ) (F ig . 5 ).12 W e w ill

V irg in s, o n e sm a ll sid e fe a tu re s C h r is t a n d th e V irg in .

T h e C a t h e d r a l of T o u l o u s e

113

Fig. 3. D raw ing o f th e to w n and th e C h an cery bu ild in g seen from th e east, 1780, by Jacques-Pascal V irebent (courtesy o f M usée Paul-D upuy, Toulouse)

Fig. 4. V iew o f the south section o f th e cathedral in 1802 after th e destru ctio n o f th e cloister. O n th e right, th e façade o f th e refectory and th e chapter house w ith its th ree arches walled up (anonym ous)

114

^ I TTERI E CAZES

Fig. 5.

Suggested reco n stru ctio n o f th e chapter house façade (draw ing au th o r) (Plate 13)

In o n e , th e V ir g in b e a rs a sc e p tre s h a p e d lik e a lily,

in s c rip tio n s . F o r P e ter, it says: ‘P e ter, b le ssin g th e

a n d in th e o th e r, a k i n d o f c h a lic e : th is is th e V irg in

B ish o p , s e n t h im to th e c ity / To m a n a g e th e p e o p le ,

e q u a te d w ith th e C h u r c h . A t t h a t tim e , th e k in g d o m

[P e te r] tra n s fe rre d h is rig h ts to h im [th e B is h o p ] ’.

o f h e a v e n w ill b e lik e te n v irg in s w h o to o k th e ir la m p s

W i t h th is in s c rip tio n , a m o n g o th e rs , th e c h u rc h o f

a n d w e n t o u t to m e e t th e b r id e g r o o m a n d th e b r id e ’

T o u lo u s e c la im e d th e a p o s to lic a u th o r ity o f its f o u n ­

( M a tth e w 25:1) a n d , as S a in t A u g u s tin e s ta te d , ‘T h is

d a tio n : h e re th e first b is h o p , S a tu rn in u s , re c e iv e d th e

p a ra b le [...] c o n c e rn s th e C h u r c h as a w h o le ’. In h is

r ig h t to a d m in is te r th e p e o p le fro m th e a p o stle h i m ­

s e rm o n 93, h e a sse rte d t h a t th e K in g d o m o f H e a v e n

self. B ish o p S a tu r n in u s w as re p re s e n te d w ith h is c r o ­

is p re fig u re d b y th e C h u r c h , a n id e a t h a t is re p re ­

sie r a n d a n in s c r ip tio n e x p la in e d its m e a n in g : ‘T he

s e n te d in th e c a p ita l d e d ic a te d to th e J o u r n e y a n d th e A d o r a tio n o f th e M a g i w h e n th e y a rriv e b e fo re th e V irg in a n d C h ild . T h e la t t e r fig u res are re p re s e n te d u n d e r a n a rc h ite c tu re o f c o lu m n s a n d c a p ita ls s u p ­ p o r t in g a larg e a rc h to p p e d b y a c re n e la te d w all. In th e s p a n d re ls are th e fig u res o f S a in t P e te r a n d S a in t P a u l, sy m b o liz in g th e C h u r c h o f R o m e a n d o f th e P o p e , w h ic h , in th is p e r io d o f G r e g o ria n R e fo rm , is n o t w i t h o u t sig n ific a n ce . In a d d itio n to th e c a p ita ls, th e c lo is te r also h a d larg e s c u lp te d slabs in th e m id d le a n d a t th e c o rn e rs o f e ac h gallery. P a rt o f th e ir d e c o r a tio n w as k n o w n

c u rv e d p a r t d ra w s in th o s e t h a t th e s ta f f g o v e rn s; th e e n d p ric k s ’. H e re th e a im w as to in sist o n th e b is h o p ’s s p iritu a l, p o litic a l a n d ju d ic ia l p o w e rs. A t th e o th e r e n d o f th e g a lle ry n e x t to th e c a th e ­ d ra l, th e n o r th e a s t p illa r b o re th e fig u res o f S a in t E x tp e r iu s

a n d h is

d e a c o n . E x tp e r iu s , w h o

w as

b is h o p in th e la te f o u r th a n d e a rly fifth c e n tu ry , h a d c o n s e c ra te d a g re a t b a silic a o v e r th e to m b o f S a in t S a tu rn in u s a n d w as also k n o w n fo r h is g re a t c h a r­ ity. S a in t J e ro m e tells us h o w , in th is c o u n tr y d e v as­ ta t e d b y th e V a n d a ls, th e b is h o p s p e n t all th e c h u rc h

b y a u th o r s o f th e s ix te e n th a n d s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ­

w e a lth to h e lp th e p o o r, to th e p o i n t th a t h e ‘b o re

ries, w h o cite th e m w h e n d isc u ssin g th e e arly days o f

th e B o d y o f C h r is t in a w ic k e r b a s k e t a n d h is b lo o d

C h r is tia n ity in T o u lo u s e .14 T h u s, w e k n o w th a t in th e

in a glass v a se ’. 16 T h is is e x ac tly w h a t w as re p re s e n te d

s o u th e r n gallery , th e m id d le p illa r h a d a re lie f s h o w in g

in th e p ro g ra m m e , as e v id e n c e d b y th e in s c rip tio n

K in g D a v id p la y in g th e h a r p .15 Yet, in th e n o r t h g a l­

a c c o m p a n y in g E x tp e r iu s : ‘H e re is a m a n , ju s t in th e

le ry a d jo in in g th e c a th e d ra l, th e re lie fs t o o k o n p a r ­

eyes o f G o d a n d c a rin g f o r th e p o o r ’. T h e in s c rip tio n

tic u la r sig n ific a n ce . O n th e n o r th w e s t p illa r w e re th e

a c c o m p a n y in g th e d e a c o n re ad s: ‘H e p re p a re s th e

fig u res o f S a in t P e te r a n d S a in t S a tu rn in u s , th e first

h o ly S a c ra m e n ts a n d p re s e n ts th e m to th e b is h o p . H e

b is h o p o f T o u lo u se , u n d e r a rc h e s w ith a c c o m p a n y in g

o ffers a glass vase a n d a w ic k e r b a s k e t’.17

T h e C a t h e d r a l of T o u l o u s e

115

H e r e , th e

re fe re n c e s

are lo c a l a n d p r o b a b ly

in th e c h u rc h a t th a t tim e (in T o u lo u se , f o u r re g io n a l

in v o k e d th e d iffic u lt re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e c a th e ­

c o u n c ils w ith a d ir e c t c o n n e c tio n to th e fig h t a g a in st

d r a l a n d th e c h a p te r a t S a in t-S e rn in . T h e c a n o n s o f

h e re s y w e re h e ld in th e y e ars 1 0 5 0 - 6 0 ) . T h e c a n o n s

S a in t- S e r n in h a d a c le a r a m b itio n : th e c o n s t r u c t i o n

th u s a p p r o p r ia te d th e a b ility a n d th e a u th o r ity f o r

o f th e R o m a n e s q u e c h u r c h in th e 1 0 7 0 s, v e ry la rg e

th is lev el o f d isc o u rse .

f o r th e s ta n d a r d s o f th e tim e , w ith a p e r f e c t m a s ­

T h e re fo re , th e b is h o p m u s t h a v e fe lt th r e a te n e d

t e r y o f b u ild in g te c h n iq u e s a n d o f a m o n u m e n t a l i ty

in h is e sse n tia l p r e ro g a tiv e s : a c c o rd in g to Ire n a e u s

u n e q u a lle d in th e re g io n . F ro m th e o u ts e t, B is h o p

o f L y o n , th e b is h o p a lo n e , p o ss e s sin g th e n e c e s­

Is a rn t r ie d to g a in c o n tr o l, i f n o t o f th e c o n s tr u c ­

sa ry a u c to rita s as a su c c e s so r to th e a p o stle s, h a d

tio n , t h e n a t le a s t o f th e tax e s to b e p a id , b y u s in g

th e a u th o r i t y to in te r p r e t th e S c rip tu re s . W e d o n o t

a n u m b e r o f fa ls ifie d d o c u m e n ts . T h e b is h o p h a d

k n o w th e c o n te n t o f th e ic o n o g r a p h ic p ro g ra m m e

e x p e lle d th e c a n o n s o f S a in t- S e r n in in 1082 a n d

h e c h o se f o r th e p o r t a l o f th e c a th e d ra l, b u t it m u s t

r e p la c e d t h e m w ith m o n k s f r o m M o iss a c , b u t th e

h a v e b e e n s y m b o lic o f th e p o s i t io n h e w a n te d to tak e

c a n o n s a p p e a le d to th e p o p e , w h o r e in s ta te d th e m .

a m o n g th e f a ith f u l o f T o u lo u se . W h a te v e r th e case,

F u r th e r m o r e , th e y h a d c o n c e iv e d a n o v e ra ll ic o n o -

in th e c lo iste r, th e b is h o p re a ffirm e d th e a p o s to lic

g r a p h ic p r o g r a m m e t h a t w a s o f a d o g m a tic c h a ra c ­

o rig in s o f th e c h u rc h in T o u lo u s e a n d p o s itio n e d

t e r f o r th e P o r te M iè g e v ille a n d h a g io g r a p h ic in th e

h im s e lf as th e su c c e s so r o f b is h o p s S a tu r n in u s a n d

w e s te r n p o r ta l. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r o u r p u r ­

E x tp e r iu s . T h e i n te n t io n h e re w as c le a rly p o litic a l,

p o s e s is th e P o r te M iè g e v ille .18

d ir e c te d a t th e c h a p te r a t S a in t-S e rn in . I n a d d itio n ,

The

ty m p a n u m

re p re se n ts

th e

A s c e n s io n

of

th e a p o stle s o n th e c h a p te r h o u s e fa ç a d e p a r tic ip a te d

C h r is t, b o t h as K in g a n d S o n o f G o d , a c c la im e d b y

in th is sa m e p o s itio n in g , as b e in g th e m o d e l f o r th e

f o u r angels. T h e B o d y o f C h r is t h a s m o re v o lu m e a n d

c o m m o n life o f th e c a n o n s .

r e lie f th a n o th e r fig u res, to th e p o i n t th a t tw o an g els h av e to lift h im u p in to h e a v e n , in sistin g o n th e fa c t t h a t C h r is t is b o t h h u m a n a n d d iv in e , a g a in s t th e h e r ­

C o n c lu s io n

etics w h o d e n ie d C h ris t's h u m a n ity . O n th e lin te l are th e tw elv e a p o stle s a n d th e tw o m e n d re sse d in w h ite

In T o u lo u se , th e c a th e d ra l o f S a in t-É tie n n e a n d th e

f r o m th e A c ts o f th e A p o s tle s, e x p la in in g th e r e tu r n

a b b e y c h u rc h o f S a in t-S e rn in w e re b o t h s itu a te d in

o f C h r is t a t th e e n d o f tim e . B e tw e e n th e se tw o re g is­

th e sam e G re g o ria n R e fo rm m o v e m e n t, b u t th e ir

te rs is a v in e sc ro ll, a n a lle g o ry o f th e E u c h a rist. In th e

a rtis tic p a th s w e re d iffe re n t. F ro m th e b e g in n in g ,

sp a n d re ls are tw o la rg e reliefs. O n th e r ig h t, S t P e te r

S a in t-S e rn in c h o se to p la c e its a rtis tic w o rk s u n d e r

is re p re s e n te d as th e p o p e , w ith th e g e stu re o f b less­

th e sig n o f a d e sire d r e tu r n to A n tiq u ity , w h ic h w as

in g . Y o u n g a n d tr iu m p h a n t b e fo re th e b a n n e r o f th e

o n e w a y to b rin g b a c k th e V ita A p o sto lica a d v o c a te d

C h u r c h , h e a p p e a rs a b o v e th e re lie f o f S im o n M a g u s,

f o r r e fo rm e d c a n o n s .19 F ro m th e c o p ie s o f A n c ie n t

w h o m h e c o n q u e r e d b y th e W o rd . In th is relief, th e

c a p ita ls p la c e d a t th e e n tra n c e to th e a m b u la to r y to

v in es s ta r t to gro w , w h ic h th e n c o n tin u e o n to th e left

th e m o d e ls c h o s e n f o r th e a lta r ta b le (e.g., th e c o m ­

sid e o f P eter. To th e left, S a in t Ja m e s th e G r e a te r is

p o s itio n o f th e m a in sid e r e m in is c e n t o f p e d im e n ts

f r a m e d b y tw o tre e s f r o m w h ic h p la n t life sp rin g s.

o f A n tiq u e s a rc o p h a g i), o r fro m th e p re se n c e o f th e

H e is re p re s e n te d a b o v e th e im a g e o f M o n ta n u s a n d

c ele stia l g o d C a e lu s o n th e m a in face o f th e a lta r tab le

h is tw o p ro p h e te s s e s , P risc illa a n d M a x im illa . T h u s,

a n d th e riv e r g o d o n a c a p ita l o f th e P o rte M iè g ev ille,

tw o o f th e a p o stle s w h o , w ith th e T ra n s fig u ra tio n ,

to th e se a rc h f o r a r tis tr y a n d v o lu m e in th e a m b u la ­

w e re th e first w itn e sse s to C h ris t's n a tu re as th e S o n

to r y o r th e C h r is t o n th e ty m p a n u m — e v e ry th in g

o f G o d , th e tw o e v an g e lists o f th e W e s t, are o p p o s e d

rev eals th e u n d e rly in g m o d e ls o f th e b e s t G r a e c o ­

to tw o o f th e m o s t v ilifie d a n c ie n t h e re tic s , i f w e m ay

R o m a n sta tu a ry .

b elie v e E u se b iu s, S a in t A u g u s tin e a n d o t h e r C h u r c h

116

In S a in t- É tie n n e , as f a r as is k n o w n , th e c h o ic e s

F a th ers. In th is p o r ta l, th e c a n o n s o f S a in t-S e rn in use

m a d e w e re ra d ic a lly d iffe re n t. I n v itin g th e M o iss a c

a h ig h re g is te r o f d isc o u rse , w h ic h is b o t h e s c h a to ­

w o r k s h o p to w o r k o n th e c lo is te r o f th e c a th e d ra l

lo g ic a l a n d a n ti-h e re tic a l, d ire c tly re la te d to e v en ts

w a s a s ig n t h a t th e a r t w a s i n te n d e d to h i g h li g h t

^ I TTERI E CAZES

a c e r ta in c o n ti n u i ty w ith th e a b b e y o f M o iss a c ,

NOTES

w h ic h d e p e n d e d o n C lu n y , a n d th u s th e m o ra l r ig o r t h a t C lu n y r e p r e s e n te d . T h e n , th e b is h o p a n d c a n o n s c a lle d o n G ila b e r tu s f o r th e c a p ita ls o f th e c lo is te r a n d th e re lie fs t h a t d e c o r a te d th e fa ç a d e o f th e c h a p te r h o u s e ; in o t h e r w o rd s , th e y c h o se a c o n te m p o r a r y a r tis t w h o o v e r tu r n e d t r a d i ­ t io n a n d in s c r ib e d h is s c u lp tu r e s w i t h in th e c o n ­ te x t o f h is tim e . Y et, G ila b e r tu s d i d n o t w o r k v e ry l o n g a fte r th e c o m p le tio n o f th e P o r te M iè g e v ille . A m o n g th e a r tis a n s w h o a s s is te d h i m in m a k in g th e c h a p te r h o u s e re lie fs, th e r e w a s o n e w h o , o b v i­ o usly, h a d b e e n t r a i n e d b y w o r k in g o n s c u lp tu r e f o r th e P o r te M iè g e v ille . F o r e x a m p le , in th e re lie fs o f S a in t J a m e s th e L esse r, S a in t J a m e s th e G re a te r, a n d S a in t J o h n ,20 so m e e x p lic it re fe re n c e s to th e r e p r e ­ s e n t a t i o n o f S a in t J a m e s th e G r e a te r o n th e P o r te M iè g e v ille c a n b e f o u n d ,21 s u c h as th e p o s i t io n o f th e h a n d s t u r n e d o n th e b u s t, a n d th e tw is t o f th e w ris t. T h e m o d e l f o r th e s e m o tif s c a n b e f o u n d in th e fig u re o f S a in t P e te r in th e c lo is te r a t M o issa c . A n o t h e r c o m p a r is o n c a n b e m a d e b e tw e e n th e g e s­ tu r e o f th e a p o s tle h o l d in g th e k e y s in th e M o iss a c c lo is te r a n d th e g e s tu re o f S a in t J a m e s th e L e s se r h o l d in g h is p a tr ia r c h a l cro ss. G ila b e rtu s in tr o d u c e d a n e n tire ly n e w sty le to T o u lo u s ia n sc u lp tu re b y tra n s la tin g in to

a r t th e

n e w m o d e s o f b e h a v io u r p r o m o te d b y th e e m e rg in g c o u r tly so ciety , s u c h as th e re fin e m e n t o f p o s tu re s a n d c lo th in g a n d th e h u m a n ity th a t e m e rg es fro m th e g e stu res as in th e fa m o u s c a p ita l o f th e F e a st o f H e r o d — all b e a r th e m a rk o f G ila b e rtu s . T h e c a th e ­ d ra l, a lo n g w ith G ila b e rtu s , th u s p r o m o te d a n e w a rt, w h ic h w as ju s t as c rea tiv e in its tim e as B e rn a rd G ild u in h a d b e e n w ith th e a lta r ta b le o f S a in t-S e rn in , w h ic h h e h a d th e h o n o u r o f sig n in g w ith h is n a m e . P e rh a p s it is n o t b y c o in c id e n c e th a t G ila b e rtu s w as also ab le to sig n h is w o r k o n tw o reliefs re p re s e n t­ in g th e a p o stle s A n d r e w a n d T h o m a s in th e c h a p te r h o u s e ( u n f o r tu n a te ly n o w lo s t). I n t h e ir s tra te g y to a sse rt th e p rim a c y o f th e c a th e d ra l a g a in s t a n evere n c ro a c h in g S a in t-S e rn in , successive b is h o p s a n d c a n o n s a s s e rte d t h e ir p o w e r t h r o u g h a rc h ite c tu re . I n so d o in g , th e y m a d e im a g e s a n d th e c h o ic e s o f a rtists in to decisive w e a p o n s. ( T ra n s la te d f r o m th e F re n c h b y C y n th ia J. J o h n s o n )

1Jean-Charles A rramond & Jean-Luc BouDARTCHouK, ‘Le forume x V x emp V ,A n Toios^. N oui^el-iesrecLercLes su rT s uls useet son -territ oire dans 2V aitquée81, ed. Jean-Marie Pailler , Rome, A 2002, pp. nno-n8. n Jean C atalo , ^ i t t e r i e C azes et al., Tsulsusi au Moyen Âgi. M ille ans O’histsire urbai ne, Toulouse, 2010, pp. 30-36. 3 One of these was discovered in 1916 during reconstruction on the north aisle of the cathedral. The other slabs were reused between 1251 and inSn for the epitaphs o f the canons buried in the cloister. 4 These columns were also discovered by Du Mège and today are displayed in the courtyard of the Musée Saint-Raymond in Toulouse. 5 QmtxerYt C a z e s , L e quatnie r cam i aldi e l a caithéd raie S è t ' É tiin n i Oe Tsulsuse, Archéologie du Midi médiéval, supplement 2, Carcassonne, 1998, pp. 25-27. 6 Élisabeth M agn o u -N o r tier , LintrsOuctien Oe la réforme ^égorienne ‫ غ‬Thuls^e (Jin XI XII a siècle), de l'Association Marc-Bloch de Toulouse. Études d'histoire méridi­ onale, 3, Toulouse, i958. 7 Municipal Archives of Toulouse, 4 D 3 . 8 C a z e s ١L e qua rtier cans nial,pp .98-122. 9 Relations with the sculpture of Santiago de Compostela sup­ pose a dating o f 1105-10, see: ^ i t t e r i e & Daniel C azes , Saint' Sernin de Tsuls use. D e Sat ur nin a u ch ef'O’a٥u wede f a rt Graulhet, p. 304 and 315-16. 10 ^ i t te r i e C azes , ‘Vers une datation “haute" de l'œuvre du sculpteur Gilabertus à Toulouse?', in Le pla isir Oe f art Ou Msyen -Âg e, M l kng st en hommageù X a u n e r B ü ttl e t ,Pairisp p . ‫ﻵ‬08 - 2‫ز‬ 11‘Elévation des Tours et des Murs de clôture du Cloître St Etienne du côté de l'Esplanade servant de murs de Ville', by Pas­ cal Virebent , City Architect, Musée Paul-Dupuy (Toulouse). 12 ^ i t t e r i e C azes , ‘Les façades des salles capitulaires', Les C^^hiersOl^eSuint'MichelO^e Cuxa, XLV,2 .1 4 ,p p .Y١ Y-44. 13 Marcel D urliat, ‘Autour de Gilabertus: le cycle marial de la cathé­ drale Saint-Étienne de Toulouse, in 30, 1983, pp. 4-9. 14 The most important is Guillaume de C atel , Mémsires Oe Vhistsire Ou LangueOsc, Toulouse, 1633, p. 165. 15 AM^ndre-Paul FilV re , sur les a ntiq uitéset au tres si ngularités Oe I s ls s e (early 17th c.), Toulouse, Bibliothèque du Patrimoine, ms. 694, fol. 5 v٥-6. 1‫ ج‬Saint Jérôme, Lettres, ed. and transl. J. LACoURT, Paris, 1949­ 1963, VII, letter 125.20. 17 Inscriptions translated by Robert Favreau, Jean M ichaud & Bernadette L eplant , Csrpus Oes inscriptisns Oe la France mé0ié‫ س‬e. 7.V^illedeTsulsuse,PitÀ ١ 2982, ‫ ة‬P.Y2. 18 C azes & C azes , Saint'Sernin Oe Tsulsuse, p. 225. 19 H ALneTouBERT, Un a r t tlirigé. Réfsrm e ^ égsr ienne et ics nsgraphie, Paris, 1990, especially p. 93 and following. 20 P^١A M espl E, In e n a th e d es collectisnspubliques۶ ançuises. N . 5.Tsulsuse,Muséedes^u^ust:ins,Paris ,1961, M S ^ n d M S x E 21 C azes , ‘Vers une datation “haute"'.

T h e C a t h e d r a l of T o u l o u s e

117

The Renovation of Northern Italian Cathedrals during the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries The State of Current Research and Some Unanswered g e stio n s Sa v er io L o m a r t ir e

abstract This article exam ines th e cu rren t state o f research o n a selected n u m b er o f R om anesque cathedrals in n o rth e rn Italy. The cathedral o f M od en a in p articu lar has b een th e subject o f detailed studies because o f its w ealth o f do cu m en tary evidence, including the nam es o f th e architect and m ain sculptor as well as o f o th er artists active in th e tw elfth and th irte e n th centuries. This article studies M o d en a C ath e d ra l vis-à-vis its predecessors and th e M edieval city p lanning, w hile some architectural features, in cluding its Classical inspiration, are also analysed. Subsequently, several o th er cathedrals in Em ilia R om agna, including Ferrara, Parm a, a n d Reggio Emilia, are studied in light o f recent investigations an d n ew findings, and C rem ona and Piacenza are analyzed in th eir m u tu al relationship. Finally, a tte n tio n is p aid to th e cathedrals o f Vercelli, Pavia, and B ergam o, w hich have preserved m ost o f th eir pre-R om anesque structures, an d w hich have been subject to only a few updates. The article ends w ith some com m ents o n th e prospects o f a m ultidisciplinary approach to analysing such com plex architectural m o n u m en ts as R om anesque cathedrals.

Introduction

T h is re su rg e n c e o f in te r e s t s h o u ld n o t o v e rsh a d o w th e e a rly s tu d ie s b y F e r d in a n d D e D a r te in , R affaele

T h is c o n tr ib u tio n e x a m in e s th e c u r r e n t k n o w le d g e

C a tta n e o , G io v a n n i T eresio R iv o ira , a n d A r t h u r

w ith re g a rd to n o r t h e r n I ta lia n c a th e d ra l re n o v a tio n ,

K in g sle y P o rte r,1fo llo w e d to so m e d e g ree b y th o se o f

m u c h o f w h ic h to o k p la c e d u rin g th e R o m a n e s q u e

P ie tro T o esca,2 P a o lo V e rz o n e ,3 a n d E d o a rd o A rs la n .4

p e rio d . I w ill c o n fin e m y se lf to a sm a ll n u m b e r o f

T h ese v e ry in tr e p id sc h o la rs a n d re al p io n e e rs in

d e ta ile d re c e n t case s tu d ie s a n d w ill th e n e v alu a te

th is fie ld o f re se a rc h , w h o w e re o fte n w o rk in g a lo n e ,

so m e p o ss ib le s ta r tin g p o in ts fo r f u tu re re se arc h .

clo sely a n a ly se d th e in d iv id u a l m o n u m e n ts a n d d e m ­

I n th e fie ld o f M e d ie v a l a rc h ite c tu re , m a n y s tu d ­

o n s tr a te d g re a t c ritic a l in te llig e n c e a n d a c a p a c ity to

ies in Ita ly o v e r th e la s t tw e n ty y e ars h a v e a d d re s s e d

su m m a riz e w i t h in a b r o a d c o n te x t. W i t h o u t th is f u n ­

i m p o r ta n t b u ild in g s , o fte n in re la tio n to c u r r e n t re s­

d a m e n ta l re se a rc h , o u r k n o w le d g e o f th e M e d ie v a l

to ra tio n s , in c lu d in g a n u m b e r o f sig n ific a n t c a th e ­

a rtis tic a n d a r c h ite c tu ra l h e rita g e o f n o r t h e r n Ita ly

d ra l c h u rc h e s, re s u ltin g in e x te n siv e d o c u m e n ta tio n .

w o u ld h av e b e e n in c o n c e iv a b le . T h is le g a c y c an

T hese s tu d ie s h a v e o fte n b e e n th e f r u i t o f close a n d

alw ays b e c o m p a r e d w ith fin d in g s f r o m o th e r p a rts

u n p r e c e d e n te d c o lla b o ra tio n s w ith a rc h a e o lo g ists,

o f E u ro p e . T h a n k s to th e se im p o r t a n t c o n tr ib u tio n s ,

h is to ria n s o f a r t a n d a rc h ite c tu re , a n d h is to r ia n s o f

th e fie ld o f s tu d ie s is n o w fa r r ic h e r th a n it w as ju st

litu r g y a n d p a la e o g ra p h y .

t h i r t y y e ars a g o .5

R o u n q u eC a tb ed raSs in M e le m in e tm E u ro p e jc b ite c tu re jR itM lin d U rk n C o n te x t ١ e i b y G e m d o B o to % eYa.& Jus>t\niA .Y a o een .,Architectura.

Medii Aevi١ 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 119-137

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMAEB.5.109569

H o w e v e r, e x c e p t f o r so m e ra re cases,6 it h a s n o t

T h e c a th e d ra l (Fig. 1) w as e re c te d in th e c e n tre o f

b e e n p o ssib le to p ro d u c e c ritic a l e d itio n s c o m p a ra b le

th e M e d ie v a l city, o n a site th a t h a d p r o b a b ly b e e n

to b rillia n t stu d ie s su c h as t h a t b y H a n s E ric h K u b a c h

o c c u p ie d fro m th e la te f o u r th c e n tu r y o n w a rd s b y

a n d W a te r H a a s fro m 1972 w ith re g a rd to S p ey er

th e a d corpus b a silic a , w h ic h c o n ta in e d th e re m a in s

C a th e d r a l.7 C e rta in ly , th e p r o d u c tio n o f su c h a m b i­

o f th e s u b s e q u e n tly s a n c tifie d B is h o p G e m in ia n u s

tio u s c ritic a l e d itio n s o f m o n u m e n ts s h o u ld n o lo n g e r

(3 5 5 -9 7 ). A c c o rd in g to tr a d itio n , th is e d ifice w as

b e p o s tp o n e d , g iv e n th e c u r r e n t b e n e fic ia l c o n te x t o f

c o n s tr u c te d b y h is su ccesso r, B ish o p T e o d o ro o r

sp e c ia lis t E u ro p e a n M e d ie v a l a rc h ite c tu re re se arc h .

T e o d u lo T H o w e v e r, re c e n t a rc h a e o lo g ic a l excava­ tio n s h a v e n o t u n e a r th e d a n y tra c e s o f su c h a b u ild ­ in g , a n d th e e a rlie st fin d in g s , c o n s is tin g o f v a rio u s to m b s , d o n o t se e m to d a te fro m b e fo re th e six th c e n ­ tu ry . T h e lay e r re la tin g to th e R o m a n e p o c h is lo c a te d

R e g a rd in g E m ilia , a n d in p a r tic u la r th e c ity o f

a b o u t six m e tre s b e lo w th e c u r r e n t level a n d so it w as

M o d e n a , it s h o u ld b e p o i n te d o u t t h a t th e s tu d y

n o t a ffe c te d b y a n y successive M e d ie v a l re c o n s tru c -

o f S p ey er C a th e d r a l w as u n d o u b te d ly in th e m in d s o f

t io n s .14 C e r ta in re m a in s a lre a d y d isc o v e re d in excava­

a t le a s t so m e o f th e sc h o la rs w h o p la n n e d th e tw o

tio n s a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e 1 9 0 0 s, a n d a b o u t w h ic h

1984 e x h ib itio n s d e d ic a te d to M o d e n a C a th e d r a l

re c e n t a rc h a e o lo g ic a l in v e s tig a tio n s h av e a d d e d f u r ­

a n d its re s to ra tio n . T h e c a ta lo g u e s f o r b o t h e x h ib i­

t h e r d a ta , su g g e st th e p re se n c e o f a n e arly M e d ie v a l

tio n s are still o fte n u s e d in Ita ly as a re fe re n c e p o i n t

b u ild in g , p e rh a p s d a tin g f r o m th e m id d le o f th e

f o r M e d ie v a l m o n u m e n ta l c o m p le x m o n o g r a p h s .8

e ig h th c e n tu ry , a lig n e d a lo n g th e axis o f th e p r e s ­

T hese p u b lic a tio n s s h o u ld , h o w e v e r, serv e as a s ta r t­

e n t c o n s tr u c tio n . T h e d isc o v e ry o f a series o f early

in g p o i n t f o r f u r t h e r n e w stu d ie s , a n d n o t as a p o i n t

M e d ie v a l c h u rc h d e c o r a tio n fra g m e n ts a n d a n u m b e r

o f arriv al in te n d e d o n ly to o ffe r d e fin itiv e re su lts.

o f to m b s , w h ic h w e re also f o u n d re c e n tly in th e area

The

im p o r ta n c e

o f M odena

C a th e d r a l,

p a r­

tic u la rly f o r th e h is to r y o f E u ro p e a n s c u lp tu re , h a d

A w a ll t h a t c u ts acro ss th e m a in axis o f th e b asilica,

a lre a d y in s p ire d a sig n ific a n t b o d y o f w ritin g s .9

d isc o v e re d d u r in g th e 1913 ex ca v atio n s, v e ry p ro b a b ly

S c h o la rly in te re s t p a rtic u la rly fo c u s e d o n th e w o rk

f o r m e d p a r t o f th e fa ç a d e o f th is b u ild in g , w h ile th e

o f W ilig e lm u s , th e

120

o f th e c ry p t, c o n firm a sim ila r d a tin g .15

c a th e d ra l’s m a in s c u lp to r, to

re m a in s o f th e o rig in a l apse w e re f o u n d so m e years

w h o m m o n o g ra p h s w e re d e d ic a te d first b y G é z a D e

la te r close to th e p r e s e n t p re sb y te ry .16 T h e re c e n t exca­

F ra n c o v ic h a n d th e n R o b e r to S a lv in i.10 T h e re se a rc h

v a tio n s h av e u n c o v e re d a s e c tio n o f a c irc u la r w all,

u n d e r ta k e n a t th e tim e o f th e 1984 e x h ib itio n e sp e ­

w h ic h h a s b e e n in te r p r e te d as a b a p tis te r y th a t w as

c ially h ig h lig h te d th e ro le p la y e d b y th e c a th e d ra l’s

o n c e c o n n e c te d to th e e arly M e d ie v a l c a th e d ra l.17 In

first a rc h ite c t, L a n fra n c o ." T h ese s tu d ie s c o n c e rn e d

1913, th e bases o f ro w s o f b r i c k p illa rs w e re d isc o v ere d ,

th e a rc h ite c tu re a n d s c u lp tu re , th e trac es o f p a in t ­

a lig n e d d iffe re n tly th a n e ith e r th e p r e s e n t b u ild in g

ings, th e e p ig ra p h y , a n d th e re -u se o f a n tiq u e spolia,

o r th a t d a tin g f r o m th e e ig h th c e n tu ry .1‫ ؟‬T hese w ere

as w ell as th e re s to r a tio n h isto ry .

f o u n d in a n a rea to th e w e s t o f th e p r e s e n t c a th e d ra l

In th e case o f M o d e n a c a th e d ra l, th e e x p e c ta ­

a n d th e y are th e re m a in s o f c lu s te re d p illa rs b e lo n g ­

t io n o f p r o d u c in g s o m e th in g u n iq u e a n d e x tra o rd i­

in g to a b u ild in g th a t p r o b a b ly h a d five naves. T he

n a r y w as c e rta in ly a m o n g th e m a in aim s a t th e tim e

re c e n t ex ca v atio n s to th e n o r t h h a v e re v e a le d w all

w o r k s ta r te d o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a n e w c a th e d ra l,

se c tio n s w ith a sim ila r a lig n m e n t. In th is w ay, it is

in J u n e o f 1099. T h is is c o n firm e d b y a n u m b e r o f

p o ssib le to en v isag e a b u ild in g d a tin g fro m th e in te r ­

so u rc e s, i f w e c o m p a re th e v a rio u s d o c u m e n ts avail­

m e d ia te p e r io d a n d re la te d to th e r e b u ild in g p r o je c t

ab le f o r o th e r b u ild in g s o f th e sa m e p e rio d . A t le a st

u n d e r ta k e n b y B is h o p E rib e rtu s to w a r d th e m id d le o f

tw o in s c rip tio n s re ca ll th e fo u n d in g o f th e c a th e d ra l,

th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry .

r e c o rd in g th e n a m e s o f L a n fra n c o as th e a r c h ite c t

T h e c a th e d ra l c o m p le x a t M o d e n a as w e k n o w

a n d W ilig e lm u s as sc u lp to r. To th e se w e c a n a d d th e

it to d a y is th e re fo re m a d e u p o f a n u m b e r o f lay­

c o n ie m p o t a t y ,‫؛‬c x o M R e la tio d e i l o i t i o n e e c c l e s i e

ers, c o n sistin g o f th re e d is tin c t b u ild in g s th a t su c ­

S a n ti I e m in ia n i, w h ic h r e c o u n ts th e e v e n ts d u rin g

c e e d e d e ac h o th e r o v e r th e c o u rse o f th re e h u n d r e d

th e first c h u rc h c o n s tr u c tio n sta g e .12

years. A p p a re n tly , all th re e d iffe re n t b u ild in g s w ere

Saverio L omarti re

Fig. 1.

M oden a C ath ed ral, façade (p h o to author)

T he R e n o v a t i o n of N o r t h e r n It a l i a n C a t h e d r a l s

121

c o n s tr u c te d anew . O n e w o u ld b e in c lin e d to b elieve

H o w e v e r, e v e n ifw e a d m it t h a t th e b u ild in g p r e c e d -

t h a t th e early M e d ie v a l c h u rc h w o u ld b e a n a d a p ta tio n

in g th e p r e s e n t o n e h a d b e e n c o m p le te ly c o n s tr u c te d

o f th e

ad corpus b a silic a fro m

th e f o u r th to fifth c e n tu ­

( s o m e th in g t h a t I b e lie v e still a w a its co n clu siv e

ries, b u t th is is c o n tr a d ic te d b y e v id e n c e c o n firm e d b y

p r o o f ) , o r i f w e a c c e p t t h a t w ith th e f o u n d a tio n o f

th e re c e n t ex cav atio n s. T h ese fin d in g s sh o w t h a t th e

th e n e w c a th e d ra l in 1099 th e re c e n tly r e n o v a te d p o r ­

s tru c tu re w as c o v e re d b y th ic k allu v ial d e p o sits d a tin g

tio n s h a d to b e d e m o lis h e d , w e c a n still le g itim a te ly

fro m th e six th to se v e n th c e n tu rie s a n d th a t th ese also

a sk w h e th e r a d e sire to erase th e m e m o r y o f th e sc h is­

c o v ere d th e early M e d ie v a l lay e r to th e d e p th o f o v e r

m a tic b is h o p c o u ld h a v e le d to th e d e m o litio n o f th e

a m e tre . T h e d isa stro u s flo o d s d o c u m e n te d b y v a ri­

c a th e d ra l h e b u ilt, w h ic h w o u ld se e m to o e x tre m e .

o u s sou rce s m u s t th e re fo re h av e b e e n th e re a s o n fo r

C o n s id e r in g t h a t th e e arly M e d ie v a l b u ild in g a n d th e

th e re c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e a n c ie n t b a silic a in a b o u t th e

o n e w e t h i n k is a sso c ia te d w ith B is h o p E r ib e r t w ere

e ig h th c e n tu ry .19 T h e p illa re d s tru c tu re w ith a p la n o ri­

b o t h re s tin g o n th e sa m e p a tc h o f a llu v ial g r o u n d , it

e n te d to th e s o u th w e s t o f th e la te r c o n s tr u c tio n d a tin g

is p la u s ib le th a t th e m a in re a s o n fo r r e b u ild in g w as

fro m th e m id d le o r se c o n d h a lf o f th e e le v e n th c e n ­

th e s u b s id e n c e d isc o v e re d in th e re c e n tly c o n s tr u c te d ed ific e, a b u ild in g t h a t th e

w rite rs, p a rtic u la rly P a u l F ra n k l in a s tu d y fro m 1927,“

b e in g d a m a g e d m a in ly a t f o u n d a tio n lev e l. In th is

to have b e e n a to ta l r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e a n c ie n t

w ay, w e c a n also e x p la in th e p r e s e n t b u ild in g ’s b e in g

c a th e d ra l. In fa c t, th e a b se n ce o f o th e r s tru c tu ra l ele­

a lig n e d to w a rd s th e n o r th , in c o n tr a s t to th e p r e c e d ­

m e n ts p r o m p te d sp e c u la tio n th a t th e re m a in s m u st

in g s tru c tu re s a n d th e a lig n m e n t o f th e e arly M e d ie v a l

re la te to a s tru c tu re th a t h a d b e e n a d d e d to th e early

re m a in s as th e re s u lt o f a se a rc h fo r a site t h a t w o u ld

M e d ie v a l façad e, su c h as a n a triu m .21

o ffe r m o re s o lid f o u n d a tio n s .25

d o e s r e c o r d as

T h e re c e n t ex ca v atio n s in th e a rea to th e n o r t h

A n o t h e r e le m e n t seem s to m e to b e im p o r t a n t in

o f th e c a th e d ra l22 h a v e re v e a le d th e re m a in s o f w alls

th is c o n te x t. T h e p o s itio n o f th e th re e o rig in a l p o rc h -

a lig n e d in a sim ila r w a y to th o se trac es f o u n d in 1913.

p o r ta ls to th e c a th e d ra l (e x c lu d in g th e

T h e re fo re , i f a n e w c a th e d ra l h a d b e e n e re c te d ju s t

th e s o u th sid e a n d th e sid e p o r ta ls in th e fa ç a d e; all

a fe w d e c a d e s p r i o r to th e p r e s e n t o n e , w e h a v e to

th re e w e re a d d e d in th e th ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry ) is d e c id ­

Porta Regia o n

a sk ou rselv es f o r w h a t re a s o n th e y d e c id e d to r e c o n ­

e d ly a sy m m e tric a l. T h e re is n o o b v io u s e x p la n a tio n

s tr u c t it so s o o n . R e fle c tin g u p o n th is issue, F ra n c e sc o

f o r th is a n d it h a s le d to th e b e lie f th a t th e tw o sid e

G a n d o lfo h a s a lre a d y tr ie d to e x p la in th is u n u s u a l

p o r ta ls w e re o rig in a lly in d iffe re n t p o s itio n s .26 In fa ct,

s itu a tio n in te rm s o f th e

damnatio memoriae

o f th e

th e se p o rta ls , all th re e o f w h ic h are d e c o r a te d w ith

sc h ism a tic B ish o p E r ib e r t, o n e o f th e m o s t v ig o ro u s

a tw o - s to r e y p o rc h , w e re o rig in a lly d e s ig n e d in c o n ­

dam­

s id e ra tio n o f th e c h u rc h ’s p o s itio n in re la tio n to th e

seem s to h a v e in v o lv e d th e o fficial a cts th a t

M e d ie v a l to w n — w h ic h e x te n d e d in to th e s u b u rb a n

s u p p o r te r s o f th e a n tip o p e C le m e n t I I I .23 T h is

natio also

Mutina

w e re s ig n e d b y t h a t b ish o p . D e s p ite th e fa c t t h a t n o

z o n e to th e w e st, th e

d o c u m e n t b e a rs a d a te c o n n e c tin g th is b is h o p to th e

T h e th re e o rig in a l c a th e d ra l access p o r c h - p o rta ls w ere

b u ild in g w ith c lu s te re d c o lu m n s, th e s e a rc h ite c tu ra l

p o s itio n e d in lin e w ith so m e o f th e im p o r t a n t stre e ts

re m a in s c o u ld re a s o n a b ly b e a sso c ia te d w ith th e

in th e city ,27 w h ile ta k in g a c c o u n t o f th e m a rk e t area

p e r io d in w h ic h h e r u le d th e b is h o p ric (1 0 5 6 -9 5 ).

close to th e p a rs o n a g e b u ild in g o n th e n o r t h sid e o f

T h e fa c t t h a t th e c h u rc h th a t p r e c e d e d th e p re s e n t c a th e d ra l, o r a t le a st p a r t o f it, h a d b e e n re c e n tly c o n ­ s tr u c te d is c o n firm e d b y th e fa m o u s

Relatio,

o f th e R o m a n p e rio d .

th e c a th e d ra l, as is th e case w ith th e e n tra n c e k n o w n as th e ‘P o r ta d e lla P e sc h e ria ’ (‘F is h m a rk e t G a te ’).

w h ic h

F in ally , w e n e e d to c o n s id e r th e q u e s tio n o f

w as a llu d e d to p rev io u sly . T h is te x t sta te s th a t th e p r e ­

p a tro n a g e : 1099, th e y e a r th a t c o n s tr u c tio n o f a n e w

v io u s b u ild in g w as in d a n g e r o f c o lla p sin g r ig h t d o w n

c a th e d ra l s ta r te d , w a s th e sa m e y e a r in w h ic h B ish o p

to th e f o u n d a tio n s as a re s u lt o f d a m a g e , d e sp ite th e

D o d o w as a p p o in te d . W e m ig h t th e re fo re in fe r th a t

aucta et innovata cre­

it w as th is n e w b is h o p w h o se t th e c o n s tr u c tio n in

fa c t th a t th e c h u rc h h a d b e e n

mentis (‘re c e n tly e n la rg e d

122

Relatio

t u r y w as c o n s id e re d b y several early tw e n tie th c e n tu ry

a n d re n o v a te d ’).24 T h is s itu ­

m o tio n . H o w e v e r, as h a s b e e n n o te d , D o d o w as n o t

a tio n c au se d th e c a th e d ra l c le rg y a n d th e p e o p le o f

w e ll a c c e p te d a t first, e ith e r b y th e c le rg y o r b y th e

M o d e n a , w h o w e re te rrifie d a t th e p r o s p e c t o fc o lla p se ,

p e o p le o f M o d e n a . A lth o u g h h e h a d b e e n c ite d in

to tak e th e in itia tiv e a n d s ta r t th e r e c o n s tru c tio n .

p re v io u s acts, h e w as n o t ab le to ta k e fu ll p o ssessio n

Saverio ! . marti re

o f th e d io ce se u n til 1106, b y w h ic h tim e th e c a th e d ra l

w ith th e fo u n d in g o f th e c a th e d ra l.31 It s h o u ld b e

h a d b e e n c o m p le te ly p la n n e d a n d w as in a n a d v a n c e d

n o t e d th a t in lin e fo u r, im m e d ia te ly a fte r a q u o ta tio n

stag e o f c o n s tr u c tio n . In t h a t year, th e re m a in s

f r o m th e p a tr o n s a in t G e m in ia n u s , th e verse e x p lic ­

o f th e c a th e d ra l’s p a tr o n sa in t, G e m in ia n u s , w ere

itly re fers to nos [...] m in is tr i (‘w e [...] th e m in is te rs ’),

m o v e d fro m th e o ld b u ild in g to th e n e w c ry p t, fo l­

th u s c o n firm in g th e re fe re n c e in th e R e la tio to a n in i­

lo w e d s h o r tly b y a c o n s e c ra tio n b y P o p e P a sq u a le II.

tia tiv e ta k e n n o t b y th e b is h o p , w h o w as n o t y e t in

Since, as is in fa c t re c o r d e d in th e R e la tio , th e d io -

fu ll p o ss e s sio n o f h is see, b u t b y th e c a th e d ra l c le rg y

ce.se .o f M o d e ta w t c s i h en sine l ، i stora,lic u ra a ,geba,tu r

(i.e., th e c h a p te r o f c a n o n s ).

(‘d ir e c te d w i t h o u t th e care o f a p a s t o r ’), th e d e c isio n

A f te r re c a llin g th e v irtu e s o f S a in t G e m in ia n u s

to b u ild a n e w c a th e d ra l w as th e re fo re ta k e n b y th e

a n d th e m ira c le s h e b e s to w e d o n p ilg rim s , in lin e s

ordo clericorum , a n d b y th e l o l u l u s a n d m ilite s o f

se v e n a n d e ig h t, th e re are tw o h e x a m e te rs t h a t e x to l

M o d e n a . T h u s, in th is case — th e te x t o f th e R e la tio is

th e c a th e d ra l a r c h ite c t, L a n fra n c o . T h e v erses clo sely

a g a in v e ry e x p lic it — it fell to th e i m p o r ta n t M o d e n a

re se m b le th e te x t o f th e R e la tio , w h ic h c o n ta in s so m e

civitas re p re se n ta tiv e s to d e c id e u p o n th e r e c o n s tr u c ­

v e ry s im ila r p ra is e o f th e sa m e a r c h ite c t.32 T h e fo l­

tio n . T h is d e c is io n w as fin a lly s u p p o r te d b y C o u n te s s

lo w in g te x t also e x p la in s L a n f r a n c o ’s f u n d a m e n ta l

M a tild a o f C a n o ssa .

ro le d u r in g th e v a rio u s c o n s tr u c tio n p h a se s, a n d

I f w e n o w p u t to g e th e r th e m o s t im p o r t a n t ele ­

also v is-à-vis th e p a tr o n s , in c lu d in g h is p re se n c e a t

m e n ts , th a t is to say: th e p r e s u m e d d a m n a tio o f th e

th e c e re m o n ie s o f tra n s fe rrin g th e s a in t’s re m a in s

sc h ism a tic a n d p r o -im p e ria l B is h o p E rib e rtu s , th e

a n d th e p a p a l c o n s e c ra tio n , w ith w h ic h a c c o u n t

c o n s e n t g iv en b y M a tild a o f C a n o ssa , a n d th e c o m ­

th e R e la tio closes. T h e te x t in c lu d e s tw o m in ia tu re s

m e n c e m e n t o f th e w o r k in th e sa m e y e a r B ish o p

t h a t r e c o r d so m e o f th e m o s t s ig n ific a n t m o m e n ts

D o d o w as a p p o in te d , w e w o u ld a p p a re n tly b e le d to

o f th e s to r y n a r r a te d in th e te x t, w ith f o u r scen es

c o n c lu d e t h a t th e n e w c a th e d ra l w as a n e m b o d im e n t

in w h ic h L a n fra n c o is alw ays p re s e n t. T h e c e n tra l

in sp a tia l a n d v isu a l te rm s o f th e G r e g o ria n R e fo rm ,

ro le o f th e a r c h ite c t in th e s e sc e n es c o n fo rm s to th e

as h a s a lre a d y b e e n s ta te d o n sev eral o c c a sio n s.28 A s

p ra is e s e x p re s se d in th e R e la tio a n d th e in s c rip tio n ,

fo r th e ro le o f C o u n te s s M a tild a : e v e n t h o u g h sh e is

a n d in d e e d in te n sifie s th e m . E v en in th e t h ir t e e n t h

e x p lic itly m e n tio n e d in th is c o n te x t, a re c e n t s tu d y b y

c e n tu ry , w h e n th e te x t w as c o p ie d a n d th e m in ia tu re s

P a o lo P iv a play s d o w n h e r c o n tr ib u tio n .29

w e re e x e c u te d , th e g re a t e x p e rtise o f L a n fra n c o w as

It h a s to b e a d m itte d , in a n y case, th a t a lth o u g h

th e re fo re still w id e ly re c o g n iz e d .33

it is p e rfe c tly p o ssib le t h a t th e n e w b u ild in g w as in

T h e e x p e rtise , o r — b e tt e r still — th e s c h o la rs h ip ,

so m e w ay sy m b o lic o f th e v a lu e s o f th e R e fo rm (e v en

o f L a n fra n c o is s h o w n in e v e ry a s p e c t o f th e d e sig n ,

i f n o t as e m p h a tic a lly as is so m e tim e s m a in ta in e d ) ,30

f r o m th e p r o p o r tio n s o f th e b u ild in g , w h ic h a d o p t

it also seem s e v id e n t th a t th e d e c is io n m a d e b y th e

th e p re c e p ts o f V itru v iu s re g a rd in g th e g o ld e n sec-

c le rg y a n d p e o p le o f th e to w n w as a lre a d y a n tic ip a t­

tio n ,34 to th e jo in s b e tw e e n s tr u c tu r e s a n d w alls,

in g th e id ea o f a c ity g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h le d to th e

u s in g s to n e o n th e o u ts id e a n d b ric k o n th e in sid e.

c re a tio n o f th e M o d e n a C o m u n e b y th e m id d le o f th e

In th e sy ste m o f sp a n s, v a u lts w e re e x c lu d e d (th ese

tw e lfth c e n tu ry . S ig n ific a n tly , th is c o u ld o n ly c o m e

w e re a d d e d o n ly in th e f ifte e n th c e n tu ry ) a n d g re a t

a b o u t in 1135, th e y e a r fo llo w in g th e d e a th o f B ish o p

p o i n te d tra n s v e rs e a rc h e s w e re u s e d in s te a d , c o m ­

D o d o . T h e re fo re , th e n e w c a th e d ra l r a th e r seem s to

b i n e d w ith w o o d e n ro o fin g . A d r ia n o P e ro n i h a s

b e th e re s u lt o f a series o f e x p e c ta tio n s, n o t ju s t b y th e

re c e n tly su g g e ste d t h a t th is in tr o d u c t io n o f th e c o l­

clergy, b u t b y th e e n tire l o l u l u s o f M o d e n a , as in fa c t

u m n as a sy ste m , c o o r d in a te d w ith a series o f e ig h t

th e R e la tio cle a rly le a d s us to b eliev e.

larg e n e o - C o r in t h i a n c a p ita ls, w as to so m e e x te n t

A p a r t f r o m th is a c c o u n t, th e o ld e s t d o c u m e n t

s im ila r to a d e sig n in th e c a th e d ra l a t P isa ,35 a lb e it

t h a t re c o rd s th e 1099 f o u n d a tio n is a n in s c r ip tio n o n

w ith its o w n sp e c ific c h a ra c te ris tic s. I t m a y suffice

th e m a in apse, w h ic h o p e n s w ith w o rd s o f p ra is e to

to c o n c lu d e th a t L a n f r a n c o ’s p r o je c t w as also c o n ­

ng;. m a rmorib us sculptis Y•••] micat u n di q ue

c e r n e d w ith all th e d e ta ils o f s c u lp tu ra l a d d itio n s ,

l u c h r is (‘sh in e s w ith b e a u tifu lly s c u lp te d m a rb le ’).

b o t h in sid e a n d o u ts id e , b e g in n in g w ith th e c ry p t,

T h is in s c rip tio n , th o u g h d a ta b le , lik e th e R e la tio , to

th e first s tr u c tu r e to b e c o m p le te d in th e n e w b u ild -

th e early th ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry , p re se rv e s a te x t c o ev al

in g .36 A c o m p le te a n d v e ry d e ta ile d b u ild in g p r o je c t

‫ة‬

bvl

T he R e n o v a t i o n of N o r t h e r n It a l i a n C a t h e d r a l s

123

w as th e re fo re in p la c e r ig h t f r o m th e s ta r t, a n d w as

T h e c a th e d ra l a t P a rm a (Fig. 3) h a s also b e e n th e

fo llo w e d w i t h o u t a n y s u b s ta n tia l c h a n g e s o t h e r th a n

s u b je c t o f a n u m b e r o f d e ta ile d s tu d ie s , b e g in n in g

v a ria tio n s in c o n s tr u c tio n te c h n iq u e s o r a tu r n o v e r

w ith A r tu r o C a rlo ^ i n t a v a l l e 's n u m e ro u s e x a m in a ­

o f s to n e m a s o n s a n d sc u lp to rs , r ig h t u p to th e t h ir d

tio n s o f th e s tr u c tu r e a n d its d e c o ra tiv e s c u lp tu re s .41

d e c a d e o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry .

^ i n t a v a l l e p la c e d th e w h o le b u ild in g w i t h in th e

T h e re la tio n s h ip w ith C lassical A n tiq u ity c a n be

c o n te x t o f th e G re g o ria n R e fo rm a n d p r o p o s e d a d a te

e x p la in e d b y th e a rc h ite c t's c u ltu ra l k n o w le d g e , b u t it

b e tw e e n th e e le v e n th a n d tw e lfth c e n tu rie s , b a s e d o n

w as c e rta in ly also e n c o u ra g e d b y d ire c t c o n ta c t w ith

th e c o n s e c ra tio n , in 1106, b y P o p e P a sq u a le II, w h o

A n c ie n t a rte fa c ts t h a t w ere b ro u g h t to lig h t b y exca­

c o n s e c ra te d th e a lta r a t M o d e n a C a th e d r a l t h a t v ery

v a tio n s alre ad y c a rrie d o u t sin ce th e s ta rt o f b u ild in g

sa m e year. In fa c t, th e re b u ild in g o f th e c a th e d ra l, fo l­

w o rk in th e area o f th e c a th e d ra l, w h ic h o rig in a lly c o r­

lo w in g a fire t h a t d e s tro y e d th e e arly M e d ie v a l s tr u c ­

r e s p o n d e d to th e city's R o m a n n e c ro p o lis.37 T h e p e r ­

tu re in th e m id -e le v e n th c e n tu ry , h a s b e e n a ttr ib u te d

s o n a lity w h o sta n d s o u t m o s t a t th is stage is th e sc u lp to r

to B is h o p C à d a lo , w h o w a s o rig in a lly f r o m V e ro n a

W ilig e lm u s, w h o se n a m e is re c o rd e d in a n in sc rip tio n

a n d w as th e b is h o p o f N a u m b u r g in S a x o n y b e fo re h e

o n th e faça d e.3‫ ؟‬T h is sc u lp to r, w h o p r o b a b ly d e v e lo p e d

a s c e n d e d to th e b is h o p ric a t P a rm a . C à d a lo w as m ad e

h is craft w h ile w o rk in g w ith L a n fra n c o , p ro g re sse d

a n tip o p e u n d e r th e n a m e o f H o n o r iu s II in 1061 a n d

to c o o rd in a tin g a c o n sid e ra b le w o rk s h o p , w h ic h w as

d ie d in P a rm a in 1072, a n d it is v e ry lik e ly t h a t th e

re sp o n sib le fo r th e h ig h -q u a lity façad e sc u lp tu re s, as

b u ild in g w as th e n la rg e ly in c o m p le te . C à d a lo 's su c ­

w ell as th o se o n v a rio u s o th e r p a rts , b o th in sid e a n d

cessor, G u ib e r t, also b e c a m e a n a n tip o p e u n d e r th e

o u tsid e th e c ath e d ra l. R e c e n t stu d ie s su g g est th a t th e

n a m e o f C le m e n t I I I a n d , lik e m a n y o th e r c ities o f th e

s c u lp to r w as e m p lo y e d o n th e M o d e n a site rig h t fro m

tim e , P a rm a w as d e c id e d ly p ro -im p e ria l.

th e in itia l stages a n d w o rk e d a lo n g sid e o th e r sc u lp to rs

In h is e x te n siv e m o n o g r a p h o n th e c a th e d ra l,

th e re u n til h e e v e n tu a lly a ssu m e d ov erall le a d e rs h ip .39

M a n f r e d L u c h te r h a n d t h a s su g g e ste d th a t in th e

W ilig e lm u s p r o b a b ly s p e n t a larg e p a r t o f h is life in

lo w e r p a r t o f th e o f th e e a st e n d c ru c ifo rm s e c tio n ,

M o d e n a , b u t th e su p e rb q u a lity o f h is w o rk w as sp re a d

in lin e w ith th e c ry p t, w e c a n re c o g n iz e th e re m a in s

b y th e c o lla b o ra tin g m e m b e rs o f h is w o rk s h o p to

o f a b u ild in g fro m th e O t t o n i a n p e r io d , sim ila r to

o th e r b u ild in g s, in c lu d in g th e a b b e y o f S an Silvestro in

th e la y o u t o f S p e y e r C a th e d r a l a n d th e a b b e y c h u rc h

N o n a n to la , a n d , above all, th e c a th e d ra ls a t C re m o n a

o f L im b u r g a n d e r H a a r d t,42 th u s e x h ib itin g its o w n

a n d P iacen z a, to w h ic h w e sh all r e tu r n later.

‘im p e ria l c h ara cte r'. T h is e a st s e c tio n c o u ld h a v e b e e n in c o r p o r a te d , a t le a st in te rm s o f la y o u t, in to th e n e w b u ild in g , w h ic h L u c h te r h a n d t h a s d a te d to th e tim e

F e ï ï ، i , P ، i ï ! ، i ، i r a ، i R e ‫؛؛‬g i o E m ili،iC ،itb e ،ir a .ls

o f B is h o p B e rn a rd d e g li U b e r ti (1 1 0 6 -3 3 ), w h o b e g a n r e c o n s tr u c tin g th e c a th e d ra l a fte r th e g re a t e a rth -

124

C o n v e rse ly , th e a rc h ite c tu re o f M o d e n a C a th e d r a l

c p k e . o f 7‫ أ أ أ‬١ w k n

w o u ld b e re p lic a te d m o re th a n t h i r t y y e ars late r,

M a r ia e d ir u ta f u i t (‘th e m a jo r p a r t o f th e c h u rc h o f

m a x im a p a rs ecclesiae sanctae

s h o r tly a fte r 1135, in th e c a th e d ra l o f F e rra ra (Fig. 2),

S a in t M a ry w as d e s tro y e d ').43 L u c h te r h a n d t’s s tu d y is

in a m o n u m e n ta l d e sig n w ith five naves p o ss ib ly

v e ry a c c u ra te w ith re g a rd to th e s tr u c tu r a l e le m en ts,

p la n n e d b y N ic h o la u s , w h o in th is w a y w a s c o n ­

as w e ll as to th e c a rv e d d e c o ra tio n : a n im p ressiv e

sc io u sly p a y in g h o m a g e to th e g e n iu s o f L a n fra n c o . It

sy ste m o f sc u lp tu re s th a t th e a u th o r re c o g n iz e s as

is in te re s tin g t h a t F e rra ra c a th e d ra l w as c o n s tr u c te d

th e re su lt o f d iffe re n t b u ild in g a n d d e c o ra tiv e c a m ­

n o t o n th e site o f a n o ld e r b u ild in g , w h ic h w as s itu ­

p a ig n s , u n til th e la te tw e lfth c e n tu ry , w ith th e arrival

a te d o n th e o p p o s ite b a n k o f th e R iv e r P o , b u t o n

o f B e n e d e tto A n te la m i. In a d d itio n , b a s e d o n h is

l a n d a c q u ire d f r o m th e C a p ito l a n d o n v irg in soil,

s tu d y o f th e fifte e n th - c e n tu r y L i b e r O r d in a r iu s in th e

w h e re n e w to w n d e v e lo p m e n t h a d g ro w n u p o n

c a th e d ra l, L u c h te r h a n d t su g g e sts a n e w in te r p r e ta ­

th e left b a n k o f th e river. A s a re su lt, th e p r o je c t w as

t io n o f th e ic o n o g ra p h y o f th e c a p ita ls a n d e x p la in s

n o t b o u n d b y a n y re s tric tio n s re la te d to p re -e x is tin g

t h e ir p a r tic u la r c o n te x t w i t h in th e e d ific e.44 A ll th ese

b u ild in g s . I t m a y h av e b e e n th e s e c irc u m sta n c e s th a t

v e ry p re c ise o b se rv a tio n s a llo w u s to fo rm a c h r o n o l­

a llo w e d th e a rc h ite c t, p o ss ib ly th e sa m e N ic h o la u s ,

o g y t h a t p lac e s th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e c a th e d ra l at

th e f r e e d o m to c h o o se s u c h a p re s tig io u s d e sig n .40

a r o u n d 1 0 3 0 -5 0 , w ith a re b u ild in g p ro g ra m m e t h a t

Saverio ! . martire

b e g a n a fte r th e e a rth q u a k e a n d la s te d u n til th e tim e o f B ish o p L a n fra n c o (1 1 3 6 -6 2 ), a se q u e n c e o f d a te s t h a t c o n tra d ic ts p re v io u s h y p o th e s e s b y o th e r s c h o l­ ars. L u c h te r h a n d t’s p ro p o s a ls c o m p le te ly c h a n g e th e s ta tu s o f o u r k n o w le d g e , a n d also o p e n n e w p ro s p e c ts fo r s tu d y a n d review , in c lu d in g o n th e to p ic o f th e o rig in s o f th e c ra ftsm e n . A n e w fin d in g in th e c o n te x t o f E m ilia ’s M e d ie v a l a rc h ite c tu re h a s b e e n p r o v id e d b y th e re c e n t r e s to ra ­ t io n a n d ex ca v a tio n o f th e c a th e d ra l o f R e g g io E m ilia . T h is b u ild in g w as tr a n s f o r m e d b y b u ild in g o p e ra tio n s in th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y (Fig. 4 ) a n d th e re m a in s o f th e o rig in a l fin e m o sa ic s c a n n o w b e se e n in th e c ity m u se u m s. T h e c u r r e n t e d ifice h a s k e p t p a r t o f th e e x te rn a l s tr u c tu r e a n d se c tio n s o f th e o ld w a lls are still visible, b u t th e re st o f th e o rig in a l b u ild in g c a n o n ly b e d e s c rib e d a p p ro x im a te ly , a t le a st f o r th e m o m e n t.45 T h e re c e n t re s to r a tio n a n d e x c a v a tio n w o r k have re v e a le d th e re m a in s o f sev eral la te A n tiq u e m o sa ic s u n d e r th e c ry p t, as w e ll as a c irc u la r s tr u c tu r e n e a r th e fa ça d e t h a t c o u ld h a v e b e e n a to w e r a tta c h e d to th e f r o n t — p e rh a p s th e o n e t h a t d o c u m e n ta r y so u rc e s r e p o r t to have c o lla p se d in 1228. W e k n o w th a t a n o c ta g o n a l to w e r w a s b u ilt to re p la ce it in th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e th ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry , a n d th a t th e fa ça d e w as also r e c o n s tr u c te d a n d c o m p le te ly c o v e re d w ith fresco es. In a d d itio n , v a rio u s p ro b e s in to th e m a s o n ry

Fig. 2.

o f th e p illa rs h a v e re v e a le d s e c tio n s o f p ie rs a n d c a p i­

th e in te rio r before th e B aroque tran sfo rm atio n (courtesy o f th e B iblioteca A riostea, Ferrara)

tals th a t c a n p o ss ib ly b e d a te d to th e m id d le o f th e

Ferrara C ath ed ral, sixteenth-century draw ing o f

e le v e n th c e n tu ry , to g e th e r w ith e le m e n ts d a tin g fro m th e tw e lfth to th e f ifte e n th c e n tu rie s . T h ese su g g e st a b u ild in g s u b je c t to c o n s ta n t s tr u c tu r a l a n d d e c o ra tiv e

C r e m o iC tild r a k w d R e L ite d M o im e w ts

m o d ific a tio n d u r in g th e M id d le A g es, in c lu d in g th e w o r k o n th e g re a t p a in t e d fa ça d e th a t w as c o m p le te d

A m ong

th e

i m p o r ta n t

b u ild in g s

to

h av e

ben­

e fite d f r o m th e le g a c y o f M o d e n a , th e c a th e d ra l a t

to w a rd s th e e n d o f th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry . A n in te re stin g a sp e c t is th e d isc o v ery o f c ap itals a n d se c tio n s o f p a in te d m o rta r, w h ic h w ere p e rh a p s

C r e m o n a p a rtic u la rly s ta n d s o u t (Fig. 5). T h is is e sp e ­ c ia lly tr u e o f its s c u lp tu ra l e le m e n ts, s ta r tin g f r o m th e

a sso c iate d w ith th e w in d o w s o f a g a lle ry o r m a tro n e u m

m a rb le slab c o m m e m o r a tin g th e b u ild in g ’s fo u n d in g ,

in th e side aisle, as w ell as m a n y re m n a n ts o f M e d ie v a l

w h ic h in fa c t re fers d ire c tly to th e s im ila r in s c rip ­

p a in te d m o rta rs above th e la te r v au lts, th e c ry p t, a n d

t io n a t M o d e n a re c a llin g th e n a m e o f W ilig e lm u s . In

o th e r p a rts o f th e b u ild in g .46 B esides all th is, it is still

C re m o n a , o n e m ig h t su s p e c t a case o f ta k in g in s p i­

d iffic u lt to d isc e rn th e o rig in a l p la n , w h ic h seem s to

r a tio n f r o m a n i m p o r t a n t m o d e l, b u t th e s c u lp tu r e ’s

d a te fro m th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry b u t w h ic h w as c e rta in ly

sty lis tic d e ta ils a n d also th e p a la e o g ra p h ic d a ta su g ­

su b je c t to m o d ific a tio n s fro m th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry o n .47

g e st th e w o r k o f s c u lp to rs w h o c am e d ire c tly f r o m th e

F u r th e r stu d ie s in fo rm e d b y re c e n t p o s t-re s to ra tio n

M o d e n a w o rk s h o p o f W ilig e lm u s . O t h e r sc u lp tu ra l

in v estig a tio n s w ill e n ab le a b e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f

e le m e n ts, p re s e rv e d in d iffe re n t p a r ts o f th e b u ild in g ,

th is b u ild in g th a t, u n til n o w , h a s b e e n re le g a te d to th e

c o n firm th is h y p o th e s is .48 In te re stin g ly , C r e m o n a w as

sid elin es in th e s to r y o f M e d ie v a l a rc h ite c tu re .

th e b irth p la c e o f D o d o , B ish o p o f M o d e n a , a n d o n e

T he R e n o v a t i o n of N o r t h e r n It a l i a n C a t h e d r a l s

125

Fig. 3.

Parma Cathedral, the Romanesque building in the construction phase D (after M anfred LuCHTERHANDT)

c o u ld th e re fo re sp e c u la te t h a t it w as o n h is in itia tiv e

126

The

re la tio n s h ip

b e tw e e n

th e

o ld

b u ild in g

t h a t s c u lp to rs a n d s to n e m a s o n s w e re s e n t to w o r k o n

d e stro y e d b y th e e a rth q u a k e , w h ic h m a y o r m ay n o t

th e n e w c h u rc h .

h av e b e e n s tru c tu ra lly re la te d to th e M o d e n a d esign,

O f th e c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t b e g a n in 1107 n o t h in g

a n d th e n e w larg e c a th e d ra l, w ith its c ru c ifo rm p la n , is

r e m a in s ; re c o rd s te ll u s t h a t it c o lla p s e d d u r in g th e

a m u c h d e b a te d issue. M a n y sc h o la rs h av e m a d e c o n ­

g r e a t e a r th q u a k e o f 1117 a n d th a t , a fte r v a rio u s m a te ­

trib u tio n s , in c lu d in g re c e n tly P a o lo P iv a a n d A r tu r o

rials a n d re lic s w e re re s c u e d f r o m th e r u b b le , w o r k

C a lz o n a ,51 w h o , fro m th e ir d iffe re n t v ie w p o in ts, have

b e g a n o n r e b u ild in g th e c a th e d ra l ju s t tw e lv e y e ars

in te r p r e te d th e d a ta in re la tio n to th e early s itu a tio n o f

la te r, d u r in g th e e p is c o p a te o f O b e r t o o f D o v a r a .49

th e e p isc o p a l b u ild in g s in C re m o n a . T h e p r o b le m o f

D u r i n g th is p h a s e , th e d i r e c t io n o f th e b u ild in g

p ie c in g to g e th e r th e ev en ts s u r r o u n d in g th e c o n s tru c ­

w o r k w as e n tr u s te d to t h a t sa m e N ic h o la u s w h o

tio n is n o t ju s t a m a tte r o f d e c id in g w h a t w as b u ilt

w o u l d l a te r w o r k a t F e r r a ra a n d w h o w a s a t th a t

b e fo re o r a fte r th e e a rth q u a k e , b u t also o f h o w o n e

tim e e n g a g e d o n th e site o f P ia c e n z a c a th e d ra l. H e

sh o u ld , in th is c o n te x t, in te r p r e t th e fin al verse o f th e

w o u l d la te r also c o n d u c t th e b u ild in g a n d s c u lp tu r a l

f o u n d a tio n in sc rip tio n , w h ic h in c lu d e s th e ex p ressio n

w o rk s in V e ro n a , a t th e c a th e d ra l a n d th e c h u r c h o f

q u e m e d ia vid etu r. T h is o b sc u re a llu sio n relates to th e

S a n Z e n o .50

tim e a t th e c e n tre o f th e d e b a te , a t le a st a c c o rd in g to

Saverio ! . martire

Fig. 4.

Reggio Em ilia C ath ed ral, view from th e south (p h o to author)

P o rte r,52 w h o h a s c la im e d (a n d P iv a a n d C a lz o n a are

A t a n y rate, th e in c id e n c e o f th e e a rth q u a k e at

in a g re e m e n t h e re ) t h a t it m u s t re fe r to a n e w b u ild ­

C re m o n a , w ith th e p ro b a b le collapse o r d a m a g e o f

in g e re c te d b e tw e e n tw o o ld e r o n e s o n th e o ld b a p ­

th e e n tire p re -e x istin g g ro u p o f e p isco p a l b u ild in g s,

tis te ry site. A fte r th e e a rth q u a k e , th e n e w c a th e d ra l

to g e th e r w ith th e d e s tru c tio n o f t h e n e w c h u rc h b e g u n

o rd e r w o u ld h av e e v e n tu a lly re p la c e d th e e n tire g ro u p

in 1107, p ro b a b ly le d to th e p la n n in g o f a c ru c ifo rm

o f e p isco p a l b u ild in g s ; th u s, w e m ay c o n sid e r th e

c h u rc h . T h is w as a d e sig n w ell s u ite d to in c o rp o ra te in

ex isten ce o f a h y p o th e tic a l p re v io u s d o u b le c a th e d ra l

m o n u m e n ta l fo rm , w ith a basilica w ith accessible gal­

in C re m o n a . I m u s t lim it m y se lf h e re o n th e th e m e

leries a n d tra n s e p t arm s w ith th re e naves, all th e fu n c ­

o f L o m b a rd y d o u b le o r ‘tw in ’ c a th e d ra ls, w h ic h h a s

tio n s o f th e h y p o th e tic a l p re -e x istin g d o u b le c ath e d ra l.

a lre a d y b e e n th e su b je c t o f a n ex ten siv e b ib lio g ra ­

T h e p re se n c e o f s u c h a w id e tra n s e p t, w h ic h o n c e

phy. It w ill be su ffic ie n t to recall th a t so m e re c e n t

t e n d e d to b e re g a rd e d as a la te r a d d itio n , h a s b e e n

stu d ie s h ave s h o w n th a t th e litu r g y o f th e h o u rs a n d

s h o w n in re c e n t stu d ie s (a t le a st a t its lo w e r levels) to

th e w e e k ly litu r g y m o re o fte n to o k p la c e in a c h u rc h

b e p e rfe c tly c o n s is te n t w ith th e o rig in a l p la n .54 T he

d e d ic a te d to th e V irg in , w h ile a c h u rc h d e d ic a te d to a

c o m p le x f u n c tio n s s e rv e d b y th e n e w b u ild in g se em

m a rty r, a n d g e n e ra lly lo c a te d to th e n o r t h o f th e o th e r

to b e in d ic a te d b y th e p re se n c e a t th e u p p e r levels o f

b u ild in g , w as u s e d f o r th e S u n d a y litu rg y .53

th e g a lle rie s o f tw o apses, p ro b a b ly f o r litu rg ic a l use.

T he R e n o v a t i o n of N o r t h e r n It a l i a n C a t h e d r a l s

127

Fig. 5.

C rem ona C athed ral, view o f th e façade and b aptistery (p h o to author)

W e also f in d so m e o f th e s e fe a tu re s in th e c a th e ­ d ra l a t N o v a ra , n o w d e s tro y e d (F ig. 6). T h is b u i ld ­

c a n t a sp e c t: o n c e a g ain , a t P ia c e n z a , w e f in d sc u lp to rs

in g , w h ic h w a s c o n s tr u c te d d u r in g th e e p is c o p a te o f

w o rk in g , p e rh a p s a t th e sa m e tim e , w h o h ave tra v ­

L itif r e d o (1123-51), m a in ta in e d th e E a rly C h r is tia n

e lle d fro m th e w o rk s h o p o f W ilig e lm u s in M o d e n a

p la n o f th e e p is c o p a l g ro u p , w ith th e f if th - c e n tu r y

a n d th e w o rk s h o p o f N ic h o la u s . T h e re are m a n y clues

b a p tis te r y s e p a r a te d b y a fo u r - s id e d p o r tic o . T h e n e w

to su g g e st th a t d u r in g th e c o n s tr u c tio n p ro c ess, as

tw e lf th - c e n tu r y a r r a n g e m e n t i n tr o d u c e d so m e q u ite

a t C re m o n a , it w as a g a in N ic h o la u s w h o d ire c te d

c o m p le x s tr u c tu r e s a t h i g h e r lev els in th e b u ild in g s ,

th e p r o je c t a n d o v e rsa w th e w o r k .57 T h e c a th e d ra l a t

w h ic h th e L i b e r O r d in a r iu s f r o m th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n ­

P ia c e n z a to o k a lo n g tim e to c o m p le te . W o r k c o n c e n ­

t u r y in d ic a te s to h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r sp e c ia l litu rg ic a l

t r a te d in itia lly o n th e fa ça d e a n d th e a rea o f th e c h o ir

c e re m o n ie s d u r in g th e c o u rse o f th e y e a r.55

128

C r e m o n a . B u t th is in its e lf is n o t th e m o s t sig n ifi­

a n d th e la rg e c ry p t. It is p r o b a b le th a t th e c y lin d ric a l

T h e b u ild in g th a t in m a n y re sp e c ts is m o s t clo sely

p ie rs in th e n ave, w h ic h , as A n g io la M a ria R o m a n in i

r e la te d to C r e m o n a C a th e d r a l is th e c a th e d ra l a t

h a s p o i n te d o u t, re se m b le e x am p les f r o m across th e

P ia c e n z a (Fig. 7 ) ,56 w h ic h b e g a n c o n s tr u c tio n in 1122

A lp s, esp e cially in N o r m a n d y (Ju m iè g e s, f o r e x am p le),

a c c o rd in g to a n in s c r ip tio n ( n o w a co p y ) p o s itio n e d

w e re c o n s tr u c te d to w a rd s th e m id d le o f th e tw e lfth

b e tw e e n tw o (o rig in a l) s c u lp te d fig u res d e p ic tin g th e

c e n tu ry , a n d t h a t th e h ig h e r p a r ts o f th e nave w ere

p r o p h e ts E n o c h a n d E lija h , ju s t as a t M o d e n a a n d

o n ly c lo se d o f f a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e t h ir t e e n t h

Saverio ! . martire

]

n li

Fig. 6. N ovara C athedral, lo n g itu d in al section o f th e m ain aisle before th e destru ctio n in th e n in e te e n th century, eighteenth-centu ry draw ing (after G iuseppe C a r it à , courtesy o f th e Istitu to di Belle A rti, Vercelli) c e n tu ry , a t th e level o f th e c le re s to ry a n d th e six-

lo o k e d a t so far. L ea v in g aside f o r n o w th e V e n e to

s e c tio n e d v a u lts.58 D e s p ite th is , th e p re se n c e o f a larg e

area, f o r w h ic h o n e c a n re fe r to th e u se fu l s tu d y b y

tr a n s e p t w ith th re e naves s h o u ld b e c o n s id e re d n o t as

G io v a n n a V a le n z a n o ,59 I w o u ld lik e to fin is h b y ta k in g

a n a d d itio n , b u t ra th e r, as re c e n t s tu d ie s h av e s h o w n ,

a b r ie f lo o k a t th e cases o fV e rce lli, Pavia, a n d B erg am o .

as b e lo n g in g to th e o rig in a l p ro je c t. E v en i f th e s itu a ­ tio n w ith re g a rd to th e p re -e x is tin g e p isc o p a l g ro u p is n o t e n tire ly c le a r d u e to a la c k o f d a ta , it is n e v e r th e ­

V e r c e lii,P ،É g ،iB e r g ،io C ،itb e ،lr a .ls

less p o ssib le t h a t a t P ia c e n z a as w e ll, th e n e w b u ild in g w as in te n d e d to c a rry o u t all th e fu n c tio n s p re v io u s ly

A t V ercelli, th e a n c ie n t c a th e d ra l o f S a n ta M a ria

p e r f o rm e d b y tw o d is tin c t ed ifices, as in C re m o n a .

M a g i o r e w as c e rta in ly re c o n s tru c te d in th e first h a lf o f

O n th e o th e r h a n d , it h a s also b e e n s h o w n q u ite

th e tw e lfth c en tu ry , w ith th e c o n se c ra tio n ta k in g p lace

clearly, in m y view , th a t b u ild in g w o rk w as o n g o in g a t

in 1148 in th e p re se n c e o f S t B e rn a rd o f C la irv a u x .60

b o t h P ia c e n z a a n d C r e m o n a d u rin g th e sa m e p e rio d .

A fe w d ra w in g s m a d e p r i o r to its to ta l d e s tr u c tio n in

R e tu r n in g a g a in to th e q u e s tio n o f th e d o u b le

th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y (Fig. 8) a n d

c ath e d ra ls, th e re are, h o w e v e r, also cases w h e re th e

a n u m b e r o f e rra tic fra g m e n ts o f m o sa ic p a v e m e n t,

so lu tio n s a d o p te d b e tw e e n th e e le v e n th a n d tw e lfth

m a so n ry , a n d s c u lp tu re , are all th a t re m a in o f th e

c e n tu rie s w ere v e ry d iffe re n t fro m th o se t h a t w e have

o rig in a l b u ild in g . N o e v id e n c e h a s b e e n d isc o v e re d so

T he R e n o v a t i o n of N o r t h e r n It a l i a n C a t h e d r a l s

129

Fig. 7.

130

Piacenza C athedral, section and plan (after A nna Se g a g n i M a l a c a r t )

Saverio ! . martire

Fig. 8. Vercelli, cathedral o f Santa Maria Maggiore, drawing o f the n o rth aisle and transept, eighteenth century (after Giuseppe C a r it à , courtesy o f the Istituto di Belle A rti, Vercelli)

fa r re g a rd in g th e b u ild in g s t h a t p r e c e d e d th e c a th e ­

n o t s u b je c t to m o d ific a tio n a n d k e p t its o rig in a l fifth -

d ra l o f S a n ta M a ria , sin c e a m a n s io n w as e re c te d o n

c e n tu r y d e sig n s u b s ta n tia lly in ta c t, b u t w ith th e a d d i­

th e site o f th e c h u rc h . T o th e side o f th e c a th e d ra l,

t io n o f a cycle o f p a in tin g s , o f w h ic h a c o p y re m a in s

to w a rd s th e n o r th , s to o d a c h u rc h (also d e stro y e d ),

d a tin g f r o m th e b e g in n in g o f th e th ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry .

w ith its e ast e n d in a ‘tric o n c h o s ’ la y o u t. T h is c h u rc h

I n th e la te s ix te e n th c e n tu ry , th e c h o ir w as re b u ilt,

w as d e d ic a te d to th e H o ly T r in ity a n d , a c c o rd in g to

b u t th e a n c ie n t b a silic a w as c o n s e rv e d u n til th e tim e

P a o lo V e rzo n e , f o r m e d p a r t o f a n e p isc o p a l g ro u p .61

o f its fin al d e m o litio n a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e e ig h ­

A s w ell as S a n ta M a ria M a g g io re , th e re w as a n o th e r

te e n th c e n tu ry .63 T h is is c le a rly e x p lic ab le in te rm s o f

c h u rc h lo c a te d in th e c e n tre o f th e c ity th a t p e r f o rm e d

v e n e ra tio n f o r su c h a n a n c ie n t b u ild in g , e v id e n tly

th e f u n c tio n s o f a c a th e d ra l. T h is w as th e b a silic a o u t ­

re g a rd e d as a p re c io u s re lic a n d a p la c e t h a t c o n s e rv e d

side th e w alls d e d ic a te d to S t E u se b iu s, th e fo u rth -

th e m e m o r y o f th e g re a t B ish o p E u se b iu s.

c e n tu ry b is h o p o f V ercelli, a n d c o n s tr u c te d in th e fifth

W e fin d a sim ila r case in Pavia, w h e re th e d o u b le

c e n tu ry o n th e s p o t w h e re E u se b iu s b u ilt a n o r a to r y in

c a th e d ra l d e d ic a te d to S a in t S te p h e n (S a n to S tefan o , th e

m e m o ry o f h is p re d e c e s so r T h e o n e s tu s .62 T h is b u ild ­

‘s u m m e r’ basilica, to th e n o rth ), a n d to th e V irg in M ary,

in g , a lth o u g h to ta lly re b u ilt fro m th e six te e n th to th e

S a n ta M a ria del P o p o lo (th e ‘w in te r’ basilica, to th e

e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , is th e p re s e n t c a th e d ra l o f V ercelli.

so u th ), is also d e stro y ed today. I t is, h o w ever, d e p ic te d

W h e n , to w a rd s th e e n d o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry ,

in a fa m o u s d ra w in g (Fig. 10) c o n ta in e d in th e L ib e r de

th e

re sid e n c e

la u d ib u s civitatis Papie b y O p ic in u s d e ’ C a n istris, w rit­

a t th e b a silic a o f S a n t’E u se b io , h e tra n s fe rre d m o s t

b is h o p

d e fin itiv e ly e s ta b lis h e d h is

te n in A v ig n o n in th e first h a lf o f th e fo u rte e n th century.

o f th e m a in fu n c tio n s to th is c a th e d ra l. T h is b u ild in g , w ith its p la n o f five naves o n c o lo n n a d e s (Fig. 9 ), w as

T he c o n s tru c tio n

o f th e

c u r r e n t R e n a iss a n c e

c a th e d ra l o n th e sa m e site in th e s e c o n d h a l f o f

T he R e n o v a t i o n of N o r t h e r n It a l i a n C a t h e d r a l s

131

‫دﺑﻪ‬.، Fig. 9.

Vercelli, cathedral o f SanfEusebio, plan o f the ancient building before the destruction in the eighteenth

century, preserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale at T urin (ph o to courtesy o f the Archivio Capitolare, Vercelli)

132

Saverio ! . marti re

‫ااﺀا‬٠ ‫■_ا‬ ■ ‫ل‬ hi.■ A ،V ‫؛‬ T‫؛‬-;

‫د‬

‫|ا؛|م‬ “

٥

،»

٠

Fig. 10. Pavia, tw in cathedrals o f Santo Stefano and Santa M aria del Popolo, drawing from Liber de laudibus civitatis Papie, by Opicinus de’ Canistris, c. 1330, preserved in the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana [cod. Pal. Lat. 1993, fol. 2v] (p hoto courtesy o f the M usei Civici, Pavia)

th e fif te e n th c e n tu ry , b a s e d o n a p la n b y B ra m a n te ,

w a s th e first o f th e c h u rc h e s to b e c o n s tr u c te d . It

in v o lv e d d e m o lis h in g m u c h o f th e a p sid a l a re a in th e

is also c e r ta in t h a t th is site h a d b e e n u s e d to e re c t

tw o p r e -e x is tin g c a th e d ra ls . T o c o m p le te th e w o rk , at

a sim ila r, e arly M e d ie v a l s tr u c tu r e a n d t h a t w o r k o n

th e e n d o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e b o d ie s o f th e

th e c h u rc h b e g a n in th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e e le v e n th

tw o o ld c h u rc h e s w e re also d e m o lis h e d , w ith o n ly

c e n tu r y a n d w as p r o t r a c t e d u n til th e s t a r t o f th e

so m e c o n te m p o r a n e o u s d ra w in g s a n d p h o to g r a p h s

tw e lfth c e n tu ry .6‫؛‬

re m a in in g . A lth o u g h th is o p e r a tio n w a s c e rta in ly

T h e r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e s u m m e r ba silic a o f S a in t

d is a s tro u s (‘th e e te rn a l sh a m e o f th e c ity o f Pavia’, as

S te p h e n m u s t hav e s ta r te d s o o n a fte rw a rd s. T h is w as a

A r t h u r K in g s le y P o r te r 64 d e s c rib e d it), it d i d b r in g to

b a silic a w ith five naves, so a rin g in h e ig h t a n d c o v e re d

lig h t c e r ta in e le m e n ts c o n c e a le d o v e r th e c e n tu rie s .

b y g r o in v a u lts s u p p o r te d b y ro w s o fc lu s te re d c o lu m n s.

F ro m th e re m a in s o f s c u lp tu re s a n d m o sa ic s h o u s e d

T h e d e m o litio n p ro c e ss re v e a le d t h a t th e b ric k p illa rs

in th e M u s e i C iv ic i o f P av ia, o n e c a n in f e r th a t th e

c o n ta in e d th e m a rb le c o lu m n s a n d re -u se d R o m a n

c h u rc h o f th e V ir g in M a r y (w ith its th re e n av es a n d

c ap itals fro m th e p re c e d in g early M e d ie v a l c a th e d ra l,

a c o m p le x s tr u c tu r e fe a tu r in g a n av e tr a n s e p t, as at

w h ic h p o ss ib ly d a te d fro m b e tw e e n th e e ig h th a n d

N o v a ra , a n d a c ry p t, w h ic h is still p a r tly p re s e rv e d )

n i n th c e n tu rie s. E v en to d ay , th r o u g h a c ra c k in a b ric k

T he R e n o v a t i o n of N o r t h e r n It a l i a n C a t h e d r a l s

133

p illa r w ith a sim p le s a n d s to n e c a p ita l, o n e c a n glim p se

o f V e rce lli, th e y w e re s im p ly k e p t in ta c t. I t w o u ld

th e a n c ie n t p illa r a t its core. In a d d itio n , a larg e p a r t

b e v e ry in te r e s tin g to c a rry o u t f u r t h e r re se a rc h in to

o f th e w alls o n th e n o r t h sid e still p re se rv e th e early

th is to p ic . In th e case o f th e re -u se o r sim p le u p d a t ­

M e d ie v a l p a tte r n o f b lin d a rch es a lte rn a tin g w ith

in g o f o ld e r b u ild in g s , it is h a r d to b e lie v e t h a t th is is

larg e w in d o w s . In th is way, w e c a n sh o w t h a t th e early

o n ly , o r larg ely , a m a t t e r o f c h o ic e s d i c t a te d b y l im ­

M e d ie v a l b u ild in g e n jo y e d c o n sid e ra b le c o n tin u ity ,

i te d fin a n c ia l o p tio n s .

u n d e rg o in g a ‘re sty lin g ’ a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e tw e lfth

W e also h a v e to a sk w h a t s y m b o lic im p o r ta n c e

c e n tu ry , w h e n th e s tru c tu re w as a d a p te d to c o n fo rm

w a s a tta c h e d , o n th e o n e h a n d , to a r e s to r a tio n

to th e m o d e r n style o f v a u lte d a rc h ite c tu re .66

o p e r a tio n , a n d o n th e o th e r, to th e t o ta l r e c o n s tr u c ­

W e c o u ld c ite o th e r cases sim ila r to th e se , su c h

t io n o f a b u ild in g . W e se n se t h a t f o r th e m e n ta l o u t ­

as th e n e w fin d in g s in th e c a th e d ra l o f B e rg a m o , a

lo o k a n d a e s th e tic ta s te o f th e tim e th e tw o te rm s

tw e lfth c e n tu r y ‘re s to r a tio n ’ o f a fifth c e n tu r y b asil-

w e re p r o b a b ly s y n o n y m o u s , a n d t h a t e v e n re b u ild -

ica ,67 b u t w e m u s t c o n c lu d e o u r re v ie w h e re .

fng)

‫ة‬

f u n d a m e n t i s w a s s e e n ^s

‫ة‬

re sta u ra tio

‫ى‬

im p r o v e m e n t o f th e o ld b u ild in g . T h is is a n a ttitu d e also f o u n d l a te r in th e h i s t o r y o f a r c h ite c tu r e . T he C o n c lu s io n

c h o ic e to k e e p alive a n a n c ie n t e d ific e , in its m a te ­

T o c o n c lu d e , I w o u ld lik e to a d d so m e b r i e f th o u g h ts

p re c is e sig n ific a n c e o f p r e s e rv in g th e m e m o r y o f th e

vis-à-vis so m e o f th e p o in ts th a t d e se rv e f u r t h e r a tte n ­

d io c e s a n c o m m u n i ty in ta c t.

ria l ( a n d n o t j u s t id e a l) fo rm , c a r r ie d th e re al a n d

tio n . I f w e l im it o u rse lv es to th e fe w cases e x a m in e d

H o w e v e r, b e in g a sso c ia te d w ith a p re v io u s b u ild ­

h e re , to w h ic h m a n y m o re c o u ld b e a d d e d in th e

in g , e sp e c ia lly in th e case o f c a th e d ra l c h u rc h e s, w as

E m ilia -L o m b a rd y a rea a lo n e , w e m a y n o te h o w th e

c e rta in ly n o t lim ite d to in te r v e n tio n s o n th e s tr u c ­

early tw e lf th - c e n tu r y c o n s tr u c tio n d a te f o r M o d e n a

tu re , th e m a s o n ry , th e d e c o ra tio n s o r e v en th e f u r ­

C a th e d r a l is clo sely a sso c ia te d w ith th a t o f o th e r

n ish in g s. In th is c o n te x t, so m e h is to ria n s h av e te n d e d

b u ild in g s . T h ere seem s to h a v e b e e n so m e s o r t o f

to lo a d all th e re s p o n s ib ility f o r re p re s e n tin g th e

h a p p y c o n ju n c tu re th a t sa w th e rev iv al o f m a n y c a th e ­

c u ltu ra l a n d re lig io u s v alu es o f a p a r tic u la r s o c ie ty a t

d ra ls, a n d w h ic h ev o k es th e ‘w h ite c lo a k o f c h u rc h e s ’

a p a r tic u la r tim e o n to its b u ild in g s a n d a rtis tic c re ­

d e s c rib e d b y R a o u l G la b e r m a n y d e c a d e s b e fo re . T h is flo w e rin g o f n e w b u ild in g s in n o r t h e r n Ita ly

134

a tio n s, e sp e c ia lly th e fig u ra tiv e a rts su c h as p a in tin g , s c u lp tu re , m in ia tu re s , te x tile s, a n d g o ld s m ith ’s w o rk .

is o fte n e x p la in e d as th e re s u lt o f th e d a m a g e c a u se d

T h e r e la tio n s h ip o f th e n e w b u ild in g s (o r in d e e d

b y th e e a rth q u a k e o f 1117. T h is is p r o b a b ly tr u e fo r

th e re n o v a tio n a n d re s to r a tio n p ro je c ts ) to th e p r e ­

so m e b u ild in g s , b u t n o t f o r o th e rs , w h ic h re m a in e d

e x is tin g s tru c tu re s c a lle d in to p la y c u sto m s , t r a d i­

s ta n d in g e v en th o u g h o f a n e a rlie r d a te . H o w e v e r, it

tio n s , a n d c u ltu ra l a n d litu rg ic a l n e e d s , re q u ire m e n ts

is also p o ssib le , a n d in d e e d m o re likely, th a t th is w as

th a t c e rta in ly le a d to re s to r a tio n o r re n o v a tio n p r o ­

a sig n o f re n e w a l in civil s o c ie ty th a t w o u ld s o o n le a d

g ra m m e s, b u t w h ic h are n o t p r o d u c e d b y th e m . T he

to th e c re a tio n o f a u to n o m o u s c ity m u n ic ip a litie s ,

a rc h ite c tu re as a w h o le w as, a n d h a d to c o n tin u e to

th e c o m u n i, w h ic h v ie w e d t h e ir c a th e d ra ls as a p o w ­

b e , a n sw e ra b le to th o s e n e e d s th a t, in a c a th e d ra l

e rfu l s y m b o l o f id e n tity . In th e sa m e w ay, th e b is h o p ’s

c h u rc h , are m u ltip le a n d s tra tifie d , sin c e th e c le rg y to

p a la c e o fte n b e c a m e th e se a t f o r c ity a sse m b lie s a n d

w h ic h th e y re la te is also a m u lti-la y e re d e n tity . In s im ­

t h e n a c e n tra l p a r t o f th e n e w to w n h a lls.68

ila r c o n te x ts, th e re is a n in e v ita b le m e e tin g , a n d o fte n

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n sy ste m s f o r th e s e n e w c a th e ­

a clash , b e tw e e n th e r e q u ire m e n ts o f th e b is h o p , th e

d ra ls a lm o s t alw ays in v o lv e d , e x c e p t in ra re cases

c a n o n s ( in th e ir tu r n d iv id e d in to m a jo r a n d m in o r

(F e rra ra , P a rm a , o r e v e n P isa , f o r e x a m p le ), a m o re

c a n o n s ), th e n e e d s r e la te d to th e c u re o f so u ls, a n d

o r less d ir e c t re la tio n s h ip w ith p r e - e x is tin g b u i ld ­

v e ry o fte n also th e p re s e rv a tio n o f th e m e m o r y o f

in g s. H o w e v e r, th e s e w e re n o t alw ays s u b s titu te d ,

th e p a tr o n sa in t. T h e n th e re is th e q u e s tio n o f w h o se

b u t s o m e tim e s ju s t u p d a te d , b y m e a n s o f m in o r

re s p o n s ib ility it is to e m b o d y th e e n tire d io c e sa n p o p -

o r m o re m a jo r w o rk , as in th e cases o f R e g g io

u^us, to g e th e r w ith th e p o litic a l im p lic a tio n s th a t th is

E m ilia , P a v ia, a n d B e rg a m o ; o r e v en , as in th e case

c a n so m e tim e s involve.

Saverio ! . martire

The L ib r i

O r d in a r ii, w h ic h

p ro v id e

u s w ith

arch iv e in f o r m a tio n f r o m tim e to tim e , are a v a lu a b le to o l f o r u n d e r s ta n d in g th e s e d y n a m ic s, b e sid e s h e lp ­ in g us to r e c o n s tr u c t a n c ie n t litu rg ic a l a n d s tr u c tu r a l p ra c tic e s. H o w e v e r, th e s e d o c u m e n ts h av e o n ly ra re ly b e e n ta k e n in to c o n s id e ra tio n , a lth o u g h it s h o u ld be a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t w e n o w h a v e a b e tt e r u n d e r s ta n d ­ in g o f th e m th a n w e d id in th e p a st. Finally, I t h in k w e s h o u ld c o rre c t o u r b a d h a b it o f re g a rd in g th e b is h o p as th e sole p a tr o n , th e sole ‘e n g in e ' b e h in d th e c a th e d ra l c h u rc h e s ' re b u ild in g o r re n o v a tio n . I t w o u ld b e in te re s tin g to in v e stig a te sys­ tem a tic ally , case b y case, th e ro le re a lly p la y e d b y th e c h a p te r o f c a n o n s in th is ty p e o f o p e ra tio n , b e y o n d th e ‘p o litic a l' p re -e m in e n c e (so to say) o f th e b ish o p . In th e case o f M o d e n a C a th e d r a l, it a lm o s t seem s t h a t th e c a n o n s , re ly in g o n th e lo c a l c itiz e n s' s u p p o r t, h a d v irtu a lly p r o f ite d f r o m th e b ish o p 's a b se n ce in o r d e r to r e b u ild th e ir c a th e d ra l. T h e re is n o d o u b t th a t in th is case th e c a n o n s in th e c h a p te r re g a rd e d th e c a th e ­ d ra l as t h e ir o w n c h u rc h . P e rso n a lly , I a m c o n v in c e d t h a t su c h a s itu a tio n also o fte n e x is te d in o th e r cases. T h is w o u ld h av e a n in e v ita b le in flu e n c e o n o u r p e r ­ c e p tio n o f th e ro le o f b is h o p s ' p a tro n a g e , a t le a st fo r c e rta in cases a n d d u rin g c e rta in p e rio d s . T h e s tu d y o f c o m p le x m o n u m e n ts s u c h as c a th e ­ d ra l c h u rc h e s w ill h a v e to re ly in th e f u tu re o n in c re a s­ in g c o o p e r a tio n b e tw e e n d iffe re n t field s o f e x p ertise a n d th e c o o r d in a tio n o f d iffe re n t p o in ts o f v iew : fro m a rc h a e o lo g y to th e h is to r y o f m o n u m e n ts a n d a rt, a n d to th e s tu d y o f litu r g y a n d e c o n o m ic h isto ry , w ith a h o s t o f p r o m is in g , p o ss ib le in te rp re ta tio n s .

NOTES 4 Ferdinand D e D a r te la , Étude sur farcbieccture lombarde et surlesoriginesde lar^(^hee^e(^e^ur^er^o„lan;^rma.Ar(^h-tek t u ru n d S k ulp tur iTOZ^eitatte‫ أ‬d^e‫ أ‬R eichsfeirche un d Ko„lmuna l^ bildung ,M u n !c k ,1 0 0 9 ,p p .i3 6 - ١ 4. 43 Ibidem ,pp.473-88. 44 I bidem ,pp.373-90. 45 Giancarlo G rassi & Mauro Severi, ‘Restauri alla cattedrale di Reggio Emilia. Prime risultanze delle indagini sulle strutture murarie in a k a td , in TaccuinidA rte. R ivistadi A r te e S t oria del terrlt orio diM oden a e d i R ٠ io E milia,!,1 0 0 7 ' pp. 45-63. 46 Hans Peter Au TENRIETH, ‘Le decorazioni pittoriche medi­ evali della cattedrale di Reggio Emilia', in Il vescovo, la chiesa e la città di Reggio in età comunale (Ecclesia Regiensis, Quaderno 3), ed. Lorenzo Pa o l in i , Bologna 1013, pp. 145-91; Saverio L om a rt ir e , ‘Complementi pittorici all'architettura medievale della cattedrale l i R e ^ .o Emilia, in L a cattedrale di R eg io E milia, Milan, 1014, pp. 139-71. 47 See now theessay s im. La Cattedrale di Reggio E m llia. Stud i e ricerche, Milan, 1014; Massimo M u ssin i , ‘Il ruolo della cat­ tedrale nel divenire della forma urbis. Medioevo ed età mod­ erna' pp. 153-59; Arturo C alzona , ‘La cattedrale di Reggio Emilia e l'Europa. La struttura a pianta centrale ritrovata sotto la facciata occidentale attuale e la cattedrale dal X al X III secolo', pp. 197-113; Giorgio M ila n esi , ‘La cattedrale di Reggio Emilia e l'Europa. La fabbrica di Santa Maria e San Prospero dal X al X III secolo'' pp. 115-37. 48 See.. Arturo C a l z o n a , Ilc an tiereraedievaledella cattedraledi Cremona, Cinisello Balsamo, 1009. 49 For literature on the cathedral of Cremona, see above (n. 48), and Alfredo P u erari , Il Duomo di Cremona' Milan, 1971; Paolo P iva, ‘A rchitettura, “complementi” figurativi, spazio litur­ gico (secoli IV/V-X III)) in Storia di Cremona, ed. Giancarlo A n denna , Cremona, 1004, pp. 364-445; Cattedrale di Cre­ mona, Parma, 1007; Paolo P iva, ‘La cattedrale e il gruppo epis­

copale di Cremona nel 1107-1117: un vecchio problema e una 59 Giovanna ^ L E N zano , ‘L'architettura ecclesiastica tra XI e XW e c o W ١ Yn 0‫ ^أة‬0٣‫ج^ ﻟ ط‬11’‫ ﻵ‬٣‫ طﺢ‬1‫ ى^أ^أج^أ‬٣‫^أج ^ ﺟ ﻰ ج ^ ﻵ‬0.ً ‫ ﻵ ﺑ ﺎ‬1‫^أ‬0‫لءﺟﻠﻣﻶ‬,‫ ا‬0‫ًداج‬ nuova proposta', in Bollettino Storico Cremonese, N.s., X IIL X IV ‫ء‬ R Romanico,ed. Jürgen Sc h u lz , Venice, 2009, pp. 90-19; on (2006-2007), Cremona, 2009, pp. 73-88. Aquileia cathedral, see: X. Barral I A ltet , ‘La basilica patriar­ 5٥ Christine Verzar , ‘Nicolo', in Enciclopedia dellArte Medi­ cale di Aquileia: un grande monumento romanico del primo XI evale, vol. VIII, Rome, 1998, pp. 699-703; Saverio L o m a rtire , secolo’, in Arte Medievale, N.s. 6/2, 2007, pp. 29-64. ‘Nicolò’ in D iz ia r io Biogrnficovol. 78, Rome, 60 Verzone , LarchOteRuoa R0manicpp. 70-77; 2013, pp. 498-502. Giuseppe C arità , ‘Itinerario architettonica', in Piemonte 51 Hans Peter & Beate A u t e n r ie t h , ‘Struttura, policromia e Romanico, ed. Giovanni ROMANO, Turin, 1994, pp. 59-96, 137-39. pittura murale nel Duomo di Cremona medioevale’, in Cremona, ‫ ا ة‬V e r zo n e , L ’architetturareligiosa, pp . ١8-59. vol. II, 1988, pp. 25-35; P iva, ‘A rchitettura, “complementi” figu­ 62 Tatiana K irilova K irova , ‘Cenni sulle chiese paleocristiane rativi’; P iva, ‘La cattedrale e il gruppo episcopale’ pp. 81-85; di Vercelli con particolare riguardo a s. Eusebio’, in Antichità C a l z o n a , Ilcantierem edievaledppJ-KYY. Altocdrictiehe, 6, 1974, pp. 323-32; Gisella C a n t in o W ta g hin , 52 P orter , Lombard architecture, vol. II, p. 371; see now: P iva, ‘La ‘A ppunti per una topografia cristiana: i centri episcopali piemoncattedrale e il gruppo episcopale’; C alzona , Il cantiere medievale. t t ‫؟‬Y, ٠ ٠Y n At^t;id^elVIC^ou^essoN^2,ioo^led,iArcheolo^icC^rist;ÌRo^, 53 W ith reference mainly to northern Italian cathedrals, see: Aoeooc 1983, Ancona, 1986, pp. 91-112, 91. P ^ o Plva , Le cattedrali lombarde. Ricerche sulle ‘cattedralidop­ 63 Federico A rborio M ella , ‘L’antica basilica Eusebiana. Indagpie’ da SantAmbrogio all’età romanica, ^ is te llo , 1990; Paolo YnYeLudY. CYn Archi‫ا‬iًiod^‫ج‬lRSoci ‫ج‬t^àV‫ج‬rc‫ج‬ll‫ج‬s‫ ج‬d,iSt^orR ‫ﺋﻞءج‬drt ‫^ج‬ Peva , Lacattedraiedoppiaiunatipoiogiaarchitettonicaeiiturgica Memorie e . d i , V, 1913, pp. 725-53; Verzon e , L o c h i t e l i del Medioevo, Bologna, 1990; Paolo P iva, ‘“Cattedrale doppia” romanica nel vercellese, pp. 70-75; Marco A im o n e , ‘A d exem­ e/o “Basilica doppia”. Nuovi orientamenti’, in Arte documento, plum basilicae veteris s. Petri Romae. Nuovi dati e nuove ipotesi 6, 1992, pp. 57-62; Paolo P iva, ‘Dalla cattedrale “doppia” allo sull’antica basilica di s. Eusebio a Vercelli’, in Bollettino Storico “spazio” liturgico canonicale, linee di un percorso’, in Canonici Vercellese, 35, 2006, pp. 5-67; see also above, n. 62. delle cattedrali nel Medioevo ^ a d e r n i dii Storia religiosa, Y0١, 64 P o rter , Lombard Architecture, vol. III, p. 192. 2003, pp. 69-93; Paolo P iva, ‘Die Entwicklungen der ‘Doppel­ 5‫ ج‬Ibidem,pp. 185-96 (s. Maria del Popolo), pp. 231-36 (s. Stefano); kathedrale’ in karolin^scher und ottonisch-salischer Zeit (einige Anna Segagni M alacart, ‘L’architettura romanica pavese, in BeYpYeV),, .Yn Der Magdeburger Dom im europäischen Kontext, Storia di Pavia, vol. 111.3, Milan, 1996, pp. 115-227, 145-50. Beiträgedes internationaienuiissenschaftiichenKoiioquiumszum 66 Saverio L o m a rtire , ‘A lcune chiese dell’Italia padana e la 8c^c^-jä^hrigen Domjubiläum in M a g d e b u r g ^ ! I. bis 4. Oktober questione dell’ori^nalità nell’architettura “romanica”. Spunti per 2009, ed. Wolfgang Schen kluh n & Andreas Wa sch bü sch , un r l s A o u e ١ Yn Le ■plaisir de Part du Mo^en Age: commande, Regensburg, 20Y2, pp. 59-72. productionet réceptionde 1 1 ‫ل‬0‫ا‬ ^ ’‫ ا‬Mélangesen hommageà 54 Hans Peter & Beate A u t e n r ie t h , ‘Der Bau des Domes in Xavier Barral i Altet, Paris, 2012, pp. 427-33. Cremona zur Zeit des Bischofs Oberto di Dovara (1117-1162)’, in 67 The remains of the Medieval cathedral are currently being A rte d ’Occidente: tem iem etodi.Studi inonorediAngiolaM aria studied, after the conclusion of the recent archaeolo^cal exca­ Romanini, ed. Antonio C a dei , Rome, 1999, pp. YYY-2Y. vations and restorations. For the moment, see: Maria Fo rtu ­ 55 Paolo Verzo n e , ‘Il duomo, la canonica ed il battistero di nati & Angelo G h ir o l d i , ‘La Cattedrale di s. Alessandro Novara’, in Bollettino della Società storica novarese, 28, Y934, 3, I r t Y rt 'Y n B er^m o ’, 'Y n Storia economica e sociRle di Bergamo. pp. 5-79; Carlo T o sc o , ‘La cattedrale di Novara nell'età roman­ Ip rim i millenni. DallaPreistoria al Medioevo, vo١. IE, Ber٣ Y0, ica. Architettura e litur^a’ in Me di 2007, pp. 539-47; Fabio Scirea , ‘Il complesso cattedrale di pp. 268-86. Bergamo’, in Lombardia romanica. Igrandi cantieri, ed. Roberto ‫ ؤﻷ‬IlD uom odiP iacenza(ii22-i972). A ttidelC onvegnodi t^t،di C assanelli & Paolo P iva, Milan, 2010, pp. 201-11, 201-06. storici inoccasionedeii’850٥ anniversariodeiia;fondazionedeiiaCat' 68 Carlo T o sc o , ‘Potere civile e architettura. La nascita dei pala­ tedrale di Piacenza, Piacenza, Y975; Anna Segagni M alacart , zzi comunali nell’Italia nord occidentale’, in Bollettino storico‘L’architettura’, in Storia di Piacenza, vol. 2, Piacenza, Y984, bibliografico subalpino, 97, 1999, 2, pp. 513-45; Carlo T o sco , pp . 77 ٠ ١ ‫ ﻵ‬- ‫ ﻵ‬٠١Bruno K l e in , Die Kathedrale m Piacenza. Archi‘I palazzi comunali nell’Italia nord-occidentale dalla pace di tekturundSkuipturderRomanik,W orm s , Y99١ . Cdm ae Costanza a Cortenuova’, in 57 Saverio L om a r tir e , ‘Nicolo e la Cattedrale di Cremona', nell’età federiciana, A tti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi: .Yn D octam anus.Studienzur italienischenSkulptur fü r Joachim Reggia di Caserta, Cappella Palatina ^0 novembre-i dicembre Poeschke, ed. Johannes M yssok & Jürgen W ien er , Münster, 1995, Rome, 2000, pp. 395-422; Marina Ga rgiu lo , ‘Programmi 2007, pp. 37-58. politici dei palazzi comunali in Italia settentrionale’, in Medioevo: 58 Angiola Maria R o m a n in i , ‘Les premières voûtes sexparties en la chiesa e il palazzo, A tti del convegno internazionale di studi, Italie’, in Bulletin Monumental, CXIII, Y955, pp. Y73-9Y; Segagni Parma, 20-24 settembre 2005, ed. Arturo Carlo ^INTAVALLE, M alacart , ‘L’architettura’, pp. 505-3Y, 5y6 - y8. Milan, 2007, pp. 350-56.

T h e R e n o v a t i o n OF N o r t h e r n I t a l i a n C a t h e d r a l s

137

Medieval Cathedral Architecture as an Episcopal Instrument of Ideology and Urban Policy The example of Venice X avier Barral I A ltet

A b s tr a c t In Venice, the cathedral o f San Pietro di Castello never becam e th e m ost im p o rta n t church as in oth er Italian an d E uropean cities. Since th e m iddle o f th e eleventh cen tu ry or even since th e early M iddle Ages, there was a n o th e r religious centre w ith m uch greater ideological, visual, and sym bolic im pact, located by th e sea in th e c ity ’s political and com m ercial heart, nam ely Saint M a rk ’s Basilica. This was a palace chapel, rebuilt in 1063 and p ro m o te d by th e D oge D om enico C o n tarin i. In this paper, I set fo rth some conclusions concerning th e genesis o fV en ice’s M edieval cathedral, b u ilt o n th e islet o f O livolo, closed w ith in an old q u arter and situated o n th e outskirts o f th e city. I try to u n d e rstan d th e architectural and o rn am en­ tal facies th at this bu ild in g m ust have h ad in o p p o sitio n to th e m agnificent basilica o f Saint M ark, by rein terp retin g ex novo th e prim ary sources, b o th M edieval and m odern, as well as exam ining th e fossilized fragm ents th a t were preserved w ith in th e sixteenth-century c h u rch structure, and, finally, surveying th e fifteenth-century graphic testim onies p rio r to the destruction o f San Pietro di Castello.

P r e m is e

had, after th e destru ctio n o f Troy, b u ilt ‘u n castello, chiam ato prim a Troja, poscia O livolo, interp retato,

In The Seones o fV e n ic e , a th re e -v o lu m e tre a tise d e d i­

luogo p ien o ’. It seems th a t St Peter appeared in person

c a te d to V e n e tia n a r t a n d a rc h ite c tu re first p u b l i ­

to th e Bishop o f H eraclea, and com m anded h im to

s h e d in 1851-53, J o h n R u s k in (1 8 1 9 -1 9 0 0 ) s ta te d

fo u n d in his honour, a church in th a t spot o f th e ris­

t h a t n o o th e r E u r o p e a n c ity p o ss e s se d a c a th e d ra l as u n k n o w n to trav e lle rs as V e n ic e ’s c a th e d ra l o f S an P ie tr o d i C a s te llo . S u c h w as th e v isu a l, m o n u m e n ta l, id e o lo g ic a l, a n d s y m b o lic a l im p a c t o f th e b a silic a o f S a in t M a r k (S a n M a rc o ), w h ic h d id n o t b e c o m e a c a th e d ra l u n til 1807, t h a t m a n y h a v e c o n s id e re d —

ing city o n th e R ialto: ‘ove avesse veduto u n a m andra di b u o i e di pecore pascolare u n itam ente. S i e s t a fu la prodigiosa origine della C hiesa di San Pietro, che p o s­ cia, o rinovata, o ristaurata, da O rso Participazio IV Vescovo Olivolense, divenne la C atted rale della N uova c ittà (y liz,ie S to ric b e tle lle C b ie ‫ ؛‬e e M o n É ‫ ؛‬ritliV en e -

a n d still c o n s id e r — th is c h u rc h to b e th e e p isc o p a l

zia, Padua, 1758). W h a t there was so prodigious in oxen and sheep feeding together, we n eed St Peter, I th in k ,

see o f M e d ie v a l V e n ice .1 W h e n d e a lin g w ith S an

to tell us. The title o f Bishop o f C astello was first taken

P ie tr o d i C a s te llo in th e a p p e n d ix to th e first v o lu m e ,

in 1091: St M ark ’s was n o t m ade th e cathedral church

R u s k in s ta te d :

till 1807. It m ay be th o u g h t hardly fair to conclude the small im p o rtan ce o f th e old St Pietro di C astello from

It is credibly re p o rte d to have b een fo u n d ed in th e sev­ e n th century, and (w ith som ew hat less o f credibility) in a place w here th e Trojans, c o n d u cted by A ntenor,

th e appearance o f th e w retched m odernisations o fi6 2 0 . B ut these m odernisations are spoken o f as im prove­ m ents; and I find no notice o f p eculiar beauties in the

RoTOAftesq&eCAjtaàrak in M eèeïïA n e ،m E u ro p ejcb itectu re,R itM i،m ،lU rk n C o n text ١ ed A yG em d io B o to % eYa.& Jus>t\niA .YA.es.en ,A rchi tectura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 139-151

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109570

older building, eith er in th e w o rk above q u oted, or by

p rin c e a m o n g all c ity ch u rch e s, a rig h t w h ic h w as s u p ­

Sansovino; w ho only says th a t w hen it was destroyed by fire (as everything in Venice was, I th in k , ab o u t three tim es in a century), in th e reign o f V ital M ichele, it was rebuilt ‘w ith good th ic k walls, m aintaining, for all

p o s e d to b e a ssu m e d b y th e e p isco p a l see.8

th at, the order o f its arrangem ent taken from th e G reek m ode o f b u ild in g ’. This does n o t seem th e description o f a very enthusiastic effort to rebuild a highly ornate cathedral. The present church is am ong th e least in te r­ esting in Venice; a w oo d en bridge, som ething like th at o f Battersea o n a small scale, connects its island, n o w alm ost deserted, w ith a w retch ed suburb o f th e city b e h in d th e arsenal; and a b lan k level o f lifeless grass, ro tte d away in places rath e r th a n tro d d en , is extended before its m ildew ed façade and solitary tower.2

V e n ic e ’s M e d ie v a l c h u rc h la n d s c a p e th e re fo re fea­ tu r e d tw o o p p o s ite p o les: o n th e o n e h a n d , th e re w as a c h ap e l, S an M a rc o , w h ic h m a y w e ll b e d e fin e d as p riv a te , c o n s tr u c te d to express th e u p p e r m o s t degree o f th e D o g e ’s p o w e r, lo c a te d in th e h e a r t o f th e city, b y th e sea, a n d w ith in th e c ity ’s p o litic a l a n d c o m ­ m e rc ia l c e n tre ; a n d , o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e re w as th e c a th e d ra l, S an P ie tro d i C a ste llo , b u ilt o n th e islet o f O liv o lo , c lo se d w ith in a n o ld q u a r te r a n d s itu a te d o n th e o u ts k irts o f th e city, re p re s e n tin g a s to r y o f a lte rn a ­ tive p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic su rv iv a l o f a n u r b a n la n d ­ scape v e ry d iffe re n t fro m th a t o f t h e P ia zz a S an M a rc o .9 In th is p a p e r, I s u b s e q u e n tly e la b o ra te so m e o f th e

A s tu d y o f th e M e d ie v a l c a th e d ra l o f V en ice, p a r t i ­

c o n c lu sio n s I h a v e r e a c h e d c o n c e rn in g th e g e n esis o f

c u la rly d u r in g th e R o m a n e s q u e era, is a c o m p lic a te d

th e M e d ie v a l c a th e d ra l o f V en ice, to g e th e r w ith th e

h is to r io g r a p h ic a l

v e n tu re

b e c a u se

th e

o ld

b u il­

a rc h ite c tu ra l a n d o rn a m e n ta l fa c ie s th a t th is b u il­

d in g , w h ic h in th e M id d le A g e s a ssu m e d th e ro le

d in g m u s t h a v e h a d in o p p o s itio n to th e m a g n ific e n t

o f e p isc o p a l see, n o lo n g e r ex ists; f u rth e r, th e c u r­

b a silic a o f S a n M a rc o . T h re e m e th o d s w e re fo llo w e d

r e n t b u ild in g w ith th is n a m e is n o t M e d ie v a l, b u t a

to e sta b lish th e fa c ie s : first, assessin g b o t h M e d ie v a l

s ix te e n th - c e n tu ry s tru c tu re . T h e p r o je c t d e s ig n e d b y

a n d m o d e r n p r im a r y so u rc e s, a d o c u m e n ta tio n th a t,

A n d r e a P a lla d io in 1558 w as n e v e r c a rrie d o u t, a n d

d u e to its in c o m p le te n e s s a n d th e c o m p le x ity o f th e

th e b u ild in g w as fin is h e d in a d iffe re n t m a n n e r in th e

m a n u s c rip t tr a d itio n , I h a v e h a d to r e in te r p re t ex

s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y (Fig. i ) . 3 T h e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th is

novo; s e c o n d , d o c u m e n tin g th e fe w fra g m e n ts p r e ­

b u ild in g c a u se d th e to ta l d e s tr u c tio n o f V e n ic e ’s o ld

s e rv e d f r o m th e M e d ie v a l c h u rc h , fo ssiliz e d w ith in

M e d ie v a l e p isc o p a l see. A s a re su lt, th e s tu d y o f th is

th e s ix te e n th - c e n tu ry s tr u c tu r e , as w e ll as c o m p a rin g

c h u rc h b u ild in g m e a n s o u tlin in g a g h o s t b u ild in g , a n

th e m w ith th e re m a in s f r o m th e sa c re d b u ild in g s

a r c h ite c tu re th a t c e rta in ly e x is te d f o r m a n y c e n tu rie s ,

o f th e L a g o o n area ; a n d th ir d , su rv e y in g th e fifte e n th -

y e t w as s u b s e q u e n tly n e g le c te d d u e to c h a n g e s in

c e n tu r y g r a p h ic te s tim o n ie s p r i o r to th e d e s tr u c tio n

ta s te , a n d fro m w h ic h o n ly s c a tte re d a n d f r a g m e n ta ry

o f th e c h u rc h .

trac es, e ith e r w r itte n o r m a te ria l, re m a in . T h e ex am p le o f V enice, th e c e n tre o f a p o w e rfu l in d e p e n d e n t duchy, is a lm o st u n iq u e in th e W e s te rn

I C u tb e d r a lo fU c e tb r o u g h S o w c e s ii،!

C h ris tia n w o rld . H e re , th e c a th e d ra l n e v e r b e ca m e

D o c u m e n ts

th e m o s t im p o r ta n t c h u rc h as in o th e r Ita lia n a n d

140

E u ro p e a n cities, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f so m e e aste rn

T h e a n c ie n t h is to r y o f th e S an P ie tro d i C a ste llo

G e rm a n to w n s, su c h as in L ü b e c k a n d B ra n d e n b u rg ,

c a th e d ra l is clo sely b o u n d to th e h is to r y o f th e O liv o lo

as w ell as in G n ie z n o a n d P o z n a n in P o la n d .4 Since th e

d io ce se , w h ic h h a d b e e n th e t it u l a r see sin c e its o r i­

m id d le o f th e e le v e n th c en tu ry , y e t p ro b a b ly since th e

g in s. H o w e v e r, th e s to r y is n o t easy to su rv e y b ecau se

E arly M id d le A ges, th e c a th e d ra l o f V enice w as e n ti­

th e re c o rd s a n d lo c a l c h ro n ic le s d o n o t alw ays agree,

rely o v e rsh a d o w e d b y S a in t M a r k ’s B asilica, w h ic h w as

e sp e c ia lly sin c e th e e v id e n c e c a n b e p la c e d w ith in

re b u ilt in 1063 a n d p r o m o te d b y th e D o g e D o m e n ic o

tw o c le a rly se p a ra te tra d itio n s , m a k in g it n e c e ss a ry to

C o n ta r in i (1 0 4 2 -7 1 ). Its m o n u m e n ta l a n d su p e rb

c o n te x tu a liz e th e ir o rig in a l e n v iro n m e n ts .10

d e sig n a n d fo rm are still in p a r t p re se rv e d ;5S a in t M a r k ’s

T h e first a n d m o s t a u th o rita tiv e so u rc e o n th e

is a tru ly m a g n ific e n t edifice th a t, w ith its sp le n d o u r,6

h is to r y o f V enice u n til th e y e a r 1 0 0 0 is th e so -c a lle d

h u g e d o m e , a n d p o ly c h ro m e m o sa ic s7 re fle c tin g lig h t

Cronaca V eneziana. P u b lis h e d fo r th e first tim e in 1765

fro m th e n e a rb y b a sin flo w in g in to th e G r a n d C a n a l,

u è t t k t k V e . C bronicon V e n e tu m u e tu s tiss im u m , ‫ى‬

focuses th e a tte n tio n b y p ro c u rin g fo r its e lf th e ro le o f

s u b s e q u e n tly in 1846 in th e M o n u m e n ta G e rm a n ia e

X a v i e r Ba r r a i I A l t e t

Fig. 1.

Venice, th e church o f San Pietro di C astello, th e ancient cathedral, to d ay (p h o to author)

H istorica, th e C h ro n ic le is a ttr ib u te d to a d e a c o n

w h ic h th e re fe re n c e s to th e e p is c o p a c y c a n o n ly b e

n a m e d G io v a n n i, w h o , a c c o rd in g to th e so u rces, is

f o u n d i f th e y are c lo sely r e la te d to th e a c tiv ity o f th e

k n o w n to have also b e e n c h a p la in o f th e D o g e P ie tro II

d u k e a n d n o t th a t o f th e b ish o p .

O rs e o lo (9 6 1 -1 0 0 9 ). O n b e h a lf o f t h e D o g e , G io v a n n i

F ro m G io v a n n i D e a c o n w e k n o w th a t, in th e e arly

D e a c o n a c q u itte d im p o r ta n t d ip lo m a tic a ssig n m en ts

7 7 0 s, th e D u k e o f V en ice, M a u riz io , d e c id e d to f o u n d

close to th e E m p e ro rs O t t o I I I a n d H e n r y II."

a n e w e p is c o p a te o n th e V e n e tia n is la n d o f O liv o lo ,

T h e C h r o n ic le e x p la in s th e m a in e v e n ts o f V enice

w h ic h , d u e to th e p re se n c e o f a n A n c ie n t c a stru m , w as

fro m its o rig in s u n til th e e a rly e le v e n th c e n tu ry , a n d

also k n o w n as th e ‘C a s te llo ’. T h e c h ro n ic le r asserts

it is a n im p o r t a n t so u rc e n o t o n ly fo r th e h is to r y o f

tk

th e d u ch y , b u t also f o r th a t o f th e G e r m a n E m p ire

Olit^ol ٤^ns٤^m ^^sul^m^, apostolica, au cto rita te,

‫ ؛‬o ^o w fn g :. u n d e c im o su i d u c a tu s u n n o , a p u d

as a w h o le . I t is lik e ly th a t th e c o m p ile r h a d lists a n d

e p isco p a tu m f o r e decreuit, in c^t^o q u e n d a m ceericum,

p r im a r y so u rc e s a t h a n d , p re s e rv e d in th e D o g e ’s

O b e llie k tu m n o m ,in e ,e p is c o p u m o r d in a tiit ‫ ؟‬O n T h t

a rch iv e. G io v a n n i D e a c o n ’s so u rc e , id e n tifia b le a n d

e le v e n th y e a r o f h is g o v e rn m e n t, h e d e c id e d th a t

re c o g n iz a b le b y th e n a tu re o f th e v o c a b u la ry a n d th e

n e a r th e is la n d o f O liv o lo , u n d e r th e a u th o r ity o f th e

se q u e n c e o f in f o r m a tio n , c a n b e c o n s id e re d as t r u s t ­

P o p e , w ill b e c re a te d a n e w e p is c o p a te , in w h ic h h e

w o rth y . M o re o v e r, as o p p o s e d to a w o r k b y a b is h o p

c o n s e c ra te d a c le rg y m a n n a m e d O b e llie b a tu m ’).12

p a tt e r n e d o n th e R o m a n L i b e r P o n tifica lis, o r a w o rk

T h e n e w s c o n c e r n in g th e n e w e p is c o p a te is th e re fo re

k i i e A v n i h e . G e sta E p isc o p o ru m o r Gesta, i b b a t u m

e x p la in e d ex clusively c o n s id e rin g th e fa c t th a t D u k e

g e n re, so d iffu s e d w ith in th e C a ro lin g ia n E u ro p e a n

M a u riz io f o u n d e d it u n d e r apostolica a u c to rita te. T his

p e rio d , th e C h r o n ic le is a c itiz e n ’s d o c u m e n t in

m e a n s th a t th e f o u n d in g o f th e V en ice e p is c o p a te a n d

M e d i e v a l C a t h e d r a l A r c h i t e c t u r e as a n E p i s c o p a l I n s t r u m e n t : V e n i c e

141

th e e n s u in g c o n s tr u c tio n o f a n e p is c o p a l see are p r e ­

th e y e a r 853 o f O rs o , B is h o p o f O liv o lo , in w h ic h it is

s e n te d as a d ire c t re s u lt o f th e d u c h y , t h o u g h w ith th e

s ta te d th a t h e h a d b u ilt a c h u rc h d e d ic a te d to S a in t

c o n s e n t a n d a u th o r ity o f th e P o p e o f R o m e ; it is also

P e te r th e A p o s tle . In lig h t o f O rs o h a v in g b e e n ele c ­

c le a r th a t, d u e to th e c irc u m sta n c e s , a see w as b u ilt

t e d b is h o p a r o u n d th e y e a r 822, th e u n a tt r i b u te d

o r a p re -e x is tin g b u ild in g w as r e a rra n g e d in o r d e r to

c o n s e c ra tio n n o t e d b y G io v a n n i D e a c o n c a n re a s o ­

b e c o m e a c a th e d ra l.

n a b ly b e a tt r i b u te d to h i m .15

S u b seq u e n tly , G io v a n n i D e a c o n a ro u n d

year

820,

th e

P a tria rc h

th a t

o f G ra d o ,

T h e s e c o n d so u rc e c o n sists o f a series o f h is to ri‫ة ﻵ ﻫ ﺣ ﺎ ﻋ ﺎ ﻻً ﻋ ﻴ ﺔ ﻋ ﺄ ﺣ ﺄ \ ة ة‬

C h ronicon A l t i n a t e , o ١L O rigo

F o r tu n a to , to w h o s e a u th o r ity th e b is h o p s o f O liv o lo

C i u i t a t u i Ita lie seu

V e n e tia m ,

b e lo n g e d as su ffra g a n s, w e n t to F ra n c e , o ffe rin g h im

d iffe re n t v e rsio n s, all fro m th e t h ir t e e n t h c en tu ry .

th e p a tria rc h a l v a c a n t seat. T h e V e n e tia n s o p p o s e d

C u rre n tly , w e d o n o t k n o w to w h a t e x te n t th e la te r

itu ftie A

n

h im , n a m in g G io v a n n i, th e a b b o t o f S a in t S e rv o lo

a d d itio n s are in te r p o la te d w ith in th e o rig in a l w ritin g ,

(a m o n a s te r y v e ry close to S a n P ie tr o ’s c a th e d ra l) as

w h ic h c a n p r o b a b ly b e d a te d to th e la te tw e lfth cen-

p a tr ia r c h in ste a d . A t th e sa m e tim e , th e c o n s tr u c tio n

tu ry .16 W i t h i n th e C h ro n ico n A ltin a te , w e c o m e across

o n O liv o lo o f a c h u rc h d e d ic a te d to S a in t P e te r also

a n o th e r tr a d itio n c o n c e r n in g th e o rig in o f th e e p is­

beg^n•. C i r c a h a e c t e i | o r a ,a | u d O l i v o l e n s e i insw lam ,

c o p a te o f V en ice, o n e c o n c e iv e d in a n e n v iro n m e n t

S a n c tiP e tr ie c lle s ia ie d ijic a r i in c e p ta e s t ‫ ؟‬A to u n b T h ts

q u ite d iffe re n t fro m th a t o f th e C ronaca V en eziana. In

tim e , a t th e is la n d o f O liv o lo , a c h u rc h o f S a in t P e te r

th e O rigo, th e f o u n d a tio n o f th e O liv o lo e p is c o p a te

w as s ta r te d to b e b u i lt ’). A fte r p r o v id in g th is n ew s,

is a ttr ib u te d to th e p a tr ia r c h o f A q u ile ia , E lias. T his

G io v a n n i D e a c o n w rite s t h a t th e c o n s e c ra tio n o f

im p lie s t h a t th e e p is c o p a te w as f o u n d e d b y th e d e te r ­

th e c h u rc h o f San P ie tro a d O liv o lo , c o n s tr u c tio n o f

m in a tio n o f th e A q u ile ia p a tria rc h s to g e th e r w ith th e

w h ic h la s te d n in e years, o c c u rre d a r o u n d th e y e a r 831.

T o rc e llo a n d M a la m o c c o b ish o p ric s , a n d n o t b y d u c a l

G io v a n n i D e a c o n is th e re fo re th e first re lia b le so u rc e

re s o lu tio n . A c c o rd in g to th is so u rc e , th e e p is c o p a te

w h o (tw ic e ) m e n tio n s th e c a th e d ra l o f O liv o lo b e in g

O livolensis w as n a m e d th u s ly d u e to th e p re se n c e o f

d e d ic a te d to S a in t P e te r.13

a h u g e olive tre e o n th e f r o n t d o o r o f th e a n c ie n t

W e d o n o t k n o w w h e th e r th e d e d ic a tio n to S a in t

c h u rc h o f S a in ts S e rg iu s a n d B a c c h u s; s u m m o n e d b y

P e te r w as c o n fe rre d to th e e p is c o p a l see in th e p r e ­

th e p o p u la tio n o f th e p a ris h , th e p a tr ia r c h th e n o r d e ­

v io u s c e n tu ry , w h e n it h a d ju s t b e e n e sta b lish e d .

r e d th a t a c h u rc h b e b u ilt in h o n o u r o f S a in t P eter,

G iv e n G io v a n n i D e a c o n ’s la c k o f a tte n tio n c o n c e r­

a n d th e re h e f o u n d e d th e b ish o p ric .

n in g

142

th e

e x p la in s

re lig io u s

L e t us n o w an aly se th e d a ta m o re closely. F irst, th e

b u ild in g s ( a n o th e r fe a tu re th a t s ig n ific a n tly d is tin ­

th e

c o n s tr u c tio n

o f L a g o o n -a re a

a ttr ib u tio n o f th e f o u n d a tio n o f th e O liv o lo e p is c o ­

g u ish e s h is w o r k f r o m C a r o lin g ia n E u r o p e ’s Gesta

p a te to E lias in d u c e s u s to p la c e th e fo u n d in g o f th e see

E p isco p o ru m ), th e d a ta p r o v id e d are sig n ific a n t a n d

a lre a d y in th e six th c e n tu ry , a lm o s t a m y th ic a l tim e ,

n e e d to be e x p la in e d in c o n te x t. B a se d o n th e fa cts as

sin c e th e h a b ita b ility o f V en ice is n o t a s s e rte d u n til

d e te r m in e d , I a m t e m p te d to c o n c lu d e t h a t th e first

th e e n d o f th e e ig h th c e n tu ry ; s e c o n d , a c h u rc h b e in g

c h u rc h d e d ic a te d to S a in t P e te r w as b u ilt in th e n i n th

d e d ic a te d to tw o s a in ts fro m C o n s ta n tin o p le in th is

c e n tu ry , g iv e n th a t a b u ild in g to b e u s e d as a n e p is­

lo c a tio n is s ta te d o n ly b y th is so u rc e . N e v e rth e le ss ,

c o p a l see w a s n e e d e d fro m th e v e ry m o m e n t o f th e

th e so u rc e n e v e r a sserts th a t th e c h u rc h o f S a in t P e te r

f o u n d a tio n . I w o u ld also lik e to u n d e rs c o re t h a t a t

h a d re p la c e d t h a t o f S a in ts S erg iu s a n d B a c c h u s, as

th e tim e w h e n th e w o rk a t th e c h u rc h c o n s e c ra te d

h a s o fte n b e e n e rro n e o u s ly a ssu m e d in th e h i s t o r io ­

in 831 s ta r te d , O liv o lo h a d e x p e rie n c e d a n im p o r ­

g ra p h y o f th e t w e n tie th c e n tu r y c o n c e r n in g V e n ic e ’s

t a n t m o n a s tic c o lo n iz a tio n p h e n o m e n o n , th a t is,

c a th e d ra l. F in ally , th e e x p la n a tio n t h a t th e e p isco p a l

th e f o u n d a tio n o f th e m o n a s te r y o f S a n t’Ilario , a n

c h u rc h h a d b e e n b u ilt o n th e s p o t w h e re a h u g e olive

e n te rp ris e p r o m o te d b y th e a b b o t o f S a in t S e rv o lo ,

tre e ro se is c le a rly a n e tio lo g ic a l m y th , b o r n in a tim e

th e sa m e p e r s o n w h o h a d b e e n c h o s e n as p a tr ia r c h o f

w h e n p e o p le w is h e d to re c re a te th e a n c ie n t o rig in s o f

G r a d o b y th e D u k e o f V e n ice .14

th e e p is c o p a te . T h e re fo re , I t h in k th a t w e are fa c in g

T h e in f o r m a tio n p r o v id e d to u s b y G io v a n n i

a n h is to ric a l in te r p r e ta tio n d e v e lo p e d in a la te r age,

D e a c o n m ay, h o w e v e r, b e c o rre la te d w ith tw o o th e r

less re lia b le t h a n th a t o f G io v a n n i D e a c o n , a n d c h ie f­

so u rc e s. T h e first a n d m o s t s u b s ta n tia l is th e w ill fro m

ly g e n e ra te d w i t h in th e c o n te x t o f a n e x a lta tio n o f th e

X a v i e r Ba r r a i I A l t e t

p a tria rc h a te o f E lias, to w h o m th e f o u n d a tio n o f th e s u ffra g a n d io ce se o f V en ice s h o u ld b e assig n ed . It s h o u ld n o t b e n e g le c te d , h o w e v e r, t h a t E lia s’s b e c o m in g p a tria rc h o f A q u ile ia s u b s e q u e n t to th e L o m b a r d in v a s io n p r o m p te d th e p a tria rc h a l s e e ’s

te rrito ry , n a m e ly V en ice. T h e s itu a tio n o n ly c h a n g e d in 14 2 0 , w ith th e e n d o f th e p a tria rc h a l s ta tu s o f A q u ile ia a n d th e a n n e x a tio n o f F riu li to V e n ice .20 On

8 O c t o b e r 1451, P o p e N ic h o la s V fin ally

d e c re e d a b u ll d e c la rin g th e e n d o f th e G ra d o p a tr ia r ­

tra n s fe r to G ra d o , c a u sin g , as a re su lt, th e s e p a ra tio n

c h a te a n d c e d in g its te rrito ry , assets, a n d title to th e

b e tw e e n th e tw o p a tria rc h a te s , a re a lity th a t w o u ld

V en ice p a tria rc h a te , w h ic h le d to th e c a n c e lla tio n o f

la st fa r b e y o n d th e M id d le A g es. A c tu ally , in th e y e a r

th e V e n e tia n e p is c o p a c y a n d its c o n flu e n c e w ith th e

579, E lias h a d c o n v e n e d a s y n o d in G ra d o , w h e re h e

p a tr ia r c h y in th a t sa m e year. W h e n th e p a tr ia r c h o f

liv e d f o r a b o u t te n years, a n d d u rin g th e s y n o d h a d

G r a d o d ie d in 1451, B ish o p G iu s tin ia n i o f C a s te llo

f o u n d e d e x novo six L a g o o n -a re a d io ceses, n a m e ly

L o re n z o w as also n o m in a te d to re p la ce h im , in itia ­

T o rcello , M a la m o c c o , E q u ilo , E ra c lia n a , C a o rle a n d ,

tin g in th is w a y th e p a tria rc h a te o f V en ice, h e a d q u a r ­

o f co u rse, O liv o lo .17 I b e lie v e t h a t it is, as s ta te d ab ove,

te r e d in th e C a s tle .21

a m y th ic a l f o u n d a tio n , u tte r ly im p la u sib le fro m an h is to ric a l p o i n t o fv ie w , in v e n te d in o r d e r to le g itim iz e th e see o f G ra d o vis-à-vis t h a t o f A q u ile ia , a le g itim a ­

A r c k e o lo g k lE tiiA e n c e id its C o liT .s o w jith

tio n ju s tifie d m o re o v e r b y a n o th e r fa c t: in th e O rigo,

th e L u g o o n A r e n o ftk E le p e n tliC e n tfy

E lias is d e sc rib e d as th e su c c e sso r o f S a in t M a rk , t h a t is, th e e m issary o f th e A p o s tle P e te r in A q u ile ia .

T h e s to r y r e c o n s tr u c te d o n th e b asis o f te x tu a l d a ta

T his ev id en c e d e n o te s t h a t th e a ttr ib u tio n to E lias

h a s so fa r g e n e ra te d a n in te rp re ta tiv e c o n fu s io n th a t

o f th e fo u n d in g o f th e O liv o lo d io ce se also im p lie d

h a s e v en im p a c te d th e c a th e d ra l’s a r c h ite c tu ra l h i s ­

th e seal o f S a in t P eter, a lb e it in d ire c tly . N o t b e in g able

to ry . F ro m th e e a rly M e d ie v a l p h a se o f th e S a n P ie tro

to a b so lu te ly su g g e st th e P e trin e o rig in s o f O liv o lo ,

C a th e d r a l, w h ic h I w ill d e e m C a r o lin g ia n f o r th e

as o th e r a n c ie n t ep isco p a cie s lik e N a p le s o r C a p u a

sak e o f clarity , c u rre n tly n o th in g re m a in s, a n d an y

c o u ld d o d u rin g th e M id d le A g es, th e d io ce se s o u g h t a

a s s u m p tio n s re fe rrin g to its c o n fig u ra tio n w o u ld b e

m id -te rm re s o lu tio n in w h ic h th e V e n e tia n s also b e n e ­

useless, a lth o u g h w e c a n a sc rib e to th is c o n s tr u c tio n

fite d fro m G ra d o . T he re fere n ce to S a in t P e te r is v e ry

p h a s e a r e s to r e d m o sa ic p a n e l n o w p re s e rv e d in th e

im p o r ta n t in m y d isc o u rse a n d I w ill r e tu r n to it below . In 1 0 4 4 , m o re o v e r, P o p e B o n ifa c e IX , in a le tte r

C a p p e lla L a n d o o f th e c u r r e n t b u ild in g , a n d p e rh a p s p re v io u s ly a s e g m e n t o f a p a v e m e n t.

to O rs o O rs e o lo , w h o h a d b e e n se v e rely d a m a g e d

W e h a v e e v id e n c e to su g g e st n e ith e r th e c o n fig u ­

b y th e th e n - c u r r e n t p a tr ia r c h o f A q u ile ia , P o p p o n e ,

r a tio n o f O liv o lo ’s first e p is c o p a l c h u rc h , w h ic h I w ill

h a d c o m f o r te d h im b y p r o c la im in g th e in d e p e n d e n c e

a g ree to d a te b a s e d u p o n th e a sse rtio n s o f G io v a n n i

fro m A q u ile ia a n d c e d in g to h im th e c o n tr o l o f all

D e a c o n to th e e n d o f th e e ig h th c e n tu ry , n o r th e

th e te rrito rie s w ith in th e V e n e tia n d u c h y , th a t is, th e

s tr u c tu r e o f th e c h u rc h o f B ish o p O rs o , w h ic h w as

Italic R e ig n a n d Istria . In 1073, P o p e G re g o ry V I I h a d

p r o b a b ly b u ilt e x novo a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e n i n th

also u rg e d th e D o g e , D o m e n ic o Selvo, to s u p p o r t th e

c e n tu ry . N e v e rth e le ss , b y u s in g b o t h a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

p a tr ia r c h o f G ra d o , w h o n o w re s id e d p e r m a n e n tly

a n d m o d e r n g ra p h ic so u rc e s, w e w ill d e fin e th e fa cies

in V enice. F u rth e rm o re , P o p e A le x a n d e r I I I , w h o in

o f th e c a th e d ra l o f V en ice in th e R o m a n e s q u e p e rio d .

1177 liv e d in V en ice d u e to th e tru c e e s ta b lis h e d w ith

In th e c u r r e n t C a p p e lla L a n d o , w h e re th e m o sa ic

F re d e ric k B a rb a ro ssa , also u rg e d th e D o g e S e b a stia n o

f r a g m e n t w h ic h I m a in ta in d a te s f r o m th e early

Z ia n i to tra n s fe r th e p a tria rc h y o f G r a d o to th e city,

M id d le A g e s is p re s e rv e d ,22 th e re are tw o c o lu m n s o f

b o t h fro m a n a u th o rita tiv e a n d fa c tu a l g o v e rn m e n ta l

m e d iu m h e ig h t, w ith larg e a c a n th u s c a p ita ls o f p u l ­

p o i n t o f view .18

v in u s, d e c o r a te d w ith C o r i n th i a n p a lm s t h a t c le arly

H o w e v e r, th e p e r m a n e n t e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a lo c a l

d e m o n s tra te t h e ir sty le (Fig. 2). T h is is a c o m m o n

p a tria rc h , w h o s e re sid e n c e w as lo c a te d in th e p a la c e o f

d e c o ra tiv e s c u lp tu ra l fe a tu re t h r o u g h o u t th e L a g o o n .

S an S ilv estro in R ia lto ,19 b e c a m e a so u rc e o f c o n flic t as

T h is s tr o n g ta ste f o r A n tiq u e tra its is c u s to m a ry

b o t h th e M e tr o p o lita n p a tria rc h , th a t is, th e p a tr ia r c h

a n d allo w s us to d a te th e se c a p ita ls in th e first h a lf

o f G ra d o , a n d th e su ffra g a n b is h o p , w h o re s id e d in

o f th e e le v e n th c e n tu r y b y c o m p a rin g th e m to th o se

th e c a th e d ra l o f O liv o lo , w e re g a th e r e d in th e sam e

o f th e A q u ile ia p a tria rc h a l b a silic a , w h ic h are also

M e d i e v a l C a t h e d r a l A r c h i t e c t u r e as a n E p i s c o p a l I n s t r u m e n t : V e n i c e

143

Fig. 2.

Venice, San Pietro di C astello, C apella L ando, eleventh-century capital (p h o to author)

144

c h a ra c te riz e d b y a n o ld -sty le ta s te w h e re in th e s c u lp ­

R o m a n e s q u e p h a se . H o w e v e r, w h e th e r th is stag e w as

t o r im ita te d a n A n c ie n t c a p ita l m o d e l th a t w as th e n

p a r t o f a n e w c h u rc h o r w as a d a p te d a n d in te g r a te d

p la c e d to g e th e r w ith th e R o m a n e s q u e o n e s. T h e y c a n

in to a n e arly M e d ie v a l c h u rc h re m a in s u n k n o w n .

also b e c o m p a re d w ith th e R o m a n e s q u e -p e rio d c a p i­

F u rth e rm o re , i f w e c o m p a re th e s e c o lu m n s w ith a

tals o f S a in t N ic h o la s al L id o , w h ic h are v e ry sim ila r.23

d e ta ile d d e sig n f r o m th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y m a d e b y

T h e ir p re se n c e d o e s n o t im ply, h o w e v e r — a n d I

G . C a s o n i, in w h ic h h e d e p ic te d ‘l'a n tic a e d ic o la e n tro

w a n t to sta te th is f o r th e sake o f m e th o d o lo g y — th a t

c u i sta v a il F o n te B a tte s im a le ’ (‘th e A n c ie n t aed ic u le

in th e early M e d ie v a l p e r io d , th e re w as a m is n o m e r

in w h ic h th e B a p tism a l f o n t w as lo c a te d ’), th a t is,

‘p r o to - R o m a n e s q u e ’ sta g e, b e c a u se th e c a p ita ls a n d

th e b a p tiste ry , w h e re a sp rin g f o r b a p tis m c o u ld be

c o lu m n s m a y h a v e b e lo n g e d to a p ie c e o flitu r g ic a l f u r ­

fo u n d , it c a n b e o b s e rv e d th a t s im ila r c a p ita ls c o u ld

n itu r e a n d n o t to a b u ild in g s tr u c tu r e w ith lo a d -b e a ­

still b e se e n c ro w n in g th e c o lu m n s t h a t s u p p o r te d

rin g f u n c tio n . T h ese c a p ita ls c a n in fa c t b e sty listic a lly

th e d o m e o f th e c ib o riu m in th e n in e te e n th c en tu ry .

d a te d to th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry , y e t w e m u s t n o t in fe r

W la d im ir o D o r ig o s ta te d th a t th e tw o c o lu m n s o f

t h a t th e re w as a s im u lta n e o u s r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e

th e L a n d o C h a p e l w e re p ro b a b ly o rig in a lly p la c e d

c a th e d ra l: th e d a te th a t th e s e p ie c e s su g g e st ra th e r

w i t h in th e w a lls a t th e c o rn e rs o f th e sid e apses o f

in v ite s u s to h y p o th e s iz e th e p re se n c e o f a t le a st a n e w

th e c a th e d ra l's o rig in a l b a p tiste ry , fro m w h ic h w e

X a v i e r Ba r r a l I A l t e t

c a n still re c o g n iz e its to p o g r a p h y in C a s o n i ’s d e sig n .

a p e r io d o f e x tra o rd in a ry a rc h ite c tu ra l flo w ering.

N e v e rth e le ss , e v en i f w e w o u ld a ssu m e t h a t th e b a p ­

I w o u ld th e re fo re lik e to su rv e y a fa m o u s V enice c ity ­

tis te ry w as r e b u ilt in th e e le v e n th c e n tu r y a n d a n e w

scape d ra w n b y Ja c o p o d e ’ B a rb a ri a n d p r in te d in 1500

c ib o riu m w as a rra n g e d f o r th e f o n t, th is d o e s n o t

(th e re are n o w o n ly e lev en co p ies p re s e rv e d ),27 re p re ­

im p ly th a t th e m a in c h u rc h o f th e e p isc o p a l c o m p le x

s e n tin g th e c a th e d ra l o f S an P ie tro d i C a ste llo (Fig. 3).

h a d b e e n e n tire ly b u ilt.24 T h e te x tu a l so u rc e s are s ile n t o n th is fa c t, y e t in th e

In th e la n d s c a p e , a c h u rc h o f re m a rk a b le m o n u m e n ta lity c a n b e o b se rv e d , w h ic h rises to a c o n s i­

a f o r e m e n tio n e d C hro n ico n A ltin a te , w e re a d a s ig n i­

d e ra b le h e ig h t. I t is d iv id e d in to th re e n av es, fro m

fic a n t d a tu m , w h ic h I t h in k is re lia b le a n d c a n p r o ­

w h ic h o n ly th e m a in a n d th e r ig h t aisles c a n b e d is­

v id e a s ta r tin g p o i n t f o r a d v a n c in g th e re se arc h : th e

c e rn e d . A d d itio n a lly , th re e tie r e d apses c a n b e d is tin ­

a n o n y m o u s a u th o r o f th e te x t w rite s th a t la te o n 17

g u is h e d , as w e ll as six te e n sin g le -lig h t w in d o w s in th e

D e c e m b e r 1120, th e d a y o f th e b u ria l o f B is h o p V ita le

c le re sto ry , f r o m w h ic h a d o u b le c o lo n n a d e o f a t le a st

M ic h a e l, th e e p is c o p a l c h u rc h o f S a in t P e te r b u r n e d

e ig h t b a rre l c o lu m n s o n e ac h sid e m a y b e a ssu m e d .

c o m p le te ly , to g e th e r w ith th e B is h o p ’s p a la c e a n d

I b e lie v e th a t w h a t e m e rg es f r o m th e p la n is a close

sev eral n e ig h b o u r in g h o u se s. F u rth e r, th is h a p p e n e d

re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e c h u rc h a n d th e s u r r o u n d in g

o n th e d a y b e fo re B o n ifa c io F a lie r w as c o n s e c ra te d as

b u ild in g s o f th e e p is c o p a l c o m p le x , e sp e c ia lly th a t o f

th e n e w b is h o p o f S an P ie tro d i C a s te llo :25 B o n ifa c io

th e b is h o p ’s p a la c e . T h e p o r tic o o f th e b u ild in g c u r­

F a lie r (b is h o p f r o m 1120-33) w as a w e ll-k n o w n c h a ­

re n tly p re s e rv e d (a lb e it in c o n d itio n s o f d e p lo ra b le

ra c te r, o f w h o m th e so u rc e s p ra is e th e n o b ility o f

d e g ra d a tio n ) is c h a ra c te riz e d b y its w id e tile arch es

b ir th , his g re a t v irtu e a n d h o n e sty , a n d a b o v e all, h is

re s tin g o n c o lu m n s o f Is tria n s to n e , w h ic h d a te b a c k

b rin g in g to V en ice th e re m a in s o f S a in t Isid o re fro m

to th e g o v e rn m e n t o f th e p a tr ia r c h L o re n z o P riu li

th e is la n d o f C h io s .26

(1 5 3 7 -1 6 0 0 ), e le c te d in 1591, w h o s e c o a t o f a rm s c an

T h e s to r y p r o v id e d b y th e C h ronicon A ltin a te in

still b e se e n o n th e f r o n t d o o r (Fig. 4 ). T h e f r o n t o f

th is case is v e ry p re c ise a n d r e la te d to a n e v e n t, n a m e ly

th e b u ild in g w as t h e n a lig n e d w ith th e fa ça d e o f th e

th e e p is c o p a l c o n s e c ra tio n o f F alier, still fre sh in th e

n e w c h u rc h to c re a te a sc e n ic b a c k d ro p m a tc h in g th e

m e m o r y a t th e tim e w h e n th e te x t w as w r itte n . T h e

fie ld t h a t e x te n d e d in f r o n t o f th e e p isc o p a l c o m p le x .

c o in c id e n c e o f th e b u r n in g o f th e o ld c h u rc h w ith

C o n c e r n in g

th e

a fo re m e n tio n e d

la n d sc a p e ,

th e e le c tio n o f th e n e w b is h o p q u e s tio n s w h e th e r th e

W la d im ir o D o r ig o s ta te d th a t th e b u ild in g t h a t c an

u n f o r tu n a te c irc u m sta n c e h a d n o t b e e n a n e x c e lle n t

b e d is tin g u is h e d n e x t to th e c a th e d ra l w as a c o rtile ,

o p p o r t u n it y p r o v id e d to th is p re s tig io u s m e m b e r

t h a t is, a p a la c e c o u rty a rd , in w h ic h a n e x te rn a l s to n e

o f a p o w e rfu l V e n e tia n fam ily, to r e b u ild th e c h u rc h

sta irc a se w as p la c e d le a d in g u p to th e u p p e r flo o r. Yet,

u n d e r a n e w a p p e a ra n c e , d u r in g a tim e w h e n th e n e w

i f w e su rv e y th e la n d s c a p e closely, w e c a n o b se rv e a n

m a g n ific e n t b a silic a o f S a n M a rc o w as ra is e d in all its

o rig in a l R o m a n e s q u e clo ister. It m ig h t h av e h a d a

g lo ry n e x t to th e d u c a l p o w e r base. It w o u ld c e rta in ly

tw o -le v e l stru c tu re , w ith a g r o u n d flo o r o p e n to a c e n ­

n o t have b e e n th e o n ly case d u r in g th e M id d le A g es

tra l c o u r ty a r d th r o u g h a series o f larg e a rch e s, re c a lle d

in w h ic h a fire p r o v id e d th e p r e te x t to r e b u ild a n o ld

w ith ex actn ess o n th e e n g ra v in g , y e t d ra w n ju s t to

c h u rc h , su p p ly in g th e b is h o p c o m m is s io n in g th e

in d ic a te th a t it w as a tw o -le v e l s tru c tu re v ie w e d fro m

b u ild in g w ith th e o p p o r t u n it y to c e le b ra te h im s e lf

a b o v e, b y o b liq u e a n d n o t p a ra lle l axes. T h is p ro c ess

t h r o u g h a n e w m o n u m e n ta l c a th e d ra l.

w as n o t u n c o m m o n in th e p e rsp e c tiv e s d e v e lo p e d b y D e ’ B a rb a ri, a n d c a n a c tu a lly le a d us to b eliev e th a t w e are p la c e d o n th e f r o n t o f a n e x te rio r sta irc a se th a t gave

I D r n i w g b y J ic c o jio d e ’B i i r k r i m i t b e

access to th e p a la c e ’s first flo o r. W e c a n n o t e x clude

H fo tb e s is o fu R d g e s q u e C u tb e d r a lo fth e

t h a t th e R o m a n e s q u e c a th e d ra l b u ilt o r re b u ilt in

T u i e lj t h C e n t w y

1120 also h a d a c lo iste r; th is w as f o r m e d b y o v e rla p ­ p in g c o lu m n s, tw o o f w h ic h c am e to re st o n th e rig h t

N o n e th e le ss, I d o n o t w ish th e te x tu a l so u rc e s to assert

sid e o f th e c h u rc h a c c o rd in g to th e m o s t c o m m o n

w h a t th e y d o n o t say, a n d I h av e n o o th e r facts to s u p ­

R o m a n e s q u e tr a d itio n o n th e s o u th aisle. T h e fo u r

p o r t m y h y p o th e s is , t h a t is, a r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e

sin g le -lig h t w in d o w s are lo c a te d h e re , as is s h o w n in

c a th e d ra l a fte r 1120, a tim e w h e n in E u ro p e w e w itn e ss

th e e n g ra v in g , w h ic h d isp lay s g re a t m o n u m e n ta lity .

M e d i e v a l C a t h e d r a l A r c h i t e c t u r e as a n E p i s c o p a l I n s t r u m e n t : V e n i c e

145

Fig. 3. Venice, San Pietro di C astello, th e R om anesque cathedral before its destruction, detail from a w o o d cu t by Jacopo d e ’Barbari, c. 1500 (p h o to author) T hese o b se rv a tio n s also su g g e st th a t th e c a th e d ra l o f

d iffe re n t s tr u c tu r e c o m p a r e d to th e R o m a n e s q u e -

R om an esq u e

sty le L a g o o n -a re a c h u rc h e s. T h e fire o f 1120 e n a b le d

V e n e tia n L a g o o n

c h u rc h e s su c h

as

S a n to S te fa n o a t C a o rle , S a n ta M a ria a t T o rce llo , o r

d iffe re n tia tin g th e c a th e d ra l f r o m

th e

e x ib e r a n t

S a n ta M a ria e S an D o n a to a t M u r a n o (Fig. 5), a m o n g

b ig e n te rp ris e th a t w as ta k in g p la c e in th e p o litic a l

o th e rs , w h ic h w e re b u ilt a c c o rd in g to a n a rc h ite c tu ra l

c ity c e n tre , fo rm a lly o p p o s in g th e D o g e ’s p r e f e r ­

fo rm u la t h a t c o u ld a lre a d y b e f o u n d in S a in t N ic h o la s

r e d a r c h ite c tu r a l sty le a n d p r o c la im in g a s o r t o f

al L id o , a n d w h ic h w e w ill still f in d to w a rd s 1175 a t

in trin s ic V e n e tia n L a g o o n sty le, a lm o s t n a tiv e , a n d

S an C ris o g o n o a t Z a d a r /Z a r a (D a lm a tia ).28

e x p la in e d b y th e d e sire o f re c o v e rin g a n a n tiq u a te d

T h is a r c h ite c tu r a l ty p e is s tric tly o p p o s e d to th e

146

n o t y e t fin is h e d , th o u g h it a lre a d y d isp la y e d a v e ry

S a in t P e te r d id n o t d iffe r s tru c tu ra lly fro m th e g re a t

R o m a n e s q u e m o d e l.

b u ild in g s tr u c tu r e w h ic h w as c h o s e n f o r th e b a silic a

In th e title o f th is a rtic le , th e te r m ‘id e o lo g y ’

o f S an M a rc o in 1063d9 In 1120, w h e n th e c a th e d ra l o f

is m e n tio n e d in o r d e r to g e n e ra te a n in te lle c tu a l

O liv o lo /C a s te llo w a s p r e s u m a b ly r e b u ilt u n d e r th e

c h allen g e . T h e n e w c a th e d ra l w as b u ilt a fte r 1120 in a

sh a p e w e c a n still d is tin g u is h w i t h in th e a fo re m e n ­

sty le o f w h ic h th e p la n , c a p ita ls, a n d p ro b a b le c lo iste r

tio n e d s ix te e n th - c e n tu ry d ra w in g p r i o r to th e n e w

p r o v e d th e b o n d s w ith th e L a g o o n ’s R o m a n e s q u e t r a ­

P a lla d ia n b u ild in g , th e b a silic a o f S a n M a rc o w as

d itio n , d isp la y in g to th o se v is itin g V en ice a ta n g ib le

X a v i e r Ba r r a l I A l t e t

Fig. 4.

Venice, San Pietro di C astello, m o d ern co u rt o n th e site o f th e R om anesque cloister o fth e cath ed ral (p h o to author)

d iffere n ce : w h ile th e D o g e ’s c h a p e l w as p riv a te a n d

e n d o f th e e le v e n th a n d th e first h a l f o f th e tw e lfth

p u b lic a t th e sa m e tim e , th e c a th e d ra l w as th e h e a d

c e n tu r y in th e V e n e to c a n b e o v e rtu rn e d . T h e a rc h i­

o f th e d io cese. In m y o p in io n , a t a tim e w h ic h is n o t

te c tu re o f S a in t M a r k ’s a p p e a rs as a u n ic u m , u n iq u e

a rc h a e o lo g ic a lly d e m o n s tra b le , th e tw e lfth -c e n tu ry

a n d tr u ly e x c e p tio n a l, w h ils t in th e sam e re g io n a

V e n e tia n c a th e d ra l p la y e d a c o n sid e ra b le ro le in

lo c a l R o m a n e s q u e a rc h ite c tu re is d e v e lo p in g , w ith all

d e fin in g a stric tly lo c a l R o m a n e s q u e a rc h ite c tu re ,

its lo c a l n u a n c e s a n d p e c u lia ritie s.

fa r f r o m th e B y z a n tin e m o d e ls, a n d in te n tio n a lly

T h is c o n c lu sio n , f o u n d e d o n a d o c u m e n ta r y b asis

t u r n e d to l o o k to w a rd s th e V e n e tia n h in te r la n d .

a n d w h ic h h a s its s tr o n g p o i n t in D e ’B a r b a r i’s p e rs ­

F u r th e rm o re , I w ill n o t e x clu d e t h a t it w a s th is c h u rc h

p e c tiv e , a lo n g w ith th e c o m p a ris o n w ith th e o th e r

— w ith its aisles, its p r e s b y te r y ’s c o n sid e ra b le h e ig h t,

e x is tin g tw e lf th - c e n tu r y L a g o o n c h u rc h e s, c o u ld b e

th e b a la n c e in fo rm a l a n d sp a tia l te rm s — t h a t p r o ­

c o n firm e d b y th e s tu d y o f th e so -c a lle d c h a ir o f S a in t

v id e d th e m o d e ls fo r, f o r e x am p le, S an D o n a to at

P e te r, w h ic h is d o c u m e n te d sin c e th e f o u r te e n th c e n ­

M u ra n o , w h ic h w as p e rh a p s b u ilt im m e d ia te ly after,

tu r y as b e in g in th e c a th e d ra l o f C a s te llo a n d is c u r­

as is e v id e n c e d b y th e d a te 1141 s ta te d o n th e m o sa ic

re n tly p re s e rv e d th e re (Fig. 6). It is a m a rb le th r o n e

flo o r (Fig. 5). I f w e su rv e y th e fa cts fro m th is n e w

in c o r p o r a tin g a d o ssal m a d e in s a n d s to n e , p ro b a b ly a

p o i n t o f view , so m e o f th e c e rta in tie s a c q u ire d a t th e

f u n e ra l ste la w ith K u fic in s c rip tio n s , d a te d b y Isla m ic

M e d i e v a l C a t h e d r a l A r c h i t e c t u r e as a n E p i s c o p a l I n s t r u m e n t : V e n i c e

147

Fig. 5. M urano, San D o n ato , b u ilt aro u n d 1140 u n d er th e architectural influence o f th e R om anesque cathedral o f San Pietro di C astello (p h o to author) e p ig ra p h is ts in th e S e lju k p e r io d ,30 t h a t is, to th e

th r o n e s o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , still v isib le in v a rio u s

m id -e le v e n th c e n tu ry , th o u g h w e d o n o t k n o w w h e n

c h u rc h e s o f R o m e .31

o r h o w it a rriv e d in V enice.

148

In V en ice, a s c u lp tu ra l e rra tic fra g m e n t, w h ic h w as

C o n t r a r y to w h a t m o d e r n V e n e tia n so u rc e s r e p o r t

a ttr ib u te d to A n tio c h o n th e b asis o f its in s c rip tio n ,

c o n c e r n in g th is th ro n e , its c o n fig u ra tio n sh o w s a n

w as a sse m b le d f r o m m a rb le p ie c e s o f v a rio u s o rig in ;

a sse m b ly o f d iffe re n t p a rts , a n d its s tr u c tu r e is c h a ­

h o w e v e r, th e sc u lp tu re w as m a in ly o f a n E a s te rn o r i­

ra c te ris tic o f th e R o m a n e s q u e p e rio d . T h e c h a ir

g in , c o n firm in g its b e lo n g in g to S a in t P e te r A p o s tle .

su re ly w as c o v e re d w ith fa b ric s a n d p illo w s, a n d

C o n s e q u e n tly , I a m in c lin e d to a ssu m e t h a t w e are

u n d re s s e d o f th e se sy m b o ls o f p o w e r a n d th e e p is c o ­

p ro b a b ly fa c in g th e o n ly su rv iv in g e le m e n t o f th e

p a l r a n k w h e n n o t n e e d e d . I t is p a r t o f a lo n g tr a d i ­

litu rg ic a l f u r n itu r e p re s e rv e d f r o m th e R o m a n e s q u e

t io n o f b is h o p s ’ th r o n e s th a t c a n b e tra c e d sin c e L a te

c a th e d ra l o f V en ice b u ilt a fte r th e fire o f 1120. It is n o t

A n t i q u it y u n til th e e n d o f th e R o m a n e s q u e age in

s u rp ris in g t h a t d u r in g th e m o d e r n r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f

th e R o m a n a n d A b ru z z o m ilie u , fo llo w in g a c o n ti­

th e b u ild in g , th is th r o n e w as p re s e rv e d as a sy m b o l

n u o u s lin e , as A n d r é G r a b a r h a s a lre a d y s ta te d . T h e

o f th e o rig in s o f th e M e d ie v a l e p isc o p a l c o m p le x .

s tu d ie s o f F ra n c e sc o G a n d o lfo h av e e n lig h te n e d th e

S u b se q u e n tly , th e fix tu re w as alw ays c a lle d th e c h a ir

sy m b o lic v a lu e o f th e reu se o f A n tiq u e p ie c e s in p a p a l

o f S a in t P e ter, re fe rrin g n o t to th e c a th e d ra l c h u rc h

X a v i e r Ba r r a l I A l t e t

Fig. 6.

Venice, San Pietro di C astello, episcopal chair from th e R om anesque cathedral (p h o to author)

M e d i e v a l C a t h e d r a l A r c h i t e c t u r e as a n E p i s c o p a l I n s t r u m e n t : V e n i c e

149

o f S an P ie tro , b u t to S a in t P e te r th e A p o s tle , a d d i­

religieuses d'un choix architectural au XII ‫ ء‬siècle' in Materiam

tio n a lly b u ild in g a le g e n d th a t it w as th e th r o n e o f

superabat ٥f “s: Homm age à A lain E rlan deBrandenburg,

P e te r o f A n tio c h p r i o r to h is a rriv a l to R o m e , T hese le g e n d s are so m e tim e s in v e n te d in o r d e r to give c r e d it to th e a n tiq u ity o f th e lo c a l d io ce se s, w h ic h is g re a te r t h a n th a t o f th e R o m a n p a p ac y , A lth o u g h v e ry rare, p a ra lle ls are also f o u n d e lsew h ere in th e Ita lia n p e n in ­ su la, as in th e e x e m p la ry case o f N a p le s, T h e g en esis o f th e n e w P e trin e f o u n d a tio n m y th s alw ays o c c u r­ r e d in a v e ry c ru c ia l p e r io d in v o lv in g th e h is to ric a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f d io ce se s, P ro b a b ly , th e c o n s tr u c ­ t io n o f a n e w b u ild in g a n d th e d e f in itio n o f its litu r g y in re la tio n to th e n e w sp aces o f w o rs h ip in c lu d e d th e w r itin g o f n e w le g e n d s in te n d e d to b e r e c ite d o r su n g d u r in g p ro c e s sio n s, In th e case o f V en ice, th is issue re m a in s to b e in v e s tig a te d , B u t w h a t c o u ld b e v isu a lly s tro n g e r t h a n a th r o n e a llu d in g to th e fig u re a n d th e ro le o f th e p rin c e o f th e a p o stle s in o r d e r to s tr e n g th e n th e a u th o r ity o f a g re a t n e w L a g o o n c a th e d ra l t h a t sy m ­ b o lic a lly c o n tr a s te d e p is c o p a l p o w e r w ith th e p o w e r o f th e D o g e ?

NOTES ' Francesca C avazzana Rom anelli, ‘La basilica da cappella ducale a cattedrale di Venezia', in Quaderni della Procuratoria. Arte, storia, restauridellabasllicadiSanM arco aVenezia,20tt, pp, 20-3', 2John RusKTN‫؛‬, I S t onesofV enice, voV. 1. ! F o u n dations, Lon­ don, '85', pp, 35' - 52, 3 Gianmario G uidarelli, ‘Venice's Cathedral of San Pietro di C a i ١١L o H s-i'6 ١0\in ArchttectureArtandIdentity inVeniceand its Terntories.Essass‫ ؟‬inHonourofDeborah Howard, 1450-1750, ed, Nebahat Avcioglu & Emma J ones , Farnham, 20'3, pp, '85­ 201; Idem , IpatriarchidiVeneziae l.archttettira.La cattedrale di SanPietrodiCastellonelRinascim ento,coVLAteneo\U l! ‫ ا ﻷ ﻷ‬, Padova, 20'5. 4 The case of Rome is exceptional because Saint Peter's Basilica has a different function, 5 Frank Becker , ‘Tra basilica e palazzo: appunti sulla storia costtuttivadiSanM arcoaVenezid ,in Qua der nideir istituto diSt oria dell'a rch itettura,54,20'0, py. 3-20, 6 Henry M aguire & Robert S, N elson (ed.), San Marco, Byzantium, and the Myths ofVenice, Dumbarton Oaks Symposia and Colloquia, Washington, 20'0. 7 O tto D em u s , I Mosaics o j San M a rco i n Venice, C h iea ^, '984.,Xavier Ba r r a i i A ltet , Les m osaiquesdepav ementmédiévales de Venise, Murano, Torcello & Paris, '985, 8 Xavier Barral I A ltet , ‘La cathédrale Saint-Pierre contre la basilique Saint-Marc de Venise, ou les motivations politiques et

150

XAViER B a r r a l i A l t e t

‫ه ء‬٠

Agnès Bos & Xavier D ec TOT, Paris, 2006, pp, 200-11; Xavier Barral I A ltet , ‘La cattedrale di Venezia del vescovo Bonifa­ cio Fallier (1120-1133): alcune ipotesi' in La cattedrale di Padova nel Medioevo europeo, Colloquium at Università degli studi di Padova, 2009 (in press), 9 Concerning the devotion to Saint Peter and Saint Mark in the Venetàa.nt«É É , see•■ San Pietro e SanM f co: a rtee iconograjta in area adriatica, ed, Letizia C aselli, Rome, 2009 Luigi Anàïea B e r to , I n Sea rcbof t b eFirst y enetians.P r osopography ofEarly Medieval Venice, Turnhout, 2014, " G-iovanni M o N T ic o ia C^iror^،^(^l^e venezia ne a ntichissime, Rome, 1890, pp, 59171; Giovanni M o n TICOLO, ‘I manoscritti e le fonti della cronaca del diacono Giovanni' in Bullettino dell’Isti­ tuto storico italiano, 9, 1890, pp, 37-328; Enrico B esta , ‘Sulla composizione della cronaca veneziana attribuita al diacono G io v a n n i! Istituto veueto d i scienze, lettereedarti. A tt i, c lasse di scienze morali e lettere, 73/2, 1913-1914, pp, 775-802; Gina Fa soli , ‘I fondamenti della storiografia veneziana', in L a storiog ra ^a v eneziana n alsecolo XVI. A sp ettie pro blemi, e L ,A ٣ tino P ertusi , Florence, 1970, pp, 1113; L a cronaca veneziana di Giovanni Diacono, ed, Mario De Bia si , Venice, 1986, pp, 15-113; ‫ ل‬, M elvtlle -Jo n es , in I E ncy clopedia of t b e Medieval chro­ nicle, ed, R, Graeme D unphy , Leiden & Boston, 2010, p, 944; Luigi Andtea B erto , I P oliticai andSo cial Voi^abulai^yo‫ ؛‬Jobn tbeDeacon’s 'Istoria Veneticorum, Turnhout, 2013, 12 Giovanni M o n TICOLO, Cronache veneziane antichissime, p, 98 and passim, '3 M o n TICOLO, Cronache veneziane, p, 110, '4 Franco T o no n & Antonio C a rile , Le origini della chiesa di Venezia,Venice, 1987, '5 Franco Gaeta , S. Lorenzo (Fonti per la storia di Venezia, sez, II, Archivi ecclesiastici, Diocesi castellana, 1), Venice, 1959, pp, 5-12; Stefano G asparri, ‘I testamenti nell'Italia setten­ trionale fra VIII e IX secolo' in Sauver son âme et se perpétuer. Tr،^j^swiissi(^n،lu1)atr٠inï(ii»^e‫؛؛‬tn ^ ‫^؛‬n^(ii١^e،^ul:^،^t،tMo(^:j^‫^؛‬nL^‫؛؛^؛‬, eà-, François B o ugard , Cristina La R occa & Régine L e Ja n , Rome, 2005, pp, 97-113, 6 Origo cixi i n I taliae seu Venetia r u m j chron icon A ltinate et Chronicon Gradense), ed, Roberto C essi, Rome, 1933, p, 42 and passim; Girolamo A rnaldi & Lidia C a po , I cronisti di Venezia edellaM f c a Trevigia nadalle originialla J tnedel secolo X II I , in Storia della culturaveneta. D a ì e originial Trecento, Vicenza , 1976, pp, 387-411, esp, p, 393; Serban V, M a r in , ‘Considerations regarding the place of the Chronicon Altinate in the Venetian historical writing' in Revue des études sud-est européennes, LI, 2013, pp, 83-103, '7 M o n TICOLO, Cronache veneziane, pp, 43-44, ' ‫ أ‬Daniela Ra n d o , ‘Le strutture della Chiesa locale' in Storia di Venezia. I. Origini. Età ducale, Rome, '992, pp, 64-575, '9 Guido R o ssi & Gianna Sitr a n , L ’insula realtina sede dei p a tria rch id iG ra d A en icea 0 '0 . 20 Vittorio P iva & Silvio T r a m o n tin , Il Patriarcato di Venezia e le sue origini, Venice, '938; Antonio N ier o , ‘Dal patriarcato di Grado al patriarcato di Venezia', in Grado nella storia e nell’arte (Antichità altoadriatiche, '7), Udine, '980, pp, 265-84; Giorgio FedalTO, ‘Le origini della diocesi di Venezia', in Le origini della

Chiesa di Venezia, ed, Antonio C arile & Franco T o n o n , Venice, 1987, pp, 123-42; Antonio C a rile , Ilproblema delle orig in id i Venezia An L e originidella C h iesa,p p .7 7 -vv‫ ؟‬. 21 Silvio T ra m o n tin o ed,, Patriarcato di Venezia, Padova, 1991 The history of the papacy places great importance on the Venice patriarchate even through the twentieth century since three Venetian patriarchs became popes: Pius X, Pope John XXIII (now saint), and John Paul I, 22 Xavier Barral I A ltet , Les mosaïques de pavement, p, 1317; Xavfer B a r r a i I A lte t , Ledecotd u p avernentau M oye n A ge: ees mosatque s d e F rance t t d ’I talie fCoAecVon de YVcoFe ‫؛‬tan‫ ؟‬aise de Rome, 429), Rome, 2010, 23 Hans H. Buchw ald , ‘Eleventh Century Corinthian-Palmette Capitals in the Region of Aquileia', in The A rt Bulletin, 48, 1966, pp. 147-58. 24 Wladimiro D o rigo , Venezia romanica, Venice, 2003, pp. 78-79. 25 M o n t ic o l o , Cronache veneziane. Concerning the des­ truction of the church, see: Rinaldo FuLIN, ‘A nnali veneti brevi tratti da un codice vaticano', in Archivio veneto, XII, 1876, pp. 334-49, esp. p. 346; ‘Per un elenco dei vescovi di Castello, oltre a F. Ughelli', Italia sacra, V, coll. 1134 and passim; Flaminio C o r n e r , No tizie storich ede llec h iesee mo nasteridi Veneziaedi Totcello,Ven‫؛‬ce,!7 ١8, p p ,6 -i6 .

26 Irmgard Fees, ‘Falier, Bonifacio', in Dizionario biografico degli I talian i,vo\.4.4.,F،،ome,1994.. 27 SfmoneFERRART,J acopodeThatbati : unpio tagonista delR inas(:ÌTOe^„totraie„e^z^i(ieD*re^r,MfFan,i٥ ٥ 6>, 28 Concerning these monuments, see: Fulvio ZuLIANI, Veneto romanico, Milan, 2006, 2‫ ء‬Ferdinando F orla TI, ‘Influenza del primo S, Marco sulle chiese di Venezia e di Terraferma', in Beiträge zur K u nstgeschich te und A r ch äol ogie des Früh mittelalters. A k ten zum VII. I ntern ationalen K onress f ür Früh roittelalterf orschung (21-28 September 1958), ed, Hermann Fil l it z , Graz & Cologne, 1961, pp, 134-38. 30Vfncezo St r t r a , 'cattedrddiS. P ietroaV enezia.N o te sulla simbologia astrale nell’arte islamica, Naples, 1978, 31 Francesco Gan d o leo , ‘Frono’, n EncElopedia dell'arte medie­ vale, Rome, 2000; Francesco Gandoleo , ‘Reimpiego di sculture antiche nei troni papali del XII secolo', in Rendiconti della PontijtciaALccademiaromana diArcheologia,4 7 ,2974-297‫ ؛‬, pp , 20١-2%-, Francesco Gandoleo , ‘l a cattedra papale in età federiciana', in FedetEo I I e l.arte del Duecento italiano. A ti della III Settimana di studi di storiadellarte n^‫^؛‬d،i‫^؛‬jaee ١ dell.Univetsitd d,iRi)ma, 15-20 maggio 1978, ed, Angiola Maria R omanini , vol, I, Galatina, 1980, pp, 339- 66,

M e d i e v a l C a t h e d r a l A r c h i t e c t u r e as a n E p i s c o p a l I n s t r u m e n t : V e n i c e

151

The Architecture ofJaca Cathedral The Project and its Impact J a vier M a r t In e z d e A g u ir r e

A b s tr a c t In recent decades, th e architectural pro ject o f Jaca C athedral, a crucial w o rk o f Spanish Rom anesque, has n o t received the atte n tio n it deserves. The c ath ed ral’s arch itectu ral innovations p ro m p te d responses in A ragon, Navarre, Castile, and France. This article relies u p o n little-exploited docu m en tatio n , reveals h ith e rto u n k n o w n bu ild in g elem ents and draws its conclusions w ith in th e c o n te a o f a h ypothetical resto ratio n o f th e cathedral aro u n d 1100, view ed in plan, elevation and longitudinal section. E xam ining th e architectural co m p o sitio n supports reflecting o n th e process o f c o n stru ctio n and its chronology. The design and co n stru ctio n o f th e w hole R om anesque fabric (except th e ad d itio n o f th e tow er po rtico ) fol­ low ed a consistent im pulse th a t m ust have advanced during th e 1080s and 1090s. The u n d ertak in g can be qualified as am bi­ tious, refined, m agnificent, and m eaningful, and h o n o u rs th e creativity o f th e architect and th e objectives o f its patrons.

D u r in g th e la s t fifty y ears, th e s c u lp tu re o f Ja c a

O n e o f th e re a so n s f o r th e p a u c ity o f stu d ie s o n

a rt

th e c a th e d r a l’s a rc h ite c tu re m a y lie in th e d o u b ts

h is to ria n s , e sp e c ia lly as re g a rd s e p ig ra p h ic a n d ico -

a b o u t th e o rig in a l c h u rc h p r o je c t d e ta ils. a fire in

n o g ra p h ic a sp e c ts o f its fa m o u s w e st fa ça d e, a n d

1 4 4 0 a n d th e s u b s e q u e n t a d d itio n o f c h a p e ls a n d

sty listic c o m p o n e n ts o f its c a p ita ls a n d c o rb e ls.1 B y

v a u lts o b s c u re d k e y e le m e n ts p e r ta in in g to th e c o m ­

c o n tra s t, th e c h u r c h ’s a rc h ite c tu re , a c ru c ia l w o rk

p o s itio n o f th e c e n tra l ap se a n d th e o rig in a l c o v e rin g

C a th e d r a l

has

a ttr a c te d

th e

a tt e n ti o n

of

o f S p a n ish R o m a n e s q u e a rt, h a s n o t a ttr a c te d e q u a l

o f th e n av es,5 b o t h o f w h ic h are f u n d a m e n ta l to e sta ­

in te re s t, in sp ite o f th e lin e o f in v e s tig a tio n o p e n e d

b lis h in g th e filia tio n o f th e c h u rc h vis-à-vis th e m a jo r

b y D a v id L. S im o n w ith h is p r e s e n ta tio n o f c e rta in

c o n s tr u c tio n s o f th e p e rio d .

fo rm s o f c o n s tr u c tio n as, ‘th e p h y sic a l m a n ife s ta ­

N e w a rg u m e n ts w ill p e r m it sig n ific a n t a d v an ces

t io n o f S a n c h o R a m ir e z ’s p o litic a l v isio n ’.2 It seem s

b a s e d o n little -e x p lo ite d d o c u m e n ta tio n a n d th e

a d v isab le to fo llo w th is lin e o f re se a rc h in g re a te r

in v e s tig a tio n o f h ith e r to u n k n o w n e le m e n ts, su c h as

d e p th b e ca u se o f its im p lic a tio n s f o r th e re la tio n s h ip

th e sp rin g in g p o i n t o f th e naves’ tran sv erse arch es, th e

b e tw e e n R o m a n e s q u e a rt, th e p o litic a l c o n te x t, a n d

h ig h w in d o w s o v e r th e o rig in a l c h o ir, a n d th e h id d e n

th e G re g o ria n R e fo rm . A lso , e x p lo rin g th e a rc h ite c ­

c o rb els a n d p u tlo g h o le s o v e r th e la te r v a u lts. F o r o th e r

tu re e x p a n d s a d e b a te to o f o c u s e d o n th e p o te n tia l

a rc h ite c tu ra l c o m p o n e n ts , su c h as th e w e ste rn fa ç a d e ’s

a c c e p ta n c e o f U b i e to ’s a rg u m e n ts c o n c e rn in g th e

in tra m u ra l sta irw a y o r th e p a r tic u la r d is trib u tio n o f

c h r o n o lo g y o f th e c h u rc h ,3 a n d o n w h e th e r th e re w as

w in d o w s a n d o c u li, I w ill p ro p o s e n o v e l in te r p r e ta ­

a n in itia l p r o je c t p r o m o te d b y R a m iro I (1 0 3 5 -6 4 )

tio n s t h a t ad d ress th e p la n n in g a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f

a n d c a rrie d o u t u s in g F irs t R o m a n e s q u e fo rm u la s .4

th e w o rk . M y c o n c lu sio n s w ill tak e fo rm b y m e a n s o f a

RowauesqtteCatfoedrah in M eèeïïA n e ،m E u ro p ejcb itectu re ,R itM i،m ،lU rkn C o n text ١ ecL byG em àoB oto % eY a.& J\‫ >؟‬t m A . Yroesen ١ A t c h É n a .

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016)١ pp. 153-168

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109580

Fig. 1.

Jaca C ath ed ral, in te rio r (p h o to author)

h y p o th e tic a l re s to ra tio n o f th e b u ild in g a r o u n d 1100,

T h is c o n tin u ity d o e s n o t c o n flic t w ith th e o c c u rre n c e

v ie w e d in p la n , e le v a tio n , a n d lo n g itu d in a l se c tio n .6

o f su ccessive c a m p a ig n s , b u t r a th e r w ith th e d ra stic

T h e c o n s tr u c tio n o f Ja c a C a th e d r a l h a d a n e n o r ­

c h an g e s th a t so m e a u th o rs h a v e a ttr ib u te d to th e su c ­

m o u s im p a c t o n b o t h sid es o f th e P y re n e e s b e ca u se

c e ssio n in th e d ir e c tio n o f th e w o r k b y o n e o r v a rio u s

o f its m o n u m e n ta lity a n d p e r f e c tio n (Fig. 1), a n d also

a rc h ite c ts w h o s e a p p ro a c h e s o r te c h n iq u e s d iffe r

b e ca u se o f its d e p a rtu re fro m p re v io u s tr a d itio n s a n d

s ig n ific a n tly fro m th e o rig in a l o n es.

f r o m th e c o ev a l c a n o n . C o n te x tu a liz in g c h u rc h e s t h a t d e m o n s tra te d iv e rg e n t re sp o n se s to th e a rc h ite c ­

154

M y p ro p o s a l is n e ce ssarily a f u n c tio n

o f th e

la c k o f u n a n im ity a m o n g sc h o lars in e sta b lish in g

tu r a l in n o v a tio n s a t Ja c a w ill h e lp to resolve c o n tr o ­

th e c o n s tr u c tio n p ro c ess, b o th w ith re g a rd to th e

v ersial issues.

s tra in e d p a r ts o f th e b u ild in g a n d to th e c h ro n o lo g y

E x a m in in g w h a t h a s c o m e d o w n to u s w i t h in th e

o r th e n u m b e r o f p e rso n s re sp o n sib le fo r th e w o rk .

f r a m e w o rk o f E u ro p e a n a rc h ite c tu re o f th e se c o n d

L e t u s m ak e a n illu stra tiv e , i f n o t ex h au stiv e, review.

h a l f o f th e e le v e n th c e n tu r y rev eals th e s in g u la r

L a m p é re z a n d W h ite h ill c o n sid e re d t h a t th e re w ere

a sp e cts o f th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t c h u rc h o f w h a t w as

th re e p h a se s: apses a n d c ro ssin g b e fo re 1063; p e r im e ­

t h e n th e c a p ita l o f th e e m e rg in g k in g d o m o f A ragO n.

te r w alls a n d b e g in n in g o f th e p o r tic o a t th e e n d o f

A t th e sam e tim e , it clarifies in te n tio n a l c o n n o ta ­

th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry ; a n d naves in th e tw e lfth cen-

tio n s th a n k s to th e d isc o v e ry o f n e w fo rm a l lin k s

tu ry .8 G O m ez M o re n o d is tin g u is h e d fo u r: first, th e

to Italy. F inally, it e m p h a siz e s th e c o n tin u ity o f th e

‘la te ra l p o r ta l w ith th e apses a n d th e lo w e r fe n e s tra ­

p r o je c t, w h ic h , g iv e n its h o m o g e n e ity , m u s t h av e

tio n ’; a little late r, th e w e st p o r ta l, th e arch e s o f th e

b e e n b u ilt in less tim e th a n is tr a d itio n a lly a ssu m e d .7

c ro ssin g , a n d th e p iers, b e fo re 1063; late r, p e rh a p s a fte r

J a v i e r M a r t I n e z de A g u i r r e

th e d e a th o f R a m iro I, th e h ig h e r p a rts o f th e w alls

o u tlin e s o r a n y re a so n s to p o s it a n y a b n o rm a l b u il­

o f th e th re e naves a n d u n d e r th e c u p o la ; a n d ‘m u c h

d in g p ro c e ss delay.

la te r, th e c o n tin u a tio n o f th e w e s te rn p o r ta l a n d th e c u p o la .9 In ig u e z also a ssu m e d f o u r stages: p e rim e te r w alls a n d th e b e g in n in g o f th e p o r tic o b e fo re 1063;

IP k i

p iers a n d d o o rs b e fo re 10 8 0 ; th e h ig h w alls o f th e c e n ­ tra l nave, d o m e , a n d v a u ltin g o f th e th re e naves; a n d

T h e b a sic fe a tu re s o f th e e le v e n th -c e n tu ry p la n o fJa c a

th e clo ister.10 C a n e lla s a n d S an V ic e n te o p te d f o r c o m ­

C a th e d r a l (Fig. 2) c o n tin u e to d e fin e its p re s e n t-d a y

m e n c e m e n t in th e apse a n d th e w e st fa ça d e; th e n th e

fa b ric . T h e a d d itio n o f c h a p e ls d u rin g th e s ix te e n th

la te ra l w alls w o u ld h av e b e e n e re c te d w ith d o o rs a n d

c e n tu r y a n d th e s u b s titu tio n o f th e o rig in a l c e n tra l

w in d o w s , all b e fo re 1 0 6 4 ; fo llo w in g th a t w o u ld b e ‘a

ap se b y o n e o f g re a te r d e p th , w id th , a n d h e ig h t d u rin g

re s tric tio n o f th e p ro g ra m [...] w ith th e v a u ltin g o f th e

th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y m o d ifie d its R o m a n e s q u e

nave b e in g a b a n d o n e d ’; a n d finally, ‘a m a s te r k n o w le d ­

a p p e a ra n c e , w h ic h w as p a r tly re v iv e d th a n k s to th e

geable a b o u t H is p a n o -M u s lim

c le a rin g aw ay o f a d d itio n s d u r in g r e s to ra tio n s in th e

te c h n iq u e s ’ w o u ld

h ave c o m p le te d th e c e n tra l nave a n d b u ilt th e c u p o la .

t w e n tie th a n d tw e n ty -firs t c e n tu rie s.

D u r â n G u d io l re in te r p re te d th e d o c u m e n ta tio n , situ a ­

T h e p r in c ip a l d ile m m a arises w h e n it c o m e s to

tin g th e first stag e a r o u n d 1080, in te r r u p te d v e ry so o n ,

d e fin in g th e la y o u t o f th e o rig in a l m a in apse. T he

a r o u n d 1082, a n d n o t re su m e d u n til th e b e g in n in g o f

p la n d ra w n b y In ig u e z (Fig. 3) in h is c. 1933 a tte m p t

th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry ; th e ‘d e fin itiv e im p u ls e ’, in c lu d in g

to r e p ro d u c e th e in itia l sta te o f th e c h u rc h a c h ie v e d

th e cloister, w o u ld h av e ta k e n p lac e b e tw e e n 1110 a n d

in te r n a tio n a l d is s e m in a tio n th a n k s to its p u b lic a ­

1130." D u r lia t also d a te d th e b e g in n in g a r o u n d 1080

t io n b y G O m ez M o r e n o in 1934 a n d W h it e h il l in

a n d e s tim a te d th e to ta l d u r a tio n o f th e w o rk a t a b o u t

‫ ل‬9 4 ‫ ل‬.‫أ‬

f o r ty years w ith ‘n u m e ro u s successive in te r r u p tio n s ’,

o r d e r to d e te rm in e th e d e sig n o f th e n o lo n g e r e x ta n t

U n fo rtu n a te ly , it c o n ta in s a se rio u s e rro r. In

a m o n g w h ic h h e p o i n te d o u t tw o g re a t c am p a ig n s:

c e n tra l apse, In ig u e z , a p p ly in g a n o r m f r e q u e n t in

th e in itia l o n e a ffe c tin g th e naves, a n d th e s u b s e q u e n t,

R o m a n e s q u e b u ild in g s , s u p p o s e d t h a t th e d e p th o f

m o s t i m p o r ta n t o n e , w h ic h in c lu d e d apse, p o rtic o ,

its a n te a p se w as p r o p o r tio n a l to its g re a te r w id th

a n d th e te r m in a tio n o f th e w o rk .12 S im o n n o t e d a first

w ith re s p e c t to th e la te ra l c h a p e ls.16 H e th u s im a g in e d

p h a se b e tw e e n th e sev en ties a n d th e n in e tie s o f th e

a m a in c h a p e l th a t p r o je c te d c o n s id e ra b ly m o re th a n

e le v e n th c en tu ry , h a lte d a fte r th e c o n q u e s t o f H u e sc a

th e lesse r apses. N e v e rth e le ss , re c e n t d isc o v erie s o f a

(1096) a n d re su m e d to w a rd th e se c o n d d e c a d e o f th e

p la n e a rlie r th a n th e e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y r e fo rm o f

tw e lfth c e n tu ry .13 H is m e tro lo g ic a l s tu d ie s le d E ste b a n

th e e a st e n d o f th e c h u rc h (Fig. 4 ) a n d vestig es o f th e

L o re n te to p o s tu la te f o u r a rc h ite c ts : th e first o n e

o rig in a l apse s h o w us th a t th e th re e a n te a p se s w e re, in

w o u ld h ave b e g u n th e w o rk in th e m id -e le v e n th c e n ­

re ality , id e n tic a l in d e p th .17

tu ry ; th e se c o n d w o u ld have b u ilt th e g re a te r p a r t o f

I n ig u e z ’s a n te a p se w as a n e rro r, b u t a ju stifia b le

th e edifice in th e 1070s; th e t h ir d w o u ld h av e fin is h e d

o n e . N o t so is h is re p re s e n tin g as o rig in a l th e p r o je c ­

th e nave a n d th e w e s te rn p o r ta l a r o u n d 1080; a n d th e

tin g sp ira l sta irc a se b e sid e th e w e st p o r ta l, c o n s id e rin g

fo u r th , b y t h e n in th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , w o u ld have

th e p r e s e n t access as th e o rig in a l o n e , w i t h o u t c o n s i­

b u ilt th e p o r tic o .14

d e rin g th e illo g ic a n d im p ra c tic a lity o f th e s itu a tio n

In m y o p in io n , it w o u ld b e m o re a c c u ra te to r e in ­

o f its d o o r a t a h e ig h t o f 1.40 m . T h e sp ira l sta irc ase

te r p r e t th e c h a n g e s in th e p r o p o r tio n s o f th e ele ­

c o n n e c ts w ith a R o m a n e s q u e s te p p e d p a ssa g e w a y th a t

m e n ts o f c o n s tr u c tio n , th e d iffe re n c e s in m aso n ry ,

a sc e n d s to th e in te r io r o f th e w e s te rn fa ça d e, o v e r th e

th e selectiv e a p p e a ra n c e o f s to n e m a s o n s ’ m a rk s, o r

m a in d o o r. T h e sp ira l s e g m e n t a t Ja c a is n o t e n g a g e d

th e e v o lu tio n o f th e o rn a m e n ta l e n se m b le as a n o r ­

w ith th e w a ll, a n d th e m a s o n ry d iffers c le a rly fro m

m al c o n se q u e n c e o f d e v e lo p in g a M e d ie v a l b u ild in g

th e s u r r o u n d in g R o m a n e s q u e s to n e w o rk . W i t h o u t

o f th e s e d im e n s io n s , w ith th e p a r tic ip a tio n o f m o re

d o u b t it w as b u ilt in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e c o n s tr u c ­

th a n o n e c re w o f sto n e m a s o n s ( o f d iffe re n t c o n s tr u c ­

t io n o f th e c h a p e l o f th e T r in ity a t th e e n d o f th e

t io n tr a d itio n s ) a n d th e w e ll-k n o w n w in te r i n te r r u p ­

s ix te e n th c e n tu ry , w h ic h d e s tro y e d th e p ro lo n g a tio n

tio n s . I h av e n o t d e te c te d a n y sig n ific a n t a lte ra tio n s

o f th e R o m a n e s q u e in tr a m u r a l sta irw ay , still p a rtia lly

t h a t m ig h t a ffec t th e m a in a r c h ite c tu ra l c o m p o s itio n

v isib le (o n e c a n see a n a rro w in g in its d e sc e n t, c a u sed

T h e A r c h i t e c t u r e of J a c a C a t h e d r a l

155

PLANTA

Fig. 2.

G raphic reco n stru ctio n o fJaca C ath ed ral: p lan aro u n d 1100 (p roposal by author, draw n by M arina M a r t In e z d e A g u ir r e

from plans designed by Ricardo M a r c o , JesUs MARCO, and Javier Ib a r g Ue n )

Fig. 3. Jaca C athedral: p lan draw n by Francisco Iftiguez aro u n d 1933 (pu b lish ed in W h it e h i l l , Spanish Romanesque A rchieecture,i،H i ١)

156

J a v i e r M a r t I n e z de A g u i r r e

Fig. 4. Jaca C ath ed ral: p lan draw n before th e eig h teen th -cen tu ry reform o f th e east e n d in th e Libro de trazas de la arquitectura jacetana (preserved in th e A rchivo HistOrico Provincial de H uesca, E S /A H P H U — F-000071, fol. 5r)

b y its a d a p ta tio n to a t h in n e r w a ll). T h e s ta irw a y d o o r

a n d w h ic h le d to th e c e n tre o f th e c lo is te r ’s s o u th

is close to th e n o r th w e s t c o rn e r, w h e re d o o rs are also

g a lle ry .19 In ig u e z in c lu d e d th e p o r tic o to w e r, w h ic h

f o u n d in C a s tilia n c h u rc h e s o f th e p e rio d , s u c h as S an

I h a v e o m it t e d in th e re s to r a tio n b e c a u se it w as n o t

Isid ro in D u e h a s , S a n Z o ilo in C a rriO n d e lo s C o n d e s ,

p a r t o f th e o rig in a l p ro je c t.

a n d S an M a r tin in F rO m ista, all w ith sp ira l sta irw a y s h o u s e d in to w e rs. T h e o n e in Jaca d id n o t o rig in a lly c o m m u n ic a te w ith a ra is e d sp a c e a t th e w e st e n d o f th e c h u rc h as it d o e s in th e s e C a s tilia n c h u rc h e s, b e ca u se th e p o r tic o w as a d d e d o n .18 It w o u ld have

O f th e th re e R o m a n e s q u e apses, o n ly th e s o u th e r n

s e rv e d as a serv ice sta irw ay , th e o n ly o rig in a l o n e t h a t

o n e , w ith a se m ic irc u la r in te r io r a n d e x te rio r, is c o m ­

le d to th e ro o f, w h ic h re in fo rc e s th e h y p o th e s is o f a

p le te ly v isible. T h e d is p o s itio n o f o n ly o n e c o lu m n

r a p id a d v an c e o f th e e d ifice b y m e a n s o f b u ild in g th e

o n its e x te rio r h a s le d so m e to t h i n k th a t th e re h a d

w h o le p e rim e te r.

b e e n a n id e n tic a l o n e o n th e o th e r sid e o f th e w in ­

A sid e fro m th is , In ig u e z ’s p la n sh o w s a n in te l­

d o w , e lim in a te d b y th e e n la rg e m e n t o f th e m a in apse.

lig e n t i n te r p r e ta tio n o f th e R o m a n e s q u e e le m e n ts

H o w e v e r, th e b ille t m o u ld in g f r a g m e n t o n th e n o r t h

visible in th e b u ild in g . H e r e s to r e d th e w alls w ith

sid e is lo n g e r t h a n th e c o r r e s p o n d in g o n e o n th e

u n if o r m th ic k n e ss w h e re th e y h a d d is a p p e a re d a n d

s o u th side. F u r th e rm o re , th e p r o je c tin g p a r t o f th e

d re w w in d o w s w h e re h e w as su re th a t th e re h a d b e e n

b a se , w h ic h h y p o th e tic a lly w o u ld c o r r e s p o n d to th e

any. H e id e n tifie d th e o rig in a l c lo is te r d o o r as th e

s e c o n d c o lu m n , is a c tu a lly a lm o s t in ax ial a lig n m e n t

lin te le d d o o r t h a t still exists to d a y in th e s e c o n d b a y

w ith o n e o f th e w in d o w c o lu m n s .20 In S an M illd n in

o f th e n o r t h sid e aisle, c o u n tin g f r o m th e tra n s e p t,

S eg o v ia, a c h u rc h d ire c tly in s p ire d b y Ja c a C a th e d r a l,21

T h e A r c h i t e c t u r e of J a c a C a t h e d r a l

157

th e re is also a sin g le c o lu m n in e ac h m in o r apse.

T h e e x te rio r o f th e m a in c h a p e l (Fig. 5) w o u ld have

A ll th is lea d s o n e to t h in k th a t th e re w as o n ly o n e

b e e n d e fin e d b y th re e w in d o w s w ith tw o c o lu m n s

c o lu m n in e ac h sid e ap se; th u s, I c o n s id e r In ig u e z 's

b e tw e e n th e m , as In ig u e z d re w th e m . T h e im p o rta n c e

p la n c o rre c t in th is a sp e c t, to o . T h e n o r t h ap se m u s t

o f th e h o riz o n ta l b ille t m o u ld in g s in th e w h o le b u il­

h av e b e e n id e n tic a l, as it c o in c id e s in d im e n s io n s a n d

d in g lea d s o n e to th in k t h a t th e y also a rtic u la te d th e

in in te r io r m o u ld in g d is tr ib u tio n .

e x te rio r c o m p o s itio n o f th e m a in apse. A n o p tio n in

T he in te rio r m o u ld in g s o f th e so u th apse w ere c h ip ­

lin e w ith F ró m ista w o u ld b e to p ro lo n g th e w in d o w

p e d away; o n th e n o rth e rn o n e, o n th e o th e r h a n d , w e see

c a p ita ls’ a b a c i in th e la te ra l apses to d e te rm in e th e

th ree o n th e w all surfaces n o t h id d e n b y th e altarpiece.

sills o f th e m a in c h a p e l o p e n in g s . B u t i f a t th e sam e

T he low est o n e m ark s th e w in d o w sill, th e in te rm e d ia te

tim e th e c o rn ic e m o u ld in g in th e la te ra l apses h a d

o n e p ro lo n g s th e abaci o f th e capitals o f th is w in d o w ,

b e e n in lin e w ith th e a b ac i o f th e c e n tra l w in d o w c ap i­

a n d th e h ig h e s t c o rresp o n d s to th e v a u lt im p o st. In these

tals, th e w in d o w s o f th e m a in apse w o u ld h ave b e e n

sam e places in th e so u th apse can be seen row s o f sto n e

sm a lle r t h a n th e la te ra l o n es, w h ic h w as in f r e q u e n t in

th e size o f a m o u ld in g w ith a ro u g h surface.

th a t e p o c h . I t h in k th a t in o n e o f th e tw o m o u ld in g s,

O f th e m a in apse, o n ly its a n te a p se surv iv es. N o

p ro b a b ly t h a t th a t m a rk e d th e w in d o w sills a n d cam e

o ld p la n sh o w s its w in d o w s , h id d e n b y th e m a in a lta r­

fro m th e la te ra l apses’ abaci, th e re w as a b re a k , a ste p

p ie c e a t le a st sin c e th e b e g in n in g o f th e se v e n te e n th

d o w n in o r d e r to m a k e it p o ssib le f o r th e m a in c h ap e l

c e n tu ry . W e m u s t f in d re a so n s f o r o n e o f tw o p la u ­

w in d o w s to b e a t le a st a t th e sam e h e ig h t as th e la te ra l

sible so lu tio n s : o n e w in d o w lik e th e o n e a t

ué

o n e s.22 T h e b re a k w o u ld b e sim ila r to th o se th a t w e

(fla n k e d o n th e in sid e b y tw o sm a ll b lin d a rc h e s), o r

see in sid e th e c a th e d ra l o v e r th e s o u th e r n d o o r a n d

٧

th re e , as in S a n ta M a ria a t Ig u â ce l a n d S a n M illâ n in

b e sid e th e w e s te rn fa ça d e o c u lu s. A n d it w o u ld have

S egovia. T h ese th re e b u ild in g s w e re d e p e n d e n t o n

p a ra lle le d th e d o u b le b re a k t h a t e x is te d in b o th t r a n ­

Ja c a C a th e d r a l in th e ir c o m p o s itio n a n d o rn a m e n t.

se p t façad es, as w e c a n see to d a y in th e secretum , n o w

T h e in te r io r o f th e U ju é w in d o w is fla n k e d b y tw o

p a r t o f th e Ja c a D io c e s a n M u s e u m . In S im a c o u rb e , a

b lin d a rch e s; th e re are also b lin d a rc h e s b e tw e e n

c h u rc h in B é a rn (F ra n c e ), w h o se a rc h ite c tu ra l c o m p o ­

th e w in d o w s a t Ig u â ce l. A t S an M illâ n , m o re d is ta n t

s itio n a n d s c u lp tu ra l o r n a m e n ta tio n are v e ry close to

in tim e a n d sp ace, in s te a d o f b lin d a rch e s th e re is a

th o se o fJa c a , th e b ille t m o u ld in g also h a s a d o w n w a rd

b lin d arca d e a lo n g th e b ase, e x te n d in g to th e a n te a p se

b re a k p re c ise ly in th e c e n tra l w a ll o f th e apse. In th e

(a t Ja c a th e a n te a p se is u n a d o r n e d ) . In g e n e ra l, th e

m a in apse a t Jaca, th e u p p e r m o u ld in g a t th e level o f

c h u rc h e s th a t a d a p t a m o d e l to lesse r d im e n s io n s

th e w in d o w c a p ita ls’ a b ac i w o u ld c o rre s p o n d w ith th e

t e n d to s im p lify in s te a d o f e m b e llis h in g it. T h is is

la te ra l apses’ c o rn ic e (th e y are th e o n ly e x te rio r c o r­

w h a t p ro b a b ly h a p p e n e d a t U ju é , w h o s e c e n tra l apse

n ice s w ith b ille t m o u ld in g s in th e w h o le b u ild in g ).

is s lig h tly m o re t h a n five m e tre s w id e , c o m p a re d w ith 7.12 m a t Ja c a, so th a t th e re w as n o ro o m f o r th re e w in d o w s . I c o n s id e r it p o ss ib le t h a t th e m a in apse a t

I S o u tb e r w ,N o r tb e r w g ،iW e s te r w F ،¥ ،ie s

Ja c a w o u ld h av e h a d a lo w e r level w ith a p la in w all, g iv e n t h a t th a t is h o w th e a n te a p se is. T h e c e n tra l

T h re e p rin c ip le s c h a ra c te riz e th e p e r im e te r w a lls’

level w o u ld h av e c o n s is te d o f th re e w in d o w s a lte rn a ­

a rc h ite c tu ra l c o m p o s itio n : th e c o m b in a tio n o f w in ­

tin g w ith a t le a s t tw o in te rm e d ia te b lin d arch es. In

d o w s a n d o c u li, th e a b se n c e o f b u ttre ss e s , a n d th e

m y o p in io n , it is p ro b a b le t h a t th e re w e re f o u r b lin d

h o r iz o n ta l a r tic u la tio n u s in g b ille t m o u ld in g s . O f th e

a rch e s (o n e b e tw e e n e ac h p a ir o f w in d o w s a n d o n e

th re e la te ra l ap se b ille t m o u ld in g s , th e to p o n e s are

m o re a t e ac h e n d ), as a t C o n q u e s . T h e a rca d e w o u ld

i n te r r u p t e d u p o n re a c h in g th e c o r n e r o f th e a n te a p se,

h av e h a d sin g le c a p ita ls, as a t Ig u a ce l, o r d o u b le o n es,

a n d o n ly th e b o t to m o n e (a lte re d b y th e c o n s tr u c tio n

as a t U ju é . In th e re c o n s tr u c tio n , I h av e o p t e d fo r

o f th e sa c ris ty o f th e S a n M ig u e l c h a p e l) c o n tin u e s.

sin g le o n e s. T h e in te r io r e le v a tio n w o u ld h av e b e e n

158

T he s o u th e rn façade to d a y p re se n ts c o n siderable

a r tic u la te d b y m e a n s o f th re e b ille t m o u ld in g s : th e

differences w ith re sp e ct to th e ele v e n th cen tu ry , caused

lo w e st u n d e r th e w in d o w sills, th e m id d le o n e a t th e

b y th e a d d itio n o f th e chapels o f S an M ig u e l a n d San

h e ig h t o f th e a b ac i o f th e c a p ita ls o f th e se w in d o w s ,

S ebastian, w ith th e ir respective sacristies, a n d o f th e

a n d th e h ig h e s t m a rk in g th e v a u lt im p o s t.

A n n u n c ia tio n , as w ell as b y th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e ‘lo n ja

J a v i e r M a r t I n e z de A g u i r r e

Fig. 5. G raphic reco n stru ctio n ofJaca C ath ed ral: east end elevation aro u n d 1100 (proposal by author, draw n by M arina M a r t In e z d e A g u ir r e from plans designed by Ricardo M a r c o , JesUs M a r c o , and Javier I b a r g Ue n )

chica’ (th e sm all l o ^ i a ) a n d th e e x te n sio n o f th e so u ­

th e p r o je c tin g p a r t o f th e p o r ta l. A b i t lo w e r, it gives

th e rn nave w all. O riginally, it c o n siste d o f th re e u n its:

c o n tin u ity to th e fra m e o f th is p o r ta l. T h e to p m o u l­

th e lateral apse (d e sc rib e d above, w ith a b r ie f an teap se),

d in g , o n a level w ith th e a b a c i o f th e w in d o w s , ra n

th e e n d w all o f th e tra n se p t, a n d th e side aisle.

a lo n g th e w h o le w a ll a n d c o n tin u e d to th e so u th w e s t

T h e tr a n s e p t fa ça d e, p r o b a b ly id e n tic a l to th e

c o rn e r, u n d e r a n o c u lu s.

b e tte r - c o n s e r v e d o n e o n th e n o r t h sid e, w o u ld have

A d o u b t arises o n a n a ly z in g th e e a s te rn b a y o f th e

b e e n c ro w n e d b y a la rg e w in d o w , w h o s e sill re ste d ,

n ave, n e x t to th e cro ssin g , b e ca u se th e o b se rv a b le ves­

b o t h in sid e a n d o u ts id e , o n th e b ille t m o u ld in g s t h a t

tig es a b o v e th e c h a p e l o f S an S e b a stia n ’s access a rch

e x te n d e d to th e nave w in d o w s ’ abaci. T h e in sid e

le a d o n e to t h in k th a t in itia lly th e re w as a n o c u lu s

m o u ld in g th a t c o in c id e s w ith th e larg e w in d o w a rc h

th e re a n d n o t a w in d o w . I base th is o n tw o fa cts: first,

c o n tin u e s u n til it fo rm s th e im p o s t o f th e tra n s e p t

th e a rc h se g m e n t v isib le to d a y is c le a rly lo w e r th a n th e

a rm s’ b a rre l v a u lt a n d th e tra n sv e rse a rc h e s’ abaci.

w in d o w s o f th e sa m e façad e, a n d s e c o n d , th e m o u l­

T h e c o rre s p o n d in g e x te rio r m o u ld in g is in te r r u p te d

d in g th a t in th e in te r io r e x te n d s th e a b ac i o f th e w in ­

o n th e tr a n s e p t w a lls as it d ra w s close to th e ro o f.

d o w s b re a k s d o w n w a rd ( b e y o n d t h a t its p a th is lo st).

T h e s o u th e r n p o r t a l w as c e n tr e d o n th e nave w all

T h e c o m b in a tio n w in d o w -o c u lu s d isp o se d lo n g itu d i­

a n d w as fla n k e d b y tw o w in d o w s . T h e d o u b le p r o ­

n a lly seem s stra n g e a t first. In th e apse a t S im a c o u rb e ,

je c tio n o f th e p o r ta l easily h o u se s th e c o lu m n s a n d

w in d o w s are also c o m b in e d w ith o c u li lo n g itu d in a lly .

a rc h iv o lt t h a t fra m e th e o p e n in g . T h e b ille t m o u l­

T h e o c u lu s a t Jaca w o u ld p ro v id e a re fin e d v isual

d in g o f th e w in d o w sills is c u t o f f w h e n it re ac h es

tr a n s itio n fro m th e level o f illu m in a tio n o f th e aisle,

T h e A r c h i t e c t u r e of J a c a C a t h e d r a l

159

w h ic h is lo w er, to th e g re a t w in d o w o f th e tra n s e p t.

sh o w u n e q u iv o c a l signs o f fire, w h ic h co in c id e w ith th e

F o r so m e re a so n , th e a rc h ite c t p re fe rre d n o t to p r o ­

in fo rm a tio n p ro v id e d b y th e c h ro n ic le r V illa c am p a .

v id e w in d o w s in all th e bays o f th e s o u th n ave, p e rh a p s to e m p h a siz e th e p o r ta l t h a t o p e n s o n to th e p laz a . In th e in te rio r, th e b ille t m o u ld in g u n d e r th e s o u ­

a n d p r o d u c e d a n in te n tio n a l visual effect. T h ey f u r ­

th e r n w all w in d o w sills c h a n g e s its p a th in o r d e r to

th e r a c c e n tu a te d th e c h ris m o n th a t p re s id e d o v er th e

fra m e th e d o o r, u s in g n in e ty -d e g re e an g les. T h e h ig h

ty m p a n u m o f th e p o rta l, a k e y e le m e n t in th e m e a ­

p a ra lle l m o u ld in g , w h ic h fo llo w s th e w in d o w s c a p i­

n in g o f th e sc u lp tu ra l p ro g ra m . A t th e sam e tim e , th e

ta ls’ abaci, w o u ld c o n tin u e a lo n g m o s t o f th e w all.

c o n ju n c tio n o f th re e circles re in fo rc e d th e T rin ita ria n

In th e w e s te rn b a y o f th e s o u th aisle, w h e re th e re is

sig n ifican ce o f th e Ja c a c h rism o n . T h e façade w ith o c u li

n o w in d o w , th is h ig h m o u ld in g is i n te r r u p t e d b y a

b rin g s to m in d th e c o m p o s itio n o f Ita lia n R o m an e sq u e

p o s t-M e d ie v a l o c u lu s. O rig in a lly it re a c h e d th e c o r­

basilicas su c h as S a n ta M a ria A s su n ta a t L u g n a n o in

n e r w i t h o u t in te r r u p tio n .

T everina, S an P ie tro in T u scan ia, S a n ta M a ria M ag g io re

T h e d is trib u tio n o f th e n o r th façade w in d o w s is m o re

in T u scan ia, th e c a th e d ra l o f T ro ia, etc.

u n ifo rm . F ro m th e cloister, fo u r c an b e seen situ a te d at

T he o rig in a l c u lm in a tio n o f th e w e st façade is p r o ­

re g u la r distan ces. In th e in te rio r, n o th in g in te rru p ts

b lem atic. O n e c an see th e c o n tin u ity o f th e m a s o n ry

th is order. T h e w e ste rn b a y w o u ld have lac k e d a n o p e ­

above th e ro o f. It p ro b a b ly e n d e d in a gable, v ery fre ­

n in g , th e sam e as in th e s o u th aisle. T h e lin te le d d o o r

q u e n t in R o m a n e sq u e basilicas w ith w o o d e n ro o fin g .23

o p e n s o n to th e c en tre o f th e c lo iste r’s s o u th gallery.

160

In th e side aisles’ w e ste rn w alls th e re w ere o c u li th a t a llo w e d fo r a fte rn o o n illu m in a tio n o f th e aisles

T h e c a th e d ra l n e e d e d a belfry. In R o m a n e sq u e

T h e c a th e d ra l’s w e st fa ça d e h a d a n a sp e c t v e ry d iffe ­

c h u rc h e s in th e w e ste rn P y re n e es, it w as c u s to m a ry to

r e n t fro m th e p re s e n t o n e (Fig. 6). W i t h n o p o r tic o

situ a te th e b ells in a to w e r a tta c h e d to th e e a s te rn p a r t

to w er, th e sa lie n t p o r ta l w as c ro w n e d b y a sm a ll ro o f,

o f th e n o r t h façad e, as a t Ig u âcel, Sasave, L â rre d e, o r

as a t Ig u â ce l a n d Sasave. T h e p re se n c e o f b u ttre sse s

L asieso, o r a t th e w e st façad e o f t h e c h u rc h , as a t B agüés

a t th e sides o f th e w in d o w o v e r th e d o o r a t Ig u âcel

o r Siresa. W e d o n o t f in d b e ll gables (‘esp ad afias’) in

lea d s o n e to t h in k t h a t s o m e th in g a t Ja c a in s p ire d th is

c h u rc h e s d e riv e d fro m Jaca, b u t it is p o ssib le t h a t th e

s o lu tio n . A lso , o n th e fa ça d e o f S an M illâ n in S egovia

o rig in a l c a th e d ra l p ro je c t in c lu d e d a to w e r b e sid e th e

th e re are f o u r b u ttre sse s. T h o se o n th e c o rn e rs o f th e

n o r th e r n apse. A t th is lo c a tio n a t Ja c a C a th e d ra l, a fte r

sid e aisles c o in c id e w ith th e o n e still e x ta n t o n th e s o u ­

1105, C o u n t S a n c h o R a m ire z (th e ille g itim a te b r o th e r

th w e s t ang le a t Jaca. T h ere m u s t h av e b e e n a n o th e r o n e

o f K in g S a n c h o R a m ire z ) o rd e re d th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f

lik e it o n th e o p p o s ite c o rn e r. T h e s o u th p o r ta l h a s a

a c h a p e l d e d ic a te d to S a in t N ic h o la s .24 In th e c a n o ­

d o u b le p ro je c tio n , w h ic h m ak es u s th in k th a t th e w e st

n ic a l c h u rc h o f San P e d ro de L asieso, p r o p e r ty o f th e

o n e also h a d th is fe a tu re . It is v e ry p ro b a b le th a t in Ja c a

c o u n t, th e re is a c h a p e l b e lo w th e to w e r s itu a te d o n

C a th e d r a l tw o c e n tra l b u ttre ss e s w o u ld h av e c o in c i­

th e n o r th e a s t c o rn er. A n d in S an M illâ n in Segovia, a

d e d w ith th e a rch e s s e p a ra tin g th e c e n tra l n a v e ’s aisles

to w e r is a t th e f o o t o f th e c h a p e l p a ra lle l to th e n o r th

a n d la te ra l w alls, a n d w o u ld have c o n tin u e d a b o v e th e

apse.25 T h e h y p o th e tic a l p r o je c te d n o r t h to w e r ’s lack

p o r ta l a t th e w e st e n d o f th e c h u rc h , fra m in g th e w in ­

o f m o n u m e n ta lity a n d th e c o n v e n ie n c e o f a sp acio u s

dow , as a t Ig u â ce l a n d Segovia. W e h av e d ra w n it th is

p o r tic o a t th e w e ste rn e n d o f th e c h u rc h fo r th e in h o s ­

w ay in th e g ra p h ic re c o n s tru c tio n ; its c u lm in a tio n

p ita b le P y re n e a n c lim ate w o u ld , in a se c o n d p h a se ,

w o u ld m a rk th e b e g in n in g o f th e gable.

suffice fo r d e sig n in g a n d in itia tin g a la rg e r to w e r w ith

T h e w e st p o r ta l sp a n d re ls h av e a b ille t m o u ld in g

a g re a te r b e ll capacity. T h is u n d e r ta k in g re m a in e d

t h a t co in c id e s w ith th e o n e t h a t e x te n d s fro m th e ab aci

u n fin is h e d , as th e so -c a lle d ‘D o c u m e n to del M e rc a d o ’

o f th e la te ra l w a ll w in d o w s . O n axis w ith th e d o o r, in

sta te s, w h ic h c o u ld h av e g iv en rise to th e stra n g e so lu ­

th e u p p e r p a r t o f th e p ro je c tio n , th e re is a n o p e n in g ,

tio n s a t B ag ü és a n d Siresa.26

n o w w a lle d u p , th a t gave access to th e in tra m u ra l

O n th e in te r io r o f th e w e st w a ll, th e h ig h m o u l­

stairw ay. T h is sta irw a y e n d e d a t th e u p p e r s o u th c o r­

d in g c o n tin u e s u n i n te r r u p t e d as fa r as th e p ila s te r

n e r o f th e sa lie n t p o r ta l, fro m w h ic h p o i n t o n e c o u ld

s e p a ra tin g th e naves, w h e re a n in e ty -d e g re e b e n d

re a c h th e r o o f b y a p a ssa g e w ay o v e r th e co rb els.

allo w s it to g a in h e ig h t, t u r n in g to w a r d th e a b ac i o f

O v e r th e sm a ll r o o f is a larg e, little -o rn a m e n te d

th e c a p ita l. It c o n tin u e s o v e r th e d o o r as fa r as th e s p i­

w in d o w , n o w visible above th e p o r tic o v a u lt. Its sto n e s

ra l sta irw ay , w h ic h in te r r u p ts it b r u s q u e ly ( a n o th e r

J a v i e r M a r t I n e z de A g u i r r e

ALZADO OESTE

0

1

2

3

4

5

‫ا‬

Fig. 6. G raphic reco n stru ctio n ofJaca C ath ed ral: west façade elevation aro u n d 1100 (proposal by author, draw n by M arina M a r t I n e z d e A g u ir r e from plans designed by Ricardo M a r c o , JesUs M a r c o , and Javier I b a r g Ue n )

in d ic a tio n o f th e p o s t-M e d ie v a l e x e c u tio n o f th e

to b e th e la rg e r in o r d e r to s u p p o r t th e c ro s s in g ’s

sta irw a y ). T h e n o r t h e r n s e c tio n o f th e w e st w a ll w as

tra n sv e rse a rch e s. T h e s e c tio n o f th e c e n tra l p ie r h as

to ta lly m o d if ie d w h e n th e T r in ity C h a p e l w as b u ilt.

a d o u b le c o rn e r. A re th e d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e eas­ te r n a n d w e s te rn p ie rs e v id e n c e o f d iffe re n t p h a se s o f c o n s tru c tio n ? In m y o p in io n , th is is n o t th e case. T he

I S w p |) 0 r ts ,U |) |) e r W in ،l0 H ،lR 0 0 Ì in g

c a p ita ls o f th e w e s te rn p ie rs ta k e u p a g a in th e m o tifs u s e d in o r n a m e n tin g th e e a s te rn o n e s, th e re b e in g n o

U n u s u a l, b u t n o t u n iq u e , is th e i n te r p r e ta tio n o f th e

ra d ic a l d iffe re n c e in th e ir tre a tm e n t. To b e su re , as

a lte r n a tio n o f p ie rs a n d c o lu m n s in Jaca C a th e d ra l.

In ig u e z p o i n te d o u t, th e re are v a rio u s c a p ita ls m a d e

T h e ir r h y th m ic d is tr ib u tio n d o e s n o t f o r m tw o o r

u p o f tw o p ie c e s (so m e a d d e d o n to p o f th e a stra g a l

th re e c o m p le te se q u e n c e s (p ie r-c o lu m n -p ie r), as is

a n d o th e rs u n d e r th e a b a c i). B u t th e y are d is tr ib u te d

f r e q u e n t, b u t r a th e r tw o a n d a h a lf. T h e th re e c o m ­

t h r o u g h o u t th e c h u rc h in n o a p p a r e n t o rd e r. In m y

p o u n d p ie rs d iffe r in d im e n s io n s a n d se c tio n . T h e

o p in io n , th is d o e s n o t sig n ify successive p h a se s, a

e n d o n e s h av e a c ru c ifo rm se c tio n , w ith th e sm a lle r

n e w a rc h ite c t, o r la te re u tiliz a tio n s . T h is is a t e c h n i­

o f th e tw o b e in g p re c ise ly th e o n e w e w o u ld e x p e c t

cal re so u rc e o f R o m a n e s q u e s to n e m a s o n s th a t w e also

T h e A r c h i t e c t u r e of J a c a C a t h e d r a l

161

in te rio r. T h e r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e c a th e d ra l c h a p ­ te r b y B is h o p G a rc ia , th e b r o t h e r o f K in g S a n c h o R a m ire z , in tr o d u c e d C a n o n s R e g u la r a r o u n d 1 0 7 6 ­ 79, fo llo w in g th e n o rm s o f th e G r e g o ria n R e fo rm .28 T h e c a th e d ra l w o u ld h a v e b e e n b u ilt im m e d ia te ly a fte r th is re o rg a n iz a tio n , a n d , in m y o p in io n , th e n e e d to re se rv e sp a c e f o r th e c h a p te r w as se rio u sly ta k e n in to a c c o u n t. T h e m a in apse, o f little d e p th , d id n o t p ro v id e th e n e c e ss a ry c o n d itio n s . I n a s tu d y o f th e c lo sin g s o f I ta lia n R o m a n e s q u e c h o irs, T h o m a s C re is se n h a s s h o w n th a t th e y are f o u n d in v a rio u s p lac e s o f th e c h u rc h th a t d o n o t c o in c id e w ith th e p re sb y te ry . I n L a z io , th e y u su a lly o c c u p y th e c e n tre o f th e m a in nave. F u r th e r m o r e , C re is se n n o te s t h a t th e s itu a tio n o f th e c h o ir p lay s a n i m p o r ta n t p a r t in th e in te rn a l r h y th m o f th e b u ild in g .29 A t Jaca, th e d o u b le - c o r n e r e d p ie r w o u ld m a rk th e b e g in n in g o f se c tio n s 1 a n d 2 o f th e c e n tra l nave. F ro m th e clo ister, th is a rea w as re a c h e d t h r o u g h th e n o r t h aisle d o o r (in b a y 2 ).30 O n e o f th e h ig h w in d o w s seem s to h a v e b e e n c o n c e iv e d in o r d e r to p ro v id e d ire c t lig h t. T o re tu r n to th e p iers, th e c e n tra l o n e , la rg e r a n d m o re c o m p le x , b re ak s th e a lte rn a tin g rh y th m . T he Fig. 7. Jaca C ath ed ral, w in d o w over th e m o d ern vault o f th e n o rth aisle (p h o to author)

a rc h ite c t, so carefu l as reg ard s th e a rtic u la tio n o f th e b u ild in g , w o u ld n o t have d o n e th is w ith o u t a reason. It is clear th a t h e a v ailed h im s e lf o f th is d is trib u tio n o f p iers a n d ro o fs to o rg a n iz e th e space. T o th e e ast w ere

f in d in c a p ita ls a t p lac e s as d is ta n t f r o m e ac h o th e r

th e apses, v a u lte d a n d w ell illu m in a te d , w ith th e m a in

as C o n q u e s o r M o d e n a . O n ly in th e d o u b le c o lu m n s

apse m o re sp a c io u s a n d a d o rn e d . F o llo w in g th is cam e

u n d e r th e tra n sv e rse a rc h e s c o u ld th e c o r r e c tio n o f

th e cro ssin g w ith its s p le n d id c u p o la a n d th e v a u lte d

p r o p o r tio n s b e c o n s id e re d a m o tiv e . T hese p e c u lia ­

arm s o f th e tra n se p t. Finally, to th e w est, cam e th e naves,

ritie s, as w e ll as th e se lec tiv e a p p e a ra n c e o f m a s o n s’

w ith th e specific e n clo su re fo r th e c h o ir in th e c en tre,

m a rk s, are easily ju s tifie d i f w e ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e

w h ic h , a c c o rd in g to th e te s tim o n y o f V illa c a m p a in th e

d is tr ib u tio n o f task s a m o n g th e w o rk s h o p s a n d th e

early six te e n th c en tu ry , re ste d o n a rch es.31

fa c t th a t w in te r in te r r u p tio n s w e re a h a b itu a l p ra c tic e in th e g re a t M e d ie v a l edifices. A n o t h e r a sy m m e tric fe a tu re c a n b e se e n in th e

n o t p h o to g r a p h e d o r d e s c rib e d u n til n o w (Fig. 9),

d ir e c t illu m in a tio n o f th e c e n tra l nave. It re c e iv e d

a llo w o n e to in fe r th e e x iste n c e o f a g re a t c e n tra l nave

lig h t fro m a n o c u lu s u n d e r th e d o m e , f r o m th e g re a t

tra n sv e rse a rc h b e tw e e n p illa rs E a n d F. T h e w id th o f

w in d o w o f th e w e st fa ça d e, f r o m tw o w in d o w s o n

th e a rc h is 1 m , e x ac tly th e sam e as th e f r o n t o f th e

axis w ith c o lu m n s G a n d H (Fig. 2), a n d f r o m tw o

d o u b le - c o r n e r e d p ier. T h is p ie r s u p p o r te d a rc h e s t h a t

o th e rs , u n k n o w n u n til n o w (Fig. 7 ), s itu a te d o n axis

h e lp e d to h o l d u p th e ro o f, a n d th e y c o m p a r tm e n ta ­

o v e r th e s e c o n d a rc h c o u n tin g fro m th e tra n s e p t. A ll

liz e d th e sp a c e visually.

la c k c o lu m n s a n d a rc h iv o lts , ju s t as in th e tra n s e p t w in d o w s ’ in te r io r fa ce .27 T h e re fo re , th e p a r tic u la r d is tr ib u tio n o f th e w in ­

162

T h e v estig es o f th e s p rin g e r o f a n a rc h o v e r th e n o r t h e r n aisle v a u lt a t th e h e ig h t o f th e c e n tra l p ier,

T h e f a ith fu l a p p r o a c h e d th e m a in a lta r p re fe ra b ly b y th e E p istle aisle, w h e re th e m a rk e t d o o r is lo c a te d . T h e o c u lu s s itu a te d in th e e a st w a ll u n d e r th e d o m e ,

d o w s c o in c id e s w ith th e a ty p ic a l r h y th m o f th e p ie rs

n o w b lo c k e d u p b y th e e n la rg e d m a in apse, w o u ld

(Fig. 8). B o th s in g u la ritie s c o u ld f in d t h e ir e x p la n a ­

h av e b e e n se e n b y th e f a ith f u l ju s t as th e y lo o k e d

t io n in th e a rra n g e m e n t o f sp aces in th e c a th e d ra l

u p to c o n te m p la te th e c a p ita l o f th e A n n u n c ia tio n

J a v i e r M a r t I n e z de A g u i r r e

SECCIÓNLONGITUDINAL

‫ﺴ ﺎ‬

‫ﺳ ﻠ ﻠ ﻠ‬

Fig. 8٠ G raphic reconstruction ofJaca C athedral: longitudinal section around 1100 (proposal by author, dra ٦٨m by M arina M a r t In e z d e A g u ir r e from plans designed by Ricardo M a r c o , Jesiis M a r c o , and Javier Ib a r g Ue n )

Fig. 9.

Jaca C athedral, springer o f an arch over th e m o d ern vault o f th e n o rth aisle (p h o to author)

T h e A r c h i t e c t u r e of J a c a C a t h e d r a l

163

o n th e s o u th e r n face o f p ie r B. T h e e ffec t w o u ld

b o t to m c h o rd s, tw o a t th e e n d s a n d tw o in te rm e d ia te

h av e b e e n p r o d u c e d a p p ro x im a te ly a t th e lev el o f

o n e s, th e la tte r s itu a te d w h e re th e re h a d b e e n arch es

c o lu m n D . T h e c a p ita l, n o w p e r m a n e n tly in sh a d o w ,

o n s u p p o r tin g c o rb els. B e tw e e n th e m w e re d is tri­

w o u ld e n jo y a p riv ile g e d m o r n in g illu m in a tio n , as it

b u te d , tw o b y tw o , tru sse s w ith re in fo rc in g to p c h o rd s

w o u ld receiv e th e lig h t t h a t e n te r e d b y th e g re a t t r a n ­

a n d s tru ts. A fra m e w o rk o f th is ty p e , w ith n o b o t to m

s e p t w in d o w . B o th lig h tin g e ffects w o u ld h a v e b e e n

c h o rd s a t th e e n d s, a n d w ith tran sv erse a rch es a n d

p la n n e d d e lib e ra te ly b y th e a rc h ite c t.

tru sse s w ith to p c h o rd s a n d s tru ts , w o u ld b e id eal fo r

T h e so -c a lle d ‘D o c u m e n to d e l M e rc a d o ’, w h o se

th e c e n tra l nave a t Jaca, b e ca u se it w o u ld b e c o n s is te n t

a s s ig n m e n t to th e re ig n o f R a m iro I w as d e n ie d b y

w ith th e d is tr ib u tio n o f s u p p o rts a n d w o u ld a llo w

U b ie to , c re a te d th e m is ta k e n id e a th a t th e o rig i­

lig h t to e n te r th e w e s te rn w in d o w .

n a l c a th e d ra l p r o je c t p la n n e d fo r v a u lts in its th re e

T h e aisles w o u ld h a v e h a d a s lo p in g r o o f w ith

n av es.32 T h is d o c u m e n t o n ly p ro v e s th a t a t so m e

tra n s v e rs e a rc h e s a t th e le v e l o f th e p ie rs , s u p p o r t e d

u n k n o w n m o m e n t, d e fin ite ly la te r th a n th e re ig n o f

b y c o rb e ls lik e th o s e a t B a g ü é s ( w h ic h w e su p p o s e

R a m iro I, th e to ta l v a u ltin g a n d th e c o m p le tio n o f

w e re h i d d e n b e h in d th e v a u ltin g ) . B o th th e s o u th

th e p o r tic o to w e r w e re c o n sid e re d .

a n d n o r t h w a lls o f th e m a in n a v e h a v e e x te r io r

V a rio u s d o c u m e n t a r y te s tim o n ie s a c c r e d it th e

c o rb e ls a t a lm o s t r e g u la r d is ta n c e s (4 .2 5 , 4 .3 6 , 4 .6 7 ,

n a v e s’ n o t b e in g v a u lte d u n t i l th e s ix te e n th c e n ­

4 .0 7 m in th e n o r t h w a ll; 3.71, 3.53, 3.58, 4 .0 5 m in

tu ry . O n e n e e d o n ly a n a ly se th e o r ig in a l a r c h i ­

th e s o u t h w a ll), a ll v isib le a b o v e th e m o d e r n v a u lt.

t e c t u r a l p r o j e c t to c o n c lu d e t h a t a t n o tim e w a s

T h e y se e m to h a v e b e e n d e s ig n e d f o r b e a m s.

R o m a n e s q u e n a v e v a u ltin g c o n s id e r e d . T h e o r i ­ g in a l h e ig h t o f th e p e r im e te r w a lls is i n c o m p a ­ tib le w i t h b a r r e l v a u lts in th e sid e a isle s. G r o i n e d v a u lts w o u l d h a v e p a r ti a ll y h i d d e n th e w e s te r n fa ç a d e o c u li. A s f o r th e c e n tr a l n a v e , th e w in d o w s

T h is a p p ro x im a tio n o f th e o rig in a l sta te o f Jaca

a lr e a d y k n o w n a n d th o s e t h a t w e h a v e j u s t d is c o v e ­

C a th e d r a l o ffers us a p ic tu r e o f a b u ild in g c o n s id e ­

r e d w o u l d o n ly b e c o m p a tib le w i t h a v a u lt h a v in g

ra b ly d iffe re n t fro m th e o n e w e see to d ay . T h e p r o je c t

l u n e t t e s ; b u t th e s y n c o p a te d r h y t h m o f th e w i n ­

h a d n o p re c e d e n ts in th e k in g d o m s o f P a m p lo n a a n d

d o w s v is-à -v is th e s u p p o r t s is c o n tr a r y to a r e g u la r

A rag O n , n e ith e r in its a r c h ite c tu r a l fo rm s, n o r in its

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f lu n e tte s . F u r th e r , a g r o i n e d v a u lt

d im e n s io n s , n o r in th e fig u ra tiv e p ro g ra m .

w o u l d n o t h a v e s a v e d th e w i n d o w o n th e w e s t

T h e h isto ric a l c o n te x t c o rro b o ra te s th e p ro p o s a l o f

fa ç a d e , n o r th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o p e n in g s in th e h ig h

D a v id S im o n , w h o saw, in th e e m p h a sis w ith w h ic h

w a lls. T h u s th e th r e e n a v es w e re p r o j e c t e d to h a v e

th e a rc h ite c t re s o rte d to e le m e n ts c h a ra c te ris tic o f

a w o o d e n c e ilin g , u n lik e th e t r a n s e p t a rm s , w h e re

E a rly C h ris tia n basilicas, a p ro c la m a tio n o f th e lin k to

a b a r r e l v a u lt c o v e rs e a c h s e c tio n , a n d th e c ro s s in g

R o m e so c o v e te d b y K in g S a n c h o R a m ire z ( 1 0 6 4 - 9 4 )

w i t h its e x c e lle n tly e x e c u te d c u p o la o n s q u in c h e s .

a n d th e A ra g o n e se p re la te s o f th e p e rio d . T he d isco v ery

N o o n e h a s c o n sid e re d w h a t th e w o o d e n ro o fin g

o f vestiges o f tran sv erse a rch es a n d th e p ro m in e n c e o f

w as like. T h e c eilin g o f th e c e n tra l nave c o u ld n o t o b s­

th e o c u li o n th e w e ste rn façad e re in fo rc e th e Ita lia n

tr u c t th e w e ste rn w in d o w , w h ic h d isp en ses w ith th e

c o n n e c tio n a n d p ro v id e n e w a rg u m e n ts in th e in te n se

ideas o f a flat c eilin g o r a b o t to m c h o rd a t th e w e ste rn

d isc u ssio n a b o u t th e re la tio n b e tw e e n R o m a n e sq u e

e n d . T he ex isten ce o f d ia p h ra g m arch es, u n k n o w n u n til

a rt a n d G re g o ria n R e fo rm , w h ic h , d u e to th e lim ita ­

now , h a s b e e n p ro v e n , c e rta in o n th e d o u b le -c o rn e r

tio n s o f space, I w ill h av e to tre a t elsew here.

p iers, a n d p o ssib le o n th o se w ith a c ru c ifo rm sectio n s.

164

Ja c a C a th e d r a l h a d a n e n o rm o u s im p a c t; to sp e a k

A s E s te b a n L o re n te , G a ltie r M a rti, a n d G a rc ia

o f ‘Ja c a b ille ts’ is a c o m m o n p la c e in S p a n ish h i s t o r io ­

G u a ta s o b se rv e d , th e c h u rc h a t B ag ü és, fro m th e e n d

g rap h y . A lth o u g h n o t e v ery b ille t m o u ld in g co m es

o f th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry , c o n s titu te s a w ise c o m b in a ­

fro m Ja c a, th e re is n o d o u b t t h a t th e im p o rta n c e

t io n o f lo c a l tr a d itio n s a n d e le m e n ts a d o p te d fro m

a c q u ire d b y th e m o u ld in g s w ith h a lf-c y lin d e rs (tw o

Ja c a C a th e d r a l.33 It is c o v e re d b y a w o o d e n fra m e w o rk

th ic k ro w s o n h o r iz o n ta l sp aces a n d th re e th in n e r

th a t, a lth o u g h n o t th e o rig in a l o n e , c o n ta in s M e d ie v a l

o n e s o n th e c u rv e s), r u n n in g a lo n g a n d o rd e rin g

e le m en ts. It is f o r m e d o f f o u r sets o f tru sse s w ith

th e

J a v i e r M a r t I n e z de A g u i r r e

e n tire p e rim e te r, b o t h

in te r io r a n d e x te rio r,

re v o lu tio n iz e d th e m a n n e r o f a r tic u la tin g w a lls in th e

in te r p r e te d as a n ‘alfiz’. In m y o p in io n , w e are d e a lin g

n e ig h b o u r in g re g io n s.

w ith a lo c a l b u i ld e r ’s m is u n d e r s ta n d in g o f o n e o fJ a c a

T h e b ille t d e sig n is o n ly o n e o f th e e le m e n ts th a t

C a th e d r a l's d e fin in g e le m e n ts: th e b e n t m o u ld in g s ,

s tim u la te d th e c re a tiv ity o f th e m a s te r b u ild e rs o f th e

e sp e c ia lly in th e tr a n s e p t fa ça d es (as w e c a n see to d a y

n o r t h o f th e p e n in s u la a n d th e s o u th o f F ra n c e. T h e

in th e secretu m ). H e re th e b u ild e r e x p e rim e n te d w ith

a lte r n a tio n o f w in d o w s a n d o c u li (w h ic h in T o u lo u se

th e d e sig n w i t h o u t a c h ie v in g c o m p o s itio n a l c o h e ­

a n d S a n tia g o are c o m b in e d fo llo w in g o t h e r c rite ria ),

re n c e , so th a t th e lo g ic o f its a p p lic a tio n in Ja c a b e c o ­

th e d iffe re n tia tio n o f sp aces a n d accesses, th e o r n a ­

m es a m e re w h im in Ig u âcel.

m e n ta l h ie r a r c h iz a tio n o f th e o p e n in g s , th e m a s o n ry

T h e c h u rc h a t B a g ü és, as w e h a v e se e n , im ita te d

w ith c o m b in e d c o u rse s, th e c o m p o s itio n o f façad es,

th e w o o d e n ro o fin g a n d th e p o r tic o to w e r a d d e d to

a n d th e rig o r in th e p r o p o r tio n s , o ffe re d e m u la tio n

th e Ja c a fa ça d e. P o o rly a ssim ila te d , th e c o n s tr u c to r

p o ss ib ilitie s th a t re v ita liz e d S p a n is h -L a n g u e d o c ia n

o p t e d f o r th e s tra n g e s o lu tio n o f s itu a tin g h a l f o f th e

re lig io u s a rc h ite c tu re . To h av e a tru e id e a o f Ja c a

to w e r o u tsid e a n d th e o t h e r h a l f in sid e th e nave.

C a th e d r a l ’s im p a c t, th e w e ll-k n o w n in flu e n c e o f its

T h e w e st fa ça d e o f S an A d r ia n in Sasave, w ith its

sc u lp tu re s h o u ld alw ays b e a n a ly se d in c o n ju n c tio n

p ro je c tin g p o r ta l, its sm a ll ro o f, a n d its u p p e r w in d o w ,

w ith its a rc h ite c tu ra l fo rm s.

is also in s p ire d b y Ja c a.37 T h is is also tru e o f th e la te ra l

T h e first r e c o r d e d in flu e n c e w as n o t lo n g in a p p e a ­

d o o r ’s b ille t fra m e . B y c o n tra s t, fo r th e e ast e n d , th e

rin g . S a n ta M a ria a t U ju é , w h ic h w as u n d e r c o n s tr u c ­

b u ild e rs p re fe rre d , as a t B ag ü és, th e o rn a m e n ta l effec­

t io n a r o u n d 1089 o n th e in itia tiv e o f K in g S a n c h o

tiv en ess o f sm a ll arch e s u n d e r th e c o rn ic e , its e lf d e c o ­

R a m ire z , c o p ie s th e e a st e n d o f th e Ja c a c h u rc h .34

r a te d w ith m o u ld in g s. T h e y p u t in th re e w in d o w s ,

R e a so n s o f sp a c e, d ig n ity , a n d e c o n o m y re d u c e d th e

sp la y e d b o th o n th e e x te rio r a n d th e in te rio r, b u t w ith

size o f th e apses. T h e a rtisa n s o f U ju é sim p lifie d th e

n e ith e r c o lu m n s n o r a rc h iv o lts, a n d th e y lim ite d th e

Ja c a m o d e l to th e p o i n t o f c o arsen e ss. T h e y m a in ­

u se o f m o u ld in g s to th e apse a n d a n te a p se im p o sts.

ta in e d th e m o u ld in g u n d e r th e w in d o w s , b u t o m itte d

T h e m o d e s ty o f th e p r o je c t is n o t a t o d d s w ith th e care

th e e x te rio r o n e a t th e lev el o f th e ab aci, a n d th e y

ta k e n in th e g r a d a tio n o f th e o p e n in g s . T h e m a in d o o r

s u b s titu te d p ila ste rs f o r th e e x te rio r c o lu m n s .35 A fte r th e d e a th o f S a n c h o R a m ire z (1 0 9 4 ), th e

is sa lie n t a n d is d e c o ra te d w ith c ap itals, a n a rc h iv o lt w ith trip le a strag a l, a n d a b ille t d o o rfra m e ; th e s o u th

c h u rc h o f S a n ta M a ria a t Ig u â ce l w as fin is h e d .36 T h is

d o o r h a s o n ly a b ille t d o o rfra m e a n d a p la in im p o st.

p r io r y o f S an J u a n d e la P efia rev eals th e im p a c t o f

A n d th e n o r t h d o o r, w h ic h lea d s to th e to w e r, is c o m ­

th e Ja c a in n o v a tio n s a p p lie d to a c h u rc h w ith a sin g le

p le te ly p la in . T h e w in d o w s o f th e apse are sp la y ed

nave. T h e o n ly m o u ld in g o f its apse, w h ic h h a s n o b il­

w ith th e in te r io r a n d e x te rio r fra m e s recessed ; th o se

le tin g , p ro lo n g s th e a b a c i o f th e w in d o w s . T h e p o r ta l

o f th e s o u th e r n w a ll are o n ly sp la y ed ; a n d th e w in d o w

o f th e w e s te rn fa ç a d e is t o p p e d b y a sm a ll ro o f. A b o v e

o f th e w e st p o r ta l is n e ith e r sp la y ed n o r recessed.

it, tw o p ila ste rs fla n k a w in d o w lik e th e o n e o n th e

A m o n g th e re p e rc u ssio n s o n th e o th e r sid e o f th e

g ab le a t Jaca. In th e s a lie n t p o r ta l, a t th e m id d le o f th e

P y re n e es, in S im a c o u rb e w e c a n o b se rv e a n irra tio n a l

sp a n d re ls , th e re is a m o u ld in g th a t d o e s n o t c o n tin u e

u se o f b ille t m o u ld in g , w h ic h b e n d s w h e n it is lea st

to th e nave w alls in w h a t seem s to b e a c o p y o f th e

e x p e c te d , a n d o f th e w in d o w -o c u lu s c o m b in a tio n .

d o o r a t Jaca, b u t w i t h o u t u n d e r s ta n d in g its c o m p o ­

W e f in d g re a te r c o h e re n c e a t S a in t-P é -d e -B ig o rre,

s itio n a l value. W h a t is m o s t c u rio u s is th e o rd e rin g

w h e re th e o r d e rin g o f b ille t m o u ld in g s ( o f tw o a n d

o f th e s o u th façad e. T h is d o o r, n e a r th e apse, h a s n o

th re e ro w s, w ith n in e ty -d e g re e a n g le s), th e p la c e m e n t

o r n a m e n ta tio n . T h e re are tw o w in d o w s h a lfw a y u p .

o f th e sta irw ay , th e se c tio n o f th e a rc h iv o lts, a n d th e

T h e a b ac i o f th e c o lu m n s a d o r n in g th e w in d o w s are

s c u lp tu re o f so m e o f th e c a p ita ls le a d o n e to t h in k th a t

c o n n e c te d b y a p la in h o r iz o n ta l m o u ld in g t h a t is th e

o n e o f th e m a in Ja c a c o n s tru c to rs d ir e c te d th e w o rk .

b e g in n in g o f a p r o lo n g a tio n to w a r d th e e n d s o f th e

A w ay fro m th e P y re n e e s, o u r a tt e n ti o n is in e ­

fa ça d e, b u t it s o o n b e n d s a n d a sc e n d s th e w a ll f o r a

v ita b ly d ra w n to th e Ja c a fo rm u la s fo llo w e d in th e

fe w m e tre s b e fo re c h a n g in g d ir e c tio n in tw o su c ­

c h u rc h o f S a n M illa n in S egovia, w ith its th re e apses,

cessive n in e ty -d e g re e an g les, alw ays g o in g u p w a rd s;

v a u lte d tra n s e p t, th re e naves w ith w o o d e n ro o fin g ,

tw o co u rse s b e lo w th e c o rn ic e , th e m o u ld in g e x te n d s

a n d th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e w e st fa ça d e, sim ila r to

h o r iz o n ta lly in a v e ry stra n g e d e sig n t h a t so m e have

th o s e o f th e A ra g o n e s e c a th e d ra l.

T h e A r c h i t e c t u r e of J a c a C a t h e d r a l

165

T o s u m u p , th e e x a m in a tio n o f th e a rc h ite c tu ra l

h a v e u n ra v e lle d a w e a lth o f n u a n c e s. T h e a r c h ite c ­

c o m p o s itio n o ffers a b asis f o r re fle c tio n o n th e p r o ­

tu re d e se rv es a sim ila r tr e a tm e n t t h a t h o n o u r s th e

cess o f c o n s tr u c tio n a n d its c h ro n o lo g y . In m y o p i­

c re a tiv ity o f th e a r c h ite c t a n d th e o b je c tiv e s o f its

n io n , th e re is n o th in g to c o n tr a d ic t th e a rg u m e n ts fo r

p a tro n s . W i t h th e e c h o in g o f R o m a n b a silic a n fo rm s

d is c a rd in g th e e x iste n c e o f a first p r o je c t o f L o m b a r d

a m id v ig o ro u s R o m a n e s q u e a rt, Ja c a C a th e d r a l w as

tr a d itio n a t th e tim e o f R a m iro I.3‫ ؛‬T h e d e sig n a n d

ab le to b rin g to g e th e r a p p a re n tly o p p o s in g in te re sts:

c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e w h o le R o m a n e s q u e b u ild in g

th e a m b itio n o f a n o u ts ta n d in g , se lf-m a d e m o n a rc h ;

e x c e p t th e

th e c o m m itm e n t to th e R e c o n q u e s t b y a k in g d o m

to w e r p o r tic o

fo llo w e d

a c o n s is te n t

im p u lse , w ith n o c h a n g e s o th e r th a n th e n a tu r a l o n e s

in e x p a n s io n ; a n d th e u n iv e rs a l a sp ira tio n s o f th e

o n r e tu r n in g to th e c o n s tr u c tio n w o r k e ac h sp rin g

G r e g o r ia n R e fo rm t h r o u g h th e p ris m o f th e lo ca l

a fte r th e h a rs h P y re n e a n w in te r (w h ic h d o e s n o t

clergy. It is n o t s u rp ris in g th a t th is s h o u ld m a rk a b o r ­

ex clu d e a h y p o th e tic a l c h a n g e in th e m a s te r b u ild e r,

d e r b e tw e e n p e rio d s in S p a n is h a rt, n o r th a t it w as

w h o w o u ld fo llo w , w ith fe w m o d ific a tio n s , th e in i­

c o p ie d in su c h v a rie d w ays, a p a ra d o x ic a l d e s tin y f o r

tia l p ro je c t). C o n s id e r in g th a t th e e a st e n d o f Ja c a

th is in d is p u ta b le m a ste rp ie c e .

C a th e d r a l in s p ire d th e c o n s tr u c tio n a t U ju é a r o u n d 1089, th e w o rk o n th e c a th e d ra l m u s t h a v e a d v a n c e d d u r in g th e 108 0 s a n d 1 0 90s, m a in ly d u r in g th e re ig n o f S a n c h o R a m ire z ( f i ٥ 9 4 ).

NOTES

T h e to w e r p o r tic o c o rre s p o n d s to a n e w p r o ­ je c t th a t d id n o t c o n fo rm to all th e p re m ise s o f th e p re v io u s o n e . T h e d e sire to h a v e a b e ll to w e r a n d a c o v e re d sp ace b e fo re th e m a in d o o r o f th e c h u rc h ( re m e m b e r its p e n ite n tia l f u n c tio n ) w o u ld m o re th a n suffice to su p p re ss th e g re a t w e st fa ç a d e w in d o w . T h e u n s a tis fa c to ry in te g r a tio n o f th e to w e r w ith th e re st o f th e b u ild in g c o u ld e x p la in th a t in A lto A ra g ó n ( U p p e r A ra g o n ) th e c h u rc h e s t h a t c re a te d so m e th in g s im ila r d id n o t o b ta in a c o m p le te ly s a tis fa c to ry re su lt e ith e r. In B ag ü és, th e a d d itio n o f th e to w e r d id aw ay w ith p a r t o f th e s p le n d id p ic to r ia l cycle. A t Siresa, th e p o r tic o to w e r h a s p r o m p te d d isc u ssio n s re g a rd in g its f o r m a n d f u n c tio n . T h e to w e r p o r tic o a t Ja c a w as b u ilt, in m y o p in io n , a s h o r t tim e a fte r th e Ja c a naves a n d th e B a g ü és p a in tin g s , a n d b e fo re S an P e d ro de S iresa, a c h u rc h p ro b a b ly b e g u n in th e s e c o n d d e c a d e o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry .

C o n c lu s io n In c o n c lu s io n , a d e ta ile d analysis o f th e fa b ric a n d a c o m p a ra tiv e s tu d y re v ea l th e su b tle p e r f e c tio n o f Ja c a C a th e d r a l. G r a p h ic re c o n s tr u c tio n s s u p p o r t a n u n d e r ta k in g th a t w as m e d ita te d , re fin e d , m a g n ifi­ c e n t, c h a rg e d w ith m e a n in g , a m b itio u s in its m o n u m e n ta lity , rig o ro u s in its p r o p o r tio n s , a n d e x ce lle n t in th e e x e c u tio n o f e ac h a n d e v e ry o n e o f its e le m e n ts, f r o m bases to ro o fs. T h e e lo q u e n c e o f its s c u lp tu re h a s le d to n u m e ro u s s tu d ie s t h a t in re c e n t d e ca d es

166

J a v i e r M a r t I n e z de A g u i r r e

1 This research is part of the project ‘A rte y reformas religiosas en la Espana medieval', financed by the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (HAR2012-38037). 2 David L. Sim o n , La catedral deJacay su escultura: ensayo, Jaca, 1997, p. 9; David L. Sim o n , ‘A rt for a New Monarchy: Ara­ gon in the Late Eleventh Century', in y .o c a . Anales de Historia del Arte, vol. extr. 2, 2011, pp. 367-90. About the cathedral and Sancho Ramirez also: Janice E. M a nn , Rom a e s q ue A rcb itectu re and its S culptu ral D ecoration i n Omstia n S p è 1000-1120. ExpIoring Frontiers and Dej iningldentities, Toronto, Buffalo & London, 2009, pp. 132-60, and Javier M a r t Inez de A g uirre , ‘A rquitectura y soberania: la catedral de Jaca y otras empresas constructivas de Sancho Ramirez', in Aion -sol ^ e l a rte d,e su épo ca.١p p i i - 2 ، Y 9 ٠ 3 Uffeto demonstrated that the documentation on which the early date was based is false: Antonio U bieto A rteta , ‘La catedral romanica de Jaca, problemas de cronolo^a', in Pirineos, 59-66, 1961-1962, pp. 125-37; Antonio U bieto A rteta , ‘El romànico de la catedral jaquesa y su cronolo^a', in ^ a n a , X ^ , 96-97, 1964, pp. 187-200. His proposal met with immediate rejection in Francisco INig uez A lm ech , ‘La catedral de Jaca y los origenes del romànico espanol', in 83-86, 1967, pp. 179-201, and Angel C anellas -LOpez & Angel San Vic en te , Aragon roman, La Pierre-qui-Vire, 1971, pp. 151-62. 4 About the project as within the Lombard tradition: Juan Francisco E steban L o r en te , ‘La m etrolo^a de la catedral romànica de Jaca: 2', in Artigrama, 15, 2000, pp. 231-58; Fernando Galtier M a r t !, ‘La catedral de Jaca y el romànico jaqués', en Oomarca de L a Jacetania, Zaragoza, 2004, pp. 131-42; and Bernabé C aba Nero Su biza , ‘Precedentes musulmanes y primer ‫؟‬LrttcrYÉYoVvn I i C i n c oV i l k s angoonesaise n la E u ropa delos siglos X lI y XIII, ed. Esteban Sarasa SAn c h e z , Zaragoza, 2007, pp. 231-39. 5 Gabriel L labr ÉS y R intana , ‘El Noticiario de Pedro Villacampa de Jaca (1350-1563)', in I, 1903,

pp. 179-200. I would like to thank David Simon for letting me know about this article. Antonio D ur An G u d io l , ‘La catedral de Jaca en las memorias de Pero Villacampa' in 263, 1963, p. 9 y i 6. Maria Isabel O liv An Ja r ^ E , ‘Obras y reformas arquitectónicas en la Catedral de Jaca en el siglo ^ I ' , in Homenaje a Federico Balaguer, Huesca, 1987, pp. 167-83. Rafael L eante y G a r c Ia ١ Culto de M f i a en la diocesis de J،tca.١ U rlda ١ 1889, pp. 7-33. Domingo J. Buesa C o n d e , ‘La catedral de Jaca', in Las catedrales de Aragon, ed. Domingo J. Buesa C o n d e , Zaragoza, 1987, pp. 55-88. Maria del Carmen Lacarra D ucay, Catedraly M useoD iocesaodeJuca.,ZaraFi ,1993. 6 The graphic restorations are possible thanks to the excellent planimetric work carried out by the architects Ricardo Marco, JesUs Marco, and Javier foargUen in the Plan Director de la Catedral de Jaca (‘Jaca Cathedral Master Plan'). I wish to express my thanks to these persons for facilitating my access to it. I also wish to thank Marina Martinez de Aguirre, who did the drawings based on these plans. 7 The decorative homogeneity had already been pointed out by Manuel GOm ez M o ren o , E l arte romanico espanol. Esquema de un libro, Madrid, 1934, p. 75, whom many authors have fol­ lowed, among them Serafin M oralejo , ‘La sculpture romane de la Cathédrale de Jaca. État des questions' in Les Cahiers de Saint-Michel de Cuxa, 10, 1979, pp. 79-106. 8 VlcerteLAMPéREz y R o m ea ١ HistoriadelaarquitecturacristianuespanolaenlaEdadM edk ١Madrld,2908,pp . 67A_77 ٠Wal, ter Mulr W h lteh ie e , S^p^^^^ish Romaesque Architecture the Eleventh Century, Oxford, 1941, pp. 235-39. 9 GO mez M o ren o , E l arte romanico, pp. 75-76; Manuel GOm ez M oren o , ‘Sobre nuestro arte romànico', in Archivo Espanol de Arte, XI, 1935, pp. 197-98. 10 INig u e z , L a restauracion, pp. 99-101. Thirty years later, he reworked this hypothesis, bringng it closer to GOmez Moreno's: first, apses and perimeter of the church; then, perimeter walls concluding with the main door; later, ‘another builder' (he dis­ tinguishes between builder and architect) would raise the piers of the central nave, adding capitals already carved; finally, ‘another master' would conclude the central nave and build the cupola at a date close to the termination of the tower. 11 Antonio D ur An G u d io l , Arte altoaragonés de los siglos X y XI, Sabinànigo, 1973, pp. 45-52 y 208-15. Buesa , Catedral de Jaca, pp. 49-52, agrees with this chronology. 12 Marcel D urliat , ‘La catedral de Jaca en el contexto del arte romanico europeo*. In Signos. Arte y cultura en el Aito A rg o n Medieval, Jaca & Huesca, 1993, pp. 95-96. 13 Sim o n , L a catedral, pp. II-I2. 14 Galtier and Cabanero also defend an initial project from the time of Ramiro I, the actual construction of which was barely begun and which was substantially modified under Sancho Ramirez, see: Galtier M a r t I, ‘La catedral de Jaca' and C aba Nero Subiza , ‘Precedentes musulmanes'. 15 GOm ez M o ren o , E l arte romanico, pp. 68-69; W h it e h il l , SpaishR om aesq u e,p .237. 6‫ ل‬Salvador de P runeda , ‘La Catedral de Jaca', in L a Ilustracion espanola y americana, vol. v, 1905, p. 75, had previously published a partially regularized plan, redrawn by La m p Erez , Historia de laarquitecturu,p.34&.

7‫ ل‬T h ed ra ^rg lsp a rto fT h e

tana book of designs of the Tornés family, master builders living in Jaca in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; Natalia J uan Ga r c Ia , ‘AproximaciOn al estudio de un libro de trazas de los siglos ^ I I - ^ V I I I : el manuscrito de la familia Tornés' in con arte. Arte con libros, Caceres, 2007, pp. 427-45. 18José Luis Senra Gabriel y GalAn , ‘En torno a las estructuras occidentales de las iglesias romànicas: formulación arquitectónica y funcional de las galileas (c. 1030-1150)' in Espacios y estructurus singularesdeledÿcio romanico,Aguilar de Campo., 2008, pp. 121-55. It is important to point out the existence of a stairway in the opposite corner in Saint-Pé-de-Bigorre (120 km from Jaca), a church whose architectural composition and orna­ mental ensemble are related to Jaca. 9‫ ل‬Corroborating the placement is a sixteenth-century plan kept in the cathedral archives with the indication: ‘This is the door that leads to the cloister'. The plan was part of the exhibition ]^n torno a la Cutedrul de Juca.. P la o s y trnzns arquitectonicus, Zaragoza, 2004, II. The plan in the Libro de trazas of the Tornés family situates the access to the cloister where it is at the present time, under the ogee arch of a former chapel. 20 The shallow arch visible in the southern apse interior in that precise place and the recess that can be seen in the photograph published by W h it e h il l , Spanish Romanesque, p. 240, raise doubts about that element's orignal configuration. 21José Miguel M erino de CAceres , ‘La iglesia de San Millàn de Segovia y su parentesco con la catedral de Jaca', in Estudios Segovianos, 102, 2002, pp. 317-50. 22 I discard the type of composition used at Santillana del Mar, with abaci in the main apse windows at the level of the lateral apse cornices because of their incompatibility with the dome oculus. 23 The atypical solution of the gables o f the Siresa transept could be explained as a reinterpretation of the west façade ofJaca, with its large window, gable, corner projections, and raised summit. 24 The will of the count in Ramón de H uesca , Teatro historico debts iglesinsdelreynodeArgOnTomo V IIL D e ia S a ta lg iesia de Jaca, Pamplona, 1802, pp. 449-52. Duràn thought that the chapel of San Nicolàs, for which the count left a testamentary provision, was the northern apse of the cathedral (D ur An , Arte altoaragonés, pp. 50-51). Moralejo argued that this was impos­ sible (M oralejo , La sculpture, p. 8i ). We know from Blasco that the count's funerary inscription was in an area beside the sacristy (D ur An G u d io l , Arte altoaragonés, p. 51). This must be the pre­ sent-day ante-sacristy, which includes the original space of the chapel plus a part of the original Romanesque chapter house. 25 José Miguel M erino de CAceres , ‘La torre de la iglesia de San Millàn de Segovia y su construcción' in Actas del Cuarto Conteso NucionuldeH istoriade k C d tr u c c io n , Cadiz.١ 2003 ١ pp. 771-79. 26 The ‘Documento del Mercado' is one of the false diplomas on which the early dating ofJaca was based, see: U b iet o , ‘La catedral romànica de Jaca'; U b ieto , ‘El romànico de la catedral jaquesa'; INig uez A lm ech , ‘La catedral de Jaca', and C anellas -LOpez & San Vic e n t e , Aragon roman. On the tower of Siresa and its relation to Jaca and Bagüés, see: Javier M a r t Inez de A g uirre , Esther L ozano LOpez & Diana L u c Ia GO m ez -C h ac On , ‘San Pedro de Siresa y Alfonso el Batallador' in Monumentos singulares

T h e A r c h i t e c t u r e of J a c a C a t h e d r a l

167

delromdnico.Naeoaslecturas sobreformaas^nsos١A^udAr^eC^^m^poo, 2012, pp. 160-62. 27 The degree of ornamentation of the windows is not always due to a succession of phases. The churches at Iguacel and Sasave are very instructive on this point. For both, the choice for more or less ornamentation is not a consequence of successive architec­ tural campaigns or of different architects, but rather is used to dignify certain spaces. 28 k o n l o D u r i N G udeol١Fa Igksiade AragOndurantelosreinados deSancboRamirezyPedroI (io62?-ii04)١Rome١ i96١i ١pp . ١&_4٠ . 29 Thomas C reissen , ‘Les clôtures de choeur des églises d'Italie à l'époque romane: état de la question et perspectives' in artium medievalium, 5١ 1999, p. 177. I would like to thank Fran­ cisco de Asis Garcia for b rin in g this article to my knowledge. 30 Later the choir would be transferred to bays 3 and 4 ١ as is shown in Lampérez's plan and ^ a d ra d o 's engraving. 31 ‘The old choir of Jaca, which was in the middle, resting on twelve-span arches and was very large, was taken down': D ur An G u d io l , ‘La Catedral' p. 16. He adds that the choir ‘was made by the sculptor Sancho Canardo, of Jaca, in 1457'. Probably the arches of which he speaks were Romanesque and their capitals would be those that adorn the ‘lonja chica': Francisco de Asis Ga r c Ia G a rc Ia , ‘Imagenes ejemplares para un cabildo: la his-

168

J a v i e r M a r t I n e z de A g u i r r e

toria de san Lorenzo en la catedral de Jaca' in Codex Aquilarensis١ 29, 2013, pp. 135-51. 32 On the dating of the document, see: U b ieto , ‘La catedral romanica de Jaca'; U b ieto , ‘El romanico de la catedral jaquesa'; INig uez A lm ech , ‘La catedral de Jaca'; C anellas -LOpez & San Vic en te , Aragon roman. 33Juan Francisco E steban L o ren te , Fernando Galtier M a r t ! & Manuel Ga rc Ia G uatas, E l nacimiento del arte romanico en Aragon. Arquitectura, Zaragoza.. ‫ ذ‬9 ‫ د ة‬١ p. 5‫ ذ‬٩١ Enciclopedia del ^ m d ^ ic o en Zaragoza ١ A^aAar de Campoo, 2010, vol. i , p ٠ 142. 34Javier M a r t Inez de A g uirre , ‘A rquitectura medieval' in Santa Maria de Ujué١ Pamplona, 2011, pp. 56-117. 35 On the sculpture of Ujué and Jaca, see: Marcel D urliat , La sculpturerom anedelarouted Saint-Jacques.Fe Cc^^c^^^sà C o f postelle, Mont-de-Marsan, 1990, pp. 259-60. 36 On the chronology of Iguàcel, see: M a r t Inez de A g uirre , ‘A rquitectura y soberania' pp. 229-36. 37 The relation of the sculpture at Sasave with Jaca was studied by David L. Sim o n , ‘San Adrian de Sasave and Sculpture in Altoar‫؟‬L#>n١ In and Gotbic: Essays fo r George Zarn^ecLi١ Woodbridge, 1987, pp. 179-84. 38 M a rt Inez de A guirre , ‘A rquitectura y soberania', pp. 213-29.

The Portuguese Cathedrals and the Birth of a Kingdom Braga, oporto, Coimbra, and the Historical Arrival at Lisbon — Capital City and shrine of st Vincent J o r g e [M a n u el de O l iv e ir a ] R o d r ig u e s *

a b s tr a c t This paper focuses o n th e rise o f th e k ingdom o f Portugal and th e bu ild in g o f its first four cathedrals in th e tw elfth cen tury follow ing th e m ilitary cam paigns tow ards th e M oo rish south. This started w ith th e restoring o f th e ‘o ld’ Suevic diocese o f Braga, follow ed by a passage th ro u g h O p o rto (th at w o u ld n o t assume full relevance before th e en d o f th e century) and the establishm ent o f th e first capital city o f th e n ew — b u t n o t yet fully recognized — kingdom and king in C o im b ra, where a new cathedral was b u ilt side-by-side w ith th e m ain house o f th e A ugustinians, th e m onastery o f Santa C ruz, burial site and ‘place o f m em o ry ’ o f th e first tw o kings o f Portugal. The goal o f th e p ro n o u n c em en t o f th e new kingdom w ould only be achieved w ith th e conquest o f L isbon and th e Tagus river line, w here a n ew and definitive capital city w ould be asserted and a com plex shrine w o u ld be b u ilt aro u n d th e m em o ry o f th e Three H o ly M artyrs o f L isbon. Later, it w ould m ainly centre on Saint V incent, th e n ew p a tro n o f th e to w n and th e first p a tro n saint o f th e new k ingdom o f Portugal.

I G t t b e d r a lo fB r f

Ja m e s th e G re a te r (S a n T ia g o , in S p a n ish ), a s a in t t h a t w o u ld n a m e th e c ity s o o n to b e c o m e th e m o s t

T h e h is to r y o f th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t R o m a n e s q u e

im p o r t a n t re lig io u s c e n tre f o r C h r is tia n p ilg rim a g e :

c a th e d ra ls in th e k in g d o m o f P o rtu g a l, w h ic h b e c a m e

S a n tia g o d e C o m p o s te la .

effectiv ely i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m th e k in g d o m o f L e o n a fte r th e T re a ty o f Z a m o r a in 1143, b e g in s w ith th e

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th e d io c e s e , u n d e r ta k e n b y B is h o p D o m

a rea o f th e f o rm e r S uevic c a p ita l. T h is w as a h is to r y

b e tw e e n 1 0 7 T a n d 1091,2 w h o c a r r ie d o u t th e first

o f riv a lry w ith S a n tia g o d e C o m p o s te la th a t w o u ld

R o m a n e s q u e c o n s t r u c t i o n w o rk s o v e r w h a t se e m s

w itn e s s a d ra m a tic e p iso d e a r o u n d 1102, w h e n D ie g o

to h a v e b e e n a p r e - R o m a n e s q u e c h u r c h o f s o m e

P e d ro

G e lm ire z e m b a rk e d o n th e ‘s a in t la rc e n y ’, th e th e ft o f

im p o r ta n c e , lik e ly d a tin g f r o m th e t e n t h c e n tu ry ,

th e relics o f th e m o s t r e p u te d s a in ts fro m th e d io ce se

w h o s e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l re m a in s w e re id e n tif ie d u n d e r

a n d th e n e w k in g d o m — V ic to r, S u san a , C u c u fa te ,

th e p r e s e n t b u i ld i n g .3 T h e n e w c a th e d r a l se e m s to

S ilvestre, a n d F ru tu o s o — w h ic h w e re s u b s e q u e n tly

h a v e b e e n a d ir e c t r e s u lt o f D o m P e d r o ’s i n t e n t i o n

ta k e n to C o m p o s te la . T h is th e ft c o m p r o m iz e d a n y

to c o n f e r to B ra g a n o t o n ly th e s ta tu s a n d in flu e n c e

p o ssib le re lig io u s c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n th e tw o e p is­

o f th e n e w ly r e s t o r e d d io c e s e , b u t also th e m a g n if i­

c o p a l cities o f th e I b e ria n P e n in s u la ’s N o r th w e s t: th e

c e n c e o f a n a r c h ite c tu r e t h a t h e h a d a lre a d y te s te d

o ld o n e , B ra g a, a n d th e ‘n e w c o m e r ’, C o m p o s te la , th e

in o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p la c e s, i n c lu d in g th e n e a r b y

se a t o f th e s h rin e o f o n e o f C h r i s t ’s d isc ip le s, S a in t

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tio n th e p ro c la im e d fin d in g o f th e u n c o r r u p te d b o d y

M o n d o fie d o , O re n se , a n d Tuy. T he im p o rta n c e o f th is

o f th e s a in t in C o m p o s te la . T h e fe a r o f a c tio n o n th e

cere m o n y a n d th e fo rm e r relevance o f B rag a as o n e o f

p a r t o f th e C o m p o s te la n s c o m p e lle d D o m M a u ric io

th e m a in sp iritu a l cen tres o f E arly C h ris tia n ity in th e

to d e p o s it th e h e a d in S a n Z o ilo a t C a r r ió n de los

Ib e ria n P e n in su la — p a rtic u la rly th e n o rth w e s te rn area5

C o n d e s , fro m w h e re D ie g o G e lm ire z m a n a g e d to

— m akes us believe, fo llo w in g th e p ro p o sa l o f M a n u e l

tak e it to C o m p o s te la , w ith th e p e rm is s io n o f Q u e e n

L uis R eal, th a t th e c h u rc h u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n in th e

U rra c a , to c o m p le te th e re m a in s o f th e A p o s tle in its

last q u a rte r o f th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry fo llo w e d a m u c h

c a th e d ra l sh rin e . A n o t h e r b is h o p o f B ra g a, D o m P aio

larg e r p ro je c t, b o th a rtistically a n d politically, th a n th e

M e n d e s, la te r e v en tr ie d to o b ta in th e relics o f S a in t

o n e th a t is u su ally c re d ite d to its p a tro n ,6 p re c e d in g th e

V in c e n t,14 w h ic h — as w e sh a ll see — w e re d is p u te d

arrival o f th e B ish o p G e ra ld o f M o issac a n d th e in flu ­

b y sev eral m o n a s te rie s t h r o u g h o u t E u ro p e a n d th a t, in

ence o f th e B e n e d ic tin e s fro m C lu n y a ro u n d 1100.7

th e k in g d o m o f P o rtu g a l, w o u ld b e a t th e c e n tre o f a

T h e arriv a l o f B is h o p G e ra ld in B ra g a su g g ests t h a t th e see tr ie d to re g a in th e im p o r ta n c e it o n c e

in th e n e w c a p ita l, L is b o n , a n d th e first P o rtu g u e se

h a d p r i o r to th e risin g in flu e n c e o f S a n tia g o de

k in g , t h a t w o u ld ta k e th e m to th e n e w ly b u ilt c a th e ­

C o m p o s te la . T h e m o v e m e n t to w a rd s th e c re a tio n o f

d ra l w h e re th e s a in t w o u ld f in d h is p e r m a n e n t sh rin e .

a n i m p o r ta n t p ilg rim a g e c e n tre in th e c ity seem s to

T h e a tta c k b y D ie g o G e lm ire z in 1102 c a u s e d a v io ­

b e s o m e h o w re la te d to th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e c h a ­

l e n t d is r u p tio n o f th e B ra g a C a th e d r a l c o n s tr u c tio n

p e l o f S a in t N ic h o la s 8 — a c h a p e l th a t c o u ld also b e

w o rk s , w h o s e o rig in a l p r o je c t is still a n o p e n fie ld o f

f o u n d in p ilg rim a g e c h u rc h e s lik e T o u rs, Ja c a, B u rg o s,

d isc u ssio n . A su rv iv in g sid e apse o n th e n o r t h side

o r in th e v e ry c a th e d ra l o f C o m p o s te la 9 — w h ic h w as

o f th e c h u rc h se e m s to h av e b e e n p a r t o f th e o rig in a l

a sso c ia te d to th e w e lc o m in g a n d a ssista n ce o f th e p il­

e le v e n th -c e n tu ry R o m a n e s q u e c o n s tr u c tio n , w ith its

g rim s. T h is c h a p e l w o u ld la te r b e tr a n s f o r m e d in to

h o rs e s h o e a rc h ; n o w is o la te d a n d o p e n o n to a sm all

th e m a u s o le u m o f G e ra ld , w h o d ie d in II0 8 ,10 w h o se

p a tio n e a r th e c lo iste r, it c o u ld h a v e b e e n p a r t o f th e

a rc h ite c tu r a l s tr u c tu r e w o u ld b e first r e p a ire d a n d

o rig in a l e a st e n d o f th e c h u rc h , th a t, a c c o rd in g to

tr a n s f o r m e d in 1214, in a tim e w h e n th e c u lt o f S a in t

M a n u e l L u is R e al, w o u ld p ro b a b ly h a v e c o m p ris e d a

G e r a ld w as a lre a d y sta b iliz e d , w ith th e litu rg ic a l cel­

to ta l o f se v e n apses, th re e o n e ac h sid e o f th e p re s ­

e b ra tio n s fu lly in s titu te d b y 1228."

b y tery . T h is p ro g ra m m e w o u ld b e re d u c e d to o n ly

W as th e m a in g o a l o f D o m P e d ro , first, a n d th e n G e ra ld o to com pete w ith S a n tia g o th e C o m p o s te la fo r

th re e apses d u r in g th e s u b s e q u e n t re c o n s tr u c tio n s .15 T h e r e c o n s tr u c tio n w o rk s w e re n o t fu lly u n d e r ta k e n

th e ro le o f th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t p ilg rim a g e c e n tre in

im m e d ia te ly , th o u g h , a n d n o t w i t h o u t f u r t h e r c o n ­

th e n o r th w e s t o f th e P e n in s u la — w ith all th e p re s ­

flic ts a n d d e s tru c tio n s , as a d o c u m e n t d a te d fro m 29

tig e a n d ric h e s t h a t w e re a sso c ia te d to it — o r ju s t to

O c t o b e r 1110, s ig n e d b y c o u n te ss T eresa, seem s to

‘ta k e a d v a n ta g e ’ o f its re lig io u s tr a d itio n a n d stra te g ic

c o n firm . T h e d o c u m e n t d e ta ils h e r re q u e s t to b rin g

p o s itio n in g o n o n e o f th e m a in ro u te s to C o m p o s te la

r e p a ra tio n to th e d io c e se f o r th e c rim e s p e r p e tr a te d

in o r d e r to ‘d e fle c t’ th e p ilg rim s f o r a p a ssa g e th r o u g h

a g a in s t it in th e c o n flic t th a t o p p o s e d h e r to D o m

th e n e w a n d im p o s in g c a th e d ra l a n d th e c o n s e q u e n t

M a u ric io B u rd in o a n d th e s u p p o r te r s o f th e cause

w o rs h ip o f th e lo c a l sa in ts?

o f th e su c c e ssio n to th e th r o n e o f L e o n b y Q u e e n

W h a te v e r th e a n sw e r w o u ld b e D ie g o G e lm ire z

170

q u a rre l b e tw e e n th e A u g u s tin ia n s , in th e ir n e w h o u se

U rra c a , a fte r th e d e a th o f K in g A lfo n s o V I in 110976

d id n o t w a it f o r it, ra v a g in g B ra g a, a n d ta k in g th e

It w as o n ly w ith D o m P aio M e n d e s th a t a n e w a n d

s a in t’s tre a s u re d relics w ith h im .12 T h e fa te o f B ra g a

decisive p e rio d o f re c o n s tru c tio n sta rte d , a lth o u g h

se e m e d to b e se a le d fro m th a t tim e o n , as it w as

b y 1128 th e c a th e d ra l w as n o t y e t fit to stage th e cere­

u n a b le to c o m p e te w ith th e e v e r-g ro w in g in flu e n c e

m o n y o f c o n se c ra tio n b y th e n e w b ish o p o f C o im b ra ,

o f C o m p o s te la , in sp ite o f so m e a tte m p ts o f se c u r­

B e rn a rd , w h ic h h a d to b e p e rfo rm e d in th e c h ap el o f

in g o th e r relics to re p la ce th o se s to le n b y G e lm ire z .

S a in t N ic h o la s; th re e years later, o n 22 A p ril 1131, th e

J orge [Manuel de O liveira ] R odrigues

Fig. 1.

Braga C athedral, general view o f th e in te rio r (p h o to W ik im ed ia com m ons)

n e w ch an cel seem s to have b e e n su fficien tly s u ite d fo r

I b e ria n P e n in su la's m a in C h r is tia n s p iritu a l c e n tre , a

th e cult. O n ly b y 1135 d o w e finally g e t to k n o w th e n a m e

s itu a tio n f r o m w h ic h it w o u ld n e v e r fu lly re c o v e r o n

o f th e a rc h ite c t b e h in d th is s e c o n d a n d m o re m o d e s t

a n in te r n a tio n a l lev el, a lth o u g h it m a n a g e d to re g a in

R o m a n e sq u e p ro je c t: N u n o Pais.17 It w as also B ish o p

so m e o f its o rig in a l im p o r ta n c e w i t h in th e g ro w in g

Paio M e n d e s w h o w as resp o n sib le fo r th e c o n s tru c tio n

k in g d o m o f P o rtu g a l. A rc h ite c to n ic a lly th e c a th e ­

o f th e C h a p e l o f th e K in g s o r C h a p e l o f S a in t L ucas,

d ra l still rev eals to d a y — e v e n a fte r th e in te r v e n tio n s

so m e tim e b e tw e e n 1128 a n d h is d e a th in 1137, w h e re th e

o f th e s ix te e n th to e ig h te e n th c e n tu rie s t h a t tr ie d to

to m b s o f th e c o u n t a n d co u n te ss o fP o rtu c a le — H e n r y

re c o v e r so m e o f its f o r m e r m a g n ific e n c e — its h y b r id

o f B u rg u n d y a n d T eresa o f L e o n — w ere p lac e d , a d ja ­

a n d p a r tly u n a c h ie v e d c h a ra c te r, as is e v id e n c e d b y

c e n t to th e n o r th side o f th e b o d y o f th e c h u rc h .18

th e fa c t t h a t it is th e o n ly P o rtu g u e s e M e d ie v a l c a th e ­

T h e fa te o f B ra g a C a th e d r a l w o u ld also b e m a rk e d

d ra l w h o s e m a in b o d y w as n e v e r v a u lte d (Fig. 1).

b y o t h e r c a ta s tro p h ic e v e n ts lik e th e e a r th q u a k e of1135, w h o s e im p a c t w as s u c h t h a t b y 1268 th e c o n s tr u c tio n w o rk s w e re n o t y e t fin is h e d . B ra g a , w h o s e p a rtia lly

S it،iC r u z g ،lC o im b r a .C ،itb e ،lr a .l

re b u ilt c a th e d ra l w as n o t c o n s e c ra te d b e fo re 1176 — w ith im p o r t a n t d o n a tio n s w ith th a t p u rp o s e in m in d

T h e s u b s e q u e n t m a r c h to w a rd s th e s o u th w o u ld

b y k in g s A fo n s o I (A fo n s o H e n riq u e s ) a n d S a n c h o I

le a d k in g A fo n s o H e n r iq u e s to s e ttle h is n e w c a p ita l

d o c u m e n te d in 1185 a n d 1210 ‫ — ؤ‬h a d lo s t a n y c h a n c e

c ity in C o im b r a , w h e re a n e w c a th e d ra l w a s b u i lt in

o f c o m p e tin g w ith S a n tia g o d e C o m p o s te la as th e

th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry . B e h in d h i m w e re th e te r r ito r ie s

T h e P o r t u g u e s e C a t h e d r a l s a n d t h e B i r t h of a K i n g d o m

171

o f th e i n te r i o r a n d th e D o u r o R iv er, w h e re O p o r t o

T h e k in g ’s fa v o u r to w a rd s th e A u g u s tin ia n s , w h ic h

w o u ld s ta n d o u t as th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t to w n , w ith

w as n o t u n c o n d itio n a l a n d w h ic h also k n e w so m e d if­

a n e w c a th e d ra l also u n d e r c o n s tr u c tio n . In 1113 th e

fic u lt tim e s, seem s to h a v e b e e n s o m e w h a t o f a d ra w ­

d io c e se w a s r e s to r e d a n d H u g o o f C o m p o s te la , a

b a c k f o r th e p a tro n a g e o f th e c a th e d ra l c o n s tr u c tio n ,

f a ith f u l c le rg y m a n o f D ie g o G e lm ire z , w a s a p p o in t e d

w h ic h w as o n ly s ta r te d a fte r 1139, th e c ru c ia l d a te o f

as th e n e w b is h o p , w ith th e p o litic a l b le s s in g o f

th e B a ttle o f O u r iq u e .26 T h e b e g in n in g o f th e c o n ­

c o u n te s s T ere sa ; tw o y e ars la te r, th e re n e w e d d io c e se

s tr u c tio n , still u n d e r th e ru lin g o f B is h o p B e rn a rd ,

w as e x e m p te d o f a n y o b e d ie n c e to th e m e tr o p o lis o f

w h o d ie d in 1146, w a s su c c e e d e d , w ith th e s u p p o r t

B ra g a , le a d in g th e b is h o p o f O p o r t o to o b t a i n f r o m

o f A fo n s o I, b y a m o re v ig o ro u s p h a se o f th e w o rk s

th e p o p e th e r ig h t o f ju r is d ic tio n o v e r th e d io c e se

u n d e r th e su p e rv is io n o f B ish o p M ig u e l S alo m äo ,

o f L a m e g o th e y e a r a fte r.20 T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e

b e tw e e n 1162 a n d 1172, w h e n th e R o m a n e s q u e f o r ­

n e w c a th e d ra l in C o i m b r a m u s t h a v e s t a r te d in th e

tifie d b u ild in g w as a lm o s t fin is h e d (Fig. 2). In 1182,

s e c o n d q u a r te r o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry ,21 b u t it w o u ld n o t b e f in is h e d u n t il th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry , a fte r s o m e h e s ita tio n s a n d p r o g r a m m e c h a n g e s, a t a tim e w h e n O p o r t o w o u ld s ta n d o u t in th e k in g d o m to its fu ll re le v a n c e . C o im b r a , th e first c a p ita l c ity o f th e first P o rtu g u e s e k in g , w as e le c te d as th e p la c e w h e re h e w o u ld se t h is c o u r t a n d c h o o se h is b u ria l p la c e , in th e A u g u s tin ia n m o n a s te r y o f S a n ta C r u z (th e H o ly C ro ss ), w h ic h h e

th e te m p le w as a lre a d y fit to receiv e th e b o d y o f th e su c c e sso r o f M ig u e l S a lo m ä o , B is h o p B e rn u d o s , a n d in 1185 K in g S a n c h o I w a s c ro w n e d h e re ; th e m aste rs R o b e r t — o f F re n c h o rig in , w h o m w e w ill m e e t a g a in o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n site o f L is b o n C a th e d r a l — a n d th e P o rtu g u e s e S o e iro — w h o w e w ill e n c o u n te r la te r f u r t h e r n o r t h — w e re th e o n e s a c c o u n ta b le f o r a p r o ­ je c t th a t w as c le a rly in s p ire d b y F re n c h m o d e ls .27

h a d h e lp e d to fo u n d . O n 9 D e c e m b e r 1130 A fo n s o I d o n a te d th e g ro u n d s w h e re th e n e w m o n a s tic h o u s e

L i s b o w C u th e d r a l

w o u ld be b u ilt, th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f w h ic h s ta r te d o n 28 J u n e 1131;22 la te r, fo llo w in g th e e x a m p le o f F e r d in a n d I a n d A lfo n so V I o f L e o n a n d o f sev eral F re n c h n o b le m e n , su c h as th e D u k e s o f B u rg u n d y , h e w o u ld c h o o se th is m o n a s te r y to la y d o w n h is b o d y o n its m o n u m e n ta l galilee, p r e c e d e d in 1157 b y th e b u ria l o f h is first w ife , M a tild e .23 T h e k in g ’s to m b a n d t h a t o f h is so n , S a n c h o I, w o u ld s u b s e q u e n tly b e p la c e d a fte r t h e ir d e a th s in 1185 a n d 1211 in th e sa m e c r y p t w h e re M a tild e w a s la id to re st, o n th e g r o u n d flo o r o f th e galilee, u n d e r a c h a p e l d e d ic a te d to th e c u lt o f th e d e a d , as w as p ra c tic e in o th e r E u ro p e a n m o n a s tic c h u rc h e s a t th e tim e .24 T h e ch o ic e fo r th e A u g u s tin ia n s b y K in g A fo n s o I seem s to have b e e n a c u n n in g p o litic a l a n d d ip lo m a tic

172

T h e m o s t i m p o r ta n t la n d m a r k o f t h e R ec o n q u ista , th a t is, th e re g a in in g o f th e te rrito rie s t h a t h a d b e e n o c c u ­ p ie d b y th e M o o rs f o r m o re th a n 4 0 0 y ears, w o u ld b e th e c ro ssin g o f th e riv e r T ejo (T a g u s), c o n q u e rin g L is b o n , S a n ta ré m , S in tra , A lm a d a , a n d P a lm e la in 1147, A b ra n te s in 1148, a n d s u b s e q u e n tly f o rtify in g (o r re p a irin g th e fo rtific a tio n s o f ) th e to w n s m e n ­ tio n e d , as w e ll as o f th e b a n k s o f th e T ejo in A lm o u ro l, T o m a r, V ila V elh a d e R o d ä o , a n d B elver. L is b o n , th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t o f th e c o n q u e r e d to w n s, w o u ld n o w b e c o m e th e n e w c a p ita l o f th e k in g d o m , w ith a n e w c a th e d ra l h a s tily b u ilt — a n d c o n s e c ra te d — o v e r th e ru in s o f o n e o f its m o sq u e s.

m ea su re to c o u n te rb a la n c e th e e x tre m e p re stig e o f

T h e p ro c e s s o f le g itim a tin g th e n e w c a th e d ra l

th e B e n e d ic tin e s o f C lu n y in th e Ib e ria n k in g d o m s ,

first r e s o r te d to th e th re e H o ly M a rty rs o f L is b o n —

in p a r tic u la r in L e o n a n d C a stile , w h e re m o n a rc h s

V erissim o , M à x im a , a n d JU lia — b u t s o o n it b e c a m e

like A lfo n so V I a n d A lfo n so V I I w ere a m o n g s t

a p p a r e n t th a t

th e se w e re

e ith e r n o t p re s tig io u s

th e m a in b e n e fa c to rs o f th e C lu n is ia n s.25 In fa c t, th e

e n o u g h o r la c k e d th e a c tu a l to k e n s o f th e ir p re se n c e :

A u g u s tin ia n h o u se s w o u ld s p re a d th r o u g h o u t th e

t h e ir relics. In s te a d , a se a rc h f o r a s a in t t h a t c o u ld

c o u n tr y in n u m b e rs a n d re le v an c e w ith o u t p a ra l­

e n c o m p a ss th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e n e w C h r is tia n c a p i­

lel in an y o th e r C h r is tia n k in g d o m , b e in g also m o re

ta l w as s ta rte d . T h e c h o ic e fell u p o n S a in t V in c e n t,

fre q u e n tly a llo tte d th e c o n d itio n o f n u lliu s diocesis —

w h o s e relics w e re b r o u g h t f r o m Z a ra g o z a , a fte r a

e x e m p t fro m a n y b is h o p ric a u th o r ity a n d tith e — th a n

p e rilo u s a d v e n tu re , to f in d th e ir n e w a n d p e r m a n e n t

th e B e n e d ic tin e o nes.

s h rin e in L is b o n .

J orge [Manuel de O liveira ] R odrigues

Fig. 2.

C o im b ra C ath ed ral, e ^ e r io r view (p h o to W ik im ed ia com m ons)

T h e c ity w a s c o n q u e r e d b y A fo n s o H e n r iq u e s o n

w a s in s ta lle d t h e r e ’. C h o s e n as b is h o p o f th e r e s to r e d

25 O c t o b e r 1147,28 w ith th e h e lp o f th e C r u s a d e r s t h a t

d io c e se w a s, ‘o n e o f o u rs, G i l b e r t o f H a s tin g s , w ith

w e re p a s s in g b y o n t h e i r w a y to th e H o ly L a n d —

th e c o n s e n t o f th e k in g , th e a r c h b is h o p , th e c le rg y ­

E n g lis h , N o r m a n s , G e rm a n s , F le m is h — a c o n q u e s t

m e n a n d all th e la y m e n ’;32 G i l b e r t w o u ld b e in v e s te d

o f w h ic h w e h a v e a p r e c io u s a c c o u n t in th e f o r m o f a

b y th e a rc h b is h o p o f B ra g a , D o m J o ä o P e c u lia r, a n d

l e t t e r w r i t te n to O s b e r n o ( O s b o r n e ?) b y a c h a p la in

c o n f ir m e d b y P o p e E u g e n e I I I b e fo re J u n e 1148.33

o f th e C r u s a d e r ’s a r m a d a .29 H a v in g c o n q u e r e d th e

The

c o n s tr u c tio n

o f th e

c a th e d ra l o n

sa c re d

to w n a n d b e h e a d e d th e M o z a ra b ic b is h o p ‘a g a in s t

g r o u n d , w h e re so m e a u th o rs h av e se e n a N o r m a n

th e d iv in e a n d h u m a n r i g h t ’,30 th e ‘C h r is tia n k n i g h ts ’

in flu e n c e ,34 a n d o th e rs fro m th e L a n g u e d o c 35 — in

e n g a g e d f o r five day s in fe ro c io u s lo o ti n g a n d p l u n ­

th e sam e lo c a tio n w h e re a R o m a n p a g a n te m p le , a

der. T h e ir m a in te m p le w as s u b s e q u e n tly e s ta b lis h e d

V is ig o th c h u rc h , a n d a m o sq u e o f th e M u s lim L is b o n

in a m o s q u e , ‘a te m p le s u s ta in e d b y se v e n o rd e rs o f

h a d b e e n e re c te d b e fo re 36 — h a d th e d o u b le p u rp o s e

c o lu m n s w ith as m a n y e n ta b la tu r e s ’,31 c o n s e c r a te d as

o f o c c u p y in g a sp ace th a t h a d b e e n re g a rd e d as sa c re d

C h r is tia n c a th e d ra l o n A ll-S a in ts D a y , 1 N o v e m b e r

lo n g b e fo re th e a rriv a l o f th e C h r is tia n c o n q u e ro rs ,

1147. A f te r it w a s ‘ p u r if ie d [...] b y th e a rc h b is h o p

a n d a sse rtin g th e sy m b o lic tr iu m p h o f C h r is tia n ity

a n d f o u r o t h e r b is h o p s [...] th e se a t o f th e b is h o p r ic

o v e r Isla m (F igs 3 & 4 ) .37

T h e P o r t u g u e s e C a t h e d r a l s a n d t h e B i r t h of a K i n g d o m

173

Fig. 3.

174

L isbon C ath ed ral, view from th e w est (p h o to author)

J orge [Manuel de O l i w i r a ] R odrigues

Fig. 4.

L isbon C ath ed ral, a carved V isigoth stone em bedded in th e tw elfth-century bu ild in g on th e so u th side (p h o to author)

T h e b u ild in g o f th e n e w te m p le m u s t h av e s ta r te d

T h e b u ild in g still re ta in s th e

o rig in a l c ru c ifo rm

in th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , p ro b a b ly

p la n o f th re e aisles w ith six b ays (o n e lo n g e r th a n in

a ro u n d

C o im b r a ) , w ith a h ig h e r c e n tra l o n e c o v e re d b y a b a r ­

‫ ﻟ ﻞ‬6 0 ;‫أل‬

w e k n o w fro m th e L iv r o P re to (B lack

B o o k ) o f C o im b r a C a th e d r a l t h a t m a s te r R o b e r t w as

re l v a u lt, w h ils t th e c o lla te ra ls are c o v e re d b y g r o in e d

n a m e d th e o n e ‘f r o m L is b o n ’ w h o w e n t to C o im b r a

v a u lts a n d a tra n s e p t t h a t rises to th e sam e h e ig h t o f

f o u r tim e s d u r in g th e b is h o p ric o f D o m M ig u e l S alo m d o b e fo re 1176,55 to su p e rv ise th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f its c a th e d ra l, v e ry sim ila r to th e L is b o a n o n e . T h e w o r k w as o n ly c o m p le te d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry ,40 m o s t lik e ly a fte r 1211, th e y e a r o f th e d e a th o f S a n c h o I.41 T h e o rig in a l e a st e n d o f

th e c e n tra l aisle. I t is, n e v e rth e le ss, th e m a in p o r ta l — se t b e tw e e n th e tw o im p o s in g to w e rs — a n d its d e c o r a te d c a p i­ ta ls th a t in te re s t u s th e m o st, sin c e th e ir ic o n o g ra p h ic p ro g ra m m e w ill h e lp to c o n s u b s ta n tia te a n id e o ­

th e b u ild in g h a d a n apse w ith tw o bays, th e first r e c t­

lo g ic a l s ta te m e n t a b o u t th e precedence o f th e H o ly

a n g u la r a n d th e s e c o n d se m i-c irc u la r, w ith tw o s im i­

M a r ty r s o f L is b o n o v e r th e Isla m ic to w n , a s ta te m e n t

la r sm a lle r r o u n d apses o n b o t h sid es; th e p re s b y te ry

t h a t w ill p ro v e to b e o f p a r a m o u n t im p o r ta n c e f o r th e

h a d th e w id th o f th e c e n tra l aisle, w h ils t th e o th e r

f u tu r e a s s e rtio n o f th e c ity ’s see, o f th e re s to re d d i o ­

tw o c h ap e ls w e re as w id e as th e c o lla te ra l o n e s.42

cese, a n d o f C h r is tia n L is b o n (Fig. 5).

T h e P o r t u g u e s e C a t h e d r a l s a n d t h e B i r t h of a K i n g d o m

175

Fig. 5.

176

L isbon C ath ed ral, general view o f th e m ain p o rta l (p h o to author)

J orge [Manuel de O l i w i r a ] R odrigues

Fig. 6. L isbon C ath ed ral, m ain po rtal: Saint M ichael and the D ragon (p h o to author)

Fig. 7. L isbon C athedral, m ain po rtal: th e fight betw een th e C h ristian and M oo rish knights (p h o to author)

T h e first a u th o r to p a y so m e a tte n tio n to th e s c u lp ­

W h e n w e first d e a lt w ith th is s c u lp tu ra l p ro g ra m m e ,

tu re o n th ese c a p ita ls w as G a b rie l P e re ira (1847-1911)

y e ars ag o , w e p o i n te d o u t t h a t it w as f u n d a m e n ta l

in th e la s t years o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry : ‘a relic

f o r th e C h r is tia n c o n q u e ro rs o f th e c ity to b u ild a

fro m th e first (p h a se o f ) c o n s tr u c tio n m ira c u lo u s ly

c a th e d ra l in a fa st a n d im p o s in g w ay, so as to e n h a n c e

p re s e rv e d ’43 T h e sa m e a u th o r h a d a lre a d y u n d e r lin e d

u n a m b ig u o u s ly th e d o m in a tio n o f th e v ic to rs — a n d

th e d o m in a n c e o f th e o r n a m e n ta tio n o f v e g e ta b le

o f t h e ir re lig io n — o v e r th e v a n q u is h e d t h a t w ere

in s p ir a tio n o n th e m a in p o r t a l o f th e c a th e d ra l,

f o r c e d to w itn e s s th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e ir m o sq u e

e m p h a s iz in g , a t th e sa m e tim e , th e p re se n c e o f

a n d th e b u ild in g o f th e n e w C h r is tia n c a th e d ra l o n

tw o n a rra tiv e c a p ita ls: o n e d e p ic tin g w a rrio rs r id ­

th e sa m e site. W e also sa id th e n th a t th e m o s t im p o r ­

in g h o rse s, ‘s y m b o lic a lly ’, a n d a n o th e r p o r tr a y in g

t a n t sy m b o l o f d o m in a tio n w as th e c a p ita l d e p ic tin g

‘p e rh a p s th e S a in ts o f L is b o n , V erissim o , M à x im a e

th e fig h t b e tw e e n tw o k n ig h ts (Fig. 7 ): th e first o n e,

JU lia’.44 A a rä o d e L a c e rd a w o u ld re su m e la te r th e sam e

b e a r d e d a n d m o u n tin g w h a t seem s to b e a lio n in v ests

in te r p r e ta tio n o f G a b rie l P e re ira f o r th e c ap itals:

a g a in s t th e o th e r, b e a rd le ss a n d m o u n tin g a b u ll (a n d d re sse d in su c h a fa s h io n t h a t h is e x o g e n o u s o rig in

The scu lp to r th a t carved S aint M ichael defeating L uci­ fer [?],45 th e fight b etw een tw o k n ig h ts a n d th e images

b e c o m e s im m e d ia te ly o b v io u s). T h e first k n i g h t ’s m o u n t is h o ld in g a h o r n fro m th e b u ll w ith h is left

th a t m ig h t very w ell be, as G a b riel P ereira assum ed,

p a w (as i f it w e re a h a n d ) , th u s s u b m ittin g th e m o u n t

th e th ree Saints o f L isbon, Verissim o, M àxim a e JUlia,

o f th e s e c o n d k n ig h t a n d o v e rp o w e rin g h i m 47 in a

did it w ith an o rn a m e n tal spirit very close to th a t o f

fig h t b e tw e e n o p p o s ite s in w h ic h th e first e m b o d ie s

th e artist o r artists th a t d eco ra te d w ith m in iatu res

th e s o la r m ig h t — th e lio n b e in g o n e o f th e sy m b o ls

th e Apocalypse o f L orväo, w ith its slender figurines.

o f C h r is t — w h ils t th e o th e r p e rso n ifie s th e lu n a r

In P ortuguese R om anesque th is set o f m in ia tu re s is

in flu e n c e , a n o p p o s itio n t h a t is also, m e ta p h o ric a lly ,

u n iq u e.46

th e im p e r s o n a tio n o f th e fig h t b e tw e e n C h ris tia n s

T h e P o r t u g u e s e C a t h e d r a l s a n d t h e B i r t h of a K i n g d o m

177

Fig. 8. L isbon C ath ed ral, m ain po rtal: th e W h o re o f B abylon (p h o to author)

Fig. 9. L isbon C athedral, m ain po rtal: th e th ree H oly M artyrs o f L isbon (p h o to author)

a n d M u s lim s, in w h ic h th e first v a n q u is h e s a n d s u b ­

The one th a t kills th e evil ones o n w hat th ey are evil and

d u e s th e s e c o n d .48 N o t b y c h a n c e th is c a p ita l is fa c e d ,

does so w ith a just reason, is a m in ister o f O u r L ord.‫'؛‬

o n th e o p p o s ite sid e o f th e p o r ta l, b y a n o th e r o n e re p re s e n tin g th e W h o r e o f B a b y lo n ,49 a n a p o c a ly p ­

B esid es th e o b v io u s s p irit o f c ru sa d e re fle c te d in th e

tic re fere n c e th a t seem s re la te d to th e f o r m e r Isla m ic

c o n c e p t o f th e ‘ju s t w a r ’, 2‫ ؛‬th e id e a o f ‘re c o v e rin g w h a t

d o m in a tio n o f th e city, h e re a sso c ia te d to th e b ib lic a l

is o u rs ’ is also o f th e u tm o s t im p o rta n c e . T h e H o ly

B a b y lo n , th e r o o t o f all sin (Fig. 8 ).‫؛‬°

M a rty rs o f L is b o n p r e s e n t a n u n d is p u te d e v id en ce

T h e c a p ita l t h a t in te re s ts u s th e m o st, h o w e v e r, is th e o n e t h a t is b e lie v e d to re p re s e n t th e H o ly M a rty rs o f L is b o n , w h o s e p re se n c e in th is p ro g ra m m e m u s t

th a t L is b o n h a d a lre a d y b e e n ‘o u rs ’ — th a t is to say, C h r is tia n — as th e le tte r to O s b e rn o so e lo q u e n tly sta te s, b y re fe rrin g to th e m n o fe w e r th a n tw o tim e s:

b e u n d e r s to o d in close c o n n e c tio n to th e s p ir it o f c r u ­ sad e o f th e p e r io d (Fig. 9). W h e n th e C ru s a d e rs a n d th e m e n o f A fo n s o I c o n q u e r e d L is b o n , th e y im p o s e d a h e a v y d e fe a t u p o n th e M u slim s, re a c h in g — as w e h av e a lre a d y se e n — a b o r d e r th a t w as g e o g ra p h ic a lly

U n d e r th e d o m in a tio n o f th e C h ristia n kings, before th e M o o rish co n q u est [...] th e m em o ry o f th e three m artyrs Verissimo, M àxim a an d J l i a , virgin, was revered, o f w hose church, to tally devastated by the

w ell d e fin e d a n d m u c h e asie r to d e fe n d th a n all th e

M oors, are still left only th ree stones as a m em o ry o f

f o r m e r o n e s, n a m e ly th e riv e r T ejo (T a g u s). W h e n

its destru ctio n , th a t n o b o d y co u ld ever remove. Some

th e v ic to rs a sse rte d th e tr iu m p h o f th e ir fa ith , th e y

say th ey are altars; others, however, say th ey are to m b ­

d id so in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e w o rd s o f S a in t Isid o re

stones [...]. In th is very to w n it is a testim o n y o f th at

o f Seville, q u o te d in th e le t t e r to O s b e rn o :

[i.e., th e previous presence o f th e C hristians] the blood o f th e m artyrs M àxim a, Verissimo a n d J l i a virgin,

The just war, as our Isidore says, is th e one th a t is m ade to recover w hat is ours, or to w ard o ff th e enem ies [...].

178

J orge [Manuel de O liveira ] R odrigues

spilled in th e nam e o f C h rist, at th e tim e o f A geiano, R o m an governor.‫؛؛‬

T hese tw o re fe re n c e s are v e ry c le a r w ith re g a rd to th e

p r o t e c t io n a n d s ta te m e n t o f ‘m o d e s ty ’. T h e sim p le

sy m b o lic im p o r ta n c e o f th e s e m a rty rs o f th e first c e n ­

d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e c o rp u le n c e o f th e m a s c u lin e

tu rie s o f C h r is tia n ity o n th e I b e ria n P e n in su la . S een

a n d fe m in in e b o d ie s c a n e x p la in th e d iffe re n t sizes o f

as a s u b je c t o f in te n s e w o rs h ip b y th e first C h r is tia n

th e fig u res c a rv e d in a so ft lim e s to n e c a p ita l — ‘lio z ’

k in g s a n d su ffe rin g th e s u b s e q u e n t M o o ris h ravage

f o u n d a r o u n d L is b o n — d a m a g e d b y e ro sio n . T he

a n d d e s tr u c tio n o f th e ir te m p le , u n a b le n e v e r th e ­

ic o n o g ra p h y o f th e th re e m a rty rs o f L is b o n w o u ld

less to erase t h e ir m e m o r y th a t su rv iv e d in th e a lta rs

s u b s e q u e n tly c h a n g e , b u t o n ly in th e se v e n te e n th

o r to m b s to n e s , th e s e m a rty rs a n d th e ir te s tim o n ie s

c e n tu ry , w h e n th e y s ta r te d b e in g d e p ic te d as rom eiros

w o u ld th u s m a te ria liz e th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e

(o rig in a lly th o s e t h a t m a d e th e p ilg rim a g e to R o m e ,

first C h r is tia n e v a n g e liz a tio n — o f w h ic h th e y are a

a d e s ig n a tio n la te r a ttr ib u te d to a n y p ilg rim , e v en a t

v a lu e d e x e m p lu m — a n d th e r e tu r n o f th e C h r is tia n

a re g io n a l le v e l), a d e p ic tio n th a t se e m s to h a v e b e e n

k n ig h ts to th e to w n to re c la im w h a t h a d b e e n th e irs.

b a s e d o n th e le g e n d w id e s p re a d b y F ray L u is d o s

T h e th re e s a in ts se e m to h a v e b e e n th re e sib lin g s

A n jo s , v e ry c o m m o n in B a ro q u e e n g ra v in g s fro m th e

m a r ty r e d in L is b o n d u r in g th e f o u r th c e n tu r y — o n

s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y o n w a rd s .8‫؛‬

1 o r 2 O c t o b e r o f th e y e a r 303 o r 3 0 4 — d u r in g th e

D e s p ite th e sig n ific a n c e o f th e e v o c a tio n o f th e

re ig n o f E m p e r o r D io c le tia n a n d a t th e h a n d s o f th e

H o ly M a rty rs o f L is b o n , it b e c a m e c le a r th a t th e

g o v e rn o r A g e ia n o o r D a c ia n o .4‫ ؛‬T h e d o c u m e n ta r y

n e w c a th e d ra l, in th e a ls o -n e w c a p ita l c ity o f th e

so u rc e s, w h ic h are v a rie d a n d s p re a d t h r o u g h tim e ,

k in g d o m , n e e d e d re al relics fro m a p re s tig io u s s a in t

are n o t p a r tic u la r ly e x p lic it a b o u t th e d iffe re n t lives o f

to a sse rt its e lf as th e n e w a n d m o s t re le v a n t p o i n t o f

th e th re e sa in ts, b u t re p e a t, in ste a d , th e tale s c o n c e r n ­

re lig io u s re fe re n c e in th e k in g d o m o f P o rtu g a l. Its

in g o th e r m a rty rs , a m o n g w h o m th e b e s t k n o w n is

a im w as to e sta b lish a c e rta in p a ra lle l w ith S a n tia g o

S a in t V in c e n t. In fa c t, th e first re fe re n c e s to th e sa in ts

d e C o m p o s te la , b y th e n n o t o n ly th e u n d is p u te d

o f L is b o n t h a t w e are aw are o f are th o s e c o n ta in e d

m a in re lig io u s c e n tre o f all o f th e I b e ria n P e n in su la ,

in th e M a rty ro lo g y b y U s u a rd o , a w o r k d a tin g fro m

b u t also th e m o s t im p o r t a n t p ilg rim a g e g o a l across

a b o u t 8 7 ‫ ؛‬. A lth o u g h th e H o ly M a rty rs o f L is b o n

E u ro p e . T h e o b je c t o f th e n e w k in g ’s q u e s t w o u ld b e

w ere a lre a d y in s c rib e d in th e litu rg ic a l c a le n d a rs sin ce

th e relics o f S a in t V in c e n t o f Z a ra g o z a .

th e six th c e n tu ry , th e re se a rc h e rs w h o h av e d e a lt w ith

S a in t V in c e n t, th e fo c u s o f th e n e w s h rin e o f th e

th e ir s to r y all a g ree o n o n e su b je c t: th e m a r ty r d o m o f

L is b o n see, is d e s c rib e d in h is h a g io g ra p h y as a f o r ­

th e th re e sa in ts o f L is b o n is n o t sp o k e n o f b e fo re th e

m e r d e a c o n o f V alerio , B ish o p o f Z a ra g o z a , o n e o f

n i n th c e n tu ry .‫ ؛؛‬T h e d e v o tio n r e n d e r e d to th e se sa in ts

th e p a r tic ip a n ts in th e C o u n c il o f E lv ira th a t w as h e ld

seem s to h av e b e e n p re s e rv e d w i t h in th e M o z a ra b ic

b e tw e e n 3 0 0 a n d 330; h is le g e n d w as in itia lly s p re a d

c o m m u n ity o f th e c ity ,6‫ ؛‬su c h th a t a fte r th e c o n q u e s t

b y th e p o e t P r u d e n c io ( 3 4 8 - 0 415), in h is C ro w n o f

K in g A fo n s o H e n r iq u e s d e c id e d to b u ild a te m p le

th e M a r ty r s , w ith th e c u lt sp re a d in g t h r o u g h o u t th e

d e d ic a te d to th e ir m e m o r y — th e c h u rc h o f th e

R o m a n E m p ire sin c e th e tim e o f S a in t A u g u s tin e

M a rty rs o f L is b o n — th a t is a lre a d y d o c u m e n te d in

(3 5 4 -4 3 0 ).

1194, a n d t h a t w as s u b s e q u e n tly d o n a te d to th e O r d e r

D a c ia n o , V in c e n t w o u ld s u b s e q u e n tly su ffe r to r tu r e

o f S a n tia g o b y S a n c h o I.7‫؛‬

a n d m a rty rd o m , h is b o d y b e in g a b a n d o n e d o n a n

A r r e s te d

by

th e

R om an

g o v e rn o r

W h e n th e c a th e d ra l w as b u ilt, it w as n o m o re

is o la te d p la c e to b e d e v o u re d b y b e a sts, a n o u tc o m e

th a n n a tu r a l t h a t th e s e m a rty rs , w h o w e re a m o n g s t

t h a t w as m ira c u lo u s ly a v o id e d b y th e a p p e a ra n c e o f

th e first C h r is tia n c re d e n tia ls o f th e to w n , w o u ld be

a c ro w th a t p r o t e c t e d h im fro m a w o lf. D a c ia n o th e n

e v o k e d — a n d in v o k e d — o n th a t sa c re d s p o t. T h is

o r d e r e d th a t V in c e n t’s b o d y b e th r o w n o u t in to th e

also b e c o m e s o b v io u s w h e n w e l o o k a t th e first c a p i­

sea, w ith a m ills to n e a r o u n d its n e c k , b u t it e v e n tu ­

ta l o n th e s o u th sid e o f th e m a in p o r ta l, w h e re th e fig ­

a lly w a s h e d a sh o re ; re le v a n t ic o n o g ra p h y in c lu d e s

u re t h a t seem s to d e p ic t V e rissim o is se e n in f r o n t o f

d e p ic tio n s o f th e s a in t w e a rin g th e d e a c o n ’s d a lm a tic ,

th o se o f h is siste rs M à x im a a n d JU lia, y o u n g m a id e n s

sc e n es f r o m th e m a r ty r d o m , th e b a rg e , a n d th e crow s.

t h a t are d e p ic te d o n th e sid es o f th e sa m e c a p ita l, in

T h e relics o f S a in t V in c e n t a ro u s e d th e in te re st,

sm a lle r scale b e c a u se o f th e n a tu re o f th e fe m a le b o d y ,

f r o m v e ry e a rly tim e s, o f sev eral C h r is tia n c o u rts ,

a n d less e x p o se d , in th e b a c k g ro u n d , f o r t h e ir o w n

n o ta b ly th e F re n c h o n e , a fa c t re c o r d e d in th e M is s a l

T h e P o r t u g u e s e C a t h e d r a l s a n d t h e B i r t h of a K i n g d o m

179

o fM a te u s , w h ic h w as b r o u g h t fro m M o issa c to B ra g a

1248.67 T h e m a n ip u la tio n o f th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e

a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y a n d t h a t ‘[...]

re c o v e ry o f th e b o d y o f S a in t V in c e n t th a t, fro m

in c lu d e s h is sanctoral, w h e re h e is p a r tic u la r ly h ig h -

9 0 68‫ ﻟ ﻞ‬o n , is alw ays ic o n o g ra p h ic a lly a sso c ia te d w ith

lig h te d ’.59 In fa c t, sin c e th e tim e o f C h ild e b e r t, th e

th e b la c k b ird s — th e c ro w s, u su a lly tw o in n u m b e r —

s a in t w as w o r s h ip p e d in S a in t-G e rm a in -d e s -P ré s , in

im p lie s a d e p ic tio n th a t w o u ld s u b s e q u e n tly associ­

Paris, w h e re th e M e ro v in g ia n m o n a rc h h a d m a n a g e d

ate th e b a rg e a n d th e b a tte r e d b o d y o f th e m a rty r.69

to b r in g h is s to le .60 W h e n U s u a rd o m a d e h is trip to

F o r in sta n c e , a n o th e r seal fro m th e L is b o n c ity c o u n ­

th e I b e ria n P e n in su la , p a s s in g th e P y re n e e s in 858,161

cil, d a te d 1223, sh o w s th e tw o c ro w s s ta n d in g o n

h is g o a l w as to o b ta in a n d c a rry w ith h im th e b o d y o f

th e b a rg e ,70 th e v e ry sa m e c ro w s th a t p r e v e n te d th e

S a in t V in c e n t to th e F re n c h a b b ey , a h y p o th e s is th a t

d e v o u rin g o f th e s a in t’s b o d y b y th e b e a s ts .71

th e T ra n sla tio B e a ti V in c e n tii, w r itte n b y A im o in in

T h e m a in re a s o n b e h in d th e w ish to re trie v e th e

8 6 9 , e n tire ly ig n o re s .62 W h a t se e m s c le a r n o w is th a t

relics o f th e sa in t n o w b e c o m e s c le a r: th a t o f tra n s ­

w h e n th e S a in t V in c e n t relics w e re fin a lly re trie v e d

fo rm in g L is b o n in to a first-ra te p ilg rim a g e c e n tre , at

b y th e m e n o f A fo n s o I — a fte r a first, p a r tia lly u n s u c ­

le a st o n a p e n in s u la r level. T h is fa c t is e n lig h te n e d b y

cessful, e x p e d itio n th a t le ft th e m in A lg a rv e , h e n c e

th e s y n o d o f 1240, w h e n th e b ish o p s o f th e k in g d o m

th e n a m e g iv en to th e C a b o Säo V ic e n te , th e so u th -

d e c id e d to e n c o u ra g e th e p rie s ts o f th e ir dioceses

w e s te rn m o s t h e a d la n d o f m a in la n d P o rtu g a l — th e y

to u rg e th e ir c o m m u n itie s to v isit th e relics o f S a in t

w e re n o t ta k e n to th e m o n a s te r y o f Säo V ic e n te ‘de

V in c e n t a t le a st o n c e e v e ry year. It is also c lear t h a t

F o ra ’ ( th a t is, o u ts id e th e c ity w a lls) as w as th e w ish

b e h in d th is e n te rp rise — d e sp ite th e k n o w n p ro s p e rity

o f th e A u g u s tin ia n s ,63 b u t in s te a d to th e c a th e d ra l

o f a m u ltic u ltu ra l c ity 72 — th e m o n a rc h a n d th e clerg y

o f L is b o n . T h e re , fo llo w in g th e ex p ress w ish e s o f

o f th e c a th e d ra l w e re in fa c t f o u n d in g th e re n e w e d

th e k in g , th e y w e re d e p o s ite d o n 15 S e p te m b e r 1173,

d io ce se o f th e n e w c a p ita l c ity o v er th e relics o f S a in t

th u s tra n s f o r m in g th e L is b o n see in to th e m a in c u ltic

V in c e n t (th e m a in re a s o n b e h in d th e re fu sal to h a n d

fo c u s o f th e Z a ra g o z a n s a in t relics, w h o w o u ld s o o n

th e m o v e r to th e A u g u s tin e m o n a s te ry ), m a rk in g , in

a c q u ire th e s ta tu s o f a p a tr o n s a in t to th e c ity a n d ,

a tr iu m p h a l way, a p o i n t o f n o r e tu r n o n th e a sse rtio n

s h o r tly after, to all th e k in g d o m .64

o f th e k in g , th e k in g d o m , a n d th e C h r is tia n ‘n a tio n a l’

B y th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y L is b o n

T h e p a ra lle ls b e tw e e n th e ro les p la y e d b y th e tw o

w h ic h p ro g re ssiv e ly b e c a m e th e sc e n e o f c o h a b ita ­

m a in p a tr o n sa in ts in th e p e n in s u la se e m o b v io u s:

t io n b e tw e e n th e v ic to rs a n d th e v a n q u is h e d . T h e

S a in t Ja m e s th e G r e a te r w ith A lfo n s o II o f A s tu ria s

lo c a l M o z a ra b ic c o m m u n ity , as w e h av e se e n , h a d

in th e n i n th c e n tu r y a n d S a in t V in c e n t w ith A fo n s o I

a lre a d y fe lt a sp e c ia l d e v o tio n f o r S a in t V in c e n t,65

o f P o rtu g a l in th e tw e lfth w e re b o t h h e lp in g to c o n ­

a r o u n d w h ic h a w e ll-s tru c tu re d c u lt w o u ld s o o n

so lid a te th e p r o je c t o f th e n e w k in g d o m s ; b o t h w ere

d e v elo p . T h e c h o ic e o f h is relics o v e r th o s e o f o th e r

a sso c ia te d w ith th e o rig in s o f H is p a n ic C h r is tia n ity ;

sa in ts , esp e cially c o n s id e rin g th e n u m b e r o f m a rty rs

b o t h t h e ir re m a in s — th e ir ‘re lic s’ — h a d b e e n f o r ­

a lre a d y w o r s h ip p e d in th e c ity — n o t o n ly V erissim o ,

g o tte n , o r lo st, a n d a p p e a re d a g a in , s u d d e n ly a n d

M à x im a , a n d JU lia, o f w h o m w e sp o k e b e fo re , b u t

m ira c u lo u sly , o n a c ru c ia l p o litic a l m o m e n t, a llo w in g

also S a in ts J u s t, G e n s, A n a sta siu s, P la c id , M a n ç o s,

(in th e P o rtu g u e s e case) th e y o u n g k in g d o m to c re ­

Felix, A d ria n , a n d N a ta lia — is n o t o n ly re la te d to th e

ate a n e w c e n tre o f w o rs h ip a n d p ilg rim a g e o f u tm o s t

n e e d o f m a te ria l e v id e n c e o f th e s a in ts ’ re m a in s, b u t

im p o rta n c e , w h ic h w as d ire c tly re la te d to th e k in g ’s

is p r o b a b ly also c o n n e c te d to th e s tr o n g F re n c h p re s ­

c o m m itm e n t to its fo rm a l e s ta b lis h m e n t.73

e n ce a m o n g s t th e e lites o f th e p e n in s u la r k in g d o m s

T h e s h rin e o f S a in t V in c e n t w as u n f o r tu n a te ly

a n d , in p a rtic u la r, th e P o rtu g u e s e o n e s, th e first k in g

d e s tro y e d b y o n e o f th e m a n y e a rth q u a k e s th a t

b e in g th e g ra n d s o n o f th e D u k e o f B u rg u n d y .66

se v e rely d a m a g e d th e c a th e d ra l t h r o u g h o u t th e c e n ­

A m o n g th e m a in w r itte n re c o rd s o f th e tra n sla tio

180

C h u r c h t h a t th e m o n a rc h p ro te c ts .

w as a lre a d y a c ity b u s tlin g w ith c o m m e rc ia l activ ity ,

tu rie s, e sp e c ia lly th o s e o f 1321, 1356 — ra z in g th e

o f th e relics o f S a in t V in c e n t to L is b o n , o n e is c o n ­

n e w p re s b y te r y o f A fo n s o I V — 1 4 0 4 , a n d 1531, as

te m p o r a r y to th e e v e n t a n d its a u th o r is th e c h a n te r

w e ll as th e d ra m a tic e a rth q u a k e o f 1755 t h a t d e v a s­

o f th e c a th e d ra l, M a s te r E stê v â o (S te p h e n ), w h ils t

t a t e d m o s t o f th e c ity o f L is b o n : b e sid e s th e sh rin e

a n o th e r m u s t b e d a te d b e tw e e n th e y ears 1236 a n d

a n d all th e o r ie n ta l c h a p e ls, th e fo u r-s to re y -h ig h

J orge [Manuel de O liveira ] R odrigues

la n te r n to w e r, w h ic h w a s b u ilt o v e r th e c ro ssin g o f

c o n tr o l o f th e p e n in s u la r te rrito rie s . T h is m a d e all th e

th e aisles a n d th e tra n s e p t, w a s lo s t as w ell. B u t w e

m o re sense sin c e th e c a th e d ra l, as w as th e case fo r all

are f o r tu n a te to b e a b le to re c o v e r w h a t th e s h rin e

o t h e r c a th e d ra ls in th e k in g d o m o f P o rtu g a l, n e v e r

m ig h t h a v e lo o k e d lik e , sin c e it is d e p ic te d o n tw o

h a d a c ry p t f o r p riv ile g e d b u ria ls.

seals, d a tin g fr o m 1346 a n d 1352, c e le b ra tin g th e c o n ­ s e c ra tio n o f th e n e w s a n c tu a r y as th e c h a p e l o f th e h ig h altar, b u t also as th e p a n th e o n o f A fo n s o I V a n d h is w ife. T hese seals s h o w us th e sa rc o p h a g u s e n c lo s ­

NOTES

in g th e s a in t’s re m a in s p la c e d o v e r f o u r c o lu m n s — w ith th e tw o c ro w s o n to p — b e fo re th e k in g a n d a n o ffic ia tin g b is h o p , in a c o n te x t th a t E d u a r d o C a rre ro S a n ta m a ria h a s c o m p a r e d to th a t o f th e y o u n g A lfo n s o V II, a t C o m p o s te la , w ith th e b is h o p D ie g o G e lm ir e z .74 B e h in d th e m , a n d o n th e re v erse sid e, w e see th e R o m a n e s q u e c a th e d ra l still in ta c t, sc e n es d e p ic tin g th e s a in t p ra y in g — p e rh a p s still as a d e a ­ c o n — a n d th e a rriv a l o f h is b o d y to L is b o n , in th e b a rg e a n d alw ays g u a r d e d b y th e tw o c ro w s.75 T h e r e p u ta tio n o f th e m ira c u lo u s p o w e rs o f S a in t V in c e n t, w h o c o u ld h e a l th e sic k — m o re a n d m o re f r e q u e n t a n d c e le b ra te d — a ttr a c te d a n e v e r-g ro w in g n u m b e r o f b e lie v e rs to L is b o n , c o m in g fro m p lac e s as fa r aw ay as G u im a rä e s o r L u g o , L e o n , C a ta lo n ia o r fro m h is ‘h o m e la n d ’, A r a g o n .76 A ll w is h e d to g e t as close as p o ssib le to th e relics o f th e s a in t, w h ic h s o m e ­ tim e s ev en e n ta ile d n ig h t v igils b e sid e h is s h rin e , tr y ­ in g to to u c h h is s a n c tu m a n d b e g g in g fo r h is a id , in a c u lt t h a t w as stric tly c o d ifie d a n d c o n tr o lle d b y th e ecclesiastical a u th o ritie s t h a t ‘leaves v e ry little to th e s p o n ta n e ity o f th e m o m e n t o r o f th e in d iv id u a l’.77 B e g in n in g in th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , a n d c e rta in ly b e ca u se o f th e p r o te c tio n o ffe re d to th o s e w h o s o u g h t c o m f o r t a n d c u re n e x t to th e relics o f S a in t V in c e n t, L is b o n ’s c a th e d ra l s ta r te d b e in g c h o s e n as a fa v o u rite b u ria l p lac e , in itia lly su b stillicid io (u n d e r th e r o o f g u tte r ) ,7‫ ؟‬b u t m a in ly n e x t to th e fa ca d e, a n te lim in a ecclesiae,79 a fa c t v e rifie d b y th e d isc o v e ry o f a n u m ­ b e r o f b u ria ls in f r o n t a n d a r o u n d th e c h u r c h .80 L a te r th ese b u ria ls w o u ld b e c o m e m o re c o m m o n , s p re a d ­ in g to th e ch a p e ls o f th e c lo is te r a n d e v en to th o se s u r r o u n d in g th e G o th ic a m b u la to r y th a t e m b ra c e d th e G o th ic c h a n c e l w h e re A fo n s o I V — as w as sa id b e fo re — w o u ld e re c t, d u r in g th e f o u r te e n th c e n tu ry , h is o w n p a n th e o n as w e ll as a n a lta r c e le b ra tin g S a in t V in c e n t. A fo n s o I V w o u ld b e th e first P o rtu g u e s e k in g to b e effectiv e ly b u r ie d a d S a n c to s, s u r r o u n d e d b y all th e p a r a p h e r n a lia re la te d to h is h e ro ic p a r tic ip a tio n in th e B a ttle o f S a lad o , in 1340, th e la s t a tte m p t o f th e Islam ic K in g s o f M o ro c c o a n d G r a n a d a to re g a in

* IH A /D H A , FSCH-Universidade Nova de Lisboa and Calouste Gulbenkian Museum. 1 This is the date of the actual ‘restoration', apparently at the ini­ tiative of Dom Pedro with the more or less reluctant cooperation of the bishops Vitrario of Lugo and Crescónio of Iria Flavia, as part o f the Galician ‘competition'. 2 On this matter see in particular: Avelino de j. DA C osta , OBispo D ie d ro e a o rg a n ia ä to d a d io c e se d e B rf»voV YY١Co\mbra, 1959, pp. 25-38, and Manuel L. R eal , ‘O projecto da Catedral de Braga, nos finais do século XI, e as origens do romànico portuguhYvn ALddoCongressoInterM cioM idadediaäiocU Se de Br٠ , vol. 1, Braga, 1990, pp. 435-511, in particular 435-37. 3 R eal, ‘O projecto da Catedral', pp. 438-45. 4 Ibidem, pp. 446-54. 5 W ith the neighbouring ancient diocese of Dume, the mauso­ leum of Säo Frutuoso de Montelios, the church of Säo Pedro de Rates and, of course, all the religious centres of nearby Galicia. 6 The fate of Bishop Dom Pedro is directly connected to his choice of supporting the antipope Clemens III who, in 1091, made him Archbishop of Braga, with the dignity of metropoli­ tan; he was subsequently deposed and locked up in a monastery by order of Urban II. 7 R eal , ‘O projecto da Catedral', p. 455 and passim. 8 Probably sacred in the year of 1103, Ibidem, p. 475. 9 Ibidem, pp. 466-67. 10 Manuel d'A. Ba rreiro s , a Cat hedral de San ta M ar ia de Braga. Estudos criticos archeologico-artisticos, Porto, 1922, p. 43, attributed to Gerald of Moissac the initiative of the construction of the chapel. 11 Avelino d. j. DA C osta , ‘Geraldo, Säo', in Dicionario de História de Port ugal, ed. Joel Serr Ao , vol. ii , Lisboa, 1971, pp. 340-41; k l ì n o à - . y d a C o sta ١A ic k ia d a S e d e B r fe o e p is c o p a d o de Säo Geraldo (1092-1108), Braga, 1991, p. 23: already present in the calendar of the M issal de Mateus, prior to 1176, and patron of a church in Loivos (Chaves), in 1224. 12 Something that would be fairly accepted at the time, since the saints were l ivi ng creatures and, therefore, their relics could not be moved without their consent; on this matter, see: Patrick j. G eary, Furta Sacra, Princeton, 19902, pp. 108-14. 13 He would replace Gerald in B ra ^ after his death in 1108, see: Jorge Rodrigues , ‘O Mundo Romànico, in História da Arte Portuguesa, ed. Paulo P ereira , vol. 1, Lisbon, 1995, pp. 180-331, here p. 199. 14 R eal, ‘O projecto da Catedral, pp. 476-77. 15 The discussion to whether this section of the cathedral corre­ sponded to a body of three o f five aisles is dealt with by Ibidem, p. 455 and passim.

T h e P o r t u g u e s e C a t h e d r a l s a n d t h e B i r t h of a K i n g d o m

181

16 R eal, ‘O projecto da Catedral', p. 477 and passim. 17 Ibidem ١ pp. 483-84. 18Jo g eR o D R A GuES, Galilea.,locusememóriu. PanteOes,estruturus^unerdriuseesp^u‫ ؟‬osreli^iososussociad^osemPortugul,d^o inicio do século X I I a rneudos do século XIV: da form،tçûo do Reino ‫غ‬ vitória no Salado (unpublished doctoral thesis FSCH/Universidade Nova de Lisboa), 2011, pp. 556-57: today the chapel of Nossa Senhora do Livramento, which was totally rebuilt — as the tombs — by Dom Lourenço Vicente in 1391, in a place allotted by tradition to the burial ground of the Suevic Kings. 19 R eal , ‘O projecto da Catedral', p. 489; R o drig u es , ‘O Mundo Romànico', p. 231. 20 Antònio S. Rodrigues (ed.), História de Portugal em datas١ Lisboa, i994, p. 24. 21 Manuel L. R eal, ‘O romànico português na perspectiva das relaçOes internacionais‫ ؛‬in Romanicoe bon & La Coruna, 2001, pp. 30-55, here 39. 22 The land donated by Afonso Henriques had belonged to one of the most prominent Mozarabic families of Coimbra, the city where this cultural and religious tradition was more present than anywhere else in the kingdom, until the second half of the twelfth century; about the foundation and construction of Santa Cruz de Coimbra, see: Antònio N. G onçalves , ‘Mosteiro de Santa Crux ١ 'tn EstudosdeHistOriadaArte Medieval١ C o r n k ١ A98٠١ pp. i6i-68, and Jorge R o drig u es , Galilea, locus e memoria ١ pp. ii 0 - 23, here ii0. 23 Ibidem, p. ii4. 24 Ibidem ١ pp. 121-22: after the first kings, many other persons of noble pedigree would also find their final resting place on this galilee١ taking advantage of the prestigious ‘company' of the bod­ ies of the monarchs. 25 Denise R ic h e , L ’Ordre de Cluny ‫ غ‬lafin du Moyen Âge (xii G-xv S siécles) ١ Saint-Étienne, 2000, p. 89 and 40; Dominique Iogna P rat, Ordonner et exclure١ Paris, 1998, p. 69 and 247, referring to the liturgical celebrations by Hugo of Sémur and Peter the Vener­ able in honour of Alfonso VI of Leon, ‘[٠ ] grand bienfaiteur du monastère, du vivant du roi, puis en sa mémoire [٠٠٠] qui de son royaume terrestre a ainsi gagné le royaume éternel'. 26 This victory on the battlefield was where Afonso I Henriques proved his valour in combat and where he might have been acclaimed king by his knights, following the Germanic prac­ tice of the warrior-monarchies, as well as of the ones previously instituted in Asturias, Aragon, and Navarre. Cf. José M a tto so , História de Portugal, Lisbon, 1992-1994, vol. ii , p. 62; Lorenzo A reas PAr a m g , GuiadelArtePrerromdnico Asturiano١ Gj١òn ١ i9962, p. 44 and passim. 27 Ro d rig u es , ‘O mundo Romànico‫ ؛‬pp. 255-56. 28 Ruy d'A. T orres , ‘Lisboa, conquista de (1147)', in Serr Ao , DiciondriodeHistóriadePortugal١p.75 ٧ 29 De Expugnatione Lyxbonensi: part of the manuscript collec­ tion Cambridge University, Corpus Christi Library, Codex 470, set C o n q u ist،td e L isb o a iM o u ro se m n 4 7 . Irr ،tç û o peloscruo^a^d^osOsbernoeA^rnu.l‫ آ‬o,testen^u^nba-s‫^ أ‬rebencia-is docêrco١ ‫ ؛‬rrAnA. from the Latin by José Augusto de Oliveira with a foreword by Augusto Vieira da Silva), Lisbon, 1936. 30 Aires A. N ascim ento (ed .) ١ [A] conquista de L isboa aos Mouros. Relato de um cruoado١ introduction by Maria J. V B ranco ,

182

J orge [Manuel de O li ^ i ra ] R odrigues

U k \ . ١ io o i ١ ‫ ؟‬. r١9 ٠١٠rn ConquistudeLisboaaosM ourosemii47. Carta de WW Cruoado ingles ٩ we purticipou nos uconteciwentos١ Lisbon, 1989, p. 107, the justification for such a ‘barbaric' act, criticized by the author, is, nevertheless, apparent in the very let­ ter, as we can see in p. 51, when he mentions the ‘collaborationist' with the infidels: ‘Rise as good emulators the Church of Spain prostrated and humiliated [٠٠٠] because — in the words of Saint Ambrose — the one that does not repel, when he can, the outrage made to its companions and brothers is as criminal as the one that perpetrates it'; words that can be related to the spirit of Crusade, punishing the Christian (Mozarabic) Bishop for his ‘treason', by accepting to live amongst and ‘cooperate' with the infidels. ١1 C o n q u ista d eL isb o a iM o u ro se m ٧ 47 ١ pp. 1081- 0 9 ٠١see‫؟‬k > ٠. N a sc im en to , [a ] conquista dep. 141 where the entablatures are translated as ‘vaults'. Lis­ ١p .109. 32 Ibidern 33JUlio de C a st ilh o , Lisboa Antiga ١ vol. v, Lisbon, 19703 (revised and expanded ed. by the author, with notes by Augusto Vieira da Silva), pp. 140-41. 34 Ibidem, pp. 135-36; Manuel L. R eal, ‘Perspectivas sobre a Flora Romànica da ‘Escola Lisbonense'. A propòsito de dois capitéis desconhecidos de Sintra no Museu do Carmo', in Sintria ١ I-II (i ) ١ 1982-1983, pp. 529-60, here 535, and note 8; Manuel L. R eal , ‘O Convento Romànico de S. Vicente de Fora', in Monumentos, 2, Lisbon, 1995, pp. 14-23, here 14; Carlos Alberto F. de A lm eida , Históri،idaArteemPortug،;ll.ORomànico ١ vo\. ١١ LrAson,1986 ١ p. 121 and Carlos Alberto F. de A lm eida , História da Arte em Portugal, i. O Romanico١ Lisbon, 2001, p. 135. 35 Reynaldo dos Sa n to s , o Romanico em Portugal١ Lisbon, 1955, p. 46 and R o drig u es , ‘O Mundo Romànico', p. 257. 36 Clementino A m aro , ‘Presença muçulmana no Claustro da Sé Catedral — três contextos com ceràmica islàmica', in Islâmicos do Sul Peninsular١ Lisbon, 2001, pp. 165-97; Joäo V Bra nco , ‘Reis, bispos e cabidos: a diocese de Lisboa durante o primeiro século da sua restauraçâo', in 2nd series, no. i0, Lisboa, i998, pp. 55-94, here 57-58 and note 7. 37 See on this subject: R o drig u es , ‘O Mundo Romànico', p. 257. 38 Sa n to s , O Romànico em Portugal, p. 43. 39 IFidern, p . a C A lmead a , Históriu da Arte em Portugal, I. O Românico, p. i35. 40 Eeidem,p. 135; R eal, ‘Perspectivas sobre a Flora Romànica‫ ؛‬p. 535. 41 Sa n to s , O Romànico em Portugal, p. 43. 42 C a st ilh o , Lisboa antiga١ V p. 75. 43 Gabriel P ereira , ‘Capitéis da Sé de Lisboa', in (0s(Arque0^0giu.Históridrte.Etn0gra ‫ ل‬ia.)١ l9H Y o ‫ا ًا‬٠g‫ ا‬lnA\ypub ‫ل‬lished in i895], pp. 334- 35. 44 Ibidem, p. 335. 45 W hich is really the Dragon from the Apocalypse١ 12, 7-9. 4‫ ج‬Aaräo de L acerda , História da Arte em Portugal, vol. i, Porto, i 942, p. 285. 47 Jean C hevalier & Alain G heerbrant , Dictionnaire des Symboles, Paris i982 (second revised and expanded ed.), p. 290, 575 and 931. 48 Jorge R o d r ig u e s , AspectosdaornawentuçUo e r e p r e s e n t. na escultura do românico em Portugal, (unpublished master thesis in History of Art), vol. i, Lisbon, 1982, pp. 55-56.

49 Paulo A. Fernandes , ‘Iconografia do apocalipse: uma nova leitura do portal ocidental da Sé de Lisboa', in Patrimonio estudos, 7, Lisbon, 2004, pp. 91-100, here 93. 50 Apocalypse,^. ١‫ ا‬C onquistadeLisboaem ii47 ‫ ا ا‬93‫ ة‬١١ ‫ ﻵ‬. ‫ل ﺗ ﻶا‬٠N asc e m en to ١ [A] conquistadeLisboaaos Mouros, p.^9. 52 Concerning the question of ju st war and holy war, see John G ilc h r ist , ‘The papacy and war against the “Sarracens" 796­ 1216' in The International History Review, 10, 1988, pp. 173-97. ١١ Conquista de Lisboa em 1147 ( ‫ ا‬9 ٠ ‫ل‬٠‫إ خ‬١١ p . ‫ ا ة‬and 78-, N asca m en to , [a ] conquista de Lisboa aos Mouros, p. 79, 95 and notes 96 and 116. 54 Mdrio M a rtin s , ‘A legenda dos santos màrtires Verissimo, Màxima e JUlia, do cód. CV/I-23 d., da Biblioteca de Evora', in Revista Portuguesa de Historia, v i , 1955, pp. 45-93, here 48-51; M gue^ de O eeveera , Luenda e Historia. Estudos hagior^cos ١ Lisbon, 1964, pp. 149-50 and 155-56; Aires A. N a sc im en to , &SaU\ A . G o m es , S. VicentedeLisboaeseusmilagresmedievais١ Lisboa, 1988, p. 9. 55 M a r tin s , ‘A legenda dos santos màrtires' pp. 45-46; O liv eira , Lenda e Historia, pp. 149-52. 56 IFidem١ M 7. 57 O liveira , Lenda e Historia, p. 159. 58 Ibidem, p. 155 and 157. 59 N a scim en to & G omes , s . Vicente de Lisboa, p. 9; Carla V Fernandes , ‘D. Afonso IV e a Sé de Lisboa. A escolha de um lugar de memòria', in Arqueologia & Historia, 58-59, 2006/2007, 2010, pp. 143-66, here 158. 60 Philippe A r i Es, HHomme devant la Mort, Paris, 1977, p. 43; G eary, Furta Sacra, p. 135. 61 M a r tin s , ‘A legenda dos santos màrtires' p. 45. 2‫ ج‬G eary, Furta Sacra, pp. 61-62 and 135-38: the relics of the saint were also coveted by the monks of Conques, before secur­ ing (as an alternative) the remains of Sainte Foy. 63 N a scim en to & G omes , S. Vicente de Lisboa, p. 10; Edu­ ardo C arrero Santam ar Ia , ‘La catedral, el santo y el rey. Alfonso IV de Portugal, san Vicente màrtir y la capilla mayor de \a sé de Udsoa ١ àn Hagiografia p^eninsularenels seules med-' evals, ed. Francesca E spaNol & Francesc Fi t E, Lleida, 2008, pp. 73- 92, here 78. 64 N ascim en to & G omes , S. Vicente de Lisboa, pp. 9-11; C arrero Santam ar Ia , ‘La catedral, el santo y el rey' p. 76; Fernandes , ‘D. Afonso IV e a Sé de Lisboa', pp. 146-47, who

compares the patronage of Saint Vincent over the Portuguese kingdom with that ofSaint Dionysius over the kingdom of France. 65 N a scim en to & G omes , S. Vicente de Lisboa, p. 8. 66 Ibidem, pp. 9-10. 67 Ibidem, p. 10 and 18-24; Rodrigo da C u n h a , Historia ecclesiastica da ¥ e j Æ de Lisboa: uida e acçoens de seus ‫ئ‬ varoeserninentesem santidade,quenella ^ r e c e ra .A id so n ١ ‫ ﺑ ذ‬١ fol. 79V-95V, quoted by C arrero Santam ar Ia , ‘La catedral, el santo y el rey' p. 77. 68 An image first shown on a seal from the monastery of Saint Vincent of Lisbon dated from this year. 69 C arrero Santam ar Ia , ‘La catedral, el santo y el rey' p. 77 and note 10: the crows appeared when the saint was approach­ ing Lisbon, escorting the boat carrying the body of Saint Vincent until he reached the harbour, a theme that the author compares to the rooster and the hen of Santo Domingo de la Calzada. 70 N ascim ento & G omes , S. Vicente de Lisboa, pp. 11-13, a depic­ tion that is exclusive to the Portuguese iconography of the saint. 71 C arrero Santam ar Ia , ‘La catedral, el santo y el rey' p. 76. 72 N a scim en to & G omes , S. Vicente de Lisboa, p. 13. 73 C arrero Santam ar Ia , ‘La catedral, el santo y el rey' p. 78. 74 IFidem ١‫ ؟‬. 8 ‫ ة‬. 75 For a detailed iconolo^cal interpretation of these seals (one lost, another in the collections of the National Archive of Torre do Tombo), see: R o drig u es , Galilea, locus e memoria, pp. 529-40. 76 C arrero Santam ar Ia , ‘La catedral, el santo y el rey' p. 80. 77 N a scim en to & G omes , S. Vicente de Lisboa, pp. 14-17; Ste­ phen L a m ia , ‘Souvenir, synaesthesia, and the sepulcrum Domini: sensory stimuli as memory stratagems' in eval Tomb, ed. Elizabeth Valdez del A lamo & Carol Stama Tis P endergast , Farnham, 2000, pp. 19-41, here 22. 78 António c . de Sousa , (2007 [1946]), Historia Genealogica da Casa RealPortuguesa, vol. I, Lisbon, 2007 [1946-1955], (facsim ile of the 1946-1955 edition), pp. 14-16; Màrio j. Ba rroca , Epi' grafia Med i eval Portuguesa (862-1422), 3 vols in 4 tomes, Lisbon, 2000, here vol. II, tome 1, pp. 577-78. 79 Alain D ier k en s , ‘A vant-corps, galilées, massifs occiden­ taux: quelques remarques méthodologiques en guise de conduAonsVvn A vant-nefs& espacesd’a ccueildans légliseentrele IV e et le XIIe siècle, ed. Christian Sa p in , Paris, 2002, pp. 495­ 503, here 498. 80 C a st ilh o , Lisboa antiga, V, p. 34A [image and caption] and 38- 39.

T h e P o r t u g u e s e C a t h e d r a l s a n d t h e B i r t h of a K i n g d o m

183

IV

Liturgical Layout and Spatial O rganization

The Mise-en-scène of the Holy in the Lateran Church in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries M ic h e l e Ba c c i

a b s tr a c t In the wake o f th e eleventh-century G regorian R eform , th e P o p e’s cathedral o n th e L ateran h ill was increasingly glorified as the m ost im p o rta n t religious bu ild in g in R om e and as a real ‘M o th e r o f all C hurches’. How ever, th e L ateran church p o s­ sessed less au th o rity p e r se th a n o th er m ajor R om an basilicas, in cluding Saint P e ter’s, since it was n o t b u ilt o n th e burial site o f m artyrs or o th er im p o rta n t Early C hristians. The bu ild in g was gradually transform ed in to a holy site w ith a legendary pedigree stressing th e L ateran ’s role as a m o n u m e n tal Jerusalem tem ple reliquary, and later in to a m em orial site o f a m ajor event in church history, nam ely th e first consecration o f a build in g in h o n o u r o f th e Saviour, m arked by th e m iraculous appearance o f C h rist’s image in th e m ain apse — a k in d o f acheiropoieton im p rin ted o n th e walls o f th e b uilding itself. The shaping o f the L ateran’s cultic specificity to o k place d u ring th e eleventh th ro u g h th e th irte e n th centuries and redefined ancient ritu al usages such as th e liturgical co m m em o ratio n o f th e B eirut icon w h ich had been stabbed w ith a knife on 9 N ovem ber and th e holy images and relics associated w ith this trad itio n .

S ie d s lie s ts s b o ly s ite s

o n th e g ro u n d , caves, m o u n ta in p e a k s , tre e s, w a te r w e lls a n d sm a ll b u ria l sites, w h ic h c a n b e w o r s h ip p e d

In th is a rtic le , R o m a n e s q u e c a th e d ra ls w ill b e a p p r o a ­

e v en in a n o p e n - a ir e n v iro n m e n t. In th e C h r is tia n

c h e d f r o m a n e sse n tia lly re lig io u s -p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l

c o n te x t, ‘h o ly p la c e s’ are alw ays site -sp e c ific a n d

a n d re lig io u s-h isto ric a l p o i n t o f view . F o r r h e to r i­

im b u e d w ith m e m o ria l q u a litie s .1

cal c o n v e n ie n c e , w e w ill d e p a r t f r o m a r a th e r ro u g h

T h e c a th e d ra l, o n th e o th e r h a n d , is b y d e f in itio n

a s s u m p tio n , n a m e ly th a t ritu a l sp aces a n d h o ly sites

a p e rfe c tly o rg a n iz e d r itu a l sp ace, b u t n o t o b v io u sly

re p re s e n t tw o d is tin c t c a te g o rie s o f re lig io u s m a te ria ­

o n e t h a t is c o n s id e re d to b e ho ly . G iv e n its ro le as

lity , im p ly in g d iffe re n t a ttitu d e s to a n d p e rc e p tio n s o f

sta g e f o r th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e litu rg y , it n e e d s to

th e s u p e rn a tu ra l d im e n s io n th e y are m e a n t to evoke.

b e o rg a n iz e d sp atially . I f w e a c c e p t th e a n th r o p o lo ­

T o p u t it in g e o m e tric a l te rm s, h o ly sites are e sse n tia lly

g ist J o n a t h a n Z . S m ith ’s a s s u m p tio n th a t, ‘ritu a l is a

d e p riv e d o f a n y su rfa c e : th e y are p e rc e iv e d b y b e lie ­

m e a n s o f p e r f o rm in g th e w a y th in g s o u g h t to b e in

vers as p o in ts o r e le m e n ts o f th e n a tu r a l la n d s c a p e

c o n sc io u s te n s io n to th e w a y th in g s a re ’, C h r is tia n

t h a t are in v e s te d w ith d iv in e p o w e r a n d s u p p o s e d

c h u rc h e s c a n b e easily v ie w e d as c o n g re g a tio n a l

to c o n v ey a p riv ile g e d access to th e c ele stia l w o rld .

sp aces th e f u n d a m e n ta l a im o f w h ic h is to re in fo rc e

A lth o u g h su c h sites are u su a lly f r a m e d a n d e m p h a ­

th e

siz e d b y a rc h ite c tu ra l s tru c tu re s , th e y c a n also c o n sist

s h a re d sy m b o ls b y m e a n s o f a s h a re d b e h a v io u ra l

o f su c h in c o n s is te n t c u lt-o b je c ts as a n o n y m o u s sp o ts

c o d e .2 T h e ir w a lls d e m a rc a te e x p e rie n tia l, r a th e r th a n

c o m m u n i ty ’s in te rp e rs o n a l s o lid a rity a r o u n d

RctmesqtteGitfoedniIs in M e le m in e tm E u ro p e jc b ite c tu re jR itM lin d U rk n C o n te x t ١ e i b y G e m d o B o to % eYa.& Jus>t\niA . k e s e n ١ Architatura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 187-203

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109572

g e o g ra p h ic , b o u n d a rie s : u p o n e n te rin g th e c h u rc h , in d iv id u a ls jo in in th e w id e r C h r is tia n c o m m u n ity -

CE.5T h e b e w ild e rm e n t c a u se d b y th is e v e n t le d Jew s to

th e ecclesia —

a n d p e rc e iv e th e m se lv e s as p a rts

r e th in k th e ir re lig io u s h a b its a n d to sh ift th e ir a tte n ­

o f a su p e rio r, tra n s p e rs o n a l e n tity , sy m b o liz e d b y

tio n fro m a b a sica lly lo ca tiv e a n d sacrificial a p p ro a c h

S a in t P a u l’s m e ta p h o r ic in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e b o d y

to G o d , to a n in te lle c tu a l a n d ritu a l o n e . C h ristia n s,

o f C h r is t as th e s p iritu a l c o m m u n io n o f all b e lie ­

f o r th e ir p a r t, w o rk e d o u t th e P a u lin e p rin c ip le th a t

vers. C o m p a r e d to n o rm a l c h u rc h e s, c a th e d ra ls are

th e re w as n o lo n g e r a n y d iv in e a b o d e o n e a rth ; o n th e

in v e s te d w ith a n a d d itio n a l, a n d p e rh a p s m o re p r o ­

c o n tra ry , th e R e s u rre c te d b o d y o f th e S o n o f G o d ,

saic, f u n c tio n , th a t is, m a n ife s tin g th e m o ra l a n d p o li­

w h ic h also w o rk e d as a m e ta p h o r f o r th e c o m m u n ity

tic a l a u th o r ity o f th e b is h o p a n d its se c u la r clergy.

o f b eliev ers, w as to b e re g a rd e d as th e n e w a n d a u th e n ­

T h is w as f r e q u e n tly d e s c rib e d in b ib lic a l te rm s in th e

tic T em p le ( J o h n 2:21; H e b re w s 8 :2 -5 a n d 9). H a d

w ak e o f th e e le v e n th - a n d tw e lf th - c e n tu r y G re g o ria n

th is p rin c ip le b e e n a d o p te d literally, th e re w o u ld have

R e fo rm b y a sso c ia tin g th e e p is c o p a l a n d p rie s tly

b e e n n o p lac e re g a rd e d as h o ly in C h r is tia n h isto ry .

office w ith th e p riv ile g e d s ta tu s o f th e a n c ie n t L ev ites w h o s e rv e d th e T em p le a t J e ru s a le m .3

188

th e R o m a n d e s tru c tio n o f th e T em p le in th e y e ar 70

Yet e m p h a s is o n C h r i s t ’s b o d y p a v e d th e w a y f o r a s o m e w h a t u n e x p e c te d d e v e lo p m e n t. D u r in g

B ib lic a l im a g e ry o b v io u sly e x e rte d a s tr o n g im p a c t

th e age o f p e r s e c u tio n s a n d a fte rw a rd s w ith th e

o n th e M e d ie v a l exegesis o f ritu a l space. In d e e d ,

d iffu s io n o f th e a n c h o r e tic life sty le , C h r is tia n s g r a ­

th e id e o lo g y o f th e S e c o n d T e m p le -p e rio d Y ah w ist

d u a lly c a m e to a d m it t h a t th e b o d ie s o f fe arless m a r ­

p rie s ts h a d e m p h a s iz e d th e p rin c ip le t h a t th e H o u s e

ty rs a n d rig o ro u s h e r m its o b ta in e d , o n a c c o u n t o f

o f G o d w as to b e c o n c e iv e d n o t o n ly as th e te rre stria l

th e i r h e r o is m a n d ra d ic a l f a ith , th e sa m e s ta tu s o f

re sid e n c e o f th e L o rd , b u t also as a c o n g re g a tio n a l

p e r f e c tio n a s s o c ia te d in th e H o ly S c rip tu re s w ith

sp ace m e a n t f o r in d iv id u a l a n d c o lle ctiv e ritu a l p e r ­

th e p a ra d is ia c a l ‘b o d y o f R e s u r r e c tio n ’ re s e rv e d

fo rm a n c e a n d , m o re sp ecifically, a n im a l sacrifice. T h e

f o r all r ig h t b e lie v e rs a fte r th e F in a l J u d g m e n t (I

sp a tia l a n d v isu a l s e p a ra tio n b e tw e e n S a n c tu m a n d

C o r i n th i a n s 15:35-51).‫ ؛‬I f t h e i r s o u l c o u ld a lre a d y

S a n c ta s a n c to ru m , d e s c rib e d in th e H o ly S c rip tu re s,

e n jo y th e p riv ile g e o f a b e a tific v ie w o f th e A lm ig h ty

c o rr e s p o n d e d v e ry e x p lic itly to th e f u n c tio n a l d is­

b e fo re th e e n d o f tim e s, th e i r b o d ily re m a in s c o u ld

tin c tio n b e tw e e n ‘h o ly site s’ a n d ‘sp a c es’, o r, in o th e r

b e c o n s id e r e d to b e in v o lv e d in so m e w a y in th is

te rm s, o f lo c a tiv e a n d ritu a l fo rm s o f re lig io u s e x p e ­

p ro c e s s o f tr a n s - h u m a n iz a tio n , g iv e n t h a t th e u n i ty

rien c e. T h e d w e llin g o f th e L o r d ’s p re se n c e (sh e k in a h )

o f th e in d iv id u a l c o u ld n o t b e re a lly in v a lid a te d b y

re s id e d in th e d e b ir (‘e le v a te d a n d re s tric te d r o o m ’)

d e a th . I f th e s e b o d ie s e m a n a te d s u p e r n a tu r a l en erg y ,

b u ilt a r o u n d th e h o ly ro c k o f M o u n t M o ria h , w h e re

th is c o u ld b u t p e r m e a te th e i r b u ria l sites, th e i r

th e m y th ic a l A r k o f th e C o v e n a n t h a d o rig in a lly se r­

s e p u lc h re s, a n d th e o b je c ts a s s o c ia te d w ith th e m .

v e d s im u lta n e o u s ly as a re liq u a ry f o r th e T ab le s o f

T h e h o lin e s s a tt r i b u te d to b o d ie s , so to say, gave

th e L a w a n d a th r o n e f o r G o d h im se lf. E x c e p t o n th e

b i r t h to n e w fo rm s o f lo c a tiv e e x p e rie n c e s, a s s o ­

d a y o f Y om K ip p u r, n o b o d y w as a llo w e d to e n te r o r

c ia te d th is tim e n o t so m u c h w ith th e site -sp e c ific ,

e v en to l o o k a t th is h o ly site: it w as u n in te r r u p te d ly

e n d u ra b le h ie r o p h a n ie s u n d e r ly in g th e p r in c ip le o f

c o n c e a le d b y th e veil k n o w n asp a ro k h e t. B e fo re it, th e

G o d ’s e a r th ly h o u s e , as w ith to m b s in v e s te d w ith

p rie s ts o ffic ia tin g in th e sa n c tu m (h e k a l in H e b re w )

m e m o ria l im p lic a tio n s t h a t w e re r e g a r d e d as m y s­

p e r f o rm e d t h e ir sacrifices as c o n s e c ra te d m in iste rs

tic a l th r e s h o ld s b e tw e e n th e s a i n t ’s te rr e s tr ia l a n d

w h o sy m b o lic a lly se rv e d th e ir K in g , a c c o rd in g to th e

h e a v e n ly d im e n s io n s .

a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t im ag ery . In th e re st o f th e T em p le

In la te A n t i q u it y a n d th e e a rly M id d le A g es, th e

c o m p le x , m a n y m o re ritu a l a ctiv itie s w e re p e r f o rm e d

to m b s o f sa in ts w e re in c re a s in g ly p e rc e iv e d as le g i­

f o r b o t h g ro u p s a n d in d iv id u a ls in th e c o u rty a rd s

tim a te o b je c ts o f w o rs h ip a n d c am e to p la y th e role

re se rv e d f o r la y p e o p le , m e n , a n d w o m e n , a c c o rd in g

o f id e n tity m a rk e rs fo r h u m a n g ro u p s. T h e w id e ­

to a p re c ise sp a c e p u r i ty h ie ra rc h y .4

s p re a d success o f p riv ile g e d graves a n d th e w o rk in g

T h e m a te ria l ju x ta p o s itio n o f th e d iv in e a b o d e

o u t o f sp e c ific s tru c tu re s , m o s tly i n d e b te d to la te

w ith a n u m b e r o f c o n g re g a tio n a l a n d ‘o p e ra tio n a l’

A n tiq u e fu n e r a r y a rc h ite c tu re , th a t e m p h a s iz e d th e ir

ro o m s e n d e d w ith th e h isto ric a l p ro c e ss su m m a riz e d

c u ltic p r o m in e n c e p ro b a b ly s tim u la te d th e sh a p in g

b y G u y S tro u m sa as ‘e n d o f sacrifice’, c u lm in a tin g w ith

o f a to p o g ra p h ic a l n e tw o r k f o r C h r is tia n w o rs h ip

M i c h e l e Ba c c i

g e a re d to w a rd s th e p r o to ty p e o f all h a llo w e d b o d ie s ,

T h e v e rtic a l s u b o r d in a tio n o f p la c e a n d ritu a l

n a m e ly t h a t o f C h r is t h im s e lf, w h ic h w as c e le b ra te d

sp a c e

b y h is e m p ty to m b in J e ru s a le m a n d b y a n u m b e r o f

b e tw e e n th e h o lin e s s a sso c ia te d w ith a b u ria l p lace

trac k s, fo o tm a rk s , a n d m e m o ria l sites in P a lestin e .

and

T h e b u ild in g s fra m in g th e to m b s o f sa in ts te n d e d

o v e r-te m p o ra l d im e n s io n o p e r a te d b y th e litu rg y .

c o rre s p o n d s th e

m o s t n o ta b ly

to

th e

te m p o ra lly s tr u c tu r e d e v o c a tio n

te n s io n o f th e

to b e re g a rd e d as d is tin c t f r o m th o s e e m p lo y e d in

In th e e le v e n th a n d tw e lfth c e n tu rie s , r itu a l sp ace

th e s h a p in g a n d s e ttin g o f C h r is tia n c o n g re g a tio n a l

w as o fte n c o n c e iv e d as a r a th e r s o p h is tic a te d ‘m ise -

spaces. C h u r c h e s a n d m a r ty r ia p la y e d d iffe re n t re li­

en-scène o f th e m a jo r e v e n ts o f th e C h r is tia n fa ith ,

g io u s ro les a n d th e ir d istin c tiv e n e ss w as fre q u e n tly

d e p riv e d o f th e ir h is to ric a l essen ce a n d tr a n s f o r m e d

e m p h a s iz e d b y th e use o f d iffe re n t a rc h ite c tu ra l

in to sa c ra m e n ta l a c tio n s t h a t c o u ld b e r e ite r a te d

fo rm s. C h u r c h e s c o u ld b e e re c te d in th e v ic in ity o f

d a ily e v e ry w h e re . In th is p e r io d , th e L a tin c h u rc h

a s a i n t ’s to m b o r d ire c tly o v e r it: th e tw o s tru c tu re s

se v e rally e m p h a s iz e d litu rg ic a l tim e m e d ia te d b y th e

c o u ld b e ju x ta p o s e d o r s u p e rim p o s e d , y e t th e f u n c ­

se c u la r c le rg y as th e p r o p e r w a y to re e n a c t th e G o s p e l

tio n a l d is tin c tio n o f e ac h sp a c e re m a in e d c o n s ta n tly p e rc e p tib le .7 A lth o u g h so m e e x c e p tio n s to th is ru le are e v id e n t in e arly M e d ie v a l c h u rc h e s (su c h as in th e case o f so m e M e ro v in g ia n s a in ts ’ graves e re c te d a b o v e g r o u n d in th e v ic in ity o f a lta rs, a c u s to m la te r c o n d e m n e d b y th e C a r o lin g ia n c h u rc h ), th e ru le w as n o t fu n d a m e n ta lly in f r in g e d in c o n te x ts im ita tin g th e a u th o rita tiv e m o d e l o f R o m e .8

e v e n ts a n d a p p ro p ria te th e ir salvific p o w e r. A t th e sa m e tim e , th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e H o ly S e p u lc h re b y C a lip h a l-H a k im in 10 0 9 , its p a r tia l r e c o n s tr u c tio n b y E m p e r o r C o n s ta n tin e M o n o m a c h o s b e tw e e n 1042 a n d 1055 (or, as su g g e ste d b y M a r tin B id d le , a lre a d y o n th e in itia tiv e o f M ic h a e l I V in 1 0 3 4 - 4 1 ) 9 a n d , finally, th e re s e ttin g o f th e h o ly site a fte r th e C ru s a d e r c o n q u e s t o fJ e ru s a le m in 1099 im p lie d a r e th in k in g o f th e ro le o f s ite - o r ie n te d fo rm s o f re lig io u s fe e lin g in

C o w g r e g iitio M iS lie s g d S ite -S jie c iJ ic F o T is o f

C h r is tia n p ra c tic e .10 T h e d e s tr u c tio n b y a l-H a k im

H o lir a e s s d w iw g th e G r e g o r iiR e fo T !

m a d e c le a r th a t

th e m a jo r h o ly sites c o n tin u e d to b e p e rc e iv e d as In c o m p a ris o n w ith la te A n tiq u e m a rty rs ’ sh rin e s a n d early M e d ie v a l m o n a s tic c h u rc h e s, c a th e d ra ls w ere less fre q u e n tly t u r n e d in to sites o f a p u b lic c u lt a sso ­

s u c h e v en i f th e ir a rc h ite c tu r a l fra m e s w e re r u in e d o r a b se n t. T h e C o u n t o f A n jo u , F o lc u s N e rra , w h o v is ite d J e ru s a le m f o r a s h o r t tim e d u rin g th e d is o r­

c ia te d w ith to m b s . T h is p rin c ip le is n o t c o n tr a d ic te d

d e rs o f 10 0 9 , m a d e all p o ssib le e ffo rts to v isit th e fe w

b y th e fa c t th a t t h e ir tre a su rie s w e re f re q u e n tly fille d

sto n e s le ft o f th e H o ly S e p u lc h re a n d to a p p ro p ria te

w ith relics sin c e b o d y p a r ts d id n o t im p ly lo c a tiv e

th e ir s u p e rn a tu ra l p o w e r, n a m e ly b y b itin g o f f a p iec e

fo rm s o f w o rs h ip , w h e re a s th e y c o u ld b e easily in te ­

o f m a rb le , w h ic h h a d b e c o m e m ira c u lo u s ly so ft as

g r a te d in ritu a l p ra c tic e o n a c c o u n t o f th e ir s ta tu s as

c re a m ." T h e site re m a in e d w o r th y o f w o rs h ip , e ven

o b je c tifie d h u m a n re m a in s. O n th e c o n tra ry , th e in te ­

i f n o sp e c ia l s tru c tu re s w e re a sso c ia te d w ith it, a n d

g ra tio n o f p riv ile g e d graves in th e c a th e d ra l w o u ld

a lth o u g h th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f th e C o n s ta n tin ia n

b e c o m e q u ite w id e s p re a d in th e e le v e n th a n d tw e lfth

fiv e -a isle d b a silic a, th e so -c a lle d M a r ty r iu m , p r e ­

c e n tu rie s , as th e p ro c e s s o f in v e n tio , tra n sla tio a n d

v e n te d C h ris tia n s f r o m p e r f o rm in g litu rg ic a l rites

p u b lic d isp lay o f th e in te g ra l b o d ie s o f lo c a l c o n fe s­

th e re . C o n s ta n tin e M o n o m a c h o s fin a n c e d o n ly th e

sors, a p o s to lic envoys, a n d early b is h o p s b e c a m e

r e c o n s tr u c tio n

in s tr u m e n ta l in e n h a n c in g th e p o litic a l ro le o f th e

th e to m b A e d ic u la , th e A n a sta sis, a n d G o lg o th a , a n d

se c u la r c le rg y in th e w a k e o f th e G re g o ria n R e fo rm .

o n ly a sm a ll a p sid a l sp a c e w a s re se rv e d f o r M asses.

T h e c o n s tr u c tio n o f u n d e r g r o u n d o r se m i-e le v a te d

T h e r e f o rm u la tio n o f th e w h o le site n o t o n ly as a

c ry p ts u n d e r th e m a in a lta r v isu a liz e d th e p rin c ip le

s u m p tu o u s m ise-en-scène o f th e w o r s h ip - w o r th y sites

t h a t th e a u th o r ity o f th e b is h o p a n d h is c a n o n s w as

d o t ti n g its g ro u n d , b u t also as a p e rfe c tly fu n c tio n a l

r o o t e d in th e a p o s to lic e ra; to p u t it ro u g h ly , th e h o ly

ritu a l sp ace, fin a lly to o k p la c e u n d e r th e C ru s a d e rs ’

of

a rc h ite c tu r a l

fra m e s

a ro u n d

site i n te n d e d f o r th e p e o p le ’s w o rs h ip w as v isu ally

ru le , in th e first h a l f o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry . T h e n e w

a n d sp a tia lly s u b o r d in a te d to th e ritu a l a c tiv itie s p e r ­

L a tin se ttle rs tra n s f o r m e d th e p ilg rim a g e c h u rc h

f o r m e d in th e a lta r sp ace ab ove.

in to th e ir c a th e d ra l b y e re c tin g a d ig n ifie d litu rg ic a l

T h e M i s e - e n -S c En e o f t h e H o l y i n t h e L a t e r a n C h u r c h

189

s tr u c tu r e , c o n s e c ra te d in 1149, in th e p re v io u s ly

th e d e e p fissure w h ic h w as to b e se e n o n th e ro c k o f

e m p ty , o p e n - a ir sp a c e o f th e T rip o rtic u m . T h is in v o l­

G o lg o th a (Fig. 2 ), w e re a tt r i b u te d a s o r t o f s a c ra m e n ­

v e d c re a tin g a n e le v a te d a lta r sp a c e th a t also h o u s e d

ta l p rim a c y . T h is m o re o r less e x p lic itly c o n tr a d ic te d

th e P a tr ia r c h ’s th r o n e a n d a se p a ra te c h o ir f o r th e

R o m e ’s claim s f o r u n iv e rs a l a u th o rity , s y m b o liz e d b y

re g u la r c a n o n s o f th e H o ly S e p u lc h re . T h e m a jo r p il­

th e P o p e ’s C a th e d r a l, th e L a te ra n Ecclesia S a lvatoris,

g rim a ttra c tio n s , e v en th o u g h u n d e r th e sa m e ro o f,

c e le b ra te d as th e ‘M o t h e r o f all C h u r c h e s ’ (m a te r

w e re lo c a te d o u ts id e th is b a sic a lly litu rg ic a l sp ace a n d

o m n iu m ecclesiarum ) a n d as a m o d e l f o r all c a th e ­

c o u ld b e in v o lv e d in so m e sp e c ific rite s, su c h as th e

d ra ls (Fig. ' ) 4‫ — ل‬a title th a t th e s e c o n d P a tria rc h o f

p e r fo rm a n c e o f th e V isita tio S e p u lc h ri in th e A e d ic u la

Je ru sa le m , D a im b e r t o f P isa, h a d p r e te n d e d to a p p r o ­

o n G o o d F rid ay s o r th e A d o r a tio n o f th e C ro ss o n

p ria te f o r h is o w n c h u r c h .15

M o u n t G o lg o th a o n S e p te m b e r 4 . 12‫ل‬ I n d e e d , p lac e s su c h as th e H o ly S e p u lc h re , th e N a tiv ity B asilica a t B e th le h e m , o r e v en th e T em p le o f th e L o r d (i.e., th e C h r is tia n iz e d M o s q u e o f O m a r in

lU s e o fC o n s e c r a tin g C k r c h e s tiltb e W o r s b i] ) ;fo r tb e H o lÿ B lo o d

th e H a r a m e s-S h a rif ) o ffe re d e x tra o rd in a ry o p p o r t u ­ n itie s to c o m b in e th e d a ily a n d y e arly litu rg ic a l e v o c a ­ t io n o f th e m a jo r G o s p e l e v e n ts w ith th e e x p e rie n tia l re e n a c tm e n t o f th e d e e d s o f th e S o n o f G o d a sso ­ c ia te d w ith H o ly L a n d p ilg rim a g e . In th e a fte rm a th o f th e F irst C ru s a d e in 1099, th e n e w ly e sta b lish e d L a tin P a tria rc h a te o f J e ru s a le m d id n o t h e s ita te to g r o u n d its a u th o r ity in its to p o g r a p h ic c o n n e c tio n w ith C h r i s t ’s b o d y . F o r th e re g u la r c a n o n s, c la im in g s p iri­ tu a l p rim a c y o n a c c o u n t o f th e ir p riv ile g e to p e r f o rm th e E u c h a ris t in th e p lac e w h e re Je su s w as c ru c ifie d p r o v e d te m p tin g . A s a n in s c rip tio n d isp la y e d in th e m o sa ic s d e c o ra tin g th e C h a p e l o f G o lg o th a (Fig. 1) im p lie d , th e H o ly S e p u lc h re d e riv e d its p riv ile g e d s ta ­ tu s fro m its b e in g c o n s e c ra te d n o t b y a c a n o n ic a l rite o f d e d ic a tio n , b u t b y C h r i s t ’s b lo o d h a v in g p o u r e d o u t fro m h is c ru c ifie d b o d y . T h e verses read :

U n lik e

S a in t P e t e r ’s a n d m a n y o th e r i m p o r ta n t

c h u rc h e s o f R o m e , th e L a te ra n b a silic a d id n o t m a rk a n y h o ly b u ria l site a n d c o u ld n o t re ally b o a s t an y i m p o r ta n t ro le as a d e s tin a tio n f o r p ilg rim s. Its a u th o ­ r ity re lie d o n th e a sso c ia tio n w ith th e P o p e ’s re sid en c e a n d th e re la te d le g e n d s d e sc rib in g th e o rig in s o f p a p a l p o w e r a n d th e a lle g e d d o n a tio n o f C o n s ta n tin e , d e s­ c rib e d in th e A c tu s S ilv e stri a n d a n u m b e r o f o th e r tex ts. A t th e e n d o f th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry , a n e m in e n t re p re se n ta tiv e o f th e G r e g o ria n R e fo rm , B o n iz o o f S u tri, m a d e u se o f su c h tr a d itio n s to tra c e b a c k to A n t i q u it y th e p ra c tic e

o f c o n s e c ra tin g c h u rc h e s,

w h ic h w as v ie w e d b y c h u rc h re fo rm e rs as a p a p a l p r i ­ vilege. A lth o u g h p re v io u s so u rc e s h a d a sso c ia te d th is rite w ith P o p e F elix I ( 5 2 6 - 3 0 ) , B o n iz o s ta te d th a t it h a d b e g u n as e arly as C o n s t a n ti n e ’s re ig n . A c tu ally , b e c a u se o f p e rs e c u tio n s , E a rly C h ris tia n s h a d a lle ­

E st Id siste sa c ersa c ra tw s s a n g u k C h r is ti;

g e d ly b e e n u n a b le to c re a te p e r m a n e n t s tru c tu re s

P e r n o s t m sacraresacroniladditw risti, S e d c ld tts ,h u ic s ،c c r o c ir c ti swperaedijicata,

f o r p e r f o rm in g th e E u c h a ris t u n til th e p r o m u lg a ­

E stqw intad.ecim aQ ttintilis lute sacrata. lis h o lÿ s ite is c o n s e c r a te d u iith C h r is t’s blood ^u^t٠(^owsê(^t^a^t^iowt^it^êd^oêsnot:a^d^d.a^ti3^t^l^inig to tb is [sitejj J w s tth e b u ild iw g jC thishofyplaee. Was cowsecraeedonthei‫ * ؛‬d.a;)‫ ؛‬ofjttl;)‫[ ؛‬ii4 9 b '13'

t io n o f C o n s t a n ti n e ’s e d ic t in 313. In su c h c irc u m s ­ ta n c e s, S a in t S ylvester h a d s o le m n ly c o n s e c ra te d th e L a te ra n b a silic a , fo rm e rly a p o r t i o n o f th e E m p e r o r ’s re sid e n c e , w ith th e B a p tis te ry o f S a in t J o h n , w h ic h p re v io u s ly f u n c tio n e d as th e r u l e r ’s p e rs o n a l ca lid a ­ r iu m . T h u s th e R o m a n p e o p le , w h o w e re a c c u s to m e d to a sso c ia tin g th e apse sp ace w ith th e re p re s e n ta tio n o f Z e u s w i t h in P a g a n te m p le s , c o u ld fin a lly see th e im a g e o f C h r is t in a n a n a lo g o u s lo c a tio n .16

190

T hese w o rd s m a d e a c le a r d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th e

S u c h a n e m p h a sis o n c h u rc h c o n se c ra tio n s w as

h o ly site a n d its a r c h ite c tu ra l fra m e . T h e d e d ic a tio n

o b v io u sly in s tru m e n ta l f o r th e se c u la r c le rg y ’s irre ­

rite c o u ld o n ly c o n c e rn th e w a lls e n c irc lin g th e h o ly

p la c e a b le m e d ia to r y ro le in th e life o f th e c h u rc h , b u t

g r o u n d , b u t th e la tte r, in its tu r n , w as a locus sacer b y

th e re g u la r c a n o n s o f th e L a te ra n also d id n o t m iss th e

its e lf a n d n e e d e d n o ritu a l c o n s e c ra tio n . T h e m a te ­

o p p o r t u n it y to use it as a n a rg u m e n t to d e sc rib e th e ir

rial trac es o f th e sacrifice b y th e S o n o f G o d , su c h as

b a silic a as a m e m o ria l site w o r th y o f w o rs h ip , d e sp ite

M i c h e l e Ba c c i

Fig. 1.

Jerusalem , H o ly Sepulchre C h u rch , chapel o f G o lgotha (p h o to author)

th e fa c t th a t it la c k e d to m b s a n d o th e r site-sp ec ific

o f c h u rc h e s a fte r th e Ic o n o c la s tic c o n tro v e rsie s b y

c u lt-o b je c ts — e v en th e m o s t p re c io u s relics w e re k e p t

re a d in g litu rg ic a l le c tu re s a b o u t le g e n d a ry a n d m ir a ­

in th e P o p e ’s p riv a te o r a to r y o f S a in t L a u re n c e , y e t n o t

c u lo u s ico n s, w ith a g re a t e m p h a sis o n th e m ira c le o f

in sid e th e c h u rc h .17 P reviously, it h a d b e e n e sse n tia lly

th e im a g e o f C h r is t s ta b b e d b y th e Je w s o f B e iru t. In

v ie w e d as a s u m p tu o u s s e ttin g f o r th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t

its L a tin v e rsio n s, in c lu d e d in a g re a t m a n y Ita lia n ,

litu rg ic a l feasts c o n n e c te d w ith th e Saviour, n a m e ly

C a ta la n , G e r m a n , a n d F re n c h p a ssio n a rie s fro m th e

th e E a s te r cycle, c o m m e m o ra tin g C h r i s t ’s sacrifice

t e n t h c e n tu r y o n w a rd s, th is p io u s s to r y tr a c e d b a c k

o n th e C ro ss, v iv id ly e v o k e d b y th e P a p a l o ste n s io n

th e u se o f c o n s e c ra tin g a lta rs a n d c h u rc h e s in h o n o u r

o f a b lo o d a m p u lla fro m th e m a in a lta r o n M a u n d y

o f C h r is t to th e b is h o p o f B e iru t, w h o fille d sev eral

T h u rsd ay s, a n d th e s o le m n ity n a m e d in litu rg ic a l

a m p u lla s o f th e b lo o d p o u r e d b y th e s ta b b e d ic o n

m a n u s c r ip ts ^s F e s t w m S a l i t o r i s , o t Passio im a g in is

a n d s e n t th e m to m a n y E u ro p e a n c h u rc h e s f o r u se as

D o m in i, w h ic h to o k p la c e o n N o v e m b e r 9 .18

c o n s e c ra tio n relics fo r ritu a l sp aces d e d ic a te d to th e

T h is w as a n o ld u sag e, p ro b a b ly d a tin g b a c k to th e

H o ly S av io u r.19 S u c h a m p u lla s w e re a sso c ia te d w ith a

n i n th c e n tu ry , a n d c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e B y z a n tin e

n u m b e r o f b o t h a b b e y c h u rc h e s a n d c a th e d ra ls th a t,

‘F e a st o f O r t h o d o ^ ’, w h ic h c o m m e m o r a te d th e re s­

in th e e le v e n th a n d tw e lfth c e n tu rie s , c am e to b e p e r ­

t it u t i o n o f im a g e -w o rsh ip a n d th e re -c o n s e c ra tio n

c e iv e d as i m p o r ta n t p ilg rim a g e sites.

T h e M i s e - e n -S c En e o f t h e H o l y i n t h e L a t e r a n C h u r c h

191

Fig. 2.

The fissure o n th e ro ck o f G olgotha. Jerusalem , H o ly Sepulchre C h u rch , chapel o f G o lg o th a (p h o to author)

I w ill c ite o n ly tw o e x am p les: th e C â m a ra S a n ta

192

In th e sa m e p e r io d , th e L a te ra n , w h ic h p ro b a b ly

in O v ie d o , th e a lta r o f w h ic h , c o n ta in in g o n e su c h

s e rv e d as a so u rc e o f in s p ir a tio n f o r m a n y o th e r

a m p u lla

cam e,

W e s te rn E u ro p e a n c h u rc h e s, e x p e rie n c e d a n a n a lo ­

u n d e r B ish o p P elayo, to b e d e s c rib e d as a n i m p o r ta n t

g o u s p ro c e ss o f e m a n c ip a tio n f r o m th e B y z a n tin e

c u lt- o b je c t itself, d u e to th e tw e lv e a p o stle s’ a lle g e d

le g e n d s e v o k e d b y th e F e stu m S a lv a to ris a n d th e

and

sev eral C h ris to lo g ic a l

relics,

c ra fts m a n s h ip ; a n d th e V o lto S a n to in S an M a r tin o

b lo o d relics a sso c ia te d w ith th e d e d ic a tio n rite s. T his

in L u cc a, w h ic h w as o rig in a lly n o t h in g m o re t h a n a

w as n o t o n ly in s tr u m e n ta l in e m p h a s iz in g th e ro le o f

c a rv e d cru c ifix in v o lv e d in th e p e r fo rm a n c e o f th e

R o m e a n d th e p a p a c y in th e L a tin c h u rc h , b u t also

Passio Im a g in is office a n d w as o n ly g ra d u a lly tr a n s f o r ­

in c o n tr a s tin g th e claim s o f p rim a c y m o re o r less

m e d in to a c u lt-im a g e , sa id to b e th e w o r k o f su c h a n

e x p lic itly e x p re sse d b y Je ru sa le m . I n d e e d , th e p o p u ­

e y ew itn e ss o f th e P a ss io n as th e P h a rise e N ic o d e m u s .

la r ity o f th e B e ir u t le g e n d in R o m e w as c o n n e c te d

N o n e th e le s s , it w a s c o n s is te n tly sa id to h o u s e a B e iru t

w ith th e h a rs h th e o lo g ic a l d e b a te a b o u t th e c o m p le x

a m p u lla a n d its c o n n e c tio n w ith th e H o ly B lo o d w as

r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n C h r i s t ’s m a te ria l b l o o d a n d

p u b lic ly v isu a liz e d , d e sp ite its la te r le g e n d a ry tra n s fi­

th e s a c ra m e n ta l b l o o d m y stic a lly re p re s e n te d b y th e

g u ra tio n s , b y th e m ise-en-scène o f a c h alice u n d e r its

E u c h a ristic w in e . M a n y th e o lo g ia n s o b s e rv e d th a t

r ig h t f o o t.20

C h r i s t ’s b l o o d e la te re s h o u ld h a v e b e e n in v o lv e d in

M i c h e l e Ba c c i

Fig. 3.

Rom e, Saint Jo h n L ateran church, view o f th e apse space (p h o to author)

T h e M i s e - e n -S c En e o f t h e H o l y i n t h e L a t e r a n C h u r c h

193

th e R e s u rre c tio n o f th e L o r d a n d th e re fo re p re fe rre d

o f Ja m e s I I I o f M a llo rc a w e le a rn t h a t th re e crosses

to sta te t h a t o n ly a m p u lla e o f b lo o d p o u r e d o u t o f

w e re lo c a te d o n th e a lta r, w h ic h w a s th u s tr a n s f o r m e d

im ag es w e re a d m issib le in C h r is tia n w o rs h ip .21 T h e

in to a n id e a l G o lg o th a , a n d c h alice s w e re lo c a te d a t

p re se n c e o f a B e iru t a m p u lla a t th e L a te ra n , w h ic h

t h e ir fe e t, w ith a m ise-en-scène re c a llin g th a t o f th e

is c o n firm e d b y a n u m b e r o f so u rc e s b e tw e e n th e

V o lto S a n to in L u c c a .26

e le v e n th a n d th ir t e e n t h c e n tu rie s , in d ic a te s t h a t th e R o m a n c h u rc h in itia lly e m b ra c e d th is te n d e n c y .22 I n d e e d , th e re lic p la y e d th e ro le o f p r o ta g o n is t in

H ite n C k r c b w d th e L e g e w d o fth e F ir s t

th e c e re m o n y o f M a u n d y T h u rsd a y a n d w as c e r­

C d e c r a te d A ltiir

ta in ly also u s e d in th e rite s o f N o v e m b e r 9, w h ic h , a c c o rd in g to th e o ld litu rg ic a l b o o k s o f th e L a te ra n ,

B o n iz o o f S u tri w as w e ll a w are o f su c h sy m b o lic

w e re s u p p o s e d to b e c e le b ra te d as s o le m n ly as E aster.

c o n n e c tio n s a n d w o rk e d o u t th e le g e n d o f P o p e

M o re o v e r, a s to r y w itn e s s e d in th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y

S y lv e ste r’s first c o n s e c ra te d c h u rc h in o r d e r to d e p ic t

a tt r i b u te d th e sa m e le g e n d a ry c h a ra c te ris tic s as th e

th e L a te ra n as th e n e w T em p le. T h is w as m a d e clear

B e ir u t im a g e to a c ru c ifix p re s e rv e d in th e L a te ra n

b y h is c o m p a ris o n o f th e a lta r w ith th e A r k o f th e

p a la c e w h ic h w a s e v en in v o lv e d in th e c e re m o n y o f

C o v e n a n t: h e t h o u g h t o f it as a n o rig in a lly p o r ta b le

P a p a l e n th r o n iz a tio n .23

a lta r, w h ic h h a d b e e n se c re tly u s e d b y th e a p o stle s a n d

G iv e n t h a t th e B e ir u t tr a d itio n a t th e L a te ra n w as

t h e ir su c c esso rs b e fo re b e in g fix ed in th e L a te ra n apse

d e lib e ra te ly c a st in to o b liv io n f r o m th e tw e lfth c e n ­

sp ace b y P o p e S y lv ester d u r in g th e c h u r c h ’s c o n s e c ra ­

tu r y o n w a rd s, w e c a n n o t k n o w h o w th e ritu a l w as

t io n rite . B o n iz o also a d d s t h a t th e d e d ic a tio n to th e

c e le b ra te d in th e t e n th o r e le v e n th c e n tu rie s . Yet, it is

S a v io u r w a s v isu a liz e d b y th e m o sa ic im a g e o f C h r is t

im p o r t a n t to stress t h a t it w as a lre a d y p e rc e iv e d as o n e

in th e c o n c h , w h ic h n o b o d y h a d se e n p re v io u sly .27

o f th e m a jo r feasts, c o m m e m o r a tin g th e c o n s e c ra tio n

194

B o n iz o ’s a rg u m e n ts w e re

in s tr u m e n ta l to h is

d a y o f all c h u rc h e s d e d ic a te d to th e S a v io u r a n d t h e ­

in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e T em p le o f J e ru s a le m as a n

re fo re also o f th e L a te ra n . N o rm a lly th e d e d ic a tio n

im p e rfe c t a n tic ip a tio n o f th e C h r is tia n c h u rc h , b u t

fe a s t w as a sso c ia te d w ith a m o re o r less e la b o ra te d

th e y w e re w ise ly e x p lo ite d b y th e r e g u la r c a n o n s o f

o s te n s io n o f relics a n d w a s d e s c rib e d in b ib lic a l te rm s

th e L a te ra n , w h o w e re e a g e r to c o rro b o ra te th e v iew

as a C h r is tia n e q u iv a le n t to th e Je w ish H a n u k k a h ,

o f t h e ir c h u rc h as th e m o s t a n c ie n t a n d a u th o rita tiv e

th e a n n u a l c o m m e m o r a tio n o f th e re -c o n s e c ra tio n

in C h r is te n d o m . T h e y b e c a m e im m e d ia te ly aw are

o f th e T em p le b y J u d a s M a c c a b e u s w h ic h , a c c o rd in g

th a t th e fe a s t o f N o v e m b e r 9 s h o u ld c o n tin u e to be

to G o s p e l o f J o h n (1 0 :2 2 -2 8 ) h a d b e e n o b s e rv e d b y

a sso c ia te d w ith t h a t v e ry day, g iv e n t h a t it p r e c e d e d

Je su s h im se lf. T h e c h u rc h , w h ic h w as v ie w e d b o th

th e d e d ic a tio n fe a st o f S a in t P e t e r ’s b y e ig h t days:

lite ra lly as a m a te ria l b u ild in g a n d m e ta p h o ric a lly as

th is im p lic itly c o n firm e d t h a t th e L a te ra n w a s older.

clerical c o m m u n ity , w as th e re al p r o ta g o n is t o f th e

T h e n th e y d e c id e d to re a d B o n iz o ’s a rg u m e n ts in

e v en t. T h e re fe re n c e to th e o ld Isra elite te m p le se rv e d

a v e ry lite ra l w a y a n d a t so m e p o i n t b e tw e e n 1106

to stress th e p rin c ip le th a t th e la tte r s im p ly p re fig u re d

a n d 1128 — as h a s b e e n a rg u e d b y E iv o r A n d e rs e n

w h a t w as to b e fu lfille d in th e C h r is tia n c h u rc h , th e

O f te s ta d — th e y w o rk e d o u t a te x t, th e D escriptio

p la c e w h e re th e tru e T em p le — th e B o d y o f C h r is t —

E cclesiae L a te ra n e n sis, to a sse rt t h a t th e tru e relics o f

w as m a d e p r e s e n t in th e E u c h a ris t.24 E la b o ra te m ises-

th e o ld T em p le, in c lu d in g th e m e n o r a h a n d th e A r k

en-scène e m p h a s iz e d th is T em p le sy m b o lis m : in M e tz

o f th e C o v e n a n t, w e re p re s e rv e d u n d e r th e m a in altar.

C a th e d r a l, f o r e x am p le, th e re g u la r c a n o n s u s e d to

T h e re lie f o n th e A r c h o f T itu s (Fig. 4 ) p r o v id e d a n

in c lu d e th e a lta r in sid e a b a ld a c h in , h i n ti n g a t th e

e x c e lle n t d e m o n s tr a tio n o f th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t f u r ­

b ib lic a l T a b e rn a c le , w h e r e in p re c io u s re liq u a rie s a n d

n ish in g s h a v in g b e e n tra n s fe rre d fro m J e ru s a le m to

u p to se v e n silv er crosses w e re in c lu d e d to r e m in d

R o m e a n d th is w a s in te r p r e te d as a n o b v io u s o m e n o f

th e b e h o ld e r o f th e se v e n c a n d le stic k s o f S o lo m o n ’s

th e f u tu r e fu lfillm e n t o f G o d ’s h o u s e a n d th e Je w ish

‘H o u s e o f G o d ’.2‫ ؛‬In th e c h u rc h e s d e d ic a te d to th e

rite s in C h r is tia n sp aces a n d litu rg y .28 A c c o rd in g ly ,

S aviour, crosses a n d cru cifix es w e re p ro b a b ly u s e d

th e litu r g y o f th e d e d ic a tio n fe a s t w as re fo rm u la te d

as v isu al fo c i. T h e rite s o f N o v e m b e r 9 a c tu a lly t o o k

t h r o u g h in tr o d u c in g c o n tin u o u s h in ts a t th e T em p le

p la c e in f r o n t o f su c h o b je c ts: fro m th e la te 1337 ritu a l

s y m b o lis m .29

M i c h e l e Ba c c i

Fig. 4. The troops o f T itu s and Vespasian b ring th e M en o rah and o th er Tem ple furnishings to Rom e, R om an relief on the A rch o f T itus, Rom e, 70 ce (p h o to author)

T h e te x t im p lie d t h a t th e v e rtic a l a rra n g e m e n t

P e te r a n d S a in t P a u l, w h ic h h a d b e e n h i d d e n th e re b y

o f th e T em p le o b je c ts u n d e r th e m a in a lta r o f th e

E m p e r o r C o n s ta n tin e in o r d e r to p r e v e n t a rtis ts fro m

‘M o t h e r o f all C h u r c h e s ’ v isu a liz e d th e h ie ra rc h ic a l

m a k in g tru e -to -life p ic tu re s o f th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t

s u b o r d in a tio n o f th e o ld to th e n e w T em p le. It w as

h o ly fig u res.3. T h is o d d id e a w as p o ss ib ly in tr o d u c e d

b a sica lly a r h e to ric a l a rg u m e n t a n d d id n o t c o rre s­

to h a rm o n iz e th e litu rg ic a l p ra c tic e o f N o v e m b e r 9,

p o n d to a n y sp e c ific c u ltic a rra n g e m e n t. V is ito rs

w h ic h r e ta in e d le c tu re s a b o u t th e B y z a n tin e m ira c u ­

w ere o n ly t o ld th a t th e a lta r sp ace, w ith its m a rb le

lo u s im a g e s, w ith th e c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f th e L a te ra n

c ib o riu m d e c o r a te d w ith im a g e s o f C h r is t a n d an g els,

B a silic a as th e N e w T e m p le .31 In a c c o rd a n c e w ith

w as n o t ju s t a n o r d in a r y p ie c e o f fu r n is h in g ; th e y

th is in te r p r e ta tio n , th e a lta r h o u s in g th e A r k o f th e

s h o u ld l o o k a t it a n d im a g in e th a t it m a rk e d th e p lac e

C o v e n a n t s h o u ld h a v e b e e n re g a rd e d as th e C h r is tia n

w h e re th o s e u n u s u a l o b je c ts h a d b e e n c o n c e a le d in

d e b T h lk tc u e . S i c U s a n c t o m o f t k n t w l t n c e . .

tim e s p a s t. M o re o v e r, th e te x t s ta te d th a t th e in a c c e s­

Yet, th is p e r c e p tio n w as n o t s h a re d b y e v e ry b o d y

sible u n d e r g r o u n d p la c e b e lo w th e a lta r also h o u s e d

a t th e L a te ra n . A b o u t 1145, th e c a n o n N ic o la u s

a n u m b e r o f h o ly p o r tr a its o f C h r is t, M a ry , S a in t

M a n ia c o ria (a ls o k n o w n as M a n ia c u tiu s ) w ro te a

J o h n th e B a p tist, S a in t J o h n th e E v an g e list, S a in t

s e rm o n t h a t w as m e a n t to b e re a d p u b lic ly o n th e

T h e M i s e - e n -S c En e o f t h e H o l y i n t h e L a t e r a n C h u r c h

195

o c c a s io n o f th e F e stu m S a lva to ris in a sso c ia tio n w ith th e c a n o n ic a l le c tu re s a b o u t im ag es. T h is te x t m a d e

th a t C h r i s t ’s tr u e face w as c o n s ta n tly v isib le in th e

e ffo rts to sh ift th e fo c u s f r o m th e b a silic a to th e p a p a l

L a te ra n ap se a n d th e re fo re t h a t th e la t t e r w as to be

o r a to r y o f S a in t L a u re n c e , w h e re th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t

i n te r p r e te d as th e tr u e C h r is tia n S a n c ta sa n c to ru m .

C h ris to lo g ic a l relics a n d th e o ld p ro c e s s io n a l ic o n

In J o h n th e D e a c o n ’s view , th e o ld m o sa ic s h o w in g

o f C h r is t k n o w n as th e ‘A c h e ro p ita ’ w e re p re s e rv e d

th e im a g e o f C h r is t in th e c o n c h w as n o t ju s t a p ie c e

(Fig. 5). T h e c h a p e l w as r e n a m e d S a n c ta sa n c to ru m

o f w o r k m a d e o n th e in itia tiv e o f P o p e Sylvester, as

a n d th e a u th o r m a d e sev eral e ffo rts to e x p la in w h y

im p lie d b y B o n iz o ’s w o rd s , b u t r a th e r a s o r t o f h ie r o -

th e real su c c e sso r to th e a n c ie n t d e b ir w as th e re a n d

p h a n ic im a g e , w h ic h s h o u ld h av e a p p e a re d a t th e v e ry

n o t in th e m a in c h u rc h . H e in te n tio n a lly e m p h a ­

m o m e n t o f th e c h u rc h c o n s e c ra tio n .36

siz e d t h a t th e im a g e h a d p re v io u s ly b e e n c o n c e a le d

It is d iffic u lt to r e c o n s tr u c t h o w th e apse m o sa ic

u n d e r th e L a te ra n a lta r b e fo re b e in g tr a n s la te d in to

m a y h av e a p p e a re d b e fo re th e re s to r a tio n b y Ia c o p o

th e P o p e ’s p riv a te o ra to ry . T h is c o r re s p o n d e d , in h is

T o rriti a n d Ia c o p o d a C a m e r in o o n th e in itia tiv e o f

view , to th e fin al o v e rc o m in g o f th e O l d T e s ta m e n t

P o p e N ic h o la s I V in 1291 (Fig. 6 ). W e k n o w t h a t

m o d e l o f d iv in e p re se n c e : th is w as n o lo n g e r a sso ­

th is n e w s e ttin g in c lu d e d a p o r t io n o f th e p re v io u s

c ia te d w ith th e v isu a l in a c c e ss ib ility m a rk e d b y th e

m o sa ic , th e b u s t o f C h r is t a p p e a rin g in th e c lo u d s

veil o f p a r o k h e t a n d b y th e lu m in o u s c lo u d o f th e

w h ic h is k n o w n to us o n ly b y th e p h o t o g r a p h m a d e

L o r d ’s g lo ry (th e b ib lic a l k a v o d ). O n th e c o n tra ry , th e

b y th e E n g lis h m a n H e n r y P a rk e r in 1870, ju s t a fe w

h o ly p o r t r a i t , e x h ib ite d p e r m a n e n tly in its n e w se t­

y ears b e fo re th e m o sa ic w as th o r o u g h ly re m a d e b y

tin g , m a n ife s te d th e I n c a r n a te d p re se n c e o f th e S o n

w ill o f P o p e P iu s I X in 1 8 7 5 -7 7 .37 I t is n o t c le a r i f

o f G o d in h is n e w re sid e n c e o n e a rth . T h is a tte m p t to

T o rriti ju s t re n o v a te d th e o rig in a l p r o g r a m o r e n tire ly

e m a n c ip a te th e S a n c ta sa n c to ru m fro m th e a sso c ia tio n

r e in v e n te d it. Its m ise-en-scène as a k i n d o f fig u rativ e

w ith th e L a te ra n c h u rc h p ro b a b ly b e a rs te s tim o n y to

re lic su re ly e n h a n c e d its p e r c e p tio n as a s u p e r n a tu ­

th e n o t alw ays p e a c e fu l r e la tio n s h ip o f th e p a p a l c u ria

ra l, a lm o s t a c h e iro p o ie tic im a g e . A c e n tu r y earlier,

w ith th e re g u la r c a n o n s ru lin g th e B a silic a.32

as J o h n th e D e a c o n d e s c rib e d it as th e o u tc o m e o f a

A n d in d e e d th e L a te ra n c a n o n s re a c te d a g a in st

m ira c u lo u s a p p a ritio n , it w as n o t e v id e n t a t all t h a t

M a n ia c o ria b y w o rk in g o u t a n e w v e rsio n o f th e

it m ig h t b e v ie w e d as a n y th in g m o re t h a n a p iec e

D escrip tio , s ig n e d b y th e D e a c o n J o h n d u r in g th e

o f m u ra l d e c o ra tio n . U n lik e all o t h e r c u lt-im a g e s in

P o n tific a te o f A le x a n d e r I I I (1159-81).33 T h is a u th o r

R o m e , th e L a te ra n a c h e iro p o ie to n w as n o t a p o r ta b le

f u r t h e r d e v e lo p e d B o n iz o ’s a rg u m e n ts a n d o n c e

p a in t e d p a n e l.38 O n th e c o n tra ry , its b e in g fix ed to th e

a g a in s h ifte d th e fo c u s f r o m th e O l d T e s ta m e n t relics

w a lls b o re m a te ria l w itn e s s to th e c ru c ia l e v e n t o f th e

to th e d e d ic a tio n feast. It w as i m p o r ta n t to stress th a t

c h u r c h ’s d e d ic a tio n .

th e m a in a ttr a c tio n a t th e L a te ra n w as n o t th e a lle g e d

196

H o ly o f H o lie s , c o u ld o n ly b e re je c te d b y d e c la rin g

T h e le g e n d w as la te r s u m m a riz e d in a n o w -lo s t

p re se n c e o f th e A r k o f th e C o v e n a n t a n d th e m e n o r a h

m u ra l, w h ic h w a s p a in t e d c. 1 3 6 9 -7 0 in th e u n d e r ­

u n d e r th e m a in a lta r, b e c a u se th is c o u ld b e c ritic iz e d

g r o u n d confessio b u ilt u n d e r P o p e U r b a n V (1 3 6 2 -7 0 )

as a n excessive e m p h a sis o n c u lt-o b je c ts w h o s e m e a ­

and

n in g h a d b e c o m e o f m in o r im p o r ta n c e in th e A g e o f

s k e tc h (Fig. 7 ).39 T h is o ste n s ib ly r e p re s e n te d th e v e ry

is k n o w n

o n ly f r o m

a s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu r y

G ra ce . C ritic s c o u ld b e te m p te d to accuse th e c a n o n s

m o m e n t th e m o sa ic a p p e a re d in th e c o n c h a n d P o p e

o f re e s ta b lis h in g th e A llia n c e o f M o se s b y re ly in g o n

S y lv ester c o n s e c ra te d th e m a in alta r. T h e a m p u lla

th e v e ry fa c t th a t R o m a n Je w s h a d s ta r te d v isitin g

h e ld b y th e P o n tif f is p r o b a b ly to b e id e n tifie d w ith

th e c h u rc h as a p ilg rim a g e site, as th e Je w ish tra v e le r

th a t u s e d f o r th e c h ris m , b u t th e p o s s ib ility th a t it

B e n ja m in o f T u d e la o b s e rv e d in th e 1170s.34 O n su c h

also c arries a n im p lic it h i n t a t th e m o s t im p o r t a n t

g ro u n d s , th e L a te ra n c a n o n s w e re a c tu a lly a c c u se d o f

c o n s e c ra tio n re lic o f th e L a te ra n a lta r, i.e., th e b lo o d

p r o m o tin g ju d a iz in g p ra c tic e s b y P e tru s M a lliu s, a

o f th e L o rd , c a n n o t b e e x c lu d e d . T h e la t t e r c o n ti­

c a n o n o f S a in t P e t e r ’s a n d th e a u th o r o f a D escrip tio

n u e d to b e r e g a rd e d as a k e y h o ly site e le m e n t, b u t

B a silica e Vaticanae, in th e 1140s.35 M a n ia c o r ia ’s a rg u ­

its id e n tific a tio n w ith th e B e ir u t b l o o d te n d e d to

m e n t, th a t th e im a g e o f th e S a v io u r in th e o r a to r y

b e n u a n c e d . It w as su ffic ie n t to n a m e it ‘th e L o r d ’s

o f S a in t L a u re n c e m a n ife s te d th e o v e rc o m in g o f th e

b l o o d ’, w i t h o u t a n y sp e c ific re fe re n c e to th e E a s te rn

b ib lic a l p rin c ip le o f G o d ’s v isu a l in a c c e ss ib ility in h is

le g e n d . Yet th e a lle g e d u se o f th e re lic b y S ylvester

M i c h e l e Ba c c i

Fig. 5.

A ltar o f th e Acheropita icon, Rom e, L ateran palace, Sancta sanctorum (p h o to author)

T h e M i s e - e n -S c En e o f t h e H o l y i n t h e L a t e r a n C h u r c h

197

Fig. 6. Iacopo T orriti and Iacopo da C am erino, th e V irg in M ary p resenting Pope In n o cen t III w ith Saint Jo h n th e Baptist, th e A postles Peter, Paul, Jo h n th e Evangelist a n d A ndrew , and th e n ew Franciscan Saints Francis and A nthony, before th e M iraculous M osaic Image o f C hrist. M osaic, Rom e, Saint Jo h n L ateran church, 1291, th o ro u g h ly rem ade in 1875-77 (p h o to author)

198

m a d e c le a r t h a t it c o u ld n o t b e re a lly id e n tifie d w ith

T h e b lo o d e v o k e d C h r i s t ’s p re se n c e b y sy n e c d o c h e

o n e o f th e a m p u lla e d is tr ib u te d b y th e B is h o p o f

a n d m a d e e v id e n t th a t th e h o lin e s s o f th e L a te ra n

B e iru t, g iv e n th a t, a c c o rd in g to W e s te rn tr a d itio n ,

w as a sso c ia te d w ith H is sa c ra m e n ta l b o d y , p re fi­

th e la tte r liv e d m u c h la te r th a n Sylvester, in th e

g u re d b y th e O l d T e s ta m e n t T em p le. T h e a p p a ritio n

e ig h th c e n tu ry . I t w a s tr a n s f o r m e d in to th e re lic u s e d

o f th e S a v io u r’s m o sa ic in th e c o n c h in d ic a te d th a t

to c o n se c ra te th e L a te ra n a lta r to th e S av io u r, a n d so

th e d e d ic a tio n fe ast, th o u g h in s p ire d b y th e b ib lic a l

im p lic itly in to b lo o d e la te re (fro m th e sid e w o u n d ) .

o n e , c o u ld n o t b e o b s e rv e d in th e sa m e w a y as in th e

T h is m a d e th e ‘M o t h e r o f all C h u r c h e s ’ a t le a s t as

A g e o f Law . A fte r th e I n c a r n a tio n , G o d ’s sh e k in a h

v e n e ra b le as th e H o ly G o lg o th a , g iv e n th a t th e l a t­

c o u ld n o lo n g e r b e c o n s id e re d to b e c o n c e a le d in th e

t e r m e re ly b o re th e tra c e s o f th e b lo o d p o u r e d o u t b y

s h in in g c lo u d o f H is k a vo d . T h e S o n o f G o d s h o u ld

C h r i s t ’s c ru c ifie d b o d y , w h e re a s th e L a te ra n h a d n o w

n o w b e d is tin c tly p e rc e p tib le w i t h in th e c lo u d , as th is

a fu ll b o ttle o f th a t h o ly liq u id . T h e id e n tity o f th e

w as th e fu lfillm e n t o f w h a t w as o b sc u re ly in d ic a te d

re lic as ‘t r u e ’ b lo o d o f th e S o n o f G o d w a s t h e n m a d e

in th e s e ttin g o f th e J e ru s a le m debir: m o re o r less

e x p lic it b y th e m o n u m e n ta l c h u rc h m o sa ic in s c rip ­

as in a m in ia tu r e o f th e la te e le v e n th -c e n tu ry S e c o n d

t io n e x h ib ite d b y w ill o f N ic h o la s I V a n d c o n ta in in g

B ib le o f S a in t-M a rtia l o f L im o g e s, th e b u s t o f C h r is t

a fu ll lis t o f all th e L a te r a n relics: th e first to b e m e n ­

a p p e a rs w ith in th e k a v o d h o v e rin g o v e r th e A r k o f

tio n e d w e re ‘tw o a m p u lla e o f b lo o d a n d w a te r fro m

th e C o v e n a n t (Fig. 8 ).41 ‘G iv e n t h a t e v e ry th in g w as

C h r i s t ’s s id e ’.4.

s h o w n [to th e Jew s] as a n im p e rfe c t a n tic ip a tio n o f

M i c h e l e Ba c c i

Fig. 7. Gaspare M orone, copy o f th e n o w lost fo u rtee n th -c e n tu ry fresco in th e Confessio o f Saint Jo h n L ateran church, representing the C o n secratio n o f th e L ateran church by Saint Sylvester and th e M iraculous A p p aritio n o f th e Apse M osaic, 1672. Rom e, Vatican Library, M S Barb. Lat. 4423, fol. 5 (p h o to C o u rtesy o f th e Vatican Library, Rom e)

th e f u tu re e v e n ts’, R a b a n u s M a u ru s e x p la in e d in h is

w h ic h w as d e sc rib e d as a h o ly site, d e sp ite th e a b sence

D e in s titu tio n e cle ric o ru m , ‘a n d g iv en t h a t w e c o n te m ­

o f m o re d istin g u is h a b le p ilg rim s ’ a ttra c tio n s . T h e te n ­

p la te th e g lo ry o f th e L o r d in h is in c a r n a te d face,

s io n b e tw e e n lo ca tiv e a n d ritu a l fo rm s o f relig io u s

w e m u s t o b se rv e all th e m o re s tric tly a n d tr u ly t h a t

e x p erien c e b e c a m e a d istin c tiv e m a rk e r o f th e h o lin e ss

a n c ie n t use tra n s fe rre d in to o u r re lig io u s p ra c tic e ’.42

a ttr ib u te d to th e ‘M o th e r o f all C h u r c h e s ’, y e t its f u n ­

In th is way, a m o n u m e n ta l y e t o rd in a ry se t o f l it u r ­

d a m e n ta l a m b ig u ity w as n e v e r o v e rc o m e , e v en w h e n

gical fu rn is h in g s in th e m o s t a u th o rita tiv e c a th e d ra l o f

P o p e N ic h o la s I V m a d e e ffo rts to m a n ife st it m o re

th e C h r is tia n W e s t w as tra n s fo rm e d in to a c u lt-o b je c t,

efficacio u sly in v isu al te rm s b y e n c a sin g th e m ira c u ­

f u n c tio n in g as th e m a in v isu al fo c u s o f a c h u rc h space,

lo u s m o sa ic in a s u m p tu o u s m o n u m e n ta l fram e.

T h e M i s e - e n -S c En e o f t h e H o l y i n t h e L a t e r a n C h u r c h

199

?

«}-O S T tn o f tic

٥ ١٠ ٠

i< D S ،J ‫ ؛‬ì< r .< r ‫ ؛‬v

L ltìR V N T F lL II Li noi ٠ ‫ د ة ﺀ اً„ ﺀ ﺀ ﴽ‬٦ ‫ﻻ ى و د ﺀا ﻻ‬ ،i r .mtr nofiL-onnrt ،'InirmnLiJm crcnr

‫ ؤ أ‬۴‫ا د‬

‫ ﻳ ﻞ‬٢ ‫ 'ا ئ‬1،، ‫رﺀ‬

1>‫ ا‬Virtue dïi^ lu j.lf’.lfïïïTcflT'

Fig. 8. B ust-length image o f C h rist in th e kavod w ith in th e O ld T estam ent Tabernacle, M in iatu re o f th e Bible o f SaintM artial o f Lim oges, late eleventh century. Paris, B ibliothèque N ationale de France, M S Lat. 8, Volume 1, fol. 91 (p h o to B ibliothèque N ationale de France, Paris)

200

M i c h e l e Ba c c i

NOTES

is clearly formulated by Petrus Damiani in a work from 1057, Die Briefe des Petrus Damiani, ed. Kurt R eindel (Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Die Briefe der deutschen Kaisereit, 4), ' This was first stressed by Maurice H albwach s , La topographie vol. 4/2, Munich, 1983-1993, pp. 55-57. See also: Francesco Gan légendaire des évangiLss en Terre Sainte . Etude de mémoire coftccD O L E o fA iiie iY L lra n o A n ArcbiviodellaSocietàromanadi sto­ tive, Paris, 1941. ria patria, 106, 1983, pp. 63-113, esp. pp. 77-81; Ingo H erklotz , 1Jonathan Z . Sm ith ., To Tike Place. T o ird T h e o ry in Ritual , ‘Der mittelalterliche Fassadenportikus der Lateranbasilika und Chicago & London, 1987, p. 109. seine Mosaiken. Kunst und Propaganda am Ende des 12. Jahrhun­ 3 On Medieval Christian theories of consecrated space, see: derts, in Römisches J lr b r c b d e r BibiiothecaHertziana,2s,i989, D o m in ile doGNA-PRAY, LaM aisonD ieu.U nehistoire w^t^nupp. I S I S ; Sbde de B l a a u w Culurs et decor. Liturgia e arcbitetmentale de l ’Eglise au Moyen  e , Paris, 2006. turanellaRoma 1^،^r^dk)،^r^t;i(^aem^‫^؛‬d،i‫^؛‬iJ،te‫;؛‬.B^،tsili(^aS^،tliJ،ttoris,S^،^r^(^4 For a good synthesis o f such topics, see: Oleg G rabar & BentaeMariae, Sancti Petri, vol. 1, Vatican City, 1994, pp. 203-08. ١amin Z, K ed a r , Where Heaven and Earth Meet;: Jerusalem's '5 W illiam Of T yrus, Chronicon, X, 4, 1, ed. Robert B. C. Sacred Esplanade, Austin, 2009. Cf. also Menahem H aran , H uygens (Corpus christianorum. Continuatio mediaevalis, TempleandTempee-Services inALncientIsrael,Oxford,i978>. 63-63A), vol. 1, Turnhout, 1986, pp. 456-68, quoting a letter of 5 Guy St r o u m s a , frn d u sacrifrce: eesmut^at;ion.sr^eligieusesd^e Daimbertus describing himself as in eam, que omnium ecclesial'Antiquitétardive,Pari2003, ‫؛‬, r^umsirtgular'isest m uter etgentiu m d ^tjminu, rectorem et p atria r­ 6 CarodynWAEKYRBYNUM, TheResurrectionofrtheBodyinWescham. Alan V. M urray, ‘Daimbert of Pisa, the Domus Godefridi tern Christianity أ‬im B rd ‫ ة‬gau, 1986, pp. 31-41; Alessandro T o m ei , jacobus Torriti pirtor: unavicenda ^gurativadeltardo Duecento romano, Rome, 1990, pp. 77-93; Maria A ndaloro & Serena R om ano , ‘L'immagine neRAsAde,, in ^rte e iconograjkaRom adaC ostantinoaC oladi Rienzo, ed. Maria A ndaloro & Serena R om ano , Milan, 1000, pp. 93-131, esp. pp. 100-01; Geraldine L eardi , ‘Il volto di Cristo nella perduta abside di San Giovanni in Later ano', in L ’orizzonte tardoanticoe lenuove im m aginÌ3i2-4 ٥ X, ed. Maria A n d alo r o (La pittura medievale a Roma 311-1431, 1), Milan, 1006, pp. 358­ 61; C laussen , S. Giovanni, pp. 104-13; Serena Rom a n o , ‘Rom und die Ikonen. Überlegungen zu Monument und Dokument im MittedaReRin IntellektualisierungundMysti(iz,ierungmittelatterlicherKunst. ‫ ^ء‬ultbel ‫’^ء‬:Revisionei„es Begrijs,ed, darein B ü c h sel & Rebecca M üller , Berlin, 1010, pp. 133-53. 38 On the history of Roman icons, see: I ole, Salus populi Romani,. 39 Rome, Vatican Library, MS Barb. Lat. 4413, fol. 5, water­ colour by Gaspare Morone, 1671. Stephan .E T Z O L D ^ Die Kopien des 17. Jaljr^Ijund^er^ts nach M osaikenund Wandmalereien in Rom, Vienna & Munich, 1964, pp. 37-38, n. 165 and fig. 99; de Blaauw , Cultus et decor, p. 141; C laussen , S. Giovanni, p. 188. 40 Lauer , Le Palais du Latran, pp. 194-95. After the fire of 1308, the ampulla of the Holy Blood was solemnly exhibited to the people, among many more relics, by the Archbishop o f Pisa Giovanni Conti, as witnessed by a contemporary poem: Marco P e TOLETTI, ‘Il ritmo sull'incendio di San Giovanni in Laterano nel 1308’ in Aevum, 77, 1003, pp. 379-401, esp. p. 391 and text at p. 401. 4' Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, m s Lat. 8, volume 1, fol. 91. On this famous manuscript, see: Danielle G a b o r i TC h o p in La décoration des manuscrits à Saint-Martial de LimogesetenLimousindu IX ' au XII' siècle,Patl‫& ؛‬Geneva,i969, pp. 86-99 and 177-78. 41 Hrabanus Maurus, De institutione clericorum, 1, 45, ed. Detlev Z impel (Fontes Christiani, 61/1), Turnhout, 1006, p. 384.

T h e M i s e - e n -S c En e o f t h e H o l y IN THE L a t e r a n C h u r c h

203

Liturgical Installations in the Cathedral of Salerno The Double Ambo in its Regional Context between sicilian Models and Local Liturgy E l isa b e t t a Sc ir o c c o *

Abst rac t From the last decades o f th e tw elfth century, cathedrals in C am pania were often eq u ip p ed w ith tw o ambos. The first ex­ am ple appeared in th e cath ed ral o f San M atteo in Salerno : here, a n ew ty pology o f church fu rnishing, w hich w o u ld later be o f great regional influence, was elaborated betw een c. 1153 and 1180. g e s t i o n s about th e necessity o f tw o ambos, com pared w ith th eir iconography and some m aterial peculiarities, raise d o ubts ab o u t th e coherent genesis o f this liturgical setting in Salerno. The aim o f this p ap er is to analyze its origins. I will argue th a t th e appearance o f th e tw o am bos at Salerno was n eith er coeval, n o r foreseen, a th e o ry th a t has b een presented b u t n o t yet investigated. M ore th a n from an actual liturgical need, this peculiar so lution may have originated from th e in d ep e n d e n t desires o f tw o pow erful p atrons w ho w ished to lin k th eir nam es to a local tran slatio n o f th e kings o f Sicily’s artistic enterprises.

LiturgicallnsralkionsinSalernoCatbedralid tbeirPeculiarities‫؛‬

o u ts id e th e c h o ir p a r t i t i o n o n th e n o r t h a n d s o u th sid e o f th e n av e (4 .2 m a n d 5.10 m h ig h , re sp e c tiv e ly ), a n d a p a s c h a l c a n d e la b r u m in th e f o r m o f a c o lu m n

T h e c a th e d ra l o f S a n M a tte o in S a le rn o (F ig. 1) h a s a b a silic a l p la n w ith a tr a n s e p t, is e a s t- o r ie n te d , a n d is d iv id e d in to th r e e aisles s u p p o r t e d b y c o lo n n a d e s i n c o r p o r a tin g spolia. T h is c h u rc h o w es its fa m e to se v e ral fa c to rs : its tie s w ith th e B e n e d ic tin e b a silic a

(5.20 m h ig h ) . E v e ry p a r t is e m b e llis h e d w ith s c u lp ­ tu r a l d e c o r a tio n a n d b la z e s w ith g o ld , e n a m e ls , a n d g ild e d o r g la z e d tesseræ. A r c h b is h o p R o m u a ld o II G u a r n a (1153-81) is m e n t i o n e d in a n in s c r ip tio n o n th e n o r t h e r n a m b o , w h ile th e k in g o f S ic ily ’s

o f A b b o t D e s id e riu s a t M o n te c a s s in o ; its p r e s e r ­

v ic e -c h a n c e llo r M a tte o a n d th e d a te ( n o w c o r r u p ­

v a tio n o f th e re lic s o f th e E v a n g e lis t M a tth e w ; its

t e d ) o f 1180 are r e c o r d e d o n a n a rc h t h a t fo rm e rly

b e in g r e b u ilt a fte r a n in itia tiv e b y tw o in flu e n tia l

c r o w n e d th e c h o ir e n tr a n c e ; th e s o u th e r n a m b o

p e rs o n a litie s ,

A r c h b is h o p

b e a rs n o e v id e n c e o f its c o m m is s io n , b u t m a te ria l

A lp h a n u s o f S a le rn o , a n d c o n s e c r a te d (1 0 8 4 -8 5 ) b y

e v id e n c e su g g e sts t h a t it w a s also c o m p le te d a r o u n d

P o p e G re g o riu s V II, w h o s e b o d y a n d ca th ed ra are

1180. T h is e n se m b le , o f a n u n p r e c e d e n te d scale a n d

p r e s e rv e d in th e c h u r c h ; its h o s tin g o f a m o n u m e n ta l

c o m p le x ity , a p p e a r e d as a s e n s a tio n a l in n o v a tio n in

o b je c t c o m p r is e d o f a fa m o u s se ries o f iv o ry p la q u e s ;

C a m p a n ia ,3 a n d s e rv e d as a m o d e l f o r litu r g ic a l f u r ­

and

litu r g ic a l in s ta lla tio n s

n is h in g s in th e fo llo w in g p e r io d .4 E v en th o u g h th e

(Fig. 2 a - 2 b ) .2 T h e a r r a n g e m e n t c o n sists o f a h ig h

o v e ra ll d im e n s io n s a n d th e a m b itio n o f th e w h o le

(3.80 m ) w a ll o n th e w e s te rn f r o n t o f th e c h o ir, tw o

c o m p le x w o u ld p r o b a b ly n o t b e r e p e a te d o u ts id e o f

m o n u m e n ta l a m b o s o n c o lu m n s fa c in g e a c h o t h e r

S a le rn o , o t h e r c a th e d ra ls a d o p te d its a rtis tic m o d e l

its la te

R o b e rt

G u is c a r d

R om an esq u e

and

R o n n q u eC a tb ed raSs in M eèeïïA n e tm E u ro p ejcb itectu re jR itM lin d U rkn C o n tex t ١ e ib y G e m A o B o to % eYa.& Jus>t\niA . YAoesen,Architectura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 205-221

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109573

Fig. 1.

Salerno, cathedral, in tern al view tow ards th e east (p h o to Luciano P e d i c i n i ) (Plate 14)

Fig. 2 a-2 b . Salerno, cathedral, n o rth e rn am bo (‘G uarna’) and so u th ern am bo (so-called ‘A iello’), w ith p o rtio n s o f the ch o ir screen (p h o to s Luciano P e d i c i n i ) (Plates 15 and 16)

206

E l i s a b et ta Sc i r o c c o

Fig. 3. Salerno, cathedral, so uthern w all o f th e transept. A rch from th e w estern entrance to th e ch o ir bearing th e nam e o f V ice-C hancellor M atteo and th e date 1180 (from : A rtu ro C a r u c c i , I mosaici salernitani nella storia e n e ll’a rte, Cava dei T irreni, 1983) (Plate 17)

(sq u a re b o x es o n c o lu m n s , w ith m o sa ic s a n d s c u lp ­

b y a d d in g m a rb le p la q u e s d e c o r a te d w ith m ic r o ­

tu r a l e m b e llis h m e n ts ), t o g e t h e r w ith d o u b le - a m b o

m o sa ic s o f glass a n d g o ld le a f in 1180, a c c o rd in g to th e

c h o ir a r r a n g e m e n ts . T h is w a s re a liz e d e ith e r t h r o u g h

a f o r e m e n tio n e d in s c rip tio n o n th e m a rb le a rc h th a t

th e c o ev a l c r e a tio n o f tw o a m b o s , o r b y a d d in g a

c ro w n e d th e th r e s h o ld o f th e c h o ir u n til 1723 (Fig. 3):9

s e c o n d to a n e x is tin g o n e .5 T h e c h o ir o f S a lern o p re se n ts so m e p e c u lia ritie s to in v estig ate, h o w e v e r, nam ely , th e s c re e n ’s h e ig h t a n d

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th e d im e n s io n s o f th e S a lern o e x am p le w e re u n p r e c e ­

P R IN C IP A T E S C A P E E / M A T H E E S • I L L E S T R I S

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L X X [X ] I

d e n te d . C h o i r p re c in c ts in th e Ita lia n p e n in s u la w ere

E I CE Th A j N C E L L A R (iu s) E I E S D E (m ) D (o roi)N I

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R E GIS M A G N t E j S C I EI S -S A L ^ E R N I f e c i t h o c

stru c tu re s , d o c u m e n te d in th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry , are

o p e s F flE jR I AID H O N O R E M D (ei) E T A P (o tto ) L I - M (A ) T H ( 6) I .“

e x p la in e d w ith re fe re n c e to th e re fo rm m o v e m e n t w ith in th e R o m a n c h u rc h , w h ic h r e q u ir e d a s tr o n ­ g e r se p a ra tio n — b o t h m e ta p h o ric a l a n d p h y sic a l —

T h e te x t, in b la c k le tte rs o n a g o ld e n b a c k g ro u n d ,

b e tw e e n th e c le rg y a n d laity .6 A c h o ir sc re e n o f

c o m m e m o ra te s

c. 2.50 m e tre s h ig h m a d e its a p p e a ra n c e in C a m p a n ia

v ic e -c h a n c e llo r a n d c itiz e n o f S a lern o , w h o in lite ra ­

M a tte o

( 9 3

٩ ‫) ﻟ ﻞ‬,

W illia m

I I ’s

in th e c a th e d ra l o f C a p u a u n d e r A r c h b is h o p E rv e o

tu re is c o m m o n ly re fe rre d to as ‘M a tte o d ’A ie llo ’. " T he

(1 0 7 3 -8 8 ).7 In S a lern o , to o , th e first R o m a n e sq u e

d e c o ra tio n o f th e w alls, m o stly a n ic o n ic , in c lu d e s a

c h o ir p r e c in c t o f S a n M a tte o , w h ic h w as m a d e

sn a k e a n d a g riffin a t th e tw o sides o f a lo tu s o r n a m e n ­

b e tw e e n c. 1 0 8 4 -8 5 a n d 1137, re a c h e d tw o m e tre s

ta tio n (‘lo tu s la n c é o lé ’), w h ic h is clearly in s p ire d b y

in h e ig h t.8 T h is sc re e n w as ra is e d to 3.80 m e tre s

S ic ilian N o r m a n m o n u m e n ts .12 In 1723, th e M e d ie v a l

I i T UR Gi c A L I n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e C a t h e d r a l o f S a l e r n o

207

c h o ir s c re e n ’s f r o n t w a ll w as re d u c e d to tw o la te ra l

fro m th e le tte rs o f S a in t P a u l o r o th e r a p o stle s o r

se c tio n s, le a d in g to a re a rra n g e m e n t o f its v a rio u s ele­

fro m th e O l d T e s ta m e n t) is in d ic a te d b y im ag es o f

m e n ts, w h ic h m u s t h av e b e e n o rig in a lly p o s itio n e d to

th e p r o p h e ts , w h e re a s th e G o s p e l is a llu d e d to b y

fo rm a c o h e re n t d e c o ra tiv e p a tt e r n .13 T he re a so n s fo r

th e sy m b o ls o f th e E v an g e lists a n d b y a re a d in g d e sk

its u n p r e c e d e n te d h e ig h t a n d c o m p le x ity are closely

w h ic h c o m m o n ly fe a tu re s a n eagle, a n d o fte n a b o o k

c o n n e c te d to th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e s e c o n d a m b o .

in s c rib e d w ith th e first w o rd s o f th e G o s p e l o f S a in t

T h e litu rg ic a l se ttin g w ith a d o u b le a m b o w as n o t

J o h n : I n p rin c ip io e ra t v e rb u m , J o h n 1:1. In a d d itio n ,

so c o m m o n in th e Ita lia n p e n in s u la a t th is tim e. T h e

th e E p istle a m b o w as u su a lly sm a lle r t h a n th e G o s p e l

read in g s re q u ire d b y th e L itu rg y o f th e W o rd (E pistle

am bo.

a n d G o s p e l) w ere tra d itio n a lly p ro c la im e d fro m th e

a m b o s in situ . T h is case differs fro m th e o th e rs, a n d

T h e first p ro g ra m m a tic a d o p tio n o f tw o a m b o s w as se t

shares sim ila rities, in m y o p in io n , w ith S alern o (Fig. 4 ).

o u t a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry in R o m a n

H e re , a n e w G o s p e l a m b o w as c o m m issio n e d to N ic o la

ch u rch e s lin k e d to sta tio n a l p a p a l litu rg y , a n d seem s

d i B a rto lo m e o d a F o g g ia b y th e R u fo lo s in 1272, fo r

to have b e e n a p re ro g a tiv e o f th ese sp ecial b u ild in g s.15

p o litic a l-re p re se n ta tiv e reaso n s as w ell as f o r m a tte rs

T h e ir d iffe re n t fu n c tio n s, w h ic h are n o t m e n tio n e d

o f ta s te .18 A t th a t p o in t, th e c h u rc h ’s p re v io u s a m b o ,

in th e R o m a n litu rg ic a l co d ific atio n s, th e O rdines

a d o u b le -s ta ir m o n u m e n t d o n a te d b y A rc h b is h o p

R o m a n i, are e ^ r e s s e d b y m ea n s o f th e ir fo rm , d im e n ­

C o s ta n tin o R o g a d e o (1 0 9 4 -1 1 5 0 ) w as n o t d ism a n tle d ,

sio n , a n d d e c o ra tio n . T h e G o sp e l a m b o ’s p re -e m in e n c e

b u t in ste a d w as re le g a te d to a su b o rd in a te p o s itio n a n d

is re fle cte d in a b ig g e r d o u b le -s ta ir stru c tu re w ith a re a ­

u se d fo r th e E p istle .19 T h is c h an g e o f p u rp o s e le d to its

d in g de sk d ire c te d to th e ch o ir, w h ile th e E p istle a m b o

m o v e m e n t fro m th e s o u th e rn to th e n o r th e r n side o f

is a sm aller p la tfo rm w ith tw o o p p o site lec tern s: f o r th e

th e nave,20 in o rd e r to a llo w th e n e w G o s p e l a m b o to

re a d in g o f th e O ld T e sta m e n t tex ts (to w a rd s th e h ig h

re sp e c t th e p r o p e r litu rg ic a l o rie n ta tio n th a t re q u ire d ,

alta r), a n d fo r p re a c h in g (to w a rd s th e lay nave). T h e

w h e n e v e r p o ssib le, th e p ro c la m a tio n o f th e W o r d o f

G o s p e l a m b o w as f u r th e r in v e ste d w ith C h risto lo g ic a l

G o d to w a rd s th e n o r th , th e side o f d a rk n ess a n d evil.21

sy m b o lism a n d w as th e re fo re a t th e c en tre o f th e E a ste r

T he c o n se rv a tio n o f th e o ld e r a m b o a t R avello w as

celeb ratio n s. F o r th is re aso n , th e p a sc h a l c a n d le stic k

p ro b a b ly d u e to th e desire to p re se rv e a g lo rio u s m o n u ­

a n d th e b a p tism a l f o n t w ere u su a lly p o s itio n e d nearby.

m e n t o f th a t c h u rc h ’s h isto ry . B u t it also c o n firm s

B e fo re

th e

M e n d ic a n t

O r d e r s ’ in flu e n c e

on

th a t b y th e m id - th ir te e n th c e n tu ry th e litu rg ic a l usage

t h ir te e n th - c e n tu r y litu rg ic a l p ra c tic e w o u ld b rin g

o f tw o a m b o s h a d b e c o m e a n e sta b lish e d p ra x is in

a b o u t a m u ltip lic a tio n o f m o n u m e n ta l a n d p o r ta b le

C a m p a n ia n c ath e d ra ls. T h e d o u b le -a m b o a rra n g e ­

a m b o s a n d p u lp its , b o t h in sid e a n d o u ts id e c h u rc h e s,

m e n t c a n th u s b e in te rp re te d as th e a n sw e r to a n a ctu al

a d o p tin g se p a ra te re a d in g p la tfo rm s w as a p e c u lia r

litu rg ic a l n e e d , as a m a te ria l w itn ess o f a ritu a l p ractice.

s o lu tio n a n d re m a in e d m a in ly lin k e d to th e p a p a l use

T h e sa m e k i n d o f c o h e r e n t f u n c tio n a l d is tin c tio n

o r th e p a p a l d ire c t in flu e n c e . In s o u th e r n Italy, th e

b e tw e e n th e G o s p e l a n d E p is tle is la c k in g in th e

d o u b le -a m b o s e ttin g seem s to h a v e b e e n lim ite d to

S a le rn o a m b o s , w h ic h raises q u e s tio n s w ith re g a rd

th e d io cese s o f C a m p a n ia . S ig n ific a n tly , th e a c tiv ity

to th e i r o rig in . W h y th e n w as th e c h o ir o f S a lern o

o f w o rk s h o p s sp e c ia liz in g in ‘C a m p a n ia n a m b o s ’ o u t ­

C a th e d r a l f u r n is h e d w ith tw o a m b o s ? W e re th e y

sid e th is a rea d id n o t c o in c id e w ith th e d o u b le -a m b o

re a lly fo re se e n , o r w e re th e y r a th e r th e re s u lt o f c ir­

litu rg ic a l a r r a n g e m e n t’s te r r ito r ia l d iffu s io n .16 In C a m p a n ia n e x am p les la te r th a n S a le rn o ’s -

208

T he c a th e d ra l o f R avello h a s p re se rv e d its tw o

sam e p o d iu m , w h ic h w as also u se d f o r p re a c h in g .14

c u m s ta n c e s , as in R a v ello ? T o m y k n o w le d g e , o n ly M o n s . A r tu r o C a p o n e (1929), D o r o t h y G lass (1987,

in C a p u a , A m a lfi, C a s e rta V e c ch ia, m ay b e in Sessa

1991), a n d L a u re n c e A v e n tin (2 0 0 5 ) in th e i r analyses

A u r u n c a a n d T e a n o , a n d p ro b a b ly also T eg g ia n o ,

h a v e a d d re s s e d th e a m b o s in S a le rn o b e in g c o n c e iv e d

N a p le s, a n d la te r, B e n e v e n to -

e ac h o f th e tw o

in th e se rv ice o f th e litu r g y ;22 th e i r p o s itio n , fo rm ,

a m b o s w as d e d ic a te d to o n e o f th e m a in re a d in g s in

a n d ic o n o g ra p h y m u s t c o n s e q u e n tly b e a p p r o a c h e d

th e L itu r g y o f th e W o rd , as in R o m e .17 T h e ir d iffe ­

in c o n n e c tio n to ritu a l p ra c tic e . O t h e r th a n th a t,

r e n t f u n c tio n is re c o r d e d in m o d e r n so u rc e s a n d is

e v e n t h o u g h lite r a tu r e o n th e S a le rn o a m b o s e x p lo ­

c o n firm e d b y th e ir a r c h ite c tu ra l s tr u c tu r e a n d ic o n o -

d e d in th e 1950s to th e 1980s, th e d is c u s s io n h a s

g r a p h ic p ro g ra m m e . T h e E p istle (a s e le c tio n d ra w n

m a in ly r e m a in e d f o c u s e d o n th e sty lis tic a sp e c t. In

E l i s a b et ta Sc i r o c c o

Fig. 4. Ravello, cathedral, intern al view w ith th e am bos d o n a te d by C o sta n tin o R ogadeo (n o rth , o n th e left) and th e Rufolo fam ily (south, o n th e right) (p h o to L uciano P e d i c i n i )

sp ite o f a lm o s t p e r p e tu a l d is a g re e m e n ts o n d iffe re n t

c o h e re n c e o f th e e n se m b le w av ers in m a n y re sp e c ts,

a sp e c ts — m a tte r s o f a u th o r s h ip , th e d e v e lo p m e n t

w h ic h n o t o n ly h a s to d o w ith t h e ir f u n c tio n , b u t

o f a re g io n a l s c h o o l, a n d its r e la tio n s h ip s w ith Sicily

also w ith ty p o lo g y , m a te ria ls, d e c o ra tio n s , a n d style.

a n d / o r P ro v e n c e — th e g e n e ra l te n d e n c y o f s c h o ­ la rs h ip is to c o n s id e r th e la te R o m a n e s q u e litu rg ic a l s e ttin g s in S a le rn o as th e c o h e r e n t re s u lt o f a p ro je c t,

TheThuboS

a n id e a t h a t w a s e x p re s se d b y É m ile B e rta u x as e arly as 1905.23 B e rta u x s ta te d t h a t th e s c u lp tu re s a n d m o sa ic s

T h e n o r th e r n a n d sm a lle r a m b o (Fig. 2a), o n th e

o n th e a m b o s a n d th e c h o ir in S a le rn o w e re all re a ­

le ft side o f th e nave, h a s th e fo rm o f a sq u a re b o x o n

liz e d a r o u n d 1180 b y m a s o n s w o r k in g in th e c a th e ­

arch e s a n d c o lu m n s. T h e m o sa ic in s c rip tio n th a t

d ra l o f M o n re a le , a fte r th e in itia tiv e o f A r c h b is h o p

id en tifie s it as a w o rk c o m m issio n e d b y A rc h b is h o p

R o m u a ld o

R o m u a ld o

II

a n d V ic e - C h a n c e llo r M a tte o .

H is

I I G u a rn a

is d iv id e d

in to

tw o

non­

b e lie f w as s u p p o r t e d b y th e g e n e ra l a llu re o f th e d e c o ­

c o n tig u o u s p a rts t h a t w ere p a rtia lly re in te g ra te d over

r a tio n a n d th e u se o f m o sa ic s, o b v io u sly o rig in a tin g

a n u m b e r o f re sto ra tio n s. T h e first, o n th e w e st side SECVI

( us)

o f th e

d is tin c tio n s w i t h in th is p r o d u c tio n ) , a n d b e c a u se

S A L E R N I T A n ( u s ) A R C h l . T he se c o n d is n o w lo c a te d

th e S a le rn o p a tr o n s w e re b o t h p r e - e m in e n t a t th e

o n th e b a lu s tra d e o f th e p assag e th a t c o n n e c ts th e

ro y a l c o u r t in P a le rm o . N e v e rth e le ss , th e s u p p o s e d

a m b o its e lf w ith th e sta irs b e h in d th e c h o ir sc re en ■

‫ة‬

‫س‬

‫ت‬

0١

‫■ ًﻫ ﺔ ة ﻋ ﺎ‬.

f r o m Sicily ( a lth o u g h h e d is re g a rd e d c h ro n o lo g ic a l

L i t u r g i c a l I n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e C a t h e d r a l o f Sa l e r n o

209

‫؟‬

; >

‫؟‬

‫ئ‬

§

‫ئ‬

٠; ‫ ; ؟ ﺀ‬٠ ٠ ‫د ا ﺗ ﺎ‬

‫ي‬.‫س‬

\

Fig. 5.

٠٠; ٠‫ي ب‬

Salerno, cathedral, G uarna am bo, south side (p h o to au th o r) (Plate 18)

E P IS C O P y S P R E C E P IT F U H O C O P U is y O A k

th e p re se n c e o f th e tw o P r o p h e ts (as a re fe re n c e to th e

in c o n g ru itie s in th e a sse m b ly o f th e a m b o clearly in d i­

E p istle ) a n d th e tw o E v an g e lists (a re fe re n c e to th e

cate t h a t it w as h e av ily c h a n g e d . It w as d e fin ite ly d is­

G o s p e l), R o m u a ld o I I ’s a m b o w as w e ll s u ite d to h o s t

m a n tle d a n d re a sse m b le d b e tw e e n 1723 a n d 1729.24

th e e n tire litu r g y o f th e W o r d d u r in g th e M ass. T h e

T h e C o r i n th i a n c a p ita ls o f th is n o r t h e r n a m b o are

id e a o f R e s u rre c tio n in h e r e n t in th e G o s p e l is d e li­

d e c o r a te d w ith h u m a n b e in g s, tr ito n s , m e rm a id s , a n d

v e re d b y th e d e p ic tio n u n d e r th e le c te rn o f a n o ld

a n im a ls w ith a C h ris to lo g ic a l c o n n o ta tio n su c h as

b e a r d e d m a n , th e A b yssu s, th e p la c e o f th e d e a d .26

lio n s , eagles, a n d a n o w l (Fig. 5). A b o v e , tw o te la m o n s

210

O p p o s ite , o n th e r ig h t sid e o f th e n ave, sta n d s a

c h a ra c te riz e d as p a g a n s (o n e o f th e m w ith M o o ris h

m u c h la rg e r re c ta n g u la r a m b o o n a lin te l s u p p o r te d

fe a tu re s ) are p la c e d b e lo w th e b a lc o n y , a t th e c o rn e rs

b y tw e lv e c o lu m n s w i t h o u t s p a n d re ls (Fig. 2 b). T he

b e tw e e n th e sp a n d re ls . T w o o f th e s p a n d re ls fe a tu re

s o n o f a c e rta in C a rlo d ’A ie llo is d o c u m e n te d in

th e sy m b o ls o f th e E v an g e lists M a tth e w a n d J o h n

1567 as o n e o f th e b eneficiari o f th e c h a p e l o f S a in t

h o ld in g b o o k s , a n d tw o p r o p h e ts w ith scro lls id e n ­

C a th e r in e lo c a te d b e lo w th is a m b o , a clu e in fa v o u r

tifie d b y in s c rip tio n s as Ie re m ia s a n d d a y a s .2‫ ؛‬T h ree

o f th e c o m m is s io n b y a m e m b e r o f h is fam ily .27

o f th e m (M a tth e w , J e re m ia h , a n d Isa ia h ) b e a r sig n i­

A r c h b is h o p N ic o la (1181-1221), s o n o f th e a fo re ­

fic a n t q u o ta tio n s , w h ic h w ill b e a n a ly se d late r. G iv e n

m e n tio n e d

E l i s a b et ta Sc i r o c c o

V ic e - C h a n c e llo r M a tte o , w as

b u r ie d

Fig. 6a-6 b .

Salerno, cathedral, southern ambo, lecterns to the east (6a) and to the n o rth (6b) (photo author) (Plates 19 and 2,0)

b e n e a th a slab p la c e d b e tw e e n th is m o n u m e n t a n d

b e e n c a rv e d f o r th e o th e r o n e .31 A lth o u g h I w o u ld

th e e n tra n c e to th e c h o ir, a n d is o fte n id e n tifie d w ith

b e te m p te d , f o r sty listic re aso n s, to e x clu d e th e p o s ­

its p r e s u m e d p a tr o n .2‫ ؟‬I a m c o n v in c e d in s te a d t h a t

s ib ility o f th e re m o v a l o f o n e o f th e le c te rn s f r o m th e

N ic o la b e n e f ite d fro m th e m e m o r y o f h is f a th e r ’s

G u a r n a a m b o , i t c o u ld h av e o c c u rre d a t a tim e w h e n

lav ish n ess to b e b u r ie d in p r o x im ity to th e a m b o .29

th e A ie llo a m b o w as b e in g c o m p le te d . A m o n u m e n t

T h e la c k o f a n y in s c rip tio n o n th e a m b o m e n tio n in g

w ith tw o le c te rn s is n o t u n u s u a l, as is te s tifie d b y m a n y

th e a r c h b is h o p ’s c o m m is s io n se e m s r a th e r u n u su a l,

e x am p les acro ss th e Ita lia n p e n in s u la ; sig n ific a n tly ,

esp e cially in th e c o n te x t o f S a le rn o C a th e d r a l, a n d

h o w e v e r, th e se w e re u s e d to d iffe re n tia te th e p la c e fo r

c o u ld s p e a k fo r M a tte o in ste a d , w h o le ft a tra c e o f h is

th e re a d in g s (G o s p e l a n d E p is tle ) in c h u rc h e s w ith

p a tro n a g e o n th e c h o ir sc re e n to w h ic h th e a m b o h a s

a sin g le a m b o . T h e tw o le c te rn s o n th e A ie llo a m b o

b e e n c o h e re n tly c o n n e c te d sin c e its c re a tio n .30

fo llo w th is ru le. T h e G o s p e l is e x p re sse d in th e s c u lp ­

S c h o lars h a v e f o u n d th e p re se n c e o f tw o le c ­

tu r a l g ro u p o n th e n o r t h sid e (Fig. 6 b ), a llu d in g to

te rn s o n th is a m b o s trik in g , c o n s id e rin g th e ab se n ce

m a n k in d ( th e m a n a tta c k e d b y a s n a k e ) w h o is sav ed

o f a sim ila r u tility o n th e o t h e r o n e (Fig. 6 a - 6 b ) .

f r o m sin b y th e W o r d o f G o d (th e eagle o f S a in t J o h n

A w id e ly a c c e p te d id e a is t h a t o n e o f th e tw o le c te rn s

th e E v a n g e list, w h ic h s u p p o r ts th e p la tf o r m f o r th e

o n th e so -c a lle d A ie llo a m b o w o u ld o rig in a lly have

b o o k ) .32 T h e s e c o n d le c te r n is, in its ic o n o g ra p h y a n d

L i t u r g i c a l I n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e C a t h e d r a l o f Sa l e r n o

211

s c u lp tu ra l d e c o r a tio n in s p ire d b y a n c ie n t m o d e ls w e re p ro b a b ly e la b o ra te d in C a m p a n ia ; th e c o m p a ri­ so n s p r o p o s e d b y D o r o t h y G lass w ith R o m a n tr iu m ­ p h a l a rc h e s in th e re g io n a n d w ith th e a n tiq u itie s av ailab le in S a le rn o d isp e l a n y d o u b ts o n th is p o in t. T h e m o r p h o lo g y o f th e so -c a lle d A ie llo a m b o , o n th e c o n tra ry , h a s n o p re c e d e n ts in C a m p a n ia , a n d e x e rte d m in o r in flu e n c e o n la te r a m b o s. F u rth e rm o re , so m e o f its c a p ita ls w e re c a rv e d in im ita tio n o f th e G u a rn a a m b o , a n d its m o sa ic s fo llo w a m o re re p e titiv e d esig n , d e v o id o f th e c rea tiv e im a g in a tio n o f th e m a s o n s w o r ­ k in g f o r th e a r c h b is h o p .36 I f th e G u a rn a a m b o w as o rig in a lly c o n c e iv e d w ith a d o u b le f u n c tio n , its litu rg ic a l o rie n ta tio n in th e c u r­ r e n t p o s itio n p re s e n ts a n in c o n s is te n c y th a t c a n o n ly Fig. 7. H y p o th etical reco n stru ctio n o f th e original o rientation o f th e G uarna A m bo (draw ing author)

b e e x p la in e d w ith a c h a n g e o f p la n . T h e re q u ire m e n t o f p ro c la im in g th e G o s p e l to w a rd s th e n o r t h c a n be sa tisfie d o n ly fro m th e A ie llo a m b o ’s n o r th e r n le c te rn . W e s h o u ld c o n s id e r th e h y p o th e s is th a t R o m u a ld o ’s

o rig in a l p o s itio n , a tr a n s la tio n o f litu rg ic a l p ra c tic e

m o n u m e n t w as o rig in a lly lo c a te d o p p o s ite fro m

in to s c u lp tu re : th e tw o s u b -d e a c o n s w h o h o l d u p th e

w h e re it h a s s to o d sin ce a r o u n d 1180, a n d th a t it w as

b o o k reca ll th a t it w as t h e ir ta s k to re a d th e E p istle ,

m o v e d o n ly a fte r th e a p p e a ra n c e o f th e se c o n d a m b o .

a n d th e o r ie n ta tio n o f th is d e sk to w a rd s th e m a in

S u c h a s o lu tio n (o n th e n a v e ’s s o u th side, w ith th e

a lta r is litu rg ic a lly c o rre c t (Fig. 6a).

le c te rn p ro je c tin g in to th e c h o ir, a n d h e n c e to w a rd

E a c h o f th e tw o a m b o s th e r e f o r e c o n ta in s d is ­

th e n o r th ) c o u ld also su p p ly a sa tis fa c to ry p o s itio n

tin c tiv e ic o n o g r a p h ic c lu e s f o r th e d u a l f u n c ti o n

f o r th e in s c rip tio n b e a rin g th e a rc h b is h o p ’s n a m e

o f E p is tle ( p r o p h e ts o n th e s m a lle r o n e , s u b - d e a ­

o n tw o c o n tig u o u s sid es.37 M e a su re m e n ts o f th e in s­

c o n s o n th e la r g e r o n e ) a n d G o s p e l (E v a n g e lis ts

c r ip tio n ’s se g m e n ts a n d o f th e b o x ’s la te ra l a n d b a c k

o n th e sm a ll o n e , le c te r n w ith th e e ag le o n th e l a r ­

p a r a p e t c o in c id e (192 c m ; 195 c m ), w h ic h allow s fo r

g e r o n e ) re a d in g s . T h is h i g h ly u n u s u a l f e a tu r e w as

su c h a re c o n s tr u c tio n (Fig. 7 ). T h e h y p o th e s is c o u ld

p o i n t e d o u t b y C a p o n e a n d A v e n tin , w h o h a v e

e v e n tu a lly b e c o n firm e d b y f u r th e r a rc h a e o lo g ica l

c o n s e q u e n tly s u g g e s te d t h a t th e s e c o n d a m b o w as

in v e stig a tio n s.38

n o t p l a n n e d a n d t h a t it w a s a d d e d b y A r c h b is h o p N ic o la ( d ’A ie llo ), R o m u a ld o I I ’s su c c e s s o r.33 S o m e e le m e n ts p a r ti a ll y c o n f ir m t h e i r h y p o th e s is . S ty le

٠

Ic0n0gïïiji j) ,L itu r g )،m d li،:il

a n d m a te ria ls , a b o v e a ll, re v e a l a c e r ta in i n c o h e ­

212

re n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o m o n u m e n ts . A n e x a m in a ­

T h e ic o n o g ra p h y o f o n e o f th e a m b o s offers o th e r in d i­

t i o n in d e ta il o f th e S a le rn o s c u lp tu r e s a n d m o sa ic s

c atio n s f o r its fu n c tio n . D o r o th y G lass h a s p o in te d o u t

h a s a lre a d y b r o u g h t s c h o la rs to a c k n o w le d g e t h a t

th e so u rc e s f o r th e ic o n o g ra p h y o f p r o p h e ts in Salerno

th e s o - c a lle d A ie llo a m b o w a s m a d e b y a d if f e r e n t

a n d o n o th e r C a m p a n ia n p u lp its in th e fifth -c e n tu ry

w o r k s h o p f r o m t h a t o f th e G u a r n a a m b o , a n d o r i ­

s e im o n C o n tra Judaeos, pag a n o s e t i r i a n o s serm o de

g i n a t e d s lig h tly la te r .34

sym b o lo , w h ic h in th e M id d le A g es w as th o u g h t to be

T h e y d iv erg e also o n ty p o lo g y . S q u a re a m b o s

w r itte n b y S a in t A u g u s tin e , a n d to d a y is a ttr ib u te d to

o n s p a n d re ls h a d a lre a d y a p p e a re d in C a m p a n ia

B ish o p ^ o d u l t d e u s ( t c. 4 5 0 ).39 T h e s e rm o n a n d

a r o u n d 1150 in th e a b b e y c h u rc h o f C a v a d e i T irre n i,

th e litu rg ic a l d ra m a d ra w n fro m it, th e O rdo p ro p h e ­

n e a r S a lern o , b u t th e o n e d o n a te d b y R o m u a ld o II

ta r u m , have p ro v e d to h av e ic o n o g ra p h ic ties w ith

G u a r n a sh o w s a m o re c o m p le x c o n c e p tu a l sy ste m in

R o m a n e sq u e sc u lp tu re in Italy a n d e lsew h ere, a n d w ere

its e m b e llis h m e n t.35 T h e a rc h ite c tu r a l s o lu tio n a n d

p e r f o rm e d d u rin g C h ris tm a s tim e .40 A te x t d e riv e d

E l i s a b et ta Sc i r o c c o

fro m th e C ontra Ju d a eo s w as still in use in S a lern o in

c e n tu r y ; a M issa lis P o n tific a lis (M S C a p o n e n . 5;

th e C h ris tm a s c e le b ra tio n s as late as 1594, fo llo w in g

w h ic h is in fa c t a S a c ra m e n ta ry ) illu m in a te d c. 1 2 86­

a n a n c ie n t lo ca l tr a d itio n (m o re S a le r n ita n o ), w h ic h

1321; a B r e v ia r iu m (M S C a p o n e n . 6 ); a n d tw o

suggests t h a t th is re a d in g c o u ld h av e its ro o ts a t th e

M iss a ls (M S S C a p o n e n . 3, 4 ) c o p ie d c. 1 4 3 1 -3 4 .46

tim e — i f n o t e v en b e fo re — o f R o m u a ld o II.41 A s

A n i n - d e p th s tu d y o f th e s e te x ts b y T h o m a s F o rre s t

G lass h as p o in te d o u t, th e ic o n o g ra p h y o f th e G u a rn a

K e lly h a s s h o w n t h a t th e lit u r g y c o n te n t is m a in ly

a m b o , ‘is re la te d to th e th o u g h ts e m b o d ie d in C ontra

a lig n e d w ith R o m a n rite s a n d c a n b e c o n s id e r e d

Jud a eo s, paganos e t A ria n o s, b u t th e p ro g ra m is clearly

as h a v in g b e e n c e le b ra te d in S a le rn o in th e tw e lfth

n o t d e riv e d sp ecifically fro m th a t te x t’. O n ly Is a ia h ’s

c e n tu ry .47 N e v e rth e le s s , sin c e th e m a n u s c r ip ts w e re

w o rd s (Isaiah 7 :14) c a n b e re la te d to th e S e rm o .4

c o p ie d b e tw e e n th e t h i r t e e n t h a n d th e f ifte e n th

H o w ev e r, th e y sh a re th e a llu sio n to th e In c a rn a tio n

c e n tu rie s , th e r u b ric s f o r th e c e le b ra tio n s c o u ld h av e

o f C h r is t w ith th o se o n J e re m ia h ’s scro ll (Je re m ia h

b e e n u p d a te d g ra d u a lly . T h e p o t e n t i a l o f th e s e te x ts

343.(27 : ‫ ل‬In tere stin g ly , it c a n b e a d d e d th a t in M e d ie v a l

v is-à -v is th e s a c re d sp a c e r e c o n s tr u c ti o n h a s n o t y e t

use th e last re sp o n so ria l o f C h ris tm a s m a tin s w as fo l­

b e e n e x p lo ite d . T h e y c le a rly in d ic a te t h a t th e b ig ­

lo w e d b y a re a d in g o f th e g e n e a lo g y o f C h r i s t fro m th e

g e r a m b o w a s u s e d d u r in g H o l y W e e k c e le b ra tio n s ,

G o s p e l o f M a tth e w , th e ‘L ib e r g e n e ra tio n is’ (M a tth e w

b u t c a rry o n ly m e a g re in s tr u c tio n s o n th e u se o f

1:1-16), a n d L I B E R G E N E R A T I O N I S is in sc rib e d in

th e a m b o s in d if f e r e n t litu r g ic a l y e a r m o m e n ts . T h e

th e b o o k h e ld b y th e A n g e l o n th e n o r th e r n s p a n d re l

A ie llo a m b o is a d d re s s e d in th e t h ir t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

in th e G u a rn a a m b o .44 A t th is p o in t, th e E v an g elist

O r d in a r iu m as m a iw s p u lp itu m ( V i f i a m b o j f t n u s t

J o h n n o t b e in g re la te d to a specific q u o ta tio n c o u ld

f o r th e lita n y o n P a lm S u n d a y (fo l. I i 8 r - v ) a n d th e

also be sig n ific a n t. H is sy m b o l, th e eagle, grasp s n o t

E p is tle o n G o o d F rid a y (fo l. I 2 9 r ) ;48 o r it is c a lle d

a clo sed b o o k , as is o fte n th o u g h t; ra th e r, in m y o p i­

s im p ly p u l p it u m in th e c e le b ra tio n o f H o ly S a tu rd ay ,

n io n , it is re p re s e n te d in th e a c t o f o p e n in g it, w ith th e

w h e n it w a s u s e d f o r b o t h th e E p is tle a n d G o s p e l

first p a ra g ra p h s o f J o h n ’s G o s p e l ( J o h n 1:1-14) p r o ­

re a d in g s a n d f o r th e l ig h tin g o f th e c a n d le .49 T h is

c la im in g th e D iv in ity a n d I n c a rn a tio n o f C h r is t a n d

u se is c o n f ir m e d b y th e M issa lis o f 1431 (M S C a p o n e

re ca llin g Isa ia h ’s p ro p h e c y ( J o h n 1:23) (Fig. 5). T he

n . 3 ),‫؛‬° a n d is also e v id e n t f r o m th e m o n u m e n t itself,

evangelists M a tth e w a n d J o h n , lik e th e p r o p h e ts Isaiah

b e c a u se th e c a n d le s tic k h a s alw ay s b e e n n e arb y .

a n d Je re m ia h , are esp ecially re la te d to th e In c a rn a tio n ,

Two

of

th e s e

te x ts

(th e

th ir te e n th - c e n tu r y

w h ic h co n firm s t h a t R o m u a ld o II G u a rn a o rg a n iz e d

a n à th e fifte e n th - c e n tu r y B r e u ia r iu m )

th e ic o n o g ra p h ic p ro g ra m m e a r o u n d th is th e m e .4‫؛‬

c la im to re ly o n a re fo rm im p le m e n te d b y R o m u a ld o II

W e c an also in fe r t h a t th is a m b o p la y e d a sp ecial ro le

G u a r n a to g e th e r w ith th e c h a p te r o f S a le rn o .1‫ ؛‬A s

in th e c e le b ra tio n o f C h ris tm a s a n d th a t it w as in v o l­

m e n tio n e d , K e lly ’s a n aly sis o f th e se m a n u s c rip ts h as

v e d in th e re a d in g o f P se u d o -A u g u stin u s’ se rm o n

s ta te d t h a t th e a rc h d io c e se o f S a le rn o p a r tic ip a te d

o n C h ris tm a s eve. H o w e v e r, it c o u ld n o t h av e b e e n

in th e g e n e ra l a lig n m e n t to th e R o m a n rite th a t

u s e d f o r th e G o s p e l a llu d e d to b y M a tth e w a n d J o h n

w as c o m m o n in th e Ita lia n p e n in s u la in th e tw e lfth

becau se o f its in a p p ro p ria te litu rg ic a l o r ie n ta tio n — a t

c e n tu ry . M ig h t th e a p p e a ra n c e o f a d o u b le a m b o -

le a st n o t in its c u rre n t p o s itio n .

litu rg ic a l sy ste m in S a le rn o th e n b e e x p la in e d w ith

B e sid es m a te ria l c o n s id e r a tio n s , w e c a n lo o k

th e p r o - R o m a n litu rg ic a l re fo rm c a rrie d o u t b y th is

f o r a d d itio n a l in d ic a tio n s in th e r itu a l u sa g e o f th e

a rc h b is h o p ? T h e id e a is in trig u in g , b u t th e d a ta a t

a m b o s o v e r th e c e n tu rie s . A lth o u g h so u rc e s are

o u r d isp o sa l d o n o t a llo w c o n firm in g th is h y p o th e s is .

n o t alw ays e lo q u e n t, so m e clu e s su g g e st t h a t th e

In te re stin g ly , th e B r e v ia r iu m o f R o m u a ld o II G u a rn a

a m b o s ’ d o u b le f u n c tio n , as e x p re s se d in t h e i r i c o ­

c o p ie d in th e f ifte e n th c e n tu r y lac k s a n y a llu s io n to

n o g ra p h y , w a s n o t p l a n n e d f r o m th e o u ts e t. T h e

th e re a d in g p lac e , e v en d u r in g E a s te r tim e , as i f th e re

c h u r c h o f S a le rn o h a s p r e s e rv e d its M e d ie v a l t r a ­

c o u ld h a v e b e e n n o h e s ita tio n a b o u t w h ic h a m b o to

d i ti o n in a series o f litu r g ic a l te x ts d a tin g f r o m th e

u se. It w as c o p ie d in 1434 b y th e sa m e sc rib e o f th e

t h i r t e e n t h to th e f if te e n th c e n tu ry . T h e y c o n s is t o f

M issa lis M S C a p o n e n . 3 (1431), a n d th e ir ru b ric s

a n E x u t t e t , a n E v a n g e la r iu m ‫ ؛‬M S C a p o n e n . 8 ١١١ a n d

d o n o t c o in c id e , b e c a u se in th e M issa l o n ly th e p u l ­

a n O r d in a r iu m (M S C a p o n e n . 7 ) o f th e t h i r t e e n t h

p i t u m m a iu s is m e n tio n e d f o r E a s te r c e le b ra tio n s .2‫؛‬

L i t u r g i c a l I n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e C a t h e d r a l o f Sa l e r n o

213

T h is c o u ld m e a n th a t th e B r e v ia r iu m ru b ric s w e re

T h e fa c t t h a t R o m u a ld o II a n d M a tte o liv e d

n o t u p d a te d w h e n th e m a n u s c rip t w as c o p ie d in th e

d u r in g th e sam e y e ars a n d in th e sa m e c o u rtly e n v i­

fifte e n th c e n tu r y a n d , fu r th e r , a m in o r h i n t t h a t th e

r o n m e n t h a s le d to th e c o n s id e ra tio n th a t th e ir

ritu a l p r o m u lg a te d b y R o m u a ld o I I G u a r n a in v o lv e d

p a tro n a g e c o u ld n e c e ssa rily h a v e b e e n c o n jo in e d .

a sin g le a m b o .53

B u t w h a t th e n w a s th e ir r e la tio n s h ip to S a lern o ? T he

L a te r so u rc e s o f c. 1575, w h ile th e o ld O ffic iu m

a rc h b is h o p , a u th o r o f a c h ro n ic le , p la y e d a p rin c ip a l

S a le r n ita n u m e s ta b lis h e d b y R o m u a ld o II G u a r n a

ro le in th e k in g d o m ’s d e lic a te d ip lo m a c y . P h y sic ia n

w as s till in u se ,54 c o n firm t h a t th e a m b o s w e re u s e d

a n d a d v is o r to W illia m I, R o m u a ld o a ssiste d a t h is

in th e t r a d itio n a l a lte r n a tio n b e tw e e n G o s p e l (th e

d e a th a n d c ro w n e d th e y o u n g W illia m I I in th e

b ig g e r o n e , w ith c o r r e c t litu r g ic a l o r ie n ta tio n a n d

c a th e d ra l o f P a le rm o , in M a y

fa c ilitie s to p e r f o r m E a s te r rite s ) a n d E p is tle (th e

w as o rig in a lly f r o m S a le rn o , s o o n m o v e d to P a le rm o

‫ ﻟ ﻞ‬6 6 . 6‫إ‬

M a tte o , w h o

s m a lle r o n e , o n th e n o r t h e r n sid e ) d u r in g th e l itu r g y

( R o m u a Y k a y s h e n s in a u la r e g ia a p w e r o e itr itw s ,

o f th e W o r d in th e M a ss, a c c o r d in g to th e i r o r ie n ­

‘a c h ild ra is e d a t th e ro y a l c o u r t ’),62 w h e re h e w o rk e d

t a t i o n a n d d im e n s io n a l h ie ra rc h y .55 In m y o p in io n ,

in th e se rv ice o f R o g e r II a n d W illia m I. H e is first

th is c o n firm s t h a t th e a m b o s , a lth o u g h th e y p r o b ­

d o c u m e n te d in th e R o y a l C h a n c e lle ry in P a le rm o

a b ly m a in ta in e d p e c u lia r c o n n o ta tio n s f o r so m e

in 1154. D u r in g W illia m I I ’s m in o r ity (1 1 6 6 -7 1 ),

c e re m o n ie s o v e r th e litu r g ic a l year, w e re f o r c e d in to

M a tte o , to g e th e r w ith R o m u a ld o a n d o th e rs , f o rm e d

a c o m m o n r itu a l p ra c tic e , w h ic h a llo w e d a lte r n a tin g

a c o u n c il e n tr u s te d to a ssistin g M a rg a re t o f N a v a rra

E p is tle a n d G o s p e l re a d in g s , in th e sa m e c e le b ra ­

in g o v e rn in g th e N o r m a n E m p ire . F a m ilia ris o f th e

tio n , o n d if f e r e n t p la tfo rm s .

k in g sin c e 1162, h e b e c a m e v ic e -c h a n c e llo r in 1169.63

In th e la s t p a r t o f th is a rtic le , I h o p e to p ro v id e

W h ile M a tte o s p e n t a lm o s t h is e n tire life aw ay fro m

th e fin a l e le m e n ts to a sse rt th a t, e v en t h o u g h th e tw o

S a le rn o , R o m u a ld o m a d e h is c a re e r as a p h y sic ia n a n d

a m b o s a t S a le rn o m u s t h a v e b e e n u s e d in th e lo c a l

cleric in th e city, a n d m u s t h a v e b e e n th e re a r o u n d

ritu a l p ra c tic e fro m th e c o m p le tio n o f th e b ig g e r

th e tim e o f h is e le c tio n in 1153. E sp e c ia lly fro m 1166

a m b o a r o u n d 1180 o n w a rd , th e ir c o m m is s io n o c c u r­

o n , th e e v e n ts in P a le rm o k e p t th e a r c h b is h o p a lm o s t

r e d a t tw o d iffe re n t m o m e n ts .

c o n s ta n tly in Sicily o r in v o lv e d in d ip lo m a tic m is ­ sio n s, m o s t fa m o u s ly to th e C o u n c il o f V en ice in 1177. T h e a m b o ’s c o m m issio n , a n d m a y b e also th e re fo rm

CivesSaleraitaniattkRoyalCowrtofPaler D

c o n c e r te d w ith th e c a th e d ra l’s c h a p te r m e n tio n e d in th e litu rg ic a l m a n u s c rip ts , w e re v e rita b ly a c c o m p li­

L’archevêque R om oaldo et le chancelier M atteo o n t envoyé de Sicilie en Italie une escouade d ’ouvriers d ’art, choisis p arm i ceux qui travaillaient à la grande basilique de M onreale.56

s h e d in th e first p h a se o f h is lo n g ru le o f th e c h u rc h o f S a le rn o (1153-81). E x te n d in g th e e x a m in a tio n to th e m o d e ls o ffe re d b y th e Sicily ro y a l c h u rc h litu rg ic a l in s ta lla tio n s lead s to a sig n ific a n t c o n c lu s io n . In th e C a p p e lla P a la tin a

214

É m ile B e r ta u x ’s re fe re n c e to M o n re a le is c o n ta in e d

in P a le rm o , th e c h a n c e l is s u r r o u n d e d b y a w a ll 183 cm

in a c h a p te r e n title d — s ig n ific a n tly — L e s m osaïques

h i g h ; 64 a n d th e opus sectile d e c o ra tio n s o f th e c h ap e l

a ra b o -sitilie n n es en C a m p a n ie .67 T h e d e a has b e e n

are m e n tio n e d w ith a d m ir a tio n in R o m u a ld o ’s c h ro -

e x p a n d e d in a r t h is to ric a l d e b a te , in o r d e r to d is tin ­

n ic le .65 T h is w as p ro b a b ly th e m o d e l th e a rc h b is h o p

g u is h b e tw e e n th e a m b o s in S a le rn o a n d th e c a rv e d

h a d in m in d w h e n h e c o m m is s io n e d to a g ro u p o f

c a p ita ls in th e c lo iste r o f th e S ic ilian ab bey, w h o se

C a m p a n ia n s c u lp to rs th e a m b o f o r h is c a th e d ra l

c o n s tr u c tio n a n d d e c o r a tio n are tra d itio n a lly d a te d to

c h u rc h in S a le rn o , w h ic h h e w is h e d to b e e m b e llis h e d

b e tw e e n 1174 a n d 1189.5‫ ؟‬T h is in te rp re ta tiv e sc h e m e ,

w ith ‘S ic ilian ’ m o saics.

b a s e d o n th e ju x ta p o s itio n o f re g io n a l areas ty p ic a l o f

N e w levels o f g r a n d e u r w e re re a c h e d in th e la st

n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y h is to rio g ra p h y , a n d n o t d e v o id

g re a t N o r m a n f o u n d a tio n o f Sicily, th e B e n e d ic tin e

o f c h a u v in ism ,59 h a s b e e n a b a n d o n e d in fa v o u r o f a

a b b e y a t M o n re a le w ith its c h u rc h d e d ic a te d to th e

M e d ite r r a n e a n p e rsp e c tiv e in w h ic h C a m p a n ia a n d

A s s u m p tio n o f th e V irg in , f o u n d e d b y W illia m II

Sicily are se e n as p a r t o f a sam e te rrito ry , a fte r th e

a n d c o n s e c ra te d in 1177.66 A h ig h ly a c c u ra te re c o n ­

N o r m a n c o n q u e s t.60

s tr u c tio n o f th is c h u r c h ’s litu rg ic a l fu rn is h in g s is

E l i s a b et ta Sc i r o c c o

Fig. 8. M onreale, cathedral, reconstruction o f the liturgical plan and o f the choir screen w ith the am bo in the tw elfth century (after: D om enico Benedetto G r a v in a , I l D uom o di Monreale illustrato, Palermo, 1859, vol. II, pl. 6)

p o ssib le b y c o m b in in g a d e s c rip tio n b y A r c h b is h o p

t e n p o r p h y r y c o lu m n s . T h e ‘p u l p i t o d e ll ’E p is to la ’

L u ig i T o rres, w r itte n in 1596, w ith a n in v e n to ry o f th e

w a s n o t a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t r u c tu r e , b u t in s te a d th e

r o b k d .e l e e m u g d . e l U m a d r e c h i e s a ( > ! ‫؛‬:'‫ ة \ ة ا‬fr o m

e a s te r n p a r t o f th e sa m e a m b o . I t r a n c o n tig u o u s ly

th e w alls o f th e c a th e d ra l’) o f M o n re a le m a d e in 1658,

to th e o t h e r o n e , o v e r th e c h o ir w a ll, a n d r e s te d

w h e n th e c h o ir sc re e n w as d is m a n tle d , a n d p u b l i ­

u p o n tw o ‘c ip o l l in o ’ c o lu m n s in s id e th e c h o ir. It

s h e d b y G io v a n n i G ra v in a in 1859.67 G ra v in a also

w a s th u s d i r e c t e d to w a r d s th e m a in a lta r. A p a r t

p r o d u c e d a p la u s ib le r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f M o n r e a le ’s

f r o m th e im p re ss iv e u se o f p o r p h y r y , w h ic h w as

litu rg ic a l fu rn is h in g s , w h ic h m u s t h a v e b e e n a c c o m ­

d if f ic u lt to r e p lic a te o u ts id e th e ro y a l e n v ir o n m e n t,

p lis h e d a r o u n d 1177, w h e n th e k in g w as c ro w n e d in

th e a m b o a t M o n r e a le re s u lts to b e th e p r o t o ty p e

th is c h u r c h .68 A c a re fu l c ro ss-re a d in g o f th e se so u rc e s

o f th e b ig g e r S a le rn o a m b o , w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r b o x ,

allo w s u s to t r u s t G ra v in a ’s r e c o n s tr u c tio n in its

lin t e l, tw e lv e c o lu m n s , a n d tw o le c te r n s d i r e c t e d to

g e n e ra l o u tlin e , a n d to c o n v e n ie n tly c o m p a re it w ith

th e n o r t h a n d to th e e a s t.70 T h e c o n n e c t io n w ith

S a le rn o ’s c h o ir sc re e n (Fig. 8 ).69

th e b a r r ie r is d if f e r e n t, b u t th e s im ila r h e i g h t ,71

The

M o n r e a le

sc re en

c o n s is te d o f tw o ju x ­

w h ic h la c k s a p r e c e d e n t in S ic ily its e lf, a n d s o m e

ta p o s e d w a lls c a r r ie d o u t in w h ite m a r b le a n d p o r ­

s im ila r itie s in th e o r g a n iz a t i o n o f th e d e c o r a ti o n 72

p h y r y d e c o r a te d w ith m o sa ic s. T h e w e s te r n o n e ,

e s ta b lis h th e l i n k b e tw e e n S a le rn o a n d M o n r e a le .

fa c in g th e la y n a v e , w a s c. 3.70 m e tr e s h i g h a n d d e c o ­

In a d d itio n , sty listic c o m p a ris o n s w ith th e fe w

r a te d w i t h six sla b s o f p o r p h y r y m e a s u r in g th r e e

s c u lp tu ra l d e c o ra tio n s o f th e litu rg ic a l in s ta lla tio n s

m e tr e s b y o n e , w i t h a c e n tr a l d o o r a n d a p r o j e c t in g

a t M o n re a le c o n firm a d ir e c t tra n s fe r fro m th e ro y al

a m b o o n th e s o u t h e r n sid e . T h e a m b o w a s b u i lt

c h u rc h to th e o t h e r sid e o f th e T y rrh e n ia n Sea. T he

a cro ss th e c h o i r ’s w a ll a n d th u s h a d tw o s e c tio n s .

lio n u n d e r th e su b -d e a c o n s in th e A ie llo a m b o

T h e p a r t p r o j e c t in g to w a r d s th e n a v e , i n d ic a te d

re se m b le s v e ry clo sely o n e o f th e lio n s th a t c ro w n

as th e G o s p e l a m b o , w a s m a d e o f th r e e p a n e ls o f

M o n r e a le ’s ro y al th r o n e sp a n d re l (Fig. 9 a _ 9 b ) .73 T he

p o rp h y ry

in v o lv e m e n t in S a lern o o f s c u lp to rs c o m in g fro m

fra m e d

w ith

m o s a ic s

and

r e s te d

on

L i t u r g i c a l I n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e C a t h e d r a l o f Sa l e r n o

215

F ig . ‫ ة و‬-

‫ﻷو‬

. Salerno, cathedral, so-called Aiello am bo, eastern lectern, detail (9a) M onreale, cathedral, Royal th ro n e, detail (9b) (p h o to s author)

M o n re a le m u s t b e re -e v a lu a te d fro m th is p e rs p e c ­

S a lern o ’), p r o b a b ly a n e ce ssary c la rific a tio n b e cau se o f

tive, lo o k in g f o r c o m p a ris o n s also in sid e th e c h u rc h ,

h is lo n g ab se n ce fro m th e c ity o f S alern o . S u ch a p r o ­

a p a r t fro m th e clo ister capitals.74 T h e tim e fra m e fo r th is

je c t p r o b a b ly s u p p o r te d th e fa m ily a n d p o litic a l in te r ­

m o d e l’s tran sfer c o u ld b e re stric te d to b e tw e e n 1177 —

ests th a t e n a b le d h is s o n N ic o la , th e n a m e m b e r o f th e

th e c o n s e c ra tio n o f th e c h u rc h a t M o n re a le — a n d

c h a p te r, to c o n tro l th e a rc h d io c e se o f S alern o in 1181.

1180 — th e c o m p le tio n d a te o f th e c h o ir sc re e n a t

216

A

la te r, d ir e c t d e r iv a tio n f r o m

M o n r e a le

of

S a lern o to w h ic h th e a m b o is a tta c h e d . T h e e c h o o f

th e s e c o n d a m b o a t S a le rn o c o u ld e x p la in m a n y

th e e x tra o rd in a ry e n te rp rise in M o n re a le , w h ic h w as

p r o b le m a tic a sp e c ts o f th e litu r g ic a l in s ta lla tio n s

a c c o m p lis h e d in a v e ry s h o r t tim e w ith g re a t m a g n i-

a t S a le rn o : 1) th e p re s e n c e o f tw o a m b o s , b o t h

fice n ce ,75 d id n o t ta k e m u c h tim e to re s o u n d to th e

a lle g e d ly f o r th e E p is tle a n d th e G o s p e l; 2) th e

C a m p a n ia n

u n iq u e p re s e n c e in C a m p a n i a o f tw o le c te r n s o n

c o asts, also b e c a u se W illia m

II h a d

w a n te d th e m o n k s f r o m th e C a v a d e i T ir r e n i a b b e y

th e s o - c a lle d A ie llo a m b o ; 3) th e f o r m a l d is ta n c e

to serv e a t M o n re a le .

b e tw e e n

th e

tw o

m o n u m e n t s ’ s c u lp tu r a l

and

T hese d a ta sp e a k in fa v o u r o f th e in v o lv e m e n t o f

m o s a ic d e c o r a tio n s ; 4 ) th e fa c t t h a t th e ty p o lo g y o f

M a tte o in th e p a tro n a g e o f b o th th e c h o ir sc re en

th e b ig g e r a m b o w a s f a r less su c c e s sfu l. I t r e m a in e d

a n d th e a m b o a r o u n d 1180, th e d a te re c o rd e d o n th e

a h a p a x in th e re g io n a l la n d s c a p e , d i s t in c t f r o m th e

m o sa ic a rc h a t S alern o . T h is in v o lv e m e n t clearly in d i­

c o p ie s a n d r e in t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e m o d e l s u p p lie d

cates th e desire o f th e v ic e -c h a n c e llo r to a p p ro p ria te

b y R o m u a ld II , a n d e la b o r a te d u p o n lo c a l C la s sic a l

th e last, exclusive m o d e l e x ta n t in th e c h u rc h o f h is

so u rc e s. T h e l a t t e r m o d e l sp o k e a m o re u n d e r s t a n ­

k in g W illia m II in o rd e r to re assert h is h o m e to w n p r e ­

d a b le la n g u a g e to th e w o r k s h o p s a n d p a tr o n s o f th e

sence. T h e a rc h o n th e c h o ir ’s d o o r w as th u s o n ly th e

c o n ti n e n t, w h o d i d n o t e x p e rie n c e th e d e e p im m e r ­

fin al act, th e sig n a tu re o f th is e n te rp rise p r o m o te d b y

s io n in Isla m ic c u ltu r e t h a t d is tin g u is h e d th e ta s te s

M a n t o ,gOoriosissimiiregisSicilie illu str is u ic e c a n c e lliiu s

o f th e P a le rm o c o u r t s h a r e d b y M a tte o , a n d th a t

(‘illu strio u s v ic e -c h a n c e llo r o f th e m a g n ific e n t k in g o f

is v e r ita b ly b e h in d th e e la b o r a tio n o f th e m o d e ls

Sicily’) a n d m a g n u s civis S a le rn ita n u s (‘g re a t c itiz e n o f

c h o s e n f o r th e A ie llo a m b o .76

E l i s a b et ta Sc i r o c c o

Conclusion T h e g en esis o f th e d o u b le -a m b o litu rg ic a l sy ste m in S a lern o c a n n o t b e re d u c e d to th e sim p le e x p o rt o f a S icilian m o d e l, n o r w as it p ro b a b ly th e e x p re ssio n o f a sp ecific a rtis tic o r litu rg ic a l p r o - R o m a n p ro g ra m m e . T h e a m b o s a t S a lern o m a in ta in a c o m m o n d e n o m i­ n a to r th a t c o u ld b e d e fin e d as C a m p a n ia n -S ic ilia n sy n c re tism , b u t th e y d ra w u p o n d iffe re n t fig u rativ e m o d e ls a n d c am e fro m d iffe re n t c ra ftsm e n , a t d iffe ­ r e n t m o m e n ts , a fte r th e in itia tiv e o f d iffe re n t p a tro n s . T h e litu rg ic a l re fo rm o f R o m u a ld o I I is a n u n d e r v a ­ lu e d so u rc e th a t d e se rv es f u r t h e r in v e s tig a tio n a n d a c o m p a ra tiv e an aly sis o f th e s u rv iv in g tex ts, in o r d e r to c la rify i f it c o u ld h a v e p r o m p te d th e litu rg ic a l n e c e s­ s ity o f a s e c o n d a m b o . O t h e r fa c to rs c o u ld h av e p la y e d a d e te r m in in g ro le in m o d e llin g th e c h o ir c o n fig u ra ­ tio n , n a m e ly th e in d e p e n d e n t in itia tiv e o f th e a rc h ­ b is h o p a n d v ic e -c h a n c e llo r to l in k th e ir n a m e s — fo r re p re se n ta tiv e a n d p o litic a l a sp ira tio n s — to th e m o s t visible litu rg ic a l f u r n is h in g o f th e c a th e d ra l a n d to a p p ro p ria te ro y al m o d e ls. A f te r th e c h o ir s c re e n w a s c o m p le te d in S a le rn o in 1180, o t h e r re g io n a l d io c e se s a d o p te d tw o a m b o s d u r in g th e lit u r g y o f th e W o r d w ith d if f e r e n tia te d f u n c tio n s , o b v io u s ly r e s p o n d in g to a litu r g ic a l n e e d t h a t h a d b e e n e s ta b lis h e d in th e m e a n tim e , a n d tr a n s la tin g th e m o d e l o f S a le rn o i n to th e r itu a l t r a ­ d i ti o n o f re a d in g th e E p is tle a n d G o s p e l se p a ra te ly , as in R o m a n p a p a l c h u rc h e s . W h e n , a n d h o w , th e d o u b le - a m b o s e ttin g w a s c o n v e r te d i n to a sta b le litu r g ic a l p ra c tic e in S a le rn o s till re m a in s to b e a n sw e re d .

NOTES * The results presented here derive from my PhD dissertation (Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, 2010), supervised by Francesco Aceto. The research has been developed thanks to a postdoc funded by the European Research Council (FP7/20072013)/ERC Grant agreement n. 263549, ERC-HistAntArtSI Project, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, p i Bianca de Divitiis. The occasion to strengthen some of my arguments has been offered by a study about the orignal setting of the so-called ‘Salerno Ivories' undertaken with Ruggero Longo, whom I thank for the extraordinary scientific cooperation. I would also like to thank Xavier Barral i Altet, Dorothy Glass, Valentino Pace, Nino Zchomelidse and Vinni Lucherini for discussing with me some of the issues treated here, and Adrian S. Hoch for her help with the English text.

1 This article has been submitted in February 2014, before the publication of the book by Nino Z ch om elidse , Art, Ritual andCiincIdentity inMedievalSouthernltaly ,UnlverAtyParkPA ١ 2014. The author, who kindly discussed with me some of the issues treated here, is in favour of the unitary genesis ofthe double-ambo liturgical system at Salerno. The book by Zchomelidse makes a decisive contribution to the study of the twelfth-century liturgy at Salerno by publishing and analyzing, for the first time, the Eas­ ter and Christmas rituals contained in the manuscripts Capone 4 and Capone 6 of the Museo Diocesano in Salerno. 2 Literature on the church and its works of art is extensive, see: Antonio B ra c a .١H D uom odiSaleriArcbitetturaecuItureartiS' tiche del medioevo e dell’età moderna, Salerno, 2003, with previous bibliography. Later contributions on single themes cannot be mentioned here. On liturgical installations at Salerno, see also: Dorothy F. G lass , ‘The pulpits in the Cathedral at Salerno', in S^lernouelX II secolo: istituzioni,societd,cultura. AttidelConoeinterna.ziona.Ie,RiitodiVietri sulM are,ió-20giugnoi999 ١ ed. Paolo D elogu & Paolo P ed u to , Salerno, 2004, pp. 213-37; Laurence Av en tin , ‘L'image au lieu de la liturae: le décor du pupitre de l'Évan^le de l'ambon d'Aiello dans la cathédrale de Salerne (Campanie, dernier quart du XIIe siècle) et ses princip ‫؛؟‬k v^tl^ntéT ln Vieotctiveetinecontempdativeau Moyen Age e ta u seudde laRenÆsauce ١ itctesdesreucoutres iuternitionides (Rome, 2Û05 & Tours, 206),ed. Christian T ro ttm a n n , Rome, 2009, pp. 323-52; Elisabetta Sc ir o c c o , Arredi liturgici dei secoli X I - X I I I ^nCa^oì|)a^?ii^:: lecat^t^ed^r^lid,iS^leruo,R^i^ello, ^oa^l^, Caserta Vecchia, Capua, unpublished doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Naples, 2010; Ruggero L ongo & Elisabetta Sc ir o c c o , ‘Sul contesto o rin a r io degli avori: gli arredi litur^ci della cattedrale salernitana in epoca normanna'. In GliatvorimedievadiAnMljeSalerno. ^u a d eru id elC eu tro d i C u Iu ieS to ria A m a ljita n a g — OpereeTerritorknVidemecumi, ed. Francesca D ell'Ac c a , Almerinda C upolo & Pietro P ir ­ ro ne , Amalfi, 2015, pp. 169-88; Ruggero L ongo & Elisabetta Sc ir o c c o , ‘A Scenario for the Salerno Ivories: The Litur^cal Furnishings in the Cathedral at Salerno', in The Salerno Ivories: Material, History, Theology, ed. Anthony C u tler , Francesca D ell'Ac c a , Herbert L K essler , Avinoam Shalem & Gerhard W olf (in press). 3 ‘Campania' is a modern definition that does not entirely coin­ cide with the medieval boundaries of the re^on. See: Giuseppe Galasso , ‘Storicità della struttura re^onale', in pania, ed. Francesco Barbagallo , vol. I, Naples, 1978, pp. 7-25. 4 Francesco A ceto , ‘I pulpiti di Salerno e la scultura romanica della Costiera dAmalfi', in ]Scapoli18, 1979, pp. 169­ 94. Carving activity in Romanesque Campania was mostly concentrated in the production of liturgical furnishings. For the issues specifically treated here, see: Émile Bertaux , U art dans ritaliem eridionale.D ela j n d e Pï^niijiT^e^o^ni^iinàlaCo^^c^^ît^e de Charles d ’A njou, vol. I, Paris & Rome, 1903, pp. 495-505; Lorenza C o c h e t t i P ratesi, ‘Problemi della scultura romanica campana', in Commentari, 7, 1956, pp. 9-18; Lorenza C o c h e t t i P ratesi, ‘In margine ad alcuni recenti studi sulla scultura medie­ vale dell'Italia meridionale. Sui rapporti tra la scultura campana e quella siciliana, II', in Commentari, 20, 1968, 3, pp. 165-96; Lorenza C o c h e t t i P ratesi, ‘In margine ad alcuni recenti studi sulla scultura medievale dell'Italia meridionale. Sui rapporti

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217

tra la scultura campana e quella siciliana, III, in 21, 297٠١ 4 ١ pp. 2١5_9 ٠١ L ’art dans l o f f i e m^érid,ion^^ffe. 2^ggii(^٢^^،i' mento dell’opera di Emile Bertaux, ed. Adriano P ra n d i , Roma, 1978; Valentino Pace , ‘A spetti della scultura in Campania', in Federico I le ff’artedeffDuecento italianoAttidefflalIISettimanadi studidi storiadeffff’artemedievaffedeffff’Unioersità diR o m a ,i$ -2 0 maggio 1978, ed. A ngola Maria R o m a n in i , Galatina, 1980, vol. 1, pp. 301-24; Dorothy F. G lass , Romanesque Sculpture in Campaia.. Patrons, Programs, and Style١ UnlvtrAty Park PA ١ 1991% Aranceto Ga n d o lf o , Fa scuffturanormano-sveva inC am pa­ nia: botteghe e modelli, Bari, 1999; Antonio Braca , Le culture artistichedeffMedioevoincostadAmalj,Amadfi١ 200 ١١pp. 103-77; Manuela G fan an d rea ١ Lascenadelsacro. L ’arredo liturgico nel basso Lazio tra X I e XIVsecolo, Rome, 2006. 5 S clroccq ,A rredi liturgicideisecoffiXI-XII I. 6 An overview of Italian choir screens is offered by Thomas C reissen , ‘Les clôtures de chœur des églises d'Italie a l'époque romane: état de la question et perspectives, in Medievalium, 5, 1999, pp. 169-81. On Gregorian Reform and its supposed influence on art, a critical issue currently under revision, see: Elisabetta Sc ir o c c o , ‘Gregorian Reform, in The Grove E ncy clopedia Medieval A rt and A rchttectu re, ed. Colum P. H o u r ih a n e , Oxford, 2012, vol. ii, pp. 223-24, with literature. 7 Francesco A ceto , ‘“Peritia greca" ed arte della Riforma: una proposta per il coro della Cattedrale di Capua,, in Medioevo medi­ terraneo: !.’Occidente, Bisa nzio e I l ffam ( ‫ ةأ ﺣ ﺔ‬o f A e Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Parma, 2004), ed. Arturo Carlo ^ i N tavalle, Milan, 2007, pp. 627-36. 8 Antonio B raca , ‘Le lastre a mosaico medievali dal Duomo di Salerno’, in Rassegna Storica Salernitana, 15, 1998, 30, pp. 51-66. 9 G ^pate M o sc a ١ DeSafferntta،eEccffesi،eepiscopisetarcbiepiS' copis catalogus, Neapoli, 1594, p. 36; Relatio ad limina of Archbi­ shop Bonaventura Poerio, 1697, in Archivio Diocesano di Salerno (hereafter a d s ), Capitolo Metropolitano, cart. 190, fol. 3v. The missing letter of the date can be easily retrieved on the basis of the Byzantine indiction adopted in Southern Italy (XIV= 1September 1180-31 August 1181). 10 English translation: ‘In the year of Lord's incarnation 1180, during the fourteenth indiction, in the time of the magnificent Lord William II, most glorious king of Sicily, (lord) ofthe Duchy of Apulia and of the Principality of Capua, Matthew, illustrious Vice-Chancellor of the same king, great citizen ofSalerno, had this work made to the honour of God and of the Apostle Matthew,. 11 Coeval sources allude to Matteo always as ‘Mattheus notarius, and ‘Mattheus, Salernitanus civis,. Matteo's son Riccardo received the County of Aiello in 1192, and his descendants began to use the name ‘d ’Aiell.,: Francesco Panarelli, ‘Matteo d'Aiello, in D iz ionario Biog rajico degffiItaffia ni١vo\.72 ١ 200%١pp.2X2-Th. 12 On the lotus lancéolé, see: William T ro n zo , The Cultures o^ H is K i ngdom .Ro ger I I a d t h e Cappeffffa P affati na i n Pafferm o, Princeton NJ, 1997, p. 46. 13 The church underwent several transformations following an earthquake in 1688, see: B raca , Il Duomo di Salerno, pp. 239-59. 14 For an overview of Italian ambos, see: Antonio M ilo n e & Roberto Paolo NovELLo, ‘Il corpus italico degli amboni medie­ vali,, in L ’ambone: tavola della parola di Dio. A tti del III Convegnoffiturgico interna2Îonaffe,Bose,2-4giugno 2005١ ed.Goffredo

218

E l i s a b et ta Sc i r o c c o

BosELLi, Bose, 2006, pp. 101-30; Pulpiti medievali toscani: storia erestauridimicro-architetture.Attideffffagiornatadi studio:Accademiadeffffeartideffdisegno: Fi٣en2^e,2i giugnoi990 ١ eà. D ^nte^ La m berini , Florence, 1999. ‫ ا‬١ ^'dde d e B la a u w ١ Cufftusetdecor.Liturgiae arcbit^et^turanel^l^a ^omìat^ardoÆWt:lca‫ ج‬mì‫ج‬dl‫^داج‬l ً ‫ج‬١V ‫ ﻵ‬٢.‫ ا‬c ^ n 1 9 9 4 , ‫ا^ ح‬٩ .. 16 G ia n a n d r e a ١Eacenadeffsacro. 17 G lass , Romanesque Sculpture in Campania; Sc ir o c c o , -^rred,lllt^wr^lcld^elsecoBXI-XIII. 18 Nino Z ch o m elid se , ‘A more V irgnis und honore patriae: die Rufolo-Kanzel, in Analecta Romana Instituti Danici, 26, 1999, pp. 9 9 -u 7 ٠,٠y١V\CASYEX١ArtandPatronagein theMedievalMed-terra ea .M erch a tC u fftu re in theRegionofAmaffj,Cambridge ١ 2004, pp. 135-52. 19 This use is indicated in modern sources. The ambo donated by Costantino Rogadeo is the only extant example of a typology attested in Campania as early as in the ninth century, consisting of a rectangular double-stair structure decorated with scenes of Jonah and the sea monster, with allusion to Christ's death and resurrection. These ambos were conceived for both lectures (Epistle and Gospel), hence the choice of an Old Testament story with allusion to Salvation through God's Word and Christ's Sacrifice. On these monuments, see: Dorothy G lass, ‘Jonah in Campania: A Late Antique Revival, in Commentari, 27, 1976, pp. 179-93; Laurence Av en tin , ‘L'ambon, lieu liturgque de la proclamation de la Parole dans l'Italie du x iie et x iiie siècle', in Prédication et liturgie au moyen âge, ed. Nicole BÉRiou & Franco M o r en zo n i , Turnhout, 2008, pp. 127-61; Elisabetta Sci­ R o cco , ‘J onah, the Whale and the Ambo. Image and Liturgy in M edbvA C am pana An The AutiqueM em oryndtbeM iddleAges ١ ed. Ivan Fo let ti & Zuzana Frantov A, Rome, 2015, pp. 87-123. 20 See the essays in La Cattedrale di Ravello, ed. Ruggero M ar ­ tin es , Viterbo, 2001. 21JosefAndreas J ung m an n , Missarum sollemnia. Eine genetische Erklärung der römischen Messe, Vienna, 1948, and Turin, 1961, p. 334. This is clearly expressed in the Roman rite's codifications from the ninth century and is confirmed by the inverted Gos­ pel ambo positions in churches with a different orientation, like San Clemente and Santa Maria in Cosmedin, see: DE Blaauw , Cultus et decor, vol. i, pp. 90-91; Sible DE Blaauw , ‘Innovazioni nello spazio di culto fra basso Medioevo e Cinquecento: la per­ dita dell'orientamento liturgico e la liberazione della navata', in LoSpAzioe iffcuffto.Reffazionitraedjicioeccffesiaffeeuso liturgico neffXV e X V I secoffo.AttideffffeGiornatedi studio(Fireu%e,27-28 marzo 2003), ed. Jörg Stabenow , Venice, 2006, pp. 25-51. 22 Arturo C a po n e , Il duomo di Salerno, Salerno, 1927-29; Aven ­ t in , ‘L'image au lieu de la liturgie'; G lass , Romanesque Sculpt^u^T^e^nC^،tmp،i^^،i. 23 B ertaux , L ’a rt dans l ’Italie méridionale, pp. 495-508. 24 On the occasion of the choir screen modifications, the ambo, which was previously attached to it in a manner still to be clarified, was dismantled and remounted, fastened to one of the Baroque pil­ lars. See: Antonio Braca , ‘Interventi nel Duomo di Salerno dopo il terremoto del 1688, in LI Baroccoa CioFFi, Salerno, 1988, pp. 65-90, esp. 88-89. Arturo C a rucci , Liconostasi nel Duomo di Salerno, Salerno, 1971, attempted to make a graphic reconstruction of the choir screen ante 1723, which is acceptable on the whole, but questionable with regard to the ambos.

ed. Maria C

The reassembling has prompted different interpretations, producing confusion about the original configuration of this ambo. Ruggero Longo and I are currently carrying out further investigations and archaeolo^cal analysis on this topic. Our first results will be publi­ shed in L ongo & Scirocco , a Scenario for the Salerno Ivories'. 25 Saint Luk e and Saint Mark could eventually have been repre­ sented on the arch in a symmetrical position now attached to the wall (Pace , ‘A spetti della scultura', p. 304); the fourth spand­ rel, on the east side, lacks any sculptural embellishment, and its mosaic decoration has been heavily restored. 26 Wolfgang Fritz Volbach , ‘Ein antikisierendes Bruchstück von einer Kampanischen Kanzel in Berlin', in Jahrbuch der Preußischen Kunstsammlungen, 53, 1932, pp. 183-97. 27 Visita pastorale of Archbishop Gaspare Cervantes, 1567, in A D S ١ Visitep astora lie a rcioescopi salermta ni,a rt.. 4 ١ fo ١. w . 28 Antonio Ba ld u c c i , ‘Prima visita pastorale dell'arciv. Marsili Colonna a Salerno nel 1575', in Rassegna Storica Salernitana, 24/25, 1963/1964, pp. 103-36, esp. 124-26; Antonio M a zza , Historiar u m epitom edere bus Salernita nis, N a po\Y,i68i ١ p. 4 ٠٠١ Gaspare M osca & Arturo C a po n e , De Salernitana Ecclesia ep iscopis et a rch iep iscopis catalogus, a uctore G^isp^^^t^e M u sca [."٠١ nunc an Arturo Capone [...] vulgatus, Sublaci, 1930, n. 2 p. 50. In favor of Nicola's patronage are C a po n e , Il duomo di Salerno, vol. 1, p. 89; B raca , Il Duomo di Salerno•; Av e n t in , ‘L'image au lieu de la liturgie'; and others. G lass , Romanesque sculpture, p. 84, has restricted the chronology for this hypothesis between 1181 and 1194. 29 The inscription around his sepulchral slab insisted on his lineage, see: C a po n e , I l duomo di Salerno, vol. 1, pp. 89-90; vol. 2, p. 30. 30 Two details confirm that this ambo is in its orignal position: its coherent connection with the portion of the choir's wall still in situ and the fact that one of its columns is encircled by one of the pillars made during the Baroque restoration in the late seventeenth century. 31 In the reconstruction by C a r u c c i , Liconostasi nel Duomo, the lectern with two sub-deacons is placed on the Guarna Ambo. 32 The lectern at Salerno provides a model for a series of deri­ vations in Campania and southern Latium. For the genesis of this theme and its different interpretations, see: Manuela G ia NANDREA, ‘Genesi e sviluppo di un'iconografia di successo: l'uomo con l'aquila e il serpente, in Arte Med ievale, 3, 2004, 1, pp. 49-58; Av en tin , ‘L'image au lieu de la liturae', esp. 329-52. 33 C a po n e , I l duomo di Salerno, vol. 1, pp. 77-78; Av e n t in , ‘L'image au lieu de la litu rae, p. 328. 34 C o c h e t t i P ratesi, ‘In margine ad alcuni recenti studi'; Ga n d o lfo , La scultura normanno-sveva, p. 55; G lass , Roma' nesq ue Sculp t u re i n Campania, p . 84., B r a c a , li. Duomo di Salerno, p. 176, 182. 35 For the ambo at Cava dei Tirreni, see: Elisabetta S ciR o cco , ‘L'arredo liturgico della Santissima Trinità di Cava tra XI e XII secolo,, in Riforma della Chiesa, esperienze monastiche e poteri locali. La Badia di Cava e le sue dipendenze nel Mezzogiorno nei secoli X I- XII. A tti del convegno internazionale di studi: Badia di Cava, 15-17 settembre 2 ٠ii, ed. Maria Gala nte , Giovanni Vito lo & Giusi Z a n ic h el li , Florence 2014, pp. 289-302. 3‫ ة‬G l a s s , Sculp t u re i n Campa nia. A detaded study of the mosaics will be presented by Ruggero Longo in

the aforementioned study in preparation (see: L ongo & Sci­ R o c co , A Scenario for the Salerno Ivories'). 37 The first section would have been towards the faithful in the nave, continuing on the back of the box and being visible from the southern aisle. 38 See L o ng o & Sc ir o c c o , a Scenario for the Salerno Ivories'. 39 Dorothy F. G lass , ‘Pseudo-Augustine, Prophets, and Pulpits in Campania', in Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 49, 1987, pp. 215-26. 40 G lass , ‘Pseudo-Augustine'; Dorothy F. G lass, ‘Liturgy and Drama in Romanesque Italy', in e onore di Arturo Carlo Quintavalle, ed. Arturo C alzona , Roberto C ampari & Massimo M uzziN i, Milan, 2007, pp. 267-72. 41 H o B o l o g n u ١ OfciapropriafestorumSalernitanaeEccIesiae, Salerno, 1594, pp. 75-79: In Nativitatis nocte, post primam missam legitur sermo sancti Augustini episcopi, more Salernitano (p. 75). Young considered this text as a stage between the normal litur^cal lectio and the fully dramatized Ordo Prophetarum, see: Karl Yo un g , ‘Ordo prophetarum', in AcadempfSciences,Arts,andLetters ,20 2١ ‫ل‬9 ‫ أ‬,p p .i-8 2 ١ ٩ .24. 42 ECCE VIRGO C 0(n)CIPI(et) (‘Behold a virgin shall conceive [and bear a son, and his name shall be called Emmanuel]'). 43 EC C ED IESVEN I(unt)D I(citD om inus).Severa\.p‫؟‬i s s f ٠ \n Jeremiah's book begin with these words, and thus interpretations diverge: Jeremiah 23:5 (C a po n e , Il duomo di Salerno, vol. 2, p. 58); Jeremiah 9:24 (G lass , ‘Pseudo-Augustine'). I suggest that the variety of creatures on the ambo's capitals allude to the pas‫؟‬a g e ln JeremYTh١i.27 ٠.Eccediesveniunt,dicitDom inus,et semi' nabo domum Israel et domum Iudae semine hominum et semine iumentorum (‘Behold the days come, saith the Lord: and I will sow the house of Israel and the house of Juda with the seed of men, and with the seed of beasts'). 44 Liber generationis Iesu Christi fiiiiD aoid, J iiiilr a h a m ‫ ؟‬The book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham'), see Yo u n g , ‘Ordo prophetarum, n. 13 p. 23. 45 I elaborated these observations after a suggestion kindly offered by Dorothy Glass. 46 The codices are preserved in the Museo Diocesano di Salerno and classified according to C a po n e , Il Duomo di Salerno, vol. 2, pp. 241-85. For bibliography, see: Mario D 'E lia , Uno scrigno sotto il mo^-io, Salerno, 2012, pp. 88-122. I would like to thank Riccardo Prencipe for his help on the Missalis Pontificalis, and don Mario D'Elia and prof. Vincenzo Garzilli for granting me access to the manuscripts. 47 Thomas Forrest K elly, ‘La musica, la litur^a e la tradizione nella Salerno del dodicesimo secolo, in Salerno nelX I I secolo: istituzioni, società, c u I n A t t i del conoeno internazionale: Raito di Vietri sul M a re ,A u d ê to r iu m d iV lG u a r ig Iia ,iô /2 0 g iu g n o i,td .P ‫؟‬io\o D elogu & Paolo P edu to , Salerno, 2004, pp. 188-211. On Cam­ panian litur^cal traditions and the changes between the eleventh and twelfth centuries, see: Lucinia Speciale , Montecassino e la Riforma Gregoriana. L T hultet Vat. Barb. lat. 592, Rome, 1991% Nino Z chom elidse , ‘Der Osterleuchter im Dom von Capua: Kirchenmobiliar und L iturae im lokalen Kontext', in Mededelin' g en ‫دا‬aً nhetNed^erlan^d,sIn-se:ee^uute^eR^om^e١١5,\9 9 C p p .18-4V 48 M S C aponen . 7 ٠.Sacerd^os [_٠٠٠] ascenditmThmm pulpitum, ubi dicanturhec ^it،^nie(foi٠ ii8r-0); st،^di^^،^(^nt،s procedatadlegendum in maiori pulpito, et non pronuntiet cuiuslibet sit lectio sed sic incipiat ‘I n tribulatione suai [Osea, 6:1] (fol. I29r).

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219

49 MS Capone n. 7, fol. I32b‫؛‬v and 133V MS Capone n. 3, fol. I27r-I47r. Incip)itcomip^end,iosap^ronunt;iat;io^٠ ^ciiE^cclesiast;ici, secundum usum Salernitana Ecclesia, quam c^(^mii^^s bllis ‫ ة ا‬6‫ ة ى ﺳ ﺄ ح‬١١ Salernitanus Archiepiscopus, cum voluntate sui Capituli ordinavit (Ordinarium, MS Capone n. 7, fol. ir); Incipit O fc ii ecclesiastici secundum usum sanctae Salernitane Ecclesie, factum a c^(^mii^o R^omoo^ld^o venerabili Secund^o, Saler­ nitano archiepiscopo (Breviarium, MS Capone n. 6, fol. 49r). In the Ordinarium, two drawings depict litur^cal actions involving an ambo, without correspondence to the text (MS Capone n. 7, fol. 89v and ii7r). Significant differences between the monu­ ments represented could have been deduced by the ambos in the cathedral, but none of them can be considered an accurate reproduction. The drawings are rather a combination of elements taken from the two ambos. 52 MS Capone n. 3, fol. I27r-i47r. 53 The smaller ambo (minori pulpito) appears in the rubrics of the Missalis MS Capone n. 4 (c٠ 1431-34) during the litur^cal performance linked to Palm Sunday: Deinde pueri stantes supra minoripulpitocantentversum ^Gloria-, ^،^t،s^t!](^n(^rJM S Capone n. 4, fol. 99r), whereas the thirteenth-century Ordinarium reads: D mincie pueri stantes super numeri pulpito M S Capone n . 7١ fol. ii8v). I would like to thank Pascal Collomb for his most kind help in interpreting this passage of the Ordinarium and Elisa Brilli for her interest. 54 It was abandoned in i586 with the adoption of the Tridentine rite. 55 In modern times, the Guarna ambo was reduced to the platform for the exhibition of relics on solemn festivities, but it is indicated as the previous locus Epistole (‘the place for the Epistle') in 1579. Similarly, the bigger ambo is still called ambone Evangelii in 1615, see: Ba ld u c c i , ‘Prima visita pastorale', pp. 108-10; Marco A nto­ nio M a rsili C olonna , Constitutiones edita [...] in Diocesana synodo, Neapoli, 1580 p. 59; Visita pastorale of Archbishop Lucio Sanseverino, 1615, a d s , Visite pastorali e arcivescovi salernitani, cart. 23, fol. 7r. Later, with the adoption of the Tridentine rite, the smaller ambo was only connected with the relics, while the other one was used for both the Gospel and the Epistle in solemn celebrations. See the Relatio ad limina of Archbishop Alfonso Alvarez, 1679/80, copy of 1946 in: a d s , Capitolo Metropolitano, cart. 190, p. 3; M a zza , Historiarum epitome, p. 40. 56 English translation: ‘The archbishop Romoaldo and Chancel­ lor Matteo sent from Sicily in Italy a group of craftsmen chosen from amongst those who worked at the great basilica of Monreale'. 57 B ertaux , L ’a rt dans l ’Italie méridionale, pp. 495-508; quota­ tion on p. 505. 58 For a summary of the debate, see: Dorothy G lass , ‘Roma­ nesque Sculpture in Campania and Sicily: a Problem o f Method', in The A rt Bulletin, 56, 1974, pp. 315-24. 59 Xavier Barral i A ltet , Contre l ’art roman? Essai sur un passé réinventé, Paris, 2006. On Bertaux's ideological frame and methodological approach, see: Vinni L u c h e r in i , Bominaco e osservazioni sulle p ittu re d iS . P elecino a la lu c e d e le nuovescopertedeiSantiQuattroCoronatiAn IlMolisemedievale (acu o f the conference II Molisedai Norm anniagli Aragonesi, arte e archeologia, Isernia, 2008), ed. Carlo Ebanista & Alessio M o n c ia t t i , Borgo San Lorenzo, 2010, pp. 259-70. 5٥

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E l i s a b et ta Sc i r o c c o

60 G lass , ‘Romanesque Sculpture in Campania and Sicily'; Ga nd o lfo , La scultura normanno-sveva; G lass, Romanesque Sculpture in Campania. Recent studies on the crossroads of mosaics workshops between Salerno and Sicily contribute to dis­ perse the monolithic conception of the ‘influence' of a ‘style' from one area to the other: Ruggero L o n g o , ‘L'“opus sectile" nei can­ tieri normanni: una squadra di marmorari tra Salerno e Palermo', Vn Medioevo: le o n in e . Attidelconvegno internazionaledistudi, Parma, 22-27 settembre 2009, ed. Arturo Carlo ^ I n TAVALLE, Milan 2010, pp. 179-89. 61 On Romualdo II Guarna, see: Romualdi Salernitani Chronicon, ed. Carlo Alberto Ga ru fi , in Rerum Italicarum Scriptores [٠٠٠] Nuovaedizione r io e d u t^ m p li^ e c o r r e tta c o n ladirezionedi Giosuè Carducci & Vittorio Fiorini, vol. 7.1, Città di Castello, 1900, pp. III-X X ^V I; the essays in Romualdo II G uarna , Chronicon, ed. Cinzia B o n e t t i , Cava de' Tirreni, 2001; Massimo O ld o n i , ‘Guarna, Romualdo', in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, ed. Alberto M. G hisa lberti , vol. 60, 2003, pp. 400-03. 6‫ل‬ magistrumnotarium, d^omiui regis et ^amlliarem [/••YM^theushomoeratsapiensetdiscretus,et in aula regiaapueroenutritus,et inagendisregiisprobatefidelia inven­ tus ١ e e ٠.R^omiualtliSalern-itan-iC^hron-icon-١p.257. 63 Panarelli, ‘Matteo d'Aiello'. 64 T ro n zo , The Cultures ofHis Kingdom, p. 47. On the litur^cal installations in the Cappella Palatina, see: La Cappella Palatina a Palermo, ed. Beat Brenk , Modena 2010, pp. 466-70, 530-40 (texts by Francesco Gandolfo). The ambo in the Palatina is consi­ dered coeval (1170-90) to the Aiello ambo in Salerno, see also: T ro nzo , The Cultures o f His Kingdom, pp. 79-83. Like in the Cathedral of Cefalu, it was formed by a rectangular platform over a number of columns ranging from six to seven, located on the sou­ thern side of the nave. Recently, these monuments have been inves­ tigated by Francesco C a pit u m m in o , Gli amboni della Cattedrale diCefaluedellaCappellaPalatinadiPalermo. Ricomposizionee scomposizione: alla ricerca dell'unita M A th e A s ٠n\ CukuraVHeAtage, tutor Maria Andaloro, co-tutor Ruggero Longo, Viterbo, Università della Tuscia, 2012/2013). I thank Dr Capitummino for sharing with me the important results of his research. On liturgi­ cal installations in Sicily, see: Thomas C reissen , ‘Une historio­ graphie “passive": les clôtures de chœur dans les fondations royales A eSrcA eauH f AedeYvn Bulletinde lAssociationdelHistoriensde l ’a rt italien, 8, 2001/2002, pp. 58-68; Vladimir Z o r i C, ‘L'arredo liturgico fisso nelle chiese di età normanna: un aspetto trascurato dalla storiografia architettonica', in deliapolitica in S ic iia n e lX II secolotraBisanzioe rilla m .A ttid el convegnoin^t^ern^az,ion^^le,P^lern(o,I9^-20^î^rIle2c^c^7١eà. Matto R e & Cristina R o g n o n i , Palermo, 2009, pp. 85-124. ‫ ﻷ ة‬CappellamSanctiPetrTqueerat inPalat;io,miirablliniusiiiii^ecit picturadepingi,etejusparietespreciosimarmorisvarietatevestivit et eam ornamentis aureis et argenteis et vestimentis preciosis ditavit plurimumetornavit ١e e ٠R^omiu^ld,iSalern-it^an . ٠iC^hron-icon-25 .١‫ ؟‬A٠ Romualdo is here referring to William I's munificence (1151-54 to 1166), but the terminus ante quem for this decoration is offe­ red by a famous Philagato of Cerami ekphrasis (1153). See: Rug­ gero L o n g o , ‘The opus sectile Work of the Cappella Palatina in Pdermo ١ tn DieCappellaPalatina inPalermo:Geschichte,Kunst, ForschungsergebnissederRestaurierung١ M. Thomas D ittelba ch , Künzelsau, 2011, pp. 491-198.

66 The church became a cathedral in 1183. 67 Domenico-Benedetto G ravina , Il Duomo di Monreale illustrato eripo rtat o i n taoolecrom o-lit og rajich e١ voT 1١ Pak rmo ١ 1859, pp. 55-58; Torres's description was published under his secretary's name: Giovan Luigi L ello , Historia della chiesa di Monreale١ Rome, 1596, pp. 1-6. 68 G ravina , Il Duomo di Monreale, vol. 2. For the date of construction and consecration of the church and the cloister, see Thomas D ittelba ch , Rex imago Christi: der Dom von M onreale. Bildsp rach en und Zeremoniell i n Mosaikku nst ^ ^ d Architektur, Wiesbaden, 2003, pp. 121-33. 69 Gravina's reconstruction can be partly corrected on the basis of a plan of Monreale (1590) in the Archivio Segreto Vaticano published by Giuseppe Sc h ir O, ‘Il rilievo dell'abbazia del ‫ ذ‬590 ١ , ‫ ﻵ ا‬I l duom o d iM onreale. A rch itettu r a d il u cee icona, td . Aurelio Antonio B elfio r e , Palermo, 2009, pp. 231-41. On the choir screen and the ambo at Monreale, see also: Z o r i C, ‘L'ar­ redo liturgico fisso', pp. 113-19, and D itt elb a c h , Rex imago Christi, pp. 146-53. 70 Two lecterns were necessary at Monreale because this was the only ambo in the church. 71 The orignal height of the choir's wall at Salerno in 1180 (3.80 m) is fixed by the height of the connection with the Aiello ambo. 72 I suggest that the rectangular empty frames in the upper sec­ tion on the screen at Salerno ori^nally hosted porphyry slabs. 73 For the royal throne at Monreale, see: D ittelba ch , Rex imago Christi, pp. 142-46, 154-56. A stylistic comparison between the lion on the royal throne and the lions on the Guarna capital, less convincing in my opinion, has been proposed by Lorenza

CocHETTI P ratesi, ‘In m a rin e ad alcuni recenti studi sulla scultura medievale dell'Italia meridionale. II. Sui rapporti tra la scultura campana e quella siciliana', in 18, 1967, 2, pp. 126-50. For the different hypotheses on the sub-deacons group, connected to the capitals in the cloister of Monreale, Proven‫ ؟‬al sculpture, or one of the sculptors of the Guarna Ambo, see: B raca , Il Duomo di Salerno, pp. 179-81. 74 The capitals with cornucopias of the Aiello ambo could have been inspired by a similar Classical capital in the nave at Monreale, see: Braca , Il Duomo di Salerno, p. 182. It is not known if the ambo at Monreale had sculpted reading desks; one can suppose that the Gospel lectern included an eagle, as in the Cappella Palatina in Palermo and in the cathedral of Cefalu. 75 In a bull, Pope Lucius III mentioned the magnificence of the building and the rapidity in which the works were accomplished: B reoitempore Do min o m ultu m d igna ad mirationeconstri i t Y..] e tsacrisoestibus, et argento decoraoit, e t a uro., Y..] ett a utumaeedlj tciis, e t r ebusalisselU sloc um ip su m, utsim ile opusp er aliqu em R egu m factum ^(^nfuerit a- diek us anti q uis١ see. D it t e l b a c h ١ Rex imago Christi, pp. 126-27. 76 I am currently investigating the relationships between the Sicilian typology of ambos and Islamic monuments such as the dikkah. The first results were presented at the 49th International Conference of Medieval Studies (Kalamazoo, 8-11 May 2014), together with a digital, three-dimensional reconstruction of the choir screen and the porphyry ambo at Monreale developed with the help of Andrea Romano, which partly emends Gravina's reconstruction.

L i t u r g i c a l I n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e C a t h e d r a l o f Sa l e r n o

221

Romanesque Cathedrals in Catalonia as Liturgical Systems A Functional and Symbolical Approach to the Cathedrals of Vic, Girona, and Tarragona (Eleventh-Fourteenth centuries)* M arc Sureda I JuBANY

A b s tr a c t The essential fu n c tio n o f a church is to provide a physical setting for th e liturgy. Starting from this basic prem ise, this article studies th e original design o f th e prin cip al churches in three R om anesque cathedral complexes o f C atalonia, nam ely Vic, G irona, and T arragona, vis-à-vis th e liturgical uses o f th eir spaces and different altars. The aim is to determ ine th e e ^ e n t to w hich b o th arch itectu ral design and liturgical regulations were present in th e original conceptions o f these places o f episcopal, canonical, and parish worship.

P r e w is e : I C a t b e d r a l a s a ‘C elebratiw gM cccbirae’

In h is to r io g r a p h y m u c h a tte n tio n h a s b e e n g iv en to th e s e R o m a n e s q u e b u ild in g s , b u t o n ly re c e n tly h a s

A s i f a c tin g in c o lle ctiv e o b e d ie n c e to th e c e le b ra te d

a se rio u s in te re s t b e e n ta k e n in th e i r litu rg ic a l fu n c -

w o rd s o f R a o u l G la b e r, th e o v e rse ers o f th e O ld

tio n s .2 A lth o u g h n o t th e o n ly d e te r m in a n t f a c to r vis-

C a ta lo n ia

(E ln e , U rg e ll, V ic , G iro n a ,

à-vis th e f o r m a n d uses o f M e d ie v a l p la c e s o f w o rs h ip ,

a n d B a rc e lo n a ) a n d n u m e ro u s re g io n a l m o n a s te ­

c e le b ra tio n o f litu r g y o n a d a ily b a sis is w ith o u t

ries a n d c a n o n c o m m u n itie s e m b a rk e d o n a re n o v a ­

d o u b t th e p r im a r y re a s o n f o r th e ir v e ry e x iste n c e.3

c a th e d ra ls

t io n p ro g ra m m e d u r in g th e first h a l f o f th e e le v e n th

T h u s, ju s t as L e C o r b u s ie r d e s c rib e d th e h o u s e as

c e n tu ry , w h ic h le d to th e p r o lif e r a tio n o f a n a rc h ite c ­

p rim a rily a ‘m a c h in e à h a b it e r ’ ( a lth o u g h it c a n also

tu r a l style th a t Jo s e p P u ig i C a d a fa lc h d e fin e d a lm o s t

re fle c t a p a r tic u la r so c ia l s ta tu s a n d c e rta in tre n d s

a c e n tu r y ago as th e ‘F irs t R o m a n e s q u e a r t ’ (‘p re m ie r

a n d m o d e s in a rc h ite c tu re a n d in te r io r d e sig n ), so

a r t r o m a n ’). L a te r, d u rin g th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , th e m a in

to o m a y a M e d ie v a l c h u rc h b e s tu d ie d as a ‘m a c h in e à

c o rp u s o f U rg e ll c a th e d ra l w as re b u ilt a g ain , w h ile in

p r i e r ’ (‘p ra y in g m a c h in e ’) o r, b e tt e r still, a ‘m a c h in e

th e N e w C a ta lo n ia d io ce se s th a t h a d b e e n b r o u g h t

à c é lé b re r’ (‘c e le b ra tin g m a c h in e ’).4

b a c k in to th e C h r is tia n f o ld (L le id a , T a rra g o n a , a n d

U s u a lly

R o m an esq u e

c a th e d ra ls

have

to

be

T o rto s a ), n e w c a th e d ra l e n se m b le s w e re e re c te d t h a t

u n d e r s t o o d in th e w id e r c o n c e p tu a l f r a m e w o r k o f

w o u ld b e c o m p le te d in a sty le k n o w n as ‘tr a n s itio n a l’

‘K ir c h e n f a m ilie n ’ (‘c h u r c h fa m ilie s ’) . 5 N e v e rth e le s s ,

(i.e., b e tw e e n R o m a n e s q u e a n d G o th ic ) . T oday, th e

i t is tr u e t h a t th e m u lt i p l ic i ty o f p la c e s o f w o r s h ip

sees o f U rg e ll, E ln e , T a rra g o n a , a n d L le id a p re se rv e

in W e s te r n c a th e d r a l a n d m o n a s tic s e ttle m e n ts w as

th e ir R o m a n e s q u e b u ild in g s ; o n ly p a r ts are e x ta n t at

g ra d u a lly r e d u c e d b e tw e e n th e t e n t h a n d tw e lf th

G ir o n a a n d V ic , w h ile th e o rig in a l c o n s tr u c tio n s in

c e n tu r ie s , le a d in g to o n e o f th e c h u rc h e s u s u a lly

B a rc e lo n a a n d T o rto s a w e re c o m p le te ly s u b s titu te d

b e in g in c r e a s e d in size a n d c o m p le x ity .6 T h e c a th e ­

d u r in g th e la te M id d le A g e s.1

d r a l c o m p le x ’s m a in te m p le , h o u s i n g th e b i s h o p ’s

in M eèeïïA n e tm E u ro p ejch itectu re jR itM lin d U rkn C o n tex t ١ ecL byG em A oB oto % eYa.& Jus>t\niA . Y ‫؟‬:oes>en,Architectura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 223-241

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109574

th r o n e a n d th e c a n o n s ’ c h o ir, w a s u s e d f o r i m p o r ­

th e b is h o p , th e c a n o n s , th e m in o r c le rg y , a n d th e

t a n t e p is c o p a l c e le b ra tio n s , d a ily c h a p te r w o r s h ip ,

p a r is h f o lk . A l t h o u g h s o m e o f th e s e c u s to m a r ie s

a n d f o r p a r is h p u r p o s e s as w e ll. A n in c re a s in g

d a te f r o m th e f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f te e n th c e n tu rie s ,

n u m b e r o f a lta rs w e re to b e f o u n d in its in te r io r ,

th e c o n s e rv a tiv e n a tu r e o f l it u r g y e n a b le s u s to use

s o m e o f w h ic h w o u l d h a v e c o m e f r o m f o r m e r b u i l ­

th e s e so u rc e s , a lb e it c a u tio u s ly , to d e te r m in e th e

d in g s o f th e c o m p le x , w h ic h in t u r n c o n v e r te d th e

o r ig in a l f u n c ti o n s o f s p a c e s ." I n a n y case, th e m o s t

c h u r c h i n to

f r e q u e n tly q u o t e d so u rc e s are l is te d b e lo w in o r d e r

a s y n th e s is o f th e ‘K ir c h e n f a m ilie ’,

a b le to r e p r e s e n t k e y p la c e s in C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d

to a llo w q u ic k c h r o n o lo g ic a l v e r if i c a t i o n : 12

d if f e r e n t o rd e rs o f s a in ts as p a r t o f a m e t a p h o r f o r H e a v e n ly J e r u s a le m .7 T h e m u lt i p l ic i ty o f a lta rs w i t ­ h i n o n e c h u r c h is w e ll a tt e s t e d in th e W e s t a r o u n d

CVi =

C u s to m a ry

th e e n d o f th e e ig h th c e n t u r y in g r e a t C a r o lin g ia n

1 2 1 6 -1 2 2 8 :

fro m V ic ,

C a th e d r a l,

A r x iu

C a p it u l a r ,

s e ttle m e n ts s u c h as th e a b b e y o f C e n tu l a o r th e

m s. 134, e d . M iq u e l d e ls S. G r o s , ‘E l

p l a n o f S a in t G a ll. H o w e v e r, w h e re a s th e a lta rs in

L ib e r

th e s e p la c e s w e re d i s t r ib u t e d t h r o u g h o u t th e e n tir e

sie

del

fn

M is c e l-ld n ia

c h u r c h , b y th e t e n t h c e n tu ry , th e t e n d e n c y w a s to

canonge

uicensis

eccle­

A n d re u

S a lm U n ia ’,

L itu r g ic a

C a ta la n a ,

a f te r th e i n itia ls r e f e r to p a r a g r a p h s o f

th e a lta rs in sp e c ific l o c a tio n s s u c h as c ry p ts , r o t u n ­

th e e d it i o n .

d a s, a m b u la to r ie s , w e s tw o rk s , a n d in p a r ti c u la r a p ses in th e e a s t w a ll o f th e t r a n s e p t, w h ic h w e re

c o n s u e tu d in u m

V II, 1996, p p . 1 7 5 -2 9 4 . T h e n u m b e rs

re se rv e th e n av e f o r th e f a it h f u l 8 a n d to c o n c e n tr a te

C V 2a =

C u s t o m a r y f r o m V ic C a t h e d r a l , 1 4 4 7 ,

d e s ig n e d a c c o r d in g to th e n u m b e r a n d d i s t r ib u t i o n

p a rc h m e n t:

o f th e a lta rs r e q u ir e d in e a c h p r o je c t. S u c h s o lu tio n s

m s.

V ic ,

31/18,

A rx iu

C a p itu la r

u n p u b lis h e d ;

d e s c r ib e d

c a n b e d e te c te d b y th e t e n t h c e n t u r y t h r o u g h o u t

in A n t o n i PLADEVALL & J o s e p M .

W e s te r n E u r o p e , f o r e x a m p le , a t C lu n y II as w e ll as

P o n s i G u r i , ‘P a r tic u la r is m e s c a t a ­

a t S a n t M iq u e l d e C u ix à (S a in t- M ic h e l d e C u x a ),

la n s

a n d b e c a m e c o m m o n in F ir s t R o m a n e s q u e a r c h i­

X I I I - X V I I I ’, in I I C o n g rè s L i t u r g i c

te c tu r e , i n c lu d in g t h a t o f C a ta l o n ia . 9

d e M o n t s e r r a t ( I I L S e c c i ó d ’H is tò r ia ) ,

en

els

c o s tu m a r is

M o n ts e rra t, J o sé

‫ل‬A

d e ls

se g les

1967, n . X V I I , p .

N !,

145;

litU r g ic o s d e

O b je c tii,M e tb o ،lo lo g y ,،ilS o fc e s

la s b ib lio te c a s d e E s p a n a . II .

T h is a rtic le c o m p a re s th r e e R o m a n e s q u e c a th e ­

n . 87 3 , a n d M a r c SU RED A, ‘L a c a te -

C a ta lu n a y

V a le n c ia , B u rg o s ,

1980,

and

d r A d e V f c ’, vn A r q u i t e c t u r a y litu r g ia .

o rig in a l

Ell c o n te x to a r tis tic o d e la s c o n su e ta s

b u i ld i n g p r o je c ts o f t h e i r m a in b u ild in g s ( th e f ir s t

c a te d ra lic ia s e n la C o ro n a d e A^r^a^g^c^^,

tw o w e re c o n c e iv e d d u r in g th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry ,

ed.

th e t h i r d a r o u n d 1 2 0 0 ). C o m b in i n g a r c h a e o lo g i­

M a llo r c a ,

cal a n d a r c h i t e c tu r a l d a ta a n d th e a v a ila b le d o c u ­

n u m b ers

m e n t a ti o n , th is s t u d y fo c u s e s o n

p a g e s f r o m th e m a n u s c r i p t .

d ra ls

in

C a ta l o n ia ,

T a rra g o n a ,

a tt r i b u t i o n s

224

V ic

n a m e ly

p a r ti c u la r l y

G ir o n a ,

r e g a r d in g

th e

V ic ,

th e s y m b o lic

a n d litu r g ic a l u se s t h a t i n f lu e n c e d

C V 2b =

E d u ard o

CARRERO,

2014,

pp.

a f t e r th e

C u s to m a ry

fro m

P a lm a

3 9 5 -4 0 7 . i n it i a l s

V ic

th e c a th e d r a ls ’ la y o u t, a n d in c lu d e s a n a n a ly sis o f

i 4 4 7 , p a p e r : V ic , A r x i u

de The

r e f e r to

C a th e d ra l, C a p itu la r

c e r t a i n m o d if ic a tio n s m a d e to th e o r ig in a l d e sig n s

m s.

b e tw e e n th e e le v e n th a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s . W e

in

h a v e n o e x p lic it d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e s y m b o lic p r o ­

n . 8 7 3 - 7 4 , a n d SU R E D A , ‘L a c a te -

g ra m m e s o f th e s e b u i ld i n g s ,10 b u t p r e s e r v e d cu s-

d ra l

to m a r ie s (c o n su e ta , o r d in a r iu m ) te ll u s h o w th e s e

th e in itia ls re fe r to p a g e s fro m th e

b u ild in g s w e re ‘o p e r a t e d ’ b y d i f f e r e n t u se rs s u c h as

m a n u s c rip t.

M a r c SuREDA I JuBANY

3 i/i9 ,

u n p u b lis h e d ;

d e s c r ib e d

J A N IN I,

M a n u s c r ito s

litu r g ic o s ,

de

V i c ’.

The

n u m b ers

a fte r

CG =

C onsueta

a n tiq u issim a

G erundensis

C Ï2 =

C u s to m a r y f r o m T a rra g o n a C a th e d r a l,

sedis, c. 1360: G iro n a , A rx iu C a p itu la r,

CTi =

c.

1380:

B a rc e lo n a ,

B ib lio te c a

de

m s. 9, u n p u b lis h e d ; d e sc rib e d in Ja im e

C a ta lu n y a , m s. 276, u n p u b lis h e d ; d e sc ri­

l

l A N U E l , Viage literario d las iglesias

b e d in A m a d e o J . SOBERANAS LLEÓ , ‘U n

d e E s fa h a ,X I I ( V i a g e d U r g e ly d G erona),

m a n u s c rito T a rra c o n e n s e : L a C o n s u e ta

M a d rid , 1850, p . 2 0 9 ; P ladevall & P o n s ,

d e l A r z o b is p o X im e n o d e L u n a (1317­

‘P a rtic u larism e s catalans', n . X , p p . 141­

1327)’, B ib lio te c o n o m ia ,

4 2 ; J a n in i , M a n u sc rito s liturgicos, n. 4 8 6 ,

1960, p p . 3 7 -4 1 ; P l a d e v a l l & P o n s ,

a n d M a rc Su r e d a , ‘L a c ate d ra l de G iro n a ’,

‘P a rtic u la ris m e s c a ta la n s’, n . X I , p . 142

in A rq u ite c tu ra y litu rg ia , ed. CARRERO,

and

p p . 4 3 -5 5 . T h e n u m b e rs a fte r th e in itials

n . 4 2 9 , a n d M ASSIP & R IC O , ‘L a cate-

re fer to p ag es fro m th e m a n u sc rip t.

d ra l d e T a rra g o n a ’ T h e n u m b e rs a fte r

P a r o c h ia l a d a p t a ti o n o f a c u s to m a r y

th e

fro m

T arra g o n a

C a th e d r a l, c.

in itia ls

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51-52,

liturgicos,

re fe r to p a g e s f r o m

th e

m a n u s c rip t.

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Tarragona

litu rg ic o s, n . 345, a n d F ra n c e s c M A SSIP

C a th e d r a l ’s m a in sa c ris ty o fficer), 1369:

&

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ed. A n d ré s T o m A s A v i l a , E l culto y

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la litu rg ia en la c a ted ra l d e Tarragona

A r q u ite c tu r a y litu r g ia , e d . C A RRERO ,

(1 3 0 0 -1 7 0 0 ), T a rra g o n a , 1963. T h e n u m ­

p p . 3 0 1 -2 1 . T h e n u m b e r s a fte r th e i n i ­

b e rs a fte r th e in itia ls re fe r to p a g e s o f th e

tia ls re fe r to p a g e s f r o m th e m a n u s c r ip t.

e d itio n .

h -gh . I t e r

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‫ ا‬. ‫ ؛ « ا‬١‫بءﻟذا‬٠ ‫ءﻻ ل‬،‫ ه* ﻵ\ل‬١

circulalion of la y ^ o p la J٠١V‫؛‬H ( j p ‫ ؛‬i‫؛‬ir5 j ‫ ﻗ ﺔ‬٠ ‫ ﺀ‬٦‫ ة‬١‫ ﻟﻼ‬١‫ أ‬٠ ‫ق‬٠ ‫ ﻻ ذ‬٢‫ﻟﻼ‬

v a s t iS f i u m

arculalion ٠ f laypBop a wilh n lilurgical cornent

\‫أ‬١٦7‫ل‬0 ‫ أ‬١‫ أ ج‬١\ ‫ ا‬٠‫\ي‬١‫ﻵﺛﺎ‬

‫ إ‬. ‫ﺳ ﻮ‬

١ ‫؛ ﻫﻠ ﺞ‬

‫ \؟ﺀ ﻋﺎ‬٠ ‫ا ؟ ﺀ‬

Legenda to gro u n d plans 6 -9 , adapted from C lem ens K osC H (see also: plates section)

Romanes.

e

C a t h e d r a l s i n C a t a l o n i a as L i t u r g i c a l S y s t e m s

225

T h e fin al re su lts h av e b e e n re fle c te d in sim p le r e c o n ­

tw o c h u rc h e s p ro v id e d th e o n ly M e d ie v a l c a th e d ra l

s tr u c te d p la n s o f th e b u ild in g s as th e y m a y h av e

se ttin g s fo r sta tio n a l litu r g y in V ic (Fig. 2 ) . ‫ءإ‬

a p p e a re d d u rin g th e p e r io d u n d e r stu d y . A g ra p h ic c o d e a d a p te d f r o m w o rk s b y C le m e n s K o s c h 13 in d i­

T u o ^ e r y O S im ik r T h c h ite c tn la n a .

cates th e p o ss ib le uses o f th e v a rio u s sp aces o f w o rs h ip

L itu r g ic a lD e s ig n s

as w e ll as th e p o ss ib le c irc u its ( o r d in a r y a n d ritu a l) m a d e b y b o t h c le rg y a n d la y m e n a t d iffe re n t a p p ro x i­ m a te p e rio d s (cf. le g e n d a to th e g r o u n d p la n s ). T h e a lta r d e d ic a tio n s a n d o th e r sim ila r d e ta ils a p p e a r in th e c o r r e s p o n d in g leg e n d s.

D e s p ite th e s e re la tiv e ly d iffe re n t s ta r tin g p o in ts , h is ­ to r io g r a p h y h a s a lre a d y h ig h lig h te d th e i m p o r ta n t sim ila ritie s b e tw e e n th e re sp e c tiv e m a in R o m a n e s q u e c h u rc h e s o f S a in t M a r y in G ir o n a a n d S a in t P e te r in V ic. O u r k n o w le d g e o f th e se b u ild in g s ste m s m a in ly fro m a rc h a e o lo g y d u e to th e ir b e in g re p la c e d b y n e w

V ic ،ilG ir o n .: T iS is te r C ،ith e ،lr a .ls

c h u rc h e s in 1 3 0 0 -1 7 0 0 f o r G iro n a , a n d a r o u n d 1800 f o r V ic .17 B o th h a d a sin g le nave o f 11-12 m w id e t h a t

A n O u e r u ie u o fth e S ta tio ilS js te m s

o p e n e d o n to a tr a n s e p t; th e e a st e n d , w ith a m a in apse p r e c e d e d b y a larg e c h a n c e l bay, h a d f o u r s e c o n d a ry

A lth o u g h G ir o n a a n d V ic w e re b o t h e p isc o p a l sees,

apses in p a ra lle l, tw o in e ac h tr a n s e p t a rm .18 In te c h ­

th e d iffere n c e in im p o r ta n c e a n d a n tiq u ity b e tw e e n

n ic a l a n d a e s th e tic te rm s th e y b o t h c a n b e re la te d to

th e s e tw o u r b a n s e ttle m e n ts is re fle c te d in th e ir re s­

F irst R o m a n e s q u e a rc h ite c tu re , as is s h o w n b y th e ir

p e c tiv e sa c re d to p o g ra p h y . A s a R o m a n c ity f o u n d e d

re m a in in g b e ll to w e rs, b o t h o f w h ic h , in c id e n ta lly ,

in th e first c e n tu r y BC, G ir o n a h a d a n o ta b le c o l­

are se t a g a in s t th e n o r t h e r n tra n s e p t. T h e ir e le v a tio n s

le c tio n o f c h u rc h e s b y th e y e a r 1 0 0 0 . In a d d itio n to

m a y also h a v e s h a re d m a n y fe a tu re s, su c h as a sy stem

th e c a th e d ra l o f S a in t M a ry , th e re w as th e c h u rc h o f

o f s tr u c tu r a l a rch e s o n th e in te r io r face o f th e nave

th e m a r ty r S a in t F e lix (first b u ilt in th e f o u r th c e n ­

w alls, d o c u m e n te d in b o t h b u ild in g s a n d d e s ig n e d to

tu r y a n d p o ss ib ly th e first e p is c o p a l c o n s tr u c tio n in

s u p p o r t t h e ir o th e rw is e r a th e r d a rin g b a rre l v a u lts o f

th e c ity ), th e m o n a s te ry o f S a in t P e te r o f G a llig a n ts

a r o u n d 10 m w id e (F igs 3 & 5) . ‫وإ‬

( d o c u m e n te d b e fo re 9 5 0 ), its p a ris h c h u rc h o f S a in t N ic h o la s (d a te d to 1135, b u t w ith p r e c e d e n ts fro m la te A n t i q u it y a n d s tru c tu re s f r o m th e e le v e n th c e n ­ tu r y ) , a n d th e c h u rc h o f S a in t M a r tin S a c o sta (first m e n tio n e d in 898 a n d c o n v e rte d in to a c o lle g ia te c h u rc h in 1 0 6 4 ). T h e re w e re y e t m o re c h u rc h e s ;14 h o w e v e r, d u r in g th e c o u rse o f th e c a th e d ra l litu rg y , o n ly th e s e f o u r w e re v is ite d a t le a st o n c e a year, in th e p ro c e s s io n o f th e M i n o r L ita n ie s (c. 1360: C G , 7 3 r-v , 1 4 8 Ÿ 1 4 9 ) . T o g e th e r, th e s e c h u rc h e s m a y b e sa id to h av e f o r m e d a s ta tio n a l sy ste m (Fig. 5‫ ) ل‬. ‫إ‬ V ic , in c o n tra s t, s ta r te d as a m u c h sm a lle r s e tt­ le m e n t. B y th e e n d o f th e n in th c e n tu ry , a fte r th e

226

S ig n ific a n t d iffere n ce s b e tw e e n th e tw o p ro je c ts w e re d e te r m in e d b y fa c to rs su c h as th e c o n tr a r y d ire c ­ tio n o f th e slo p e (fa llin g to th e e a st a t V ic a n d to th e w e st a t G iro n a ), th e d iffe rin g im p o rta n c e o f p re c e ­ d in g b u ild in g s (decisive a t G iro n a , u n k n o w n a t V ic), a n d , finally, th e o p tio n s ta k e n in th e fin al d e sig n . A s a re su lt, th e b u ild in g a t G ir o n a h a d a n im p o s in g tw o -le ­ v e lle d w e s tw o rk a n d a tw o - to w e r s tr u c tu r e d façade (Fig. 4 ) , w h e re a s a t V ic a c ry p t w as a rra n g e d b e n e a th th e m a in apse a n d , to th e w e st, th e se p a ra te c h u rc h o f S a in t M a r y th e R o u n d (‘la R o d o n a ’) w as e re c te d . T he tw o c a th e d ra ls w e re also b u ilt a t a sim ila r p ace. W o rk a t G iro n a m a y h av e b e g u n a r o u n d 1010, w ith th e a rri­ val o f B ish o p P ere R o g e r, g iv en th a t in 1015 th e re is a

C a ro lin g ia n s h a d d e fin itiv e ly re ta k e n th e city, a n e w

re fere n ce to s ta n d in g w alls a n d ro o fin g . A t V ic , w o rk

c a th e d ra l e n se m b le w as a d d e d to th e e x istin g sm all

c a n n o t h av e s ta r te d b e fo re O lib a o f C e rd a n y a w as

c h u rch e s o f S a in t E u la lia a n d S a in t S a tu rn in . In th e

a p p o in te d b is h o p in F e b ru a ry 1018. B o th b u ild in g s

te n th c en tu ry , its d o u b le d e d ic a tio n to S a in t P e te r a n d

w e re d e d ic a te d in 1038, o n 31 A u g u s t a t V ic a n d o n

S a in t M a r y c o rre s p o n d e d to tw o se p a ra te p lac e s o f

21 S e p te m b e r a t G iro n a , a lth o u g h in b o t h cases w o rk

w o rs h ip , to w h ic h a c h u rc h o f S a in t M ic h a e l, se rv in g

c o n tin u e d t h r o u g h o u t th e e le v e n th c en tu ry .

as a n ep isco p a l b u ria l p lace, w as a d d e d ; h o w e v e r, o n ly

T h e d o c u m e n ts also rev eal sig n ific a n t sim ila ritie s

P e te r a n d M a ry w e re to b e re ta in e d in th e R o m a n e sq u e

in te rm s o f litu rg ic a l d e sig n . B o th c h u rc h e s w ere

r e c o n s tru c tio n a n d u p to th e e ig h te e n th c en tu ry . T hese

d e s ig n e d to c o n ta in se v e n a lta rs. T h e h ig h a lta r w as

M a r c SuREDA I JuBANY

Fig. 1. The churches o f G irona by th e year 1000: 1) Saint Mary, 2) Saint Felix, 3) Saint Peter o f G alligants, 4) Saint N icholas, 5) Saint M artin, 6) Saint M ary Puellarum , 7) Saint Genesius. L ight grey: n o t in cluded in the stational liturgy (draw ing author)

R o m a n e s q u e C a t h e d r a l s i n C a t a l o n i a as L i t u r g i c a l S y s t e m s

227

Fig. 2. The episcopal ensem ble o fV ic by 1040 (draw ing author)

228

Fig. 3. R estitu ted p lan o f Saint M a ry ’s in G irona. Grey: G o th ic building. D a rk Grey: Excavated structures. L ight grey: re stitu ted structures (draw ing au th o r) (Plate 21)

o b v io u sly p la c e d in th e m a in apse, w ith th e b is h o p ’s

O n th e b asis o f th e s e p r e c e d e n ts , n e w g ro u p s o f

th r o n e a t th e b a c k a n d th e c h o ir sta lls im m e d ia te ly to

d e d ic a tio n s w e re c re a te d to c o m p le te th e p la n n e d

th e w e st, in th e c h a n c e l bay.20 F o u r s e c o n d a ry a lta rs

s e v e n -a lta r d e sig n . T h e c a th e d ra l a t G ir o n a (Fig. 6),

w e re lo c a te d in th e tr a n s e p t (tw o in e ac h a rm , p r o ­

p re s id e d o v e r b y th e m a in a lta r o f S a in t M a ry , h a d th e

b a b ly h o u s e d w ith in p a ra lle l apses) a n d a six th w as

o ld a lta rs o f S a in t J o h n a n d S a in t M ic h a e l in its s o u th

p la c e d o n th e first flo o r in th e b e ll to w e r. T h e se v e n th

tra n s e p t, w h e re a s th e n o r t h a rm c o n ta in e d th e n e w

a lta r w as to b e f o u n d in th e c r y p t a t V ic , a n d in th e

o n e s S a in t A n a s ta s ia ( d o c u m e n te d in 1045) a n d S a in t

e le v a te d c h a p e l o f th e w e s tw o rk a t G iro n a .

A n d r e w ( d o c u m e n te d in 1177). T h e b e ll to w e r h e ld

A n e w b u ild in g w as n e e d e d th a t c o u ld c o n ta in a

th e a lta r o f S a in t B e n e d ic t (d o c . 1 1 7 0 -7 7 ). T h e a lta r

n u m b e r o f d iffe re n t altars, p rim a rily b ecau se several

o f th e H o ly S e p u lc h re , o r th e H o ly C ro ss , w as lo c a te d

se c o n d a ry altars h a d a lre a d y e x iste d in th e p re v io u s

in th e w e s tw o rk a r o u n d 1 1 0 0 - 0 6 a t th e la te st; first

c h u rch e s; t h a t is, th o se d e d ic a te d to S a in t M ic h a e l

m e n tio n e d in 1057, it is n o t im p o s sib le th a t it w as

( d o c u m e n te d in 993) a n d S a in t J o h n (d o c u m e n te d

first lo c a te d in th e b e ll to w e r c h a p e l, b e fo re th e

in 1008) in G iro n a , a n d to S a in t J o h n a n d S a in t Felix

w e s tw o rk w as fu lly c o m p le te d . A t V ic (Fig. 7 ), aside

( d o c u m e n te d in 985) in V ic. In th e c a th e d ra l o f V ic,

fro m th e m a in a lta r o f S a in t P e ter, th e o ld a lta rs o f

to o , th e re d u c tio n o f th e ‘K irc h e n fa m ilie ’ b y th e d e m o ­

S a in ts Felix, M ic h a e l, a n d J o h n w e re p la c e d in th e

litio n o f th e c h u rc h o f S a in t M ic h a e l ( d o c u m e n te d in

tr a n s e p t c h ap e ls, to g e th e r w ith th e n e w o n e o f S a in t

1009 as th e b u ria l p lace o f b ish o p s) also d e m a n d e d th e

B e n e d ic t ( d o c u m e n te d in 1032). T h e a lta r o f th e H o ly

re lo c a tio n o f its a lta r w ith in th e n e w c h u rc h o f S a in t

S e p u lc h re ( d o c u m e n te d in 1 0 9 0 ) w as s itu a te d in th e

Peter. S u ch d e d ic a tio n s w ere v e ry c o m m o n th r o u g h o u t

c h a p e l o f th e b e ll to w e r b e fo re b e in g m o v e d in 1212

th e C a ta la n a n d E u ro p e a n H ig h M id d le A g es.21

to a p o s itio n n e a r th e w e st façad e. F in ally , th e a lta r

M a r c SuREDA I JuBANY

Fig. 4.

R estituted draw ing o f Saint M ary at G irona (draw ing Jo rd i Sa g r e r a )

R o m a n e s q u e C a t h e d r a l s i n C a t a l o n i a as L i t u r g i c a l S y s t e m s

229

th e to p o lo g ic a l d is trib u tio n o f so m e k e y altars a n d th e litu rg ic a l n o tic e s fro m th e cu sto m a ries reveals th e p a r ­ tic u la r h ie ra rc h y a n d re la tio n sh ip s b e tw e e n th e altars a n d th e d iffe re n t n u a n ce s th a t c h a ra c te riz e d b o th p r o ­ jec ts; th a t is, th e ir p a rtic u la r ‘o p e ra tin g in stru c tio n s. A t V ic, th e a lig n m e n t o f S a in t P e te r ’s a n d S a in t M a r y ’s, w h ic h c re a te d th e basis f o r th is s e e ’s sta tio n a l litu rg y , h a d illu strio u s p re c e d e n ts in C a ro lin g ia n a rc h ite c ­ tu re a n d sig n ific a n t p arallels in o th e r p ro je c ts b y th e a b b o t-b ish o p O lib a .22 B u t th e m o st n o te w o rth y fea­ tu re o f O lib a ’s re sh a p in g is w ith o u t d o u b t h is desire to u n d e rlin e asp ects o f R o m a n litu rg ic a l to p o g rap h y . F irst o f all, th e m a in apse w as d e sig n e d to re p ro d u c e th e essential la y o u t o f S a in t P e te r ’s in th e V atican, th a t is, a h ig h a lta r ov er a c ry p t a lta r in confessione, b o th d e d ic a te d to P eter.23 In th e V ic c ry p t, th e e x ce p tio ­ n a l c o lle c tio n o f relics se n t to O lib a b y A rc h b is h o p R a ia m b a ld o f A rles o n th e o c ca sio n o f th e c a th e d ra l’s c o n se c ra tio n re d ressed th e la c k o f a n y h o ly c orpse.24 It is also p o ssib le th a t th e lo w e r a lta r w as u se d to read m o rn in g M ass fo r th e fa ith fu l b e fo re th e p a ris h a lta r o f S a in t N ic h o la s w as in sta lle d a t th e e n d o f th e nave a ro u n d th e y e a r 1100.25 R e g a rd in g th e o th e r m a in p o le o f th e c o m p le x , S a in t M a ry ‘la R o d o n a ’, it is im p o rta n t Fig. 5. Plan o f Saint Peter at Vic, 1781, w ith projected new chapels (courtesy o f the Arxiu i Biblioteca Episcopal de Vic)

to relate it n o t o n ly to th e c h u rc h o f th e P a n th e o n (o r S a in t M a ry a d M a rty re s) d u e to its c irc u lar p la n ,26 b u t also in litu rg ic a l te rm s to S a n c ta M a r ia M a io r because, as th e V ic cu sto m a ries in d ic a te , it p la y e d a p r o m in e n t

o f S a in t P e te r in confessione w a s p la c e d in th e c ry p t ( d o c u m e n te d in 1056). T h e d e d ic a tio n lists c o in ­ cid e a lm o s t ex actly : o n ly tw o a lta rs d iffer, th o s e o f th e S a in ts P e te r a n d F e lix in V ic , a n d A n d r e w a n d A n a s ta s ia in G iro n a . T h e c h o ic e s in G ir o n a , h o w e v e r, m ig h t h av e b e e n m o tiv a te d b y a d e sire to c o o rd in a te th e c a th e d ra l’s in te rn a l sa c re d to p o g ra p h y w ith th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d u r b a n s ta tio n a l sy ste m , w h ic h w as r ic h e r t h a n th a t o f V ic a n d in c lu d e d o th e r m a jo r c h u rc h e s d e d ic a te d to S a in t F elix (th e a n c ie n t m a r ­ ty r iu m o f th is s a in t) a n d S a in t P e te r (th e m o n a s te ry o f G a llig a n ts ). T h e d e sig n e r o f G ir o n a c a th e d ra l m a y th u s h a v e c h o se n e q u iv a le n t sa in ts w ith th e a im o f a v o id in g r e ite r a tio n a n d e n ric h in g th e h a g io to p o g r a p h y o f th e e p isc o p a l see.

role o n C h ristm a s Eve (X II/2 5 ) a n d C a n d le m a s (II/2 ) (C V i, 73 a n d 4 9 7 ) a m o n g o th e r M a ria n feasts. A lso, o n M a u n d y T hursday, th e C h ris m w as p re p a re d a n d k e p t a t th e a lta r o f S a in t J o h n (C V i, 261), a lm o st c ertain ly b ecau se in R o m e th is ritu a l w as c e le b ra te d by th e P ope in th e L a te ra n B asilica, as is n o te d in th e sa c ram en taries.27 T his se c o n d a ry a lta r a n d th o se o f S ain ts Felix a n d B e n e d ic t w ere all s itu a te d in th e tra n s e p t chapels a n d th u s easily accessible to th e fa ith fu l, w h o u se d th e m reg u larly fo r te s ta m e n ta ry o a th s th r o u g h o u t th e e le v e n th cen tu ry . T he a lta r o f th e H o ly S e p u lch re m ay have h a d sim ila r uses to th o se a tte s te d in G iro n a , p a r ti­ cularly c o n c e rn in g th e E a s te r d ra m a , as w e are a b o u t to see, a lth o u g h n o d ire c t p r o o f o f th is h a s su rv iv e d a t V ic. T h e w e s tw o r k a t G ir o n a is c le a rly o f O t t o n i a n a n d B u r g u n d ia n d e s c e n t in a r c h ite c tu r a l te rm s a n d

L o c a lN u a n c e s a n d O p e r a tin g ln s tr u c tio n s T h e stro n g sim ilarities in th e p la n s o f b o th ch u rch es,

230

r e ta in e d a s tr o n g C a r o lin g ia n in h e r ita n c e in te rm s o f th e litu rg y .28 Its h ig h c h a p e l w a s d e d ic a te d to th e

h o w ev er, d id n o t le a d to id e n tic a l litu rg ic a l so lu tio n s,

H o ly S e p u lc h re o r C ro ss a n d , sig n ific a n tly , w as u s e d

n o r are th e b u ild in g s fully id en tica l. T h e analysis o f

f o r th e c e le b ra tio n o f th e E a s te r S u n d a y m o r n in g

M a r c SuREDA I JuBANY

‫ ﺀ ﺀ ﻣ ﺂ‬١٠ ‫ أ ﻻ ا‬١ ‫ ل ي‬١٠ ‫\اأ‬

Fig. 6. D edications o f altars in Saint M a ry ’s at G iro n a by 1050-1170 (section and plan), a) Saint Mary, b) H oly Sepulchre, c) Saint A ndrew , d) Saint A nastasia, e) Saint M ichael, f ) Saint John, g) Saint B enedict (draw ing au th o r) (Plate 22)

M a ss a n d th e o t h e r S u n d a y m o r n in g M a sse s d u r in g

L a e ta r e S u n d a y ( C G , 4 3 ) c o r r e s p o n d to th e R o m a n

E a s te r tid e .29 M o re o v e r, it m a y also h a v e b e e n u s e d to

s u t i o n o n t k d a y a x S a n ta C r o c e in G e r w s a le m e .

stag e th e t r a d itio n a l E a s te r d ra m a s t h a t w e re e n a c te d

S im ila r in fe re n c e s c a n b e ta k e n fro m th e c h o ic e o f

u p to th e f o u r t e e n t h c e n tu ry .30 T h e litu rg ic a l d e sig n

tw o d iffe re n t d e d ic a tio n s f r o m th o s e a t V ic . T h e v ir­

o f th is p la c e m a in ly in v o k e d J e ru s a le m , b u t also m a d e

g in a n d m a r ty r S a in t A n a sta sia , d e sp ite b e in g c o m ­

a c le a r n o d in th e d ir e c tio n o f R o m e , g iv e n t h a t th e

p le te ly a b s e n t f r o m lo c a l tra d itio n s , w as p r e s e n t in

m o r n in g M a ss a n d s o le m n p ro c e s s io n s h e ld th e r e o n

th e sa c ra m e n ta rie s as a R o m a n s ta tio n f o r th e D a w n

R o m a n e s q u e C a t h e d r a l s i n C a t a l o n i a as L i t u r g i c a l S y s t e m s

231

a r o u n d th e o ld s e c o n d a ry a lta rs in th e c h u rc h ; t h a t is, S a in t M ic h a e l o n M o n d a y , S a in t A n a s ta s ia o n T u esd ay , S a in t A n d r e w o n W e d n e sd a y , S a in t J o h n o n T h u rsd a y , S a in t B e n e d ic t o n Friday, a n d S a in t M a ry o n S a tu rd a y a n d S unday. T hese sam e o ld a lta rs w ere th e o n ly o n e s to b e sp e c ific ally d e c o r a te d d u rin g L e n t, e v e n a r o u n d 1360, w h e n m a n y o th e r a lta rs a lre a d y e x is te d in th e n e w G o t h i c e a st e n d o f th e c h u rc h (C G , 3 9 r - v ; 8 i v - 8 i , 84V -85; 2 4 3 v ). T h is p r a c ­ tic e m a y h av e o r ig in a te d f r o m a n a tte m p t to im ita te , a g a in , th e m o v e m e n t o f th e R o m a n s ta tio n a l litu r g y d u r in g L e n t,32 a n d is also f o u n d in o th e r p lac es su c h as H ir s a u a n d C lu n y , in th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry , o r th e C a ta la n m o n a s te r y o f S a n t C u g a t d e l V allès, a r o u n d 1220. F u rth e rm o re , th e s e M asses, n o rm a lly c e le b ra te d b y th e Sacrista se cu n d u s o r th e clavarius, w h o w ere re sp o n sib le f o r p a s to r a l care in th e c a th e d ra l, w ere p ro b a b ly in te n d e d f o r th e la y p e o p le , w h ic h im p lies th a t n o p a r tic u la r a lta r w a s id e n tifie d as th e p rin c ip a l fo c u s o f p a ris h w o rs h ip .33

A C o m j fa t i u e C o n c l w s i o n In sp ite o f th e a fo re m e n tio n e d p a r tic u la r fe a tu res, th e c le a r sim ila ritie s b e tw e e n th e o rig in a l litu rg ic a l desig n s o f G ir o n a a n d V ic su g g e st t h a t th e sa m e t h o u g h t p r o ­ cesses h a d b e e n a t w o rk d u rin g th e ir m u tu a l c o n c e p ­ tio n . A t first sig h t, b o th c a th e d ra ls se e m to express Fig. 7. D edications o f altars in Saint Peter at Vic by 1 0 4 0 -9 0 . a) Saint Peter, b) Saint Peter in Confessione, c) Saint John, d) Saint Benedict, e) Saint Michael, f ) Saint Felix, g) H oly Sepulchre (drawing author) (Plate 23)

th e sa m e e le m e n ta ry ‘K irc h e n fa m ilie ’ in w h ic h several

M a ss a t C h ris tm a s . T h is p r o v id e d a v e ry g o o d re a s o n

A n a sta sia , th e la tte r a d d in g th e V irg in s), th e A n g e ls

to c e le b ra te th is M a ss o n h e r a lta r, a n d also m e a n t

(M ic h a e l), a n d th e C o n fe sso rs , A b b o ts , a n d M o n k s

o rd e rs o f sa in ts are re p re s e n te d : th e V irg in M a ry , o f c o u rse , fo llo w e d b y th e A p o stle s (P e te r o r A n d re w ), th e

t h a t A n a s ta s ia w as a g o o d a lte rn a tiv e to th e m a r ty r F elix in t h a t sh e h a d th e a d d itio n a l v irtu e o f e v o k in g R o m e . I t is n o t u n re a s o n a b le to s u p p o s e th a t a d o p ­ tin g th e a p o stle S a in t A n d r e w w as s im ila rly m o ti ­ v a te d , g iv e n th a t h is p o s itio n b e c a m e a n a lo g o u s to t h a t o f S a in t P eter. B y 1360, o n M a u n d y T h u rsd a y , th e C h r is m w as k e p t a t th e G o th ic c h a p e l o f S a in t M a r tin (C G ,

232

E v an g e lists

(Jo h n ),

th e

M a rty rs

(F elix

or

(B e n e d ic t). T h is se e m in g d esire to evoke d iffe re n t ty p e s o f sa in ts is m o re th a n ju s t a p le a s in g id ea: th e f o u r te e n th -c e n tu r y c u s to m a ry a t G ir o n a c o n ta in s a n a n c ie n t h a b itu d e a c c o rd in g to w h ic h m o r n in g M asses o n th e fe asts o f th e E v an g e lists w e re to b e c e le b ra te d a t th e a lta r o f S a in t J o h n , w h ile m o r n in g m asses fo r V irg in s s h o u ld b e sa id a t th e a lta r o f S a in t A n a sta sia (C G , 2 4 3v). In b o th p laces, m o re o v e r, th e H o ly S e p u lc h re o f Je ru sa le m w as e v o k e d in a n e le v a te d

50v), close to th e o ld lo c a tio n o f th e R o m a n e s q u e

sp ace e n d o w e d w ith its o w n a ltar, w h ic h a t G iro n a

apse o f S a in t J o h n , f r o m w h e re it w as still d is tr ib u te d

cam e to b e re fle c te d in a h ig h ly d istin c tiv e a rc h ite c ­

b y th e h e a d a r c h d e a c o n in t h a t la te p o i n t in tim e ;31

tu ra l ic o n o g ra p h y in flu e n c e d b y th e C a ro lin g ia n t r a ­

th is m ig h t h a v e a c o m m o n o rig in w ith th e p ra c tic e

d itio n . T h e o th e r m a jo r re fe re n c e p o i n t o f C h r is tia n

a tte s te d a t V ic. F inally, a t G iro n a , m o r n in g M a ss o n

w o rs h ip , th e c ity o f R o m e , w as ric h ly re p re s e n te d

fe ria l days d u r in g L e n t a n d O r d in a r y T im e r o ta te d

th r o u g h a m u ltip lic ity o f re so u rce s, in th e fo rm o f

M a r c SuREDA I JuBANY

a lta rs (P eter, A n a sta sia ), p ra c tic e s in a c c o rd a n c e w ith

B is h o p B e re n g u e r S u n ifre d d e L lu ç à , a t th e e ast

th e R o m a n s ta tio n a l litu r g y (i.e., th o se c a rrie d o u t a t

e n d o f th e n av e, a n d b e c a m e th e o r d in a r y p lac e

th e a lta rs o f J o h n a n d th e S e p u lc h re a n d th e itin e ­

w h e re m o r n in g o r p o p u l a r M a sses w e re c e le b ra te d

r a n t m o r n in g M asses in G iro n a ), a n d , p a rtic u la rly in

in t u r n b y th e tw o m in o r c lerics o r h e b d o m a d a r ii

V ic , in te n tio n a lly im ita tiv e a rc h ite c tu ra l se ttin g s (th e

re s p o n s ib le f o r p a s to r a l c are in th e c a th e d ra l.37 T he

h ig h c h ap e l w ith its c ry p t a n d th e ‘R o d o n a ’ c h u rc h ).

a lta r c a m e to b e p a r t o f a w id e r c o m p le x w ith th e

B o th litu rg ic a l sy ste m s c le a rly sh a re a c o m m o n o rig in ,

e x p a n s io n w e s tw a rd s o f th e e le v a te d c h o ir a r o u n d

a lth o u g h th e ir d iffe re n t e m p h a se s d e te r m in e d th e

1140, in re sp o n se to m o m e n to u s c h a p te r g r o w th in

p e rs o n a lity o f each.

te rm s o f re so u rc e s a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly , n u m b e r o f

T h e p re se n c e o f all th e s e a r c h ite c tu ra l a n d litu r g i­

in d iv id u a ls . T h is c o m p le x o f c h o ir sc re e n a n d p a ris h

cal c o n c e p ts in tw o d iffe re n t, b u t v e ry clo sely re la te d

a lta r, a lth o u g h v e ry c o m m o n in E u r o p e a n M e d ie v a l

b u ild in g s c a n p r o b a b ly b e a tt r i b u te d to th e in te lle c ­

c h u r c h to p o g ra p h y , h a s b e e n ra re ly d o c u m e n te d in

tu a l ‘e n to u r a g e ’ o f O lib a o f V ic , i f n o t d ire c tly to

C a ta lo n ia in a R o m a n e s q u e c o n te x t. In 1205, a f u r ­

O lib a h im se lf. O n th e o n e h a n d , h e w as u n q u e s tio ­

t h e r a lta r w a s a d d e d o n th e sa m e axis b e tw e e n th e

n a b ly re sp o n sib le f o r re s h a p in g V ic C a th e d r a l; o n

h ig h a lta r a n d t h a t o f S a in t N ic h o la s . D e d ic a te d

th e o th e r, it is n o t b e y o n d th e b o u n d s o f p o s s ib ility

to S a in t M a r y d e C o r o , th u s d u p lic a tin g th e d e d i ­

t h a t h e w as c h a rg e d w ith th e d e sig n o f th e n e w c a th e ­

c a tio n to M a r y a t th e ‘R o d o n a ’, it p r o b a b ly p la y e d

d ra l a t G ir o n a so m e e ig h t y ears b e fo re b y B ish o p

th e ro le o f a c h o ra l a ltar. I t w a s s o o n d e s ig n a te d

Pere R o g e r a n d C o u n te s s E rm e ss e n d a , w ith w h o m

w ith k e y f u n c tio n s in th e c a th e d r a l’s p u b lic litu r g y

h e h a d life lo n g close re la tio n s h ip s , w h ile h e w as still

(e.g., th e b le s sin g o f th e c a n d le s a n d m o r n in g M ass

o n ly th e a b b o t o f R ip o ll a n d C u ix à .34 W e s h o u ld n o t

a t C a n d le m a s ) , w h ic h is n o su rp ris e i f w e re c a ll th a t

fo rg e t th a t th e s ta r tin g d a te s o f b o t h p ro je c ts (c. 1010

th e n e w a lta r w a s c o m m is s io n e d b y C a n o n A n d r e u

a n d c. 1018) c o in c id e w ith O lib a ’s tw o d o c u m e n te d

S alm U n ia, w h o c o m p ile d th e C u s to m a r y o f V ic in

jo u rn e y s to R o m e . H e d o u b tle ss ly r e tu r n e d fro m th e

1215 (F ig. 8 ) . 3‫أ‬

s e c o n d o f th ese n o t o n ly w ith a d e e p e r k n o w le d g e

In a d d itio n to th e s e tw o im p o r t a n t a lta rs, fro m

o f th e p o n tific a l litu r g y a n d its fo rm u la e (w h ic h is

th e b e g in n in g o f th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry , a n in c re a ­

d e m o n s tr a te d b y th e c o n te m p o r a r y litu rg ic a l m a n u s ­

sin g n u m b e r o f c h a p la in c ie s w e re f o u n d e d in b o th

c rip ts h e p r o m o te d ) , b u t also aw are t h a t h e w as s o o n

V ic a n d G ir o n a ; th e c o r r e s p o n d in g n e w a lta rs w o u ld

to b e c o m e th e b is h o p o f V ic .35

b e lo c a te d in e v e ry av ailab le sp a c e in th e tra n s e p t a n d th e n ave. O lib a ’s sy ste m o f d e d ic a tio n s w as

E p iO o g w e:L tte ٣ M o ٠

s ig n ific a n tly a lte re d in 1212 w h e n th e a lta rs o f S a in t

tttioM S

B e n e d ic t a n d th e H o ly S e p u lc h re w e re m o v e d to T hese sy stem s re m a in e d in p la c e a t b o t h V ic a n d

o t h e r c h u rc h lo c a tio n s . A n e w a lta r d e d ic a te d to

G ir o n a fo r a t le a st tw o c e n tu rie s a n d s e rv e d th e n e e d s

S a in t P a u l re p la c e d t h a t o f th e h o ly A b b o t, w h ic h

o f th e ir u se rs w ell. M o d ific a tio n s w e re m a d e to e ach

w a s m o v e d to th e s o u th tr a n s e p t; w h ile th e b e ll to w e r

c h u rc h a t slig h tly d iffe re n t rates. A t G iro n a , th e p r o ­

c h a p e l p r o b a b ly r e m a in e d e m p ty a fte r th e S e p u lc h re

life ra tio n a fte r 1200 o f p riv a te a lta rs in d iffe re n t p a r ts

w a s re lo c a te d supra m ajores j a n u a s — p e rh a p s to a

o f th e c h u rc h , th e h ig h w e s tw o rk c h a p e l, a n d ev en th e

w e s te rn tr ib u n e o r h ig h c h a p e l o f w h ic h n o f u r th e r

c h a p te r h o u se , h a d n o e ffec t o n th e lo c a tio n s o f th e

d o c u m e n ta r y r e c o r d re m a in s .39 B y 1300, w ith o v er

sev en o ld a lta rs; h o w e v e r, o v e rw h e lm e d b y a n in c re a ­

tw e n ty a lta rs, th e R o m a n e s q u e c a th e d ra l r e ta in e d

sin g n u m b e r o f c h a p la in c ie s a n d n e w d e v o tio n s,

its a n c ie n t h ie ra rc h y m o s tly as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f p r e ­

a r o u n d 1300 th e c a th e d ra l n e e d e d a n e w G o th ic e ast

s e rv in g c e rta in a n c ie n t litu rg ic a l tra d itio n s ; a n d b y

e n d in w h ic h th e a lta rs c o u ld b e p r o p e r ly re lo c a te d .

1 4 0 0 O lib a ’s sy ste m h a d b e e n th r o w n c o m p le te ly o u t

N e v e rth e le ss , th e ro les p la y e d b y th e o ld se v e n a lta rs

o f k ilte r b y th e r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e m a in apse a n d

in th e p u b lic litu r g y r e m a in e d u n c h a n g e d a n d w ere

tra n s e p t, th e d is m a n tlin g o f th e e le v a te d c h o ir, th e

still clearly c o d ifie d in th e 1360 c u sto m a ry .36

re m o v a l o f th e c ry p t, a n d th e m o re o r less r a n d o m

A t V ic , in c o n tr a s t, m o re i m p o r t a n t r e n o v a tio n s

re lo c a tio n o f th e a lta rs lin k e d to th e se p lac e s, so th a t

are re c o rd e d . S h o rtly b e fo re 1100, a n a lta r d e d ic a te d

th e y b e c o m e d iffic u lt to d is tin g u is h f r o m th o se e re c ­

to S a in t N ic h o la s h a d b e e n in s ta lle d , p r o b a b ly b y

t e d b y p riv a te c o m m issio n s.40

R o m a n e s q u e C a t h e d r a l s i n C a t a l o n i a as L i t u r g i c a l S y s t e m s

233

w h ic h w e w ill n o w t u r n o u r a tte n tio n . O f all th ese c h u rc h e s, h o w e v e r, o n ly th e la s t th re e w e re clearly in te g r a te d in to T a rra g o n a ’s s ta tio n a l sy ste m as it is d e s c rib e d in th e c u sto m a rie s a n d th u s v is ite d d u rin g th e festiv als o f P a lm S u n d ay , P u rific a tio n , a n d th e R o g a tio n es ( C T 2 ,5 5 r - v ; C T 3 , 2 0 6 a n d 211).

lA rcb itectu la n d L itu rg ica lD esig n o ftbe M e è i l P r i i é l S e e : 11^71-^c. 1220 T h e in d is p u ta b le

c e n tre

o f th is sy ste m w as th e

c a th e d ra l o f S a in t T h ec la, w h ic h w as s ta r te d tw o c e n tu rie s a fte r th o se o f G ir o n a a n d V ic o n c e th e a rc h d io c e se a n d th e c a th e d ra l c h a p te r h a d u n d e r ­ g o n e a le n g th y c o n s o lid a tio n p ro c ess. In 1154, B e rn a t T o rt, a r c h b is h o p o f T a rra g o n a a n d Sa crista M a jo r o f G ir o n a c a th e d ra l, e n d o w e d th e c a th e d ra l c h a p ­ te r w ith th e n e c e ssa ry g o o d s a n d h a d its b a sic b u il­ d in g s c o n s tr u c te d o n th e n o r th e a s t c o r n e r o f th e u p p e r lev el o f th e o ld R o m a n p ro v in c ia l f o r u m . A t th is e arly p o in t, th e b is h o p a n d c o m m u n ity u se d th e R o m a n c o m p le x ’s o ld ax ial r o o m as th e m a in c h u rc h o f S a in t T h e c la ; f o r d a ily w o rs h ip th e y u se d th e c h a p e l o f S a in t M a ry , w h o s e e x ac t lo c a tio n h a s n o t b e e n e s ta b lis h e d (p e rh a p s th e e a st sid e o f th e c lo iste r).43 T h e su c c e sso r to B e rn a t T o rt, A r c h b is h o p H u g de C e rv e llo , m a d e p ro v isio n s in h is w ill o f 1171 f o r th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a n e w m a in c h u rc h w h ic h Fig. 8.

A ltar dedications in Saint Peter at Vic by 1220. a) Saint Peter,

b) Saint Peter in C onfessione, c) Saint John, d) Saint Benedict, e) Saint M ichael, f ) Saint Felix, g) Saint Sepulchre, h) Saint N icholas, i) Saint M ary de C o ro (draw ing au th o r) (Plate 24)

w as c o n tin u e d b y h is su c c esso rs G u ille m d e T o rro ja (1171-75) a n d B e re n g u e r d e V ila d e m u ls (1 1 7 5 -9 4 ). T h e p r o j e c t ’s a m b itio u s n a tu r e a n d d im e n s io n s w e re w i t h o u t d o u b t in te n d e d to re fle c t th e p r e s ­ tig e o f th e a rc h d io c e se . F o r a lo n g tim e , th e g e n e ra l

T i f iu lL i tf g i c a U r a d A r c h it e c ti il N e e d s o f،!.P rii،É lS ee

c o n se n su s h a d b e e n t h a t th e tr a n s e p t irre g u la ritie s (a b o v e all, th e sm a lle r w e s t a rm a n d th e u n s u ita b le lo c a tio n o f its ap se c h a p e l) i n d ic a te d t h a t th e c a th e ­

A n O u e r u ie u o fth e S ta tio ilS js te m

d ra l d e s ig n w a s in itia lly lim i t e d to th r e e apses, a n d la te r in c re a s e d to five. H o w e v e r, c lo s e r e x a m in a tio n

A s a R o m a n p ro v in c ia l c a p ita l, th e c ity o f T a rra c o in

234

su g g e sts t h a t th e o rig in a l d e s ig n a lre a d y in c lu d e d

L a te A n t i q u it y h a d a n u m b e r o f c h u rc h e s t h a t a p p e a r

th e five a lta rs; t h e y h a d c e r ta in ly n o t b e e n in te n d e d

to h ave b e e n u n i te d in o n e litu rg ic a l p ro c e s s io n b y

w h e n w o r k s t a r te d o n th e c lo iste r, b u t w e re su re ly

th e y e a r 7 0 0 .4 A fte r m o re th a n f o u r c e n tu rie s o f

se e n as d e sira b le f r o m th e m o m e n t w o r k s ta r te d o n

M o o r is h g o v e rn m e n t, th e r e tu r n C h r is tia n ru le b y

th e c h u r c h .44 I n d e e d , it is q u ite re a s o n a b le t h a t th e

th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y m e a n t th a t th e c o m p le x w as c o m ­

p la n n e r s o f th is g re a t a r c h d io c e s a n c h u r c h s h o u ld

p le te ly re s h a p e d a n d c o n s is te d o f n o fe w e r th a n sev en

h a v e w is h e d a tr a n s e p t w ith a t le a s t as m a n y a lta rs

c h u rc h e s (S a in t M ic h a e l ‘d e l P la’, S a in t S a lv a to r ‘del

as th e e le v e n th - c e n tu r y s u ffra g a n c a th e d ra ls o f V ic ,

C o r r a l’, S a in t L a w re n c e , S a in t P a u l, S a in t F ru c tu o su s,

G ir o n a , a n d U rg e ll; th e sa m e w as to o c c u r la te r a t

S a in t M a ry ‘d e l M ira c le ’, a n d S a in t T h e c la ‘la V ella’),42

L le id a w h e n its ‘S e u V ella’ w a s p l a n n e d a r o u n d th e

in a d d itio n to th e n e w m e tr o p o lita n c a th e d ra l, to

t u r n o f th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry .45

M a r c SuREDA I JuBANY

T h e re fo re , in f u n c tio n a l te rm s th e n e w c a th e d ra l w as re a d y f o r a rc h ie p is c o p a l a n d c a n o n ic a l litu r g y as s o o n as th e five o rig in a l a lta rs c o u ld f u n c tio n . W e k n o w t h a t th e y w e re d e d ic a te d , f r o m w e st to e ast, to S a in ts A u g u s tin e , M a ry , T h e c la (th e h ig h a lta r), J o h n , a n d P eter. T h e f o u n d in g o f tw o c h a p la in c ie s a t th e a lta r o f S a in t A u g u s tin e a r o u n d 1215 su g g e sts t h a t in s ta lla tio n h a d b e e n fu lly c o m p le te d b y th a t tim e (Fig. 9 ) . 6‫ ب‬D u r i n g th o s e sa m e d e c a d e s, th e h e ig h t o f th e r o o f o v e r th e c h a n c e l b a y a n d th e tr a n s e p t w as ra is e d , a n d th e first b ays o f th e n av es w e re b u ilt, a lth o u g h n o n e w s tr u c tu r e s w e re c re a te d f o r a lta rs. O n ly tw o a lta rs o t h e r th a n th e five a lre a d y lis te d are m e n tio n e d in a p a p a l b u ll f r o m 1259: t h a t o f S a in t F ru c tu o s u s , w i t h in th e a re a o f th e h ig h a lta r, a n d t h a t o f S a in t E liz a b e th , a p p a r e n tly in th e first b a y o f th e w e st aisle.47 A d d itio n a l w o r k c o n tin u e d in to th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry , b u t th e e sse n ­ tia l la y o u t o f th e c a th e d ra l h a d b e e n fix ed b y a b o u t 1200 a n d w o u ld h a r d ly c h a n g e , e x c e p t f o r w h e n th e c h o ir sta lls w e re m o v e d in to th e c e n tra l n ave in th e f o u r te e n th c e n tu ry . T h e o t h e r a lta rs a n d c h a p e ls t h a t w e re a d d e d o v e r tim e w e re th e re s u lt o f p riv a te i n i ­ tia tiv e s a n d th e re fo re n o t n e c e ssa rily r e la te d to th e c a th e d r a l’s e sse n tia l to p o litu r g ic a l f u n c tio n in g , b u t r a th e r w ith th e e m e rg e n c e o f c h a p la in c ie s in a m a n n e r

Fig. 9. D edications o f altars in Saint Thecla at T arragona by 1220. a) Saint Thecla, b) Saint Mary, c) Saint John, d) Saint A ugustine, e) Saint Peter, f) Saint Fructuosus (draw ing au th o r) (Plate 25)

t h a t o c c u r r e d s im u lta n e o u s ly t h r o u g h o u t E u ro p e . T h e lis t o f sa in ts to w h o m th e a lta rs w e re d e d i­ c a te d is th a t o f a v e ry s ta n d a r d ‘K irc h e n fa m ilie ’ a n d

ACoberentOjieratingSDist،!

d e m o n s tra te s a c e rta in la c k o f o rig in a lity . In p a r tic u ­

The

lar, d e d ic a tio n s to S a in ts M a ry , P e ter, a n d J o h n are

f o u r te e n th c e n tu r y c o n firm t h a t o n ly th e five o rig in a l

p r e s e n t (w e m ig h t e v en say ‘d e rig u e u r ’) in n e a rly

a lta rs w e re n e e d e d f o r th e b a sic cursus o f th e litu r g i­

a n y c a th e d ra l c o m p le x , a n d th e c h o ic e o f th e o th e r

cal y e a r a t T a rra g o n a c a th e d ra l. A n e x a m in a tio n o f

th re e a t T a rra g o n a c a n b e easily e x p la in e d : tw o o f

th e e n tra n c e s a n d p ro c e s sio n s b e tw e e n c h u rc h a n d

th e m (T h e c la a n d F ru c tu o s u s ) w e re m a rty rs re la te d

c lo is te r also reveals th a t c a th e d ra l w o r s h ip c o u ld h ave

to th e city, a n d th e o t h e r (A u g u s tin e ) w as th e s p iri­

ta k e n p la c e p e rfe c tly w e ll in th e s tru c tu re s d e sig n e d

tu a l f a th e r o f th e c a th e d ra l c a n o n s w h o fo llo w e d h is

a n d b u ilt b e fo re 1220, irre sp e c tiv e o f th e le n g th o f

ru le. S a in t P e ter, o f c o u rse , re p re se n ts b o t h th e a p o s t­

th e naves o r th e n u m b e r o f n e w c h a p e ls t h a t w o u ld

les a n d R o m e , a n d is th u s a p a r tic u la r ly i m p o r ta n t

b e p ro g re ssiv e ly in s ta lle d a lo n g th e sid es o f th e aisles.

th re e

c u sto m a rie s

th a t

su rv iv e

fro m

th e

title in a m e tr o p o lita n a n d p r im a tia l see.48 F u rth e r,

In v a lu a b le d a ta c o n ta in e d in th e c u sto m a rie s a tte s t

w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f M a ry , T h e c la , a n d F ru c tu o su s,

to h o w th e s e o rig in a l a lta rs a n d sp aces c o h e re d w ith in

n o n e o f th e d e d ic a tio n s re p e a t th o se a t o th e r a n c ie n t

a n o p e ra tin g sy ste m . F irs t o f all, th e re c o rd s are c lear

c h u rc h e s in th e city, p e rh a p s o u t o f a d e sire f o r sy m ­

re g a rd in g th e g e n e ra l sy m b o lic im p o r ta n c e o f th e o ld

b o lic h a rm o n y , a t le a s t d u r in g th e in itia l d e sig n , as w e

five a lta rs e v en in to la te M e d ie v a l tim e s w h e n sev eral

h ave se e n a t G iro n a . T h e a lta r to S a in t M a ry , o n th e

o th e rs e x is te d in th e c a th e d ra l; in 1369, th e d iffe re n t

o th e r h a n d , c a n b e u n d e r s to o d as a d ire c t le g a c y o f

w ays in w h ic h th e y w e re illu m in a te d re fle c te d th e

th e first o p e ra tin g c h a p e l, as c o n firm e d in th e d o c u ­

h ie r a r c h y o f th e feasts, w ith all five d e c o r a te d d u rin g

m e n t f r o m 1154.

th e so le m n itie s ( in p a r tic u la r o n M a u n d y T h u rsd a y ),

R o m a n e s q u e C a t h e d r a l s i n C a t a l o n i a as L i t u r g i c a l S y s t e m s

235

b u t o n ly th e th re e c e n tra l a lta rs (th e h ig h a lta r, S a in t

236

litu rg ic a l uses ra n p a ra lle l to th e M a ria n d e d ic a tio n o f

M a r y ’s, a n d S a in t J o h n ’s) illu m in a te d d u r in g th e le s­

th e a lta r, w h ic h its e lf w as e m p h a s iz e d b y o t h e r cele­

s e r feasts (C T 3 , 2 0 4 - 0 ‫ ؛‬f o r e x a m p le ; 2 0 8 ).49

b ra tio n s h e ld th e re su c h as th e N a tiv ity o f M a r y (C T 2 ,

T h e h ig h a lta r, d e d ic a te d to S a in t T h e c la , w as

73). N o n e o f th e s tu d ie d re c o rd s, h o w e v e r, m e n tio n s

o f c o u rse th e m a in site f o r e p is c o p a l a n d c a n o n ic a l

it as a p a ris h a lta r, w h ic h seem s to in d ic a te th a t, as in

w o rs h ip ; in d e e d , in 1226 it w as d e c re e d th a t o n ly

G ir o n a , in T a rra g o n a th e re w as n o t a p a r tic u la r a lta r

th e b is h o p a n d c a n o n s w e re p e r m i t te d to w o rs h ip

in te n d e d f o r th e p a ris h w o r s h ip .6‫ ؛‬T h e m a g n ific e n t

th e r e .0‫ ؛‬N e a rb y , in th e a p sid a l e n d , w a s th e b is h o p ’s

c lo iste r d o o rw a y , o p e n in g o n to th is c h a p e l, m ay have

th r o n e , s a id to b e t h a t ‘o f S a in t F r u c tu o s u s ’, w h ic h

b e e n u s e d f o r th e m o s t s o le m n o f p ro c e s sio n s o n ly ; it

m u s t h ave b e e n lo c a te d b e n e a th th e n ic h e d u g o u t

se rv e d , th e re fo re , as th e m a in e n tra n c e to th e c h u rc h

o f th e c e n tre o f th e w a ll w h e re th e re lic o f th e H o ly

(a n e sse n tia l sta tio in m o s t p ro c e s sio n s, e.g., t h a t o f

T h o r n w as a lm o s t c e rta in ly k e p t.1‫ ؛‬A n a r r o w c o r r id o r

th e d o m in ic a l a s p e rsio n ), g iv en th a t it w as n o t u n til

f r o m th e sa c ris ty lea d s d ire c tly to th e sp a c e w h e re

th e e n d o f th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu r y th a t th e c a th e d ra l

th e s e e le m e n ts (m a in a lta r, th r o n e , a n d re liq u a ry )

fin a lly h a d a s o u th e r n m a in e n tra n c e w i t h in a façad e

w e re lo c a te d a n d m u s t h a v e b e e n th e n o rm a l e n tra n c e

th a t a c c o rd e d w ith its p r im a tia l s ta tu s .7‫؛‬

f o r th e c e le b ra n t a t th e h ig h a lta r a n d h is a ssista n t cle ­

W e h av e o n ly th e s c a n te s t o f re c o rd s re g a rd in g th e

rics. F u r th e r s o u th , th e lo n g c h a n c e l b a y (so m e 12 m

f u n c tio n o f th e tw o o th e r o ld c h ap e ls. T h e c h a p e l o f

lo n g ) c o u ld c o m fo rta b ly a c c o m m o d a te th e c a n o n s,

S a in t A u g u s tin e m a y h a v e s e rv e d as a p la c e o f p ra y e r

w h o n u m b e r e d b e tw e e n tw e n ty -fiv e a t th e e n d o f

a n d d e v o tio n f o r th e c a n o n s re g u la r a n d th e scholares

th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y a n d t h i r t y a t th e s ta r t o f th e

w h o liv e d in th e c a th e d ra l p r e c in c t, a n d w as p e rh a p s

t h ir t e e n t h . 2‫ ؛‬T h e c a n o n s c o u ld e n te r th e c h o ir fro m

u s e d a t d iffe re n t tim e s fro m th o s e o f th e re g u la r c h o ir

th e c lo is te r t h r o u g h a s e c o n d , slig h tly w id e r, p assag e,

serv ices b e c a u se a p a ssa g e se e n in th e o rig in a l la y o u t

d ire c tly lo c a te d a t th e n o r t h e n d o f th e c h a n c e l b a y

c o n n e c te d th e e a st tr a n s e p t d ire c tly to th e clo ister,

a n d p a ssin g b e h in d th e ap se o f th e c h a p e l o f S a in t

th u s m a k in g it accessib le a t a n y tim e w i t h o u t th e

M a ry .3‫ ؛‬T h e a lta r o f S a in t F ru c tu o s u s m u s t h a v e b e e n

n e e d to d is tu r b o c c a sio n a l w o rs h ip a t o th e r p laces. In

lo c a te d so m e w h e re in th is sp ace b e tw e e n 1171 a n d

a n y case, in 1369 th e a lta r w as th e stag e f o r th e v e n e ­

I 2 9 ‫ ; ؛‬b y th e m id - f o u r te e n th c e n tu r y it w as b e h in d

r a tio n o f a c ru c ifix o r vu lp (p e rh a p s a V r o n ic a ) 8‫ ؛‬fro m

th e th e n -e x is tin g re re d o s, in th e a rea o f th e a p sid a l

th e e v e n in g o f M a u n d y T h u rsd a y u n til C o m p lin e o n

e n d (w h ic h w as b y th is tim e o f s e c o n d a ry im p o r ­

G o o d F rid a y (C T 3 , 2 0 8 - 0 9 ) .

ta n c e ) a n d in f r o n t o f th e b is h o p ’s th r o n e .4‫ ؛‬T h e re is

F in ally , re g a rd in g th e a lta r o f S a in t J o h n , o th e r

n o re c o rd , h o w e v e r, o f its p la u s ib le u se as a m a tu tin a l

t h a n th e u su a l c e le b ra tio n o f M o r n in g M a ss o n th e

a lta r (as su g g e ste d b y C a rre ro f o r th e a lta r o f S a in t

fe a st o f th e B e h e a d in g ( V I I I /2 9 ) (w h ic h in c id e n ta lly

M a r y in B a rc e lo n a C a th e d r a l) ; ‫ ؛؛‬it is p o ssib le f o r it to

p ro v e s th a t it w as d e d ic a te d to th e B a p tis t a n d n o t th e

h av e b e e n a c h o ra l a lta r lik e th e a lta r o f S a in t M a r y de

E v an g e list, a t le a st b y 1380 [ C T 2 , 7 2 ]) w e k n o w o n ly

Coro in V ic , a t le a st w h ile th e c h o ir sta lls re m a in e d in

th a t it w as th e s ta r tin g p o i n t f o r th e p ro c e s s io n to th e

th e c h a n c e l bay.

b a p tis m a l f o n t d u r in g th e s o le m n E a s te r V ig il ( C T i,

T h ere are re c o rd s o f tw o s e c o n d a ry a lta rs b e in g

I 7 - I 7 v ) . B y 1369, th e b a p tis te r y w as in s ta lle d in a c h a ­

u s e d f o r d iffe re n t c e le b ra tio n s a im e d p rin c ip a lly a t

p e l o p e n e d o n th e e a st sid e aisle, b e y o n d th e e n tra n c e

th e fa ith fu l. T h e C h ris tm a s D a w n M ass, w ith g e n e ra l

to th e c h o ir, w h ic h w as in th e m id d le o f th e nave

C o m m u n io n , w as c e le b ra te d a t th e a lta r o f S a in t P e te r

(C T 3 , 210). H o w e v e r, th e la te s t re se a rc h su g g ests t h a t

( C T 2 , 9 v ); a n d , in p a rtic u la r, th e a lta r o f S a in t M a ry

d u r in g th e first d e c a d e s o f th e c o m p le x ’s e x iste n c e th e

w as u s e d f o r i m p o r t a n t p o p u la r c e le b ra tio n s su c h as

b a p tis m a l f o n t w as lo c a te d in a n o ld R o m a n e x ed ra

M i d n i g h t C h ris tm a s M a ss ( C T i , 3v), M o r n in g M a s s o n

in th e n o r th e a s t c o r n e r o f th e c lo iste r.9‫ ؛‬G iv e n t h a t

E a s te r S u n d a y w ith g e n e ra l C o m m u n io n ( C T i , i8 v ),

th e b le ssin g o f th e f o n t in v o lv e d th e u se o f C h ris m ,

th e M a ss o n th e f e r ia I I in R o g a tio n ib u s ( C T 2 , 3‫ ؛‬v ),

a g o o d re a s o n f o r s ta r tin g th is p ro c e s s io n a t th e c h a ­

th e b lessin g o f th e c a n d le s a t C a n d le m a s ( C T 2 , ‫) ؛ ؛‬,

p e l o f S a in t J o h n w o u ld h av e b e e n t h a t th e oils w ere

a n d th e A d o r a tio n o f th e C ro ss b y w o m e n o n G o o d

k e p t th e re . I n d e e d , a c c o rd in g to th e 1369 c u sto m a ry ,

F rid a y ( C T i , i ‫ ؛‬v ; m e n d id th is b e fo re th e h ig h altar,

o n M a u n d y T h u rsd a y , th e oils w e re d is tr ib u te d in a n

C T 2 , 2 4 v ). It g oes w i t h o u t sa y in g t h a t m o s t o f th ese

u n s p e c ifie d c h a p e l p r o t e c t e d w ith a sc re e n (‘cap ella

M a r c SuREDA I JuBANY

e n re ix a d a ’), d iffe re n t fro m th e h ig h a lta r c h a p e l o r th e

E sq u ilin e H ill, w h e re a s J e ru s a le m w as m o s t lik ely

sacristy, th a t c o u ld w e ll h a v e b e e n t h a t o f S a in t J o h n

re p re s e n te d in th e c h a p e l in th e n o r t h to w er. A g a in s t

(C T 3 , 2 0 8 ). T a k e n as a w h o le , th is seem s to re fle c t a

th e s e re sp e c tiv e b a c k d ro p s , th e sa in tly d e d ic a tio n s

L a te ra n o rie n ta tio n , a lb e it w ith a s tro n g e r b a p tis m a l

o f th e apse c h a p e ls in th e tr a n s e p t re p re s e n te d th e

e m p h a sis, s im ila r to th a t f o u n d a t th e c a th e d ra ls o f

o rd e rs o f sa in ts. A t T a rra g o n a , a lm o s t tw o c e n tu rie s

V ic a n d G ir o n a , d e s ig n e d tw o c e n tu rie s earlier.

la te r, th e sc o p e o f th e p r o je c t r e m a in e d e sse n tia lly th e sa m e, a lb e it m o re lim ite d in c o m p le x ity ; re p re s e n te d in th e apse w e re M a ry , th e M a rty rs , a n d V irg in s, th e

C o n c lu s io n

A p o s tle s, th e P re c u rs o r, a n d th e F a th e r o f th e c a n o n s r e g u la r; p e rh a p s f o r th is re a s o n th e re w as less o f a n

D e s p ite th e ir c h ro n o lo g ic a l d iffere n ce s, it is c le a r

a tte m p t to d ire c tly e v o k e R o m e o r Je ru sa le m .

t h a t th e m a in b u ild in g s o f th e R o m a n e s q u e c a th e ­

I t is tr u e th a t th e 1171 in te lle c tu a l m ilie u o f t h e a rc h ­

d ra l c o m p le x es o f G iro n a , V ic , a n d T a rra g o n a c an

b is h o p a n d c a n o n s a t T a rra g o n a s h o u ld n o t b e c o m ­

b e u n d e r s to o d as fo rm s o f ‘K irc h e n fa m ilie n ’, o r sy n ­

p a r e d to th a t o f R ip o ll a n d V ic in th e la te t e n th a n d

th eses o f th e H e a v e n ly Je ru sa le m . A series o f sa in tly

e le v e n th c e n tu ry , f r o m w h ic h O lib a d r e w h is a r c h i­

d e d ic a tio n s w as e m p lo y e d to sy m b o lic a lly re p re s e n t

te c tu r a l a n d litu rg ic a l d esig n s. T h e p o litic a l c o n c e rn s

i m p o r ta n t p la c e s in C h r is tia n ity su c h as R o m e a n d

w e re also d iffe re n t, a n d , in te rm s o f th e b a sic re se m ­

J e ru sa le m , a n d v a rio u s o rd e rs o fs a in ts , b e g in n in g w ith

b la n c e , it is easy to b e lie v e th a t w h a t h a d b e e n , in th e

M a ry a n d c o n tin u in g w ith th e A p o stle s, E v an g elists,

e le v e n th c e n tu ry , in n o v a tiv e a tte m p ts a n d tr u e e la b o ­

m a rty rs , v irg in s, c o n fesso rs, a n d an g els, w ith a d iffe ­

ra te d e sig n s, b y 1200 h a d lo n g sin c e b e e n sim p lifie d

r e n t e m p h a sis a t e ac h c a th e d ra l. A t first sig h t, th e r e ­

a n d a d o p te d as s ta n d a r d p ra c tic e s w h e n c o n c e iv in g

fo re, a lth o u g h th e b u ild in g s are lo c a te d a t d iffe re n t

a c a th e d ra l c h u rc h . F u r th e rm o re , b y th e n th e se p r a c ­

p o in ts in th e c h r o n o lo g y o f C a ta la n R o m a n e s q u e

tices h a d to c o e x ist w ith o th e r c o n te m p o r a r y tre n d s

a r c h ite c tu re , th e y c a n b e c le a rly re c o g n iz e d as p a r ts

a n d n e e d s, s u c h as th e p r o lif e r a tio n o f p riv a te a ltars

o f th e sam e litu rg ic a l, te le o lo g ic a l, a n d c o n s tru c tiv e

a n d c h a p la in c ie s. H o w e v e r, in e ac h case, th e s u rv i­

m ilie u th a t c h a ra c te riz e d b o t h C a ta lo n ia a n d th e re st

v in g litu rg ic a l uses s h o w u s th a t th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d

o f E u ro p e d u rin g th e e le v e n th a n d tw e lfth c e n tu rie s.

sy m b o lic a l a ttr ib u tio n s w e re n o t m e re ly g e n e ric a n d

In g e n e ra l te rm s, th is is n o g re a t su rp rise , f o r th is w as

a b s tra c t id ea s, b u t r a th e r b r o u g h t to life d u r in g ritu a l

a n o r m a l a im o f e v e ry W e s te rn c h u rc h b u ild in g in th e

p ra c tic e s. In th e w o rd s o f C a r o ly n M a r in o M a lo n e ,

M id d le A ges. W h a t is n e w in th e p r e s e n t an aly sis o f

th e y e s ta b lis h e d c e rta in ‘q u a lita tiv e a n d sy m b o lic

th ese m o n u m e n ts , h o w e v e r, is th e s tu d y o f th e ir p a r t i ­

re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e litu r g y a n d th e sp aces in w h ic h

c u la r p e rs o n a litie s a n d , as fa r as p o ssib le , th e w a y th is

it w as c a rrie d o u t ’. 6. A fe a tu re p ro b a b ly c o m m o n to

sy ste m m a d e th e a lta rs w o r k to g e th e r in a c o h e re n t

all th re e p ro je c ts , n a m e ly th e a lta rs d e d ic a te d to S a in t

litu rg ic a l sch em e .

J o h n a n d th e ir u n e q u iv o c a lly R o m a n litu rg ic a l a tt r i ­

A t G ir o n a a n d V ic , a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e e le v e n th

b u tio n s , are g o o d e v id e n c e o f th is.

c e n tu ry , a d d itio n a l a lta rs w e re a d d e d to th o s e a lre a d y

T h e d iffe re n t p ro je c ts also e s ta b lis h e d sp ecific

e x istin g in o r d e r to a rriv e a t th e n u m b e r o f se v e n

re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e m a in b u i ld i n g ’s in te rn a l sys­

c o n te m p la te d in th e la y o u t o f th e n e w m a in c h u rc h

te m a n d th e s u r r o u n d in g e cc lesia stica l la n d s c a p e . T he

o f th e c a th e d ra l e n se m b le . F o r th is re a so n , it is c le a r

d e sire fo r so m e s o r t o f c o h e re n c e in th is sen se, d e s­

t h a t th is d e c is io n m u s t h av e b e e n ta k e n a t th e p o i n t

p ite th e d iffe re n c e s in e m p h a sis, is u n d e n ia b le a t le a st

w h e n e ac h b u ild in g w as c o n c e iv e d , a n d th a t it w as

w h e n th e m a in c h u r c h ’s in itia l litu rg ic a l d e sig n w as

also r e la te d to th e sp e c ific p la c e a ssig n e d to e ac h a lta r

e s ta b lis h e d .61 T h e b u ild in g a t G iro n a , w h o s e e v o ca ­

a n d title . In k e e p in g w ith c o n te m p o r a r y p re fe re n c e s,

tio n s w e re ric h e n o u g h in th e ir o w n rig h t, w as lin k e d

b o t h b u ild in g s in c o r p o r a te d d iffe re n t s tru c tu re s t h a t

to th e o th e r s ta tio n a l sy ste m c h u rc h e s w ith th e p r i n ­

w ere sy m b o lic a lly o r ie n te d in d iffe re n t m a n n e rs. A t

c ip a l a im o f n o t r e p e a tin g s a in tly d e d ic a tio n s (S a in ts

G iro n a , th e e v o c a tio n o fJ e ru s a le m w as lo c a te d in th e

F e lix a n d P e te r). In T a rra g o n a , d e sp ite re p e a tin g th e

w e s tw o rk a n d also h a d a litu rg ic a l c h a ra c te r clearly

a lta rs o f th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t lo c a l m a rty rs (S a in ts

r e m in is c e n t o f R o m e . In c o n tra s t, a t V ic , th e e a s te rn

T h e c la a n d F ru c tu o s u s ), f u r t h e r d e d ic a tio n s w ere

a n d w e s te rn m o s t p o in ts e v o k e d th e V a tic a n a n d th e

a d d e d (S a in ts P e ter, J o h n , A u g u s tin e ). In c o n tra s t,

R o m a n e s q u e C a t h e d r a l s i n C a t a l o n i a as L i t u r g i c a l S y s t e m s

237

a t V ic , th e te n d e n c y to w a rd s r e d u c tio n le ft o n ly a

a lta rs) fo r th e c a n o n s , a n d th e in s ta lla tio n s u s e d b y

p a ir o f c h u rc h e s, S a in t P e te r a n d S a in t M a ry , w h ic h

th e fa ith fu l, w h ic h w e re th e b a p tis m a l f o n t a n d a

to g e th e r w o u ld c o n s titu te th e t o w n ’s o n ly s e ttin g fo r

ra n g e o f a lta rs f o r c e le b ra tin g th e m o r n in g M asses

c a th e d ra l s ta tio n a l litu r g y u n til th e la te M id d le A ges.

a tte n d e d b y th e m a n d th e m in o r clergy. O n ly a t V ic,

I t is also in te re s tin g to n o te th a t, in all th re e cases,

a r o u n d 1100, d o e s a sp e c ific p a ris h a lta r a p p e a r; in th e

th e m a in c a th e d ra l b u i ld i n g ’s g r o u n d p la n c o m p ris e d

o th e r tw o p lac e s, o r d in a r y w o rs h ip w as p ro v id e d f o r

a n e ast e n d w ith five a lta rs. V ic a n d G ir o n a a d d e d

b y a p lu r a lity o f a lta rs u s e d o n d iffe re n t o c c a sio n s. In

m o re in a d d itio n a l s tru c tu re s (b e ll to w e rs, w e stw o rk ,

a w id e r sense, in n o n e o f th e c a th e d ra l c o m p le x es in

c ry p t) u p to a to ta l o f sev en , b u t th e g r o u n d p la n s

q u e s tio n d o w e f in d a s tr ic t d iv is io n o f e p isc o p a l a n d

o f t h e ir tra n s e p ts in e ffe c t c o n ta in e d five, w h ic h is

p a ris h f u n c tio n s b e tw e e n tw o d iffe re n t c h u rc h e s in

th e sam e n u m b e r as in T a rra g o n a . T h e ‘S eu V ella’ a t

th e c o m p le x .66

L le id a w as c o n c e iv e d in th e sa m e m a n n e r so th a t,

F in a lly , it is c le a r t h a t th e sy s te m s d e s c r ib e d c o r­

a c c o rd in g to th e la te s t re se a rc h , th e e le v e n th -c e n tu ry

r e s p o n d to th e b a sic f u n c tio n s o f e a c h c a th e d ra l in

c h u rc h o f S a in t M a r y in U rg e ll (th e m a in b u ild in g in

te rm s o f p u b lic , e p is c o p a l, a n d c a n o n ic a l w o r s h ip ,

th e c a th e d ra l c o m p le x c re a te d b y B ish o p E rm e n g o l)

w h ic h w a s c o n c e n t r a t e d o n th e s e o ld a lta rs , so m e

also h a d a n e a st e n d o f th is ty p e , c o m p le m e n te d b y

o f w h ic h , o c c a sio n a lly , w o u ld b e s u b s ti t u t e d ( t h is

a w e s tw o rk a n d p e rh a p s a c ry p t a n d a n o r t h e r n b e ll

w a s p r o b a b ly th e case w ith th e a lta r o f S a in t M a r t in

to w e r.62 C le a rly th e re w e re o th e r c a th e d ra l p ro je c ts

a t G ir o n a a r o u n d 1340, w h ic h m a y h a v e r e p la c e d

w ith d iffe re n t o rig in a l d e sig n s; le a v in g asid e c ry p ts

th o s e o f S a in t J o h n a n d th e H o ly S e p u lc h re f o r c e r­

a n d o th e r a d d itio n a l s tru c tu re s , w e c a n p o i n t to

ta i n c e le b ra tio n s ) . S o m e tim e a fte r th e s e litu r g ic a l

E ln e , R o d a d e Isâ b e n a , a n d , it se e m s, B a rc e lo n a as

p r o g r a m m e s w e re m a te r ia lly a n d f u n c tio n a lly d e te r ­

b u ild in g s w h e re a th re e -a p s e d e a st e n d w as c h o se n ,

m in e d , a n d p a r tic u la r ly d u r in g th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n ­

w h e re a s th e r e b u ild in g o f U rg e ll d u r in g th e tim e o f

t u r y ( a n d th u s c o n te m p o r a n e o u s w ith T a r r a g o n a ) ,

S a in t O t re s u lte d in a n a lig n m e n t o f se v e n a lta rs (as

th e p r o l if e r a t i o n o f c h a p la in c ie s a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly ,

a t S a in t M a ry o f R ip o ll), i f w e c o u n t th o se in s ta lle d

o f n e w a lta rs b e g a n to o b s c u re th e o p e r a tio n a l sy s­

o n th e tr a n s e p t to w e rs’ g r o u n d flo o r.63 H o w th e se

te m s e m b e d d e d in th e in itia l p r o je c ts . I f th is c a n

d iffe re n t m o d e ls c o e x iste d a n d w h a t th e y u ltim a te ly

b e s e e n in th e in te r n a l e v o lu tio n o f R o m a n e s q u e

s ig n ify re m a in s to b e s tu d ie d . R e g a rd in g th e cases

b u ild in g s t h a t la s te d f o r c e n tu r ie s ( s u c h as a t V ic ),

s tu d ie d h e re , a lth o u g h th e n u m b e r se v e n w as p re fe r­

it is, o f c o u rse , e v e n m o re n o tic e a b le in th e c a th e ­

r e d in m a n y sy m b o lic a l e v o c a tio n s o f th e p e r io d fo r

d ra ls

its a sso c ia tio n w ith th e g ifts o f th e H o ly S p irit,64 it

T o r to s a ) . G o t h i c a r c h ite c tu r a l tr e n d s a llo w e d f o r

seem s c le a r th a t a fiv e -a lta r d e sig n w as c o n s id e re d

n u m e r o u s c h a n t r y c h a p e ls to b e b u i lt a n d t e n d e d

su ffic ie n t o r d e sira b le fo r a m a in c a th e d ra l b u ild in g ,

to o rg a n iz e d if f e r e n tly ( i f n o t d ilu te ) th e v isu a l a n d

aro u n d

1300

(B a rc e lo n a ,

G ir o n a ,

e v en a p r im a tia l o n e . It is w o r th n o tin g th a t, u n lik e

s p a tia l a p p e a ra n c e o f p u b lic c a th e d ra l w o rs h ip .

in a m o n a s te ry , th e n u m b e r o f c a th e d ra l c h u rc h

N e v e rth e le s s , th e o ld litu r g ic a l p ra c tic e s , as c o d i ­

a lta rs d id n o t re fle c t th e n e e d s o f th e c o m m u n ity in

fie d in th e c u s to m a rie s , m a n a g e d to lea v e b e h in d

te rm s o f s a c e rd o ta l d u tie s: m a n y c a n o n s , p a rtic u la rly

e v id e n c e o f th e p r e c e d in g litu r g ic a l d is p o s itio n b y

in se c u la r c h a p te rs su c h as th o s e a t G ir o n a a n d V ic ,

re s e rv in g c e r ta in f u n c tio n s f o r th e o ld a lta rs , e v en

w e re n o t o r d a in e d p rie s ts , th e o r d in a r y M asses b e in g

i f th e s e n o l o n g e r p la y e d a c e n tr a l ro le in th e n e w

sa id b y th e m in o r clerg y .6‫ ؛‬C o n s e q u e n tly , th e re c a n

a r c h ite c tu r a l o r g a n iz a tio n . H o w e v e r, th e d e e p e r

b e scarcely a n y d o u b t th a t, p a rtic u la rly in a p rin c ip a l

f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f th e litu r g ic a l sp a c e w a s b y th e n

c a th e d ra l c h u rc h , th e n u m b e r o f a lta rs a n d th e c h o ic e

u n s to p p a b le , a n d m o s t o f th e o ld h ig h M e d ie v a l

o f d e d ic a tio n s h a s to b e m o s tly r e la te d to th e a fo re ­

u se s, b o t h litu r g ic a l a n d s p a tia l, w e re to b e e ra s e d

m e n tio n e d s y m b o lic a l a n d litu rg ic a l in te n tio n s .

238

r e b u il t

a fte r th e C o u n c il o f T re n t. Y et th e la y o u t o f th e

L ik e w ise , th e s e th re e c a th e d ra ls, a lo n g w ith o th e r

M e d i te r r a n e a n G o t h i c c h u rc h e s , in d e e d , is a f a i t h ­

c o m p a ra b le b u ild in g s , p o sse sse d th e in n e r s tr u c ­

fu l e x p o n e n t o f a q u ite d if f e r e n t c o n c e p t o f l i t u r ­

tu re s a n d fittin g s sp e c ific ally n e e d e d b y th e d iffe re n t

g ic a l sp a c e f r o m t h a t w h ic h p r e v a ile d w h e n R a o u l

g ro u p s o f u sers: n a m e ly th e th r o n e a n d h ig h a lta r fo r

G la b e r w r o te a b o u t th e w h ite m a n tle o f c h u rc h e s in

th e b is h o p , th e c h o ir sta lls ( a n d o c c a sio n a lly c h o ir

th e e a rly e le v e n th c e n tu ry .

M a r c SuREDA I JuBANY

NOTES

6 This process has led to the popular and simplified notion of the cathedral as a solitary building. However, such a misconception is easily countered by complexes such as that at La Seu d'Urgell, where the number of churches actually increased over time, see: ibidem. 7 Günther Band m an n , ‘Früh- und hochmittelalterliche Altar­ anordnung als Darstellung', in Das erste Jahrtausend, vol. I, Düsseldorf, 1962, pp. 400-01; Friedrich MObiu s , ‘Die Chor­ partie der westeuropäischen Klosterkirche zwischen 8. und 11. Jahrhundert: Kulturgeschichtliche Voraussetzungen, litur^scher GA>ra.uck١ sozÀ a kF ikt\o n An ArcbitekturdesMittelalters.Funk' tion und Gestalt, ed. Friedrich MO bius & Ernst Schubert , Wei­ mar, 1984, pp. 9-41; C arrero , ‘La arquitectura medieval', esp.

* This study includes results from the research projects OrganizuciOnuucionuldelosespuciosen sed^esepiiscop^ulesd^elaC^ut^uluUaV ieja(I):Seud’UrgellGironayVic (s.IX-XII^.And-liristecuol(i' ^icosyd^ocu^n^euta,eesd^ea^rqu.itectu^ra-y proramasAsuales M ln B terio de Ciencia e InnovaciOn. HAR2009-13211, subprograma A RTE) and C^at^ed^r^lesromìduicusenla‫^ أ‬ro‫ا‬rً iuciaeclesidst;icat^ar^ ra^coueuse (s.X I-X III): proramasAsuales, litU^r^iaya^rqu.itectu^raen Tarrugona, Rodu de Isdbenu, Huescu, Zurugoz^a y PampIoM (Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad. HAR2012-32763), both headed by Gerardo Boto at the University of Girona. This study has the support of the Research Team in Buildings and pp. 84-97. MedievalReligiousStuges ^n theCrownojAragon (ref. 20! a SGR 8 Friedrich M öbius & Helga Sc iu r ie , Symbolwert e mittelalter110, acknowledged by the Government of Catalonia), which is licher Kunst, Leipzig, 1984, pp. 26-89. also headed by Gerardo Boto. I would like to express my gratitude 9 For example ١ Carol U T I , L ’arcbitecture religieuse caroliuto Miquel dels Sants Gros, Ramon Ordeig, Rafel Ginebra, Lluis gienne. Les formes et leursfonctions, Paris, 1980, p. 180; m Obiu s , Obiols, César Garcia de Castro, and Gerardo Boto for their help ‘Die Chorpartie der westeuropäischen Klosterkirche', pp. 38-41; and advice during the preparation o f this article. K u b a c ^ , Arcbitettura romauicu, pp. 295-9C Ba n g o , E d ji' 1A recent approach, with bibliography, can be found in Gerardo cios e imagenes medievales, pp. 32-37; Anselme D avril & Éric Bo to & Marc Sureda , ‘Les cathédrales romanes catalanes: pro­ Pa l a z z o , Laviedesmoinesuutempsdesgrandesubbuyes ,ParR ١ grammes, liturgie, architecture', in Saint-Michel 2000, pp. 217-31; regarding the spread of east ends with parallel Cuxa, 44, 2013, pp. 75-89. apses, see: Isidro G. Bango ToRViso, ‘La part oriental dels 2 The first definition in litur^cal terms ofthe westworks of several of temples de l'abat i bisbe Oliba', in these Catalan buildings can be found in Francesca EspaNol , ‘Mas­ 23-24, 1988, pp. 51-66. sifs occidentaux dans l'architecture romane catalane', in Les Cahiers 1 0 Such as the homily composed by the monk Garsies around 1040 de Saint-Michel de Cuxa, X ^ I I , 1996, pp. 57-77; also important regarding the aforementioned abbey at Cuixà (Cuxa), which had are the more recent studies by Eduardo C arrero , which will just been rebuilt by the Abbot-Bishop Oliba with a quasi-am­ be cited frequently in the following and among which the most bulatory to the east and an imposing westwork. See: Eduard important, in terms of their discussion of Catalan cases, are: ‘La J u n y e n t (ed)), Dipiomatari i escrits literaris de i bisbe arquitectura medieval al servicio de las necesidades litUr^cas. Los Oliba, Barcelona, 1992, pp. 369-86; for a topoliturgical interpre­ conjuntos de iglesias', in A naks de(extraordinary tation of the chapel of the Trinity in the westwork according to issue), 2009, pp. 61-97; Eduardo C arrero , ‘La Seu d'Urgell, el this text, see: Daniel C o d in a , ‘La chapelle de la Trinité de Saint Ultimo conjunto de iglesias. Litur^a, paisaje urbano y arquitecMichel de Cuixà (Cuxa). Conception théologique et symbolique tura', in Anuario de EstudiosMedievales, 40-1, 2010, p. 251-91; and, d'une architecture singulière', in more generally, Eduardo C arrero , ‘Cathedral and Liturgy in the Cuxa, X X ^ ^ , 2005, pp. 81-88. Middle Ages: the Functional Definition of Space and its Uses, in “ Forexample.CarolHEiTZ ١R^echerchessurlesr^p^p^ort:seutTearcb-H dsA rtiu m M ed iev u liu m ,29١ 2٠ !١١pp.،Y0 ١-i6>. tectureetliturgied l ’éî^oquecar.lin^^ien^n^e١ ParR١ r96١١ pp. ١5_١9 3 This obvious fact apparently needs no further explanation, but and 189-200, and more recently: Jürgen Bä rsch , ‘Raum und it has often not been given sufficient consideration. It does, howe­ Bewegung im mittelalterlichen Gottesdienst. Anmerkungen zur ver, feature in some syntheses and manuals, such as Hans Erich Prozessionslitur^e in der Essener Stiftskirche nach dem Zeugnis Kubach , Architettura romanica, Milan, 1972, pp. 195-98; Isi­ des Liber ordinariusvom Ende des 14. Jahrhunderts', in dro C .B a n g o F o rv is o , Edjiciose imdgenesmedievales.Historiu R aum .A rcbitektur,K ugundL iturgie inmittelufterlicbenKutbe^ y signijcado de lasformas, Madrid, 1995, pp. 24-42; Paolo P iva, dralen und Stiftskirchen, ed. Franz Ko h lsch ein & Peter W üN­ ‘Lo “spazio litur^co": architettura, arredo, iconografia (secoli sch e , Münster, 1998, pp. 163-86. IV-XII)) in L ’arte medievale nel contesto, Milan, 2006, pp. 141-80 12 Bibliography on the published manuscripts is omitted. (141-44); and C arrero , ‘Cathedral and Liturgy) pp. 406-07. 13 For example, Clemens K o sc h , Kölns romanische Kirchen, 4 L e C orbusier , Urbanisme, Paris, 1925, p. 219; the application Regensburg, 2000. to Medieval churches was made in a popularizing manner by 14 Marc Sureda , ‘L'Església a la Girona medieval', in Gerardo Boto, see: Carles G o r in i , ‘Màquina de resar) in medieval. La clau del regne, Girona, 2014, pp. 29-58. de Girona-Dominical, 7 February 2010. 15 As the term is used in John Francis Bald ov in , S. J., The Urban 5 Edgar L ehm ann , ‘Von der Kirchenfamilie zur Kathedrale. C h n c te ro fC h risia n L itig y u R o m e ,2987. Bemerkungen zu einer Entwicklungslinie der mittelalterlichen 16 Marc Sureda , ‘Saint Pierre de Vic au XIe siècle: la cathé­ F aukisxV rn V o n d erK irch e n fiilie zu rK Athedraleundandere Aufsätze, Berlin, 1999 [1962], pp. 21-39; recently with many drale de l'évêque Oliba', in In Locis Compet entibus, ed. Nicolas Catalan examples: C arrero , ‘La arquitectura medieval' and R eveyron & Stéphanie-D. D aussy, Paris, with bibliography C arrero , ‘La Seu d'Urgell', pp. 279-80. (in press).

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17 The cathedral of Vic was excavated around 1940 by Eduard Junyent; the results were published posthumously by Xavier Bar ral I A ltet , La catedral romanica de Vc, Barcelona, 1979. The cathedral at Girona was excavated in 1998; see: Pere Freixas , Josep M. N olla , Lluis Pa la h I, Jordi Sagrera & Marc S ured a ١ Redescobrir la seu romànica.. Els resultatsde larecerca delprojecte Progress, Girona, 2000; Marc Sureda , Els precedents del a catedralde sa nta M a ria deGirona. D el a plaça religiosa del fOrum rom a alc onjun t arqu itectonicde la seu romànica (segles I aC 'X IV dC ) (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Girona), esp. Ch. III; accessible at www.tdx.cat. 18 Marc Sureda & Pere Freixas , ‘Esglésies de nau Unica en el primer romànic català. Continultats i ruptures en l'arquitectura m eA dtonAAn Els C^omaacini i !Arquitectura a Catalu­ nya, Girona & Barcelona, 2010, pp. 61-76. 19 Marc Sureda , ‘Sobre les naus Uniques de la catedral de Girona', ٠n t E l gotic mi^٢'idi(^^،:ll cattala: cases, esglésies i palaus ١ e i PA^r G ir Aldez & Màrius Vendrell , Barcelona, 2009, pp. 103-39; Marc Sureda , ‘Cartographies d'une disparition. Plans anciens de la cathédrale romane de Vic', in Le plaisir de l ’a rt du Moyen Age. Comm a nde^roductoonttréceptoonde l ’o e ir e d ’art. M llanges offerts à Xavier Barral i Altet, Paris, 2012, pp. 384-93. 20 Information regarding the bishop's thrones at Vic and Girona is provided in Francesca E spa No l , ‘L'àmbit presbiteral i el cor en els edificis romànics Catalans', in A rt i liturgia a lOcc ident med ie­ val . V III col loqui i I col l oqui internacional, B^rceKnA ١ 2008،, pp. 31-34. However, we believe that the choir stalls in both buil­ dings were more likely situated in the chancel bay, and not at the semi-circular section of the apse in the manner of an Eastern synthronon. In both buildings, by the end of the eleventh century, the clergy numbered little more than twenty individuals: Sureda , Els precedents, pp. 534-35; Marc Sureda , ‘La catedral de Vic a les darreries del segle XIV. Edició i comentari de la visita pastoral de 1388( in Miscellania Liturgica Catalana, 18, 2010, p. 334. 21 For example, the clear funerary implications of the cult of Michael (Miquel dels S. G ros , ‘La funcionalitat litUr^ca de les esglèsies dTgara’, in Simposi Internacional sobre les Esglésies de Sant Pere de Trrassa, Terrassa, 1992, p. 81), the presence of dedi­ cations such as John and Felix have led to speculations on the possible specific functions of these altars or spaces in the afore­ mentioned pre-Romanesque ensembles (baptismal for Saint John, martyr's cult for Saint Felix, see: C arrero , ‘La arquitectura medieval', pp. 72-73), although we have not been able to find any conclusive evidence for this. In any case, in the new Romanesque buildings, these altars were relocated as simple secondary altars and, if endowed with specific functions, these were not the same as those proposed for the previous period, as we shall see below. 22 For example, the Carolingian and Romanesque cathedrals of Cologne, although the positions are reversed, with Peter to the west and Mary to the east, see: Ko sc h , Kölns romanische Kirchen, pp. 14-17. 23 It should be borne in mind that the preference in other eleventhcentury Catalan churches with crypts (Cardona, Olius, Àger) was for altars dedicated to different saints on each level. Sureda , ‘Saint Pierre de Vic au XIe siècle ' (in press). 24J unyent (ed .) ١ Diplomatari i escrits literaris, p. 222; Chris­ tian Sa pin , ‘L'autel, son rôle et sa place dans la crypte', in Espace

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ecclésial et liturgie au moyen âge, ed. Anne Baud , Lyon, 2010, pp. 331-46. 25 A ferial Mass was also celebrated on the confessio altar at the Vatican in the eleventh century, although it was probably not intended for the faithful. Sible de Blaauw , Cultus et Decor. Lit urgia e a rchitettur a nella R o m a tardoantica emedievale, Vati­ can City, 1994, pp. 592-94. See also: Sureda , ‘La catedral de Vic a les darreries', p. 344 and 355; Sureda , ‘Saint Pierre de Vic au XIe siècle'; Sureda , ‘Clero, espacios y liturgia en la catedral de Vic: la iglesia de Sant Pere en los siglos XII y XIII', in Medievalia, 17, 2014, pp. 289-303. 26 For example: Xavier Barral I A ltet , ‘D u Panthéon de Rome à Sainte-Marie la Rotonde de Vic: la transmission d'un modèle d'architecture mariale au début du XIe siècle et la politique “romaine" de l'abbé-évêque Oliba', Les Cahiers de Sai nt -M ichel de Cuxa, 37, 2006, pp. 63-75. 27 J o h m Peter K ir s c h ١ D ieSt ationsk irch en desMissale Rom anum, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1926, p. 213; Sible de Blaauw , Cultus et Decor, p. 148 and 187; Sureda , ‘Saint Pierre de Vic au XIe siècle' (in press). 28 Studied for the first time in E spa No l , ‘Massifs occidentaux', pp. 72-77. 29 Sureda , Els precedents, pp. 239-86; Marc Sureda , ‘A rchitec­ ture autour d'Oliba. Le massif occidental de la cathédrale romane de Gérone', in Les Cahiers de Saint-Michel de Cuxa, XL, 2009, pp. 221-36. This practice was held there until 1318. 30 Marc Sureda , ‘Sobre el drama pasqual a la seu romànica de Girona. Arquitectura i litUr^a (ss. X L X IV )) in Liturgica Catalana, ^ I , 2008, pp. 105-30. Around 1360 the sepulchrum for the staging of these dramas had already moved to the Gothic chapel of Saint Martin, closer to the new high altar. 31 Marc Sureda , ‘Ut corpus sit conformis novo capiti. El pas de la capçalera a la nau en la construcció de la catedral gòtica de Girona', in St ud ium Med ievale, III, 2010, pp. 284-88. 32 K ir sc h , D ie Stationskirchen, pp. 49-215; Bald ov in , The Urban Character, pp. 161-64. 33 Marc Sureda , ‘A rquitectura i litUr^a a la catedral romànica de Girona (ss. X LX IV )) in E l Brodat de la Creació de Girona, ed. Rebecca Swanson & Carles M a n c h o , Barcelona (in press); Marc Sureda , ‘The Sacred Topography of Girona Romanesque Cathedral ( ‫ ﻟ ﻬﻠ ﻞ‬-‫ ل‬2‫ ﻟﻪ‬centuries): Architectural Design, Saintly Dedi­ cations and Litur^cal Functions', in Materiay acción en las catedrales (s. IX -X III): construir, decorar, ceeeb i ١ e i Getardo Boto ^ rela & César Garc Ia de C a stro , Oxford (in press). The movement at Sant Cugat (Efrem E. C o m pte , E l costumari del monestir de Sant Cugat del Vallès, Barcelona, 2009, pp. 128-29) is cited along with that of Girona in Eduardo C arrero , ‘El altar mayor y el altar matinal en el presbiterio de la Catedral de Santiago de Compostela. La instalación litUr^ca para el culto a un apOstol', n TerThorio,S o ciedad yPo der١ 8١ 2٠ 242. ١١‫ ؟‬. 34 This hypothesis was formulated after studying the westwork at the cathedral of Girona: Sureda , ‘A rchitecture autour d'Oliba', pp. 235- 36. 35 Anselm M . A lb a r e d a ١LMba t Oliba,u n d ador deM ontserrat ١ Montserrat, 1931, pp. 103-12; Raimon D A badal , L a b at Oli ba, bisbe de Vic, i la seva època, Pamplona, 2003 [1948], pp. 73-85; Xavier Barral I A ltet , ‘Culture visuelle et réflexion archi-

tecturale au début du XIe siècle: les voyages de l'abbé-évêque 52 Villanueva , Viage literario, 19, p. 80. Oliba. 2e partie: les voyages à Rome et leurs conséquences', in Les 53 See: B o to , in this volume. CabiersdeSaint'MicheldeCuxa ,X V I ,201 ٠ ,pp.222-2(‫>؛‬. 54 C apdevila , La Seu de Tarragona, pp. 40-41. As at Lleida, 36 Marc Sureda , ‘Altars, beneficis i arquitectura a la seu de where the altar of Saint Anne was installed in the area converted Girona (c)9y-2y22)V\n A m i s tie r d T h s t u d i s Gironins, AS١ into the sacristy: M a c i A, ‘Santa Maria de Lleida', p. 147; Fit E, 2004, pp. 667-78; Sureda , ‘Ut corpus sit conformis١ pp. 284-88. ‘LitUrgia i cultura', pp. 99-100; Eduardo C arrero , ‘La sacristia 37 Attested, at least, in the fourteenth century, see: Sureda , ‘La catedralicia en los reinos hispanos. Evolución topografica y tipo catedral de Vic a les darreries', p. 344 and 355. arquitectOnico', in Lino, 11, 2005, pp. 50-51. 38 Sureda , ‘Clero, espacios y liturgia', pp. 279-320. 55 Eduardo C arrero , ‘La catedral de Barcelona y la litur^a', in 39 The existence of which is conjectured by E spa Nol in: ‘Massifs Arquitecturay l iturgia, ed. C arrero , pp. 19-20. occidentaux', pp. 70-72. 56 The cathedral, in any case, was for a long time the only parish 40 Sureda , ‘Clero, espacios y litur^a', pp. 309-14. church of the city. We know that even in 1590 the only two per­ 41 Cristina G odoy & Miquel dels S. G ros , ‘L'oracional hispànic petual curates in the city were clerics of the cathedral, although de Verona i la topografia cristiana de Tarraco a l'Antiguitat Tarthe source (that year's ad limina visit) does not specify if they dana: possibilitats i limits', in yrena52, 1994, pp.were P 245-58. attached to any particular altar. The ad l im i na visits of all 42 Salvador Ram on , ‘Nova opinió sobre l'emplaçament de la primi­ the Catalan dioceses have been transcribed by j. M. M a r g e s tiva catedral de Tarragona', in Quaderns d ’Histdria Tarraconense, 4, i Planagum A and can be accessed at http://www.arxiuadg.org 1984, p. 37; Catalunya Romànica, XXI, Barcelona, 1995, pp. 116-20. [consulted 10-04-2014]. It is clear, however, that by then pastoral 43Jaime V il la n u e v a ١ Viage literario a las iglesias de Espana ١ care of the parishioners took place inside the cathedral, because vol. 19, Madrid, 1850, pp. 100-01; San‫ ؟‬C apdevila , La Seu in 1572 part of the old refectory was turned into a new chapel de Tarragona, Tarragona, 1935, p. 37; Eduardo C arrero , ‘La (that of the Eucharist) so that laypeople did not have to enter the topografia claustral de las catedrales del Burgo de Osma, Sigüenza cathedral at night in search o f the via ticum (C apdevila , La Seu y Tarragona en el contexto del Tardorromdnico hispano', in d e Tarrag(>na, p . s ‫)>؛‬. cabecera de la catedral calceatense y el tardorromanico hispano, 57 The magnificent south entrance had long since been in place by Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 2000, pp. 399-400. 1369. It was decorated by Master Bartomeu and in front of it the 44 See the article by Gerardo Boto in this volume. sacrament of penance and reconciliation was administered by the 45 The altars in the east end at Lleida were dedicated from north bishop: CT3, 207. to south to Saint Antoninus, Saint James, Saint Mary (the high 58 This has been recently and credibly proposed by M assip & altar), Saint Peter, and Saint Michael. See: Montserrat M a ci A, R ic o in ‘La catedral de Tarragona', p. 314. ‘Santa Maria de Lleida (la Seu Vella) [dades histOriques]', in 59 Gerardo B oto & Esther L o za no , ‘Les lieux des images his­ CatalunyaRomànica ١ X X I X ١ 2997, pp. 244-47., Vranctsc Fi t E, toriées dans les galeries du cloître de la cathédrale de Tarragone. ‘LitUr^a i cultura a la Seu Vella de Lleida', in Une approche de la périodicité de l'espace et de la topographie du retrobada, Lleida, 2003, pp. 99-100. The parish priest at Lleida tem p‫؛؟‬, in Cah iersdeC Vnlisation Medievale,5(2٠ 2‫>؛‬, ١, p . ١ 6١. cathedral was the first chaplain of Saint Peter's altar, at which 60 Carolyn M a rin o M a lo n e , Sain t-Bénigne de Dijon en la n he regularly celebrated — from at least 1372 — the morning or mil, totius Galliae basilicis mirabilior. Une interpretation poli­ ‘dawn' Mass for the people. Ibidem, p. 120, n. 157. tique, l iturgique et théologique, Turnhout, 2009, p. 147. 46 C apdevila , La Seu de Tarragona, p. 13. This seems to coincide 61 Both in the cases studied here and in others, in Catalonia with Emili Morera's hypothesis (1904) that full worship began at particularly that of Urgell as designed in the eleventh century: the cathedral during the pontificate of Aspàreg de la Barca (1215­ C arrero , ‘La Seu d'Urgell', pp. 285-86. 1234): Catalunya Romànica, XXI, pp. 122-23. 62 If this is the case, it would have followed a very similar pattern 47 C apdevila , L a Seu de Tarragona, pp. 9-14. to that used at Vic and Girona and, therefore, the building work 48 It is also worth noting that an ancient church dedicated to Saint carried out by Oliba, see: B oto & Sureda , ‘Les cathédrales Peter in Tarragona, long since fallen into disuse, is mentioned in romanes catalanes', pp. 83-84. a twelfth-century source: G odoy & G ros , ‘L'oracional hispànic 63 In terms of numbers, the two altars at the base of the towers may de Verona'. However, this seems not to have been a significant rea­ have replaced those formerly located in two hypothetical struc­ son for the choice of this dedication in the new cathedral. tures of the eleventh-century building (westwork and crypt), but 49 As we have seen, a similar phenomenon is noticeable at Girona rejected for the twelfth-century reshaping. Ibidem, p. 84. where in spite of the new Gothic architectural frame existing by 64 Garsies de Cuixà explains that the church from 974 has seven altars 1360, the old altars retained their original dignity. corresponding to the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. This has been 50 C apdevila , La Seu de Tarragona, p. 14. It should be recalled emphasized by, among many others, Bango , ‘La part oriental', p. 53. that a similar prohibition was issued in Vic in 1388: Sureda , ‘La 65 C arrero , ‘La sacristia catedralicia', p. 50. catedral de Vic a les darreries', p. 354. 66 Unlike Tarragona and Vic, at Girona, there were three churches 51 According to the will of Archbishop Roderic Tello, recorded with parochial functions, each serving its own parochial district in 1303: Ra m o n , ‘Nova opiniO', pp. 40-41; E spa No l , ‘L'àmbit (Saint Mary, Saint Felix, Saint Peter/Nicholas), see: Sureda , presbiteral', p. 32. ‘L'Església a la Girona medieval', pp. 49-51.

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V

Visual D iscourses and IcoNOGAPHic Programmes

A New Interpretation of the Thirteenth-Century Capitals of the Ancient Cathedral of Lleida (‘Seu Vella’)* Francesc Fit E I F eevot

A b s tr a c t This article surveys w h e th er th e figurative capitals th a t decorate th e M edieval cath ed ral o f Fleida were p a rt o f an iconographic program m e — C hristological a n d /o r hagiographic. Based o n previous studies, ou r in te rp re ta tio n departs from view ing the program m e as a w hole th a t was perfectly organized in its initial stage, and subsequently altered th ro u g h o u t the lengthy building process th a t to o k place betw een th e years 1203 and 1278. Furtherm ore, we un derline th e im p o rtan ce o f the M arian trad itio n and th e presence o f some iconographic novelties such as th e portrayal o f th e Second C o m in g o f C hrist, w hich heralds th e fo rth co m in g G o th ic style.

I n tr o d u c tio n

F a c o s te 7 su g g e ste d

T h e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e M e d ie v a l c a th e d ra l (‘S eu V ella’) 1 o f F le id a to o k p la c e f o r a lm o s t a h u n d r e d years a n d in v o lv e d a la rg e series o f c a p ita ls in w h ic h a p e rfe c tly d e v e lo p e d ic o n o g ra p h ic p ro g ra m m e c a n b e clearly o b se rv e d , a t le a s t in its first p h a s e .2 T h is a rtic le is b a s e d o n p r i o r s tu d ie s , f r o m th e p io n e e r in g w o rk b y J o a n B e rg ó s3 to th e s tu d ie s b y Ja c q u e s F a c o s te ,4 F ra n c esca

E s p a h o l,‫؛‬

and

J o a q u in

Y arza,6 w h ic h

a p ro g ra m m e

e m p h a s iz in g

th e m a rty rs a n d th e ra is in g o f th e sa in ts, a n d c a rrie d e x p lic it re fe re n c e s to th e m o s t fa m o u s e p iso d e s in th e ir le g e n d s, a c c o m p a n ie d b y so m e o f th e m ira cles o f C h r i s t w h o c o m p le te s th e tr iu m p h a n t im a g e o f th e sa in ts. F a c o s te ’s d is s e rta tio n o rig in a te d a lin e o f in te r p r e ta tio n t h a t w a s s u b s e q u e n tly c o n tin u e d b y J o a q u in Y arza, w h ic h w e a im to c o m p le te h e re in . T h e c ap itals fro m th e ch ap e ls o f S a in t Ja m es, S a in t P e ter, a n d S a in t A n to n in u s lo c a te d a t th e tr a n s e p t’s

fo c u s e d m a in ly o n th e fig u ra tiv e c a p ita ls d e p ic tin g

sid e ap sid io le s d isp la y e ac h o f th e ir c o rre s p o n d in g

re lig io u s su b je c ts. A r o u n d fifte e n c a p ita ls are d e d i­

d e d ic a tio n s, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e C o lo m c h ap e l

c a te d to h a g io g ra p h ic to p ic s: a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty

— lo c a te d in th e tr a n s e p t’s s o u th e r n a rea a n d w h ic h

d e p ic t N e w T e s ta m e n t scen es a n d a b o u t te n re p re ­

fe a tu re s o r n a m e n ta l c ap itals w ith n o fig u ra tio n —

s e n t O l d T e s ta m e n t scen es (Fig. 1).

w h ils t th e c ap itals lo c a te d in th e p re s b y te ry a n d th e

T h is in te r p r e ta tio n m u s t first c o n s id e r th e c a th e ­ d r a l’s

lo n g

b u ild in g

p ro c e ss,

w h ic h

c ro ssin g b a y c a n b e in te r p r e te d o n th e b a sis o f th e

d e v e lo p e d

im p o rta n c e o f th e ir lo c a tio n w ith in th e c e n tra l axis o f

b e tw e e n th e ye ars 1203 a n d 1278, as w e ll as th e re a so n s

th e c a th e d ra l. T h e c o h e re n c e o f th e in itia l p ro g ra m m e

b e h in d th e a lte ra tio n s to w h a t m u s t h a v e o rig in a lly

c a n b e tra c e d o n th e tra n s e p t p o rta ls , w h ils t it seem s

b e e n a c a re fu lly p la n n e d p ro g ra m m e . W h ile th is is

to d is a p p e a r o n th e p illa r c ap itals lo c a te d o n th e

su g g e ste d b y s tu d y in g th e fu ll series o f c a p ita ls, o n ly

aisles a n d tra n s e p t. W i t h i n th e la tte r, scen es fro m

th o se in th e p r e s b y te ry c a n b e re a d w ith clarity.

th e O l d a n d N e w T e sta m e n ts are g a th e re d w ith o u t

RctmesqtteGitfoedraIs in M e le m m e tm E u ro p e jc b ite c tu re jR itM lin d U rk n C o n te x t ١ ecL byG em doB oto % eYa.& Jus>t\niA . Y ‫؟‬:oes>en,Architectura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 245-257

© BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10.1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109575

Fig. 1.

Plan ofthe Ancient Cathedral (‘Seu Vella’) ofLleida in the thirteenth century, indicating the position o fthe capitals (Plate 26)

a n y a p p a re n t c o h e re n c e , e x c e p t fo r th e c ap itals d e p ic ­

c a n b e a sc rib e d to a se c o n d w o r k s h o p , activ e b e tw e e n

tin g th e I n c a r n a tio n a n d C h i ld h o o d o f C h r is t fro m

1215 a n d 1225. T h e s c u lp tu ra l p ro g ra m m e s o f th e t r a n ­

th e a isle ’s first p illa rs, e m p h a s iz in g th e scen es o f th e

s e p t p o rta ls , w h ic h f o r so m e tim e f u n c tio n e d as th e

A n n u n c ia tio n a n d V is ita tio n (h o w e v e r, w ith re ite ra ­

c a th e d r a l’s m a in e n tra n c e s, c a n also b e a tt r i b u te d to

tio n s ), a n d th e c ap itals o f th e first n o r t h e r n tra n s e p t

th e first w o rk s h o p .8

w e st w a ll p illa r, w h ic h w e w ill s u b s e q u e n tly survey.

Ja c q u e s L a c o ste ,9 a n d su b s e q u e n tly J o a q u in Y arza,10 a ttr ib u te d to th e first w o rk s h o p th e cap itals o f th e S a in t Ja m es a n d S a in t A n to n in u s ch ap els, to g e th e r

A p s iiio le s

w ith th o se o f th e c h a p e l o f S a in t P e ter, b u ilt later." T he c h a p e l d e d ic a te d to S a in t Ja m e s a n d S a in t L a z a ru s is

246

T h e a p sid io le s, to g e th e r w ith th e p re sb y te ry , p ro v e to

m e .n tà o n e .à .b e .k t2 7 % 'm h e . L i b e r d i g n i a t w i e c c l e s k

b e th e m o s t c o h e r e n t p a r t o f th e lik e ly p ro g ra m m e .

ilerdensis a n d in 1277 a b e n efice w as f o u n d e d e m p h a ­

T h e c a p ita ls o f th e a rc h e s’ d o u b le c o lu m n s accessin g

siz in g th e c h a p e l sa n c ti Iacobi. Yet w e h av e to w a it

th e ch ap e ls o f S a in t Ja m e s, S a in t P e ter, a n d S a in t

u n til 1299 to d o c u m e n t th e f o u n d in g o f a n o th e r b e n e ­

A n to n in u s w e re c a rrie d o u t b e tw e e n 1210 a n d 1215

fice d e d ic a te d to S a in t L a z a ru s in capella sa n c ti Iacobi

b y a first w o r k s h o p ; th o s e o f th e tr iu m p h a l a rc h a n d

in q u a e s tc a p e U iia b e a k M a r k a d liu e n ic L

th o s e fra m in g th e apse w e re s c u lp te d a little la te r, a n d

T h is d e d ic a tio n is in te re s tin g as it stresses th e d e v o tio n

Fr a n c e s c Fi t E I F l e v o t

to S a in t Jam es, w h ic h re in fo rc e s th e im p o rta n c e o f

h o m ily b y S a in t G r e g o r y th e G re a t, w h ic h m e n tio n s

th e p ilg rim a g e to S a n tia g o d e C o m p o s te la in th e

P e te r a n d h is b r o t h e r A n d r e w in a b o a t.

th ir te e n th c e n tu ry .13 B o th th e cap itals o n th e rig h t d is­

O n th e m a r ty r d o m c a p ita l, S a in t P a u l a p p ea rs

p la y th e se n te n c e a n d b e h e a d in g o f th e sa in t, fo llo w e d

k n e e lin g in th e p re se n c e o f th e g o v e rn o r o f R o m e a n d

b y h is d iscip les tra n s fe rrin g h is b o d y to C o m p o s te la

is a b o u t to b e d e c a p ita te d , as in th e a b o v e e x am p les

g u id e d b y th e H a n d o f G o d . T h e scen e fe a tu rin g th e

o f S a in t Ja m e s a n d S a in t A n to n in u s . H e is fla n k e d b y

s a in t’s b o d y d isp la y e d fo r w o rs h ip is re p re s e n te d o n

th re e e x e c u tio n e rs, o f w h o m tw o c a rry sw o rd s. T his

th e c a p ita l’s m o s t v isible face. A c c o rd in g to Y arza, th is

c h a p e l, w h ic h w as s u b s e q u e n tly tr a n s f o r m e d in to th e

is v e ry u n c o m m o n in d e p ic tio n s o f th e tra n sla tio sa n cti

M o n tc a d a c h a p e l, e v e n tu a lly w o u ld c o m p rise th re e

Ia c o b iA a n d w as u n d o u b te d ly in te n d e d to e m p h a siz e

a lta rs f o r th e w o rs h ip o f S a in t P e ter, S a in t P a u l, a n d

th e s a in t’s d e v o tio n . W e c a n n o t agree w ith L a c o s te ’s

S a in t J o h n th e B a p tis t.2'

su g g e stio n t h a t th e scen e d isplays th e m o m e n t o f th e d isc o v ery o f th e s a i n t ’s re m a in s.15 T h e c ap itals o n th e o p p o s ite sid e c le a rly re p re s e n t

T h e P r e s b y te r y

th e R a is in g o f L a z a ru s (Fig. 2 ), to g e th e r w ith o n e o f C h r i s t ’s m ira c le s, w h ic h Y arza,16 n o tin g th e c o n f u ­ s io n b e tw e e n th e b r o t h e r o f M a r th a a n d M a ry a n d p o o r L a z a ru s, h a s id e n tifie d as th e c u rin g o f th e lep er. L a c o s te 17 su g g e ste d tw o m ira c le s, e ith e r th e c u rin g o f th e c e n tu r io n ’s s e rv a n t o r th e b lin d m a n . O n th e n e ig h b o u r in g c h a p e l, d e d ic a te d to S a in t A n to n in u s , th e re is a sin g le fig u ra tiv e c a p ita l s h o w in g th e s a i n t ’s m a r ty r d o m ; h e a p p e a rs k n e e lin g in f r o n t o f h is e x e c u ­ tio n e r w h o is a b o u t to c u t h is h e a d o f f fo llo w in g th e o rd e rs o f M e to p e , w h o sits to o n e side. It is s trik in g t h a t th is r e p re s e n ta tio n fo llo w s th e sam e c o m p o s i­ t io n as th e c a p ita l o f th e m a r ty r d o m o f S a in t Ja m e s .18 T h e c ap itals in th e c h a p e l o f S a in t P e te r, lo c a te d o n th e r ig h t sid e o f th e p re sb y te ry , d isp la y scen es fro m th e lives o f S a in t P e te r a n d S a in t P au l. T h ese are

T h e c a p ita ls fro m th e p r e s b y te ry also a llo w f o r a n o v e r­ all a sse ssm e n t. T h e o n e lo c a te d o n th e r ig h t p illa r a t th e p re s b y te ry e n tra n c e is p a r tic u la r ly in te re s tin g , sin c e it d isp lay s th e A n n u n c ia tio n a n d V is ita tio n . F u r th e r m o r e , w e m u s t h ig h lig h t tw o c a p ita ls o b se r­ v e d o n th e sam e a r c h ’s le ft p illa r fe a tu rin g th e I n c r e d u lity o f S a in t T h o m a s (Fig. 5) to g e th e r w ith th re e o th e rs lo c a te d o n th e le ft p illa r fra m in g th e ap se, d isp la y in g th e R a is in g o f L a z a ru s a n d a tr iu m ­ p h a l E n tr y in to Je ru s a le m .22 The

E n tr y

in to J e ru s a le m

is b a s e d

on

E a rly

C h r is tia n m o d e ls d e p ic tin g C h r is t o n h o rs e b a c k , as in a n A d v e n tu s , y e t h e is rid in g a d o n k e y as d e sc rib e d in th e g o sp els, m a in ta in in g th e ty p ic a l A c c la m a tio p o s tu r e sim ila r to th e ‘v ic to rio u s k n i g h t ’ w h o a c c o m ­ p a n ie s th e cycle o f K in g D a v id d e s c rib e d b elow . W e

o n ly p a r tia lly p re s e rv e d as th e o u te r o n e s w e re sp lit in

m u s t a d d itio n a lly u n d e rlin e th a t th is re a d in g w as

tw o d u e to th e G o th ic fa ç a d e ’s a d d itio n d u r in g th e

c h a lle n g e d

f o u r te e n th - c e n tu r y c o n v e rs io n in to th e M o n tc a d a

in te r p r e ts th e g e stu re o f C h r is t as a b le ssin g , n o t as

re c e n tly b y T h o m a s M a th e w s ,23 w h o

ch ap e l. T h e ic o n o g ra p h y su g g e sts a d o u b le d e v o tio n

a n a c c la m a tio n . T h is is u n d e r p in n e d b y th e a n aly ­

fro m its o rig in s .19 T h e cycle d e d ic a te d to S a in t P e te r

sis o f a n u m b e r o f E a rly C h r is tia n sa rc o p h a g i th a t,

is re p re s e n te d b y tw o scen es o n th e le ft-sid e c ap itals,

in h is o p in io n , s u p p o r t th is ic o n o g ra p h ic tr a d itio n .

t h a t is, h is m a r ty r d o m o n th e cro ss a n d th e F all o f

T h e E n tr y in to J e ru s a le m is d isp la y e d o n o n e o f th e

S im o n M a g u s (o r p e rh a p s h is re sc u e fro m p r is o n b y

c a p ita ls, w h ils t th e c ity c a n b e o b s e rv e d o n th e o th er.

a n a n g el, b e a rin g in m in d t h a t th e fly in g fig u re h a s

M o re o v e r, o n th e la tte r, th e fig u re o f th e a tla n te s,

w in g s). P e te r a p p e a rs c ru c ifie d u p s id e d o w n , fla n ­

re p re s e n te d as a h u m a n o id o r ap e s u p p o r tin g th e

k e d b y tw o fig u res in te r p r e te d as th e e x e c u tio n e rs,

to w e r o n th e c o r n e r o f J e ru s a le m ’s w a ll, h a s d ra w n

to g e th e r w ith th e p re se n c e o f a n o th e r c h a ra c te r o n

o u r a tte n tio n , to g e th e r w ith th e c o c k p o r tr a y e d o n

th e o u te r face in te r p r e te d as th e c e n tu rio n . T h e cycle

th e r o o f o f th e b elfry , w h ic h c a n b e in te r p r e te d as

o f S a in t P a u l is re p re s e n te d o n th e rig h t-s id e c ap itals,

a p o sitiv e sy m b o l a sso c ia te d w ith C h r i s t ’s sa v io u r-

d e p ic tin g h is m a r ty r d o m o n th e e n tire c a p ita l a n d th e

sig n ific a n t A n n o u n c e m e n t, as s ta te d b y P r u d e n tiu s in

‘v o c a tio n o f P e te r ’ o r th e ‘s h ip o f th e c h u rc h ’ o n th e

th e C a th e m e r in o n A W e c a n also o b se rv e th e fig u re o f

p a r tia l o n e , as s ta te d b y Y arza,20 a sc e n e d e s c rib e d in a

Z a c c h a e u s a t th e c it y ’s e n tra n c e .

T h e T h i r t e e n t h - C e n t u r y C a p i t a l s of t h e A n c i e n t C a t h e d r a l o f L l e i d a

247

Fig. 2.

C apital 1 — Lleida, Seu Vella, presbytery (N ): th e R aising o f Lazarus and th e E n try in to Jerusalem (p h o to author)

T h e r e p re s e n ta tio n o f th e E n tr y in to J e ru s a le m d is­ p la y in g Jesu s o n a d o n k e y c o rre s p o n d s w ith th e im a g e c o m m o n ly u s e d f o r th e o r d in a tio n o f k in g s in K in g D a v id ’s tim e ; m o re o v e r, th e p a ssa g e fro m th e G o s p e l o f S a in t M a tth e w (2 1 :1 -9 ) seem s to h ig h lig h t th e fu l­ film e n t o f Z a c h a r ia h ’s p r o p h e c y : N o w w h en th ey drew n ear to Jerusalem and cam e to B ethphage, to th e M o u n t o f Olives, th e n Jesus sent tw o disciples, saying to th em , ‘G o in to th e village in fro n t o f you, a n d im m ediately you w ill find a d o n ­ key tied, a n d a colt w ith her. U n tie th e m a n d b ring th em to me. If anyone says an y th in g to you, you shall say, ‘The L ord needs th e m ’, and he w ill send th e m at o nce’. This to o k place to fulfil w h at was spoken by the p ro p h e t [Z achariah 9,9], saying: Say to th e d au g h ter o f Z ion , ‘B ehold, y our king is co m in g to you, hum ble,

248

Fr a n c e s c Fi t E I L l e v o t

and m o u n te d o n a donkey, o n a colt, th e foal o f a beast o f b u rd e n ’. The disciples w en t and did as Jesus h ad directed th em . T hey b ro u g h t th e d onkey and the colt and p u t o n th e m th eir cloaks, an d he sat o n them . M o st o f th e crow d spread th e ir cloaks o n th e road, and others cu t branches fro m th e trees and spread th em on th e road. A n d th e crow ds th a t w en t before h im and th a t follow ed h im were sh o u tin g , ‘H o san n a to the Son o f David! Blessed is he w ho com es in th e n am e o f the Lord! H o san n a in th e h ig h est!’

T h e p re se n c e o f Z a c c h a e u s is e x p la in e d b y th e G o s p e l a c c o rd in g to L u k e (1 9 :1 -1 0 ). H o w e v e r, th e e v o c a ­ t io n o f th e ro y a l n o t io n o r ig in a te d b y K in g D a v id ’s lin e a g e is in te re s tin g , as p e o p le u n d e r s to o d C h r i s t ’s e n tr y in to J e ru s a le m as a s y m b o l o f ro y alty , re c a llin g th e e n tra n c e o f K in g S o lo m o n .25

T h e E n tr y in to J e ru s a le m is re p re s e n te d n e x t to th e

re la te d w ith th e in n e r p ro g ra m m e o f th e c h u rc h . In th is

R a is in g o f L a z a ru s w h ic h , in th is c o n te x t, w o u ld se e m

c o n te « , it sh o u ld b e m e n tio n e d th a t M e d ie v a l c h u rch

to evoke th e R e s u rre c tio n o f C h r is t, b e a rin g in m in d

space w as c le a rly s a c re d ly stru c tu re d ,w ith h o lin e ss ra d ia ­

t h a t th e m ira c le w as re a d in th e G o s p e l o f th e fifth

tin g fro m th e m a in a lta r to w a rd s all o th e r te m p le areas,

S u n d a y o f L e n t, ju s t p r e c e d in g th e E a s te r cycle.26 T h is

w h ic h c o u ld a d d itio n a lly in c lu d e th e area im m e d ia tely

s h o u ld b e u n d e r s to o d as a p le d g e o f h is R e s u rre c tio n

o u tsid e th e b u ild in g . H e re , th e sagrera — a p a ris h ’s su r­

a n d th e b asis o f a h o p e w h ic h is n o lo n g e r a u to p ia n

ro u n d in g la n d m ea su rin g th ir ty paces in d ia m e te r o ri­

fa ct, n o u r is h e d b y S a in t L u k e ’s p ro c la m a tio n : ‘T h e

g in ally d e sig n a te d fo r th e d e a d — w as e stab lish e d since

L o r d h a s rise n in d e e d ’.27 F u r th e rm o re , th e p r e c e d e n t

th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry o r even earlier,29 w h ic h en c o u ra g e d

c a p ita l re p re s e n tin g th e I n c r e d u lity o f S a in t T h o m a s

th e p re se n ce o f a d lim in a b u rials b esid e th e p o rta ls. In

also refers e x p lic itly to th e R e s u rre c tio n o f C h ris t.

th e case o f L leid a, th e e n tire space su rro u n d in g th e

W e c a n o b se rv e h o w th e s a in t a p p e a rs h o ld in g u p

c a th e d ra l b e ca m e a cloister, as w as a sse rted b y E d u a rd o

h is a rm , fo llo w in g a n a n c ie n t e s ta b lis h e d ic o n o g r a ­

C a rre ro ,30 th a t is, a clo sed space ideal fo r b u rials; evi­

p h y t h a t c a n a lre a d y b e tr a c e d a t S a n to D o m in g o de

d e n ce in clu d e s th e se p u lch ra l tab le ts fo u n d b esid e th e

Silos. S a in t T h o m a s p u ts h is fin g e r in to Je su s’ w o u n d ,

m a in apse a n d th e a fo re m e n tio n e d p o rta ls, b o th th a t

t h a t is, v e rify in g th e R e s u rre c tio n , a m id th e a p o stle s,

o f S a in t B e ren g a r a n d th a t o f th e A n n u n c ia tio n , w h ic h

a m o n g w h o m S a in t P e te r a n d S a in t P a u l, th e P rin c e s

clearly c o rro b o ra te su c h a d lim in a b u rials.31

o f th e A p o stle s, are h ig h lig h te d o n th e tw o c a p ita l c o rn e rs — P e te r d isp la y in g h is a ttr ib u te a n d P a u l s h o w in g th e c o d e x o f th e N e w L aw .28

g ica l c h a ra c te r t h r o u g h im a g e s o r in s c rip tio n s , fre ­

R e p re s e n tin g th e m ira c le o f th e R a is in g o f L a z a ru s n e x t to th e I n c r e d u lity o f S a in t T h o m a s w as a su ita b le c h o ic e in o r d e r to ra tify th e R e s u rre c tio n . W e c an sta te th a t th is p ro g ra m m e w as c o n c e iv e d to h ig h lig h t th e R e s u rre c tio n o f C h r is t a n d h is v ic to ry o v e r d e a th , a f u n d a m e n ta l p re m is e o f C h r is tia n d o c trin e . T h is is r e in fo rc e d b y th e sc e n e o f th e In c a rn a tio n , re p re ­ s e n te d o n th e c a p ita l fro m th e o t h e r sid e o f th e a fo re ­ m e n tio n e d p illa r, lo c a te d a t th e p re s b y te ry e n tra n c e , a n d c o m b in e d w ith th e c a p ita ls fa c in g th e c ro ssin g t h a t d isp lay a D a v id ic cycle (F igs 3 & 4 ). A d d itio n a lly , w e m u s t u n d e rlin e K in g D a v id ’s b e in g p r o c la im e d as C h r i s t ’s ro y al a n c e sto r, a n d th a t th e V irg in a c q u ire s g re a t sig n ific a n c e w ith in

th e

In c a r n a tio n

S in ce p o r ta ls w e re th e m a in e n tra n c e to th e H o u s e o f G o d , th e y o fte n stre sse d th e ir sa c re d o r s o te rio lo -

as th e

M o t h e r o f G o d , to w h o m th e c a th e d ra l w as d e d i­ c a te d . W e w ill also o b se rv e th is M a rio lo g ic a l s ig n i­ fican ce o n th e c a p ita ls lo c a te d in th e c ro ssin g , a lo n g w ith th o s e fro m th e aisles’ first p illa rs.

q u e n tly d isp la y in g th e m o n o g r a m o f C h r is t, w h ic h , in M e d ie v a l tim e s, w as u su a lly re p re s e n te d b y th e T r in ita r ia n f o rm u la .32 In L le id a , th e o ld e s t p o r ta l se e m s to b e th e n o r t h e r n o n e , n a m e d th e P o rta l o f S a n B e re n g u e r (S a in t B e re n g a r), also k n o w n as th e ‘P alace D o o r , t h a t w as p ro b a b ly b u ilt b e fo re s c u lp ­ to r s ’ w o rk s h o p s a rriv e d . T h e p o r ta l co n sists o f a sim p le v o u s s o ir a rc h 33 s u r m o u n te d b y a c o rn ic e w ith a m o n o ­ g ra m , fo llo w in g a fo rm u la w id e ly u s e d in c h u rc h e s in A ra g o n a n d d o c u m e n te d in C a ta la n te m p le s sin ce th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry , i f w e a c c e p t th e m o n o g r a m o n th e S a in t-A n d ré -d e -S o rè d e (R o u ss illo n , F ra n c e) ty m p a n u m as b e in g f r o m th is c e n tu ry .34 T h is p o r ta l w as s u b s e q u e n tly re m o d e lle d , s h e lte re d b y a m a jo r p o i n te d a rc h o p e n e d o n a re c ta n g u la r p r o t r u d in g a rea o f th e w a ll, a n d c ro w n e d b y a sm a ll r o o f s u s ta in e d b y c o rb e ls d e c o r a te d w ith T o u lo u s a n o rn a m e n ta l s c u lp ­ tu r a l m o tifs .35 T h e s o u th tra n s e p t p o rta l, also n a m e d th e ‘P o rta l o f

H n s e ] ) tP o r t ،i l s : S ،ii n t B > e r e n g ،in ٥i e

th e A n n u n c ia tio n ’, ‘P o rta l o f th e B rides’, o r ‘P o rta l o f th e

A iic iitio n

B ish o p ’, w as clearly c o n ceiv ed to c o m b in e th e abovem e n tio n e d C h risto lo g ic al sy m b o l w ith th e In c a rn a tio n ,

P rio r to an aly z in g th e figurative cap itals fro m th e cro s­

d u e to th e tem p le b e in g d e d ic a te d to th e V irg in M ary.

sing a n d th e rest o f th e b u ild in g , w e m u st c o n sid e r th e

A s w as sta te d b y J o a q u in Yarza,36 th e d o o r itse lf h a s ear­

tw o tra n s e p t façade p o rta ls, given th a t these w ere p e r ­

lie r o rigins th a n th e o th e r elem en ts o f th e p o rta l. L eaving

fo rm e d d u rin g th e first phase. A lth o u g h th e y d o n o t

aside th e issue o f a possible tran sfer a n d re-use, as was

display a gre at figurative p ro g ra m m e , th e y b o th e m p h a ­

a lread y suggested,37 it is in te re stin g to h ig h lig h t th a t th e

size th e ho lin ess o f th e te m p le as th e H o u s e o f G o d

ic o n o g ra p h ic M ario lo g ical p ro g ra m m e w as c o n fig u re d

T h e T h i r t e e n t h - C e n t u r y C a p i t a l s of t h e A n c i e n t C a t h e d r a l o f L l e i d a

249

Fig. 3.

C apital 2 — Lleida, Seu Vella, crossing (SE): Davidic cycle (detail) (p h o to author)

d u rin g th e p e rio d th a t c o n ce rn s us, th a t is, a ro u n d 1214.

s u p p o r te d th e nave. T h e ic o n o g ra p h ic a n d fo rm a l

T here is a b e a u tifu l en graving above th e d o o r d isplaying

analysis o f th e c ro s s in g ’s fig u ra tiv e c a p ita ls, a lo n g

a n angelic g re e tin g w h ic h is p a r t o f th e g ro u p o f th e

w ith th e o n e s lo c a te d o n th e aisles a n d th o se o f th e

A n n u n c ia tio n , flan k in g th e p o rta l in nich es, all revolv­

tra n s e p t, h a s re v e a le d th a t th e y m a y h av e b e e n p e r f o r ­

in g a ro u n d C h r is t’s m o n o g ra m .3‫ ؟‬W e believe it sh o u ld

m e d b y a t h i r d w o r k s h o p , w h ic h c o n tin u e d th e w o rk

b e co n sid e re d as a v e ry c o h e re n t p ro g ra m m e c o n fig u re d

o f p re v io u s o n e s, a n d p r o b a b ly r e m a in e d active u n til

a t a tim e w h e n th is p o rta l fu n c tio n e d as th e te m p le ’s

th e m id - th ir te e n th c e n tu r y ( i 2 3 0 - 4 0 ) . 40

m a in entra n ce . A d d itio n a lly , it w as th e e n tra n c e u se d b y th e b ish o p , w h ilst b rid es also e n te re d th ro u g h it to be blessed o n c e th e y h a d sig n e d th e m arriag e c o n tra c t in fr o n t o f th is sam e p o rta l.39

A s w as m e n tio n e d a b o v e, d e sp ite th e r e d u n d a n ­ cies, a c le a r le c tu re o f th e fig u ra tiv e c a p ita l series w ith in th e se areas m u s t b e re la te d to th e M a r ia n d e d i­ c a tio n o f th e c a th e d ra l, as w e ll as to C h r i s t ’s o m n ip o ­ te n c e , e sp e c ia lly o n th e c ro ssin g p illa r c a p ita ls, w h e re

!C r o s s in g

h is g e n ea lo g y , th e In c a rn a tio n , a n d h is c o sm ic p o w e r as th e K in g o f H e a v e n are u n d e rs c o re d . In th is lin e ,

250

T h e b u ild in g p ro c e s s c o n tin u e d w ith th e c ro ssin g

th e T ree o fJe sse (Fig. 6) is d isp la y e d o n th e s o u th w e s t

a n d th e tr a n s e p t w alls, a lo n g w ith th e aisles w h ic h

p illa r;41 fa c in g th is r e p re s e n ta tio n , o n th e s o u th e a s t

Fr a n c e s c Fi t E I F l e v o t

Fig. 5. C ap ital 5 — Lleida, Seu Vella, presbytery (N ): the Incredulity o f Saint T hom as (p h o to author)

a d ja c e n t bays a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n a rc h a n g e l, p o ss ib ly M ic h a e l, as th e K in g o f H e a v e n .47 In th is c o n te x t, th e E p ip h a n y c a n b e i n te r p r e te d in re la tio n to th e Fig. 4. C apital 3 — Lleida, Seu Vella, crossing (SE): D avidic cycle (detail) (p h o to author)

I n c a r n a tio n , b u t also to th e ro y a lty o f C h r is t.48

lA is le s tn ilis e p t p illa r, th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d cycle o f K in g D a v id 42 is d e p ic te d , w h ic h m u s t b e i n te r p r e te d as a b ra n c h

A s w as o b se rv e d b y Ja c q u e s L a c o ste a n d J o a q u in

o f C h r i s t ’s lin e a g e . T h ese scen es are a c c o m p a n ie d

Y arza, th e ic o n o g ra p h y s u ^ e s t s a n im a g e o f G o d

b y th e A n n u n c ia tio n a n d V is ita tio n re p re s e n te d o n

b o n d e d to th e V irg in as h is M o th e r, re ite ra te d o n th e

th e c a p ita l th a t faces th e p re sb y te ry . T h e f o r m e r is

c ap itals o f th e aisle p illa rs w h ic h sty listic a lly fe a tu re

v e ry in te re s tin g g iv e n th e cross th a t is s h o w n o n th e

th e c le a r c o n tin u ity o f th e first tw o w o rk s h o p s. T he

s ta n d a r d s u s ta in e d b y G a b rie l.43 B esid e h im th e re is

B ir th o f C h r is t is re p re s e n te d o n th e tw o c ap itals o f

a n o th e r c a p ita l w ith a n u n c le a r im a g e , i n te r p r e te d b y

th e first s o u th aisle p illa r (s o u th sid e ), a c c o m p a n ie d b y

J o a n B e rg ó s44 as th e B e tr o th a l o f J o s e p h a n d M a ry ,

a p o ssib le A d o r a tio n o f th e S h e p h e rd s49 o r th e F lig h t

w ith a c e n tra l fig u re d re sse d as i f h e is o ffic ia tin g , fla n ­

to E g y p t,50 w h ic h is c o m p le m e n te d b y th e p e n d a n t

k e d b y tw o c h a ra c te rs w r a p p e d in m a n tle s o f w h o m a t

c a p ita l o n th e o p p o s ite side fe a tu rin g p ilg rim s a p p a ­

le a st o n e seem s to b e a m ale fig u re.

re n tly o n th e ir w a y to B e th le h e m .51 T h e A n n u n c ia tio n

T h e E p ip h a n y is re p re s e n te d o n th e o p p o s ite p illa r

a n d V is ita tio n scen es are re p e a te d o n a n o th e r c a p ital

lo c a te d o n th e c ro s s in g ’s n o r th w e s t c o r n e r (Fig. 7 ),45

o f th e s e c o n d s o u th aisle p illa r ( n o r th sid e ). M o re o v e r,

also a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n o th e r A n n u n c ia tio n a n d

th e se scen es a c c o m p a n y th e re p re s e n ta tio n o f th e

V is ita tio n , w h ils t th e c a p ita ls o f th e n o r th e a s t- c o r n e r

B ir th o f C h r is t a n d J o s e p h ’s D r e a m .52 T h e scen es o f

p illa r fe a tu re s th e fig u re o f A tla s s u s ta in in g a c elestial

th e A n n u n c ia tio n a n d V is ita tio n 53 are re p e a te d o n th e

sp h e re (Fig. 8), a c c o m p a n ie d b y sig n s o f th e Z o d ia c

c ap itals o f th e first n o r t h aisle p illa r (s o u th sid e ), a lo n g

M e r c u ry a n d S a g itta riu s , a c o m m o n d e p ic tio n o f th e

w ith a n o th e r c a p ita l o f th e se c o n d p illa r.54

c o sm ic v isio n o f G o d ’s p o w e r, as th e c o n te x t also sug-

T h e re m a in in g c a p ita ls d o n o t a llo w f o r a c le a r in te r ­

g ests.46 A lth o u g h d a tin g f r o m s o m e w h a t la te r, C h r is t

p r e ta tio n . T h e y in c lu d e a n u m b e r o f th e m e s fro m th e

f u r t h e r a p p e a rs o n th e k e y sto n e s o f th e c ro s s in g ’s

O l d T e s ta m e n t a n d m o re f r o m th e N e w T e s ta m e n t.

T h e T h i r t e e n t h - C e n t u r y C a p i t a l s of t h e A n c i e n t C a t h e d r a l o f L l e i d a

251

D a n ie l in th e L io n s ’ D e n ,6‫ ؛‬a tr a d itio n a l a n d v e ry p o p u la r E a rly C h r is tia n im a g e , is re p re s e n te d o n th e s e c o n d s o u th aisle p illa r ( n o r th sid e) n e x t to th e ab o v em e n tio n e d scen es o f th e N a tiv ity a n d A n n o u n c e m e n t to th e s h e p h e rd s. T h e c a p ita l o f th e s e c o n d n o r t h aisle p illa r (s o u th sid e ) d isp lay s a C h ris to lo g ic a l su b je c t, n a m e ly th e d isc ip le -p ilg rim s o f E m m a u s,7‫ ؛‬p re cise ly a d ja c e n t to th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d c a p ita l re p re s e n tin g th e A n n u n c ia tio n a n d V is ita tio n . T h e c a p ita ls f e a tu r in g th e R a is in g o f L a z a ru s a n d th e R e s u r r e c tio n o f C h r i s t 58 c a n b e o b s e r v e d o n th e sa m e a isle ( s o u th sid e ). T h e l a t t e r sc e n e is r e p r e ­ s e n te d b y th e T h re e M a ry s a p p r o a c h in g th e T o m b to e m b a lm h is B o d y , w h ils t th e R a is in g o f L a z a ru s f o l­ lo w s th e sc h e m e a lre a d y s e e n in a S a in t Jam es) c h a p e l c a p ita l l o c a te d in th e p r e s b y te r y ; th u s , in th is case, th e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f th e R e s u r r e c tio n o f C h r i s t b y th e R a is in g o f L a z a ru s is e v e n m o re e x p lic it. A c c o rd in g to L a c o ste , th e s to r y o f J a c o b is re p re ­ s e n te d o n th e c a p ita ls o f th e n o r t h aisle p illa rs ( n o r th s id e ),9‫ ؛‬w ith th e first c a p ita l d e p ic tin g th e b lessin g o f J a c o b b y Isaac in R e b e c c a ’s p re s e n c e ; re p re s e n te d o n th e s e c o n d is E s a u ’s e n c o u n te r w ith h is b r o t h e r Fig. 6. C apital 4 — Lleida, Seu Vella, crossing (SW ): the Tree ofJesse (p h o to author)

Ja c o b , a lo n g w ith R e b e c c a w h o se n d s J a c o b to L a b a n . T h ese tw o c a p ita ls are m u c h d e te r io r a te d , w h ic h m ak e s th e i r in te r p r e ta tio n v e ry d iffic u lt; B e rg ó s s u g ­ g e s te d th e s to r y o f Ish m a e l.60 O n th e s e c o n d p illa r, th re e fig u ra tiv e c a p ita ls c a n b e se e n , o n e d e p ic tin g a T ra d itio legis, a n o th e r s u b je c t r e la te d to a n E a rly C h r is tia n ic o n o g ra p h ic tr a d i t io n ,61 n e x t to a v e ry c u rio u s c a p ita l d e p ic tin g A le x a n d e r ’s flig h t in to H e a v e n d ra w n b y g riffin s.62 T h e o p p o s ite -s id e c a p ita l d e p ic ts th r e e k in g s, o n e o f w h o m h o ld s a sw o rd , w h o are d iffic u lt to id e n tify . B e rg ó s su s ta in s t h a t th e y are th e k in g s o f Isra el.63 C a p ita ls d e p ic tin g sim ila r su b je cts c a n b e fo u n d in th e tra n se p t, w ith th re e H e b re w s w h o re fu sed to w o rs h ip th e id o l o f N e b u c h a d n e z z a r a n d w ere c o n d e m n e d to b u r n in th e F ie ry F u rn ace a p p earin g , a c c o rd in g to B ergós, o n th e east w all o f th e n o r th tran se p t.64 H o w ev er, th is id e n tific a tio n is n o t e n tire ly clear, since a d ja c e n t to th e th re e H e b re w s a d e m o n ia c ch ara c ­ te r su s ta in in g a tw iste d sc e p tre is d e p ic te d , sim ila r to th e

Fig. 7. C apital 7 — Lleida, Seu Vella, crossing (N W ): th e E piphany (p h o to author)

figure o f N e b u c h a d n e z z a r. T his d e ta il is n o t in c lu d e d in th e b ib lic al passage, a n d c a n p ro b a b ly b e id e n tifie d as th e D e v il te m p tin g th e th re e y o u n g Israelites b y h is ges-

252

T h e A p o s to la te ‫ ؛؛‬p re s id e d o v e r b y Je su s is d isp la y e d

tu re .6‫ ؛‬O n th e sam e p illar, th e re is a n o th e r c ap ital fea­

o n th e first n o r t h aisle c a p ita l, b e sid e th e a b o v e-

tu rin g a h a g io g ra p h ic th e m e w h ic h B ergós id e n tifie d as

m e n tio n e d

th e m a rty rd o m o f S a in t J u lie tta a n d S a in t ^ i r i c u s . 66

A n n u n c ia tio n

Fr a n c e s c Fi t E I F l e v o t

and

V is ita tio n ,

w h ils t

F u r th e rm o re , o n th e w e st w a ll o f t h e n o r t h tr a n s e p t th e re is a c a p ita l in th e c e n tre d isp la y in g a M a ie s ta s D o m in i fla n k e d b y a r a d ia n t T e tr a m o r p h .67 T h e scen e d o e s n o t d isp la y th e c u s to m a ry R o m a n e s q u e C h r is t in M a jesty , b u t r a th e r t h a t o f th e C h r is t o f th e S e c o n d C o m in g , t r iu m p h in g o v e r d e a th a n d s h o w in g th e s tig m a ta o f th e P a ssio n , a c c o m p a n ie d b y tw o an g els b lo w in g tr u m p e ts to a n n o u n c e th e L a s t J u d g e m e n t (Fig. 9 ).68 D u e to its lo c a tio n o n th e p illa r in f r o n t o f th e E p ip h a n y , th is s u b je c t c o u ld h av e b e e n c h o se n in re la tio n to th e c ro ssin g p ro g ra m m e . F ro m th is p o i n t o f view , th e E p ip h a n y a p p e a rs as a d e p ic tio n o f C h r i s t ’s F irs t C o m in g to E a r th , w h ic h c a n b e in te r ­ p r e te d as a p e n d a n t o f th e S e c o n d C o m in g w h ic h , as w e sh a ll see b e lo w , w as r e in fo rc e d w ith th e im ag es fro m th e a d ja c e n t c ap itals. A d d itio n a lly , tw o c a p ita ls c a n b e o b s e rv e d o n th e sam e p illa r w h e re a sp e c ts o f th e S e c o n d C o m in g are fe a tu re d : o n e th a t d isp lay s th re e c h a ra c te rs w h ic h

Fig. 8. C apital 6 — Lleida, Seu Vella, crossing (N E ): Atlas hold in g the celestial globe (p h o to author)

B e rg ó s69 in te r p r e ts as th e im p r is o n m e n t o f a n a p o stle , a n d a n o th e r t h a t re p re se n ts th e P re a c h in g o f S a in t J o h n th e B a p tist, b o t h ic o n o g ra p h ic a lly r e a d as a w h o le , e x p a n d in g a n d c la rify in g t h e ir o w n sig n ifi­ can ce. T h e first c a p ita l d e p ic ts tw o h a lo e d sa in ts a n d a n e x e c u tio n e r b e a rin g a sw o rd , w h ic h m a y re fe r to th e m o m e n t b e fo re th e m a r ty r d o m o f S a in t J o h n th e B a p tist, a c c o m p a n ie d b y S a in t J o h n th e E v an g e list. O n th e s e c o n d c a p ita l, a s a in t is fla n k e d b y tw o m u s i­ cian s o n th e r ig h t a n d a fe m a le fig u re, w h o c o u ld be id e n tifie d w ith S a lo m e , o n th e left. A lth o u g h th e l a t­ te r fig u re is n o t d a n c in g , as is d e s c rib e d in th e B ib le, w e c o u ld in te r p r e t th e sc e n e as th e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f th e m a r ty r d o m o f th e B a p tist. T hese tw o la tte r scen es c a n b e c o m p le m e n te d w ith th e r e p re s e n ta tio n o b s e rv e d o n th e c ro ssin g p i ll a r ’s t h ir d c a p ita l, th e o n e o f th e E p ip h a n y , in w h ic h th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d sc e n es o f th e A n n u n c ia tio n a n d V is ita tio n are c o m b in e d w ith a d e p ic tio n o f C h r is t in th e c e n tre , fla n k e d b y th e tw o S a in t J o h n s (Fig. i o ) . 70

Fig. 9. C apital 8 — Lleida, Seu Vella, tran sep t (N ): C h rist’s Second C o m in g (p h o to author)

T h u s, w e c a n a lm o s t assure th a t th is cycle is d e v o te d to S a in t J o h n th e B a p tist, w h ic h w o u ld b e g in o n th is

fig u res o f C h r i s t : 71 th e fig u re o f S a in t J o h n th e B a p tist,

c a p ita l a n d c u lm in a te w ith th o se d e s c rib e d o n th e

a n n o u n c in g h is F irs t C o m in g , w h ils t S a in t J o h n th e

o th e r p illa r, w h e re th e p re se n c e o f S a in t J o h n th e

E v an g e list, a u th o r o f th e A p o c a ly p se , c a n b e i n te r p r e ­

E v an g e list is a d d itio n a lly a tte s te d .

t e d as th e a n n o u n c e r o f C h r i s t ’s S e c o n d C o m in g .72

B o th

th e

re p re s e n ta tio n s

o f S a in t J o h n

(th e

F in ally , th e re are y e t tw o m o re s o u th e r n tra n s e p t

E v an g e list a n d th e B a p tis t) s itu a te d n e x t to th e c a p i­

fig u ra tiv e c a p ita ls th a t s h o u ld b e m e n tio n e d . T h e o n e

tals d isp la y in g th e S e c o n d C o m in g a n d th e E p ip h a n y

in th e s o u th w e s t c o r n e r w as in te r p r e te d b y B e rg ó s73

(th e tw o c o m in g s o f C h r is t) c a n b e u n d o u b te d ly

as th e O ffe rin g o f M e lc h is e d e k , a n o th e r sc e n e w ith

in te r p r e te d , w i t h in th is c o n te x t, as th e ‘p r e c u r s o r ’

a c le a r E u c h a ristic c o n n o ta tio n . T h e o t h e r c a p ital,

T h e T h i r t e e n t h - C e n t u r y C a p i t a l s of t h e A n c i e n t C a t h e d r a l o f L l e i d a

253

first p illa r, w h ic h w e re c a rrie d o u t la te r in tim e th a n th o se

fro m

th e

c ro ssin g . F inally, th e

sig n ific a n t

r e p re s e n ta tio n o f C h r i s t ’s S e c o n d C o m in g lo c a te d in th e c ro ssin g , a c c o m p a n ie d b y an g els a n n o u n c in g th e F in a l Ju d g e m e n t, in tro d u c e s th e ic o n o g ra p h ic a l n o v e ltie s o f G o th ic a rt, fla n k e d b y th e cycles o f b o th S a in t J o h n s (th e B a p tis t a n d th e E v a n g e list), w h o a n n o u n c e b o t h o f C h r i s t ’s C o m in g s in to th e w o rld . (T ra n s la tio n : C h ris B o sw ell)

NOTES ٠ This

Fig. 10. C ap ital 9 — Lleida, Seu Vella, crossing (N W ): b o th Saint Johns and C h rist (p h o to author)

lo c a te d in th e s o u th e a s t c o rn e r, is o n c e m o re o f d if­ fic u lt in te r p r e ta tio n . T h e sc e n e fe a tu re s tw o c e n tre fig u res fla n k e d b y tw o c h a ra c te rs. B ergO s74 sta te s th a t th e c a p ita l d isp lay s th e p r o p h e ts in h o ly c o n v e rs a tio n , a lth o u g h th is in te r p r e ta tio n is n o t e n tire ly c o n v in ­ c in g . F ro m a sty listic p o i n t o f view , b o t h c ap itals c a n cle a rly b e a sc rib e d e ith e r to th e first o r se c o n d w o rk s h o p .75

C o n c lu s io n R e v ie w in g th e series o f fig u ra tiv e c a p ita ls d isp la y in g re lig io u s su b je c ts c o n firm s th e p re se n c e o f a n in itia l p ro g ra m m e th a t w a s a lte re d re p e a te d ly th r o u g h o u t th e le n g th y b u ild in g p ro c e ss. W e h av e d e te r m in e d h o w in th e first c h ap e ls, h a g io g ra p h ic to p ic s are e v id e n c e d , w h ils t a C h ris to lo g ic a l d isc o u rse c a n b e o b s e rv e d in th e p r e s b y te ry a n d th e c ro ssin g , alw ays clo sely b o u n d to th e V ir g in M a ry , as th e titu la r te m p le sa in t. T h e le c tu re o f th is in itia l p ro g ra m m e is r e in fo rc e d b y th e c a p ita ls fro m th e n o r t h t r a n s e p t ’s

254

Fr a n c e s c Fi t E I F l e v o t

paper has been written within the research project ‘A ucto­ ritas, església, Cultura i Poder, s. X II-X E ' (ref. HAR1011-31484. Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, main researcher Karen Stober) and has the support of the Consolidated Research group in Medieval Studies: Space, Power and Culture (ref. 1009SGI٧ 74) of the University of Lleida, with recognition of the Govern­ ment of Catalonia, directed by Flocel Sabaté. ' Concerning the construction of the Seu Vella, see: Francesc Fit E, ‘La Seu Vella de Lleida', in Arrels cristianes: presenzia i signijtcacio delcristiani s i e n la h istòria i la societatdeL leida.il, L a B aixal atM i tjana.: segles XI II-X T h ed , PAm B e r t r a n & Francesc Fit E, Lleida, 1008, pp. 397-446. 2 There are numerous studies of sculptural programmes on liturgi­ cal space reliefs and capitals, covering a wide chronological range between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. O f growing impor­ tance are those studies on church interiors, involving capitals or liturgical furniture, as well as on the exerior of portals and clois­ ters. See: Marcello A ngheben , ‘Sculpture romane et liturgie', in A rtMédiévaL Les rroiesde l 'esp ace litùrgiq ue,ed.P a٥ \٥ P'‫؛‬l ,PaA ٥ , 1010, pp. 131-79; Maria Concepción C osme , ‘A rte y litUrgia en Santa Marta de Tera, in A stórica. Cen-tï^o de Estu dios Astorgi o s 'Marcelo Macias’, 17, 1008, pp. 141-71; Gerado Bo to & Esther L o zano , ‘Les lieux des images historiés dans les galeries de cloître de la cathédrale de Tarragone. Une approche de la periodicité de l’espace et de la topographie du temps' in Cahiers de Civilisation Médiévale, 56, 1013, pp. 337-64. There are also numerous studies that analyze the pictorial programmes, see for example: Cécile V o v t & ‫ ﻟ ﻌ ﺄ‬As a rhu t , K mMg e m édivva k :f i ct ions dans l 'esp ace sacre et structu ration de l 'esp ace cultuel , Turnhout, 1‫أ ﻵ ه‬ Jérôme Basche T, ‘Le décor peint des édifices romans: parcours narratifs et dynamique axiale de l'église', in A rt Médiéval, pp. 181­ 119; Jérôme Baschet , L ’iconographie médiévale, Paris, 1008. Among the liturgical furniture examples, we must outline the work of José Luis H ernando Ga rrid o , ‘Las pilas bautismales romtnicas en Castilla y León: consideraciones sobre su iconogcafiaAn M obiliario ^l ajuar liturgico en las igeesiasromdnicas,ed. Pedro Luis H uerta , Aguilar de Campoo, 1011, pp. 150-101. 3Joan Berg Os, L ’escultura a la Seu Vella deLleida, Barcelona, 1935. 4Jacques La coste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida: Le debut de la sculpture' in Ilerda, 40, 1979, pp. 167-91. Other earlier works

that must be cited are Jacques L a coste , ‘Découverte dans la cathédrale romane de Lérida', in Bulletin Monumental, 132, 1974, pp. 231-34; Jacques La c o ste , ‘La cathédrale de Lérida. Les debuts de la sculpture', in Cuhiers6, 1975, pp. 167-92. The text used here is the first of these. 5 Francesca Espanol carried out a never-published study concer­ ning the ‘1200 style' in Lleida . The original paper was read by Joaquin Yarza, who quoted her work several times in his own publication. See. Joaquin Ya r za , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura en la Seu Vella', in Coag Lleida, 6-9 març 1991, ed. Frederic Vil A & Imma L o r Es, Lleida, 1991, pp. 39-53. 6 Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 39-53. 7 La coste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', p. 173. 8 Concerning the workshop's chronology, we follow the study of Joaquin Yarza. We must underline that both workshops are fully within the so-called 1200 style. So far, no general study of this style has been accomplished, and regarding the sculpture, the best study is still. Louis G ro d eck i , ‘Le style 1200, in Le Moyen Âge retrouvé, ed. Louis G r o decki , Paris, 1986, pp. 385-431. 9 L a coste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', pp. 185-92. 10 Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 40-41. 11Jacques Lacoste linked this first workshop to Benedetto Ante­ lami, whilst Joaquin Yarza, following Francesca Espanol's study, considers it closer to Biduinus' workshop, who even he qualifies as the ‘master of the masks', see. Yarza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 39-41. 12 Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', p. 40. This chapel is also dedicated to the V ir^n of the Snows. It had the same dedication in the sixteenth century. See. Francisco A bad Larroy , ‘El culto divino de la Seo antigua de Lérida', in 40, 1979, pp. 28-29. 13 There is clear evidence of the worship of Saint James in Lleida as a place o f passage for pilgrims, for example, in the chapel of the Peu del Romeu and some hospitals, like the Hospitals of En Serra or the Hospital General de Santa Maria. From the latter are preserved documentary evidences that in 1442, the City Council sent a proposal to ^ e e n Maria de Luna to reform and extend the Plaça de Sant Joan (the city's main square) on the main axis of the high street, claiming that, among other reasons, it would contribute. ‘[...] per decoració i ennobliment de aquella [...] attès que en nengun altre loch es la ciutat, mes encara a totes gents passants e anants de Roma a Sant Jacme [...]' (‘[...] to the decoration and ennoblement o f the city [...] because in no other place of the city there are so many people coming and going from Rome to Saint James [...]'). See. France Fi t E, ‘Sobre l'origen i la formació de les places, o mercadals, a la Cata­ lunya medieval. alguns exemples de la Catalunya de Ponent', in Gli spazidel potere nelleeittà del M editerraueo(secoliXI-XV). Firenze 22-24 January 2009 (in press); the document is publi­ shed Y.U... Catdleg de lArxiu Municipal de Lleida ١ Lleida, 1998, pp. 30-31. See also. Gerardo B o t o , ‘Cartografia de la advocación jacobea en Cataluna (siglos X-XIV)', in de Sa ut Ja n e i Catal unya. Actesdel Congés I ntern ational telebra t a B a rtelona, C erv era i Lleida, els dies 16, 17 i 18 doctubre de 200‫ و‬, Barcelona, 2007, pp. 282-83. 14 Yarza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', p. 41. See also. Maria Luisa M elero , ‘Translatio Sancti Jacobi. Contribución al

estudio de su iconografia', in Los caminos y el Arte, V I Congreso E s p a n o I d e H i s t o r k d e U r t e ^ i t i f d e C d p o s t e k , 16-20 de junio, 1986, vol. 3, Santiago de Compostela, 1989, p. 71 and pas­ sim. It should be underlined that there is no other representa­ tion such as that from Lleida except for a Tudela cloister capital, ‫ئ‬. ٠ J a c c F L a c o s t e ١ Les mautresde la stnlptureromanedans l ’Espagne du pèlegrinage à Compostele, Bordeaux, 2006, p. 318; concerning the style, in relation with Silos, see also p. 243. 15 Cf. La c o ste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', p. 174. 16 Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 41-42. 17 L a coste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', pp. 176-77. 18 La c o ste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', p. 178; for the icono­ graphy o f Saint Antoninus, see. Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 42-43. 19 This orignal double devotion is very clear due to, among other evidence, even the stained glass window above the chapel being dedicated to both saints, see. Francesc Fit E, ‘Els vitrallers de la Stu X d\‫؟‬i de LVYdd, In Seu Vella: anuari d ’historia i tnltura, 2١ 2000, p. 69. 20 Yarza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 43-47. 21 Francesca E spaNol , ‘Los Montcada y sus panteones dinasticos. un espacio para la muerte noble', in Els Montcada i Alfons de Borja a la Seu Vella de Lleida, ed. Ximo C ompany , Lleida, 1991, pp. 65-67. 22 As mentioned, this second Roussillonese-style workshop should be dated to around 1220, see. Yarza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', p. 49 and 53. 23 T h o m a sF .M a th ew s ١ TheClasho^Gods.AReinterpretation.^ Early Christian Art, Princeton NJ 1993, pp. 27-30. 24 Aurelio P r u d en c io , Obras completas, ed. Alfonso O rtega (Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 427), Madrid, 1981, p. 10. However, concerning the iconography, see. Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 49-50. 25 In this sense, it must be added that the triumph of David over Goliath was also seen as a prefiguration ofJesus' entry into Jerusa­ lem, see. Gaston D u c h e t -Suchaux & Michel Pastoureau , LaBibleetlessaints.Gnide iconographique١ Pai٠sY١99 ١ ‫ ذ‬٠ P.YY&. 26 It is worth mentioning that the readings on the fifth Sunday of Lent are dedicated to Christ's power over death and, in this context, in the Byzantine dodekaorton, the Raising of Lazarus also figures before the Entry into Jerusalem, see. Henri Stern , L a r t byzantin, Paris, 1982, pp. 86-87. This iconographic tradition is clear in the famous guide to the painting of M ount Athos, see. Pier L uig Z occatelli, I segreti dell’iconografia bizantina. La ،Guidadeilapittura’daunanticomanoscritto ١ Rome ١ 200 ١١p. Y١ A. 27 Luke 24.34. See. Louis REau , Iconografia del arte cristiano. Iconografia de la Biblia. Nuevo testamento, vol. 1/2, Barcelona, 1996, pp. 404-0 7 ; Gaston D u c h et -Sacaux & Michel Pa stou ­ reau , La Bible et les Saints, Paris, 1990, pp. 216-17. 28 This passage from the Gospels, which is also only told in John (20.24-29), has appeared since Early Christian times and follows the same formula described, however with a layout o f the apostles that singularizes the depiction in Lleida, see. REau , Iconografia delarteeristiano ١ 2١ ‫ ا ل‬pp.390-92. 29 Isidro G. Bango T orviso , ‘El espacio para enterramientos privile^ados en la arquitectura medieval espanola', in Anuario del DepartaweutodeHistoriayTeoriadelArte ١ A١ Y992١p p .9 ١-Y3L.

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30 See: Eduardo C arrero Santam ar Ia , ‘Sobre ambitos arquiy la “mujer adultera': una revision, in Archivo EspanoI de Arte, tectónicos y vida reglar del clero. La canònica de la Seu Vella de 79/314, 2006, pp. 180-81, who quotes numerous studies on the Seu Vhlla. Armari d ’historm 3, 2001, pp. 159-60. Lleida', in subject in relation to the European context. 31 See: Imma L o r Es, La Seu VeIIa i eI turo, Lleida, 2007, p. 31 and 40 Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 49-52. 127. Regarding the tombstones, on the right o f the doorway of 41 The depiction of the Tree of Jesse is quite uncommon, Saint Berengar, there is an undated one dedicated to Peter de emphasizing the Incarnation, which is presided over by a Bonaventura which is believed to be from the first quarter of the Virgin flanked by two angels, inspired by the prophecy of thirteenth century, whilst on the right post of the doorway of the Isaiah (11:1-5): ‘There shall come forth a Rod from the stem Annunciation, there is another dated on XI Kalendae of May of Jesse, and a Branch shall grow out o f his roots'. This text in Latin inspired the iconography of the tree, which also refer­ 1215, and dedicated to Guillem de Rocas. 32 Concerning the monogram of Christ, see: Francisco de Asis red to the Virgin et egredietur virgade radica Jesse, et ^o s de Ga r c Ia , ‘El CrismOn', in Revista radica eius ascendetet (‘A nd there shall come forth a rod out of vol. 11/3, 2010, pp. 21-31. the stem o f Jesse, and a branch shall grow out o f his roots'). 33 Concerning the studies of thirteenth-century portals in wes­ Regarding this iconography, see: A nita G uerreau -Jalabert , ‘La Vierge, l'arbre de Jessé et l'ordre Chrétien de la parenté', in tern Catalonia, see: Francesc Fit E, ‘Model i evolució del portal en el romànic tarda de la Catalunya de Ponent, i la introducViarie: IecuItedeIaViergedansIasocietémèdièvale ١ ed . Domtció dels nous models gòtics (s. X IIL X IV )) in Actes deI congrès nique Iogna -P rat , Eric Pa lazzo & Daniel R u sso, Paris, Iuterna^ciona-bPorta-la^d^esgòtiqu^esa iaCoronadAragô(Barceiona 1996, pp. 137-70; Ana D o m In g u ez R o d r Ig u e z , ‘La Virgen 10-12 desembre 2012), (in press). rama y raiz: de nuevo con el drbol de Jesé de las Cantigas de 34 Joan Ba dia H oms , ‘Sant Andreu de Sureda) in CataIunya S‫؟‬i n u M ‫؟‬iT١ÀAn Scriptorium alfonsU elosIibrosdeustrologiaa Romànica. EI RosseIIo, ed. Antoni Pladevall i Font , vol. 14, Ias ‘Cantigas de San ta M aria’, ed. Ana D o m In g u ez R o d r I­ guez & JesUs M ontoya M a r t In e z , Madrid, 1999, pp. 173­ Barcelona 1993, pp. 348-49. 35 The possible remodeling proposed was stated by Ya rza , ‘Pri­ 214; Esther L o z a n o , ‘Maestros innovadores para un escenario meros talleres de escultura), pp. 39-40. singular : la girola de Santo Domingo de la Calzada', in Maestros 3‫ ج‬Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 48-49. d e lro m u n ico en elca m in o d eS a n tig ^eO -. Pedro L. H u e it a .١ 37 Fi t E, ‘La Seu Vella de Lleida', pp. 413-16. Aguilar de Campoo, 2010, pp. 169-74; N i NA, ‘Maria com a 38 Concerning this monogram, see: Meritxell N i NA, ‘Maria idea de l'Encarnació', pp. 83-84. com a idea de l'Encarnació. AproximaciO al programa escultòric 42 Although doubts have been raised concerning whether this romànic de la Seu Vella de Lleida', in Sintesi. Quaderns deIs Semi' was a simple Davidic cycle, we believe it is. See: Ya rza , ‘Primeros naris deBesaIu, h, 2013, pp. 76-78. talleres de escultura', p. 50; Carmen Berlab E, ‘La iconografia del 39 As was mentioned above, this portal is also named the ‘Brides' Caballero de la Seu Vella', in Congrès de Ia Seu VeIIa, pp. 69-71. Gate) related to the sacrament of marriage. Since early ages, the 43 B erg Os ١LesculturaaIaSeu VeIIu١pp.88-89. church sought to control marriage by converting it into a holy act. 44 B erg Os, LescuItura a Ia Seu VeIIa, pp. 87-88; REau, IconoThere is evidence from the fourth century o f priestly blessings, r fia d e la r te c r is tia u ,2/2 ١ pp.278-8o. and, in Charlemagne's times, le^slation that favoured matri­ 45 B erg Os, UescuItura a Ia Seu VeIIa, pp. 93-94. This depiction, monial rites controlled by the ecclesiastical hierarchy, explicitly although very simple, remains within the tradition that goes back aiming them to be held publicly and before a priest. In fact, the to the Early Christian period, see: Rafael Ga rcia M a h I ^ es , sacramental marriage ceremony underwent several changes over La udoruciOn de los M ugos: im ugen de la E ^piiJ a ^iu en el A rtede the centuries. For example, in England and northern France, it Ia Antigüedad, Vitoria/Gasteiz, 1992. Moreover, to reinforce the was common to use the church doors to celebrate the first part of cycle of the Incarnation, the theme of the Annunciation and Visi­ the marriage ritual. In the eleventh century in northern France, a tation is repeated in the next capital. new rite was performed in front of the doors of the church, just 46 Yarza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 50-51. before the nuptial service. Although little information is avai­ 47 See: Francesc Fit E, ‘La imatge arquetipica de Sant Miquel lable, the first rubrics indicating the need to hold the first part entre Orient i Occident i la seva incidència a Catalunya', in E l of the nuptial rites in the temple doorway date from the twelfth Mediterrdueoy elA rte Espan oL X I Co‫ ؟‬eso del CEH T h Vtlencia., century. In Germany, the introduction of this new rite is exem­ septiembreiççô, ed.Joaquin BéRCHEz, Mercedes GOm ez -Ferrer plified by the appearance of the ‘brides) door) in cathedrals such L ozano & Amadeo Serra D esfilis , Valencia, 1998, pp. 19-26. as in Bamberg, Mainz and Braunschweig (Brunswick), similarly 48 For the iconolo^cal interpretation of the Magi as a symbol to Lleida cathedral. Furthermore, during the thirteenth century, of royalty, see: Franco C a r d in i , Los Reyes Magos. Historia y the church made great efforts to eliminate clandestine weddings Ieyenda, Barcelona, 2000. 49 B erg Os, LescuItura a Ia Seu VeIIa, pp. 90-92, and L a coste , attempted ante ostium tempIi (‘in front of the temple's door'). In England, this occurred a century later when Pope Alexander III ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', pp. 183-85. (1159-81), on behalf of the English Ecclesiastical Authorities, 50 See: Carmen Berlab E, ‘Iconografia del pelegri a les terres de warned that marriages should be performed in facie eccIesie (‘in VleiOAA n E l Camid e S uutJ uume i Cutal unyu١p . 26 q. front of the church)) in order to be considered legitimate, adding 51 Berlab E, ‘Iconografia del pelegri', p. 269. It is worth mention­ pro u t moris est (‘according to custom'). Concerning these sub­ ing that Jacques Lacoste interpreted them as the disciples of jects, see: Carlos Sastre Vazquez , ‘La portada de las Platerias Emmaus, see: La coste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', p. 182.

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32 B er g Os uL^.esculu^TAAkSeuVeUAup92- 90. ‫ ؟‬. 53 Berg Os, L ’escultura a la Seu Vella, p. 95, fig. 71. Iconographically, they resemble the Annunciation and Visitation that accompany them on the capital of the Epiphany, although the style is different. 54 Berg Os, L ’escultura a la Seu V lk , pp. 88-89. This capital shows no other changes concerning the previous one other than the framing by some sort of arcade. 55 B erg Os, L ’escultura a la Seu Vella, p. 95. Christ presides the surrounding apostolate, without it being possible to make any specific reading of the passages of the Gospels. 56 W hilst BergOs does not identify the subject (Berg Os, L ’escultura a la Seu Vella, p. 107), Jacques Lacoste interprets it as Daniel, see: L a coste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', p. 182. H e seems to confuse the theme with that of Gilgamesh or the tamer of ani­ mals, but we believe that what is depicted is Daniel in the Lion's Den, here a prefiguration of the Incarnation rather than of Salva­ tion; Daniel's capital is near the image o f Nativity, a clear depic­ tion o f the Incarnation. See: Francisco de Asis Ga rc Ia , ‘Daniel en el foso de los leones', in Re vista I/1, 2009, pp. 11-24. 57 Berlab É, ‘Iconografia del pelegri', p. 269. 58 Berg Os, L ’escultura a la Seu Velia, pp. 97-100. The resurrec­ tion of Christ is portrayed in the traditional way, with the Three Marys approaching the Holy Sepulchre to embalm Christ's Body, according to a formula clearly influenced by theatrical depictions, as was customary in the thirteenth century. See: REau, IconograJla del arte cristiano, 1/2, p. 563; Daniel R ico, ‘Un Quem queritis en SahagUn y la dramatizaciOn de la litUr^a', in Imagenes y promoto re se n e lu rte m e d ie iL M isc e k n e u e n h d e M je u J o fin Y u rz A Luaces, Bellaterra, 2001, pp. 179-89 and also Imma L o r Es, ‘L'escena de la Venda de perfums a la Visita de les Maries al Sepulcre i el drama litUr^c Pasqual', in Lambard, 2, 1986, pp. 129-38. 59 L a coste , ‘La cathédrale de Lleida', p. 182; Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', p. 47. 60 B erg OSuL ’escuhurauIuSeuVelkup.77. 61 It closely follows the Early Christian iconographic tradition, setu M ^nuA S o t o m a t o RuS u n P e d ro e n k iconorJkpuleocristiuM: tesfrm oniosdekrudicióncristknu sobreSunPedroenlos moon^um^en^t^osicon^o^a^cosun^t^erioresul siglosextOuCr^tadA 1^962 u pp. 125-52. See also: Klaus B erger , ‘Der traditionsgeschicht­ liche Ursprung der “Traditio legis"' in Vig il iae Christianae, 27, 1973, pp. 104-22. ‫ ئ ة‬Concerning this iconography, see: Francesca E spa Nol , ‘El sometimiento de los animales al hombre como paradigma

moralizante de distinto signo: la “AscensiOn de Alejandro" y el “Senor de los animales" en el romanico espanol', in vt. Congrés d ’histork de r،irt: Burcelonu; 29 d ’octubre ul 3 de novembre de 1984, ed. Francesca E spaNol & Joaquin Ya rza , vol. 1, Barcelona, 1987, pp. 47-60. 63 B erg Os uL’esculturuukSeu Velkupp.80-8x. 6٩ B er g OSu upp .8 2 -8 ١ . 65 Joaquin Yarza notes the difficult interpretation of the demo­ nic character in this context, see: Ya rza , ‘Primeros talleres de escultura', pp. 52-53. 66 B er g Os ١ up.i0A. 67 The composition of Christ within a mandorla shows the Tetramorph radiating from the four angles, corresponding to a scheme following models from the Near East which are first evidenced in the West by the seventh-century tomb of Saint Aglbertus of Jouarre, see: Jean H ubert, La EuMadrid, 1968, p. 77. For the Maiestas Domini and its interpretation inherited in the Romanesque iconography, see: Anne-Orange Pgllpr C M،ùest،ss D i i n i : une imAge fie rÉglûe ^n Occitfen-t, v e-ixe siècle, Paris, 2005. 68 This is undoubtedly a Gothic iconography, yet still influenced by the traditional Romanesque Parousiac representation. Paulino Rodriguez Barral states that this iconography does not appear in Catalan and Aragon environments until the fourteenth century, which should be corrected, since the Christ of the Judgement in this capital dates from c. 1240. See: Paulino Ro d r Iguez Bar ral, L u ju stic k d e lm d sid .Ic o n o g rA fk e n k C o ro M d e A ra g o n en la Baja EdadMedia, Valencia, 2007, pp. 35-38. 69 B er g Os u u 9 . ‫ ؟‬A. 70 Bergós interprets them as Jesus between the apostles Saint John and Saint James, see: B erg Os, L ’escultura a la Seu Velkup.9 ١. 71 See: Brunetto L a tin i & Curt J. W it t l in , Barcelona, 1980, vol. I (translation by Guillem de Copons), p. 136; also Juan C a rm ona , IconograJla de los Santos, Madrid, 2008, p. 240. O f interest for the iconography are themes proposed as represented in Pier Luigi Z occatelli, I segreti dell’iconografia, pp. 216-19 and 121-22. 72 See Brunetto La t in i , Llibre del tresor, vol. I, p. 138; C ar ­ m ona , IconograJla de los Santos, pp. 232-36. 73 B erg OSuL ’e scu lu ru u kS eu Velkupp.78-79. 74 B erg Os up.82. 75 This is also highlighted by Joaquin Yarza, see: Ya rza , ‘Prime­ ros talleres de escultura', p. 47.

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The Iconography of the Cloister of Gerona Cathedral and the Functionalist Interpretation of Romanesque Historiated Cloisters Possibilities and Limitations P eter K. Keein

A b s tr a c t In the past, research o n th e cloister at th e cathedral o f G erona and o n R om anesque cloisters in general has focused o n style and iconography. M ore recent analysis has addressed fu n ctio n alist aspects, i.e., liturgical an d paraliturgical fun ctio n s p rac­ tised in these cloisters. This especially applies to th e G erona cloister whose gallery adjacent to th e ch u rch is distinguished by rich iconography and o rn am entation, co rresponding to th e p rom inence o f this w alk in processions and o th er practices (m andatum , rasura). H ow ever, th e specific iconography o f nearly all biblical or profane scenes and o f th e purely o rn am en­ tal decoration o f th e G erona cloister, as well as o f R om anesque cloisters in general, have no relation to th e various cloister functions. Except for some sporadic subjects referring to liturgical practices, a specific cloister iconography corresponding to the m ultiple liturgical and religious fun ctio n s o f th is central space in m onastic and canonical life was never developed in R om anesque art; m oreover, in m any p arts o f Europe, R om anesque h isto riated cloisters are com pletely lacking and there they probably never even existed.

I n tr o d u c tio n

f o llo w th e u s u a l r e c t a n g u l a r p la n , b u t a tr a p e z o id a l o n e . I t w a s in s ta lle d b e tw e e n th e d o r m i t o r y to th e

T he

late

tw e lfth -c e n tu ry

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c lo iste r o f

e a s t, th e r e f e c to r y to th e w e st, th e C a r o li n g i a n w a lls

G e ro n a c a th e d ra l is a m o n g th e b e st p re se rv e d a n d

to th e n o r t h a n d th e c h a p t e r h o u s e a n d th e e a rly

rich e st a rt m o n u m e n ts in C a ta lo n ia . In th e p a st,

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research h as fo c u se d o n its sty listic p o s itio n a n d its

(F ig . 1). M o re o v e r, th e s o u t h g a lle r y is e m p h a s iz e d

ico n o g ra p h y .1M o re recently, it w as also a n a ly z e d fu n c -

b y its p r o x i m i t y to th e c h a p t e r h o u s e ( w h ic h is n o r ­

tionally,2 i.e., p a r t o f its ic o n o g ra p h y a n d o rn a m e n ta l

m a lly to th e e a s t) a n d to th e c h u r c h , as w e ll as b y th e

d e c o ra tio n w as re la te d to its litu rg ic a l a n d p a ra litu rg ic a l

tw o c h u r c h e n tr a n c e s a t th e w e s t a n d p r o b a b ly also

fu n c tio n s a c c o rd in g to th e C onsueta o f 1360, th e o rd i­

a t th e s o u t h w a l k ’s e a s t e n d .5 A b o v e a ll, th e s o u th

n al o f G e ro n a C a th e d ra l.3 T h e a im o f th is p a p e r is to

g a lle r y s ta n d s o u t b y th e ic o n o g r a p h y a n d d e c o r a ­

stu d y th e p o ssib ilitie s a n d lim ita tio n s o f su c h a fu n c ­

t i o n o f its p ie r s a n d c a p ita ls (F ig s 2 & 3). N e a rly

tio n a lis t in te rp re ta tio n , n o t o n ly o f th e G e ro n a cloister,

a ll o f th e b ib lic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s are f o u n d in th is

b u t o f R o m a n e sq u e h is to ria te d clo isters in general.

g a lle ry , n o ta b ly a la rg e G e n e s is cy cle o n th e p ie rs a t th e w e s t a n d e a s t e n d s (F ig . 2, n o s I, I I I ) . T h is

I G e ts s s G y c k o ftb e S o u tb lltilA d ju c e n tA r e u s

G e n e s is cycle e x te n d s f r o m A d a m a n d Eve ( p ie r n o . I, F ig s 4 & 5) to A b r a h a m , Isa a c , a n d J a c o b ( p ie r

D u e to th e p r e s e n c e o f e a r lie r e le v e n th - c e n tu r y

I I I , cf. F ig . 8). T h e c e n tr a l p i e r (n o . I I ) sh o w s th e

c o n v e n tu a l b u i ld in g s ,4 th e G e r o n a c lo is te r d o e s n o t

A n a s ta s is o r H a r r o w in g o f H e ll (F ig . 6 ), c o m b in e d

RctmesqtteGitfoedniis in M e le m m e tm E u ro p e jc b ite c tu re jR itM lin d U rk n C o n te x t ١ e i b y G e m d o B o to % eYa.& Jus>t\niA . k e s e n ١ Architatura.

Medii Aevi, 7 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), pp. 259-274 © BREPOLS H PUBLISHERS

10. 1484/M.AMA-EB.5.109576

cy cle o n th e p ie rs a n d th e N e w T e s ta m e n t cycle o n th e c a p ita ls s t a r t n e x t to th e o r ig in a l e n tr a n c e to th e c lo is te r, a t th e a c tu a l c h a p e l o f th e ‘M a re de D é u d e B e ll-u ll’ (F ig . 2). W h ile n e a rly all th e c lo is te r ’s b ib lic a l im a g es are f o u n d in th e s o u th gallery , th e re m a in in g b ib lic a l sce­ n e s are lim ite d to th e s o u th e r n p a r ts o f th e w e st a n d e a st w a lk s (Fig. 2), p a r ts o f w h ic h w e re o rig in a lly m a r ­ k e d b y th e e n tra n c e s to th e re fe c to ry a n d d o r m ito r y (Fig. 1). T h ese areas p r e s e n t e x te n sio n s o f th e s o u th g a lle ry G e n e s is cycle, th a t is, c a p ita ls w ith scen es o f N o a h a n d S a m so n : th e c a p ita l 73 o f th e w e s t gallery, s itu a te d close to th e N o a h reliefs o f th e s o u th w e s t p ie r (n o s Ie, i), sh o w s th e d ru n k e n n e s s o f N o a h ; a n d th e c a p ita ls 21 a n d 25 o f th e e a st g a lle ry re p re s e n t scen es o f th e life o f S a m so n . It seem s sig n ific a n t th a t so m e o f th e se c a p ita ls o f th e w e st a n d e a s t w a lk s in c lu d e t y p o ­ lo g ic a l a n d C h ris to lo g ic a l e le m e n ts a n d , b y im p lic a ­ tio n , re fe re n c e s to th e s o u th g a lle ry C h r i s t cycle. F o r in sta n c e , b o t h th e m o t i f o f th e n a k e d a n d d r u n k e n N o a h , m o c k e d b y h is s o n C h a m , a n d th e scen e o f S a m s o n ’s b lin d in g a n d m o c k in g b y th e P h ilis tin e s are ‘ty p e s ’ o f th e M o c k in g o f C h r is t in M e d ie v a l exegeFig. 1. G erona C athedral cloister w ith adjacent buildings, reconstructed ground plan (after M arc SuREDA I JuBANY, w ith m odifications)

sis.9 In a sim ila r w ay, M e d ie v a l ex eg etes h a v e in te r p r e ­ t e d th e m o t i f o f S a m so n c o n q u e r in g th e lio n (c ap ital n o . 21 o f th e e a st g a lle ry ) as a ‘fig u re ’ o f th e H a rro w in g o f H ell,*, i.e., o f C h r is t b re a k in g d o w n th e gates o f

w i t h m o tif s o f th e D a m n e d in H e ll (F ig . 7 ). S in c e

H e ll, th e sc e n e o n th e s o u th e r n g a lle ry ’s c e n tra l p ie r

th e H a r r o w i n g o f H e ll is a N e w T e s ta m e n t th e m e ,

(see a b o v e ). G o o d e x am p les o f th is ic o n o g ra p h ic a l

i t h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t its im a g e w o u l d ‘i n t e r r u p t ’

a n a lo g y are tw o a d ja c e n t K lo s te r n e u b u r g A lta r e n a ­

th e O l d T e s ta m e n t cy cle o f th is g a lle ry .6 H o w e v e r,

m e l panels,** w h ic h , p la c e d o n e a b o v e th e o th e r, b e a r

in th e D e s c e n t i n to L im b o , C h r i s t n o t o n ly b ro k e

in s c rip tio n s e m p h a s iz in g th e ty p o lo g ic a l re fere n ce s:

d o w n th e g a te s o f H e ll, b u t also r e s c u e d A d a m

th e titu lu s o f th e H a r r o w in g o f H e ll re ad s Iu s d o m u it

a n d E ve a n d th e o t h e r O l d T e s ta m e n t p a tr i a r c h s .7

morti s t u a C h r i step otenciafort is ‫ ؟‬C h Ast ١ y o u ts w o t g

C h r i s t ’s D e s c e n t i n to

p o w e r h a s c o n q u e r e d th e r ig h t o f d e a th ’), w h ile t h a t

H e ll a n d h is s u b s e q u e n t

A s c e n t to H e a v e n s ig n if y in p a r ti c u la r h is r e s u r ­

o f S a m so n c o n q u e r in g th e lio n re ad s V ir g e r it iste

r e c t i o n a n d h is v ic to r y o v e r d e a th a n d S a ta n . T h u s ,

t u a m l eo m o rti s C h r iste j i g u m ‫ ؟‬C h Asv, t h i s m a n

th e H a r r o w in g o f H e ll re p r e s e n ts a c u lm i n a t i o n o f

fo llo w s y o u r e x a m p le ; th e lio n re p re se n ts d e a th ’).*2

th e N e w T e s ta m e n t as w e ll as th e e n d o f th e O l d

T h o u g h th e G e r o n a c lo is te r c a p ita ls a n d p ie r reliefs

T e s ta m e n t. T h e r e f o r e , it fits v e ry w e ll i n to th e

m e n tio n e d h e re are n o t lo c a te d close to e ac h o th e r,

c lo i s t e r ’s s o u t h g a lle ry ic o n o g ra p h y , r e p r e s e n tin g

w e c a n n o t e x clu d e th e p o s s ib ility th a t th e N o a h

a t r a n s it i o n f r o m th e c o r n e r p ie r s ’ O l d T e s ta m e n t

a n d S a m so n c a p ita ls c o n ta in so m e C h ris to lo g ic a l

G e n e s is sc e n e s (n o s I, I I I ) to th e c a p ita ls ’ N e w

c o n n o ta tio n s , e sp e c ia lly w h e n w e c o n s id e r t h a t th ese

T e s ta m e n t sc e n e s (n o s 3, 5, 7, **, *3, *7, *8, *9). T h is

c a p ita ls m a rk th e lim its o f th e O l d T e s ta m e n t cycle.

N e w T e s ta m e n t cy cle s ta r ts w i t h th e A n n u n c i a t i o n ,

P e rh a p s it is also n o t a c o in c id e n c e th a t th e p i e r in

N a tiv ity , a n d E p ip h a n y (n o . * 8 );8 it e n d s w ith th e

f r o n t o f th e o rig in a l re fe c to ry e n tra n c e (cf. Fig. * a n d

D e a th o f th e V ir g in (n o . *7) a n d a s u b je c t w ith

Fig. 2, n o s X I , g , a) sh o w s sc e n es o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n

e s c h a to lo g ic a l a s p e c ts , th e p a r a b le

o f th e d ive s

( r ic h m a n ) a n d L a z a ru s (n o . *9). B o t h th e G e n e s is

260

P e t e r K. K l e i n

o f th e c lo iste r, in p a r tic u la r th e b is h o p as a p a tr o n v is itin g th e m a s o n s a t w ork.*3

Fig. 2. G erona C ath ed ral cloister w ith indication o f historiated capitals and pier reliefs (shaded areas), chapel o f the M are de D éu de Bell-ull (B) and m o d ern entrance (A) (after Catalunya Romànica, w ith m odifications)

S p e c ijic A r c h ite c tiilO T n e w tiw ie S o u th I l k

w i t h fo lia g e sc ro lls, w h ile in th e o t h e r g a lle rie s th e y a re a lw ay s p la in . F in a lly , th e a rc a d e b l in d a rc h e s are

I n a d d it i o n to its ric h b ib lic a l im a g e ry , th e s o u th

m o s tly s u p p o r t e d b y lit t l e a tla s fig u re s, w h e re a s in

g a lle ry is also d is tin g u is h e d b y its a p p r o a c h to a r c h i­

th e o t h e r g a lle rie s th e y are b o r n e b y c o lo n n e tte s .

t e c tu r a l o r n a m e n t, f o r th e c lo is te r a r c a d e ’s b a se s, im p o s ts , a n d b l i n d a rc h e s a re m u c h m o re ric h ly d e c o r a te d t h a n th o s e in th e o t h e r w a lk s (F ig . i o ) . 14

U s e s o fth e S o w th H id A d jtic e w tA fe iis iw

T h u s, in th e s o u t h g a lle ry , th e p l in t h s o f th e b a se s are

R e l،iti§ to tk k ig e fi

o fte n d e c o r a te d w ith fig u re s o f a n im a ls , w h ile in th e o t h e r g a lle rie s t h e y are o n ly p r o v i d e d w ith sim p le

S in c e th e s o u th g a lle ry a n d p a r ts o f th e s o u th e r n

a n g le s p u rs . M o re o v e r, th e im p o s ts o f th e s o u th

areas o f th e w e st a n d e a st w a lk s are d is tin g u is h e d b y

w a lk c a p ita ls a re a lte r n a te ly p la in a n d d e c o r a te d

th e ir b ib lic a l im a g e ry a n d o r n a m e n ta l d e c o ra tio n , th e

T h e I c o n o g r a p h y of t h e C l o i s t e r of G e r o n a C a t h e d r a l

261

th e p ro c e s s io n also m a d e a sin g le s to p in th e s o u th w a lk , th is tim e b e fo re th e s ta tu e o f th e ‘V ir g in o f th e C lo is te r ’;19 in th e e p o c h o f th e C o n su e ta , th e p ro c e s ­ s io n s t o p p e d a t a s ta tu e in th e ty m p a n u m o f th e late th ir te e n th - c e n tu r y s o u th w e s t c o r n e r p o r ta l, w h ic h w as la te r tra n s f o r m e d in to th e e a rlie r m e n tio n e d c h a ­ p e l o f th e ‘M a re d e D é u d e B e ll-u ll’ (Fig. 2 ).20 T h e a p p a re n tly o ld s to n e b e n c h ,21 a b s e n t in th e o t h e r g a lle rie s, is a n o th e r a s p e c t o f th e s o u th w a lk p o ss ib ly re la te d to its f r e q u e n t m u ltip le use. B esid es its p ra c tic a l f u n c tio n as a p la c e o f re st, th is b e n c h a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h w as also d e s tin e d f o r th e litu rg ic a l lectio (o r collatio) as w e ll as f o r p riv a te re a ­ d in g , f u n c tio n s t h a t are e sp e c ia lly d o c u m e n te d f o r C is te rc ia n c lo iste rs.22 In th e case o f th e G e r o n a c lo is­ ter, th is b e n c h w as p r o b a b ly also i n te n d e d f o r c e r­ ta in litu rg ic a l a n d p a ra litu rg ic a l rite s, in p a r tic u la r Fig. 3. G erona C ath ed ra l cloister, view o f th e south w alk tow ards the east (p h o to B ildarchiv Foto M arburg)

th e w a s h in g o f th e fe e t o f th e p o o r (th e m a n d a tu m p a u p e r u m ). T h is m o n a s tic rite w as also o b lig a to r y in c a th e d ra ls , w h ic h f o llo w e d th e ru le s o f th e A a c h e n

q u e s tio n arises as to th e re aso n s, esp e cially fu n c tio n a l o n e s, f o r th is e m p h a sis. O f c o u rse , th e m a in f u n c tio n o f th e c lo is te r w as to serv e as a c o m m u n ic a tio n sp ace b e tw e e n th e c h u rc h a n d th e v a rio u s c o n v e n tu a l b u il­ d in g s. I t is w o r th n o tin g th a t th e sp ace o f th e G e ro n a c lo is te r p rim a rily u s e d in th e d a ily r o u tin e , th e a rea c o n n e c tin g th e e n tra n c e s to th e c h u rc h w ith th e m o s t im p o r t a n t c o m m u n a l b u ild in g s ( c h a p te r h o u se , re fe c to ry , d o r m ito r y ) , w as in th e g alleries se t o f f b y th e ir b ib lic a l a n d o rn a m e n ta l d e c o ra tio n , i.e., th e s o u th w a lk a n d th e s o u th e r n p a r ts o f th e w e s t a n d e ast w a lk s (cf. Fig. 2, th e s h a d e d areas). T h e p a r ts n o r t h o f th is ra n g e o n ly h o u s e d a n access o f s e c o n d a ry im p o r ­ ta n c e : a sta irc a se in th e n o r th e a s t c o rn e r, le a d in g to th e s to re y a b o v e th e n o r t h w a lk (Fig. 2 ).15 T h is flo o r is a sm a ll h a ll, to d a y c a lle d ‘E l T in e ll’. Its o rig in a l f u n c ­

262

r e fo rm ,23 as w a s p r o b a b ly th e case in G e ro n a . T h o u g h in th e G e r o n a C o n su eta th e m a n d a t u m p a u p e r u m is n o t m e n tio n e d , it m ig h t still h a v e b e e n a d a ily p r a c ­ tic e , a t le a s t d u r in g th e p e r io d o f L e n t.24 M o re o v e r, th e re is a n ic o n o g ra p h ic a r g u m e n t w h ic h seem s to in d ic a te th a t th e m a n d a t u m p a u p e r u m w a s in d e e d p e r f o r m e d in th e s o u th g allery , p o ss ib ly o n its s to n e b e n c h . A r e lie f o n th e s o u th e a s t p i e r re p re se n ts th e W a s h in g o f th e F e e t o f th e T h re e A n g e ls b y A b r a h a m (Fig. 8). In th e b ib lic a l s to r y (G e n . 1 8 :1 -1 6 ), G o d a p p e a rs to A b r a h a m

in th e T r in ita r ia n sh a p e o f

th re e a n g els to a n n o u n c e th e b i r th o f h is s o n Isaac. T o g e th e r w ith th e S acrifice o f Isaac, th e W a s h in g o f th e A n g e ls ’ F e e t re p re s e n ts o n e o f th e decisive m o m e n ts in th e life o f th e p a tr ia r c h A b ra h a m . In C h r is tia n exegesis, th e s e tw o sc e n es h a d a p p a r e n t C h ris to lo g ic a l c o n n o ta tio n s , th e S acrifice o f Isaac

t io n is n o t d o c u m e n te d ; it la te r a c c o m m o d a te d th e

a llu d in g to th e C ru c ifix io n a n d th e W a s h in g o f th e

d o r m ito r y a n d th e lib ra ry .16

A n g e ls ’ F e e t b e in g a p r e f ig u r a tio n f o r th e W a s h in g

W i t h i n th e a rea m o s t u s e d in d a ily life, th e sp ace

o f th e D is c ip le s ’ F e e t b y C h r is t.25 Yet, w h ile th e re are

p a r tic u la r ly i m p o r ta n t f o r its litu rg ic a l f u n c tio n w as

h u n d r e d s o f im a g e s o f th e S acrifice o f Isaac, M e d ie v a l

th e s o u th w a lk , a d ja c e n t to th e c a th e d ra l a n d c a lle d

r e p re s e n ta tio n s o f th e W a s h in g o f th e A n g e ls ’ F e e t are

‘first w a lk ’ (p r i m u m c la u s tr u m ) in th e C o n su eta o f

r a th e r ra re, a n d th is w ith g o o d re a so n . In th e b ib lic a l

G e r o n a C a th e d r a l.'7 O n c e rta in fe a s t days, th e p r o ­

sto ry , o n ly a sin g le v erse d e sc rib e s th e W a s h in g o f th e

c essio n s m a d e a sin g le s ta tio n in th e s o u th w a lk

A n g e ls ’ F e e t (G e n . 1 8 :4 ), a n d it is th e v e ry an g els w h o

b e fo re r e tu r n in g d ire c tly to th e c a th e d ra l, o r b e fo re

are w a s h in g th e i r o w n fe e t, n o t A b ra h a m ! A n d w h a t

r e tu r n in g to th e c a th e d ra l via th e c h a p te r h o u s e , as

is still m o re i m p o r ta n t, in th e s to r y o f th e th re e an g els

f o r in sta n c e o n th e fe a st o f th e P u rific a tio n o f th e

o t h e r m o m e n ts p r e d o m in a te : th e i r a p p e a ra n c e b e fo re

V ir g in M a ry .18 O n th e fe a s t o f th e A n n u n c ia tio n ,

A b r a h a m — a k i n d o f T r in ita r ia n th e o p h a n y —

P e t e r K. K l e i n

'١٠

‫ ب‬-

٠)

: Fig. 4.

٩■

٣

'‫س‬-:

٠ ٠

G erona C ath e d ra l cloister, south walk, w estern p ier (Ia): C reatio n an d Fall o f A dam and Eve (p h o to H eike H a n s e n )

Fig. 5. G erona C ath ed ral cloister, so u th walk, w estern p ier (Ic): L abour o f A dam and Eve, story o f C ain and A bel (p h o to H eike H ansen)

a n d A b r a h a m ’s h o s p ita lity , o ffe rin g th e m fo o d . T hese

b y A b r a h a m ) .27 A sim ila r c o m b in a tio n o f th e s e tw o

are also th e su b je c ts re p r e s e n te d in th e im a g e s sin ce

sc e n es re c u rs o n a d o u b le c a p ita l in th e T a rra g o n a

E a rly C h r is tia n tim e s .26 A fa m o u s e x a m p le is f o u n d

c a th e d r a l’s la te R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste r.2‫ ؟‬T h e W a s h in g

a m o n g th e c h a n c e l m o sa ic s o f S an V ita le a t R a v e n n a ,

o f th e A n g e ls ’ F e e t, th o u g h , is la c k in g h e re as in all

w h e re

o t h e r R o m a n e s q u e G e n e sis cycles in C a ta lo n ia .29

th e

S acrifice

o f Isaac

is c o m b in e d

w ith

A b r a h a m ’s h o s p ita lity to th e th re e an g els, w ith so m e

I f th e im a g e s o f th e W a s h in g o f th e A n g e ls’ F e e t

o b v io u s E u c h a ris tic m o tifs ( th e th re e c o n s e c ra te d

are r a th e r ra re c o m p a r e d to th e o t h e r m o m e n ts o f th e

w afers o n th e ta b le a n d th e sm a ll c a lf o ffe re d as f o o d

A b r a h a m sto ry , it is still m o re s ig n ific a n t t h a t so m e

T h e I c o n o g r a p h y of t h e C l o i s t e r of G e r o n a C a t h e d r a l

263

264

Fig. 6.

G erona C ath e d ra l cloister, so u th walk, central p ier (IIa): Anastasis (p h o to H eike H a n s e n )

Fig. 7.

G erona C a th e d ra l cloister, so u th walk, central pier (IIc): Anastasis (end) and H ell w ith Vices (p h o to H eike H a n s e n )

P e t e r K. K l e i n

fi ‫ر‬

Fig. 8. G erona C ath e d ra l cloister, south walk, eastern p ier (IIIa): W ashing o f th e Angels’ Feet by A b rah am (p h o to Bildarchiv Foto M arburg)

o f th e s e ex am p le s a p p e a r in a ty p o lo g ic a l c o n te x t.

p o o r ( m a n d a tu m p a u p e r u m ). T h e la t t e r w a s p ro b a b ly

T h e y are e ith e r c o m b in e d w ith th e W a s h in g o f th e

p r a c tis e d in th e a d ja c e n t s o u th g allery , p e rh a p s o n its

D isc ip le s’ F e e t b y C h r is t, as in a p a ir o f s ta in e d glass

s to n e b e n c h , sin c e it c a n h a r d ly b e a c o in c id e n c e th a t

c h o ir w in d o w s a t S a n F ra n c e sc o in A ssisi,30 o r ev en

th e th r e e an g els o f th e r e lie f (Fig. 8) are s ittin g o n

w ith a n im a g e o f th e m a n d a t u m p a u p e r u m , as in th e

a s to n e b e n c h s im ila r to th e o n e in th e s o u th w a lk

E n g lish P e te r b o r o u g h P s a lte r (B ru ssels, B ib lio th è q u e

(F ig. 3). L ik e w ise , it is c e rta in ly n o t b y a c c id e n t th a t

R o y ale, M S 9 9 6 1 /9 9 6 2 ): h e re , th e w a s h in g o f th e fe e t

th e c a p ita l n e x t to th e r e lie f o f th e W a s h in g o f th e

o f th re e p o o r m e n is p e r f o r m e d b y S a in t B e n e d ic t

A n g e ls ’ F e e t (Fig. 2, n o s I l i a a n d b ) re p re se n ts a n o ­

h im s e lf.31 In v ie w o f all th e s e fa cts, w e c a n c o n c lu d e

t h e r sc e n e r e la te d to a p a ra litu rg ic a l rite . I n th is

t h a t th e e x c e p tio n a l sc e n e o f th e W a s h in g o f th e T h ree

case, th e c o rre s p o n d in g rite , th e ritu a l sh a v in g , is

A n g e ls’ F e e t in th e s o u th w a lk o f th e G e r o n a c lo iste r

d ire c tly r e p re s e n te d (Fig. 9): w e n o tic e tw o se a te d

refers to th e rite o f th e m a n d a t u m , e ith e r th e w a s­

clerics, o n e sh a v in g th e o th e r. T h o u g h th e fig u re o f

h in g o f th e fe e t o f th e c a n o n s ( m a n d a tu m f r a t r u m )

th e s e c o n d cle ric is n o t w e ll p re s e rv e d , th e a c tio n o f

ta k in g p lac e in th e n e a rb y c h a p te r h o u s e ,32 o r o f th e

sh a v in g b y th e le ft cle ric c a n still b e re c o g n iz e d . It is

T h e I c o n o g r a p h y of t h e C l o i s t e r of G e r o n a C a t h e d r a l

265

I c o r a o g r a # ) ic ،ilg ،iF ic ti( iilA ttr ik te s o ; ftk ll

In a n y case, th e c le a r ic o n o g ra p h ie a n d f u n c tio n a l d is tin c tio n o f th e w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h in th e G e ro n a c lo iste r is b y n o m e a n s a n is o la te d case, b u t fin d s its a n a lo g y in a series o f o th e r R o m a n e s q u e clo is­ te rs. M o s t c o m p a ra b le are th o se in w h ic h th e w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h is ic o n o g ra p h ic a lly se t off, n o r ­ m a lly d isp la y in g a n O l d a n d N e w T e s ta m e n t cycle o r a series o f im ag es fro m th e life o f C h ris t. F o r in stan c e , o n e m a y m e n tio n th e c ap itals in th e n o r t h g a lle ry o f th e c lo iste r a t th e C a ta la n A u g u s tin ia n c h u rc h o f S a n ta M a ria d e l ’E stan y , w h ic h n a rra te th e h is to r y o f S a lv a tio n fro m A d a m a n d Eve u n til th e e n d o f tim e ; c o m p a ra b le to th e G e ro n a c lo ister, th e b ib lic a l cycle a t L ’E s ta n y sta rts n e x t to th e e n tra n c e to th e c h u rc h .37 Sim ilarly, th e s o u th w a lk o f th e S a n t C u g a t d el V allès c lo iste r fe a tu re s a series o f O ld a n d N e w T e s ta m e n t c ap itals t h a t also s ta r t n e x t to th e c h u rc h p o r ta l; m o re o v e r, th e s o u th p a r t o f th e e a st g a lle ry in f r o n t o f th e c h a p te r h o u s e d isp lay s a re d u c e d cycle o f th e In fa n c y o f C h ris t, w h ic h m ay g e n e ra lly b e c o m p a re d w ith th e fe w b ib lic a l c ap itals in th e s o u th e r n p a r ts o f Fig. 9.

G erona C ath ed ral cloister, south walk, eastern

pier, capital (IlIb ): Shaving o f Two Clerics (p h o to M arc SuREDA I J u BANy )

th e e ast a n d w e st w a lk s o f th e G e ro n a clo iste r.38 L ess c o m p a ra b le in th is re g a rd are th e c lo iste rs a t A ix -e n -P ro v e n c e a n d E stella. T h o u g h b o t h e m p h a siz e th e w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h b y m e a n s o f n a rra tiv e c ap itals, th e d isp la y e d ic o n o g ra p h y is d iffe re n t fro m

th e r ite o f th e ra su ra , th e s h a v in g o f a p o r t i o n o f th e h e a d to o b t a i n th e to n s u r e . T h is r ite a n d th e s h a v in g o f th e b e a r d w e re o b l ig a t o r y f o r b o t h m o n k s a n d c a n o n s .33 M e d ie v a l c u s to m a r ie s lea v e n o

266

th e e x am p les m e n tio n e d ab o v e. T h u s, th e c a p itals in th e n o r t h g a lle ry a t A ix -e n -P ro v e n c e C a th e d r a l are lim ite d to a fe w scen es o f th e In fa n c y a n d P a ssio n o f C h r is t,39 w h ile th e c a p ita ls o f th e n o r t h w a lk a t th e

d o u b t s t h a t th e s e r itu a l s h a v in g s w e re p r a c t i s e d in

c o lle g ia te c h u rc h o f S an P e d ro de la RUa in E stella

th e c lo is te r.34 In th e case o f th e G e r o n a c lo is te r, w e

re p re s e n t in s te a d h a g io g ra p h ic a n d C h ris to lo g ic a l

m a y a ssu m e t h a t th e y t o o k p la c e c lo se to th e c a p i­

th e m e s .40 N e v e rth e le ss , s im ila r to th e c lo iste rs a t

ta l m e n t i o n e d , e s p e c ia lly sin c e its g a lle ry , th e s o u th

G e ro n a , L ’E stan y , a n d S a n t C u g a t, th e c a p ita l cycles

w a lk , is th e o n ly o n e w i t h a s to n e b e n c h so t h a t th e

o f th e g a lle ry a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h a t A ix a n d E stella

c a n o n s c o u ld s it d o w n ‘a g a in s t th e w a ll’, as o n e o f

s ta r t n e x t to th e c lo iste r p o r ta l. A s to th e ic o n o g ra ­

th e C lu n y c u s to m a r ie s p r e s c r ib e d .35 N e v e rth e le s s ,

p h y , o th e r R o m a n e s q u e m o n u m e n ts n o t o n ly se t

in th e c lo is te r o f th e B e n e d ic tin e a b b e y o f S a n t

o f f th e w a lk n e x t to th e c h u rc h b u t also a n o th e r g al­

C u g a t d e l V allès, w h ic h is s ty lis tic a lly a n d ic o n o -

lery, n o rm a lly a d ja c e n t. T h u s, th e o n ly R o m a n e s q u e

g r a p h ic a lly c lo s e ly r e la te d to th e G e r o n a c lo iste r,

c lo iste r g alleries o f th e c a th e d ra l o f S a in t-T ro p h im e

th e a n a lo g o u s c a p ita l w i t h th e r itu a l ra su ra sc e n e

a t A rle s are th e n o r t h w a lk n e x t to th e c h u rc h , a n d

is n o t l o c a t e d in th e w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u r c h

th e e a st w a lk , a n d th e se are also th e o n ly o n e s w ith

b u t in th e n o r t h g a lle r y in f r o n t o f th e r e fe c to ry ,

a c o h e r e n t b ib lic a l cy cle :41 th e p ie rs o f th e n o r t h

w h e re , a c c o r d in g to th e c u s to m a r y o f S a n t C u g a t,

g a lle ry are d e c o r a te d w ith reliefs o f a n E a s te r cycle

th e r itu a l s h a v in g r ite t o o k p la c e .36

(fro m th e R e s u rre c tio n to th e A s c e n sio n ), w h ile th e

P e t e r K. K l e i n

Fig. 10.

G erona C ath e d ra l cloister, draw ing o f so u th w alk arcading (after H eike H a n s e n )

c ap itals s h o w ty p o lo g ic a l scen es o f t h e O ld T e s ta m e n t.

p r o fa n e m o tifs (apes, c e n ta u rs , e tc .) in th e m a n n e r o f

F u rth e r, th e e a st w a lk p ie rs a n d c a p ita ls p r e s e n t t h e ­

th e ‘m a rg in a l im a g e s’.42

m es f r o m th e In fa n c y a n d P a ssio n o f C h ris t, w h ic h d is ta n tly re ca ll th e n o r t h g a lle ry a t A ix (see ab o v e). A n a rtistic d is tin c tio n o f th e w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h re cu rs in th e c lo iste r o f th e c o lle g ia te c h u rc h o f G r o ß m ü n s te r a t Z u ric h , w h ic h is n e a rly c o n te m ­ p o r a r y w ith th e G e ro n a clo iste r. In th e Z u r ic h c lo is­

L im itÆ tio r a s o ftb e F ic tio M lis tI r a te ïlir e tÆ til T h e fo re g o in g e x am p les su g g e st t h a t — a n a lo g o u s to th e G e ro n a c lo is te r — in a n u m b e r o f o th e r R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste rs th e g a lle ry a d ja c e n t to th e

ter, th e s o u th w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h a n d th e

c h u rc h is e m p h a s iz e d b y its ic o n o g ra p h y . H o w e v e r,

w e st g a lle ry are th e o n ly o n e s se t o f f b y th e ir fig u rativ e

w ith re g a rd to m o s t o f th e se , w e d o n o t k n o w m u c h

cap itals, a lth o u g h th e y are n o t n a rra tiv e b u t p re s e n t

a b o u t th e ir litu rg ic a l a n d p a ra litu rg ic a l fu n c tio n s , b e

T h e I c o n o g r a p h y of t h e C l o i s t e r of G e r o n a C a t h e d r a l

267

268

it b e ca u se th e c o rre s p o n d in g c u sto m a rie s a n d o th e r

tim e o f th e re d a c tio n o f th e G e r o n a C o n su eta o f 1360,

re le v a n t so u rc e s are lo st, o r b e c a u se th e p re s e rv e d

th e d o r m ito r y w as n o lo n g e r in th e b u ild in g a d ja c e n t

tex ts o ffe r fe w p e r ti n e n t d e ta ils. B esid es th e c lo is te r o f

to th e e a st w a lk ( n o w c o n v e rte d in to th e sa c risty ) b u t

G e r o n a c a th e d ra l, w e k n o w o f o n ly tw o R o m a n e s q u e

lo c a te d o n th e s e c o n d flo o r o f th e n o r t h g allery.49

c lo iste rs w ith h is to r ia te d o r a t le a s t fig u ra tiv e im a ­

W h ile in th is case th e c h a n g e seem s to h ave o n ly

g e ry f o r w h ic h c u sto m a rie s w ith d e ta ile d in f o r m a ­

sc a rce ly a ffe c te d th e litu rg ic a l fu n c tio n s , e sp ecially

t io n o n t h e ir litu rg ic a l f u n c tio n s are p re se rv e d : th e

th e p ro c e s sio n s, in o th e r in sta n c e s th e c h a n g e s c o u ld

Z u r ic h L i b e r O r d in a r iu s a n d th e C onsueta o f th e

h av e h a d m u c h m o re im p a c t.

a b b e y o f S a n t C u g a t d e l V allès, b o t h a lre a d y d a tin g

O th e r , m o re f u n d a m e n ta l a sp e c ts l im i t f u n c t i o ­

f r o m th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry .43 A c c o rd in g to th e L ib e r

n a lis t in te r p r e ta tio n s o f R o m a n e s q u e h is t o r ia t e d

O rd in a r iu s o f th e Z u r ic h G ro ß m ü n s te r , th e p ro c e s ­

c lo iste rs. E x c e p t f o r so m e s p o ra d ic s u b je c ts re fe rrin g

sio n s o n fe a st days m a d e o n ly o n e s ta tio n in th e w a lk

to litu r g ic a l p ra c tic e s ( m a n d a tu m , rasura, lec tio ), th e

a d ja c e n t to th e c h o ir b e fo re r e tu r n in g to th e c h u rc h ,

m a jo r ity o f th e c a p ita ls a n d p i e r re lie fs b e a r n o re la ­

e ith e r d ire c tly th r o u g h th e c lo is te r p o r ta l to th e c h o ir

t io n to th e v a rio u s f u n c tio n s o f th e c lo iste rs. T h is is

o r v ia a n e x te rn a l d e to u r.44 O n th e c o n tra ry , fo llo w in g

m o s t e v id e n t w ith r e g a r d to o r n a m e n ta l d e c o r a tio n ,

th e in d ic a tio n s o f th e C onsueta o f S a n t C u g a t, th e

s u c h as fo lia g e sc ro lls i n h a b i t e d b y a n im a ls a n d m e n

fe a s t d ay p ro c e s sio n s in th e c lo is te r o f t h a t a b b e y n o r ­

o r d if f e r e n t k in d s o f h y b rid s , as is o fte n f o u n d in th e

m a lly m a d e s ta tio n s in v a rio u s g alleries; h o w e v e r, th e y

n o n - b ib lic a l p a r ts o f th e G e r o n a c lo iste r.50 T h e sam e

te r m in a te d in th e s o u th w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h ,

a p p lie s to m o tif s o f th e s o -c a lle d ‘m a rg in a l im a g e s’,

c a lle d ‘th e m a jo r ’ in th e C o n su e ta , w h e re th e m o n k s

as, f o r in s ta n c e , a p a ir o f w re s tle rs o r th e h u n t in g

ckm eA

G loriosus m a r tir C u c u | k s ,

o f a w ild b o a r o n tw o c a p ita ls o f th e G e r o n a w e s t

d e d ic a te d to th e p a tr o n o f th e a b b e y ; o n o th e r days,

w a lk (F ig. 2, n o s 63, 6 5 ).51 W h a t e v e r th e sp ecific

th e p ro c e s sio n s m a d e t h e ir o n ly s to p in th is g allery .45

m e a n in g o f th is k i n d o f im a g e ry , th e r e is n o d o u b t

The. ■ a n t i p k n

M o re o v e r, th e c a p ita ls w ith ritu a l sh a v in g re p re s e n ­

t h a t it is n o t r e la te d to th e v a rio u s M e d ie v a l c lo is te r

ta tio n s a n d o f th e W a s h in g o f th e D isc ip le s’ F e e t in

f u n c tio n s .

th e n o r t h a n d e a st w a lk s re fe r to th e c o rre s p o n d in g

Still m o re im p o r t a n t is th a t th is f u n c tio n a l d is­

ritu a ls w h ic h — a c c o rd in g to th e C o n su eta — t o o k

c o n n e c t also a p p lie s to n e a rly all th e b ib lic a l cycles

p la c e n e x t to th e s e c a p ita ls.46

o f th e R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste rs, e sp e c ia lly in th e g a lle ry

T h e p ro b le m s a n d lim ita tio n s o f a fu n c tio n a lis t

a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h e s. T h ese cycles are c o n c e iv e d

in te r p r e ta tio n o f h is to r ia te d R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste rs

as sim p le n a rra tiv e s o f th e Fall a n d R e d e m p tio n a n d

are v a rio u s sin c e, in m o s t cases, th e c o rre s p o n d in g

c o r r e s p o n d to a g e n e ra l c o n c e p t, w h ic h also d e te r ­

c u sto m a rie s are n o t p re se rv e d . A la c k o f lo c a l so u rc e s

m in e d th e m o sa ic a n d p a in t e d d e c o r a tio n in th e naves

c a n b e a d d re s s e d b y u s in g th e c u sto m a rie s o r o r d in a ­

o f th e c h u rc h e s 52 as w e ll as m a n y e x te rio r p o r ta l s c u lp ­

ries o f o th e r c o m p a ra b le in s titu tio n s , in p a r tic u la r o f

tu re s: all are im a g e s f o r th e la y p u b lic , w h ic h , a c c o r­

th e sa m e m o n a s tic o r c a n o n ic a l o rd e r; f o r e x am p le,

d in g to th e ru les, w as n o rm a lly n o t a d m i t te d to th e

u s in g th e n u m e ro u s c u sto m a rie s o f C lu n y its e lf h a s

clo iste rs. S u c h a la c k o f f u n c tio n a l re la tio n s c a n also

b e e n p r o p o s e d f o r a f u n c tio n a lis t in te r p r e ta tio n o f

b e o b s e rv e d in th e s o u th w a lk o f th e G e r o n a c lo is­

th e c lo is te r o f th e C lu n ia c a b b e y o f M o issa c ,47 w h e re

ter, a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h . T h o u g h , as a lre a d y m e n ­

litu rg ic a l so u rc e s are scarce. H o w e v e r, w e c a n n e v e r b e

tio n e d , b o t h th e O l d a n d N e w T e s ta m e n t im ag es o f

su re w h e th e r litu rg ic a l c u sto m s w e re alw ays id e n tic a l

th is g a lle ry s ta r t in th e p r o x im ity o f th e c h u r c h ’s w e s­

e v en w ith in th e sa m e o rd e r. A n o t h e r p r o b le m is th a t

te r n e n tra n c e , th e p ie r re lie fs o f th e O l d T e s ta m e n t

m o s t o f th e p re s e rv e d c u sto m a rie s a n d o rd in a rie s in

cycle d o n o t b e g in in f r o n t o f th e o r ig in a l e n tra n c e ,

q u e s tio n are r a th e r la te , d a tin g f r o m th e t h ir t e e n t h o r

th e p la c e o f th e a c tu a l c h a p e l o f th e ‘M a re d e D é u de

f o u r te e n th c e n tu ry . C o n f r o n t e d w ith th is p ro b le m , it

B e ll-u ll’, b u t face th e m o d e rn c lo iste r p o r t a l (Fig. 2,

is o fte n a ssu m e d th a t th e litu rg ic a l p ra c tic e s g e n e ra lly

n o . Ia). T h is p o s itio n c o rre s p o n d s to th e p ro c e d u re

re m a in e d th e sa m e o v e r th e c e n tu rie s .48 H o w e v e r,

o n th e o t h e r s o u th w a lk p ie rs, th e ir n a rra tiv e alw ays

w e k n o w th a t so m e tim e s th e f u n c tio n s o f c e rta in

s ta r tin g o n th e w e s te rn sid e (Fig. 2, n o s IIa , IIIa ).

c o n v e n tu a l b u ild in g s c h a n g e d , b e c a u se o f la te r tr a n s ­

W h e r e a s th is a rra n g e m e n t m ak e s sen se in th e case

fo rm a tio n s o r n e w c o n s tru c tio n s . F o r in sta n c e , in th e

o f th e c e n tra l a n d e a s te rn p ie rs, w h o s e w e s te rn sides

P e t e r K. K l e i n

w ere se e n first b y a s p e c ta to r c o m in g f r o m th e c lo iste r

M o re im p o r ta n t th a n th e rare c o m b in a tio n o f th e

e n tra n c e , th is d id n o t a p p ly to th e w e s te rn p ie r: sin ce

A n a sta sis w ith a scene o f H e ll5‫ ؛‬is th e u n iq u e fe atu re

a p e r s o n e n te rin g th e c lo is te r b y th e o rig in a l p o r ta l

o f th e m a jo rity o f th e d a m n e d , sta n d in g in th e flam es,

(w h e re w e n o w f in d th e C h a p e l o f th e V irg in ) first

re fe rrin g to specific vices, in p a rtic u la r a v a ritia (a c lo ­

fa c e d th e s o u th sid e o f th e w e s te rn p ie r (Fig. 2, n o .

th e d m a n in th e c e n tre h o ld s a m o n e y b a g w ith b o th

Ic), s h o w in g a lre a d y th e s e c o n d p h a se o f th e life o f

h a n d s ), discordia (tw o n a k e d m e n a t th e rig h t s ta b b in g

A d a m a n d Eve, th e ir re p ro v a l a n d w o rk , as w e ll as th e

e ach o th e r w ith d ag g ers), a n d lu x u r ia (a n a k e d w o m a n

s to r y o f C a in a n d A b e l (Fig. 5). O n th e c o n tra ry , th e

a t th e rig h t w h o se b re asts are a tta c k e d b y snakes).

decisive m o m e n ts o f th e A d a m a n d Eve s to r y — th e ir

A m o re g e n eric scene to th e left o f th e vices sh o w s tw o

c re a tio n a n d fa ll (Fig. 4 ) — w e re n o t v isib le fro m

angels c astin g tw o figures o f th e d a m n e d in to th e fire.

th is an g le, sin c e th e y are re p re s e n te d o n th e w e st side

T h e e ast side o f th is p ie r (Fig. 2, no . lie ) c o n tin u e s th e

o f th is p ie r (Fig. 2, n o . Ia), to d a y fa c in g th e m o d e r n

H e ll m o tifs w ith tw o f u r th e r lu x u r ia w o m e n a n d o th e r

e n tra n c e , b u t o rig in a lly a b a re w all.

figures o f th e d a m n e d th r o w n b y devils in to a b o ilin g

T he A n astasis o r H a rro w in g o f H e ll (Fig. 6) o n th e

c a u ld ro n .

s o u th w a lk ’s c e n tra l p ie r (Fig. 2, n o . IIa) p re se n ts o th e r

I t is e v id e n t th a t all these figures are n o t th e d a m n e d

p ro b le m s. A s w as a lre ad y m e n tio n e d , th is su b je c t —

o f th e O ld T e sta m e n t b u t th o se o f c o n te m p o ra ry tim es

C h r i s t ’s D e s c e n t in to L im b o a n d th e rescue o f A d a m

k n o w n fro m n u m e ro u s im ages o f th e L ast Ju d g e m e n t,

a n d Eve a n d o th e r p a tria rc h s o f th e O ld T e sta m e n t

w h ic h — o f course — is n o t re p re se n te d h e re ; th ere

— m akes sense h e re , sin ce it c o m b in e s th e O ld a n d

is o n ly a n allu sio n to th e d iv in e ju d g e m e n t as a fu tu re

N e w T e s ta m e n t (c o m p a ra b le to th e c o m b in a tio n o f

th re a t. A s a lre ad y in d ic a te d , th e specific vices e m p h a ­

th e O ld T e s ta m e n t p ie r reliefs a n d th e N e w T e sta m e n t

siz ed h e re — A varice, L u st, a n d D is c o rd — are m o re

cap itals o f th is gallery ); it refers to th e e le c t o f th e O ld

im p o rta n t, since th ese su b je cts are n o rm a lly re p re ­

L aw as w ell as to th e R e su rre c tio n o f C h rist. H o w ev e r,

se n te d in places accessible to th e g e n era l p u b lic , in

its c o m p o s itio n h e re is n o t c o n v in c in g in all resp ects

p a rtic u la r o n e a e r i o r p o rta ls a n d p o rc h e s .57 T h ere are

a n d c o n ce d es m u c h space to th e th re e angels w h o

m a n y exam ples o f th e c o m b in a tio n o f lu x u r ia a n d a v a ­

a c c o m p a n y C h r is t w ith o u t h a v in g a specific fu n c tio n ;

ritia , in p a rtic u la r in F re n c h R o m a n e sq u e , fo r instan ce,

so m e tim es th ese angels h e lp C h r is t to b in d S a tan ,53

o n th e P o rte des C o m te s o f S a in t-S e rn in a t T o u lo use

b u t th is is n o t th e case h e re . In ste a d , w e see th e tr a d i­

a n d o n th e p o rta ls o f th e fo rm e r abbeys o f M o issac a n d

tio n a l m o ti f o f C h r is t re a c h in g f o r th e h a n d o f A d a m

B e a u lie u -su r-D o rd o g n e .58 In so m e im ages o f th e L ast

a n d Eve to rescue th e m fro m th e U n d e rw o rld , w h o se

Ju d g e m e n t, th e c e n tra l figures o f th e d a m n e d are also

p o w e r is b ro k e n : th e g ates o f H e ll are d e stro y e d a n d

p e rso n ific a tio n s o f L u st a n d A varice, as o n th e lin te l

C h r is t is p ie rc in g S a ta n ’s n a k e d b o d y w ith a c ru c ifo rm

o f th e L ast Ju d g e m e n t p o rta l o f th e c a th e d ra l o f S aint-

staff. In its b asic m o tifs a n d c o m p o s itio n , th e G e ro n a

L azare a t A u tu n o r in th e p o rta l ty m p a n u m o f th e

re lie f c o rre sp o n d s to o th e r exam ples o f th is su b je ct,

A b b e y o f C o n q u e s .59 T h e em p h asis o n th ese tw o vices

fo r in stan c e , in th e c o n te m p o ra ry L u ito ld G o sp e ls in

in p u b lic im ages o n e x te rio r p o rta ls c o n tra sts w ith th e

V ie n n a

Cod.

re p re se n ta tio n s o f th e L ast J u d g e m e n t in illu stra tio n s

1 2 4 4 ).54 T h e G e ro n a A n a sta sis scen e c o n tin u e s o n

o f litu rg ica l a n d exegetical m a n u sc rip ts fo r clerical o r

th e w a lk side o f th e p ie r (Fig. 2, n o . IIc), sh o w in g

m o n a stic use: h e re, th e re p re se n ta tio n o f th e d a m n e d

f u r th e r figures o f th e p a tria rc h s a n d e le c t o f th e O ld

do es n o t d iffere n tia te b e tw e e n th e specific vices, a n d

(Ö s te rre ic h is c h e

N a tio n a lb ib lio th e k ,

T esta m en t, w h o raise th e ir h a n d s e x p e c tin g th e ir res­

th e d a m n e d are m o stly sh o w n as a m ass o f n a k e d

cue (Fig. 7, left m a rg in ). T h is is a m o ti f th a t re cu rs in

figures. See, fo r in stan c e , th e illu stra tio n s o f th e L ast

o th e r A n a sta sis im ages, f o r in sta n c e in a n O t t o n ia n

J u d g e m e n t in th e P sa lte r o f M a rg u e rite d e B o u rg o g n e

G o s p e l b o o k fro m E c h te rn a c h (B re m e n , S taats- u n d

(Paris, B ib lio th è q u e S ain te -G e n ev iè v e, M S 1273) o r —

U n iv e rsitä tsb ib lio th e k , M S b. 21).55 H o w ev e r, s u rp ri­

to m e n tio n a S p a n ish exam ple — th e re p re se n ta tio n o f

singly, o n th e rig h t side o f th e p a tria rc h s in L im b o ,

th e sam e su b je c t in th e late tw e lfth -c e n tu ry C a stilian

a n o th e r scene b eg in s, w ith o u t a clear lin e o f d e m a rc a ­

B e atu s c o d e x in M a n c h e s te r (T h e J o h n R ylands L ibrary,

tio n ex cep t fo r th e jo in ts o f th e sto n e s (Fig. 7, c en tre).

M S lat. 8).6° M o re o v e r, th e th ir d vice re p re se n te d in th e

T his scene is n o t p a r t o f L im b o , as o n e m ig h t a t first

G e ro n a H e ll scene (Fig. 7) — discordia — also recu rs o n

su sp ec t; w e see th e d a m n e d in H e ll p ro p e rly sp eak in g .

th e e x te rio r p o rta ls a n d p o rc h e s, as, fo r in stan ce, in th e

T h e I c o n o g r a p h y of t h e C l o i s t e r of G e r o n a C a t h e d r a l

269

m id -e le v e n th -c e n tu ry to w e r p o r c h o f th e B e n e d ic tin e

m a n d a tu m a n d th e rasura), R o m a n e s q u e c lo is te r ic o ­

ab b ey o f S a in t-B e n o it-su r-L o ire . O n o n e o f its capitals,

n o g ra p h y g e n e ra lly sh o w s n o sp e c ific fe a tu re s re la te d

tw o m e n are q u a rre llin g a b o u t a w o m a n , o n e d is p u ta n t

to th e m u ltip le f u n c tio n s o f th is c e n tra l c o m m u n a l

p u llin g th e o t h e r ’s b e a rd ; n e x t to th e m are so m e m e n

space. M o re o v e r, as a lre a d y n o te d , th e c lo iste rs’ fig u ­

b e in g a tta c k e d b y se rp e n ts, sim ila r to th e d a m n e d in

ra tiv e a n d h is to r ia te d d e c o r a tio n d o e s n o t v a ry in

H e ll, a n d th e a d ja c e n t c ap ital sh o w s a p e rso n ific a tio n

a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e d iffe re n t m o n a s tic a n d c a n o n ic a l

o f A varice, a m ise r w ith a b ig m o n e y b a g h a n g in g fro m

o rd e rs. T h is m e a n s th a t th e ru le s a n d c u sto m a rie s o f

h is n e c k .61 H e n c e , as w ith th e H e ll p ie r o f th e G e ro n a

th e in d iv id u a l o rd e rs, w h ic h d e te r m in e d th e m o re o r

cloister, d isc o rd a n d avarice are c o m b in e d in th e S ain t-

less c o m m u n a l life o f th e clerics a n d m o n k s , h a d n o

B e n o it p o rc h w ith a H e ll scene. Still m o re im p o rta n t,

sp e c ific im p a c t o n th e c lo iste rs’ ic o n o g ra p h y . T h u s,

re p rese n tin g vices o n e x te rio r p o rta ls a n d p o rc h e s w as

th e ic o n o g ra p h y o f c a th e d ra l c lo iste rs d o e s n o t d iffe r

ty p ical a n d h a d th e specific fu n c tio n o f a d m o n ish in g

f r o m th e B e n e d ic tin e o n e s,6‫ ؛‬as d e m o n s tr a te d b y th e

th e e n te rin g fa ith fu l to a b stain fro m c e rta in vices asso­

case o f th e r e la te d c lo iste rs o f G e r o n a c a th e d ra l a n d

c ia te d w ith th e la ity b y th e C h u rc h . S eld o m is th is idea

th e B e n e d ic tin e a b b e y o f S a n t C u g a t d e l V allès: b o th

expressed so clearly as o n a cap ital o f th e P o rta dello

se t o f f th e w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h w ith a b ib lic a l

Z o d ia c o o f th e a b b e y o f Sagra d i San M ic h ele in n o r ­

cycle o f th e h is to r y o f S a lv atio n , w ith im a g e s o f b o th

th e r n Italy. H e re , tw o fig h tin g n a k e d m e n are p u llin g

th e O l d a n d N e w T e sta m e n ts.

each o t h e r ’s b e ard s.62 T h e a c c o m p a n y in g in sc rip tio n e ^ l a i n s th e m e a n in g o f th e scene in th is specific place:

Hicl ocwsest p acis, c is a s ckpo nit eUti um

‫ ؟‬T h is is a h o u s e

o f peace. L ay aside th e reasons fo r q u a rrel’).

Is e ie o fH is to r h ite d C lo is te r s iw M g y P iir ts o fE w o jie

If, th e re fo re , it seem s e v id e n t t h a t th e ic o n o g ra p h y o f th e G e ro n a c lo iste r vices is ty p ic a l f o r im ag es a t

S till m o re

s ig n if ic a n t in

th is

r e g a rd :

in

m any

c h u rc h e n tra n c e s, in te n d e d f o r th e g e n e ra l p u b lic , w e

E u r o p e a n re g io n s -

have to ask w h y su c h a th e m e o c c u rs in a cloister. A t

trie s a n d in la rg e p a r ts o f Ita ly a n d E n g la n d — th e r e

first sig h t o n e c o u ld t h in k t h a t th e c lo iste r w as also

are n o R o m a n e s q u e h i s t o r ia t e d c lo is te rs a n d th e r e

f r e q u e n te d b y m e m b e rs o f th e laity. H o w e v e r, a c c o r­

p r o b a b ly n e v e r h a v e b e e n . E v e n in a r e g io n as ric h

d in g to th e G e ro n a C o n su eta, th e ir p re se n c e in th e

in fig u ra tiv e p o r t a l s as B u r g u n d y th e r e d o n o t se e m

c lo iste r w as e x tre m e ly ra re ,63 re s tric te d to th e feasts o f

to h a v e e x is te d a n y c lo is te rs w ith n a r r a tiv e o r fig u ra ­

C h ris tm a s a n d M a u n d y T h u rsd a y (th e d a y o f th e m a n ­

tiv e d e c o r a tio n s , as w ith th e c lo is te r o f th e C lu n ia c

d a tu m p a u p e ru m ); fu rth e r, in th e fe w in sta n c e s w h e n

a b b e y o f V é z elay a n d th e p r e s e rv e d f r a g m e n ts o f

th e so u rces m e n tio n th e p re se n c e o f so m e m e m b e rs o f

th e f a m o u s c lo is te r o f C lu n y a p p e a r to d e m o n s -

th e la ity also a t so le m n acts o r o n th e o c c a sio n o f p r i­

t r a t e . 66 T h is a p p a r e n t la c k o f fig u ra tiv e s c u lp tu r e

v ate d o n a tio n s , th is tak e s p lac e in th e c h a p te r h o u s e o r

in th e R o m a n e s q u e c lo is te rs in B u r g u n d y n o t o n ly

in th e re fe c to ry .64 T h u s, th e a p p e a ra n c e in th e G e ro n a

c o n tr a s ts w i t h th e e x tre m e w e a lth o f n a rra tiv e i c o ­

c lo iste r o f th e m e s n o rm a lly i n te n d e d f o r th e g e n e ra l

n o g r a p h y in L a n g u e d o c C lu n ia c c lo is te rs , lik e th o s e

p u b lic , as in th e im ag es o f vices a n d H e ll, c a n n o t b e

a t M o is s a c a n d L a D a u r a d e in T o u lo u s e , b u t it also

e x p la in e d b y th e p re se n c e o f th e laity, w h ic h w as e x tre ­

c o n tr a s ts w i t h th e a b u n d a n c e o f fig u ra tiv e c lo is te rs

m e ly rare. In ste a d , th e se th e m e s are te s tim o n ie s to th e

t h r o u g h o u t s o u t h e r n F ra n c e . H e n c e , th e e x is te n c e

fa c t t h a t c lo iste r ic o n o g ra p h y ra re ly d iffe re d fro m th e

o r la c k o f h i s t o r ia t e d c lo is te rs d i d n o t d e riv e f r o m

im a g e ry f o u n d in c h u rc h naves o r o n e x te rio r p o rta ls.

s u c h as th e G e r m a n ic c o u n ­

d if f e r e n t re lig io u s c o n c e p ts o f th e c lo is te r, e x c e p t f o r th e

a n ic o n ic

C is te r c ia n , P r e m o n s tr a te n s ia n ,

a n d C a r th u s ia n c lo is te rs . O n th e c o n tr a r y , h e re th e ls e w c e o f،iR e l،itiis b i] ) b e tie e w D iijF e r e w t

d e c isiv e f a c to r m u s t h a v e b e e n th e d if f e r e n t p r e v a i­

M o M s tic g d C K m ic Æ lM e s g d tb e lc o w o g r a .] ) ! ) ) (

lin g a r tis tic tr a d i t io n s a n d tr e n d s . T h is is also c o n f ir ­

o fth e C lo is te r

m e d b y th e fa c t, a lre a d y n o t e d b y o t h e r s ,67 t h a t th e h i s t o r ia t e d c lo is te rs ’ e v o lu tio n a n d d if f u s io n w as

270

In c o n c lu s io n , e x c e p t f o r a fe w su b je c ts w ith l it u r ­

a p p a r e n tly n o t in f lu e n c e d b y th e v a rio u s m o n a s tic

g ical o r p a ra litu rg ic a l c o n n o ta tio n s

a n d c a n o n ic a l re fo rm s . In s te a d , th is ty p e o f c lo is te r

P e t e r K. K l e i n

(su c h as th e

d e c o r a ti o n d i d n o t b e c o m e m o re w id e s p r e a d u n t il

R o m a n e s q u e clo iste rs, th e sh a p e a n d s tr u c tu r e o f

th e m id d le o f th e tw e lf th c e n tu ry , a t a tim e w h e n

th e G e r o n a c lo is te r im a g e s b e tra y a c e rta in la c k o f

th e c a n o n s ’ c o m m u n a l life w a s o f te n a lre a d y p r a c ­

care. F in ally , w e h a v e n o tic e d , o n th e o n e h a n d , th e

tis e d in a m o re o r less la x f o r m .68

a b se n c e o f b ib lic a l a n d n a rra tiv e im a g e s in th e m a jo ­ r ity o f th e R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste rs, a n d , o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e la c k o f a c o m p re h e n s iv e p ro g ra m m e as w ell

C o n c lu s io n

as th e a b se n ce o f a sp e c ific ic o n o g ra p h y p e r ta in in g to th e m u ltip le f u n c tio n s in th o se c lo iste rs w h ic h

A lto g e th e r, a fu n c tio n a lis t in te r p r e ta tio n

o f th e

d isp o se o f a fig u ra tiv e d e c o ra tio n . A ll th e se a sp e cts

G e r o n a c lo is te r a n d o th e r R o m a n e s q u e h is to r ia te d

are r a th e r a s to n is h in g c o n s id e rin g th a t th e c lo iste r

c lo iste rs m ay e x p la in c e rta in lim ite d a sp e c ts, like

w as th e c e n tra l a n d — w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e

th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f m o s t o f th e fig u ra tiv e d e c o r a ­

c h u rc h — th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t sp ace in th e life o f th e

t io n in th e w a lk a d ja c e n t to th e c h u rc h a n d c e rta in

m e d ie v a l m o n k s a n d c a n o n s. T h e re fo re , th e case o f

m o tifs w ith a litu rg ic a l o r p a ra litu rg ic a l c o n n o ta ­

th e R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste rs’ d e c o r a tio n s h o u ld p e rh a p s

tio n . H o w e v e r, th e t o ta lity o f th e fig u ra tiv e d e c o r a ­

w a r n u s n o t to o v e re s tim a te th e v a lu e o f im ag es in cle­

t io n a n d e sp e c ia lly th e c o n te n t o f its b ib lic a l im a g e ry

rics’ a n d m o n k s ’ d a ily lives in th e H ig h M id d le A ges.

e lu d e a f u n c tio n a lis t in te r p r e ta tio n . T h o u g h a stric tly ic o n o g ra p h ic o r ic o n o lo g ic a l in te r p r e ta tio n m a y be s u ita b le f o r th e m a jo rity o f th e fig u ra tiv e im ag ery , it c a n n o t e x p la in th e e n tire d e c o ra tio n , sin c e o n ly a

NOTES

sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e o f R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste rs’ d e c o ra tio n h a s a b ib lic a l o r re lig io u s c o n te n t (fo r in sta n c e , in th e c a th e d ra l c lo iste rs o f G e ro n a a n d T a rra g o n a o n ly 10 p e r c e n t o f th e d e c o r a tio n falls in to th is c a te g o ry ); th e re st o f th e c lo is te r d e c o r a tio n is p u re ly o r n a m e n ­ ta l o r b e lo n g s to th e so -c a lle d ‘m a rg in a l im a g e s’. 69 T h is o b s e rv a tio n im p lie s t h a t th e re is n o g e n e ra l id ea o r p ro g ra m m e d e te r m in in g th e e n tire d e c o r a tio n o f th e c lo iste r.70 H e n c e , it is c e rta in th a t th e re are o n ly p a r tia l p ro g ra m m e s r e s tric te d to c e rta in areas o f th e clo ister, as c a n b e se e n in th e G e r o n a c lo iste r, o r — to c ite tw o o th e r p r o m in e n t e x am p les — in th e p ie r reliefs o f th e M o issa c a n d Silos c lo iste rs.71 T h e analysis o f R o m a n e s q u e h is to r ia te d c lo iste rs in a n u m b e r o f E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s m a y b e s u m m a riz e d as fo llo w s: d e sp ite th e c lo is te r ’s f u n d a m e n ta l f u n c ­ t io n as a c e n tra l sp ace o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , so jo u rn , a n d c o m m u n a l rite s,72 in m a n y E u ro p e a n re g io n s it w as n o t c o n s id e re d as d e s e rv in g a n y fig u ra tiv e d e c o ­ ra tio n . H o w e v e r, th o se R o m a n e s q u e c lo iste rs w h ic h c o n ta in so m e fig u ra tiv e o r e v en n a rra tiv e im a g e ry are la c k in g a n o v e rall c o m p re h e n s iv e p ro g ra m m e e m b ra c in g all p a r ts o f th e d e c o r a tio n a n d e x p ressin g a g e n e ra l id ea , f o r in s ta n c e th e id eals o f a sp ecific o r d e r a n d its ru les. In s te a d , th e se p a r tia l p ro g ra m m e s c o r r e s p o n d to g e n e ra l d o g m a tic c o n c e p ts k n o w n fro m th e ic o n o g ra p h y c h a ra c te ris tic o f th e in te r io r a n d e x te rio r o f th e c h u rc h e s, n o rm a lly d e s tin e d fo r th e g e n e ra l p u b lic . F u r th e rm o re , a n a lo g o u s to o th e r

* I thank Eric Palazzo and Marc Sureda i Jubany for their useful information, and I am much obliged to John McNeil and Neil Stratford for their critical reading and linguistic modifications of my text. 1 See, e.g: Carlos C id P rieg o , ‘La iconografia del claustro de Y a a ttd ra U tG tro n a ١ in A ilesdelInstitutodeE studiosG erundenses, 6, 1951, pp. 5-118; Eduard JuNYENT, Catalogne romane, vol. 2, La Pierre-qui-Vire, 1961, pp. 92-136; Immaculada L o r ÉS 1 O u t , L ’escultura dels claustres de la catedralde Girona id ei monestir de Sant Cugat del Vallès, unpublished doctoral thesis, Universitat de Barcelona, 1990, pp. 24-230; Immaculada L o r ÉS I O tzet , ‘El claustre’, in Catalunya romànica, vol. 5: Gironés, Selva, Pla de VEstany, Barcelona, 1991, pp. 119-31; Immaculada L o r ÉS i O tzet , ‘A portacions a la iconografia del Genesi del claustre de la catedral de Girona: El cicle d'Adam i Eva', in Annals de l ’Institut d ’Estu disGironins١١ 8٠١i996/97 ١pp . ‫ل‬١37- ‫ ا‬٠ 2 Peter K. K lein , ‘Le cloître de la cathédrale de Gérone: fonc­ tions et programme iconographique’ in Galicia y otros estudios. a l Prof. D r Serafin Moralejo Alvarez, ed. Angela Franco M ata, vol. 3, Santiago de Com­ postela, 2004, pp. 139-44; Peter K. K lein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes iconographiques des cloîtres’, in Der m.iteelalterlicheKreuzgaangjcbitekti, Funktionund Programm, ed. Peter K. K lein , Regensburg, 2004, pp. 105-56, esp. 136-40; I r e S u r e d a e J u ran x ١ Els precedentsde lacatedraldeSam a Maria de Girona, unpublished doctoral thesis, Universitat de Girona, 2008, pp. 636-41, 649-58. 3 Co^^s^^^a am icissim a huius samtae ecclesiae١ Gerona, Archivo Capitular, MS 20.e.3. The text of this ordinal remains unpublished. 4 See most recently: Pere Freixas et al., La catedral de Girona. Redescobrir la seu romànica, Girona, 2000, pp. 38-44; Eduardo C arrero Santamar Ia , ‘El claustro de la Seu de Girona. Origenes arquitectónicos y modificaciones en su estructura’ in

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271

l ’Institut d ’Estudis Gironins, 45, 2004, pp. 189-214, esp. 194-207; Sureda , Elsprecedents de la catedral, pp. 529-627; Heike H ansen , ‘L'approche archéolo^que du cloître cathédral et monastique dans le Sud de la France et le Nord d'Espagne: Saint-Gilles-du-Gard, Aix-en-Provence, Arles, Gérone, Sant-Cugat, Santo Domingo de Sk ١ T h r٩ on e١,in Esceni۶ a r catedralesen la Eda dMedia :or den esp aciaU utorid a depiscopal y discu rsos teolOgicos B itb h A T h A e o lo^cal Reports. Serie Ibérica), ed. Gerardo Boto Varela & César Ga rc Ia de C a stro , Oxford, 2016 (in press). 5 For these original entrances of the cloister, see: Heike H ansen , D er K reuzgang v o n Girona. Auf maf١kampagneMärz٠/A p ril 2007 (DFG-Projekt Romanische Kreuzgänge in Südfrankreich u. Nordspanien, Universität Thbingen, unpublished manuscript), p . 7 ‫ ة‬, ٠١S u red a , Elsp recedentsdela catedral١p .6 e9,627. 6 Joaquin Yarza Luaces , ‘Iconografia del claustro romanico', in Claustros romanicos hispanos, ed. Joaquin Yarza Luaces & Gerardo B oto Varela , León, 2003, pp. 47-65, esp. p. 59. 7 Cf. Gertrud Sch iller , Ikonographie der christlichen Kunst, vol. 3, Gütersloh, 1971, pp. 41-66; Anna D. K a rtson is , Anas­ tasis. The Making o f an Image, Princeton NJ, 1986; Marc-Oliver Y o erke , Höllenf ahrt Christi und A nastasis. Ein Bildmotiv im z^l^^^dla^^d^^d im christ:lichenOrient:,unp^i^t۵ Eed^o^EorA^Eesis, Universität Regensburg, 2003. 8 This capital is now misplaced at the east end of the south gallery and in particular on the garden side, where the Gerona cloister generally does not display narrative capitals. Ori^nally, this capi­ tal must have been inserted on the walk side of this gallery's west end (no. 1), where, probably because of its partial erosion, it was later replaced by a Gothic ornamental capital. 9 Cf. Louis R éau, Iconographie de l ’art chrétien, vol. II, 1, Paris, 1956, p. 112, 114 (‘Noah'), 236h, 245 (‘Samson'); Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie, vol. IV, Freiburg, 1972, col. 445-46 (‘Noe'), 611, 619 (‘Samson'); Hans Martin von E rffa , Ikonologie der Genesis, vol. 1, Munich, 1989, pp. 498-500. 10 V o n E rffa , I konologieder Genesis,E ,p .2 0 C 11 For the so-called ‘Klosterneuburg Altar', originally an ambo completed in 1181 by Nicolas of Verdun, see: Floridus ROh r ig , Der Verduner A l tar, Vienna & Munich, 1955; Helmut Buschhausen , Der Verduner A l tar, Vienna, 1980; Frie­ drich D ahae, Stu dien z ur I konog raphie des K losterneuburger Em ailwerksdesNicolausvonV erdu n,Vienna ,2989. 12 ROh r ig , Der Verduner A l tar, p. 78 and pl. 36, 37; Bu sch ­ hausen , Der Verduner A l tar, p. 64 and pl. 35, 36. 13 For this relief, see e.g.: Maria Luisa M elero M o neo , ‘Überle­ gungen zur Ikonographie des “Bildhauers" in der romanischen Kumt‫؛‬, in Stu dien z u r Gescbich tede r europaisch en S k ulp tur, ed. Herbert Beck et al., Frankfurt am Main, 1994, pp. 163-74, esp. 168f. and fig. 5-7. 14 Immaculada L orés I O tzet , ‘A spectes relatius a la construcció del claustre de la catedral de Girona', in d ’Estudis Gironins, 33, 1994, pp. 275-89, esp. 287-88 and fig. 4; K lein , ‘Le cloître de Gérone', p. 142 and fig. 7, 8. 15 Although the actual staircase dates from 1542 (Sureda , Els precedents de la catedral, p. 613), there must already have been a staircase in the twelfth century in this place, though likely a smal­ ler one (H ansen , Der Kreuzgang von Girona, p. 10, 12). 1‫ ج‬Cf. Sureda , Els precedents de la catedral, pp. 609-15.

272

P e t e r K. K l e i n

17 This terminology recurs in an analogous form in the customary of Sant Cugat del Vallès and corresponds to that in the processio­ nal of Toulouse Cathedral; there, however, instead of claustrum, the terms porticus and conventus are used (Klein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', p. 136 note 142). 18 Consueta antiquissima, fol. 131V. 19 Ibidem, fol. I39v-I40r ٠ 20 For this portal and its later transformation into a chapel, see: Su rrd a , Els precedents de la cattedra!, pp. 627-2^ — Though there are no traces of an earlier Romanesque portal in this place (H ansen , Der Kreuzgang von Girona, p. 6), there are reasons for such an assumption. 21 Cf. Ibidem, p. 3 note 6. 22 Klein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', pp. 123-24. 23 C f. Thomas S c h äfe r ١ Hie FuJ^ischung; im monastischen Brauchtumund inderlateinischenLiturgie ,T e xteu . Arbeitende‫؛‬ Erzabtei Beuron, 47, Beuron, 1956, p. 41. 24 Ibidem, p. 43, 53. 25 ThxidLERCH, IsaaksOpferungchristlich gedeutet. Eineausle­ gungsgeschichtliche Untersuchung, Beiträge zur historischen Theo­ logie, 12, Tübingen, 1950, pp. 27-155; Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie, vol. 1, 1968, col. 28-29 (‘A braham'); von E rffa , IkonologiederGenesis,2 , .7‫ ﻵ‬. 9 ‫ ة‬, 99,250- 52١ 2‫ﻵ‬5_ ‫ﻵ‬ ‫ ى‬Seee.%. F^exihond^erchrist;lichenIhonor^l^hie,vod. 1١ co\. 22-23 (‘A braham'). 27 Cf. Carl-O tto N o r d str o m , Ravennastudien, Stockholm, 1953, pp. 94-119 and pl. 25; Friedrich W ilhelm D eic h m a n n , Ravenna. Hauptstadt des Abendlands, vod. IE, 2, W i e k den, 1976, pp. 143-47; O tto G. von Sim so n , Sacred Fortress. Byzantine A rt and Statecraft in Ravenna, Princeton NJ, 1987, pp. 24-27 and pl. 14. 28 Jotdi Clames e S orea , Elcl^nstredelacat^ecrr^ldeTitrragona. Escultura de lala meridional, Barcelona, 1988, pp. 43-47 and hg. 9, 10; Esther L ozano LOpez & Marta Serrano C oll , Els capitellsbistoriatsdelclaustvedelacatedraldeTarragona , Thrr٩ o m , 2010, p. 28, 30 and fig. p. 29, 31; Gerardo B oto & Esther L o za no , ‘Les lieux des images historiées dans les galeries du cloître de la cathédrale de Tarragone, in Cahiers de Civilisation Médiévale, 56, 2013, pp. 337-64, esp. 347-49 and fig. 4 (2a and 2b). 29 Significantly, the corresponding capitals of the related cloisters of Sant Pere de Rodes and Sant Cugat del Vallès combine the Hospitality of Abraham with the Sacrifice of Isaac, but they do not include the Washing of the Angels' Feet. Instead, the pros­ trate Abraham is welcoming the Angels. Cf. Joan T ortosa , E l claustre de Sant Cugat del Vallès, Sabadell, 1998, pp. 193-94 and fig. p. 194; Immaculada L orés I O tzet , E l monestir de Sant Pere de Rodes, Bellaterra, 2002, pp. 131-33 and fig. 40. 30 Reiner H aussherr , ‘Der typolo^sche Zyklus der Chorfen­ ster der Oberkirche von S. Francesco zu Assisi', in Bedeutungstrager. Gedenkschrift fü r Gt^^^^r Berlin, 1978, pp. 95-128, esp. 107 and passim and fig. 15; Frank M ar ­ ten , DieApsisverglasungderOberkirchevonS. Francesco inAssisi, Worms, 1993, p. 4 and fig. 31, 33. 31 Susan E. von D aum T holl , ‘Life According to the Rule: A Monastic Modification of Mandatum' Imagery in the Peterbo­ rough Psalter, in Gesta, 33, 1994, pp. 151-58, esp. 151, 155 and fig. 1, 4; Klein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', p. 138 and fig. 40.

cloître de Saint-Aubin d'Angers', in Der m ittelalterliche Kreuzgang, pp. 220-40, esp. 227b 49 Marc Sureda I JuBANY, ‘El dormitori nou de la seu: noves 33 P. Colomban Bo c k , ‘Tonsure monastique et tonsure cléri­ dates per a la datació del claustre de la catedral de Girona', in cale', in Revue de droit canonique, 2, I952, pp. 373-406; Giles A nn alsdelI nstitutdThstu disGironins,،Y ١,200A,pp. 679-8 3, ep C onstable , ‘Introduction on Beards in the Middle Ages', in 680-8 2., S u red a ١Elsp recedentsdela catedral,p p .6 0 9 -26. Burchardi apologia de barbis, ed. Robert b . C. H uygens , Corpus 50 See: Gerardo B oto Y rela , ‘Seres teriomórficos en los clausChristianorum, cont. med., 62, Turnhout, I985, pp. 47-I30, esp. tros de Girona y Sant Cugat', in pp. II5- I 9. Gironins, 33, 1994, pp. 291-32.. 34 Anselm D avril , ‘Fonctions des cloîtres dans les monastères au 51 For m ar^nal motifs in the cloister, see: Peter K. K lein , ‘Ea Moyen Âge', in Der mittelalterliche Kreuzgang, pp. 22-26, esp. 25. représentation du corps dans les marges au Moyen Age', in 35 U d a l r ic u s , Consuetud inesClu niacenses,in P a r ologia L atina dium Med ievale, I, 2008, pp. 1.3-23, esp. 106-09 and fig. 10, II, 17. I59, col. 759f. 5 2 In this regard, the parallel sequence of an Old and New Tes­ 3‫ ج‬Immaculada E o r És I O tzet , ‘Ea vida en el claustre: icono­ tament cycle at the Gerona south walk may be compared to the grafia monàstica als capitels de Sant Cugat del Vallès i el costumari somewhat similar disposition of the nave paintings at a number of d A m o n e^tif ,in But^t:lefldelMluseuN^cion^ld’.Art:deC^^t^^luny^^, Romanesque churches (e.g., SantAngelo in Formis, San Giovanni 6, 2002, pp. 35-46, esp. pp. 40-4I, and fig. 6. a Porta Eatina, San Pietro in Ferentillo and probably also Santa 37 K lein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', pp. I45-5I Maria de Tahull), a disposition that goes back to the church deco­ and ground plan fig. 48. See also: Antoni Pladevall & Jordi ration of Early Christian basilicas. See, e.g.: O tto D emus , RomaVig u é , E l monestir de San ta M ar ia de VEstany, Barcelona, I978, nische Wandmalerei, Munich, 1968, p. 57, 114-17, 123, 159; Marilyn pp. 345- 422. A ro n berg Ea v in , ThePlace of N a rratVi M ural D ecoration i n 38 K lein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', pp. I40-45. I talian Churches, 431-1600, Chicago & Eondon, 1990, pp. 15-28. See also: Immaculada E o r És I O tzet , ‘Sant Cugat del Vallès. 53 See for example a tenth-century ivory cup in St Petersburg, see: E'escultura del claustre i de l'església'١ in Adolph G o ld sch m idt , Die Elfenbeinskulpturen aus der Zeit vol. i 8: Vallès occidental, Vallès oriental, Barcelona, I99I, pp. I6 9 derkar olingisch en u n d sächsisch en K aiser,voE 2,Berlin ١ i9i8٠,p .i6 82; T ortosa , Claustre de Sant Cugat, pp. 182-211. no. 3b. 39 Jacques T h ir io n , ‘Ee cloître de Saint-Sauveur d'Aix', in 54 S c h ill e r ١I l i o grapbieder ch ristlich en K u nsM f i ‫؟‬. . ^ . Congrès Archéologique de France, 143, 1988, pp. 65-90, esp. 83b; 55 Ibidem.,%137. Klein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', p. 129b and 56 This is a specific Western element (cf. E o erk e , Höllenfahrt ground plan fig. 29. Christi, p. 80, 204). It already occurs in the Anastasis illustration 40 K lein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', pp. 116-18 and of the Beatus codex of 975 in Gerona (Museu de la Catedral), ground plan fig. 14. See also: Esperanza A ra go n És E stella , ‘El where this manuscript is documented since the eleventh century. claustro de San Pedro de la RUa', in Principe de Vana, 57, 1996, However, its Anastasis iconography is otherwise completely pp. 455- 83. different from the cloister relief (cf. John W illiam s , The 41 Klein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', pp. 126-29 Illustrated B eatus. A Corpu s of t h e lll u stration s of t^eCo mìmì^?!' and fig. 26 (scheme of iconography). See also: Jacques T h ir io n , tary on the Apocalypse, vol. 2, Eondon, 1994, pl. 290). Hence, it ‘Saint-Trophime d'Arles', in CongeYS134, can hardly have influenced the Anastasis and Hell relief in the 1979, pp. 360-497, esp. 402-45. Gerona cloister. 42 Klein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', p. 125b and 57 See: Meyer Sc h a pir o , ‘From Mozarabic to Romanesque in ground plan fig. 2I. See also: Paul M ic h el , Tiere als Symbol. Silos', in le A rt 2B pletin,I, 1939, pp. 312-74 (reprint in Meyer Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der ikonographischen Deutung, gezeigt Sc h a pir o , Romanesque Art. Select ed St ud ies, New York, 1977, am B eisp iel des Z ürch er G ro jk ü nsterk reuzgangs, W ied a d en , pp. 28-101, esp. 36-38); Werner W eisbach , Relig iöse Reform I979, pp. II0 - 58. und m ittelalt erliche Kunst, Einsiedeln & Zurich, 1945, pp. 79-85, 43 Ephrem Ernest C o m pte , The Cust omary o f San t Cugat del 92; Adolf K atzenellenbogen , Allegory ofthe Virt ues and Vices Vallès. Study and Edition, unpublished doctoral thesis, Princeton in Medieval A rt, Toronto, I9892, p. 58f., 75-8I. Univerd ^ , ‫ل‬97 ١٠‫ ل‬D er Liber Ordinarius des K onrad ،uon M ure. 58 Cf. e.g. Bernhard Ru pprech t , Romanische Sku lptur in Hi eG ottesdiensto rd n u n g a m GrossmUnster i n Z Uricb, ed. Heidi Frankreich, Munich, 19752, p. 78b, 84, 85 and pl. 15, 42, 45. E eu pi , Spicile^um Friburgense, 37, Fribourg, 1995. 59 Ibidem, p. 99, II3 and pl. II9, I73. 44 D erLiberO r dinariusdesKonrad^onMure,p. 267 no. 6 2 2 2 ‫ئ‬ 60 Yves C h r ist e ,Jugements derniers (Zodiaque, Ees formes de la no. I 456- I 459. nuit, 12), Ea Pierre-qui-Vire, 1999, pl. 16, 58. 45 C o m pte , Customary ofSant Cugat, p. 107, 115. ‫ ا ة‬Yrkre B e r t r a n d , S aint-B en ott-surThoire. Lesc hap i t e n d e l a 46 Ibidem, p. 473, 732. tour-porche, Saint-Benoît-sur-Eoire, 1980, fig. p. 66, 68; Éliane 47 K lein , ‘Topographie, fonctions et programmes', pp. 107-10. V er g n o lle , S aint-B en oit-su rThoireetl a sculp ture du XI ‫ ء‬siècle, 48 See e.g. Edward B. Foley, The First Ordinary ofthe RoyalAbbey Paris, 1985, p. 89 and fig. 73; Peter K. K lein , ‘Entre paradis pré­ o f St.-Denis in France, Spicilegium Friburgense, 32, Fribourg, sent et jugement dernier: Ees programmes eschatologiques dans 1990, p. 60, 264b; Eric Palazzo , Le Moyen Âge: des origines au les porches du haut Moyen Âge', in XIII e siècle, Histoire des livres liturgiques, Paris, I993, p. 233; Eric da ns Eegliseentrele IE e etle XII esiècle,eà.C h ١ï't^^i^nSAEiN,P^t't^ , Pa lazzo , ‘Exégèse, litu rae et politique dans l'iconographie du 2002, pp. 464-83, esp. 472 and fig. II. 32 Consueta antiquissima, fol. 5Iv-52r. — Cf. Sureda , Els prece-

dentsdela cated ral١p.398 ‫ ؛‬. , 632‫ ؛‬.

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273

62 Christine B. Verzar , ‘Text und Bild in der norditalienischen Romanik: Skulptur, Inschriften, Betrachter', in Geschichte der europäischen Skulptur, pp. 495-504, esp. p. 459 and fig. 9; Joachdm Po esc h k e , DieSkulpturdesMittelalters inltalien: nik, Munich, 1998, pp. 84-87 and fig. 38, 39. 63 O f course, this applies still more to the monastic cloisters. See e.%:-, Me^an C assld y W e l l l , Monastic Spaltes and their lea n in g . Irteenth-C entury English Cistercian Monasteries, Turnhout, 2001, p. 58; Peter K. Klein , ‘Zur Einführung: Der màttedadterdàche Kreuzhang‫ ؛‬, dn Der mittelalterliche Kreuzhang, pp. 9-2I, esp. p. I4. 64 Sureda , Els precedents de la catedral, p. 563, 58if., 597f., 65if. 65 Cf. Xavier Barral i A ltet , ‘L'escultura romànica a les canòniques agustinianes', in Lambard, I2, 2000, pp. 55-63, esp. 56, 6if.; Gerardo B oto Varela, ‘Nova et vetera en las canónicas catalanas: agustianianos y aquisgranes', in Claustros romani­ cos hispanos, ed. Yarza Luaces & Boto Varela, pp. 305-23, esp. 314, 320. ‫ ءء‬See: Neil Stratford & Lydwine Saulnler , La sculpture oubliée de Vézelay, Paris, 1984, pp. 169-71 and fig. 235-41; Neil Stra tfo rd , ‘Les bâtiments de l'abbaye de Cluny à l'époque mtddtvade. État de‫ ؛‬f t i d o n ‫؟‬:, dn Buttttin Monumental, 2١٥ , 1992, pp. 383-411, esp. 390, 396f. and fig. 15-20; Neil Stra T­ fo r d , ‘Vier Kapitelle des Kreuzgangs (von Cluny)', in Canossa 1077. Geschichte, Kunst und Kultur am A f ga ttg der Romanik, ed. Christoph Stiegem ann & Matthias W em hoff , vol. 2, Munich, 2006, p. 85h no. 71. 67 B o to , N ova et vetera, p. 322. 68 See-, Yves V sq elee , ^ ia rtie r cathédral. Une cité dans la ville, Paris, 1998, pp. 59-65; B o to , ‘Nova et vetera, p. 322f. 69 For marginal images in general, see: Michael C amille , Im ageonth eE d g e.IeM a rg in so fM ed ieva lA rt, London, 1992;

274

P e t e r K. K l e i n

NurithKENAAN Ke d a e , Marginal Sculpture in MedievalFrance, M d et‫؛‬ho t ,299 ١ -, Jean W l rthl, Les m a rg esa d leriesd es manu­ scrits gothiques (1250-1350), Geneva, 10.8; Elaine C. Block et ad. fed.١, Profanelmages inM arginalA rtsoftheM iddleA ges, Turnhout, 10.9. 70 As has sometimes been assumed for certain cloisters (see most recently: Chantal Fra Isse , ‘Le cloître de Moissac a-t-il un progyamme'‫؛‬,,dn CahiersdeCivilisationMédiévale,50 ,2007,pp.24570; B oto & L o za no , ‘Les lieux des images historiées', p. 347, 4؟‬t\n IA . YAoesen •,Architectura.

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o n e o f th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t c o lle c tio n s o f C lassical

.a n y c o m p a ris o n a n d f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te th e ir a n a ly sis

a u th o rs in C a ta lo n ia , a lo n g s id e th e c o lle c tio n s fro m R ip o ll (1017), V ic (1 0 8 ‫ ) ؛‬a n d T o rto s a (s e c o n d h a lf o f th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry ). F u rth e rm o re , th e c a th e d ra l p o s ­

T e x ts ،is ،iS o fc e o J T w s ] ) ir a .tii: I L e g ،il

sessed litu rg ic a l a n d p a tris tic b o o k s ( in c lu d in g tex ts

D o c n e n t،itin ،ltb e C ،itb e ،lr a .lC k ] ) te r L ib ïfy

b y A m b ro s e o f M ila n ,6‫ ؛‬A u g u s tin e o f H i p p o ,7‫ ؛‬P o p e G r e g o r y I,8‫ ؛‬O rig e n , Je ro m e , th e V e n e ra b le B e d e a n d

T o s h e d lig h t o n th e sy m b o lis m in h e r e n t in th e im ag es

Isid o re o f S eville), tw o B ib les, th e V itae P a tr u m , a

,o n th e c ap ita ls a t L a S eu (w h ic h a b o u n d in m o n s te r s

V ita canonica, c o p ie s o f leg a l te x ts, c a n o n ic a l co llec-

,(lio n s , a n d g ro te s q u e h u m a n a n d p la n t c h a ra c te rs

V o u s , s o m e E x p ositio nesPsalte riiL i b ru m I | à . e . v e n \ ,

w e h av e s tu d ie d th e b ib lic a l, p a tris tic a n d litu rg ic a l

a c c o rd in g to M iq u e l G ro s , J e r o m e ’s C o m m e n ta ry

,tex ts a n d th e leg a l d o c u m e n ts h e ld a t th e c a th e d ra l

on th e P s a lm s.9‫ ؛‬T h is c o lle c tio n o f w o rk s w o u ld have

all o f w h ic h m a k e f r e q u e n t m e n tio n o f d ia b o lic a l a n d

p r o v id e d a c o m p le x re p e rto ire o f m o n s tro u s c rea ­

c a n n ib a lis tic b e in g s. T h e leg a l d o c u m e n ts s h o w th a t

tu re s t h a t m a y w e ll h av e in s p ire d th e p a tro n s . W e

f r o m th e s ta r t o f h is te n u re in ‫ ؛‬0 ‫ ؛‬B is h o p E rm e n g o l ,0

also b e lie v e it is s ig n ific a n t th a t e a rlie r in v e n to rie s

( ‫ ؛‬0 ‫ ؛‬0 - 3 ‫ )؛‬-w as d e te r m in e d to re sto re a c a n o n ic a l in

m a k e n o m e n tio n o f p sa lte rs, w h e re a s t h a t o f 4 7 ‫؛ ؛‬

,s t i tu t i o n th a t h a d b e e n a lte re d b y ‘d ia b o lic a l m e n

re fers to th re e .20 T h u s, th e s e b o o k s se e m to h ave b e e n

a b o v e all c e rta in p rin c e s [...] ra p a c io u s a n d in sa tia b le

p u r c h a s e d s h o r tly b e fo re th e in v e n to r y o f 4 7 ‫ ؛ ؛‬w as

as w o lv e s’. 7 I t is o f little su rp rise th a t o n e o f th e m o s t

c o m p ile d .

n o ta b le fa ce ts o f h is life w as h is d e fe n c e o f c a n o n ic a l ­ a n d c h u rc h rig h ts a n d p o sse ssio n s a g a in st o th e r e cc le ­ siastics a n d m e m b e rs o f th e n o b ility , w h ic h , in a g e n e

lm u itic L ،iy (m t:E llijis e s ،ilL e ،i] )s ،iltb e ir

ral c o n te x t o f c o n flic t, le d h im to se e k ju stic e in th e

R e k tiis b ip to R o w te s o fC ir c u u ik k itii

c o u rts .8 H is w ill, f r o m ‫ ؛‬o fte n re fers to th e d e v il ,035 ­ a n d to s in n e rs ,9 s o m e th in g th a t c a n also b e o b s e r

A n y v isu a liz a tio n o f th e d isc o u rse th a t d e te r m in e d

,v e d in la te r d o c u m e n ts fro m L a Seu. F o r e x a m p le

th e la y o u t o f th e c a p ita ls in th e c lo is te r o f L a Seu

in ‫ ؛ ؛‬R a m ó n M ir ó d e O lia n a p le a d to d e fra u d in g ,0 6

d ’U rg e ll is h i n d e r e d b y th e d is c o n c e rtin g n a tu re o f

,th e c o m m u n ity a n d in c u rrin g th e w r a th o f G o d

b o t h th e th e m a tic c o m p o s itio n a n d th e ra n d o m n e s s

f o r w h ic h h e d e se rv e d th e p u n is h m e n ts o f H e ll a n d

in its s u b je c t m a tte r.2‫ ؛‬In th is re g a rd , o n fin d in g a p p a ­

e x clu sio n f r o m P a ra d is e .‫؛‬S h o rtly after, in 0 ‫ ؛ ؛‬th e ,2 0

re n tly d is c o n n e c te d c o m p o s itio n s , w e h a v e tr ie d to

o b la te Pere A r n a u c o n fe s se d to h a v in g a b a n d o n e d h is

p ie c e to g e th e r w ays in w h ic h v isu a l t h o u g h t w as o rg a ­

s p iritu a l v o c a tio n , a lle g e d ly a fte r h a v in g d a llie d w ith

n iz e d in a n a r c h ite c tu ra l sp ace t h a t c a n b e u n d e r s to o d

th e d e v il .‫ ؛؛‬H o w e v e r, p e rh a p s th e m o s t illu m in a tin g

as b o t h d is c o n tin u o u s (w ith d iffe re n t e n tra n c e s a n d

d o c u m e n t is o n e issu e d b y B ish o p O t ( ‫ ؛‬0 9 ‫ ؛‬- ‫ ؛ ؛‬2 2 ),

ex its) a n d h e te ro g e n e o u s in te rm s o f h o w it w as u se d

ex p ressin g h is in te n t io n o f sa v in g th e so u ls o f h is

a n d th e ritu a ls t h a t w e re c a rrie d o u t th e re . W e believe

flo c k b y r e d u c in g th e lev el o f c o rp o ra l p u n is h m e n t

th a t so m e im ag es w e re r e la te d to e ac h o th e r d e sp ite

b y tw o th ir d s f o r th o se w h o , o n c e th e y h a d c o n fe s se d

th e p h y sic a l sp aces b e tw e e n th e m , w h e re a s o th e rs

th e ir sin s a n d re c e iv e d th e ir p u n is h m e n t, h e lp e d to

e n c o u ra g e d a m n e m o n ic p ro c e s s o n th e p a r t o f th e

re sto re th e c a th e d ra l .‫؛‬2

o b se rv e r. A s C a s s ia n w rite s in h is C o n la tio n e s:

T h e w a rn in g s a g a in s t m a lig n a c tio n s in th e s e leg a l d o c u m e n ts are clear, b u t in o r d e r to fu lly d e te rm in e ­ w h ic h so u rc e s a n d id ea s in s p ire d th e s c u lp tu ra l re p e r to ire o f L a S eu, w e m u s t also s tu d y th e c a th e d ra l c h a p te r lib r a r y b o o k s t h a t a p p e a r in a n in v e n to ry d a tin g fro m ‫ ؛ ؛‬4 7 .‫؛‬A m o n g th e v o lu m e s d e sc rib in g 3 h y b rid s , p e rs o n ific a tio n s o f evil a n d o th e r stra n g e

276

M a r t a S e r r a n o C o l l & E s t h e r L o z a n o LO p e z

For w hen th e m in d has t a k n in th e m eaning o fa passage from any Psalm, this m eaning th e n insensibly slips away from it, and ignorantly and thoughtlessly it passes on to a text from some o th er Scripture [...] and th e soul always tu rn s about from Psalm to Psalm and jum ps [...] and so it w anders about vaguely and uncertainly th ro u g h the

Fig. 1.

G eneral p anoram ic view o f th e cloister o f Santa M aria in La Seu d ’ Urgell from th e n o rth (p h o to authors)

w hole body o f th e Scripture [...]. W h ile it is praying, it is recalling some Psalm or passage o f Scripture [...].

in th e m e m o r y in v o lv e d v isu a liz in g sp aces a n d fillin g

W h e n it repeats a passage o f Scripture, it is th in k in g

to E n c a rn a M o n te r o , a g o o d m e m o r y d e p e n d e d o n

about som ething th a t has to be done, or rem em bering som ething th at has been done.22

c re a tin g im ag es t h a t w o u ld e v o k e o th e rs d u e to th e ir

th e m w ith u n u s u a l a n d s h o c k in g im ag es. A c c o rd in g

m e n ta lly s tim u la tin g p o s itio n in g a n d a rra n g e m e n t w i t h in a n a p p ro p ria te sp a c e; th a t is, t h e ir c o n te n t

I t is p o s s ib le , th e r e f o r e , t h a t th e a u th o r o f th e d is ­

w o u ld p ro v id e a s p r in g b o a r d to o th e r k n o w le d g e -b e a ­

c o u rse a t L a S e u , in k e e p in g w ith th e m e n ta l p r o ­

rin g im a g e s.24 T h u s, in o u r case, th e sc u lp tu re s w o u ld

cess d e s c r ib e d b y C a s s ia n , m o v e d b a c k a n d f o r th ,

b e h a v e as a u th e n tic ‘v isu a l te x ts ’2‫ ؛‬a im e d a t re trie v in g

d e lib e r a te ly s i tu a tin g c e r ta in e y e -c a tc h in g c o m p o ­

d e e p ly s to r e d m e m o rie s . I n d e e d , in M e d ie v a l sto rie s

s itio n s in a s s o c ia tio n w ith o th e r s , b u t d is re g a rd in g

r e la te d to d re a m s a n d v isio n s (e sp e cially th o s e w h e re

a n y lin e a r n a rra tiv e .

evil tak e s c e n tre sta g e ), th e a p p a ritio n s w e re ‘a g e n t

A s in te n d e d b y M e d ie v a l exegesis, th e ‘u n c o n ­

im a g e s’, fig u res w h o s e s tr o n g in d iv id u a lity le ft a d e ep

n e c te d ’ p o s itio n in g o f th e se im a g e s fo rc es th e ir r e in ­

im p r in t.26 W e b e lie v e th a t th is w as th e in te n t io n a t

te r p r e ta tio n . In th is re g a rd , so m e o f th e im a g e s are

L a S e u ; i.e., th e la y o u t o f th e im ag es w as d e s ig n e d

s tim u la tin g b e ca u se , in th e w o rd s o f M a ry C a r r u th e r s ,

to ev o k e p a ssa g e s fro m th e P salm s w h e n th e f a ith fu l

‘e x p e rie n c in g th e m in its e lf ro u ts th e n o o n d a y dev il,

g a z e d u p o n th e m .

f o r th e v a rie ty th e y p ro d u c e reliev es te d iu m a n d

In o r d e r to u n d e r s ta n d th e e n se m b le as a w h o le

re fre sh e s a w e a rie d m in d ’.23 T h a n k s to th e w o rk s o f

a n d th e p o ss ib le c o d e d ic o n o g ra p h ic a sso c ia tio n s, w e

M ic h a e l C a m ille a n d F ra n c es Yates, w e k n o w th a t th e

l o o k a t th e p a r ts o f th e b u ild in g th a t fe a tu re th e th re e

b asis f o r re ta in in g a n y r e p re s e n ta tio n , w o r d o r id ea

m a in th e m a tic g ro u p s (Fig. 2). U n f o rtu n a te ly , th e

T h e C l o i s t r a l S c u l p t u r e a t La S e u d ' U r g e l l

277

c o m m o n p la c e . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e sc u lp to rs seem to have e n jo y e d th em selv es w ith th e varietas t h a t can b e se e n in a n e c d o ta l d e ta ils a n d th a t p e rso n a liz e one o f th e in d iv id u a ls o r m o tifs th a t is re p e a te d o n th e sam e cap ital.28 P e rh a p s th e y d id th is to p re v e n t th e p u b lic fro m lo sin g in te re st, a stra te g y th a t m ay also b e e n se e n in o th e r u n s e ttlin g c o m p o sitio n s. F o r exa­ m p le , o n so m e cap itals it is a t tim e s d iffic u lt to m ake o u t fro m g estu res a n d ap p e a ra n c e w h e th e r a n a n im a l is b e c o m in g a h u m a n o r a h u m a n is b e c o m in g a n a n im al, w h e rea s o n o th e r cap itals it is im p o ssib le to d is tin g u is h to w h o m c e rta in lim b s b e lo n g . R e g a rd in g th e

c lo is te r ’s th e m a tic la y o u t a n d ,

a b o v e all, its v isu a l p e r c e p tio n , it is im p o r t a n t to b e a r in m in d th e c ir c u m a m b u la to r y ro u te s t h a t w o u ld h av e b e e n ta k e n b y th e o n lo o k e r. It is w o r th e m p h a ­ siz in g t h a t o n th e n o r t h sid e w e f in d tw o b a rrie rs t h a t Fig. 2.

Plan o f the cloister, showing the num bering o f the capitals and the

iconographic groups in greyscale. The lines show the correlation betw een the apes (after Catalunya romànica, vol. 6, 1992, w ith m odifications)

p r e v e n t access f r o m th e p o d i u m to th e in te r io r o f th e c lo iste r: o n e is n e a r th e e n tra n c e to th e c h u rc h a n d th e o t h e r is n e a r th e s ta irw a y o f th e e a st to w er. T he first o f th e se b a rrie rs is fla n k e d b y p o ly g o n a l sh afts s u p p o r tin g c a p ita ls th a t fe a tu re scen es o f p u n is h m e n t

r e m o d e llin g o f th e e a st sid e, w h e re th e c h a p te r h o u s e

w ith e ith e r n a k e d m e n w h o are s q u a ttin g o r o n th e ir

w as lo c a te d , h a s o b s c u re d o n e o f th e m o s t fre q u e n tly

b a c k s b e in g e a te n b y lio n s o r c lo th e d m e n e ith e r s u b ­

tr o d d e n g alleries in th e c lo ister. T h is is w h e re th e cle ­

ju g a tin g o r b e in g s u b ju g a te d b y lio n s .29 T h e se c o n d

rics c a rrie d o u t th e ir s o le m n c e re m o n ie s a n d o b se r­

b a rrie r, n o w c lo se d , tak e s th e fo rm o f a p la n t- a d o r n e d

v e d th e litu r g y o f th e H o u r s , a n d w h e re , a c c o rd in g

c a p ita l a n d a n o th e r in th e c o r n e r th a t o rig in a lly h a d

to th e C o n su e ta , th e y re a d th e c h a p t e r ’s c a le n d a r, th e

f o u r f ro n ts d e c o r a te d w ith tw o h a rp ie s, in d ic a tin g

lives o f th e s a in ts a n d e x e m p la ry te x ts, a n d c a rrie d

th a t it w as n o t in te n d e d to o c c u p y its c u r r e n t se ttin g .

o u t th e m a n d a tu m .27 T h e loss o f all th e c a p ita ls fro m

It is p o ssib le t h a t th e la tte r o p e n in g w as th e access

th is g a lle ry th u s th w a rts a n y fu ll in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e

to th e la v a to ry w h ic h , as is u su a l, w as close to th e

e n c lo su re ; c o n se q u e n tly , o u r h y p o th e s is c a n o n ly b e

re fe c to ry . T h is g a lle ry w o u ld h av e b e e n th e fa v o u re d

a p p lie d to th re e o u t o f th e f o u r sides.

lo c a tio n f o r b u ria ls a n d th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o n e in

N ev erth e le ss, o n th e th re e re m a in in g sides, a series

litu rg ic a l te rm s, b u t it is w o r th n o tin g th a t it also

o f c o m p o s itio n s is re p e a te d w ith fe w v a ria tio n s, a n d

p o ssesses th e o n ly e n tra n c e s to th e g a rd e n , a n d t h a t

in clu d e s a n th r o p o m o r p h ic h y b rid s (d e m o n s , apes w ith

sim ila r g a lle rie s a t o th e r sites re fle c t th is in t h e ir d e c o ­

claws, g ry p h o n s a n d h a rp ie s), real a n im a ls (lio n s, eagles

ra tio n ; h o w e v e r, th e g a lle ry a t L a S eu is c o m p le te ly

a n d snakes), in d e te rm in a te q u a d ru p e d s (d o g s-d ra g o n s)

la c k in g a n y i m p o r ta n t ic o n o g ra p h ic fe atu res.

a n d m e n (Fig. 3). A lth o u g h h u m a n s are o n o c ca sio n c o m b in e d w ith fa n ta stic o r real crea tu re s, o n o th e rs th e re are o n ly m e n , b easts o r p la n ts (c o m p o s itio n s in

H y jio th e tic a lln te ilir e ta tii.J n ln tia tiio ftb e

w h ic h th e fo liag e is a sso c iate d w ith m a n o r w ith m asks

P s a lm o d y

t h a t sp it th e fo liag e o u t o r sw allo w it u p ). M issin g are

278

th e fre q u e n t c rea tu re s ta n g le d in th e v e g e ta tio n a n d

A lth o u g h it is d iffic u lt to d isc e rn th e c o n n e c tio n s

th e o m n ip re s e n t c o n fro n ta tio n s b e tw e e n a rm e d m e n

w o v e n in to th e c lo is te r e n se m b le , it c a n n o t b e d is ­

a n d beasts, a lth o u g h a n im a l a tta c k s o n h u m a n s are

p u t e d th a t evil is a d o m in a n t th e m e , as c a n b e se e n in

M a r t a S e r r a n o C o l l & E s t h e r L o z a n o LO p e z

Fig. 3٠

Selection o f capitals w ith varied iconography (p h o to s authors)

th e u n e q u iv o c a l c o n d e m n a tio n o f th e s in n e r a n d o f

th e m ‘as i f h e h im s e lf w e re th e ir a u th o r [...] as i f it

th e te m p ta tio n t h a t m a te ria liz e s fro m th e te rrify in g

w as a p e rs o n a l p r a y e r ’;31 w e b e lie v e th a t a t L a S e u th is

v isio n s c a u s e d b y M e d ie v a l m a n ’s fe a r o f v io le n c e a n d

r o u tin e m e n ta l exercise w o u ld h av e b e e n re in fo rc e d

h is re s p e c t f o r s tr o n g ag g resso rs.30 D e s p ite th e fa c t

t h r o u g h c o n te m p la tin g th e se c ap itals.

t h a t th e d isc o u rse a t L a S eu d ’U rg e ll is n e ith e r n a r r a ­

T h e c lo iste r h a s a c e rta in a lte rn a tin g m e tre th a t

tive n o r lin e a r, w e b e lie v e th e re is a th e m e th a t re la tes

c a n b e m o re c le a rly se e n w h e n a le t t e r is a ssig n e d to

to o n e o f th e a c tiv itie s th a t w e re re g u la rly c a rrie d o u t

e ac h th e m a tic g ro u p .32 A ch rom o-cartographic c o m p a ­

in th e clo ister, i.e., th e re a d in g o f th e P salm s, w h ic h

ris o n rev eals a m e tre in w h ic h m o n s te rs w ith a n e n o r ­

w ere r e c ite d in th e c lo is te r g a lle rie s d u rin g c e rta in

m o u s fo rc e o f a ttr a c tio n im p o se t h e ir o w n c ad e n ce.

c e re m o n ie s a n d t h r o u g h o u t th e d a y b y th o se w h o se

B y a n a ly z in g th e c a p ita l’s v a rio u s lo c a tio n s , w e c an

d u ty it w as to le a r n th e m . P a rtic u la rly im p o r t a n t w ere

d isc e rn d iffe re n t r h y th m s w ith p a ra lle ls a n d r e p e ti­

th o se verses g iv in g th a n k s a n d th o se th a t p e ti t io n e d

tio n s t h a t su g g e st b o t h th e ir in te g ra l a n d in d iv id u a l

fo r d iv in e assista n ce a g a in s t evil ( w i t h o u t d o u b t

m e a n in g s. N e v e rth e le ss , a lth o u g h th e o rig in a l exege-

th e p r in c ip a l th e m e in th e c lo is te r ’s c o m p o s itio n s ).

tic m e a n in g h a s b e e n lo s t, a c lo se r in s p e c tio n sh o w s

A u th o r s su c h as C a s s ia n e m p h a siz e th e n e e d to re c ite

t h a t so m e c a p ita ls are v e rita b le c lu ste rs o f ic o n o g ra -

th ese verses a n d a d v is e d th e d u tif u l cleric to re p e a t

p h ic in te n sity , w h e re a s o th e rs h av e v a ry in g m o tifs

T h e C l o i s t r a l S c u l p t u r e a t La S e u d ' U r g e l l

279

Fig. 4.

N aked, crouching apes, establishing a dialogue despite th e distance betw een th em (p h o to s authors)

t h a t are re fle c te d a t a d is ta n c e in o th e r s im ila r im ag es,

w h ic h D a v id w ro te a fte r h is s e d u c tio n o f B a th s h e b a .

a lb e it w ith v a ria tio n s (Fig. 4 ). A g o o d illu s tra tio n o f

T h e th re e c a p ita ls are in h a b ite d o n v a rio u s sides b y

th is is th e c la w e d ap es th a t, o n c a p ita ls 13, 21 a n d 4 9 ,

th e se g ro te s q u e b e in g s, w h o e sta b lish a d ia lo g u e

a p p e a r fa c e -o n , s q u a ttin g n a k e d a n d m a k in g v a rio u s

in w h ic h th e y stic k th e ir to n g u e s o u t a t o n e a n o ­

rid ic u lo u s g e stu res. M o s t h av e th e ir m o u th s o p e n a n d

t h e r w h ils t also r e m in d in g th e v ie w e r o f th e n e e d to

are e x p o sin g th e m se lv e s in d e c e n tly , a n d th u s re fle c t

c o n tr o l o n e ’s u rg e s a n d , th e re fo re , o b e y th e ru le s .34

th e verses fro m Isa iah :

N e v e rth e le ss , d e sp ite th e re la tio n s t h a t c a n b e e sta ­ b lis h e d b e tw e e n so m e o f th e im ag es, th e sc u lp tu ra l

B ut you, com e here, you children of a sorceress, you offspring o f adulterers and p rostitutes! W h o are you m ocking? A t w h o m do you sneer and stick o ut your

e n se m b le d o e s n o t se e m to p o ssess a n y a p p a r e n t

tongue? A re you n o t a b ro o d of rebels, th e offspring

m o s t im p o r t a n t c lo iste rs in th e n o r t h e r n t h i r d o f

o f liars? You b u rn w ith lust am ong th e oaks and u n d er every spreading tree.33

se rio u s o f d is c o n n e c te d im ag es, o r is th is a n explosive

d isc o u rse . D o e s th is m e a n , th e n , t h a t th e re w as n o rh y m e o r re a s o n to th e v isu a l la y o u t o f o n e o f th e th e I b e ria n P e n in su la ? A re w e m e re ly g a z in g u p o n a c o lle c tio n o f m o ra liz in g a n d c o erc iv e th o u g h ts ?35

S u c h a m essag e w o u ld h av e b e e n b o t h a w a r n in g to

280

For

decades

h is to rio g ra p h e rs

have

d e b a te d

th o s e w h o rid ic u le d th e f a ith f u l a n d a c o n d e m n a tio n

w h e th e r th e s e k in d s o f im a g e s h a d a n y m e a n in g

o f c a rn a l sin , th u s re p lic a tin g t h a t f o u n d in P sa lm 50,

o r w h e th e r th e y w e re u s e d s tric tly fo r d e c o ra tiv e

M a r t a S e r r a n o C o l l & E s t h e r L o z a n o LO p e z

p u rp o s e s . T h e m o s t tr a d itio n a lly m in d e d s tu d ie s

b e sa id fo r th e e n se m b le a t L a S eu, w h e re it is im p o s ­

are p h y sio lo g ic a l a n d e n c y c lo p a e d ic tre a tise s t h a t

sib le to d e te rm in e th e p re cise m e a n in g in h e r e n t in

e x p la in e ac h m o t i f sy m b o lic a lly v is-à-vis th e b e s tia ­

th e e n se m b le , ju s t as is it im p o ssib le to k n o w h o w it

ries, b u t th e a u th o rs o f th e s e s tu d ie s fre q u e n tly o v e r­

w as in te r p r e te d b y s u b s e q u e n t view ers. H o w e v e r, w e

l o o k th a t m o s t a rtists w o u ld h av e b e e n u n a w a re o f

c a n say t h a t th e p a tr o n d id n o t in te n d th e d isc o u rse

th ese b o o k s .36 O t h e r w rite rs a c c e p t su c h a sse rtio n s,

to b e c lo sed , fixed, e x p lic it o r u n e q u iv o c a l; ra th e r,

b u t also p o i n t o u t th e d iv e rs ity o f th e im a g e s;37 y e t

q u ite th e c o n tra ry . T h is r e q u ir e d th e M e d ie v a l v iew er

o th e r a u th o rs b e lie v e th a t th e m o tifs are stric tly o r n a ­

to activ ely p a rtic ip a te in im b u in g th e e n se m b le w ith

m e n ta l, a n d th e re fo re re je c t a n y a tte m p ts to a ttr ib u te

its m e a n in g s, w h ic h in t u r n r e q u ir e d a n in te lle c tu a l

a lle g o ric al m e a n in g s to th e m .38 O u r v ie w is th a t a p a r ­

a p titu d e a n d c e rta in c u ltu ra l a n d m e n ta l to o ls to b e

tic u la rly m e tic u lo u s a p p ro a c h is r e q u ir e d g iv e n th e

ab le u n d e r s ta n d w h a t is a se e m in g ly d is jo in te d su c ­

s c u lp tu re s ’ a m b ig u o u s n a tu re a n d th a t p a r t o f th e ir

cessio n o f re fere n ce s f o r th e m o d e r n sp e c ta to r. In

m e a n in g d e p e n d s o n w h e re th e y are lo c a te d .39

th is w ay, b o t h f o r th e m e m b e rs o f th e re lig io u s c o m ­ o th e r

m u n ity a n d , u ltim a te ly , fo r th e fa ith fu l, th ese im ages

e n se m b le s in th e ir e n tir e ty p re v e n ts c o m p a riso n s, th e

A lth o u g h

th e

a f o r e m e n tio n e d

loss

of

w o u ld h av e b e e n m n e m o n ic b e ca u se th e y w e re ‘firm ,

m o n s tro u s m o tifs ta k e o n s u p p le m e n ta r y re a d in g s

t h a t is, liv in g a n d p o w e rfu l, a n d c o n s e q u e n tly th e y

a n d m u ltiv a le n t v alu es. A s w e h a v e s ta te d earlier,

w o u ld h av e s tim u la te d th e m e m o ry th r o u g h ‘e m o ­

c e rta in su b je c ts a t L a S eu, su c h as c a rn a l a g g ressio n ,

tio n ’ (im a g o a gens)4 a n d b r o u g h t to m in d sp iritu a l

m u s t h ave a c te d as m n e m o n ic s tim u li f o r e v o k in g

th re a ts th r o u g h th e ir g ro te s q u e b e in g s a n d a n th r o ­

th e P salm s. M o n s te rs a n d h y b rid s illu stra te verses

p o p h a g o u s le o n in e m o n ste rs . T h e y w o u ld h av e h a d

re fe rrin g to a d iv in e p u n is h m e n t th a t c o u ld o n ly be

th is effec t b e ca u se , a c c o rd in g to th e B ib le, th e P salm s

a v o id e d t h r o u g h sp e e d y p e n ite n c e , a n id e a f o u n d in

a n d th e litu rg y , th e lio n is p e rv e rse a n d sy m b o liz e s th e

th e A u g u s tin ia n d e f in itio n o f sin : aversio a D e o le a ­

d e s tr u c tio n o f h u m a n ity , c o n c e p ts t h a t s tru c k a d e ep

d in g to conversio a d creatures. T h is t h o u g h t w as ta k e n

c h o r d in th e m in d s o f th o se w h o re g u la rly re c ite d su c h

u p b y a u th o r s su c h as S a in t B e rn a rd o f C la irv a u x ,

verses. In a d d itio n to th e a fo re m e n tio n e d e p istle o f

w h o w ro te t h a t ‘m a n h a s b e e n c re a te d in th e im a g e

P e ter, a t L a S eu, o n th e t h ir d S a tu rd a y in A d v e n t th e y

o f G o d , b u t t h r o u g h sin h is so u l h a s b e e n m ise ra b ly

sa id ‘Y ou w ill tre a d o n th e lio n a n d th e c o b ra ; y o u w ill

tr a n s f o r m e d to re se m b le t h a t o f senseless b e a s ts’.4.

tra m p le th e g re a t lio n a n d th e s e r p e n t’.46 L io n , s e rp e n t

T e rrify in g c re a tu re s w e re e lo q u e n t a g e n ts o f evil th a t

a n d d ra g o n all are u s e d in th e s c u lp tu re s to re fe r to th e

in flic te d p h y sic a l c h a s tise m e n ts o n th e g u ilty ; su c h

devil. F o r h is p a r t, S a in t G re g o ry th e G re a t, a n a u th o r

p u n is h m e n ts are d o c u m e n te d in th e leg a l re c o rd s

w h o s e w o rk w as p re s e n t in th e lib r a r y a t L a Seu,

a t L a Seu.41 In fa c t, th is fo rm o f p u n is h m e n t c a u se d

e x p la in s th a t S a ta n w as re fe rre d to as a lio n b e ca u se

a g re a t d e al o f c o n c e rn to th e m o n k s a n d b o ls te re d

o f h is c ru elty . L ik ew ise, S a in t Isid o re o f Seville refers

th e ir fears o f s u c c u m b in g to th e d e v il, th e p r o ta g o n is t

to th e d e v il as a d e sp ica b le, te rrify in g b e in g fe a re d b y

o n th e first c a p ita l o n th e s o u th side. C o n s e q u e n tly ,

n o n -b e lie v e rs as i f h e w e re a lio n . A s is w e ll k n o w n ,

in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e ru le a t C o m p lin e o n th e first

m a n y ex eg etic w ritin g s c o m p a re th ese evil b e in g s w ith

S a tu rd a y in L e n t, th e y r e c ite d th e e p istle o f P e te r

th e p e rs e c u to rs o f th e c h u rc h , a n d it is in d ic a tiv e th a t

‘B e a le rt, b e o n w a tc h ! Y o u r enem y, th e D e v il, ro a m s

th is seem s to h av e b e e n a p rim a r y c o n c e rn o f B ish o p

a r o u n d lik e a ro a rin g lio n , lo o k in g f o r s o m e o n e to

E rm e n g o l, w h o o p p o s e d th e c o n fis c a tio n o f ecclesias­

d e v o u r. B e firm in y o u r fa ith a n d re sist h im ’.42

tic a l p r o p e r ty b y la y m e n w h o , as ra p a c io u s w olves,

D e s p ite th e se c o n sid e ra tio n s , a lth o u g h a p a tr o n

‘to re to sh re d s th is h o ly in s titu tio n ’.47 L ik ew ise, B ish o p

m ay w ish fo r a d isc o u rse to h av e a sp ecific m e a n in g ,

O t a n d h is su c c e sso r P ere B e re n g u e r (1122-41) also

as J é rô m e B a sc h e t sta te s, th e v ie w e r m a y w e ll arriv e a t

to o k care o f th e c h u r c h ’s affairs a n d s tru g g le d a g a in st

a n e n tire ly d iffe re n t in te r p r e ta tio n .43 In th is re g a rd ,

th e a b u ses o f th e n o b ility .48 A s h o r t tim e later, th ese

it is u se fu l to re ca ll L in a B o lz o n i, w h o a sse rte d t h a t

stru g g le s w ith se c u la r p o w e r cam e to a h e a d w h e n

b o th th e in d iv id u a l w h o c reates th e c o d e a n d th e o n e

B e rn a t S a n 6 2 -1 1 4 1 ) ‫ ) ؟‬w as ta k e n p ris o n e r b y C o u n t

w h o d e c ip h e rs it m a y d isc e rn v a rio u s p o ssib le a sso c ia ­

E rm e n g o l V I a n d d e p o s e d fro m th e b is h o p ric u n d e r

tio n s a n d c o m b in a tio n s , w ith th e re su lt t h a t th e c o d e

a c c u sa tio n s o f sim o n y , a lth o u g h h e w o u ld la te r b e p a r ­

as su c h m ay ta k e o n a creativ e ro le.44 T h e sam e c an

d o n e d b y th e P o p e .49

T h e C l o i s t r a l S c u l p t u r e a t La S e u d ' U r g e l l

281

Fig. 5.

E ntrance to the church: detail o f th e little heads o n th e archivolts (p h o to authors)

282

C onsequently, o u r hypothesis revolves a ro u n d the

in te rp re te d re p re se n ta tio n s o f m a lig n in flu e n c es o n th e

idea th a t m an y o f th e representations m ay be d eciphered

s in n e r as a referen ce to P salm 32, ‘m a n y are th e w oes

th r o u g h referen ce to th e Psalm s. In g e n era l, th e y p r o ­

o f th e w ic k e d ’,53 o r to P salm 2 4 , w h ic h th e d o c u m e n ts

v id e d stim u li th a t m ay o r m ay n o t have f u n c tio n e d

s h o w w as re c ite d b y th e c a n o n s as th e y le ft th e refec­

sim u lta n e o u s ly a n d t h a t re so n a te d in th e m in d s o f th e

to ry , a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e p e a lin g o f th e b e ll f o r n ig h t

sp e c ta to rs. T h e ir ro le w o u ld have b e e n to a w a k en e m o -

p ray ers, to p ro c e e d in to th e c h u rc h w h e re th e y w o u ld

tiotYS (com p ungitu r ١ animat ur, spe ‫ ﺻ ﺔ‬٠fo r midine t n t k

b e g j n t k F i e l G ratias tib ia g o , o n m ip o ten s Pater...4

w o rd s o f T h e o p h ilu s 5.) a n d to p ro v id e a n e x e m p lu m in

M o re o v e r, th is verse e x p lain s th e sm all h e a d s a n d th e

its b ro a d e s t sense t h a t w o u ld e n c o u ra g e th e o b se rv e r to

verse fe a tu re d o n th e d o o r th a t c o n n e c ts th e c lo iste r

reflect o n a n d re fo rm h is life .51 In effect, as w as sta te d

w ith th e c h u rc h : ‘L ift u p y o u r h e ad s, y o u g a te s’55 (Fig. 5).

b y D a v id d ’A vray,52 a n im ag e c a n o ffe r m u c h m o re th a n

In th is re g ard , w e s h o u ld h ig h lig h t th e liv in g c h a ra c te r

a te x t beca u se o f its im m e d ia c y ; all th e e le m e n ts a n d

o f th e sto n e s u se d , w h ic h a c c o rd in g to Jé rô m e B asch et,

re la tio n s e sta b lish e d b e tw e e n th e im ages c a n b e re a ­

Je a n -C la u d e B o n n e a n d O liv ie r D ittm a r, im b u e its

d ily u n d e rs to o d , w h e rea s re a d in g a te x t re q u ire s m o re

v e ry m ate ria ls w ith a sp iritu a l q u a lity .56

tim e a n d e ffo rt. Im ages are ag en tiv e in th e sense th a t

T h is q u a lity m a y also b e o b se rv e d in th e q u a ­

th e y enable th e b e lie v e r (m o n k , n o v ice o r lay m a n ) to

d ra n g le , w h e re c e rta in im ag es are in h a rm o n io u s

re m e m b e r c e rta in passages, m o s t o f w h ic h a t L a Seu

ju x ta p o s itio n w ith a rc h ite c tu ra l e le m e n ts. T h is is th e

d ’U rg ell are ta k e n fro m th e Psalm s. T h o se w h o w ere

case w ith th e h e a d s o n th e ab acu ses o f c a p itals 4 , 9,

aw are o f th is m e c h a n is m w o u ld have u n d e r s to o d

22, 25, 28 a n d 33; t h a t is, th e capita are s itu a te d o n

h o w it w as e m p lo y e d a t L a S eu a n d w o u ld have th u s

th e c a p ite la .57 L ik ew ise, p la n ts w o u ld h a v e in v o k e d

M a r t a S e r r a n o C o l l & E s t h e r L o z a n o LO p e z

Fig. 6.

Access to th e cou rty ard (still open): details o f th e capitals (p h o to s authors)

P arad ise w h e re evil first a p p e a re d , a n d th e c h a ra c te rs

a n d w h o a llu d e to th o se m e n tio n e d in th e re st o f th e

t h a t em erg e fro m e n o rm o u s leaves, as o n c a p ita ls 4 , 26

P salm , ‘N o t so th e w ic k e d ! T h e y are lik e c h a ff t h a t th e

a n d 30, a llu d e d to th e c le a n -liv in g m a n w h o , as P salm

w in d b lo w s away. T h e re fo re th e w ic k e d w ill n o t s ta n d

1 p u ts it, ‘is lik e a tre e p la n te d b y stre a m s o f w a ter,

in th e ju d g m e n t, n o r sin n e rs in th e a sse m b ly o f th e

w h ic h yield s its f r u it in se a so n a n d w h o s e le a f d o es

r ig h te o u s ’. 63 T hese la s t verses e x p la in th e su b s e q u e n t

n o t w ith e r ’.8‫ ؛‬A s su c h , th e y re p re se n t th e o rig in a l in d i­

sc e n e in w h ic h th e sam e c h a ra c te rs are e a te n b y lio n s.

v id u als to w h o m G o d gave d o m in io n o v e r h is w o rk s 9‫؛‬

T h e id e n tific a tio n o f lio n s w ith evil is so w ell e sta ­

in a sp a c io u s p la c e ,60 a n d evoke th e rig h te o u s w h o

b lis h e d th a t it n e e d s n o f u r th e r d isc u ssio n ; h o w e v er,

w ill in h e r it th e e a rth a n d w h o w ill d w e ll in it fo re v e r61

it is w o r th h ig h lig h tin g th e ir im p o rta n c e in th e

(Fig. 6). T h e sa m e c o n c e p t is s h a re d b y th o se h o ld in g

P salm s, as is s h o w n in ‘L e s t h e te a r m y so u l lik e a lio n ,

b ra n c h e s o n c a p ita l 2 ju s t a fte r th e w in g e d d e m o n s :

re n d in g it in p iec e s, w h ile th e re is n o n e to d e liv e r’, 64

‘B lessed is th e o n e w h o d o e s n o t w a lk in ste p w ith

a verse th a t, as w ith m a n y o th e rs , w as e c h o e d o n

th e w ic k e d [...] b u t w h o se d e lig h t is in th e la w o f th e

su c h c ap itals as 8, 9, 35 a n d 37. P a rt o f th e s c u lp tu ra l

L o rd , a n d w h o m e d ita te s o n h is la w d a y a n d n i g h t ’. 62

re p e rto ire in tim a te s p h ra se s su c h as ‘H is eyes w a tc h

T hese im ag es w e re re la te d to th e n a k e d fe m a le fig u res

in se c re t f o r h is v ic tim s; lik e a lio n in c o v e r h e lies in

w ith m ale g e n ita ls o n c a p ita l 7 w h o are h o ld in g th o r n s

w a it. H e lies in w a it to c a tc h th e h e lp le ss’;6‫ ؛‬w h ic h

T h e C l o i s t r a l S c u l p t u r e a t L a S e u d ’U r g e l l

283

Fig. 7.

C apital 23 show ing fo u r musicians (p h o to authors)

is su g g e ste d o n c a p ita l 4 , o r ‘T h e w ic k e d lie in w a it

m usicians (Fig. 7). T h e ir m e a n in g is a m b ig u o u s given

f o r th e rig h te o u s , in te n t o n p u t ti n g th e m to d e a th ’.66

th a t m usic w as a p p ro v e d w h e n u se d in litu rg y , b u t w as

W e also su g g e st t h a t c ap itals 9, 11 a n d 35 re fe r to P salm

c en su red a t o th e r tim es fo r its c o n n e c tio n s w ith lec h e ry

22: ‘D o g s s u r r o u n d m e, a p a c k o f v illa in s e n circle s m e ;

a n d im m o ra lity . H e re , given th e la y s p e c ta to rsw h o w o u ld

th e y p ie rc e m y h a n d s a n d m y fe e t’.67 A c o n sid e ra b le

have p a sse d th ro u g h th e cloister, it seem s to m ake m o re

n u m b e r o f c ap itals fe a tu re in d iv id u a ls stic k in g o u t

sense to lin k th e m u sician s w ith th e p ro fa n e. A c c o rd in g

th e ir to n g u e s , in re fe re n c e to th e fla tte rin g m o u th s

to th e litu rg y o f th e H o u rs , d u rin g th e c o m m e m o ra tio n

a n d b o a s tfu l to n g u e s o f P salm s 6 4 : ‘H e w ill t u r n th e ir

o f th e L a st Supper, th e m a n d a tu m w as cele b ra ted in the

o w n to n g u e s a g a in s t th e m a n d b r in g th e m to r u in ; all

c h a p te r ho use, w h ic h m e a n t th a t th is p a r t o f th e cloister

w h o see th e m w ill sh a k e th e ir h e a d s in sc o rn ’,68 a n d 39:

w as o p e n to p e o p le w h o w ere n o t m em b e rs o f th e reli­

‘D e liv e r m e, O L o rd , fro m ly in g lip s, fro m a d e c e itfu l

g ious c o m m u n ity (except fo r th e p o o r, fo r w h o m it w as

to n g u e ’. 69 A n d so m e c ap itals, su c h as 19, 2 4 a n d 45,

cele b ra ted in th e re fec to ry ).72 B y th e sam e to k e n , a n d in

re p ro d u c e w h a t th e B ib le refers to as th e in iq u itie s

lin e w ith C a rm e B atlle, w e sh o u ld also c o n sid e r a n o th e r

o v e r th e h e a d s o f sin n e rs, w h ic h a p p e a r in th e P salm s

a ctiv ity o c c u rrin g in th is place, n a m e ly alm sgiving. T his

as ‘m y g u ilt has o v e rw h e lm e d m e lik e a b u r d e n to o

w as e n c o u ra g e d b y th e m o s t im p o rta n t m e n in th e city

h e a v y to b e a r ’70 o r ‘K e e p m e safe fro m th e tra p s se t b y

th ro u g h th e a c t o fg iv in g b re a d to th e p o o r; in fact, once

ev ild o e rs, fro m th e sn ares th e y h av e la id fo r m e ’.71 W it h i n a n ensem ble filled w ith evil bein g s a n d p lan ts, capital 23 sta n d s o u t fo r its re p re se n ta tio n o f fo u r

284

M a r t a S e r r a n o C o l l & E s t h e r L o z a n o LO p e z

th e religious c o m m u n ity ceased to live w ith in th e claus­ tr u m b y th e e n d o f th e tw e lfth cen tu ry , th e refecto ry b ecam e sim p ly a n alm sh o u se.73

C o n c lu s io n

w e re m o s tly illu s tr a te d b y im a g e s o f le c h e ry th a t

O u r i n te r p r e ta tio n o f th e c a p ita ls in th e c lo is te r a t

w ay, th e s c u lp tu re s fu lfille d t h e i r p u r p o s e o f a c tin g

L a S eu d ’U rg e ll is th e first to a sse rt th a t th e y c a n be

as a m n e m o n ic d e v ic e t h a t w o u ld r e m in d th e v ie w e r

in v o k e d a k i n d o f e x e m p lu m e x c o n tra riis. In th is

u n d e r s to o d as m o re th a n a fo rm o f in c id e n ta l d e c o ­

o f th e p o t e n t i a l o f A fte rlife , a th e m e t h a t c a n also

ra tio n . H o w e v e r, th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o r m u tila tio n o f

b e f o u n d in th e a b u n d a n t d o c u m e n ta tio n s to r e d a t

o th e r c o m p a ra b le e n se m b le s p o se se rio u s d iffic u ltie s

th is c a th e d ra l w h o s e m o n u m e n ta l c lo is te r is w it­

to a c o m p re h e n s iv e in te r p r e ta tio n , a n d w e m u s t also

h o u t e q u a l in R o m a n e s q u e a r c h ite c tu r e a r o u n d th e

re c o g n iz e t h a t th e sa m e ic o n o g ra p h ic m o tifs o c c u r

M e d ite r r a n e a n .

in o t h e r p a r ts o f th e b u ild in g as w e ll, su c h as th e c h u rc h o r th e e x te rn a l g a lle ry o f th e apse. O u r a n a ­ lysis a p p ro a c h e s th e c lo is te r as b o t h a p h y sic a l, id e n ­ tity g iv in g re a lm a n d a fu n c tio n a l a n d p ro c e s sio n a l

NOTES

space a n d th u s c o n tr ib u te s to th e h is to rio g ra p h ic a l lite ra tu re t h a t d iscu sses th e d iffic u ltie s in h e r e n t in d e te r m in in g th e o rn a m e n ta l f u n c tio n a n d sig n ifi­ can c e o f ico n o g ra p h ies. O u r h y p o th e sis accep ts th e m u ltifa c e te d m e a n in g o f th e m o n s tro u s im a g es as w ell as th e a m b iv a le n c e o f M e d ie v a l a ttitu d e s in th e face o f th ese c re a tu re s; in so d o in g , it p o in ts to t h e ir use as a m n e m o n ic re so u rc e a n d a d m o n is h m e n t, r e m in d in g th e v ie w e r to b e h a v e w e ll a t all tim e s. A lth o u g h th e so u rc e s are v a rie d a n d th e re la ­ t io n s h ip b e tw e e n th e v isu a l sig n s a n d th e te x ts is e q u iv o c a l, w e p r o p o s e a n in te r p r e ta t io n b a s e d o n th e b o o k s h e ld in th e c a th e d ra l lib r a r y a n d , a b o v e all, th e P s a lm s t h a t w o u ld h a v e b e e n r e c ite d b y th e m e m b e rs o f th e re lig io u s c o m m u n ity . T h e a p p a ­ r e n tly d is o r g a n iz e d

a r r a n g e m e n t o f th e

th e m e s

le a d s u s to a sk w h e t h e r it is clo se to , o r in flu e n c e d by, c e r ta in m e tr ic a n d s y n ta c tic s tr u c tu r e s u s e d in th e s e te x ts. T h e n o n - lin e a r ity m a y b e d u e to c e r ta in q u a litie s f o u n d in th is ty p e o f lite r a tu r e , w h ic h is e llip tic a l b y n a tu r e , e x p resses id e a s in fe w w o rd s , a n d re fu ses to l in k c o n c e p ts t h a t w o u ld a llo w d is c o n n e c ­ t e d w o rd s to in s p ire in th e l is te n e r t h a t w h ic h th e p o e t h a s n o t m a n a g e d th r o u g h th e te x t. I n d e e d , w e c o u ld e x tra p o la te to th e v isu a l re a lm th e fo llo w in g w o rd s o f th e e x e g e tic s c h o la r H e r m a n n G u n k e l: ‘L o n g e r p o e tic w o rk s w o u ld b e e a s ie r to in te r p r e t b e c a u se th e in d iv id u a l p a ssa g e s c o u ld b e e x p la in e d in v ie w o f o t h e r p a ssa g e s’.74 T h o se w h o e n te r e d th e c lo is te r a n d g a z e d u p o n th e c a p ita ls w e re m e t b y ‘ex p lo siv e v is io n s ’ w h o s e m o s tly p e rfid io u s c re a tu re s re c a lle d , a m o n g o t h e r th in g s , th e in flu e n c e o f evil fo rc es o v e r th e c a rn a l. T h e v io le n c e o f th e b e a s ts u r g e d b o t h th e re lig io u s c o m m u n ity a n d th e la y m e n w h o o c c a s io n a lly e n te r e d th e c lo is te r to a d o p t g o o d th o u g h ts in th e fa ce o f s in fu l im a g in in g s , w h ic h

* This study forms part of the projects Organizaciónfuncional de losespdciosen sedesepiscopdiesdeCilunaThej،* (I):S e u d U ٣gell, Gironay The (s. IX-XII). arquitectura y programas visuales[Ministerio de Ciencia e InnovaciOn. HAR2009-15211, subprograma ARTE] and Catedrales romäcais en a prouinckeciesidstica tarneonewee (s. X I-X III): p^rorama^siiisu^ies,l.tt^ur^iay٠ qwit^ect^wraenTarr^gon^,R^od^^d^e Isabena, Huesca, Zaragoza y Pamplona [Ministerio de Economia y Competititividad. HAR2012-52765], headed by Gerardo Boto Varela. We would like to thank Gerardo Boto and Javier Martinez de Aguirre for their comments which have helped improve and develop some of our proposals. 1 Urgelll^. d ’estudls blsftMcs dels aufics cowtats de CeriPallarSjdMndorra. i l a l l d A r a n ١ voVIX, V III ١ IX and X, La Seu d ’Urgell, 1981, 1986-87, 1988-89 and 1990-91. 2 Urgellia, IX, 1988-89, doc. 1445. 5 Urgellia, IX, 1988-89, docs. 1457 and 1459. 4 Urgellia, X, 1990-91, doc. 1690. 5 The regular dimensions of the capitals and cymatia, 58-40 cm high by 4 0 -4 2 cm wide, confirm their contemporaneousness. 6 O f particular importance among the oldest works is Pascual Sa n z , ‘Monografia y RestauraciOn de la catedral de la Seo de Ur%el١ .En de la Asockclónde ArquitectosdeCataluna., 1906-07, pp. 59-155. The year 1918 saw the publication o f a study that would remain the classic reference work for many years: Josep PuiG I C adafalch , Santa Maria de la Seu d ’Urgell: Estudi monogràfic, Barcelona, 1918, pp. 48-49, 75-95. The study mentions a gallery that preceded the southern lateral portal of the church, details the terms of the contract to renovate the east wing, highlights the reforms carried out in the second half of the thirteenth century and the fourteenth century, and shows that the capitals o f Sant Sadurni de Tavèrnoles are analogous. For a short article that offers little in the way of fresh insights, see: Pedro P ujo l , ‘La catedral de Seo de Urgel', in Ilerda, 8, 1947, pp. 45-48. For his part, Marcel Durliat located the origins of the sculptures in the orbit of Roussillon, which leads him to situate its chrono­ logy at the end o f the twelfth century or even in the thirteenth: M^rcelDuRLAAT١Lasculpture romaneenRousillon. Les premiers essksdu XI ‫ ء‬siè cle .L e sÉ lie rsd eS è t'M ic b e ld e C u x a etd eS errabone, vol. I, Perpignan, 1948, p. 94. The Roussillon influence was noted in the same year in José G u dio l R ica rt & Juan A.

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285

G a y a N u N q , Arq uitectur a y escuIturaromu nicus. A rsHispa niue, catedral de la Seu d'Urgell', in Lambard, 9, 1996, pp. 49-73. His vol. v, Madrid, 1948, p. 64, 73, 76, and further developed by Frein-depth discussion of the problem of the Lombards in Catalo­ deric-Pau Ver r i É, ‘L'arquitectura romànica', in L A rt Català, nia concludes that La Seu demonstrates ori^nality rather than vol. I, Barcelona, 1957, pp. 164-65 and Joaquin Ya rza , Arte y a dependence on Roussillon. He points to Cuxa as the place to arquitectura en Espana500-1250, Madrid, 1979, p. 296, 299, 304. look for parallels, although he argues that the foreign component Jo cp PuiG 1 C a d a y a l c h ١ 'tn L ’escultura romàntica a Cutulunyu, points to the Way of St James. Xavier BARRAL I A ltet in ‘El 3 vols, Barcelona, 1949, contributes nothing new. The year 1961 segle X II i la renovació de l'escultura catalana', in Catalusaw the publication of Eduard J unyent , Catalogne romane, n y a i rs Catal on iiE sc u I turaa ntiga !medieval,Barcelon a,1997١ vol. II, La Pierre-qui-Vire, 1960-1961, pp. 37-46, which conti­ pp. 127-30, dates the sculpture to around 1160-70 on the basis nues in the same vein as previous works. The connection with of the subject matter and the position of the capitals in the tri­ Ripoll is established in Xavier Barral I A ltet , ‘La sculpture bune of the south gallery at Serrabona, and maintains that the à Ripoll au XIIème siècle', in Bulle ti n Monumen tal, 131, 1973, iconography is from Roussillon with influences from Toulouse pp. 311-50, and is further developed by authors such as NUria de and repertoires from Ripoll. Various pages are devoted to the D almases & Antoni j. P ita rch in Els inicis i Vart romànic. sculpture in the latest monograph on the cathedral by Joan-AlSegles IX ' XII, Barcelona, 1986, pp. 111-12, 141-43 and 233 and bert A dell , Pere B eseran , Albert Sierra & Albert Villar O EduarAJu n y e n t In Catalunyaromàinic، a ’arq uitectura delsegle in La cat edral de la Seu d ’Urgell, Manresa, 2000, pp. 108-29, XII, Montserrat, 1976, pp. 71-89. Joaquin Ya rza , in ‘Aproxima313-50. The authors underline the aesthetic unity and plurality ció estilistica i iconogràfica a la portada de Santa Maria de Covet', of the sites and suggest that by 1175 the sculptors may have aban­ in Quaderns d ’estudis medievals, 9, 1982, pp. 535-56, points to doned the cathedral workshop or that they were working on the similarities with Covet whilst also proposing a date of between completion of the cloister, which would explain the lack of sculp­ 1150 and 1160. Marcel D urliat in E l arte roman ico, Madrid, ture in the tallest parts o f the building. They also believe that the 1982, pp. 509-10 emphasizes the Roussillon link and mentions north wing was built first and that the west and south wings were continuity between the decoration of the cathedral and that of built by a second master related to Covet, which leads them to the cloister, which was built, according to him, at the end of the date the work to around 1165-75. They point to formal influences twelfth century. Fresh impetus is given to the idea that the clois­ from the workshops of Roussillon and Toulouse, the occasional feature from Verona (although this is hotly contested), and ana­ tral ensemble and the altar were produced by the same workshop that worked on La Seu in Mathies D elcor , ‘Un monastère aux logies with pieces carried out in Compostela, León, Jaca, Loarre portes de la Seu d'Urgell: Sant Sadurni de Tabernoles', in Les and Uncastillo; and they study the parallels with Gerri, San Cahiers de Saint-Michel de Cuxa, 17, 1986, pp. 43-70. The clois­ Sebastian dels Gorgs, San Martin Sarroca and point to the reap­ ter's Baroque project was discussed in 1990 by Juan Bassegoda , pearance of these influences at Tavèrnoles and Tremp. ‘Proyectos barrocos para la Seu d'Urgell', in 7 Urgellia, IV, 1981, doc. 315. y Forma, 3, 1990, pp. 151-80. Pere B eseran , in ‘L'escultura de 8 Prim Bertran , Ermengol d ’Urgell (1010-1035). Lobra d ’un Santa Maria de la Seu d'Urgell', in Catalunya romàn ica. L ’A lt bisbe del segle XI, Barcelona, 2010, p. 21. Urgell. Andorra, vol. VI, Barcelona, 1992, pp. 334-50, insists 9 ‘Ever since the Lord and our Saviour [...] has wrested on 1175 as the terminus an t e quem and proposes 1150 for the humankind from the power of the devil and from eternal death, construction of the cloister, this being the last undertaking of the and thus damned death itself, it has been a source of wonder that sculptors who worked on the building. That study also describes wretched men [. ] should spontaneously give themselves back for the first time the iconography of the capitals, whose distri­ to the devil and, finding themselves once more accompanied by bution is shown in a plan and which are photographed in detail. death, subjugate themselves to its chains [...]. He, who is good, The following year, two capitals from the Episcopal Palace in compassionate, merciful and benevolent, willing to forgive, invites us to penitence and promises us that: “in the moment that Barcelona were shown to contain compositions that refer to the the sinner converts and seeks forgiveness, I will forget all of his cloister in Inmaculada L o r ÉS, ‘L'escultura romànica del Palau Episcopal de Barcelona', in DArc, 19, 1993, pp. 211-26. Francesca sins"'. Cit. Benigne M a r i é s , ‘El testament de sant Ermengol E spa Nol , in ‘L'escultura romànica catalana en el marc dels inter(i 4-XH-i 033)', in Església d ’Urgell, 55, 1977, pp. 11-12. canvis hispanollenguadocians', in Gombau de Camporells, bisbe de 10 Urgellia, III, 1980, doc. 1229. Lleida. A l ’alba del segle XIII, Lleida, 1996, pp. 4 4 -6 2 and 67-71, 11 Urgellia, IX, 1988-89, doc. 1325. argues that everything at Urgell, apart from one capital that is 12 Urgellia, IX, 1988-89, doc. 1345. connected to two pieces at Ripoll, is connected with Toulouse, 13 Miquel G ros , ‘La biblioteca de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell although without specifying the exact influences, and that the ak *٠ * X - X 1Y١ ٠tn Acta Historica et A rckeologica Medic e i ' work at Urgell shares the figurative culture and some of the same lia, 26, 2005, pp. 101-24. In 1937, the first list of the cathedral's solutions of the master at Covet. She proposes 1175 as the termi' memoria librorum was published in Pere PujOL, ‘De la cultura nus ante quem for the execution of the sculpture and downplays catalana medieval. Una biblioteca dels temps romànics', in EstU' its connections with Italy whilst asserting that its sculptors were dis Universitaris Catalans, 17, 1937, pp. 6-27. See also Anscari also responsible for the cloister of Tavèrnoles and for Santa Maria M u n d O, ‘La cultura i els llibres a Catalunya, segles VIII a XII', in de Gerri, a work dated by its act of consecration in 1149. For his Obres Completes, vol. I, Barcelona & Montserrat, 1997, pp. 484-582. part, Pere Beseran published an article on sculpture that mainly 14 We know that a L ibrum Virgilii Eneidum remains, of which discusses iconography from Toulouse and Italy: Pere Bese Yme 268١ I bant obscu ri sola sub nocte p er umbram ١ en gende rs ran , ‘Originalitat i tradició en l'escultura monumental de la an uneasiness that leads to a fear of the soon-to-be-revealed

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unknown. Lines 273 to 281 are a catalogue of personifications of Pain, Worry, Diseases, O ld Age, Fear, Hunger, Need, Death, Fatigue, Torpor and Guilty Pleasures of the Soul that occupy the threshold of the Fauces. The description of this entrance is completed with a succession of mythological monsters such as Centaurs, Chimeras, Gorgons and Harpies. Regarding the Clas­ sical tradition in Medieval Catalonia, see: Pere J. ^ETGLAS, ‘La tradiciò clàssica a l'edat mitjana als palsos de parla catalana', in Itaca. C u t t n Clàssica١ 23,10.7 ١pp. n-i6>. 15 In his Letter to the Piso family, De arte poetica, Horace men­ tions the use of monsters by the artists, and alludes to terrible hybrids such as Scylla, Charybdis and the Cyclops. 16 This may be the celebrated commentary Super Lucam aIium or that of the Venerable Bede, used during matins: G ros , ‘La biblio­ teca', p. 110. 17 Examples would be the Decadem, the commentaries on the Psalms known as the Enarrationes in PsaImos, or the copy of the D eThiuia t e . S ee..Ibidem,p .107. 18 The Quarente, which contains the forty homilies preached by the pope, according to Ibidem, p. 106. Also, in Gros's opinion, there was a ReguIa PastoraIi, the DiaIogorum, which was present in every cathedral and monastery library, the MoraIia in Job and the Libro de Ias Sentencias by Tayon de Zaragoza, which summa­ rizes his spiritual doctrine. 19 G ros , ‘La biblioteca', p. 109. 20 I bidem, p . Y Y v 21 Regarding the relationship between images and their special settYYY‫؟‬., see.. Luis M e r in o , Retòrica y artes de memoria en el humauismo renacentista: Jorge de Thebisond^Æ, Pedro de R^،it;^^a y Francisco Sanchez de las Brozas, Caceres, 2007, where he explains logos et imagines as a form of memorization writing in which ima' gines resemble letters and the Ioci resemble the wax on which they are printed. 22 ‘The Conferences of John Cassian', Conference 10, cap. XIV, 'Yn Documenta Catholica Omnia, o lciA . Ate o f the rum Veritatis Societas, http://wwv.documentacatholicaomnia.eu (consulted online in April 2014). Although there is no record of it in the cathedral chapter library at La Seu d'Urgell, it was known in Catalan lands by the tenth century: José Rius, ‘Noticia de una pà^n a del tratado de Conlationes de Casiano conservada en el Archivo Diocesano de Barcelona', in conensia, XII, 1936, pp. 441-50. 23 Mary C a r r u t h e r s , ‘Varietas•: A world of many colors', in Poetica: Z eitsch rif t f ürSpr ach - u n d Lite raturuiissen schaftt , 2009, pp. 33-54, here 39. See also: Paolo R ossi, Clavis UniversaIis. A rti deIIa memoria e Iogica combinatoria da LuIIo a Leib­ niz, Milan & Naples, 1960; Mary C a r r u t h e r s , The Book o f Me mory. A Study ofM e m o ry i n M edieval Culture, C ‫؟‬m k ٠Y d%e, 299.., P k o R o sst , Il p assato, la m emoria, l o blio. S e is a ^ id i storia delle idee, Bologna, 1991; Mary C a r r u t h e r s , The Craft Thoug k M editati on, R h etoric and t he M ak i ng o‫ ؛‬Im ages, 400-1200, Cambridge, 1998; Lina B o lzo n i , ‘The Play of Memory between Words and Images', in Memory and Oblivion: Proceeding s c f t h e X X IV t h I nternationa l C o n r esso^ t h e History o f Art, ed. Wessel R ein in k & Jeroen Stu m pe l , Dordrecht, 1999, pp. 11-18; Lina B o lzo n i , La rete delle immagini. Predi' cagione i n v olgare d ale origini a da Siena, TurYn, 2002; Mary C a rruthers & Jan M. Z io lk ow sk i (ed.), The

M edieM l Craft of M emory. A n A nth ologyo f Texts a n d Pictures, Philadelphia, 2002 and Frances A. Yates , l e A rt ofMemory, Chicago, 1966. 24 Encarna M o n t er o , ‘La puesta a punto del observatorio: visión, historia del arte medieval perceptualismo y semiòtica', in A rslonga:Cua dern osde a rte١ Y4_Y١١ 200&,p . ١1. 25 According to the terms as used by Carmen Gal An & Ma Isabel R o d r Iguez , ‘Emblemas y arte de memoria en el Tesoro de Covarrubias: perspectivas semiòticas', in Revista Signa, 22, 2013, pp. 311-12. 26 Regarding Christian doctrine on dreams and visions, see: Jacques L e G off & Nicola T ru o n g , Une histoire du (orps au Moyen Age, Paris, 2003, pp. 69-75. Requesting somnia et no(tium phantasmata to stay away is common in prayers at the end o f the day, as can be seen in the lines by Ambrose in the Com­ pline hymn. 27 Miquel G ros , ‘La consueta antiga de la Seu d'Urgell (Vic, Mus. Episc., MS 131)', in UrgelIia, I, 1978, pp. 183-266. 28 As can be seen on columns 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 13, 14, 23, 30, 33, 45 and 49. 29 These differences can only be seen by moving around the capital. 30 Meyer Sh a pir o , ‘The Sculptures of Souillac', in Art, 1, 1977 [1939], p. 123. 31 ‘W ith the deepest emotion of heart not as if they were the compositions of the Psalmist, but rather as if they were his own utterances and his very own prayer [٠٠٠] and will recognize that their words were not only fulfilled formerly by or in the person of the prophet, but that they are fulfilled and carried out daily in his own case [٠٠٠]', cit. from ‘The Conferences ofJohn Cassian', conference 10, cap. XI, in Do(umenta CathoIi(a Omn ia. 32 That is, A: dominated by beasts, B: dominated by humans and C: dominated by plants. The reading may be as follows: on the north side: ABC BCA / B B -B C B -A A / CA CA; on the east side: CBCA / C B -B C B -C B C -B C / CBCA; on the south side: C B -C C A -C C C -C B C -C C A -A C . 33 Isaiah 57:3-5. 34 The apes at Silos have been read as images o f the bad monk who disobeys the rules of his order; see: Justo P érez de U rbel , EI (laustro de Silos, Burgos, 1975, p. 172. The pejorative meaning attached to monks can be traced back to Church Fathers, who branded them as pagans and heretics. Well-known instances are the teachings of Chrysostom and Gregory of Nazianzus, as well as Prudentius, Augustine and Isidore of Seville, some of whose writings are found in the cathedral library at La Seu d'Urgell. 35 Some studies have confirmed that theriomorphic decoration was an essential tool for the ambit or image in which it is used. Boto Varela states that, on occasion, it reinforced doctrinal pro­ grammes, although for the most part aesthetic tastes were the primary cause behind these motifs' proliferation, see: Gerardo B o t o Va r e l a ١ Ornu t o sin delito. L osseres im aginariosdel cla nstro deSilosy susecosen la esculturaroma nicap eninsula r R . k ١ 2001, p. 38. 36 Bestiaries were not used in the Iberian kingdoms to transmit zoological knowledge, as was the case on the other side of the Pyrenees, see: Ibidem, p. 103. 37 Francis K lin g en d er , AnimaIs in A rt and Thought to the E nd o f the MiddIe Ages, Cambridge, 1971; O tto K. W erck Meiste r , ‘Jugglers in a Monastery', in ArtJournal, 17, 1, 1994, pp. 6 0 -64; Michael C am ille , ‘How New York Stole the

T h e C l o i s t r a l S c u l p t u r e a t L a S e u d ’U r g e l l

287

Idea o f Romanesque Art: Medieval, Modern and Postmodern in Meyer Shapiro', in Ibidem, pp. 65-75; Jan M. ZioLKowsKi, ‘Literary Genre and Animal Symbolism' in A n imals and the Symb olic i n M ed i e k A ta n d L ite ra tu re , 20, Groningen, 1997; Jac٣ s V olsenel , B etesethom mesda nslem on demedie vale. Le bestiaire des clercs du v c au XIIe siècle, Turnhout, 2000; Thomas E. A. D ale , ‘Monsters, Corporeal Deformities, and Phantasms in the Cloister of St-Michel-de-Cuixa' in The A rt Bulle ti n, 83, 3, 2001, pp. 402-36; Elizabeth Valdez del A lam o , Palace ofthe M i n d : TheCloisterof S i l os andSpa nish Sculp t ure of t h eT w elf h Century, Turnhout, 2012. 38 EmAe M ale,, Religious A rt i n France. The Twelf th Century: A Study t h e Origins Medieval Iconoraphy,, Princeton N J 1978, pp. 339-41; Meyer Sh a pir o , ‘Sobre la actitud estética en el arte romanico' in Estudios sobre el romanico, Madrid, 1984 [1947], pp. 13- 36. 39 Since the appearance o f Émile m a l e ' s Twelfth Cent ury, various authors have looked at the difficulties that arise when trying to determine the meaning of these types of image, see: Nurith K e n a a n -Ke d a ^, Marginal Sculp tu re i n Medieval France: Towards t h e D eciph ering an E nigm atic Pictorial Language, Aldershot, 1995; James T rilling , ‘Medieval Interlace Orna­ ment: The Making of a Cross-Cultural Idiom', in Arte Medievale, II, 9, 1995, pp. 59-86; Thomas E. A. D ale , ‘The monstrous' in A Companion to Medieval A rt:Rom anesqu e a n d Got h ic i n N orth ern Europe, ed. Conrad R udolf , Oxford, 2006, pp. 255-58; Gerardo B o to , ‘M ar^nalia o la fecundación de los contornos vacios: historiografia, método y escrutinio de los primeros màrgenes hispanos (920-1150)' in La miniat Ibèrica, Murcia, 2007, n. 4, p. 422; Inés R uiz, ‘Del mito al sim­ bolo cristiano: el claustro de Silos', in Anales de Historia del Arte, n . Extra I, 2010, pp. 125-50 (although we do not agree with the latter's findings). 40 B ernardiC l araevallensis A bbatiSv In annuntiatione M a riae Virginis sermo 1, 7, Patrologia Latina, CLXXXIII, col. 389. 41 Examples of this, which also cover a broad timeframe, are the aforementioned document by Bishop O t dated to between 1095 and 1122, and the subsequent examen candentis ferri illus censum suffered by the inhabitants of Mas de Miró in 1196, see: Urgellia, v i i , 1984-1985, doc. 1345 and Urgellia, XI, 1992-1993, doc. 1879. 42 ‘[...] because you know that other believers throughout the world are going through the same kind o f sufferings, I Peter 5, 8-9. These same verses were sung every night and at Compline by other communities such as that of Moissac. 43 Jérôme Baschet , ‘Inventivité et sérialité des images médié­ vales. Pour une approche iconographique élargie', in Annales HSS, I, 1996, pp. 106-07. 44 Lina B o lzo n i , ‘Emblemi e arte della memoria: alcune note sulnvenAoneerlccAoncL'in Florilegio deEstu diosde E m blemat:ica.A^^orile^ium^Jstud,iesonemblem^at:ics,eA.S^^ar٠oi PGpe z , La Coruna, 2004, p. 20. 45 See GalAn & Rodr Iguez , ‘Emblemas y arte de memoria' p. 296. 46 Psalm 91, 13 in accordance with the Rule of Saint Benedict and the Liturgy of the Hours. Regarding the latter, see Miquel G ros , ‘La consueta de la Seu d'Urgell' in Urgellia, I, 1978, p. 201, n. 78.

288

M a r t a S e r r a n o C o l l & E s t h e r L o z a n o LOPEZ

47 Urgellia, IV, 1981, doc. 315, transcribed in Manuel Riu, ‘Santa Maria de la Seu d'Urgell' in Catalunya Romànica, vol. 6, Barce­ lona, 1992, p. 322. 48 An example can be found in Urgellia, IX, 1988-1989, doc. 1342. 49 J‫؛‬aimt V il la n u e v a ١ Viage literario à las iglesias de Espana. Viage a Urgel, vol. xi, Madrid, 1850, p. 48; ap. doc. XI, pp. 201-02 InnocentiiPapae 11. £ ٣‫ ﺟوﴽج‬su^^^erelectiouee^,isco^,.Urgell.)a^uuocircilerM CXLIl). 50 Prolo^usli^rumit^ert٢ ium di lo p h ili,q u ie tR u g e ru s,p resb yt^‫ج‬r i ‫ج‬t;m^onÆcbi,libri5,d^‫ ج‬d,i‫ًﺟدا‬rsisart;i‫ًدا‬us^ seuD iversarum atium schedula, transl. with notes by Robert H en d rie , Toronto, 1901, p. 206. 51 Regarding the different ways of interpreting the term exemplum in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, see Jean-Claude Sc h m it t , ^ ٢^êcbe٢'d. 20 See: José Ramón N ieto G onzalez , ‘El conjunto catedralicio de Salamanca', in Aquellas blancas catedrales, pp. 65-66; Idem, ‘El conjunto catedralicio de Salamanca. Intervenciones arquitectónY ay.i76 ١- i 9 ١ 6y\n Temp use daxc,homo edacior.C atedralesde Castillay León, vol. 3, Valladolid, 1996, pp. 63-64. 21 Gerardo Bo to Varela , ‘La organización de los claustros romànicos peninsulares: proyectos germinales y retos funcionales, In E mcomtro I mtern acionals obre cla ustros ^o mun do mediterranico (séc. X - X VIII ) , Ii is^c^^i, Mi e u Na^ciona-l d^e A rte A mtiga,2 0 -2 2 de junio de 2013 (in press); see also: Gerardo Bo to Varela , ‘D u cloître roman au cloître romantique: démontages, recons­ tructions et inventions en Péninsule Ibérique (x v ille, x ix e et x x c AkcVy,, Vn Les Cabiersde Saint-Mich e ld e Cuxa ١ 4 202 ‫ ة‬١Ç١ p. 179-91.

R o M A N E S ^ E S c u l p t u r e IN Z a m o r a a n d S a l a m a n c a

303

22 Cf. Margarita R uiz M a ldonado , ‘Vigas decoradas mudéSalamanca in 1992. See: Antonio L edesma , ‘A pogeo tardorjares de la Catedral Vieja de Salamanca', in romanico en la orden del Hospital: el primitivo claustro de San de Arte ‫ ﻵ‬Arqueologla, 55١ 1989, pp. 392-98. Juan de Barbalos (Salamanca)', in 23José Luis M a rt In M art In , ‘El archivo de la catedral y la histo­ delnvestgatcióndelM oM steriodeSataM analaR eal ١١٠١ 2.1 A١ ria de la Universidad de Salamanca' in pp. 177-224; the same author published a recent synthesis in ‘La Salamanca. I V Vestigios‫ ﻵ‬entramados, Salamanca, 2٠ ٠ 9١ pp. 22-23. escultura de la Catedral Vieja de Salamanca: procesos de trans24 Serafin M oralejo , ‘La miniatura de los tumbos A y B' in Los formación, pérdidas y reposiciones' in Tumbos de Compostela, Madrid, 1985 (see also in Patrimonio artlsDefortis a magna, ed. Mariano C asas H ern An d e z , Salamanca, tico de Galicia‫ ﻵ‬otros estudios, vol. i, p. 326). 2 4 ٠ ‫ ل‬١ pp. 1799-1838. 25 Cf. Alan Bo rg , ‘Observations on the Historiated Lintel of the 3٠ During the reigns of Fernando II and Alfonso IX, coins were Holy Sepulchre ofJerusalem' in Journal ofthe Warburg and Courminted from silver (silver-copper alloy) from 1167 and even tauldIns titu tes, 32, 1969, pp. 25-40 from gold from 1186, a third of which were ^ven to Bishop 26 Cf. Etelvina Fern Andez G onzalez , ‘Hacia la renovación Vidal. Moralejo alludes to a maravedi of Alfonso IX almost cer­ del lenguaje arquitectónico en torno al reinado de Alfonso IX ' in tainly coined in Salamanca, whose obverse shows the royal head Alfonso I X ‫ﻵ‬٧ su època, p. 367. between a sword and a labarum, while its reverse shows a heraldic 27 The public penitential rite known as the Veneranda Dies and lion placed on five arches, an allusion to the bridge over the river which began on Ash Wednesday was held opposite the Porta Tormes (Serafin M oralejo , ‘La iconografia re^a en el Reino Francigena and led by Adam (cf. Serafin M oralejo , ‘La imagen de León ( 2 3 ٠١١١! - 57‫ ﻟ ﻞ‬in A tid e ilIC u r s o d e C u ttu r a M e d ie il. arquitectónica de la Catedral de Santiago de Compostela' in Afonso H I I ‫ ﻵ‬suepoca., 0‫^ل‬5^(‫ي‬١ M d A d ١ Y 992 delCono e f l n t e rnaA onA ediS u d h llPellegriMg io ^ S a n t i f d i g e e A o . Pa^trim^onioa^r^istic0d^eGa-lCcia-)0tr0sestu^d,i0s١ vo^. ١^ ١ Compostella e la LetteraturaJacopea, Perula, 1983 (see also: Patrimo­ pp. 17.-71). nio artistico de Galicia‫ ﻵ‬otros estud ios, vol. i ) ١ p. 246; Manuel C as­ 31 C arrero Santam ar Ia , La Catedral Vieja de Salamanca, t i Neiras , ‘La Porta Francigena: una encrucijada en el nacimiento pp. 89- 9٠ . del gran portal romànico', in Anolesextraordi­ 32 A spandrel found during the archaeolo^cal surveys carried nary vol. 2١Alfonso VI‫ ﻵ‬el art e de su època, ed. Javier M art Inez de out on the patio of the current Neoclassical cloister at Salamanca A guirre & Marta Poza Yagüe , 2٠ ii , pp. 95-i ٠ 3). Cathedral was decorated with carved plant motifs that were assi­ 28 SAn c h ez A m eijeira s , ‘El entorno ima^nario del rey' p. 318. milated into those preserved at Santa Maria de la Vega (cf. Luis The Easter Lamb, flanked by the four Evangelists, is represented C aballero Z oreda & Manuel R etuerce Velasco , Excavaon the keystone o f the vault closest to the spiral at Ourense. ciónfqueoIógicaeneIpé)deIaC،;ttedraIdeSa.Iamanca.١ M ‫؟‬idrYd ١ 29 Antonio Ledesma related the capitals of the arcosolia in the east 1998, p. 76. See also: José Maria M a r t Inez Fr Ias , ‘Liturgia, gallery of the Salamanca cloister with those of the disappeared vida capitular y memoria. Los espacios claustrales en la Catedral' cloister of San Juan de Barbalos, of which some arches were Yn L a de SA am acit. l e v e sglos de Historia ‫ ﻵ‬Arte, ed. standing in the garden of a property on Soria Street. These were Valentin Berrio ch o a SAn c h e z -M oreno & René Jesfis Payo transferred to the Linares Gallery in Madrid and returned to H ernanz , Burgos, 2.12, pp. 151-52).

304

Jo s E L u is H e r n a n d o Ga r r i d o

List of Contributors and Editors

M ichele B a c c i re c e iv e d h is P h D f r o m th e S c u o la

l

N o rm a le S u p e rio re in P isa (I) in 1999 a n d is c u rre n tly

I 5٤^»^‫؟‬I^s^ctit^eo^tbe^I^‫ ؟‬e a ‫ ؟‬aSl^ace ^ (^ ٢ Im a ^ ^ ‫؟‬

p ro fe s s o r o f M e d ie v a l a r t h is to r y a t th e U n iv e rsité de

le C h r S s tia n iz a tO o n o fth e lite R o m a n W o r ld

i p s e , th e Im a g e a n d th e Icon.

‫أﻟ د‬

H isto ric a l ‫ ا‬2‫س‬

)

‫ﻰ‬

‫ﺑ‬

‫ﻻ‬0‫ﻻ‬

.).

F r ib o u r g /U n iv e r s itä t F re ib u rg ( C H ) . H is re se a rc h

Jean-Pierre C a il l e t is p ro fe s s o r o f a r t h is to r y

c o n c e n tra te s o n th e c u ltu ra l, re lig io u s a n d a r t- h is to r i­

a t th e U n iv e rsité P aris O u e s t N a n te r r e L a D é fe n s e

cal in te ra c tio n s o f th e d iffe re n t M e d ite r r a n e a n c o u n ­

in P a ris (F ). A f o r m e r c u r a to r o f th e M u s é e d e C lu n y

trie s a n d th e h is to ric a l p h e n o m e n o lo g y o f h o ly sites,

- M u sé e n a tio n a l d u M o y e n  g e , h is m a in field s o f

im ag es, a n d o t h e r c u lt o b je c ts d u r in g th e M id d le

re se a rc h in c lu d e th e a rc h ite c tu re , m o n u m e n ta l d e c o ­

A g es a n d th e R e n a issa n c e .

ra tio n , m a n u s c rip t illu m in a tio n , a n d o th e r p re c io u s

Xavier B a r r a l i A l t e t o b ta in e d h is P h D fro m

a rts f r o m la te A n t i q u it y to th e p ro to - R o m a n e s q u e

th e U n iv e rsité P a ris -S o rb o n n e (F ) a n d is e m e ritu s

p e r io d , w ith a sp e c ia l in te r e s t in th e re la tio n s b e tw e e n

p ro fe s s o r o f M e d ie v a l a r t h is to r y a t th e U n iv e rsité de

B y z a n tiu m a n d th e W e st.

H a u te -B re ta g n e in R e n n e s (F ), a n d v is itin g p ro fe s s o r

^ i t t e r i e C a z e s is p ro fe s s o r o f M e d ie v a l a rt

a t th e U n iv e rs ità C a ’F o sc a ri in V en ice (I). H e c u r a te d

h is to r y a t th e U n iv e rsité d e T o u lo u s e -L e M ira il (F ).

v a rio u s in te r n a tio n a l e x h ib itio n s a n d w as d ir e c to r o f

H e r re se a rc h fo c u se s o n M e d ie v a l T o u lo u s e a n d s o u ­

th e M u s e u N a c io n a l d ’A r t d e C a ta lu n y a in B a rc e lo n a

th w e s t F ra n c e , w ith p a r tic u la r in te re s t in th e m a te ­

(E ). H e p u b lis h e s w id e ly o n M e d ie v a l a rt, p a r tic u ­

ria l le g a c y o f c a n o n s , b ish o p s, a n d c o u n ts . A m o n g

la rly a r o u n d th e M e d ite r r a n e a n .

h e r p u b lic a tio n s in th e field o f R o m a n e s q u e a r t a n d

Gerardo B o t o Y r e l a is p ro fe s s o r o f M e d ie v a l

a rc h ite c tu re , h e r s tu d ie s o f th e c lo is te r a t M o issac

a r t a t th e U n iv e rs ita t d e G ir o n a (E ), le a d e r o f th e

a n d th e T o u lo u se b a silic as o f S a in t-S e rn in a n d L a

in te r n a tio n a l re se a rc h g ro u p T e m p la , a n d sc ien tific

D a u ra d e d e se rv e sp e c ia l m e n tio n .

C o d e x A q w ila ren sis. R e u is ta d e

Mauro C o r t e l a z z o w o rk s as a n a rc h a e o lo ­

A r t e M e d ie v a l. H is re se a rc h c o n c e n tra te s o n sp a tia l,

g ist in A o s ta (I), fo c u s in g o n u r b a n a rc h a e o lo g y in

p ic to ria l, a n d litu rg ic a l a sp e cts o f S p a n ish e cc lesia s­

A o s ta , T u rin , a n d A lb a . H e h a s c a rrie d o u t n u m e ro u s

‫ﺧﺔ ح‬

0‫ ا‬o f t k

١o u r n A

tic a l a r c h ite c tu re fro m th e t e n t h to th ir t e e n t h c e n ­

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l ex ca v atio n s o f re lig io u s b u ild in g s o f

tu rie s, as w ell as o n d y n a stic to m b s a n d m e m o ria l

E a rly C h r is tia n o rig in s w ith la te r R o m a n e s q u e tr a n s ­

c u ltu re in M e d ie v a l Ib e ria .

fo rm a tio n s , a n d o f castles a n d fo rtific a tio n s in th e

Beat B r e n k

is

e m e ritu s

p ro fe s s o r

at

th e

Ita lia n re g io n s V alle d ’A o s ta a n d P ie d m o n t. H e h as

U n iv e rs itä t B asel ( C H ) a n d th e S a p ie n z a U n iv e rs ità

also p u b lis h e d a s tu d y o f M e d ie v a l c e ra m ic p r o d u c ­

d i R o m a (I). H e sp e c ia liz es in e arly C h r is tia n m o n a s -

t io n in n o r th w e s te r n Italy.

a n d p ilg rim a g e , C h r is tia n iz a tio n o f u r b a n

Francese Fi t E i Ll e v o t is p ro fe s s o r o f A n c ie n t

to p o g ra p h y , a n d th e v isu a l a rts a n d a r c h ite c tu re o f

a n d M e d ie v a l a rt h is to r y a t th e U n iv e rs ita t d e L le id a

early C h ris tia n ity . H is re c e n t p u b lic a tio n s in c lu d e

(E ). H is re se arc h fo cu ses o n th e a r t a n d a rc h ite c tu re o f

tic ism

th e M e d ie v a l c a th e d ra l o f L le id a (lo ca lly k n o w n as th e

Javier M a r t I n e z d e A g u ir r e is p ro fe s s o r o f

‘S eu Vella’) a n d its u r b a n c o n te x t. H e c u rre n tly w o rk s

M e d ie v a l a r t h is to r y a t th e U n iv e rs id a d C o m p lu te n s e

o n v a rio u s p ro je c ts c o n c e rn in g la te R o m a n e s q u e h e r i­

in M a d r id (E ). H is re se a rc h fo c u se s o n R o m a n e s q u e

tag e in th e re g io n s u r r o u n d in g L le id a w ith a sp ecial

a n d G o th ic a r t a n d a r c h ite c tu re in Ib e ria . H e h a s

in te re s t in a sp e cts o f litu r g y a n d d e v o tio n .

p u b lis h e d w id e ly o n to p ic s in c lu d in g ro y a l p a t r o ­

José Luis H e r n a n d o G a r r i d o w as a fe llo w a t

n a g e , S p a n is h c a th e d ra l a rc h ite c tu re , e v o c a tio n s o f

th e U n iv e rsité d e P o itie rs (F ) in 1991 a n d re c e iv e d h is

th e H o ly S e p u lc h re , a rtis ts ’ w o rk in g c o n d itio n s , s p i­

P h D f r o m th e U n iv e rs ita t A u tò n o m a in B a rc e lo n a

r itu a lity a n d crea tiv ity , a n d h e ra ld ic e m b le m s.

(E ) in 1993. H e h a s ta u g h t m u s e o lo g y a t th e E sc u ela

Renato P e r i n e t t i w a s s u p e r in te n d e n t o f c u ltu ­

S u p e rio r d e C o n s e r v a c ió n y R e s ta u ra c ió n d e B ien e s

ra l h e rita g e in th e re g io n o f V alle d ’A o s ta (I) fro m

C u ltu ra le s in M a d r id (E ) a n d a r t h is to r y a t th e

1991 to 2 0 0 3 a n d v is itin g p ro fe s s o r a t th e P o lite c n ic o

U n iv e rs id a d N a c io n a l d e E d u c a c ió n a D is ta n c ia .

d i T o rin o (I), th e U n iv e rs ità C a tto lic a in M ila n (I),

F ro m 1994 to 2 0 1 4 h e w as e d ito r o f th e E n ciclopedia

th e É c o le P o ly te c h n iq u e F é d é ra le in L a u s a n n e ( C H ) ,

d e lR o m â n ic o e n E s p É .

a n d th e P o n tific a l I n s titu te o f C h r is tia n A rc h a e o lo g y

P eter K l e i n is e m e r itu s p r o f e s s o r o f a r t h i s t o r y

in R o m e (I). H e h a s d ir e c te d th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l exca­

a t th e U n i v e r s i tä t T ü b in g e n ( D ) . H e h a s t a u g h t a t

v a tio n o f a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty e a rly C h r is tia n a n d

th e u n iv e r s itie s o f P i t t s b u r g h , L e x i n g t o n , G e n e v a ,

M e d ie v a l c h u rc h e s in a n d a r o u n d A o s ta .

P a r is - N a n te r r e , L o s A n g e le s , a n d M a r b u r g . T o p ic s

Jorge [M a n u e l D e O l i v e i r a ] R o d r ig u e s

o f h is s tu d ie s a n d p u b l ic a ti o n s in c lu d e M e d ie v a l

is a s s is ta n t p r o f e s s o r a t th e F a c u lty o f S o c ial a n d

book

i ll u m i n a t i o n

i l l u s t r a ti o n s ) ,

306

( p a r ti c u la r ly

R o m an esq u e

a p o c a ly p s e

s c u l p tu r e ,

c lo is te rs ,

H um an

S c ien c e s o f th e

U n iv e rs id a d e

N o v a de

L is b o a (P ). H is re se a rc h , c a rrie d o u t a t th e I n s titu te

S p a n is h a r t h is to r y , a n d a n ti- J u d a is tic a n d a n ti - S e ­

o f A r t H i s t o r y ( I H A ) , fo c u se s o n la te A n tiq u e a n d

m it i c im a g e ry .

M e d ie v a l a r t a n d a r c h ite c tu r e . H e is also c u r a to r o f

Justin K r o e s e n is asso c iate p ro fe s s o r o f c u ltu ­

th e Isla m ic , A r m e n ia n a n d F a r-E a s t a r t c o lle c tio n s

ral h is to r y a t th e U n iv e rs ite ts m u s e e t i B e rg e n (N )

a t th e m u s e u m F u n d a c ä o C a lo u s te G u lb e n k ia n in

sp e c ia liz in g in th e m a te ria l c u ltu re o f C h ris tia n ity .

L is b o n (P ).

F ro m 2 0 0 4 to 2015 h e w as a ssista n t p ro fe s s o r o f th e

E lisabetta S c ir o c c o r e c e iv e d h e r P h D f r o m

a r t h is to r y o f C h r is tia n ity a t th e R ijk s u n iv e rs ite it

th e U n iv e r s ità d e g li S tu d i F e d e ric o II in N a p le s

G r o n in g e n (N L ). H is re se a rc h fo c u se s o n M e d ie v a l

(I) w i t h a s t u d y o f th e litu r g ic a l f u r n is h in g s o f

c h u rc h a rc h ite c tu re , fu rn is h in g s , a n d ic o n o g ra p h y ,

R o m a n e s q u e c a th e d ra ls in C a m p a n ia . H e r re s e a rc h

w ith sp e c ia l a tt e n ti o n p a id to a sp e c ts o f c h a n g e a n d

fo c u se s o n M e d ie v a l a r c h ite c tu r e a n d s c u lp tu r e ,

c o n tin u ity in th e age o f th e R e fo rm a tio n .

r itu a l u se o f s a c re d sp a c e , a n d th e

r e p r e s e n ta ­

Saverio L o m a r t ir e is asso c iate p ro fe s s o r o f

t i o n o f so c ia l o rd e r. S h e w a s re s e a rc h fe llo w a t

M e d ie v a l a r t a t th e D e p a r t m e n t o f H u m a n itie s o f

th e K u n s th is to r is c h e s I n s t i t u t in F lo re n c e (I) a n d

th e U n iv e rs ità del P ie m o n te O r ie n ta le in V ercelli (I).

c u r r e n tly w o rk s

H is re se arc h in te re sts in c lu d e a rc h ite c tu re , sc u lp tu re ,

K u n s tg e s c h ic h te in R o m e (I).

a t th e

M a x - P la n c k - I n s titu t f ü r

a n d m u ra l p a in tin g s f r o m th e e arly M id d le A g e s to

M arta S e r r a n o C o l l te a c h e s a r t h i s t o r y a t

th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu ry , M e d ie v a l g o ld s m ith e r y a n d

th e U n iv e r s ita t R o v ira i V ir g ili in T a r r a g o n a (E )

m e ta lw o rk , a n d e p ig ra p h y as a so u rc e f o r th e h is to r y

a n d s p e c ia liz e s in M e d ie v a l a r c h ite c tu r e a n d s c u lp ­

o f m o n u m e n ts a n d a rtw o rk s .

tu r e , p a r tic u la r ly in C a ta lo n ia . H e r re s e a rc h i n t e ­

Esther L o z a n o LOp e z h as h e ld te a c h in g a n d

re sts in c lu d e th e d is p la y o f p o w e r t h r o u g h a r tw o r k s

research p o sitio n s a t th e U n iv e rsita t de G iro n a (E),

a n d ro y a l p a tr o n a g e in th e I b e r ia n P e n in s u la d u r in g

th e U n iv e rsita t A u tò n o m a o f B arcelo n a (E) a n d th e

th e M id d le A g e s. I n a d d itio n , sh e h a s p u b l is h e d in

U n iv e rsita t R o v ira i V ig ili in T arra g o n a (E). Since 2 0 0 9

th e fie ld o f R o m a n e s q u e s c u lp tu r e a n d h a g io g r a -

she has ta u g h t a t th e U n iv e rsid a d N a c io n a l de E d u c a c ió n

p h ic a l s tu d ie s .

a D ista n cia . She specializes in M e d iev a l ic o n o g ra p h y in

Marc S u r e d a i J u b a n y re c e iv e d h is P h D fro m

its social a n d c u ltu ra l c o n te x s , sp atial aspects o f a rc h i­

th e U n iv e rs ita t d e G ir o n a (E ) in 2 0 0 8 a n d is c u r a to r

te c tu re a n d , above all, R o m a n e sq u e sculpture.

a t th e M u s e u E p is c o p a l in V ic (E ). H e carries o u t

L i s t of C o n t r i b u t o r s a n d E d i t o r s

d o c u m e n ta r y a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s tu d ie s o f M e d ie v a l

( D ) . H is r e s e a r c h fo c u s e s o n M e d ie v a l c h u r c h

c h u rc h b u ild in g s , p a r tic u la r ly c a th e d ra ls, fo c u s in g o n

a r c h i t e c tu r e a n d f u r n i s h i n g s , w i t h s p e c ia l a t t e n ­

th e ir a rc h ite c tu re , litu rg ic a l fu rn is h in g s , a n d ritu a l

t i o n f o r c ro s s -o v e rs w i t h a rc h a e o lo g y , M e d ie v a l

usage. H e h a s e d ite d v a rio u s litu rg ic a l so u rc e s a n d

h i s t o r y , a n d lit u r g i c a l s tu d ie s . H e h a s c a r r ie d o u t

p u b lis h e s o n M e d ie v a l a rt, re lig io u s im ag ery , a n d th e

e x te n s iv e s tu d ie s o f C i s t e r c i a n a r c h i t e c tu r e , a n d

h is to r y o f m u se u m s a n d c o lle c tio n s.

u r b a n a r c h a e o lo g y a n d a r c h i t e c tu r e o f th e h ig h

M atthias

U nterm ann

is

p ro fe sso r

of

M e d ie v a l a r t h i s t o r y a t th e U n i v e r s i tä t H e i d e l b e r g

a n d la te M id d le A g e s, p a r ti c u la r l y o f c a th e d r a ls a n d m o n a s te r i e s in G e r m a n y .

L i s t of C o n t r i b u t o r s and E d i t o r s

307

Index of Monuments Entries generally refer to buildings and bu ild in g p arts from th e R om anesque period, in cluding m o n u m en ts th a t are no longer in existence.

A achen (D ), Palatine chapel: 53 . Bronze doors: 58 . Abajas (E), Santa M aria la M ayor: 301 . À ger (E), collegiate church: 240 n. A guilar de C am p o o (E), m onastery: 299 . A im e (F), Saint-M artin: 82 . Aix-en-Provence (F), cathedral, cloister: 266 , 267 . A lbenga (I), cathedral, baptistery: 13, 18 . A llariz (E), chu rch o f Santiago: 299 . Am alfi (I), cathedral, am bos: 208 . A m iens (F), cath ed ral com plex: 32 , 33 . A ngers (F), Saint-A ubin m onastery: 295 . A osta (I), cathedral com plex: 4 , 66. C athedral: 71 - 82 , 72 , 74- 81, Plates 1 -7 A ltars/chapels: 76 , 77 , 81 . A m bulato ry : 77 . Apses: 65 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 80 , 81 . Baptistery: 72 , 81 . Bell towers: 75 , 77, 78. Bishops’ tom bs: 78 . C hoirs: 73 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 79 - 81 , 82 . C loister: 65 . C ry p t: 20 , 65 , 71 , 74 , 75 , 75 , 76 , 78 , 81 . D (ittsecclesia,e ٠.71, 7‫؟‬i. F ewestêllaè 77, 8V Floor m osaics: 75 . M urals: 65 , 79 , 79 , 83 n. Nave: 71 , 75 , 78 . Presbytery: 73 , 75 , 76 , 80 , 81 . R om an forum : 71 , 72 . R ood screen: 77 . W est end: 73 , 74 , 79 - 81 . Saint O rso: 65 . A qui (I), cathedral

C hapels: 65 . C ry p t: 20 . Floor m osaic: 65 . A quileia (I), basilica (cathedral): 11, 13, 24 . A ltar: 13. C o lu m n s/cap itals: 143 - 144 . Arles (F), cathedral: 65 . C loister: 112 , 266 . A rm en tia (E), collegiate church: 295 . Assisi (I), San Francesco: 265 . A ugsburg (D ), cathedral: 47 , 57 , 59. Bishops’ tom bs: 58 . Bronze door: 58 . C hoirs: 58 . Furnishings: 58 . Nave: 58 . Stained glass w indow s: 58 . A ulnay (F), Saint-Pierre: 295 . A u tu n (F), cathedral com plex: 29 , 3 5 , 40 . C an o n ical buildings: 38 . C loister: 38 . Saint-Lazare (cathedral): 33 - 34 . L intel: 269 . Saint-N azaire: 38 . A uxerre (F) C a th e d ra l com plex: 32 . C ry p t: 39 . Saint-G erm ain, w est choir: 48 . Avila (E) C ath ed ral: 291 . San V icente: 294 . Bagüés (E), Santos Juliàn y Basilisa: 160 , 164 , 165 , 166 . Bam ba (E), m onastery: 294 . Bam berg (D ), cathedral: 47 , 57 , 58 - 59 , 60, 62 , 256 n.

C hoirs: 59 . C ry p t: 59 . T ransept: 59 . Barcelona (E) Bishops’ palace: 286 n. C athedral: 223 , 236 , 238 . H ospice o f Sant N icolau: 298 . M N A C , capital from Sant N icolau (?): 298 . B arletta (I), basilica (cathedral): 25 . B eaulieu-sur-D ordogne (F), abbey church, p ortals: 269 . Benavente (E): 294 , 302 . San Juan del M ercado: 299 , 301 , 302 . Santa M aria del A zogue: 299 . B enevento (I), cathedral: 54 , 55 . A m bos: 208 . Bergam o (I), cathedral: 119 , 134 , 137 n. B ethlehem , N ativity basilica: 190 . Béziers (F), cathedral, cloister: 112 . Braga (P), cathedral: 5 , 169 - 171 , 171 . Apses: 170 . C hapel o f th e Kings: 170 . C hapel o f Saint N icholas: 170 . H ig h altar: 170 . Presbytery: 170 . B randenburg (D ), cathedral: 140 . Braunschweig (D ) s. B runsw ick Brem en (D ), cathedral: 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 . C ry p t: 54 . H ig h altar: 54 . T ransept: 54 . Brescia (I), cathedral (Santa M aria), crypt: 20 . B runsw ick (D ), cathedral: 256 n. Burgos (E), cathedral, chapel o f Saint N icholas: 170 . Bury (F), Saint-Lucien: 295 . C am anzo (E), San Salvador: 299 , 302 . C am b ro n n e (F), Saint-É tienne: 295 . C anosa di Puglia (I), cathedral, m ausoleum : 15 - 16. C an terb u ry (G B), Saint T hom as Becket: 298 . C aorle (I), Santo Stefano: 146 . C apua (I), cathedral A m bos: 208 . C h o ir screen: 207 . C arboeiro (E), San L orenzo: 303 n. C ard o n a (E), abbey church: 240 n. C arrió n de los C o n d es (E), San Z oilo: 157 , 170 , 293 . C aserta Vecchia (I), cathedral, am bos: 208 . C atania (I), cathedral: 25 . Cava dei T irre n i (I), abbey church, am bos: 212 . C efalù (I), cathedral: 20 , 25 , 221 n. C en tu la (Saint-R iquier) (F), abbey, altars: 27 n, 224 . C hartres (F), cath ed ral com plex: 32 . C hapels: 39 . H ospice: 37 .

310

Inde x

N o tre-D am e (cathedral): 33 . C ry p t: 33 . Saint-Serge-et-Saint-B ache: 33 . C im itile (I), m artyrium : 13 . C iu d ad Real (E), cathedral: 295 . C lerm o n t-F erran d (F), cathedral: 39 . C luny (F), abbey church A ltars: 224 , 232 . C loister: 270 . C o im b ra (P) C ath ed ral: 5 , 169 , 171 , 172 , 173 . Santa C ru z m onastery: 169 , 172 . Royal tom bs: 172 . C ologne (D ), cathedral: 47 , 54 , 54, 240 n. A pses/choirs: 53 . A triu m : 53 . Bishops’ palace: 53 . C rypts: 53 . Nave: 50 . T ransepts: 50 , 53 . C o n q u es (F), Sainte-Foy abbey: 158 , 162 . T ym panum : 269 . C o n stan ce (D ), cathedral C ry p t: 60 . Nave: 60 . C o n stan tin o p le, m ausoleum o f C o n sta n tin e : 13. C ó rd o b a (E), M ezquita: 294 . C orvey (D ), abbey church, west choir: 48 . C outances (F), cathedral, w estern fro n t: 41 . C ovet (E), Santa M aria: 286 n. C rem o n a (I), cathedral: 119 , 124 , 125 - 127 , 128, 128 ,

129 . B aptistery: 127 , 128 . Episcopal buildings: 126 , 127 . Inscription: 125 . Transept: 127 . C uxa (C uixà) s. Saint-M ichel de C uxa Dueftas (E), San Isidro: 157 . Elne (F), cathedral: 65 , 223 , 238 . El Saucedo (E), baptistery: 102 n Estella (E), San Pedro de la RUa: 266 . Ferrara (I), cathedral: 119 , 124 , 125 , 134 . Fitero (E), abbey church: 94 . Florence (I), cathedral baptistery: 18 , 19. F ontfroide (F), abbey church: 99 . Fréjus (F), cathedral, cloister: 112 . Fróm ista (E), San M a rtin : 157 . G alliano (I), San V incenzo, altars: 23 . Gerace (I), cathedral, crypt: 20 , 23 . G ernrode (D ), abbey church: 47 . G erona (E) s. G irona G erri (E), Santa M aria: 276 n. G irona (E): 227 .

C ath ed ral (Saint M ary): 4 , 5 , 223 , 224 , 226 , 228, 229, 232 , 234 , 240 n, plates 21 - 22 . A ltars: 226 , 228 , 230 , 231 , 232 , 233 , 236 , 237 , 238 . Apse: 226 , 237 , 240 n. Bell tow er: 228 . Bishop’s th ro n e: 228 , 240 n. C apital sculpture (cloister): 259 - 263 , 262-267, 265 - 271 . C h ap ter house: 233 , 259 , 262 , 265 . C h o ir/c h o ir stalls: 228 , 240 n. C loister: 259 - 263 , 260-267, 265 - 270 , 273 n. D o rm ito ry : 259 , 262 . L iturgical m anuscripts: 225 , 259 , 273 n. Nave: 226 , 233 . R efectory: 259 , 262 . Transept: 226 , 228 , 233 , 234 . Westwerk : 65 , 226 , 228 , 230 , 233 , 237 , 240 n. ‘C h u rc h fam ily’: 237 . Saint Felix: 226 , 230 . Saint M artin Sacosta: 226 . Saint N icholas: 226 . Saint Peter o f G alligants: 226 , 230 . G niezno (PL), cathedral: 140 . G oslar (D ), collegiate church: 62 . G rado (I) C ath ed ral (S a n t’E ufem ia): 2, 15, 17 , 23 . C iborium : 16 , 26 n. Feretory: 15 . Santa M aria: 15. H alberstadt (D ), cathedral, west choir: 48 , 57 , 68n. H erb ó n (E), Santa M aria: 299 . H ildesheim (D ) C athedral: 47 , 57 , 58 , 59 - 60 , 68n. A pses/choirs: 60 . C ry p t: 60 . Nave: 60 . St M ichael: 47 . H irsau (D ), abbey church: 232 . Iguäcel (E), Santa M aria: 158 , 160 , 165 , 168 n. Irache (E), Santa M aria la Real: 295 . Ivrea (I), cathedral A m bulatory : 20 . Apse: 20 . C ry p t: 20 . Jaca (E), cathedral: 3 , 153 - 154 , 156 - 162 , 164 - 166 , 154 , 156-157, 159, 161, 162- 163. Apses: 153 , 154 , 155 , 157 , 158 , 159 , 162 , 167 n. Bello tow er: 160 . C apitals: 153 . C hapel o f St N icholas: 160 , 167 n, 170 . C h o ir: 153 , 162 , 168 n. C loister: 155 , 157 , 160 . C rossing/do m e: 154 , 155 , 162 , 164 .

Façades: 153 , 155 , 158 - 161 , 159, 164 , 167 n. Nave: 154 , 155 , 162 , 164 , 167 n. Portals: 154 , 155 , 159 , 166 . T ransept: 159 , 162 . Vaults: 153 , 162- 163. Jerusalem : 66, 189 , 231 , 237 . C h u rc h o f th e H o ly Sepulchre: 5 , 13 , 189 - 190 , 191 , 192 , 294 , 300 . Rockefeller A rchaeological M useum , lintel from the H o ly Sepulchre church: 300 , 301 . Jum ièges (F), abbey church: 128 . K losterneuburg (A), abbey, ‘K losterneuburg a lta r’: 260 . L aon (F), cathedral: 38 . H ospice: 37 . Lärrede (E), San Pedro: 160 . La Seu d ’U rgell (E), cathedral com plex: 4 , 65 , 223 . Saint Eulalia: 65 . Saint M ary (cathedral): 65 . Apses: 238 . C ap ital sculpture (cloister): 276 - 285 , 279- 280,

282- 284. C h a p te r house: 278 . C h a p te r library: 276 , 281 , 285 , 287 n. C loister: 275 - 285 , 277 , 278 . T ransept: 234 . W est end: 65 , 238 . Saint M ichael: 65 . Saint Peter: 65 . Saint Sepulchre: 65 . Lasieso (E), San Pedro: 160 . Le M ans (F) C a th e d ra l com plex: 32 , 33 . N o tre-D am e de la C o u tu re: 295 . L eon (E), San Isidoro: 300 . Le Puy (F), cathedral complex, baptistery: 34 , 36 . Lérida (E) s. Lleida L’Estany (E), Santa M aria: 266 . Liège (B), cathedral: 47 , 53 , 54 , 55 . A pses/choirs: 54 . L im burg an der H a a rd t (D ), abbey church: 124 . Lim oges (F), Saint-M artial, Bible from : 198 , 200 . L isbon (P) C ath ed ral: 5 , 172 - 173 , 174 , 175 , 175 , 177 , 177 , 178 - 181 , 178 . A m b u lato ry /R o y al p a n th e o n : 181 . Apses: 175 . C loister: 181 . Form er m osque: 172 - 173 , 177 . L an tern tow er: 180 - 181 . M ain p o rtal/cap itals: 175 , 176 , 177 - 179 , 177 ­

178. T ransept: 175 . Säo V icente de Fora m onastery: 180 .

In d e x

311

Lleida (E) C athedral: 3 - 4 , 5 , 95 , 223 , 245 - 254 , 246 , Plate 26 . A ltars/chapels: 238 , 247 , 249 , 254 . Apses: 245 , 246 - 247 . C apital sculpture: 245 - 254 , 248 , 250- 254. C rossing: 245 , 249 , 250 - 251 , 253 , 254 . Nave: 250 - 252 . Portals: 245 , 246 , 256 n. Presbytery: 245 , 246 , 247 - 249 , 251 , 254 . Sacristy: 240 n. T ransept: 234 , 245 , 249 - 250 , 253 . H ospitals: 255 . Loches (F), collegiate church: 295 . L übeck (D ), cathedral: 140 . Lucca (I), San M artin o , Volto Santo: 192 , 194 . L ugnano in Teverina (I), Santa M aria A ssunta: 160 . Lyon (F), cath ed ral com plex: 3 , 29 , 30 - 32 , 31- 32. Apse: 30 - 31 . B aptistery: 31 , 34 , 35 . B ishop’s residence: 32 , 36 - 37 . C anonical buildings: 38 . C loister: 32 , 112 . Furnishings: 30 - 31 . Sainte-C roix church: 31 . T ransept: 31 . M âcon (F), cathedral, Westwerk : 40 , 41 . M agdeburg (D ), cathedral: 55 , 62 . M ainz (D ) s. M ayence M as del V ent (Palam òs) (E), cloister: 297 . M assa (I), San L eonardo al Frigido: 300 . M ayence (D ), cathedral com plex: 47 , 58 , 59 , 62 , 64 , 256 n. Bronze doors: 58 . C hoirs: 57 . Nave: 60 . W est transept: 57 . Saint M aria ad G radus: 57 . M azara del Vallo (I), cathedral: 25 . M em leben (D ), abbey church: 47 , 53 . M erseburg (D ), cathedral: 47 , 61 . A pses/choirs: 61 . M etz (F), cathedral: 194 . M ilan (I) B‫؛‬،is ilic ،i,im b r o s ii،i/. 18. C athedral: 13, 14 . A rchbishops’ tom bs: 18 . B aptistery: 13, 18 . M artyria: 13. M in d e n (D ), cathedral: 47 , 66n. M odena (I), cathedral: 2 , 3 , 24 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 - 124 , 126 , 128 , 134 , 135 , 162 . Apse: 120 . B aptistery: 120 .

312

Inde x

C ry p t: 23 , 120 , 122 . Façade: 120. Inscriptions: 120 , 122 , 124 . Late A n tiq u e basilica: 120 , 122 . Nave: 120 . Pontile (screen): 2 4 . Portals: 122. Spolia: 120 . M oissac (F), abbey C loister: 109 , 112 , 117 , 268 , 270 , 271 . Portals: 269 . M onreale (I), cathedral: 20 , 209 , 215- 216. A m b o : 215 , 221 n. C h o ir screen: 215 , 221 n. C loister capitals: 214 , 216 , 221 n. Royal th ro n e: 215 - 216 , 216 . M ontecassino (I), abbey: 20 , 205 . M oûtiers (F), cathedral: 82 . M ü n ster (D ), cathedral: 61 . M urano (I), San D o n a to : 146 , 147 , 148. N antes (F), cathedral: 39 . N aples (I), cathedral: 24 . A m bos: 208 . B aptistery: 24 - 25 . N arb o n n e (F), cathedral C an o n ical buildings: 38 . C loister: 112 . N evers (F), cathedral com plex: 29 , 3 4 , 38 . A ltars/chapels: 38 . B aptistery: 32 , 35 - 36 . C rypts: 38 , 39 . N ew York (U SA ), The C loisters, relief from San L eo­ nardo, Z am ora: 295 , 298 , 299. N ogueira de R am uin (E), San M artifto: 296 , 296 , 302 . N o n a n to la (I), San Silvestro: 124 . N ovara (I), cathedral: 129 , 133 . A ltars: 23 . B aptistery: 13 , 128 . M artyrium : 13. O lius (E), Sant Esteve: 240 n. O rléans (F), cathedral: 39 , 3 9 . O sn ab rü ck (D ), cathedral: 61 . O stia ،()), B،s‫ ؛‬ilic ،iC < it،m tin i،m ،i ٠.11. O urense (E), cathedral: 301 , 302 . Pòrtico del Paraiso: 301 . S ou th façade: 295 , 298 . W est façade: 296 , 299 . O viedo (E) C äm ara Santa: 192 . C ath ed ral: 291 . Paços de Ferreira (P), Säo Pedro: 294 . P aderborn (D ), cathedral: 47 - 48 , 49 , 50 , 56 , 58 . A ltars: 47 .

A pses/choirs: 47 , 48 , 56 . Bishops’ residence: 47 - 48 . C rypts: 48 . Episcopal to m b : 48 . Nave: 48 . Padova (I), Santa G iustina: 15. Palerm o (I) C athedral: 25 . Palatine chapel: 214 , 220n, 221 n. Paris (F) C ath ed ral com plex B aptistery (Saint-Jean-le-R ond): 32 . H ospice: 37 . N otre-D am e (cathedral): 32 . Saint-E tienne: 32 . Saint-G erm ain-des-Prés: 180 . Parm a (I), cathedral: 119 , 124 - 125 , 126 , 134 . Baptistery: 18 . C ry p t: 23 , 124 . Pavia (I), (double) cathedral: 119 , 131 , 133 , 133 , 134 . M usei Civici, cathedral fragm ents: 133 . Santa M aria del Popolo: 131 . C ry p t: 133 . Santo Stefano: 131 , 133 . Pesaro (I), cathedral: 15 . Piacenza (I), cathedral: 119 , 124 , 128 - 129 , 130 . C h o ir: 128 . C ry p t: 128 . Inscription: 129 . Nave: 128 , 129 . Transept: 129 . Pisa (I), cathedral: 134 . Baptistery: 18 . Poblet (E), abbey church: 99 . Poitiers (F), cath ed ral com plex: 29 , 33 . Baptistery: 35 . Poree/P arenzo (H R ) Bishop’s palace: 15. C ath ed ral (BasilicaEufrasiana): 2, 15, 16 , 23 . Apse: 15 , 16 . Baptistery: 15 . C rossing tow er: 15 . Feretory: 15 . Furnishings: 15. P o rto m arin (E), San N icolas (San Juan): 295 , 299 , 301 , 303 n. Poznah (PL), cathedral: 140 . Ravello (I), cathedral, am bos: 208 . Ravenna (I) Baptisteries: 13 . C ath ed ral (Basilica Ursiana): 11 , 12 . A m bo: 16 . C ry p t: 20 .

M artyria: 13. M ausoleum o f Galla Placidia: 15 . San V itale: 14- 15 , 263 . SantA pollinare N uovo, am bo: 16. Redecilla del C am in o (E), La V lrgen de la Calle, b ap tis­ m al font: 300 . R egensburg (D ), cathedral: 61 . W est end: 55 - 56 . Reggio E m ilia (I), cathedral: 119 , 125 , 127, 134 . C ry p t: 125 . Façade: 125 . M osaics: 125 . R heim s (F), cathedral com plex: 29 , 36, 37 . B aptistery: 34 - 35 . Bishops’ residence: 37 . Westwerk : 34 - 35 , 41 , 48 . Ribas de Sil (E) San Esteban: 302 . Santa C ristina: 296 , 299 , 302 . Ribas de M ito (E), San Esteban: 301 . R ipoll (E), abbey church Apses: 238 . C loister: 102 n, 275 - 276 , 286 n. L ibrary: 276 . R oda de Isabena (E), cathedral Apses: 65 , 238 . C loister: 65 . C ry p t: 65 . R om e (I) A rch o f T itu s: 195. M artyria: 13- 14 . P an th eo n (Saint M ary a d M artyres): 230 . S an tA d rian o , choir: 17. San C lem ente, am bos: 218 n. Saint Jo h n L ateran: 5 , 10 - 11, 11 , 14 , 56 , 187 , 190 - 191 , 192 , 193 , 194 - 196 , 198 , 230 . A ch ero p ita’ icon: 196 , 197 . Apse co n ch m osaic: 194 , 196 , 19203 ,‫ ة‬n. B aptistery: 13, 15, 190 . C ib o riu m : 195 .

Ft‫؛‬tigiumi-,13, L ateran Palace (Sanctasanctorum ): 194 , 196 , 197 . M ain altar: 194 - 195 , 196 . O ra to ry o f St Laurence: 191 , 196 . Side altars: 13 , 15. Saint P eter’s basilica (O ld Saint P eter’s): 5 , 14 , 66, 187 , 190 , 230 , 240 n. A ltars: 23 . C ry p t: 18 , 20 , 48 , 230 . T ransept: 56 . San G iovanni a P orta Latina: 273 n. Santa C roce in G erusalem m e: 231 . Santa M aria A n tiqua, altars: 23 .

In d e x

313

Santa M aria in C o sm ed in A m bos: 218 n. C ry p t: 27 n. Santa M aria M aggiore: 230 . R ouen (F), cathedral com plex: 32 , 33 , 37 . B aptistery: 35 . Bishops’ residence: 37 . C anonical buildings: 38 . C hapels: 39 . C ry p t: 40 . H ospice: 37 . N otre-D am e (cathedral): 40 . Saint-É tienne: 40 . Westwerk : 40 . Sabina (I), cathedral, crypt: 20 , 21. Sagra di San M ichele (I), abbey church: 270 . Saint-A ndré-de-Sorède (F), abbey: 249 . Saint-B enoît-sur-Loire (F), abbey church: 270 . Saint-C hef-en -D au p h in é (F), abbey church: 82 . Saint G all (C H ), abbey, altars: 27 , 224 . Saint-M aurice d ’A gaune (C H ), abbey church: 82 . Saint-M ichel de C uxa (F) A bbey church: 65 - 66 , 224 , 239 n. C loister: 275 - 276 , 286 n. Saint-Pé-de-Bigorre (F), Saint-Pierre: 165 , 167 n. Salam anca (E) C athedral: 3 , 291 , 293 , 295 - 299 . Apse: 295 , 298 , 299 . C h a p te r house: 292 . C loister: 292 , 297 , 298 , 299 , 300 , 301 , 302 , 304 n. C rossing to w e r/d o m e : 295 , 300 . D oo rw ay to th e cloister: 299 , 300 , 300 . T ransept: 295 , 298 , 300 . Vaults: 295 . R om an bridge: 293 . San Juan de Barbalos: 304 n. San M a rtin : 294 , 297 , 297 , 298 , 302 . Santa M aria de la Vega: 298 , 302 , 304 n. U niversity: 293 . Salerno (I), cathedral: 5 , 205 , 207 - 217 , 206-207, 209-212, 216 , Plates 14 - 20 . A m bos: 205 , 206 , 207 , 208 - 217 , 209-212) 219 n, 221n. Cathedra o f Saint G regory: 205 . C hancel arch: 205 , 207 - 208 , 207 , 216 . C h o ir screen: 17, 205 , 207 , 211 , 216 , 217 , 218 - 219 n. C ry p t: 20 . L iturgical m anuscripts: 213 . Paschal candelabrum : 205 . Salzburg (A), cathedral: 61 . W est end: 55 - 56 . Sangüesa (E), Santa M aria: 94 . San Pedro de A rlanza (E), abbey church: 94 .

314

Inde x

San Pietro in Ferentillo (I), abbey church, m urals: 273 n. S ant’A ngelo in Form is (I), abbey church, m urals: 273 n. Sant C ugat del Vallès (E), abbey church A ltars: 232 . C loister: 266 , 268 , 270 , 272 n. Santeles (E), San Juan: 299 , 302 . Santiago de C o m postela (E) C ath ed ral: 3 , 5 , 96 , 104 n, 117 n, 169 , 171 , 179 , 247 ,

291 , 293 . A ltarpiece: 296 . A m b u lato ry : 296 . C h ap el o f Saint N icholas: 170 . C h o ir stalls: 294 , 298 , 303 n. C loister: 302 . C o ، k C a l i É i ٠.30٠ . C ry p t: 95 , 298 , 303 n. Façade: 299 . Frontal: 291 . H ig h altar: 291 . P d F r a n c ig e n a - .l. Pòrtico de la G loria: 292 , 293 , 294 , 295 , 298 , 301 , 303 n. M useu das Peregrinaciòns, arch from cathedral clois­ ter: 302 . San Fiz de Solivio: 299 . San L orenzo de T rasouto: 302 n. Santa M aria del Sar: 302 . Santillana del M ar (E), collegiate church: 167 n. Sant M iquel de C uixà (F) s. Saint-M ichel de C uxa Santo D om ingo de la C alzada (E), cathedral: 94 . Santo D om ingo de Silos (E) A bbey church: 94 . C loister: 249 , 271 , 287 n, 298 , 301 . Sant Pere de Rodes (E), abbey, cloister: 272 . Sant Sadurni de Tavèrnoles (E), abbey: 285 n, 286 n. Säo Fructuoso de M ontelios (P), m ausoleum : 181 n. Säo Pedro de Rates (P), Säo Pedro: 181 n. Sasave (E), San A drian: 160 , 165 , 168 n. Segovia (E), San M illan: 157 , 158 , 160 , 165 . Serrabone (Serrabona) (F), priory, cloister: 275 - 276 , 286 n. Sessa A urunca (I), cathedral, am bos: 208 . Sigüenza (E), cathedral: 95 , 165 . Sim acourbe (F), Saint-Pierre: 158 , 159 . Siresa (E), San Pedro: 160 , 166 . Soria (E), San Juan de D u ero : 295 . Baldachins: 295 . Speyer (D ), cathedral: 3 , 47 , 58 , 62 , 62, 63, 64 , 64, 120 , 124 . A p se/ch o ir: 62 . C rossing tow er: 64 . C ry p t: 23 , 62 . Nave: 62 , 64 , 65 .

Transept: 62 . W est end: 64 . W h ee l chandelier: 62 . Spoleto (I), m artyrium : 13. Strasbourg (F), cathedral: 47 , 64 . Nave: 60 . T ahull (Taüll) (E), Santa M aria, m urals: 273 n. Tarragona (E) C ath ed ral (Saint Thecla): 2, 5 , 85 - 88 , 91 - 99 , 101 ,

87, 89- 90, 92- 93, 95- 97, 99- 100, 223 , 224 , 234 - 238 , 235 , Plates 8 - 10 , 25 . ‘A xial ro o m ’: 86, 101 n, 234 . A pses/altars: 86, 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 103 n, 234 , 235 , 235 , 236 , 237 , 238 . A rchbish o p ’s palace: 102 n. Baptistery: 99 , 236 . Bishop’s th ro n e: 236 . C anonical buildings: 86, 88, 91 , 94 , 99 , 101 . C h ap ter house: 87 , 88, 91 , 92 , 94 , 98 , 99 , 102 n, 103 n, 105 n. C h o ir/c h o ir stalls: 235 , 236 . C loister: 86, 88, 91 , 92 , 92 , 98 - 99 , 100 , 101 , 103 n, 105 n, 234 , 235 , 236 , 263 , 271 . D oorw ay betw een church and cloister: 89- 90, 91 . D o rm ito ry : 87 , 88, 91 , 92 , 98 , 99 . Façade: 105 n. H ig h altar: 88. L iturgical m anuscripts: 225 . Nave: 94 , 97 , 104 n, 105 n, 235 , 236 . O rien tatio n : 102 n Presbytery: 94 , 98 , 99 , 104 n, 105 n. R efectory: 87 , 88, 91 , 92 , 98 , 99 . R om an precinct: 86, 87 , 88, 91 , 94 , 99 , 101 n, 104 n, 234 . Sacristy/treasury: 91 , 92 , 94 , 99 , 103 n, 104 n, 236 ,

237 . Transept: 88, 91 , 93 , 94 , 97 , 97 , 98 , 104 n, 105 n, 234 , 235 . ‘C h u rc h fam ily’: 234 , 237 . Teano (I), cathedral, am bos: 208 . Teggiano (I), cathedral, am bos: 208 . Terrassa (E), cath ed ral com plex: 66. Toledo (E), cathedral: 5 , 96 . Torcello (I), Santa M aria: 146 . Toro (E), Santa M aria la M ayor: 298 , 302 . T ortosa (E), cathedral: 223 , 238 . L ibrary: 276 . Toulouse (F) C athedral: 3 , 5 , 109 - 113 , 115 - 117 , 111 , 113 , Plates 11- 13 . A ltar screen slabs: 109 . ‘C an o n s’ q u a rte r’: 109 , 113. C apital sculpture: 112 , 113 , 115 , 117 .

C h a p te r house: 109 , 112 , 113 , 114, 115, 117 . C h a p te r school (‘C hancellerie’): 109 , 112 , 114 . C h o ir: 110 , 111 . C loister: 109 , 110 , 111 - 112 , 113 , 115 , 116 , 117 . D o rm ito ry : 109 . Façade: 110 . Nave: 110 , 111 . R efectory: 109 , 112 , 113 . R o m an precinct: 109 , 112 . La D aurade basilica: 109 . C loister: 270 . M usée des A ugustins, cathedral fragm ents: 109 , 112 . Saint-Jacques: 109 . Saint-Pierre-des-C uisines: 109 . S aint-S ernin: 5 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 115 , 116 . C loister: 112 . C apitals: 112 . Portals: 116 , 117 , 269 . Tours (F), cath ed ral com plex: 32 , 37 . Bishops’ residence: 37 . C h ap el o f Saint N icholas: 170 . Trier (D ), cathedral: 56, 57 , 60 . C rossing: 56 . T ransepts: 56 . W estern apse: 56 . Trieste (I), cathedral, apse m osaic: 23 - 24 . T roia (I), cathedral: 160 . T udela (E), cathedral: 255 n. Tuscania (I), San Pietro: 160 . U jué (E), Santa M aria: 158 , 165 , 166 . U rgell (E) s. La Seu d ’Urgell Vaison-la-Rom aine (F), cathedral: 65 . V albuena (E), abbey church: 94 . Vallbona de les M onges (E), abbey church: 99 . Venice (I) C a th e d ra l (San Pietro di Castello): 3 , 139 - 148 , 150 ,

141, 144, 146- 147. Apses: 145 , 147 . B aptistery: 144 , 145 . ‘C h a ir o f Saint P eter’: 147 - 148 , 149, 150 . C olum ns: 143 . Façade: 145 . L ando C hapel: 143 , 144 . M osaic fragm ent: 143 . Nave: 145 . P ortico /clo ister: 145 , 146 . Saint M ark ’s basilica: 3 , 139 , 140 , 145 , 146 , 147 . C ry p t: 20 , 22 . Side altars: 2 2 , 23 . Saints Sergius and Bacchus: 142 . Saint N icholas al L ido: 144 , 146 . Vercelli (I) S an t’Eusebio: 131 , 132 , 134 .

In d e x

315

Santa M aria M aggiore: 15, 129 , 131 , 131. V erdun (F), cathedral: 47 , 48 , 50 , 51, 52, 53 , 53 . A ltars: 50 . A pses/choirs: 50 . C loister: 50 . Nave: 50 . T ransepts: 50 . Verona (I) C athedral: 126 . San Z en o : 126 . Vézelay (F), abbey, cloister: 270 . Vic (E), cath ed ral com plex: 5 , 66, 223 , 224 , 228, 232 , 234 , 237 . Saint Eulalia: 226 . Saint M ary (‘la R o d o n a’): 66, 226 , 230 , 233 . Saint M ichael: 66, 226 , 228 . Saint Peter (cathedral): 230, Plates 23 - 24 . A ltars: 226 , 228 , 230 , 231 , 232 , 233 , 23 ^, 237 , 238 . Apses: 66, 226 , 230 , 240 n. B ishop’s th ro n e: 228 , 240 n. C h o ir/c h o ir stalls: 228 , 233 , 240 n. C ry p t: 66, 226 , 228 , 230 , 233 . L iturgical m anuscrip ts/lib rary : 224 , 276 . Nave: 66, 226 , 233 . T ransept: 66, 226 , 228 , 230 , 233 , 234 . Saint Saturnin: 226 . V ilanova de A llariz (E), Santa M aria: 299 . V illam uriel de C errato (E), Santa M aria la M ayor: 294 . W orm s (D ), cathedral: 62 . W ürzburg (D ), cathedral: 47 . C ry p t: 61 .

316

Inde x

Z a d a r/Z a ra (H R ), San C risogono: 146 . Z am o ra (E) Bishops’palace: 294 . C ath ed ral: 3 , 291 - 295 . A ltars: 292 . Apses: 291 . A rchive: 294 . ‘B ishop’s façade’: 292 , 294 , 295 , 297 , 300 . C an o n ical buildings: 291 . C h o ir: 292 . C loister: 291 , 292 , 294 . C loister chapels: 292 . C rossing to w e r/d o m e : 300 . D o rm ito ry : 291 . Frontal: 291 - 292 . H ig h altar: 291 - 292 . Portals: 294 . R efectory; 291 . R om an bridge: 292 - 293 . San Ildefonso: 294 . San Ju an de Puerta N ueva: 294 , 297 San L eonardo: 294 , 295 , 298 , 300, 302 . Santa M aria de la H o rta : 294 , 295 . Santa M aria la N ueva: 298 . Santa M aria M agdalena: 295 , 298 , 302 . Baldachins: 295 . Tom b: 294 , 295 , 296 , 297 , 298 , 303 n. Santiago del Burgo: 294 , 295 , 298 , 302 . Z u rich (C H ), G ro ß m ü n ster C h o ir: 268 . C loister: 267 , 268 .

Color Plates

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Plate 1 . A osta (I), cathedral, A — p lan o f th e R om an to w n show ing th e site o f th e cathedral in blue, B — 3D reco n stru ctio n o f th e cathedral aro u n d 1064 as it appears in th e present day city layout, C — gro u n d plan o f th e building phases, first to th irte e n th centuries (drawings M auro C o r t e l a z z o & R enato P e r i n e t t i , p h o to C o r t e l a z z o )

Plate 2. A osta (I), cathedral in 1031: plan, sections and p lan o f th e crypt (C ) (drawings M auro C o r t e l a z z o & R enato Pe r in e t t i)

Plate 3. Aosta (I), cathedral in 1064: plan, sections and plan o f the crypt (C ) (drawings M auro C o r t e l a z z o & Renato Pe r in e t t i)

318

P lates

Plate 4. A osta (I), cathedral, 3D reco n stru ctio n o f th e eastern ch o ir (Saint M a ry ’s church) (draw ing Russell T r e s c a , M auro C o r t e l a z z o & R enato P e r i n e t t i )

Plates

319

Plate 5. A osta (I), cathedral, 3D reco n stru ctio n o f th e w estern ch o ir (Saint Jo h n th e B ap tist’s church) (draw ing Russell T r e s c a , M auro C o r t e l a z z o & R enato P e r i n e t t i )

320

P lates

l

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Plate 6. A osta (I), cathedral, fresco cycle o n th e south wall: th e story o f M oses in Exodus, detail o f th e staff tu rn in g in to a serpent (p h o to R enato P e r i n e t t i )

Plate 7. A osta (I), cathedral, w estern triu m p h al arch ty m p an u m w ith frescoes o f th e tw o angels, second h a lf o f eleventh century (p h o to s R enato P e r i n e t t i )

Plates

321

Plate 8. T arragona (E), cathedral, design o f th e cloister (in red: R om an walls), w ith corrections for th e sake o f orthogonality, and su rrounding fun ctio n al spaces: refectory, dorm itory, second d o rm ito ry or schola puerorum , and chapter house, c. 1154-c. 1200 (draw ing author)

Plate 9. Tarragona (E), cathedral, geom etric design a d Triangulum , c. 1165-70 (draw ing G erardo B o t o Va r e l a using underlying p lan by Joan F ig u e r o l a & Joan G a vald A)

322

P lates

Plates

Plate IO. Tarragona (E), diachronic evolution of building phases ofthe cathedral, 1154-1185 (drawing Gerardo B o t o Va r e l a using underlying plan by Joan F ig u e r o l a & Joan G a va ld A)

Plate 11. Toulouse (F), m ap reco n stru ctin g th e canons’ q u arter o f Saint-É tienne C ath e d ra l (draw ing G u itte rie C a z e s )

324

P lates

Plate 12. Toulouse (F), reco n stru ctio n o f th e canons’ q u arter in th e eig h teen th -cen tu ry (draw ing Fabrice M oiR E A u)

Plate 13. Toulouse (F), cathedral, suggested re co n stru c tio n o f th e chapter house façade (draw ing G u itte rie C a z e s )

Plates

325

Plate 14. Salerno (I), cathedral, in tern al view tow ards th e east (p h o to L uciano P e d i c i n i )

Plate 15. Salerno (I), cathedral, n o rth e rn am bo (‘G uarna’) w ith po rtio n s o f th e ch o ir screen (p h o to Luciano Pe d ic in i)

326

P lates

Plate 16. Salerno (I), cathedral, so u th ern am bo (so-called ‘A iello’) w ith p o rtio n s o f th e ch o ir screen (p h o to Luciano Pe d ic in i)

Plate 17. Salerno (I), cathedral, southern wall o f the transept. Arch from the western entrance to the choir bearing the name ofViceChancellor M atteo and the date 1180 (from A rturo C a r u c c i , I mosaici salernitani nella storia e nell’arte, Cava dei Tirreni, 1983)

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Plate 18. Salerno (I), cathedral, n o rth e rn am bo, so u th side (p h o to E lisabetta S c ir o c c o )

Plates

327

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Plate 19. Salerno (I), cathedral, so uthern am bo, lectern to th e east (p h o to Elisabetta S c i r o c c o )

328

P lates

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Plate 20 . Salerno ( i ), cathedral, southern am bo, lectern to th e n o rth (p h o to Elisabetta S c ir o c c o )

Plate 21. G iro n a (E), re stitu ted plan o f Saint M a ry ’s. G rey: G o th ic building. D a rk orange: excavated structures. L ight orange: restitu ted structures (draw ing M arc SuREDA I JuBANY)

bishop's throne h ig h a lia r

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Legenda to plates 22-25, adapted from C lem ens K osC H

Plates

329

Plate 22. G iro n a (E), dedication o f altars in Saint M a ry ’s by 1050-1170 (section and plan), a) Saint Mary, b) H o ly Sepulchre, c) Saint A ndrew , d) Saint A nastasia, e) Saint M ichael, f) Saint Jo h n , g) Saint B enedict (draw ing M arc SuREDA I J u BANy )

330

P lates

Plate 23. Vic (E), dedication o f altars in Saint Peter by 1 0 4 0 -9 0 . a) Saint Peter, b) Saint Peter in C onfessione, c) Saint John, d) Saint B enedict, e) Saint M ichael, f) Saint Felix, g) H o ly Sepulchre (draw ing M arc SuREDA I JuBANY)

Plate 24. Vic (E), dedication o f altars in Saint Peter by 1220. a) Saint Peter, b) Saint Peter in C onfessione, c) Saint John, d) Saint Benedict, e) Saint M ichael, f) Saint Felix, g) Saint Sepulchre, h) Saint N icholas, i) Saint M ary de C o ro (draw ing M arc S u r e d a i J u b a n y )

Plates

331

Plate 25. Tarragona (E), dedication o f altars in th e cathedral o f Saint Thecla by 1220. a) Saint Thecla, b) Saint Mary, c) Saint John, d) Saint A ugustine, e) Saint Peter, f ) Saint Fructuosus (draw ing M arc SuREDA I JuBANY)

Plate 26. Lleida (E), p lan o f th e A n cien t C ath e d ra l (‘Seu Vella’) in th e th irte e n th century, in d icating th e p o sitio n o f th e capitals (draw ing Francesc F i t E I L l e v o t )

332

P lates